THE 
 
 HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 WITH RULES AND DIRECTIONS, 
 
 FOR FINISHING IN NATURAL COLORS AND IN ANTIQUE, 
 MAHOGANY, CHERRY, BIRCH, WALNUT, OAK, ASH, RED- 
 WOOD, SYCAMORE, PINE, AND ALL OTHER DOMES- 
 TIC WOODS. 
 
 FIXISHIXG, FILLING, STAINING, VARNJSBIXQ, AXD FOLJSH1XG. 
 
 ALSO .- 
 MISCELLANEOUS RULES FOR DYEING, GILDING, AND BRONZING 
 
 COMPILED AND EDITED BY 
 
 FRED T. HODGSON, 
 
 Editor of THE OPERATIVE BUILDER. 
 
 Late Editor of " BUILDER AND WOOD-WORKER," and " CABINET-MAKER 
 AND UPHOLSTERER." 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 
 1892. 
 
 Copyright secured 1892, by John H. Phin.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE subject of wood-finishing is one that 'Interest* 
 son who has anything to do with the construction or decoration 
 of buildings, be he architect, carpenter and joiner, painter, 
 decorator or carver, and it is to meet the requirements of these 
 artists and artisans, in these respects, that this work has been 
 prepared. 
 
 In order to make the book a& complete as possible it has been 
 necessary to consult a variety of authorities on the subject, and 
 cull from them whatever in my opinion based on experience I 
 thought best, and here and there add to, or eliminate, such mat- 
 ter as my experience proved to be good on the one hand, and 
 what I thought useless or absurd on the other. 
 
 I am of course aware that there are some methods of finishing 
 that I have not touched upon ; such as the finishing of musical 
 instruments, toys, wooden bric-a-brac, laquered Japanned ware, 
 walking sticks, etc., etc., but as this work is only intended for 
 the finishing of wood-work employed in the construction and 
 completion of buildings, it was thought better to confine it to 
 that department alone; thereby keeping its cost within reasona- 
 ble limits. 
 
 Among the works drawn from I may mention, CABINET-MAK- 
 ING AND UPHOLSTERY, THE BUILDER AND WOOD-WORKERS, CAR- 
 PENTRY AND BUILDING, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, FURNITURE MEN'S 
 MANUAL, SPON'S WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, THE WORKSHOP COMPAN- 
 ION, ENGLISH MECHANIC, HOUSE PAINTING AND DECORATING, 
 THE PAINTERS MAGAZINE AND COACH PAINTER, ENCLYCLOPEDIA 
 BF.ITANICJA, ninth edition, and many other works. 
 
 (3)
 
 4 PKEFACE. 
 
 While believing the work, as now presented to be equal, if not 
 superior to any published on the subject ; I feel that it is defect- 
 ive in some minor points ; as it would be impossible to convey to 
 the mind of the operator all the minutae of each and every process 
 required in wood-finishing; for the perfect wood-finisher can 
 only be the outcome of experience and observation added to the 
 knowledge and instructions derived from the teachings of others. 
 The latter is offered in this volume ; the experience and observa- 
 tion must rest with the learner ; and if he takes advantage of his 
 opportunities and masters all the details offered herewith, there is 
 no valid reason why he should not become an expert WOOD-FIN- 
 ISHER. 
 
 FRED T. HODGSON. 
 
 NEW YORK, 
 
 August, 1892.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 DOUBTLESS, the arts of Carpentry and Joinery were among the 
 oldest in the world, and these arts must have flourished for many 
 centuries before anything like polish or fine finish on wood-work 
 were even thought of. The handles of stone weapons were prob- 
 ably the first specimens of the wood-worker's art, then clubs and 
 other wooden weapons subsequently the "dug-out" and the 
 paddle or oar. Huts or wooden dwellings with doors and shut- 
 ters, roofs and floors did not appear until much later. 
 
 Nature always makes her works fittest for the intended end, 
 and beautiful as well. So long as mankind were in constant con- 
 tact with Nature's works they tried to imitate her methods, but 
 at last this involved two processes, so, that, when they ceased to 
 care for beauty, they grudged the necessary labor required to at- 
 tain it. Therefore, in anything made by the hands of man, with 
 no other motive in view but that of utility, the chances are a 
 thousand to one that beauty will be conspicuous only by its 
 absence. 
 
 That wood plays a very important part in the affairs of man- 
 kind, I scarcely need mention, and nature seems to have well un- 
 derstood our wants for it is claimed by those who claim to know, 
 that about one-third of the earth's surface is covered with trees, 
 all of which are capable of contributing in some form or another 
 to the wants of man. 
 
 In this country, the art of using wood for almost every pur- 
 pose, has gone far beyond anything that has ever been attempted 
 by any other people. The introduction of wood-working 
 machinery for the rapid manipulation of intricate mouldings, 
 
 (5)
 
 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 spirals, flutings, headings and carvings, has in a great measure, 
 had a tendency to elevate the taste of the whole community, 
 though I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order, in 
 the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among our younger 
 workmen ; machinery having almost done away with the neces- 
 sity for the fine kinds of hand and brain work. Fashion, which 
 rules despotically in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or 
 lesser degree, the style and finish of wood-work, and to a certain 
 extent, the kind of wood that must be used for certain purposes. 
 It is but a few years since, when no other wood than clean white 
 pine, would be permitted to do service in a building. Every 
 thing must be pine, floors, doors, windows, and skirtings, even 
 to the bath fittings. Then Dame fashion sent forth her decree, 
 and a mixture of white pine, Norway and Southern pine, was 
 used followed shortly afterward by the abominable mixture of ash, 
 walnut and chestnut. Some architect who desereves well of his 
 country, introduced all walnut and all mahogany fitments ; and 
 at once, people of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its 
 superiority over the " trash -like " mixture at once; and the 
 fashion then of finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. 
 Walnut was found too dark for general purposes and was soon 
 abandoned for the lighter woods ; chestnut, sycamore, ash and 
 oak were then tried, but I believe I voice the opinion of a major- 
 ity of architects when I say that, with the exception of oak, the 
 light colored woods were not successful, from an aesthetic point of 
 view, and it is on record, that many buildings finished in these 
 woods, have recently had their wood-work cleaned and stained 
 to imitate darker woods or have been painted. One of the valu- 
 able qualities of white oak, is, that it grows richer in color as it 
 gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so long as the grain 
 is visible, it mellows and improves with age. This is a quality 
 that no other of our American woods possess in the same degree. 
 All the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the white 
 oak (Quercus alba), possesses it more than any other. Mahogany 
 too, has this quality largely, if true Spanish mahogany is used,
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 but little of this is in the market ; though there are many woods 
 which have the appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany, 
 and both buyer and user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for 
 what they do not get. 
 
 We have often been reproached with willfully or ignorantly ig- 
 noring or destroying our own handsome woods, while importing 
 from abroad at excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties, 
 foreign woods which are much inferior to many of our native 
 productions. This folly prevailed at a time when it was 
 fashionable and even popular to believe there was no merit in 
 domestic productions of any sort, this state of things, how- 
 ever is now at an end ; and in the neighborhood of all large 
 towns, and in country places as well ; a finish in hard wood is the 
 rule, and a finish in pine the exception, if the building to be 
 finished, makes any pretension of being "up to the times." 
 
 With regard to the difference in cost between a finish in the 
 best clear pine, and the best selected hard wood, there 
 is really but little, if any, if we take into consideration dura- 
 bility and good taste. As between pine wood and good 
 well finished hard wood, the disparity in value and merit 
 is so very little as to completely silence any comparison. 
 Between poor pine and poor hard wood the preference should 
 by all means be given to the former ; because, poor pine as 
 it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a manner to 
 disguise them ; whereas the defects of poor hard wood are al- 
 most incurable. The rationale of the subject seems to resolve 
 itself into the following statement. 
 
 Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the free use of 
 hard woods. It is immaterial which are used, but highly 
 essential that the best seasoned woods should be selected ; and, 
 further, that they should be skillfully treated and finished. 
 
 The principal recommendation of hard wood is that it ad- 
 mits of a treatment which renders it impervious to the effects of 
 atmospheric changes, and, therefore can be made more durable 
 and ultimately less expensive than pine wood. A hard wood that
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 is well seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers to 
 close up its pores, and then finished with successive coats of 
 copal varnish, well rubbed in with pumice stone, being finally 
 brought to a higher flat finish, presents the most attractive, serv- 
 iceable and reliable style of wood-work that can be introduced 
 into a house. Well finished hard wood obviates the expense and 
 annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls for in patch- 
 ing, puttying and painting. The most brilliant gloss of finished 
 hard wood can be restored by a skilled person without disturbing 
 the furniture or carpets of a house. 
 
 Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably adapted for cheap 
 work. A good article of common pine, suitable for ordinary 
 work can be procured, and worked at considerably less expense 
 than would be involved in using good hard wood. The use of 
 poor hard wood in any work should not be tolerated or thought 
 of under any circumstances, for the simple reason that it is cer- 
 tain to create annoyance and expense, which no house-owner, 
 especially of moderate priced property, should be subjected to. 
 
 I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary as it will 
 enable the workman to have some idea of the development of the 
 art of joinery, and the transition from the use of pine and the 
 softer woods, to that of the hard woods. 
 
 In the following work it is my intention to take each of the 
 woods most in use ; describe them, say what I think they are 
 best adapted for, and the best way to finish them, as far as my 
 knowledge extends. By this means the reader will have, under 
 one head, all the book contains concerning the particular wood 
 he is about to finish.
 
 PRELIMINARY. 
 
 If the workman who finally finishes wood-work, had the selec- 
 tion of the materials out of which the work is formed ; and 
 wrought the work himself; the following suggestions would 
 scarcely be required, for he would see to it that the material was 
 free from shakes, cracks, worm holes, doze, sap and fractures ; 
 and he would so choose his material, that the full beauty of the 
 grain would show, when the polish coat went on. He would 
 also see, that the work was clean. That is, that no plane marks 
 were visible, no rough spots, or cross-grains noticeable, and that 
 all angles were sharp and definite, all mouldings smooth and not 
 a nail Head or screw top to be seen, nor any point that could sug- 
 gest a nail head. As a rule, however, the workman who puts on 
 the last finishing touches never makes the work, though he is al- 
 ways expected to cover and hide all the faults of "bad workman- 
 ship, bad selection of timber, and a thousand other objectionable 
 things in connection with work, over which he has had no con- 
 trol. In order to aid the finisher as much as possible, I give a 
 few hints herewith, for the use of the workman whose duty it 
 may be to prepare and put up the work to be finished. The sug- 
 gestions given, are equally applicable for hard and soft woods and 
 I trust they will not be out of place. 
 
 First, then see that the material is dry, free from imperfections, 
 of the full sizes required, and of such variety of grain as may be 
 suitable for the purpose intended. Next, make all joints close 
 and as near perfect as possible as on this point rests, in a great 
 measure, the artistic appearance of the work. Make all angles 
 sharp and clean, and all mitered mouldings true and with perfect 
 intersections. Never use glass paper where a scraper can be ap- 
 
 (9)
 
 10 
 
 THE HAKDVVOOD FINISHER. 
 
 plied, and when a large quantity of mouldings of similar contour 
 and size are to be employed ; it is always better to make a scraper 
 their reverse shape, and use it in cleaning and preparing the 
 mouldings for the varnisher, than to use glass paper for the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Wherever possible and suitable I would advise the use of glue 
 in putting up finish, and I may here remark to the workman, that 
 after a little practice in the use of glue and a little knowledge of 
 its worth and capabilities, he will prefer it, to nails or screws 
 where he can apply it ; further on I will give a few hints and sug- 
 gestions on the proper methods of using glue in house finishing. 
 Of course, I am well aware that the use of nails and screws is a 
 necessity in wood finishing, but where the work is to be left 
 natural color, or stained and polished, there should not be the 
 slightest suspicion of a nail or screw head, and to meet this con- 
 dition the skilled workman resorts to several expedients to hide 
 the fastenings among which are the following. These methods, 
 which are similar, are called "sliver-nailing," or sometimes, 
 " chip blind-nailing." In the first method, shown at Fig. i, the 
 
 FIG. 1.
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 11 
 
 wood is raised with a firmer chisel and the screw or nail is then 
 put in place and driven home. At Fig. 2, the " sliver " or chip, 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 is raised with a gouge. In the first instance a sharp knife should 
 be employed to draw lengthwise with the grain two deep cuts the 
 width of the chisel, as this keeps the sides of the chip from split- 
 ting. The chisel should be set at a. steep angle at first till the 
 proper depth is reached, and then made to turn out a cut of even 
 thickness until there is room to drive in a screw or nail. If too 
 sharp a curve is given, the " sliver " is likely to break apart in 
 being straightened out again. In Fig. 2, I show how the 
 " sliver " is raised by using a gouge. To do this nicely a gouge 
 about three-quarters of an inch across the face should be used and 
 the curve should be quick. In this case no knife cut is needed, 
 as the corners of the gouge will cut as it progresses. 
 
 The cut being made and the " sliver " slightly raised as shown 
 in both cuts, the screw or nail may be driven without disturbing 
 either the "sliver" or the cut underneath. See that the head 
 of either screw or nail be sunk beneath surface of recess, so that 
 the " sliver " will fit back in its place without obstruction. Now
 
 12 THE HARDWOOD FINISHES. 
 
 take properly prepared glue and, after warming the "sliver " and 
 recess with a warm cloth, cover the underside of "sliver " and 
 the wood underneath, seeing that the glue is not too thick ; press 
 down the " sliver " in place, then rub with the face of a hammer 
 until the glue holds ; then leave until dry, when the whole may 
 be dressed off and finished. Another way is to glue the " sliver " 
 down and then take a flat piece of pine about an inch thick, and 
 glue over the "sliver," rubbing the pine block to and fro until 
 the glue takes. The block is left on until dry and solid. The 
 pine block may be split off, and the face of the wood dressed 
 clean and finished. . In hard-wood finish for interior housework 
 this latter plan of fastening up stuff is often resorted to. 
 
 When the work has been made secure by any or all the 
 methods described, the next thing to be considered is the smooth- 
 ing and final finishing, and these two processes as here defined, 
 pertain to all sorts of wood, hard or soft, that is intended to be 
 finished in the natural colors or stained. In order to obtain a 
 fine and substantial finish the work must either be smoothed fine 
 with a plane, scraped with a steel scraper, or rubbed down with 
 the finest glass paper. For very hard or irregular grained wood, 
 such as is made into veneers or employed for the finer kinds of 
 work, the cleaning-off process consists first in planing the surfaces 
 with a toothed plane, having a serrated edge like a comb, this 
 tool scratching away the high places and leveling the surface 
 without pulling or splintering the wood, as a common knife will 
 do unless very carefully adjusted and worked. After tooth-plan- 
 ing, the surfaces are scraped with a steel hand scraper until the 
 scratches made by a tooth plane are removed, and the surface is 
 then finished by rubbing with glass-paper of different finenesses. 
 
