OUTLINES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 
 DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED 
 
 LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. 
 
 TORONTO
 
 OUTLINES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY Of EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 
 .WILLIAM B. ASPINWALL, Po.M., PH.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 
 
 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL COLLEGE 
 
 ALBANY, N.Y. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 1912 
 
 All rights reserved
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1912, 
 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1912. 
 
 NorfoooU \3ttsz 
 
 J. 8. Cashing Co. Berwick <fc Smith Co. 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 
 TO 
 WILLIAM J. MILNE, PH.D., LL.D. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE NEW YORK STATE NORMAL COLLEGE 
 
 WHOSE PERSONAL INFLUENCE AND WISE COUNSEL 
 
 HAVE FOR MANY YEARS BEEN A SOURCE OF 
 
 ENCOURAGEMENT AND INSPIRATION TO 
 
 THOUSANDS OF STUDENTS AND 
 
 TEACHERS 
 
 THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 
 
 2051812
 
 PREFACE 
 
 THIS little volume of studies has been prepared as a guide 
 to the study of the History of Education for students in col- 
 leges and normal schools, with the hope that from out of the 
 maze of facts and events which surround and obscure the sub- 
 ject, they may by its aid gain a clearer understanding of the 
 development of educational thought and practices. Most 
 books that deal with this broadest of historical subjects do not 
 marshal the facts contributing to progress in education so 
 that a definite tendency or purpose or result can be discerned. 
 As a matter of value and profit, it is not so important to the 
 student to know the facts as it is to know the bearing of the 
 facts upon the movement, to understand their dependence upon 
 what has gone before as well as upon the actual conditions 
 surrounding them and to see their influence upon the develop- 
 ment of the movement. We all know that any type of edu- 
 cational practice is but the outward expression of the thoughts 
 and ideals and purposes which guide one generation in the 
 rearing of the next, while these thoughts, ideals, and purposes 
 are, in their turn, born of the national life and civilization in 
 which they have matured. Now, it is always a difficult thing 
 for the student to pick out the essential and contributing facts 
 and to discover their meaning, and usually, working by himself, 
 he either fails to get very much true significance from them or 
 else he gets it at very great expense of thought and effort. 
 My experience in teaching the History of Education has,
 
 viii Preface 
 
 therefore, proved to me, that by providing the student with 
 outlines of the important and significant facts and movements 
 of thought, free from the mass of exposition and narration and 
 description that usually accompanies them, so that he may 
 approach his reading with a definite notion of what he is to 
 learn from it, he inevitably gains a better understanding of 
 what he reads, has a genuine, intelligent interest in it, and does 
 not find it necessary to spend so much time and strength on it 
 without results. 
 
 This method of procedure is, furthermore, especially con- 
 ducive to the chief end desired in the study of the History of 
 Education. For the educational value of the study of this 
 subject is unquestionably cultural rather than disciplinary. 
 Instead of seeking to promote mental training, we are endeavor- 
 ing to interpret the subject, in order that in the light of past 
 experience we may the better understand the educational 
 practices and ideals of the present. And everything that can 
 be done to secure this result, whether it be done by topical 
 references for reading, by outlines, by charts, by tabulations, 
 or by suggestive questions, is, in my judgment, a worthy effort. 
 
 Since, then, these studies have accomplished this end for 
 my own students, and they have done so most convincingly, I 
 feel sure that they will prove helpful to students generally. 
 If they serve to make more intelligible the course of educational 
 development and thus to make better informed those who use 
 them, I shall be well repaid for the efforts put into their 
 preparation. The well-qualified teacher will not use them as a 
 textbook, but will require much additional reading from the 
 references given, by which to bring out the events and condi- 
 tions surrounding the educational work. But it is fair to say 
 that if at the end of the course the student has a clear grasp of 
 these studies alone as they outline the subject, he ought by
 
 Preface ix 
 
 that accomplishment to satisfy the demands of any teacher 
 who has the student's welfare at heart. 
 
 I send them forth, therefore, with the sole wish to assist the 
 student by contributing to his intelligent interpretation and 
 enjoyment of a subject which, by its many intimate and intri- 
 cate relationships with life in all its varied phases, is so often 
 difficult to understand, but which is for the same reason always 
 
 full of intense interest. 
 
 W. B. A. 
 
 ALBANY, N.Y., 
 
 February i, 1912.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PACK 
 
 PREFACE vii 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 EDUCATION IN ANTIQUITY 
 
 Egyptian Education ......... 
 
 Chinese Education 
 
 Hindu Education 
 
 Hebrew Education 
 
 Persian Education 
 
 EDUCATION IN GREECE AND ROME . . . . 13 
 
 Greek Education 13 
 
 National Conditions that influenced Education ... 13 
 
 Homeric Period of Education 14 
 
 Historic Greek Education 15 
 
 Spartan Education 15 
 
 Athenian Education 17 
 
 New Greek Education : at Athens 19 
 
 Educational Writers and Theorists 21 
 
 Pythagoras 21 
 
 Socrates 22 
 
 Xenophon 25 
 
 Plato 26 
 
 Aristotle 30 
 
 Other Writers 32 
 
 Later Greek Education in the Imperial Period 33 
 
 Roman Education -35 
 
 National Characteristics and Ideals 35 
 
 Early Roman Education ....... 36 
 
 Roman Education under Greek Influence .... 37 
 
 Roman Educational Theorists 39 
 
 Cicero 39
 
 xii Contents 
 
 Seneca 40 
 
 Quintilian 40 
 
 Decline of Roman Education 42 
 
 EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 44 
 
 Early Christian Education 44 
 
 Monasticism and Education 47 
 
 Charlemagne and the Education of the Palatine School . . 51 
 
 Educational Work of King Alfred of England .... 53 
 
 Chivalry and the Education of the Knight .... 54 
 
 Scholasticism and Education 56 
 
 Guild and Burgher Schools . ... . . -59 
 
 Saracen Schools and Learning 60 
 
 The Rise of the Universities 62 
 
 EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE . . 65 
 
 Introduction : the General Intellectual Renaissance ... 65 
 
 The Revival of Letters or the Educational Renaissance . . 67 
 
 In Italy 67 
 
 In Northern Europe 68 
 
 The Narrow Humanistic Education 69 
 
 Representative Humanistic Educators ..... 69 
 
 In Italy : Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Barzizza, Chrysoloras, 
 
 da Feltre .......... 69 
 
 In Holland and Germany : Wessel, Agricola, Reuchlin, 
 
 Hegius, Wimfeling, Erasmus, Sturm . . . 71 
 
 In England : Colet, Ascham 75 
 
 The Reformation and Education 76 
 
 Representative Educators of the Reformation Period ... 78 
 
 Luther 78 
 
 Melancthon . .80 
 
 Zwingli 82 
 
 Calvin .82 
 
 Trotzendorf .83 
 
 Neander 83 
 
 The Education of the Jesuits ....... 83 
 
 The Education of the Oratorians 89 
 
 The Education of the Jansenists or Port-Royalists ... 89 
 
 The Christian Brothers' Schools . . . . 92
 
 Contents xiii 
 
 MODERN EDUCATION 94 
 
 Realistic Education 94 
 
 First or Transition Period of Realism (Humanistic or 
 
 Verbal Realism) 94 
 
 Representative Educators of the Transition Period . . 97 
 
 Rabelais 97 
 
 Milton 98 
 
 Montaigne 100 
 
 Mulcaster 102 
 
 Bacon 103 
 
 Innovators of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Sense 
 
 Realism) 105 
 
 Introduction 105 
 
 Ratich 106 
 
 Comenius ......... 108 
 
 Locke (Education, a Discipline) . . . . .112 
 
 Early Eighteenth Century Educators 115 
 
 Francke 116 
 
 Fe'nelon 118 
 
 Rollin . 119 
 
 Education according to Nature 121 
 
 Rousseau and Individualism 121 
 
 Basedow and the Philanthropinum 126 
 
 Education based on Psychology 128 
 
 Pestalozzi and the Beginnings of Method in Education . 128 
 Herbart and the Science of Education . . . .132 
 
 Froebel and the Kindergarten 135 
 
 The Place of Science in Education : Spencer . . . . 139 
 Educational Theory of the Twentieth Century .... 142 
 
 Sociological Conception 142 
 
 Industrial Education 144 
 
 The Development of Public Elementary Education . . . 147 
 
 Germany 148, 151 
 
 France 149, 150, 151 
 
 England 150, 152 
 
 United States 149, 153 
 
 The Development of Secondary Education . . . .156 
 
 Germany 157, 158, 160 
 
 France 157, 159
 
 xiv Contents 
 
 PAGE 
 
 England 157, 161 
 
 United States 159, 162 
 
 The Development of Professional Training of Teachers . . 164 
 
 Germany 165, 166 
 
 France 167 
 
 England 168 
 
 United States 169 
 
 Modern School Systems -171 
 
 Germany . 172 
 
 France 174 
 
 England 177 
 
 United States 178 
 
 History of Education in the State of New York . . . .180 
 
 INDEX 191
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 THIS book attempts to place in small compass the long 
 and involved story of the evolution of those different philoso- 
 phies of education which have been substantial enough to 
 endure ; and is probably as successful as such an effort can 
 hope to be. Few teachers can find the time, even though 
 they can find the books and have the necessary application, 
 to cover this vast field. Few have the books at hand and 
 certainly very few have the mental training and discipline 
 to assimilate the writings of the educational philosophers 
 of the world. Yet they want to know the distinguishing 
 contentions of the men and women who have thought deeply 
 upon the things that deserve most to be used and the methods 
 that are most effectual in drawing out and energizing the 
 human mind ; or at least they want to know where they may 
 find the particular plans and methods for which the great 
 names in education stand. This want seems to be very well 
 met here. The work has clearly been prodigious. It has 
 resulted in something more than a catalogue or a bibliography. 
 There has been manifestly an attempt to clear out under- 
 brush so that wanderers or travelers with a purpose may 
 explore the woods and hope to get out again in the course 
 of a human life. This will of course provide loopholes for 
 criticism. Some may say that not enough underbrush was 
 cut out, and others that too much was cleared up, and still 
 others that some interpretations were mistaken and some 
 connections erroneous. It matters little. The book was 
 manifestly not prepared for the very great, of whom there 
 
 XV
 
 xvi Introduction 
 
 are few ; but for ordinary workers in the schools, of whom 
 there are many. It will be of service to them, and that will 
 undoubtedly satisfy the ambition of the author. 
 
 Incidentally one can hardly examine this book without 
 being impressed more deeply than ever with the reflection 
 that the deep thinking and the substantial knowledge of the 
 world is old. There is not much that is new. But it was 
 much confined and circumscribed. Now it is being let loose 
 and widely diffused. It is being made available to ordinary 
 people. This book grows out of the spirit of our generation. 
 Dr. Aspinwall is to be commended for having been moved 
 by that spirit, for having seen the opportunity to render 
 a service to the guild of teachers, and for having performed 
 that service with so much labor and discrimination. 
 
 A. S. DRAPER. 
 
 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, 
 February 6, 1912.
 
 OUTLINES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
 
 OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY 
 OF EDUCATION 
 
 EDUCATION IN ANTIQUITY 
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN EDUCATION (c. 4400 B.C. TO 332 B.C.) 
 
 (Davidson : Hist. Educ., 37-41 ; Graves : Hist. Educ., 22-42 ; 
 Kemp: Hist. Educ., 39-44 ; Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 11-45; 
 Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 32-36, 2d ed., 33-38; Seeley: 
 Hist. Educ., 46-51; Williams: Hist. Anc. Educ., 57-72.) 
 
 National Characteristics 
 
 1. Classes of society fixed. 
 
 a. Priests. 
 
 b. Soldiers. 
 
 c. Producers. 
 
 2. Bureaucratic government under priestly control. 
 
 3. Morality formal and dogmatic. 
 
 4. Civilization well advanced. 
 
 a. Irrigation, resulting in great fertility of soil. 
 
 b. Engineering, regulating the Nile overflow. 
 
 c. Fine arts developed to high degree of excellence. 
 
 5. People conservative and homogeneous, due to little inter- 
 
 national communication. 
 
 6. Religion. 
 
 a. Worship of the Nile and the sun. 
 
 b. Belief in a future life. 
 
 c. Prudential ethics. 
 
 7. Women kindly treated but subordinate.
 
 2 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Evidences of Intellectual Training 
 
 1. Pyramids, architecture, engineering, and mechanics. 
 
 2. Sculpture, painting, decoration. 
 
 3. Jewelry, glass, spinning, weaving. 
 
 4. Literature, music, hieroglyphic writing. 
 
 Character of Education 
 
 1. Priestly. 
 
 2. Practical and professional. 
 
 Organization and Content of Education 
 
 1. Not provided by State, but teachers numerous and at 
 
 reasonable cost. 
 
 2. For common people a trade. 
 
 3. Elementary school. 
 
 a. Commencing at 5 years of age. 
 &. Open to all. 
 
 c. Reading, writing, numbers, history, geometry, as- 
 
 tronomy. 
 
 d. In temple courts. 
 
 4. Higher education. 
 
 a. For scribes, architects, physicians, priests, etc. 
 
 b. Mathematics, mechanics, medicine, religion, law, as- 
 
 tronomy, ritual, ceremonies, history, literature. 
 
 c. In temple colleges. 
 
 Method of Education 
 
 1. Memorizing and imitation. 
 
 2. Writing with stylus on wood and with ink on papyrus. 
 
 3. Learning numbers by play. 
 
 4. Some investigation and invention in higher instruction. 
 
 5. Discipline severe corporal punishment.
 
 Education in Antiquity 3 
 
 Teachers 
 
 1. Priests: the possessors of learning. 
 
 2. Many private teachers of elementary subjects. 
 
 3. Held in reverence. 
 
 Effects of Egyptian Education 
 
 1. Preservation of social distinctions. 
 
 2. A high civilization for the time. 
 
 3. Numerous schools. 
 
 4. Practical and professional training, but no science for sci- 
 
 ence's sake. 
 
 5. Considerable achievement in industrial art, medicine, law, 
 
 and fine arts. 
 
 6. Domination of priesthood. 
 
 7. Intellectual development little valued. 
 
 8. Individuality not encouraged. 
 
 ANCIENT CHINESE EDUCATION (30x30-2000 B.C. TO MODERN 
 
 TIMES) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Fed., 11-13; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 41- 
 45 ; Graves : Hist. Educ., 55-76 ; Hailman : Hist. Ped., 0-17 ; 
 Kemp: Hist. Educ., 17-25; Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 104- 
 151 ; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 17-49, Brief Course, 
 11-25; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 9-15, 2d ed., 11-18; 
 Payne: Lects. on Hist. Educ., 3-8; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 
 20-28; Williams: Hist. Anc. Educ., 33-45.) 
 
 National Conditions and Influences 
 
 1 . Great size and age and population of the country. 
 
 2. Geographical isolation. 
 
 3. National self-sufficiency and complacency.
 
 4 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 4. Suppression of individuality, with corresponding respect for 
 
 a. The family, 
 
 b. The State, 
 
 c. The spirits of the dead. 
 
 5. Reverence for traditional ideas and customs, with an unfail- 
 
 ing belief in the established order of society. 
 
 6. Influence of Confucianism : a system of natural morality. 
 
 7. Formalism in life. 
 
 Religion and Ethics 
 
 1. Ancestor worship. 
 
 2. Recognition of a Supreme Power. 
 
 3. Truth sanctioned by tradition. 
 
 4. Virtue and morality a matter of knowledge and observance 
 
 of fixed ideas and customs. 
 
 5. No appeal to reason. 
 
 6. Expediency rather than righteousness. 
 
 7. Great reverence for the family relationships. 
 
 a. Absolute power of life and death rested in head of 
 
 family. 
 
 6. Implicit obedience demanded of wife and children. 
 c. The State a development of the family and the Emperor 
 
 its head. 
 
 Purpose of Education 
 
 1. The preservation of existing conditions and institutions. 
 
 2. The preparation for successive examinations on definite 
 
 requirements unchanged for centuries : the sole avenue 
 to success in life, namely, to hold public office. 
 
 3. The mastery of the sacred literature.
 
 Education in Antiquity 5 
 
 Organization of Education 
 
 1. A system of examinations, not of schools; yet private 
 
 schools were encouraged. 
 
 2. Hanlin or Imperial Academy at the head, which controlled 
 
 examinations, acted as cabinet to Emperor, kept public 
 records and archives. 
 
 3. Empire divided into 18 provinces, each in charge of a 
 
 chancellor ; provinces into 252 counties, each in charge 
 of a subchancellor ; and counties into 705 districts, in 
 charge of educational mandarins. 
 
 4. Elementary schools : in private dwellings, without State 
 
 control, teachers unlicensed. Pupils entered at age 
 of 6 or 7 years. School hours from sunrise to 5 P.M. 
 and continued nearly all the year. 
 
 5. The examinations. 
 
 a. Preliminary or district examinations, covering the ele- 
 
 mentary work. 
 
 b. County examination, admitting to first degree : " Flour- 
 
 ishing Talent " (cf. B.A.). 
 
 c. Provincial examination, admitting to second degree: 
 
 " Promoted Scholar " (cf. M.A.). 
 
 d. Peking examination, admitting to third degree : " Fit 
 
 for Office "(cf. Ph. D.). 
 
 e. Final examination, admitting to the Imperial Academy. 
 
 Content of Education 
 
 i. First grade: Reading, writing, rudimentary arithmetic, 
 learning characters of language (5000-30,000), memoriz- 
 ing without explanation of the Four Books and the Five 
 Classics. Covered 3 to 5 years.
 
 6 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 2. Second grade : Translation of sacred books into more 
 
 modern Chinese, explanation of the meaning, composition. 
 Covered 4 to 5 years. 
 
 3. Third grade : Essay writing, imitation of style and thought 
 
 of sacred books, commentaries on them. Covered an 
 indefinite time. 
 
 Method of Teaching 
 
 1. Memory work. 
 
 2. Exact imitation, without originality use of tracing paper. 
 
 3. Study aloud and in concert. 
 
 4. Rapid repetition. 
 
 5. Individual recitation. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 1. Unsuccessful candidates for degrees. 
 
 2. Unfortunate recipients of degrees who have no office. 
 
 3. No training for work, no license, no supervision. 
 
 4. Small pay, long hours. 
 
 5. Rigid discipline use of rod. 
 
 Results of Chinese Education 
 
 1. A stable but non-progressive society. 
 
 2. Suppression of individuality. 
 
 3. Training in memory, attention, accuracy, but no initiative, 
 
 originality, nor independence secured. 
 
 4. Form not content the object of attention. 
 
 5. Interest totally lacking as a stimulus. 
 
 6. Recognition of absolute authority. 
 
 7. Weak moral training. 
 
 8. Content not related to daily duties of life. 
 
 9. Small proportion of population educated women not at all.
 
 Education in Antiquity 7 
 
 ANCIENT HINDU EDUCATION (c. 2000 B.C. TO MODERN TIMES) 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Fed., 2-6 ; Davidson : Hist. Educ., 56-66 ; 
 Graves: Hist. Educ., 77-90; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 26-33; 
 Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 157-177 ; Monroe: Brief Course, 19- 
 21 ; Painter: ist ed., 15-21, 2d ed., 18-23; Seeley: Hist. 
 Educ., 29-35 ; Williams : Hist. Anc. Educ., 50-56.) 
 
 National Characteristics and Environment 
 
 1. Race. 
 
 a. Mingling of Aryan blood with that of native Hindus, re- 
 sulting in loss of original vigor ; due also to effect of 
 climate and religion. 
 
 2. Climate enervating. 
 
 3. Country fertile and rich in possibilities. 
 
 4. Religion. 
 
 a. Brahmanism : pantheistic for the intelligent classes, 
 polytheistic for the masses. 
 
 b. Self-annihilation the ideal, leading to a life of contempla- 
 tion. 
 
 c. Buddhism in later times : based on moral acts, teaching 
 unselfishness and brotherly love. 
 
 5. Social conditions. 
 
 a. Castes: Brahmans, soldiers, traders, slaves (sudras). 
 
 b. No opportunity to rise: hence lazy, unambitious 
 
 people. 
 
 c. Woman regarded as man's slave. 
 
 Aim or Purpose of Education 
 
 i 
 
 1. Preparation for life to come. 
 
 2. Preservation of caste system.
 
 8 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Organization and Content of Education 
 
 1. Elementary. 
 
 a. Commencing at age of 6 or 7 years. 
 
 b. For all classes but sudras. 
 
 c. In open air or sheds. 
 
 d. Reading, writing, rudimentary arithmetic, religious ob- 
 
 servances, laws, traditions, customs, fables, parables, 
 allegories. 
 
 2. Higher. 
 
 a. For Brahmans chiefly, but open to a limited extent to 
 
 soldiers and traders. 
 
 b. In Brahmanic colleges. 
 
 c. Took twelve years to complete. 
 
 d. Religious works and practices, grammar, mathematics, 
 
 history, poetry, philosophy, astronomy, medicine, law. 
 
 e. No physical education. 
 
 Method of Education 
 
 1. Memory training. 
 
 2. Repetition without comment or comprehension. 
 
 3. Studying aloud. 
 
 4. Writing on sand, on palm leaves with stylus, and on plane 
 
 leaves with ink. 
 
 5. Progress slow. 
 
 6. Discipline mild. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 1. Brahmans : those who had completed the entire course. 
 
 2. Held in high respect. 
 
 3. Paid by voluntary gifts. 
 
 4. " Monitorial " system of pupil teaching.
 
 Education in Antiquity 9 
 
 Effects of Hindu Education 
 
 1 . Rigid caste system with no mutual sympathy. 
 
 2. Gloomy outlook on life : no ambition nor responsibility. 
 
 3. No mental culture nor training for citizenship. 
 
 4. Cultivated passive virtues solely. 
 
 5. Traditional learning mixed with superstition. 
 
 6. Some contributions to succeeding generations in philo- 
 
 sophical and mathematical lines. 
 
 ANCIENT HEBREW EDUCATION (2000 B.C.-soo A.D.) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Fed., 6-n; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 77- 
 86; Graves: Hist. Educ., 110-137 ; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 45- 
 54 ; Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 65-100 ; Monroe : Brief Course, 
 21-23; Painter: ist ed., 26-32, 2d ed., 27-33; Seeley: Hist. 
 Educ., 40-45 ; Williams : Hist. Anc. Educ., 86-94.) 
 
 National Characteristics 
 
 1. Religious: theocratic, monotheistic. 
 
 2. Domestic : the family a highly respected institution. 
 
 3. Agricultural. 
 
 Educational Ideals 
 
 1. Moral and religious. 
 
 2. Practical, for duties of life. 
 
 Organization of Education 
 
 i. During the Biblical period. 
 
 a. The family, for elementary grades. 
 
 b. Schools of the Prophets, for the higher instruction of 
 
 scribes and priests.
 
 io Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 2. After the exile and return. 
 
 a. The family, for early instruction. 
 
 b. Elementary school : in connection with synagogue or in 
 
 scribe's house attendance compulsory in towns. 
 
 c. Higher instruction in synagogue. 
 
 Content of Education 
 
 1. Elementary grade: For boys: reading, writing, a little 
 
 arithmetic, history, psalms, religion, a trade. For girls : 
 reading, writing, domestic arts, music, dancing. 
 
 2. Higher grade : Law, ethics, religion, mathematics, astron- 
 
 omy, geography, literature. 
 
 Method of Education 
 
 1. Repetition and memorizing. 
 
 2. Adaptation to pupils' abilities. 
 
 3. Writing on wax with stylus and on parchment with pen. 
 
 4. Disputation in higher instruction. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 1. Fathers first, then scribes. 
 
 2. Highly esteemed. 
 
 3. Must be capable, experienced, not too young, and married. 
 
 4. Paid by fees or presents, and usually had another trade. 
 
 Discipline 
 
 1. Rigorous ; in later times milder. 
 
 2. Corporal punishment.
 
 Education in Antiquity n 
 
 Effects of Hebrew Education 
 
 1. Practically universal compulsory system. 
 
 2. Emphasis upon good conduct rather than upon intellectual 
 
 culture. 
 
 3. No personal investigation dependence upon authority. 
 
 4. Narrow range of study Greek and Roman culture pro- 
 
 scribed. 
 
 5. Made nation theocratic and religious. 
 
 6. A limited education offered to women. 
 
 7. Through the Bible has influenced succeeding generations in 
 
 all Christian countries. 
 
 ANCIENT PERSIAN EDUCATION (c. 1000 B.C.~33i B.C.) 
 (Compayre : Hist. Ped., 14-15; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 66- 
 74 ; Graves : Hist. Educ., 91-103 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ. 34- 
 38; Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 178-195; Painter: Hist. Educ., 
 ist ed., 21-26, 2d ed., 23-27; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 36-39; 
 Williams: Hist. Anc. Educ., 73-80.) 
 
 Natural Influences 
 
 1. Country: rugged, mountainous, too broken for agriculture. 
 
 2. Climate : temperate, invigorating. 
 
 3. People: hardy, devoted to life of warfare, loyal, fair-minded. 
 
 Social Conditions 
 
 1. Caste distinctions little recognized. 
 
 2. Strong family and national feeling. 
 
 3. Toleration of foreign manners and religions. 
 
 4. Strong government at home and over provinces. 
 
 5. Religion : Zoroastrianism, dualism morality consisting 
 
 of the cultivation of the virtues : truth, justice, gratitude, 
 courage, and self-control.
 
 12 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Aim of Education 
 
 i. Military and physical, with training in valor and other 
 manly virtues. 
 
 Organization and Content of Education 
 
 1. Family up to 7 years of age. 
 
 2. State-controlled thereafter. 
 
 3. Physical and moral up to 15 years of age ; then military and 
 
 civil. 
 
 4. Boys only. 
 
 5. State control extended to food and dress. 
 
 6. Individuality trained, for moral perfection. 
 
 7. Through example, imitation, and practice, the elders assist- 
 
 ing in the training of the youth. 
 
 8. Higher education for Magi only: philosophy, astronomy, 
 
 medicine, law, finance. 
 
 Results of Persian Education 
 
 1. A courageous and powerful people. 
 
 2. Personality given importance. 
 
 3. State control of education found feasible. 
 
 4. Frugality and temperance the chief virtues. 
 
 5. National strength endured as long as the nation remained 
 
 military. 
 
 6. No preparation for peace and leisure. 
 
 7. No intellectual and literary culture. 
 
 8. No education for women.
 
 EDUCATION IN GREECE AND ROME 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION 
 
 (Browning: Educ. Theories, 1-25; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 
 17-42; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 86-105, Aristotle 6* the Anc. 
 Educ. Ideals, 3-37; Graves: Hist. Educ., 138-229; Hailman: 
 Hist. Fed., 18-30; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 55-56; Laurie: 
 Pre-Chr. Educ., 196-226; Monroe: Source-Bk. in Hist. 
 Educ., 1-15, Text-Bk., 57-70, Brief Course, 28-33; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 37-40, 2d ed., 41-46.) 
 
 National Conditions that influenced Education 
 
 1. Race : not national but tribal. 
 
 a. Dorians: unimaginative, practical, military (repre- 
 
 sented by the Spartans). 
 
 b. lonians: imaginative, artistic, literary, philosophical 
 
 (represented by the Athenians). 
 
 c. jEolians (Thebans). 
 
 d. Achaeans. 
 
 2. Religion. 
 
 a. Polytheism : gods regarded as personalities. 
 
 b. Worship of the beautiful and the ideal in nature and in 
 
 human life. 
 
 c. Ceremonial : prayer, libations, festivals, games, myster- 
 
 ies, oracles, divination. 
 
 3. Geography and climate. 
 
 a. Maritime, with commercial possibilities. 
 
 13
 
 14 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 b. Plains and mountains, with mild, even climate, conducive 
 
 to happiness and equanimity ; and bracing air stimu- 
 lating to thought. 
 
 c. Islands round about rivers numerous but small. 
 
 d. Agriculture not extensive. 
 
 e. Made necessary distinct states instead of unified nation. 
 4. People : character and occupation. 
 
 a. Commercial (products : iron, silver, copper, marble ; 
 
 trades : spinning, weaving, making of pottery, armor, 
 furniture, etc.). 
 
 b. Maritime and adventurous. 
 
 c. Religious. 
 
 d. Patriotic within each city-state. 
 
 e. Literary and military in different states. 
 
 Homeric Period of Education (1000-776 B.C.) 
 
 (Davidson: Hist. Educ., 86-94, Aristotle 6* the Anc. Educ. 
 Ideals, 15-18, 33-34, Educ. of the Gk. People, 53-63 ; Graves : 
 Hist. Educ., 146-148; Grote: Hist. Greece, v. i, ch. 20; 
 Homer: Iliad (I, 52-302, II, 35-380, IX, 50-180, 438 ff., X, 
 335-579, XI, 617-804, XVIII, 245-318, XIX, 40-275, XXIII, 
 260 ff., etc.), Odyssey; Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 197-199; 
 Mahaffy : Social Life in Greece, 1-74 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in 
 Hist. Educ., 62-67, Brief Course, 31-33, Source-Bk., 1-3 ; 
 Taylor: Anc. Ideals, 127-194.) 
 
 1. Twofold ideal. 
 
 a. Man of action virtues : bravery and reverence. 
 
 b. Man of wisdom virtues : prudence and temperance. 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 a. To prepare for definite practical activity. 
 
 b. To equip for martial life and for needs of life at home.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 15 
 
 3. Organization. 
 
 a. Councils (no schools, no books). 
 
 b. Association with elders. 
 
 c. Daily duties of life. 
 
 4. Content. 
 
 a. Military exercises, piety, religion, ethics, music, rhetoric, 
 healing art. 
 
 5. Method. 
 
 a. Imitative and at the same iime rational. 
 
 b. By living personal example rather than by precept. 
 
 c. Offered possibilities of growth : germ of individualism. 
 
 6. Results. 
 
 a. A civilization of high ideals. 
 
 b. Advanced ethical culture. 
 
 c. Women held in high esteem (trained in household 
 
 arts). 
 
 d. Monogamy piety reverence. 
 
 e. Little literary instruction. 
 /. No special teachers. 
 
 Historic Greek Education (776-480 B.C.) 
 
 (a) At Sparta 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 14, 611-624; Compayre: Hist. 
 Ped., 17-19 ; Davidson : Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 41- 
 51; Graves: Hist. Educ., 149-157 ; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 55- 
 61 ; Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 228-248; Monroe: Source- 
 Bk., i-n, Text-Bk., 70-79, Brief Course, 33-40; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 40-45, 2d ed., 41-46 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 
 68-73; U- S. Com'r Educ. Kept., 1897-1898, v. i, 518-521, 
 571-589; Williams: Hist. Anc. Educ., 95-106.)
 
 1 6 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1. Ideal or aim. 
 
 a. To develop strength, courage, and obedience to law. 
 
 b. To make brave, patriotic soldiers. 
 
 c. To provide a physical, military, and moral education 
 
 with the purpose of preserving the State thereby. 
 
 2. Organization. 
 
 a. State control from birth, but in family up to 7 years 
 
 of age, then under state officer. 
 
 b. Life in common: self-government under supervision of 
 
 adults. 
 
 c. Association with elders. 
 
 d. Women had similar physical and moral training at 
 
 home. 
 
 e. Higher education in military and public service. 
 
 3. Content. 
 
 a. Gymnastics : training in hardening and discipline a 
 
 rigorous life. 
 
 b. Hunting, games, contests, dancing, military exercises. 
 
 c. Religious and martial music. 
 
 d. Conversation with elders concise (laconic) expression 
 
 of thought. 
 
 e. Practice with arms real military life. 
 
 4. Method. 
 
 a. Imitation practice experience. 
 
 6. Conversation and association with adults. 
 
 c. Play rivalry. 
 
 d. Appeal to patriotic emotions and pride. 
 
 e. Community idea, not individual. 
 
 5. Results and criticisms of Spartan education. 
 
 a. Subordination of individual to State. 
 
 b. Physical training for military purposes. 
 
 c. Stable but not progressive society.
 
 Edjtcation in Greece and Rome 17 
 
 d. State morality rather than individual responsibility 
 
 moral development weak when personal decisions were 
 demanded. 
 
 e. Great patriotism and courage. 
 
 /. Neglect of literary, artistic, and intellectual training. 
 g. Failure to develop the highest traits of character. 
 
 (6) At Athens 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 24, 453-486 ; Compayre : Hist. 
 Fed., 19-21 ; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 86-105, Aristotle 6* the 
 Anc. Educ. Ideals, 60-92, Educ. of the Gk. People, 53-77 ; 
 Graves: Hist. Educ., 157-170; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 62-83; 
 Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 248-288 ; Mahaffy : Old Gk. Educ., 
 1-77; Monroe: Source-Bk., 11-33, Text-Bk., 79-100, Brief 
 Course, 40-51; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 49-56, 2d ed., 
 55-63; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 56-60; Williams: Hist. Anc. 
 Educ., 107-129.) 
 
 1. Ideal or aim. 
 
 a. To develop personality by some form of achievement 
 
 beyond the demands of society. 
 
 b. To live happily and beautifully. 
 
 2. Organization and content. 
 
 a. 1-7, in family. 
 
 b. 7-16, in elementary schools. 
 
 (1) " Music " and gymnastics. 
 
 (2) In charge of pedagogue. 
 
 c. 16-18, in secondary schools 
 
 (1) At State expense, but restricted to wealthier and more 
 
 cultured class. 
 
 (2) Advanced physical training, civics, ethics, associa- 
 
 tion with elders.
 
 1 8 Outlines of the History of ^Education 
 
 d. 18-20, as registered citizen (ephebus) in charge of State 
 
 officials. 
 
 (1) First year in garrison with training as soldier. 
 
 (2) Second year on duty as regular soldier. 
 
 (3) Included physical training for military service with 
 
 political and moral instruction. 
 
 e. After 20, full-fledged citizen. 
 
 (i) Continued physical, intellectual, and moral growth 
 
 demanded by State. 
 /. Details of content. 
 
 (1) Gymnastics : physical exercises for development and 
 
 gracefulness ; games for quick perception, courage, 
 and moral training ; dancing for harmony of de- 
 velopment ; hunting and military drill. 
 
 (2) Music: poetry, drama, history, science, oratory, 
 
 civics, ethics, religion, musical composition, and 
 instrumentation (for creative power and apprecia- 
 tion). 
 
 3. Method. 
 
 a. Imitation of living models. 
 
 b. First " doing " to form habits, second " learning " to 
 
 render habits rational and permanent. 
 
 c. Writing by imitation repetition in concert memo- 
 
 rizing with explanation afterwards. 
 
 d. Development of judgment, discrimination, initiative, 
 
 and the creative rational side of the personality. 
 
 e. Discipline a system of punishment and reward. 
 
 4. Results and criticisms of Old Athenian Education. 
 
 a. Definite school system, under State control. 
 
 b. Stable, free, vigorous social organization. 
 
 c. Unrestricted development of individuality. 
 
 d. " Freedom " from limitations, in expression of personality.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 19 
 
 e. Life of reason, of morality, of beauty. 
 
 /. Culminated in great achievements along intellectual, 
 
 literary, artistic, and political lines. 
 g. Women's training restricted to household duties. 
 
 New Greek Education (480-338 B.C.) : at Athens 
 
 (Davidson: Educ. of Gk. People, 78-88, 103-115, Aristotle & 
 the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 90-92, 97-113; Graves: Hist. Educ., 
 170-214; Pre-Chr. Educ., 283-295; Mahaffy: Old Gk. 
 Educ., 1-77; Monroe: Source-Bk., 51-66, Text-Bk., 102-110, 
 Brief Course, 52-55.) 
 
 1 . Situation at beginning of the new period. 
 
 a. Supremacy of Athens, culminating in the Periclean Age 
 
 an era of great achievement. 
 
 b. Expansion. 
 
 (1) Commercial and industrial growth. 
 
 (2) Intellectual activity literary and artistic develop- 
 
 ment. 
 
 (3) More popular government. 
 
 c. Foreign relations. 
 
 (1) Interchange of customs and ideas. 
 
 (2) Change of views and practices. 
 
 d. New tendencies in religion and philosophy. 
 
 (1) From belief in arbitrary control of the gods to more 
 
 scientific ways of explaining things in nature. 
 
 (2) Replacing nature with man in the search for reality. 
 
 (3) Emphasis on human interests in literary productions. 
 
 2. New ideals. 
 
 a. Individual development greater than service to the State 
 
 personal advancement. 
 
 b. Broader democratic ideals.
 
 20 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 c. Less conservatism more toleration. 
 
 d. Overthrow of authority and tradition. 
 
 e. Political ambition gain. 
 
 /. Expediency rather than righteousness. 
 g. Skepticism and license. 
 
 3. Effect on education. 
 
 a. Demand for a broader and higher education to promote 
 
 individual interests rather than the welfare of the 
 State. 
 
 b. Desire not for harmonious development but for knowl- 
 
 edge that would contribute to advancement. 
 
 c. Emphasis on skill in debate and public speaking. 
 
 d. Less desire for physical exercise. 
 
 e. More freedom of choice of studies. 
 
 /. Introduction of new subjects and new methods of study. 
 
