GIFT OF 
 
THE STUDY OF ART IN 
 UNIVERSITIES 
 
The Study of Art in 
 Universities 
 
 INAUGURAL LECTURE OF THE SLADE 
 
 PROFESSOR OF FINE ART IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 
 
 WITH I 
 
 FOUR NOTES 1 
 
 By CHARLES WALDSTEIN, i.e. Wa.U'to-v^ 
 
 LITT.D., PH.D., L.H.D. 
 
 LONDON 
 OSGOOD, McILVAINE & CO. 
 
 45, Albemarle Street, W. 
 1896 
 
mi 
 
TO 
 
 E. B. d. H. 
 
 AND 
 
 G. D. o. S— M. 
 
 A 2 
 
 272917 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THIS lecture was delivered in 
 the Senate House of the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge on June loth, 
 1895. I have here printed it as it 
 was then delivered. Even some of 
 the notes which have since been 
 written were given in an abridged 
 form as episodical remarks. 
 
 Four of these notes are so long, 
 and appear to me of such interest 
 as regards the subjects they deal 
 with, that, to avoid breaking into 
 
Vlll • PREFACE. 
 
 the continuity of the argument, I 
 have given them as separate notes 
 at the end. 
 
 The space which is here devoted 
 to the treatment of the aims of a 
 University is not too long in my 
 opinion, as this subject forms an 
 integral part of a lecture on the 
 Study of Art in Universities. 
 
 I have on several occasions re- 
 ferred to my own previous publica- 
 tions, where similar thoughts and 
 views as those expressed here have 
 been published by me before. But 
 the different aspect under which 
 these presented themselves to me 
 on these several occasions, and at 
 different periods of my own studies, 
 only exemplify their truth more 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 fully, and show, I believe, the con- 
 tinuity of consistent thought during 
 a number of years. 
 
 The Author. 
 
 King's College, 
 
 Cambridge, 
 July 26th, 1895. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction i 
 
 The Art Producer ... 9 
 
 The Amateur 25 
 
 The Student of Art . . -35 
 The Nature of University Study 48 
 The University Study of Art . 70 
 
 Note A. — General Education for 
 
 the Artist . . . .101 
 
 Note B. — The Educational Bear- 
 ings OF Art .... 106 
 
 Note C. — Indifference to Scien- 
 tific Pursuits in England . 118 
 
 Note D. — Dangers to Industry 
 
 arising out of Empiricism . 126 ^ 
 
Socrates. *'By the help of this principle, then, I 
 draw a distinction between those you described just 
 now as lovers of sights, lovers of arts, and practical 
 persons, on the one hand, and on the other, those 
 about whom we are now inquiring, to whom alone 
 we can rightly give the name of philosophers." 
 Glaucon. ** Explain what you mean." 
 Socrates. "Why, I suppose that those who love 
 seeing and hearing, admire beautiful sounds, and 
 colours, and forms, and all artistic products into 
 which these enter ; but the nature of beauty in itself 
 their understanding is unable to behold and to em- 
 brace." — Plato, " Republic," V., 476 A (Davies and 
 Vaughan). 
 
THE STUDY OF ART 
 IN UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 THERE are those who make 
 history, there are those who 
 enjoy history, and there are those who 
 understand history. Often all these 
 three attitudes of mind are com- 
 bined in one person, and this com- 
 bination may intensify and perfect 
 each one of the faculties that are 
 severally called into play. Under- 
 standing may lead to enjoyment, 
 
 B 
 
2 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 and may fit a man for the great task 
 of making history. Enjoyment may 
 be a necessary element in the under- 
 standing, and a potent stimulus to 
 the making. And making history 
 may manifest to the observant 
 statesman the various phases in 
 social and political movements, train 
 the eye to perceive historical laws, 
 and may produce intense enjoyment 
 out of thoughtful observation. The 
 arena of modern politics and our 
 public life are the studios in which 
 history is made; our popular his- 
 torical literature and the standard 
 works of our eminent historians and 
 memoir- writers are the repositories 
 and sources whence flows the de- 
 light in the past; and our univer- 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 3 
 
 sities are the homes which train us 
 in the understanding of the past. 
 
 There are those who make art, 
 there are those who enjoy art, and 
 there are those who understand art. 
 The aim of the artist is to produce 
 art, the aim of the amateur (and 
 all civilized beings ought to be 
 ** lovers of art ") is to enjoy art, the 
 aim of the student is to understand 
 art. The understanding of art may 
 intensify our pleasure in its works, 
 and may tend to widen out the 
 spirit of the artist, prone to be 
 cramped in the narrowness which 
 shuts in a life devoted exclusively 
 to original production. The enjoy- 
 ment and the love of art, being a 
 primary impulse in the artist who 
 
4 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 wishes to produce, are at the same 
 time a necessary requisite for the 
 full and due understanding of its 
 works. The act of art production, 
 enables us to realize the processes 
 by which the works are produced, 
 quickens sympathy, in that it makes 
 it possible for us, for the time being, 
 to put ourselves in the attitude of 
 mind of the artist himself, and may 
 thus show us many hidden points 
 whence enjoyment flows and out of 
 which understanding grows. Art 
 production is taught in the art 
 academy, the studios of the masters, 
 the conservatories of music, and 
 even the technical schools. Art 
 enjoyment is encouraged and deve- 
 loped by means of the collections of 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 5 
 
 our museums, our exhibitions, our 
 concerts, theatres, and all places of 
 legitimate and elevating amuse- 
 ment, in which our pleasure flows 
 through our higher senses, the eye 
 and ear. Art understanding ought 
 to be studied and to be thoroughly 
 represented in our universities. 
 
 It is with this last aspect of art 
 that we are chiefly concerned, and 
 upon which it is right for us to con- 
 centrate our attention, so that our 
 opinions may be justified in becom- 
 ing convictions. From the nature 
 of the subject, and from the fact 
 that such study has but recently 
 claimed the right of being intro- 
 duced into the circle of serious uni- 
 versity studies, it is but natural that 
 B 2 
 
6 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 much vagueness, if not confusion, 
 exists as to the nature of art study- 
 in universities. But, before entering 
 into a more detailed account of the 
 methods and means of developing 
 such higher understanding of art, 
 we must devote some attention to 
 the educational aspect of the artist s 
 work as well as the amateur s play 
 — nay, we are most likely to arrive 
 at a complete understanding of the 
 student's province when we have 
 realized the relations and the dif- 
 ferences which subsist between the 
 ground upon which he stands and on 
 which he labours ; and, on the other 
 hand, the flower gardens and moun- 
 tain peaks of the artist, and the 
 playing fields and parks in which 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. ^ 
 
 the amateur gambols about or strolls 
 in pleasurable contemplation. 
 
 One thing, which I hardly need 
 impress, I will nevertheless say at 
 once : that I consider the task which 
 the university student of art has 
 before him as quite distinct from, 
 though it need not be opposed to, 
 that of the artist or that of the 
 amateur. We cannot, we need not, 
 and we will not compete with art 
 academies and conservatories, to 
 produce second-rate painters, or 
 sculptors, or architects, or musicians ; 
 nor do I believe it to be the proper 
 task which a university professor of 
 art is to hold before him as a goal 
 for his endeavour, to teach people 
 ** to admire rightly," to point outjn 
 
8 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 the works of the masters what is to 
 be admired or not, be it in the art 
 of the past or in contemporary 
 work. At best, this can only mean 
 the imposition of the taste of the 
 lecturer (however refined it be) 
 upon his pupils, to the destruction 
 of clear and unbiassed observation 
 and judgment, originality of feeling, 
 or sincerity of expression. 
 
 For the purposes of teaching it 
 is necessary to keep these broad 
 subdivisions apart. Still we must 
 always remember that these distinc- 
 tions are only made for convenience, 
 to insure the practical purposes we 
 have before us, and that they are 
 not absolute. Moreover, it will 
 be well to examine whether some 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 elements may not be borrowed from 
 each one of these domains and in- 
 troduced into the other. 
 
 You all know in what the routine 
 of an art academy or a conserva- 
 tory of music consists ; and it is not 
 my object here to dwell upon the 
 question of their organization. But 
 it might be fairly asked, whether it 
 would not be well to encourage in 
 the painter, sculptor, and musician, 
 the amateur's attitude of mind. The 
 effort of producing good artistic 
 works of any kind is so severe, and 
 makes such exclusive calls upon our 
 faculties of thought and energy, that 
 this very labour and effort may tend 
 
lO THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 to counteract the playful and disin- 
 terested attitude of mind which is 
 alone conducive to art enjoyment. 
 Work and the love of one's work do 
 not always go side by side. On the 
 other hand it was this love, this 
 artistic eros, which first took the 
 ardent youth, trembling with the 
 enthusiasm of spiritual creativeness, 
 by the hand, and led him to feast 
 his eyes on things of beauty, then 
 directed his faltering hands to re- 
 produce celestial harmony, filling 
 his heart with gladness. Even 
 Pheidias, with the thoughtful eyes, 
 and stern - browed M ichelangelo, 
 were gladdened in their hearts with 
 the advent of the fair Muse; the 
 hard, set lines round the mouth of 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. II 
 
 Beethoven relaxed into a smile, 
 while, with deHcate touch, Pol- 
 hymnia smoothed the frown from 
 his forehead. Unless the artist 
 keeps something of the lover of art 
 in him, something, I mean, of the 
 amateur, there is a danger that he 
 become the most inartistic of human 
 beings, to whom the Muses are the 
 bringers of pain and not the heralds 
 of purest pleasure. And the result 
 may even be fatal to his productive- 
 ness; for the work which merely 
 suggests struggle to him may direct 
 his soul's powers exclusively towards 
 the overcoming of difficulties, until — 
 as I fear may be the case in certain 
 directions of art-work nowadays — 
 the mastery of technical difficulties. 
 
12 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 the skill at overcoming the obstacles 
 to mere adequate expression, engross 
 the whole attention, and suck in all 
 the energy of the toiling artist ; and 
 then the spirit of beauty fades away, 
 and the soul of harmony has left 
 their creations. 
 
 So also it may be asked, whether 
 it be not wise to encourage in 
 the artist as well the attitude of 
 mind belonging to the art-student ? 
 His life - energies being for the 
 greater part concentrated upon the 
 practical side, may it not be wise at 
 a certain time and to some degree 
 to foster in him the theoretical side 
 as well ? Furthermore, ought not 
 the artist to be acquainted with the 
 history of his own art, ought he not 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 1 3 
 
 to know the works of those masters 
 who preceded him ? Without this, 
 is he not likely to grow too narrow 
 and one-sided in his spirit as well as 
 in his productive power ? As a 
 matter of fact I venture boldly to 
 state (though I have met with many 
 notable and prominent exceptions), 
 that the most one-sided views on 
 works of art, the most absolute 
 ignorance of its history, and the 
 most blunted appreciativeness 
 (amounting often to absolute want 
 of appreciation) of those works 
 which did not immediately fall into 
 the sacred and exclusive circle of 
 masters approved of, came from 
 artists. It is true, in the Ecole des 
 Beaux Arts of Paris, in the Royal 
 c 
 
14 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 Academy School of London, in the 
 Royal College of Music, and many 
 similar institutions, there are lectures 
 on the history of art and music, 
 which the students are supposed 
 to attend. 
 