 Straight-grained hard woods can be cleaned off by planing 
 with a common smoothing plane, and then scraping and rubbing 
 them with glass-paper. Soft wood requires only careful planing 
 and glass -papering, but if scraping is omitted great care must be 
 taken in planing, or else the plane marks will show by reflection 
 when the surface is polished, varnished or painted. I have
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 13 
 
 known of cases where the finishers were wrongly accused of im- 
 proper execution of the work because the finish, after being ex- 
 posed to the changes of temperature occurring in a year, became 
 impaired on account of the appearance of fine cracks running 
 with the grain, differing from those caused by the improper ap- 
 plication of varnish, which always runs across the grain. Among 
 other reasons for this premature impairment, one is that the fine 
 fibres become affected ; sandpapering the wood lengthwise or 
 with the grain will loosen these, but will not break them off. 
 The application of the filler will force them down into the pores, 
 the filler making them adhere perfectly tight for some time ; but 
 the changing of the temperature expands and contracts the wood, 
 thus causing the fibres to loosen and work out, making their ap- 
 pearance in fine cracks and impairing the finish. 
 
 This fault most frequently occurs in open -grained wood 
 especially when employed in the common class of cabinet-work 
 which is transferred to the finishing-room directly upon leaving 
 the machinery where it has been sandpapered lengthwise by a set 
 of cylinders under heavy pressure, and should be guarded against 
 with great care. "This sandpapering," finishers will generally 
 say, " is a matter for the cabinet maker or the carpenter ; daub it 
 over and let it go." It is immaterial to them how the finish 
 holds out after leaving their hands ; but I find it is well for a 
 finisher to do his duty by at least insisting upon having the work 
 lightly cross-sandpapered with paper with No. i. or No. i^ 
 paper. This process will loosen the fibres at both ends ; conse- 
 quently, they will fall off, or, if they do not do so, they should be 
 dusted off previous to filling. 
 
 There is one more source of injury which should be guarded 
 against with great care, and that is finishing over wet timber; nor 
 should steam, water or dampness in any form be allowed to come 
 in contact with the smooth dry surface, as it will raise the grain, 
 making redressing by the joiner a necessity. 
 
 In their natural state all woods are more or less porous consist- 
 ing of bundles of hard fibres, with interstices filled with a softer
 
 14 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 substance. These constitute the grain, and as the hard or soft 
 parts predominate, the wood is said to be hard, fine, or close- 
 grained, or soft and open-grained. To fill these softer parts, or 
 pores, and give to the whole an even, uniform surface, hard, and 
 capable of a brilliant polish, is the object of the finishers' art. 
 This hard, firm surface was formerly gained by the successive ap- 
 plication of several coats of varnish, at least three preliminary 
 coats being required to fill the pores ; the inequalities were then 
 reduced by fine sand or glass-paper, and several additional coats 
 laid on, the last, after becoming thoroughly hard being polished 
 if desired. In this operation, however, a great quantity of var- 
 nish is absorbed by the open pores of the wood, and it is conse- 
 quently so expensive that it is now seldom used. Recourse is 
 therefore had to various plans to render the wood non -absorbent 
 before applying varnishes, and certain compounds called fillers 
 are largely used for this purpose. These I will endeavor to de- 
 scribe, and give the methods of application in the following section. 
 
 WOOD-FILLERS AND WOOD-FILLING. 
 
 In woods employed for house and cabinet work there are two 
 distinct natures, therefore different treatment is required in finish- 
 ing. First, there is the coarse or open-grained wood, having its 
 surface perforated with innumerable pores or cells. In order to 
 obtain a smooth and even finish, these pores should be filled up 
 to a level with the hard grain, or, as the grainer would term them, 
 the "lights" of the wood. Next we have the fine or close- 
 grained wood, which, like the preceding, also contains these 
 pores, but they are of a very fine character, and simply sealing 
 them up with a liquid filler will enable one to produce a fine 
 smooth finish, which we shall consider farther on. 
 
 I will now return to the open or wide-grained wood which re- 
 quires more attention and care than the closer-grained wood, if 
 same results are expected. There are many things that will serve 
 the purpose of fillers and make pretty fair work ; among these may
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHEB. 15 
 
 be mentioned, china clay, silver white and corn starch ; the best 
 of which is probably the last named. This is well adapted to the 
 work being equally useful with light, or when colored with dark 
 wood ; one fault with it, is that it never hardens. China clay 
 the English is the best makes an exceedingly good filler ; it is 
 light in color, very fine and dries as hard as cement. 
 
 There are an hundred ways of preparing fillers for use, and 
 nearly as many different materials for making them ; I would 
 recommend however, that wherever it is possible, that Wheeler's 
 patent quartz filler be used ; though I am aware, that in many 
 cases, it may not be advisable to use it, and to meet these rare 
 conditions the following mixtures may be substituted. 
 
 A filler should be so mixed that the greater portion of the vehicle 
 will penetrate into the wood, leaving the pigment on the surface 
 to be rubbed into the pores and still retain enough combining 
 property to form a hard and impenetrable surface. This de- 
 pends entirely upon the proportions of the vehicles employed, and. 
 as different pigments require different quantities of vehicle, I sel- 
 dom mix filler by actual measurement unless it be in large 
 amounts. I proceed with the mixing by filling my pot 
 two-thirds full of the dry pigment, then add boiled linseed 
 oil, producing the consistency of putty, then dilute with 
 about one part japan and two parts turpentine. Should 
 it be required to keep the wood as light as possible, replace 
 the boiled oil with raw, using a smaller quantity, but a little 
 more japan. For all light wood the light japan should be 
 preferred, although there are many who never use anything but 
 the common brown. Naptha can also be employed in place of 
 the turpentine, somewhat reducing the expense ; but, as naptha 
 evaporates much faster, it prevents the operator from covering an 
 extended surface without running the risk of having it dry hard. 
 This causes difficulty at "rubbing it in" and wiping off the sur- 
 plus, although "wiping off " should not proceed until the filler 
 has flatted or, at least, " set." This to a certain extent the 
 operator can accelerate or retard by omitting or adding a
 
 16 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 small quantity of oil, keeping in view the fact that the smaller 
 the quantity of oil used, the lighter colored, but the less durable, 
 will be the finish. 
 
 Oil is sometimes used as a filler, but its use is not recom- 
 mended ; applied directly to the wood, its effect is to swell the 
 fibres, or "raise the grain," which remains_in that condition un- 
 til the oil becomes entirely dry or disappears. During this time 
 the fibres are gradually shrinking, and consequently moving or 
 checking the varnish. The qualities essential to a good filler are 
 that it shall readily enter the porous portion of the wood, and shall 
 very soon harden and render the wood impervious to the varnish, 
 which should lie smoothly upon the surface, giving brilliancy 
 and effect to the natural beauty of the wood ; and that it shall 
 not raise the grain of the wood ; and that it shall not change the 
 color of the wood. These conditions are satisfactorily fulfilled 
 by few of the home-made fillers ordinarily used in shops, and 
 while I give a number of receipts, my readers are advised that 
 they will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost by purchasing 
 some of the patent fillers now coming into general use. In these 
 fillers very little oil is used and a large amount of dryers, so that 
 the wood becomes perfectly dry and hard in a few hours prevent- 
 ing any swelling or shrinking of the fibres of the wood after the 
 varnish is applied. The following fillers should be allowed to dry 
 until quite hard. A period of about eight hours is usually suffi- 
 cient, but it is better to let the work stand for twenty-four hours 
 before touching it with glass-paper. In applying a filler it 
 should always be borne in mind that the substance of wood con- 
 sists of a multitude of small tubes lying side by side. These tubes 
 or cells are not continuous from top to bottom of the tree, but are 
 comparatively short and taper out to points so that they are 
 thickest in the middle. Most of the common woods have the walls 
 of these tubes so thin that liquid is readily absorbed by them and 
 carried into the substance for some distance. Different kinds of 
 wood differ much in the shape and arrangement of these cells. 
 In filling the pores the first step is taken in providing an abso-
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 17 
 
 lutely smooth surface. We trust mainly to mechanical force in 
 rubbing in, aided by the absorptive powers of the wood. Formerly 
 successive varnishings and rubbings and scrapings took much time 
 and when they were done, the final finish had still to be applied, 
 but the whole process has now been simplified, by using fillers. 
 
 The careful workman will not leave "great daubs" of super- 
 fluous filler here and there on the work, but will see that all cor- 
 ners and heads and quirks of mouldings are well cleaned off be- 
 fore it gets too hard to remove easily, and should there be any 
 nail holes which there ought not to be he will have them filled 
 with properly colored putty or cement and nicely smoothed 
 down before he makes any attempt to put on his finishing coats. 
 
 Among the many homemade fillers I have endeavored to select 
 the best. 
 
 Walnut Filler, For Medium and Cheap Work. xolbs. bolted 
 English whiting, 3 Ibs. dry burnt umber, 4lbs. Vandyke brown, 3 
 Ibs. calcined plaster, ^ Ib. Venetian red, i gal. boiled linseed oil, 
 y<z gal. spirits turpentine, i quart black japan. Mix well and ap- 
 ply with brush ; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean off with 
 rags. 
 
 Walnut Filler! For Imitation Wax-Finish. 5 Ibs. bolted whit- 
 ing, i Ib. calcined plaster, 6 oz. calcined magnesia, i oz. dry 
 burnt umber, i oz. French yellow, i quart raw linseed oil, i 
 quart benzine spirits, ^ pint very thin white shellac. Mix well 
 and apply with a brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. 
 Before using the above filling give the work one coat of white 
 shellac. When dry, sand-paper down and apply the filler. 
 
 Walnut Filler t For First-Class Work. 3 Ibs. burnt umber, 
 ground in oil, i Ib. burnt sienna, ground in oil, i quart spirits of 
 turpentine, i pint brown japan. Mix well and apply with a 
 brush; sand-paper well; clean off with tow and rags. This gives 
 a beautiful chocolate color to the wood. 
 
 Filler for Light Woods, 5 Ibs. bolted English whiting, 3 Ibs. 
 calcined plaster, i Ib. corn starch, 3 oz. calcined magnesia, }/? 
 gallon raw linseed oil, i quart spirits of turpentine, i quart brown 
 2
 
 18 THE HARDWOOD FLSISHER. 
 
 japan, and sufficient French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well 
 and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean 
 off with rags. 
 
 Filler for Cherr , 5 Iks. bolted English whiting, 2 Ibs. cal- 
 cined plaster, i^ oz. dry burnt sienna, i oz. Venetian red, i 
 quart boiled linseed oil, i pint spirits of turpentine, i pint brown 
 japan. Mix well, rub in with excelsior or tow and clean off 
 with rags. 
 
 Filler for Oaki 5 Ibs. bolted English whiting, 2 Ibs. calcined 
 plaster, i oz. dry burnt sienna, y 2 oz. dry French yellow, i quart 
 raw linseed oil, i pint benzine spirits, y z pint white shellac. 
 Mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and 
 clean off with rags. 
 
 Filler for Rosewood 6 Ibs. bolted English whiting, 2 Ibs. cal- 
 cined plaster, i Ib. rose pink, 2 oz. Venetian red, ^ Ib. Vandyke 
 brown, ^ Ib. brandon red, i gallon boiled linseed oil, y 2 gallon 
 spirits of turpentine, i quart black japan. Mix well, apply with 
 brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. 
 
 Another! Stir boiled oil and corn-starch into a very thick 
 paste ; add a little japan, and reduce with turpentine, but add 
 no color for light ash. For dark ash and chestnut use a little raw 
 sienna ; for walnut, burnt umber, add a small quantity of Vene- 
 tian red ; for bay wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more 
 color than is required to overcome the white appearance of the 
 starch, unless it is wished to stain the wood. The filler is worked 
 with brush and rags in the usual manner. Let it dry forty-eight 
 hours, or until it is in condition to rub down with No. o sand- 
 paper without much gumming up, and if an extra fine finish is 
 desired, fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but more 
 of japan and turpentine. 
 
 Anotheri Take three papers corn-starch, one quart boiled 
 linseed oil, two quarts turpentine, one-quarter pint japan ; cut in 
 half the turpentine before mixing ; it will not cut perfectly other- 
 wise. For dark woods add burnt umber to color. When nearly 
 dry rub off with cloths. The above mixture must be used fresh,
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 19 
 
 as it is of no value after it is four or five days old. The cloths 
 used in rubbing as above mentioned should be destroyed imme- 
 diately after use, as spontaneous combustion is likely to ensue 
 from the ingredients employed. 
 
 Preparation of Wood for Staining, Asa filler of wood to be 
 
 stained, apply French plaster of Paris, mixed as a creamy paste 
 with water, and after rubbing in, clean any surplus off; or use 
 whiting finely powdered, or white lead slacked with painters' dry- 
 ing oil, and used as a filler. Another process is that of oiling^ 
 then rubbing crosswise to the grain with a sponge dipped in thin 
 polish composed of melted beeswax, resin, and shellac, and 
 smoothing the surface, when dry, with pumice-stone, or fine glass 
 paper. Embody the work a second time with thicker polish, cr 
 a mixture of polish and varnish. The rubbers will work easily 
 with half the quantity of oil which is ordinarily used. This 
 second body should be rubbed very smooth with moist putty. 
 
 In the use of any filler, care must be taken in the selection of 
 color, for the employment of a light colored filler on dark wood 
 or vice versa would result in gross defacement, as the lighter 
 color would show at the pores of the wood in the one case, and 
 the darker in the other. Therefore, to avoid this the filler should 
 be as near as possible the color of the wood to be filled*. 
 
 As a general thing, paint manufacturers who do not make fillers 
 a specialty use opaque colors to stain their filler, as it requires a 
 less quantity. This will do sometimes, but not always. But 
 those which give to the wood a clear and bright appearance, and 
 therefore produce the best results, are stained with transparent 
 colors : those chiefly employed are burnt umber and sienna, 
 Venetian red, Vandyke brown and charcoal black, the charcoal 
 being ground fine in oil, while the others can be used dry and 
 according to the following recipes with good results : 
 
 In mixing any or all dark fillers the same pigments used for the 
 light (previously described) should be kept for a basis, with suffi- 
 cient coloring to stain it to the desired depth of shade. 
 