 4. The Sophists. 
 
 (Davidson : Hist. Educ., 81-96, Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. 
 Ideals, 101-107; Graves: Hist. Educ., 173-180; Kemp: 
 Hist. Educ., 72-73; Laurie: Pre-Chr. Educ., 284-287, 301- 
 308 ; Mahaffy, Old Gk. Educ., 78-90 ; Monroe : Source-Bk., 
 91-116, Text-Bk., 110-120, Brief Course, 55-59.) 
 
 a. Teachers professing to meet these demands. 
 
 b. Taught extreme individualism, making opinion the stand- 
 
 ard of truth. 
 
 c. Subjects emphasized in this development of higher 
 
 education: grammar, poetry, style, oratory, 
 rhetoric, music, and mathematics, natural science, 
 economics, and politics. 
 
 d. Methods : disputation, memorizing set speeches, acquir- 
 
 ing superficial information, formal and tricky 
 argumentation.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 21 
 
 e. Results of their teaching: extravagance, skepticism, 
 freedom, art of persuasion. 
 
 Educational Writers and Theorists 
 Pythagoras (c. 582-500 B.C.) 
 
 (Davidson : Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 52-59 ; Graves : 
 Hist. Educ., 177-178; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 70-72; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 45-49, 2d ed., 46-50 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 
 73; Williams: Hist. Anc. Educ., 141-157.) 
 
 1. Early life and education. 
 
 a. Native of Samos, pupil of Thales, educated in Egypt, 
 founded school in Crotona, South Italy. 
 
 2. Educational doctrine. 
 
 a. Aim : to produce harmony and proportion in life. 
 
 b. Theory : number is the essence and origin of all things 
 
 laws of numbers are the laws of things everything 
 intelligible can be explained numerically without 
 number all is chaos. 
 
 c. Socialistic system : in opposition to individualistic tend- 
 
 ency of sophists on analogy of harmony of celestial 
 bodies society to be so arranged, as to put each man 
 in his proper place, from which complete harmony and 
 social order would ensue. 
 
 d. Educational scheme : for harmonizing the individual, 
 
 through music as the means of gaining harmony 
 (worked out mathematically, constituting the first 
 scientific treatment of music), mathematics (arith- 
 metic, geometry, astronomy), religion (basis of har- 
 mony and moral action), and gymnastics. 
 
 e. Religious doctrines : transmigration of the soul, retribu- 
 
 tion, and a future life.
 
 22 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Socrates (469-399 B.C.) 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Fed., 22-27 1 Davidson : Educ. of Gk. 
 People, 103-127 ; Fitch : Educ. Aims 6* Meths., ch. 2 ; Graves : 
 Hist. Educ., 180-184; Hailman: Hist. Fed., 31-41; Kemp: 
 Hist. Educ., 74-76 ; Mahaffy : Old Gk. Educ., 78-90 ; Monroe : 
 Source-Bk. of Hist. Educ., 116-120, Text-Bk., 122-130, Brief 
 Course, 60-63 ; Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 56-60, 2d ed., 
 63-67 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 61-63 > Williams : Hist. Anc. 
 Educ., 133-164.) 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. Early life and training. 
 
 (i) Born at Athens son of sculptor trained at first 
 for that occupation saw military service 
 early devoted himself to poetry, then to philo- 
 sophical studies. 
 
 b. Known for both physical and moral courage and for 
 
 indifference to hardship. 
 
 c. Itinerant teacher in conversation with all who would 
 
 listen. 
 
 2. Relation to the sophists. 
 
 a. Himself a superior sophist. 
 
 b. Adopted the fundamental positions of the sophists and 
 
 supplemented them. 
 
 c. Sophists said, " Man is the measure of all things," 
 
 meaning individual man; hence for them mere 
 opinion was knowledge. Socrates said that the 
 knowledge that is common to all men is truth, and 
 man is the measure of all things only so far as the 
 knowledge by which he judges of the truth has this 
 universal validity.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 23 
 
 d. Sophists emphasized man's peculiarities (sensations, emo- 
 
 tions) ; Socrates, man's rational and universal self. 
 
 e. Socrates believed that by removing individual differ- 
 
 ences there would be laid bare the essentials upon 
 which all men are agreed. 
 
 /. He differed from them in the moral value of " right " 
 knowledge. 
 
 3. The problem of education of his day. 
 
 a. Harmonizing of social and individual interests. 
 
 b. Relation of knowledge to moral conduct. 
 
 4. His aim. 
 
 a. To give knowledge to the individual by developing in him 
 
 the power of thought. 
 
 b. To apply the doctrine of universal knowledge within each 
 
 person to moral conduct; right " knowledge is 
 virtue." 
 
 5. His method. 
 
 a. Dialectic : conversational, questioning. 
 
 (1) Irony: questioning to clear the mind of error or 
 
 unverified knowledge, to gain a true estimate of 
 the value and extent of one's knowledge (cf. the 
 preparation step). 
 
 (2) Maieutics: questioning to gain new truth, to develop 
 
 in the individual the power of formulating the 
 truth which in his own experience and in his own 
 consciousness has universal validity (cf. presenta- 
 tion and application steps). 
 
 b. Discourse disposing to reflection on experience and thus 
 
 to formulate general principles which may be a 
 guide to moral conduct. 
 
 c. Means of enabling an individual to pass through these 
 
 three stages in relation to the knowledge of any
 
 24 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 subject: (i) unconscious ignorance, (2) conscious 
 ignorance with desire to know the truth, (3) pos- 
 session of clear and reasoned truth. 
 
 d. To develop moral strength by creating an intelligent 
 consciousness of what one does and the reasons 
 for doing it. 
 
 6. Influence of the Socratic Method. 
 
 a. Placed emphasis on knowledge that would contribute 
 
 to moral development. 
 
 b. Replaced the formal impartation of information of the 
 
 sophists with the conversational method designed 
 to generate power of thinking and of forming 
 correct conclusions. 
 
 7. Limitations of the Socratic Method. 
 
 a. Applicable to the formulation of all truth that is 
 
 within the reason of every individual, as ethical 
 principles. 
 
 b. Applicable to the discussion and consequent clarifying 
 
 of facts in history, philosophy, or any science that 
 has to do with motive or conduct. 
 
 c. Not adequate to supply content not given by experience; 
 
 as, in physical science, mathematics, grammar. 
 
 d. Valuable, however, to give to these subjects scientific 
 
 form, classification, and interpretation. 
 
 e. Useful as process of stimulating thought and of forming 
 
 habits of correct and forcible expression. 
 
 8. Effect of Socrates's teaching on education. 
 
 a. Made the aim of teaching to develop the power of thought, 
 
 not to impart knowledge. 
 
 b. Made knowledge, however, the basis of action by empha- 
 
 sizing its practical and moral worth. 
 c. '' Made the method of teaching dialectic and reflective.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 25 
 
 Xenophon (c. 430-355 B.C.) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Fed., 34-36; Davidson: Aristotle 6" the 
 Anc. Educ. Ideals, 114-132; Graves: Hist. Educ., 179; 
 Monroe: Source-Bk. of Hist. Educ., 35-50, 116-128, Text-Bk., 
 123 ; Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 23-24, 2d ed., 50-54, Fed. 
 Essays, 61-82.) 
 
 1. Early life and education. 
 
 a. Native of Athens, pupil of Socrates, soldier, writer on 
 history and philosophy. 
 
 2. Some of his writings. 
 
 a. On education : Cyropedia and Economics. 
 
 b. On history and philosophy : Anabasis, Hettenica, Agesi- 
 
 laus, Memorabilia, etc. 
 
 3. Educational doctrine. 
 
 a. Purpose : to modify the excesses in the life of the Athe- 
 nians, by the portrayal of an ideal of life that would 
 counteract the individualistic tendencies of the 
 sophists. 
 
 &. In Cyropedia. 
 
 (1) Professes to describe the education of the Persian 
 
 soldier. 
 
 (2) Thought to be intended to laud the Spartan educa- 
 
 tion. 
 
 (3) Recommends State education, emphasizing military 
 
 duty, justice (by the study of history), temperance 
 (by practice), and physical training, with no atten- 
 tion to domestic education, individual liberty, or 
 intellectual training. 
 
 c. In Economics : describing the education of women, 
 (i) Relates to the practice at Athens.
 
 26 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (2) Offers no intellectual training except as the wife is 
 instructed by the husband; chiefly a training in 
 domestic duties, care of household and children, 
 kindness to servants, order, economy, discretion. 
 
 Plato (429-348 B.C.) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Fed., 27-34; Davidson: Educ. of the Gk. 
 People, 128-151, Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 133-150; 
 Graves : Hist. Educ., 184-197 ; Hailman : Hist. Fed., 31-41 ; 
 Kemp : . Hist. Educ., 76-78 ; Mahaffy : Old Gk. Educ., 99-115 ; 
 Monroe : Source-Bk., 129-264, Text-Bk., 130-146, Brief Course, 
 63-68; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 60-62, 2d ed., 67-73, 
 Fed. Essays, 7-32; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 63-65; Williams: 
 Hist. Anc. Educ., 165-175.) 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. Early training. 
 
 (i) Son of noble Athenian family had careful educa- 
 tion early devoted to poetry pupil of Soc- 
 rates began study of philosophy. 
 
 b. Teacher. 
 
 (i) Founded the school at Athens, known as " The 
 Academy " taught gratuitously became the 
 " great theorizer." 
 
 c. Writer on education. 
 
 (1) The Republic : The ideal state and a form of socialis- 
 
 tic education proper for it. 
 
 (2) The Laws : A modification of the Republic more 
 
 conservative. 
 
 2. Relation to Socrates. 
 
 a. Built upon his work. 
 
 b. Agreed as to aim of education : that virtue consisted in
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 27 
 
 knowledge, but went further and sought the 
 nature of knowledge. 
 
 c. Disagreed with Socrates's belief that all minds are capable 
 
 of attaining knowledge. 
 
 d. Accepted and elaborated the dialectic method, denning 
 
 it as " continuous discourse with one's self." 
 
 3. His theory of ideas. 
 
 a. The " idea " is universal truth, the only true reality 
 
 it is the imperishable essence which gives real- 
 ity to the substantial form in which it exists. 
 
 b. The more nearly perfect the harmony between an object 
 
 and the idea from which it emanates, the more 
 truly the object will perform its true function, i.e. 
 approximate the good for that phenomenal exist- 
 ence. 
 
 c. Knowledge is the recognition of this harmony between 
 
 the object and the idea, i.e. of its true function or 
 the good. 
 
 d. Dialectic became the study of ideas or the higher intel- 
 
 lectual life. 
 
 4. His educational ideal. 
 
 a. As an essential of social and individual welfare each per- 
 
 son should devote his life to that which he is by 
 nature best fitted to do. 
 
 b. The function of education should be to determine what 
 
 each individual is by nature best fitted to do and 
 then to prepare him for this service. 
 
 5. The educational scheme of the Republic, 
 a. Ideal society. 
 
 (1) The expression of social justice. 
 
 (2) Intellectual aristocracy. 
 
 (3) Communistic organization.
 
 28 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 b. Analysis of the individual. 
 
 (1) Three faculties: (a) intellect or reason; (6) spirit 
 
 or fortitude ; (c) desire or temperance. 
 
 (2) United they control conduct and form justice or 
 
 virtue. 
 
 c. Analysis of society and its educational needs. 
 
 (1) Three classes: (a) philosophers or rulers (cf. intel- 
 
 lect), who are devoted to the pursuit of knowledge 
 and whose virtue is wisdom; (b) soldiers (cf. 
 spirit), who are devoted to warfare and whose 
 virtue is honor; (c) industrial class (cf. desire), 
 who are devoted to trade and whose virtue is 
 money making. 
 
 (2) Membership to be determined not by caste rule, 
 
 but by development of the individual per- 
 sonality through education, which was to qualify 
 one for the class for which he was by nature 
 fitted. 
 
 d. State control recognized. 
 
 (i) Family life to be abolished no private prop- 
 erty supervision of marriage and children 
 direction of early training both physical and in- 
 tellectual. 
 
 e. Periods of education. 
 
 (1) 1-7, with mother. 
 
 (2) 7-16, in state school. 
 
 (3) *7~2o, in military life. 
 
 (4) 20-30, in higher scientific instruction. 
 
 (5) 3~35> i n study of dialectic and philosophy. 
 
 (6) 35-50, in service of State. 
 
 (7) After 50, in retirement, for life of study and con- 
 
 templation.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 29 
 
 /. Content of education. 
 
 (1) Primary : play, physical exercises, fairy tales. 
 
 (2) Elementary : music and gymnastics. 
 
 (3) Secondary : military gymnastics. 
 
 (4) Higher : sciences of mathematics, astronomy, music, 
 
 followed by dialectic and philosophy. 
 g. Education for women. 
 
 (1) Practically the same as for men. 
 
 (2) No sex distinction in professional life. 
 
 6. Modifications in the scheme as set forth in the Laws. 
 
 a. Return to old Greek models. 
 
 b. Hereditary prince to rule, together with priests of new 
 
 religion (based on astrology). 
 
 c. Strict supervision of education by the State, especially 
 
 of the literary element. 
 
 d. Education to culminate in mathematics or astrology 
 
 rather than philosophy. 
 
 7. Influence of Plato's Theories of Education, 
 a. Compulsory State education. 
 
 6. Adaptation of education to pupils. 
 
 c. Education to determine careers and to fit youth for 
 
 them. 
 
 d. Formulation of idea of liberal education. 
 
 (i) Harmonious development of personality. 
 
 e. Outline of curriculum that was followed long after. 
 
 /. Emphasis on disciplinary value rather than practical 
 
 value of studies. 
 g. Formation of philosophical schools. 
 
 (i) Establishment of worth of life apart from the 
 
 practical and from service to State. 
 h. First organized system of education.
 
 3O Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 14, 133-146; Compayre: 
 Hist. Fed., 36-40; Davidson: Educ. of Gk. People, 152-176, 
 Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 153-202; Graves: Hist. 
 Educ., 197-214; Hailman: Hist. Fed., 31-41 ; Kemp: Hist. 
 Educ., 79-80 ; Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 295-300 ; Mahaffy : 
 Old Gk. Educ., 99-115; Monroe: Source-Bk. of Hist. Educ., 
 265-294, Text-Bk., 146-160, Brief Course, 68-73; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 62-65, 2d ed., 73-77, Ped. Essays, 33-60; 
 Seeley : Hist. Educ., 65-67 ; Williams ; Hist. Anc. Educ., 
 176-186.) 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. First period : born at Stagira in Macedonia went to 
 
 Athens and became pupil of Plato. 
 
 b. Teacher: at 47 was teacher of Alexander the Great 
 
 at 50 founded the Peripatetic School, called " the 
 Lyceum," at Athens. 
 
 c. Writers author of Politics and Ethics, touching upon edu- 
 
 cation also other works upon logic, rhetoric, 
 psychology, physics, metaphysics, and zoology. 
 
 2. Relations to Socrates and Plato. 
 
 a. Virtue not possession of knowledge, as they said, but a 
 
 state of the will. 
 
 b. End of education not knowledge which for them was 
 
 virtue, but happiness or goodness, the attainment 
 of which brought virtue, i.e. instead of the de- 
 velopment of the intellect alone, it was the union 
 of the intellect and the will, or knowledge ex- 
 pressed in action. 
 
 c. Reality not ideas (Plato) but the performance of the 
 
 highest function by any phenomenon.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 31 
 
 (i) Ideas have no independent reality, but exist as forms 
 
 embodied in objects, giving them individuality. 
 His theories and ideals. 
 
 a. Goodness the end of existence for the State as well as 
 
 for the individual. 
 
 b. The State to provide organized education as a means 
 
 to that end. 
 
 c. Goodness means goodness of intellect (well-being) and 
 
 goodness of action (well-doing), thus comprehend- 
 ing both individual and social elements. 
 
 (1) The first the result of teaching, experience, and time. 
 
 (2) The second the outcome of habit. 
 
 d. Happiness is then the putting into operation in life 
 
 with one's fellows of the universal principles of 
 conduct. 
 The educational scheme of the Politics. 
 
 a. Adaptation of education to the form of government. 
 
 b. Aim: to provide properly equipped and properly dis- 
 
 posed citizens (constituting a life of intellectual 
 activity and practical service) . 
 
 c. State control of the whole life. 
 
 d. Three phases of education and their content. 
 
 (1) First, of the body : by gymnastics, resulting in good 
 
 habits and self-control. 
 
 (2) Second, of the irrational part of the soul, that is, the 
 
 emotions: by music, literature, and aesthetics, 
 providing moral and intellectual culture. 
 
 (3) Third, of the rational part of the soul, preparing for 
 
 active service for the State through the sciences 
 and philosophy. 
 
 e. Periods of education. 
 
 (i) 1-7, trained by parent : play and moral instruction.
 
 32 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (2) 7-15, in charge of State: physical exercises, music, 
 
 writing, drawing. 
 
 (3) 15-21, music, civil and military service. 
 
 (4) After 21, mathematical science and dialectic. 
 /. For all citizens. 
 
 (i) Artisans and slaves excluded as they could not attain 
 
 citizenship. 
 g. Education of women. 
 
 (i) Very limited, since they were regarded as different 
 
 from men and not capable of profiting by higher 
 
 intellectual training. 
 
 5. Method of education. 
 
 a. Objective and scientific, as opposed to the introspective 
 
 method of Plato. 
 
 b. Inductive and deductive, applied to previous systems of 
 
 Greek thought and to new fields of investigation. 
 
 6. Influence of Aristotle. 
 
 a. Immediate influence not great. 
 
 b. Founder of modern science by the formulation and appli- 
 
 cation of the inductive method. 
 
 c. Created system of logical and scientific terminology. 
 
 d. Originated the doctrine of formal discipline. 
 
 e. Contributed to the formulation of Christian doctrine. 
 
 /. Influence extended through spread of his works to other 
 countries and their translation into other languages, 
 especially the Arabic. 
 
 Other Writers and Thinkers who influenced Education 
 
 1. Lycurgus (85<D-c. 800 B.C.) lawgiver. 
 
 2. Solon (c. 638-c. 558 B.C.) lawgiver. 
 
 3. Thales (c. 624-548 B.C.) " father of Greek philosophy." 
 
 4. ^Eschylus (524-456 B.C.), Sophocles (497-406 B.C.), and
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 33 
 
 Euripides (c. 485-406 B.C.) writers of tragedy who 
 attempted to preserve the old system of morality in 
 opposition to teachings of sophists. 
 
 5. Herodotus (484-0. 424 B.C.) " father of history." 
 
 6. Thucydides (c. 465-0. 400 B.C.) the most illustrious 
 
 historian of the Greeks. 
 
 7. Protagoras (c. 485-0. 411 B.C.) one of the greatest of the 
 
 sophists, to whom is attributed the formula " man is 
 the measure of all things." 
 
 8. Aristophanes (445-380 B.C.) writer of comedy, a con- 
 
 servative, who parodied the new teachings of the sophists. 
 
 9. Isocrates (436-338 B.C.) rhetorician, pupil of Socrates. 
 
 10. Demosthenes (384-322 B.C.) orator. 
 
 11. Pyrrho (365-275 B.C.) first skeptic. 
 
 12. Epicurus (341-270 B.C.) founder of school of the Epi- 
 
 cureans, who made pleasure the end of life. 
 
 13. Zeno (340-265 B.C.) founder of Stoic school of philos- 
 
 ophy. 
 
 14. Chrysippus (280-209 B.C.) more scientific Stoic. 
 
 Later Greek Education of the Imperial Period (338-146 B.C.) 
 
 (Ball : Hist. Math., chs. 4-5 ; Cajori : Hist. Math., 34-62 ; 
 Davidson: Hist. Educ., 117-120, Educ. of the Gk. People, 
 177-202, Aristotle 6* the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 206-213 ; Graves : 
 Hist. Educ., 215-229; Mahaffy: Old Gk. Educ., 116-140; 
 Monroe : Source-Bk. of Hist. Educ., 295-326, Text-Bk., 160- 
 173, Brief Course, 73-78.) 
 
 i. Character. 
 
 a. Individualistic, rather than social or civic. 
 
 b. Intellectual life greatly esteemed. 
 
 c. Education superficial and showy.
 
 34 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 2. Extension of Greek culture. 
 
 a. Through military conquest, Greek learning, art, and 
 
 institutions were carried to all cities of the East. 
 6. Theaters, libraries, baths, palaces, schools. 
 c. Universal culture. 
 
 3. New types of schools. 
 
 a. Rhetorical schools. 
 
 (1) Preparing for practical activities of life. 
 
 (2) Offering linguistic and literary training solely, 
 
 through study of rhetoric and public speaking. 
 
 (3) Later, formal and narrow methods were common. 
 
 (4) Really a form of private education, but an important 
 
 part of the higher educational system. 
 
 b. Philosophical and dialectic schools. 
 
 (1) Offering training in exposition and criticism of writ- 
 
 ings without originality. 
 
 (2) Teaching formal dogmas chiefly. 
 
 (3) Chief schools: Peripatetics (Aristotle), Academy 
 
 (Plato), Epicureans (Epicurus), Stoics (Zeno), 
 Skeptics (Pyrrho). 
 
 4. Beginnings of universities. 
 
 a. Outgrowth of the rhetorical and philosophical schools. 
 
 b. University of Athens. 
 
 (1) Athens the center of learning many students 
 
 intellectual education universal schools com- 
 bined into one institution which the youth were 
 compelled by State to attend. 
 
 (2) Work in philosophy, science, literature, grammar, 
 
 and rhetoric many teachers pupils from many 
 lands fees charged course from 3 to 7 years 
 student organizations. 
 
 (3) University later supported by Roman emperors.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 35 
 
 c. University of Alexandria. 
 
 (1) Displaced Athens in third century A.D. as center of 
 
 culture. 
 
 (2) Grew out of library and museum founded by the 
 
 Ptolemies about 300 B.C. 
 
 (a) Greek, Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and 
 Jewish manuscripts. 
 
 (3) Taught philosophy, letters, science, theology. 
 
 (a) Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hellenistic philosophy, 
 Christianity. 
 
 (4) Distinguished scholars: Clement, Origen, Euclid, 
 
 Archimedes, Diophantes. 
 
 (5) Destroyed in 640 A.D. in Mohammedan conquest. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION 
 
 (Browning : Educ. Theories, 26-43 > Compayre : Hist. Fed., 
 43-60; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 105-111; Graves: Hist. 
 Educ., 230-271 ; Hailman: Hist. Fed.. 42-51 ; Kemp: Hist. 
 Educ., 84-96 ; Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 301-436 ; Monroe : 
 Source-Bk., 327-509, Text-Bk., 176-213, Brief Course, 81-99; 
 Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 65-79, 2 d ed., 77-80.) 
 
 Introduction 
 
 i. National characteristics. 
 
 a. Geographical situation compelled an aggressive spirit. 
 
 6. Genius of the people : practical, subordinating the indi- 
 vidual to the State, with respect for law and love 
 for military life. 
 
 c. The family very important. 
 
 (1) Absolute authority of the father. 
 
 (2) High respect for and great influence of the mother.
 
 36 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 d. Social classes : patricians, plebeians, and slaves. 
 
 e. Religion : nature worship, personification. 
 2. Ideals of Roman education. 
 
 a. Based upon clearly defined rights with correlative duties. 
 
 b. Aimed at practical virtues, as exemplified in living men 
 
 or well-known historical personages. 
 
 c. Life was conceived in terms of duty. 
 
 (1) The home the starting place. 
 
 (2) The study of biography for types of manhood. 
 
 (3) Imitation the chief characteristic. 
 
 Early Roman Education (776-250 B.C.) 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Ped., 43-45 ; Davidson : Hist. Educ., 106- 
 108 ; Graves : Hist. Educ., 236-245 ; Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 
 301-323; Monroe: Source-Bk., 327-345, Text-Bk., 176-193, 
 Brief Course, 86-88 ; Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 65-67, 2d 
 ed., 77-80; Williams: Hist. A nc. Educ., 187-200.) 
 
 1. Aim : practical, moral, social. 
 
 2. Organization: centered in the home the child in the 
 
 mother's charge the boy in the father's care. 
 
 3. Content : Laws of the Twelve Tables, religious and choral 
 
 service, practical training in business, farming, civic 
 duties, and military life, reading, writing, rudimentary 
 calculation, for boys ; and household duties for girls. 
 
 4. Method : imitation, practice, apprenticeship. 
 
 5. Effect : a nation of warriors and loyal citizens, a selfish and 
 
 stern people, narrow and without high ideals, thoroughly 
 practical an effective training for a small state.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 37 
 
 Roman Education under Greek Influence (250 B.C.-2OO A.D.) 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Fed., 45 ; Davidson : Hist. Educ., 109-111, 
 Educ. of Gk. People, 203-229; Graves: Hist. Educ., 245- 
 267 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 85-88 ; Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 
 3 2 3-3S4, 393-394; Monroe: Source-Bk., 342-355, 37 I ~42o, 
 Text-Bk., 193-206, Brief Course, 88-95 1 Painter : Hist. 
 Educ., ist ed., 68-71, 2d ed., 81-85 ; Preston & Dodge : Priv. 
 Life of Roms., ch. 3; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 74-80; Williams: 
 Hist. Anc. Educ., 201-233.) 
 
 1. Conditions effecting a change. 
 
 a. Political expansion of Rome and ultimate conquest of 
 
 Greece by Rome. 
 
 b. Coming of Greek slaves, freedmen, and teachers to Rome. 
 
 c. Introduction of Greek customs and ideas, with gradual 
 
 absorption of Greek culture. 
 
 2. Aim: increasingly literary, intellectual, and individual, 
 
 leading to a mastery of the language, at the same time 
 retaining its old practical purpose. 
 
 3. Organization and content. 
 
 a. Elementary school : the ludus, also called the school of 
 
 the literator, or of the Greek grammatist, instruction in 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, Greek, translation of 
 Homer's Odyssey, some Latin works, the Laws of the 
 Twelve Tables. 
 
 b. Secondary school : the school of the grammaticus, includ- 
 
 ing both the Greek and the Latin grammar schools : 
 giving instruction in the Greek and Latin languages 
 and literatures, history and science, some mathematics, 
 dialectics, music, and declamation. 
 
 c. Higher school : the school of the rhetor, providing prep-
 
 38 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 aration for the duties of orator, lawyer, and public 
 official: giving instruction in literature, science, 
 philosophy, history, law, oratory, debate, public 
 speaking. 
 d. Gymnastics not taught in school but in military life. 
 
 4. Methods : memoriter and imitative in elementary work, in- 
 
 cluding learning by heart, reproduction, paraphrase, 
 dictation, and composition much practice in dispu- 
 tation and debate in higher grades, with training in 
 analysis, criticism, elaboration, and argumentation. 
 
 5. Teachers. 
 
 a. In early times, no license nor qualifications were re- 
 
 quired remuneration small social status low. 
 
 b. In later times, through Greek influence and training, 
 
 better preparation was demanded, much skill found, 
 literary culture necessary, teachers well paid by fees 
 or even by State, and held in considerable esteem. 
 
 6. Other evidences of educational activity. 
 
 a. Libraries and universities: the former brought over 
 
 from Greece many founded later by emperors 
 made nucleus of universities the latter gave formal 
 instruction in literature, law, medicine, philosophy, 
 architecture, mechanics, and mathematics. 
 
 b. State schools : in most towns supported but not super- 
 
 vised by State teachers granted special privileges : 
 salaries, license, scholarships. 
 
 c. Roman literature: poets, dramatists, historians, philos- 
 
 ophers, moralists flourished, of whom notable ex- 
 amples are Horace, Vergil, Terence, Plautus, Caesar, 
 Sallust, Nepos, Livy, Tacitus, Cicero, Seneca, Quin- 
 tilian, Martial, Pliny, Juvenal, Suetonius, Marcus 
 Aurelius, etc.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 39 
 
 Roman Educational Theorists 
 Cicero (106-43 B.C.) Statesman, Orator, and Philosopher 
 
 (Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 350-352 ; Monroe : Source-Bk., 421- 
 444, Text-Bk., 207, Brief Course, 96 ; Painter : Hist. Educ., 
 ist ed., 71-73, 2d ed., 85-89, Fed. Essays, 83-96; Seeley: 
 Hist. Educ., 81-84; Williams: Hist. Anc. Educ., 237-240.) 
 
 1. Life and training. 
 
 a. Born of good family studied literature and philosophy 
 at Rome, at Athens, and in Asia entered political 
 life filled many offices was banished devoted 
 himself to study and writing author of many books 
 on philosophy, oratory, rhetoric, politics, criticism, 
 among them De Oratore. 
 
 2. His ideal : the training of an orator who was to be the prac- 
 
 tical educated man of the world. 
 
 3. His theories. 
 
 a. Education should begin with earliest childhood. 
 
 b. The environment and occupation of the child should be 
 
 favorable to refinement and development. 
 
 c. Religion and moral culture important elements in edu- 
 
 cation. 
 
 d. Individual tastes and talents should determine the 
 
 vocation. 
 
 e. Memory to be trained by committing many selections. 
 /. Much writing develops fluency of expression and clear- 
 ness of judgment. 
 
 g. The arts through which one serves the State constitute 
 the greatest wisdom and the highest virtue. 
 
 h. Broad knowledge of things and of men is essential to 
 liberal culture and efficiency in life. 
 
 i. A graceful and forceful style should be cultivated.
 
 4O Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Seneca (3 B.C.-65 A.D.) Statesman, Stoic Philosopher, 
 
 and Writer 
 
 (Monroe: Source-Bk. of Hist. Educ., 393-400, Text-Bk., 206, 
 Brief Course, 96; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 74-76, 2d 
 ed., 89-93, Fed- Essays, 97-102 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 84-86 ; 
 Williams : Hist. Anc. Educ., 240-244.) 
 
 1. Life and training. 
 
 a. Son of teacher of rhetoric trained in oratory stud- 
 ied Stoic philosophy became lawyer and entered 
 public life was banished devoted himself to phi- 
 losophy and to writing author of numerous works, 
 among them On the Education of Children. 
 
 2. His educational ideal : that education should be (a) em- 
 
 phatically moral, in order to correct the evil tendencies 
 of nature ; and (6) practical, in order to prepare for a 
 life of thought and action. 
 
 3. His educational and philosophical theories. 
 
 a. Goodness is the supreme end of life. 
 
 b. Philosophy is the chief of liberal sciences. 
 
 c. Teaching should be adapted to the capacities of pupils. 
 
 d. Example and environment are stronger than precept. 
 
 e. Narrow thoroughness is better than superficial breadth. 
 /. Discipline and gymnastics in moderation are both of 
 
 value. 
 
 g. Teachers should be worthy of high respect. 
 h. Direct imitation is the most effectual method. 
 
 Quintilian (35-95 A.D.) 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. n, 110-132 ; Browning: Educ. 
 Theories, 26-34; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 47-52; Davidson: 
 Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 214-224; Kemp: Hist.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 41 
 
 Educ., 88-89 > Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 355-389 ; Monroe, 
 Source-Bk., 445-509, Text-Bk., 207-208, Brief Course, 96; 
 Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 76-79, 2d ed., 93-97, Fed. Essays, 
 103-124; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 86-88 ; Williams: Hist. Anc. 
 Educ., 244-254.) 
 
 1. Life and work. 
 
 a. Born a Spaniard became a Roman teacher of rhetoric 
 was first public instructor that was paid by State, 
 occupying the ch,air of oratory at Rome author of 
 Institutes of Oratory. 
 
 2. His aim : to train " the good man skilled in speaking." 
 
 3. His educational scheme and doctrines. 
 
 a. Elementary education. 
 
 (1) In hands of parent, nurse, and teacher. 
 
 (2) To be begun in infancy. 
 
 (3) Child's tastes and capacities to be studied. 
 
 (4) Amusements to be utilized as means of instruction. 
 
 (5) Progress to be slow and thorough. 
 
 (6) No corporal punishment. 
 
 (7) Instruction to include writing (tracing copies cut in 
 
 wood or wax), reading, moral instruction, learning 
 by heart. 
 
 (8) Methods to be attractive rather than compulsory. 
 
 b. Secondary education. 
 
 (T) Public school preferable to private both for moral 
 training and for excellence of instruction. 
 
 (2) Instruction to include the art of speaking and writ- 
 
 ing, the practice of critical judgment, music, 
 astronomy, philosophy, grammar, literature (Greek 
 before Latin), geometry. 
 
 (3) Eloquence and forceful speaking depend upon broad
 
 42 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 knowledge and high character more than upon 
 fluency of speech and oratorical formulae. 
 c. Higher education. 
 
 (1) Teacher should be chosen for moral character and 
 
 ability. 
 
 (2) Imitation should be encouraged. 
 
 (3) Teachers and pupils should have mutual regard. 
 
 (4) Allowance should be made for pupil's age and ability. 
 
 (5) Natural talents to be developed. 
 
 (6) Oratorical education closely connected with general 
 
 interests of humanity. 
 
 (7) A great orator must be a good man. 
 
 (8) Instruction to include rhetoric, literature, philos- 
 
 ophy, dialectic, ethics, physics, and mathematics. 
 
 (9) Much exercise in public speaking and disputation is 
 
 desirable. 
 
 Decline of Roman Education (200-476 A.D.) 
 
 (Graves : Hist. Educ., 267-270 ; Laurie : Pre-Chr. Educ., 389- 
 411, Rise & Early Const, of Univs., ch. i ; Monroe: Source- 
 Bk., 371-420, Text-Bk., 208-218, Brief Course, 96-99.) 
 
 i . Decadence of Roman society. 
 
 a. Extension of the privileges of Roman citizenship and its 
 
 consequent deterioration. 
 
 b. Causes: despotism, corruption, taxation, extravagant 
 
 aristocracy, immorality. 
 
 c. Education remained institutionally the same, but was 
 
 not a practical training for the whole people but an 
 adornment for the upper class only. 
 
 d. Schools multiplied State support more widely granted 
 
 teachers better paid and more highly esteemed.
 
 Education in Greece and Rome 43 
 
 e. Formal pedantic culture superficial erudition os- 
 tentation. 
 
 /. Study of philosophy given up. 
 
 g. The practical merits of Roman education and the liberal- 
 izing tendencies received from Greek influence entirely 
 disappeared.
 
 EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION (TO ABOUT THE 6ra CENTURY) 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 24, 337-370, 525-544 ; Com- 
 payre: Hist. Fed., 61-67; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 117-132; 
 Educ. of Gk. People, ch. 9, Aristotle 6* tlie Anc. Educ. Ideals, 
 231-235; Graves: Hist. Educ., 272-298; Hailman: Hist. 
 Fed., 52-62; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 97-108 ; Laurie: Pre-Chr. 
 Educ., 389-411, Rise & Early Const, of Univs., 7-38, 52-53; 
 Monroe: Text-Bk., 221-243, Brief Course, 101-110; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 80-93, 2 d ed., 102-118, Ped. Essays, 143- 
 154; Robinson: Readings in European Hist., 14-35 > Seeley: 
 Hist. Educ., 89-115; Williams: Hist. Med. Educ., 17-24, 
 
 Note: The educational problem at the beginning of the 
 Christian Era was the promotion of the welfare of society 
 through the development of the individual. 
 
 Contributions to Individualism before the Introduction of 
 
 Christianity 
 
 1. By the Jews. 
 
 a. Lofty conception of religion and morality. 
 
 b. Righteousness the mark of civic culture. 
 
 c. Moral discipline and responsibility. 
 
 2. By the Greeks. 
 
 a. Advanced intellectual and aesthetic ideals. 
 
 44
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 45 
 
 b. " Well-being " and " well-doing " their highest concep- 
 
 tion of individual worth. 
 
 c. Perfection of the rational nature the source of happiness. 
 3. By the Romans. 
 
 a. Practical training for functions of life. 
 
 b. Reverence for law, duty, and individual's rights. 
 
 c. With the Stoics, virtue gained through the development 
 
 of the reason. 
 
 Failure of All These Nations to reach Solution of the Prob- 
 lem, because 
 
 1 . Advantages of education were not open to entire population. 
 
 2. In each case all other peoples were regarded as inferior. 
 
 3. Slavery was sanctioned. 
 
 4. Women though kindly treated were still subordinate to men. 
 
 5. Infanticide and exposure of children were not given up. 
 
 6. Religion had no effective influence on morality. 
 
 The Larger Ideals of Christianity 
 
 1 . The Founder, Jesus of Nazareth. 
 
 2. His mission. 
 
 a. The unity of the race. 
 
 b. The moral and spiritual development of the individual. 
 
 c. The recognition by man of the will of God. 
 
 3. His doctrines that effected education. 
 
 a. Emphasis on moral and spiritual nature of man. 
 
 b. Fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man. 
 
 (1) Hence education should be universal. 
 
 (2) Class distinctions are eliminated. 
 
 c. Woman the equal of man. 
 
 d. Children the gift of God.
 
 46 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 e. Recognition of personality. 
 /. Universal individualism. 
 
 Pagan Conditions that needed Reform 
 
 1. Social. 
 
 a. Moneyed aristocracy. 
 
 b. Corrupt civic and governmental methods. 
 
 c. Loose family and social morals. 
 
 2. Religious. 
 
 a. Formal worship. 
 
 b. Immoral and wanton ceremonial. 
 
 c. Skepticism. 
 
 3. Philosophical and educational. 
 
 a. Superficial and unethical ideals. 
 
 b. Ostentation. 
 
 c. Class privileges. 
 