 Yet this narrowness of apprecia- 
 tion cannot be readily counteracted, 
 because it has some inner justifica- 
 tion in the very constitution of the 
 man who is to be an art producer. 
 Universality may lead to dissipation 
 and diffusion of energy. The artist 
 must find his line, develop his own 
 style ; and it is necessary that he 
 should believe in that line and in 
 that style ; and therefore he is likely 
 to become unappreciative of those 
 works which differ from his own. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 1 5 
 
 Nay, it has often been said that too 
 much study of art history and of the 
 works of others may make the artist 
 too learned, academic, romantic, or 
 Pre-Raphaelite ; may rob him of the 
 naiveti and directness of creative 
 vigour which enable him to re-echo 
 in artistic language the actual life of 
 the period in which he lives, the 
 needs and wants, desires and aspira- 
 tions, of the people with whom his 
 heart throbs. But I believe this 
 danger has been exaggerated. Ori- 
 ginality which is worth surviving 
 has nothing to fear from sympa- 
 thetic study of the originality of 
 others. In so far as it depends 
 upon narrowness it may not be 
 worth consideration, while man- 
 
1 6 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 nerism and eccentricity, vulgarity 
 and banality of invention, had better 
 be superseded by inspiration which 
 flows from good work done before 
 and good patterns which inferior 
 artists had better follow. 
 
 There is, however, another ques- 
 tion, bearing more directly upon the 
 relation of universities to art, to 
 which I desire to draw your atten- 
 tion more closely : I mean the edu- 
 cational value of more general 
 theoretical study upon the artists. 
 It is, after all, the man who guides 
 the artist's hand, whether it wield 
 the brush, model the clay, or score 
 the music. And the man means the 
 wholeness of the man, his heart and 
 soul, his emotions as well as his 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 1 7 
 
 intellect, or rather his emotions as 
 guided by his intellect. 
 
 There is a story told of Moscheles 
 the musician which appears to me 
 very significant. A young lady, 
 possessed of much talent for music, 
 who had devoted much time to per- 
 fecting herself in pianoforte playing, 
 was anxious to make the great step 
 from the amateur to the artist, and 
 came to Moscheles for advice and 
 guidance. The veteran artist asked 
 her to play before him, and she 
 began the recital of one of Beet- 
 hoven's sonatas. He listened atten- 
 tively, and when she had finished, by 
 way of answer — perhaps a cruel one 
 — he sat down and played the same 
 sonata. The effect was crushing. 
 c 2 
 
1 8 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 When she had recovered, she asked 
 him : " Master, how can I learn to 
 play like that ? " He turned upon 
 her and said, "Read Shakespeare." 
 I think this story significant because 
 it goes to show how, even in an art 
 which is not originative, which is 
 merely reproductive, which depends 
 chiefly upon the skilful rendering by 
 means of well-trained and guided 
 fingers performing on a fixed me- 
 chanism, the original work of some 
 master — an art which is compara- 
 tively mechanical — the maturity, 
 depth, or width of well-trained 
 thought and character have their 
 manifest effect. How much more is 
 this the case when the painters, sculp- 
 tors, and musicians, not to speak of 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 1 9 
 
 the dramatists, poets, and writers of 
 fiction, must choose or invent their 
 subjects, as well as express their 
 ideas and feelings, in the mechanical 
 language of their art. I believe this 
 point is so manifest that I need not 
 dwell upon it at greater length. I 
 know that instances are quoted in 
 which artists who have produced 
 great works were comparatively 
 ignorant and uneducated, if not 
 coarse ; nor would I imply that any 
 amount of education and thought 
 and literary versatility can replace 
 the artistic temperament which, 
 above all, makes the artist. But I 
 doubt whether a Turner, in spite of 
 the stories that are told of him and 
 his life, and though he may not have 
 
20 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 gone through a university course, 
 was not a man of natural thought- 
 fulness and distinct refinement of 
 heart, as well of deep experience 
 of life. And we might be justified 
 in asking, whether his work would 
 not have been still greater if his 
 personality had been widened out, 
 deepened down, and raised up by 
 more favourable opportunities of 
 self-education. At all events, I 
 would maintain that a Pheidias, the 
 intimate friend of the statesman 
 Pericles and the philosopher Anaxa- 
 goras, was at the height of the edu- 
 cation of his time, as were a Leonardo 
 da Vinci and a Michelangelo. And 
 from my own knowledge in our own 
 time I would venture to say that a 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 21 
 
 Wagner and a Brahms, a Watts and 
 a Burne-Jones, a Browning and a 
 George Meredith, were and are as 
 well equipped in their intellectual 
 education as any university pro- 
 fessor whom I have known. And 
 to come still nearer home, I believe 
 it is a significant fact that Burne- 
 Jones and Richmond, Parry and 
 Stanford, are graduates of our 
 universities.^ 
 
 The ideal educational centre 
 would be one in which, though 
 there be no fusion, there would 
 still be a federation among the 
 various educational departments. 
 We might then assign the name of 
 university in a new and widened 
 ' See Note A. 
 
22 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 sense. The art academy, the con- 
 servatory of music, the polytechnic, 
 and the technical schools, would be 
 side by side with our universities; 
 the students would be allowed to 
 choose freely all the lectures which 
 interested them, and there would be 
 free and vivid intercourse between 
 the students themselves, by which 
 they would learn much, if not of defi- 
 nite facts, at all events of intellectual 
 sympathy, which goes far to develop 
 the mind. If Cambridge could at- 
 tract to this place a thoroughly 
 efficient school of art (for the pro- 
 duction of artists and not of ama- 
 teurs) and a conservatory of music, 
 the art student and the professional 
 musician could individually gain 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 23 
 
 much, and art itself in general would 
 be essentially advanced. I should 
 then be in favour of teaching the 
 actual practice of art, not by lectures 
 only, in this place extensively and 
 with energy. But, as a matter of 
 fact, the metropolis is the natural 
 home for such an ideal federation. 
 Moreover, it is there that are to be 
 found the museums and concert 
 halls and theatres, the libraries and 
 collections, which form so important 
 an apparatus for such work. Lon- 
 don has its art schools and conser- 
 vatories of music ; it will soon, it is 
 to be hoped, have an adequate 
 university. Still, in spite of this re- 
 lation which university education 
 may hold to the training given in 
 
24 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 art schools, the home of the artist is 
 essentially the studio and art aca- 
 demy where he receives his technical 
 education, and where the central 
 attitude of mind which he is to 
 adopt for life is inculcated from the 
 outset.^ 
 
 ^ I am well aware that in all I have said 
 with regard to the education of the future 
 artist, the main difficulty is the question of 
 time. That it is desirable for the artist to 
 receive such general education, may be ad- 
 mitted; but it may be asked, how he can 
 find time to learn stll that is here recom- 
 mended, and devote himself to his own work, 
 the mere craft side of which will take up all 
 his time from his earliest youth? I might 
 answer this by a question : how the artists of 
 old managed this, when the means of ac- 
 quiring general education were not as simple 
 and accessible as they now are ? 
 
 A short time ago a lady consulted me as 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 25 
 
 Now a few words about the 
 amateur. I maintain that the need 
 for art, and, in consequence, the 
 satisfaction of artistic desire, go very 
 
 to the education of a son, who was then at 
 one of the great public schools of England, 
 and had given evidence of a marked talent 
 for painting. One of the most illustrious 
 artists of France, a friend of the family, had 
 offered to take the young man into his family 
 and to make him his special pupil. But he 
 insisted that the boy should come to him as 
 young as possible, which would preclude his 
 entering a university. • My own views were 
 met with the objection that it was of supreme 
 importance that the eye and hand should be 
 trained from the earUest days to use the 
 painter's means of expression naturally and 
 with facility. Though I should admit the 
 importance of this, I believe that proper 
 instruction in drawing, and even painting, 
 from models, with continuous daily practice, 
 D 
 
^6 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 far down in the elementary condi- 
 tions of man's nature ; and I am 
 convinced that, continuously, and 
 pari passti with the growth and de- 
 velopment of man out of his earliest 
 primitive phases, grows his need for 
 artistic satisfaction and his power 
 
 ought to be accessible in every centre, as 
 young people learn and practice daily their 
 music. And I am strongly of opinion in this 
 case and in general, that boys and girls could 
 learn more than they do, and have proper 
 time for play and physical development, with 
 more rational organization of teaching. I think 
 it probable that the boy in question, from 
 his antecedents, family tradition, home and 
 social surroundings, may become a distin- 
 guished artist and a well-educated man, with- 
 out having proceeded to the university from 
 school ; but this, I maintain, will be in spite 
 of^ and not because of, his premature restriction 
 to professional training. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 2 7 
 
 of responding to these needs in 
 more developed or advanced works, 
 so that normally all works ought to 
 be intelligible to him. But I am 
 aware that this is not the case, and 
 that the power of appreciating to 
 their full value the works of art of 
 a bygone period, or which are pro- 
 duced in our time, is not given to 
 all men to the same degree. But 
 we need not be astonished at this, 
 inasmuch as Plato's philosophy, 
 Shakespeare's plays, nay, even the 
 Bible, though rendered in ver- 
 nacular, are not equally intelligible 
 to all people of our age. Where 
 art transcends the purely-aesthetic 
 spheres, in which it acts upon the 
 emotions directly through the senses, 
 
28 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 and subsequently upon the intellect, 
 where, from the subjects it chooses 
 for expression, it must be admitted 
 through the gates of apprehension, 
 as it were, filtering through our 
 thoughts before it affects our emo- 
 tions, the power of apprehending 
 must be prepared, and a certain 
 education is required. A picture 
 representing Merlin or Beatrice can- 
 not be fully understood by an 
 illiterate person ; he must know 
 something about these personalities, 
 be it through Tennyson or Dante. 
 Still, even if he be not thus prepared 
 to apprehend the exact meaning of 
 the subjects represented, the picture 
 ought to bring him nearer to the 
 understanding of Merlin and Bea- 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 29 
 
 trice, and it ought to express one 
 side (the truly pictorial side) of their 
 being to him, some characteristic 
 essential to their meaning, which 
 can best be expressed by means of 
 painting. And this is an important 
 function of art or, rather, one aspect 
 of its chief function, which may have 
 important educational bearings.^ 
 The amateur thus requires educa- 
 tion to apprehend even the meaning 
 of the works before him ; he requires 
 it still more when the works belong 
 to a past generation, the spirit of 
 which has gone by. 
 
 The amateur s power of observa- 
 tion also may be strengthened and 
 refined by some practice in the art, 
 ' See Note B. 
 D 2 
 
30 THE STUDY OF ART' 
 
 the works of which he is to appre- 
 ciate. He then becomes the arriateur 
 artist in the restricted sense of the 
 term/ There may also be a danger 
 
 ^ I mean the person who draws and models 
 for recreation or self-improvement, and espe- 
 cially the large number of people who are 
 able to sketch with pencil or water-colours 
 the landscapes and scenes which attract them. 
 The fact that so many are*' able to sketch 
 in this way in this country -I consider pure 
 gain. To be able to carry away with one a 
 record of the scenes that have charmed the 
 eye can but be refining to the taste besides 
 increasing our store of elevating pleasures; 
 while this practice in itself increases and 
 intensifies our power of appreciating nature 
 as well as works of art. And I therefore 
 think it ungenerous as well as unwise for the 
 artist to sneer at the amateur, to whose 
 existence is due much of the attention which 
 is paid to the works of professional artists in 
 this^country. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 31^ 
 
 to the full development of his appre- 
 ciative power arising out of such 
 attempts to produce art ; for it may 
 narrow his sphere of preference in 
 the same way as we have noted its 
 effect upon the artist, and with less 
 excuse, for the works of the amateur 
 are generally of no great importance 
 to anyone but the producer himself. 
 Let me add, however, that there are 
 many other practical and educational 
 reasons why children should be 
 taught drawing, if possible model- 
 ling, also singing, or music in some 
 form, to refine their powers of ob- 
 servation of eye and ear. 
 
 It will, furthermore, be well for 
 the amateur who wishes to appre- 
 ciate the works of bygone periods. 
 