 Filler for Walnut is very often stained with burnt umber ; this
 
 20 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 is reddish in hue and gives to the wood a pleasing effect. Others 
 use Venetian red darkened somewhat with lamp black ; this is 
 rather opaque, and tends to deaden the color of the wood. There 
 is another article namely, Vandyke brown which gives fair re- 
 sults. In order to obtain a rich effect, the filler should be made 
 considerably darker than the wood when new. 
 
 Fillers for mahogany, cherry, California redwood, and other 
 woods of similar shade, should be stained with burnt sienna, as 
 they should be finished very clear. It is well to know that char- 
 coal black, and Venetian red will give the desired shade for any 
 dark-colored wood in common use or for all colors in antique, but 
 it does not show up quite as clear as some other combinations. 
 
 For rosewood, charcoal as a stain will suffice, and for vanilla 
 or Brazil-wood the use of rose-pink will give good results. 
 
 The methods of mixing these fillers are quite numerous. It is 
 impossible to give the proportions definitely, owing to the 
 strength of the colors or the transparency of the chief ingredient, 
 but one cannot go astray by following the preceding rules. 
 
 Mix the light pigment to a paste with boiled oil, which must 
 be well stirred up. Then in another pot mix a quantity of the 
 colored pigment with turpentine or naphtha ; and when thor- 
 oughly "cut," or dissolved, add sufficient of it to the light to 
 give the shade required. After this is obtained, dilute with tur- 
 pentine or naphtha and japan, as directed in mixing light filler. 
 This applies to all colors except black, which is seldom obtained 
 finely ground unless in oil, and properly thinned down. 
 
 There are many finishers and firms who exclusively use manu- 
 factured fillers, and in consequence meet with many difficulties 
 as to the shade they require, as different manufacturers use differ- 
 ent colors to stain their filler. But this difficulty can be over- 
 come by a few experiments with the above-named stains. 
 
 As the foregoing gives pretty nearly all the fillers in general use 
 with the exception of some of the manufactured mineral prepara- 
 tions of which I will have more to say further on, I will now pro- 
 ceed to describe the method of application, and for the greater
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 21 
 
 portion of this description, and other matters in this work, I am 
 indebted to Mr. R. A. A. Bahre's papers on the subject contrib- 
 uted to House-Painting and Decorating, a monthly magazine 
 published in the city of New York. 
 
 The secret of this is to do the work well, quickly and econom- 
 ically. These points are dealt with in the following: 
 
 Have your filler mixed to the consistency of ordinary lead 
 paint ; then apply to the prepared surface of the wood with a 
 pound brush, or, what is still better, a 3-0 or 4-0 oval chisel var- 
 nish brush. In applying the filler it is not necessary to cover all 
 the small beads and carvings ; and if the filler be light better 
 avoid coating them at all, and if dark or antique stain them with 
 a little of the filler, much reduced with spirits of turpentine. 
 For this purpose have at hand a small pot with a small fitch or 
 sash tool. 
 
 By not filling the beads and carvings, the varnish is not so 
 liable to run down in them, although sufficient remains to produce 
 a finish equal to the balance of the surface. 
 
 After enough surface has been covered with the filler, so that 
 what has been first applied begins to flatten, the process of wip- 
 ing should immediately begin, using for that purpose either a rag 
 or a handful of waste or Excelsior. If the wood is very open 
 grained, waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has pre- 
 viously been used and is pretty well supplied with filler, rub cross- 
 wise of the grain, rather rubbing it into the grain than wiping it 
 off. After the whole surface has been gone over in this way, 
 take a clean piece of waste or rag (never use Excelsior for wiping 
 clean) and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from filler, 
 using a wooden pick the point of which has been covered with a 
 rag or waste to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It is well to 
 give these picks some attention, as a person once accustomed to 
 certain tools can accomplish more and better work than with 
 tools that feel strange in his hands ; therefore, each finisher 
 should furnish his own pick. As to their construction, these are 
 best made from second-growth hickory, which can be procured
 
 22 THE HARDWOOD FINISHEK. 
 
 at any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken felloes, 
 etc. They are made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one 
 end and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen the 
 oval end like a cold chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which 
 should also be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes 
 worn dull. 
 
 This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can be acceler- 
 ated by the use of a picking brush manufactured especially for 
 that purpose, but it is not advisable to use this on very coarsely 
 grained wood, as it scrubs the filler out of the pores. 
 
 There are several fillers used which do not require this picking 
 and scrubing. One is a liquid filler used chiefly for carriage fin- 
 ishing ; but it can be used successfully on butternut, bird's-eye 
 maple, curly maple, satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from 
 gum and oil. Another is a filler made from finely-ground pumice 
 stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied with a brush, and 
 must be left to dry at least twenty-four hours ; it is then sand- 
 papered smooth, when an oil varnish is applied, rendering it com- 
 pletely transparent. This last can be used only upon light 
 wood. 
 
 The workman, as a matter of course, will understand that dif- 
 ferent woods, require slightly different treatment, and the finer- 
 grained woods, among which are the pines, maples, cedars and 
 poplars, of different varieties, and birch, cherry, beech, syca- 
 more, white box, satinwood, etc., require no filling, not that a 
 filling would prove detrimental to the finish except upon stained 
 work or white holly, which in order to maintain a clear color 
 should never be filled but, from the condition of all fine wood, 
 it is superfluous, and only causes unnecessary labor and expense. 
 At this point it will be convenient to pause to consider the sub- 
 ject of mineral or prepared wood-fillers. 
 
 I think I have prepared the mind of the reader to receive the 
 fact, that of all the several manufactured preparations in the 
 market I think that Wheeler's patent filler made by the Bridgeport 
 Wood-Finishing Company, is decidedly the best and the most
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 23 
 
 economical to use, for many reasons, the chief one being its cer- 
 tainty of action. A great deal of time and money have been 
 wasted in attempting to make good fillers, to no purpose, and a 
 great variety, as I have shown of substances as chalk, plaster of 
 Paris, corn starch, etc., etc., have been mixed with various vehicles 
 and rubbed into the wood with but indifferent success. Most of 
 these compounds labor under the disadvantages of forming chem- 
 ical compounds with the oil and consequently they shrink very 
 much on drying, so that though the surface may appear smooth 
 when they are first put on, waves and hollows make their appear- 
 ance as they dry. These waves having round edges, are difficult 
 to fill, the second coat building up as much or more upon the 
 level spaces as in the hollows. It sometimes seems almost im- 
 possible with these fillers in the latter coats to make the hollows 
 hold any substance, the filler clinging chiefly to the surfaces. 
 
 I have thought it necessary to show how the ordinary or home- 
 made fillers act, and fail in order to show by contrast how much 
 easier it is to work efficiently with the mineral fillers. The min- 
 eral quartz, when mixed with oil, probably shrinks less in drying 
 than any other similar known mixture. If a surface of wood be 
 covered with this and then rubbed, the sharp and angular parti- 
 cles of the silica imbed themselves in the pores of the wood, clos- 
 ing them up, while the oil cements them fast. This is the foun- 
 dation of Wheeler's wood filler, and which we recommend for 
 use by all wood finishers. When the pores have been filled 
 with the silica, and are cemented fast by the proper mixture of 
 gums and oils, the difficult part of the work is done. 
 
 After a good surface has been made upon the article it is ready 
 for the filler, which is to be selected according to the color de- 
 sired. In putting the filler on it is thinned with turpentine until 
 about like flowing varnish, and is applied with a brush. Only so 
 much of the surface is covered as can be cleaned off before it 
 hardens. When it has set so that the gloss has left the surface, it 
 is at once rubbed off with " excelsior " or shavings, going across
 
 24 THE HA11DWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 the grain with the strokes. If the filler dries too fast or too light 
 -a little raw linseed oil may be used in it. 
 
 For a nicer job the filler is rubbed in with a rubber, made by 
 gluing a piece of sole or belt leather on the face of a block of 
 wood and trimming the edges flush with the block. The rubbing 
 is done after the filler has set and before it is cleaned off. If it 
 dries off too light, a little white japan may be added on nice 
 work. The light-colored filler should be used on all work where 
 light and dark woods are used together. The filling, it must be 
 understood, is done by the silica, which will often be found in 
 the shape of a sediment in the bottom of the mixture. Eight 
 hours is generally considered a sufficient time for the filler to 
 dry. 
 
 When the work with the filler is done the surface of the wood 
 ought to be like so much ground glass. Such portions of the 
 wood as show a solid grain need very little filler. On Georgia 
 pine, after the filler is dry, a little rubbing in the direction of the 
 grain with very fine sand-paper is an advantage. If the filler has 
 been properly used the desired results will be obtained with little 
 labor. 
 
 The wood is now in a condition to receive the final coat- 
 ings. Whether the work is to be polished or " dead finished," 
 do not employ shellac or " French polish." If a " dead " sur- 
 face is wanted, wax finish is easily put on, and as easily rubbed to 
 a good surface. F. W. Devoe & Co. prepare a wax finish, 
 which is a convenient preparation of wax and gums, and can be 
 applied with a brush and then rubbed down with a woolen cloth, 
 tied up to make a hard rubber, until a fine lusterless surface is ob- 
 tained. With mahogany and similiar woods this greatly im- 
 proves the color of the wood. When this has dried, which will be 
 in the course of a few hours, the work is ready for use. The wax 
 finish, like many of the furniture creams, has the advantage that it 
 can be put on in a few minutes at any time to brighten up work when 
 it has become dull. A piece of work prepared in this way, after
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 20 
 
 four operations, will present as fine an appearance as the best 
 cabinet work found in the furniture stores. 
 
 The materials which have been described, it will be noticed, 
 are both manufactured articles. The prepared filler is indispens- 
 able ; the wax finish can be made by the mixing together, by the 
 aid of heat, white wax and spirits of turpentine until they are of 
 the consistency of thick paste. Another wax finish is made of 
 beeswax, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil in equal parts The 
 addition of two drams of Alkanet root to every twenty ounces of 
 turpentine darkens and enriches the color. The root is to be put 
 into a little bag and allowed to stand in the turpentine until it is 
 sufficiently colored. 
 
 An altogether more durable surface can be made by a little 
 change in the treatment. When the wood is filled instead of apply- 
 ing the wax, take some hard oil finish, a preparation manufactured 
 by Messrs. Berry Bros., of Detroit, Mich., and put it on with a brush 
 precisely like varnish. The coat should not be too heavy, espe- 
 cially on vertical surfaces, and the brush used ought to be a good one. 
 This material gives a most brilliant polish. By rubbing it down 
 with a woolen cloth and pumice stone powder it can also be made 
 dull. Hard-oil finish does not spot with hot or cold water, is 
 slightly elastic and is not injured by pretty severe soaking in water. 
 It gets hard in twelve hours or less in warm weather and over 
 night in winter time. It is one of the best surfaces which can be 
 used, and has the advantage of working very well in the hands of 
 one who is not an expert in the art of finishing wood or hand- 
 ling varnish. It will make a very fair surface applied direct to 
 the unfilled wood, in which case it is a good substitute for shellac. 
 
 Wax finish has the -advantage that scratches can be easily re- 
 paired without sending to the cabinet maker or the painter. 
 Here a word of advice to the carpenter who does any work of this 
 character may save him some trouble and make way for the fur- 
 ther use of the same kind of finish. When the woodwork of a 
 house is treated in this way, be sure and leave a little bottle of the 
 wax polish with the housekeeper, with directions as to the method
 
 26 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 of using it. In sending out a "what-not," book-case, or any 
 other article of similar kind, put up a little bottle of the polish 
 and show the owner, or, preferably the lady of the house, how to 
 repair any little scratch and make the work look " as good as new." 
 The fresh appearance of the work will be a good advertisement, 
 while it will prevent complaints and dissatisfaction that often 
 follow the use of work which, when injured, cannot be restored. 
 
 It may be said that either of the methods of finishing involves a 
 great deal of labor. This is true ; but the amount is not much 
 greater than is needed for three coats of paint, and the cost of 
 the paint would probably be more than the cost of the finish. 
 The labor in one case can be of a cheap -character, and in the 
 other an experienced painter must be employed. The profit upon 
 the " dead finish " can go into the pocket of the carpenter, while 
 that of the painting must in any event be divided between the 
 carpenter and painter, or belong to the latter altogether who is, 
 after all the proper person to do the work. 
 
 I have now said about all that is necessary in the matter of 
 " fillers " and "filling," but, as sometimes happens, the old 
 system of "sizing," has to be resorted to for certain kinds of 
 work, I give herewith a formula for its construction and use : 
 
 Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to the surface of 
 wood to prevent absorption of the varnish. The kind of material 
 used for the size is not important, the object being only to prevent 
 absorption by a very thin coat of some substance not soluble in the 
 varnish. For dark-colored wood, thin size, made by reducing 
 ordinary glue with water, is generally used ; but for lighter- 
 colored surfaces a white size is used, which is prepared by boil- 
 ing white kid or other leather or parchment-cuttings, in water 
 for a few hours, or until it forms a thin jelly like substance, 
 which is reduced with water to a thin consistency, and used in a 
 tepid state. Sometimes solutions of isinglass, or tragacanth are 
 employed in like manner. Unlike the best fillers, sizes of any 
 kind do not improve the finish, and are sometimes a positive 
 detriment to it. They are used solely as an economy to reduce
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 27 
 
 the quantity of the varnish needed ; and their use is not recom- 
 mended for the best work. 
 
 STAINING, FINISHING, VARNISHING AND POLISHING. 
 
 The following will apply to nearly all stained work with the ex- 
 ception that the coloring materials must be chosen to suit the 
 results desired ; directions for mixing and preparing will be 
 found under the head of woods. 
 
 Staining, or dyeing, though not very modern, has grown in 
 popularity of late. This is due not so much to the natural 
 imitation of valuable wood as to the beautiful colors in 
 which it may be produced for example, the deep red, 
 generally represented as mahogany, which forms a handsome and 
 lively contrast with nearly any color or style of finishing. In 
 house interiors, however, it has not been so extensively used as 
 it has on furniture, owing to the preference for the light wood 
 for house finishing. But, despite its handsome color, at the 
 present time it is obliged to yield to the more artistic and substan- 
 tial old oak, which, it is generally anticipated, will continue in 
 vogue a greater length of time than did the stained work. An ob- 
 jection to stained work is that after it has been in service a com- 
 paratively short time the finish and stain wear off from those por- 
 tions most exposed to severe usage. The appearance is thereby 
 destroyed, and it cannot be restored by refinishing. Another 
 objection to stains is that they fade, a fault to which all these 
 bright colors are subject. 
 