 Aim of the Early Christian Schools 
 
 1. Moral more than intellectual. 
 
 a. Hence enabled to reach the masses. 
 
 2. " Other-worldly." 
 
 a. Mundane pleasures and satisfactions sacrificed for spirit- 
 ual development. 
 
 Blinds of Christian Schools and their Purposes 
 
 1. Catechumenal. 
 
 a. For converts to Christianity. 
 
 b. Instruction in moral and religious teachings, reading, 
 
 writing and memorizing of the Scriptures, psalmody. 
 
 c. To qualify for membership in the Christian church. 
 
 2. Catechetical. 
 
 a. For Christian teachers and leaders.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 47 
 
 b. Instruction in theological doctrine, also pagan philos- 
 
 ophy, literature, and science. 
 
 c. To defend the faith, to combat heresies, and to formulate 
 
 Christian doctrine. 
 3. Cathedral or episcopal. 
 
 a. For the training of the clergy. 
 
 b. Instruction in doctrine, ritual, the seven liberal arts, 
 
 singing and the duties of public religious service. 
 
 Relations of Christianity to Graeco-Roman Culture 
 
 1. Influence of Greek thought. 
 
 a. Tendency to amalgamate through likeness of aim : viz. 
 
 to seek truth. 
 
 b. Spread of heresies. 
 
 c. Dialectic methods of teaching. 
 
 2. Influence of Roman thought. 
 
 a. Formulation of doctrine. 
 
 b. Organization of the church. 
 
 3. Opposition to " worldly " ideal of pagan education. 
 
 a. Secular literature not approved by the church. 
 
 b. Much of the philosophy not consistent with ethical mis- 
 
 sion of Christianity. 
 
 4. Though rendered more formal and less spiritual, Christian- 
 
 ity owed its preservation to this pagan influence of 
 system and organization. 
 
 (Davidson: Aristotle & the Anc. Educ. Ideals, 239-247; 
 Graves : Hist. Educ., 294-296 ; Green : Hist, of Eng. People, 
 50-52; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 109-121; Laurie: Rise & Early 
 Const, of Univs., 54-74; Monroe: Text-Bk., 243-274, Brief
 
 48 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Course, 110-124; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 99-104, ui- 
 112, 2ded., 118-122 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 116-120; Williams, 
 Hist. Med. Educ., 56-59.) 
 
 Its Origin and Nature 
 
 1. Asceticism. 
 
 a. Belief in the necessity of retirement, contemplation, 
 prayer, and discipline to the attainment of ideal spirit- 
 ual life. 
 
 2. In other religions. 
 
 a. Among the Hebrews. 
 
 b. In the oriental nations. 
 
 3. In Christian church, due to 
 
 a. Belief in second coming of Christ. 
 
 b. Oppression and corruption of Roman Empire. 
 
 4. Distinction between the ideals of the East and the West. 
 
 a. Oriental asceticism centered in contemplation. 
 
 b. Occidental asceticism added the element of work to its 
 
 ideal. 
 
 Ideals and Scope of Monastic Life and Education 
 
 1. Vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. 
 
 a. Renunciation of family life. 
 
 b. Advancement of church rather than material welfare. 
 
 c. Recognition of authority of God rather than that of the 
 
 State. 
 
 2. Discipline of physical nature to develop moral and spiritual 
 
 perfection. 
 
 3. Monastic rules. 
 
 a. Prayer, religious service, discipline, work, study, teach- 
 ing.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 49 
 
 Schools. 
 
 a. For instruction of monks and those who intended to enter 
 
 the monastic order (oblati or interni). 
 
 b. For promotion of study of religious writings. 
 
 c. For copying of books. 
 
 d. For instruction of others who desired only the advan- 
 
 tages of education (externi}. 
 Social importance. 
 
 a. Moral, religious, and intellectual centers. 
 
 b. Supplied protection and assistance to people. 
 
 c. Encouraged development of the arts and sciences. 
 
 d. Preserved and transmitted learning. 
 
 Monastic Schools 
 Organization and content. 
 
 a. Primary : reading, writing, Latin psalter, singing, church 
 
 service, elementary arithmetic. 
 
 b. Secondary and higher : trivium and quadrivium, com- 
 
 prising the Seven Liberal Arts. 
 
 (1) Trivium : grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic. 
 
 (2) Quadrivium : arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and 
 
 music (dialectic also continued with these studies) . 
 
 (3) Theology added to course later. 
 Methods. 
 
 a. Memorizing and imitation. 
 
 b. Use of wax tablets and stylus. 
 
 c. Question and answer method. 
 
 d. Dictation. 
 Education of women. 
 
 a. Convents for women offered considerable advantages in 
 education, although much less extensive than 
 those in the monasteries.
 
 $0 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Other Educational Activities of the Monasteries 
 
 1. Copying of manuscripts (scriptorium). 
 
 2. Collecting and preserving of books : libraries. 
 
 3. Production of literary works : chronicles, commentaries, 
 
 biographies of religious men and women, educational 
 treatises. 
 
 4. Exposition of the seven liberal arts. 
 
 a. Martianus Capella : De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, 
 
 textbook and commentary of all learning. 
 
 b. Boethius : various books on Greek philosophy, logic, 
 
 ethics, music, and mathematics. 
 
 c. Cassiodorus: educational treatises and textbooks on 
 
 Latin culture. 
 
 d. Isidore de Seville : Etymologies, an encyclopedia of 
 
 knowledge in twenty books. 
 
 e. Aldhelm: books on arithmetic, astrology, history, reli- 
 
 gion, and Latin prosody. 
 
 /. Bede (the Venerable) : commentaries on the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, textbooks on grammar, history, and chronology, 
 a history of the church and one of the English people. 
 
 Monasteries influential through their Educational Activities 
 
 1 . Fulda and Hirschau in Germany. 
 
 2. Mount Cassino in Italy. 
 
 3. Cluny, Bee, and Tours in France. 
 
 4. St. Gall in Switzerland. 
 
 5. Glastonbury, Malmesbury, and Canterbury in England. 
 
 6. Salzburg in Austria. 
 
 7. lona in Scotland. 
 
 8. Armagh in Ireland.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 51 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PALATINE SCHOOL 
 
 (771-814) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Fed., 71-73 ; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 151- 
 158; Guizot: Hist. Civ., v. 2, art. on Charlemagne and 
 Alcuin; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 122-124; Laurie: Rise of Univs., 
 43-55, 67-72 ; Monroe : Text-Bk., 274-279, Brief Course, 
 125-128; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 104-106, 2d ed., 122- 
 125, Fed. Essays, 155-168; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 125-131; 
 West: Alcuin & the Rise of the Chr. Sch.; Williams: Hist. 
 Med. Educ., 62-90.) 
 
 The Importance and Scope of his Work 
 
 1. Political. 
 
 a. Emperor of Rome. 
 
 b. Ruler of France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and parts of 
 
 England. 
 
 2. Social. 
 
 a. Raised the intellectual level of his people. 
 
 b. Advanced the work and influence of the Christian 
 
 church. 
 
 3. Educational. 
 
 a. Founded schools, for which he secured best qualified 
 
 teachers, even from Rome and England. 
 
 b. Encouraged the monasteries to establish schools. 
 
 c. Urged better education for the clergy. 
 
 d. Favored universal, compulsory education. 
 
 e. Promoted the development of the German language. 
 
 /. Became himself a student of Latin, Greek, music, and 
 science.
 
 52 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 His Efforts for Educational Reform 
 
 1. Invited Alcuin from York, England, to revive interest in 
 
 learning. 
 
 2. Through Alcuin he established the Palatine School at the 
 
 court. 
 
 3. Issued three capitularies (787, 789, and 802) to monks and 
 
 clergy, commanding them to study and to maintain 
 schools in all the monasteries and churches. 
 
 a. Boys to be taught the psalms, musical notation, singing, 
 
 arithmetic, grammar. 
 
 b. Adults to be instructed in the liberal arts and the Holy 
 
 Scriptures. 
 
 c. Capitulary of 802 was general proclamation providing 
 
 instruction for the laity as well as the clergy. 
 
 4. Brought from Rome excellent teachers of music, grammar, 
 
 and arithmetic, 
 
 Work of the Palatine School 
 
 1. Aim: to be model school. 
 
 2. Pupils : sons and daughters of the nobles. 
 
 3. Content: elementary and secondary, including the seven 
 
 liberal arts, also Greek and natural history. 
 
 4. Method : chiefly catechetical or " question and answer." 
 
 5. Textbooks : written by Alcuin on grammar, rhetoric, dia- 
 
 lectic, arithmetic, and " the seven liberal arts." 
 
 Other Educational Work that grew out of this Movement 
 
 i. Alcuin (735-804). 
 
 0. Became abbot of the monastery of Tours. 
 b. His school here became the center of learning and of 
 influence in the church.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 53 
 
 c. Built up an important library. 
 
 2. Rabanus Maurus (776-856). 
 
 a. Pupil of Alcuin. 
 
 b. Became abbot of Fulda, Germany. 
 
 c. Was student and teacher of Greek. 
 
 d. Wrote de Compute, based on the works of Boethius and 
 
 Bede ; also de Clericorum Institutione (the education 
 of the clergy) ; and compiled an encyclopedia similar 
 to that of Isidore of Seville. 
 
 3. Joannes Scotus Erigena (810-875). 
 
 a. Successor to Alcuin in Palatine School. 
 
 b. Had broad knowledge of Greek language and ancient 
 
 learning. 
 
 c. Was the first to apply dialectics to theology, thus being 
 
 the forerunner of scholasticism. 
 
 Effect of this Revival 
 
 1. Monastic, episcopal, and rural or parish schools were founded 
 
 in considerable numbers. 
 
 2. Work and influence of the Christian church enhanced by 
 
 better educated clergy. 
 
 a. Various church councils continued to promote the work 
 of education. 
 
 3. May be said to be the beginnings of popular instruction by 
 
 State authority. 
 
 4. Unified the Prankish empire. 
 
 a. By increase of use of the mother tongue. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK OF KING ALFRED OF ENGLAND (871-901) 
 
 (Besant: The Story of Alfred the Great; Bowker: Alfred the 
 Great; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 125; Laurie: Rise 6* Const, of 
 Univs., 32-39, 52-53.)
 
 54 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 National Reforms of Government effected by Alfred 
 
 1. Creation of fleet for coast defense. 
 
 2. Reorganization of army and training in arms. 
 
 3. Construction of fortified camps. 
 
 4. Encouragement of exploration and commercial intercourse 
 
 with Europe. 
 
 His Educational Efforts 
 
 1. Established schools, following example of Charlemagne. 
 
 2. Directed compilation of portions of the Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Chronicle, a source book of knowledge of Teutonic con- 
 quest of England. 
 
 3. Codified the laws, making principle of morality the basis 
 
 of the legal system. 
 
 4. Imported teachers from the continent. 
 
 5. Wrote treatises and translated foreign works into the 
 
 English language. 
 
 6. Is said to have laid the foundation of Oxford University. 
 
 CHIVALRY AND THE EDUCATION OF THE KNIGHT (iiTH-i4TH 
 
 CENTURIES) 
 
 (Gautier: Chivalry; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 132-135; Monroe: 
 Text-Bk., 284-291, Brief Course, 147-150; Painter: Hist. 
 Educ., ist ed., 107-110, 2d ed., 126-128; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 
 132-135 ; Williams : Hist. Med. Educ., 95-104.) 
 
 Origin of Chivalry 
 
 1. In feudalism. 
 
 a. The knight was the successor of the Germanic warrior 
 chieftain. 
 
 2. In the influence of the Christian church upon the Northern 
 
 barbarians.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 55 
 
 a. Embodied the better elements of the warrior character 
 refined and ennobled. 
 
 Character and Ideals of Chivalry 
 
 1. Direct contrast of monasticism. 
 
 a. Physical strength and vigor valued as well as perfection 
 of the moral nature. 
 
 2. Social discipline. 
 
 a. Major virtues : service, love, honor, loyalty, piety. 
 
 b. Minor virtues : courtesy, courage, obedience, respect for 
 
 women. 
 
 3. Suggestive of modern notions of a gentleman and a lady. 
 
 Educational Scheme 
 
 1. 1-7 years : in care of mother. 
 
 2. 7-14 years: as page in attendance upon a knight and the 
 
 ladies of the court, in household and court service 
 learned music, chess, poetry, and manners. 
 
 3. 14-21 years: as squire or companion of a knight pur- 
 
 sued physical and military training; hunting, fencing, 
 justing, riding, swimming ; also studied religion, singing, 
 minstrelsy, and the harp. 
 
 4. After 21 years : became knight, through religious ceremony 
 
 - took vows to defend church, to speak truth, and to 
 respect womankind learned French, more music, po- 
 etry, and military duties (the intellectual element in this 
 training was, however, subordinate.) 
 
 5. Training of girls: was much like that required of boys, 
 
 though not so broad, and included reading, singing, play- 
 ing stringed instruments, writing, poetry, religion, French, 
 often Latin, manners, and needlework, besides physical 
 exercises.
 
 56 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Value of Chivalry 
 
 1. Duty of noble service was recognized. 
 
 2. Gave a high place to women. 
 
 3. Emphasized unselfishness and courtesy. 
 
 4. Improved manners and speech. 
 
 5. Recognized obligations to inferiors. 
 
 6. Developed the native languages and literatures. 
 
 a. The German Minnesongs. 
 
 b. The songs of the French troubadours. 
 
 c. The ballads of the English, Scotch, and Irish minstrels. 
 
 SCHOLASTICISM AND EDUCATION (QTH-I^TH CENTURIES) 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 24, 368-374 ; Compayre : Hist. 
 Fed., 74-75, Abelard and the Origin 6* Early Hist, of the 
 Univs.; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 159-165; Green: Shorter 
 Hist, of Eng. People; Guizot: Hist, of Civ., v. 3; Hallam: 
 Europe in the Middle Ages, 426-433 ; Haureau : Histoire de la 
 Philosophic Scolastique; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 126-129; 
 Laurie: Rise of Univs., chs. 3-4; Monroe: Text-Bk., 292- 
 313, Brief Course, 128-133; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 121-124; 
 Williams : Hist. Med. Educ., 143-146.) 
 
 Conditions that led to the Development of Scholastic The- 
 ology 
 
 1. Popularity of the study of Greek philosophy. 
 a. Due to the introduction of Saracen learning. 
 
 2. Unrest in intellectual thought. 
 
 3. Desire for a system of rational philosophy to explain the 
 
 doctrines of the church. 
 
 4. Lack of secular literature and of intercourse with the world. 
 a. Emphasized by the crusades.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 57 
 
 Meaning of Scholasticism 
 
 1. An endeavor to bring Greek philosophy into the service of 
 
 theology. 
 
 2. The reduction of religious thought to logical form. 
 
 3. A type of intellectual activity. 
 
 Aim of the Schoolmen 
 
 1. To strengthen faith by the development of the reason. 
 
 2. To train logical power and the ability to dispute. 
 
 3. To systematize knowledge. 
 
 4. To give mastery of this knowledge. 
 
 Content of Study 
 
 1. Aristotle's metaphysics, physics, psychology, and ethics. 
 
 2. Plato's theory of ideas. 
 
 3. Doctrine of universals. 
 
 a. Realism: theory that universal truths or ideas alone 
 
 possess reality and exist as archetypes in the Divine 
 mind. 
 
 b. Nominalism : theory that universal truths are but names, 
 
 and possess no reality apart from the individual facts 
 or objects in which they are identified. 
 
 c. Conceptualism : theory that universal truths possess 
 
 reality only as concepts of the human mind. 
 
 4. Doctrines of the church. 
 
 a. Interpretation of orthodox views in terms of philosophy. 
 
 b. Attempt to bring faith and reason into harmonious rela- 
 
 tions. 
 
 5. Scholastic texts. 
 
 a. The Sententia of Peter Lombard. 
 
 b. Summa Theologies, of Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 c. Sic et Non of Peter Abelard.
 
 58 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Methods of the Schoolmen 
 
 1. Logical analysis and systematic organization. 
 
 a. Ultralogical rather than psychological. 
 
 b. Division of truth into heads, subheads, etc. 
 
 e. Consideration of several interpretations and their par- 
 ticular merits, before forming the conclusion. 
 
 2. Following the form of questions sometimes instead of propo- 
 
 sitions. 
 
 3. No adaptation to mental development. 
 
 4. Dialectic method of a very formal kind. 
 
 Noted Schoolmen 
 
 1. Scotus Erigena : forerunner. 
 
 2. Anselm : father of scholasticism in the West. 
 
 3. Peter Lombard : author of scientific system of theology. 
 
 4. Peter Abelard : founder of conceptualism. 
 
 5. Albertus Magnus : first stated the philosophy of free in- 
 
 quiry in systematic form. 
 
 6. Thomas Aquinas : applied the deductive method of Aris- 
 
 totle to theology. 
 
 7. William of Occam : opposed realism and held fast to faith. 
 
 8. William of Champeaux : eminent realist. 
 
 Value of Scholasticism 
 
 1 . Reached only formal truths. 
 
 a. Dealt with abstract material. 
 
 2. Argument more regarded than the validity of the conclusion. 
 
 3. Knowledge was given philosophic form. 
 
 4. Problems had theological bearing. 
 
 a. Hence raised the intellectual level of the clergy.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 59 
 
 5. Awakened the minds of men. 
 
 6. Demanded keen intellectual development. 
 
 7. Prepared the way for the universities and the Renaissance. 
 
 GUILD AND BURGHER SCHOOLS (IITH-ISTH CENTURIES) 
 
 (Kemp: Hist. Educ., 136-137 ; Monroe: Text-Bk., 338-339, 
 Brief Course, 156-157; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., iio-iu, 
 2d ed., 128-129; U. S. Com'r Educ. Kept., 1897-1898, v. i, 
 18-26 ; Williams : Hist. Med. Educ., 104-108.) 
 
 Causes leading to their Establishment 
 
 1. Rapid growth of cities. 
 
 2. Increasing importance of trading and artisan classes. 
 
 3. Organization of trades and other guilds. 
 
 / 
 Character of the Schools 
 
 1. Guild schools. 
 
 a. Elementary and grammar grades, with instruction in 
 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, Latin, and" 1 often the 
 vernacular language, besides rudimentary history, 
 geography, and natural science. 
 
 b. Usually conducted by members of the clergy as teachers. 
 
 c. Supported by merchant or trade guilds. 
 
 2. Burgher schools. 
 
 a. Instruction similar to above with special reference to the 
 
 economic interests and demands of the cities. 
 
 b. Controlled largely by secular authorities. 
 
 c. Lay teachers more and more numerous. 
 
 3. Attitude of Church and State. 
 
 a. Contended long for control of these schools. 
 
 b. Civil authorities eventually won.
 
 60 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 4. Teachers. 
 
 a. Poorly paid. 
 
 b. Often itinerant. 
 
 c. Meager qualifications. 
 
 d. No suitable place provided for school. 
 
 Influence of these Schools 
 
 1. Met the demand for a practical education suited to the 
 
 needs of special classes. 
 
 2. May have been the foundations of the modern public ele- 
 
 mentary school. 
 
 SARACEN LEARNING (9x11-1 313: CENXURIES) 
 
 (Ball: Hist. Math., 140-156; Cajori : Hist. Math., 84-124, 
 131-138; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 133-150; Kemp: Hist. 
 Educ., 130-132; Laurie: Rise of Univs., 88-90; Monroe: 
 Text-Bk., 331-334, Brief Course, 154-155; Painter: Hist. 
 Educ., ist ed., 114, 2d ed., 132-133 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 143- 
 147; Williams: Hist. Med. Educ., 110-112.) 
 
 Early Intellectual Progress of the Saracens 
 
 1. Spread by force of Mohammedan arms over large portions 
 
 of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 
 
 2. Advanced by attention to learning along with growth of 
 
 political power. 
 
 3. Promoted by contact with Hindu, Byzantine, and Alexan- 
 
 drian learning. 
 
 4. Enhanced by libraries and translations of Greek works into 
 
 Arabic.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 61 
 
 Extent of their Learning 
 
 1. Mathematics: arithmetic, algebra, arabic numerals (ob- 
 
 tained from India), trigonometry, translations of Greek 
 mathematical works. 
 
 2. Chemistry and physics: discovery of nitric and sulphuric 
 
 acids, oxidized mercury and alcohol preparation of 
 caustic alkali properties of gases understood table 
 of specific gravities and height of atmosphere calculated 
 refraction, reflection and theory of vision studied 
 application of pendulum to clocks and calculation of 
 time. 
 
 3. Astronomy: determination of a degree of the earth's sur- 
 
 face, of the obliquity of the ecliptic, of the length of the 
 year, of the rate of progression of the equinoxes cor- 
 rection of Ptolemy's astronomical tables theory of the 
 movement of planets in ellipses construction of " tubes 
 with glasses " for observation, of observation towers, of 
 the armillary sphere, of mural quadrants, and of globes 
 for geographical studies. 
 
 4. Medicine and surgery : properties of drugs understood 
 
 operations performed in general surgery and obstetrics 
 medical books written and hospitals provided. 
 
 Schools of the Saracens 
 
 1. In connection with every mosque. 
 
 2. Usually private with fees for tuition. 
 
 3. In large cities, institutions for higher instruction. 
 
 4. Included professional schools of medicine and surgery. 
 
 5. Provided lectures on literature, rhetoric, grammar, compo- 
 
 sition, mathematics, astronomy, and general science.
 
 62 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Saracen Influence in Europe 
 
 1. Through the crusades students of Europe came into touch 
 
 with the Saracen learning. 
 
 2. Their schools in Spain were attended by European youth. 
 
 3. Science thus brought into Christian countries stimulated 
 
 intellectual activity. 
 
 4. The works of Aristotle, of Euclid, and of the Hindus on 
 
 philosophy, mathematics, and literature were introduced 
 into Europe. 
 
 THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES (i2TH-i5TH CENTURIES) 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 6, 9-66, v. 9, 49-111, v. 22, 273- 
 330, v. 24, 745-776, v. 27, 817-944, v. 28, 369-448 ; Compayre : 
 Abelard 6* the Origin & Early Hist, of Univs.; Davidson: 
 Hist. Educ., 166-174; Hallam: Europe in the Middle Ages, 
 420-426 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 138-145 ; Laurie : Rise of 
 Univs., 91-293; Monroe: Text-Bk., 313-327, Brief Course, 
 138-147; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 115-117, 2d ed., 133- 
 138 ; Paulsen : Germ. Univs., 16-57 > Robinson : Europ. 
 Hist., 446-450; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 139-142; Williams: 
 Hist. Med. Educ., 131-161.) 
 
 Causes of the Rise of Universities 
 
 1 . Newly awakened scientific spirit. 
 
 2. Increase of knowledge. 
 
 3. Development of secular interests : commercial, social, and 
 
 governmental. 
 
 4. Effect of the intellectual movements of the preceding cen- 
 
 turies, viz. : church and monastic schools, scholasticism, 
 chivalric education, burgher schools and organization of 
 municipalities, the crusades, and the stimulation of Sara- 
 cen learning.
 
 Education during the Middle Ages 63 
 
 Character of the Universities 
 
 1. Free association of learned men and aspiring youths. 
 
 2. Special schools for advanced professional study. 
 
 3. Independent of Church and State. 
 
 Organization and Special Features of the Universities 
 
 1. Democratic in government. 
 
 2. Student body divided into " nations." 
 
 a. Charters and privileges granted separately or to group 
 
 organizations. 
 
 b. In southern universities, these organizations were con- 
 
 trolled by the students; in northern universities, by 
 the masters. 
 
 3. Rector, the official head of the university. 
 
 a. Council, elected by nations, acted with rector as govern- 
 ing body. 
 
 4. Faculties, a development later than the nations. 
 
 a. Applied first to the department of study, then to the 
 body of men in control of such department. 
 
 5. Special privileges. 
 
 a. Exemption from military service and taxation. 
 
 b. Internal jurisdiction. 
 
 c. Granting of degrees which carried with them a license 
 
 to teach. 
 
 Typical Universities 
 
 i. Salerno (about 1080). 
 
 a. Started under monastic influence. 
 
 b. First a special school of medicine. 
 
 c. Constantine, of Carthage, great lecturer. 
 
 d. United later with schools of Naples.
 
 64 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 2. Bologna (about 1158). 
 
 a. Grew out of interest in litigation. 
 
 b. Union of schools of law in northern Italy. 
 
 c. Irnerius, famous teacher of law. 
 
 d. Instruction in civil law, then canon law, and later theol- 
 
 ogy and arts. 
 
 e. Large number of students. 
 
 3. Paris (about 1 1 80). 
 
 a. Outgrowth of cathedral school. 
 
 b. Instruction in philosophy and theology; later canon 
 
 law, civil law, and medicine. 
 
 c. Great teachers : Peter Abelard, Peter Lombard, William 
 
 of Champeaux. 
 
 d. Great popularity and influence. 
 
 Teachers and Students 
 
 1. Teachers: lecturers called doctors or masters. 
 
 a. In private homes or rented houses. 
 
 b. Received fees from students. 
 
 2. Students. 
 
 a. Many nationalities often mere boys. 
 
 b. Students' guilds special dress riotous living. 
 
 c. Many itinerants. 
 
 3. Discipline lax. 
 
 a. Frequent conflicts with town authorities. 
 
 Influence of the Early Universities 
 
 1. Stood for freedom of intellectual thought and of speech. 
 
 2. Were a force in political affairs and in church controversies. 
 
 3. Trained leaders. 
 
 4. Spread through interchange of students.
 
 EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF THE 
 RENAISSANCE 
 
 EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE 
 (i4TH-i6TH CENTURIES) 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 4, 622-628, 714-728, v. 5, 65-78, 
 v. 7, 413-460; Browning: Educ. Theories, 44-60; Cajori : 
 Hist. Math., 138-139 ; Compayre : Hist. Fed., 83-111 ; David- 
 son : Hist. Educ., 175-189 ; Encyclopedia Brit., art. on Renais- 
 sance ; Guizot : Hist. Civ., v. i,chs. 11-12 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 
 149-161; Monroe: Text-Bk., 351-400, Brief Course, 160- 
 188; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 120-135, 2d ed., 140-153; 
 Quick: Educ. Refs., 1-26; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 17- 
 26 ; Seebohm : Era of Prot. Rev., 5-14 ; Seeley : Hist. Educ., 
 148-163 ; U. S. Com'r Educ. Rept., 1902, v. i, 481-508, 1905, 
 v. i, 86-884; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 13-14, 20-48, 
 56-65.) 
 
 Introduction: the General Intellectual Renaissance 
 
 i. Conditions preceding and contemporary with the Renais- 
 sance which contributed to intellectual prog- 
 ress. 
 
 a. Crusades : interchange and introduction of ideas. 
 
 b. Change in ideals of government. 
 
 (1) Feudal system replaced by growth of feeling of the 
 
 responsibility of government for governed. 
 
 (2) More stability of society and government, providing 
 
 more security of person and property. 
 
 * 65
 
 66 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 c. Discoveries and explorations. 
 
 (1) Marco Polo's explorations in the orient. 
 
 (2) Columbus's discovery of America. 
 
 (3) Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe. 
 
 d. Inventions. 
 
 (1) Gunpowder : increasing the value of generalship in 
 
 war over brute force. 
 
 (2) Printing. 
 
 (a) Multiplied books. 
 
 (&) Changed methods of teaching by supplanting 
 
 dictation. 
 (c) Developed schools and universities. 
 
 (3) Telescope : gave knowledge of other worlds. 
 
 (4) Mariner's compass : doubled the area of the known 
 
 world. 
 
 e. Development of modern languages and literatures, thus 
 
 unifying and distinguishing the modern na- 
 tions. 
 /. Revolt against authority. 
 
 (1) Reason became the guide to truth. 
 
 (2) Scientific spirit of observation and inductive experi- 
 
 ment instead of deduction from unreasoned 
 accepted truths. 
 
 (3) Demand for personal religious freedom. 
 
 (4) Changed educational ideal to extreme individualism. 
 2. The new aim in the education of the fourteenth century. 
 
 a. To develop individuality. 
 
 b. To attain to self-culture. 
 
 c. To provide for the interests of mankind as contrasted 
 
 with those of the State or of society. 
 
 d. To permit freedom of thought, of development, of belief, 
 
 and of method.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 67 
 
 The Revival of Letters or the Educational Renaissance 
 
 . Its general significance. 
 
 a. Causes. 
 
 (1) Desire to provide for the new ideal in education. 
 
 (2) Recognition of the failure of medieval culture to 
 
 meet the needs. 
 
 (3) Introduction of Greek texts and coming of Greek 
 
 teachers from Constantinople after its capture 
 by the Turks in 1453. 
 
 (4) Corresponding new appreciation of Latin literature. 
 
 b. Purpose. 
 
 (1) Revival of the Greek conception of " freedom " as 
 
 the ideal of liberal education. 
 
 (2) Endeavor to learn how the ancients provided for the 
 
 development of the individual. 
 
 c. Immediate effects. 
 
 (1) Wide study of Greek and Latin languages and litera- 
 
 tures. 
 
 (2) Search for classical manuscripts and collection and 
 
 multiplication of the same. 
 
 (3) Increased attention to study and appreciation of the 
 
 fine arts and of natural science. 
 
 (4) New conceptions of man's thoughts, feelings, aspira- 
 
 tions, and possibilities as portrayed by classi- 
 cal literature. 
 . The educational Renaissance in Italy. 
 
 a. Aim : The free development and liberal culture of the 
 
 individual in the spirit of the ancients and as 
 disclosed by their writings. 
 
 b. Character. 
 
 (i) Study of Greek and Latin classics.
 
 68 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (2) Self -development as opposed to the asceticism and 
 
 self-abnegation of the Middle Ages. 
 
 (3) Included physical, moral, and aesthetic develop- 
 
 ment as well as literary, social, and religious. 
 
 (4) Emphasized expression, not only in language but 
 
 also in conduct, art, and efficient participation 
 in life. 
 
 (5) Limited in its enjoyment, owing to its cost. 
 c. Leaders (see below) . 
 
 (i) Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Barzizza, Chrysoloras, 
 
 da Feltre. 
 3. The educational Renaissance in Northern Europe. 
 
 a. Aim: to remove common ignorance, not by individual 
 
 development but by social and religious edu- 
 cation. 
 
 b. Character. 
 
 (1) Elementary and religious instruction for the young. 
 
 (2) Study of Greek and Hebrew to understand the Scrip- 
 
 tures in the original. 
 
 (3) Use of the mother tongue in instruction, the Scrip- 
 
 tures being translated for that purpose. 
 
 (4) Gradual merging later with the Reformation move- 
 
 ment. 
 
 c. Leaders. 
 
 (i) Brethren of the Common Life (Hieronymians) . 
 
 (a) A religious order founded by Gerhard Groot at 
 Deventer, Holland Thomas a Kempis, rep- 
 resentative of the ascetic piety of the order, 
 Erasmus, of the broad and liberal spirit. 
 
 (&) Their work: spread Christianity, laid founda- 
 tion of Christian popular education, supplied 
 teachers.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 69 
 
 (2) Wessel, Agricola, Reuchlin, Hegius, Erasmus, As- 
 cham, Colet, Sturm, Wimfeling. 
 
 The Narrow Humanistic Education 
 
 1. Meaning. 
 
 a. Learning, which consisted of a knowledge of the Greek 
 
 and Latin literatures, was called humanitas, i.e. " the 
 pursuits and the activities proper to man." 
 
 b. Hence, the term humanities came to indicate the languages 
 
 and literatures of the ancients, and humanistic educa- 
 tion was narrowed to linguistic training. 
 
 2. Character. 
 
 a. Latin and Greek were chiefly studied, even before the 
 
 mother tongue. 
 
 b. The physical, social, aesthetic and scientific elements 
 
 were eliminated, and history and mathematics were 
 neglected. 
 
 3. Method. 
 
 a. Formal grammatical memory study exacting ex- 
 
 ercise of the power of discrimination. 
 
 b. Harsh discipline. 
 
 4. The Ciceronians, a type of extreme humanism. 
 
 a. Those who made perfect Latin style, according to Cicero, 
 the chief aim of education. 
 
 Representative Renaissance Educators 
 
 In Italy 
 
 i. Dante (1265-1321). 
 
 (Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 327, 341-347, 357, Brief 
 Course, 163 ; Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 120, 2d ed., 
 140; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 151, 155-156.)
 
 70 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 a. The forerunner. 
 
 b. Author of the Divine Comedy and the Inferno. 
 
 2. Petrarch (1304-1374). 
 
 (Hallam : Europe in the Middle Ages, v. 2, 630-634 ; 
 Jebb : Humanism in Educ., 1-16 ; Monroe : Text- 
 Bk. in Hist. Educ., 327, 354, 358-360, 375, 386, 
 Brief Course, 163-164; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist 
 ed., 120, 2d ed., 40; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 151- 
 153, 155-156; Symonds: The Renaissance in Italy, 
 70-87; U. S. Com'r Educ. Kept., 1897-1898, v. i, 
 27.) 
 
 a. " The first modern man." 
 
 b. Devoted to the study of the classics and to the reproduc- 
 
 tion of the classical spirit in literature imitated 
 Cicero. 
 
 c. Wrote Sonnets, Letters, Lives of Ancient Men. 
 
 3. Boccaccio (1313-1375) and Barzizza (1370-1431). 
 
 (Kemp: Hist. Educ., 153; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. 
 Educ., 360, 375-376, 3 86 ~3 8 7> Brief Course, 165; 
 Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 120, 2d ed., 140 ; Seeley : 
 Hist. Educ., 151, 155, 157 ; U. S. Com'r Educ. Kept., 
 1897-1898, v. i, 27.) 
 
 a. Noted for the recovery o| texts, the reproduction of 
 
 manuscripts, and the founding of libraries. 
 
 b. The former wrote the Decameron. 
 
 4. Chrysoloras of Constantinople. 
 
 (Kemp: Hist. Educ., 153; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. 
 
 Educ., 360-376, Brief Course, 165; Painter: Hist. 
 
 Educ., ist ed., 121, 2d ed., 140; Symonds: The 
 
 Renaissance in Italy, 108-113.) 
 
 a. Teacher of classical Greek in the university of Florence
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 71 
 
 Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446). 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Fed., 78 ; Jebb : Humanism in Educ., 
 16-21 ; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 376-377, 
 Brief Course, 1 74 ; Symonds : The Renaissance in 
 Italy, 289-298 ; Thurber : V. da F., in Sch. Rev., v. 7, 
 295-300 (1899) ; Woodward : V. da F. 6r Other Hum. 
 Educators, 1-92.) 
 
 a. Teacher at Padua and Venice. 
 
 b. Established school at Mantua (1428), where he carried 
 
 out the Greek idea of a liberal education. 
 
 c. Emphasized the literature, history, and civilization rather 
 
 than the form of the classical languages. 
 
 In Holland and Germany 
 
 John Wessel (1420-1489). 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs.& Educators, 72-74, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 714-728; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 87; Kemp: 
 Hist. Educ., 156; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 
 377, Brief Course, 175.) 
 
 a. Educated at Deventer, Cologne, Paris, and Rome. 
 
 b. Famous teacher knew Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. 
 
 c. Agricola and Reuchlin, his noted pupils. 
 Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485). 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs.& Educators, 75-89, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 717-723; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 87; Kemp: 
 Hist. Educ., 156-157; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. 
 Educ., 377, Brief Course, 175; Painter: Hist. Educ., 
 ist ed., 125-128, 2d ed., 142-146; Russell: Germ. 
 Higher Schs., 20; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 153, 158.) 
 
 a. Studied under Wessel and Thomas a Kempis at Louvain, 
 
 Paris, and in Italy. 
 
 b. Taught Latin and Greek at Heidelberg and Worms.
 
 72 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 c. Knew also Hebrew, French, and Italian. 
 
 d. Had wide reputation as pioneer in promoting classical 
 
 learning in Germany. 
 
 3. John Reuchlin (1455-1522). 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. & Educators, 101-112, Journ. ofEduc., 
 v - 5> 6 5~?8; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 157-158; Monroe: 
 Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 377, Brief Course, 175; 
 Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 128-131, 2d ed., 146-148 ; 
 Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 20-23; Seeley: Hist. 
 Educ., 159-160; U. S. Com'r Educ. Rept., 1897-1898, 
 v. i, 28.) 
 
 a. Studied at Paris, Basle, and in Italy pupil of Wessel. 
 
 b. Taught Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and philosophy at Ingol- 
 
 stadt and Tubingen. 
 
 c. Wrote Hebrew grammar (1506). 
 
 d. Introduced classical works into Germany. 
 
 4. Alexander Hegius (1420-1498). 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. 6* Educators, 81-84, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 723-726 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 377, 
 Brief Course, 175 ; Payne : Letts, on Hist. Educ., v. 2, 
 37 ; Russell, Germ. Higher Schs., 20, 23.) 
 
 a. Educated at De venter great student of the classics, 
 
 particularly Greek, and of the Bible. 
 
 b. For 30 years was master of the gymnasium at Deventer. 
 
 c. Had many noted pupils. 
 
 5. Jacob Wimfeling (1450-1528). 
 
 (Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 363, 377-378, 390, 409, 
 Brief Course, 176; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 20- 
 
 23-) 
 
 a. Educated at Deventer. 
 
 b. Lecturer and rector at Heidelberg, the center of human- 
 
 istic learning for Western Germany.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 73 
 
 c. Wrote texts and educational treatises, among them: 
 Guide to tlie German Youth. 
 