32 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 the old masters, to gain some know- 
 ledge of the history of art which, as 
 we shall see, will form so essential 
 a part of the student's task. It will 
 lead to the fuller apprehension of 
 these works, it will widen out his 
 taste, make it more catholic and 
 universal, and will increase as well 
 as refine the sphere of possible art 
 pleasure. Still, as in the case of 
 knowledge of technique, there is 
 here also a danger to the real lover 
 of art of becoming too learned in 
 his attitude of mind, too scientific, 
 and of thus lessening the power of 
 naive enjoyment. We are nowa- 
 days prone to become too literary 
 and critical, and this attitude counter- 
 acts illusion and the simple im- 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 33 
 
 pressionableness which the artist 
 may justly demand for the full ap- 
 preciation of his work/ While 
 standing before a picture, or listen- 
 ing to a drama, or a musical com- 
 
 ^ After the first performance of Wagner's 
 **Ring der Nibelungen " at Beireuth in 1876, 
 when the composer was receiving an enthu- 
 siastic ovation, an exalted person approached 
 Wagner, and, in glowing terms, congratulated 
 the composer on his stupendous success. 
 But he qualified his phrase by the phrase : 
 "You know I understand nothing about 
 music, and may therefore not appreciate it 
 fully." The impulsive musician rose on tip- 
 toe and familiarly touched the great person, 
 who was also very tall-, saying: *'Why that 
 is just what we want; you are the persons 
 we work and write for. Do you imagine that 
 we write to evoke the technical sympathies 
 of fellow-musicians, or to give the profes- 
 sional art-critic material to write upon ? " 
 
34 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 position, or even reading a work 
 of fiction, we are all too prone to 
 see and listen as if we were pre- 
 paring to write a critical essay on 
 the subject ; if not to write, at all 
 events we are thinking what we 
 shall say about it ; instead of simply 
 enjoying through our eyes, or ears, 
 what has been put before us. I 
 have once before^ attempted to 
 point out this characteristic which 
 distinguishes us from the ancient 
 Greeks, and to account for the 
 causes which have produced this 
 atrophy of our pure perceptive 
 faculties in their relation to artistic 
 enjoyment. 
 
 ^ " Essays on the Art of Pheidias," Essay I., 
 pp. 15, seq. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 35 
 
 The real training of his faculties 
 the lover of art must receive in the 
 galleries and concert rooms, in 
 duly observing good works, whether 
 they be pictures, statues, musical 
 compositions, or books, with inten- 
 sity, and with the concentration of 
 his perceptive faculties, and with 
 heart and mind freed from all alien 
 and interested preoccupations. 
 
 And now we must turn to the 
 student of Art, whose needs we are 
 bound to supply in the higher insti- 
 tutions of learning. He, too, may 
 adopt some elements from the artist 
 and from the amateur, and it appears 
 to me not accidental that the founder 
 
36 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 of the Chair, which I now have the 
 honour of holding, included in his 
 plan of the university lectures which 
 his munificence meant to establish 
 here, lectures on the practice as well 
 as on the history and theory of art. 
 But it is significant that, while he 
 gave the first place to history, the 
 second to theory, he gave but the 
 third place to practice ; and this 
 practice, moreover, is qualified by 
 the term lectures. 
 
 It is important for the student of 
 art that he should know something 
 about the technique of the works he 
 is studying. We cannot, for in- 
 stance, understand the passages in 
 the ancient Greek authors which 
 tell us of the advance made in 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 37 
 
 pictorial art by Apollodorus, by 
 Pauson, by Melanthion, by Zeuxis, 
 or of what Vasari tells us of the in- 
 ventions introduced by Mantegna, 
 the Van Eycks, and Antonello da 
 Messina, without knowing something 
 of the technique of painting. Nor 
 can we recognize the peculiarities 
 of the old masters in painting or 
 sculpture unless we know something 
 of drawing and colour and their 
 due application, and perspective and 
 chiaro-oscuro ; or how a clay model 
 is made, how a colossal statue is 
 built up, how bronze technique 
 differs from marble work, or even 
 how the potter works his clay or 
 produces his glazes, how the die- 
 sinker prepares his coin, and the 
 
38 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 gem-engraver cuts an intaglio or a 
 cameo. But the practical know- 
 ledge of these processes and tech- 
 niques, however valuable they may- 
 be, are ancillary, they are not 
 essential to the main work of the 
 student of art. 
 
 So also it is important for him 
 who would study the products of 
 art that he should have a keen and 
 refined power of enjoying and ap- 
 preciating these works. They are, 
 after all, artistic and not mechanical ; 
 and mere intellectual analysis, with- 
 out accompanying artistic perception 
 and the emotional response which 
 each work of art requires (unless it 
 he^ dead to the spectator), degrades 
 art to mechanism, and will never 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 39 
 
 insure complete understanding of 
 its essence. Some students of art 
 may have gone too far in the direc- 
 tion of sobriety. 
 
 It is, for instance, an important 
 function of the specialist in the 
 history of Greek art, to study care- 
 fully the idiosyncrasies of style and 
 of technique in the several works 
 which have been identified as 
 coming from one master or one 
 school . H aving thus conscientiously 
 noted all these peculiarities and 
 characteristics by means of a method 
 not unlike that applied in the study 
 of biology, he must then proceed to 
 examine the great mass of uniden- 
 tified monuments with which our 
 museums are filled, and of which 
 
40 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 each excavation yields so rich a 
 harvest, with a view to their iden- 
 tification. By a careful comparison 
 of the striking traits of style and 
 technique in the unidentified works 
 with the works which he does know 
 and has identified, he may be able 
 to assign hitherto unknown works 
 to their proper school and masters. 
 This is a sober and conscientious 
 effort of a scientific character, and 
 its pursuit requires the curbing of 
 all impatient emotional instincts, of 
 all slipshod reasoning and revelling 
 in thoughts and phrases of commen- 
 dation, approval or disapproval — 
 in short, of all that subjective caste 
 of mind which marks the amateur 
 or pure lover of .art. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 4 1 
 
 But, after all, we must be aware 
 that there are deHcate qualities in 
 each true work of art which escape 
 our attempts to fix them by means 
 of sober and almost mathematical 
 traits. To use Heine's happy- 
 phrase, ^^ Man kan7i nicht Flammen 
 wiegen^' *'One cannot weigh flames." 
 And though it will always be the 
 duty of the teacher and expositor 
 to put into adequate and intelli- 
 gible terms even the most delicate 
 shadings of impression and feeling 
 (and this is his main function as a 
 teacher), he will not always do 
 justice to the characterization of a 
 work of art if he limits his study 
 and his description to those points 
 which can be put into terms almost 
 E 2 
 
42 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 mathematical in their exactness. 
 While thus giving undue import- 
 ance to minor points of technical 
 detail (which may sometimes be 
 accidental and not essential) he will 
 ignore those more delicate yet 
 essential artistic properties which 
 will really help to the identification 
 of an unknown work. Moreover, if 
 he allows this habit of lowering his 
 perceptive vitality (if I may use 
 such a phrase) to become constitu- 
 tional, he may destroy in himself 
 one of the primary qualifications 
 which go to the making of even 
 the most sober and scientific his- 
 torian of art. I believe this has 
 been the case, especially with some 
 German scholars of late years ; 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 43 
 
 though, in making such a generali- 
 zation, we must always bear in mind 
 that among the large representative 
 body of scientific students in that 
 country there are individuals of 
 every shading, and also that it is 
 chiefly to them as a national whole 
 that we owe the great advances 
 which have been made in this de- 
 partment of historical study. Yet 
 the students to whom I am now 
 referring seem not to be satisfied 
 with comparing, let us say, two 
 heads or two torsos of ancient 
 statues unless they have applied the 
 tape and compasses to every part, 
 have measured the distances be- 
 tween every point, have, in one 
 word, reduced the work of art as 
 
44 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 closely as possible to a work of 
 mechanics ; and then they flatter 
 themselves that the results based 
 upon such calculation and compari- 
 son are equal in definiteness to the 
 results of mathematical inquiry. 
 
 I do not deny that some good 
 may occasionally come from such 
 metrology ; but we must be on our 
 guard not to exaggerate the im- 
 portance nor the weight of such 
 auxiliary experiments. And from a 
 disciplinary point of view we must 
 take special care that the attitude 
 of mind encouraged by such practice, 
 and the self-gratification which the 
 inquirer feels when he can flee 
 from the vaguer regions of senti- 
 ment to what he might consider 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 45 
 
 the hard facts of statistical tabula- 
 tion, do not counteract his more 
 delicate sense of observation and of 
 artistic appreciation until he becomes 
 blind to the most manifest organic 
 qualities inherent in works of art. 
 This practice of careful and sober 
 '' stylistic " study and comparison 
 which, I believe, began more 
 specially in the study of Greek art, 
 and the pursuit of which I urged 
 with some emphasis more than ten 
 years ago,^ has found its way into 
 the study of Mediaeval and Re- 
 naissance pictures and works of 
 sculpture ; and, with such men as 
 Morelli, it has no doubt led to very 
 fruitful results in this domain. It 
 ^ " Essays on the Art of Pheidias." Essay I. 
 
46 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 has, for instance, counteracted to a 
 considerable degree the domination 
 of what I should call the picture- 
 dealer's judgment ; it has torn the 
 veil of mystery from the self- 
 sufficient assertions of the "con- 
 noisseur," who, with a smile of con- 
 descending superiority, professed to 
 know by some subtle and uncom- 
 municable instinct, that this picture 
 was a Titian, that a Bellini, this one 
 a Rembrandt, that a Gerard Dow. 
 Students like Morelli have counter- 
 acted this form of charlatanism, as 
 much as the leaders of medical 
 science have laid low the craft of the 
 magician and quack of the Middle 
 Ages. Still, even here it appears 
 to me that the followers of Morelli 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 47 
 
 may be going too far in this 
 mechanical direction, and may be 
 counteracting in themselves, as well 
 as in those whom they teach and 
 for whom they write, the primary 
 quality of true artistic appreciative- 
 ness which will always remain an 
 essential factor in the complete 
 understanding and thorough know- 
 ledge of a work of art, from what- 
 ever sober and intellectual aspect 
 we may view it. 
 
 Thus the student of art can with 
 profit borrow some elements that 
 bear upon the knowledge of tech- 
 nique from the artist's studio, and 
 he can encourage in himself the 
 loving and playful sensitiveness to 
 the works of the great masters 
 
48 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 which produce such pleasure in the 
 amateur. But his chief aim is, after 
 all, the understanding of art in all 
 its aspects — he is to know, and not 
 to create, or merely to enjoy. And 
 it is upon this task of the fullest and 
 most systematic knowledge that his 
 efforts ought to be concentrated. 
 His aim is not to be practically pro- 
 ductive or practically hedonistic ; 
 but it is, in the first instance, to 
 be purely theoretical ; and this 
 theoretical attitude of mind in its 
 fullest and highest form is deve- 
 loped and encouraged in the uni- 
 versity. 
 
 The aim of the university student 
 is, or ought to be, to know fully and 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 49 
 
 systematically, irrespective of any 
 immediate application of this know- 
 ledge for the practical purposes of 
 active life. The short time which he 
 spends in the university is the only 
 period in which he can encourage 
 in himself this important feature of 
 his intellectual activity. When once 
 he has entered the lists, and is 
 whirled into the struggle of existence 
 into which his active life will force 
 him, there is not much opportunity 
 for the encouragement of this side 
 in its purest form. Nor need we 
 fear the commonplace saying, which 
 arises from ignorance or insincerity, 
 that such work and such training 
 will unfit him for the practical needs 
 of life. The aim of the university 
 
 F 
 
50 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 is to encourage in the student this 
 mental habit in its highest form, and 
 to be the visible, tangible home for 
 the whole community or country of 
 such continuous and concentrated 
 effort in the purely theoretical sphere 
 of systematic knowledge, as the 
 Church is meant to be the tangible 
 and visible sphere of higher reli- 
 gious and moral aspirations, as our 
 museums are the public repositories 
 of our artistic efforts, our theatres 
 and concert halls the centres for 
 dramatic and musical relaxation, our 
 playing-fields for physical develop- 
 ment and athletic games. And no 
 civilized community is properly or- 
 ganized unless all these aspects are 
 represented in their highest form. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 5 1 
 
 Factories and work-shops, mines 
 and fields of toil, shops and dwell- 
 ing-houses are spread over the 
 country ; surely, there is some room 
 left for the few land-marks of those 
 interests which we all have in com- 
 mon, and without which the con- 
 ception of a state as a civilized state 
 is impossible. 
 