 Whether this style of work is la, mode or not, it will always 
 remain in greater or less demand. A few details of staining will, 
 therefore, be due. Now, if the object of staining is to imitate 
 natural wood, it would be found desirable to procure specimens 
 of the woods to be imitated. Excellent and most convenient 
 specimens can be obtained at any scroll-saw supply house at a 
 trifling expense. Commence by oiling and varnishing the speci- 
 men to bring out the color, or apply a darkener if an antique
 
 28 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 color is required. As a darkener for cherry, apply with a brush 
 aqua-ammonia diluted with water according to the depth of 
 color required. This is probably the best mixture for all red 
 woods, as it develops the colors to their utmost intensity. Lime- 
 water and lye (potash solution) are also frequently used, although 
 lye should be used cautiously ; for if applied too strong, it 
 destroys the red color after developing it. Iron fillings or 
 shavings boiled in vinegar produce a darkener for oak, and are 
 frequently employed in producing the "darks" or shades in 
 sixteenth century finish. 
 
 After darkening with a water solution the specimens should not 
 be oiled, but after having thoroughly dried should receive a 
 coat of shellac, and, when dry, a coat of varnish. Having the 
 colors well brought out, they will be found of great utility in pre- 
 paring a stain of accurate shade. Now, the secret in preparing a 
 good stain is that it should be perfectly transparent, which may 
 be produced in either oil or water colors. The latter, however, 
 with a few exceptions, will be found to give the best results, for 
 several reasons. In the first place, it penetrates deeper into the 
 wood, thus producing a more substantial finish. Next, the wood 
 employed is generally hard and fine, and by an application of 
 water stain the grain is raised, whereby the "lights " or veins 
 are more prominently brought out, imparting to the finish a more 
 vivid appearance, which cannot be so effectually produced in 
 oil colors. Still another advantage in water stain is the saving of 
 time in its application; for when properly prepared, it can be used 
 for dipping, which is the method practised in our cabinet shops 
 for staining much furniture. It can also be applied with 
 a brush, although good results by this method are accomplished 
 only when skill and practice are exercised. In applying it a four 
 or-five-inch flat bristle brush would be found the right size, ena- 
 bling the operator to cover over any one part or section before the 
 stain penetrates the wood. It will be found less difficult to apply 
 oil stain uniformly with a brush, and it is, therefore, generally em- 
 ployed in staining soft-wood and especially the different species
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 29 
 
 of pine, all of which absorb water stain in spots, giving it a 
 daubed appearance. 
 
 The first thing to be considered is the receptacle or vessel in 
 which the water or acid stains are to be prepared. This should 
 be formed of a material which is unaffected by the corrosive ac- 
 tion of acid. Porcelain-lined iron or glazed earthenware in the 
 way of kettles or common stew crockery are commonly used. As 
 the latter are often cracked by the heat required in boiling, it is 
 safer and cheaper in the end to use porcelain-lined kettles. 
 
 I need not say that care and cleanliness are two very necessary 
 qualities in the preparation and application of stains, for a good 
 workman is always a careful and a clean workman. 
 
 In finishing "rubbing" may be considered one of the most es- 
 sential qualities, since it gives to the varnish when laid upon the 
 wood a degree of smoothness not otherwise attainable ; for by the 
 use of the brush alone minute furrows and ridges are left upon the 
 plastic surface of the varnish, and although good varnish posses- 
 ses in itself a high gloss, the gloss is not nearly so agreeable to 
 the eye as the brilliant polish of which rubbing is the prelimin- 
 ary. The reduction of these ridges and furrows is accomplished 
 by means of finely-powdered pumice-stone moistened with raw 
 linseed oil, applied with a piece of haircloth or other coarse and 
 fibrous material. For rubbing large flat surfaces the haircloth is 
 sometimes folded over a block of convenient size, but this is not 
 practicable for articles of small size or irregular shape. In rub- 
 bing, considerable force must be used, but the stroke must be 
 steady, and as long as possible, and great care should be taken to 
 rub the surface uniformly, as in case it is rubbed unevenly the 
 varnish is liable to be worn away quite to the wood in some 
 places, and the perfect smoothness that is the beauty of a good 
 finish will thus be impossible. The edges especially are liable to 
 be rubbed bare, and should be carefully treated. The crevices 
 and hollows of carvings are rubbed by means of hard-pointed 
 sticks of various convenient sizes. The rubbing should be con- 
 tinued until the entire surface appears perfectly smooth and free
 
 30 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 from marks of any kind. The surplus pumice-stone and oil 
 should all be carefully removed from the surface by means of 
 rags, and the work may then be cleaned up with a little sweet oil 
 well .rubbed in, and retouched with a cloth slightly dampened in 
 alcohol, which serves to remove any remaining oil from the sur- 
 face. If the article has veneered panels they are now ready for 
 the final processes of "polishing," or " flowing," processes, 
 whatever the kind of " finishing," the workman should make it a 
 point where possible, to have a suitable temperature. No good 
 finishing can be done under 60, and it is hard to get the tem- 
 perature too high for this work. The wood should be warm and 
 perfectly dry, and visitors,, flies, dirt, dust and dampness should 
 rigorously be excluded from the room while the work is in prog- 
 ress. 
 
 The word "shellacking" has become of late very common 
 with finishers and is often applied to first coating or "sizing," 
 whether shellac be used or not. This, doubtless, arises from the 
 fact of the general employment of shellac for first coating and up 
 to the present time has proved the most suitable medium discov- 
 ered for the purpose. 1 again quote from R. A. Bahre's papers 
 on this subject. 
 
 Before proceeding with the application of shellac, it will be 
 necessary to investigate the condition of the surface of the wood, 
 taking care that no successive application is made before the pre- 
 ceding one is perfectly dry. 
 
 The dry condition of water-stained work may easily be deter- 
 mined by the uniformily dead appearance it presents, especially 
 in the corners and angles. A surface treated with oil stain, when 
 dry, will impart no color to the finger if brought in contact, and 
 is effected in twelve or fifteen hours according to the amount of 
 japan used. 
 
 The condition of a filled surface cannot be so readily observed, 
 for in wiping off the filler from the surface, the moisture is like- 
 wise wiped off, and the surface is dry to the touch. But let us 
 examine the pores, which have become small receptacles filled to
 
 THE HAEDWOOD FINISHER. 31 
 
 the brim with a fatty substance. We find that the bulk of the 
 substance in these pores does not dry so fast as were it spread out 
 in a thin layer upon an extended surface. When regard is not 
 paid to this condition and the surface is prematurely coated, it 
 will be but a matter of a short time before the effects will become 
 manifest by the cracking of the varnish, caused by the varnish 
 becoming dry before the filler. We shall have something more 
 to say on this subject later. 
 
 The safest way to ascertain whether a filler has become per- 
 fectly dry is to drop, while filling, a few drops upon a board and 
 let them remain until they become hard enough to resist the pres- 
 sure of the finger nail. The length of time required will depend 
 upon the amount of oil contained in the filler. 
 
 Upon acquiring this degree of hardness the filler in the work 
 may be considered dry, and ready to receive the first coating. 
 This coating, which should be employed on all first-class work, 
 is an alcoholic solution of gum shellac. 
 
 Among the advantages of this solution are, first, that it dries 
 very rapidly, thus preventing it penetrating and sinking into the 
 pores. Besides levelling the surface, it forms a close impene- 
 trable body for receiving the varnish. By reason of this property 
 it is also used for sealing up the pores of fine grained wood by 
 applying two coats. On account of its best solvent (alcohol), it 
 is indispensable for developing, certain stains, especially the ani- 
 line and other water stains which do not contain lye or glue. 
 Alcohol does not affect the stains nor the glue ; for this reason an 
 alkali stain should first receive a light coat of oil, while the glue 
 stains require a strong glue size for their development. 
 
 The second advantage of shellac solution is its exceedingly 
 hard drying qualities ; as it dries in five or six hours sufficiently 
 hard to sandpaper, and in eight or ten hours becomes so hard 
 that the finger nail can make no impression upon it, the surface 
 is then ready for the second coat. In addition to this, its quality 
 of hardness makes it indispensable for the first coating of all 
 resinous woods, especially the pines, of which it not only seals
 
 32 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 up the pores but prevents the exudation of the resin while it sand- 
 papers as fine as satin. 
 
 In preparing shellac for general use, dissolve in a gallon of 
 alcohol (ethylic alcohol, spirits of wine) four pounds of the 
 orange or five pounds of the white shellac, using the white upon 
 light wood if a clean or clear job is required, and the orange if 
 the color is immaterial or is required to be darkened, as the cost 
 of the orange gum is about forty per. cent. less. The clearness of 
 the orange gum depends much upon its freshness, and it is there- 
 fore undesirable to prepare it until it is wanted for use, when the 
 dissolving of the gum can be accelerated by warming and con- 
 tinually agitating the mixture. Wood spirit (methylic alcohol) 
 also dissolves this gum and is frequently substituted for pure 
 alcohol, its cost being about one-third; but on account of dis- 
 agreeable odor and deleterious effect it is rejected for first-class 
 work. 
 
 The application of shellac is to an experienced finisher the 
 most agreeable and least difficult part of finishing ; but to a be- 
 ginner it is often most aggravating and discouraging, it being 
 very difficult to prevent lapping or doubling up. Especially is 
 this the case when the lac is darker than the wood, as, for in- 
 stance, in shellacking pine shutters with orange shellac, when the 
 attempt of the beginner usually results in a total botch. An ex- 
 perienced hand will produce a clear and even effect by proceed- 
 ing in the following manner : Having in view the fact that the 
 wood is very soft, he will dilute his lac somewhat with the spirits, 
 to make it work free. Then, with a double-thick flat-chiselled 
 bristle brush about two inches wide he will apply a very free coat 
 to the closed slats, on the bar side, including the small ogee edge 
 of the frame, taking care to daub none on the flat surface. Then, 
 quickly turning to the other side and opening the slats, he will 
 finish and lay off the sides, and, again closing the slats, proceed 
 by coating them upon the plain (non-bar) sides, including the 
 other edge of the frame. He will then return to the bar side, 
 open, lay off and finish ; then, running the brush up and down
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. S3 
 
 the bar, complete that portion of the work. It may be laid down 
 as a rule that one section should be completed before another is 
 started. When one portion is coated, proceed with the frame by 
 coating the outside edges and then the centre rail, cutting the 
 joints clean. Then begin at one end of the style and follow 
 around until the starting-point is reached, being always careful to 
 complete as you go on. 
 
 It is sometimes required to finish shutters in a hanging condi- 
 tion, but, on account of the speed required in applying the shel- 
 lac, there is much danger of spattering the walls or windows. If, 
 therefore, they are hung with loose joint butts, it will be found 
 economical to remove them and finish them in a separate room. 
 
 We have thus far referred to the shellacking of pine shutters 
 with orange shellac. If one has acquired proficiency in this point, 
 all the remainder will come very easy to him, especially when 
 using white shellac (transparent), which does not show the laps 
 after varnishing. The whole secret of shellacking may be con- 
 densed in adherence to the following simple rules : First, to keep 
 a wet edge to work to; second, always to work to a joint before 
 stopping ; and third, never to repeat with the brush after becom- 
 ing partly set, thereby causing it to " double up." 
 
 There are several substitutes for shellac, but the operator should 
 remember they are only "substitutes," and cannot compare with 
 the " real thing " and only the man who takes his work at starva- 
 tion prices, will use the " subs," unless such be specified. 
 
 Oil shellac, which is used to a great extent, is generally sup- 
 posed to be' gum shellac dissolved in a volatile oil, and in quality 
 virtually equal to alcohol shellac. This supposition is wrong 
 however, for the gums employed are of an inferior sort, being 
 chiefly taken from our pines and dissolved in turpentine or naph- 
 tha, and having a little linseed oil and chemical dryer thrown in. 
 When dry it is very brittle, easily spoils and will not resist the 
 action of water on the grain, and is utterly useless as a substan- 
 tial finish. This so-called shellac, is applied in the same manner 
 as varnish. 
 3
 
 34 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 Glue size proves most effectual in holding out varnish, and 
 while the work is new, it is not easily marred. In the course of 
 two or three years, however, the glue decays, when the slightest 
 bruise causes the varnish, size and all to give. For developing 
 water-stains containing alkali it is quite effective. 
 
 "Hard oil finish" so-called, is simply an application of a 
 quick-drying brittle varnish, that will polish with rubbing ; for 
 inside work it contains very little "oil" while that prepared for 
 outside purposes, contains more "oil," is more expensive, dries 
 slower and is more durable. 
 
 It matters but little whether we employ shellac or a substitute, 
 or even varnish for first coating. It should be allowed to dry and 
 then receive a rubbing to take off all the grit or roughness which 
 may have been caused by a little filler remaining on the surface 
 or dust settled upon it before dry. Whatever it may be, it should 
 be smoothed before applying a coat of varnish. For this purpose 
 No. o sandpaper will be found the best adapted, but, as the ordi- 
 nary sandpaper is very heavy, and therefore stiff, we are liable to 
 cut through the edge in using it. Neither does it conform easily 
 to mouldings and corners. It is therefore advisable to employ the 
 thin paper especially prepared for the purpose ; but if it cannot 
 be obtained, the heavy should be split that is, by detaching ore 
 or two layers of the back paper. This can be accomplished in the 
 following manner : Hold one corner of the sheet between the 
 thumb and forefinger; rub that corner briskly with a moistened 
 finger of the other hand, and the layers will then become de- 
 tached and can easily be separated by running the finger down 
 the edge between the two layers. Then, holding the paper down 
 upon a flat surface, the layers can be drawn asunder across the 
 whole width of the sheet. By tearing the sheet once lengthwise 
 and twice crosswise, we have pieces of a convenient size for use. 
 As new paper scratches more or less, it will be advisable to rub 
 the grit off upon another piece ; then by moistening the back we 
 are able conveniently to get into the corners without scouring the 
 edges through. Should the sandpaper still scratch (which it fre-
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 35 
 
 quently does when inferior stock is used for coating), haircloth 
 will do instead, using the hair side on the surface. This can be 
 obtained at any furniture repair shop. 
 