 6. Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536). 
 
 (Barnard: Germ. Trs.& Educators, 87-100, J our n. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 729-740 ; Compayre : Hist. Ped., 85-94 ; Davidson, 
 Hist. Educ., 177-179; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 158-161; 
 Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 362-375, 378-382, 
 409, 445, Brief Course, 166, 172, 176-179, 182, 217; 
 Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 131-135, 2d ed., 148- 
 153 ; Payne : Lects. on Hist. Educ., v. 2, 36, 39, 41, 70, 
 278, 285; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 20-24; 
 Seeley : Hist. Educ., 161-163, U- S. Corner Educ. 
 Repts., 1901, v. i, 861-884, 1902, v. i, 481-508; 
 Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 56-65.) 
 
 a. Studied under Hegius at Deventer, also at Paris, Oxford, 
 
 and in Italy and Germany. 
 
 b. Famous scholar and humanistic writer knew Greek, 
 
 Latin, theology, and literature. 
 
 c. Edited Greek and Latin classics and works of the church 
 
 fathers. 
 
 d. Wrote textbooks and elementary treatises on education : 
 
 Order of Study, Liberal Education of Children, Juve- 
 nile Etiquette, Colloquies, Praise of Folly, Adages, The 
 Ciceronians. 
 
 e. Advocated the^tudy of history, geography, natural history 
 
 and agriculture, in subordinate relation to the classics. 
 /. Urged adaptation and sympathy in the education of 
 
 children. 
 h. Believed in the education of women. 
 
 7. John Sturm (1507-1589). 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. & Educators, 195-223, Journ. of 
 Educ., v. 4, 167-182, 401-415 ; Compayre : Hist. Ped.,
 
 74 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 85 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 175-179 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in 
 Hist. Educ., 391-393, 397, 49> 4*5, 43, Brief Course, 
 183-185; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 159-164, 2d 
 ed., 179-184; Payne: Lects. on Hist. Educ., v. 2, 43, 
 70, 281-282; Quick: Educ. Refs., 27-32; Russell: 
 Germ. Higher Schs., 42-44, 141, 389; Seeley: Hist. 
 Educ., 175-178; U. S. Com'r Educ. Kept., 1897-1898, 
 v. i, 31-32; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 96-101.) 
 
 a. Pupil of Wimfeling educated in a Hieronymian school 
 
 studied also and lectured at Louvain and Paris. 
 
 b. Originator of the German classical secondary school 
 
 system in that he organized the first German gym- 
 nasium at Strasburg and was its director from 1538 to 
 
 1583- 
 
 c. Character of this school. 
 
 (1) 10 years' course, beginning at age of 6 or 7 years. 
 
 (2) Religion, Latin, and Greek the chief studies, with 
 
 some arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, 
 and logic in the higher grades. 
 
 (3) Language the basis of work : pure humanism. 
 
 (4) Seven years devoted to the mastery of pure idiomatic 
 
 Latin, three years to the acquisition of style. 
 
 (5) Greek begun in the fifth year. 
 
 (6) First detailed and organized course of study. 
 
 (7) To be followed by 5-year college course. 
 
 (8) Method of study: double translation, memorizing, 
 
 composition, correlation, review, dramatizing. 
 
 (9) Influence : set the standard for secondary curricula 
 
 in Germany, France, and England, making 
 classical learning almost exclusively the con- 
 tent of secondary education, even up to recent 
 times.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 75 
 
 In England 
 
 1. John Colet (1466-1519). 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 16, 657-688 ; Kemp : Hist. 
 Educ., 154-155, 171-172; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. 
 Educ., 382, 388, 393~395> 4*9, Brief Course, 182, 186; 
 Payne : Lects. on Hist. Educ., v. 2, 41, 52, 283-285 ; 
 Seebohm : Era of Prot. Ref., 76-88, The Oxford Refs. 
 of 1498, 76-96 ; U. S. Com'r Educ. Repts., 1901, v. i, 
 861-884, 1902, v. i, 481-508.) 
 
 a. Educated at Oxford and in Italy, where he came under 
 
 the influence of Savonarola. 
 
 b. Lectured at Oxford on St. Paul's Epistles and 
 
 revolutionized the work of the university by his 
 teaching. 
 
 c. Founded St. Paul's School in 1510 and organized the 
 
 humanistic learning for the secondary schools. 
 
 d. Wrote schoolbooks. 
 
 2. Roger Ascham (1515-1568). 
 
 (Ascham : The Scholemaster (Appleton or Heath) ; Bar- 
 nard : Journ. of Educ., v. 3, 23-46, v. 4, 155-166, v. n, 
 57-76, v. 26, 325-336 ; Browning : Educ. Theories, 99- 
 103; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 182-183; Monroe: Text- 
 Bk. in Hist. Educ., 382-385, 388, 392, Brief Course, 
 179-180, 221-223; Painter: Ped. Essays, 228-239; 
 Payne: Lects. on Hist. Educ., v. 2, 57-63, 169, 287, 
 Lects on Sci. & Art. of Educ., 149-154 ; Quick : Educ. 
 Refs., 80-89; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 190-192; Wil- 
 liams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 106-107.) 
 
 a. Studied at Cambridge and taught Greek there tutor 
 
 of Queen Elizabeth humanistic educator. 
 
 b. Wrote Tlie Scholemaster, first treatise on educational
 
 76 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 theory in English, noted for its charm of style and for 
 the method of teaching Latin set forth, viz.: double 
 translation, imitation of style, paraphrase, resume, 
 study of synonyms and variations, grammar through 
 analysis and parsing. 
 
 THE REFORMATION AND EDUCATION (i 5111-17 CENTURIES) 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Fed., 112-137; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 162- 
 170; Monroe: Text-Bk., 401-437, Brief Course, 189-201; 
 Painter : Hist. Educ., ist ed., 135-166, 2d ed., 153-187 ; Quick : 
 Educ. Refs., 27-32; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 22-47; 
 Seeley: Hist. Educ., 164-181; U. S. Corner Educ. Rept., 
 1897-1898, v. i, 26-45 I Williams : Hist. Mod. Educ., 42-55, 
 91-106.) 
 
 1. Origin. 
 
 a. Revival of learning. 
 
 b. Humanism in the universities. 
 
 c. New study of the Bible in Teutonic Renaissance. 
 
 2. Relation to education. 
 
 a. By translations of Bible, offered incentive to learn, at 
 
 least to read, 
 (i) Gave birth to universal elementary instruction. 
 
 b. Emphasized function of individual reason, 
 (i) Hence demanded intellectual training. 
 
 c. Reformers were humanists. 
 
 (i) Combined religious material and classical languages 
 in curriculum of higher instruction. 
 
 3. Educational effects. 
 
 a. Common schools for both sexes. 
 
 b. State support of elementary schools, 
 (i) Demanded educated laity.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 77 
 
 (2) Growth of idea that welfare of State depends on the 
 
 education of the individual citizen. 
 
 (3) Led to idea of compulsory education. 
 c. Systems of schools established. 
 
 (1) German public school system. 
 
 (a) Begun by city of Magdeburg, in 1524, on plan of 
 
 Luther. 
 
 (b) Established by Electorate of Saxony in 1528 after 
 
 recommendations of Melancthon. 
 
 (c) Made a general system of elementary vernacu- 
 
 lar schools in every village in 1565. 
 
 (d) Eventually the Latin schools, being expanded to 
 
 six classes instead of three as Melancthon 
 advocated, became the gymnasien. 
 
 (2) In England, Scotland, Holland, and America. 
 
 (a) Not a State system of schools in England, but 
 
 many schools founded through private or 
 church aid, e.g. " the Great Public Schools " 
 (Shrewsbury 1551, Westminster 1560, Rugby 
 1567, Harrow 1571, Charterhouse 1609, also 
 St. Paul's 1512, Merchant Taylors' 1561, 
 Christ's Hospital 1619). 
 
 (b) Cooperation of State and Church in Scotland 
 
 landholders taxed to support schools in every 
 parish, often both elementary and secondary. 
 
 (c) System of elementary schools established by the 
 
 reformed churches of Holland, which later, in 
 connection with the State, extended the sys- 
 tem to every parish : origin of earliest schools 
 in American colonies. 
 
 (d) In 1647, through efforts of the Church and the 
 
 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, elementary
 
 78 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 schools were established in all towns of fifty 
 families and a Latin school in all towns of 
 one hundred families in 1650, Connecticut 
 passed similar law. 
 (3) In Roman Catholic countries (Counter-Reformation) . 
 
 (a) Jesuit schools (cf. p. 83). 
 
 (b) Port Royalist schools (cf. p. 89). 
 
 (c) Oratorian schools (cf. p. 89). 
 
 (d) Christian Brothers' schools (cf. p. 92). 
 
 Representative Reformation Educators 
 
 Martin Luther (1483-1546) 
 
 (Barnard: Germ. Trs. & Educators, 131-159, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 421-449; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 113-120; Kemp: 
 Hist. Educ., 165-170; Monroe: Text-Bk., 408-414, Brief 
 Course, 194-197; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 135-147, Fed. 
 Essays, 169-186 ; Russell : Germ. Higher Schs., 28-34 ; Wil- 
 liams : Hist. Mod. Educ., 42-55.) 
 
 1. Early life and education. 
 
 a. Born at Eisleben, Germany son of peasant, hence in 
 
 sympathy with common people. 
 
 b. At school at Magdeburg and at Eisenach, also at uni- 
 
 versity of Erfurt became Augustinian friar. 
 
 2. Professor of theology at university of Wittenburg (1508). 
 
 a. Attained fame as teacher, preacher, and writer. 
 
 b. Great theological and humanistic scholar. 
 
 3. Relations to Reformation. 
 
 a. Opposed to sale of indulgences (1516). 
 
 b. Published his 95 Theses (1517). 
 
 c. Forced into rebellion. 
 
 (i) Bull of excommunication burned (1520).
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 79 
 
 d. Before Diet of Worms (1521). 
 
 (1) Decided against him. 
 
 (2) German princes and Melancthon sided with him. 
 
 e. Further developments after his death. 
 
 (1) Freedom of religion granted by emperor (1552). 
 
 (2) Diet of Augsburg granted toleration (1555). 
 
 (3) Teutonic peoples rapidly embraced the new ideas. 
 
 4. His translation of Bible into German. 
 
 a. New Testament (i524)-Bible (1534). 
 
 b. Standardized the German language. 
 
 c. Gave immense impetus to education. 
 
 5. His letter to German cities (1524). 
 
 a. Protested against condition of schools throughout Ger- 
 
 many. 
 
 b. Duty of Christians to educate children. 
 
 c. Duty of officials to establish schools. 
 
 d. Duty of State to support and to control them. 
 
 e. Elementary instruction should be provided for both 
 
 sexes. 
 
 /. Provision should be made for needs of the common people. 
 g. Public libraries also were urged. 
 
 6. Sermon on duty of sending children to school (1530). 
 
 a. Duty of minister, parents, and all citizens. 
 
 b. Need of educated men and women. 
 
 c. Temporal and spiritual benefits from the schools: in 
 
 civil service, government, and professions. 
 
 7. His educational ideas. 
 
 a. Compulsory, universal, elementary instruction, for both 
 
 sexes. 
 
 b. State support and supervision. 
 
 c. Home to supplement the work of the school. 
 
 d . Education necessary because of
 
 8o Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Its moral value. 
 
 (2) Its relation to prosperity. 
 
 (3) The needs of religion. 
 
 e. Natural methods, trained teachers, sympathetic but 
 
 firm discipline. 
 /. State system of schools. 
 
 (1) Elementary school : for the common people. 
 (a) Instruction in the vernacular. 
 
 (6) To meet the immediate needs of the people. 
 
 (2) Secondary or Latin school. 
 
 (a) Instruction in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, history, 
 mathematics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, na- 
 ture, music, and physical exercise. 
 
 (6) To supply intelligent, well-disciplined citizens. 
 
 (3) Higher school or university. 
 
 (a) Advanced studies in the several departments. 
 
 (b) To train teachers and preachers. 
 
 Philip Melancthon (1497-1560) : called " the Preceptor of 
 
 Germany " 
 
 (Barnard: Germ. Trs. & Educators, 161-184, 251-259, Journ. 
 of Educ., v. 4, 741-764, v. 5, 77-78, v. 6, 426-434, v. n, 159- 
 164, 400-459, v - 20, 5 2 8-554; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 172-175; 
 Monroe: Text-Bk., 414-416, Brief Course, 197-198 ; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 148-152; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 
 34-35 5 Williams : Hist. Mod. Educ., 91-96.) 
 
 i. Early life and education. 
 
 a. Born in Bretten, Germany. 
 
 b. First at obscure school, strict training in grammar 
 
 pupil of Reuchlin, his great-uncle then at uni- 
 versities of Heidelberg and of Tubingen.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 81 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 a. Taught Greek at university of Tubingen. 
 
 b. Called to chair of Greek at university of Wittenburg 
 
 (1518). 
 
 c. Lectured much also on literature, philosophy, theology, 
 
 and pedagogy. 
 
 d. Great numbers of pupils. 
 
 e. Many of them became leading educators. 
 Writer. 
 
 a. Textbooks widely used in German schools, on Latin and 
 
 Greek grammar, logic, rhetoric, ethics, physics, 
 history, theology, as well as annotated editions of 
 ancient classics. 
 
 b. Addresses on educational organization and values. 
 
 c. Correspondence with fifty-six German cities regarding 
 
 their schools. 
 Relations to Luther. 
 
 a. Friend and ally. 
 
 b. Formulated and carried out many of Luther's educa- 
 
 tional suggestions. 
 Organizer of " the Saxony School Plan" (1528). 
 
 a. Scheme drawn up when visitant or inspector of churches 
 
 and schools of Saxony. 
 
 b. Three grades of study. 
 
 (1) First: alphabet, Lord's prayer, creed and prayers; 
 
 also writing, singing, and simple Latin grammar. 
 
 (2) Second : ^Esop's fables, writings of Erasmus, epistles 
 
 of St. Paul, grammatical study of St. Matthew's 
 Gospel, memorizing of a few psalms and some 
 Latin sentences, music. 
 
 (3) Third : grammar, Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero, versifica- 
 
 tion, rhetoric, logic, Latin conversation, music.
 
 82 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 c. No Greek nor mathematics. 
 
 d. Neglect of the vernacular, Latin being the only language. 
 
 e. Urged fewer studies and fewer books. 
 
 /. This plan served as basis of organization for many schools 
 
 throughout Germany. 
 g. Slightly expanded, these schools became the gymnasien 
 
 of the later German system. 
 
 Huldreich or Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1532) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Educ., 113-114; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 164 ; 
 Monroe: Text-Bk., 410, Brief Course, 195.) 
 
 1 . Great Swiss reformer and teacher. 
 
 2. Educational work. 
 
 a. Published Latin work on teaching, viz. : The Christian 
 
 Education of Youth. 
 
 b. Urged establishment of elementary schools. 
 
 c. Encouraged Scriptural study, classical learning, Hebrew, 
 
 study of nature, arithmetic, surveying, music, and 
 physical development. 
 
 d. Defended civil and religious liberty. 
 
 John Calvin (1509-1564) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Educ., 113-114; Monroe: Text-Bk., 410, 
 Brief Course, 195.) 
 
 1. Religious and theological controversialist. 
 
 2. Educational work. 
 
 a. Organized college of Geneva, which was a typical hu- 
 
 manistic Latin school. 
 
 b. Similar schools later established in France and Ger- 
 
 many (Fiirstenschulen). 
 
 c. Ardent preacher of religious liberty. 

 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 83 
 
 Valentine Trotzendorf (1490-1556) 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. 6* Educators, 185-191, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 5, 107-113 ; Payne : Lects. on Hist. Educ., v. 2, 43, 279-281 ; 
 Seeley: Hist. Educ., 178-179; U. S.Com'r Educ. Kept., 1897- 
 1898, v. 1,31.) 
 
 1. Pupil of Melancthon and teacher in school at Goldberg 
 
 for thirty-five years. 
 
 2. Educational work. 
 
 a. Urged the classical course exclusively, after the example 
 
 of John Sturm. 
 6. Advocated methods of conversation in Latin, use of 
 
 concrete objects and illustrations . 
 c. Introduced plan of pupil government. 
 
 Michael Neander (1525-1595) 
 
 (Barnard: Germ. Trs. & Educators, 225-228, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 5, 599-602; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 103-104; Seeley: 
 Hist. Educ., 179-180; U.S. Corner Educ. Kept., 1897-1898, v. 
 i,3i-) 
 
 1. Pupil of Melancthon and teacher in famous school at 
 
 Ilfeld-am-Harz for forty-five years. 
 
 2. Educational work. 
 
 a. Adopted a curriculum which included Latin, Greek, 
 
 natural science, history, geography, chemistry, and 
 medicine. 
 
 b. Wrote Latin and Greek textbooks. 
 
 The Jesuit Schools (the Counter-Reformation of the Society 
 
 of Jesus) 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. & Educators, 232-242, 287-289, Journ. 
 of Educ., v. 5, 210-228, v. 14, 455-482, v. 27, 165-175 ; Brown-
 
 84 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 ing: Educ. Theories, 135-144; Compayre : Hist. Fed., 138- 
 149; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 181-189; Hughes: Loyola fe 4 
 the Educ. Syst. of the Jesuits; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 184-192; 
 Monroe : Text-Bk., 420-429, Brief Course, 201-206 ; Munroe : 
 Educ. Ideal, 124-135; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 166-173, 
 2d ed., 187-194, Fed. Essays, 187-202 ; Payne : Lects. on 
 Hist. Educ., 45-51; Quick: Educ. Refs., 33-66; Russell: 
 Germ. Higher Schs., 46-52 ; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 182-189.) 
 
 1. Foundation of the Order (1540). 
 
 a. By Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). 
 
 b. As a teaching congregation. 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 a. To strengthen the authority of the papacy. 
 
 b. To extend the dominion of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 c. To combat the Protestant heresies. 
 
 3. Educational system : Ratio Studiorum. 
 
 a. Function. 
 
 (1) To train prospective members. 
 
 (2) To educate youth in general. 
 
 b. Scope. 
 
 (1) Both religious and secular. 
 
 (2) Secondary and higher instruction. 
 
 (a) Little attention given to elementary education 
 and the instruction of the masses. 
 
 (6) Inferior colleges : like the gymnasien. 
 
 (c) Superior colleges : like the universities or theo- 
 logical seminaries. 
 
 c. Extent of influence. 
 
 (i) Great growth: by 1650, 372 colleges; by 1700, 612 
 colleges, 157 normal schools, 24 universities, 
 200 missions.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 85 
 
 (2) Attendance large : over 2000 students at some col- 
 leges; in 1773, when suppressed, 22,000 mem- 
 bers of order and over 200,000 students in all. 
 
 d. Organization. 
 
 (1) General at head with absolute authority. 
 
 (2) Whole field divided into provinces with " provin- 
 
 cial " in charge. 
 
 (a) Monthly report of provincial concerning charac- 
 ter, conduct, and position of each member. 
 
 (6) Quarterly report of superior in charge of separate 
 institution. 
 
 (3) Under provincial, rectors of colleges appointed by 
 
 general. 
 
 (4) Under rector, prefects of studies, appointed by pro- 
 
 vincial. 
 
 (5) Teachers supervised by rectors and prefects. 
 
 (6) Close supervision and absolute authority of superior 
 
 officers. 
 
 e. Teachers. 
 
 (i) Picked men thoroughly prepared. 
 
 (a) Graduates of both lower and higher colleges. 
 (6) To be permanent teachers, graduates of uni- 
 versity and normal school also. 
 /. Discipline. 
 
 (1) Rigorous but not often corporal punishment. 
 
 (2) Publication of offenses. 
 
 (3) Rewards, prizes, titles, badges, encouraging rivalry 
 
 and emulation. 
 g. Students. 
 
 (i) Groups of two, as rivals, under decurions, to whom 
 
 they recited. 
 (a) Served as corrective and incentive.
 
 86 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (2) Honors for brilliant pupils. 
 
 (3) Day and boarding pupils. 
 h. Secondary course. 
 
 (1) Began at 14 years of age and lasted 5-7 years. 
 
 (2) Five grades. 
 
 (a) Lower grammar 
 (6) Middle grammar 
 
 (c) Upper grammar 
 
 (d) Humanity 
 
 (e) Rhetoric, 2-3 yrs. 
 
 Grammar, syntax, and selec- 
 tions from Cicero in Latin 
 and ^Esop in Greek. 
 
 Classical authors and Chris- 
 tian Greek. 
 
 (3) Mathematics, history, geography, and nature to 
 
 slight degree distributed throughout the 
 course. 
 
 (4) Mother tongue disregarded. 
 
 (5) Religious instruction emphasized. 
 i. Higher course. 
 
 (1) Philosophy : 2-3 years. 
 
 (a) Logic, ethics, psychology, mathematics, and 
 physical science. 
 
 (2) Theology : 4-6 years. 
 
 (a) Theology, church history, canon law, Sacred 
 
 Scriptures, Hebrew. 
 j. Method. 
 
 (1) Few studies, short lessons, graded, much theme writ- 
 
 ing and much oral repetition. 
 
 (2) Sympathy with pupils, to make them love study, 
 
 and to make work pleasant. 
 
 (3) Memory work, frequent reviews: daily, monthly, 
 
 quarterly, yearly. 
 
 (4) Emulation emphasized. 
 
 (5) Predominance of training in literary form. 
 
 (6) Ratio Studiorum.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 87 
 
 (a) Prelection or modified lecture. 
 (b} Repetition or oral recitation. 
 (c) Disputation or debate. 
 
 (7) Prelection of Cicero lesson, by teacher. 
 
 (a) Sketch of meaning of lesson. 
 
 (b) Literal translation following order of words. 
 
 (c) Grammatical analysis. 
 
 (d) Explanation of meaning of separate words. 
 
 (e) Dictation of elegant forms to be memorized or 
 
 used in written work. 
 
 (/) Repetition of translation several times, 
 (g) Frequently explanation of the history and geog 
 
 raphy of the lesson, called erudition. 
 
 (8) Repetition. 
 
 (a) Parts or all of lesson required to be reproduced 
 
 by pupils. 
 
 (b) Rules and memory passages recited. 
 
 (c) One day of each week devoted to review. 
 
 (9) Disputation. 
 
 (a) Debates or " concertations " of points in gram- 
 
 mar, rhetoric, poetry, or on opinions of writers. 
 
 (b) Judges decided results and awarded prizes. 
 
 (c) In higher schools, more formal and more im- 
 
 portant exercises, before whole faculty and 
 often other classes of students. 
 Merits of Jesuit education. 
 
 a. Well-trained teaching body, thorough in discipline and 
 
 organization. 
 
 b. Teaching gratuitous and a matter of religious devotion. 
 
 c. Uniformity in method, leading to 
 
 (1) Thorough mastery of Latin. 
 
 (2) Skill in dispute.
 
 88 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 d. Highly systemized course. 
 
 (1) Definite work for grades. 
 
 (2) Studies adapted to pupils. 
 
 e. Maintained dignity of literature. 
 
 /. Studied nature and character of pupils. 
 g. Promoted sympathy and pleasure in school. 
 
 5. Defects of the system. 
 
 a. Interests of order dominated its purpose. 
 
 (i) Political activity for the interests of the church. 
 
 b. Education narrow and showy. 
 
 (1) Well-rounded development disregarded. 
 
 (2) Independent thought not encouraged. 
 (d) Too much memory work. 
 
 (3) Receptive and reproductive faculties only developed. 
 
 c. High ideals wanting. 
 
 (1) Religious pride and intolerance promoted. 
 
 (2) Baser feelings not nobler nature fostered by emula- 
 
 tion. 
 
 d. Authority prevailed. 
 
 (1) Subjection of the individual. 
 
 (2) Too little initiative. 
 
 6. Decline of the order, due to 
 
 a. Political activity. 
 
 b. Subordination of the individual to authority. 
 
 (i) Complete negation of the spirit of the Renaissance. 
 
 c. Neglect of primary instruction. 
 
 d. Wrong basis in ethics. 
 
 7. Effect upon education. 
 
 a. Greatly increased the importance and influence of schools. 
 
 b. Promoted thorough training of teachers. 
 
 c. Proved the value of system and organization. 
 
 d. Made sympathetic discipline effective.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 89 
 
 The Schools of the Oratorians (Oratory of Jesus) 
 
 (Compayre: Hist. Educ., 150-152; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 
 229-234; Monroe: ZVgf-l?A., 429-430.) 
 
 1. Foundation of the order. 
 
 a. In France, in 1614 (originally in Italy in 1558). 
 
 b. Rival of the order of Jesuits. 
 
 c. Teaching order. 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 a. Similar to that of Jesuits. 
 
 b. Chiefly secondary education and preparation for priest- 
 
 hood. 
 
 3. Character of their instruction. 
 
 a. For all classes. 
 
 b. More elastic methods milder discipline. 
 
 c. More liberal views, with greater attention to cultivation 
 
 of individualism. 
 
 d. First three years' instruction in mother tongue. 
 
 e. In study of history, French language continued through- 
 
 out course. 
 
 /. Studies included theology, mathematics, science, his- 
 tory, geography, philosophy, and Latin little atten- 
 tion to Greek. 
 
 The Port Royal Schools (Order of the Jansenists) 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 28, 1-16; Browning: Educ. 
 Theories, 145-148; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 153-163; Kemp: 
 Hist. Educ., 230-231; Monroe: Text-Bk., 430-433, Brief 
 Course, 206-207 '> Munroe : Educ. Ideal, 135-147 ; Painter : 
 ist ed., 224-227, 2d ed., 238-244; Quick: Educ. Refs., 
 172-196; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 227-229.)
 
 go Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1. Foundation of the order. 
 
 a. By St. Cyran (1581-1643). 
 
 b. Flourished only from 1637 to 1661. 
 
 c. Established the "Little Schools" at Port Royal, France, 
 
 in 1643. 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 a. To protest against the work and methods of the Jesuits. 
 
 b. To promote the welfare of the masses by elementary 
 
 education. 
 
 c. To teach more evangelical doctrine. 
 
 d. To place in the hands of the people the Bible and the 
 
 church service translated into the vernacular. 
 
 3. Fundamental educational theories. 
 
 a. Childhood inclined naturally to evil and to be made good 
 
 through education. 
 
 b. Education the most important influence in the life of 
 
 the child. 
 
 c. Purpose of education : 
 
 (1) To develop the intelligence to highest possible point. 
 
 (2) To shape the moral and religious character. 
 
 4. Methods of instruction. 
 
 a. Small classes, careful supervision. 
 
 b. Conversation, outdoor walks, personal association with 
 
 teachers. 
 
 c. Phonetic method for reading. 
 
 d. Learning to be made pleasant. 
 
 e. Discipline to be based on love of the child. 
 
 5. Pedagogical principles. 
 
 a. Opposed emulation (emphasized by Jesuits) and urged 
 
 piety and love instead. 
 
 b. Built upon understanding rather than memory. 
 
 (i) Child to study only what he could understand.
 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 91 
 
 c. Content more important than form to hold interest in 
 
 the beginning. 
 
 d. Much use of senses in early education. 
 
 e. Vernacular to precede Latin. 
 
 /. Introduction to classical literature through translations. 
 g. Latin studied with little grammar and much translation 
 
 into vernacular. 
 h. Greek studied directly from vernacular and not through 
 
 medium of Latin. 
 Chief Port Royalist teachers and pupils. 
 
 a. Arnauld (1612-1694): author of Nouveaux Elements 
 
 de Geometric, Logique (or The Art of Thinking), 
 Grammaire generate et raisonnee, Reglement des 
 Etudes. 
 
 b. Lancelot (1615-1695) : author of Methodes de Port- 
 
 Royal, Jardin des Racines Grecques (for learning 
 Latin, Greek, Italian, and Spanish), Nouvelle 
 Methode pour apprendre facilement la langue Latine. 
 
 c. Pascal (1623-1662) : author of Pensees, Lettres Pro- 
 
 vinciates also discovered that air has weight. 
 
 d. Nicole (1625-1695) : moralist and logician author 
 
 with Arnauld of Logique; also textbooks, transla- 
 tions, and educational treatises, among them: 
 L' Education d'un Prince, Essais de Morale. 
 
 e. La Fontaine (1621-1695): famous author of Conies 
 
 (1664), and Fables (1668) member of French 
 
 Academy (1684). 
 /. Fenelon l (1651-1715) : educator and author of Tele- 
 
 maque and L' Education des Jeunes Pities, 
 g. Rollin 2 (1661-1741) : teacher and author of Traite 
 
 des Etudes and Histoire A ncienne. 
 
 1 See F6nelon, p. 118. * See Rollin, p. 119.
 
 92 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 The Christian Brothers' Schools 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 3, 437-448, v. 20, 211-216, 
 v. 30, 729-735 ; Compayre : Hist, of Educ., 253-277 ; Kemp : 
 Hist. Educ., 231-235; Monroe: Text-Bk., 437-439, Brief 
 Course, 212-214; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 112-113.) 
 
 1. Foundation of the order (1684). 
 
 a. By Jean Baptiste de La Salle (1651-1719). 
 
 (1) Religious enthusiast and ascetic. 
 
 (2) Priest at Rheims. 
 
 (3) Weak and sickly but of great energy kept nightly 
 
 vigils knelt on sharp stones used board 
 with iron points to waken him when over- 
 come by sleep. 
 
 (4) Received doctor's degree from university of Paris. 
 
 b. Began with school for boys at Rheims in 1679. 
 
 c. Established in 1684 the Institute of the Brethren of 
 
 the Christian Schools. 
 
 (i) Vows of stability and obedience imposed upon his 
 disciples. 
 
 d. Order sanctioned by the pope and the king in 1724. 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 a. To organize popular education. 
 
 b. To establish schools for primary instruction and for the 
 
 working classes (commercial and industrial). 
 
 3. Character of the education, as set forth in the Conduct of 
 
 Schools. 
 
 a. Course of study: reading, writing, orthography, arith- 
 
 metic, and the catechism much attention 
 to writing native language studied first. 
 
 b. Methods. 
 
 (i) Definite and mechanical strictly according to rule. 

 
 Education during the Period of the Renaissance 93 
 
 (2) Concert recitation. 
 
 (3) Simultaneous teaching pupils carefully graded. 
 
 (4) Much questioning in arithmetic and the catechism. 
 
 (5) Discipline severe. 
 
 (a) Originally with the ferule. 
 
 (b) Corporal punishment abolished later. 
 
 (c) Penances the common practice. 
 
 (d) Mutual espionage. 
 
 (e) Rewards. 
 
 (6) Silence required. 
 
 (a) Signs instead of speech. 
 
 (6) Low tone if necessary to speak. 
 
 (7) Christian politeness. 
 
 c. Special features. 
 
 (1) Instruction gratuitous. 
 
 (a) La Salle believed that it should be obligatory. 
 
 (2) Uniformity in methods and regulations. 
 
 (3) Written rules. 
 
 d. Training of teachers in normal schools. 
 
 (1) Seminary of schoolmasters at Rheims in 1685, later, 
 
 one at Paris. 
 
 (2) All members of order to be professionally trained 
 
 for the work. 
 
 (3) Primary school for practice maintained in connec- 
 
 tion with the normal school. 
 
 e. Growth of schools. 
 
 (1) Schools for the order, for the training of teachers, 
 
 for practice, for technical instruction, and for 
 elementary instruction in great numbers. 
 
 (2) Many members of order. 
 
 (3) Thousands of pupils. 
 
 (4) Found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.
 
 MODERN EDUCATION 
 
 REALISTIC EDUCATION 
 
 (Browning : Educ. Theories, 61-134 ; Davidson : Hist. Educ., 
 190-208; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 193-224; Monroe: Text-Bk., 
 402-504, Brief Course, 215-253; Munroe: Educ. Ideal, 
 8-94; Quick: Educ. Refs., 63-171.) 
 
 The First or Transition Period of Realism (Humanistic or 
 Verbal Realism) 
 
 i. The educational trend toward realism. 
 
 a. Defects of humanistic education. 
 
 (1) Words were taught instead of things. 
 
 (2) End of education was mostly to form writers and 
 
 speakers. 
 
 (3) Language was taught, not as a means of preparing 
 
 for the service of life, but as dry matter 
 collected and arranged by grammarians: 
 the words being more important than the 
 student. 
 
 b. Causes leading to new views and new aims, 
 (i) New literatures in modern languages. 
 
 (a) English : Bacon, Milton, and Shakespeare. 
 
 (b) French: Moliere, Corneille, Racine, La Fon- 
 
 taine, Pascal, Fenelon, Boileau, and De 
 Sevigne. 
 
 94
 
 Modern Education 95 
 
 (c) German: Sachs, Von Hutten, Heine, Gellert, 
 Murner, and Bohme. 
 
 (2) Geographical discoveries. 
 
 Marco Polo (1236-1324) and Sir John Mande- 
 
 ville (1300-1372) in the orient. 
 1402, Canary Islands } _ 
 
 TV/T j T i Bv tne 
 
 1419, Madeira Islands I p 
 
 1460, Cape Verde Islands 
 
 1487, Cape of Good Hope circumnavigated: 
 
 making new route by sea to India. 
 1492, Columbus discovered America. 
 1497, John Cabot explored coast of North 
 
 America. 
 1507, Waldenseemiiller wrote: Introdiiction to 
 
 Geography widely read. 
 1519-1521, Magellan circumnavigated the globe. 
 
 (3) Commercial and industrial activity. 
 
 (a) Trading with the orient. 
 
 (b) Shipbuilding. 
 
 (c) National trade and manufacturing in England 
 
 replaced that of towns and guilds. 
 
 (d) Roads and canals in France and Germany 
 
 new trades agriculture encouraged. 
 
 (4) Scientific activity. 1 
 
 (a) Bacon (1561-1626) : the inductive method. 
 
 (b) Gallileo (1609) : the telescope and the pendulum. 
 
 (c) Kepler (1609) : the laws of planetary move- 
 
 ments. 
 
 (d) Napier (1614) : logarithms. 
 
 (e) Harvey (1616) : the circulation of the blood. 
 
 See page 66 for inventions of gunpowder, printing, and mariner's compass.
 
 96 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (/) Louis XIII (1635) : the French Academy of 
 
 Sciences. 
 
 (g) Torricelli (1643) : the barometer. 
 (ti) Guericke (1650) : the air pump. 
 ({) Pascal (c. 1650) : that air has weight, 
 (j) Charles II (1660) : the Royal Society of England. 
 (k) Roemer (c. 1670) : the velocity of light. 
 (/) Newton (1684) : the laws of gravitation. 
 
 2. Essence of the realistic movement. 
 
 a. Appealed to experience and to facts, as opposed to 
 
 authority and to formal memory training. 
 
 (1) From dead things to living nature. 
 
 (2) From mechanical to organic instruction. 
 
 (3) Emphasis upon phenomena of nature and social 
 
 institutions. 
 
 (4) Prominence given to mother tongue. 
 
 (5) Study of mathematics, history, law, nature by 
 
 observation, arts, and trades. 
 
 b. Prepared for real life and intercourse with the world, 
 
 not for discussions in the schools. 
 
 c. Enriched the intelligence, instead of burdening the 
 
 memory. 
 
 d. Stimulated the free activity of the mind. 
 
 e. Transferred education from the hands of the church 
 
 to those of the laity. 
 
 3. Verbal realism (the transition from humanism to realism). 
 
 a. Outgrowth of early Renaissance influences. 
 
 b. Protest against narrow formal humanism. 
 
 c. Retained classical languages and literatures as objects 
 
 and means of study. 
 
 d. Purpose. 
 
 (i) To gain content, not form.
 
 Modern Education 97 
 
 (2) To master life as regards both nature and society. 
 
 (3) To utilize form only as the key to the understanding 
 
 of the realities of thought. 
 
 (4) To provide physical, moral, and social develop- 
 
 ment as well as to promote study. 
 
 (5) To encourage a broad and appreciative study of 
 
 literature. 
 
 Representative Educators of the Transition Period 
 Francois Rabelais (1483-1553) 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 14, 147-158; Browning: Educ. 
 Theories, 80-91 ; Compayre : Hist. Fed., 91-100 ; Kemp : 
 Hist. Educ., 194 ; Monroe : Text-Bk., 446-448, Brief Course, 
 217-218; Munroe: Educ. Ideal, 8-35; Quick: Educ. Refs., 
 63-69; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 192-195; Williams: Hist. 
 Mod. Educ., 74-80.) 
 
 1. Successively monk, pastor, physician, and scholar. 
 
 2. Writings. 
 
 a. Gargantua and Pantagruel. 
 
 b. Satirized the prevailing formal, insincere, shallow life. 
 
 c. Condemned the dominant education of words. 
 
 3. His plan of study. 
 
 a. Instead of linguistic and formal literary education, one 
 
 to include social, moral, religious, and physical 
 elements. 
 
 b. Included classical languages: Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 
 Chaldean. 
 
 c. Also physical and natural sciences. 
 
 (i) By object lessons, observation of nature, and excur- 
 sions. 
 
 d. Embraced encyclopedic knowledge. 
 
 H
 
 98 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 4. Means of study. 
 
 a. Books, studied for content and for practical service in life. 
 
 b. Nature itself. 
 
