John 3-ett AN ABRIDGMENT HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE T ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND NARCOTICS. FOR THE USE OF JUNIOR CLASSES AND COMMON SCHOOLS. BY JOEL DORMAN STEELE PH.D. A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. (Copyright, 1873, 188k.) tiVCftl I*": . . ',* . "PME* FbORTEEN-WEEKS SERIES IN NATURAL SCIENCE BY J. DORMAN STEELE, PH.D., F.G.S. New Physics. Human Physiology. New Chemistry. Zoology. Popular Geology. Botany. New Descriptive Astronomy. Hygienic Physiology. Hygienic Physiology, Abridged. The Publishers can supply (to Teachers only) a Key containing Answers to the Questions and Problems in Steele's entire Series. __:_^ BARNES' HISTORICAL SERIES, ON THE PLAN OF STEELE'S FOURTEEN-WEEKS IN THE SCIENCES. A Brief History of the United States. A Brief History of France. A Brief History of Ancient Peoples. A Brief History of Mediaeval and Modern Peoples. A Brief General History. A Brief History of Greece. A Brief History of Rome. (Nearly Ready.) A Popular History of the United States. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. OEEING is believing, more than that, it is often O knowing and remembering. The mere reading of a statement is of little value compared with the observation of a fact. Every opportunity should therefore be taken of exhibiting to the pupil the phenomena described, and thus making them real. It is hoped that the simple Experiments scattered through the text will be performed. The skilful teacher will be able to draw from them much valu- able instruction. A microscope is indispensable to the proper understanding of Physiology. A suitable instrument and carefully prepared specimens show- ing the structure of the bones, the skin, and the blood of various animals, the pigment cells of the eye, etc., may be obtained at a small cost from the Publishers of this book. On naming the subject of a paragraph, the pupil should be prepared to tell all he knows about it. No failure should discourage the teacher in establishing this mode of study and recitation. A little practice will produce the most satisfactory results. The un- expected question and the apt reply develop a certain 5 43510 6 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. sharpness and readiness which are worthy of cultiva- tion. The Practical Questions, the Questions for Review, or any other that the wit of the teacher may suggest, can be effectively used to break the mono- tony of a topical recitation, thereby securing the benefits of both systems. Many additional Practical Questions, and interesting Notes will be found in the Hygienic Physiology. The pupil should expect to \>e questioned each day upon any subject passed over during the term, and thus the entire knowledge gained will be within his grasp for instant use. While some are reciting to the teacher, let others write on slates or on the black- board. At the close of the recitation let all criticise the ideas, the spelling, the use of capitals, the pronun- ciation, the grammar, and the mode of expression. Greater accuracy and much collateral drill may thus be secured at little expense of valuable school-time. The Introduction is designed merely to furnish suggestive material for the first lesson, preparatory to beginning the study. Other topics may be found in the questions given in the Appendix. To the description of each organ is appended an account of its most common diseases, accidents, etc. , and, when practicable, their mode of treatment. A pupil may thus learn, for example, the cause and cure of a cold, the management of a wound, or the nature of an inflammation. In the Appendix will be found Questions for Re- view, Hints about the sick-room, Suggestions as to "what to do till the doctor comes," Antidotes for poisons, a Glossary, and an Index. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION 9 I. THE SKEL ETON 11 I I. THE MUSCLES 25 III. THE SKIN 35 I V . RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE 49 V. THE CIRCULATION ^7 VI. DIGESTION AND FOOD 91 VII. THE NER VOUS SYSTEM. . 115 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VIII. PAGE THE SPECIAL SENSES 139 1. TOUCH 139 2. TASTE 141 3. SMELL 142 4. HEARING 143 5. SIGHT 145 IX. CONCLUSION 155 X. APPENDIX 159 1. HINTS ABOUT THE SICK-ROOM 159 2. DISINFECTANTS l6o 3. WHA T TO DO " TILL THE DOCTOR COMES 1 ' 160 4. ANTIDOTES TO POISONS 166 5. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 168 6. GLOSSARY 183 7. INDEX 189 INTRODUCTION. PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY in youth is of in- estimable value. Precious lives are frequently lost through ignorance. Thousands squander in early years the strength which should have been kept for the work of real life. Habits are often formed in youth which entail weakness and poverty upon manhood, and are a cause of life-long regret. The use of a strained limb may permanently damage it. Some silly feat of strength may produce an irreparable injury. A thought- less hour of reading by twilight may impair the sight for life. A terrible accident may happen, and a dear friend perish before our eyes, while we stand by powerless to render the assistance we could so easily give did we " only know what to do." The thousand little hints which may save or lengthen life, may repel or abate disease, and the simple laws which regulate our bodily vigor, should be so familiar that we may be quick to apply them in an emer- gency. The preservation of health is easier than the cure of disease. Childhood cannot afford to wait for the les- son of experience which is learned only when the penalty of violated law has been already incurred, and health irrevocably lost. Nature's Laws Inviolable. In infancy, we learn how terribly Nature punishes a violation of certain laws, and how promptly she applies the penalty. We soon find out the peril of fire, falls, edged-tools, and the like. We fail, however, to notice the equally sharp and certain 10 INTRODUCTION. punishments which bad habits entail. We are quick to feel the need of food, but not so ready to perceive the danger of an excess. A lack of air drives us at once to secure a supply ; but foul air is as fatal, yet gives us no warning. Nature provides a little training for us at the outset of life, but leaves the most for us to learn by bitter expe- rience. So in youth we throw away our strength as if it were a burden of which we desired to be rid. We eat anything, and at any time ; do anything we please, and sit up any number of nights with little or no sleep. Be- cause we feel only a momentary discomfort from these physical sins, we fondly imagine when that is gone we are all right again. Our drafts upon our constitution are promptly paid, and we expect this will always be the case; but some day they will come back to us protested; Nature will refuse to meet our demands, and we shall find our- selves physical bankrupts. We are furnished in the beginning with a certain vital force upon which we may draw. We can be spendthrifts and waste it in youth, or be wise and so husband it to manhood. Our shortcomings are all charged against this stock. Nature's memory never fails : she keeps her ac- count with perfect exactness. Every physical sin sub- tracts from the sum and strength of our years. We may cure a disease, but it never leaves us as it found us. We may heal a wound, but the scar still shows. We reap as we sow, and we may either gather in the thorns, one by one, to torment and destroy, or rejoice in the happy har- vest of a hale old age. THE SKELETON. THE Skeleton, or framework of the " House we live in," is composed of about 200 bones. The number varies in different periods of life, several which are separated in youth becoming united in old The Uses of the Bones are chiefly : First, to pro- tect the delicate organs within us ; Second, to aid the muscles in producing motion ; and Third, to keep the body in shape. The Forms of the Bones are adapted to their various uses. Experiment. Cut a sheet of foolscap into two pieces. Make of one a firm, hollow roll, and of the other a close, flat strip. Support the ends of each, and hang weights in the middle. The roll will bear a much heavier weight than the strip. Now, in our limbs, we need size, strength, and lightness, in order to carry burdens, to bear the body in walking, and to furnish a support for the muscles ; hence, we here find long, round, hollow bones. Over cavities we have flat bones, and where we require strength in a small space we have short, thick ones. The Bones are Composed of animal and mineral matter, the proportion varying with the age. Experiments. 1. Take two bones. Soak one in weak muriatic acid, and burn the other in the fire. The shape of both will remain unchanged, THE SKELETON. HuV^S? oTiB'beco t me;s.'i tqugh, gristly substance (cartilage), while the other can be crumbled into powder. The acid has destroyed the mineral, the fire has consumed the animal, matter. 2. Mix a wineglass of muriatic acid with a pint of water, and place in it a sheep's rib. In a day or two, the bone will be so soft that it can be tied into a knot. 3. In the same way, an egg may be made so pliable that it can be crowded into a narrow-necked bottle, within which it will expand, and become an object of great curiosity to the uninitiated. 4. Compare the breast-bone of a young and an old fowl. We thus see that a bone receives hardness and Fig. 2. rigidity from its mineral, and tenacity and elasticity from its animal, matter. All b(jnes are at first either simple tissue or cartilage, which gradually os- sifies (turns to bone). Certain portions near the joints ossify very slowly, and so, meantime, keep tough and elastic. Hence the bones of children are not readily fractured, and when broken easily heal again ; while those of elderly people are liable to fracture, and do not quickly unite. The Structure of the Bones may be easily illustrated. Experiments. 