 A very important part of hardwood finishing is the varnishing. 
 Simple as it looks, it is extremely difficult to properly lay on a 
 coat of varnish, and experienced varnishers will tell us that this is 
 so. Scarcely two varnishers work alike, and it takes time and 
 patient experience with any particular varnish to learn its pecul- 
 iarities. We cannot teach how the varnishing should be done, 
 but we can give a few general directions that may prove helpful. 
 In the first place, do not be afraid of your varnish ; do not get 
 excited if it threatens to give trouble. I have seen a carriage- 
 painter tremble so when applying a strange varnish that he ap- 
 peared as though in an ague-fit, and it is needless to say that it 
 was a bad job. Apply the varnish quickly and freely, and do 
 not work it much; the less varnish is worked after being applied, 
 the higher will be the lustre. Remember this, for it is true and 
 very important to know. Flow it on freely with a flat brush of 
 suitable width, and use a badger or fitch hair brush ; a fine elas- 
 tic or half-elastic chiselled bristle brush is very good. I mention 
 the badger and the fitch more because they will outwear any bris- 
 tle varnish brush and of course are cheaper. 
 
 A pound or any other bristle brush will answer for varnishing 
 grained or painted work, on which the varnish is generally scrub- 
 bed, but in varnishing natural wood it should be laid on so as to 
 level the surface, for which purpose fine-haired brushes are neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Having the surface of the wood filled and shellacked, we have 
 a ground-work suitable for any class of work from piano polish to 
 cheap one-coat work. In selecting the varnish for the latter 
 which is generally left in the gloss use a " finishing" varnish; 
 that is, a varnish retaining a bright gloss when dry. However, 
 the varnishes with the brightest gloss are generally not very 
 durable. When successive coats are to be applied either in 
 oil finishing /'. e., oil rubbing or polishing, a varnish is
 
 36 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 required that dries hard, but not brittle, the latter especially 
 being characteristic of cheap gum varnish, such as colophony 
 common pitch or rosin poor copal, etc. If the varnish con- 
 "tains much oil, it will render it elastic, making it difficult to rub ; 
 and therefore a good rubbing varnish should be made either of 
 amber or of copal, the former being especially adapted to the 
 manufacture of polishing varnish, as the gum is susceptible of a 
 very fine polish. Varnishes to suit almost any purpose are 
 generally obtainable at the dealers. We never can expect good 
 results if we put a hard varnish over an elastic one or apply a 
 coat before the previous one is dry. These are the main causes 
 for varnishing cracking. The same trouble also arises when var- 
 nish is applied too heavily, so that the coat forms an enamel on 
 the surface, remaining soft underneath, and then drying very 
 slowly. While drying, the surface enamel contracts, consequent- 
 ly drawing the cracks open quite wide. 
 
 It is impossible to lay down rules which by simply being read 
 would make a practical varnisher of a person, as varnishing requires 
 much judgment and practice, but a few "tips" may not go 
 amiss ; at any rate, they assist in completing the subject. 
 
 We will now enter a room that has been sandpapered as 
 described previously, having a temperature of about seventy 
 degrees. We sprinkle with water, not flooding the floor, as a 
 very damp atmosphere would prove injurious to the gloss of the 
 varnish, then with a painter's duster carefully dust off all the 
 work. This generally ends the preparation, but in order to re- 
 move all the dust it requires wiping off with a damp chamois 
 skin ; and when all is clean and dry, we are ready for the varnish. 
 For a bucket or pot use one of the clean tin pails known as 
 " two-quart-lunch pails." Then, to prevent the varnish from 
 running down the outside by scraping the brush over the edge, 
 a bar should be soldered across the pail about ^ inch from 
 the top and a little on one side from the centre. Manufac- 
 turers claim that varnish should be used just as it is sold, and 
 we find that nearly all good quality of varnishes work freely
 
 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHER. 37 
 
 without diluting, but how to obtain good results with some of 
 their cheap stuff without diluting remains a mystery to finishers. 
 If, therefore, the varnish is of a poor, thick quality, add turpen- 
 tine until it spreads freely with your " fitch brush," which, if the 
 work is very complicated, should be two inches in width ; and if 
 the work be plain, a three-inch could be used to advantage. 
 Varnish should be applied freely or, rather, flowed on, and not 
 rubbed out, or " skinned" on, as finishers term it. In ap- 
 plying the varnish, first run freely over a panel, then run over it 
 crosswise. If there are projections rising with an angle, or any 
 grooves or depressions, as in mouldings, they will retain more 
 varnish than the flat surface, and to prevent running down in 
 them it requires drawing out. This is done by stabbing the 
 brush into the angles and at the same time drawing it out toward 
 the flat surface ; and when this is done, the whole length of the 
 angle, we finish by laying off up and down. This should com- 
 plete this portion of the work without being obliged to touch it 
 again, and thus proceeding until a section of panels have been 
 finished, when the frame should be gone over. In coating the 
 panels the surface of the frame is very often daubed in fact this 
 is nearly inevitable and to coat over this would form fat edges ; 
 so we shall again make it fluid by mixing it with the fresh var- 
 nish, and this is done by "pounding" it up well or, as a 
 painter would call it, " stabbing " it when it can be evenly laid 
 off. The amount a surface will hold without running can be 
 ascertained only by experience and judgment ; although much de- 
 pends upon the way it is laid off, as a greater quantity can be ap- 
 plied if laid off up and down than horizontally, as the brush- 
 marks give occasion for the varnish to "sag." But if such should 
 take place after the varnish is partly set, it could be stopped by 
 stabbing with the brush rubbed out dry, although this will leave 
 the surface pitted, but, at any rate, much easier to rub out than a 
 run. The brushes, when not in use, should be kept in varnish or 
 washed out clean, which can be done by rubbing them out well
 
 38 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 with kerosene and then washing them with soap and water until 
 perfectly clean. 
 
 Should it be desired after applying one coat of varnish, to 
 proceed with the oil finish, that is " oil rubbing or polishing," 
 we should first take into consideration the condition of our sur- 
 face. Providing that one coat has filled the little depressions of 
 the grain to a perfect level, we are prepared to proceed with the 
 rubbing ; but this levelling is seldom effected with one coat, re- 
 quiring, as a rule, at least two coats for fine wood and three or 
 four coats for coarse-grained woods. The main object, however, 
 is to form a coating sufficiently heavy to prevent rubbing it 
 entirely off from the elevations in getting it down to that in the 
 depressions. 
 
 As to the best method of rubbing and polishing as much or 
 more diversity of opinion exists than in any other branch of the 
 trade. This is probably due to the scheming and experimenting 
 of the so-called " rushers," who get nervous at seeing a man take 
 sufficient time to rub down a surface, and thus devise some new 
 plan for hustling out the work, and generally, when the 
 gloss is removed, the job is completed regardless of appearance. 
 But nevertheless in all of these snide finishes there is generally a 
 point or two of importance for us. We have for instance, a dead 
 finish produced by adding wax to varnish. This is made by 
 scraping the wax fine, putting it into a dish and covering it with 
 a good turpentine japan placed over a fire to dissolve, but with a 
 moderate heat. When dissolved, add twice its amount of var- 
 nish and apply with a fitch flowing brush. Although this does 
 not produce a rubbed finish, it produces quite a clever imitation, 
 and we can use it to advantage on the slats of shutters and on 
 elaborately carved capitals, etc. It is not infrequently employed 
 in floor finishing. 
 
 There is a method practised which removes the gloss from the 
 varnish by rubbing with a mixture of oil and pumice-stone ap- 
 plied with a furniture scrub brush, or, for a large flat surface, a 
 commercial stencil brush No. 12 or 14 is frequently used dip-
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 39 
 
 ping the brush into the mixture and scrubbing it on to the sur- 
 face ; three or four scrubs are generally sufficient, depending par- 
 ticularly upon the cleaning off with wadding completely to remove 
 the grass. Unless the varnish has been very cleanly applied and 
 is perfectly level, it does not amount to much, for it does not 
 smooth the surface. 
 
 Others, again, first sandpaper the surface with fine sandpaper, 
 then rub it a trifle with oil and pumice, using a piece of burlap or 
 old felt boot for a rubber. The only way yet discovered by 
 which to level the surface is to rub it down with felt. For this 
 operation we provide ourselves with a set of rubbers which may 
 be made as follows : First take a piece of white Spanish felt one 
 inch thick and about 3x5 in size ; split it in two, and keep one 
 half for the large plain surfaces. Then again split the other half, 
 obtaining two thin pieces, reserving one for mouldings, etc., to 
 which it will easily conform. We now want some tools to get 
 into small corners so we whittle sticks about six or eight inches 
 long and in shape of a triangle, half round and oblong ; then, 
 cutting the ends square, glue a piece of thin felt upon it, allow- 
 ing the glue to dry thoroughly before putting in oil. For 
 getting around in the bottom of carvings, we whittle a stick of 
 basswood bark, and, moistening it, stub the end to a pulp. A 
 scrub brush will also be necessary to remove the gloss from the 
 beads and around the edges of the panels, etc. The oil generally 
 used for rubbing is golden oil, known as machine oil, although 
 crude petroleum, raw linseed and cotton seed oils are often used, 
 but none of the latter cut so rapidly or clean off so well as the 
 golden. 
 
 Pumice-stone No. o is generally used, although some prefer 
 No. oo or ooo, but these are quite fine, and therefore do not cut 
 very fast. In applying the oil and pumice, some prefer dipping 
 the rubber first into the oil, then into the powder, and thus con- 
 vey it to the surface, while others apply the oil with a piece of 
 wadding, then sprinkle on the powder. 
 
 To excel in rubbing, like all other branches of the trade, re-
 
 40 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 quires practice, always remembering that if the rubber is allowed 
 to lag over the edge while drawing back and forward it will rub 
 the edge through. And, furthermore, the work should always be 
 rubbed lengthwise the grain, so if it be necessary at the ends of 
 panels next to the rails, where it is generally inclined to be rough, 
 to rub crosswise, it should be rubbed down crosswise, but finished 
 lengthwise, to take away the scratchy appearance. Before at- 
 tempting to rub, the varnish should resist the impression of the 
 finger-nail, or when rubbed before dry it will again flow, causing 
 bright spots to reappear, generally known as "sweating," and 
 would require re-rubbing after becoming dry. An experienced 
 hand could easily tell when his surface was sufficiently rubbed by 
 raising the felt or edge and drawing a clean streak the length of 
 the work, and if the surface has lost its pitted appearance the rub- 
 bing is complete and ready to be cleaned off. This is accom- 
 plished easier if done directly, not allowing the oil to soak and 
 soften the varnish, which causes the surface to appear mottled and 
 smeary. 
 
 In cleaning use fine softwood sawdust, moistened a. trifle to pre- 
 vent scratching ; and when the bulk of the oil is removed, the 
 corners picked out and the work dusted it is again wiped off with 
 wadding or waste, splitting the sheets of wadding to get the soft 
 inside, then with the point of a pick and the wadding the beads 
 and corners are carefully freed from all particles of oil and pum- 
 ice. Should there be sags and funs or wrinkles which the ordi- 
 nary rubbing did not remove, they should be rubbed out with 
 pumice and strong soapsuds, then rubbed over a little with the 
 oil again. 
 
 It is often required, in finishing a job, to form a contrast by 
 polishing the raise of the panels, thus producing a rich and ele- ' 
 gant finish. 
 
 In polishing as well as rubbing the hustlers have their schemes. 
 One scheme commonly practised is, after the ordinary oil rub- 
 bing, to rub the surface to be polished with a bunch of raw cot- 
 ton moistened with about equal parts of sweet oil and alcohol,
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 41 
 
 the oil and spirits being put into a bottle and well shaken before 
 moistening the cotton. Although this may be a hustler's scheme, 
 an experienced hand with it can produce elegant results. In 
 hand polishing proceed somewhat differently. First complete the 
 oil rubbing, omitting the parts to be polished, then proceed by 
 rubbing those parts with pumice and water, using pumice for that 
 purpose, levelling the surface as much as the coating will permit, 
 then cleaning off with damp chamois frequently rinsed in clean 
 water. We then apply a coat of polishing varnish, which, when 
 dry, is again rubbed down with pumice flour and water, using a 
 fine but soft piece of felt ; and when perfectly smooth, it is care- 
 fully cleaned off, so that none of the pumice remains upon the 
 surface, as this will scratch and destroy the polish. It is then 
 rubbed again with rotten stone and a piece of chamois leather, 
 using the lump of rotten stone and changing the rubber by rub- 
 bing it over the lump three or four times, then rubbing the sur- 
 face quite briskly, for in this rubbing is where the polishing 
 really is done. This powder then is allowed to dry upon the sur- 
 face, and then with a short circular motion with the ball of the 
 hand we proceed to rub off the powder, frequently wiping the 
 hand upon a rag free from all other dust or pumice-stone. Then, 
 if the varnish was of a superior quality, the polish is complete ; 
 but should the varnish contain cheap gum or a too great amount 
 of oil, it is nearly impossible to produce a bright polish, although 
 in this case the method first mentioned would prove quite effect- 
 ive viz., that of using an old silk handkerchief to rub with in 
 place of the cotton. 
 
 In the finest sort of general work, get a good quality of car- 
 riage varnish, and be sure and, do not mix either oil or tur- 
 pentine with it, as it is prepared and put up for immediate use 
 and specially prepared to meet special needs. Two coats of var- 
 nish are usually sufficient when the filling has been complete. 
 When the first coat is dry, rub it down with pulverized pumice- 
 stone and water in some cases simply with curled hair, which 
 removes the gloss and makes a good finishing-coat possible. The
 
 42 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 rubbing accomplished, wash and dust off well ; then apply the 
 finishing-coat of varnish. If a " polished " surface be required, 
 the last coat must be rubbed down as before with pumice-stone 
 and brought to a mirror-like surface with rotten-stone and water. 
 Clear up with a lijtle sweet oil, and afterward with a cloth damp- 
 ened with alcohol. A "dead finish" is produced by rubbing 
 the varnished surface with powdered pumice-stone and raw lin- 
 seed oil, which gives a semi -lustrous finish of great beauty and 
 durability. Another method of polishing hardwood is described 
 as follows : Take a long piece of list or coarse flannel and roll it 
 up in a wad like a roll of rope, and over this wrap a soft piece of 
 linen several times doubled up ; sew it on tightly and form a sort 
 of handle by tying up a round wad. Then put into a saucer some 
 shellac varnish, into which dip the flat side of the wad until it 
 becomes saturated. Pouring a few drops of boiled linseed oil on 
 the face of the wad, rub the work briskly and lightly in a circular 
 direction, doing a small space at a time until the whole surface is 
 gone over. Repeat the operation, allowing each successive ap- 
 plication to dry well, or rubbing dry and not putting on too 
 much polishing-liquid at a time. 
 
