i AUSTRA ^W.WIbKINS ^\';««^nx^^<^le food of the abori- gines. Allied to these are the Petaurists, knowii in the colonies as Flying Opossums, Avhich have membranes stretching be- tween the arms and legs. When taking their flying leaps from tree to tree, or from branch to branch, these mem- branes are expanded and help to support the animal, which, it is scarcely necessar}^ to observe, is incapable of true flight. Others of these flying phalangers are smaller, and recei^"e from the colonists such names as Flying Squirrel and Flj'ing Mouse. The third family of marsupials are styled f/rass-eaiers, and include the Kangaroos, Wallabies, and Padcmelons, with some smaller kinds. Their general appearance and structure are well knoAvn. Their short fore-legs, long muscular tails, and large hind-limbs terminating in formidable claws, and, above all, the pouches in which their young are carried and nourished while in the immature state, are characteristics by Avhich the Avhole tribe may be recognized, notwithstanding the difterence in size and colour among the various species. In general, the prevailing colour is gray, shading off in some species to black, though two species are of a yelloAvish red. In size they vary from the NATURAL riiUDUCTlONS OF AUSTRALIA. 41 Great Kangaroo, which sometimes weiglLs t^vo humlred pounds, to the Hare Kangaroo, which seldom exceeds ten pounds. The larger number of species are found in the eastern half of Australia. Insect- eaters form the next class, and include the Bandicoots, the largest species of which is about the size of a rabbit, and others not larger than a rat. To the last division, the flesh-eaters, are assigned some of the fiercest and most destructive of the "wild animals of Australia. Two of these are, at the j)resent time, confined to Tasmania, ^\diere they not I only prey upon domestic Kangaroo. animals, but are even dangerous to man. First in destructiveness is the so-called Tasmanian "Devil," a ferocious and bloodthirsty creature, killing, as it would seem, for the mere love of slaughter. There are also tAvo species of " Tigers," which are thus named from being striped, though their general form more nearl}' resembles that of the dog. On this account they have been also called Tasmanian "Wolves." On the continent the largest Ijredatory animals are the Dasyures — Native Cats as they are absurdly termed by the colonists. These little creatures, which are either black or yellow with white spots, are generally about the size of a half-grown kitten, though specimens have been seen equal in dimensions to a full-grown cat. They do much mischief among poultry, and, like their relatives, the "devils," kill without any intention of eating. Besides numerous species of ])ouch('d " rats " and " mice," so called, there belongs to this division an animal, locally termed the "Ant eater," which preys princii)ally nyion ants and their eggs. 10. Belonging to a small but very remarkable order are two 42 NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. animals which are confined exchisively to Australasia, and which in some respects resemble birds, notal)ly in })roducing their young from eggs. These are the Echidna and the Platypus or Ornithorhynchus. The former, which is variously known as the "hedgehog" and the "porcupine ant-eater," is covered with sharp spines that form an effectual }irotection against such foes as the dingo, and are not altogether unavailing even against man himself. Its food consists of ants and their eggs, to obtain which it makes use of its long, round, slimy tongue, which it protrudes from its long beak-like snout. Its powerful claws enable it to penetrate antdiills and to burrow in the ground with great rapidity. Extraordinary as its structure is, it is a true mammal, suckling its young in a peculiar fashion. One species inhabits Australia, and another Tasmania. Equally remarkable is the Ornithorhynchus, called " duck-ljill '"' and "water-mole" by the colon- ists. The head of this creature terminates in two horny mandibles resem- bling the bill of a duck, its feet are webbed, and the males have spurs on their hind-legs. It fre- quents streams and ponds, and forms its dwelling by burrowing deeply into the banks. To some extent it is sought after for the sake of its thick, warm, dark-brown fur, but other- wise it is not much noticed by the colonists. 11. The discovery of fossil bones of marsupials and of scarcely any others has been mentioned above. Remains of a dog, of rats and mice, and of a species of sloth, have been discovered; but, for the most part, the fossils are those of marsupials of a similar kind with those now existing, but dis- tinguished by their enormous size. A kangaroo ten feet high when erect is wonderful enough, but becomes insignificant in comparison with an allied animal, the Diprotodon, nearly as large as an elephant, of which remains belonging to several species have been exhumed. Fragments of other huge crea- NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. 43 tures, a wombat as large as a tapir, and aniinals resembling in some points both the wombat and the kangaroo, and equalling the rhinoceros in size, have also been discovered. All these appear to have been herbivorous; but another large extinct animal is thought to have been carnivorous. If such were the case, its size, which must have been that of a lion, would have rendered it a most formidable enemy to even the enormous beasts before mentioned. Besides these creatures remarkable for their dimensions, there were numerous species, now extinct, of kangaroos, Avallabies, and others. 12. While the mammals of Australia are thus peculiar, its birds are not less characteristic. Altogether it is estimated that Australia, so far as it is yet known, possesses more than six hundred distinct species. In regard to distribution, it would appear tliat birds most abound in the north, where about four hundred and fifty species have been observed, and to diminish in number as we proceed southward, until in Tasmania little more than a hundred and sixty species are met with. It Avould be impossible to describe in detail so numer- ous a class of animals, and mention will therefore be made of those only which may be considered to be specially Australian. By this it is not to be understood that there is any correspon- dence between the mammals and the birds in this continent as regards their restricted habitat; for, as a rule, the same orders of birds as are indigenous here may also be found in other parts of the Avorld, a statement obviously inapplicable to the quadrupeds. There are, nevertheless, certain kinds which, owing to some peculiarity in structure, colour, or habits, may Ije deemed peculiarly Australian. Among these the Emu may be noticed first, as from its size, the absence of apparent wings, and the unusual texture of its feathers, it differs greatly from ordinary birds. Formerly abundant in all parts of the country, it is now only to be found in the most sj)arsely peopled districts, having been hunted down and destroyed, often from the mere instinct of destructiveness. In height the emu reaches six, and even eight feet; its wings are mere rudiments concealed by its long ])lumage; and its feet, adapted for running, have three toes. Its food is principally vegetable. Harmless and timid it seeks 44 NATUUAL I'RODUCTIUNS OF ALSTUALIA. for safety by its speed in running, but when brought to bay, a kick from its powerful leg is dangerous, and strong enough to break a bone. The enui may be domesticated, and breeds in captivity. Equally remarkable, though smaller, is the Menura, the "lyre-bird" or "lyre-tail" of the colonists, and so termed because the two outer tail- feathers are curved into the shape of an ancient lyre, while the intermedi- ate feathers, stiff and wiry, rejjresent the strings. Up to the present time natura- lists have not agreed as to its position in the arrange- ment of birds, some class- ing it among gallinaceous birds, such as the pheasant and common fowl, and others among the jDcrchers with thrushes and wrens. With the former it agrees in its habit of scratching the ground when search- ing for food, but with the latter in the form of the l^ill and in its musical powers. Its own notes are not particularly melo- dious, but it imitates with great fidelity the song of other birds, and any but a close observer woidd thereby be led to believe in the near presence of birds that were not at the time within hearing. On this account it is often called the mock- ing-bird, but tlie common name for it is the "native" or "brush" jDheasant. The latter epithet it obtains from the fact that it haunts "brushes" and ravines in mountain sides, where the dense vegetation conceals it from A'ic.v. Still more peculiarly Australian are the "mound-building" birds, of which there arc three species. They are thus spoken of from their habit of scraping together large mounds of dead leaves and decaying vegetation, in which they make deep holes and deposit their eggs. The heat caused by the fermentation NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. -45 of this mass hatches tlie eggs, and the young escape, not in the lielpless condition usual at such an age, but able to procure their own food and dispense with the assistance of their parents. These birds are generally known as "brush-turkeys.'" Less remarkable for the strangeness of their habits, but worthy of notice for their numbers, variety, and beauty of plumage, are the parrot tribe, represented by more than sixt}' species, from the great Black Cockatoo to the diminutive (irass Parakeet. Some of the parrots subsist upon honey, which they are en- abled to collect from the flowers Avith their brush-like tongues. Doves and pigeons are also abundant, and in many cases are remarkable for their plumage, especially the fruit-pigeon of the northern districts. There are several kingfishers, clothed like their congeners in other parts of the Avorld in bright colours, though one species, somewhat grotesque in form and droll in its habits, does not frequent the water, but derives its subsistence exclu- sively from the land. This is the laughing Kooka-burra, or gigantic kingfisher, which utters a loud and continuous ciy resembling a burst of idiotic laughter, combined with the liraying of an ass. From this circumstance it has obtained the local name of the Laughing Jackass; Avhile, from the regularity with which its call is sounded at (hn'-dawn and dusk of even- ing, it has acquired the more complimentary title of the "settlers' clock." Its food consists principally of the smaller reptiles, and it is serviceable in keeping down the number of snakes. Among rapacious birds the Australian Eagle takes a con- spicuous place. It commits great havoc among lambs, but is not averse to carrion. Xo vulture has yet been observed in any part of the continent, but hawks of various species arc numerous; and owls are common, one of them having a note like the word "cuckoo." The Black Swan is a noble bird, capable of domestication; the Pelican of equal size is often seen in flocks; and wild ducks are abundant. One species makes its nest in the hollow of a tree. Of the smaller kinds of birds the numbers are very great, and include honey-eaters, finches, robins, swallows, wrens, and crows. Some of these have a pretty song; and the piping-crow, popularly called the 4(5 NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. magpie, also has a melodious note. Many are brilliantly coloured; the robins have red breasts. The coasts arc fre- quented by hosts of sea-birds. On the southern coasts the albatross may often be seen. There are also gulls of various kinds, divers, and penguins. 13. Including those which inhabit the Australian seas, the reptile class numbers about two hundred and fifty species, which vary in size from the crocodile, thirty feet long, to the diminutive frog of an inch, and which differ in their qualities from the edible turtle to the deadly serpent. Fresh -Avater tor- toises, of which seven species are now known to exist, are found in streams and pools in all parts of the country, and are numerous. On the coast four species of turtle' have heen ob- served, some of large size, and including the green turtle, so dear to epicures; the hawk-bill, which yields "tortoise" shell ; and the leathery turtle, from which oil is obtained. Lizards are still more abundant, and most of them are peculiar to Australia. Pre-eminent among them for size and voracity are the crocodiles, of which two kinds are known to inhabit the northern territory. One grows to the length of thirty feet, and is destructive to domestic animals and dangerous to man; the other is smaller. The next tribe, the monitors, is known under the name of "lace-lizards" and "iguanas." Some of these have been seen eight feet in length, and their flesh is rejjuted to be extremely palatable. Some of the lizards closely I'esemble snakes, for which, at a hurried glance, they are often mistaken. Certain species, locally termed "stump-tails," are covered with large rough scales, and bear the appearance of having the ends of their tails chopped off. Nocturnal lizards, the geckos, are common. Their feet being furnished with discs or suckers, they are able to creep uj) Avails, and are not unfre- quently found in dwellings, Avhere their unpleasant appearance and supjiosed power of mischief make them unwelcome A^isi- tors. Others deserving of special mention are the Avater-lizard, which is amphil)ious and attains a length of three or four feet; the frilled-lizard, Avliich has round its neck a loose skin capable of being erected at pleasure into a stiff frill; and the moloch, perhaps the strangest-looking creature of all that inhabit Aus- tralia. Its repulsive appearance is mainly due to the strong, NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. 4/ sharp spines and scaly })rotuberances ■with which it is irregu- larly covered from head to tail. It is, nevertheless, perfectly liariidess and inoffensive. Its movements are sluggish, and it jiossesses the power of changing colour like the chameleon. It is found in South and Western Australia only. Lizards seem to have abounded in Australia in former ages, for bones of many species have been obtained from the "Wellington Caves, and teeth of large crocodiles were found on the Darling Downs. A skeleton, nearly complete, of tlie lizard named Plesiosaurus was discovered in Northern Queensland. Of the snake family about sixty species are known to inhaljit Australia and Tasmania. Two-thirds of these are venomous, but only five are dangerous to man; none, however, are so deadly as the Indian cobra or the American rattlesnake. To the family of pythons or rock-snakes Ijelong the diamond and carpet snakes, which are common throughout the continent e.x;cej)t its most southern portions, and also four other species Avhich are restricted to the warmest districts. These are not venomous, but kill their i)rey b}' constriction. The tree snakes, usually long and slender, are also harmless. The most deadly of all are, the brown-banded snake, and another named the broad-scaled snake, which are distributed over the whole continent and Tasmania. The black snake and the brown snake, which ane so named from their respective colours, are also, when of large size, highly dangerous. Less deadly, though very venomous, is the death or deaf adder, which ajjproaches in its structure the viper family. It is, com- ])ared to other snakes, short and stout, and its movements are sluggish. As a rule all snakes are anxious to avoid mankind; and when a person has been bitten, it would be found on inquiry that he had either trodden upon the snake or driven it into a position from which it could escape only ])y taking the offensive. This is particularly liable to hap))en with the death adder, which lies in wait for its \)vey by roads and ])aths which, being partially overgrown with grass, conceal the reptile from the view of the passer-by. Snakes are more irritable, how- ever, and more disposed to attack human beings Avhen they first rise from their wintei- sleej) and during the jiairing .season, which is usually about the month of Fel)iuaiT. Fifteen .species 48 NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. of venomous sea-snakes have been observed in the AustraHan seas, and occasionally specimens are found on the shores, upon which they are cast during storms. Notwithstanding the danger of being bitten — a dangei-, it should be remarked, which is extremely small to an observant person — it is questionable whether the benefits conferred by snakes do not outweigh the injuries they inflict. Their office is evidently to keep down the numbers of rats, mice, and small marsupial animals, which, if allowed to multiply without check, would in a few years become a plague. Frogs constitute the next order of reptiles. About forty species are known to inhabit the parts of Australia which are settled or which have been thoroughly explored. Pools, marshes, and swamj)y places are the usual haljitat of frogs, though they sometimes wander to considerable distances from water. Some of them are prettily marked, but as a rule their colours are dull and, especially in the case of the tree-frogs, change- able. One of the frogs, of a bright green colour, has a deep, strong voice; and as it is fond of climbing up to the rafters of houses, its loud croak is certain to be heard by the inhabi- tants. It is the largest of all the Australian frogs. 14. The class of fishes is well represented in the Australian seas: fresh-water fishes are less plentiful. So great is the number of species that it will be possible to mention those only which are remarkable for some peculiarity of structure or which are of value as food. Among the fresh-water fishes the first jAace must be assigned to a species of perch, oddly named by the colonists the " Murray cod," having first been ol^served in that river, though it is found in others. Specimens weighing eightj' pounds have been captured. The cod is highly esteemed as an article of food. Eels, sometimes of great size, also inhabit the Australian rivers and fresh-water pools. In the northern rivers a very remarkable fish, the Ceratodus, is found. It belongs to a genus allied to one which flourished in distant ages, but which seemed to have become extinct. This fish, with others l)eIonging to the same class, forms a link between fishes and frogs. Of the multitudes of salt-water fishes those principally used for food are the schnapper, whiting, bream, mullet, and gar-fish. Others deserving of notice are the sharks, of which NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. 40 about twenty species infest the Australian seas, some indi- viduals attaining a length of twelve feet. One species pos- sesses a saw, its upper jaws or beak being lengthened and armed on each side with teeth. 15. Besides the fishes there are other marine animals which may be noticed here. Whales and their congeners, thougli less common than in former years, are still frequently to be met with near the coast; and seals not only visit the shore but occasionally ascend the rivers, especially in times of flood. Three species have been found on the coasts. That peculiar animal, the dugong, frecjuents the north-east coasts. Though a warm-blooded mammal, and allied to the whale, it differs from the latter in some important particulars. Its usual lengtli is about twelve feet; its food consists of sea- weeds, and its flesh is said to be very palatable. The dugong is noted for attachment to its 3'oung. Of the smaller animals the cray-fish, commonly called the lobster, is considered a choice article of food. Another species of less size inhabits the fresh-water streams, pools, and lagoons. Oysters are abundant, and are of great value; the pearl oyster is equally plentiful in the shallow sea on the north about Cape York, Avhere also the trepang abounds. Shrimps or prawns are found in the estuaries of rivers, and are extensively caught and sent to market. 1 6. Insects and other small creatures, popularly classed Avith them, exist in great numbers. Spiders of various kinds, some of which excavate dwellings in the ground and close them with trap-doors, are numerous. Others weave strong tough webs that would embarrass even small birds; and the so-called tar- antula, a huge hairy creature, which, when full-grown, would cover a saucei', inflicts a serious bite Avith its venomous fangs. Equally noxious is the centipede, which has been known to at- tain the length of eighteen inches, and the scorpion which stings viciously with its tail. Compared with other countries in similar latitudes the butterflies cannot be deemed numerous or brilliantly coloured, but some of the moths are of large size. The beetle family is much more aljundantly represented; and the species, both large and small, peculiar in form and striking in colour, are remarkable not less for their variety than for the number of the individuals comprised in each. As in other (311) D 50 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. countries so here members of this family make themselves con- spicuous by the ravages they commit among trees. Equally abundant are the grasshoppers, one species of which is at times found, in some of the interior plains congregated in such num- bers as to remind the observer of the clouds of locusts that ravage certain parts of Asia and Africa. The grasshopi^ers, however, do not fly; they take flying leaps. They are exceed- ingly destructive to vegetation when gathered in large swarms. The cicadas, or tree-hoppers, are called locusts in the colonies, although they do not resemble the latter insects either in ap- pearance or habits; they are remarkal)le chiefly for the noise they make. Bees are indigenous to Australia; they are smaller than the European bee, and the honey they make diff'ers greatly from that produced by the latter. In the warmer dis- tricts mosquitoes abound and torment man and beast as is the wont of the tribe; and flies of various kinds are almost as troublesome by day as the mosquitoes at night. Fire-flies may be observed also in the hotter regions, especially in "brushy" spots near the banks of streams. A small beetle also shines with a phosphorescent light. Australian ants are universally distributed. No spot seems to be free of their presence. Some species affect damp localities; but the larger number frequent dry and arid places; some are solitary, but most live in com- munities. They vary in size from more than an inch to less than a line, and the larger species — "soldiers" and "bull-dogs," as the children term them — are armed with a sting more for- midable than that of the wasp or bee. The so-called white ants are also widely distributed. They subsist upon decaying wood, and are very destructive to the timber of houses if they once eff"ect an entrance. Their own dwellings, composed of particles of clay moistened with a liquid secreted by themselves and hardened in drying into a cement, are occasionally eight feet in height. Among the curiosities of insect life may be men- tioned the "walking leaf," which so exactly resembles the leaf of a tree that it is difficult to discriminate bet^veen them ex- cept upon close inspection. Even more deceptive are the "walk- ing sticks," which resemble dry twigs of various sizes broken off' from a shrub. Some are twelve inches in length. 17. Turning now to the native man, we find the whole ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF At'STRALIA. 51 Australian continent inhabited by one race, of which the main features, bodily and mental, are remarkably constant throughout. In the extreme north some infusion of Papuan blood may have taken place; but, if such be the case, the intermixture has produced so slight a result as not to modify the general character of the race in any perceptible degree. Widely differing accounts have been given by writers as to the qualities of the Australian aborigines. By one class they are described as the lowest and most degraded of the human family, neither well-made nor robust in body, and with mental capacity but little above that of the more intelligent l)rutes; while by others they ai'e credited with bodil}' and intel- lectual powers of a high order. Neither of these representa- tions is altogether correct. In some respects the intelligence 52 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. of the native man is high, especially in matters which appeal to the perceptive powers; but in all that concerns thought or abstract ideas he is woefully deficient. It would be unfair, how- ever, to judge of the character of the race from the remnants of the tribes that are to be found in the settled districts, where they are corrupted by intercourse with the white man, weak- ened by diseases he has introduced, and degraded by intem- perance. When the country was first discovered the people were un- doubtedly a much finer race than their descendants. Allowing for such differences as would, among any people, result from variation in the quantity and quality of food, and the influ- ences of climate, the same description will apply to the abo- rigines in all parts of the continent. In stature the men were at least equal to the average of Europeans, and some tribes exceeded that limit. Their colour was a sooty brown, diff"ering widely from the jet black of the African negro, and individuals Avere not imfrequentlymet with of a dark chocolate. These varia- tions in hue are probably analogous to the differences of com- plexion among the white races, and do not indicate any essen- tial distinction between such individuals and the race generally. With regard to muscular development they Avere robust, though formed more for activity than great strength or endurance, had deep chests, and Avere well proportioned except that their lower limbs were thin and the legs well-nigh destitute of calf. The head was large, with a broad, projecting forehead, from beneath which their bright dark eyes looked out Avith a steady but piercing and fearless gaze. The nose Avas in general broad, especially at the nostrils; the mouth wide and garnished Avitli strong, Avhite teeth. Their carriage was upright, their gait easy and graceful, and their demeanour bold and unembarrassed. It is more difficult to describe their mental qualities. Their sight Avas keen; they Avere good marksmen, and able to secure their quarry Avhen hunting with Aveapons which Avould be use- less to a Avhite man. They could track a man or other animal by indications which to a civilized European would be simply non-existent; and in short, in all matters requiring the exercise of the perceptive poAvers, they Avere surpassed by no people upon the face of the earth. In the higher qualities of judgment and ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. 53 reasoning, however, they appeared to be mere children. These contradictions are forcibly exemplified in their languages, which, though possessing the same structure throughout, totally dif- fered in their several vocabularies, so that adjoining tribes were mutually unintelligible. These languages abound in expres- sions for denoting physical actions, and even minute variations in such actions, and for naming physical objects; but in none of them have words been discovered expressive of such notions as we understand by the words "God," "right," "love," or "five." As with other savages, the better qualities of their moral nature were displayed only to members of their own tribe; with all others their usual condition was one of war and violence. They seem to have respected the rights of property, of Avhieh their wives formed the most important part; but their power of self-restraint being small, even their low standard of right was not always regarded. Towards male children parental attection was, in general, strongly manifested; but the women were treated with the utmost brutality — by those tribes, at anyrate, that had come into contact with the whites. As regards reli- gion, it is now believed that they had no idea of God or a future state, though they had some superstitious notions by which many of their customs and practices were regulated. It has been mentioned already that there Avere no indigenous roots, seeds, or fruits capable of afibrding sustenance even to moderate numbers of people, and that the aborigines were therefore compelled to live chiefly uj^on animal food, which was comparatively abundant. But as game naturally became scarce after a time in the neighbourhood of a " camp " of the blacks, they were compelled to shift their quarters frequently. It Avas, therefore, useless to construct dwellings of a permanent char- acter; and those of a temporary nature consisted of "gunyahs," composed of branches and boughs, and better adapted to afford shade from the sun than shelter from bad weather. Often a single piece of bark stripped from a tree was made to answer this purpose; and in summer time even this slight protection was dispensed with. The climate in general being so genial clothing was deemed superfluous, though in winter, in the colder districts, "cloaks" or mantles of opossum skins were worn. In preparing their food they knew of but one method. 54 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS UF AUSTRALIA. The game was simply thrown upon the lire for a few minutes, and then devoured half-raw. They had consequently no need for vessels of any kind, and the potter's art was entirely un- known to them. The women made nets or bags for carrying the few articles they valued, while the men made weapons to be employed in their only occupations, hunting and Avar. Spears were used for both purposes, and the aborigines showed great dexterity in throwing them, having recourse at times to the aid of the " throwing-stick," by which they Avere enabled to impel their Aveapons with greater force and velocity. Clubs formed out of solid heavy timber, such as iron-bark, and care- fully polished, were used for combat at close quarters. But the most singular of the native Aveapons Avas the boomerang — a fiat curved stick Avhich possessed the curious property of re- turning to the throAver if hurled through the air in the proper manner. Aboriginal conflicts Avere seldom of a fatal character, native warriors being so quick of sight and so expert by train- ing that they received the spears of their enemies on their shields, Avhile their skulls Avere so hard that even terrible bloAvs from the club failed to produce a serious result. Should a Avound be inflicted, their simple surgery generally eflfected a cure even in severe cases. Disease Avas uncommon, and when it occurred Avas attributed to the malign action of an evil spirit or of a member of some other tribe. Their food consisted chiefly of the marsupial animals they Avere able to capture, the opossum being the commonest article of diet. On the coast and near the rivers fish Avas largely used. But in point of fact no living creature Avas too repul- sive for their appetites; snakes, hzards, tortoises, frogs — all Avere Avelcome; and even insects were not rejected. A large Avhite grub found in certain trees Avas considered a dainty morsel. Usually there Avas abundance of food of this kind, and it Avas eked out in particular localities A\dth seeds and roots — Avhich, hoAvever, afforded but little nourishment. In one district in Queensland, Avhere the bunya-bunya pine abounded, the aborigines assembled periodically to feast upon the seeds produced in its cones; and so important Avas the harvest con- sidered that various tribes congregated at the spot to secure their shares of the provision thus supplied. ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. 55 No relial^le estimate can be formed of the number of abori- ginals even in the districts that are known. It is certain, liowever, that the number is rapidly diminishing, and that the race will at no distant period become extinct. A little reflec- tion will show that the native Australians, debarred from com- munication with the rest of mankind, possessing no cultivable plant, and supplied with no domestic animals fit for human food, could only subsist as a race of rude hunters, and that all the circumstances which assist a nation to advance in ci\"ili- zation were absent in their case. By some writers the Australian aborigines have been accused of cannibalism, but the charge has not been supported by suffi- cient evidence. The practice was certainly not general, and in this respect they Avere superior to the inhabitants of neigh- bouring countries more advanced in civilization. If an occa- sional case of cannibalism occurred it would, if thoroughly inquired into, probaljly be found to originate in famine, when the black man would lose self-restraint, as even Europeans have been known to do in similar circumstances.^ 18. Such is the brief descri})tion of Australia. All the facts in the physical history of the country tend to prove that during many ages it was completely isolated from the rest of the globe, forming, as it were, a little world of itself. Notwith- standing the variety and abundance of its natural products, it was strangely deficient in the food - plants and animals common in other parts of the Avorld, by the help of which other races of men have raised themselves in the scale of civi- lization. Its luxuriant pastures sustained no herds of cattle; its grassy uplands fed no flocks of wool-bearing sheep; and its fertile tracts no grain that was worthy of culture ; and were it otherwise, there was no horse to draw the plough. Moreover, the race in possession of the land were incapable, under the cir- cumstances in which they were placed, of making any effectual effort for their own improvement, and of turning to profitable account the natural advantages by which they were surrounded. The country waited, as it were, for the appearance of ci\'ilized 1 Wc have spoken of the Australians in the past tense, since in the settled parts they are no longer found living in their natural state; of those living in the less known parts the description will still in the main hold good. 56 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. man upon its shores, with the plants and animals, as well as the implements, by means of which its vast resources might be developed. Less than a hundred years ago the desired arrival of a higher race took place. What the results of the entrance of that race into the country have been thus far it will be the aim of the succeeding pages to describe. THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 57 CHAPTER IV. THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 1. Boundaries and extent. 2. Coast-line and Harbours. 3. Surface. 4. ilouutains. 5. Table-lands. 6. Plains. 7. Drainage. 8. Kivers of eastern slojte. 9. Kivers of western slope. 10. Lakes. 11. Climate. 12. SoiL 13. Internal communication; Roads. 