 5. Methods of education. 
 
 a. Physical. 
 
 (1) Gymnastics and games. 
 
 (2) Walks and excursions in open air. 
 
 (3) Habits of cleanliness, exercise, and regularity. 
 
 b. Intellectual. 
 
 (1) Intense activity. 
 
 (2) Freedom of thought and action instead of depend- 
 
 ence upon authority. 
 
 (3) Personal acquaintance with nature. 
 
 (4) Object lessons. 
 
 (5) Shop work for arts and industries. 
 
 (6) Studies to be pleasant : interest, not compulsion, to 
 
 be the motive. 
 
 c. Moral. 
 
 (1) Precept and example. 
 
 (2) High ideals. 
 
 (3) Associated with religion. 
 
 (4) To be made attractive. 
 
 6. Influence. 
 
 a. Inspiration to writers and educators who came after 
 him rather than directly upon school work. 
 
 John Milton (1608-1674) 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 2, 61-85, v - I 4> I S9~ I 9> v - 22 > 
 181-190, v. 23, 151-160, v. 28, 383-400; Browning: Educ. 
 Theories, 104-117; Graves: Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 
 1-9 ; Milton : A Tractate on Educ. (Cambridge Univ. Press) ;
 
 Modern Education 99 
 
 Monroe: Text-Bk., 448-451, Brief Course, 219-220; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 188-194, 2d ed., 207-213, Fed. Essays, 
 240-254; Quick: Educ. Refs., 212-218; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 
 217-220; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 191-202.) 
 
 1. Great scholar as well as great poet. 
 
 2. Author of A Tractate on Education. 
 
 3. Educational theories. 
 
 a. Objected to 
 
 (1) Approach to study through formal grammar. 
 
 (2) Formal study of language without regard to content. 
 
 (3) Narrowness of aim. 
 
 b. Believed that 
 
 (1) Education must be realistic. 
 
 (a) Substance more important than form. 
 
 (b) Thought more important than words. 
 
 (c) Practical efficiency in life more important than 
 
 showy accomplishments. 
 
 (2) Language should be taught as a means of expression. 
 
 (3) Intellectual effort should be made pleasant, having 
 
 regard for pupil's development. 
 
 (4) There should be physical training. 
 
 (5) Nature, society, and the prof essions should be studied 
 
 through literature. 
 
 4. Criticisms. 
 
 a. Made books the sole source of information. 
 
 b. Overvalued both books and information. 
 
 c. Did little to advance science of education. 
 
 (1) Too much emphasis on knowledge. 
 
 (2) Not enough on observation, reasoning, and inde- 
 
 pendent thinking. 
 
 d. His aim in studying the classics not approved.
 
 ioo Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Style and development not considered important. 
 
 (2) Placed too much reliance on them as sources of 
 
 knowledge and methods of trades and professions. 
 e. Nevertheless his fame contributed greatly to the spread 
 of the realistic movement. 
 
 Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592) : called " Social Realist " 
 
 (Barnard: Germ. Trs. & Educators, 317-334, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 461-478; Browning: Educ. Theories, 91-98; Compayre, 
 Hist. Fed., 100-111 ; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 195-197 ; Monroe: 
 Text-Bk., 451-461, Brief Course, 221-226; Montaigne: The 
 Educ. of Children (ed. Rector, Appleton) ; Munroe : Educ. 
 Ideal, 95-101 ; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 175-178, 2d ed., 
 196-200, Fed. Essays, 203-227; Quick: Educ. Refs., 70-79; 
 Seeley: Hist. Educ., 195-198; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 
 80-90.) 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. Well educated by German tutor, at university and in 
 
 law classically trained. 
 
 b. Member of French parliament mayor. 
 
 c. Wealthy, retired became author. 
 
 d. Works on education. 
 
 (1) The Education of Children. 
 
 (2) Pedantry. 
 
 (3) The Affection of Fathers. 
 
 (4) Habit. 
 
 (5) History. 
 
 2. Character of his educational views. 
 
 a. Education should shape judgment and disposition rather 
 than seek knowledge.
 
 Modern Education 101 
 
 6. Should prepare one for practical, successful, happy serv- 
 ice in life, as a " man of the world." 
 
 c. By travel, should furnish experience and familiarity 
 
 with men and customs. 
 
 d. Should aim at social efficiency. 
 
 3. His relation to humanism. 
 
 a. Opposed knowledge of the ancients as the ideal of edu- 
 
 cation. 
 
 b. Books and knowledge not of importance but " wisdom," 
 
 the product of well-trained judgment. 
 
 4. His relation to verbal realism. 
 
 a. Emphasized the gaining of ideas and the ability to think 
 clearly rather than content in place of words. 
 
 5. His relation to later scientific realism. 
 
 a. Regarded realities of thought as more important than 
 
 those of the senses. 
 
 b. Shared the opposition of the early scientists to the formal 
 
 artificial education of the times. 
 
 6. His relation to naturalistic education. 
 
 a. Did not approve of getting close to nature by withdraw- 
 
 ing from the world, as did Rousseau. 
 
 b. Urged association with men and life. 
 
 (1) For experience with others. 
 
 (2) As discipline of judgment. 
 
 7. Other features of his conception of education. 
 
 a. Emphasized not the mind, not the body, but the man. 
 
 b. Aimed not at what to think but how to live. 
 
 c. Knowledge should be assimilated. 
 
 d. Ideas should be realized in conduct, practiced rather 
 
 than memorized. 
 
 e. Education should be general not special. 
 /. Language should be gained by use.
 
 io2 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Mother tongue of first importance. 
 
 (2) Exercise of the judgment essential. 
 g. Methods. 
 
 (1) Conversation. 
 
 (2) Stimulating of curiosity. 
 
 (3) Observation. 
 
 (4) Object lessons. 
 
 (5) Social intercourse. 
 
 (6) Reflection and assimilation. 
 h. Discipline pleasant. 
 
 i. Physical training important. 
 
 (i) For health, strength, endurance, and skill. 
 j. Education of women not favored to great extent. 
 8. Importance of Montaigne's conception of education. 
 
 a. Beginning of idea that education is a process of growth. 
 
 b. Expression of new purpose, that of forming or training 
 
 the mind. 
 
 Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611): English Realist 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 24, 179-184, v. 28, 743-748; 
 Kemp: Hist. Educ., 200; Monroe: Text- Bk., 465-467, Brief 
 Course, 230 ; Mulcaster : Positions (ed. Quick) ; Quick : Educ. 
 Refs., 90-102 ; Williams : Hist. Mod. Educ., 107-113.) 
 
 i. Life. 
 
 a. Educated at Eton, Cambridge, and Oxford. 
 
 b. Schoolmaster in London (1555). 
 
 c. Headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School (1561-1586). 
 
 d. Headmaster of St. Paul's School (1586-1608). 
 
 e. Writer on education. 
 
 (1) Positions (1581). 
 
 (2) The Elementarie, Part i (1582).
 
 Modern Education 103 
 
 2. Educational principles. 
 
 a. Aim : to aid nature in perfecting the mental and physi- 
 
 cal development of the pupil. 
 
 b. Adaptation to pupil. 
 
 (1) In knowledge presented. 
 
 (2) In methods employed. 
 
 (3) According to pupils' natural development. 
 
 c. Emphasis on elementary instruction. 
 
 (1) For both sexes. 
 
 (2) In English. 
 
 (a) Wrote a text as model. 
 
 (3) Not all pupils fitted for higher education. 
 
 (4) Urged thorough training of teachers. 
 
 (a) Early instruction considered most important for 
 foundation. 
 
 d. School education better than tutorial. 
 
 e. Physical training essential. 
 
 /. Classical languages of limited value. 
 g. Studies should be made pleasurable. 
 h. Urged the importance of training the individual rather 
 than teaching subject matter. 
 
 Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Scientific Realist 
 
 (Bacon: Novum Organum, Advancement of Learning (Bohn 
 Library) ; Barnard : Germ. Trs. 6* Educators, 261-290, Journ. 
 of Educ., v. 5, 535-540, 655-681 ; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 123- 
 124 ; Encycl. Brit., art. Bacon ; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three 
 Centuries, 10-19; Hailman : Hist. Fed., 52-62; Kemp: Hist. 
 Educ., 198-200; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 468-478, 
 Brief Course, 230-237 ; Munroe : Educ. Ideal, 36-67 ; Painter : 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 179-187, 2d ed., 200-207; Seeley: Hist. 
 Educ., 205-209; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., ch. 5.)
 
 io4 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. Educated at Cambridge. 
 
 b. Failed in political life, though he held high office. 
 
 c. Endeavored to formulate all knowledge. 
 
 d. Wrote on education. 
 
 (1) Instuamtio Magna, to be an encyclopedia of knowl- 
 
 edge. 
 
 (2) Advancement of Learning. 
 
 (3) Novum Organum. 
 
 (4) Essays. 
 
 2. Aim. 
 
 a. To systematize human knowledge. 
 
 b. To formulate method for investigation of phenomena. 
 
 c. To collect the results of experience with nature. 
 
 d. To outline a plan of natural philosophy from the ma- 
 
 terial collected. 
 
 e. To deduce true philosophy of nature. 
 
 3. Basis of knowledge. 
 
 a. Uniformity of nature. 
 
 (1) Knowledge unified is simple. 
 
 (2) Knowledge based on this uniformity deals with laws 
 
 and principles which can be investigated and de- 
 termined. 
 
 b. Derived first from study of phenomena of nature. 
 
 c. Derived next from study of phenomena of mind, i.e. from 
 
 language, literature, philosophy, and theology. 
 
 4. Method. 
 
 a. Induction instead of deduction. 
 
 b. Process determined by the end sought. 
 
 (1) The starting point not an accepted authoritative law. 
 
 (2) But problem to be solved by the investigation of 
 
 particular facts.
 
 Modern Education 105 
 
 c. Observation not authority. 
 
 d. Deduction of secondary value for application. 
 
 e. Investigation and experimentation for discovery of truth. 
 
 (1) To gain power over nature. 
 
 (2) To gain power through knowledge. 
 
 (3) To correct experience of the senses by experiment. 
 
 /. Subject to difficulties of tradition, prejudice, custom, and 
 
 doctrine. 
 Influence. 
 
 a. Led to study of method of attaining knowledge by the 
 
 individual. 
 
 b. Promoted the method of teaching as applied to the indi- 
 
 vidual. 
 
 c. Inspired others to study processes of thought just as he 
 
 studied the subject matter of thought. 
 
 d. Aided especially Ratich, Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau 
 
 in their educational work. 
 
 INNOVATORS OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH 
 CENTURIES 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Their principles (cf. Quick : Educ. Refs., p. 104). 
 
 a. Study of things should precede or be united with the 
 
 study of words. 
 
 b. Knowledge should be communicated when possible by 
 
 appeals to the senses. 
 
 c. Linguistic study should begin with that of the mother 
 
 tongue. 
 
 d. Latin and Greek should be taught to those only who were 
 
 to complete a learned education.
 
 io6 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 e. Physical education should be promoted for the sake of 
 
 health. 
 
 /. The method of teaching should be " according to nature." 
 2. Their methods. 
 
 a. From concrete to abstract or a knowledge of the thing 
 
 itself before the rules which refer to it. 
 
 b. From analysis to synthesis. 
 
 c. Method of discovery rather than acceptance of truth 
 
 upon authority. 
 
 d. Interest not coercion most important in the acquisition 
 
 of knowledge. 
 
 e. Only that which is understood may be committed to 
 
 memory. 
 
 Wolfgang Ratich (1571-1635) (Ratke or Ratichius) : Realist 
 
 or Innovator 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. & Educators, 335-370, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 5, 229-256, v. 6, 459-466; Browning: Educ. Theories, 61- 
 66; Compayre : Hist. Ped., 121-122; Graves: Gt. Educators 
 of Three Centuries, 20-26; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 201-206; 
 Monroe : Text-Bk., 478-480, Brief Course, 237-238 ; Painter : 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 194-200, 2d ed., 213-219; Quick: Educ. 
 Refs., 103-118; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 209-211; Williams: 
 Hist. Mod. Educ., 154-162.) 
 
 i. Life. 
 
 a. Born at Wilster, in Holstein. 
 
 b. Studied at Hamburg and the university of Rostock. 
 
 c. Traveled to Holland and England. 
 
 d. Elaborated a scheme for teaching at Electoral Diet, in 
 
 Frankfort, in 1612.
 
 Modern Education 107 
 
 (i) Wrote on education: Address to Princes and 
 
 Methodus Nova. 
 
 e. Unsuccessful experiment at Augsburg. 
 /. Failure at Koethen. 
 His aims. 
 
 a. To teach Latin, Greek, and Hebrew more thoroughly and 
 
 in shorter time. 
 
 b. To teach all the arts and sciences through the medium 
 
 of the vernacular. 
 
 c. To introduce and establish throughout Germany uni- 
 
 formity in speech, government, and religion. 
 His rules. 
 
 a. Follow nature. 
 
 b. One thing at a time. 
 
 c. Repetition. 
 
 d. Everything through the mother tongue. 
 
 e. Everything without constraint. 
 /. Nothing to be learned by heart. 
 g. Uniformity in all things. 
 
 h. The thing itself first, the explanation afterwards. 
 
 i. Everything through experience. 
 
 His method of teaching the mother tongue. 
 
 a. The alphabet first. 
 
 b. Conversation and pronunciation. 
 
 c. Illustration of reading lesson. 
 
 (1) Reading twice by teacher of the Book of Genesis, 
 
 the pupils following with eye and finger. 
 
 (2) Reading of first chapter, pupils repeating each four 
 
 lines. 
 
 (3) Reading of whole by pupils. 
 
 (4) Explanation of grammar, with examples in text, by 
 
 teacher.
 
 io8 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (5) Repetition by pupils. 
 
 (6) Reading and applications of grammatical points. 
 
 5. His method of teaching Latin. 
 a. Illustrative example. 
 
 (1) Reading several times by pupils of translation of 
 
 Terence. 
 
 (2) Translation of play by teacher. 
 
 (3) Translation by teacher, repeated by pupils. 
 
 (4) Reading and translation of play by pupils, with 
 
 corrections by teacher. 
 
 (5) Lessons in Latin grammar read by teacher, repeated 
 
 by pupils, and applied to play of Terence. 
 
 (6) Exercises in imitation of Terence. 
 
 6. Criticism of Ratich (Ratke). 
 
 a. Pioneer in science of education. 
 
 b. Contributed to educational progress. 
 
 c. Counteracted influence of Jesuits. 
 
 d. Failed through lack of tact and experience. 
 
 e. Language method gave teacher too much to do and the 
 
 pupil too little to do. 
 /. Gave impetus to study of vernacular. 
 g. Stimulated many who followed him, notably Pestalozzi. 
 
 John Amos Comenius (1592-1671) 
 
 (Barnard: Germ. Trs.& Educators, 381-402, Journ. of Educ., 
 v - 5) 2 57~ 2 98 ; Browning: Educ. Theories, 67-79; Come- 
 nius : Orbis Pictus (ed. Bardeen) ; Compayre : Hist. Fed., 
 122-136; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 193-196; Graves: Gt. 
 Educators of Three Centuries, 27-51; Hailman : Hist. Fed., 
 52-62; Hanus: Educ. Aims &* Values, 193-211; Hoyt: 
 Studies in Hist. Educ., 21-48; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 206-217;
 
 Modern Education 109 
 
 Misawa : Mod. Educators, 18-34 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in 
 Hist. Educ., 480-496, Brief Course, 238-248 ; Monroe, W. S., 
 Comenius 6* the Beginning of Educ. Reform; Munroe : Educ. 
 Ideal, 68-94; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 200-212, 2d ed., 
 219-230, Fed. Essays, 255-277 ; Quick : Educ. Refs., 119-171 ; 
 Seeley: Hist. Educ., 211-217; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 
 163-186.) 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. Early period : born in Moravia, studied at university 
 
 of Nassau (1611-1613). 
 
 b. Period as educator : master of Latin school at Prerau 
 
 (1614-1616) pastor at Fulneck (1616) ban- 
 ished with other Protestants (1624) master of 
 school at Lissa, Poland (1628) engaged in 
 study and writing impressed by work of 
 Bacon wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked 
 and The Great Didactic (1628-1632) invited 
 to reform schools of Sweden (1638). 
 
 c. Period as traveler and writer : visited England, Sweden, 
 
 and Hungary (1641-1642) conducted model 
 school at Saros-Patak (1650-1654) returned to 
 Lissa called to presidency of Harvard univer- 
 sity (1654) wrote Orbis Pictus (1657) re- 
 mainder of life devoted to teaching and writing. 
 
 2. Books on Education. 
 
 a. Didactica magna (the Great Didactic). 
 
 (i) Principles of teaching, theories on education, views 
 on organization of schools. 
 
 b. Janua linguarum reserata (the Gate of Tongues Un- 
 
 locked), 
 (i) New method of learning languages.
 
 no Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (2) Thousands of common Latin words referring to 
 
 familiar objects, with their vernacular equiva- 
 lents in parallel columns. 
 
 (3) These to be arranged in sentences from simple to 
 
 more complex. 
 
 (4) Vocabulary and writing knowledge of Latin. 
 
 (5) Encyclopedic survey of knowledge. 
 
 (6) Was translated into many languages. 
 
 c. Texts related to the " Gate." 
 
 (1) Vestibulum, an introductory text. 
 
 (2) Artrium, an expansion of the " Gate." 
 
 (3) Thesaurus, summary of Latin literature. 
 
 d. Orbis sensualium pictus (the World of Sensible Things 
 
 Pictured). 
 
 (1) Adaptation of the Janua, illustrated with pictures. 
 
 (2) First illustrated textbook for children. 
 
 (3) New method of dealing with things. 
 
 (4) Method of induction leading to generalized knowl- 
 
 edge. 
 
 3. Aim of education. 
 
 a. Religious and moral. 
 
 (1) End of man is happiness with God. 
 
 (2) Control of self, attained by knowledge of self and 
 
 all things. 
 
 (3) Knowledge, virtue, piety. 
 
 4. Method of education. 
 
 a. According to nature. 
 
 b. By arrangement of facts on universal principles. 
 
 (1) On basis of known to unknown, leading to attain- 
 
 ment of all knowledge. 
 
 (2) Each fact to lead to the next. 
 
 (3) Sense perception the source of knowledge.
 
 Modern Ediication in 
 
 5. Organization of schools. 
 
 a. Infant or mother school : 1-6 years. 
 
 (i) Language, the senses, religion, morals. 
 
 b. Elementary or vernacular school : 7-1 2 years. 
 
 (i) Mother tongue, drawing, arithmetic, catechism, 
 singing, history, geography, and government. 
 
 c. Latin school or gymnasium: 13-18 years. 
 
 (i) Latin grammar, rhetoric, logic, ethics, arithmetic, 
 geometry, physics, astronomy, geography, music. 
 
 d. University : 19-24 years. 
 
 (i) Advanced courses in all departments of learning. 
 
 6. Educational principles. 
 
 a. Development of the whole man. 
 
 b. Follow the order of nature. 
 
 (1) Gradation : known to unknown, simple to complex, 
 
 concrete to abstract. 
 
 (2) Good foundation : mother tongue first. 
 
 (3) Adaptation. 
 
 (4) Correlation. 
 
 (5) Comprehension before memorizing. 
 
 c. Words and things together. 
 
 (i) Use of objects and pictures. 
 
 d. Language to be learned by use, not by rules, 
 (i) Learn by doing. 
 
 e. Experience not authority, 
 (i) Sense perception first. 
 
 /. Train for character. 
 
 (1) The teacher an example. 
 
 (2) Religion important. 
 g. Agreeable methods. 
 
 h. Few studies. 
 
 i. Both sexes included.
 
 H2 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 t 
 
 7. Criticisms of Comenius. 
 
 a. Contributed greatly to educational theory. 
 
 (1) Urged universal, compulsory education for both 
 
 sexes. 
 
 (2) Outlined methods and principles which greatly 
 
 aided later efforts in education. 
 
 (3) Emphasized the necessity of early training in sense 
 
 perception to precede the development of the 
 higher mental powers. 
 
 b. Improved textbooks. 
 
 c. Prepared the way for the kindergarten. 
 
 d. Showed the need and value of school organization by a 
 
 definite plan. 
 
 e. Overestimated the importance of knowledge. 
 
 /. Undervalued the literature and knowledge of the past. 
 
 John Locke (1632-1704) Education as a Discipline 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. 6 s Educators, 428-440, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 6, 210-222, v. n, 460-484; Browning: Educ. Theories, 
 118-134; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 194-211; Davidson: Hist. 
 Educ., 197-209 ; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 
 52-66; Hailman: Hist. Fed., 63-73; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 
 218-221; Locke: Some Thoughts on Education (Cambridge 
 Univ. Press), On the Conduct of Understanding (Maynard, 
 N. Y.), An Essay on the Human Understanding (Tegg, Lon- 
 don) ; Misawa : Mod. Educators, 35-58 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. 
 in Hist. Educ., 512-523, Brief Course, 261-266; Munroe: 
 Educ. Ideal, 95-123; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 213-223, 
 2d ed., 230-238, Fed. Essays, 278-290; Quick: Educ. Reform- 
 ers, 219-238; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 73-74, 161-171; 
 Seeley: Hist. Educ., 220-223; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 
 202-208.)
 
 Modern Education 113 
 
 Life. 
 
 a. Educated at Westminster and Oxford. 
 
 b. Studied medicine, traveled, wrote, held political office. 
 
 c. Works on education. 
 
 (1) Some Thoughts concerning Education. 
 
 (2) Conduct of the Understanding. 
 
 (3) Essay concerning the Human Understanding. 
 Aim. 
 
 a. To train gentlemen's sons for their position in life. 
 
 b. To provide means for formation of habits. 
 
 c. To train the " faculties." 
 
 (i) The process of learning more important than the 
 thing learned. 
 
 d. To attain to virtue, wisdom, breeding, and learning. 
 Theory of mind. 
 
 a. Mind a blank at start. 
 
 b. Knowledge comes from the perception of the senses. 
 
 c. Virtues and powers are developed in the mind from out- 
 
 side through formation of habits. 
 
 d. Hence education can shape pupil according to will of 
 
 teacher. 
 Method. 
 
 a. Rigid discipline of faculties and of body. 
 
 b. Tutor rather than school. 
 
 c. Example. 
 
 d. Travel. 
 
 e. Gentleness. 
 
 /. Objective through senses. 
 g. Conversation. 
 h. No learning by heart. 
 Intellectual education, 
 a. Significance.
 
 ii4 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Training or discipline of the intellect. 
 
 (2) Emphasis on the process of learning. 
 
 (3) Development of the powers of the mind. 
 
 (4) Knowledge of secondary importance. 
 
 b. Purpose. 
 
 (1) Formation of habit of thought. 
 
 (2) Not variety of knowledge but of thinking. 
 
 (3) For practical life not for letters or science. 
 
 c. Program of studies. 
 
 (1) Mother tongue, modern language, Latin through 
 
 use, and no Greek. 
 
 (2) Geography, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, his- 
 
 tory. 
 
 (3) Ethics, common law, and physical science. 
 
 (4) Bookkeeping and a trade. 
 
 d. Extent. 
 
 (1) Not universal. 
 
 (2) For higher classes chiefly. 
 
 (3) Working schools for laboring classes. 
 6. Moral education. 
 
 a. Aim. 
 
 (i) Virtue, good moral habits, character. 
 
 b. Principles of moral discipline. 
 
 (1) Appeal to the sentiment of honor. 
 (a) Duty and shame. 
 
 (2) Self-denial and self-mastery. 
 
 (a) Schooling of desires to control of reason through 
 habit. 
 
 (3) Rewards and punishments on the basis of esteem 
 
 and disgrace. 
 
 (a) No corporal punishment except in extreme cases 
 of stubbornness and disobedience.
 
 Modern Education 115 
 
 (b) Praise openly. 
 
 (c) Censure privately. 
 
 (d) Reason with pupil. 
 
 7. Physical education. 
 
 a. Hardening process or discipline. 
 
 (1) Resistance to elements. 
 
 (2) Attention to food, clothes, etc. 
 
 b. Habits of exercise. 
 
 (1) For endurance. 
 
 (2) For vigorous constitution. 
 
 c. " A sound mind in a sound body," the fundamental 
 
 maxim. 
 
 8. Influence of Locke. 
 
 a. Strengthened the doctrine of " formal discipline " in 
 
 modern education. 
 
 (1) Training involved in the study of a subject more 
 
 important than the information inculcated. 
 
 (2) Determined much of the practice in choice of method 
 
 and subject matter in the schools of England, 
 Germany, and America. 
 
 b. Seen especially in work of Rousseau. 
 
 (i) Idea of education as development and growth. 
 
 SOME EARLY EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY MOVEMENTS AND 
 EDUCATORS 
 
 Pietism and Hermann Francke 
 
 (Barnard, Germ. Trs. & Educators, 441-458, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 5, 441-459, 689-699 ; Bolton : Sec. Sch. Syst. of Germany, 
 82; Compayre: Hist. Fed., 414; Graves: Gt. Educators of 
 Three Centuries, 67-76; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 235-240; Mon- 
 roe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 498, 501, 722, Brief Course,
 
 n6 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 249 ; Painter : Hist. Editc., ist ed., 239-247 ; Russell : Germ. 
 Higher Schs., 63-65; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 260-275.) 
 
 Pietism 
 
 1. Term of reproach. 
 
 2. Movement of Lutheran church against prevailing state of 
 
 religion. 
 
 a. Fervor of Reformation gone. 
 
 b. Divisions and heresies. 
 
 c. Religion a matter of theological definition and theory. 
 
 d. Piety a secondary matter. 
 
 e. Religion mixed up with political intrigue and per- 
 
 secution. 
 
 3. Effort to make religion a matter of heart and daily life. 
 
 4. Influence of Philip Spener. 
 
 Francke (1663-1727) 
 i. Life. 
 
 a. Well educated at Erfurt, Kiel, and Leipsic univer- 
 
 sities. 
 
 (1) Studied theology, metaphysics, natural science, 
 
 history, and ancient languages. 
 
 (2) Intellectualist. 
 
 (3) Inspired with new fervor by Spener. 
 
 b. Lecturer and teacher. 
 
 (1) Theology at Leipsic. 
 
 (2) Languages at Halle. 
 
 c. Philanthropist. 
 
 (1) Instructed the poor in his home. 
 
 (2) Founded school. 
 
 (3) Enlisted college students as instructors. 
 
 (4) Enlarged work through subscription.
 
 Modern Education 117 
 
 (a) Many students. 
 
 (b) Buildings and apparatus. 
 Educational foundations. 
 
 a. Orphan House. > 
 
 b. Free table for indigent pupils. 
 
 c. Burgher school primary grade. 
 
 d. Latin school of the Orphan House. 
 
 (1) Secondary school to prepare for the university. 
 
 (2) Four hundred pupils. 
 
 e. Pedagogium. 
 
 (1) Secondary school for higher classes. 
 
 (2) Extensive scientific and industrial equipment. 
 /. Drug store. 
 
 g. Bookstore. 
 
 h. Institution for women. 
 
 Other activities. 
 
 a. Pastor of church. 
 
 b. Director of printing office. 
 
 (i) Before 1800 issued one million copies of the New 
 Testament and a million and a half copies 
 of the Bible. 
 
 c. Founder of mission in India. 
 
 d. Trained teachers. 
 Spirit of the man. 
 
 a. Piety the basis of all work and the essential thing in 
 
 education. 
 
 6. Education should relate to vocation, 
 (i) Practical and utilitarian. 
 
 c. Recognized the differences of pupils. 
 
 d. Advocated. 
 
 (1) Physical exercises and games- ^ 
 
 (2) Mechanical and industrial employments. ^
 
 n8 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 5. Rules to teachers. 
 
 a. Rely upon God. 
 
 b. Discipline through confidence, gentleness, and love. 
 
 c. Cultivate self-control and cheerfulness. 
 
 d. Inflict no penalty for lack of comprehension. 
 
 e. Be firm but not harsh. 
 
 /. Reason with older pupils. 
 
 g. Study dispositions and inspire pupils to do their best. 
 
 Frangois Fenelon (1651-1715) the Education of Girls 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 13, '477-494, v. 30, 481-490; 
 Compayre: Hist. Fed., 164-186; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 221- 
 224; Munroe: Educ. Ideal, 147-152; Painter: Hist. Educ., 
 ist ed., 227-234, Fed. Essays, 291-302; Williams: Hist. 
 Mod. Educ., ch. 8.) 
 
 1. Life. 
 
 a. Well-educated priest at the age of 24. 
 
 b. Head of girls' school. 
 
 c. Fluent writer. 
 
 (1) The Education of Girls. 
 
 (2) Collection of Fables. 
 
 (3) Dialogues of the Dead. 
 
 (4) Telemaque. 
 
 d. Tutor of Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 e. Archbishop of Cambray. 
 
 2. Theories of education for girls. 
 
 a. Necessary, because 
 
 (1) Women weaker than men. 
 
 (2) Their duties the foundation of all human life. 
 
 (3) A preventive of idle and objectional life. 
 
 b. Scope.
 
 Modern Education 119 
 
 (1) Reading, writing, grammar, ancient and modern 
 
 history, good literature, accounts, government, and 
 fine arts. 
 
 (2) To exclude women from law, ministry, and politics. 
 3. Methods of education. 
 
 a. Begin early. 
 
 (1) Consider plasticity of mind. 
 
 (2) Form body, mind, and character at impressionable 
 
 age. 
 
 b. Take advantage of curiosity. 
 
 (i) Study the objects themselves. 
 
 c. Make instruction indirect. 
 
 (1) A source of pleasure. 
 
 (2) A means of discipline. 
 
 d. Give moral instruction through history and fables, 
 (i) Cf. modern story methods of teaching. 
 
 Charles Rollin (1661-1741) School Management 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 23, 17-46; Compayre: Hist. 
 Fed., 232-252 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 248-249 ; Painter : Hist. 
 Educ., ist ed., 234-239, Fed. Essays, 303-320; Williams: 
 Hist. Mod. Educ., 281-290.) 
 
 i. Life. 
 
 a. Highly educated at College du Plessis and at Paris, 
 (i) Literary and theological studies. 
 
 b. Educator, fifty years. 
 
 (1) 1688, Chair of eloquence : College Royal de France. 
 
 (2) 1694, Rector of University of Paris ; again in 1720. 
 
 (3) 1699, Rector of College de Beauvais. 
 
 c. Writer.
 
 I2O Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Traiti des tudes. 
 
 (2) Histoire Ancienne. 
 
 2. Special features of his plan of education. 
 
 a. Emphasis on 
 
 (1) Study of things. 
 
 (2) Use of the vernacular. 
 
 (3) History. 
 
 b. Intelligent and humane treatment of pupils. 
 
 c. Little Latin and Greek. 
 
 d. Much attention to plants and animals. 
 
 e. Religious and spiritual education important. 
 
 3. Pedagogical principles. 
 
 a. Adaptation to individual differences of pupils. 
 
 b. Make study pleasant. 
 
 (1) Combine gentleness with force. 
 
 (2) Encourage those who do well. 
 
 (3) Rewards valuable if given in moderation. 
 
 c. Make discipline intelligent and reasonable. 
 
 (1) Never punish in anger. 
 
 (2) Punish for correction. 
 
 (3) Too frequent reprimand is futile. 
 
 (4) The rod dangerous if not in moderation. 
 
 (5) Obstinacy alone deserves severe treatment. 
 
 (6) Avoid resentment of pupils by harshness. 
 
 (7) Authority not to displace reason. 
 
 d. Teacher's example of greatest influence in moral instruc- 
 
 tion.
 
 Modern Education 121 
 
 EDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE 
 
 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Individualism 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. and Educators, 459-486, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 5, 459-486; Browning: Educ. Theories, 152-169; Com- 
 payre: Hist. Ped., 278-310; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 211- 
 219, Rousseau 6* Educ. according to Nature; Encycl. Brit., 
 art. on Rousseau ; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 
 77-111 ; Hailman: Hist. Ped., 74-84; Hoyt: Studies in Hist. 
 Educ., 48-71; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 255-264; Misawa: Mod. 
 Educators, 59-92 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 547- 
 575, Brief Course, 280-296; Munroe : Educ. Ideal, 153-178; 
 Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 249-255, 2d ed., 265-274, Ped. 
 Essays, 321-339; Payne: Lects. on Hist. Educ., 89-91; 
 Quick : Educ. Refs., 239-272 ; Rousseau : Emile (ed. Payne, 
 Appleton, also Extracts, ed. Steeg, Heath) ; Russell : Germ. 
 Higher Schs., 61-75 5 Seeley : Hist. Educ., 241-249 ; Williams : 
 Hist. Mod. Educ., 290-309.) 
 
 i. Conditions of society in which Rousseau developed his 
 philosophy of life and of education. 
 
 a. Social classes. 
 
 (1) Privileged classes of monarchy, nobility, and clergy. 
 
 (a) Absolutism. 
 
 (b) Suppression of individual judgment. 
 
 (c) Corruption and injustice. 
 
 (2) Crushing burdens of non-privileged classes, 
 (a) Feudal conditions. 
 
 (&) Taxation. 
 
 (c) No provision for intellectual and spiritual needs. 
 
 b. Government.
 
 122 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Centralized tyrannical monarchy. 
 
 (2) Oppression. 
 
 (3) Inefficiency and bankruptcy. 
 
 c. New school of men of letters and their influence. 
 
 (1) Voltaire : Essays; Montesquieu : Esprit des Lois; 
 
 Morelly: Code de la Nature; Diderot: En- 
 cyclopedia; Rousseau : Control Social. 
 
 (2) Skepticism, philosophic liberalism, rationalism. 
 
 (a) Freedom of thought, liberty of conscience, suffi- 
 
 ciency of the reason. 
 (&) "Nature." 
 (c) Social contract and inequality. 
 
 (3) Concentrated attacks on Church. 
 
 (a) Decline of ecclesiastical authority. 
 (6) Development of individual judgment and intelli- 
 gence. 
 
 (4) Improvement of masses. 
 2. Life of Rousseau (1712-1778). 
 
 a. Son of watchmaker of Geneva. 
 
 (1) Delicate, studious, emotional, addicted to bad litera- 
 
 ture brought up by aunt. 
 
 (2) Apprenticed to engraver (1724-1728) led life of 
 
 deceit. 
 
 (3) Left home as vagabond (1728-1741). 
 
 b. In Paris, and secretary to ambassador at Venice. 
 
 (1) Dissolute life. 
 
 (2) Dijon Academy prize essay : Influence of Arts and 
 
 Sciences (1749). 
 
 (3) Origin of Inequality, discussion of his social doctrine 
 
 c. In Montmorency, writer. 
 
 (i) The New Heloise, first educational essay (1759).
 
 Modern Education 123 
 
 (2) The Social Contract, protest against the social con- 
 
 ditions (1762). 
 
 (3) Emile, exposition of his theory of education (1762). 
 
 (4) Confessions, his autobiography (1766). 
 
 d. In exile, after stortn caused by the Emile. 
 
 (i) Wanderer through Switzerland, England, and France. 
 
 e. Died at Ermenonville (1778). 
 
 (i) His ashes removed to Paris and placed in the Pan- 
 theon (1793). 
 Purpose and spirit of his writings. 
 
 a. Protest against the prevailing effects of civilization and 
 
 culture. 
 
 b. Emphasis upon freedom of development through direct 
 
 experience and " according to nature," un- 
 hampered by tradition and custom. 
 
 c. Belief in the worth of the common man. 
 
 (1) The beginnings of modern democracy. 
 
 (2) Contributed to the French Revolution. 
 
 (3) Similar belief expressed in the American Declaration 
 
 of Independence. 
 
 d. Sympathy with child life. 
 
 The Emile or education according to nature, 
 a. Meaning of nature. 
 
 (1) Habit or primary disposition, not acquired by direct 
 
 imitation. 
 
 (a) Hence natural instincts or first impressions are 
 more trustworthy than experience. 
 
 (2) Man governed by the laws of his own nature, 
 (a) Not consistent with the laws of society. 
 
 (3) Contact with the phenomena of nature. 
 
 (a) To counter the evil influences of association with 
 others.
 
 124 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 b. Conception of negative education. 
 
 (1) Permitting the free development of the child ac- 
 
 cording to his own nature. 
 
 (2) Guarding him from evil influences. 
 
 (3) Withholding direct instruction. 
 
 (4) Training the senses as a preparation for the reason 
 
 later. 
 
 (5) Applied to physical education. 
 
 (a) Great freedom in the country. 
 
 (b) Simple life. 
 
 (6) Applied to intellectual education. 
 
 (a) Little instruction before the age of twelve. 
 
 (b) No reading, working, or reasoning. 
 
 (7) Applied to moral education. 
 
 (a) Doctrine of natural consequences. 
 
 (b) Lacks motive and idea of duty. 
 
 (c) Calls for power of reasoning which the pupil has 
 
 not yet acquired. 
 
 c. Education divided into periods, according to pupil's 
 
 aptitude or development. 
 
 (1) Age : 1-5 years. 
 
 (a) Father, teacher mother, nurse. 
 
 (b) Physical training : games. 
 
 (c) Little instruction and moral training. 
 
 (2) Age: 6-12 years. 
 