 It is not needful for me to show 
 to this audience the justification of 
 universities in this highest sense in 
 terms of practical life. It can easily 
 be done, and has frequently had 
 capable expositors. But I feel that 
 in our time of popularization, of the 
 direct appeal to popular approval 
 for all higher intellectual efforts, it 
 ought, perhaps, to be done more 
 
52 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 than ever.^ The cry for direct 
 encouragement of our industries 
 through technical schools and all 
 other means, the reorganization and 
 spread of our elementary schools 
 throughout the country, the exten- 
 sion of higher teaching, causes the 
 voices of some friends of popular 
 education to be raised to such 
 a pitch in clamouring for its just 
 requirements, that the tone of their 
 appeals assumes the character of 
 anger, until it loses itself in a pro- 
 test against those forms of study 
 and education which are not imme- 
 diately responsive to these general 
 demands. But the louder and more 
 urgent these appeals grow, and the 
 ' See Note C. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 53 
 
 more they may strike a sympathetic 
 chord in our own breasts, the more 
 ought we to insist upon maintaining 
 in its highest form of purity the 
 spirit which guides the truly scien- 
 tific work of universities. We may 
 almost be justified in emphasizing 
 this spirit in the form of a paradox. 
 The well-known toast of the famous 
 mathematician, Gauss, will bear 
 repetition that may be instructive : 
 " I drink," he said, *' to pure mathe- 
 matics, the only science which has 
 never been defiled by practical ap- 
 plication.'' In so far, pure mathe- 
 matics are the most complete exposi- 
 tion of university study. 
 
 As regards the justification of 
 such pursuits in life, they respond 
 
 F 2 
 
54 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 to a primary instinct of man, namely, 
 his desire to know ; and it is enough 
 for us to say, in the first instance, 
 that as this primary instinct in man 
 is in no way harmful or unsocial, it 
 is worthy of satisfaction and en- 
 couragement. And it is right that 
 institutions should exist which are 
 meant directly and in their chief 
 purpose to satisfy and encourage 
 this primary instinct in its purest 
 form. And if we leave individual 
 man and go to the social com- 
 munity as a whole, we find that, in 
 the interest of the community taken 
 collectively, it is right that there 
 should be one centre, devoted exclu- 
 sively to the search after truth for 
 its own sake, to make this common 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 55 
 
 life complete ; as in the life of each 
 household every side is arranged 
 according to the natural tasks 
 governing it : the considerations of 
 profession, health, amusement, read- 
 ing, thought ; and as in the life of 
 every individual man, each one of 
 his faculties ought to have adequate 
 exercise and play to maintain com- 
 plete normality and health. 
 
 But, of course, it is all a question 
 of proportion. The question, namely, 
 of how much time and energy is 
 individually or collectively to be 
 devoted to each side. And with 
 regard to the claims which the uni- 
 versities have in the common life of 
 civilized communities, it is fair to 
 consider, how great their claims are 
 
56 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 in comparison with other educa- 
 tional institutions, especially the 
 elementary schools. It is needless 
 to say, for instance, that a com- 
 munity which is just entering into 
 the stage of higher civilization, in 
 which the school system has not as 
 yet been developed, so that its 
 citizens are ignorant of the rudi- 
 ments of necessary learning for the 
 purposes of civilized communication, 
 commerce and industry, that in such 
 a community it would be unwise to 
 begin with the higher university 
 education until the elementary 
 schools which minister to the most 
 general intellectual needs of the 
 people have been thoroughly or- 
 ganized. Elementary schools re- 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 57 
 
 spond to the common needs of daily 
 life and are therefore essential to it, 
 and they apply to all citizens equally. 
 Not so, it is maintained, universities. 
 Therefore the schools are much 
 more necessary, and it is but right 
 that they should be much more 
 widespread than universities. But, 
 granting this, and, in consequence, 
 repelling all undue claims of higher 
 education where they may conflict 
 with those of schools, nobody would 
 deny the right, nay, the necessity of 
 encouraging the highest theoretical 
 study within its due proportion in 
 the community. It might then be 
 said by the opponent of highest 
 university study, the exaggerated 
 practical man, that the use of such 
 
58 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 highest study being comparatively 
 small, its direct and tangible bear- 
 ings upon the immediate practical 
 wants of the mass of the community 
 being restricted, its claims should 
 be in due proportion repressed. 
 But even he will admit that there 
 ought in every civilized country 
 to be some place or places where, 
 to say the least, this side of human 
 nature should be satisfied and de- 
 veloped, without which the com- 
 munity would not be perfectly or- 
 ganized and completely equipped 
 as a body at the height of modern 
 culture. However much we may 
 restrict its local habitation, it ought 
 to satisfy this theoretical craving in 
 the purest forrriy most directly and 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 59 
 
 completely, that is, without alien 
 or ulterior motives and aims. It is 
 more urgent for the welfare of the 
 community to have lighthouses and 
 meteorological stations than to have 
 astronomical observatories. But if 
 we have several hundred lighthouses 
 and stations, we may well have one 
 observatory. And in this due pro- 
 portion of I to 200, we may say 
 that the observatory is as necessary 
 to our life as are the lighthouses 
 and stations. Nor will it be wise 
 to vitiate and lower the spirit of 
 the astronomer by modifying his 
 thought and action in the direction 
 of the practical functions of the 
 other officials. 
 
 And for the moment accepting 
 
6o THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 this almost paradoxical limitation of 
 the function of a university, I would 
 then distinguish it from the ordinary- 
 schools, in that its primary aim is 
 not educational but theoretical and 
 scientific ; whereas the primary aim 
 of schools is educational and not in 
 the first instance theoretical or 
 scientific. And in so far as they 
 are both educational bodies, I would 
 say that a university becomes educa- 
 tional, because it is scientific ; and a 
 school must be scientific because it 
 is educational. I could easily show 
 how ultimately this concentration 
 upon theoretical aims on the part 
 of universities will prove most prac- 
 tical in their relation not only to 
 general education, but also to the 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 6 1 
 
 most material aspects of public 
 life.^ 
 
 In this sense I have viewed uni- 
 versities chiefly as the homes of 
 research, as bodies which are in- 
 trusted by the community with the 
 highest interests of pure science 
 which they are directly to further 
 and, by the collective efforts of its 
 working members, to advance, keep- 
 ing pace with the progress made by 
 the whole community in civilization 
 and general life. 
 
 While maintaining this spirit they 
 will best be able to turn their ener- 
 gies to account when they flow into 
 the broader educational channels. 
 The university teacher ought always 
 ' See Note D. 
 G 
 
62 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 to be a researcher himself, and how- 
 ever much he may consider it his 
 duty to further the education of the 
 students who put themselves under 
 his guidance as a teacher, he ought 
 to do it in the spirit of a researcher. 
 But the objection may be made, and 
 has frequently been made, that we 
 shall then only train specialists and 
 only teach in the spirit of specialists/ 
 
 ^ I can only say that to listen to the 
 stammering of a Helmholtz or a Ranke 
 would be more impressive and instructive 
 than to hear the most perfect oratory of a 
 populariser of physics or history. The per- 
 sonality of the men, whom we know to be 
 the leaders and advancers of their own science 
 in the world, to which they have conscien- 
 tiously devoted their lives, is an educational 
 vehicle which cannot be over-estimated. So 
 also I think the reading of a book like 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 63 
 
 My answer to this is, that it is right 
 that we should do this even from 
 the point of view of general educa- 
 tion. It stands to reason, nay, it is 
 almost a platitude to say that one 
 who wishes to devote his life to 
 some special study or profession 
 must learn his subject as thoroughly 
 as possible, which means as a spe- 
 cialist. But even those who do not 
 wish to apply the knowledge they 
 may gain at the university in the 
 direct channels of the subject they 
 there pursue, even for those the 
 education which they receive in this 
 spirit of pure theoretical and scien- 
 
 Huxley^s " Crayfish " will convey more in- 
 sight into Biology than any general popular 
 treatise. 
 
64 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 tific knowledge and the methods of 
 thought and of work which are in- 
 culcated in them through any study 
 followed systematically, can but be 
 of the highest advantage. First, it 
 can but be pure gain to any man 
 that in the course of his career he 
 should for one short period of his 
 existence live in this purely intel- 
 lectual atmosphere, and that he 
 should acquire the scientific habit 
 of mind, the power of co-ordinating 
 facts, the habit of following causality 
 to its earliest stages, and the faculty 
 of careful observation and of com- 
 plete concentration of mind. To 
 turn these methods into life, to make 
 them a part of his very conscious- 
 ness is no small gain. And in 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 65 
 
 order that the student should reap 
 these advantages to the fullest de- 
 gree it is necessary that the teacher 
 should himself be imbued with the 
 exclusively theoretical spirit of in- 
 vestigation, that he should not be 
 influenced by the practical considera- 
 tions of the life which, by an act of 
 sympathy, he may prescribe in the 
 future to the students who are before 
 him. Nay, even the immediate 
 practical issues, such as the examina- 
 tions which the students may have 
 to pass, may dilute or perturb the 
 purity of the spirit which is to per- 
 meate his every effort as an edu- 
 cator. 
 
 We, university teachers, know the 
 dangers arising out of this thraldom 
 G 2 
 
66 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 of examinations, which, however 
 useful and necessary they may be 
 as tests and as stimuli, still act as 
 degrading and vitiating to the spirit 
 of our teaching when we admit of 
 their undue intrusion into our aca- 
 demic instruction. And in the 
 arrangement and organization of 
 our courses of study we must 
 be careful lest the pressure which 
 comes from without, the desire of 
 intellectually cutting our coat ac- 
 cording to our cloth, lead us to com- 
 promise with the claims of the would- 
 be practical life. I remember a 
 phrase of a German savant which 
 impressed me much at the time. 
 He warned us against what he called 
 Die Wissenschaft auf dem Presentier- 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 6/ 
 
 teller, which reminds me of the story 
 of the lady in a French salon} We 
 
 ^ I am reminded of this story told by the 
 late George Henry Lewes. The scene was 
 laid in a brilliant Parisian salon, where an 
 eminent French man of science was con- 
 versing with the hostess, a spirituelle, though 
 thoroughly worldly, society-lady. He pos- 
 sessed that childlike simplicity and sincerity 
 which often marks the truly great man \ and 
 thus he was deceived by the tone of intense 
 interest which she adopted when asking him 
 (to make conversation) about some law of 
 nature (say, the conservation of energy) 
 which was just then being much discussed. 
 The savant, delighted with this sign of in- 
 terest on the part of a woman whom he had 
 considered frivolous, entered upon a lucid 
 exposition of the main principles, and was so 
 much wrapt up in his subject, that he did 
 not notice how her eyes were wandering 
 about the room. But he was pulled up 
 short when she asked, with a touch of naive 
 
68 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 cannot turn the university into a 
 great culinary institution in which 
 scientific dishes are prepared and 
 cooked to suit the palates and the 
 digestions of all the different pro- 
 fessional candidates. We rob them 
 of one of the greatest educational 
 advantages, namely, the search after 
 the intellectual food itself, which will 
 cause them to grow up as strong and 
 efficient men, ready to cope with all 
 the varied and unforeseen difficulties 
 of life, instead of effeminate, narrow- 
 chested sybarites who can only thrive 
 under the conditions in which they 
 
 coquetry : " Mais est-ce hien vrai, fa, mon- 
 sieur V^ He at once drew himself up and, 
 with a deep bow, turning both hands to 
 his breast, he said ; " Farole d^honneur^ 
 madamc!^^ 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 69 
 
 have been brought up in their pro- 
 vincial home. We cannot prepare a 
 small dose of physiological study for 
 the student of medicine, just enough 
 to suffice him for his service at the 
 sick bed ; but we can send him to the 
 most thorough physiologist, such as 
 we have here, and, without waste of 
 time, he can there drink in pure 
 scientific information at the fountain- 
 head of real research. We cannot 
 extract from history, that is to say 
 from the development of man in the 
 past, those facts which may be use- 
 ful for the training of the future 
 statesman, thereby caricaturing his- 
 tory and enfeebling the mind of this 
 future prime minister. But we can 
 for once in his life, lead him to con- 
 
70 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 centrate all his energies upon 
 thorough knowledge, and we can 
 increase his fund of accurate infor- 
 mation and strengthen his power of 
 thinking rightly. So, too, in dealing 
 with art in a university, the student 
 must clearly hold before his mind 
 this purely theoretical aim, ignoring 
 all others : to know and only to 
 know. 
 