14. Railways and Telegraphs. 15. Navigable Rivers. 16. Population. 17. Industrial Occupations; Agriculture and Pasturage. 18. Mining. 19. Manu- factures. 20. Commerce. 21. Government. 22. Religion and Education. 23. Territorial Divisions. 24. Growth of Towns. 25. Sydney. 26. Other Towns. 1. Originally, New South Wales comprehended the whole of that part of the Australian continent which stretches from the Pacific Ocean on the east to the 129th meridian of east longi- tude on the west, and from the Timor Sea and Indian Ocean on the north to the Great Southern Ocean on the south. In 1834, however, the colony of South Australia Avas established, its boundaries being then fixed at the 14 1st meridian on the east and the 132d on the west. When, in 1850, the Port Philip district was constituted a separate colony, under the name of Victoria, a further severance of territory took place, and New South Wales lost the whole of its southern coast-line. A still further reduction in its area was effected on the se])ara- tion of Queensland in 1859. At present, therefore, the boun- daries of New South Wales are — East, the Pacific Ocean; u'cat, South Australia, the 141st meridian being the line of demarca- tion; north, the 29th parallel of south latitude, the Dumaresq River, and Macpherson's Range, which separate it from Queens- land; and south, the River Murray, and a straight line 110 miles in length from the head-waters of that stream to Cape Howe, by which the colony is divided from Victoria. In form this colony resembles an irregular four-sided figure, of which the extreme length is 900 miles and the greatest breadth 850 miles, while the average length and breadth are each 500 miles. Its area in round numbers is 325,000 square miles. 2. No large indentations and no conspicuous projections mark the coast-line of the colony. There are, however, numer- ous bays and inlets of no great size, the largest of which is Jervis Bay, in latitude 35° S. In fact, the whole of the coast 58 THE COLONY OF NKW .SOUTH WAF.ES. may be said to consist of a succession of bold and rocky head- lands, with bays between them, margined with sandy beaches. Cape Byron is remarkable as the most easterly point of the continent, St. George's Head for its prominence, Green Cape THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 59 fur a similar reason, and Cape Howe as the southern extremity of the colony. Few natural harljours exist on the coast, and, Avith the exception of Port Jackson, all are so inclosed with mountainous or unproductive country, as to be practically of little value. Such for example are Port Stephens, Broken Bay, and Twofold Bay, harbours that could hardly be siirpassed for the convenience of shi})23ing, but difficult of access from the land- ward side for the transport of produce from the richer districts. On the other hand the estuaries of some of the rivers, though for the most part obstructed by sand-bars, and sometimes diffi cult and even dangerous to enter, form convenient outlets for the proilucts of rich and extensive districts. The most impor- tant of these are the estuaries of the Clarence, M'Leay, Hunter, Manning, and Shoalhaven. Sydney Harbour or Port Jackson is not only the finest in Australia, but is surpassed by few in the whole world. Botany Bay is a name associated with the 1)eginning of the colonial history. 3. As regards surface New South AVales, as might be ex- pected in a country of such with; extent, is greatly diversified. 60 TIIK COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Rugged mountains and fertile valleys, gentle slopes and steep acclivities, elevated table-lands and low-lying plains, distinguish various portions of its area; and while some of these features are on so large a scale as to convey to the beholder the impres- sion of monotony, yet, on the other hand, the elements of the l)icturesque in scenery are generally abundant. This is espe- cially the case with the eastern portion of the country, the western being characterized by little variety. It is usual to consider the surface of New South Wales as formed of three distinct portions — the Coast District, the Tabledands, sur- mounted by the loftiest mountains of the colony, and the Plains. The two latter will be separately described; the for- mer, a narrow strip lying along the coast, consists of undulat- ing and generally fertile country crossed at intervals by moun- tain ridges, between which are river valleys of greater or less extent. 4. The mountains of New South Wales belong chiefly to the Dividing Chain of eastern Australia, which traverses the whole of New South Wales from north to south, and sends off' its lateral branches to the east and west. From the sea to the foot of this chain is a space of about twenty miles on an average ; but the distance from the shore to the actual division of the waters may be estimated at forty miles, though in one portion it reaches one hundred miles. Different portions of the chain are distinctly named. The most northern is the New England Range, with Ben Lomond 5000 feet high as its culminating point. Next follows the Liverpool Range, running east and west, which rises in Oxley's Peak to the height of 4500 feet. These two portions consist mainly of granite and trappean rocks; but in the Blue Mountains, which come next in order, the eastern slope is composed of sandstone lying in horizontal strata, but rent and cleft into vast chasms and narrow ravines, shut in with perpendicular walls of rock of great height. In the limestone rocks, lying on the western edge of this range, extensive caverns have been discovered, which, as objects of public interest, are cared for by the government. Passing over some parts of the chain which are of lower elevation, we next note the Gourock Range (35° to 36° S. lat.), a wild and con- fused mountain tract of great elevation, which, in Mount Jin- THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 61 dulian, reaches the height of 4300 feet. That portion of the chain which, south of the 3Gth parallel, turns in a north-west direction, is named the Manero Range, and in many points exceeds 4000 feet in altitude. The last and highest portion of the chain is called the Muniong Range, such being the aboriginal name for the highest peak, which, however, is more generally known as Mount Kosciusko. The height of this mountain is 7308 feet, that being Dr. Clarke's measurement of the peak he ascended ; but since the date of his visit it has been affirmed that another peak is still higher. Although below the line of perpetual snow, which in this latitude is about 8000 feet, snow and ice may be found all the year round in hollows of the mountain sheltered from the sun. Offsets from the main chain are numerous, and some of them important. For example, the most northern, which runs easterly to the Pacific at Point Danger, and is known as Macpherson's Range, forms the boundary in this part bet^veen New South Wales and Queensland. Its highest summit, Mount Lindsay, attains an elevation of 5700 feet. Omitting some smaller spurs, the Mount Royal Range (lat. 32°) and the Hunter Range (la^. 33^) may next be noticed. Together with the Dividing Chain they inclose the valley of the Hunter River. From the west side of the chain branch out the Nandewar and Warrambungle Ranges, which are nearly parallel, and bound, the former on the north and the latter on the south, the broad expanse of the Liverpool Plains. The Macquarie Range, originating in lat. 34°, runs in a similar direction, and includes the peaks called the Canobolas, said to be 4600 feet in height. Between the main chain and the sea, in certain portions, there are secondary ranges which, while inferior in elevation to the principal chain, contain peaks of great elevation. The northern of these Coast Eanges, as they are called, culminates in Mount Seaview (about 31° 30' S.), which attains an elevation of GOOO feet. In the southern Coast Range are Mount Buda- wang, 3800 feet, and Coolungabbera, 3712 feet in height. Near the western limit of the colony lie several ranges appar- ently forming portions of a mountain system, and known as the Barrier Ranges and the Grey Range. These are believed to rise to the heitrht of 3000 feet. Besides the mountains 62 THE COLONY OF NEW (SOUTH WALES. already mentioned there are many others which cannot he connected with any distinct range. 5. From the Coast District the country rises abruptly to the height of between two and three thousand feet, spreading out into broad table-lands, and extending for some distance to the westward of the Dividing Chain, where, by a gradual descent, they sink down into the level plains of the interior. On the seaward side, and especially where flanked by the Coast Ranges, the descent is steep and often precipitous; and in the earliest period of settlement, the barrier interposed by the per- pendicular rocks which form the eastern edge of the table-land prevented the colonists from penetrating to the interior for a quarter of a century. The average height of the table-land may be estimated at 2500 feet, though some portions exceed 3000 feet in elevation. The surface is generall}' undulating, covered to a large extent by the kind of forest before de- scribed as woodland, but in parts consisting of grassy downs lightly timbered or altogether bare of trees and shrubs. These open downs are commonly called "plains" by the colonists, who, in the naming of geographical featui'es, are frequently unmindful of the precise meanings of the terms they employ. Where the correct term has been applied it is sometimes dis- placed by a popular but inexact designation, as in the case of the Brisbane Doivns, which occupy the southern portion of the table-land, but are now universally known as the Manero Plains. The A'alley of the Hunter River divides the table-land into two parts — the northern, which extends into Queensland; and the southern, which is continued in Victoria. "With the ex- ception of the Liverpool Range, the Dividing Chain traverses the whole of the two table-lands, and its spurs help to vary the somewhat monotonous aspect of this elevated portion of the country. In places igneous rocks appear on the surface, and decomposing have formed very fertile soil well fitted for agri- cultural purposes; but in general these districts are better adapted for pasturage. Excepting coal, useful minerals are abundant, and the gold obtained in the country has been found on the table-lands and on the slopes of the Dividing Chain. 6. From the foot of the table-land on the west the country may be described as a dead level as far as the Barrier Ranges THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. (i3 Oil the extreme west, but dotted here and there with granite liills and with ranges of low elevation. The general fall of the land in these plains is towards the south-west, but so slight is the slojje that the beds of some of the rivers deviate from an absolute level b}^ less than six inches per mile on the average. One consequence of this flatness is, that after long-continued heavy rain the channels of the rivers are insufficient to carry off the water, which consequently inundates the neighbouring coun- try for considerable distances, and converts it, for the time being, into a vast but shallow lake. Immense tracts in these plains are composed of rich black earth of great fertility. In fact the accounts sometimes given of its productiveness border upon the marvellous. Grass and herbage, it is said, attain a height of ten or twelve feet, and their nutritive ciualities are so great that cattle feeding upon them fatten in a very short time. Interspersed among the tracts of black soil are sandy ridges, sometimes covered with "pine" or "mulga" scrub, but often producing the valuable shrub known as " salt-bush," of which both cattle and sheep are extremely fond. These plains are pre-eminently the pastoral region of the colony, and support many millions of sheep and cattle, besides horses. Their only drawback is the scarcity of water, the rainfall being but twenty inches per annum, much of which is absorbed by the thirsty ground, and no inconsiderable portion is also lost by evapora- tion. Of late years, however, much has been done to remove this disadvantage by the construction of dams and by sinking wells; and many blocks of land, formerly regarded as practi- cally useless, are now converted into valuable holdings for pas- toral purposes. There are some tracts, however, especially in the extreme western portion of the colony, which are so arid and consist of such sterile soil that they may be considered as little better than deserts. 7. From the Dividing Chain the land slopes, generally speak- ing, to the eastward and westward, and the rivers run in the corresponding directions. There are some notable exce]itions to this general statement, however. On the east of the Dividing Chain some of the principal river-valleys lie between that watershed and the Coast Ranges, and the rivers which drain them run in a direction parallel to that of the mountains 64 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. for portions of their courses. It thus happens that rivers, the sources of which are barely thirty miles from the sea in a straight line, have courses hundreds of miles in length. West of the Dividing Chain the ultimate slo})e of the land is to the south-west. The courses of all the principal streams are at first northerly, then north-west, and finally south-west. They consequently describe large curves, which, while adding largely to their length, enable them to water a greater extent of country than Avould be possible with courses more direct. In the extreme south of the table-land the drainage is toward Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean, in consequence of the Dividing Chain in that portion of its length taking a direction from south-east to north-west. In one small district of the southern table-land the streams emjity themselves into Lake George, the only distinct example of inland drainage in the country. The fall on the east side of the Dividing Chain being rapid, the rivers in the upper parts of their courses flow swiftly. Lower, Avhere the influence of the tides is felt, the current is slow; and the body of water poured into the sea being in ordinary seasons inconsiderable, the opposition of the tide results in the deposition of great quantities of sand, which forming bars greatly impedes navigation. In like manner the fall on the Avest of the Dividing Chain is at first rapid, but as the rivers reach the plains their currents become sluggish and frequently cease altogether. 8. Omitting the smaller streams, the principal rivers drain- ing the coast district have certain characteristics in common. They rise in the Dividing Chain or on the table-land, flow rapidly down the declivity, and in the lower portion of their courses are filled with salt-water, and rise and fall with the tide. Their valleys in this part of their courses are Avide and flat, and composed of rich alluvial soil. Commencing on the north, the first river of importance is the Richmond, which flows through a very fertile district, but is obstructed by a sand-bank at its mouth. Farther south is the Clarence, a fine stream, 240 miles in length, which drains a considerable portion of the northern table-land, as well as a large area of the coast district. A large proportion of the land in its lower basin con- sists of excellent soil, and notwithstanding the bar at its mouth, THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 65 the river is navigable for about 50 miles by sea-going steamers. The M'Leay resembles the Clarence hi many respects, but is shorter, and drains a less extensive basin of 4800 square miles. The Hastings and Manning are still smaller, though the latter is navigable for small vessels. One of the most important rivers of New South Wales, and even of Australia, is the A River View. Hunter, 300 miles in length, and draining an area of about 8000 square miles. It has numerous important tributaries, is a tidal river in the lower part of its course, and navigable by sea-going steamers to a distance of 35 miles from its mouth. About 50 miles south of the estuary of the Hunter Eiver is broken Bay, forming the moutli of the Hawkesbury, wliicli, rising in the CuUarin Kange, about lat. 35'' S., flows northward for nearly 300 miles, and then makes a sudden bend to the east. Tributaries flow into it from all directions, and the area drained by it is not less than 8000 square miles. At its mouth (311) E 66 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. is an extensive bay which forms an excellent liarhour; vessels of moderate size may be taken as far as Windsor, 140 miles from the sea. Like the Hawkesbury, the Shoalhaven flows first northAvard, and then bends suddenly to the eastward, entering the sea a little to the northward of Jervis Bay. It drains about 3300 square miles, and is navigalile for a short distance only. The Clyde, though short and draining little more than 450 miles of country, is important from the fact that it is navigable for some distance and has a good harbour near its mouth. Passing the Moruya, the Tuross, the Bega, and other smaller streams, we reach the Towamba, which flows into Twofold Bay, a splendid harbour capable of berthing a whole fleet of ships. The Snowy River in the extreme south rises in the Muniong Kange, and after a circuitous course of 240 miles through mountainous country, enters the colony of Victoria. 9. It may be said that the whole of the western slope is drained b}^ the river Darling and its afiluents. ^lost of these have their sources in the Great Dividing Chain of New South AVales, but the main stream itself rises farther north in Queens- land, and will again be noticed in the account of that colon}'. Under the name of the Barwan it enters XeM- South Wales at the 29th parallel of south latitude, and about 149° E. longi- tude. In its course towards the south-west it receives in suc- cession the Macintyre, Gwydir, Namoi, Castlereagh, and Mac- .quarie, from the eastward; and is joined by tlie Culgoa and its connected streams from the Avestward. The next of its feeders are the Bogan on the left bank and the Warrego on the riglit. From the junction of the latter it receives no tributary on either bank, until joined by the Murray a little south of tlie 34th parallel and near the 142d meridian. Here its volume is increased by the collected waters of another series of important streams which drain the southern portion of the western slope, Avhich empty themselves into the Murray, and of which the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee are the most important. From the point of junction with the Murraj^ the stream continues to bear this name; though, having regard to its length and the area of its basin, the river, from a geographical point of view, must be considered to be the Darling. From its most distant sources to the sea the course of the Darling is 3200 miles in THE colo>;y uf new south wales. 67 length, cand that })ortion of it which h'es within the territory of New South Wales is at least 1850 miles long. Its navigahle length in favourable seasons is 2345 miles. Excluding the area drained by the Murray and its affluents, the basin of the Darling extends over about 300,000 square miles. It is on these grounds entitled to rank as one of the great rivers of the world. Even with the limited rainfall on the jjlains and western slope, the volume of the Darling ought to he much greater than it is ; for if the river carried to the sea but a trifling proportion of the water deposited in its basin, the existing cliannel would 1)6 far too small. In point of fact, however, the Darling some- times ceases to flow entirely, and it becomes but a succession of pools. This comparatively insignificant volume in proportion to the area drained and the rainfall therein, arises mainly from the soakage which takes place in the porous soil of the plains ; and the water, instead of being carried off' to the sea, is stored in an underground reservoir, which only needs to be tapped to }ield an abundant supply. West of the Darling the tributaries can be considered such in name only, for, excepting during the highest floods, their waters never reach the main stream. The immense block of country lying between the Bogan, Darling, and Lachlan is wholly destitute of running streams, and was long regarded as worthless, or fitted for occasional occupation only during the most favourable seasons. By the construction of dams, how- evei', and Ijy sinking wells, even this territory has now been rendered useful for pastoral purposes. The eastern tributaries of the Darling in New South Wales are naturally arranged in four groups. The first of these includes the Macintyre, and Gwydir, which drain the district bounded north and south by the Ilerries and Nandewar Kanges respectively, embracing a portion of the table-land and a large stretch of plain country. Next comes the Namoi, draining with its tributaries another portion of the table-land, and in its lower course the Liverpool Plains. On tlie north the basin of this river is closed in by the Nandewar Range, and on the south by the Liverpool Kangc. This range also forms the northern boundary and watershed of the area drained by the third group, the Castlereagh, Macquarie, and Bogan. 68 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. The southern watershed of this basin is formed, not by a mountain range, but by land which, tliough of comparatively low elevation, is nevertheless liigher than the plains to the north and south. This raised tract throws the waters of its southern slo})e into the Lachlan, and so bounds on the north the area drained by the fourth group of rivers, the Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, and Murray. The two latter have their sources in the most elevated land of the continent, and being filled by the rains and snows which fall upon the mountains, their volume is larger and the stream of a more lasting description than that of other rivers. 10. For the extent of its territory, the lakes of Kew South Wales are neither numerous nor important. A number of salt-water lakes or lagoons are to be found along the coast. A group of these lies a little to the north of the 32d ]»arallel, and includes Lake Innes, Queen's Lake, and Watson Taylor's Lake, the entrance being known as Camden Ha^■en. Another group, including Wallis Lake and the Myall Lakes, lies a little south of the same parallel. Between the mouth of the Hunter River and Broken Bay is Lake Macquarie, which may be grouped with the Tuggerah Lake still further south. Lake Illawarra lies between 3-4° and 35° S. lat, and some smaller lagoons occur a little to the southward of the 35th jmrallel. Most of these lagoons abound in fish and wild-fowl, and in a few cases the passages connecting them Avith the sea are navigable. Liland lakes containing fresh water are even fewer in number. The most important is Lake George on the south table-land, in lat. 35° S. This lake is twenty miles in length by seven in width, and receives the waters of a small area of inland drainage having no outlet. Lake Bathurst, in the same neigh- bourhood, is of the same character, but smaller. There are upon the table-lands several small lakes, but they do not need special mention. On the plains, near some of the larger rivers, especially the Lachlan and Darling, lakes are formed in wet seasons by the overflow from the augmented streams, but they are shallow, and their waters are raj)idly absorbed or evap- orated. 11. AVhile the climate of New South AVales may be described generally as Avarm and dry, it differs considerably in various THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 69 parts in accordance with the ditierences of latitude and eleva- tion. Taking the coast district first, it may be stated that the mean temperature of Sydney, which is about midway between the northern and the southern limits of the colony, is 62 '6^, wliile Grafton in the north, and Eden in the south, have a mean temperature of 68° and 60° respectively. Of course, the temperature during the summer months is higher, and on a few extraordinary occasions may rise as high as 106° in the shade, but such instances are extremely rare. On the other hand, during the winter months, the temperature sometimes falls to 40°. As regards humidity, the average rainfall at Sydney is fifty inches annually; at Eden it is forty-five, and at the Tweed River seventy inches. While this must be con- sidered an abundant supply, it must also be noted that the rainfall is unevenly distributed throughout the year, one half of the average yearly amount having been known to fall in a single month. Strange to say, in the corresponding month of another year the whole amount of rain that fell was less than one-tenth of an inch. From the former of these two facts the inference is plain that the rainfall is at times exceedingly heavy, in fact tropical in its character; and from the steepness of the slope of the watershed, floods are liable to occur at such periods. Most of the rains in this district are brought up by winds from the southward and eastward, which largely prevail in summer. During that season the sea-breeze, blowing between north-east and south-east, is felt daily, and helps to modify the temperature otherwise to be expected. Occasion- ally the sea-breeze is interrupted by a hot Avind from the north-west, which raises the temperature, and from its exceed- ing dryness greatly injures vegetation. Generally this is fol- lowed by a cold breeze from the southward, to be in its turn succeeded by the sea-breeze. The prevailing wind in winter is westerly, and much rain is sometimes found to fall while the wind is between west and south. Otf the coast the winds are usually moderate, though at intervals violent storms, of the nature of cyclones, occur, in most cases about the time of the equinoxes. On the table -lands the temperature is lower, ranging accordinii' to latitude from 57° to 52° as the mean of the whole 70 THE COLONY OF NEW ^50UTH WALKS. year; and the rainfall averages about thirty inches. Wes- terly winds are the most common, and in winter produce the sensation of great cold; but, except during the night, the thermometer rarely falls below the freezing-point. Snow is not uncommon, and under favourable circumstances may re- main a day or two upon the ground, though it more frequently melts in a few hours. Higher temperature, drier atmosphere, and less wind are the characteristics of the climate of the plains. Here the thermometer not unfrequently registers 110' in the shade during the summer months, but the mean maximum temperature at that period may be estimated at 96°. On the other hand, during the winter the average of greatest cold is about 37°, and the mean temperature for the whole year is 64°. The average rainfall may be estimated at twenty inches, though in exceptionally dry years this amount is reduced to ten inches. The prevailing winds are westerly, but they usually blow with little force. One of the most remarkable characteristics of the climate of New South Wales, as it is, indeed, of Australia generally, is the abundance of sunshine. The "gray days" so frequent in northern countries are almost unknown here; clouds seldom obscure the sky except when they bring rain; and when that has ceased to fall, the clouds disappear and the sun shines forth with undimmed brilliancy. There can be no Cjuestion as to the healthiness of the climate of this colony. Where not prevented by injudicious habits of life, neglect of ordinary sanitary precautions, or unwholesome practices, the influence of the climate is highly favourable to mental and bodily vigour and conducive to long life. Nor is it less suitable to domestic animals. Horses, cattle, and sheep thrive and multiply, and appear to be exempt from the epidemics which in Europe sometimes carry off thousands in a few weeks. 12. In a country of such wide extent it is to be expected that soils of varying qualities are to be met with in different dis- tricts; and while much of an inferior character may be found, as on the Blue Mountains, yet, speaking generally', the worst will be found to afford pasture for sheep, and is therefore not altogether useless. In fact, in many parts the mountains are grassed to their very summits. For a large proportion of the THE COLOXY OF NKW SOUTH WALES. 71 whole area of the colony the soil may be described as suitable for pasturage, but not fitted for agricultural purposes. On the banks of the rivers and smaller streams deposits of rich alluvial soil are to be found, frequently of great depth, and of e.xtraordiuary fertility. This is especially the case with tlie coast rivers, where the extent of the alluvial soil is largest, and Avhere it is replenished by the occasional floods which leave after them a fresh de})Osit by which the ground is again fertilized, as the Egyptian delta is by the overflow of the Nile. Portions of the coast district and of the table-lands also con- tain rich soil, produced by the decomposition of trap, basalt, and other volcanic rocks, and suited for the cultivation of grain. The soil of the plains consists of alternate patches of light sandy soil, which at times becomes little better than pure sand, and of a rich black loam of a fertility, when well supplied with moisture, which is almost incredible. Up to the present the want of a sufficient supply of water has checked any systematic attempt at cultivation on these "black soil" plains, Avhich are now used only for pastoral purposes. In their natural state the alluvial soils of the coast district are covered with dense vegetation, which forms what we have formerly described as "brushes," and which requires to be "cleared" before the land is available for cultivation. The black soil plains, on the other hand, are usually destitute of trees, or dotted with clusters of the elegant myall and a few others. 13. One of the most necessary tasks in a new country is the establishment of the means of communication between one settlement and another. At first the roads of the colony were simple tracks; and so long as the weather was dry, and the traffic light, these fully answered the purpose. But as ])opu- lation increased, and produce had to be brought to market, the need for properly -formed roads became urgent. After the country west of the Blue Mountains had been opened up by explorers, and settlement therein had commenced, the con- struction of a road across that formidable barrier became a ((uestion of great moment with the colonists, and the engineer- ing skill and resources available at the time were taxed to the uttermost to carry out the work. Common roads, more than 30,000 miles in length, have now been constructed in various 72 THE COLON y OF NEW SOUTH WALES. directions, Lut chiefly in three main lines, running north, west, and south from Sydney. From these minor roads branch off in all directions, covering the whole country with a network of highways. In forming these roads hills ha^•e been cut through and swamps filled up; in some instances the necessary materials have been brought from long distances, and bridges Koad over Blue Mountains— ^■ic■toria I'ass. have been constructed across rivers and creeks. The amount of labour and moue}' expended upon these necessary adjuncts of civilization has been enormous, but the benefits that have accrued have been commensurate Avith the outlay. 14. Equally great have been the advantages arising from the construction of railways, of which about 1800 miles have been completed and oi:)ened for traffic. Like the common roads the railroads have been formed on three main lines, each with its branches. The Great Southern Railway connects Syd- ney with Albury, and, by means of the junction with the Victorian railway system, with Melbourne. It has several THK COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. branches. The Great Western Railway connects Sydney with Bourke on the Darling River, and has also several branches. These two great lines will in a short time be connected with the Great Northern Railway, which commences at Newcastle, and runs northward to (.(Queensland, so that travellers will be al)le to i)erform the whole journey from Melljourne to Brisbane A Kiiilway Luttmt;. by rail. A large scheme of additional railway extensions has been sanctioned by the legislature, and when carried out will cover the more thickly jjeopled part of the country with a net- work of railways that will render internal communication easy and facilitate the interchange of products of different districts. From the description before given of the conformation of the country it will readily be inferred that the construction of roads, whether railroads or common roads, over the mountains and u{) the eastern fall of the table-land, was a work of great difticulty and expense. Communication by means of the electric telegraph has been extensively established, few places 74 THK COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. of imy note being unsupplied with telegraph stations. The total length of telegraph lines is about 15,000 miles. Telegraphic communication is also maintained with all the Australian colonies, as well as with Eiirope, Asia, and America. Tele- phonic communication is largely made use of in Sydney and its vicinity. 15. Communication between the different ports of the colony is maintained by steamers and sailing vessels, and most of the coast rivers are navigable for some distance from their mouths. ]\Iuch of the internal cominerce of the colony is carried on by this means. Some of the inland rivers are also navigable in favourable seasons. The Murray, for example, is navigable for small steamers and barges for a distance of 1700 miles from its mouth. Its tributary, the Murrumbidgee, is also navigable in the same way for 500 miles of its course. Regarded as the principal stream of which the INIurray is an affluent, the Darlino; is navigable from its mouth in Lake Alexandrina to AYalgett, a distance of more than 2300 miles. Although of great importance to the trade of New South Wales and Vic- toria, this system of water communication is too uncertain to compare with that of some other countries, such as the United States of America, in extent or regularity. 16. Scanty for the size of the country, even when first dis- covered, the aboriginal population has so greatly diminished since settlement commenced that the survivors may be reckoned by hundreds; and it may safely be predicted that, ^^■ithin a short period, the race will become extinct. Excepting these and a small proportion of Chinese, the population of the colony, which may be estimated at 1,000,000, is either Euro- pean or of European descent. Probably every country of Europe is represented to a greater or less extent; but the great body of the people are of British origin, being either immigrants from the United Kingdom or their descendants. A few have come direct from America, chiefly from the British colonies, but are of the same stock as the majority of the colonists. In old countries females are found to preponderate over the male inhabitants; but the reverse is the case in New South Wales, where males are more numerous than females. 