 (a) Negative. 
 
 (b) Following law of natural consequences. 
 
 (c) Still no direct intellectual training. 
 
 (d) Natural training of senses through observa- 
 
 tion. 
 
 (3) Age: 13-15 years. 
 
 (a) Gaining of knowledge.
 
 Modern Education 125 
 
 x. Through curiosity. 
 y. Robinson Crusoe, a typical textbook. 
 (b) Trade to be learned. 
 (4) Age : 16-20 years. 
 
 (a) Training of the emotions. 
 x. Social relationships. 
 
 y. Love for others. 
 
 (b) Moral and religious instruction. 
 
 (c) Adolescence emphasized for the first time. 
 Education of women. 
 
 a. Relative to men and their needs. 
 
 b. Physical first, amusements, gentleness, docility, religion, 
 
 study of men, household duties. 
 Effect of Rousseau's work. 
 
 a. Lay bare defects and abuses in education. 
 
 b. Stimulated minds and promoted educational literature. 
 
 c. Made the child the important factor in education. 
 
 (1) Training to be adapted to age. 
 
 (2) Nature and growth to determine the process. 
 
 (3) Experience to determine the means. 
 
 d. Led to conception of education as a process. 
 
 (1) A development which lasts through life. 
 
 (2) An expansion of natural powers. 
 
 (3) Making sympathy with child therefore an essential 
 
 of the educative process. 
 
 e. Used instinctive tendencies as starting point in educa- 
 
 tion. 
 /. Turned attention to nature and the " natural state " of 
 
 man. 
 g. Did much to prepare the way for modern educational 
 
 development, 
 (i) Cf. the work of Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel.
 
 126 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Johann Bernard Basedow (1723-1790) : the Philanthropinum 
 
 (Barnard : Germ. Trs. & Educators, 487-520, Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 5, 487-520 ; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 112- 
 121 ; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 265-269; Misawa: Mod. Educators, 
 93-97; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 577-583, Brief 
 Course, 297-300; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 256-261, 2d 
 ed., 274-279 ; Payne : Lects. on Hist. Educ., 91-96 ; Quick : 
 Educ. Refs., 273-289; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 250-256; Wil- 
 liams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 318-329.) 
 
 1. His character and work. 
 
 a. Talented but unstable. 
 
 b. Studied for Lutheran ministry, but was not ordained be- 
 
 cause not orthodox. 
 
 c. Tutor (1746-1753). 
 
 d. Professor in Danish Academy (1753-1761). 
 
 e. Professor at Antona (1761-1771) dismissed for unor- 
 
 thodox views. 
 
 /. Issued many publications, inspired by reading Rous- 
 seau's works. 
 
 2. His writings. 
 
 a. Address to philanthropists and men of property on 
 
 schools and studies and their influence on public 
 welfare (1768). 
 
 b. Book on methods, based upon the methods of experience 
 
 (1770). 
 
 ^c. Elementary work : resembling the Orbis Pictus of Co- 
 menius, and following the ideas of Bacon, Come- 
 nius, and Rousseau. 
 
 (i) Conversational exercises on natural phenomena and 
 forces, with illustrations.
 
 Modern Education 127 
 
 (2) Began a wholly new literature for children, based 
 
 upon children's character, interests, and needs. 
 His Philanthropinum (1774). 
 
 a. School founded at Dessau to illustrate his principles. 
 
 b. Aims. 
 
 (1) To educate youth according to nature. 
 
 (2) To train rich and poor together. 
 
 (3) To train former for leadership in social life and the 
 
 latter to teach. 
 
 c. Theories. 
 
 (1) Children to be treated as children not as adults, 
 
 hence adaptation to capacity. 
 
 (2) Conversational methods of teaching languages 
 
 (through medium of mother tongue) . 
 (a) Aided by games, pictures, and models. 
 
 (3) Training of the senses through object lessons and 
 
 use of environment. 
 
 (4) Physical exercises and play necessary for natural 
 
 development. 
 
 (5) Manual training desirable for both educational and 
 
 social reasons. 
 
 (6) Learning should not be made painful. 
 
 d. Subject matter taught. 
 
 (i) Man, animals, trees and plants, mathematics 
 (arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry), drawing, 
 French, German, geography, physics, chemistry, 
 astronomy, religion. 
 Influence of his work. 
 
 a. Widely felt in German education. 
 
 b. Literature for children spread. 
 
 (i) Campe (1746-1818), the most noted follower of 
 Basedow, was the author of Robinson der J linger e,
 
 128 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 from which Wyss modeled his Swiss Family 
 Robinson. 
 
 c. Training of teachers improved. 
 
 d. Greater emphasis upon object lessons. 
 
 e. Introduction of trades into German system of schools. 
 /. Closer connection between outdoor life and instruction. 
 
 EDUCATION BASED ON PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 John Henry Pestalozzi (1746-1827) the Beginnings of 
 Method in Education 
 
 (Barnard: Journ. of Educ., v. 3, 401-416, v. 4, 65-126, 343- 
 358, v. 5, 161-186, v. 6, 169-179, v. 7, 153-159, 285-318, 
 503-729, v. 10, 81-92, v. 16, 7 6 S-776, v. 30, 561-572, v. 31, 
 35-60; Browning: Educ. Theories, 170-185; Compayre : 
 Hist. Fed., 417-445; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 229-235; De 
 Guimps : P., His Life & Wk., 1-432 ; Encycl. Brit., art. on 
 Pestalozzi; Gill : Systs. of Educ., ch. 2 ; Graves : Gt. Educators 
 of Three Centuries, 122-166; Hailman: Hist. Fed., 92-113; 
 Hoyt: Studies in Hist. Educ., 72-96; Johonnot: Prins. & 
 Pract. of Teaching (see index) ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 282-291 ; 
 Krusi: Life & Wks. of P.; Misawa: Mod. Educators, 116- 
 142 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 587-622, Brief Course, 
 307-319; Munroe: Educ. Ideal, 179-195; Painter: Hist. 
 Educ., ist ed., 266-278, 2d ed., 295-306, Ped. Essays, 351- 
 368; Payne: Lects. on Hist. Educ., 97-114; Pestalozzi: 
 Leonard &* Gertrude (ed. Channing, Heath), How Gertrude 
 teaches Her Children (Bardeen) ; Pinloche : P. 6* the Mod. 
 Elem. Sch.; Quick: Educ. Refs., 290-383; Seeley: Hist. 
 Educ., 257-271; Williams: Hist. Mod. Educ., 330-349.)
 
 Modern Education 129 
 
 Growth and meaning of the psychological conception of 
 education. 
 
 a. Started with naturalistic movement, which referred to 
 
 method as it grows out of the nature of the 
 child. 
 
 b. Was an elaboration of the naturalistic conception. 
 
 (1) Education not an artificial procedure but a natural 
 
 process of growth from within. 
 
 (2) Education a development or organic growth, sub- 
 
 ject to the methods of instruction employed. 
 
 c. Established the truths that 
 
 (1) Scientific study of the mind would make possible 
 
 more accurate interpretation of human nature. 
 
 (2) The processes of instruction could be formulated from 
 
 the results of such study. 
 
 d. Improved educational practices. 
 
 (1) Better methods of instruction, 
 (a) Based upon laws of the mind. 
 
 (2) New spirit in instruction. 
 
 (a) Sympathy for pupil. 
 
 (b) Consideration of his activities, needs, interests, 
 
 and abilities. 
 
 (3) More attention to character and training of teachers. 
 
 (4) Truer conception of the nature of education. 
 
 (a) Elementary instruction received new attention. 
 (6) Universal education seen to be possible. 
 Life of Pestalozzi (1746-1827). 
 
 a. Early training by his mother. 
 
 (i) Source of his emphasis upon the importance of love 
 and sympathy in instruction. 
 
 b. Social reformer as minister and lawyer (1760-1764), 
 
 farmer (1765), and teacher (1774).
 
 130 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 c. Educational reformer. 
 
 (1) School and home for beggars at Neuhof (1774-1780). 
 
 (2) Period of literary activity (1780-1801). 
 
 (3) Orphan school at Stanz (1789-1799). 
 
 (4) School at Burgdorf (1799-1805). 
 
 (5) Yverdun Institute (1805-1825). 
 
 3. His chief writings. 
 
 a. Evening Hour of a Hermit (1780). 
 
 b. Leonard and Gertrude (1781). 
 
 c. The Fables (1797). 
 
 d. How Gertrude teaches Her Children (1801). 
 
 e. The A. B. C. of Sense Perception (1801). 
 /. The Book for Mothers ( 1 801) . 
 
 g. The Song of the Dying Swan (1826). 
 
 4. His purpose. 
 
 a. To improve the poorer classes by education and labor. 
 
 b. To make elementary education universal. 
 
 c. To prove that education is " the natural development of 
 
 inherent powers and capacities." 
 
 5. His educational doctrine. 
 
 a. Education is a process of organic growth. 
 
 (1) Moral culture : the unfolding of the will through love 
 
 and confidence. 
 
 (2) Intellectual culture: the unfolding of the reason 
 
 through exercise, based upon clearness of 
 perception and thought. 
 
 (3) Physical culture: the development of the physical 
 
 powers through use, for power and technical 
 skill. 
 
 b. All education and instruction should be founded upon a 
 
 knowledge of the natural laws of development 
 of the mind.
 
 Modern Education 131 
 
 (1) Sense perception is the basis of knowledge. 
 
 (a) Hence instruction begins with the immediate 
 experience. 
 
 (6) What is experienced and observed must be con- 
 nected with language. 
 
 (2) Tuition must keep pace with development. 
 
 (a) Impressions to be commensurate with the growth 
 of the faculties. 
 
 (3) Subject matter of instruction must be graded. 
 
 (a) From simple to complex, from concrete to ab- 
 stract, from near to remote, from known to 
 unknown, from particular to general. 
 
 c. To develop mental power is more the object of elemen- 
 tary instruction than to furnish information. 
 
 </. The school and home must cooperate to promote the 
 child's development. 
 
 e. The means of instruction are number, form, and lan- 
 guage. 
 6. Methods of application of his principles. 
 
 a. By sense experience made clear by observation and re- 
 
 flection. 
 
 (1) Object lessons. 
 
 (2) Pictures, models, etc. 
 
 (3) Doing. 
 
 b. By inspiring spontaneous self-activity as the essential 
 
 to power and independence. 
 
 c. By using the immediate environment and the ordinary 
 
 vocations as means of instruction. 
 
 d. By connecting number, form, and language with every- 
 
 day activities and objects. 
 
 e. By providing facilities and opportunities for self-expres- 
 
 sion.
 
 132 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 7. Results of the work of Pestalozzi. 
 
 a. New object of instruction : to develop rather than to 
 
 teach. 
 
 b. Education recognized as the primary means of elevating 
 
 society. 
 
 1 i) Hence the duty and affair of the State to provide for it. 
 
 (2) And the child is seen to be the important factor in 
 
 education. 
 
 c. Education an individual matter and must be a natural 
 
 harmonious development. 
 
 d. Extended the popularity of object teaching, nature study, 
 
 and sense training. 
 
 e. Created new spirit in schoolroom. 
 
 /. Contributed to development of the kindergarten and the 
 modern American normal school. 
 
 g. Promoted scientific study of the mind and its processes 
 of learning. 
 
 h. Improved methods of instruction. 
 
 i. Led to establishment of schools for defectives and trades 
 schools. 
 
 John Frederick Herbart (1776-1841) the Science of 
 Education 
 
 (Adams: Herbartian Psych. Appl. to Educ.; Browning: 
 Educ. Theories, 195-202; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 232-235; 
 De Garmo : Herbart & the Herbartians, 2-98 ; Encycl. Brit., 
 art. on Herbart; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 
 167-193 ; Hailman : Hist. Fed., 84 ff. ; Herbart : Pestalozzi's 
 Idea of an A B C of Sense Perception (ed. Eckoff, Appleton), 
 Text-Bk. in Psych. (Appleton), Outlines of Educ. Doctrine (ed. 
 Lange & De Garmo, Macmillan) ; Hoyt : Studies in Hist.
 
 Modern Education 133 
 
 Educ., 97-122; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 298-301; Misawa : 
 Mod. Educators, 199-222; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 
 622-639, Brief Course, 319-329; Painter: Hist. Educ., ist 
 ed., 315-322; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 278-283.) 
 
 i. His life. 
 
 a. Student at Oldenburg gymnasium (1788), and at the 
 
 university of Jena (1794) devoted particu- 
 larly to philosophical studies. 
 
 b. First a private tutor in Switzerland (1797-1800), then 
 
 professor of philosophy in Gottingen (1800- 
 1809 and 1833-1841), and director of peda- 
 gogical seminary at Konigsberg (1809- 
 
 c. Writer on education and philosophy. 
 
 (1) The A B C of Sense Perception, explaining Pesta- 
 
 lozzi's views (1802). 
 
 (2) General Pedagogics (1806). 
 
 (3) General Practical Philosophy (1808). 
 
 (4) Text-Book on Psychology (1816). 
 
 (5) General Metaphysics (1829). 
 
 (6) Outlines of Lectures on Pedagogy (1835). 
 His purpose. 
 
 a. To show how instruction could promote the develop- 
 ment of moral character. 
 
 (1) By formulating an exact psychology. 
 
 (2) By establishing education as a science. 
 His psychology. 
 
 a. The mind is a unity, possessing but one power, that of 
 
 entering into relation with its environment. 
 
 b. His doctrine of apperception supplements Pestalozzi's 
 
 principle of sense perception.
 
 134 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) The power of assimilating new experience with old. 
 
 (2) Sense perceptions are elaborated by interaction and 
 
 combination into clear ideas. 
 c. Consequences of the doctrine of apperception. 
 
 (1) Emphasizes the importance of proper methods of 
 
 instruction. 
 
 (2) Involves consideration of 
 
 (a) The best means to awaken interest in order to 
 
 secure strong apperception. 
 (&) The materials of instruction. 
 (c) The arrangement and presentation of them to 
 
 the learner. 
 
 (3) Systematizes education. 
 
 (4) Tends to determine educational values. 
 4. His theory of instruction. 
 
 a. The " presentations " which constitute the content of 
 the mind are modifiable through the apper- 
 ceptive process. 
 
 6. The circle of thought from " presentations " through 
 ideas and desire which leads to volitions and 
 conduct is determined by instruction. 
 
 c. The work of instruction is 
 
 (1) To furnish the mind with " presentations." 
 
 (2) To direct the manner of acquisition. 
 
 d. Proper apperception depends upon interest. 
 
 (i) Many-sided interest alone enables ideas to enter into 
 organic relationships with " presentations " 
 already possessed. 
 
 e. Careful selection and arrangement of the most suitable 
 
 materials for instruction are necessary for 
 development of unified consciousness, 
 (i) Correlation.
 
 Modern Education 135 
 
 (2) Concentration. 
 
 (3) Coordination. 
 
 /. The process of instruction follows the nature of the 
 mind's activity and the apperceptive or as- 
 similative character of the mind's growth 
 (formal steps). 
 
 (1) Clearness (preparation and presentation). 
 
 (2) Association (combination and comparison). 
 
 (3) System (generalization and classification). 
 
 (4) Method (verification and application). 
 5. Influence of the teachings of Herbart. 
 
 a. Promoted the development of a science of education. 
 
 b. Contributed to improvement in the professional training 
 
 of teachers. 
 
 (1) Education has been studied more systematically. 
 
 (2) His methods and psychology have been followed 
 
 widely. 
 
 (3) His doctrines of many-sided interest, the formal steps, 
 
 and correlation have been most influential. 
 
 c. Courses of study have been adapted to his theories. 
 
 d. Textbooks have been written according to his principles. 
 
 e. Interest has been employed in the government of pupils. 
 /. His influence has been strongest in Germany and in the 
 
 United States. 
 
 Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (1782-1852) the Kin- 
 dergarten 
 
 (Barnard : Journ. of Educ., v. 2, 449-451, vs. 30, 31 (see index) ; 
 Blow: Symbolic Educ., Mottoes &* Commentaries of Froebel' s 
 Mother-Play, Songs 6* Music of F.'s Mother-Play, Letters to a 
 Mother (Appleton), Kindergarten Educ., in Butler's Educ. in
 
 136 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 U.S.; Bowen: F. 6* Educ. tkro' Self-Activity; Browning: 
 Educ. Theories, 220-225; Compayre : Hist. Fed., 447-465; 
 Davidson: Hist. Educ., 235-239; Encycl. Brit., art. on F.; 
 Froebel : Autobiography (Bardeen), Education of Man, Edu- 
 cation by Development, Pedagogics of the Kindergarten (Apple- 
 ton) ; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 194-236 ; 
 Hailman: Hist. Fed., 114-122; Harris: in U. S. Com'r 
 Educ. Rept., 1896-1897, v. i, 899-922 ; Hoyt : Studies in Hist. 
 Educ., 123-146; Hughes: F.'s Educ. Laws, also art. in Proc. 
 N.E.A., 1895, 538-551; Johonnot: Prins. & Pract. of Teach- 
 ing (see index) ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 291-298 ; Misawa : Mod. 
 Educators, 166-198 ; Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 639- 
 667, Brief Course, 329-342; Munroe: Educ. Ideal, 195-206; 
 Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 278-288, 2d ed., 306-315, Fed. 
 Essays, 369-382 ; Quick : Educ. Refs., 384-413 ; Seeley : 
 Hist. Educ., 272-277 ; Von Billow : Reminiscences of F., The 
 Child 6* Child Nature; Williams : Hist. Mod. Educ., 396-405.) 
 
 i. His life. 
 
 a. Early life and education. 
 
 (1) Brought up by uncle (1792-1797). 
 
 (2) Apprenticed to a forester (1797). 
 
 (3) Student at university of Jena (1799) . 
 
 (4) Teacher at Frankfort visited Pestalozzi tutor of 
 
 three boys studied under Pestalozzi (1805-1808) . 
 
 (5) Again student, at Gottingen and Berlin (1811). 
 
 (6) Soldier (1813) assistant in museum at Berlin 
 
 (1814). 
 
 b. Teacher and reformer. 
 
 (i) His " Universal German Educational Institute " 
 opened at Griesheim (1816), moved to Keilhau 
 (1817), declined (1825).
 
 Modern Education 137 
 
 (2) Conducted schools in Switzerland (1829-1835). 
 
 (3) First kindergarten at Blankenburg (1837). 
 
 (4) Lectured on kindergarten (1844). 
 
 (5) Won as disciples Baroness Marenholtz-von-Biilow 
 
 and the celebrated educator Diesterweg (1849). 
 
 (6) Prussian decree forbidding establishment of schools 
 
 according to his ideas (1850). 
 c. Writer. 
 
 (1) Education of Man (1826). 
 
 (2) Family Journal of Education (1826). 
 ^(3) Mutter und Kose Lieder (1843). 
 
 (4) Education by Development, Pedagogics of the Kinder- 
 garten, Letters on the Kindergarten (1838-1852). 
 His purpose. 
 a. To render education a conscious evolution. 
 
 (1) By continuous self -activity. 
 
 (2) Under proper stimuli. 
 
 (3) With reference to proper objects. 
 
 (4) Evoked in an orderly way. 
 
 Chief characteristics of his philosophy of education. 
 
 a. Unity or inner connection. 
 
 (1) Fundamental law of education. 
 
 (2) In the mental and social life of the child, in the teach- 
 
 ing process, in the materials of instruction, be- 
 tween the child's development and his life. 
 
 b. Self-activity, the means of development. 
 
 (1) Fundamental and essential process of education. 
 
 (2) Involves doctrines of interest and apperception as 
 
 applied educational principles. 
 
 (3) Develops child into a creative rather than an imi- 
 
 tative being, an executive as well as a receptive 
 and reflective being.
 
 138 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 c. Early training of sensations and emotions. 
 
 d. Evolution of inner nature. 
 
 (i) Promoted by freedom, stimulating environment, 
 ample opportunity, appropriate knowledge, and 
 self-activity. 
 
 e. Individuality. 
 
 (1) The guiding principle in education. 
 
 (2) Free growth the only full growth. 
 /. Cooperation. 
 
 (i) Law of unity as applied to the individual in relation 
 
 to the whole of humanity. 
 g. Nature study, the revelation of unseen forces. 
 
 (i) Urged as of increasing importance in education. 
 h. Objective work. 
 
 (i) Means of developing creative faculties through self- 
 activity, not of learning objects nor even of de- 
 veloping power through instruction. 
 i. Manual training. 
 
 (i) The hand to be the agent in assisting to develop the 
 
 mind. 
 j. Play. 
 
 (i) Spontaneous activity of the child to be used as basis 
 
 of the educative process in the early years. 
 4. The kindergarten. 
 
 a. The practical expression of his principles. 
 
 b. Intended to connect the home and the school. 
 
 c. Characterized by doing, expression, and self-activity, 
 (i) Opportunity given to aid the child to express him- 
 self and thus produce development. 
 
 d. Furnished means of unity and continuity in the develop- 
 
 ment of the child through the use of " gifts," as 
 playthings, and occupations, games, and songs.
 
 Modern Education 139 
 
 e. Afforded training in perception, observation, comparison, 
 
 and judgment. 
 5. Results of the teachings of Froebel. 
 
 a. Influenced all phases of elementary education. 
 
 b. Development, self-activity, initiative, and individuality 
 
 emphasized as the important ends of education. 
 
 c. Play, spontaneous activity, manual and industrial work 
 
 utilized to promote self-realization. 
 
 d. Correlation of the materials of study with the child and 
 
 with life. 
 
 e. Process of education determined by the nature of the 
 
 child. 
 
 /. Widely followed in the United States, though less widely 
 in other countries. 
 
 THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION (THE QUESTION OF 
 EDUCATIONAL VALUES) 
 
 Chief Theories of Educational Values 
 
 1 . The value is in discipline, viz. : Locke's theory : that edu- 
 
 cational value is gained by the process of acquiring a sub- 
 ject rather than from the thing learned. 
 
 2. The value is in the method employed, viz.: the psychological 
 
 conception of education : that educational value can be 
 determined only on the basis of apperception and in 
 accord with the laws of mental development. 
 
 3. The value is in the subject matter, viz.: the theory of the 
 
 scientific movement : that educational value is gained in 
 direct proportion to the application that can be made of 
 the knowledge to life.
 
 140 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 
 
 (Compayre : Hist. Fed., 538-556 ; Dexter : Hist. Educ. in 
 U. S., 343-369 ; Graves : Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 
 274-284 ; Hailman : Hist. Fed., 84-92 ; Hanus : Educ. Aims 
 & Values; Misawa : Mod. Educators, 233-244 ; Monroe : Text- 
 Bk. in Hist. Educ., 684-689, Brief Course, 354-358; Painter: 
 Hist. Educ., ist ed., 335-345, Fed. Essays, 399-418; Payne: 
 Contribs. to Educ., 31-68; Quick: Educ. Refs., 439-469; 
 Spencer : Education (Appleton) ; Williams : Hist. Mod. Educ., 
 373-384-) 
 
 1. His life. 
 
 a. Early period : born at Derby educated privately 
 
 distaste for classical languages fondness for 
 mathematics and science. 
 
 b. As young man : engineer (1837) editor of Economist 
 
 (1848-1853). 
 
 c. As philosopher and writer : Social Statics (1850), Essays 
 
 (1858-1863), Education (1861), First Principles 
 (1862), Principles of Biology (1864-1867), Prin- 
 ciples of Psychology (1871-1872), Principles of 
 Sociology (1876-1880), Principles of Ethics (1879). 
 
 2. His educational treatise : Education, Intellectual, Moral, 
 
 and Physical, in which emphasis is placed upon 
 science as the knowledge of most worth. 
 
 3. His purpose : to show that the aim of education in prepar- 
 
 ing for complete living can best be promoted by 
 the study of science. 
 
 4. His doctrine of values of knowledge. 
 
 a. Knowledge that is best for use in life is also best for 
 development of power.
 
 Modern Education 141 
 
 b. Relative values of knowledge. 
 
 (1) That necessary for self-preservation. 
 
 (2) That necessary for gaining a livelihood; 
 
 (3) That necessary for rearing children. 
 
 (4) That necessary for citizenship. 
 
 (5) That necessary for relaxation. 
 
 c. The study of science accomplishes all these ends. 
 
 5. Principles of intellectual education. 
 
 a. Accord with the theories of Pestalozzi. 
 
 b. Emphasis upon 
 
 (1) From the simple to the complex. 
 
 (2) From the concrete to the abstract. 
 
 (3) From the known to the unknown. 
 
 (4) From the empirical to the rational. 
 
 (5) The process of self-development. 
 
 (6) The theory that the genesis of knowledge in the indi- 
 
 vidual should follow the same course as the genesis 
 of knowledge in the race. 
 
 (7) Learning being made pleasurable. 
 
 6. Theory of moral education. 
 
 a. Discipline of natural consequences. 
 
 b. Self-government instead of that of external authority. 
 
 7. Emphasis on physical education. 
 
 a. Physical vigor a fundamental necessity. 
 
 b. Attention to diet, clothing, exercise, and play. 
 
 8. Influence of Spencer's work. 
 
 a. Led to introduction of science into the curriculum. 
 
 b. Promoted growth of utilitarian motives in education. 
 
 c. Added emphasis to and tended to make more scientific 
 
 the Pestalozzian principles of method. 
 
 d. Increased the attention to physical education.
 
 142 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 EDUCATIONAL THEORY OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 
 Sociological Conception of Education 
 
 (Bagley : Educative Process, Part, i ; Butler : The Meaning of 
 Educ., 17-32; Dewey: The Sch. 6* Soc., The Child & the 
 Curriculum, Are the Schools doing What the People Want Them 
 to Do? (Educ. Rev., 21: 459); Dutton: Sociol. Phases of 
 Educ.; Dutton & Snedden : Admins, of Publ. Educ. in U. S., 
 559-595 ; Eliot : Educ. Reform, ch. 18 ; Fitch : Educ. Aims 6* 
 Meths., 326-357 ; Hall : Some Soc. Aspects of Educ. (Educ. 
 Rev., 23 : 433) ; Hanus : Educ. Aims, ch. 5 ; Harris : Psych. 
 Foundations of Educ., chs. 36, 38 ; Henderson : Educ. 6* the 
 Larger Life; Home : Phil, of Educ., 95-168 ; Howerth : 
 Educ. 6* the Social Ideal (Educ. Rev., Sept., 1902) ; Hyde : 
 The Social Mission of the Publ. Sch. (Educ. Rev., 22 : 222) ; 
 Mackenzie : An Introd. to Soc. Phil., ch. 6 ; Monroe : Text- 
 Bk. in Hist. Educ., 706-746, Brief Course, 369-397; Miinster- 
 berg: Psych. &* Life, 1-34; O'Shea: Educ. as Adjustment; 
 Paulding : The Publ. Sch. as a Center of Community Life 
 (Educ. Rev., 15:147); Ross: Social Control; Sadler: The 
 Sch. in Some of its Relations to Social Order & Nat'l Life 
 (Educ. Rev., 29 : 338) ; Vincent : The Social Mind &* Educ., 
 chs. i, 4; Ward : Dynamic Social., v. 2, chs. 10-14.) 
 
 i. Nineteenth-century tendencies that contributed to the 
 growth of this conception. 
 
 a. Opposition to the disciplinary conception of education. 
 
 b. Growth of the belief in a psychological basis for education. 
 
 c. Extension of the practical view of education, expressed 
 
 in the scientific tendency and enhanced by 
 the great developments in all departments of 
 science.
 
 Modern Education 143 
 
 d. Emphasis upon education in sociological theory. 
 
 (1) Comte : Education is the means of social control. 
 
 (2) Ward : Education results in the dissemination of 
 
 knowledge, upon which depend general intelli- 
 gence, and upon this, in turn, depends social 
 progress and happiness. 
 
 (3) Bacon and others: Education is the transmission 
 
 from one generation to the next of the sub- 
 stance of the learning and culture of the past ; 
 and growing out of that thought, it is the de- 
 velopment of the power of adjustment to a 
 changing environment. 
 
 (4) Howerth and others : Education is the chief factor 
 
 in the process of evolution or as some have 
 expressed it, education is conscious evolution. 
 
 (5) Dewey : " Education is the process of remaking 
 
 experience, giving it a more socialized value 
 through individual experience, by giving the 
 individual better control over his powers." 
 New aim and meaning of education. 
 
 a. To equip one with that knowledge and the power to use 
 
 it, which will best fit him to meet the demands 
 of modern social life in its varying activities 
 and relationships. 
 
 b. The development of a right social attitude which shall 
 
 involve 
 
 (1) A healthy body. 
 
 (2) A trained mind. 
 
 (3) Moral judgment. 
 
 (4) Knowledge which gives a comprehensive view of life. 
 
 (5) Efficiency or skill to use this knowledge for the 
 
 welfare of the community.
 
 144 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 3. Ways by which this demand for social improvement through 
 
 education has been met. 
 
 a. By public school-systems offering free, compulsory edu- 
 
 cation. 
 
 b. By endowed institutions for the education of all classes 
 
 in all kinds of learning. 
 
 c. By schools for defectives. 
 
 d. By libraries, lectures, and the press. 
 
 e. By evening, correspondence, and summer schools. 
 
 4. The industrial phase of this type of education. 
 
 (Bloomfield : Vocational Guidance of Youth; Bolton : 
 Sec. Sch. Syst. of Germany, 133-164; Butler: 
 Educ. in U. S., 551-768, arts, as follows: 
 Techn. Scien., and Engineering Educ., by 
 Mendenhall, Agricultural Educ., by Dabney, 
 Com'l Educ., by James, and Industr. Educ., by 
 Clarke ; Dexter : Hist. Educ. in U. S., 343- 
 370, 401-423, 454-480; Button & Snedden : 
 Admins, of Pull. Educ. in U. S., 404-425, 
 468-479, 559-596 ; English Spec. Repts. on 
 Educ., vs. i, 3, 9, u, 15; Herrick: Meaning 
 6* Pract. of Com'l Educ.; MacArthur: Educ. 
 in Relation to Man. Industry; Russell : Germ. 
 Higher Schs., 76-109, 329-351 ; Sharpless : 
 Eng. Educ., 151-169; Snedden: Probl. of 
 Vocational Educ.; U. S. Com'r Educ. Repts., 
 1891-1892, v. i, 369-412, 1897-1898, v. i, 
 709-749 ; Ware : Educ. Foundations of Trade 
 & Industry.) 
 
 a. Aim: to make the individual a productive social unit 
 
 economically as well as politically. 
 
 b. Manual education.
 
 Modern Education 145 
 
 (1) For both educational and vocational values. 
 
 (2) In both elementary and secondary schools. 
 
 (3) Including woodwork, ironwork, cooking, sewing, clay 
 
 modeling, paper folding, printing, drawing. 
 
 c. Technical education. 
 
 (1) Distinctly professional in character. 
 
 (2) Schools upon private foundations. 
 
 (3) State-supported schools. 
 
 (4) In departments of colleges and universities. 
 
 (5) National schools. 
 
 (6) Offering courses in architecture and the various 
 
 departments of engineering, including civil, 
 chemical, electrical, irrigation, metallurgical, 
 mining, marine, sanitary, naval, textile, rail- 
 way. 
 
 d. Agricultural education. 
 
 (1) For its economic value. 
 
 (2) State agricultural colleges. 
 
 (3) In departments of established colleges and univer- 
 
 sities. 
 
 (4) Experiment stations. 
 
 (5) Public schools. 
 
 (6) Embracing instruction in agriculture, horticulture, 
 
 forestry, agricultural chemistry, botany, zool- 
 ogy, including entomology, vegetable and 
 animal physiology, geology, meteorology, 
 drawing, veterinary science, dairying, live- 
 stock, husbandry, etc. 
 
 e. Commercial education. 
 
 (1) To meet the demands of business. 
 
 (2) Commercial and business schools. 
 
 (3) Commercial courses in
 
 146 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (a) Public schools. 
 
 (6) Private secondary schools. 
 
 (c) Colleges and universities. 
 
 (4) Giving instruction in bookkeeping, business prac- 
 tice, civics, commercial law, commercial 
 arithmetic, commercial geography, stenog- 
 raphy, economics, banking, finance, trans- 
 portation, insurance, sociology, diplomacy, 
 modern languages. 
 /. Industrial and vocational education. 
 
 (1) To provide means of obtaining a livelihood. 
 
 (2) Trades schools of elementary and secondary grades. 
 
 (3) Vocational schools. 
 
 (4) Industrial courses in public and private schools of 
 
 all grades. 
 
 (5) Special industrial schools for defectives, and in the 
 
 United States for the negroes and for the 
 Indians. 
 
 (6) Instruction including carpentry, wood carving, pat- 
 
 tern making, forging, molding, plumbing, 
 blacksmithing, the textile industries, the 
 machine trades, bricklaying, plastering, stone- 
 cutting, steam- and hot-water fitting, paint- 
 ing, sewing, cooking, millinery, dressmaking, 
 laundry, nursing, housekeeping, etc.
 
 Modern Education 147 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 (Adams: Free Schs. in U. S.; Barnard: Journ. of Educ., 
 v. 4, 545-58i (E.) ; v. 8, 310-314 (E.) ; v. 9, 215-224 (Scot.), 
 170-200 (E.), 381-390 ( Fr -) 5 v. 10, 323-531 (E.) ; v. n, 254- 
 281 (F.) ; v. 12, 593-600 (E.) ; v. 15, 81-117 (E.) ; v. 16, 5-21 
 (00,609-624 (G.); v. 17,435-554 (G.); v. 20,335-360 (G.), 
 211-332 (F.), 360-434 (G.) ; v. 21, 401-606 (F.) ; v. 22, 651- 
 664 (F.), 861-884 (G.); v. 23, 365-368 (E.); v. 26, 561-644 
 (E). ; v. 27, 509-512 (G.) ; v. 28, 737~738 (E.), 855-860 (E.) ; 
 Blow : Kindergarten Educ. in Butler's Educ. in U. S., 33-76 ; 
 Boone: Educ. in U.S.; Brouard: U Instruction Primaire; 
 Browning: Educ. Theories, 226-232 ; Davidson: Hist. Educ., 
 225-226,246-253; Dexter: Hist. Educ. in U. S., i-ioi, 155- 
 169 ; Dutton & Snedden : Admins, of Pull. Educ. in U. S. 
 (see contents) ; Eng. Educ. Dept. Repts. nos. i, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 18 
 (see contents) ; Greenough : Evol. of ELem. Schs. ofGt. Britain; 
 Harris: Elem. Educ. in Butler's Educ. in U. S., 77-140; 
 Hinsdale: Horace Mann 6* the Com. Sch. Revival in U. S.; 
 Hoyt: Studies in Hist. Educ., 147-172; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 
 162-170, 225-227, 269-273, 277-281, 302, 322; Klemm: 
 Europ. Schs.; Mann. (Mrs.) : Life of Horace Mann; 
 Martin: Evol. of M ass. Publ. Sch. Syst. ; Monroe: Text-Bk. 
 in Hist. Educ., 33 8 -339, 407-408, 410, 433-439, 5 2 9 593, 
 700-702, 724-738, Brief Course, 156-157, 196-198, 207-214, 
 269-270, 366-368, 382-393 ; Munroe : Educ. Ideal, 207-223 ; 
 Painter : Fed. Essays, 383-398 ; Parsons : French Schs. thro' 
 Amer. Eyes, Prussian Schs. thro' Amer. Eyes; Prince : Meths. of 
 Instr.&Organiz. of Schs. of Germany, 1-22, 68-76 ff., 183-215; 
 Sharpless: Eng. Educ., 1-51; U. S. Com'r Educ. Repts., 
 vs. i: 1888-1889, 32-77 (G., F., U. S.), 78-111 (E.), 
 112-149 (F.) ; 1889-1890, 263-280 (F. & E.), 299-312, 419-
 
 148 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 464(0.); 1890-1891, 95-124 (F.) ; 1891-1892, 97-104 (E.), 
 139-196 (G.) ; 1892-1893, 203-208 (E.), 3 2 3-336 (G.) ; 1893- 
 1894, 206-297 (G.); 1894-1895, 257-273 (E.), 322-485 (G.); 
 1895-1896, 79-135 (E.), 138-164 (G.); 1896-1897, 15-27 
 (E.); 1897-1898,3-82 (G.); 1898-1899, 3-65 (E.), 125-164 
 (G.) ; 1899-1900,721-894(0.), 1167-1243 (E.) ; 1901, 1-128 
 (G.), 939-1008 (E.); 1902, 647-666 (F.), 1001-1068 (E.); 
 vs. 2: 1890-1891, 705-767 (G. & U. S.) ; 1899-1900, 1712- 
 1732 (F.) ; 1908, 186-188, 201-219 (E-)j 224-230 (F.), 247- 
 253 (G.); I 9 09,375-393(E.), 408-420 (F.), 448-478 (G.).) 
 
 i. Began with the Reformation Movement. 
 
 a. In Germany. 
 
 (1) Luther (1483-1546) said : " The welfare of the State 
 
 depends upon the education of the indi- 
 vidual citizen," and advocated compulsory 
 State education for both sexes the city 
 of Magdeburg, in 1524, established a sys- 
 tem of schools in accord with his plan. 
 