 It is in this spirit that I would 
 approach the study of art here, 
 and it is from this point that we 
 ought to view the organization of 
 such study. The founder of this 
 Chair has indicated the main depart- 
 ments into which a well organized 
 study of art in a university ought to 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 7 1 
 
 be divided : the history, theory, and 
 practice of art. I will for the pre- 
 sent reverse the order and begin 
 with the practice. 
 
 I have already endeavoured to 
 show of what help a knowledge of 
 the practice of arts can be to the 
 theoretical student. To appreciate 
 and to understand the works which 
 he will have to study, it will be 
 necessary for him to know some- 
 thing about the processes which led 
 to their creation. Much can here 
 be done by lectures ; and such infor- 
 mation will have to be imparted in 
 the natural course of teaching with 
 regard to the history as well as the 
 theory of art. In dealing with the 
 works of minor arts, the vases, terra- 
 
72 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 cottas, gems, coins, and similar 
 works, opportunities will be afforded 
 the teacher to explain, and, if pos- 
 sible, to demonstrate ad oculos the 
 processes by which these objects are 
 made. So, too, in dealing with 
 architecture he will, to a certain de- 
 gree, have to dwell upon laws of 
 construction^ the nature and elabo- 
 ration of the materials used. So, 
 too, in the history of engraving ; 
 and, finally, also in the history of 
 painting and sculpture. Music we 
 have already adequately represented 
 here. But I believe that, besides 
 these demonstration and explana- 
 tions, it would be useful for students 
 to gain some practical knowledge of 
 the elements of drawing, painting, 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 73 
 
 and modelling ; and such oppor- 
 tunities will be afforded by any art 
 school — the aim always being, not 
 to produce second-rate artists or 
 amateur draughtsmen and painters, 
 but simply to enable the student 
 by experiment, as it were, to follow 
 the artist whose work he is study- 
 ing in the process of its construc- 
 tion or composition. Still, I con- 
 sider this department as compara- 
 tively an auxiliary training and not 
 as the central domain of academic 
 effort. 
 
 We enter more fully into the 
 sphere of academic art teaching 
 when we come to the theory of art, 
 the department of .Esthetics. It 
 is here that the student must set 
 
 H 
 
74 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 himself the task, within all the 
 variety of artistic manifestations in 
 works of different aesthetic expres- 
 sion, to discover those general laws 
 which underlie all this effort, and 
 which have guided, and ought to 
 guide, man in his endeavours to 
 satisfy the artistic instinct. And I 
 would here at once remark that, in 
 dealing with this task, we are in 
 danger of cramping and distorting 
 our vision from the very outset, if 
 we conceive of the word art in too 
 narrow a sense. As a matter of 
 fact the denotation (as Mill would 
 call it) of art in England, has been 
 restricted to painting and sculpture, 
 perhaps with the addition of architec- 
 ture ; but it really includes music and 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 75 
 
 poetry, and all forms of literature, In 
 so far as they are not considered from 
 the purely linguistic point of view. 
 
 Art is concerned with all human 
 effort as it responds to the desire 
 for aesthetic pleasure. I am appa- 
 rently begging the question in quali- 
 fying " pleasure " by the attribute 
 "aesthetic." Mr. Ruskin has ob- 
 jected to the word as being too low 
 in its significance, inasmuch as it 
 emphasizes too exclusively the world 
 of sense-perception ; and he has sub- 
 stituted for it the word theoretic, as 
 concerning pure theoria, which points 
 to a higher faculty of man. We can 
 sympathize with this desire of Mr. 
 Ruskin^s to insist upon the unsensual 
 and higher nature of artistic pleasure 
 
76 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 in contradistinction to the lower or 
 sensual pleasures which appeal to 
 the animal, rather than to the artistic, 
 side of man's nature. But, on the 
 other hand, there is a justification in 
 the term aisthesis ; inasmuch as the 
 impressions, feelings, and thoughts 
 which works of art produce upon 
 us, however spiritual these may be, 
 are necessarily bound up with the 
 sense-perception, in so far as they 
 depend in their essence upon the 
 form of the object or the sotmd 
 which thus impresses us. In intel- 
 lectual perception as distinguished 
 from artistic perception, the form in 
 which the truth conveyed is ex- 
 pressed is not essential to the truth 
 itself; it is merely a means, a vehicle 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 77 
 
 through which the truth is brought 
 home. We can learn the state of 
 Attica at the beginning of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war through a speech of 
 Pericles, or through an account in 
 Thucydides, or from some other 
 source. But we cannot appreciate 
 a speech of Pericles as a work of 
 oratorical art, unless in that very 
 form in which it is handed down to 
 us as coming from him. 
 
 In artistic perception the form is 
 thus essential to the impression or 
 thought conveyed, in fact, the form 
 becomes the spirit and essence, and 
 this form appeals to us through the 
 channels of our senses. Yet, having 
 passed through these channels, it 
 affects our highest spiritual faculties 
 H 2 
 
78 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 and stimulates our noblest spiritual 
 aspirations. 
 
 To define this aesthetic pleasure 
 more closely, I would convey one 
 of its distinctive features, features 
 by which it is distinguished from 
 the other pleasures of life, by ap- 
 plying a word, which I believe was 
 first used by Schiller and subse- 
 quently fixed by Kant, the word 
 spielendy namely playful and disin- 
 terested. All other pleasures are 
 more or less concerned with indi- 
 vidual possession or individual use. 
 In so far, the person himself is in- 
 terested or more or less affected in 
 what might be called his cupidity. 
 Artistic pleasure, on the other hand, 
 inasmuch as it is only concerned 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 79 
 
 With the form, finds its delight in 
 observation and contemplation as 
 such, independent of possession or 
 of use. It is in so far disinterested 
 and playful.^ 
 
 ^ To take a trite instance : In looking at 
 an apple or a peach, the ordinary point of 
 view would be that of possession or consump- 
 tion. But we may for the time consider in 
 them only the beauty of form and colour. 
 Then the graceful rondure of the apple, the 
 delicate curves in the peach, the glistening 
 surface, the bright side fading by soft gra- 
 dations into the sea-green of the one, the 
 soft texture of the surface, the crimson and 
 purple of the other, may give us pure delight. 
 And this pleasure is playful and disinterested, 
 and has nothing to do with possession or 
 consumption. Nay, these considerations 
 would disturb and counteract the artistic 
 mood which the aesthetic perception produces 
 in us. 
 
8o THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 In order that it should be purely 
 playful in its effect upon us, our 
 power of observation and contem- 
 plation must in itself be pure, un- 
 disturbed by alien considerations, 
 which would draw us into the regions 
 of interested cupidity. In so far the 
 artistic attitude is unselfish, for we 
 must ignore the immediate relation 
 which the object holds to ourselves, 
 our self-preservation or the advance- 
 ment of our interests ; and we must 
 be lost in the contemplation of the 
 work, so that the harmony of its 
 form and the ensuing harmony of 
 spirit should fill us, and terminate 
 in that artistic mood which is the 
 essence of the highest artistic de- 
 light. The world without, as it 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 8 1 
 
 impresses us in our daily, busy life, 
 is unharmonious, in so far as the 
 multiplicity of impressions, coupled 
 with the ever-active interested atti- 
 tude of mind in which we approach 
 the objects of life, deprive us of the 
 power of searching for, or of finding, 
 the pure harmony of form that is 
 within the objects. 
 
 At the earliest stage of man's 
 conscious existence he felt this inner 
 desire for harmony and the repose 
 of form within the endless turmoil 
 of successive impressions ; and out 
 of this craving for harmony arose 
 his desire for artistic contemplation. 
 But with this desire for contempla- 
 tion, there arose an impulse to im- 
 plant into the objects without the 
 
82 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 form which, through his senses, 
 should produce this repose and 
 satisfy this craving within him. 
 
 Every eflfort which arose out of 
 this desire belongs to the domain of 
 art ; and it is the duty of the student 
 of sesthetics to inquire into the 
 origin, the growth and development, 
 and the outer manifestation in works, 
 of this fundamental desire of man. 
 
 It soon became possible to classify 
 the works arising out of these de- 
 sires according to the sensuous 
 vehicles used for expression, and 
 so we can distinguish between the 
 art of music, the earliest decorative 
 arts in various materials, the art of 
 architecture, sculpture, and painting, 
 and even the whole domain of poetry 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 83 
 
 and literature. Yet, as regards the 
 fundamental laws of their construc- 
 tion and the resultant effects, these 
 laws are universal and apply to all, 
 and it is the duty of the inquirer to 
 discover them. 
 
 Now, I am well aware that I have 
 been using in a somewhat bold 
 manner such terms as ''laws," nay, 
 even fundamental laws, and I know 
 that there is prevalent (and this 
 prevalence has much to justify it) a 
 pronounced scepticism with regard 
 to the theory of art. It is as old 
 as the saying de gustibus non est 
 disputandum. And it may be held 
 that, in matters of taste, there is 
 only doxa, there is no episteme^ there 
 is only opinion, there is no know- 
 
84 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 ledge. Yet where scepticism begins 
 there is no end. It would be just 
 as easy to insist upon the Pyrrhonian 
 attitude of mind with regard to truth, 
 as it is with regard to beauty. 
 Scepticism is a phase in human in- 
 tellectual development. It is a 
 matter of temperament. I believe 
 it is in so far subjective. We can 
 all feel sceptics at times ; we must 
 feel it. It is like optimism or 
 pessimism. 
 
 I have but touched upon the very 
 outskirts of the questions concerning 
 the theory of art. I could not at- 
 tempt to enter the great circle of 
 inquiry in an inquiry of so general a 
 nature. But I believe that such a 
 sphere of scientific inquiry possesses 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 85 
 
 the right of existence. A huge 
 literature, from Aristotle onwards, 
 groups round its main problems ; 
 much of it is thorough, much of it 
 is deep, some is clear, and all is 
 interesting. Yet I venture to be- 
 lieve that we are only at the be- 
 ginning of a proper treatment of 
 this subject in our days. And this 
 tardy development is due chiefly to 
 the fact that the proper methods 
 and regions of inquiry which may 
 lead to a successful consummation 
 have only in our time been opened 
 to us. 
 