17. Agriculture^ with its connected occupations, forms the THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 75 iiio.st iia2)ortant industry of the colony. Pasturage supports a large number of people, especially on the western slopes of the table-lands where the finest wool is produced, and on the great interior plains. As evidencing the extent to which pastoral pur- suits are carried it may be mentioned that the average number of horses in the colony is about 350,000; of cattle, 3,000,000; and of sheep, 25,000,000. The annual value of the products derived from them is estimated at £7,000,000. Tillage, in which is to be included dairying and the rearing of pigs, also employs a large number of people, especially in the coast district where the principal grain cultivated is maize, other staple crops being sugar-cane and lucerne, which is made into hay. On the table- lands wheat is the crop most largely grown, and next to that oats, of which hay is made. In both districts dairying is carried on to a large extent, milk being sent to supply the metropolis, and butter and cheese being made for the same purpose, and for sale in tlie other towns. Bacon is produced in great quantity, though not sufficient for consumption within the colony. Fruit-growing- is becoming of greater importance every year. Oranges, grapes, and i)eaches in the warmer parts of the coast district, and apples and other fruits of temperate climates in the colder ])or- tions, and on the table-lands, are the principal objects of culti- vation. This industry is capable of almost indefinite expansion, soil and climate in ordinary years being eminently favourable to the pi'oduction of fruit. 18. Mining" is another important industry. The existence of gold in Australia was originally discovered in New South ^^"ales, and for many years gold-mining was followed by a larger number of persons than any other pursuit. Though now giving occupation to a much smaller number, it is still one of the recognized industries of the colony, and there is some proba- bility that it will hereafter be largely revived. The gold-fields or "diggings" are situated on the slopes of the Great Dividing Chain, or on the adjacent table-lands, the greater number being situated to the westward of the chain. Within the last few years silver-mining has become an industry of some im])ortance. This metal was known to exist, and had been partially worked, at various points in the main range many years ago, but not in a tliorough or systematic manner. A rich deposit has since been 76 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. discovered on the western slope of the Blue IMouiitains, a short distance from Bathurst, Avhere mining operations are now car- ried on. But a far more exten.sive "silver "-field has recently- been opened up in the distant Barrier Eanges, near the Avestern boundary of the countr}', where mining for this metal gives em- ployment to a large number of people, and a new town, named Silverton, has in consequence sprung into existence. The silver district is fifty miles long and about half as Avide. Although GulJ-iumtri' Ej.rk-hiit. iron abounds in many parts of the country, mining for that metal appears to fail. Some works formerly established for the reduction of the ore have been abandoned, although the quality of the material is excellent. There can be little doubt, however, that in time it will become a most important indus- try. Mining for copper has been more successful. Deposits of copper ore of various kinds and qualities exist in various parts of the table-lands, and have l)een worked at different times ; but the principal cojjper-producing district at present is that between the Lachlan, Bogan, and Darling, where the mines of THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. li Cobar ami Xyiuagee have attained considerable celebrity. Another of the metals -which afford occupation for miners is tin, which is abundant on the northern table-land, and has been pro- fitably Avorked there for some years. Lead, mercury, and anti- mony are known to exist in ditferent parts of the country, the last in great cjuantity. By far the most important of all the mining industries, however, is tliat connected with the production of coal. Nearly the whole of the coast district is a vast coal- field, which extends into and in some points beyond the Great ] )ividing Chain. The principal seat of the coal industry is in the valley of the Hunter liiver, at the mouth of which is the coal-shipping town Newcastle; but the Blue Mountains, and the district south of Sydne}' named Illawarra, and situated be- tween the 34th and 35th parallels, also supplj' large quantities of this mineral. Hitherto coal-mining in New South Wales has not been attended with such serious accidents as in the mother country. Kerosene shale is found in some of the coal- fields, especially in the Blue Mountains, and furnishes employ- mjut to a large number of persons both in mining and in the inaiiufacture of the oil yielded by that material. The quarrying (if slate and of nuirble have been begun, and there are numerous other minerals of a useful description which some day "will increase the number and extent of the mining industries of the colony. 19. New South AVales has not yet attained to the distinction of being a manufacturing country; nor, while its natural pro- ducts continue to be so abundant, and its population so sparse, is it likely to become the rival of such nations as Great Britain or America. Nevertheless, although there is no great staple manufacture for export, there are many classes of minor manu- factures which have become regular and important industries \\ithin the colony. For example, the manufacture of flour, malt, biscuits, and maizena from Australian grain, gives employ- ment to large numbers of persons, as does also the preparation of preserved meats. AVine-making and In-ewing are also cai'ried on to an extent that is yearly increasing. Tanning and the working up of the leather so made into boots and shoes and saddlery; spinning and weaving wool into the cloth called tweed and forming it into garments; and the manufacture of shirts 78 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. and similar articles are all extensively carried on, the various products being used for home consumption chieHy. In the building trades, stone-cutting, brick and tile making, pottery, timber getting and sawing, iron-founding, and the constiTiction of furniture— all employ large numbers of workmen. In fact, in all the manufactures usually styled domestic, the country is fast learning to supply itself, and the various forms of manu- facturing activity are too numerous to be mentioned in detail. As being of more than average importance, shipbuilding, engineering, coach factories, and smelting works are worthy of special note. Manufactures of soap, candles, sugar, tobacco, and salt are also flourishing. 20. The commerce of New South Wales is extensive and varied. Timber from British Columbia; lacquered ware from Japan; tea and silk from China; rice and cofiee from India and the Malay Islands; sugar from Mauritius; tobacco, kerosene, hardware, and "notions" from the United States; and manu- factured goods of all kinds from the United Kingdom, are amons; the commodities which the foreign commerce brings to the colony. Its intercolonial trade is not less active. Copra and bananas from Fiji; sugar from Queensland; potatoes from New Zealand; fruit and hops from Tasmania; Hour and manufactured goods from Victoria; and wheat and flour from South Australia, are among the characteristic imports supplied by these colonies. Allowing for fluctuations in value, it may be estimated that the total external commerce of New South Wales averages £27,000,000 annually. Of this amount a little more than one half is the value of imports. About five-ninths of the whole is the proportionate value of the foreign com- merce, the remainder being absorbed in the intercolonial trade principally with Australian colonies. Except for purposes of revenue, no taxes are levied upon imports or exports, and the policy of the colony in this respect is that of free-trade in opposition to that of protection. 21. New South Wales has a system of full self-government on the lines of the British constitution. Its legislature con- sists of two houses; the upper, styled the Legislative Council, consisting of an indefinite number of members appointed by the governor; and the lower, called the Legislative Assembly, THE COLONY OF NKW SOUTH WALES. 79 ooujposed of about a hundred and twentj^ members elected by the people. These two bodies are empowered to make, in conjunction, any laws they may see tit, pi'ovided thej'' are not calculated to affect injuriously the imperial interests. All mea- sures passed by the legislature must receive the queen's assent, wdiich is usually signified through the governor, but in certain cases is given by the queen herself through her responsible ad- visers. The executive consists of the governor, who is the principal and ultimate authority for all the acts of government, and a certain number of ministers chosen from members of the legislature, but chiefly from the assembly. One of these is called the premier, and he is regarded as first in rank of the ministers, and as being specially the governor's principal ad- viser. The various duties of the government are carried on at a great cost. The funds necessary for this purpose, having been granted by the legislature, are raised by ta.xation princi- pally upon goods imported into the colony, by the sale and lease of public lands, and by various other means of less im- [)ortance. In this way about seven millions sterling are obtained yearly, and the average expenditure is about equal to the revenue. A large amount of money has, however, been bor- rowed for the purpose of constructing railways, and constitutes the puldic debt. 22. In harmony with the freedom of its constitution there are other points in which members of the community are i)!aced on a footing of e([uality, as, for example, religion and education. There is no state church supported by public funds, but the members of all religious bodies enjoy equal rights and privilege.s. As regards numbers, the members of the Church of England pre- ponderate; next in order come Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Wesleyans, with less numerous denominations. Each of these Ijodies is organized in accordance with its own established rules, and divides the colony into dioceses, presbyteries, or dis- tricts. Great progress has been made of late years in the erection of churches, and in the general organization of religious work. Education is to a large extent a matter of state concern, and is jjvovided in a university with three affiliated colleges, a grammar-school in Sydney, high schools in Sydney and some inqiortant country towns, and i)rimary schools sjiread all over 80 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. tlie country. The state system of education is undenomina- tional, and in this respect is based upon the National System established in Ireland some fifty years ago. By the great majority of parents education is highly prized and eagerly sought for on behalf of their children; but the compulsory provisions of the school law have still occasionally to be en- forced. 23, While New South Wales is, for various purposes, por- tioned off into difierent districts, the only permanent terri- torial division is that into counties, of whicli there are a hun- dred and forty-four, and parishes. For administrative or governmental purposes, however, this division has no signi- ficance, being useful only in connection with the survey and description of land. With a view to the effective Avorking of the police arrangements, the colony is divided into seventy-one l^olice districts, the boundaries of which, however, are liable to alteration. The like objection applies to the seventy-two electoral districts, those portions of the territory which each return one or more members to the Legislative Assembly. Besides these, there are land, registration, school, and other districts, each serving some useful purpose, but not providing for any general local administration, or implying any power of local self-government or spontaneous local organisation for public objects. Perhaps the most important territorial divi- sion at present in force is that instituted by the Land Act of 1884, by which the whole colony is partitioned into three areas corresponding in some degree with its natural features. These are termed the Eastern, Central, and Western Divisions, the conditions upon which land may be acquired, either as free- hold or leasehold, differing in each. These divisions are also liable to alteration. 24. As in other newly settled countries, the growth of towns and cities is usually slow, though it occasionally happens that a city springs into existence, as it were, at a bound; and although it may not boast of handsome, or even substantial buildings, it will contain the most important constituent of a city, a large population. Generally, however, the process of growth is of the following kind. A "bush" inn is established in some spot where some traffic passes, travellers require ao- THE COLONY OF NKW SOUTH WALES. 81 commodiition, and there are settlers sufficiently near to ensure local custom. In a short time the same considerations induce a blacksmith to settle down near at hand, and the attractions lield out by these two having had the effect of drawing people to the locality, a store is opened. This increase of conveni- ences forms a great inducement for other people to take up their residence in the vicinity, and a post-office is soon required for the augmented population. When this has been secured, the town is regai'ded as being established; for the future it has only to grow. Other tradesmen follow; a second store is set uj); another public house is opened; and the town assumes the appearance of a long straggling street with numerous gaps l)etween the houses and a total disregard of style in tlie build- ings. If, by any fortunate circumstance, the traffic through the town is materially increased, by so much does the town prosper through the extension of trade and addition to popula- tion. If there be also some local product, as timber, giain, or cattle; or, should a manufactory be established, such as a flour- mill or a tannery, the growth of the town is rapid. But should the local product be a mineral — gold, silver, tin, or coal — the town "improves" at even a quicker rate, and stores, hotels, and workshops multiplj^ as fast as the necessary buildings can be erected. All towais, however, are not thus fortunate. Some linger for many years in the earliest stage, and never advance Iteyond it, while others stop short in the march of improve- ment after having made considerable progress. But whatever their ultimate fate may be, stagnation or development, all have a family likeness; and, except for some accident of position, well-nigh the same terms may be used in describing each. We shall here notice those only that are really of most impor- tance. 25. Sydney, the oldest settlement in Australia, and the capital of New South Wales, is situated on the shores of J'ort Jackson, that magnificent harbour, which, if equalled, is cer- tainly not surpassed by any other in the world. OAving to the numerous Ijays and coves formed by this inlet the city seems built upon a number of jieninsulas, and the amount of water frontage thus available for business or pleasure con- stitutes one of the great advantages of its })Osition. Occupy- (311) K 82 THE tOLONV OF NEW SOUTH WALES. ing an undulating surface of about two square miles, the cit}' proper lias about 150 miles of streets, all properly formed and liuhted with uas. Thouuh not so wide as in more modern Town-hall, Sydney. towns, the streets are Avell laid out, those of greatest im- portance running north and south, with others at intervals crossing them from east to west. In the municipalities which surround the city the direction and width of the streets have been determined by the contour of the surface, or by accidental THK COLONY OK NEW .SOUTH WALES. 83 circiuustances. Many handsome and stately buildings, both public and private, adorn the city and some of the suburbs. Among the former may be mentioned the public offices, the museum, the general post-office, and the towu-hall. Banks, insurance offices, and some of the mercantile establishments are among tlic most cons[)icuous of the ornamental private buililings; and, besides many beautiful churches belonging to the various religious bodies, the Anglican and the Koman Catholic cathedrals are fine specimens of ecclesiastical archi- tecture. The university, affiliated colleges, and Prince Alfred Hospital are outside the city boundary', and, being all upon the same block of land, they form a distinctive feature in the locality where they are situated, besides supplying some orna- mentation to four adjoining suburban municipalities. In the enumeration of Ijuildings which give a character to the city the grammar-school and the public primary schools ought not to be omitted, many of the latter being distinguished for their archi- tectural taste and skill. Six public parks, and a botanic garden remarkable for its extpiisite beauty, supply the nreaus of liealth- fid outdoor recreation, and add to the general salubrity of the city. Water is obtained from an extensive reserve adjoining the city; a further temporary supply is brought from the Nepean Kiver, near Penrith; but eventually the principal ser- vice will be furnished from the upper Nepean, the works for which are in an advanced state. Not only the city but all the surrounding nuuiicipalities are lighted with gas, and in addi- tion the electric light is used in a few places. Too much space would be required to describe in detail all the other appliances of civilized life which have been introduced into Sydney in order to promote the health, safety, and comfort of its inhabi- tants. It must suffice, therefore, to state that, for its size, Sydney is as well supplied in this respect as most cities of the civilized world. The population of tlie city and suburbs is 250,000. Besides the ordinary handicrafts numerous works of a manu- facturing kind are carried on in Sydney and its neigh])our- hood. Among the more important of these are engineering and joinery works, in which steam is the motive power; ship- building; clothing and boot factories, including a cloth- 84 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. weaving establishment; coach factories; tanneries; breweries; and tobacco manufactories. All these have an importance beyond what attaches to establishments which aim merely at supplying the local market, some of the goods they produce being ex- ported. The manufacture of soap and candles, of glass-ware, and of potter}^ is also carried on to a considerable extent, and other industries are continually springing up or developing into greater importance. It is in relation to commerce, however, that Sydney takes the highest rank. It is the great emporium of the colony, being the only port into which goods are imported, and from which they are exported to countries outside the limits of Australasia, Avith the exception of NeAvcastle, to Avhich refer- ence Avill be made hereafter. Of the thirteen millions of pounds sterling, which is the estimated value of goods an- nually exported, probably nine-tenths leave the colony by the port of Sydney; and a larger proportion of the imports, Avhich average fourteen millions of money, are received through the same channel. Regular communication Avith the ports of the colony situated south of Sydney is maintained by a line of coasting steamers Avhich carry produce to the metropolis, and convey manufactured goods in return. The ports on the north are similarly connected Avith the capital by several lines of steamers, Avhich effect the same purposes for these portions of the colony. Besides these, sailing vessels are constantly engaged in the same traffic. There are, moreover, three lines of large and powerful steamships by means of Avhich the inter- colonial trade is carried on betAveen Sydney and ]\Ielbourne and Sydney and Brisbane, independently of sailing vessels and steamers running casually. Another line connects Sydney with the NeAV Zealand ports; and Fiji on the one hand, and Tas- mania on the other, also possess the like means of communica- tion Avith NcAv South Wales. The principal ports of China, together Avith Singapore, are regularly visited by the steam ves- sels of another line, and there is also a service betAveen Sydney and San Francisco. With the mother countr}^ communication is kept up by means of tAA'o lines of steamships, Avhich include some of the largest and liest appointed vessels afloat; and a third line, under French au.^pices, also serves to render such THE COLON V OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 85 communication more regular and frequent. The greater part of the trade of Sydney is carried on with London, and besides the means of transport ah-eady mentioned there are many large sailing vessels constantly employed in voyaging between the two ports. The inland trade is not less considerable. All the main lines of railway from the interior converge upon Sydney, and bring produce of various kinds for shipment or for con- sumption in the metropolis. "Wool from the great plains about and beyond the Darling; copper from Cobar and neighbouring mines; gold from the various fields scattered throughout the colony; silver from the Barrier Ranges; coal from the Blue Mountains; tallow and hides from all the pastoral districts — all reach Sydney by rail. The result of this concentration of traffic is that Sydney is remarkable as a centre of commercial activity. As the seat of government, the head-quarters of the several administrative departments, and the site of the principal courts of law, Sydney is also characterized by activities of another kind, but all tending to make it a busy and thriving city. 26. Fourteen miles to the westward of Sydney, on one of the numerous arms of Port Jackson, is Parramatta, the second town in Australia in respect of age. The surrounding country has a picturesque appearance and is admirably adapted for fruit-growing. Its orchards, vineyards, and orangeries have an Australian reputation, and furnish employment to a laige number of people. The adjoining municipal borough of Gran- ville may be said to form one large town with Parramatta. Here the main line of railway from Sydney diverges to the south and west; and as the traffic of the whole of the southern half of the colony nmst pass through the station, the scene is at all times a busy one. Besides the tweed factories in Parra- matta several large industries are located at Granville, and the two places form a thriving and important town. Numerous government institutions have been established at Parramatta, including a jail, hospital, lunatic asylum, and two orphanages. An extensive park affords the means of outdoor recreation. The population of the two places is })robably not less than 12,000. Penrith, on the Nepean River, which is here crossed by a railway bridge of iron, derives its chief importance from the 86 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALKS. fact that trains stop for adjustment before commencing the ascent of the Bhxe Mountains. This ascent, which is very steep, is accomph.shed by means of a zigzag, the railway being cut tlirough rocks in places, and in others carried over gullies by viaducts. Employment is found for a lai'gc number of persons in connection with the lailway works, but the district generally is agricultural, maize being the chief product. The railway bridge over the river is on the tubular principle, and is one of the finest in the colony. Following the railway across the Blue ]\lountains, at a dis- tance of 145 miles from Sj'dney, the city of Bathurst is readied. Situated on the INIacquarie Eiver, on the edge of extensive open plains and in view of the Dividing Chain, Bathurst occupies a position that is both healthful and picturesque. Its elevation, 2300 feet above the sea-level, renders the climate com])aratively cool and enjoyable in summer, though in Avinter frosts are of common occurrence, and occasionally snow falls in great quan- tities. Being the centre of an extensive district well adapted THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 87 both for agriculture and pasturage, while it also abounds in the precious metals and in valuable minerals, the city is in a highly prosperous condition. (Jold, silver, and copper are found and worked within the district; roofing slate is also abundant. The chief agricultural products are Avheat and maize; and sheep number some hundreds of thousands. The city is well laid out with broad streets and is lighted with gas. Most of the ordinary domestic manufactures are carried on in Bathurst, and afford employment to a considerable proportion of its population of 8000. Wellington, at the junction of the Bell River with the Mac- quarie, is also a station on the Great AVestern Eailway. The country in the immediate neighbourhood is well suited for fanning and grazing — a fact which led to the formation of a settlement here in the early days of the colony. In the neigh- bourhood are several gold-fields, which, however, are little worked at present. Wellington is celebrated for the caves which exist in the limestone rocks composing much of the district. Fossil bones of marsupial animals abound in these caves, and, in connection with similar remains found in other localities, jjrove that ages ago Australia was tenanted by ani- mals of the same class as now form its indigenous fauna. The population is about 2000. Following the course of the Great Western Eailway, at a distance of 278 miles from Sydney, Dubbo will be reached. This town is situated on the Macquarie Eiver, near its junction Avith the Talbragar, and is the business centre of an extensive pastoral district. Some amount of agriculture is carried on in the neighl)ourhood, as well as the usual industries of a manu- facturing kind. Gold exists in the district, though mining is followed to but a slight extent. The vine has been successfully cultivated near the town. The present population is estimated at 3500. From I)ul)bo the western line of railway continues to Bourke, on the Darling Eiver. The immense level plains which sur- round this town are devoted to pastoral purposes, but at no great distance copper-mining is carried on to a large extent. Its connection with Sydney by rail and with South Australia and Victoria l)y the Darling Eiver, which in the season is 88 THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. navigable for the ^vllole of its course down\var(ls, renders Bourke a town of great importance in a business point of view, and its future promises to be highly prosperous. Its popula- tion amounts to 1200. In this district are Cobar and Nymagee — two townships which owe their existence to the copper-mining operations which have been successfully carried on at each town, and which have placed them at the head of copper-producing locali- ties in New South Wales. Returning along the western railway, between Wellington and Bathurst we arrive at Orange, 192 miles from Sydney. This town is situated at an altitude of nearly 3000 feet above the sea, and in consequence enjoys a very bracing climate, snow and ice being common in the Avinter. It is the centre of one of the finest wheat-producing districts in the colony, and the grinding of wheat and export of flour are among the prin- cipal industries of the town. In the neighbourhood are several gold-fields, and at one of these, Ophir, gold-digging was first begun in the colony. Copper also abounds in the district, though copper-mining is but languidly carried on at present. Additional importance attaches to Orange by reason of its being the point from which a railway line branches off towards the west, passing through Molong and terminating at Forbes on the Lachlan. At present the population numbers about 3000. On this branch line the first place of any consequence is Molong — a flourishing town supported by a fine agricultural district which produces large quantities of wheat and maize. Copper abounds in the district, though little worked, and coal is known to exist. The population is estimated at 800. Parkes, a mining locality on the Billabong gold-field, Avas at one time noted for the large population Avhich was attracted by the productiveness of the mines. It has, however, declined in population, which now numbers about 1900. Forbes, on the Lachlan River, will for the present be the terminus of the branch railway line from Orange. Gold has been obtained here in large quantities; and though this industry has greatly decayed, the town has established itself as the business centre of an immense area of country lying between THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 89 the Lachlaii and the Darling. In this district pastoral pursuits are carried on to a large extent, about a million and a half of sheep and sixt}' thousand cattle being depastured therein. Tillage, for ■which the rich soil in the vicinity of the riv^er is well adapted, also flourishes, wheat being largely grown. The present population is 2000. Between Orange and Kathurst is the town of Blayney, 2800 feet above sea-level. It is surrounded by an agricultural and pastoral district, but has acquired greater importance from the fact that from this point a branch commences from the western line to connect with the southern at Murrumburrah. ]\lining for gold and copper has been carried on to a considerable extent in the neighbourhood. The population is estimated at 1000. Cowra, on the Lachlan River, Avhich is here crossed by a wooden bridge of superior construction, is a place of some importance, the land in the immediate neighbourhood being taken up for agricultural purposes, and that at a greater dis- tance being devoted to pasturage. Its importance will be in- creased when the branch line from Blayney reaches this point, as it will then be placed in direct communication with the metropolis, and ultimately with Melbourne. The present popu- lation is estimated at 700. From Wallerawang another branch from the western line runs to Mudgee, a distance of eighty-five miles. Independenth' of this circumstance WalleraAvang is a place of some prospec- tive importance from the abundance of coal and iron found in the neighl)ourhood, the former being somewhat extensively worked. It is estimated that the population of the tOAvnship is 2") 00. Mudgee, the terminus of tlie hranch line just mentioned, is situated on the Cudgegong Eiver, in the midst of a district abounding in mineral wealth, and at the same time fitted for l)astoral and agricultural pursuits. Besides gold, which is found at many points in the neighbourhood, coal and iron arc known to exist. The wool from this district has long been celebrated as among the finest produced in Australia; while, from the fertile alluvial soils lining the river banks, large crops of wheat and maize are gathered. Considerable activity is shown in 90 THK COLONY OF NF.W SOUTH WALES. manufactures of the domestic kind, and mucli business is trans- acted with the extensive pastoral area lying to the westward. The population is probably not less than 2500. Another branch from the western line commences at Black- town and extends to Windsor and Richmond — two towns on the Hawkesbury River, both being among the earliest settlements in the colony. The surrounding district is agricultural, for which purpose it is eminently fitted by reason of the abundance of alluvial soil of the most productive character. In fact this part of the country Avas regarded as the granar)^ of the colony in its infant days, and supplied most of the grain consumed by the first settlers. The whole district is liable to floods, which, though they generally enrich the soil by depositing on the sur- face a layer of fresh alluvium, sometimes prove destructive to crops and stock, and even to human life. On the opposite side of the Hawkesbury the district is known as the Kurra- jong, which comprises the first portion of the eastern slope of the Blue Mountains, and attains an elevation of nearly 2000 feet. It is noted for the salubrity of its climate and general productiveness. The population of Windsor is estimated at 2000, and of Richmond at 1300. Proceeding next along the Great Southern Railway from Granville, at a distance of 22 miles from Sydney, is Liverpool, which Avas founded very early in the history of the colony. The district is mainly agricultural and pastoral, but there are several factories within the limits of the town. One of these is a paper-mill ; others are wool-washing and fellmongering establishments and a tannery. A benevolent asylum for desti- tute old men also exists in the town, and is supported by the government. The population of the town is at present sup- posed to reach 2500. Campbell town, 12 miles distant along the line, is another of the old settlements, and formerly was a flourishing town. After a long period of stagnation its prosperity has now begun to revive. Agriculture is the principal occupation of the dis- trict. A tram-line connects this place with Camden, eight miles distant, Avhich also was founded in the early days. The surrounding district contains much arable land of excellent quality; the grape is cultivated to a considerable extent, and THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 91 large quantities of hay are produced. The rearing of horses, cattle, and sheep also occupy many of the residents. Mittag'ong, 77 miles from .Sydney and 2000 feet above sea- level, is a thriving town. The neighbourhood is much frequented on account of its bracing air; but the principal support of the town is derived from the mineral resources of the neighbour- liood, among which maybe mentioned iron, coal, and kerosene shale. Berrima, about six miles distant by road from ]\Iittagong, contains one of the largest penal establishments in the colony. It is situated in a fine agricultural district, wdiich is also rich in minerals, especially coal. At a distance of 134 miles from Sydney bj^ rail is Goulburn, the chief town of an extensive and prosperous district, and a place of great trade. The town is