 (2) Melancthon (1479-1560), by the Saxony School 
 
 Plan, provided grammar schools for all 
 towns and villages of Saxony, a plan 
 which was copied generally by other 
 German states by 1565. 
 
 b. In Switzerland. 
 
 (i) Zwingli (1484-1532), author of The Christian 
 Education of Youth, did much to pro- 
 mote the cause of education. 
 
 c. In Holland. 
 
 (i) The Reformed Church, in 1618, in connection with 
 the State undertook the provision of ele- 
 mentary schools in each parish.
 
 Modern Education 149 
 
 d. In France. 
 
 (1) The Jansenists (1637-1661) opened the Little 
 
 Schools at Port Royal, noted for the use 
 of the mother tongue and for improved 
 methods. 
 
 (2) La Salle (1651-1719) and the Christian Brothers 
 
 founded many schools, with pupils graded 
 and taught simultaneously in classes. 
 
 e. In America. 
 
 (1) A general law was passed in 1647 by the Massachu- 
 
 setts Bay Colony, ordering the starting 
 of an elementary school in every town of 
 fifty families. 
 
 (2) Following this example provisions of similar char- 
 
 acter were made in the other colonies 
 from this time up to the Revolutionary 
 War. 
 
 (3) This elementary instruction was not free, however, 
 
 until the nineteenth century. 
 /. In Scotland. 
 
 (i) By cooperation of Church and State, an act was 
 
 passed in 1696 requiring the establishment 
 
 of a school for elementary instruction in 
 
 every parish. 
 
 Promoted by Comenius, realist (1592-1670). 
 a. Improved methods, changed curriculum, wrote first 
 
 illustrated textbook, and provided both 
 
 an infant school and a vernacular school. 
 Enthusiasm stirred up by Rousseau (1712-1778) and Base- 
 
 dow (1728-1790), naturalists, 
 a. Rousseau popularized education and made the child 
 
 the positive factor in the process also
 
 150 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 caused the introduction of new subject 
 matter into the school. 
 
 b. Basedow's work was the direct outgrowth of that of 
 Rousseau. 
 
 (1) Planned complete system of reformed elementary 
 
 education, for the first time designated 
 wholly for children, not controlled by 
 the standards of adults. 
 
 (2) Began the first literature designed wholly for chil- 
 
 dren inspired the writing of Swiss Fam- 
 ily Robinson. 
 
 4. Influence of the French Revolution (1789). 
 
 a. Furthered the extension by the State of the privileges 
 of education to all classes. 
 
 5. Awakening in England. 
 
 a. Parochial schools, primary school foundations, sub- 
 
 scription schools, and dame schools in 
 villages (early eighteenth century). 
 
 b. Monitorial systems of Bell and Lancaster (1797). 
 
 c. Educational societies (from 1808). 
 
 (i) Whose work in promoting universal elementary 
 education has continued throughout the 
 nineteenth century. 
 
 6. New interest aroused by Pestalozzi (17 6-1827), Herbart 
 
 (1776-1841), and Froebel (1782-1852), 
 psychologists. 
 
 a. Pestalozzi urged a practical and universal elementary 
 
 education as a necessity to reform society, 
 and improved the methods of instruction 
 by basing them upon psychological prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 b. Herbart continued and perfected Pestalozzi's work with
 
 Modern Education 151 
 
 regard to methods of instruction, mak- 
 ing apperception, interest, correlation, 
 " method," etc., most important features 
 of modern elementary teaching. 
 
 c. Froebel founded the kindergarten, whose spirit of sym- 
 pathy and whose principle of develop- 
 ment by self-activity have permeated all 
 elementary school work. 
 7. Four state systems developed in the nineteenth century. 
 
 a. Germany. 
 
 1808-1811. Introduction of Pestalozzian methods. 
 
 1818. Ministry of education created. 
 
 1825. Steps toward compulsory attendance. 
 
 1833. Attempt to abolish tuition fees. 
 
 1850. Supremacy of the State in education estab- 
 lished by the constitution. 
 
 1872. Demand for uniform educational system 
 State supervision established by law. 
 
 1888. General abolition of tuition fees. 
 
 b. France. 
 
 1808. University of France created. 
 
 1815. Commissioner of Public Instruction pro- 
 vided for. 
 
 1824. Ministerial department of education estab- 
 lished. 
 
 1833. Guizot's law founding the French national 
 system of education partial State super- 
 vision and support compulsory attend- 
 ance private and public schools. 
 
 1850. Communal control of local schools. 
 
 1870. Extension of supervision. 
 
 1 88 1. Elementary instruction made free.
 
 152 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1882. Elementary instruction made compulsory 
 
 between ages of 6 and 13. 
 1900-1903. Schools made non-religious. 
 1904. Religious teaching orders suppressed. 
 c. England. 
 
 1808. Royal Lancastrian Institution founded to 
 
 promote the Lancastrian system of schools 
 
 (became in 1814, The British and Foreign 
 
 School Society). 
 1811. The National Society, to found schools 
 
 according to the system of Bell (Church of 
 
 England). 
 
 1824-1868. Many educational societies formed. 
 1832. First public money grant for education, 
 
 continued ever since. 
 1839. Committee of Council on Education instituted 
 
 to supervise the distribution of the grants. 
 1842-1852. Parliamentary grants greatly increased : 
 
 3800 schools, 540,000 pupils. 
 1856. Education Department formed. 
 1862. System of " payment by results " begun. 
 1870. Elementary Education Act, establishing a 
 
 national system of education schools 
 
 organized, supported, and supervised by 
 
 the State. 
 1880. Elementary education under 10 years of age 
 
 made compulsory. 
 1891. Elementary education under 10 years of age 
 
 made free with governmental supervision. 
 1899. National Board of Education established 
 
 instruction made compulsory up to 12 years 
 
 of age.
 
 Modern Education 153 
 
 1900. Local boards permitted to make education 
 
 compulsory up to 14 years of age. 
 
 d. United States * (not a national system) : development in 
 ten representative states. 
 
 (1) District of Columbia. 
 
 1804. System of elementary schools inaugurated. 
 
 1848. Elementary schools made free. 
 1862. Colored schools provided. 
 
 1869. Superintendent of schools appointed. 
 1874. Board of trustees placed in control. 
 
 (2) New York. 
 
 1795. General school law enacted to encourage the es- 
 tablishment of schools throughout the state. 
 
 1805. Public School Society of the City of New 
 
 York chartered to found free schools. 
 State common-school fund established by 
 legislature. 
 
 1812. Office of State Superintendent of schools 
 
 created. 
 
 1813. State divided into districts for school pur- 
 
 poses, under the supervision of township 
 
 commissioners. 
 1818. Monitorial system tried in New York city, 
 
 under the direction of Joseph Lancaster, 
 
 Englishman. 
 1841. County Superintendents provided. 
 
 1849. System of free schools begun for the entire 
 
 state. 
 1853. First act providing for union free schools. 
 
 1 Free public elementary instruction to-day in all states of the Union, and 
 in most of the states attendance compulsory, although the laws differ in lengths 
 of school year and in numbers of years required.
 
 154 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1867. System of free schools in full operation. Free 
 
 school fund established. 
 1874. Compulsory Education Law, fixing age from 
 
 8 to 14 years (raised to 16 years later). 
 1900. Enacted that no person should be refused 
 
 admission into or be excluded from any 
 
 public school on account of race or color. 
 1904. State Commissioner of Education appointed. 
 
 (3) Massachusetts. 
 
 1789. School law provided schools to be supported 
 
 by local districts. 
 
 1826. Public supervision extended. 
 1834. Permanent school fund established. 
 1837. State board of education created Horace 
 Mann, secretary. 
 
 Elementary instruction made free. 
 
 Attendance made compulsory. 
 
 Appropriations doubled. 
 1846. Special agents of the board appointed. 
 1854. City and town superintendents authorized. 
 1869. Consolidation of rural schools inaugurated. 
 
 1883. Evening schools started. 
 
 1884. Free textbook law enacted. 
 
 1902. Superintendent of schools required by law 
 
 in every town and city. 
 1910. Office of State Commissioner of Education 
 
 created. 
 
 (4) Connecticut. 
 
 Up to 1825. District plan of local support and con- 
 trol of elementary schools. 
 
 1825. Lancastrian system adopted. 
 
 1826. State supervision tried.
 
 Modern Education 155 
 
 1837. Complete system of organization. 
 
 1838. State Board of Commissioners established 
 
 Henry Barnard, secretary. 
 
 1839. Elementary education made free. 
 
 (5) Virginia. 
 
 1818. General provision for elementary education. 
 
 1846. School districts, county commissioners, and 
 
 district trustees provided. 
 
 1870. New constitution adopted, providing a full 
 State system of free schools. 
 
 (6) Ohio. 
 
 1821. First public school law enacted. 
 
 1847. Graded schools provided. 
 
 1853. Elementary education made free. 
 
 1900. Consolidation of rural schools inaugurated. 
 
 (7) Indiana. 
 
 1824. General school law enacted, providing for 
 
 schools to be established in all districts. 
 1852. School tax imposed also opposed. 
 1867. School tax made constitutional. 
 
 (8) Illinois. 
 
 1825. System of free schools begun law ineffective 
 
 in 1827 and not fully reenacted for years. 
 
 1854. First state superintendent of schools. 
 
 1855. Elementary education made free. 
 
 (9) Tennessee. 
 
 1830. First provision for elementary instruction. 
 1891. Graded schools established. 
 (10) Mississippi. 
 
 1846. First law providing general school system 
 
 not fully carried out until after Civil War. 
 
 1870. Complete system established by legislature.
 
 156 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 (Arnold : A French Eton, 6* Schs. 6* Univs. of France; Bar- 
 nard : Journ. of Educ., v. 5, 689-699 (G.) ; v. 8, 257-282 
 (E.); v. 16,657-688 (E.); v. 17,435-544 (G.) ; v. 21,401- 
 606 (F.); v. 24, 433-43 6 (E.); v. 28, 729-742 (E.), 749-75 2 
 (E.) ; Bolton : Sec. Sch. Syst. of Germany, 1-384 ; Boone : 
 Educ. in U. S.; Brown (J. F.) : The Am. High Sch., 1-38 ; 
 Brown (E. E.) : Hist. Sec. Educ. in Am. (Sch. Rev., vs. 6, 7, 
 1897-1898), The Making of Our Middle Schs., chs. n, 14; 
 Browning: Educ. Theories, 202-225; Butler: Educ. in U. S., 
 141-768; Dexter: Hist. Educ. in U. S., 90-96, 170-181; 
 Dutton & Snedden: Admins, of Publ. Educ. in U. S. (see 
 contents) ; Eng. Educ. Dept. Repts., nos. i, 2, 3, 6, 9, 11,19, 20, 
 24 (see contents) ; Farrington : French Sec. Schs., 1-338 ; 
 Fitch: Matthew and Thomas Arnold; Gill: Systs. of Educ., 
 1-47; Kemp: Hist. Educ., 171-192, 323-332, 337-338; 
 Klemm : Europ. Schs.; Lange : Higher Educ. of Women in 
 Europe; Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 389-397, 418-419, 
 527-528, 697-700, Brief Course, 183-187, 200-201, 266-270, 
 363-366 ; Munroe : Educ. Ideal, 207-223 ; Prince : Meths. of 
 Instr. & Organiz. of Schs. of Germany, 44-66, 205-215 ; Russell : 
 Germ. Higher Schs., 1-475; Sharpless: Eng. Educ., 75-169; 
 Ware: Educ. Foundations of Trade & Industry; U. S. 
 Com'r Educ. Repts., vs. i, 1888-1889, 33-77 (G., F., 
 
 u. s.), 112-149 (Fr.); 1889-1890, 281-292, 314-407, 455-464 
 
 (G.); 1890-1891, 109-124 (F.), 135-150 (E.); 1891-1892, 
 105-137 (E.), 369-412 (F.) ; 1894-1895, 289-312 (F.), 583- 
 712 (E.) ; 1895-1896, 635-639 (F.) ; 1896-1897, 126-206 (G.) ; 
 1897-1898, 3-82 (G.), 694-788 (F.); 1898-1899, 201-203 
 (G.), 1106-1138 (F.); 1899-1900, 45-84 (E.), 721-894 (G.); 
 1901, 1-128 (G.), 939-1008 (E.), 1103-1109 (F.) ; 1902, 685-
 
 Modern Education 157 
 
 698 (F.), 1001-1068 (E.) ; 1905, 76-80 (F.) ; 1906, 30-32 
 (F.); 1907,143-157 (F.); 1908,188-193 (E.), 230-238 (F.), 
 254-274 (G.) ; 1909, 420-432 (F.), 492-496 (G.).) 
 
 i. The Classical schools of the Renaissance. 
 
 a. In England under the influence of Erasmus, More, Roger 
 
 Ascham, and John Colet. 
 
 (1) Eton, 1441; St. Paul's, 1512; Shrewsbury, 1551; 
 
 Westminster, 1560; Rugby, 1567; Harrow, 
 1571 ; Charterhouse, 1609. 
 
 (2) Devoted exclusively to formal study of Greek and 
 
 Latin languages and literatures. 
 
 (3) Mathematics, science, history, and modern languages 
 
 introduced only in the nineteenth century. 
 
 b. In Germany through the work of John Sturm and 
 
 Melancthon. 
 
 (1) First gymnasium at Strassburg in 1538 Sturm, 
 
 the rector course completely organized and 
 graded, with ten classes devoted to religion, 
 and Greek and Latin classics, German being 
 studied only incidentally. 
 
 (2) Courses of study of these new secondary schools 
 
 were formed either by the direct advice or un- 
 der the influence of Melancthon, whose pupils 
 became in many cases gymnasium rectors. 
 (a) The Saxony Latin Schools, his first foundations 
 (see p. 81). 
 
 (3) Long the type of German secondary schools. 
 
 c. In Catholic countries, founded by the Jesuits in 1540. 
 (i) Classical schools of five grades, covering five to 
 
 seven years, devoted to formal study of Greek 
 and Latin.
 
 158 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (2) Thoroughly organized and work carefully systema- 
 
 tized, teaching gratuitous, but results narrow 
 and showy. 
 
 (3) Greatly influenced the development of secondary 
 
 education in Germany. 
 
 2. The Rilterakademien of the seventeenth century. 
 
 a. Schools for German nobles. 
 
 b. Resulted from the affectation by the youth of French 
 
 ways and ideals. 
 
 c. Included instruction in the French language and litera- 
 
 ture, mathematics, physics, political science, 
 geography, history, law, etc. 
 
 3. The Latin Grammar Schools in New England. 
 
 a. Boston Latin School established in 1635. 
 
 b. Included classical college-preparatory courses. 
 
 c. Religious spirit strong. 
 
 d. Tuition not free. 
 
 4. Influence of the realistic movement. 
 
 a. Ratich (1571-1635) and Comenius (1592-1670). 
 
 (1) New methods of teaching. 
 
 (2) Urged study of natural science and the vernacular. 
 
 b. Realschulen or real-schools. 
 
 (1) First established by Hecker in Berlin, in 1747, for 
 
 those who did not propose to enter the learned 
 professions. 
 
 (2) Offered instruction in religion and ethics, German, 
 
 French, Latin, writing, arithmetic, drawing, 
 history, geography, geometry, mechanics, 
 architecture, and trades. 
 
 (3) Widely copied throughout Germany. 
 
 c. Academies. 
 
 (i) In England.
 
 Modern Education 159 
 
 (a) Founded by Dissenters, who were excluded from 
 the public schools and the universities. 
 
 (6) Provided direct preparation for the practical 
 occupations of life. 
 
 (c) Curriculum included " real " studies, English, 
 French, Italian, logic, history, economics, 
 natural philosophy, geography, algebra, geom- 
 etry, surveying, trigonometry, mechanics, etc. 
 (2) In America. 
 
 (a) Character similar to that of English academies. 
 
 (b) Purpose: to meet the needs of those who did 
 
 not intend to go to the universities, but who 
 wished a complete practical education. 
 
 (c) The first one : " The Academy and Charitable 
 
 School of Pennsylvania," opened in 1751. 
 
 (d) Became a distinct type of secondary school in 
 
 the United States, being founded in great 
 numbers after the Revolutionary War. 
 
 (e) Began as private schools later many were 
 
 incorporated into the State systems of 
 schools. 
 
 Development in the nineteenth century, 
 a. France. 
 
 1802. Modern system of secondary education organ- 
 ized by the establishment of 
 
 (1) Lycees, supported by the State. 
 
 (2) Colleges, supported by the commune. Both 
 
 to prepare for the university and the higher 
 professional schools, and for civil service. 
 
 1814. Modern languages made part of the regular 
 course work in history extended. 
 
 1815-1848. Lycees called Royal Colleges.
 
 160 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1828. Instruction in science brought up to that in letters. 
 
 1848. Name of lycee resumed. 
 
 1852. Two courses established : (a) in letters, (b) in 
 science. 
 
 1880. Lycees and colleges for girls created. 
 
 1890. Curriculum reorganized, providing both a classi- 
 cal and a modern baccalaureate. 
 
 1902. Curriculum again reorganized, providing two 
 cycles of studies with a single baccalau- 
 reate. 
 b. Germany. 
 
 1808. Reorganization of secondary education by Hum- 
 boldt. 
 
 1817. Ministry of education created. 
 
 1820. (Approximately.) Admission to civil service con- 
 ditioned upon graduation from the gym- 
 nasium. 
 
 1825. Separation from the Church accomplished and 
 State control assured. 
 
 1834. Admission to learned professions conditioned also 
 upon graduation from the gymnasium. 
 
 1800-1835. Period of foundation of technical schools. 
 
 1837. Uniformity in instruction and in organization 
 attained and Greek made obligatory. 
 
 1840-1870. Period of specialization. 
 
 1856. Gymnasial program reorganized but remained 
 distinctly classical. 
 
 1859. Realschulen officially recognized and two types 
 provided : one with full nine-year course 
 and with Latin throughout, the other, 
 with curriculum determined largely by 
 local authorities.
 
 Modern Education 161 
 
 1873. German Association for the Secondary Education 
 
 of Girls formed. 
 1875. Secondary schools for girls placed in general 
 
 class of hohere schulen with those for boys. 
 1875 and following years. Period of development of 
 
 technical high schools. 
 1882. Realschulen reclassified : 
 
 (1) Realgymnasien, with nine-year Latin-scien- 
 
 tific course which prepared for the univer- 
 sity and for the higher technical schools. 
 
 (2) Oberrealschulen, with nine-year course with- 
 
 out Latin, to prepare for the university 
 and for technical and industrial pursuits. 
 
 (3) Realschulen, with six-year course in modern 
 
 languages and natural science, to prepare 
 
 for practical life. 
 1893. Special regulations of the ministry of education 
 
 passed concerning secondary schools for 
 
 girls, giving official definition to them and 
 
 providing an official program of study. 
 First mddchengymnasium established at Carls- 
 
 ruhe. 
 1900. Royal decree giving equal value to training in the 
 
 gymnasium, the realgymnasium, and the 
 
 oberrealschule. 
 
 1902. Privileges of realschule greatly extended. 
 1908. Secondary schools for girls made equal in rank 
 
 with those for boys. 
 c. England. 
 
 Up to 1865. Different kinds of secondary schools, on 
 
 private foundations only, with little or no 
 
 inspection.
 
 1 62 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) The " Public Schools " (cf. p. 77). 
 
 (2) The " Grammar Schools." 
 
 (3) Endowed schools. 
 
 (4) Technical schools. 
 
 1865. Royal Commission appointed to investigate 
 secondary education reorganization of 
 programs modern languages and science 
 introduced better inspection. 
 Establishment of secondary schools for the com- 
 mon people, as higher elementary schools 
 or as preparatory schools to teachers' 
 training colleges. 
 
 1872. Secondary education for girls provided. 
 
 1889-1890. London County Council empowered to es- 
 tablish and support technical schools of 
 secondary grade. 
 
 1902. Government made grants to the support of 
 these technical schools provided 25 per 
 cent of the students were non-paying 
 similar grants were made to the public 
 secondary schools. 
 
 (Even up to the present time the endowed " Pub- 
 lic Schools " or " Grammar Schools " are 
 the only schools which provide a liberal 
 secondary education preparatory to the 
 university and professional life.) 
 d. United States. 
 
 Up to 1821. Private academies and Latin grammar 
 schools the only ones of secondary 
 grade. 
 
 1821. First public high school in Boston. 
 
 1821-1839. Six others founded at Portland, Worcester,
 
 Modern Education 163 
 
 New Bedford, Cambridge, Taunton, and 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 1839-1849. Six additional ones founded. 
 
 These public high schools combined the features 
 and functions of both the academies and 
 the Latin grammar schools, were free and 
 were publicly supported. 
 
 Since 1860. Phenomenal growth of high schools. 
 
 1870. 160 high schools. 
 
 1880. 800 high schools. 
 
 1890. 2526 high schools. 
 
 1900. 6005 high schools. 
 
 1905. 7576 high schools. 
 
 1909. 10,213 high schools. 
 
 Sphere of high school work ever widening to meet 
 the needs of all students now includes 
 classical, Latin-scientific, modern-language, 
 English, scientific, commercial, manual 
 training, industrial, and art courses. 
 High schools provide free tuition, in some states 
 free textbooks are secular and are sup- 
 ported by state funds. 
 
 1892-1894. Committee of Ten of the National Educa- 
 tional Association accomplished the stand- 
 ardization of the courses of study and 
 methods of instruction of secondary edu- 
 cation.
 
 164 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 (Bolton: Sec. Sch. Syst. of Germany, 55-128; Boone: Educ. 
 in U. S.; Compayre : Hist. Fed., 404-405 ; Brown: The Tr. of 
 Teachers for Sec. Schs., Pt. i (G.), Pt. 2 (U. S.); Dexter: Hist. 
 Educ. in U. S., 371-400; Dutton & Snedden : Admins, of 
 Publ. Educ. in U. S. (see contents) ; Eng. Educ. Dept. 
 Repts., nos. i, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 18 (see contents); Farrington: 
 French Sec. Schs., 103-123, 345-377; Hinsdale: Training of 
 Trs. in Butler's Educ. in U. S., 359-408 ; Kemp : Hist. Educ., 
 192, 234, 239-240, 249-251, 319-321; Monroe: Text-Bk. in 
 Hist. Educ., 424-425, 439, 467, 498, 627-639, 668, Brief Course, 
 204-205, 213, 230, 249, 322-329, 343; Parsons: Prussian 
 Schs. seen thro' Amer. Eyes, French Schs. seen thro' Amer. 
 Eyes; Prince : Meths. of Instr. &* Organiz. of Schs. of Germany, 
 35-43, 183-204; Russell: Germ. Higher Schs., 352-369; 
 Sharpless : Eng. Educ., 52-74 ; U. S. Com'r Educ. Repts. vs. 
 i: 1888-1889, 32-77 (G. & F.); 1891-1892, 139-196 (G.) ; 
 1893-1894, 206-244 (G.); 1894-1895, 322-485 (G); 1895- 
 1896, 138-164 (G.); 1897-1898, 3-82 (G.), 133-167 (E.); 
 1898-1899, 201-203 (G.) ; 1901, 647-666 (F.) ; 1908, 244 ff. 
 (F.), 252-256 (G.); 1909, 375-377 (E.), 45 2 -453> 47 1 , 479, 
 484-485 (G.)0 
 
 i. Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 a. Jesuits (organized in 1 540) . 
 
 (i) Members of order received training as student 
 teachers under supervision of elders. 
 
 b. Mulcaster in England urged, in 1581, that the universi- 
 
 ties should offer training for teachers as 
 they did for practice of law, medicine, and 
 theology.
 
 Modern Education 165 
 
 c. Christian Brothers. 
 
 (1) In 1685, first institution opened at Rheims for train- 
 
 ing members of order for their work. 
 
 (2) Normal schools with primary schools for practice 
 
 teaching established afterwards. 
 
 d. Francke (1692-1707) trained his teachers for their work 
 
 in seminarium selectum prczceptorum. 
 Eighteenth century. 
 
 a. Germany. 
 
 1735. First State teachers' seminary established by 
 
 Frederick William of Prussia. 
 1738. University work in education inaugurated. 
 
 (1) Pedagogical seminary at Gottingen. 
 
 (2) Soon copied by other universities. 
 
 1763. State teachers' examinations in certain subjects 
 
 ordered. 
 1771. Normal school established at Vienna. 
 
 b. France. 
 
 1794. First normal school (at Paris) provided by 
 law. 
 
 c. United States. 
 
 1789-1800. Various published articles appeared, urging 
 
 better preparation of teachers. 
 Nineteenth century. 
 a. Promoted by theorists and teachers. 
 
 (1) Pestalozzi, whose teachings have been widely in- 
 
 corporated in the training of teachers. 
 
 (2) Herbart, especially his principles of apperception, 
 
 interest, correlation, and the formal steps 
 in teaching. 
 
 (3) Froebel, with the doctrine of the kindergarten, of 
 
 self-activity, and of development.
 
 1 66 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (4) Horace Mann, 1 school administrator, the father of 
 
 normal schools in the United States. 
 
 (5) David P. Page, author of first textbook on peda- 
 
 gogy : The Theory and, Practice of Teach- 
 ing first principal of the first normal 
 school in the state of New York, estab- 
 lished at Albany. 
 
 (6) Henry Barnard, organizer of the National Educa- 
 
 tional Association (of teachers) first 
 United States Commissioner of Education 
 (1867). 
 b. Germany. 
 
 Before 1800, 14 pedagogical seminaries had been estab- 
 lished one in nearly every state, sup- 
 ported wholly or partly by the State. 
 1807. First State test (Staatsprufung) for teachers 
 established by law. 
 
 1809. Herbart called to university of Kb'nigsberg, 
 
 where he opened a pedagogical seminary. 
 Zeller, pupil of Pestalozzi, also engaged 
 in training of teachers at Konigsberg. 
 These influences brought improvements 
 in the training of teachers new peda- 
 gogical seminaries were established the 
 old ones were reorganized. 
 
 1810. Edict of 1807 went into effect, fixing the quali- 
 
 1 (See Davidson: Hist. Educ., 246-253; Dexter: Hist. Educ. in U. S., 98- 
 101 ; Graves: Gt. Educators of Three Centuries, 249-273 ; Hinsdale : Horace 
 Mann 6* the Com. Sch. Revival in U. S.; Hoyt : Studies in Hist. Educ., 147-172 ; 
 Mann (Mrs.) : Life of Horace Mann; Monroe : Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 735- 
 736; Painter: Fed. Essays, 383-398; U. S. Com'r. Educ. Repts., vs. i : 1895- 
 1896, 887-927, by Harris; 1896-1897, 715-767, by Mayo.)
 
 Modern Education 167 
 
 fications of teachers and substituting State 
 control for local tests. 
 
 1810-1849. Ninety pedagogical seminaries were estab- 
 lished. 
 
 1826. Staatspriifung abolished and a trial year (Probe- 
 jahr) substituted. 
 
 1831. Normal schools first established. 
 
 1874. First State examination for women teachers. 
 
 1882 and 1885. Teachers' pension laws. 
 
 By 1889. 106 normal schools for men, 8 for women. 
 
 1890. Extra year of training added to preparation of 
 teachers (Seminar -jahr) which preceded 
 the trial year. 
 
 1901. Graduates of any secondary school admitted 
 to State examination for license to teach 
 in secondary schools, without restriction 
 as to particular subjects. 
 c. France. 
 
 1808. Higher normal school for secondary school 
 teachers founded. 
 
 1814-1830. 12 normal schools for elementary school 
 teachers established. 
 
 1833. Every department was ordered to establish a 
 normal school by itself or in conjunction 
 with one or more other departments 
 this resulted in the establishment of 47 
 primary normal schools. 
 
 1860-1863. 7 more normal schools created. 
 
 1867. Reorganization of programs of study agri- 
 culture introduced salaries increased. 
 
 1880. First higher normal school for girls to train 
 teachers for secondary schools.
 
 1 68 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1880-1882. 2 normal schools established, one for men, 
 one for women, for higher primary school 
 teachers. 
 
 1886. Every department required to have 2 normal 
 schools, one for men, one for women. 
 
 1899. Teachers required to be lay teachers. 
 
 1903. Higher Normal School made a part of the uni- 
 
 versity of Paris degree of agregation 
 given at graduation, entitling the holder 
 to position in secondary school or to re- 
 ceive the salary if no position be vacant. 
 d. England and Scotland. 
 
 1827. First normal school at Glasgow. 
 
 1839. First inspector of schools, movement begun 
 to start a normal training college for 
 teachers in England. 
 
 1843. Government aid given to provide for training 
 colleges. 
 
 By 1851. 25 training colleges had been established, 
 offering professional training to 6000 pupil- 
 teachers. 
 
 1870. Extension by law of resources of training col- 
 leges. 
 
 1890. Special provisions passed concerning training 
 colleges, giving them official standing. 
 43 training colleges created by this date, 
 17 for men, 25 for women, i for men and 
 women. First day-training colleges estab- 
 lished and attached to university colleges. 
 
 1904. Government contributed 25 per cent of cost of 
 
 maintenance of training colleges, the local 
 authorities the remainder.
 
 Modern Education 169 
 
 1907. Number of training colleges increased to 74. 
 
 1908. Enacted that training colleges receiving public 
 
 grants must admit one half of their pupils 
 without denominational tests also that 
 no new training college should be estab- 
 lished unless free from denominational 
 instruction. 
 
 9000 pupils admitted to training colleges by 
 free competition. 
 
 1909. Government increased its aid to support of train- 
 
 ing colleges to 75 per cent of cost. 
 e. United States. 
 
 1823. Private training school opened at Concord, Vt., 
 by Samuel R. Hall. 
 
 1827. New York legislature passed a law for the pro- 
 motion of the training of teachers, but 
 it was ineffective. 
 
 1831-1834. Academies provided training for teachers. 
 
 1839. First teachers' institute, Hartford, Conn. 
 First normal school, Lexington, Mass. 
 
 1840. First teachers' institute in New York. 
 
 1844. First normal school in New York, at Albany. 
 
 1845. Teachers' institutes held for the first time in 
 
 Massachusetts and Rhode Island. 
 
 1846. Teachers' institutes held for the first time in 
 
 New Hampshire and Vermont. 
 
 1847. Teachers' institutes held for the first time in 
 
 Maine. 
 1850. Brown University gave pedagogical courses for 
 
 5 years. 
 
 1852. Boston City Normal School founded. 
 Since 1852. Growth of training schools. 
 By 1875. 7 public normal schools.
 
 170 Outlines of the History of Ediication 
 
 By 1800. 84 public normal schools, 21 city training 
 schools. 
 
 By 1902. 108 private normal schools, 44 city train- 
 ing schools. 
 
 By 1905. 535 institutions giving professional courses. 
 
 By 1910. 196 public normal schools. 
 
 919 public institutions and 338 private in- 
 stitutions giving professional courses. 
 
 1873. Iowa University offered pedagogical courses. 
 
 1874. First university chair in education at University 
 
 of Michigan. 
 
 1882. Teachers' reading circles started. 
 1884. Number of universities giving pedagogical courses 
 
 greatly increased. 
 By 1884. 6 universities. 
 By 1893. 83 universities. 
 By 1902. 247 universities. 
 
 1888. Teachers' College opened at Columbia University. 
 1890. School of Pedagogy opened at New York Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 1893-1895. Committee of 15 accomplished the stand- 
 ardization of the preparatory courses of 
 study for the training of teachers. 
 1894. Teachers' training classes organized. 
 1901 . School of Education opened at Chicago University. 
 4. Certification of teachers. 
 
 a. County certification by examination. 
 
 b. State certification by examination of various grades. 
 
 c. Certification by graduation from normal schools, train- 
 
 ing colleges, training schools, and training 
 classes, pedagogical seminaries, colleges, 
 and universities.
 
 Modern Education 171 
 
 5. Generally accepted standard of preparation. 
 
 a. Scholarship, both general and special, gained by an aca- 
 
 demic course of at least one grade higher 
 than the grade of teaching for which it is 
 to qualify. 
 
 b. Professional training, including the study of psychology, 
 
 history and principles of education, gen- 
 eral method, special method, school hy- 
 giene, school organization and school man- 
 agement. 
 
 c. Practice teaching and observation. 
 
 MODERN SCHOOL SYSTEMS 
 
 (Bolton : Sec. Sch. Syst. of Germany, 1-54 ; Boone : Educ. in 
 U. S.; Dexter: Hist. Educ. in U. S., 182-206; Draper: 
 Educ. Organiz. 6* Admins., in Butler's Educ. in U. S., 1-32 ; 
 Dutton & Snedden : Admins, of Publ. Educ. in U. S. (see 
 contents) ; Eng. Educ. Dept. Repts., vs. i (G., F., E.) ; 
 2 (F., E.); 3 (G-); 6 (E.) ; 7 (F.); 9 (G.) ; 10 (U. S.) ; n 
 (U. S.); 15 (U. S.); 16 (F.) ; 18 (F.) ; 20 (G.) ; 21 (E.); 
 22 (G., F.) ; 24 (F.) ; Farrington : French Sec. Schs., 84-122 ; 
 Kemp: Hist. Educ., 304-305, 325, 343~344 (F.), 305-30?, 
 324-325, 338-340, 343 (E.), 302-303, 323-326, 344-345 (G.), 
 310-311, 314-315, 3*9-321, 327-332, 334, 337-338, 345-348 
 (U. S.) ; Monroe: Text-Bk. in Hist. Educ., 729-731 (G), 731- 
 733 (F-), 733-734 (E.), 734-739 (U. S.), Brief Course 
 386-388 (G.), 388-389 (F.), 389-391 (E.), 391-393 (U. S.); 
 Painter: Hist. Educ., ist ed., 291-296 (G.), 296-302 (F.), 
 320-325 (E.), 2d ed., 356-362 (G.), 363-370 (F.), 371-391 
 (E.), 391-394 (U. S.) ; Parsons: Prussian Schs. seen thro' 
 Amer. Eyes, French Schs. seen thro' Amer. Eyes; Perry: Out-
 
 172 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 lines of Sch. Admins.; Prince: Meths. of Instr. & Organiz. of 
 Schs. of Germany (see contents) ; Russell : Germ. Higher Schs., 
 108-155; Seeley: Hist. Educ., 289-295 (G.), 296-303 (F.), 
 309-314 (U. S.) ; Sharpless: Eng. Educ., 16-51, 75 ff . ; U. S. 
 Com'r Educ. Repts., vs. i: 1888-1889, 32-77 (G., F.), 77-111 
 (E.), 112-149 (F-) 5 1889-1890, 455-464 (G.) ; 1890-1891, 125- 
 134 (E.); 1891-1892, 73-95 (F.) ; 1892-1893, 208-218 (E.), 
 1268-1275 (U. S.); 1894-1895, 257-273 (E.), 289-312 (F.), 
 583-712 (E.); 1895-1896, 79-135 (E.), 611-639 (F.); 1896- 
 1897, 29-70 (F.) ; 1897-1898, 3-82 (G.), 133-167 (E.), 694-701 
 (F.) ; 1898-1899, 3-65 (E.), 357-450 (U. S.) ; 1890-1900, 284- 
 302, 427-537 (U. S.) ; 1901, 1-128 (G.), 939-iooS (E.) ; 1902, 
 647-666 (F.), 1001-1068 (E.); 1906, 35 ff. (G.); v. 2: 1899- 
 1900, 1712-1732 (F.).) 
 
 Germany (Prussian System taken as the Type) 
 
 i. Administration. 
 
 a. Minister of education appointed by the Crown. 
 
 (1) Supervision of all schools public and private. 
 
 (2) Assistants 2. 
 
 (3) Counselors 19. 
 
 (4) Departments of Inspection. 
 
 b. Provincial school boards 13. 
 
 (1) Secondary school affairs and normal schools. 
 
 (2) Trained inspectors (3 or 5) appointed by Crown. 
 
 c. Examination commission. 
 
 (1) Certification of secondary school teachers. 
 
 (2) Experts in education (10 to 20) appointed by the 
 
 minister. 
 
 d. Supervision of religious affairs. 
 
 (i) General superintendent of the Evangelical Church 
 in each province.
 
 Modern Education 173 
 
 (2) Catholic bishops. 
 e. City school boards. 
 
 (1) Municipally supported schools. 
 
 (2) Members of city council (i to 3). 
 
 (3) Limit supervision. 
 /. District school boards. 
 
 (1) Limited to districts within provinces. 
 
 (2) Inspectors of school work. 
 g. Local school boards. 
 
 (1) Inspection of school property. 
 
 (2) Little supervision of school work. 
 Kinds of schools. 
 
 a. Kindergartens. 
 
 b. Public elementary schools ( Volkschulen) . 
 (i) Special features. 
 
 (a) Compulsory 6 to 14 years of age. 
 
 (b) Free through elementary grade. 
 
 (c) Religious instruction included. 
 
 (d) State-governed. 
 
 c. Continuation schools. 
 
 (i) For instruction in trades, industries, commerce, 
 agriculture, and general subjects. 
 
 d. Secondary schools. 
 
 (1) g-year classical school (gymnasium). 
 
 (2) g-year Latin-scientific school (realgymnasium) . 
 
 (3) 9-year non-classical school (oberrealschule). 
 
 (4) 6-year non-classical school (realschide) . 
 
 (5) Q-year modern-language school for girls (hohere 
 
 mddchenschule) . 
 