 Observe cleanliness and care during these operations. Such 
 parts as cannot well be reached with the wad polish with a bit of 
 flannel. This will give a very durable polish, and the parts are 
 readily brightened up at any time by means of flannel moistened 
 with oil. Remember that in all these operations the utmost care 
 and patience must be exercised if one would have a perfect job. 
 Do not slight the work in the minutest particular. Take your 
 time and do everything as it should be done, filling in well, rub- 
 bing down smoothly and dusting off carefully. 
 
 A term sometimes used by American workmen is somewhat 
 misleading ; I refer to the word " flowing," as applied to varnish- 
 ing. The term is given to the process of giving the work, after 
 it has been properly prepared, a coat of varnish made expressly 
 for that purpose, called " flowing varnish." The process as so 
 named, as given herewith is quoted from an English authority :
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 43 
 
 Veneered panels are usually finished that way. Some finishers, 
 when the body-work is to be dead-finish with flowed panels, coat 
 the panels with the same varnish shellac or other used for the 
 body, and rub them with pumice-stone and oil ; in fact, up to 
 the point of flowing make no difference whatever in the treatment 
 of the body-work and the panels. Such treatment is not recom- 
 mended ; whatever varnish is used for the body-work, the panels 
 should be coated with two or three coats of the best rubbing var- 
 nish ; oil should not be used for rubbing, as, if the surface is at 
 all greasy, the subsequent coat of flowing varnish cannot be 
 evenly laid, therefore water should be used with the pumice-stone 
 for rubbing, in place of oil. After the rubbing is completed, 
 wash off with a sponge, and dry with a chamois skin. Let it 
 stand for a day, and after freeing the work from all pumice-stone 
 and dust, taking it to the flowing-room, which should be clean, 
 dry, and free from all draughts of air, apply the varnish with a 
 flat brush of suitable width, made of badger or fitch hair ; lay the 
 varnish on smoothly and evenly, leaving no marks of the brush. 
 The quicker the varnish is put on, and the less it is worked, the 
 better it will look. Let it stand in the room until it is hard 
 enough to handle. Upholstered work should not be flowed until 
 it comes from the hands of the upholsterer and is ready for the 
 ware-rooms. 
 
 Varnish polishing is used when it is desired to give to the work 
 a bright lustre, differing from the natural gloss, and resulting 
 from a perfectly smooth surface produced by rubbing. The pre- 
 viously applied coats of rubbing varnish having been rubbed 
 down with pumice-stone and water, one or more coats of polish- 
 ing varnish are applied, rubbed down as before, and brought to a 
 bright mirror-like surface with rotten-stone and water. Clean up 
 with a little sweet oil, and afterward with a cloth damped in 
 alcohol. 
 
 There are many makes of varnish in the market at the present 
 writing, that are especially adapted for natural wood finish and 
 which may be obtained from any respectable dealer. The most
 
 44 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 reliable manufacturers of varnish in the United States, whose 
 preparations may be depended on to a dead certainty, do not 
 number more than a half a dozen firms among which may be 
 named Devoe & Co., of New York City, Murphy & Co., of New 
 York, and Berry Bros., of Detroit, Mich. The Murphy Com- 
 pany make a transparent varnish that is extensively used in the trade. 
 It is used for either a high polish or dead surface. It is recom- 
 mended especially for developing the grain of natural wood ; for 
 durability in all temperatures, freedom from discoloration from 
 soap, water or acids, a perfect adherence to the surfaces, prevent- 
 ing cracking, flaking or blistering, while acting as a good preserva- 
 tive of the wood or metal, preventing either decay or rust. 
 
 It is made in different qualities, adapted to interior finishing on 
 walls, floors or ceilings in halls, bath-rooms or kitchens for dwel- 
 lings, asylums and hospitals, and also for exterior work, such as 
 front doors, vestibules, window castings, and protecting the wood 
 from weather exposure. 
 
 The Berry Bros, of Detroit, also make a white varnish that 
 possesses all the requisites of a first-class finishing material. The 
 preparations of Devoe & Co. are so well known and so 
 universally used, that only a bare reference to them is necessary. 
 Doubtless there are other makes of varnish that answer equally well 
 with those named. 
 
 I think I have now placed before the reader pretty nearly all 
 that is worth saying on the subject of hardwood and natural wood 
 finish, and have drawn largely from the best authorities extant ; 
 but it would not be wise to close this section, without giving as 
 briefly as possible, a few rules on the now almost obsolete process 
 of French polishing, as occasionally this method of finishing is 
 employed for certain purposes : 
 
 French polishing is a method of varnishing by rubbing the var- 
 nish upon the surface of the wood instead of applying it with 
 brushes. When varnish is applied simply with a brush, a com- 
 paratively uneven surface results, rendering necessary the subse- 
 quent process of rubbing and polishing, but by the method of
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHES. 45 
 
 French polishing, a smooth and continuous, surface hard and 
 not easily scratched, is secured. 
 
 All the polishes are applied very much in the same way, and a 
 general description will therefore be sufficient. To obtain a good 
 polish with lac varnish on wood, the quantity applied must be 
 very small, and must be rubbed continuously until dry. If the 
 work be porous or cross grained, it will be necessary to give 
 it a coat of thin clear size previous to commencing with the 
 polish ; when dry, the surface must be smoothed with fine glass 
 or sand-paper. The size fills up the pores and saves the polish, 
 and also saves considerable time in the operation. 
 
 Make a wad of cotton-batting, covered with several folds of 
 very new fine soft linen cloth ; put the wad or cushion to the mouth 
 of the bottle containing the preparation (or polish) and shake it 
 sufficiently to damp the cloth ; then proceed to lightly rub the 
 work with circular motion ; as the rubber becomes drier, the 
 pressure may be increased, but care should be taken not to press 
 too heavily when the rubber contains much polish, as a streakiness 
 will result. The circular motion should be continued until the 
 rubber becomes quite dry, when more polish may be taken upon it 
 and the rubbing renewed. It should be borne, in mind that the 
 rubber should never be raised directly from the work, but should 
 be raised with a sweeping motion ; also that it should never for 
 a moment remain quiet upon the surface ; and that its motion 
 should be as even as possible ; neglect of these precautions will 
 produce a rough surface wherever the rubber remains quiet or is 
 improperly removed. The circular rubbing must be continued 
 until the surface appears perfectly smooth and the pores are no 
 longer visible. Be very particular to keep the cloth covering of 
 of the wad clean and soft ; it is desirable to use a clean por- 
 tion each time it is dipped in the polish. It is quite likely that 
 in about twelve hours after the above operation the surface of the 
 work will be lustreless, and the grain plainly visible, in that case 
 proceed over the work again until the grain is thoroughly filled. 
 French polishing is a process requiring particular care and skill,
 
 46 THE HARDWOOD FINISHES. 
 
 and considerable experience is necessary to produce good 
 results. 
 
 Beginners will find that they will be more successful with a 
 flannel rubber, made in the shape of a ball. Most polishers use 
 wadding, which is more pliable and better to get in the internal 
 angles or small mouldings A bottle with a slit cork is the best to 
 apply the polish to the rubber. In commencing, the rubber should 
 not be rubbed quite dry, as you will never get any body on the 
 work by so doing; but, as the shiny appearance advances, you 
 must rub each rubber dry. Every time the rubber is wetted with 
 polish it should be pressed in the palm of the left hand, which 
 will equalize the polish. After the cover is put over, which 
 should be some clean old cotton or print rags, the top of the 
 finger should be dipped in linseed oil and applied to rubber- 
 cover just enough to keep it from sticking. As soon as the 
 cover has a shiny appearance, it should be removed to a fresh 
 place. As soon as the work has got a good body of polish on, it 
 should be set away for at least ten hours, to allow for the polish 
 to sink, which always takes place. 
 
 Before commencing to polish again, the work should be very 
 carefully rubbed over with the finest glass-paper obtainable, tak- 
 ing care not to cut through the skin ; then proceed as before. 
 Be sure never to let the rubber stop in one place for an instant, 
 as it will surely take off the polish to the bare wood and spoil the 
 job. After the work has sufficient polish on, it should be allowed 
 to stand three or four hours before spiriting off. 
 
 The same rubber will do ; only use spirits. Just damp the 
 rubber, and cover three or four times double with cover, and rub 
 very lightly over the work ; but care must be taken not to make 
 the rubber too wet, or the work will be spoilt. The same process 
 will answer for pine or deal, only no filling is required, but a 
 coat of clean patent size, before applying the polish. 
 
 The ingredients for the above kind of work are quite numerous, 
 but shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the basis of all French pol- 
 ishes, and some finishers use thin shellac varnish without other
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHES. 47 
 
 admixture, slightly moistening the rubber with linseed oil to pre- 
 vent stickiness and make it work smoothly. There is a great 
 variety of admixtures and diversity in the proportion of ingred- 
 ients, but the differences are not material. I subjoin a number 
 of receipts. 
 
 First and Besti To one pint of spirits of wine add a quarter 
 of an ounce of gum-copal, a quarter of an ounce of gum-Arabic, 
 and one ounce of shellac. 
 
 Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a piece of 
 muslin. Put the spirits and the gums together in a vessel that can 
 be closely corked ; place them near a warm stove, and frequently 
 shake them. In two or three days they will be dissolved. Strain 
 the mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight corked 
 for use. 
 
 Nexti Take one ounce each of mastic, sandarac, seed lac, 
 shellac, gumlac, and gum-Arabic ; reduce them to powder; and 
 add a quarter of an ounce of virgin wax ; put the whole into a 
 bottle, with one quart of rectified spirits of wine ; let it stand 
 twelve hours, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 An Other P ut i nto a glass bottle one ounce of gumlac, two 
 drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms of sandarac, three 
 ounces of shellac, and half an ounce of gum dragon ; reduce the 
 whole to powder ; add to it a piece of camphor the size of a nut, 
 and pour on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine. Stop the 
 bottle close, but take care, when the gums are dissolving, that it 
 is not more than half full. Place near a warm stove until dis- 
 solved. 
 
 Other French-Polish Receipts, 1 P int naphtha, 3 ^ ounces 
 
 orange shellac, ^ ounce elima. Darken with red saunders wood. 
 
 To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of gum shel- 
 lac, half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter of an ounce of gum 
 sandarac ; submit the whole to a gentle heat, frequently shaking 
 it, till the various gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. 
 
 Shellac, 6 ounces ; naptha, i quart ; sandarac, i ounce ; ben- 
 zoin, y^. ounce.
 
 48 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 Three ounces shellac, ^ ounce of gum mastic pulverized, and 
 one pint of methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand till 
 dissolved. 
 
 Twelve ounces shellac, 2 ounces gum elima, 3 ounces gum co- 
 pal, i gallon of spirits of wine ; dissolve. 
 
 The following must be well mixed and dissolved : Pale shel- 
 lac, 2j^ pounds; 3 ounces mastic, 3 ounces sandarac, i gallon 
 spirits of wine. After the above is dissolved, add i pint copal 
 varnish, i^" ounces shellac, y 2 ounce gum juniper, y 2 ounce ben- 
 zoin, y 2 pint of methylated alcohol. 
 
 A Good Polishi To a pint of spirits of wine add, in fine pow- 
 der, one ounce seed lac, two drachms of gum guaiacum, two 
 drachms of dragon's-blood, and two drachms of gum mastic ; ex- 
 pose them, in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for three 
 hours, until you find the gums dissolved ; strain the whole into a 
 bottle for use, with a quarter of a gill of the best linseed oil, to be 
 shaken up well with it. 
 
 This polish is more particularly intended for dark-colored 
 woods for it is apt to give a tinge to light ones, as satin-wood or 
 air-wood, etc. owing to the admixture of the dragon's-blood, 
 which gives it a red appearance. 
 
 A Polish that Will Stand Water, Take a pint of spirits of 
 
 wine, two ounces of gum benzoin, a quarter of an ounce of gum 
 sandarac, and a quarter of an ounce of gum anime ; these must 
 be put into a stopped bottle, and placed either in a sand-bath or 
 in hot water till dissolved ; then strain the mixture, and, after 
 adding about a quarter of a gill of the best clear poppy oil, shake 
 it well up, and put it by for use. 
 
 Prepared SpiritSi This preparation is useful for finishing 
 after any of the foregoing receipts, as it adds to the lustre and 
 durability, as well as removes every defect, of the other polishes ; 
 and it gives the surface a most brilliant appearance. 
 
 Half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, two 
 drachms of shellac, and two drachms of gum benzoin. Put these 
 ingredients into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place till the gum
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 49 
 
 is all dissolved, shaking it frequently ; when cold, add two tea- 
 spoonfuls of the best clear white poppy oil ; shake them well to- 
 gether, and it is fit for use. 
 
 This preparation is used in the same manner as the foregoing 
 polishes ; but, in order to remove all dull places, you may in- 
 crease the pressure in rubbing. 
 
 Polish for Turner's Work, Dissolve i ounce of sandarac in 
 y 2 pint of spirits of wine ; shave i ounce of beeswax, and dis- 
 solve it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to make it 
 into a paste, add the former mixture to it by degrees ; then, with 
 a woollen cloth, apply it to the work while it is in motion in the 
 lathe, and polish it with a soft linen rag ; it will appear as if 
 highly varnished. 
 
 A French Polish Reviver, Beat g um acacia and white of two 
 eggs in a mortar until they amalgamate ; then add half a pint of 
 raw linseed oil and best vinegar, eight ounces methylated spirits 
 of wine, one ounce hydrochloric acid and two ounces muriate of 
 antimony. They are to be rubbed on the surface of the furniture 
 until dry, and will give a brilliant and lasting polish. 
 
 It now remains to explain the several varieties of finishing in 
 use ; these are largely derived from the peculiar qualities of the 
 different varnishes used. Polishing varnishes, which are very 
 hard and durable, are so called because their surface can be 
 brought to a high lustre by rubbing with the proper materials. 
 Flowing or finishing-varnishes contain more oil than polishing- 
 varnishes, dry more slowly, and are softer, but their peculiar 
 qualities are brilliancy and durability, fitting them for work re- 
 quiring a brilliant gloss, such as veneered panels. Rubbing-var- 
 nishes are those that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being rub- 
 bed to a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the cheap- 
 est variety, are employed for cheap work, such as common chairs, 
 bedsteads, &c. 
 
 Dead Finish is a term applied to the finish produced by the 
 reduction of any of the rubbing varnishes with powdered pumice- 
 stone, and raw linseed oil, the surface thus produced being left in 
 4
 
 50 THE HABDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 the semi-lustrous state by omitting the polishing process. It is 
 now more used than any other for body work, shellac varnish be- 
 ing generally employed because of its adaptation to the require- 
 ments of fine cabinet-work, and its properties of quick and hard 
 drying. Copal, anime, and amber varnishes are also used, but 
 are slower drying. The number of coats required depends some- 
 what upon the quality of the filler, but usually three coats, and 
 sometimes less, are amply sufficient. 
 