 It appears to me that the aesthetics 
 
 of former days erred in that they 
 
 were pursued one-sidedly, either on 
 
 the philosophical, or on the historical 
 
 I 
 
86 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 side. I mean that the writers of 
 aesthetics either stood on the plat- 
 form of philosophy, or on that of 
 art history ; they never took steps to 
 join these two platforms into one 
 broader and more elevated plain 
 from which they could survey the 
 whole field of inquiry, so that it 
 should present itself to them in its 
 true light. Those of the philoso- 
 phical side dealt with its problems 
 generally from a psychological, some- 
 times even a metaphysical, point of 
 view, and by introspection, or even 
 by psychological experiment, en- 
 deavoured to deduce out of the 
 study of man's feelings, or sense- 
 perceptions, the laws governing the 
 production of art. On the other 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 87 
 
 side we have the historians of art, 
 who were content with pursuing the 
 course which man's effort in the 
 production of art took, to classify 
 the works according to countries, 
 periods, and schools, without turning 
 to use the knowledge thus gained in 
 gauging the spirit manifested in 
 these objective endeavours, by the 
 inner needs of man as manifested in 
 his life of emotion and in his life 
 of sensation. The philosophical 
 sestheticians ignored the history of 
 art, the historians of art ignored 
 aesthetics. 
 
 If, in the future, the student can 
 devote equal attention, on the one 
 hand to the laws governing the 
 human senses in so far as they are 
 
88 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 directed towards, or affected by, 
 form and harmony; and, following 
 this up to its last consequences, can 
 equally turn to the careful study of 
 man's work in the sequence of 
 artistic products ; and then can 
 combine the results of this twofold 
 inquiry, I believe that we may 
 hope for the fuller establishment 
 of a soundly organized system of 
 aesthetics. 
 
 In its main character (however 
 much the theory of art may have to 
 deal with the historical aspect of art 
 production) this study approaches 
 nearest to the faculty of moral 
 sciences ; and, from one point of 
 view, it may be regarded as a de- 
 partment of philosophy or moral 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 89 
 
 science, just as we shall see the 
 history of art may be regarded as 
 one department of general historical 
 study. Nor is the study of philo- 
 sophy complete unless it includes 
 aesthetics. 
 
 The study of the history of art 
 has been most fully developed in 
 the German universities. As scien- 
 tific history it must deal with all 
 periods. It cannot be limited in 
 extent, or isolated in its scope ; for, 
 as we all know, history is continuous 
 and organic, there is no saltus or 
 hiatus^ nothing has been chopped 
 asunder as with a hatchet. Still, 
 for intrinsic reasons, or from con- 
 siderations of convenience, we may 
 select one point in this general his- 
 I 2 
 
90 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 torical organism to be a centre, 
 upon which we take our stand, look- 
 ing backward and forward. And 
 so, for reasons which I need not 
 enumerate here, I beHeve that Greek 
 art forms the best centre for the 
 study of the general history of art. 
 I will merely say that I believe it 
 to be so, because Greek art is the 
 first pure art we meet with, the 
 works of which have as their pur- 
 pose and essence and aim and final 
 consummation the aesthetic pleasure 
 that they are to produce in the 
 spectator, irrespective of other con- 
 siderations, not subservient to any 
 other spheres of human life or 
 interest. And it is not accidental 
 that the next great period of art 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 9 1 
 
 in the world's history, which we 
 call the Renaissance, meant a re- 
 vival and re-birth of the spirit 
 which saw the first light in ancient 
 Hellas. 
 
 But in a proper university course 
 on the history of art all periods 
 ought to be represented. We ought 
 to study art in its earliest, almost 
 barbaric stages, and so our know- 
 ledge ought to be supplemented by 
 the study of early Oriental art and 
 Egyptian art; while, on the other 
 hand, the art of the Middle Ages 
 and the Renaissance, which bring us 
 to the very gates of modern times, 
 ought all to receive adequate ex- 
 position. From the humblest be- 
 ginning to the highest work we 
 
92 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 ought to follow man's effort in every 
 clime and time. 
 
 The only period of art which is 
 more or less adequately represented 
 in this university by means of teach- 
 ing as well as by the recognition of 
 an admittance into the circle of 
 university studies and examinations, 
 our Tripos, is that of Greek art. I 
 propose to use my best efforts thai 
 the other periods should receive 
 similar recognition and opportunities 
 of development. 
 
 The study of Greek art, as form- 
 ing an intrinsic part of the study of 
 Greek life, has been embodied as a 
 special department in our general 
 Hellenic study, and in the form of 
 classical archaeology, is now admitted 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 93 
 
 into the Classical Tripos. In the 
 same way Oriental and Egyptian 
 art may find their place in Oriental 
 studies ; while the whole history of 
 art naturally forms a section of the 
 study of history in general. For, if 
 history sets itself the task to appre- 
 hend most fully and thoroughly the 
 past, this knowledge must be in- 
 complete if so important a feature in 
 tne life of the past is ignored. For 
 my own part, I can hardly conceive 
 of a historical study of any portion 
 of the Renaissance in Italy, without 
 some attention to the art of that 
 period ; and I should think that the 
 student's knowledge of Italian his- 
 tory would be singularly incomplete 
 and crippled, unless it is thus sup- 
 
94 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 plemented. The same applies to 
 the study of Mediaeval architecture 
 and sculpture as reflecting in a most 
 direct and potent manner the spirit 
 and life of these ages. 
 
 I thus believe and trust that in 
 the future our course of modern 
 history and the corresponding exa- 
 minations, will be supplemented by 
 the introduction of Mediaeval and 
 Renaissance art history. If litera- 
 ture and music were not provided 
 for from other sources, I should lay 
 equal stress upon the need of their 
 study. As it is, I believe that the 
 more definite encouragement of the 
 history of literature and of music 
 might well be urged here. 
 
 It will thus be seen how these 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 95 
 
 various branches of art-study over- 
 lap into established faculties. This 
 is but natural and is a great advan- 
 tage of university work. And it 
 is to be hoped that the fully es- 
 tablished branches of study will 
 welcome the possibilities of com- 
 pleting their own pursuits, by the 
 encouragement of such art-study in 
 the university. I believe we want 
 more of that wedding and blend- 
 ing of faculties and studies without 
 sacrificing the thoroughness of each ; 
 and I hold it to be a good sign ot 
 an emancipation from the thraldom 
 of examinations, that students are 
 more and more breaking through 
 the stereotyped limits of set triposes, 
 and that in the higher and more 
 
96 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 developed forms of the second parts 
 of such examinations, there should 
 be a ready intercommunication, the 
 student of one special study con- 
 tinuing his work in another. I 
 hold that it is the right direction in 
 which we are proceeding, and I 
 believe we want still greater freedom 
 in this sphere. 
 
 With this intimate relation which 
 the study of art holds on the one 
 hand to moral science, and on the 
 other hand to all historical sciences, 
 it certainly forms a complete study 
 in itself, and one which, if pursued 
 thoroughly, is an excellent educa- 
 tional vehicle ; for it combines in 
 itself research and careful observa- 
 tion, the sobriety of work, with, on 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 97 
 
 the other hand, the refinement of 
 taste. 
 
 I have hitherto insisted upon the 
 theoretical nature of university study- 
 as complete in itself, and I have 
 purposely disregarded the more 
 direct bearings which it may have 
 upon the actual life of the com- 
 munity, in preparing students for 
 definite professions. Though each 
 study in the university must guard 
 its pure scientific spirit, it can but 
 be advantageous and give it ad- 
 ditional right of existence, that it 
 should directly train men for some 
 recognized profession in life. The 
 immediate profession for which this 
 university study of art would pre- 
 pare the student, would, in the first 
 
 K 
 
98 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 place, be that of directors and 
 curators of museums, who require 
 such theoretical knowledge of the 
 history of art in order that their 
 subsequent experience may fall 
 upon fertile ground. And also, it is 
 to be hoped, that with the growth 
 and further development of such 
 studies in this country, the general 
 standard and tone of art criticism 
 might be raised. The art critic is 
 very often an unsuccessful artist, 
 and it hardly seems to occur to him 
 or to the public who read his work, 
 that, in order to form an opinion on 
 matters of art, and still more to 
 have a right to express it, some 
 systematic previous study of a more 
 general critical order is required. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 99 
 
 Perhaps our future action in the 
 university may confer upon the 
 country as a great boon, the purifi- 
 cation of art criticism, and, in con- 
 sequence, of the general taste for 
 art among the British pubHc. 
 
 I have sketched an ideal organi- 
 zation for art study in the university. 
 No one mind can ever hope to 
 respond to all these different de- 
 mands. Nor are we as yet here in 
 a position to supply these wants to 
 any considerable degree. But I 
 may be allowed to hope that by my 
 own efforts during my tenure of 
 this Chair I may bring this home of 
 learning nearer to the realization of 
 such an ideal study of art in the 
 university; and, while recognizing 
 
lOO THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 with gratitude the successful efforts 
 of my immediate predecessor and 
 friend, Professor Middleton, and of 
 the previous occupant, Professor 
 Colvin, I venture to count upon your : 
 
 sympathetic support in furthering i 
 
 my honest endeavours. i| 
 
 1 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. I OX 
 
 NOTE A (to page 21). 
 General Education for the Artist. 
 
 BUT I should emphatically guard against 
 a misunderstanding of the nature of 
 this university education as affecting the 
 artist. No doubt, by a natural and justifiable 
 affinity, he will be interested in those theo- 
 retical studies which are most directly related 
 to his own practical pursuit of art, such as 
 the history of his own art, of literature and 
 language, of those spheres of thought upon 
 which he is most likely to draw for subjects 
 to be presented later in the vehicle of his 
 own art — even of the natural and exact 
 sciences as bearing upon the technique of 
 art. But, after all, what this training is to 
 give him is a general education; it is to 
 make him a truly refined and educated man, 
 who stands on the height of the civilization 
 K 2 
 
102 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 of his age, and is representative of this in his 
 way, as the man of letters and science, the 
 statesman and legislator, are in theirs. The 
 **read Shakespeare!" of Moscheles must 
 never be forgotten. Who can tell whence 
 the happiest inspirations within our narrow 
 and well-defined sphere of action were de- 
 rived? A musician's, a poefs, a sculptor's 
 mood, which in its creative pregnancy has 
 given birth to children of the Muse so varied 
 in their outer form, may each have been 
 evoked by thoughts and experiences differing 
 essentially, if not almost opposed to, the 
 artistic expression to which they led through 
 mysterious channels of association. All our 
 acquisition of new knowledge, all the thoughts 
 we think, must become an "emotional " habit, 
 an ethos; they must transfuse and affect our 
 character — even our intellectual character — 
 before they become efficient as regards our 
 practical conduct, or our mental or moral 
 creativeness.^ How difficult is it for anyone 
 to trace back to the fountain-head of motive 
 
 ^ See " Balance of Emotion and Intellect," by the 
 author, pp. 7, seq, London, 1878. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. IO3 
 
 power the thoughts and deeds and works of 
 our maturity. A stray word in a conversation 
 years ago, an impressive personality seen but 
 once, whose character and range of thought 
 were barely divined, a single passage in a 
 book, a broad mood of life and nature 
 flowing with concentrated rush through our 
 very veins in a moment of artistic contem- 
 plation, may be the efficient cause of definite 
 thought and action in our life profession 
 with which our teachers at school and in 
 universities, our lectures and text-books may 
 have had nothing to do. On the other hand, 
 our manner of dealing with men and women 
 in society, our habits of business accuracy, 
 our cool-headed mastery in sport, may be 
 derived from the systematic training, the 
 concentration and the intellectual self-control 
 which our school-lessons and our university 
 studies impressed upon us and infused into 
 us. 
 