 (6) 5-6-year classical school for girls (madchengymna- 
 
 sium). 
 
 e. Training schools for teachers.
 
 174 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (1) Normal schools, to prepare elementary school 
 
 teachers. 
 
 (2) Gymnasial seminaries, to prepare secondary school 
 
 teachers. 
 
 (3) Elementary school seminaries, to prepare for ele- 
 
 mentary teaching. 
 
 (4) University seminaries, for more scientific study of 
 
 education may prepare for any grade of 
 school. 
 
 (5) In each, one year is devoted to theory and one year 
 
 to practice. 
 /. Universities. 
 g. Higher professional and technical schools. 
 
 France 
 i. Administration. 
 
 a. Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. 
 
 (1) Departments of primary, secondary, and higher 
 
 education and finance. 
 
 (2) Higher council, a general advisory board. 
 
 (3) Many special boards and commissions. 
 
 (4) State inspectors, responsible to the minister. 
 
 b. Seventeen administrative districts (academies). 
 
 (1) Each having a university and associated lycees and 
 
 communal colleges, under supervision of a 
 rector and an academic council. 
 
 (2) Primary instruction in each being supervised by an 
 
 academic inspector appointed by the minister, 
 with aid of primary inspectors. 
 
 c. Ninety departements, for the administration of primary 
 
 education, 
 (i) Prefect of the department.
 
 Modern Education 175 
 
 (2) School boards. 
 
 (3) Inspectors, the academic inspector being the chief, 
 
 with assistants in each department. 
 
 d. Communal school boards. 
 
 (i) To manage school buildings and school funds of the 
 district. 
 
 e. Local school committees. 
 
 (i) To encourage attendance and to promote general 
 
 interest. 
 /. State control highly centralized. 
 
 (1) Minister absolute. 
 
 (2) Appointment of teachers. 
 
 (3) Salaries and pensions. 
 
 (4) Programs of study. 
 
 (5) Supervision of private as well as public instruction. 
 Kinds of schools. 
 
 a. Schools for beginners. 
 
 (1) Maternal schools (ecoles maternelles) for pupils of 
 
 both sexes from 2 to 6 years of age. 
 
 (2) Infant schools (classes enfantines) for pupils of both 
 
 sexes from 4 to 7 years of age. 
 
 b. Primary schools. 
 
 (1) Lower primary schools (ecoles primaires elemen- 
 
 taires). 
 
 (a) One in each commune for boys and one for girls. 
 (6) Attendance, from 6 to 13 years of age. 
 
 (c) Certificate of graduation necessary to admit to 
 
 all higher schools. 
 
 (d) Complementary courses (cours complementaires) , 
 
 covering from i to 2 years in connection with 
 many lower primary schools. 
 
 (2) Higher primary schools (ecoles primaires superieures) .
 
 176 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (a) Pupils, 10 to 18 years of age, admitted on cer- 
 tificate of lower school. 
 (&) Course from 2 to 4 years in length. 
 (3) Rural schools of elementary grade. 
 
 c. Industrial and technical schools. 
 
 (1) Communal or departmental schools. 
 (a) Manual training and trades. 
 
 (2) National professional schools. 
 
 (a) Commerce, industries, and agriculture. 
 
 (3) Special technical schools. 
 
 d. Secondary schools. 
 
 (1) Lycees State schools. 
 
 (2) Colleges municipal or communal schools. 
 
 (3) Different schools of each kind for boys and for girls. 
 
 e. Normal schools. 
 
 (1) Primary normal schools (ecoles nor males primaires) 
 
 (a) Elementary, for teachers in lower primary 
 
 schools, two in each department, one for men 
 and one for women. 
 
 (b) Higher, for teachers in elementary normal schools 
 
 and in higher primary schools, two in all 
 France, one for men and one for women. 
 
 (2) Higher normal school (ecole normale superieure) . 
 
 (a) One only, located at Paris, for secondary school 
 
 teachers in lyce.es. 
 
 (b) University teachers are drawn from the ranks 
 
 of secondary school teachers. 
 /. Higher schools (ecoles superieures) . 
 (a) Fifteen universities. 
 (&) Higher professional and technical schools.
 
 Modern Education 177 
 
 England 
 
 Administration. 
 
 a. The Education Department, established in 1900. 
 
 (1) Controls government grants for education. 
 
 (2) Provides inspectors for elementary, secondary, and 
 
 technical schools. 
 6. Local boards. 
 
 (1) Distribute government grants. 
 
 (2) Raise other school funds by local taxation. 
 
 (3) Have direct conduct of the schools. 
 
 (a) Through school committee. 
 
 (b) Through inspectors. 
 Kinds of schools. 
 
 a. Infant schools (ages 3 to 7 years). 
 
 6. Elementary schools (ages above 7 years) . 
 
 (1) Instruction compulsory between 5 and 14 years of 
 
 age practically free but not entirely, and 
 non-sectarian. 
 
 (2) " Voluntary schools " church schools, supported 
 
 by vested funds and voluntary subscriptions. 
 
 (3) " Board schools " under local school boards, sup- 
 
 ported by State grants and local taxation. 
 
 c. Technical schools. 
 
 (1) To provide training for trades, art, science, agri- 
 
 culture, and commerce. 
 
 (2) Carried on by the Science and Art Department, 
 
 by guilds, by municipalities, by colleges, by 
 philanthropic and religious associations. 
 
 d. Secondary schools, 
 (i) Public. 
 
 (a) Supplementary work in elementary schools.
 
 178 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (b) Evening schools. 
 
 (c} Technical schools. 
 
 (d) Municipal high schools. 
 
 (e) Scholarships offered by boards. 
 
 (/) Government grants for private secondary schools. 
 (2) Private. 
 
 (a) " Grammar schools " scientific and classical. 
 
 (b) " Public schools " mainly classical. 
 
 (c) High schools for girls. 
 e. Teachers' training colleges. 
 
 (i) Separate colleges for men (17) and for women (25) 
 
 and one for both. 
 /. Higher schools. 
 
 (i) Colleges and universities. 
 
 United States 
 
 i. Administration. 
 
 a. National bureau of education, a division of the Depart- 
 
 ment of the Interior. 
 
 (1) No authority over schools. 
 
 (2) A bureau of statistics. 
 
 (3) Issues reports upon investigations. 
 
 b. State organization and administration. 
 
 (1) Commissioner or superintendent or board of regents 
 
 or board of education. 
 
 (2) Deputy officials, inspectors, secretaries, county 
 
 superintendents, district superintendents, 
 boards of trustees. 
 
 (3) City superintendents and boards of education. 
 
 (4) Expert supervision. 
 
 (a) General organization and administration.
 
 Modern Education 179 
 
 (6) Subject matter and methods of study. 
 (c) Local administration through supervising teach- 
 ers. 
 c. Kinds of schools. 
 
 (1) Kindergartens. 
 
 (2) Elementary schools. 
 
 (a) Primary grades (4). 
 
 (b) Grammar grades (4) . 
 
 (c) Free, compulsory (from yth or 8th to i3th or 
 
 i4th or 1 6th year) publicly supported 
 non-sectarian. 
 
 (3) Secondary schools. 
 
 (a) Public high schools. 
 
 x. Classical, English, commercial, manual train- 
 ing, industrial, technical. 
 
 y. Free, publicly supported, non-sectarian. 
 (6) Private or endowed schools and academies. 
 
 x. Classical, scientific, college-preparatory. 
 
 (4) Training schools for teachers. 
 (a) State supported. 
 
 x. Normal schools and colleges. 
 y. Institutes and training classes. 
 z. Teachers' associations. 
 (6) Municipally supported. 
 
 x. Training schools and classes. 
 
 (c) In universities. 
 
 x. Departments of education. 
 y. Professional training schools. 
 
 (d) Private normal and training schools. 
 
 (5) Colleges and universities. 
 
 (a) State and city supported. 
 
 (b) Denominational.
 
 180 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 (c) Privately endowed. 
 
 (d) Technical and professional. 
 (6) Special schools. 
 
 (a) For law, medicine, and theology. 
 
 (b) Institutes of science and technology. 
 
 (c) For defectives. 
 
 (d) Trades schools. 
 
 (e) For the negroes and the Indians. 
 
 (Adams : Free Schools in the U. S.; Boese : Publ. Educ. in tne 
 City of N. Y.; Boone : Educ. in the U. S.; Bourne : Hist, of 
 Publ. Sch. Soc. of City of N. Y.; Brown (E. E.) : The Making 
 of Our Middle Schools; Brown (J. F.) : The Am. High Sch., i- 
 38; Dexter: Hist. Educ. in U. S., 12-23, ?6~79, 94~Q6, 471- 
 495 ; Draper : Publ. Sch. Pioneering in N. Y. 6* Mass., in 
 Educ. Rev., Ill, 313-336 (Apr., '92) ; IV, 241-252 (Oct., '92) ; 
 V, 345-362 (Apr., '93) ; VIII, 112-115 (Sept., '93) ; Dutton & 
 Snedden: Adm. of Publ. Educ. in U. S., 37, 67-69, 124-132 ; 
 Finegan : New York School Law, 9, u, 12, 1 6, 25, 31, 58, 164-168, 
 192, 222, 239, 243, 252, 276, 280; Hinsdale: Horace Mann 6* 
 the Common Sch. Revival in U. S.; Martin : Publ. Sch. Pioneer- 
 ing in N. Y. & Mass., in Educ. Rev., IV, 34-36 (June, '92) ; V, 
 232-242 (Mch., '93) ; Mann (Mrs.) : Life of Horace Mann; 
 Millar : The Sch. Syst. of the St. of N. Y.; Porter : Am. 
 Colleges &* the Am. Public; Randall : Hist, of the Com. Sch. 
 Syst. of the St. of N. Y. since 1795 ; Sherwood : The Univ. of the 
 St. of N. Y. (circ. of inf. no. 3, 1900, publ. by U. S. Bureau of 
 Educ.); Thwing: Am. Colleges; U. S. Educ. Dept. Repts., 
 1892-1893, v. 2, 1268-1275; 1899-1900, v. i, 284-302,427-537.)
 
 Modern Education 181 
 
 In Colonial Times under the Dutch 
 
 1629. First official act to provide the means of supporting a 
 minister and a schoolmaster. 
 
 1633. First public school (elementary) established at New 
 Amsterdam, Adam Roelandsen, teacher. 
 
 1642. Several private schools started. 
 
 1659. First Latin school, Dr. Alexander Carolus Curtius, 
 
 teacher. 
 
 These schools were supported by subscription, by taxa- 
 tion, and by tuition fees. The teachers were poorly 
 qualified and poorly paid; often were brought over 
 from Holland. 
 
 In Colonial Times under the English 
 
 1702. First English school. 
 
 Dutch schools had disappeared for the most part, and 
 
 the English were slow to start new ones, not wholly 
 
 favoring popular education. 
 1732. First Latin school of the English designed to give 
 
 instruction in Latin, Greek, and mathematics - 
 
 supported by public taxation instruction free. 
 1754. King's College in New York City chartered. 
 1767. Medical department added to King's College. 
 
 Up to 1775, the elementary schools of New York City 
 
 were fostered by the Society for the Propagation of 
 
 the Gospel. 
 
 As an Independent State 
 
 1784. First State supervision of education provided, by the 
 creation of the " Regents of the University of the
 
 1 82 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 State of New York." Originally designed to be the 
 directing board of King's College. 
 
 1786. Unappropriated State lands were set apart for a " lit- 
 
 erature " fund and for a " gospel and school " fund. 
 Revenue from this source was later used for the 
 maintenance of schools. Special appropriations were 
 also made to help the private academies, of which 
 there had been a considerable number established. 
 
 1787. King's College granted new charter and name changed 
 
 to Columbia College. 
 
 Board of Regents reorganized and powers enlarged to 
 include supervision of all matters relating to private 
 educational institutions of the State. 
 
 1795. Union College, at Schenectady, founded. 
 
 General school law passed, encouraging the establish- 
 ment of schools and prescribing the instruction in 
 " English grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, and 
 such other branches of knowledge as are most useful 
 and necessary to a good education." 
 Town commissioners provided, but without salary. 
 
 1795-1800. J Law enacted appropriating $50,000 a year for 
 five years toward the support of the common schools. 
 Although not continued after 1800, in the belief that 
 some religious societies should support the schools, 
 nevertheless this law was the first definite step in the 
 working out of the State educational system. By 
 this time there were nearly 1400 public schools and 
 over 60,000 pupils. 
 
 1 80 1. A permanent common School fund was established by 
 law from the sale of public lands, set apart in 1786. 
 
 1 There is uncertainty about this appropriation ; Mr. Dexter states that the 
 amount was $100,000. (Cf. Dexter : Hist, of Educ. in U. S., p. 77.)
 
 Modern Education 183 
 
 1802. United States Military Academy started at West Point. 
 
 1805. The Public School Society of the City of New York 
 was chartered to establish free schools for the poor 
 it controlled the public schools in New York City 
 until 1853. 
 
 1812. Hamilton College founded at Clinton. 
 
 Law enacted that State would give aid to schools to an 
 amount equal to that which the district raised by 
 taxation continued in force up to 1840. 
 
 Office of State " Superintendent of Common Schools " 
 created, to take charge of the public school system. 
 
 1813. Gideon Hawley appointed first State Superintendent. 
 
 Also paid township commissioners, whose duties were 
 the inspection of schools and the examination of 
 teachers. State was divided into districts for school 
 purposes. School funds were distributed on a per 
 capita basis of school population. 
 
 1817. New York Academy of Science established. 
 
 1818. Joseph Lancaster, Englishman, came to New York and 
 
 aided in starting schools on the monitorial plan. 
 1821. Office of State Superintendent was abolished and Secre- 
 tary of State was charged with the direction of the 
 schools. 
 
 1823. Brooklyn Academy of Arts and Science founded. 
 
 1824. Albany Institute established. 
 
 1825. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute founded. 
 
 1827. First law relating to the training of teachers was ineffec- 
 tive. This work was being done by the academies, 
 by special appropriations of the school funds made 
 annually up to 1844. 
 
 1830. State convention of teachers at Utica. 
 
 1831. The Canandaigua and St. Lawrence academies re-
 
 184 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 ported " principles of teaching " as among the sub- 
 jects offered. By 1834, three other academies 
 maintained similar courses. 
 
 1834. Teachers' training classes organized. 
 
 1835. System of school district libraries begun. 
 
 1836. Fund granted to New York as one among the several 
 
 states by the United States government, under 
 President Jackson, from surplus in treasury the 
 income of this fund was applied to public education. 
 1841. Office of Deputy Superintendent of Common Schools 
 for each county created. 
 
 1843. First teachers' institute held at Ithaca. 
 
 Name of Deputy changed to County Superintendent 
 of Common Schools office discontinued in 1847. 
 
 Offices of Town Commissioner and Town Inspector 
 abolished and that of Town Superintendent created. 
 
 1844. Founding at Albany of the first normal school. 
 
 1847. Money appropriated for the support of teachers' 
 
 institutes. 
 
 1849. System of free schools established for the entire state. 
 1851. New York University founded. 
 Rochester University founded. 
 
 First institution for the feeble-minded established at 
 Syracuse. 
 
 1853. First act providing for union free schools. 
 
 1854. Office of State Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 
 re-established under this new name. 
 
 1854. Victor M. Rice, first appointee. 
 
 1874. Abraham B. Weaver. 
 
 1876. Neil Gilmore. 
 
 1886. Andrew S. Draper. 
 
 1892. James F. Crooker. 
 
 1895. Charles R. Skinner.
 
 Modern Education 185 
 
 1854. College of the City of New York founded as part of 
 
 the school system of New York City for city 
 residents only supported by municipal taxation. 
 
 1855. Elmira College for women founded. 
 
 1856. Office of school commissioner established. 
 
 1863. Oswego Normal School opened. 
 
 1864. Consolidated School Act providing for union of weak 
 
 schools to make single strong one. 
 
 1865. Vassar College for women founded. 
 
 1866. Normal Schools established at Brockport, Fredonia, 
 
 Cortland, and Potsdam. 
 
 1867. Free school fund established. 
 Money raised by taxation. 
 
 Normal Schools established at Buffalo and Geneseo. 
 
 1868. Cornell University founded as result of national land 
 
 grant of 1862 and authorized to provide thereafter 
 annually, under Act of 1865, free tuition to one resi- 
 dent of each assembly district of the State. 
 System of free schools (established in 1849) i n f u ll 
 operation. 
 
 1870. Normal College of the City of New York opened. 
 
 1871. Syracuse University founded. 
 
 1872. First kindergarten started privately in New York City 
 
 by Miss Krauss-Boelte also private institution 
 for training kindergarten teachers, which has since 
 become one of the leading training schools for kinder- 
 gartners. 
 
 1874. Compulsory education law enacted, fixing the age at 
 
 from 8 to 14 years not properly enforced. 
 
 1875. Examinations for State Teachers' Certificates first 
 
 instituted. 
 
 1878. Chautauqua movement started. 
 1885. Normal School established at New Paltz.
 
 1 86 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 1887. Normal School established at Oneonta. 
 
 1888. Teachers College opened at Columbia University. 
 
 1889. Barnard College for women founded at Columbia 
 
 University. 
 
 Corporate name of " Board of Regents of the Uni- 
 versity of the State of New York " changed by 
 legislature to " University of State of New York." 
 
 School year lengthened from 28 weeks to 32 weeks. 
 
 Normal School established at Plattsburg. 
 
 1890. School of Pedagogy opened at New York University. 
 
 1891. Normal School at Albany reorganized into the State 
 Normal College, designed to do professional work only. 
 
 1894. Compulsory education law, fixing the school age at 
 from 7 to 14 years and also from 14 to 16 years for 
 all " who are not regularly employed or lawfully 
 engaged in any useful employment or service." 
 
 1900. School authorities of cities and incorporated villages 
 prohibited from establishing special schools for 
 colored children ; and it was enacted that no person 
 should be refused admission into or be excluded from 
 any public school on account of race or color. 
 
 1904. Unification law, consolidating the Board of Regents 
 and the Department of Public Instruction, and 
 creating the office of Commissioner of Education. 
 Andrew S. Draper the first commissioner. 
 
 1910. Office of school commissioner abolished and that of 
 district superintendent created. 
 
 Statistics of New York State Education for 1909 
 
 i. Elementary education. 
 
 a. Number of common schools, 12,069.
 
 Modern Education 187 
 
 b. Number of students, 1,386,712. 
 
 c. Estimated number of students in private elementary 
 
 schools, 267,800. 
 
 2. Secondary education. 
 
 a. Number of high schools, 692. 
 
 6. Number of students in high schools, 107,090. 
 
 c. Number of academies, 162. 
 
 d. Number of students in academies, 14,510. 
 
 3. Higher education. 
 
 a. Number of institutions, 75. 
 
 (1) Universities, 7. 
 
 (2) Colleges, 33. 
 
 (3) Professional schools, 18. 
 
 (4) Normal schools, 10. 
 
 (5) Technical schools, 7. 
 
 b. Number of students, 36,287. 
 
 c. Some of the well-known institutions: 
 
 Alfred Cornell Rochester 
 
 Barnard Elmira Union 
 
 Brooklyn Poly- Fordham St. Stephen's 
 
 technic Hamilton Syracuse 
 
 Clarkson Manhattan Vassar 
 
 Colgate New York University 
 
 Columbia Rensselaer Polytechnic 
 
 Institutions in New York State for the Training of Teachers 
 
 1. Normal College at Albany. 
 
 2. Normal schools at 
 
 Brockport Cortland Geneseo Oneonta Plattsburg 
 
 Buffalo Fredonia New Paltz Oswego Potsdam
 
 1 88 Outlines of the History of Education 
 
 3. Schools of pedagogy and pedagogical departments in col- 
 
 leges and universities. 
 
 4. Teachers' training schools and classes. 
 
 5. Teachers' institutes (discontinued in 1911). 
 
 Means of Support of New York State Schools 
 
 1. The Common School Fund: created in 1805, resulting 
 
 from the sale of vacant and unappropriated lands 
 this revenue was first realized in 1815 and then provided 
 one half of the amount expended on the schools, the other 
 half being raised by local taxation. Original fund in 
 1805, $59,000 ; value in 1910, $4,773,000. Now annually 
 appropriated for the common schools, $170,000. 
 
 2. The United States Deposit Fund : created in 1836 by the 
 
 distribution among the states by the National govern- 
 ment for safe-keeping of surplus revenues in the United 
 States treasury. It is subject to recall, although prob- 
 ably will never be claimed. New York received $4,000,000 
 and appropriated it for school purposes, the annual 
 amount from 1838 to 1881 being $165,000; since 1881, 
 $75,000. 
 
 3. The Free School Fund: created by direct State tax, first 
 
 levied in 1851, when $800,000 were raised. This amount 
 has since greatly increased and been added to by indirect 
 taxation, so that now it is not denominated the free- 
 school fund, but the legislature makes annual appropria- 
 tions for the support of common schools. $47,918,427.98 
 were raised in this way in 1909. 
 
 4. The Gospel and School Lands Fund : created from the sale 
 
 of lands originally set apart in 1784 for the support of a 
 minister of the gospel and for the use of a public school.
 
 Modern Education 189 
 
 The amount of land was changed in 1786 and again in 
 1789, then ordered rented and sold, creating an income 
 which by authority of the legislature has been applied to 
 the support of the public schools. In 1910, the amount 
 realized was $26,614.82. 
 
 The Literature Fund : created in 1786, by act ordering the 
 sale of unappropriated lands and the use of the money for 
 the promotion of literature in the state. The fund was 
 increased by subsequent acts of similar character, bring- 
 ing the total up to $284,201.32 in 1910.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abelard, Peter, 58. 
 Academy, 
 
 At Athens, 26. 
 
 Plato's, 26. 
 
 In England, 158, 161. 
 
 In United States, 159, 162. 
 
 Training of teachers in, 169. 
 Administration of School Systems, 172-180. 
 
 In England, 177. 
 
 In France, 175. 
 
 In Germany, 173. 
 
 In United States, 170. 
 jEschylus, 32. 
 Agricola, Rudolph, 69, 71. 
 Albertus Magnus, 58. 
 Alcuin, 52. 
 Aldhelm, 50. 
 
 Alexandria, University of, 35. 
 Alfred, King of England, 53. 
 America, Academies in, 159, 162. 
 
 Public elementary education in, 149, 153. 
 
 Systems of education, 153, 179. 
 
 Secondary education, 159, 162, 179. 
 
 Professional training of teachers, 169. 
 Anselm, 58. 
 
 Apperception, Herbart's theory of, 133. 
 Aquinas, Thomas, 58. 
 Arab learning, 60. 
 Aristophanes, 33. 
 Aristotle, 30-32. 
 Arnauld, 91. 
 Ascham, Roger, 69, 75. 
 Athens, education at, 17, 19. 
 
 University of, 34. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 103-105. 
 
 Barnard, Henry, 155. 
 
 Barzizza, 68, 70. 
 
 Basedow, Johann Bernard, 126-128. 
 
 Bede, the Venerable, 50. 
 
 Bell, monitorial system, 150, 152. 
 
 " Board" schools, 177. 
 
 Boards, school, 171-180. 
 
 Boccaccio, 68, 70. 
 Boethius, writings of, 50. 
 Bologna, University of, 64. 
 Brethren of Christian schools, 92. 
 Brethren of Common Life, 68. 
 Burgher schools, 59. 
 
 Calvin, John, 82. 
 Capella, Martian, 50. 
 Cassiodorus, 50. 
 Caste system, in China, 3. 
 
 In India, 7. 
 
 Catechetical schools, 46. 
 Catechumenal schools, 46. 
 Cathedral schools, 47. 
 Certification of teachers, 170. 
 Champeaux, William of, 58. 
 Charlemagne, 51. 
 Chinese education, 3-6. 
 Chivalry, 54-56. 
 
 Christian education, early, 44-47. 
 Christian Brothers' schools, 92. 
 Chrysippus, 33- 
 Chrysoloras, 68, 70. 
 Cicero, 39. 
 Ciceronianism, 69. 
 Classical schools, 73, 77, 82, 86. 
 Colet, John, 69, 75. 
 
 Colleges, 168, 170, 174, 176, 178, 179. 181- 
 188. 
 
 Communal, 159, 174, 176. 
 Columbia University, 182. 
 Comenius, John Amos, 108-112. 
 Commissioner of Education, 187. 
 Communal colleges, 159, 174, 176. 
 Compulsory education, n, 34, 77. 93. i5*~ 
 
 155. 173, 177, 179, 185, 186. 
 Comte, sociological theory of, 143. 
 Connecticut, development of education in, 
 
 154- 
 
 Contents, xi. 
 
 Continuation schools, 173. 
 Counter-reformation, 83-88. 
 
 IQI
 
 Index 
 
 Da Feltre, Vittorino, 68, 71. 
 
 Dante, 68, 69. 
 
 Demosthenes, 33. 
 
 Development, 130, 133, 137, 139, 143. 
 
 Of public elementary education, 147-155. 
 
 Of secondary education, 156-163. 
 
 Of professional training of teachers, 164- 
 171. 
 
 Of education in the nineteenth century, 
 
 140, 151-155. 159-163, 165-171. 
 Dewey, sociological theory of, 143. 
 Disciplinary education, 112-115. 
 Discipline, formal, 32, 112, 139. 
 District of Columbia, 153. 
 
 Early Christian education, 44-47- 
 Egyptian education, 1-3. 
 Elementary education, development of 
 , public, 147-155. 
 Entile, Rousseau's, 123. 
 England, education in, 53, 75, 77, 98, 102, 
 103, 112, 140, 150, 152, 157, 158, 161, 
 
 164, 168, 177. 
 Epicurus, 33. 
 Episcopal schools, 47. 
 Erasmus, Desiderius, 69, 73. 
 Euripides, 33. 
 
 Family in education, 4, 9, u, 17, 35, 36, 
 
 79, in, 131, 138. 
 Fenelon, 91, 118. 
 Formal discipline, 32, 112, 139. 
 France, education in, 64, 83-93, 97, i> 
 
 103, 118-127, 149-151, 157, 159, 164- 
 
 165, 175-176- 
 Francke, Hermann, 115-118. 
 
 Free schools, 79, 147-155, 163, 173, 177, 179, 
 
 181-189. 
 Froebel, Friedrich W. A., 135-139- 
 
 Gate of Tongues Unlocked, Comenius', 
 
 109. 
 Germany, education in, 71-74, 78-82, 106- 
 
 112, 115-118, 132-139, 148, 151, 157, 
 
 158, 160, 165-168, 172-174. 
 "Grammar schools," 77, 162, 178, 179, 
 
 1 86. 
 
 Great Didactic, Comenius', 109. 
 Greek education, 13-35- 
 Guild schools, 59. 
 Gymnasien, 74, 77, 82, in, 117, 157, 160, 
 
 161, 173. 
 
 Hanlin or Imperial Academy, 5. 
 Hebrew education, 9-11. 
 Hegius, Alexander, 69, 72. 
 Herbart, John Frederick, 132-135. 
 Herodotus, 33. 
 High schools, in England, 178. 
 
 In United States, 162, 163, 179, 187. 
 Hindu education, 7-9. 
 Historic Greek education, 15-19. 
 Holland, education in, 71, 77, 148. 
 Homeric education, 14. 
 Howerth, sociological theory of, 143. 
 Humanistic education, 67, 69. 
 
 Illinois, development of education in, 155. 
 
 India, education in, 7-9. 
 
 Indiana, development of education in, 155. 
 
 Individualism, 44, 121. 
 
 Industrial education, 144. 
 
 Infant schools, in, 138, 175, 177. 
 
 Innovators of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 
 centuries, 105-115. 
 Introduction, xv. 
 Isidore de Seville, 50. 
 Isocrates, 33. 
 Italy, renaissance in, 67-71. 
 
 Jansenists, The, 89-91. 
 
 Janua (Gate of Tongues Unlocked), 109. 
 
 Jesuit schools, 83-88. 
 
 Jewish education, 9-11. 
 
 Kindergarten, 135. 
 
 Knight, education of the, 54-56. 
 
 Lancaster, monitorial system of, 150, 152, 
 
 iS3, 183. 
 Lancelot, 91. 
 La Fontaine, 91. 
 La Salle, Jean Baptiste de, 92. 
 Latin Grammar schools, 161, 181. 
 Locke, John, 112. 
 Lombard, Peter, 58. 
 Loyola, Ignatius, 83, 84. 
 Luther, Martin, 78-80. 
 Lycees, 159, 176. 
 Lycurgus, 32. 
 
 Madchengymnasium, 161. 
 Magnus, Albertus, 58. 
 Mann, Horace, 166. 
 Martian Capella, 50.
 
 Index 
 
 193 
 
 Massachusetts, development of education 
 
 in, 154. 
 
 Maurus, Kabanus, 53. 
 Medieval education, 44-64. 
 Melancthon, Philip, 80-82. 
 Method in education, 128-139. 
 Middle Ages, education in, 44-64. 
 Milton, John, 98. 
 Minister of education, 172, 174. 
 Mississippi, development of education in, 
 
 155- 
 
 Modern education, 94 ff. 
 Modern systems of education, 171-180. 
 Mohammedan learning, 60. 
 Monastic education, 47-50. 
 Monastic schools, 49. 
 Monasticism, 47-50. 
 Monitorial system, 150, 152, 153, 183. 
 Montaigne, Michael de, 100-102. 
 Mulcaster, Richard, 102. 
 
 Naturalistic education, 121-128. 
 
 Nature, education according to, 121-128. 
 
 Neander, Michael, 83. 
 
 Negative education, 124. 
 
 New York, history of education in the state 
 
 of, 180-189. 
 Nineteenth century education, 140, 151- 
 
 155. 159-163, 165-171. 
 
 Occam, William of, 58. 
 
 Ohio, development of education in, 155. 
 
 Oratory, 39-42. 
 
 Oratorians, schools of the, 89. 
 
 Orbis jrictus, 109, no. 
 
 Oriental education, 1-12. 
 
 Oxford university, 54. 
 
 Palatine school, the, 51. 
 
 Paris, University of, 64. 
 
 Pascal, 91. 
 
 Persian education, 11-12. 
 
 Pestalozzi, John Henry, 128-132. 
 
 Peter Lombard, 58. 
 
 Petrarch, 68, 70. 
 
 Philanthropinum, the, 126. 
 
 Philosophical schools, 34. 
 
 Pietism, 115, 116. 
 
 Plato, 26-29. 
 
 Politics of Aristotle, 31. 
 
 Port-Royal schools, 89-91. 
 
 Practice teaching, 164-171. 
 
 Preparation of teachers, 164-171. 
 Professional education, 144-146, 164-171, 
 
 173. 176, 177, 180, 187. 
 Protagoras, 33. 
 
 Prussia, school system of, 172-174. 
 Public elementary education, 147-155. 
 " Public Schools " of England, 77, 157, 162, 
 
 178. 
 
 Psychological education, 128-139. 
 Pyrrho, 33. 
 Pythagoras, 21. 
 
 Quadrivium, 49. 
 Quintilian, 40. 
 
 Rabanus Maurus, 53. 
 Rabelais, Francois, 97. 
 Ratich, Wolfgang, 106. 
 Ratke, Wolfgang, 106. 
 Realistic education, 94-105. 
 
 Verbal, 96. 
 
 Sense, 105 
 
 Social, loo. 
 
 Realschule, 158, 160, 161, 173. 
 Reformation, education during the period 
 of, 76-93- 
 
 Educators of the period of, 78-83. 
 Regents of the University of the State of 
 
 New York, 182, 186. 
 Renaissance, education of the, 65. 
 
 In Italy, 67. 
 
 In Northern Europe, 68. 
 Republic of Plato, 27. 
 Reuchlin, John, 69, 72. 
 Rhetorical schools, 34. 
 Ritleracademie, 158. 
 Rollin, Charles, 91, 119. 
 Roman education, 35-43. 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 121-125. 
 
 Salerno, University of, 63. 
 
 Saracen learning, 60. 
 
 Saxony school plan, 81. 
 
 Scholarship expected of teachers, 171. 
 
 Scholastic education, 56. 
 
 Schoolmen, 58. 
 
 School systems, 171-180. 
 
 Schools, Agricultural, 145. 
 
 " Board," 177. 
 
 Burgher, 59. 
 
 Catechetical, 46. 
 
 Catechumenal, 46.
 
 194 
 
 Index 
 
 Schools, Cathedral, 47. 
 
 Christian Brothers', 92. 
 
 Classical secondary, 49, 74, 77, 82, in, 
 117, 157-163. 
 
 Commercial, 145. 
 
 Continuation, 173. 
 
 Dialectic, 34. 
 
 Elementary, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 17, 28, 37, 49, 
 55, 59, 77, 79, 81, 89-93, m, 138, 147- 
 155, 173, 175, 177, 179, 181-189. 
 
 Episcopal, 47. 
 
 For defectives, 144. 
 
 " Grammar," 77, 162, 178, 179, 186. 
 
 Guild, 59. 
 
 High, 162, 163, 178, 179, 187. 
 
 Higher, 2, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 20, 28, 32, 34, 
 37, 42, 49, 55,61-64,80, 84, 86, in, 
 164-171, 174, 177, 178, 180, 187. 
 
 Infant, in, 138, 175, 177. 
 
 Industrial, 144. 
 
 Jesuit, 83. 
 
 Manual training, 144. 
 
 Maternal, in, 175. 
 
 Monastic, 49. 
 
 Normal, 85, 93, 117, 164-171, 174, 177, 
 
 178, 180, 185-188. 
 Of Oratorians, 89. 
 Of Saxony, 81. 
 Palatine, si- 
 Philosophical, 34. 
 Port-Royal, 89. 
 
 Primary (see Elementary Schools). 
 Professional, 144-146, 164-171, 173, 176, 
 
 177, 180, 187. 
 Public, 147-155. 
 " Public," 77, 157, 162, 178. 
 Real, 158, 160, 161, 173. 
 Rhetorical, 34. 
 Secondary, 17, 37, 41, 49, 74, 77, 81, 83- 
 
 89, in, 117, 157-163, 173, 176, 177, 
 
 179, 187. 
 
 Technical, 144-146, 164-171, 173, 176, 
 177, 180, 187. 
 
 "Voluntary," 177. 
 Science in education, 139-141. 
 Scotland, education in, 77, 149, 168. 
 Scotus Erigena, Joannes, 53, 58. 
 Secondary education (see Secondary Schools) . 
 Seneca, 40. 
 
 Seville, Isidore de, 50. 
 Sociological theory of education, 142- 
 146. 
 
 Socrates, 22-24. 
 
 Solon, 32. 
 
 Sophists, 20. 
 
 Sophocles, 32. 
 
 Spartan education, 15-17. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, 140. 
 
 Standard of preparation for teachers, 164- 
 171. 
 
 State Commissioner of Education, 187. 
 
 State education, 79, 147-155, 150-163, 166- 
 180. 
 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
 184. 
 
 State support of schools (see Stale Educa- 
 tion). 
 
 Sturm, John, 69, 73. 
 
 Superintendent of public instruction, 184. 
 
 Systems, school, 171-180. 
 
 Teachers, certification of, 170. 
 
 Institutes, 169, 179, 184, 188. 
 
 Professional training of, 164-171. 
 
 Reading circles, 170. 
 
 Training classes, 170, 184, 188. 
 
 Training colleges, 168, 178. 
 
 Training schools, 169, 179, 188. 
 Tennessee, development of education in, 
 
 155- 
 Text-books, of Basedow, 126. 
 
 Of Comenius, 109. 
 
 Of Pestalozzi, 130. 
 Thales, 32. 
 Thomas Aquinas, 58. 
 Thucydides, 33. 
 Training classes, 170, 184, 188. 
 
 Colleges, 168, 178. 
 
 Of teachers, 164-171. 
 
 Schools, 169, 179, 188. 
 Trivium, 49. 
 
 Trotzendorf, Valentine, 83. 
 Twentieth century, educational theories of, 
 142-146. 
 
 United States, education in, 149, i53-i55 
 159, 162-163, 165, 166, 160-171, 170- 
 189. 
 Universal education, n, 46, 77, 79, 15i-i55 
 
 173, 175, 177, 179, 182-186. 
 Universities, rise of the, 62. 
 At Alexandria, 35. 
 Athens, 34.
 
 Index 
 
 195 
 
 Universities, Bologna, 64. 
 Oxford, 54. 
 Paris, 64. 
 Salerno, 63. 
 In England, 178. 
 France, 176. 
 Germany, 174. 
 United States, 170. 
 
 Verbal realism, 94, 96. 
 
 Virginia, development of education in, 
 
 iSS. 
 
 Vittorino da Feltre, wo k of, 68, 71. 
 Vocational education, 146. 
 "Voluntary " schools, 177. 
 
 Ward, sociological theory of education of, 
 143- 
 
 Wessel, John, 69, 71. 
 
 William of Occam, 58. 
 
 William of Champeaux, 58, 69, 72. 
 
 Wimfeling, Jacob, 72. 
 
 Women, education of, 10, 16, 29, 36, 45, 49, 
 55, 79. "2, 117, 118, 125, 146, 151-155, 
 160-163, 167-171, 174-180, 185-188. 
 
 Xenophon, 25. 
 
 Zeller, 166. 
 
 Zeno, 33. 
 
 Zwingli, Ulrich, 82.
 
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