well laid out with broail streets, which are ornamented w^ith many fine buildings, public and private. The surrounding district contains all the elements of wealth, mineral, pastoral, and agricultural. Gold, copper, marble, slate, and lime are at present the principal mineral l»roducts; sheep, cattle, and horses are reared in large numbers; and wheat, maize, oats, and barley are largely cultivated. In the town and its immediate vicinity, milling, tanning, and l)rewing are the leading industries, in addition to boot-making, for which there are two factories. The present population is about 7000. Though situated some little distance from the railwa}', Tass, 187 miles from Sydney, may be considered the next important town on the line. The surrounding district is chiefl}' pastoral and agricultural, though mining is carried on to some extent. The population is estimated at 2000. Wagga Wagga, 309 miles from Sydney by rail, is an impor- tant town, situated on the river Murrumbidgee. Being the centre of an immense pastoral district, the chief product is wool, but agriculture is also carried on to some extent. The Southern IJailway crosses the river here by a splendid iron bridge. The population of the town may be estimated at 5000. The Great Southern Railway terminates at Albury, 386 miles from S3'dney. This town stands on the right bank of the 92 THE fOLONV OF NEW SOUTH \VAI,ES. Murray, and in addition to its importance as a border city, it is the centre of a rich agricultural district, in which some mining for gold is also carried on. Tol)acco and grapes are raised in large quantities, and other farm produce to a smaller extent. Farther from the town, the country is chiefly occupied for pastoral purposes. In favourable seasons the JMurray is navi- gable as far as Albury. The population is about 6000. Several branch lines have been formed from the Great Southern Railway. From Harden, a small station, 228 miles from Sydney, a branch has been constructed to Young. This town is situated in a pastoral and agricultural district, but was formerly mi;ch more populous, having been the centre of the once famed Burrangong Gold-field. The population now numbers about 2000. Grenfell, in the adjoining district, resembles Young in its history and present circumstances. Originating in a " rush " to a new gold-field, it was for some 3'ears a great mining centre, but now depends for its prosperity upon pastoral and agricul- tural pursuits. The population is estimated at 1700. At Junee Junction, 287 miles from Sydney, the South-AVes- tern Railway branches off, and extends to Narrandera, 60 miles distant. This town, 347 miles from Sydney, is situated on the right bank of the Murrumbidgee River. During the last few years the population of the town and neighbourhood has largely increased and now exceeds 1200. Tlie surrounding district is of a pastoral character, but some agriculture is also carried on. From Narrandera a branch of the South-Avestern line crosses the river and runs in a southerl}' direction to Jerilderie, which is the capital of a fine pastoral district, with a population of about 500. The South-western Railway is continued from Narrandera to Hay, a town on the Murrumbidgee, 454 miles from Sydney. Hay is a place of great importance, the district of which it is the centre being extensive and almost exclusively pastoral. The town is well laid out, and approached from the opposite side of the river by an iron bridge. The population exceeds 2000. A third branch of the Great Southern Railway commences at Goulburn, and is intended to connect that town with Cooma. THE COLONT OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 93 At present it is coinpletecl to Buugendore, a small town, 177 miles from Sydney. Queanbeyan, which will be the next station on this line, is the centre of an important district, which contains good agri- cultural as well as pastoral land, and is also rich in minerals, gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron. The population of the town is estimated at 1000. Cooma, the proposed terminus of this branch line, is situated ill a fine pastoral district forming part of the so-called Maneroo riains. Agriculture is also carried on to some extent. Beinir about 2600 above the level of the sea the climate is cool and bracing. The population is about 1200. From Cootamundra, a thriving town, 253 miles from Sydney by rail, a branch line has been constructed to Gundagai on the Murrumbidgee Kivei'. Cootamundra is the outlet of a large pastoral and agricultural district and also of the Temora Gold Field. Its population exceeds 1000. Gmidagai, including settlements on both banks of the river, has also a population of about 1000. The neighbouring district is rich in minerals, among Avhich asbestos is specially worthy of noto. Agriculture and jiasturage are also carried on with nuich success. Tumut, in the same district, is famed for its production of wheat, maize, and tobacco. It is a flourishing town Avith a population of about 900. Proceeding now to the Great Northern IJailwa}-, we com- mence at Newcastle, the southern terminus of the line. New- castle derives its importance not only from this circumstance, l)ut also from the fact that, being situated at the mouth of the Hunter River, it possesses a port which, as regards the extent of its trade, ranks next to Sydney. As the outlet for the i)as- toral })roducts of a large portion of the northern half of the colony, for the agricultural produce of the Hunter Valley, and for coal obtained in the vicinage, this city gives emploj'ment to a large quantity of shipping.' Besides what is consumed in the ilistrict or sent to Sydney, coal is exjjorted to neighbouring colonies and to ports in Asia and America. Other industries also occupy the inhabitants of this city, among which shi]>- building, copper smelting, fellmongering, brewing and biscuit 94 THE COLONY OF NKW SOUTH WALKS. baking, are of the most consequence. There are also carriage factories, foundries, and engineering establishments. The popu- lation of the city and adjoining municipalities is probably about 15,000. About 18 miles from Newcastle are East and West Maitland, which may be considered as practically one town, situated upon the same side of the Hunter Kiver. From the rich alluvial flats among which the town is built, immense crops are reaped in ordinary seasons, lucerne and maize being the principal; but occasionally floods destroy all the hopes of the farmer. Other products of the district are tobacco, grapes, and oranges; and large quantities of wine are made in the district. Coal is also abundant, and is raised to a considerable extent. In the more distant parts of the district the rearing of stock is success- fully carried on, and cattle, sheep, and horses must be included among the general products. Manufacturing industry also receives attention. The population of the town may be esti- mated at about 10,000. THE COLONY OF XKW .SOLTIl WALES. 95 Proceeding oin\ai'd hy lail, at a distance of 49 miles from Newcastle, Singleton is reached. This town is situated on the right bank of the Hunter River, on a large alluvial Hat which ])roduces wheat, barley, maize, tobacco, and grapes. Cattle, horses, and sheep are also bred in the district, and coal is found at a little distance. The usual domestic manufactures aie carried on in the town, the population being estimated at '2bi)0. The next place of importance is Musclebrook, 80 miles from Newcastle. This town is situated in an agricultural and jia-s- toral district, Avheat, maize, tobacco, and grapes being the l)riiicipal crops. Wine is also produced, and horses, cattle, and sheep are raised in considerable numbers. The i)02)ulatioii numbers about 1500. Murrurundi, 120 miles from Newcastle, is a thriving town situated at the foot of the Li\erpool Range, Avhich in this part attains an elevation of about 3700 feet. The town itself is 1500 feet aliove sea-level, and possesses a healthy, bracing climate. The district is pastoral and agricultural. The popu- lation is supposed to be about 1000. At a distance of 183 miles from Newcastle, on the banks of the Peel River, stands Tam worth, the capital of a large and flourishing district. The chief products of this district are those derived from pastoral pursuits, but agricultui'e is also largely followed, and gold-mining is carried on at several places for which Taniworth is the business centre. The population is now estimated at -iOOO. Armidale, 260 miles from Newcastle, is noted for its bracing climate, which it owes to the fact that it is elevated 3300 feet above the sea. This town is the capital of the famed NeAv England district, so named from its supposed resemblance in climate and cultivated products to Old England. Pasturage, agriculture, and mining are extensively carried on in this dis- trict, and there are also some manufactures of the kind before described as domestic. The present population is probably about 2000. Glen Innes, 324 miles from Newcastle, is the next important town on the Great Northern Railway. It is higher l\v two hundred feet than Armidale, and like the latter enjoys the healthful climate of the table-land. The district contains nmch 96 THE COLONY OP" NEW SOUTH WALES. excellent agricultural land, but pastoral pursuits aie folloveJ to a large extent. The population is about 1500. Tenterfield, the last town of the colony on the Great Nor- thern Railway, about 390 miles from Newcastle, is also situated on the table-land, and is the centre of a fine pastoral, agri- cultural, and mining district. Gold, silver, tin, antimony, and l)lumbago are obtained in the district, and have been extensiveh' worked. The population at present numbers about 2000. A branch from the Northern Railway commences at Werris Creek, and under the name of the North-Western Line runs for about a hundred miles through the Liverpool Plains. The first [)lace of note on this line is Gunnedah, situated in a fine pas- toral district, in which some agriculture is carried on. The population may be estimated at 1500. Narrabri, the present terminus of the line, is a town of simi- lar character, but with a smaller ])Oiiulation, which probably numbers about 1000. Besides the towns already mentioned which derive increased importance from their position on lines of railway, there are other's which are of consequence owing to their situation on the banks of rivers. The following belong to the Coast District. Lismore, the j^rincipal centre of population and trade on the Richmond River, has regular communication with the metro- polis by means of steamships which convey the local products, principally timber, maize, and sugar, to market. The district is pastoral and agricultural, and is one of the most prosperous in the colon)\ The present population is estimated at 1000. La the Clarence River District, Grafton is the jirinciijal town. Steamships of considerable tonnage trade regularly between this place and Sydney, the exports consisting of sugar, molasses, tallow, preserved meats, and wool, besides timber, gold, and antimon}'. The district near the river is mainly agricultural: farther back, pastoral; and in the mountainous jiarts gold mining is followed to some extent. The population jtrobably exceeds 5000. The chief town of the Macleay River District is Kempsey, which has a population of about 1500. The district is well fitted for agriculture, which is largely folloAved, but rearing cattle and mining are also important industries. THE COLONY OF XEW SOUTH WALES. 97 Southward of S\-Jney, and at a distance of about 50 miles, is Wollongong, the principal town in the beautiful lUawarra district. Daiiying and coal-mining are the leading occupations of the residents. The population is prol^ably somewhat under 2000. In the Shoalhaven District the chief place is Nowra, with a population of about 1000. The district is agricultural, having a large extent of alluvial soil. Further south is a fine agricultural district named after the river which flows through it, the Moruya. The chief town bears the same name, and has a population of about 1000. Gold and silver are found in the vicinity, and have been worked. The southernmost coast town of note is Bega, on a river of the same name, near the mouth of which is a port. Eegular communication is maintained with the metropolis by means of steamships. The district around the town is agricultural and dairying; but it is also the outlet for a large extent of pastoral country. Maize, maizena manufactured in the district, butter, cheese, bacon, hams, leather, and wattle-bark are exported to Sydney and to the neighbouring colonies. The population numbers about 2000. There are other towns of sufficient importance to deserve mention. These are for the most part situated either on the table-lands or on the banks of rivers flowing into the interior, and are of consequence as centres of local trade. Inverell, on the ]\Iacintyre River, is situated in a rich and thriving district, which produces wheat, maize, and M-ine in considerable quantities. Pastoral pursuits are also carried on to a large extent, and the tin-mining industry adds to the resources of the district. About 2000 people reside in the town. Emmaville, formerly known as Vegetable Creek, is in the same district, but at a greater elevation than Inverell. The surrounding country contains excellent agricultural land, and sheep and cattle farming is extensively carried on; Init the chief industry of the town is mining for tin. The j)opulation is estimated at 1000. Another tin-mining township in the same district is Tingha, which, at the last census, had a poi)ulation of 2500. (311) G 98 THE COLONY OF NKW SOUTH WALKS. On the Darling iJivcr are Walgett and Brewarrina, two rising townships which are local centres of trade for immense pastoral regions lying arouiid them and to the westward. Lower down the Darling is Wilcannia, a H(jurishing town, chiefly supported at present b}' the j^astoral interest, and likely to improve as a central entrepot of pastoral products. There are also in the vicinity indications of the existence of metals, copper in particular, which may in the future become a great source of wealth. The population is about 1500. At the junction of the Darling and Murray is Wentworth, which occupies an imrivalled position for trade with the ad- jacent colonies. Although the surrounding district is entirely of a pastoral character, the traffic with towns and stations on the Darling and the Murray all passes through Wentworth, and is growing yearly in extent and value. The population is approximately 1000. On the Castlereagh Kiver, in the centre of a fine grazing district, is Coonamble, a thriving town Avith a population of about 1000. Hillston, on the Lachlan, is a thriving town, situated in an extensive pastoral district, in which there is a consideiable area of land suitable for agriculture, and also some mineral wealth. The present population is estimated at 500. Cobar, between the Lachlan and the Darling, is the seat of a great copper-mining industry which gives employment to a large number of people, and creates a considerable amount of traffic. The population is about 2000. On the table-land between Bathurst and Mudgee is Hill End, the seat of a gold-mining industry, and inhabited by about 1000 people. Braidwood, situated upon tlie tabledand, 150 miles to the south of Sydney, and at an elevation of 3300 feet above the sea, is a centre for several important industries, pastoral, agri- cultural, and mining. Though its importance has declined of late years on account of the supposed exhaustion of some of the neighbouring gold-fields, it still has a population of more than 1000 persons. On the southern table-land on an affluent of the Snowy Eiver, is Bombala, the centre of an agricultural, pastoral, and THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 9!i naining district. Copper, lead, and gold arc found in the vicinity. The population is about 1000. Adelong", on a tributary of the Murrumbidgee, is a mining township of some importance. The surrounding country abounds in reefs, from which large quantities of gold are obtained. It has about 800 inhabitants. Tumberumba, on an affluent of the Mui-ray, is also rendered important by its position on a gold-field, though farming is also carried on in the vicinity, and the neighbouring district is pastoral. Tlie population is aljout 800. On the right bank of the iMurra}', at its southernmost angle, is Moama, important as a border town, and one of the places at which the river may be crossed into Victoria. Its present population is estimated at 1400. Connected with it by a railroad, the property of a private company, is Deniliquin, on the Edward River. This is the centre of a large and important pastoral district, and carries on an extensive trade in pastoral produce, together with some amount of agriculture. The population is probably about 3000. Balranald, near the junction of the ^Murray and Murrum- bidgee, is also a pastoral township with a population of about 700^^ 100 THE COLONY OF (iUP:ENSLAND. CHAPTER V. THE COLONY OF QUEENSLAND. 1. Boundaries and extent: coast-line. 2. Surface. 3. Drainage; Rivers and Lakes. 4. Climate. 5. Soil. 6 Population. 7. Internal Communication. 8. Industrial Occupations — Mining. 9. Agriculture, Pasturage, and other industries: Com- merce. 10. Government. 11. Religion. 12. Education. 13. Divisions— Districts. 14. Towns. 15. Brisbane. 16. Other towns. 1. This colony occupies the north-eastern portion of the continent, and lies between the 11th and 29th parallels of south latitude, and the 138th and 154th meridians of east longitude. On two sides, east and north, it is bounded by the sea; on the west, the boundary is artificial, Ijeing the 138th meridian from the waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria to lat. 26^^ S., that parallel eastward to the 1-4 1st meridian, and that meridian to lat. 29° S. The southern boundary, which sepa- rates it from New South Wales, is formed by the 29tli parallel, the Macintyre and Dumaresq Rivers, and M'Pherson's Range. The territory included within these boundaries is estimated at 678,000 square miles; its greatest length from north to south is about 1200 miles, and its extreme width about 1000 miles. For every 300 square miles of area the colony has a mile of coast-line, the whole extent of coast being estimated at 2250 miles. The chief irregularity in its shape consists in the long projection known as Cape York Peninsula, forming the ex- treme north-east portion of the continent, and terminating at Cape York. Throughout its whole length the eastern coast is fringed with islands, and broken up by projecting points and indentations, while for about 1000 miles it is skirted at some distance by the chain of coral formations known as the Great Barrier Ree£ Some of the indentations form excellent har- bours. Of these the most considerable are Moreton Bay, Her- vey Bay, Broad Sound, Repulse Bay, Halifax Bay, Trinity Bay, and Princess Charlotte Bay. The jn-incipal islands are Stradbroke, Moreton, Great Sandy, Whitsunday, and Hinch- inbrooke Islands on the east coast; Prince of Wales, Banks, and Mulgrave at the northern extremity; and tlie Wellesley Islands in the Gulf of Carpentaria. THE COLONY OF QUEENSLAND. 101 2. Ill its nvcAu features tlie surface of Queensland resembles that of New South Wales; and, like the latter, may be divided into the Coast District, the Table-land, and the Interior Plains. u j E^ ' eJh fe IT ^Al-risK DiWik'?;'"' l/ . -' t\ CieViM.^rttSft; O^^^ ^ ^/{^ R T^ ■ \ ,:^BELv.Nic.' vs i\T-«r AVv^, Lvw]»y""' sj (. k ) E C 6'ii-W^ '.M l/T C H F , Hi '■r^:y'^^-r-»S-^XJ<'^<^ "'J"i»fC!.,pi.cq, The narrow coast district is bounded on the west bj- ranges of hills and the slope of the table-land. Westward of this tract is the table-land, extending northward as far as lat. IG^, and sloping gradually towards the interioi-. Its average elevation 102 THE COLONY OF t^UKENSLAND. is probably less than 2000 feet. Tlirough this table-land the Great Dividing Chain is continued from New South Wales northward as far as Cape Grafton, and forms the Avatershed between the rivers flowing into the Pacific and those running into the Gulf of Carpentaria, or forming the head-waters of the Darling and Barcoo. While the general direction of the A Coast Sceuery, Tonnsville. Dividing Chain is northerl}', it turns westerh' at a point about 26° S., and in Mount Pluto, 300 miles from the coast, forms with other peaks a mountain knot containing probably the highest summits in the range. From this group of mountains the range again turns toAvards the north, uniting with the coast range south of the 16th parallel. Near the 21st parallel of south latitude the high land foraiing the watershed sends off a branch in a westerly direction, which forms a dividing chain between the waters flowing northward into the Gulf of Carpentaria, and those which have a southerly course into Lake Eyre. The culminating i)oint of the whole mountain system is to be found in the Bellenden-Ker Range, near Cape Grafton, where one of the peaks attains an altitude estimated THE COLONY OF QUEEXSLAND. 103 at 5158 feet. Various branches are thrown off from the Divid- ing Chain, chiefly towards the eastward, and these spurs give the country they traverse an undulating character. Nearly the \\liole of the remainder of the colony is occupied by the great plains, which resemble in their main features those of New South Wales, but probably contain a larger proportion of good land, while they are hotter and, on the whole, dryer, except tliose portions which lie sufficiently within the troi)ics to share in the tropical rains. In the south-west, however, there are some of the arid tracts sometimes styled " deserts." 3. Having the sea on two sides, Queensland has three slopes and three drainage areas. In other respects the river systems resemble those of New South Wales. In the coast district most of the rivers rising in the coast ranges or on the table- land, and tloAving into the Pacific, have short and rapid courses. Some, however, run for considerable distances parallel to the coast either on the table-land or in longitudinal valleys among the coast ranges. Of this class the Burdekin is the most con- spicuous example. This river has its source at about 18° S., and flows south-easterly, parallel with the general direction of the coast, to a point a little south of 20°, where it is joined by the Belyando, which flows northerly from a point near 24° S. The stream, thus augmented, then turns to the east, and finally to the north-east, finding its way to the sea by tM'o channels. Another river that has a similar course is the Fitzroy, which receives the Isaacs from the north and the Dawson from the south, both of these tributaries running parallel with the coast. (_)f the other rivers the most important are the Burnett, Bris- bane, and Mary. On the northern slope the Flinders is the longest and most important stream; the Mitchell ranks second; and the Norman, Gilbert, Staaten, and Albert follow in order. All these flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. Flowing south and west into Lake Eyre in South Australia is the Barcoo, which drains an extensive area, and is known in its upper course as the Victoria, a name conferred upon it by its dis- coverer, Sir Thomas Mitchell. Under the name of Cooper's Creek this river will long be memorable in connection with the unhappy fate of the explorers Burke and Wills. The remaining rivers of the interior slope are tributaries of the 104 THE COLONY OF (JUKENSLAND. Darling. They are the Paroo and the Warrego, flowing south- Avard the Maranoa, which has a south-easterly course, and the Condamine, which may be considered the principal source of the Darling. Rising in the dividing chain about sixty miles from the sea, the Condamine flows nortli-westeily for tAvo hundred and fifty miles, when it curves round to the west and south; and being joined by the Maranoa, runs to the south- west, assuming the name of Balonne. Farther south this appellation is exchanged for that of Culgoa, under Avhich title it enters New South Wales. The lakes of Queensland are unimportant. It may be remarked, however, that west of the Belyando River, and about 22° S., there is a small basin of inland drainage, in which are situated some salt-water lakes of considerable extent. 4. Owing to the tropical position of a large portion of the country, the climate of Queensland cannot be properly described with reference to the colony as a whole. In the northern portion the temperature is high, though it is not felt to be so oppressive as in other countries not farther removed from the equator. Here the seasons are two in number, the wet and the dry. In the former much rain falls, the average for the year ranging between 90 and 100 inches; in the latter the Aveather is dry, the air pure, and the sky cloudless. In Avhat may be called the tempei'ate zone of the colony the climate approximates to that of Xcav South Wales, but is someAvhat Avarmer. In the coast district outside of the tropic the mean annual temperature is about 70°, the annual rainfall 50 inches, and the prevailing Avinds easterly and southerly. Except in the hottest summer months, the climate is conducive to health and extremely enjoyable. On the table-land the tempei'ature is loAver, and may be estimated at a mean of 62°, and the annual rainfall at 32 inches. Farther west, on the great plains, the temperature rises and the rainfall diminishes, the former being about 80°, and the latter ranging from 20 to 10 inches according to position and distance from the sea. Here the prevailing Avinds are Avesterly, but the Avhole country is free from the hot Avinds Avhich, in the southern colonies, are so injurious to A^egetation and so disagreeable to human beings. Changes of temperature, depending mainly upon alterations in THE COLONY OF QUKENSLAND. 105 the direction of the wind, are sometimes i-apid, bnt never so extreme as in Victoria and New South Wales. Altogether the climate may be said to be healthy in a high degree, the principal exception being the tendency to produce fever in low-lying disti'icts in the rainy season. 5. Every variety of soil, as might be expected, is to be found within the Queensland borders, from the rich alluvium of the brush lands of the coast to the sandy and stony tracts in the south-west, which may be termed deserts. Besides the alluvial soil, the coast district also possesses much rich land, Avhere the soil is the result of the decomposition of volcanic rocks. Soil of this kind is even more abun- dant on the table- land, especially in the south. On the plains the soil is similar to that of New South Wales in the like posi- tion, extensive tracts of rich black volcanic soil alternating witli sandy belts covered with scrub. In the extreme west, however, the more barren soil preponderates; and near the Gulf of Carpentaria it becomes marly in chai'acter, producing the well-known "salt-bush" and other salsolaceous plants which furnish food for cattle and .sheep. On tiie whole, it may be said that Queiuisland contains a large proportion of excellent soil, and not a little that is unsurpassed in fertility. 6. As yet the population of (^MiiH'nslaml is snuill, considered 106 THE COLONY OK QUEENSLAND. witli reference to its extensive area. Although the great body of the people are of European blood, there is an Asiatic ele- ment of some importance. Assuming the present population to be about 321,000, about one person in 65 would be either Chinese or Polynesian. The number of these last, however, is gradually diminishing, as the term expires for which they were engaged to labour in sugar-plantations, and they are re- turned to their homes in the Pacific Islailds. Ko estimate can be formed of the number of the aborigines, although there is warrant for the belief that it is still considerable, and not less than 20,000. It is worthy of remark, that, notwithstanding the comparative youth of the colony, no mean proportion of the population consists of nati\'es of the country and of other parts of Australia. 7. From the number of excellent harbours on the coast the facilities for communication between different parts of the colony by water are very great, and several lines of large and well-appointed steamships trade regularly between the several ports and with the principal maritime cities of the other Aus- tralian colonies. Common roads are general throughout the territory, and lead from the capital and principal towns on the coast to all the places of any note in tlie interior. Eailway construction has been vigorously carried on for some years. Of the lines opened for traffic the principal starts from Bris- bane, and runs westward through Dalby for 410 miles, and is to be extended to the Warrego River. A branch from this line at TooAvoomba runs to Warwick, and is now continued southward to the border, to connect with the New South "Wales railway system at Stanthorpe. Another principal line is that called the Central Line, which commences at Rockhampton and runs in a westerly direction for a distance of 305 miles to a place called Jericho, with a l)ranch from Emerald to Clermont. This line when further continued will divide the colony into two parts, and from that circumstance derives its name. A third principal line, the Northern, commences at Townsville, and is carried in a south-westerly direction for 147 miles to Betts' Creek, and is to be extended to the Flinders River. There are some short branches from this line. Other short lines are those from Maryborough to Gym})ie, and from THE COLONr OF yUEENSLANJj. 107 Bundaberg to Mount Perry. Others are projected, and will no doubt be constructed as favourable opportunities occur. Communication b}' means of the electric telegraph is now prac- ticable with all the principal towns of the colony, with other Australian colonies, Tasmania, and New Zealand, and even with the mother country and the rest of the civilized world. 8. From the richness and variety of its natural resources it might be anticipated that the princi})al industries of the colony would consist in the Avork necessary for their develop- ment. Mining for gold continues to occupy a considerable number of people, from the produce of whose labour about a million's worth of the precious metal is exported annually. The auriferous country extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria to near the southern boundary of the colony, not continuously but in detached areas, Avhich constitute the "gold-fields." Cop- per-mining is also largely followed, much of the ore being very rich; but the low price of the metal has to some extent checketl this industry. Towards the south, on the table-land adjoining New South Wales, mining for tin has been carried on for some years; but a falling off in the production has taken place, the depreciation in value having removed the encouragement to a vigorous prosecution of the work. Although coal-measures are known to exist over a large area, comparatively little has been effected towards the development of coal-mining as one of the great industries of the colony. In the future, however, there can be no doubt this will prove a great source of national wealth. Besides these more important mining operations, a commencement has been made with antimony, bismuth, cinna- bar, and manganese. Iron and lead, though known to exist, appear ]iot to have been worked as yet. 9. Agriculture is largely carried on, the principal objects of cultivation being wheat, maize, potatoes, sugar-cane, arrow- root, cotton, tobacco, grapes, bananas, pine-apples, and oranges, together with such plants as tea, coffee, vanilla, indigo, and spices. Should the difficulty of procuring suitable labour be overcome, sugar-growing will probably become the most im- portant branch of agricultural industry, the rich soils and climate of the northern rivers being perfectly adapted for the growth of the cane. A very large proportion of the tern- 108 THE COLON i' OF QLEENSLAND. tory of Queensland is devoted to pastoral pursuits, including- the rearing of horses, cattle, and sheep. New country is con- stantly being taken up for these purposes; and, as showing the amount of capital invested in this industry, it may be mentioned that the number of horses in the colony exceeds two hundred and fifty thousand; of cattle, four and a half millions; and of sheep, nine and a half millions. Timber- getting forms an important and increasing industry, for which the splendid trees of the colony afford ample scope. In the southern portion of the country the trees are of the same kinds as those found in New South Wales, with the addition of some species of eucalyptus and pine. Further north the brushes and forests contain trees which are akin to those of the Malay Islands, and Avhich are peculiar to the tropical regions. Of these little is yet known as to their commercial value. No stajDle manufactures have yet been established, those now in existence being such as are necessary to prepare the natural products for the market. Such, for example, are saw-mills and flour-mills; Avine, tobacco, arrow-root, and sugar-making; and cotton clean- ing, meat-preserving, and "boiling down." In addition to these, the usual domestic manufactures are carried on, such, that is to say, as provide articles for home use and not for export. On the coast the pearl-fishery, the collection of trepang, and the dugong-fishery employ a considerable number of men, and a large amount of capital is invested in these enterprises. Commerce also occupies a large number of persons. The home trade consists mainly in the distribution of imports throughout the colony, and the collection at certain centres of goods for export. Intercolonial trade, the interchange, that is, of pro- ducts and imports between different colonies, is also extremely active, and is carried on principally by steam-ships, though many sailing vessels are also engaged in the business. The foreign trade is limited to the mother country and China, with occasional ventures to or from otlier countries. Among the imports may be mentioned tea and cofi'ee, manufactured goods of every description, chiefly from London, and American im- plements, machines, and notions, the value of the whole being about six and a half millions per annum. The principal ex- ])orts are gold, wool, tallow, hides, sugar, tin, and copper. The THE COLOXY OF QUEENSLAND. 109 total annual value of the exports amounts to more than four and a half millions. 