1. Saw a bone lengthwise. You will find it filled with a spongy substance. At the ends, where size is required to make a strong joint, this filling is abundant and porous ; while, near the middle, where strength alone is needed, the bone itself is thicker. Each fiber of this filling eases the shock of a sudden blow. 2. Examine a freshly-cut bone. It is not the The thigh-bone^or dry, lifeless thing you may have supposed, but a moist, Ur^ihwlse. pinkish structure, covered with a ^ough membrane, and containing a rich fat marrow, full of blood-vessels. GROWTH OF THE BONES. 3' 3. Put a thin slice under the microscope. You will 'see* MacV spbtS, ^fath '' lines running in all directions, and looking very like minute insects. The spots are little cavities, and the lines are tiny tubes. Growth of the Bones. The blood circulates freely through the bones, and the whole bone-structure is constantly but slowly changing, old material being taken out and new put in. A curious illustration is seen in the fact that if madder be mixed with the food of pigs, it will tinge their bones red. Repair of the Bones. If you break a bone, the blood at once oozes out of the fractured ends. After- ward comes a watery fluid, which in a fortnight thickens to a gristly substance strong enough to hold them together. Bone-matter is then slowly depos- ited, which in five or six weeks will unite the broken parts. A broken limb should always be held in place by splints ; a sudden jar might rupture the partially- mended break. As, for a long time, the new portion consists largely of animal matter, and so is tender and pliable, great care is necessary to prevent a mis- shape of the bone. The Joints are packed with a soft, smooth carti- lage, or gristle. In addition, the ends of the bones are covered with a thin membrane that secretes a fluid, not unlike the white of an egg, which prevents the noise and wear of friction. The body is the only v " niachine that oils itself. The bones which form the joint are tied with stout ligaments, or bands, of a smooth, silvery-white tis- sue, so strong that the bones are sometimes broken without injuring the fastenings. THE SKELETON. Fiq. 3. The 8fcuZl.l, frontal bone ; 2, parietal bone ; 5, temporal bone ; A, the sphenoid bone ; 5, ethmoid bone ; 6, superior maxillary (upper jaw) bone ; 7, malar bone 8, lachrymal bone ; 9, nasal bone ; 10, inferior maxillary (lower jaw) bone Classification of the Bones. For convenience, the bones of the skeleton are considered in three divi- sions : the head, the trunk, and the limbs. 1. The Head. THE BONES OF THE SKULL AND FACE form a cavity for the brain. None moves except the lower jaw, which is hinged at the back. Experiment. Try in how many different directions you can move your jaw, and find what muscles you use. THE SKULL-BONES are composed of two compact plates, with a spongy layer between. These are in several pieces, the outer ones being joined by notched edges (sutures, sut'yurs) in a way carpenters term dove-tailing. THE TRUNK. 15 Fig. U. The skull is, in fact, a strong bone-box which shel- ters the brain an organ so delicate that, if unpro- tected, an ordinary blow would destroy it. Its egg shape adapts it to resist pressure. The smaller and stronger end is in front, where the danger is greatest. Projections before and behind shield the less protected parts. The hard plates resist, and the spongy packing deadens, every blow. The dove-tailed joinings disperse jars and prevent fractures from spreading, while the frequent openings afford safe pas- sage for nerves and blood-vessels to the other parts of the body. 2. The Trunk. THE TRUNK has two important cavities. The upper part, or chest, contains the heart and the lungs, and the lower part, or abdomen, holds the stomach, liver, kidneys, and other organs (Fig. 27). The principal bones are those of the spine, the ribs, and the hips. THE SPINE consists of twenty-four les (vertebra), between which are placed pads of cartilage. Within the column is a canal for the spinal cord. Strong projections at the back and on either side are abundant for the attachment of the muscles. The packing acts as a cushion to prevent the jar from reaching the brain when we jump or run while the double curve disperses the force of a fall. 16 THE SKELETON. THE PERFECTION OF THE SPINE surpasses all human contrivances. A chain of twenty-four bones is at once so stiff that it will bear a heavy burden, and so flexible that it will bend like rubber. Resting upon it, the brain is borne without a tremor ; clinging to it, the vital organs are carried without fear of harm ; and, snugly hidden within it, lies a delicate nerve that would thrill with the slightest touch. A B, the first cervical vertebra, the atlas ; A, the atlas, and the second cervical vertebra the axis ; e, the odontoid process ; c, the foramen. THE JOINT BETWEEN THE SKULL AND THE SPINE is A VERY PECULIAR ONE. On the top of the upper vertebra (atlas) are two little hollows (a, b, Fig. 5), into which fit the corresponding projections on the lower part of the skull, and thus the head can rock to and fro. The second vertebra (axis) has a peg, e, which projects through a hole, c, in the first. Thus, when we move the head side wise, the atlas turns round the peg of the axis. THE BIBS, also twenty-four in number, are ar- ranged in pairs on each side of the chest. At the back, they are all attached to the spine. In front, the upper seven pairs are tied by cartilages to the breast-bone ; three are fastened to each other and THE TRUNK. 