 I dwell upon this fact to show that we 
 cannot always prepare and cut out the precise 
 courses of study in anticipation of the definite 
 profession to be followed, and that, especially 
 
I04 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 in the case of an artist, the wider aim of a 
 more general education is to be pursued. 
 When once the studies for some definite 
 profession are taken up, it is time enough to 
 specialize to the comparative exclusion of 
 other interests. But even here, in direct 
 preparation, by means of university curricula, 
 for definite walks in life, there may be too 
 narrow, too doctrinaire exclusion of courses. 
 So, for instance, though a faculty of " Came- 
 ralia " (as it is called in German universities) 
 may have its right of existence in view of the 
 training of young statesmen, I believe that 
 history cannot be arranged to suit the palate 
 of these fledgling politicians, and that it may, 
 if this be attempted, distort and vitiate his- 
 torical veracity besides dissipating the educa- 
 tional value of historical study. The ** Spec- 
 tator " in one of his letters (No. 305, February 
 19th) gives a good caricature of a proposed 
 ** Political Academy " which was supposed to 
 be established in France as a "nursery of 
 young statesmen." 
 
 On the other hand, I do not wish to de- 
 preciate the proper development and organiza- 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. IO5 
 
 tion of different departments of study, nor 
 do I wish to detract from the serious, almost 
 solemn, conception of the professional worker, 
 who must know his craft, in contradistinction 
 to the dilettante.; nor to advocate blind and 
 haphazard empiricism, which everywhere, 
 especially in this country, impedes the advance 
 of education. But I do wish to impress the 
 necessity — especially for the artist — of an 
 adequate general education, preparatory to 
 his serious professional work. 
 
I06 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 NOTE B (to page 29). 
 The Educational Bearings of Art. 
 
 THIS, no doubt, is a wide subject. But 
 I cannot refrain from pointing out in 
 a suggestive, rather than an exhaustive, 
 manner, some of these educational bearings. 
 They are both intellectual and moral. 
 
 With regard to the intellectual and ethical 
 results of the more emotional effect of art, I 
 do not merely refer to the obvious relation 
 of didactic poetry, the "novel with a purpose," 
 the fable with a moral, and similar direct, 
 though justifiable, encroachments of art upon 
 the domain of philosophy or morals ; but to 
 the general influence which aesthetic form 
 and the artistic habit of mind have upon the 
 theoretical development of understanding and 
 the practical guidance of conduct. I mean 
 the indirect influence which in man's soul 
 the habit of searching for and dwelling upon 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. IO7 
 
 Beauty has upon his powers exercised in the 
 pursuit and appreciation of Truth and of 
 Goodness. 
 
 It would lead us too deeply into the 
 psychological principles of art to show the 
 relation of the " form " to the ** matter " of 
 thoughts and feelings in the elementary stages 
 of sense-perception. We should here come 
 to a point where Science and Art actually 
 join. 
 
 But to begin at a point when the art-side 
 of sense perception has become differentiated 
 and developed, I would dwell upon its im- 
 portance to the comprehension and retention 
 of intellectual facts. We all know the way 
 in which the nursery rhymes appeal to chil- 
 dren, and how easy it is to retain them. 
 Among the memoriae technicae verse holds a 
 central position, and Kinder-garten teaching 
 has made full use of this ; while it is a signi- 
 ficant fact that early philosophical writings 
 are generally written in verse. As symmetry 
 of form facilitates perception, so it also facili- 
 tates and fixes comprehension. 
 
 The importance of form in giving the 
 
I08 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 essence of meaning has never been neglected 
 by the masters of style. Even the rhythm 
 and the quality of sound may help to bring 
 home and to strengthen the meanings and 
 facts which are to be conveyed in writing.^ 
 What we call style, the lexis^ is thus distinctly 
 a department of art. Even grammar is the 
 art-side of diction and of thought-conveyance ; 
 and when we come to the construction of a 
 book, its subdivision into periods and para- 
 graphs, chapters and books, we are working as 
 artists, we are appealing to the artistic feeling 
 for form^ however sober the thoughts, though 
 it be a treatise on mathematics or logic.^ 
 
 But when the subject we desire to convey 
 or to learn is itself emotional in nature, and 
 is to appeal to our sympathies, the immediate 
 function of art as a means of accurate ex- 
 pression and of correct apprehension becomes 
 evident. We may learn more about human 
 nature and about the social life of past 
 
 ' See ** The Work of John Ruskin," by the present 
 writer, III. Ruskin as a Writer and Prose Poet. 
 ^ See ** Balance of Emotion and Intellect," pp. ii. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. IO9 
 
 generations and of the people about us from 
 novels and dramas than from chronicles and 
 careful essays ; and both novels and dramas 
 are correct in exposition, composition, and 
 development in proportion as the characters 
 and situations they present are so given as 
 of necessity to act upon and to evoke the 
 sympathy of the readers or audience. I am 
 here considering these works of art, not in 
 so far as they respond to, or satisfy, our 
 esthetic desires; but as agents which lead 
 to the most complete apprehension of certain 
 facts, that is, as means of intellectual training. 
 
 I need not dwell at any length upon the 
 influence of art in training our powers of 
 observation. This is self-evident. But it 
 may be well to remember that careful and 
 accurate observation are most important 
 elements in our intellectual pursuits and in 
 all our scientific endeavours to grasp truth. 
 
 To sum up the educational bearing of art 
 on the intellectual side, I would say that it 
 is a powerful means of developing in the 
 individual and in a nation the synthetic 
 attitude of mind in contradistinction to the 
 L 
 
no THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 analytical function of the intellect. And it 
 must be recognized, and has been recognized 
 by many exponents of science, how important 
 a function imagination has, even in the most 
 sober pursuits of truth. Invention as well 
 as complete apprehension of new truths must 
 pass through our emotional nature before 
 they become really our own and effective 
 guides to future thought and action.^ I have 
 also pointed out once before,'* how the pur- 
 suit and appreciation of art may be used in 
 early education to rectify that form of mental 
 disease in which the analytical or purely in- 
 tellectual side is developed at the cost of 
 the synthetic or emotional side. This leads 
 us to the second division in our considera- 
 tion of the educational effect upon our moral 
 nature. 
 
 " Where people sing 
 
 There take thy rest, 
 No soulless man 
 
 With song is blest." 
 
 There is a deep truth in these popular 
 
 ^ See *' Balance of Emotion and Intellect," p. n. 
 ^ Ibid,y pp. 177, ^^^» 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. I 1 1 
 
 German verses. Art does not only tend to 
 strengthen and develop our emotional nature, 
 but it, above all, leads to its refinement. In 
 the general thirst for pleasure, which is so 
 potent a stimulus to action and to efforts in 
 life, the more we can divert this current of 
 our passion from the channels of direct self- 
 interest and cupidity into the various courses 
 of the disinterested and playful delights that 
 flow through eye and ear to heart and mind, 
 the more shall we have drawn the violence out 
 of passion, the more shall we have refined 
 our whole emotional nature. Passion then 
 becomes sympathy, as greed for possession 
 becomes dehght in contemplation. And 
 when art presents human beings and their 
 fate, this dwelling in mind upon the lives of 
 others, and living in them, does not only 
 increase the intellectual sympathy to which 
 I have just referred, but strengthens and 
 widens our emotional sympathy as well. 
 And I have no doubt that the reading of 
 good novels and the hearing of great dramas 
 has done more for the development of our 
 sympathies than most of us are aware. To 
 
I I 2 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 have forgotten, or to have ignored for the 
 time being, the absorbing interests, cares 
 or joys of our own life, that are constantly 
 present or obtruding themselves upon us, 
 and to have gone out in imagination and 
 interest into the fictitious lives in art, has 
 not only given us healthy relaxation and the 
 pleasures of imagination, but it has been 
 unconsciously an exercise in unselfishness, 
 which comes from sympathy. And in a still 
 less direct, though equally potent, manner, 
 namely, in developing our imagination, have 
 we gained in the power of abstracting from 
 ourselves, which is intimately connected with 
 the qualities of taste and humour as well as 
 with unselfishness. 
 
 A further less direct, though equally potent, 
 educational effect of art-training is to be 
 found in the widening of interests. One of 
 the greatest dangers in life is the narrowing 
 of interests ; and as we grow older it appears 
 that our powers of being interested are likely 
 to diminish, until this leads to atrophy or ossi- 
 fication of our organs of feeling and apprecia- 
 tion. It is one of the saddest sights to watch 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. II 3 
 
 the advance of this emotional and mental 
 disease, and it requires the greatest struggle in 
 people as they grow older to keep their fund 
 of interests full and rich. 
 
 But it has often been said, so often that it 
 has become a platitude, none the less untrue, 
 that art has led in the past, and leads in the 
 present, to a degeneration of the moral fibre ; 
 and that the artistic temperament is often 
 wanting in some of the moral qualities be- 
 longing to the " PhiUstine." No doubt there 
 may be instances to point to. But such 
 temperaments are diseased and require treat- 
 ment, as the over-intellectual temperament 
 requires rectification. The disease arises from 
 exaggeration of the emotional qualities corre- 
 sponding to art. Expansiveness is good, and 
 dissipation is bad. Too much expansiveness 
 may lead to dissipation and to effeminacy. 
 Though our so-called Neo-Hellenists maybe 
 degenerate, the Greeks of ancient Hellas were 
 neither effeminate nor dissipated. In so far 
 as their customs and morals differed from 
 ours, and are condemned by us, these differ- 
 ences were in no way caused by art. And 
 L 2 
 
114 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 their customs can only be understood by us, 
 and justified in them, when we understand 
 fully the conditions of their life, as we must 
 understand Mahomedan life and that of the 
 patriarchs of the Old Testament to account 
 for polygamy, however much it be opposed 
 to the conditions of our own society. 
 
 The ground upon which the generalization 
 concerning the evil influences of art past 
 and present rests, seems to me accidental 
 and not essential to art. First, as regards 
 the communities and the people among 
 whom art thrived, we must remember that 
 these communities and classes were generally 
 possessed of wealth and leisure which led to 
 idleness and luxury, and in themselves these 
 may end in vice. But idleness has nothing to 
 do with art. The Niiremberg of Hans Sachs 
 had little of idleness in it, and therefore little 
 of vice, though it had much art. On the 
 contrary, I would maintain that the only 
 redeeming feature in the morals of the Italy 
 of the Condottieri, the petty tyrants, and the 
 degraded papacy (the moral rottenness of 
 which was rooted in the nature of the parties, 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. II 5 
 
 the foreign policy, the illegitimate foundation 
 of the state, and the copying of late Roman 
 morals) is to be found in the development 
 of their art, which, as far as it went, softened 
 and mitigated the brutality and ferocity of 
 the spirit of those times. Ancient Rome, 
 whose morals they adopted in their vices and 
 corruption, was not a home in which art 
 flourished or was further developed. But it 
 was the reign of luxury. 
 
 Another ground for this hasty generaliza- 
 tion, also accidental to art, is to be found in 
 the social history of its followers in Christian 
 times. The Church was in strong opposition 
 to the Hellenic spirit, and therefore repressed 
 art and artists, unless it could use them for 
 its immediate service. From the Middle 
 Ages on, the class of art-producers was more 
 or less excommunicated from recognized 
 society ; and thus they became what is called 
 *f Bohemian," which made the artists again 
 feel free from, or opposed to, the restrictions 
 of ordinary society. We are still not quite 
 emancipated from these effects, and the tradi- 
 tions which have resulted from them among 
 
Il6 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 the votaries of art, have furnished material 
 for the hasty generalizer. 
 
 Finally, I wish to point to an individual 
 influence in the pursuit of art and the con- 
 templation of its works which I deem of 
 considerable educational importance. It 
 concerns the study and appreciation of the 
 nude. 
 