10. Originally a portion of New South Wales, Queensland Avas constituted an independent colon}' in 1859, with a separate government modelled upon those of the older colonies. The Legislative Council consists of about thirty members, appointed for life by the crown, but with power to elect their own presi- dent. The other branch of the legislature, the Assembly, is composed of fifty-five representatives chosen by the people, the franchise being so liberal that practically any person who is of ordinarily carefid habits may become an elector. While these two bodies make laws for the colony, subject to the approval of the governor as the Queen's representative, the authority to put them in force is exercised by the governor in conjunction with the executive government. This body, also termed the ministrv, consists of members of the legislature, who preside over the difterent public departments, and are responsible for their proceedings to the Assembly. These de- ])artments of the public service differ little from those of the other colonies, except in being fewer in number. Justice is administered by a supreme court, with three judges who are independent of the government, and by the inferior district courts. In effect, the colony is self-governing, the only restric- tion upon its powers of legislation being the necessary one that requires measures that in any way affect imperial interests to be reserved for the Queen's pleasure respecting them to be ascertained. In other words, such laws, Avhen passed by the local legislature, cannot be put in force until the Queen's ad- visers in the mother country recommend them for her sanction. To carry on the business of the government the money required is raised by taxation and by the leasing of public lands. The revenue thus obtained is about two millions and three quarters annually, and the expenditure, exclusive of the sums devoted to railway construction, is about the same amount. 11. As regards religion — in New South Wales the most per- fect religious ecjuality exists. No church receives support from public funds, and no control is exercised by the government in church matters. Every one, therefore, is at liberty to practise his own religious views provided they do not contravene the 110 THE COLONY OF QUEENSLAND. equal rights enjoyed by others. Except that a larger iiiniiber of Mohammedans and Pagans are to be found in Queensland, the various Christian churches are represented by about the same proportions of members as in the older colonies. Each denomination possesses its own organization, and divides the colony into dioceses or districts as is found expedient. It is believed that the ordinances of religion are as fully provided as is possible in a country so sparsely })opulated in some portions. The Chinese, Kanakas (or Polynesians), and other inferior races are for the most part Pagans, and there are a few Moham- medans. 1 2. An effective system of public primary education has been in operation for many years. It is secular in so far as it excludes direct religious instruction by the state-paid teachers, and it is free, inasmuch as no fee is charged for tuition. Schools are established in all localities where the population is suffi- ciently numerous, and they are as well attended as could be expected when the circumstances of the country are taken into account, the total niimber of pupils at the same period being over 52,000. These are instructed by a staff of more than 1100 teachers. Provision has been made for more ad- vanced education by the estal^lishment of grammar-schools in the more populous localities. Seven of these are now in opera- tion. Further encouragement to this grade of education is given in the shape of scholarships to deserving pupils from the state schools, and by exhibitions to universities. These edu- cational institutions are under the authority of the minister of education, who presides over the whole department and controls all its operations. 13. As in other i\.ustralian colonies the government of Queens- land is mainly carried on from the capital, the system Ijeing to a large extent one of centralization. Some progress has, however, been made towards local government and organiza- tion by the institution of divisional boards, which have been invested with some of the powers of a munici}»al corporation, and perform for larger areas many of the functions dischaiged by borough councils in towns. P)esides this division there are several others, such as counties, which are useful in matters relating to the survey of land, and electoral districts, of wliicli THE COLONY OF QUEENSLAND. Ill there are forty-three, and which are the areas represented by members of the Assembly. Practically, however, the division of the colony into twelve large districts is that which is most generally recognized and best understood. On the coast, com- mencing at the south, is the Moreton District, which extends westward to the Dividing Chain, and northward to a range of hills named D'Aguilar Kange, which forms the watershed between the waters of the Burnett and those of the Brisbane River. This district, therefore, comprises all the country of which Moreton Bay may be considered the natural outlet. It is to a large extent agricultural and timber-producing. It is nearly bisected by the trunk line of railway towards the in- terior, has been the longest settled, and is the most thickly peopled. Northward of this district is that named Wide Bay and Burnett, which stretches northward to a point on the coast lying a little to the north of the 25th jjandlel, and extends inland to the range which divides the waters of the Burnett and Daw- son rivers. It is largely timber-producing and agricultural towards the coast, where sugar growing is an important indus- try. The famed Gympie gold-field is in this district, and coal has been found near the JVIary lliver. In the western portion, which is mountainous, coi)|)er-niining and slieep-farming are the principal pursuits. The Port Curtis District comes next in order, extending northward to Broad Sound, and westward to the coast ranges. Pasturage, agriculture, gold and copi)er mining are the principal industries. Marble is found and quarried in one part of the district, and in favourable seasons meat-preserving is extensively carried on. The Kennedy Dis- trict commences at Cape Palmerston, and extends to Rocking- ham I)ay, stretching inland as far as the Great Dividing Chain. On the coast sugar, cotton, and maize growing are the chief industries, further inland pastoral ])ursuits. It includes the Charters Towers gold-field, one of the most productive in the colony. Tlie whole district is well watered. The Cape York Peninsula north of Cape CJrafton is included in the Cook Dis- trict, which has the sea on all sides except the south. The northern portion from the ])arallel of 14° S. has but few in- habitants, and is little more than an appendage to Cook Dis- trict ])roper. There are in this distiict im|)ortant gold-fields. 112 THE COLONY OF QUEENSLAND. notal^ly those of the Pahner River and Hodgkinson, which have proved to be exceedingly rich. Tin is also found in consider- able abundance, and coal-measures are knoAvn to exist. There is a large proportion of soil fit for agriculture, and much of the country is taken up for grazing pui'poses. Along the Gulf of Carpentaria, and westward of the Kennedy District, is the Burke District, a vast tract largely utilized for pastoral pursuits, being watered by numerous streams, but containing also a gold- field on the Gilbert River. Gold is also obtained at the Clon- curry River, a tributary of the Flinders, and mining for copper has been carried on for some time in the same neighbourhood. South of this district, and occupying the extreme west of the colony, is the Gregory District, which is comparatively little known. The occupied portions are taken up for pastoral pur- poses. In this district are several areas which, in the present state of our knowledge, are considered as deserts. East of the Gregory District are the Mitchell and the Warrego Districts, both entirelj^ devoted to pastoral pursuits. East of Mitchell lies the Leichardt District, Avhich, in the north-east, reaches nearly as far as the sea-coast at Broad Sound. It is chiefly pastoral, but possesses gold and copper, which have both been worked. The Central Railway passes through this district. South of Leichardt, and east of Warrego, is the Maranoa Dis- trict, consisting of the western slope of the table-land and plains which are occupied for pastoral purposes. The remainder of the colony, comprising the southern portion of the table-land and its western slope, forms the celebrated Darling Downs Dis- trict, which contains perhaps the finest agricultural and pastoral land in Australia. Coal is said to exist in various places, but it has not been worked. 14. What has been said respecting Australian towns in the account of New South Wales is equally applicable to those of Queensland. As it will serve no useful purpose merely to enumerate the scores of villages and small towns which, though groAving in numbers and wealth, and forming the centres of intelligence and business for surrounding districts, possess no distinctive features, only the more important will be mentioned in the following account of the Queensland topography. 15. In the Moreton District is the capital Brisbane, so THE COLONY OF QUEENSLAND. 113 named from a former governor of New South Wales, >Sir Thomas Brisbane. Its foundation dates from 1825, but it was not till 1859 that it took rank as a colonial capital. It is situated on the banks of a fine stream bearing the same name, over which an iron bridge has been constructed. The city has a good water supply, is adorned with })arks and reserves, in- cluding a botanical garden, and possesses some handsome public buildings. Brisbane is the principal port of the colony, both for the intercolonial trade and that with the mother country. It is also the terminus of the western and southern railway system, and the natural outlet for the agricultural and pastoral produce of the Darling Downs and other districts to the west- Avard. Besides being the chief business centre of the colony this city is also the seat of government and of the legislature. The population is 51,000. 16. Ipswich, on the Bremer Kiver, an affluent of the Bris- bane, has communication with the capital by rail and steamer. The vicinity is mainly agricultural, cotton being one of the plants in cultivation; but some woollen manufacture is also carried on, and coal-mines in the neighbourhood are profitably worked. The population is supposed to number 8000. In the Wide Bay District, Maryboroug-h is the chief town. It is situated on the j\Iary River, and is the shipping port for the produce of the adjacent agricultural district, and of the Gympie gold-field. The growth and manufacture of sugar, timber- getting, soap manufacture, and iron-foundries are the chief sources of industrial emplo3'ment. The population is about 7000. Gympie, on an old-established and still flourishing gold-field, has a population of 6000. In the surrounding country many diff"erent minerals have been discovered, among them being silver, copper, antimony, cinnabar, bismuth, and nickel. There is also good agricultural land. The town is connected with Maryborough by rail. Bundaberg, a port near the mouth of the Burnett Biver, is the centre of a rich mining, pastoral, and agricultural district. Copper is the chief mineral product, and coal abounds in the vicinity though not yet worked. From the pastoral regions on the upper courses of the Burnett and Dawson rivers wool (311) H 114 THE COLONY OF QUEKXSI.AXD. and Other produce is brought to JJundaberg for shipment. The principal agricultural industries are maize and sugar growing, for which the fertile alluvial and volcanic soil is well adajited. Rockhampton, which ranks as the second city of the colony, is situated on the south Ijank of the Fitzroy Kiver, about forty- live miles from its mouth. As the outlet of the important dis- trict of Port Curtis, and the Leicliardt District to the west- vrard, Eockhampton is a place of great trade. The products of the surrounding country are gold, copper, and silver, wool, tallow, preserved meats, and maize. From Rockhampton ;•. railsvay has been constructed Avhich is intended to penetrate into the western interior, and to connect the rich copper-yield- ing country of Peak Downs with the port of shipment. The population is estimated at 10,000. Another important town in the Port Curtis District is Glad- stone, situated on the coast, and possessing a line harbour. Con siderable trade is carried on between this place and Xew Cale- donia, to which island cattle are largely exported. In the Kennedy District the most important town is Towns- ville, on Cleveland Ba}'. It is the port to Avhich the produce of a vast territory is sent for shipment. The surrounding country is mostly devoted to pastoral purposes, but there are gold-fields at Charters' Towers, Milchester, and Eavenswood. With the first of these Townsville is connected by rail. The port is an open roadstead, but by the erection of a breakwater it is expected that ships will eventuall}' be able to lie alongside the Avharfs. Already the population approaches 4000, and the port ranks as the third in importance in the colony. Another rising port in this district is Bowen, M-hich has an excellent harbour called Port Denison, and is the outlet for a large pastoral district lying to the westward. Coal abounds in the neighbourhood, and there is also good agricultural land. Cardwell, on Rockingham Bay, is another seaport in the same district, which bids fair to become a place of some con- sequence, there being excellent land in the neighbourhood. Sugar-growing is carried on to some extent. In the bay large numbers of dugongs are caught, and works have been erected for the extraction of their oil. Mackay, on the Pioneer River, near the southern boundary THE COLONY OF "iLEENSLAXD. 11") ./ ^1 ^>»4I^?!*Jw^*- IIG THR COLONY 0¥ QUEENSLAND. of the district, is the centre of a fine agricultural area which is specially adapted to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, although coffee, tobacco, and other sub-tropical plants also flourish in the same soil. There is also some pastoral country, and there are copper-mines at no great distance. Cooktown is the chief centre of population in the Cook Dis- trict. This town is situated on the Endeavour River, famed in connection with the history of Captain Cook. It is supported chiefly by the traffic carried on Avith the Palmer gold-field, though there is some good pastoral country lying around. The population, including Chinese, of whom there is a large num- ber, is about 8000. On Trinity Bay is the settlement of Cairns, which is the out- let for a gold-mining district. The vicinity produces excellent timber, and there are tin mines at a little distance inland. In the Burke District the settlements have been made in the gold-fields which lie among the up2)er courses of the Norman and Gilliert Rivers. The most important town, however, is Normanton, on the river of that name, and the terminus of the telegraph line from the capital. Roma, the principal town in the Maranoa District, is the centre of a lai-ge pastoral district, with great agricultural capa- bilities. The vine has been successfully cultivated. In the Darling Downs District there are several towns of some importance. The principal is Toowoomba, with a popula- tion of about 5000; Warwick and Dalby rank next, all three being supported from the contiguous agricultural areas. Stan- thorpe, farther south, is the chief town in the tin-mining district of Queensland. Among the smaller towns a considerable proportion ])id fair to become places of importance. Some of these are mining townships, in which gold-digging and quartz-crushing are carried on. Such are Charters Towers, Milchester, and Ravens- wood, in the Kennedy District. Herberton, in the same district, is the centre of the tin-mining industry, though silver, lead, and copper are also worked in the vicinity. Another mining township is Hughenden, in the Burke District, on the Flinders. Georgetown, on the Gilbert gold-field, is of the same character. In the Leichardt District Clermont is an important mining THE COLUXY OF QUEEXSLAXD. 117 towufihip, Ijcing in tlie vicinity of tlie celebrated Peak DoAV'ns copper-mines. In the Coast District Port Douglas, on Trinity- Bay, and G-ayndah, near AVide Baj^, are deserving of mention. Among the inland towns Emerald in the Leichardt Dis- trict, Mitchell and St. George in ^Maranoa, and Goondivindi in the Darling Downs, are of some importance; and further west, Aramac and Blackall in Mitchell, and Charleville, Cun- namalla, and Thargomindah in Warrego, are local centres for pastoral areas. 118 THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. CHAPTER VI. THE COLONY OF VICTOEIA. 1. Boundaries and extent 2. Ci>ast line and Haibours. 3. Surface. 4. Mountains. 5. Table-lands. 6. Plains. 7. Drainage. 8. Rivers of northern slope. 9. Pviver> of soutliern slope. 10. Lakes. 11. Climate 12. Soil. 13. Internal Coranmnica- tion. 14. Navigable Rivers. 15. Roads, Pvailways, and Telegraphs. 16 Popula- tion. 17. Industrial Occupations; pasturage, agriculture, and mining, is. Manu- factures. 19. Commerce. 20. Government. 21. Religion and Education. 22. Ter- ritorial Divisions. 23. Melbourne. 24. Other Towns 1. Though the most populous of the colonies ou the coiiti- nent of Australia, Victoria is the smallest in extent, having an area of but 88,198 square miles. On the south and east it is bounded by the ocean; ou the north by NeAv South Wales, from which it is separated by the river ]\Iurray and an arti- ficial boundary line running from Cape Howe to the source of the Indi, one of the head-waters of the Murray; and on the west lies South Australia, the dividing line being the 141st meridian of east longitude. A^ictoria is wdiolly contained be- tween that meridian on the west and the 150th on the east; and between the 34th parallel of south latitude on the north and the 40th on the south. Cape Howe is the extreme eastern point; the most northerly, a point on the Murray Eiver, near the intersection of the 141st meridian and the 34th parallel; the most southern, Wilson's Promontory. Its greatest length from east to west is 480 miles, and its width, from north to south, 260 miles. 2. The irregular coast-Iine, estimated at 600 miles in length, is marked by several conspicuous projections and indentations, especially to the Avestward of the 148th meridian. Eastward of that line, however, a long stretch of sandy beach without projections of any size occurs, named, from its supposed extent, the Ninety Mile Beach. Among the more prominent of the projections are Capes Bridgewater and Nelson on the west; Cape Otway, Cape Liptrap, and Wilson's Promontory in the centre; and Cape Howe the farthest east. Portland Bay, near Cape Nelson, is a considerable inlet, affording good anchorage for ships. The principal indentation on the coast, however, is THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. Hi) the unnamed bay or bight lying between Capes Otway and Liptrap, at tlic head of Avhicli, and comiected with it by a narrow channel, is Port Phillip, an extensive sheet of water, 120 THE COLONY OF VICTOlllA. foniiiiig the largest and most important harbour in the colony. I'^astwurd of Port I'liillip is anotlier inlet from the great bay, named Port Western, which has two entrances, formed l)y an island at its mouth called Phillip Island. On the peninsula betw^een Port Phillip' and Port Western are Point Nepean and Cape Schanck. Anderson's Inlet lies farther eastward; and Coast Sceuery— Cape between Cape Liptrap and ^Mlson's Promontory is a bay known as Patterson's, though it bears other names. On the east of Wilson's Promontory is Corner Inlet, the last con- siderable indentation on the coast. There are, however, along the Ninety Mile Beach, several large salt-water lagoons, some- times connected with the sea, but often with their entrances blocked up with sand. In all respects these lakes, as they are called locally, resemble the lagoons already mentioned as exist- ing on the coast of New South Wales, but the former are of much greater extent than the latter. The principal are named Victoria, with an area of 90 square miles; and Wellington, which covers 70 square miles. Numerous islets stud the coast in the neiuhbourhuod of Wilson's Promontorv. THE COLON V OF VICTOHIA. 121 3. In many points the surface of Victoria resembles that of New South Wales, though the natural features are ujion a less extensive scale. There is a coast district, a table-land through which runs a dividing chain, and some interior plains. As these are included in so small a territory they necessarily cause the surface to be more varied. The coast district consists for the most part of undulating country, with an average ])readth of about forty miles. The eastern portion is the most level. 4. The great Dividing Chain from New South Wales enters Victoria, crossing the boundary line a little to the north of the 37th parallel, and thence runs in a westerly direction until it r.pproaches the 14 2d meridian east longitude, where it sinks down into low plains. Various ranges branch oft" from the main chain — some in a northerly direction, others towards the south. The width of the Dividing Chain, including its princi- pal spurs, may be estimated at a hundred miles. The most elevated land is to be found in the north-east, where many of the summits in the Dividing Chain exceed 6000 feet in height, and the culminating point. Mount Bogong', attains the altitude of 6508 feet. This portion of the chain is sometimes styled Uie Australian Alps; a more distinctive appellation is the Warragong Mountains. Tracing the Di\iding Chain westward the elevation will be found to decrease, the average height being about 2500 feet. The westerly prolongation of the chain receives the names of the Pyrenees and the Grampians. These are the lowest parts of the chain, though there are some loft}- summits, and Mount William, in the latter, rises to the height of 5G00 feet. The lateral branches are not conspicuous for height, but fall gradually down to the Murray Valley on the one side and to the ocean on the other. On the average the height of the whole system may be estimated at 3000 feet. Though no active volcanoes now exist in Victoria, the evidences of vol- canic action in past ages are abundant, and craters of extinct volcanoes are numerous, especially in the western parts of the colony. 5. On each side of the Dividing Chain and its continuation stretches a narrow table-land, with an undulating surface and an average elevation of less than 2000 feet. As in New South Wales the fall of the tableland towards the sea is rai)id; but Ili2 THE COLONY (IF VICTORIA. on tlie northern side it declines gradually down to the Murray Valley and the plains. Towards the west its general height is considerably below the average. G. In the north-west are the most extensive level tracts in the colony. Though limited in extent these plains possess the same general character as those adjacent to them in New South Wales. AVith some good land there is a large area containing soil of an inferior description, and, generally speaking, the supply of water is scanty. Through a large portion there tlows 1)0 considerable stream, even as that phrase is understood in Australia, and many hundreds of square miles are covered with the detested mallee scrub. 7. The drainage system of Victoria is very simple. There are two principal slopes — one to the north into the Murray River, the other to the south into the Great Southern Ocean. The Dividing Chain forms the watershed between the two. There is also a system of inland drainage in the north-west, where certain streams discharge their Avaters into lakes from which there is no outlet. 8. In general terms it may be said that the whole of the northern slope is included in the basin of the Murray. This river, although belonging to New South Wales, may also be considered a Victorian stream, inasmuch as some of its head- waters take their rise in Victoria, and it is also fed by numer- ous tributaries from the latter colony. Among these the chief are, commencing from the east, the Mitta Mitta, the Ovens, the Groulburn (which is the most important), the Campaspe, and the Loddon. The first two of these rise in the Warragong Mountains, and are swollen by the rains and by the melting snows of that region. Their supply of water is consequently more constant than is usually the case Avith Australian rivers. The Goulburn is the longest of the purely Victorian rivers, having a course of about 250 miles. In this northern slope the system of inland drainage may be included, inasmuch as the rivers connected with it take their rise on the north side of the watershed. These are the Avoca, which falls into Lake pjaal Baal, and the Wimmera, which empties itself into Lake Hindmarsh. 9. On the southern slope the longest river is the Snowy, THE COLUNY OF VICTORIA. ]-2:i which rises in Xew South Wales und enters the sea eastward of the Ninety Mile Beach, after a course of 400 miles. Numer- ous smaller streams, draining the southern side of tlie water- shed, deliver their Avaters into the coast lakes, the JNIitchell being the most important. Tliese flow from north to south; the Latrobe, Mdiich has a similar termination, runs easterly into Lake "Wellington. The Yarra flows westerly, and after a course of 90 miles empties into Port Phillip Bay, which also receives several other streams of less importance. Farther V. est the Hopkins, rising in the P3'renees, enters the sea a short distance east of Portland Bay; and the Glenelg, from the Grampians, after a devious course of 200 miles, reaches the coast where it is cut by the Hist meridian. 10. Besides the salt-water lagoons before described, Victoria possesses numerous lakes i^roperl}' so called. Some of these occupy simple depressions in the surface; others, the craters of extinct volcanoes. A few are of considerable size, but gene- rally speaking, they are of small extent. Few of them have any outlet. Tlie largest is Lake Corangamite, situated west 1:^4 TilK COLONY OV VICTORIA. of Port Phillip and north of Cajje Otway. It has an area of 76 square miles, and its waters are salt. Lake Bolac, in the same district, is fresh, and has an area of 10 square miles. The principal lake region, however, lies in the north and north- west, where numerous salt lakes are to be found. Lakes Hind- marsh and Tyrrell are the largest of these; the former may have an area of about 10 square miles. 11. In its general character the climate of Victoria resembles that of the other portions of Australia, which lie in the South Temperate Zone. As regards temperature, the same conditions exist here as elsewhere. Thus the elevated tracts occupying the north-eastern portion of the colony are much colder than any other part, snow and ice being common in winter, and the heat less in summer. Along the coast district, where the modifying influence of proximity to the sea is felt, the average temperature of summer is lower and that of winter higher than among the mountains. On the table-land frosts some- times occur in winter; but, except in the most elevated portions, the temperature does not greatly difl'er from that experienced in the coast district. In the plains on the north-west, however, and along the valley of the lower Murray, the heat is usually very great in summer, and in winter the thermometer at night often falls below the freezing-point. In fact, there is little diff"erence between the temperature of these plains and that of the neighbouring portions of New South Wales. The mean temperature of the year is in Melbourne about 56°. In point of humidity the climate may be generally described as dr}'. It would be impossible, in the absence of sufficient observa- tions, to state exactly the average yearly rainfall for the whole colony. In Melbourne it is said to be 26 inches; among the mountains, 36 inches; and on the plains, about 14 inches. The proportion of wet to fine days is small, and the sky is generally unclouded and bright. The prevailing winds are westerly, and on the coast the south-west wind usually brings rain. Occasionally, the hot winds which cause so much injury to vegetation in New South Wales are felt in Victoria, though in the latter they blow from the north. Though unpleasant while they last, these winds are not deemed unhealthy; and, as they occur but on a few days only in each summer, they THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. 125 cannot be regarded as altering the general character of the climate in any material degree. On the whole the climate of Victoria must be pronounced one of the most healthy and enjoyable in the world. 12. So large is the proportion of excellent soil that one of the names first proposed for Victoria was Australia Felix. In the river valleys the alluvium is deep and rich; but the largest areas of good soil are found Avhere trap, basalt, and other vol- canic rocks have been disintegrated. These soils, when suffi- ciently watered, are productive in the highest degree, and are fitted not only for the growth of wheat and other cereals, but also for the cultivation of tobacco and semi-tropical plants gene- rally. Besides soils of this description, there are others of a lighter character, which, though unfit for cultivation under present circumstances, are nevertheless well adapted for pas- turage, and are largely used for that purpose. Some soils, which are too poor to be turned to account in any other way, produce excellent timber. The amount of absolutely useless soil is therefore very small. 13. In common with other Australian colonies, Victoria is little favoured with natural means of internal communication, as she possesses few navigable rivers. Her common roads are in general more indebted to nature than to art, being, over a large extent of country, mere tracks through the bush or over the plains. Her railway system, however, is laigely and effectively developed, and now comprises 1700 miles of line in actual operation. Telegraphic communication, both within and Avithout the colony, is also provided to a large extent. 14. The Murray is the principal navigal)le river, and forms a highway of trade for the whole of the colony north of the Dividing Chain. The vessels which ply on the JNIurray arc small steamers, which tow after them barges laden with stores on the upward, and with wool and other products on the return trip. Necessarily traffic of this description is limited to the times and seasons when the water in the river is of sufficient depth, and is often stopped in summer and during periods of drought. The Yarra is the only other navigable river, and by it vessels of considerable size can be brought up to the business 126 THK COLONY OK VKTORIA. THK COLONY OF VICTORIA. 127 portion of Melbourne, and unlade their Ijurden as it were into the warehouses. 15. In the early days of Victorian independence, after the discovery of gold liad given rise to an enormous tratlic, the common roads were merely tracks cleared through the bush, and covered with sand or dust in summer, and with mud in winter. Stone of the proper kind being aljundunt, however, macadamized roads were formed in many directions. But it was soon perceived that in the long run railways Avould be cheaper and more lasting than even such roads, and railway construction was in consecjuence vigorously proceeded with by the government, which is now the owner of all the lines in the colony. Melbourne is the centre from which the railway system proceeds, but the lines are already much reticulated: and, as extensions are formed, the whole scheme will become more complicated. The following are the principal lines: — The Eastern line connects Melbourne with Sale in the Gipps Land district, and has a length of 127^ miles. From ]\leh bourne to Wodonga, 1S7 mile.^, the conncjction is made by the Xorth-Eastern line, which, besides several short branches, has an important extension from Mangalore to the Murray river at a point opposite Tocumwall. The Northern line and its branches connect Melbourne with Echuca, also on the Murray, and there are extensions to Kerang and Wj'cheproof. A loop-line connects this with the North-Western line, which runs south- west to Geelong, and thence north-westerly to Ballarat, where it forks, the right-hand branch proceeding to Donald, and the left-hand to Dimboola. From this branch a line proceeds in a south-westerly direction connecting Portland with Ararat, and ultimately with Melbourne. An extension from this branch runs westerly to Casterton on the Glenelg river. The Western line connects Geelong Avith Camperdown, 123 miles to the Avestward. The work of railway extension is still pro- ceeding, and internal communication by this means is rapidly- being imi)roved and cheapened. Telegraphic conimunicatioii keeps })ace with railway construction; and, uj) to the present time, upwards of 4000 miles of line, requiring about 9000 miles of wire, have been opened for service. Few even of the smallei- towns are now without this important appliance of civilization. ] 2'^ THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. Communication is also maintained with the mother country, with Tasmania, with New Zealand, and with other parts of the world by means of the telegraph systems of other colonies and submarine cables. Steamships and sailing vessels enable the different ports on the coast to keep up regular communication with the metropolis, as well as with places in other colonies. The postal system is not less perfect, and, as may be gathered from the preceding statements, the means of internal com- munication in Victoria are in advance of those in any other Australian colony. 16. As the census is taken but once in ten years it is not possible to state with confidence the number of inhabitants in the colony; but, judging from the sources of information at present available, it may be estimated at more than a million. On this calculation the increase of population proceeds at the rate of about 30,000 per annum. While representatives of most European, and some Asiatic, nations may be found among the people, the vast majority are from the United Kingdom, or descendants of those who migrated therefrom. Males still preponderate over females, though the inequality in the number of the two sexes is believed to be gradually diminishing. Of the aboriginal natives, but a small remnant, probably not ex- ceeding 700, now remains, and in a few years even they seem likely to disappear. 