17 the cartilage above, and two, the floating ribs, are loose. If the chest-wall were a single, thick bone, it would be heavy, and unwieldy. As it is, the long, The Thorax, or Chest: a, the sternum, or breast-bone; b to c, the true ribs: d to h, the false ribs ; g, h, the floating ribs ; i k, the dorsal vertebrae.. slender ribs, the arched form, and the connecting cartilages furnish lightness, strength, and elasticity, just what we need to breathe easily, and, at the same time, to protect the delicate organs within. The natural chest is smaller at the top than at the bottom, but our tight clothing often reverses this shape. THE HIP-BONES form a kind of basin (pelvis). In the upper part, is the foot of the spinal column a wedge-shaped bone firmly planted between the solid 18 THE SKELETON. bones of the hip, like the keystone to an arch, a steady support to the heavy burden above. Fig. 7. The Pelvis (a basin) ; a, the sacrum (sacred) ; b, b, the right and left innominata, cr Fig. 8. 3. The Limbs. Two SETS OF LIMBS branch from the trunk, viz. : the upper, and the lower. They closely resem- ble each other. The arm cor- responds to the thigh ; the fore-arm, to the leg ; the wrist, to the ankle ; the fingers, to the toes. 1. THE UPPER LIMBS. The Shoulder. The bones of the shoulder are the collar-bone (clavicle), and the shoulder- blade (scapula). The clavicle is a long, slen- der bone, shaped like the Italic The Shoulder-joint : a, the clav- / T j. .< j. ' j j. -ij. icie ; b, the scapula. / J-t is fastened, at one end to THE LIMBS. 19 Fig. 9. the breast-bone and the first rib, and, at the other, to the shoulder-blade. It thus holds the shoulder- joint out from the chest, and gives the arm greater play. The Shoulder-blade is a thin, flat, triangular bone, fitted to the top and back of the chest, making a foundation for the muscles of the shoulder. The Shoulder-joint. The arm-bone, or humerus, is attached to the shoulder-blade by a ball-and-socket joint. This consists of a cup-like cavity in the latter bone, and a rounded head in the former to fit it, thus allowing a free rotary motion. The shallow socket causes a frequent dis- location of this joint, but a deep one would spoil the easy swing of the arm. The Elbow. At the elbow, the humerus is attached to the ulna a slender bone on the inner side of the fore-arm by a hinge- joint which ad- mits of motion only backward and forward. The head of the radius, or large bone of the fore-arm, is convex at the elbow, and fits into a shallow cavity in the ulna, while at the wrist the ulna plays in a similar socket in the radius. Thus the radius may roll over the ulna. Bones of right Fwe-arm; B.,tM rm, Trr - j. 4. humenis ; R, the radius; U, Ot* The Wrist consists of two u ina. THE SKELETON. Fig. 10. rows of irregular bones, one of which is attached to the fore-arm; the other, to the hand. They are placed side to side and so firmly fastened as to admit of only a gliding motion. This gives little play, but great strength, elasticity, and power of resisting shocks. The Hand. The bones of the palm support each a thumb or finger. Each finger has three bones, but the thumb has only two. The first bone of the thumb, standing apart from the rest, enjoys a special free- dom of motion, and adds greatly to the usefulness of the hand. The first bone of each finger is so attached to the corresponding bone of the palm as to move in several directions upon it, but the others have simple hinge - joints. The fingers are named in order : the thumb, the in- dex, the middle, the ring, and the little finger. Their different lengths cause them to fit the hollow of the hand when it is closed, and probably enable us more easily to grasp objects of varying size. Bones of the Hand and the Wrist. Experiment. If you clasp a ball with your hand, the tips of your fingers will form a straight line. The Hip-joint. 