 Varnish Finish, For Cheap Work, One coat of filler or stain 
 
 followed by one coat of cheap turpentine varnish without rub- 
 bing. In this class of work the brilliancy of the gloss and cover- 
 ing qualities of the varnish are principally considered. The 
 cheaper turpentine varnishes have a brilliant gloss, and dry very 
 hard, but the gloss is not permanent, and after drying the gum is 
 very brittle and easily cracked and broken. The gum is princi- 
 pally common resin. 
 
 Wax Finish, ^ x together, with heat, white wax, and spirits 
 of turpentine to the consistency of thick paste ; when cold, apply 
 it to the wcrk with a rag ; rub on heavily so as to fill the pores of 
 the wood ; remove all wax from the surface with a wooden 
 scraper made in the shape of a carpenter's chisel ; smooth off 
 with a bunch of soft rags by rubbing hard and quick for a few 
 minutes ; finish with a little French polish applied with a cotton 
 pad. For table tops and all large flat surfaces, allow the wax to 
 remain on, and finish with a warm iron by passing it lightly and 
 quickly over the work until the wax is made smooth and the sur- 
 face is sufficiently polished. This is not considered a desirable 
 finish, as it is not durable, and water spots it very easily. 
 
 The brushes required for varnishing are of many kinds and 
 sizes and a description of even a portion of them, is out of the 
 question in a small work of this kind ; however a few remarks 
 concerning them may not be out of place. For spirit varnishes, 
 camel's-hair pencils and brushes are used, the sizes of which vary 
 from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch diameter, accord- 
 ing to the size of the work. When the surfaces are very large,
 
 THE HARDWOOD F1NISHEE. 51 
 
 flat camel-hair brushes are used ; but from their comparative 
 thinness they scarcely contain a sufficient quantity of varnish to 
 preserve the brush uniformly, charged in passing over a large sur- 
 face. Turpentine and oil varnishes require less delicacy ; and 
 flat brushes, made of fine soft bristles, are generally used, or 
 sometimes ordinary painting brushes are employed, but they are 
 rather harsh, and, owing to the adhesion of the varnish, the 
 hairs are apt to be loosened, and come out. Brushes should al- 
 ways be kept perfectly soft and clean, and therefore should never 
 be laid aside when through work, without cleaning. For this 
 purpose turpentine is best ; the brushes can either be washed out 
 quite clean in it, dried on a cloth, and laid aside, or the bristles 
 can be partially immersed in turpentine and allowed to remain in 
 it until wanted for use. Warm water and soap will also serve to 
 clean the brushes. If, however, the brushes are laid aside with- 
 out being thoroughly cleaned, they will certainly be ruined by 
 the hardening of the varnish. 
 
 Varnish pans can be procured at any varnish shop. They are 
 constructed of tin, with a false bottom; the interval between the 
 two bottoms is filled with sand, which being heated over the 
 fire keeps the varnish fluid, and it flows more readily from the 
 brush. There is a tin handle to them, and the false bottom slopes 
 from one end to the other, which gives sufficient depth when the 
 varnish is low. They should also have a wire fixed across the top 
 to wipe the brush against. An ordinary preserve jar is frequently 
 used for containing the varnish, and is sufficiently suitable ; but 
 it also should have a wire or string stretched across the top, for 
 reducing the quantity of varnish taken up by the brush. The 
 quantity of varnish poured into the jar should be sufficient to 
 nearly cover the hairs of the brush in order to keep it soft. Too 
 small a quantity of varnish is liable to thicken rapidly by evapo- 
 ration, which should at all times be prevented as far as possible, 
 by keeping the vessel closely covered when not in actual use. 
 
 The Various Woods, their Stains and Finish- The foregoing 
 
 rules and instructions apply, in a great measure to all woods that
 
 52 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 are to be finished in natural colors or stained, but under this head 
 it is intended to take each wood separately, with regard to color- 
 ing, and other matters not before mentioned, that may be con- 
 sidered necessary to insure good work. 
 
 It should not be forgotten, when speaking of hard-wood finish- 
 ing, that some of the prettiest woods used, are not " Hard" but 
 soft woods among which may be mentioned pine of various kinds, 
 poplar, cedar, red-wood, hemlock and basswood. When some 
 of these are finished in their natural state or stained to imitate 
 harder woods their beauty is much enhanced and they become 
 deserving of more than a passing notice. Pine when properly 
 prepared, is in my opinion one of the most useful as well as one 
 of the prettiest woods that Nature has given to this continent, 
 and hemlock which is a much despised wood, when properly pre- 
 pared and finished in the natural state, or slightly " Mahogan- 
 ized," makes the richest of panels for doors, wainscot or other 
 house finish. As oak and mahogany are rivals as to which is 
 the better and handsomer woods for finish, I will commence this 
 section with those woods, giving oak the preference. 
 
 Oak. We have in this country over forty kinds of oak nearly 
 every one of which may be used for some special purpose, those 
 most used for building finish and for furniture however are only 
 few, among which are the white oak, (Querus rulia), rock oak 
 (Querus primas murticola) and black oak (Qtterus tin dor is}. 
 All of the above named oaks are capable of being handsomely 
 finished, the white and black oaks being the best and the red 
 being next. 
 
 What is known as quarter-oak is made by first sawing the log 
 from end to end through the middle. Then each half is sawed 
 from end to end through the middle, thus leaving four quarters. 
 Each quarter has only three sides, one side the bulge part of the 
 log, and the other two sides flat and coming to an edge. The 
 boards are sawed off the sharp edge, and each sawing, therefore, 
 throws off a board wider than one before it. Sawing the quarters 
 of the log in this manner, lumber possesses that beatiful cross-
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 53 
 
 grained figure so much in fashion now that it has become some- 
 what of a craze. This cross-grained material finds favor in the 
 finest furniture and interior work. The wood is susceptible of the 
 very finest polish, and the cross-grain produces an effect made by 
 both nature and the saw, that is quite superior to the art of the 
 most skillful grainer. To effect a good imitation of antique oak 
 lamp black or Vandyke brown in oil is applied to the surface of 
 the wood, darkening its natural hue, but this is not by any means 
 best or the only way, but answers very well where other pro- 
 cesses or methods are not available. With regard to giving oak an 
 antique appearance, many opinions exist. Formerly and prob- 
 ably the first imitations of antique oak were produced by ex- 
 posing the bare dressed surface to the steam of boiling ammonia. 
 This process, however, it was impossible to apply to casings of house 
 interiors, thus leading to the application of the aqua ammonia 
 with a brush, but, it is by repeated application that the desired re- 
 sults are produced. It stains the wood gray. There are 
 finishers who claim this to be the only process by which 
 to imitate Nature, but another much faster, and one which 
 gives the same results, is to use strong vinegar with iron 
 filings or shavings added ; by a little experimenting, this 
 can be made to suffice with one coat, depending upon the 
 amount of iron added. 
 
 A very clever imitation of the general antique can be obtained 
 by staining the filler with Vandyke brown and charcoal, equal 
 parts, using about one part of the colored to four parts of the 
 light. Then there is another antique which imitates certain oak 
 from the sixteenth century ; the peculiarity of it consists in dark 
 cloud streaks permeating the wood in every direction some of 
 them crossing the panels in a V-shape, others straight near top 
 and bottom. To give them an odd appearance, a pair of panels 
 can be clouded by streaking one three or four times and the other 
 once or twice. These stripes vary in width from three to five 
 inches. The wider streaks look well across the top of a table three 
 or four times, or even partly across, while the narrow ones would
 
 54 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHES. 
 
 do well around the legs and across the styles and rails of panelled 
 work. In putting these on, they should be dark in the centre 
 and blend out at the edges. This is done with an automatic 
 paint burner, allowing the flames to scorch the wood nearly 
 black ; but care must be taken not to char it. After the work is 
 all streaked the wood is filled with filler stained with burnt umber 
 mixed as for black walnut. 
 
 Care must be taken to have the filler stained to the proper tint, 
 and in applying correctly. By following the rules given under 
 the head "Filling" the operator should have no trouble in mak- 
 ing good work, and we here repeat the instruction. 
 
 "After enough surface has been covered with the filler, so that 
 what has been first applied begins to flatten, the process of wip- 
 ing should immediately begin, using for that purpose either a rag 
 or a handful of waste or excelsior. If the oak is very open- 
 grained, waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has pre- 
 viously been used and is pretty well supplied with filler, rub 
 crosswise of the grain, rather rubbing it into the grain than wip- 
 ing it off. After the whole surface has been gone over in this 
 way, take a clean piece of waste or rag (never use excelsior for 
 wiping clean) and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from 
 filler, using a wooden pick, the point of which has been covered 
 with a rag or waste to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It is 
 well to give these picks some attention, as a person once accus- 
 tomed to certain tools can accomplish more and better work than 
 with tools that feel strange in his hands; therefore, each finisher 
 should furnish his own pick. As to their construction, these are 
 best made from second-growth hickory, which can be procured 
 from any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken felloes, 
 etc. They are made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one 
 end and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen the 
 oval end like a coal chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which 
 should also be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes 
 worn dull. 
 
 This picking out of the filler from beads, etc. , can be acceler-
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 55 
 
 ated by the use of a picking brush manufactured especially for 
 that purpose, but it is not advisable to use this on very coarse- 
 grained oak, as it scrubs the filler out of the pores. 
 
 There are several fillers used which do not require this picking 
 and scrubbing. One is a liquid filler used chiefly for carriage 
 finishing ; but it can be used successfully on butternut, bird's-eye 
 maple, curly maple, satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from 
 gum and oil. Another is a filler made from finely-ground pumice 
 stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied with a brush, and 
 must be left to dry at least twenty-four hours ; it is then sand- 
 papered smooth, when an oil varnish is applied, rendering it com- 
 pletely transparent. This last can be used only upon light wood. 
 
 It is a well-established fact that nearly all the oaks grow dark 
 with age; many of them assume an entirely different shade from 
 that which they have when new and first cut. For instance, light 
 oak, when new, is of a sort of cream color ; when aged in a dry 
 atmosphere, it will assume a reddish brown, and in a damp at- 
 mosphere it will turn a gray with a blue tinge and eventually be- 
 come brown. Cherry will turn from a light salmon to a maroon, 
 and the same with mahogany. It has not been so long since 
 mahogany and cherry were antiquated by being colored dark 
 with stains or other coloring material, while, at the same time, 
 oak was finished light. At present this manner of finishing is 
 entirely reversed. Cherry, mahogany and all dark woods are 
 finished as light as possible, while oak and ash, especially black 
 ash, are finished antique. 
 
 Another method of rendering new oak wainscoting and 
 other oak work dark, and give it an antique appearance is 
 given. 
 
 A correspondent in the English Mechanic gives the following 
 process of treatment, which he considers the best, after trying 
 the various other processes used by builders and cabinet-makers 
 to darken woods : ' ' Oak is fumigated by liquid ammonia, strength 
 880, which may be bought at any wholesale chemist's at 53. a 
 gallon. The wood should be placed in a dark and air-tight room.
 
 56 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 (in a big packing case, if you like !), and half a pint or so of 
 ammonia poured into a soup plate, and placed upon the ground 
 in the center of the compartment. This done, shut the entrance, 
 and secure any cracks, if any, by pasted slips of paper. Re- 
 member that the ammonia does not touch the oak, but the gas 
 that comes from it acts in a wondrous manner upon the tannic 
 acid in that wood, and browns it so deeply that a shaving or two 
 may actually be taken off without removing the color. The 
 depth of shade will entirely depend upon the quantity of ammonia 
 used and the time the wood is exposed. Try an odd bit first ex- 
 perimentally, and then use your own judgment." 
 
 Short pieces of stuff may be so treated by using an air-tight 
 box. The box ready, a flat dish or plate of strong ammonia 
 should be placed in the bottom, so that the fumes will rise and 
 surround the object. All that is now necessary is to place the 
 article in the box, nailing up as close as possible and await re- 
 sults. Ten hours exposure using strong ammonia, should give a 
 good color; if not dark enough let it remain longer, bearing in 
 mind, however, that the wood will present no noticeable change 
 until oiled or brought in contact with a wet substance such as 
 shellac. It is well, therefore, to note the progress by touching 
 the wood with the wet finger when it will show at once the stage 
 it has reached. 
 
 There could be no better method devised to stain oak than this 
 when practicable, and in adopting it we simply anticipate nature 
 which in time through the action of the ammonia of the atmos- 
 phere would present the same result. Mahogany may also be 
 treated similarly with success. 
 
 Here is another method of making antique oak, and I might 
 add, that white, and black ash, and chestnut, similarly treated, 
 will give a fair imitation of antique oak : The job should be 
 made of hard wood, with as full an open grain as possible to se- 
 cure a fine effect. Sandpaper this and clean off. Then prepare 
 a priming made of i part japan, i part raw linseed oil and i part 
 rubbing varnish. Drop into y 2 gallon of the liquid i pound of
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 57 
 
 commercial corn starch, such as is used for culinary purposes. 
 Next take some good, dry, burnt Turkish umber, and add about 
 % pound of this to the starch. Apply to the job a good flowing 
 coat of this priming. Let stand until it is set and has soaked 
 well into the grain, and then take a broad putty knife and stick 
 it into the grain, working the knife crosswise of the grain. Again 
 let stand a little while, and then wipe with rags; especially clean 
 out all the corners, and get the job into as good condition as pos- 
 sible as regards having the grain well filled. 
 
 Upon the completion of the operation above described it will 
 be found that the open grain has absorbed the starch and umber, 
 and that these portions now show the dark shade suggestive of 
 age, while all the rest of the surface is also slightly darkened. 
 
 When again perfectly dry, give one coat of rubbing varnish, 
 prepared by adding to it ^ pound of starch to each gallon of 
 varnish. This coat should be flowed on freely as a medium coat 
 of rubbing varnish, but be careful not to have runs of sags. This 
 ought to completely fill the wood, after which proceed to var- 
 nish, rub and finish the job in the usual manner. To produce a 
 natural oak finish, follow precisely the same course as above de- 
 scribed, with the single exception of omitting the umber. This 
 will leave the wood in its natural color. 
 