17. In proportion to size pasturage occupies as large a num- ber of the people as in anj^ of the other colonies. Victoria depastures about 10,000,000 sheep, 1,250,000 cattle, and 300,000 horses, besides rearing pigs, of which there are about 250,000. Wool continues to form the most valuable article of export, and the other pastoral products, hides and tallow, are of considerable importance. Agriculture is also carried on to a large extent, the crops raised being of many different kinds. Of these the principal are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and hay ; and the less considerable are barley, peas and beans, hops, and tobacco. Much attention is also paid to the culture of the vine. All the common European fruits are grown, and culinary vege- tables are produced in sufficient quantities to furnish a surplus for exportation. Upwards of 2,300,000 acres of land are under tillage, so that Victoria not only provides for her own wants. THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. 129 but is also able to supply her neighbours. The mining in- dustry, though less flourishing than in former times, still em- l^loys large numbers of men, and minerals continue to form an important part of the colonial products. Gold is still the most A^aluable of the metals raised in Victoria, though the total amount obtained yearly is not known. Silver, copper, tin, and iron have been worked, but these branches of mining industry are not carried on with much energy. Lead, zinc, antimony, and bismuth are even less extensively sought for, although they are plentiful. Numerous other metals of the rarer kinds are known to exist, but have not yet been the subjects of system- atic mining operations. Coal is less plentiful, but has been worked to some extent. The search for diamonds and other precious stones is an occasional rather than a regular pursuit. 18. Victoria surpasses all the other Australian colonies in the extent and value of her manufactures, and a large i)roportion of her people are engaged in, or dependent upon, such occupa- tions. While many of these are of the kind already described as domestic, some have been designedly established Avith a view to the production of commodities for export. Among these may be mentioned flour and the various articles prepared from it; meat preserving; tobacco and cigars; Avine, beer; paper and such goods as are made of it ; leather, boots and shoes, and the different articles for which leather is used; timber and carpen- ters', joiners', and cabinet-makers' work; pottery and glass ware; woollen cloth and clothing; and rope and twine. These are only the more important manufactures. Besides them there are a large number not individually of much conse(jucnce, but forming in the aggregate a means of employment for some thousands of persons. 19. The internal commerce of the colony consists chiefly of the interchange of the products of different districts, and the distribution of imported goods on the one hand, and the trans- mission to the ports of native products and manufactures for export. Of a similar character is the intercolonial trade, which is even moi'e extensive, and wln'ch is carried on principally by means of steam-vessels plying to the chief ports in the neigh- bouring colonies. The foreign commerce with the United Kingdom, America, China, and other countries of less note, is (311) I 130 THE COLONY OB' VICTORIA. of great extent and importance. Among the exports those of greatest consequence are wool, gold, coined and in bullion, leather, tallow, Ijoots and shoes, flour and biscuits, which, to- gether with commodities of less value, amount to about £16,000,000. The principal imports consist of cotton, woollen, silk, and linen goods; live stock; boots and shoes; tea and sugar, grain; paper, stationery, and books; metals and hard- ware; building materials; cordage and bags; glass, earthen- ware, and porcelain; tobacco and cigars; and spirits, wines, and beer. In this list no mention is made of numerous classes of goods, the values of which as imported range from £10,000 to £100,000. The total value of imports annually is about £19,000,000. It will readily be seen that a commerce so vast in proportion to the limited population must give employment to great numbers of persons, and that the progress or decline of this occupation will always be an index of the prosperity of the colony. Another means of estimating the value of Vic- torian commerce is furnished by the return of shipping which enters and leaves her ports, and which numbers about 4000 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 3,150,000 tons. 20. In all the Australian colonies the government is of the same general character with some points of difference in de- tails. The governor, as chief of the executive and represen- tative of the sovereign, is appointed by the Queen and governs in her name. He is assisted by the ministry, who are his con- stitutional advisers, and the heads of the different departments into which the administration is divided. They must be members of the legislature, to which they are responsible, and whose ap2)roval they must secure for their measures. Two separate houses are included in the legislature; the lower, or Assembly, consisting of 86 members, who are elected by man- hood suffrage, and paid for their services; and the upper or Council, comprising 42 members, also elected by voters, who, however, must possess a property qualification of a certain value. The Assembly is elected for three years unless dissolved by the governor before the expiration of the full period; and the members of the Council hold office for three years only. Voting by ballot is invariably practised in Victoria as in the rest of Australia. From these remarks it will be evident that THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. 131 the constitution of tliis colony is thoroughly democratic, and the administration is in full accordance with those principles. The expenses incurred in carrying on the government are de- frayed from the revenue, which is the money raised by autho- rity of the legislature from taxes, sale and lease of land, and the receipts from railways and postage, and from minor sources. About £6,000,000 are obtained by these means annually, and the yearly expenditure for the purposes of government amounts, in rounlace bids fair to grow in importance. This line terminates at Wycheproof, 190 miles from Melbourne, and there is a short branch to Boort. Maldon, on a branch line from Castlemaine, 89 miles from ]\lelbourne, is situated in a pastoral and agricultural district, but possesses in addition auriferous strata, the source of great wealth. The population is 3000. As the terminus of another branch from the same trunk line, Daylesford, 76 miles from Melbourne, is a place of some importance. It is also the centre of a mining district in which the search for gold in quartz rock is carried on in the most improved fashion, and gives employment to a large number of persons. Like most of the mining townships, it is also inter- ested to some extent in agricultural and local manufactures- The population is about 4000. THE COLOXY OF VICTORIA. 141 The North-western railway line may be held to commence at Geelong, on the shores of Port Phillii^, 45 miles from Mel- bourne. This town is pleasantly situated, well laid out, and ornamented with many creditable buildings. There are several public reserves for recreation, and the town is well supplied with water and lighted with gas. Corio Bay, the brancli of Port Phillip Bay upon Avhich the town is placed, forms an excellent harbour, and ships of large tonnage can be brought alongside the jetties. Its facilities in this respect enable Gee- long to take its position as one of the principal ports of the colony. Among the exports wool is an important item. Gee- long is also distinguished as a manufacturing town, and in it was estabhshed the first Avoollen factory in Victoria. This industry is still carried on, together with rope-making, tanning, and the usual domestic manufactures. The neighbouring dis- trict is agricultural and contains much land adapted for farming. The population is 10,000. Geelong is connected with Melbourne by rail, and is the starting-point of the "Western line. Ballarat (or Ballaarat), the second city of the colony, is on the Xorth-western line, 96 miles from ]\lel])0urne. Around it lies an extensive district, Avhich has been without parallel for richness as a gold -producing region. Alluvial digging having been exhausted, the precious metal is now obtained from crushing the auriferous Cjuartz rock; and mining, in the proper sense, is carried on to a large extent and in a scientific manner. In the newer portion the city is well laid out, and, including the two muni- cipalities into which it is divided, contains an area of 13 square miles. It has public recreation reserves, in one of which is a small lake, named Wendouree, much frequented by the citizens for the amusements of sailing and rowing. Trees have been planted in the principal streets, of which there are in all 84 miles; and the number of handsome buildings, public and pri- vate, give the city an air of substance and completeness that could hardly have been expected in so young a conununity. There is a good water supplj^, and the city is lighted with gas. At present the population is estimated at 38,000. Gold -mining continues to be the great industry of the place, and some of the mines are still very productive. Other occupations, however, are extensively followed, and there are in and near the city 142 THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. itself foundries, woollen mills, fiour-inilLs, breweries, and distil- leries, besides other industrial establishments. In the surroun- ding district, which is undulating and possesses much good soil, agriculture is carried on to a considerable extent, and pastoral pursuits also receive attention, wool of the finest qual- ity being grown on some of the stations. At Ballarat the railway line divides into two branches. Fol- lowing the more easterly branch, we reach Creswick, 112 miles from Melbourne. This is another mining township, and the work is now carried on in so systematic a manner that it may be regarded as one of the regular industries of the district. The mines were at one period highly productive, and still yield good returns to the owners. Agricultural pursuits occupy many persons in the neighbourhood. The estimated population is 4000. Clunes, 119 miles from Melbourne, is an important mining centre. The gold is now obtained principally from quartz, and is brought from a great depth below the surface. The popula- tion numbers about 6000. The supply of water and lighting with gas are signs of the progress of the community. At a distance of 130 miles from Melbourne is Talbot, also a mining township, but so thoroughly settled as to be provided with water and gas. The population is 2500. The town of Amherst, about two miles distant, is, like Talbot, a gold-mining township, with about 800 inhabitants. Maryborough, 139 miles from JNIelbourne, is important as a railway centre, and also as the principal toAvn in an extensive gold-producing region. From this town the main line is con- tinued north-westerly to Donald, a branch line running east- ward connects with Castlemaine, and a short extension runs westward to Avoca. Quartz-reefing is the principal industry, and the population is- estimated at 3500. Another of the group of mining tOAvnships in this district is Dunolly, 125 miles from Melbourne, with a population of 1500. The district abounds in auriferous quartz reefs, and some of the largest nuggets ever known were obtained in the neighbour- hood. St. Arnaud, 158 miles from Melbourne, is the centre of a prosperous pastoral, agricultural, and mining district. It has THE COLOXY OF VICTORIA. U3 a i)Opulation estimated at 3000. Much Avheat is grown in the district, the soil being of excellent quality. At the termination of this branch stands Donald, 182 miles from Sydney. It is the centre of a splendid agricultural dis- trict, but its present population is only about GOO. Avoca, 127 miles from Melbourne, on the branch line from Maryborough, is the centre of another mining district in which also some farming is carried on. The population of the town is about 1000. Following now the westerly branch line from Ikllarat, we reach Beaufort, 124 miles from Melbourne, a mining township surrounded by a rich pastoral and agricultural district. It has about 1000 inhabitants. Ararat, 153 miles from Melbourne, is a tow^n of the same character, the centre of a rich pastoral, agricultural, and min- ing district. It is also important as a raihvay centre, being connected with Dimboola in one direction and Portland in another. Its population is about 3000. Proceeding along the main line, Stawell is reached at a dis- tance of 172 miles from Melbourne. This is an important mining town, the neighbourhood abounding in quartz reefs, some of which are worked at great depths. Some agriculture is also carried on in the district. The population numbers SOOO. Passing Murtoa, situated in a grain-producing district, Hors- ham is reached at a distance of 225 miles from Melljourne. This towai, situated near the edge of the great plain country, is the centre of a rich agricultural district. The soil is admirably suited for the growth of wheat; but the climate is dry, and crops sometimes fail from want of rain. The jjopulation is about 1700. Dimboola, at the termination of this line and 247 miles from Melbourne, is another agricultural centre, with a very small population at present, but with a prospect of future impor- tance. On the railway line connecting Ararat with Portland, and at a distance of 220 miles from Melbourne, is Hamilton, a sort of local capital for the western district. Agriculture is the special hidustry of this neighbourhood. The population may be esti- mated at 3000. 144 THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. From Branxholme, a small town on this line, a branch is car- ried to Casterton, on the river Glenelg, 2G7 miles from Mel- bourne, a town of about 1000 inhabitants. Portland, at the termination of the line, 273 miles from Mel- bourne, stands on the shores of the bay of the same name. It is one of the oldest settlements in the colony, and is the centre of a large pastoral and agricultural district. It is of some con- sequence as a seaport, having frequent communication with Melbourne by sea. Its exports are avooI, tallow, hides, grain, dairy produce, and bark. The population is about 2500. The Western Line commences at Geelong and runs in a wes- terly direction. The first populous place on the line is Colac, 95 miles from Melbourne. The district is pastoral and agricul- tural. The population is about 1 700. Camperdown, the present terminus of the line, 123 miles from JNIelbourne, is the centre of a large pastoral and agricultural district, and is growing in importance. The population is esti- mated at 1300. Of towns on the coast, Queenscliff, 68 miles from Melbourne, is situated at the entrance of Port Phillip Bay. It is connected with Geelong by railway. It is noted chiefly as a watering-place, and has a population of 1200. Warnambool, 172 miles westerly from Melbourne, is a sea- port on the south-Avest coast. The district around is pastoral and agricultural, the principal crops being wheat, oats, barle}-, potatoes, and hops. The population is about 5000. Besides local manufactures, there is a woollen factoiy. The exports comprise wool, grain, potatoes, and dairy produce. Farther west is Belfast, 180 miles from Melbourne. Tliis port carries on a large trade in wool, grain, and other pastoral and agricultural products, which are drawn from the surround- ing districts and shipped to Melbourne. The population is 1800. In the Gipps Land, Bairnsdale, 180 miles from Melbourne, is the outlet for a large pastoral, agricultural, and mineral district, and is likely to increase in importance. The present population is about 1000. In the same district is Walhalla, 120 miles eastwards from Melbourne. This is a mining township, quartz-reefing being THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. 145 extensively carried ou in the neighljourhood. The population is about 1 700. Buninyong, lOG miles from Melbourne, is a township on the Ballarat gold-field, and mining is still actively carried on. As the soil in tlie neighbourhood is productive, some attention is also paid to agriculture. The i)Opulation numbers about 1600. On the same gold-field is Smythesdale, also a mining town- ship with a population of about 1000, exclusive of the residents in the immediate vicinit3\ Heathcote, on the Sandhurst Gold-field, 70 miles from Mel- bourne, is a town of similar character, with a })opulation of 1200 persons. In the south-^A'estern portion of the colony, between AVarnam- bool and Belfast, is Koroit, a township distant 186 miles from Melbourne. The surrounding district, having rich soil, of which much is under cultivation, is highly productive. The population is about 1600. (311; 146 THE COLONY Of TASMANIA. CHAPTER VII. THE COLONY OF TASMANIA. 1. Exteut and Coast-line. 2. Surface. 3. Drainage — Rivers. 4. Climate. 5. Vege- table ami Animal Life. 6. Soil. 7. Population. 8. Roads and Railways. 'J. Oc- cupations. 10. Government. 11. Divisions. 12. Towns. 1. Under this designation are included, not only Tasmania itself, but also the numerous islands lying around its coasts. The name is derived from Tasman, the Dutch navigator by whom it was discovered. Tasmania lies between the 40th and 44th parallels of south latitude, and the 144th and 149th meri- dians of east longitude. It is bounded on the north by Bass tStrait, and on all other sides by the Great tSouthern Ocean. In average length from north to south the island measures about IGO miles, and its mean breadth from east to west nearly e(iuals the length. The area is estimated at 26,000 square miles, or more than four-fifths tliat of Scotland. Eoughly speaking, its shape is that of a heart, but the outline is exceedingly irregular, especially on the east and south. On the north side, the principal projections are Circular Head and Cape Portland, though numerous other less conspicuous headlands mark the coast-line. Several inlets exist on the same coast, such as Port Sorell and Port Dalrymple, while the largest bays are Ander- son and Ringarooma Bays. On the east, the most remarkable projections are Freycinet Peninsula and Tasman Peninsula, both of singularly irregular shape, and the latter terminating in Capes Pillar and Eaoul. Oyster Bay is the most important indentation on this side. The south coast is much broken, being jjenetrated by numerous bays and estuaries, of Avhich the chief are Storm Bay Avith its branches, and the estuary of the Huon Iviver, though there are otJiers of less note. Tasmaii Head, South-east Cape, and South-west Cape are the chief projections on the south; and on the west are Rocky Point, Point Hibbs, and Cape Sorell, with Cape Grim in the extreme north-west. Port Davey and Macquarie Harbour are the prin- cipal inlets on the west. Of the many islands belonging to Tasmania, only the more important can be enumerated. In THE COLONY OF TASMANIA. 147 Bass Strait are King's Island, the Hunter Islands, Flinders Island and Cape Barren Island; oft' the eastern coast, Maria Island; and on tlie south the remarkably-shaped island of Bruni. 2. So irregukir is the surface of Tasmania that much difficulty is experienced in describing it accurately and yet concisely. A lofty table-land, rising to the height of 3000 feet, occupies the centre of the island, and presents an abrupt face to the north, de- clining gradually towards the south. Upon and around this table- land stand ranges of mountains, not connected into any general system, but irregular in direction, length, and height. The surface of the country is consequently more broken and, on the whole, more elevated than that of any of the other Australian colonies. Mountain, table-land, valley, and ravine are intermingled with- out even the degree of order that usually prevails in mountain- ous countries; and the scenery of Tasmania derives from this peculiar blending of high and low, level and precipitous, a pic- turesque character that is uncommon. Two summits, Ben Lomond and Cradle Mountain, the former on the eastern, the latter on the western edge of the great table-land, somewhat exceed 5000 feet in height; the latter, the culminating point of the island, having an altitude of 5069 feet. Besides these there are at least twenty peaks in various parts of the island that rise to an elevation of more than 4000 feet; and a still greater number exceed 3000 feet. Plains jiroperly so called are wanting in Tasmania, and, generally speaking, the extent of level surface of any kind is very small. 3. In the absence of any great dividing chain the drainage system of the island appears to be very confused. The main watershed which divides the rivers flowing northward from those which have a southerly course, begins on the east coast opposite Maria Island, and traverses the country in a sinuous line to West Point on the north-west. Another watershed commences at Eddystone Point on the east coast, and joins the first-mentioned at the source of a stream named the Little Swan Port. A third commences at the intersection of the 42d parallel and the l4Gth meridian, and runs in a semicircle down to the North Head of Port Davey. There are, therefore, four slopes or drainage areas. Of these the most important is 148 THE COLON!' OF TASMANIA. the southern, which is drained l)y the Derwent and the Huon. The former, rising in Lake St. Clair at an elevation of 3500 feet, flows in a south-east direction, and after receiving the "waters of numerous streams from each bank in its course of 130 miles, enters the sea by a broad estuary in Storm Bay. Two-thirds of the southern slope and a large proportion of the central plateau are drained by this river and its tributaries. The Huon has its source in the elevated country lying a little to the northward of the 43d parallel, and flows eastward into Tne Huon Eiver. an estuary which is connected with D'Entrecasteaux Channel. The other streams in this slope are small. In the northern slope all the rivers empty into Bass Strait. By far the most important of these is the Tamar, which, Avith its trilnitaries the Macquarie and the North and South Esk, and their numer- ous affluents, drains a large portion of the northern quarter of the island. The sources of these streams are widely scattered, some being within a few miles of the east coast, and others to the westward of the main stream. Their courses are, from the mountainous nature of the country through which they flow, extremely circuitous. The Tamar itself is the broad estuary THE COLONY OF TASMANIA. 149 wliicli receives the Avaters of the rivers before mentioned. Omitting smaller streams, the Ringarooma, the Mersey, and the Forth are worthy of note for their size; they drain con- siderable areas in the northern slope. Of the rivers on the western slope the principal is the Gordon, which rises in a small lake among the ranges that edge the table-land on the west. It flows southward for some distance and then turns to the west and north-west, discharging its waters into Macquarie Harbour. The King, the Pieman, and the Arthur each drains a considerable space of this slope. The narrow eastern slope resembles in many respects the coast district of New South Wales. At no point is the watershed removed to a greater distance from the shore than 40 miles, and in some places it approaches within 5 miles. The Prosser is the only river of sufficient importance to need mention. Many of the rivers now described are fed from the surplus waters of the numerous lakes which adorn the central table-land. Unlike so many of the Australian lakes, these are filled with fresh water; and though many are but tiny lakelets, some are of considerable extent. Lake Sorell, for example, has an area of 2G square miles, and the Great Lake, which is the largest, covers 45 square miles. From the foregoing statements it will be seen that Tasmania contrasts very strongly with Australia as regards the number and character of its streams, and that it is abun- dantly Avatered in all seasons. 4. Though cooler than the southern parts of Australia, the climate of Tasmania is mild and healthy. In the northern portion the temperature is higher than in the south, where also the winter cold is greater. The general character of the climate as regards heat and cold is uniform throughout the island, alloAvance being made for difference of elevation and the modi- fying effects of proximity to the sea. The mean annual tem- perature is usually stated at 54°, but in summer it occasionally rises as high as 110°, falling sometimes to 29° in winter. In the more elevated regions frost and snow are common, though the cold does not endure for any length of time. On the Avest coast, exposed to the gales from the Great Southern Ocean, rain falls in great abundance, as much as 100 inches having been measured in one year. On the east coast the mean yearly 150 THE COLONY OF TASMANIA. rainfall is about 20 inches, and on the north 30 inches. This amount of precipitation is, in general, equably spread over the year, and it is estimated that 143 days are wet out of the 3G3. The prevailing winds blow from the north-west and south-east, and at times the hot northerly winds from the Australian con- tinent are felt, especially on the nortliern coast. On the whole, the climate may be described as mild, dry, and Ijright. It possesses great restorative and bracing power, and Tasmania is much frecjuented by colonists whose energies have been ex- hausted or overdone by hard work or the more relaxing atmo- sphere of the nortliern colonies. 5. The climate is highly favourable to vegetable life, and timber of enormous size and excellent quality is found, vieing, in both points, with the best produced in Victoria. Some kinds are valuable as cabinet woods, others for building purposes. Among the latter is the Huon pine, which grows altundantly on the west coast, and is valual)le from its durability and from its resisting the attacks of insects. The gum-trees grow here to as great a size as they do in Austi'alia, the blue gum reaching the height of 350 feet, and being employed for shij)-building and other purposes. The animal life of Tasmania differs but little from that of Austi-alia, except in the possession of two carnivorous marsupials, the Tasmanian "wolf" and the Tas- manian "devil," both of them ferocious and destructive crea- tures. Salmon and trout have been introduced fiom Britain into the rivers. 6. Granite, trap, basalt, slate, limestone, and sandstone occur in various localities throughout the island, and the soils derived from them are as numerous and as various as these rocks. The alluvium in the river vallejs, especially when produced by the decomposition of ti-ap and basalt rocks, is very rich, and this sort of soil is usually devoted to agricultural purposes. Large areas beyond the valleys are covered with a similar soil, black or chocolate in colour, and also highly productive; but it is diffi- cult to bring into proper condition for agriculture, owing to the dense vegetation with which it is covered. On the uplands there is good soil for pasturage, for which jjurpose it is exten- sively utilized. Among the mountains and broken ranges, however, there are considerable areas Avhich, for either culti- THE COLONY OF TASMAXIA. 151 vation or pasturage, must be deemed ■wholly unproductive. With all such drawl)acks, however, Tasmania may be correctly described as a fertile island. 7. The population of Tasmania is perhaps more completely of British origin or descent than that of any other Australian colony, only one-tenth being derived from other sources. AVith the exception of a handful of Chinese, this tenth of the popu- lation consists of Europeans and Americans. The aboriginal iidiabitants, who, it is generall}^ supposed, were a Papuan race, have long been extinct. Exterminating Avars were waged against them by the early colonists; and the race is now repre- sented only by half-castes, who were deported to Flinders Island, where they still remain. The whole population of the island is estimated at 135,000. 8. Good roads were formed at an early period between the principal settlements, material being abundant and labour cheap. That between Launceston and Hobart Avas especially noteworthy as being well constructed and kept in good order. Railway construction has not made any great advance in Tas- mania; for, in addition to the difficulties presented by the nature of the country, capital to the necessary extent was not forthcoming, and the government did not folloAv the example of the other colonies any the crown. Pasturage is carried on to a suffi- cient extent to satisfy the local demand for cattle, but sheep have yet to be imported. Manufactures have been commenced in connection with sugar-making, and the utilization of the waste products from that process. The natives build houses and canoes, and the women manufacture small articles. A considerable amount of commerce is carried on for so small a population of whites. Ships now trade regularly with the mother country, and communication is maintained with New South Wales, Victoria, and New Zealand by steamships. On the average of the last few 3ears, it may be calculated that the exports amount in value to between £300,000 and £400,000 per annum, and include chiefly copia (dried cocoa-nut kernels), cotton, sugar, fruit, maize, and molasses. The imports amount 230 THE COLONY OF ilJl. to about the same, the principal articles Ijeing drapery, hard- ware, timber, wine, spirits, and beer; brcadstuffs, meats, live stock, boots and shoes, tea, tobacco, stationery, machinery, and other manufactured goods. 9. When Fiji came uncler British rule it was made a "crown" colony. It has no constitution, but is governed by the Queen's representative, Avho is responsible to the ministry that may happen to be in power at the time in the mother country. There is a Legislative Council, by which new laws are pro- posed ; it consists of thirteen members, who are either officials or nominated by the governor, and not representatives of the people. A number of native chiefs have been appointed by the British authorities to carry on the government of their respective districts, much in the same way as was done before they came under British rule. The revenue raised for the ser- vice of the colony varies from about £80,000 to £100,000, obtained principally from customs and licenses of A'arious kinds; and the expenditure is usually about the same. Religious equality is maintained througliout Fiji. With the exception of the pagan immigrants from other islands and India, all the people are Christians, the Fiji natives having, mainly through the instrumentality of "Wesleyan missionaries, renounced hea- thenism many years ago. Some steps have been taken for the establishment of schools, but not as part of a general scheme under government control. 10. The present seat of government is at Suva, situated on the south coast of Viti Levu. It has been established but a few years, but bids fair to become a place of much importance in the future. The island itself is the largest of the group, and has splendid resources awaiting development. At the eastern end is the native town of Mbau, which may be con- sidered as the native Fijian capital. On the island of Ovalau is the town and port of Levuka, until lately the capital, and still a place of much commercial importance. Xo other towns have been formed by European settlers, but native villages are to be found in all the islands. In Vanua Levu, the second island in size, is Methuala, on the north coast, in the midst of a large native po})ulation. Mbua, at the western extremity of this island, is also a place of some consequence. On the island THE COLONY OF FIJI. 231 of Ta\iuni, south-east of \'anua Levu, the town of Somo Somo is worthy of notice as the chief jjlace in a very fertile district. The largest of the southern islands is Kandavu, which furnishes abundance of timber of the Fijian pine. Of the 200 otlier islands it is necessary only to mention that they are small, and, for the most part, have each but one native village. 232 MKW CALEDONIA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. CHAPTER XIII. NEW CALEDONIA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. 1. Position and Extent. 2. Surface. 3. Productions. 4. Climate. 5. Population. 6. Internal Communication. 7. Industrial Occupations. 8. Government. 9. Noumea. 10. The Loyalty Islands. 11. The New Hebrides. 1. At a distance of about 700 miles in un easterl}' direction from the Australian coast, and between the meridians of 164° and 167° east longitude, lies an island of considerable size and importance, called New Caledonia. Stretching from north- west to south-east, between the parallels of 20° and 23° south, it has a length of about 250 miles; its mean breadth is nearly ■10 miles, and its area is estimated at 6000 square miles, or about one-fourth that of Tasmania. A few miles from the shore rises a belt of coral-reefs and sand-banks which encircle nearly the Avhole island, and which, while heightening the beauty of the scenery, render navigation somewhat dangerous. No considerable indentations bi*eak the coast-line, though there are a fcAv secure harbours. Connected with New Caledonia, and lying to the eastward of it, are the Loyalty Islands, of which Uvea, Lifu, and ]\Iare are the most important. 2. Throughout its whole length, and nearer the east than the west coast, a range of mountains traverses the island, rising in some points, it is said, to near the height of 6000 feet. The average elevation may be about 4000 feet — the culminating point is not known. There are no active volcanoes, though there are evidences of the volcanic origin of the island. Towards the north the chain separates into two branches, form- ing a broad valley between them, and the central portion of the island is occupied by an extensive table -land. Minor ranges branch off from the main chain towards each coast, and yive an undulatinsr character to the districts through which they run. With a surface thus diversified, mountain, valle}', table-land, and coast-plain being intermingled, the scenery of the island is generally picturesque and pleasing. The streams are from the conformation of the island extremely short, but they are very numerou.s. NEW CALEDONIA AND IT.S DEl'ENDENCIES. 233 3. Gold is found in the rocks of New Caledonia, and more abundantly nickel, a white metal, hard, malleable, and ductile as iron, susceptible of a high polish, and not easily rusted. Copper also is found and worked, and other metals are believed to exist in various parts of the island, which, however, has not }-et been examined with sufficient minuteness to disclose fully its mineral wealth. The valleys are densely wooded and pro- duce many valuable trees, such as the cocoa-nut, bread fruit, mango, and banana, which supply food, and others, which furnish excellent timber. Except towards the north the moun- tain tops are either bare or covered with scrub and pines. Many of the lower grounds are well grassed. The animal kingdom is Init poorly represented. None of the larger mam- mals are indigenous, and it is doubtful whether even the mar- supials inhabit the island. The birds are similar to those of Australia and Polynesia with some peculiar species. Of the reptiles to be found in the islands little is known with certainty. 