2. THE LOWER LIMBS. The Hip. The thigh-bone, or femur, which, at every step, has to bear our weight, is the largest and strongest in the skeleton. It is attached to the hip-bone by a ball-and-socket joint. Unlike the shoulder- joint, the cup here is deep, thus affording less play, but greater strength. The Knee is strengthened by the knee-pan (patella, little dish), a chestnut-shaped bone firmly fastened over the joint. The shin-bone (tibia), the large, triangular bone on the inner side of the leg, is attached to both the femur and the foot by a hinge- joint. The knee-joint admits of a slight rotary motion when the limb is not extended. The fibula (fibula, a clasp), the small, outside bone of the leg, is strongly bound at both ends to the tibia 22 THE SKELETON. (Fig. 1). It is immovable, and, as the tibia bears the principal weight of the body, the chief use of this second bone seems to be to give more surface to which the muscles may be attached. The Foot. The graceful arch of the foot, and the numerous bones joined by cartilages (Fig. 1), give an elasticity to the step that could never be attained by a single, flat bone. The toes naturally lie straight forward in the line of the foot. Few persons in civ- ilized nations, however, have naturally-formed feet. The big toe is crowded upon the others, while crossed toes, in-growing nails, corns, and bunions abound. The cause of these deformities is found in the shape and size of fashionable boots and shoes. Narrow points pinch our toes, and compel them to override one another ; narrow soles compress the arch ; while high heels, by throwing all the weight forward on the toes, strain and enlarge the ankle. When we are measured for boots or shoes, we should stand on a sheet of paper, and have the shoe- maker mark with a pencil the exact outline of our feet as they bear our whole weight. When the shoe is made, the sole should exactly cover this outline, while the heels should be low, flat, and broad. Diseases. 1. THE RICKETS are caused by a lack of mineral matter in the bones, rendering them soft and pliable, so that they bend under the weight of the body. The disease is cured by a more nutritious diet, or by taking phosphate of lime to supply the lack. 2. BOWLEGS are produced by children standing on their feet before the bones of the lower limbs are strong enough to bear their weight. A young child should never be urged to stand. Nature will set him on his feet when the proper time comes. PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. 23 3. CURVATURE OF THE SPINE. When the spine is bent, the packing between the vertebrae becomes compressed on one side into a wedge-like shape. After a time, it will lose its elasticity, and the spine become distorted. This occurs in the case of students who bend forward to bring their eyes nearer their books, instead of lifting their books nearer their eyes, or who raise their right shoulder above their left when writing at a desk which is too high. Round shoulders, small, weak lungs, and, oftentimes, diseases of the spine are the consequences. An erect posture in reading or writing conduces not alone to beauty of form, but also to health of body. 4. SPRAINS are produced when the ligaments which bind the bones of a joint are strained, twisted, or torn from their attachments. They are quite as harmful as a broken bone, and require careful attention, lest they lead to a crippling for life. The use of a sprained limb may permanently impair its strength. 5. A DISLOCATION is produced by the rupture of the tissues of the joint so that the head of the bone is driven out of its socket and into some other place both by the force of the blow which caused the injury and by the contraction of the muscles. PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. 1. Why does not a fall hurt a child as much as it does a grown person ? 2. Should a young child ever be urged to stand or walk ? 3. What is meant by "breaking one's neck " ? 4. Should chairs or benches have straight backs ? 5. Should a child's feet be allowed to dangle from a high seat ? 6. Why can we tell whether a fowl is young by pressing on the point oi the breast-bone ? 7. What is the use of the marrow in the bones ? 8. Why is the shoulder so often put out of joint ? 9. How can you tie a knot in a bone ? 10. Why are high pillows injurious ? 11. Why should we not wear narrow-toed shoes ? 12. Should a boot have a heel-piece ? THE SKELETON. 13. Why should one always sit and walk erect ? 14. Why does a young child creep rather than walk ? 15. What is the natural direction of the big toe ? OF THE Frontal Bone (forehead). Two Parietal bones. 1 CRANIUM ' Two Tem P oral (temple) bones. 1. URANIUM -, Sphenoid bone. I Ethmoid (sieve-like bone at root of nose). (_ Occipital bone (back and base of skull). ( Two Superior Maxillary (upper jaw) bones. O I Inferior Maxillary (lower jaw) bone. ^ ^ Two Malar (cheek) bones. H I | Two Lachrymal bones. J ' ii FACE < Two Turbinated (scroll-like) bones, each side (Ik bones). of nose. 5 *, Two Nasal bones (bridge of nose). 1 Vomer (the bone between the nostrils). Two Palate bones. : f Hammer. 3. EARS - Anvil. I (6 bones). ( Stirrup. ( Cervical Vertebrae (seven vertebrae of the neck). 1. SPINAL COLUMN. < Dorsal Vertebrae (twelve vertebrae of the back). ( Lumbar Vertebrae (five vertebrae of the loins). P ^ 9 -R,,