 Edward von Hartmann said of himself 
 that he owed the purification and refinement 
 of his moral sense throughout his whole life, 
 to his early habit, encouraged by a wise 
 father, of seeing and of observing the nude. 
 I have given special attention to this point, 
 and have for years made inquiries and col- 
 lected information of a personal character; 
 and I venture to say, that, as one who has 
 associated much in studios, who has been a 
 University teacher for fifteen years, and a 
 director of a museum containing many nude 
 figures for six years, I have had good oppor- 
 tunities of examining this question. Not 
 only do I firmly believe that the habitual 
 contemplation of the nude at an early age 
 acts in a refining and strengthening manner 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. II 7 
 
 Upon the moral fibre, but I also believe that, 
 without this, there is much danger of perver- 
 sion and distortion of taste and moral tenden- 
 cies. Life is bound to bring us face to face 
 with nature, or, what is still worse, the half- 
 concealed nature;^ and whoever is unpre- 
 pared to receive these impressions in a proper 
 spirit, is likely to be effected for the bad by 
 them. The artistic interest and the artistic 
 attitude of mind are the only safeguards to 
 these evils. 
 
 I have seen perversions of mind and taste 
 which have degenerated into distinctly 
 diseased forms ; and I have, in each of these 
 cases, found that the persons had remained, 
 during the whole early period of their lives, 
 unacquainted with the nude even in art, and 
 that some, bred in simple country surround- 
 ings, had not even been accustomed to the 
 appearance of ladies in evening dress. 
 
 ^ I believe it was the late Bishop Dupanloup who 
 said : " C^ riest pas le nu qui est indecent ^ c'est la 
 retrousse, " 
 
Il8 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 NOTE C (to page 52). 
 
 Indifference to Scientific Pursuits 
 IN England. 
 
 IT has often been maintained that the 
 English people are naturally opposed to 
 such theoretical study, that they have a practi- 
 cal bias, and that they have a dislike to, if not 
 a contempt, for abstract speculation and pure 
 theory, which goes with their craving for the 
 concrete. This aversion to speculation may 
 possibly be racial. But I doubt this. One 
 need merely quote the Germans, who are 
 our next of kin, and in whom the love of 
 speculation and of theoretical science has 
 been most highly developed, to confirm this 
 doubt. Nor should I even believe that this is 
 a national characteristic of the British people ; 
 for one may at once point to the Scotch, who 
 have been marked for the widespread interest 
 which they take in subjects of philosophical 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. II Q 
 
 speculation. I may at once say that this dif- 
 ference between the English and the Scotch 
 may be accounted for by one circumstance in 
 the moral development of the two peoples, 
 which may, in its turn, contribute to the under- 
 standing of the problem before us. It is to 
 be found in the different religious history of 
 the two peoples. The English have had an 
 established church, while the Scotch people 
 are largely made up of those who have had 
 to fight for, or to fight out in themselves, 
 their religious opinions. As this struggle on 
 the part of a truly " protestant " people will 
 develop the speculative and abstract mood, 
 even when applied to other subjects, so a 
 formally estabhshed church with its doctrines 
 will lead to a comparative indifference, if not 
 an aversion, to such speculation — at all events, 
 it does not encourage it. In the whole 
 history of thought in all times and climes 
 there has been an early religious stage to the 
 study of pure science and philosophy. 
 
 One has often heard the complaint raised 
 by English representatives of pure science, of 
 the lack of real interest in their efforts on the 
 
I20 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 part of the people ; and by the people they 
 are far from meaning the populus^ or the 
 masses, but they include ** the classes;" in 
 fact, the various movements and associations 
 among the labouring classes have to a great 
 degree stimulated the interests of these people 
 in matters of thought. The complaint is made 
 in the universities also, that there is little 
 widespread interest in the higher university 
 studies ; and even in the universities them- 
 selves for what is called research. I believe 
 this complaint is justified to a considerable 
 degree ; but I do not think it essential to the 
 English people, but accidental. We might 
 here again point to Scotland and to the 
 United States of America, which differ from 
 us in this point, and which therefore go far 
 to prove the accidental nature of this feature. 
 Among these causes I think the most im- 
 portant the peculiar nature of school and 
 university education in England. In the first 
 place, there have been, and even are now, 
 fewer complete universities in England than 
 in other countries similarly situated abroad. 
 The result is that, in spite of the few great 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 121 
 
 personalities which England has always pro- 
 duced and which stand out as the most marked 
 luminaries on the horizon of science, there 
 is not a large and important body of such 
 workers, sufficiently large to be recognized by 
 the near-sighted mass of the people, and thus 
 in a rough and ready way to impress them with 
 the importance and stability of such pursuits.^ 
 In the eyes of the people science has not yet 
 risen to the standing of a profession. 
 
 Our school education, so far from en- 
 couraging reverence or love for scientific work, 
 tends to lower it in the eyes of the boys. The 
 ideals are essentially unintellectual. There 
 is very little done positively to develop this 
 enthusiasm among the boys ; while the wide- 
 spread interest in sport and games, and the 
 unquestioned ascendancy which these have 
 as standards of excellence and distinction 
 
 ^ One of my colleagues was talking to a German 
 professor on the difference between England and 
 Germany. The Herr Professor asked : " In Eng- 
 land you have no class of learned men, have you ? " 
 **0 yes," replied my friend, "we have." "But 
 how do you call them ? " " Wir nennen sie * prigs,' " 
 was his reply. 
 
 M 
 
122 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 among the boys, go far to repress still more 
 any claim of prestige on the part of the in- 
 tellectual pursuits. I am the last to ignore 
 the inestimable value of athletic games in the 
 development of English character, but I quote 
 it here in its negative effects upon popular 
 estimation of science. 
 
 As the games act at school, so, in later life, 
 the ascendancy of politics over other liberal 
 vocations acts in the same way. Not only 
 that the interest which attaches to political 
 activity is supreme and is conducive to pres- 
 tige, and that, in so far, it draws heavily on 
 the rising talent, which might in other coun- 
 tries be directed towards scientific pursuits; 
 but, at the same time, and, perhaps, because 
 of this, it tends to lower the standing of 
 scientific men as a body or class. 
 
 But there seems to me a more direct, though 
 less evident, cause for this want of apprecia- 
 tion and enthusiasm. It is to be found in 
 the prize-system of schools and universities. 
 The number of prizes and scholarships exist- 
 ing in the schools and universities of England 
 is quite unparalleled in any other country. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. I 23 
 
 They have long since drifted far away from 
 the original purpose of supporting the studies 
 of those who are in actual need, and they 
 have, in the first instance, been only used as 
 means of creating more intense emulation and 
 competition. The " scholars " of our great 
 public schools and of many of the colleges in 
 our universities are far from being the children 
 of poor parents ; and, though many may not 
 be rich, still I venture to say that there is but 
 a very small proportion who are in dire need 
 of such support. It has gone so far, that 
 schools and colleges, perhaps unconsciously, 
 and not directly and avowedly, seem to bid 
 against one another for talented candidates 
 for instruction; and that these candidates 
 themselves, even at an early age, are put in a 
 position of choosing the highest bidder, and 
 of recognizing their own value in accepting — 
 the great boon of being allowed to learn. 
 
 The result is that, at a very early age, the 
 enthusiasm is not only not awakened, but is 
 stunted in its growth or entirely eradicated. 
 The boy and the young man have enforced 
 upon them the recognition that the act of 
 
124 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 learning is to be paid for and has its market 
 value. The result again is (as I have been 
 able to appreciate by comparison with students 
 of other countries), that, in spite of the ex- 
 cellent men we breed in these homes of learn- 
 ing, there is a comparative want of enthusiasm 
 among them, an absence of that deep gratitude 
 which glows in the eyes and comes from the 
 heart of the students I have seen in Germany 
 and America and in Scotland at being allowed 
 to drink in information at the very fountain 
 head. I feel a general bluntness which can 
 best be expressed by the French word blase. 
 This I ascribe entirely to the system of 
 scholarships as it now exists. I will not here 
 refer to the material disadvantages of this 
 system, when we consider how large a pro- 
 portion of the incomes of our schools and 
 universities (now cramped for means of de- 
 veloping their teaching) are devoted to this 
 fungus growth in the fields of charity running 
 to seed. But I will finally point to the further 
 harmful influence of this condition as affecting 
 the parents, and, through them, the general 
 interest in science on the part of the people. 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. I 25 
 
 With a large number of those who have 
 benefited by such subvention, it has robbed 
 them of the wholesome feeling of sacrifice 
 which they would otherwise make to secure 
 the advantages of education for their children ; 
 and it has caused them, as it did the boys 
 themselves, to look upon education, not as a 
 privilege, but as a matter the acceptance of 
 which requires pay as an inducement. In so 
 far their minds have been diverted from the 
 end of education as a thing of supreme value 
 in itself, and, in consequence, they can never 
 rise into the pure and abstract regions where 
 learning and science are spiritual goods which 
 have their standard and value in themselves. 
 
 M 2 
 
126 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 NOTE D (to page 6i). 
 
 Dangers to Industry arising out of 
 Empiricism. 
 
 I HAVE been told by manufacturers and 
 representatives of technical industries 
 abroad that England was losing the supre- 
 macy which natural advantages (such as 
 coal and minerals) and practical ingenuity 
 had given her in the past; while coun- 
 tries like Germany, Switzerland, and even 
 Italy, were making rapid advances. I be- 
 lieve this is chiefly due to the fact that 
 England is too much bound down by em- 
 piricism. Empiricism is a very good thing, 
 and produces excellent results where there 
 is great wealth of natural resources, and un- 
 hampered opportunities without the pres- 
 sure of time in active competition. Could 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. 127 
 
 we each of us live through many lives and 
 generations for a thousand years with our 
 eyes and ears open, we might gain experience 
 and wisdom more effectively than is conveyed 
 to us by much teaching and much reading. 
 But when the natural resources dwindle, and 
 the pressure of time grows, when we are 
 pressed out of the favourable position of easy 
 monopoly into one of severe competition, 
 empiricism will not suffice to secure the re- 
 tention of our advantage. Then practice 
 must be strengthened, advanced, and hastened 
 in its advance, by well matured and applied 
 theory. I would almost like to venture upon 
 a comprehensive aphorism, and to say : that 
 progress in civilization means the closer ap- 
 proximation between theory and practice, law 
 and conduct. And I believe that the stress 
 in this approximation is not to be put upon 
 the modification of theory in accordance with 
 practice ; but, rather, in the directness, vivid- 
 ness, and facility with which practice makes 
 use of, and is effected by, theory. " Tech- 
 nical Schools " of a popular character are not 
 the panacea to our industrial ailments. The 
 
128 THE STUDY OF ART 
 
 best chemist for a specific manufactory, the 
 most versatile mechanic, the most thorough, 
 and, in so far, the most efficient electrician 
 for industrial purposes, the physician and 
 practitioner who is least likely to be baffled 
 by turns in diseases that diverge from the 
 ordinary course, are not those who have been 
 trained " technically " and empirically for the 
 immediate tasks which their craft is supposed 
 to lay upon them ; but they have come from 
 a university (and this is generally the case in 
 German factories) where they have learnt the 
 fundamental principles of their science and 
 of all science ; where, for a time^ they have 
 concentrated all their faculties upon the task 
 of grasping the very core and essence of their 
 branch of study in theory. At all events, such 
 a man has gained the scientific spirit, which for 
 him will mean (when he has turned to active 
 pursuits) the greatest power to overcome the 
 immediate checks to his plans or experi- 
 ments, to go deeper down to the funda- 
 mental causes of failures and successes in 
 the phenomena he produces, induces, or 
 which present themselves to him, and hence 
 
IN UNIVERSITIES. I 29 
 
 to multiply and vary his resources and de- 
 vices — to apply his own hard common 
 sense, supported by the very principles of 
 things and by the common sense of innumer- 
 able people before him. This is the case in 
 Germany ; but it is not universally the case 
 in England. 
 
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