4. Considering its intertropical position, the climate of New Caledonia is cool and dry; yet rain is sufficiently plentiful, and the temperature is high enough to admit of the cultivation (jf many tropical plants. Occasionally great storms occur, similar in their character and effects to the hurricanes which at irreg- ular periods devastate some of the islands nearer the equator. On the whole the climate is said to be healthy, though fevers are prevalent on the low grounds. 5. To a large extent the island remains in possession of the aboriginal natives, Avho appear to belong to the Papuan race, l)Ut with some of the characteristics of that race considerably modified. They are athletic in form, ^vith dark skins, frizzly hair, and marked features. While they use no clothing and are, in some tribes at least, cannibals, they are not wholly des- titute of civilized notions, for they build strong, cone-shaped houses, and diligently cultivate the yam, banana, and sugar- cane. They even have recourse to irrigation. The diflfercnt tribes are ahnost continually at war among themselves. From this and other causes their numbers are rapidly diminishiug. In 1853 the French took possession of New Caledonia, not without strenuous opposition and brave resistance on the part of the natives, who, even now, are disinclined to submit tamely 234 NEW CALEDONIA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. to the authority of the whitest, but still endeavour, in some parts, to maintain their original independence. By the French the country has been used as a place for the deportation of criminals, although some free colonists have been introduced. Native Hut. The population of Eui'opean descent is therefore chiefly of Frencli origin, but there are also some British residents at the ports. 6. The labour of the convicts has been turned to account in the formation of roads through the districts occupied by the French either as prison settlements or as farms, and small steamers ply between the capital and the outlying ports. But while so much of the territory remains in the hands of the aboriginal inhabitants the absence of roads is not a matter of great importance. 7. Public works of various kinds emploj- the majority of the prisoners, and their labour contributes nothing directly to the products of the country. Others are occupied in agriculture and pasturage on their own account, or as servants to the free NEW CALEDONIA AND IT.S DEPENDEN'CIES. 235 settlers. Attention is now paid to the rearing of horses, cattle, and sheep, though it cannot be said that remarkable progress has been made in this pursuit. Sugar, cofiee, tobacco, and cotton can be grown; but the culti\'ation of these plants has not j-et attained the dimensions of a recognized industry, though sugar culture appears to be flourisliing enough to supply the materials to several mills. Some traffic in cattle is carried on with Queensland, and a considerable trade has sprung up between Noumea and Sjdney. This trade has been greatl}- facilitated by the establishment of a line of steamers which runs in connection with the French line from ]\Iarseilles. 8. To a large extent the g^overnment is of a military character. As the majority of the white [lopulation are either soldiers or prisoners, no other kind of government seems possible. 9. Noumea, or Port de France, the principal settlement, is situated near the south-east extremity of the island. It is the seat of government, and the commercial emporium for all the French possessions in this part of the Pacific. Besides a considerable number of Kanakas, as the aboriginal nati\'es are called, the town has a population of about 5000 whites. Other settlements have been formed in the interior, but they are not of sufficient importance to call for remark. About 30 miles to the south of Xew Caledonia lies the Isle of Pines, which is used as a penal settlement for a class of jirisoners whose sentences are of a lighter character. 10. Parallel to New Caledonia, and about 70 miles to the eastward, is the Loyalty group. These are of coral origin, and consequently not fertile. Sandalwood is their chief commer- cial product. In one of the islands, INIare, the English mis- sionaries have been highly successful in civilizing and Chris- tianizing the natives, and to a less degree their labours have produced good results in other members of the grou}). Since their occupation of the islands, however, the French have done much to thwart the eftbrts of the missionaries. The native in- habitants are said to resemble the people of the New^ Hebrides. 11. Contrary to the formal agreement entered into by the respective governments of England and France, the latter has taken military possession of the New Hebrides, and seems d(>- termined to retain its hold u[)ou the territory thus unjustly 236 NEW CAIiKDONIA AND ITS DErENDENCIES. acquiretl. These islands lie to the north-east of New Cale- donia, from which the nearest is distant about 200 miles. Including the Santa Cruz group, they stretch over a space of 700 miles, extending from lat. 21° to 13° south. The whole chain is usually divided into three groups, the Southern New Hebrides, the Northern New Hebrides, which include the Banks' Islands, and the Santa Cruz Islands. With a few excep- tions all these are mountainous and volcanic, and several active volcanoes are known to exist, besides the extinct craters to be found throughout the group. Many of the summits are known to be 2500 feet in elevation, and one rises to the height of 5000 feet. In general the soil is fertile, and the vegetation is dense and tropical in its character, with abundance of palms and ferns, besides timber-trees and flowers. Animal life seems to be scarce, the only indigenous mammals known being rats, and even birds are less numerous than in the nearest groups to the north or south. Much difference exists between the natives of the different islands, and there has evidently been a great mix- ture of races, though nearly all have the frizzled woolly hair of the Papuans. In character they are savage and treacherous, and in many of the islands are still addicted to cannibalism. Wars among themselves are frequent, and this with other causes, but particularly their contact with the whites, is rapidl}' reducing their numbers, which, upon no very certain data, are estimated at 1.30,000. Their languages are numerous and diverse, a point in Avhich they resemble the Australian blacks. The principal islands, commencing from the south, are the following: — Aneiteum, a fertile island, with a population of aboi;t 2000, who grow cotton, arrow-root, and other crops, and from being savage cannibals, have become Christian and kind- hearted. Sandal-wood is one of the products of the island. Tanna, which is of larger size, and has a greater population. The people are still wholly barbarous and cannibal, though they understand the cultivation of taro, yam, arrow-root, sweet- potato, and sugar-cane. There are many natiiral products which have a commercial value, but owing to the savage cha- racter of the people trade is carried on with difficulty. Erro- man^O is a fertile island, but has a small population, the people having suffered uuicli from the aggressions of the whites. NEW CALEDONIA AND ITS DEPENDEXCIES. 237 Mallicollo is inhabited b}' a race noted for their ugliness both ()f form and feature. Vate, or Sandwich, lias several excellent harbours, Havannah being the best known. Espiritu Santo is the largest of the whole group, though little known on account of the hostility of the natives, who are fierce and untamable savages. Vanua Lavu, a small island, is remarkable for its boiling springs. Vanikoro is a small mountainous island, sur- rounded with coral-reefs. The people have a bad reputation for ferocity. Nitendi, or Santa Cruz, is inhabited by a powerful but savage and treacherous race, with some marks of civiliza- tion, such as the ability to build good houses and to construct laro'e canoes. 238 r.vPUA OR nkw guinea. CHAPTER XIY. PAPUA OR NEW GUINEA. 1. Xame. 2, Position and Extent. .'5 Cimst-line. 4. .Surface. 5. Drainage. G. Climate. 7. Natural Productions. S. Population. 9. Inclu.strial Occupations. 10. Territorial Divisions. 1. Thi.s vast island, the largest in the world with the excep- tion of Australia, has been known to Europeans for more than three hundred j-ears; but its pliA'sical character is still very im- perfectly understood, even as regards the districts near the coast. Its common name, New Guinea, was bestowed upon it by a Spanish navigator, because of some resemblance which he fancied the natives bore to the negroes on the west coast of Africa. By a previous visitor, a Portuguese navigator, it had been called Papua, and this is in some respect the preferable name, inasmuch as it is derived from one of the most prominent physical characteristics of the aboriginal inhabitants. The Malay word pajma, or jmjmwah, signifies "woolly-haired," and men of the true Papuan race are distinguished by the pecu- liarity of their hair, which is rough and woolly. This name, Avhile possessing the advantage of not suggesting any false re- lationship, is open to some olijections. It is unknown to the natives themselves, who, owing to their division into mutually hostile tribes, have no sense of national unit}', and feel no need for a common designation. 2. It lies north of Australia, from which it is distant about 100 miles. At its most northerly point, called the Cape of Good Hope, Papua approaches within half a degree of the ec[uator, and the most southerlj' point lies in south latitude 10° 40'. Its general direction is from north-west to south-east, and its length is usually stated to be 1490 miles. From east to west it extends over twenty degrees of longitude, from 131° to 151° east; but its greatest width does not exceed 400 miles, and it is in some places narrowed down to 50 miles. Owing to the irregular shape of the island these figures give no accurate notion of its area, which has been recently estimated at fully 300,000 square miles. In shape, Papua, like some of the islands to the north, PAPUA OR NEW GUINEA. 23!) is extviiordinary and even grotesque, for its outline resembles in no slight degree that of some monster of remote ages. It con- sists of a central mass, with the addition, on the north, of a penin- sula almost severed from the main body and otherwise much broken up by the sea, and of another peninsula stretching out like a tail to the south-east. What used to be thought a jieninsula ])rojecting from the south-west side is in reality an island, named Frederick Henry, about 100 miles long by 50 in breadth. 3. The coast-line is in general high and rockj^, except on the south, where it is low and even swampy. Many of the numer- ous indentations have, as j-et, no recognized names. Some of the more important are the f-ollowing: on the north, Geelvink Ba}', Astrolabe Bay, Huon Gulf, and Acland Bay; on the south, the Gulf of Papua: and on the west, M'Cluer Inlet. There are many excellent harbours at various parts of the coast, some of them being protected by the numerous islands which encircle the whole countr}'. 4. Of the interior of the country very little is known. Al- though one-half of it has long been nominally in possession of the Dutch, no attempt was made by systematic exploration to gain a more perfect acquaintance with the country or its inlia1)itants. Keports of the savage character of the natives and of the frightful diseases which, it was alleged, were certain to attack strangers, long prevented the visits of men Avho were disposed to undertake explorations on their own account. Such draw- l)acks, however, have not, in more recent years, deterred scientific inquirers from trusting themselves to the natives for months, and risking the terrors of the climate without pro- tection or help. Their exjjlorations have already added much to our very scanty knowledge. Judging from what is actually known it seems probable that a chain of mountains traverses the island in the direction of its length. Some portions of this chain in the south-east are said to average 7000 feet in height, and Mt. Owen Stanley has an elevation estimated at over l;'),000 feet. In the north-west have been seen snow-topped mountains probably 18,000 feet high, which may also belong to this system. South of Astrolabe Bay is a peak reported to be 20,000 feet high. Except as regards the south-eastei-n peninsula our information is based upon inference and conjee- 240 PAPUA OR NEW GUINEA. ture. Various ranges have been observed running ])arallel to tlie coasts, as in New South Wales and Queensland, and it is probable that l^etween these mountains and the main chain there may be a high table-land. An extensive plain occupies the district Ij'ing along the southern coast where the island is widest. This plain, which has been visited by several exj^lorers, is described as a vast flat covered with alluvial soil, often so low as to form extensive swamps, and cut up into deltas by the numerous arms of large rivers. The flat is in many parts con- tinued Ijeyond shore, rendering the sea too shallow for naviga- tion except by small boats. 5. Of the drainage of the island our actual knowledge is equally limited. If the conjecture as to the general resem- blance of Papua to eastern Australia in conformation be well founded, the rivers on the eastern and northern coasts will have short courses; still one recently discovered has been explored for a distance of 400 miles. On the southern coast the rivers are probably longer as a rule, but of them, with one or two exceptions, we hardly know anything. One of them, the Fly, however, has been traced to a distance of 500 miles from its mouth, and its appearance then justified the belief that its source was still 100 miles distant. It has numerous tributaries, and an estuary containing several islands. G. As in other intertropical regions, the seasons are ])ut twD in number, the wet and the dry. In the south the wet season occurs between April and September, whereas on the north coast the period of rainfall is from October to Marcli. Rain is even more abundant than in northern Australia, and its effects are visible in the more luxuriant vegetation of Papua. From the scanty observations taken of the temperature it is inferred that the mean summer heat is 95^, and that of winter 75°. That the climate is decidedly unhealthy, especially on low ground, seems to be a well-ascertained fact, the more prevalent disorders being dysentery, fevers, and skin-diseases, from all of which natives as well as strangers suffer. On the higher grounds these complaints are less severe, and probably judicious care of the health Avould greatl}^ diminish the liability to attack. In this point of view Papua seems to afford but little prospect of suitability as a field for Eurojiean settlement. PATUA OR NEW GUINEA. 241 7. Of the mineral productions of Papua it is not possible to speak with certainty. Gold has been found, but as j'et not in large quantities, though the belief is general that highly auriferous tracts will in time be discovered. Granite has been observed in the noi'th-west, and as this rock' is often associated, in other countries, with valuable minerals, there is some probability that such may be the case in Papua. Excel- lent soil is to be found in every district, as is shown by the luxuriant vegetation with which the country is overgrown. In tliis respect Papua occupies an intermediate position between the Malayan islands and Australia. In its dense forests of gigantic trees lashed together with the supple stems of climb- ing plants, and in the thick undergrowth of brushwood, it resembles the jungles of some of the islands to the northward and westward, while the abundance of gum-trees and acacias in the south forcibly remind the spectator of Australia. Timber trees of great size and excellent quality have been observed in every direction in which an explorer has penetrated, ironwood and ebony being among the number. At least ten species of palms have been enumerated, one of them stemless; a kind of cinnamon is common: the wild nutmeg furnishes an article of commerce; and there are many species of figs. Among the food-producing plants may be mentioned the cocoa-nut, sago, banana, bread-fruit, and sugar-cane. Of ornamental trees and flowers there are numerous species. In some localities open grassy plains are to be found, but they form a very small proportion of the whole surface. In these many characteristic Australian plants are to be found besides the gum-trees, such as the so-called honeysuckles and bottle-brushes. In its animal life Papua more nearly resembles Australia than the East Indian Islands, not only as regards the species found in it, but also as respects those that are absent. Insects abound, and some orders, as the beetles and the butterflies, are remarkable for their singular forms, their uncommon size, or their resplendent colours. The reptiles, which include croco- diles, are little known. In the mammalian class a marked like- ness to Australia is observable. None of the great carnivoia of southern Asia and the IMalayan islands — lions, tigers, and leopards — are found in Papua; no monkeys, as tbe orang-outang; (311) Q 242 I'ATUA OR N'KW (JUIXKA. no such animals as the rhinoceros and tapir; and no nuninating animals, as the deer. On the other hand, with the exception of a dog, two bats, a pig, and some mice, all the mammals belong to the marsn[)ial or pouched order and to the same families as those found in Australia. A tree kangaroo is perhaps the most remarkable of the marsupials. FoTir .<^pecies of cuscus, a flesh-eating marsupial of small size, and an echidna have also been found. While the mammals are thus restricted to a few kinds, the birds are numerous and diversiiied. A large number of species are peculiar to Papua and the neighbouring islands ; others are common to it with North Australia; and a third group are identical with birds that inhabit the Malayan islands. Of those which are specially characteristic of Papua it may be said that they are more singular in form, as well as more beautiful in plumage, than the birds of any other island in the world. One of these is the cassowary, which bears a general resemblance to the emu, though stouter and of less height. The largest of the parrot race, the Great Black Cockatoo, and also the smallest of the family, belong to Papua, and some of the remaining species, out of thirty inhabiting the island, are among the most beautiful of their kind. Equally beautiful kingfishers, about forty species of pigeons, some remarkable for size or for beauty of plumage, and various other birds of peculiar form or brilliant colours, render the ornithology of Papua a most interesting study. Exceeding these, however, and, it may be said, all other birds, in elegance and beauty, are the Birds of Paradise, of which many species inhabit Pajuia and the adjacent islands. No verbal description can convey an adequate notion of the appearance and splendid colouring of these birds. 8. The great mass of the population of Papua belongs to a race which is termed the Papuan. On the east coast the race is to some extent mixed, apparently with Polynesians; and on the north a similar mixture has taken place with Malays and people from the neighbouring islands. The purer Papuan stock occupies the remainder of the island. Describing the typi- cal Papuan, Mr. A. R. "Wallace, by whom the question was care- fully investigated, thus writes : " The colour of the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes approaching, but never I'APUA OR NEW GUINEA. 243 quite equalling the jet black of some negro races. It A-aries in tint, however, and is sometimes of a dusky brown. The hair is very peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, growing in little tufts or curls, which in youth are very short and compact, but afterwards grow out to a considerable length, forming the com- l)act frizzled mop -which is the Papuan's pride and glory. The face is adorned with a beard of the same frizzly nature as the Natives of Papua. hair of the head. The arms, legs, and breast are also more or less clothed with hair of a similar nature." The same writer considers that in stature the Papuan is equal or even superior to the average of Europeans, though other observers entertain a difterent opinion. The legs are long and slender as in the Australian aboriginal; "the face is somewhat flattish, the brows very prominent; the nose is large, rather arched and high, the base thick, the nostrils broad, with the aperture hidden, owing 244 PAPUA OR NEW GUINEA. to the tip of tlie nose being elongated ; the moutli is large, the lips thick and protuberant." It is difficult to judge of the intellectual character of these i)eople, as they are yet so little known. There is reason to believe, liowever, that they are not deficient in mental capacity. Although they wear little or no clothing, they pay great attention to personal appearance, espe- cially in regard to the hair. Besides tattooing and painting the skin, they use ornaments for the nose, ears, and neck, and the teeth with some tribes are filed to a point. Their houses, constructed of bamboo, are often raised upon stakes, and even built in lofty trees. Not only tlie houses, but all their do- mestic utensils and weapons are decorated with carvings, as is also the case Avith their "prahus" or canoes, which are hollowed out of the trunks of trees. Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, knives, and axes, the two latter being formed of stone. With regard to diet tliey are not nice; they eat the flesh of the wild pig, kangaroo, cuscus, cassowary, lizards, fish, and some kinds of large insects, as well as that of their domesticated ani- mals, the pig, dog, and fowls. They know how to till the soil ; and for vegetable food they have sweet-potatoes, yams, bana- nas, and sugar-cane, to which may be added sago, cocoa-nuts, l)read-fruit, mangoes, aiid other fruits Avhich grow wild. Can- nibalism has been attributed to them; but Avhile it is certain that some tribes are addicted to the horrible practice, it has not been proved that the whole race is equally guilty. In point of moral character different reports have been given of the Papuans. Some represent them as fierce, vindictive, and treacherous, and often cruel even to their own children; others give them a very much better character. The practice of himting men for their heads they share in common with other uncivilized races of the Malay Archipelago. The skulls ar3 kept as trophies and proofs of bravery. Their religious id( as have not been well ascer- tained, though there are some indications of belief in a supreme Being. Among the coast tribes, where divergences from the purely Papuan type have arisen from the mixture of races, the Papuan traits still predominate, so that even in those districts the inhabitants are all included under the one designation. It is alleged by some writers, however, that in the mountainous interior there is to be found a race whose physical attributes PAPUA OR NEW GUINEA. 245 difter widely from those of the Papuans, especially as regards stature, but this assertion cannot yet be definitely accepted as a fact. The total population is conjectured, upon no good grounds, to be about 2,500,000. 9. To a considerable extent the Papuans employ themselves in occupations connected with the supply of food, in house and boat building, and in war. Fishing is carried on by the coast tribes, who also cultivate gardens, in which they grow rice, yams, sweet-potatoes, sugar-cane, bananas, and maize, as well as betel and tobacco. Sago is made from the pith of the palm of that name, and bread-fruit is also used as an article of food. The pig and the kangaroo are hunted, and supply ani- mal food. The houses are sometimes built over the water, but in nearly all cases are raised upon stakes. In some instances they are small, so as to accommodate but one family in each; in others they are large enough to contain all the inhabitants of the village. Their prahus or canoes are, some of them, of great size; and they make excellent fishing-nets. Women, among some of the tribes, manufacture pottery and ropes. While from the general fertility of the soil, the heat of the climate, and the variety of its natural j^roducts, Papua might become a great exporting country, its trade is at present limited to a few articles such as cinnamon, nutmegs, and birds of paradise, which are bartered with Malays and others who visit the island at certain periods. In the future it may be regarded as certain that among the exports will be numljered timber, sago, copra, beche-de-mer (trepang or sea-slugs), pearl shell, and other products of tropical lands and seas. 10. Practically there are no colonies, or hardly even settle- ments, of Europeans in Papua, except where missionaries have established themselves for the purpose of instructing the natives in the truths of Christianity. Their stations are mostly on the west coast of the southern peninsula, where Port Moresby i» situated. This is the chief port and centre of trade, as well as a, missionary station. West of the 14 1st meridian of east longitude,. Papua is claimed by the Dutch, who, however, have exercised but a nominal authority over the people. An abortive attempt was once made by them to found a settlement, but the i)roject was abandoned after a short trial. The southern and eastern. 246 I'APUA OK NEW GUINEA. portion of the leiuainder was t'ormally taken possession of by the British in 1 884, and a protectorate was established over the natives with a view to guard them from the outrages of lawless traders rather than for the furtherance of colonization. More recently the Germans have appropriated the remaining portion, and liave established a few stations. The boundary line between the tracts belonging to the two nations is thus described: "Start- ing from the coast on the 8th parallel of south latitude, it follows that jDarallel to the point wliere it is cut by the 147th meridian of east longitude, then runs in a north-westerly direction to the intersection of the 6th parallel and the 144th meridian, and continues in a west-north-westerly direction to the point of in- tersection of the 5th parallel and the 141st meridian." This line, it is estimated, gives about 70,000 square miles of terri- tory to the German protectorate and 86,000 to the English; and it is believed nearly coincides with the main watershed of the country. The German territory has been named Emperor William's Land. Port Moresby is the seat of government of British New Guinea. It has a population of 800. THE SOLOMON ISLANUsi, 247 CHAPTER XV. THE SOLOMON ISLANDS, NEW BEITAIN, AND NEW lEELAND. 1. Position and Extent. 2. Surface. 3. Climate. 4. Xatuial Productions. 5. Popu- lation. 6. Settlement. 1. The chain of ishmds, whicli extends to the eastAvard of Xew C4uinea, from the Admiralty Group in the north-west to Kennell Island in the south-east, has a length of about 1300 miles. The northern extremity of the chain would be about the 2d degree of south latitude, and the southern Avithin the li'th. Although constituting geograi:)hically but one group, no collective name has been yet devised, and it is therefore necessar}' to describe the various portions in detail. The Solomoii Islands form the south-eastern portion of the grouj). They were discovered and named by the Spanish explorer Mendana, in 1567, but until recently remained unvisited and comparatively unknown, for the natives bore the reputation of being fierce and treacherous. This group includes seven large and many smaller island.s, the former being arranged in two parallel lines. In the more easterly line are jMalayta, ]\Iahaga (or Ysabel), Choiseul, and Bougainville; and the second line, situated at an average distance of 30 miles to the westward, comprises St. Christoval, Guadalcanar, and New Georgia. The total length of this part of the chain is 700 miles. The chain is continued in New Ireland, New Hanover, and the Admiralty Islands; while New Britain lies at right angles to the axis of the main chain, and from its western extremity stretches a group of smaller islands which approach the shores of Xew Guinea. 2. All the islands are mountainous and ap})arentlj' of volcanic origin. In (ruadalcanar there is an active volcano, another in Xew Britain, and several on the small islands towards the north. In general the mountains attain the height of 4000 feet, except in the Admiralty Group, where they do not exceed 1600; but the culminating point, a peak in Guadalcanar, has an elevation of SOOO feet. Owing to the ho.stile disposition of 248 NEW BRITAIN, the natives, explorers ha\'e not Itcen aljle to penetrate into the interior, and our knowledge of the surface is confined to such facts as could be ascertained by observation from the shore. All are known, however, to be well watered, though the rivers are short. New Britain is said to be one of the most beautiful countries in the world. 3. The climate is tropical. So far as we are yet aware, the temperature is not excessive, being everywhere modified by the sea-breezes. Rain is abundant in the Avet season, and the atmosphere as compared with that of the continent is moist. Modified trade - winds prevail throughout the year. As a whole, the climate is reported to be not unhealthy even to Europeans. 4. Little is known as to the mineral productions of these islands. In all the vegetation is luxuriant. Magnificent forests NEW IRELAND. 249 abound; the cocoa-nut and mango are indigenous; and tree- ferns, sandal-wood, ebony, and lignum-vit?e are known to grow to a great size. Both birds and mammals resemble those of New Guinea; and some of the marsupials, as the cuscus and a kangaroo, are representatives of the peculiar animal life of Australia. 5. With some minor diflferences among themselves, the in- habitants must be regarded as offshoots from the Papuan race. All are of a dark colour, some being of a lighter shade than others. Among the northern islands the people are of a moderate height, while in those to the southward the natives are dwarfish in stature. They also vary in features, but the woolly frizzled hair is a common characteristic throughout the whole chain. It is not possible to estimate the number of the inhal^itants of this chain; but the different islands appear to be well peopled. The people of New Britain are cannibals, and are not ashamed of the practice, as most cannibals are. 6. Recently a German protectorate has been established over the greater part of this archipelago, and the remainder con- tinues to be unclaimed by any European power. The German portion, including New Britain, New Ireland, Ncav Hanover, and the Admiralty Islands, has received the name of Bismarck Archipelago. No colonies proper have been formed on any of the islands and hardly any permanent settlements by Europeans, except such as have been made by missionaries. In a few localities planters have settled and traders have established depots for the purpose of exchanging merchandise for native products, but such stations are liable to be broken up through the violence of the natives. Missionary effort, however, has already accomplished much good in New Britain. 2")0 TUK PAPUAN ISLANDS. CHAPTER XVI. THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. 1. Wiiigioii. 2. Booro. 3. Ceram. 4. Kei ami Aroo Islamls. 5. Timor L:uit. 6. Timor. 7. Flores. 8. Saiulalwood Island. 1. These islands lie on the west of Pajjua, and are so named either on account of their proximity to that island, or because they are inhabited, wholly or in part, by men of Papuan race. Commencing on the extreme north-east, the first of them to be noticed is Waigiou. This island consists of elevated land much indented by the sea, so as to be divided into three principal parts. It measures 80 miles in length by 20 in breadth. Dense forests cover the island, which resembles, in most respects, the mainland of Papua, and is the habitat of birds of paradise. The people are of mixed race, but the language is Papuan. In con- nection Avith Waigiou may be mentioned Batanta and Sahvatty, islands of similar character. 2. Booro, Avhich lies some distance farther to the westward, is inhabited in the southern and forest portion by Papuans, and bj^ a mixed race in the north. 3. Ceram is a large island of irregular shape, very moun- tainous and thickly wooded. Very little is known of the interior. As is always the case where sago forms the chief article of food, the people are poor. In the interior savage tribes occupy the country. 4. South of Western Papua are two groups of islands, the Kei and the Aroo Islands, Avhich are in every sense Papuan. The former are small and thickly wooded, the forests producing timber, which is used in the construction of pralius, the great industry of the group. The Aroo Islands are larger, and are of coral origin. On one of them, at a place called Dobbo, a yearly fair is held, and is attended by traders from great dis- tances. To this place the Papuans bring the products of their labour, and obtain in exchange such commodities as they re- quire. It is estimated that the value of the trade carried on at this mart is about £4:0,000 annually. The native race in THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. 251 both groups is the Papuan, but the coast districts are inhab- ited by people of mixed descent. 5. In the Tenimber group Timor Laut is the principal i;;land, of which but little is known. As in most of the islands throughout this region, the interior is inhabited by a black, frizzly-haired race, j^resumabl}' of Papuan affinities, and the coast by a mixed people somewhat more civilized. The island is said to be fertile. 6. Farther Avestward is Timor, a large island, 300 miles long and 60 broad, and containing an area of 11,000 square miles. It is surrounded by numerous small islands, which may be regarded as belonging to it geographically. Its surface is elevated, mountain ranges traversing the island in the direction of its length. These are said to reach the average height of GOOO feet, though the culminating point is supposed to liave an altitude of 11,000 feet. Timor is out of the line of volcanic action which runs through the Malayan islands, but there are traces of volcanic energy in former times. In the interior are table-lands, about 3000 feet in elevation, and adapted by their climate to produce the grain of the warmer portion of the temperate zone. The whole island appears to be less densely wooded than those already mentioned, a result probably of the much drier climate. Except in the wet season, the short rivers have but a small volume of water, and, like those of Australia, sometimes wholly cease to run. Nothing is definitely known as to the mineral resources of Timor, as the country has been little explored. The vegetation resembles, in many respects, that of Australia, and includes some characteristic Australian plants, as the eucalyptus and acacia. Like Australia, also, animal life is scanty, except as regards birds, of which there is a considerable varietj'. Some of the mammals common in the Malayan islands also inhabit Timor. The most important of these are a monkey, a tiger-cat, and a wild pig. There is also the opossum-like cuscus. The native inhabitants are of the Papuan stock, but not of so unmixed a type as the tribes far- ther east. Their colour is lighter, and their hair less frizzled than that of the natives of New Guinea, but they have the characteristic Papixan nose. They are more civilized than their eastern brethren, weave cotton cloths, wear clothing, and 252 THK PAPUAN ISLANDS. rear domestic animals. Ttiey also cultivate Avheat and potatoes, grow coffee, keep bees, and rear ponies and sheep. They are still pagans, and retain some of the barbarous practices common among the more savage Malay tribes. The two European powers, the Dutch and the Portuguese, that lay claim to Timor, the former to the western and the latter to the eastern half, have done nothing towards developing the resources of the country or civilizing the inhabitants. Some trade, however, is carried on at Coupong, the capital of the west, and at Delli, the chief place in the east. From the former are exported ponies, bees'-wax, and sandal-wood ; and from the latter, wheat and potatoes. It is considered that the total population of the island does not exceed 100,000. 7. Passing over Ombay, Wetter, and some smaller islands to the northward of Timor, Flores next presents itself. This island, 230 miles in length and about 20 miles broad on the avei'age, is also mountainous and volcanic. It has both active and extinct volcanoes, and some of its peaks are alleged to reach an elevation of 10,000 feet. The interior, however, is almost unknown to Europeans, and most of the statements as to its character and products are conjectural only. Gold, copper, and iron are said to be found here; it is better wooded than Timor; and its forests produce some valuable timbers, including sandal-wood. The aborigines belong to the Papuan stock, are dark and frizzly-haired, and nearly allied to the Timorese. 8. Sumba, or Sandalwood Island, lies to the south of Flores, and is very little known to Europeans. Like all the neigh- bouring islands, it is mountainous, and is believed to be vol- canic. As the population is apparently large, it is inferred that the soil is fertile, especially as the people grow rice and maize, and possess domesticated animals. Sandal-wood, bees'- wax, edible birds'-nests, and tortoise-shell are exported; but as there are no European settlements the trade is confined to the natives of the neiohbourinu' islands. " Messrs. Blackie grudge nothing in the production of a school-book. All that good paper, clear lype, and beautiful illustrations can do to help an author, are liberally and wisely done by them. ' — Sclwol Board Chronicle. CATALOGUE OF EDUCATIONAL WORKS. INDEX. Arithmetic ij. 16, 17, 25 Book-keeping, 16 Books for Teachers, 26 Dictionaries, 26 Drawing : — Vere Foster's Drawing Copy-Books, 27 Vere Foster's Drawing Cards, . . 28 Vere Foster's Water-Color Draw- ing-Books, 28, 29 Poynter's Drawing for the Stand- ards,. ... 32, and p. 3 of Cover. Poynter's South Kensington Draw- ing-Book, 30, 31 Drawing for the Standards, /. 2 of Cover. Education, Works on, 26 Elocution : — Baynham's Select Readings and Recitations, 12 Miscellaneous Readers,. . 10, 11, 12 Poetical Reader, n Poetry for Repetition, 5 School Classics, 12 English Grammar and Composition, . 20 French Grammar, 22 Geography : — Geographical Readers 6, 7 Geographical Text-Books, .... 19 History and Geography Readers, . 9 Maps and Map Drawing, . • . . . 7 History: — Elementary History of England, . 9 Historical Readers 8 Historical Text-Books, 17 History and Geography Readers, . 9 London, Past and Present. . . 11 The Sovereign Reader, lo Home Lesson Books: — For Comprehensive Readers, ... 5 For Graded Readers, 3 For Geographical Readers, ... 7 Home Lesson Books— Couitiiued. For Historical Readers, .... 8 For History and Geography Read- ers, 9 Infant Series, 3, 5, 22 Latin, 22 Mathematics, 24, 25 Poetry : — Chaucer, Prologue to Canterbury Tales, 12 Poetry for Repetition, 5 Milton's Paradise Lost. — Book L, . 11 Poetical Reader, . . . . . . . 11 School Classics, 12 Shakespeare's Plays, 12 Readers: — Comprehensive Readers, . . . . 4, s Graded Readers, 2, 3 Geographical Readers, 6, 7 Historical Readers, 8 Infant Reading Books, 3 Reading Books for the Higher Stand- ards, 10, II, 12 Science : — Science Text-Books, 23, 14 Text-Books for the Specific Sub- jects, 27^ 22 Common Things and Elementary Science, 22 Scripture 18 Specific Subjects, 21, 22 Teachers' Books, 26 Writing: — Vere Foster's Writing Copy-Books. Original Series 13 Palmerston Series 14 Bold Writing Series, 14 Writing Charts, 15 National Competition in Writing and Drawing, is yune, /SSS. Blackie &r= Son's Educational List. Adopted by the London and other Principal School Boards. New Editiotis, adapted to meet the latest Code reqtdrements. THE GRADED READERS. FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. In the Graded Readers effect has been given, as far as pos- sible, to all that writers on the Science of Education, as well as the experience of practical educationists in our own and other countries have suggested for the teaching of Reading. In the Primers the matter of nearly every lesson is first pre- sented to the mind by means of a picture. The child deals with a single difficulty at a time, and in each case proceeds from that which is easier to what is more difficult. The selection of lessons for the Earlier Readers has been guided by the principle that the association of spoken with written language is, in itself, task sufficient for a child to contend with at first, without his being at the same time embarrassed by difficulties connected with the matter or language of the lessons. In the Higher Readers the communication of instruction through the reading lesson has been kept more distinctly in view, without sacrificing the needful simplicity and interest. The pieces selected are also such as to attract the pupils to the works of our great English writers. At the suggestion of many teachers Spelling lists from each lesson for Revisal purposes have been added to Readers I. to IV. ' 'One of the very best series of Readers now in the market. The freshness of the books is remarkably pleasing. Many of the lessons in prose are from the works of the greatest English writers. The poetical pieces have also been most judiciously selected from the best sources. The illustrations are of the highest order, and the paper and binding are of the best quality."— Schoolmaster. "They are bright, fresh, and touched with that which is kin to the best spirit of childhood. Great attention is paid to the various devices by which the pupil may be made secure in the art of spelling. There is great variety of subject, and the lessons stretch over a very wide field of human in- telligence, literature, culture, thought, and knowledge." — School Board Chronicle. The Graded Reading Sheets. Illustrated (14 pp. of Primer I. in Facsimile), price 3^. 6d. per set, or mounted on boards, 14^, The Graded Reading Sheets, Second Series. Profusely Illustrated. 24 Sheets, containing 16 pp.. Primer I., size 35 by 27^^ inches. Price 6s, per set, or mounted on boards, 21^. Blackie (&^ Son^s Educational List. THE GRADED READERS— Cw//-/////^^. Each Book is illustrated in a highly instructive and artistic manner. Graded Primer, Part I. 32 pp., cloth cover," zyzd.; paper cover, i^(/. Graded Primer, Part II. 48 pp., cloth cover, T,d.; paper cover, 2it. Graded Primer, Complete. 80 pp., cloth, price 4^. First Graded Reader. ... 136 pp., cloth boards, price Sd. Second Graded Reader. 136 pp., cloth boards, price Sd. Third Graded Reader 200 pp., cloth boards, price u. Fourth Graded Reader. 232 pp., cloth boards, price u. 3(/. Fifth Graded Reader.... 224 pp., cloth boards, price u. 3^. Sixth Graded Reader.... 224 pp., cloth boards, price u. 3^/. The Original Editions of the Readers can still be had .-—First Reader, 96 pp., 6d.; Second Reader, 136 pp., Sd. ; Third Reader, 200 pp., IS.; Fourth Reader, 288 pp., is. 6d. ; Fifth Reader, 320 pp., 2s.; Sixth Reader, 384 pp., 2s. 6d. HOME LESSON BOOKS. BASED ON THE "GRADED READERS." First Reader, 24 pp., price id. I Third Reader, 40 pp., price 2d. Second Reader, 24 pp., „ i^. I Fourth Reader, 48 pp., ,, 2d. INFANT READING BOOKS. By Jennett Humphreys. Fully Illustrated with Woodcuts, and one Coloured Plate each. 6U pp., 33mo, cloth. Sixpence each. yALES EASY AND SMALL for the Youngest of All. In words of not more than three letters. r~\LD DICK GREY and Aunt Kate's ^Vay. In words of not more than four letters. MAUD'S DOLL AND HER WALK. In Picture and Talk. In words of not more than four letters. TN HOLIDAY TIME : and other Stories. In words of not more than five letters. "These tales are of a very novel char- acter, and are graded to suit our little treasures' advancement up the ladder of life. The author has shown great ingenuity in producing such nice tales for the very young. We can recommend them with all confi- dence, as we are sure th.it they will give satisfaction upon a trial." — Sch'lmirtress. Blackie &" Son's Educational List. ADOPTED BY THE LONDON AND OTHER PRINCIPAL SCHOOL BOARDS. New Editions, adapted to meet the latest Code reqtiirements. THE COMPREHENSIVE READERS. The Comprehensive Readers have been compiled by a number of Teachers who have conducted schools of different grades for many years with marked success. They are very carefully graduated and systematically arranged, and are written in language suitable to the minds of children. The subjects selected will be found to foster a love of reading and a high moral tone of feeling and conduct. Geography, History, and Biography have been introduced into the higher books Avith a view of imparting useful infor- mation, and awakening an intelligent curiosity, which may lead to the further study of these important branches of education. The series contains an ample selection of the best poetry for repetition, and has throughout been adapted to meet the latest requirements of the Education Department as to Reading Books. At the suggestion of many teachers Spelling lists from each lesson for Revisal purposes have recently been added to Readers I. to IV. "As specimens of good reading books they cannot be excelled. The exercises are carefully arranged so as to suit the meanest capacity, and at the same time nave a tendency to make useful impressions on the minds of young scholars." — Educa- cational Guide. "The printing is remarkably clear and distinct ; the paper is much thicker and better than that usually found in reading books ; the binding will stand any amoiuit of ordinary wear and tear; and the illus- trations are perfect little gems of art." — Schoolmaster. " The graduation is very skilful, both as to matter and substance, and the lessons are Wfc calculated to reach the aim ex- pressed by the author, that of fostering in the youthful mind a love of reading, a high moral tone of feeling and conduct, kindness to animals, and the like. They are good readers." — School Board Chronicle. "Compiled with great care and skill. The subject matter of the lessons has been judiciously chosen, and the language em- ployed is suitable to the capacities of the children in the various standards. The get- up of the books is all that could be desired. There are capital illustrations, and plenty of them. " — School Guardian. " We are very pleased with these books, and warmly recommend them to the atten- tion of our readers. The books will take high rank as one of the best series yet compiled for use in schools." — National Schoolmaster. Blackie ^r' Son's Educational List. THE COMPREHENSIVE KEKD^K^— Continued. Illustrated in a highly instructive and artistic manner. PRIMER, Part I. 32 pp., paper cover, price i^<(/.; cloth, price 2^(/. PRIMER, Part II. 48 pp., paper cover, price 2d.; cloth, price 31/. PRIMER, Complete. FIRST READER. SECOND READER. THIRD READER. FOURTH READER FIFTH READER. SIXTH READER. 80 pp., cloth, price 40^. 112 pp., cloth boai^ds, price "jd. 136 pp., cloth boards, price 8^. 200 pp., cloth boards, price is. 232 pp., cloth boards, price is. ^d. 224 pp., cloth boards, price is. T,d. 224 pp., cloth boards, price u. 3'd III. ) 12. Small Hand. Select Quotations from Shakespeare. Figures. 13. Small Hand. Topographical — Important Towns in the United Kingdom. 14. Small Hand. Historical — Events in the History of the United Kingdom. 15. Small Hand. Biographical— Eminent Natives of the United Kingdom. 16 and 17. Small Hand. (Two Sizes.) Civil Service Writing. PALMERSTON SERIES. In Eleven Numbers. Price Threepence Each. These books resemble the Original Series, but are printed on Superior Paper, and neatly ruled with Red and Blue lines. They were designed by Mr. Vere Fcster, to carry out the principles of clear and legible hand- writing, as laid down by the late Lord Palmerston for the Civil Service. The writing is such as will impart a simple, rapid, and elegant style for general correspondence. Contents of the Series. 1. Strokes, Easy Letters, Short Words. 2. Short and Long Letters, Easy Words, Figures. 3. Capitals, Short Words, Figures. 4. 5. Sentences of Short Words (Proverbs, Maxims, Precepts). 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Sentences (Wise Sayings, Quotations, Aphorisms). II. Plain and Ornamental Lettering. The most perfect collection yet published — comprising Thirty-three different Alphabets. Blackie ^^ SoiCs Educational List, 15 VERE FOSTER'S WRITING CHARTS FOR CLASS TEACHING. Two sheets showing the Shapes and Proportions of Letters as adopted in Vere Foster's Series of Writing Copy-Books. Size 2j x 20 inches. Price in Sheets, u. per pair; Mounted on Millboard, \s. 6d. VERE FOSTER'S IMPROVED HAT INK-WELLS. The "Hat" Ink-Well (stoneware) is suitable for either School Desk or Private Table. It will fit into various sized holes in School Desks without falling through. It will stand steadily on desk or table. It will economize ink. It can be easily stopped with an ordinary cork. It is neat in appearance, very strong, and very cheap. Price is. per dozen. NATIONAL COMPETITION IN WRITING AND DRAWING. Mr. Vere Foster has awarded prizes for Writing and Drawing for many years. 4874 Prizes, in sums of from 5^. tO;^5, have been already distributed, amounting to over ^2200. List of prize-takers for present year and scheme for the Eighteenth Annual Competition, 1888, will be sent post free on application to Mr. Vere Foster, Belfast, or to the Publishers. ARITHMETIC, &c. THE COMPREHENSIVE STANDARD ARITHMETICS. These arithmetics are the work of one of Her Majesty's Inspector's Assistants, who has a practical knowledge of the prevalent causes of failure in this subject. They are quite up to date. The book for Standard V. begins with easy lessons in Fractions; the "unity method" is taught in that book, and is used throughout the higher rules where possible. They are graded in separate sets to meet the requirements of the English and Scotch Codes. Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard VH. Standards VI.-VII. together: reduced to the exact requirements of the Code. — 64 pp., paper, 3^/.; cloth, 4^/. Answers to each part, yt.; or complete Answers, cloth, \s. 6d. r^LARKSON'S TEST-CARDS. A series of Arithmetical Test-cards. By A. J. Clarkson. For Standards II. to VII. Each is. per packet in cloth case. "A thoroughly good set of Test-cards. Excellent results must accrue from an intelligent use of the set."— Schoolmaster. I. — 32 PP-, paper. iVzd.; cloth, zyid. II. — 32 pp., iVzd.; „ ^Yid. III. — 32 pp., iVzd.; „ 2y,d. IV. — 48 pp., 2d.; „ 3d V. — 64 pp.. 3d.; „ 4d VI. — 64 pp., 3d.; „ 4^/. /II. — 64 pp., 3d.; „ 4d. l6 Blackie 6^ Son^s Educational List. ARITH M "^TIQ—Cofitinned. ■DLACKIE'S ARITHMETICAL TEST QUESTIONS. Standards II. to VII. Each i6 pp., crown 8vo, stitched, \d. Answers, 3 Son's Educational List. D S CI EN CE TEXT-BO O KS—Contimied. ESCHANEL'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. An Elementary Treatise. By Professor A. Privat Deschanel, of Paris. Trans- lated and Edited by Professor J. D. Everett, d.c.L., f.r.s. 9th Edition, revised throughout, and brought up to the present time. Illustrated by 783 Engravings on wood, and 3 Coloured Plates. Medium 8vo, cloth, iSj-. ; also in Parts, limp cloth, 4J. 6d. each. Part I. — Mecha-i'fs Hydrostatics, &c. Part II.— Heat. Part III. — Electricity and Magnetism. Part IV.— Sound and Light. "Systematically arranged, clearly writ- | forms a model work for a class in experi- ten, and admirably illustrated, ' Deschanel' | mental physics." — Saturday Review. QUTLINES OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By J. D, Everett, d.c.l., f.r.s.. Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen's College, Belfast. With 216 Woodcuts. F'cap 8vo, cloth, 4J. " A book of great merit ; it possesses all [ of the author's former publications." — the systematic arrangement and lucidity | Athenaeum. ■CLEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS. By Prof. Everett, D.C.L., F.R.S. Illustrated by many Woodcuts. Fourth Edition. Foolscap 8vo, cloth, y. 6d. " After a careful examination we must | in the matter and the manner of its teach- pronounce this work unexceptionable, both I ings." — Journal of Science. MATHEMATICS. ■pUCLID'S ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY; with Notes, Examples, and Exercises. Arranged by A. E. Layng, M.A., Headmaster of Stafford Grammar School ; formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Book I. Crown 8vo, cloth, is. Book II., 6d. Book III., \s. T/ie other Books to follow. In this edition of Euclid a system of arrangement has been adopted whereby the enun- ciation, figure, and proof of each proposition are all in view together, while the Notes and Exercises are directly appended to the propositions to which they refer. "A thoroughly workmanlike little text-book, which has our heartiest commendation." — Teachers' Aid. A LGEBRA, Up to and Including Progressions and Scales of Notation. For Schools, Science Classes, Pupil-Teachers, Students, &c. By J. G. Kerr, m.a. F'cap Svo, cloth, 2s. 6d. "A well-arranged, clear, and useful little book." — Athenaeum. Blackie (S-» Soii^s Educational List. 25 MATHEMATICS— G?«///»/^^. TLEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF TRIGONOMETRY. By R. H. PiNKERTON, B.A. Foolscap 8vo, cloth, 15. bd. "An excellent elementary text -book. The exposition and demonstration of prin- ciples are remarkable for clearness and ful- ness. ... A prominent and valuable feature of the book is the abundance of practical examples." — Athenaeum. "CLEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF DYNAMICS AND HYDRO- STATICS. Adapted to the requirements of the Science and Art Examinations in Theoretical Mechanics. By R. H. Pinkerton, b.a, F'cap 8vo, cloth, 35. dd. gLACKIE'S ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. From Notation to Easy Quadratic Equations. Cloth, \s. 6d. With Answers, cloth, 2s. "A very good book indeed: the examples are numerous and the explanations clear." — Schoolmaster. A LGEBRAIC FACTORS. How to Find them and how to Use THEM. By Dr. W. T. Knight, F.s.sc.Lond. Cloth, is. 6d. "This book will prove invaluable to young students." — School Guardian. MATHEMATICAL WRINKLES for Matriculation and other Exams. Consisting of Six Sets of London Matriculation Papers in Mathematics, with full Solutions. By Dr. W. T. Knight, F.s.Sc.Lond. F'cap 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. "The work is thoroughly done, and the result is a book likely to be ver>' serviceable to students." — Academy. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE DIFFERENTIAL AND IN- TEGRAL CALCULUS. With examples of applications to Mechani- cal Problems. By W. J. Millar, c.e. Cloth, is. 6d. " It is clearly written and the examples are well chosen."— Nature. pLEMENTARY MENSURATION, Lines, Surfaces, and Solids. With numerous Exercises. By J. Martin. F'cap 8vo, cloth, lo^/. "A valuable manual of Mensuration. 1 and the exercises numerous and varied." The rules are plain, the illustrations simple, I Educational News. A PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC on an entirely new method, for Schools, Colleges, and Candidates preparing for Examinations. By John Jackson. Second Edition. F'cap 8vo, cloth, 4J. "We say with confidence that the work is well adapted for boys preparing for a mercan- tile career." — The Academy. EXAMINATION ARITHMETIC; Containing 1200 Arithmetical Pro- blems and Exercises (with Answers), selected from Oxford and Cam- bridge Local Examination Papers, &c. Classified by T. S. Harvey, F.s.Sc.Lond. Cloth, 2s. Key, 45. 6d. "We have no hesitation in saying that I have come under our notice this is by fnr of all the examination arithmetics which I the best." — Practical Teacher. this useful work will prove highly accep- table." — Schoolmaster. 36 Blackie fir= Son^s Educational List. BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. T^HE COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINER: A Hand-book for Teachers and Students. Being a full set of Questions on the principal suljjects prescribed in the Code. By David Clark. 320 pp., cr. 8vo, cloth, 3^. "To teachers desirous of testing their classes by an independent and reliable stan- dard, while saving their time and labour, WHAT AND HOW: A Guide to Successful Oral Teaching. By Joseph Hassell, F.s.sc.Lond. F'cap 8vo, cloth, \s. " Should find a place in every teacher's library." — Educational News. "THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. A Manual of Method for Assistant Masters and Mistresses and Pupil-Teachers. By A. Park, f.r.g.s. Interleaved with ruled paper. Fifth Edition. F'cap 8vo, cloth, 3^. (CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. By William H. Payne, a.m. Crown Svo, cloth, 6s. MANUAL TRAINING. The Solution of Social and Industrial Pro- blems. By Charles H. Ham. Illustrated. Crown Svo, cloth, 6s. " We commend Mr. Ham's book to every teacher, and especially to young teachers." — Teacher's Aid. DICTIONARIES. A NNANDALE'S CONCISE ENGLISH DICTIONARY. A Concise Dictionary of the English Language, Literary, Scientific, Etymological, and Pronouncing. Based .on Ogilvie's Imperial Dictionary. By Charles An nan dale, m.a., ll.d. 832 pp., foolscap 4to, cloth, lOJ. 6d.; half-morocco, 15.?. "The Coficise Diciionary stands first — bestow upon the Concise Dictionary our and by a long interval — among all the one- very highest praise. It forms in truth a volume English Dictionaries hitherto pub- priceless treasury of valuable information, lished." — The Academy. Every teacher should possess a copy." — "We do not hesitate a moment to Practical Teacher. "yHE STUDENT'S ENGLISH DICTIONARY, Etymological, Pronouncing, and Explanatory. By John Ogilvie, ll.d. For the use of Colleges and Advanced Schools. Illustrated by 300 Engrav- ings on wood. Imp. i6mo, Roxburgh, ^s. 6d. ; half-calf, 10s. 6d. "This is the best Etymological Dictionary we have yet seen at all within moderate compass." — Spectator. "nR. OGILVIE'S SMALLER ENGLISH DICTIONARY, for the Use of Schools. Abridged by the Author from the "Student's Dic- tionary." Imp. i6mo, cloth, red edges, 2.s. 6d. ; Roxburgh, y. 6d. "We know no Dictionary so suited for school use as this."— Brit. Quarterly Review. Blackie &> Son^s Educational List. VJ Approved by the Science and Art department, South Kensington. VERE FOSTER'S DRAWING COPY-BOOKS. With Instructions and paper to draw on. Superior Ecition, in Numbers at 2d. Popular Edition (a selection), at id. Complete Edition, in Twelve Parts, at 9^» (Each part complete in itself.) Nob. Part I.-ELEMENTART. Al Initiatory Lessons. A2 Letters and Numerals. B 1 Familiar Objects (Straight Lines). B2 Domestic Objects (Simple). Part II.-OBJECTS. C 1 Domestic Objects (Flat). C 2 Domestic Objects (Perspective). Dl Leaves (Flat). D2 Leaves (Natural). Part m.— PLANTS. El Plants (Simple Forms). E2 Plants (More Complex Forms). Gl Flowers (Simple Forms). 62 Flowers (More Complex Forms). Part IV.-OgBNAMENT. 1 1 Elementary Forms. 1 2 Simple Forms (Fretwork, Ironwork, &c.). Is Advanced (Carving, Sculpture, cic.). Il . Ornament (Classic, Renaissance, i&c). Part V.-TREES. Jl Oak.'Fir, &c., with " touch " for each tree. J 2 Beech, Elm, &C. do. do. J 3 Oak, Chestnut, Birch, (fcc, do. do. J4 Larch, Poplar, Lime, WiUow, &c., do Part VI.-LANDSCAPE. Kl Rustic Landscape in Outline. K2 Shaded Objects and Landscape. K3 Shaded Landscape and Rustic Scenes. E4 Advanced Landscape and Buial Scenes. Nos. Part Vn.-MARINE. M 1 Boats, Foregrounds, and Nautical Bits. M 2 Fishing Craft, Coasters, and Traders. M3 Yachts and Vessels of every Rig and SaiL M4 Coast Scenes, Waves, &c. Parts vni. and IX.-ANIMALS. 01 Buds and Quadrupeds. 02 Poultry, various breeds. 3 British Small Birds. 4 British Wild Animals. 5 Horses (Arab, Hunter, Dray, &c.). 6 Horses (Racer, Trotter, Pony, Mule, &c.). 7 Dogs (Seventeen Species). 08 Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats, &c. 9 Cattle, Sheep, Lambs, Ass and Foal, &c. OlO Foreign Wild Animals and Birds. Part X.-HUMAN FIGURE. Q 1 Features (from the Antique and from the Life). Q2 Heads, Hands, &c. (from Cast and Life). Q3 Rustic Figures, by Duncan. Q 4 Figure, from the Antique (Outline). Part XI.-PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Rl Definitions and Simple Problems. R2 Practical Geometry (Circle, Polygon, Ellipse). E3 Applied Geometry Jor Practical Me- c}uinics, dc. Part Xn. -MECHANICAL DRAWING. Tl Initiatory and Simple Subjects. T 2 Details of Tools and Working Parts, &c. T S Models for Working Drawings, &c. T4 Details of Machines and Engines. Z Blank Exercise Book. Popular Edition. A selection of the above numbers printed on thin paper, price id. each number. The following are in print : — A, B, C, I3, I4, J2, R2, R3, Ti, T5, T6, T7, T8, Z. " If any parent who reads these lines has a boy or girl who wishes to learn how to be an artist, let us boldly recommend Vere Foster's Drawing-Book. It is not only the cheapest but by far the best that we have seen." — Graphic. "It would be difficult to over-rate the value of this work — a work that is not to be estimated by its cost: one is great, the other very small." — Art Journal. 28 Blackie &> Son's Educational List. Approved by the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, and Adopted by the London and other principal School Boards. VERE FOSTER'S DRAWING-CARDS. Beautifully Printed on Fine Cards and done up in neat Packets. First Grade, Set I. — Familiar Objects, 24 cards, price is. First Grade, Set II. — Leaf Form, geometrically treated, 24 cards, price \s. First Grade, Set III. — Elementary Ornament, 24 cards, price \s. Second Grade. — Ornament, by F. E. Hulme, 18 large cards, price 2s. Advanced Series. — Animals, by Harrison Weir, 24 cards, price is. 6d. BLOCKS SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR SKETCHING FROM NATURE. No. I (6>^"x4^"), Threepence. No. 2 (9"x6_J^"), Sixpence. VERE FOSTER'S WATER-COLOR DRAWING-BOOKS. "We can strongly recommend the series to young students." — The Times. pAINTING FOR BEGINNERS. First Stage. Teaching the use of one color. Ten Facsimiles of Original Studies in Sepia by J. Callow, and numerous Illustrations in pencil. With full Instructions in easy language. Three Parts 4to, 6d. each; or one vol., cloth elegant, 2s. 6d. " Sound little books, teaching the ele- | by means of plain directions and well- ments of ' washing ' with much clearness I executed plates." — Academy. DAINTING FOR BEGINNERS. Second Stage. Teaching the use of seven colors. Twenty Facsimiles of Original Drawings by J. Callow, and many Illustrations in pencil. With full Instructions. In Six Parts 4to, 6d. each; or one volume, cloth elegant, 4^. " The rules are so clear and simple that ledge of the art of drawing. The letterpress they cannot fail to be understood even by of the book is as good as the illustrations those persons who have no previous know- are beautiful." — Birmingham Gazette. CIMPLE LESSONS IN FLOWER PAINTING. Eight FacsimUes of Original Water-Color Drawings, and numerous Outline Drawings of Flowers, after various artists. With full Instructions for drawing and painting. Four Parts 4to, 6d. each; or one vol., cloth eleg., 3J. " Everything necessary for acquiring the I of water-color drawings are very beautiful." art of flower painting is here: they^c.s'/wz7« | — Graphic. CIMPLE LESSONS IN MARINE PAINTING. Twelve Facsimiles of Original Water-Color Sketches. By E. Duncan. With numerous Illustrations in Pencil, and Lessons by an experienced Master. In Four Parts 4to, 6d. each; or one vol., cloth elegant, 35. " The book must prove of great value to | more charming than the marine sketches students. Nothing could be prettier or | here presented." — Graphic. Blackie 6^» Son''s Educational List. 29 VERE FOSTER'S DRAWING-BOOKS— C^;///««^^. CIMPLE LESSONS IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. Eight Fac- similes of Original Water-Color Drawings, and Thirty Vignettes, after various artists. With full instructions by an experienced Master. In Four Parts 4to, 6d. each. Book I.— Michelangelo's "David"— Features (Eye, Nose, etc.). Book II. — Masks, from Antique Sculpture. Books III. and IV.— Hands and Feet, from Sculpture. " Will be simply invaluable to beginners in drawing whether working alone or assisted by masters." — Graphic. " The examples are beautifully drawn and are admirably calculated not merely to teach a good knowledge of form, but also to create and foster, dignity, sim- plicity, and breadth of style. "- James's Gazette. -St. "It is impossible to overrate- the value of such aids to high study and culture in drawing as are presented in this series. "- School Board Chronicle. •OUMAN FIGURE, Advanced. Three Books, imp. 4to, 2s. each. Book I. — Head of the Venus of Melos. Book II. — Head of the Youthful Bacchus. Book III. — Head of David by Michelangelo. " Admirably adapted for use in the upper Standards of elementary schools, and also in those secondary schools where drawing is made a special feature." — School- master. " Foremost in importance amongst the art educational books of the day are the recent additions to Mr. Poynter's South Kensington Drawing-Books. The outlines are perfect and the descriptive letterpress and explanations all that can be desired." — Graphic. :iGURES FROM THE CARTOONS OF RAPHAEL: Twelve Studies of Draped Figures. Drawn direct from the Originals in the South Kensington Museum. With Descriptive Text, and Paper for Copying. Four Books, imperial 4tQ. 2s. each. "The hints on drapery are very clear and good ; the examples are in all cases taken direct from design or cast, never from photographs or engravings." — The Port- folio. " We can imagine no aid more welcome to students than these drawings." — Pall Mall Gazette. "The educational value of Raphael's Cartoons is immense, and Mr. Poynter has done wisely in furnishing this set." — Maga- zine of Art. ELEMENTARY PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. By S. J. Cart- LIDGE, F.R.Hist.S., Lecturer in the National Art Training School, South Kensington. Four Books, \s. each; or one volume, cloth, 5^. _ , ,'\ For Second Grade Examination of the Department. Book II. 1 Book Book III. — Accidental Vanishing Points. IV. — Higher Perspective. " Invaluable to the conscientious student of scientific drawing. It states clearly what is indispensable to the correct know- ledge of the principles which form the basis of pictorial art." — Graphic. " As far as perspective-drawing can pos- sibly be made interesting it has been done in this book. A student who does not master the art after studying this book had better turn to something else, for his case may safely be pronounced hopeless." — Pall Mall Gazette. Specially prepared to suit the New requirements. POYNTER'S DRAWING FOR THE STANDARDS. A SERIES OF NEW DESIGNS. WITH SELECTIONS FROM DYCE'S DRAWING-BOOK. PRODUCED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF E. J. POYNTER, R.A. This Drawing Series has been prepared in order to provide, as far as possible, such Examples as may give proper education to the eye and mind of the very young child, and at the same time be sufficiently interesting to encourage perseverance. The Examples have also been specially selected with a view to instruction by Class-teaching. The specimens illustrated in the Official Syllabus (issued by the Science and Art Department), taken from Dyce's Drawing-Book, or from Poynter's South Kensington Drawing-Book, indicate the kind of Examples required by the Department. These specimens have been included in the present series, and others of a similar class have been added, including a number of Simple Drawings of Common Objects. The admirable models of Dyce have been made use of as much as pos- sible. The pupils to be now taught Drawing by Class-teaching commence to learn at an earlier age than was ever contemplated by Dyce, and require more assistance. The Examples included in the present series have there- fore been rendered more simple by the addition of guide-lines. Further Examples (specially designed for the present publication) have been added on a similar plan, and a selection has been made, by permission, from the South Kensington Drawing-Book. These also have been simplified to suit very young children, by the addition of guide-lines ; and full Instructions to aid the Teacher are printed beside each example. FURTHER SUBJECTS IN PREPARATION, Geometry — Geometrical Figures — Model Drawing — Simple Scales — Drawing to Scale — Plans and Elevations of Plane", Rectangular and Circular Solids, with Sections— Shaded Drawing of Casts, Models, and Objects. Opinions of the Press. " The examples are judiciously selected." —Art Journal. "Well calculated to train the hand and eye." — Schoolmaster. "The accurate drawing is excellent prac- tice."— The Builder. "The best series of the kind yet pub lished. " — The Academy. " Teachers will be grateful for these books."— Pall Mall Gazette. " Judiciously selected and carefully drawn." — Athenaeum, > u UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. Form L9-100m-9,'52(A3105)444 SC< ..ilkins - 102 Australa-ia V<65a 3 1158 00789 9601 (^ UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 948 021 i DU 102 W65a