 Some of the most attractive work in this line, however, is ef- 
 fected by simply spreading on the surface of the material a con- 
 centrated solution of permanganate of potash, this being allowed 
 to act until the desired shade is obtained. Five minutes suffice 
 ordinarily to give a good color, a few trials indicating the proper 
 proportions. The substance named is decomposed by the vege- 
 table fibre with the precipitation of brown peroxide of man- 
 ganese, which the influence of the potash, at the same time set 
 free fixes in a durable manner on the fibres. When the action is 
 terminated, the wood is carefully washed with water, dried, then 
 oiled and polished in the usual manner. The effect produced by 
 this process in several woods is really remarkable. On the 
 cherry especially it develops a beautiful red color which well
 
 58 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 resists the action of air and light, and on the other woods it has a 
 very pleasing and natural effect. 
 
 Along with the foregoing may be added the following stains for 
 oak : add to a quart of water 2 ounces each of potash and pearl- 
 ash. This is a very good stain, but it should be used carefully 
 as it blisters the hands and softens brushes. The stain may be 
 made lighter by adding more water. 
 
 Other Oak StairiSi To darken the color of oak any of the 
 following may be used : 
 
 Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush will 
 deepen the color immediately, and it will not fade, this being an 
 artificial production of result produced naturally by age. 
 
 Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and applied 
 with a brush, will produce a similar result. 
 
 A decoction of green walnut-shell will bring new oak to any 
 shade or nearly black. 
 
 Another^ To two quarts of boiled oil ; half a pound of ground 
 umber, mixed in oil by colorman ; one pint of liquid driers, stir- 
 red in ; one pint of turpentine ; mix. After clean ing and planing 
 your boards, lay this on with the grain of the wood. If required 
 lighter add naphtha till the required shade is attained ; it darkens 
 with age. Give it twelve'hours to dry ; then varnish with wood 
 varnish, or use only beeswax and turpentine. The result is good 
 in time, but slower than varnish. 
 
 MahoganVi (Svietened.} The tree has a darkish-brown bark 
 and a reddish-brown, coarsely fibred, streaky, hard wood. The 
 tree grows to the height of 35 metres, and is pretty strong. The 
 chief varieties are the common mahogany, with a very hard, very 
 durable wood, which is never attacked by worms, and is excel- 
 lent for ship-building ; but its capability for taking a fine polish 
 is its chief recommendation. Mahagoni Haiti, Mahagoni Jam- 
 aika, Mahagoni Havanna are the other chief kinds. 
 
 Thirty-five years ago mahogany was commercially designated as 
 "St. Domingo," from the island of St. Domingo, and "Bay- 
 wood," or "Bay Mahogany," from the vicinity of the Bay of
 
 THE HAEDWOOD FINISHER. 59 
 
 Honduras, in Central America. The Central American wood 
 was condemned as being too soft, of light weight, straight- 
 grained and characterless. In recent years it has ceased coming 
 to this market, but one cargo having arrived at the port of New 
 York (the largest mahogany market in the world) in six years. 
 St. Domingo mahogany likewise exists only in name, the orig- 
 inal growth having long since been utilized ; only the small and 
 stunted second growth being received here now. The individual 
 logs of great size and best quality are so seldom found as to 
 come within the category of " rare specimens. " 
 
 The Central American wood having been debarred by reason 
 of softness, and the St. Domingo being virtually extinct, it be- 
 came a matter of discovery where else to find this wood. From 
 the island of Cuba a considerable quantity of the smaller sizes,of 
 good texture and hard, suitable for small work, is obtained ; but 
 it is from the vast forest of Mexico that the great markets of the 
 world are now supplied, not alone with the bulk of the best 
 mahogany, but much that is soft, though these soft grades are 
 superior to the Bayvvood of olden times from Central America. 
 
 With, perhaps the exception of our oaks, no wood possesses like 
 advantages of combined soundness, large size, durability, beauty 
 of color and richness of figure. So, when compared with other 
 woods, mahogany costs no more to work and stands better than 
 any other the only point to weigh against this last great feature 
 is the slight difference in the first cost of the wood in the rough 
 but if mahogany stands better and longer, and needs no atten- 
 tion afterward, surely the sole advantage of less cost at first 
 which any other wood may possess is overcome. 
 
 But another merit, equal to any thus far mentioned, is the 
 warmth in its color and the glory in the figure of this beautiful 
 wood. The air of elegance, artistic effect and gentle breeding it 
 imparts to all its surroundings, its joy and life all these cannot be 
 measured by a few cents a square foot. Its growing splendor 
 with age that gives increasing satisfaction may safely be contrasted 
 with the lameness of other woods, which, though pleasing at first,
 
 60 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 deteriorate rather than improve. Does not mahogany add to the 
 value of a private residence or public building? I believe it 
 does ; and it is this very fact that encourages so much imitation in 
 housefinishing and in furniture. 
 
 When the real wood is used, but little more is necessary than 
 to fill and varnish or polish, as it cannot be much improved upon. 
 Sometimes, however, it may be deemed proper to darken it some- 
 what to take away the reddish hue that newly wrought mahogany 
 presents, and this can best be done by darkening the filler, to 
 suit the taste, trying the mixture first on a piece of the dressed 
 stuff, until the desired shade is obtained, staining the varnish or 
 polish with dragon's-blood or other suitable dyes, will also 
 accomplish the desired end. 
 
 Staining by the fumes of ammonia will probably give the best 
 results, as almost any tinge can be given the work from the new- 
 ness of youth, to the mellowness of extreme age. This method 
 is considered the best for imparting to mahogany the appearance 
 of age, and for those wishing to avail themselves of an easy, 
 clean and certain means of gaining the result, fumigating offers 
 no serious obstacle to its accomplishment, the articles necessary 
 being easy of acquirement, and at small expense. 
 
 I give a number of receipts for making stains to imitate mahog- 
 any. These stains may be applied to cherry, black birch, 
 white wood, basswood, pine or sycamore, with pretty fair results. 
 The best of these enumerated are cherry, birch and pine, as from 
 these woods the best results are obtainable : 
 
 A good imitation of and substitute for mahogany, useful in fine 
 manufactures, is made by procuring any species of close grained 
 wood, such as cherry, beech or birch, and properly preparing it 
 smooth and clean. Then rub with diluted nitric acid, which 
 prepares it for the materials subsequently to be applied. These 
 consist of one and a half ounces of dragon's-blood, dissolved in a 
 pint of spirits of wine, and one-third of that quantity of carbonate 
 of soda, mixed together and filtered, the liquid in this state being 
 rubbed, or rather, laid upon the wood with a soft brush. This
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 61 
 
 process is repeated with very little alteration, and in a short inter- 
 val the wood possesses all the external appearance of mahogany. 
 
 For other stains the following are given : Two ounces of drag- 
 on's blood dissolved in one quart of rectified spirits of wine, well 
 shaken; or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna to give the re- 
 quired tone; for darker stains boil a half-pound of madder and two 
 ounces of log-wood chips in one gallon of water and brush the de- 
 coction while hot over the wood. When dry paint with a solu- 
 tion of two ounces of potash in one quart of water. A solution of 
 permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent brown stain. 
 
 For the color of new mahogany, see Cherry Stains. 
 
 A decoction of logwood chips, made by boiling in a closely- 
 covered vessel one part of the chips in two parts water for two 
 hours ; then strain through a muslin cloth. Should this be re- 
 quired dark, as for antique mahogany, condense by a gentle heat. 
 
 Another. For the red generally called mahogany, add to a 
 strong decoction of logwood chips a small quantity of chloride of 
 tin. Or add to the decoction a trifle cosine. Apply two coats. 
 
 Another. Add to archil (orchil) sufficient cosine to produce a 
 natural color. 
 
 Another. Dilute alizarin-paste to the proper consistency and 
 color. 
 
 Another. To produce the red in oil, apply two coats of crim- 
 son or rose-lake diluted with turps and japan. 
 
 To darken mahogany, apply a weak solution of bichromate of 
 potash in water. Apply successive coats, allowing each to dry, 
 until the required shade is secured. 
 
 Half a pound of madder, two ounces of logwood chips boiled in 
 a gallon of water; brush over the wood while hot. When dry, go 
 over the whole with pearl-ash solution, two drachms to a quart of 
 water. Size and polish. If a redder shade be required, it can be 
 produced by smearing the surface with a strong solution perman- 
 ganate of potash, which is left on for a longer or shorter time, ac- 
 cording to the shade required ; in most cases, five minutes will be
 
 62 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 enough. The wood is then carefully washed, dried and pol- 
 ished in the ordinary way. 
 
 The reader will understand that the mahogany stains mentioned 
 are mostly intended for staining inferior woods to imitate mahog- 
 any, for as mentioned before only in isolated cases, will the 
 genuine wood require to be stained "good wine needeth no 
 bush." 
 
 Cherry- (Prunus cerasus.) This is a fine grained wood, 
 tough and light, is capable of taking the very finest finish. Is 
 harder than Baywood, and is the nearest approach in color, grain 
 and texture, to mahogany than any other native wood. 
 
 One of the best methods for making cherry look like mahogany 
 is to have the wood rubbed with diluted nitre acid, which pre- 
 pares it for the materials subsequently applied. Afterwards to a 
 filtered mixture of one ounce and a half of dragon's blood dis- 
 solved in a pint of spirits of wine is added one-third that quantity 
 of carbonate of soda. The whole constituting a very thin liquid 
 is brushed with a soft brush over the wood. This process is re- 
 peated with very little alteration, and in a short interval of time 
 the wood assumes the external appearance of mahogany. If the 
 composition has been properly made the surface will resemble an 
 artificial mirror and should this brilliancy ever decline it may be 
 restored by rubbing the surface with a little cold drawn linseed 
 oil. 
 
 When cherry is nicely filled and rubbed well down and not 
 varnished, it has a soft glow not possessed by any other, and has 
 none of those distortions of grain that are so unpleasant in ma- 
 hogany. The timber is chosen from the wild cherry, which in 
 New England and the North generally does not usually grow to a 
 girth of more than 20 inches, but in some of the Western States 
 and in the South frequently attains a diameter of 24 inches. The 
 domestic fruit cherry gives some good specimens of small timber, 
 but as the tree is rarely sacrificed until it is past bearing and is de- 
 cayed, this source of supply is precarious. The facility with which 
 cherry can be worked makes it a favorite with the cabinet-maker
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 63 
 
 and the house joiner; and it also possesses the quality of "stay- 
 ing where it is put," and that is more than can be said of many 
 of the hard woods. 
 
 I give below several stains for making pine and other suitable 
 woods to have an appearance of cherry. 
 
 1. To prepare this color in water stain, boil in a gallon of water 
 one pound of Spanish annotto and one ounce of concentrated lye 
 (potash). Should this not be deep enough, allow the water to 
 evaporate by a gentle heat. The stain can also be darkened by 
 adding gamboge previously dissolved in a weak potash solution. 
 
 2. Gamboge in oil, diluted with turpentine, and a little japan 
 added as a siccative. This produces the same color in oil as the 
 former in water stain, and can be deepened with dragon's blood 
 in oil or finely-ground burnt sienna in oil. 
 
 3. Mix together, by stirring, i quart of spirits of turpentine, i 
 pint of varnish, and i Ib. of dry burnt sienna; apply with a brush 
 and after it has been on about five minutes wipe it off with rags. 
 This stain takes about 12 hours to dry. 
 
 4. Take i quart alcohol, 2 ozs. of dragon's blood ; pulverize 
 the latter along with % oz. of alkanet root; mix and let stand in 
 a warm place a couple of days. Shake frequently in the mean- 
 time. Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three coats may 
 be required. This makes a fine stain. 
 
 There are a number of other compounds, but it is considered 
 that the above are ample for all ordinary purposes. When stains 
 are wanted in large quantities it is much better to purchase them, as 
 a number of excellent mixtures are now obtainable, among which 
 may be mentioned those of the Chilton Mfg. Co., New York, who 
 make fine ebony, mahogany and cherry stains. Aniline stain may 
 be purchased at any color shop. 
 
 Ash {Fraxinus excelsior.} This wood is now used very much 
 by cabinet makers and house joiners in place of oak, and I have 
 often seen furniture palmed off, to unsuspecting customers as an- 
 tique oak and in one instance I know of an architect who speci- 
 fied oak, and who "passed" a mixture of white and black ash, as
 
 64 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 oak, either knowingly or otherwise. I am not sure that the owners 
 in either case lost anything, for good sound Canadian ash, is de- 
 cidedly better than dosey red oak. 
 
 In finishing ash, either black or white, the same methods are 
 adopted as for finishing oak and similar processes will give simi- 
 lar results. Ingenious stainers and finishes can make ash resemble 
 oak wainscot, in vein and color so correctly that it is almost im- 
 possible for the most experienced connoisseur to distinguish the 
 genuine from the spurious. In order to do this some finishers 
 make a commencement by sketching out, upon certain parts of 
 the ash exterior, the requisite white veins, by means of a camel- 
 hair pencil, with white stain; that done, they coat the veins with 
 thin varnish, and then darken the general ground, dealing care- 
 fully throughout the entire process with the veined portions. 
 Others stain and embody, i. e. French polish the ash with the 
 ordinary preparation, after which they pursue an operative course 
 termed "champing" ; that is, scratching fancifully, so as to form 
 the veins, upon different parts of the coated surface, before it gets 
 time to harden, with a saturated rag. The former process is, 
 however, the most suitable of the two. 
 
 Birchi (Betula Nigra.) or Canadian birch is superior to all 
 other birches for constructive purposes and when properly fin- 
 ished has a fine quiet refined look that commands itself to all lov- 
 ers of domestic woods. So popular has the use of black birch be- 
 come within the last ten years, that the price of good grades has 
 advanced from $8 per M feet, in 1880 to $100 per M feet, in 1892. 
 
 Black birch is a close-grained, handsome wood, and can be 
 easily stained to resemble walnut exactly. It is just as easy to 
 work, and is suitable for nearly, if not all, the purposes to 
 which walnut is at present applied. Birch is much the same 
 color as cherry, but the latter wood is now scarce, and conse- 
 quently dear. When properly stained it is almost impossible to 
 distinguish the difference between it and walnut, as it is susceptible 
 of a beautiful polish, equal to any wood now used in the manu- 
 facture of furniture, and inside finishings.
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 65 
 
 There is a species of bird's-eye birch, but it is very scarce. 
 An evidence of the weight and solidity of the wood is the fact 
 that it will sink after being a few days on the water. It also 
 possesses the quality of durability in a pre-eminent degree. 
 
 Birch is generally finished the same as cherry, and direc- 
 tions given under that head will apply here also. 
 
 Pjng, (Pi/ins Strobus], If oak is the king of woods, pine is 
 most assuredly " president," for it is at once the most useful and 
 the most democratic of woods. It is found in the halls of the 
 great and powerful, and in the cottage of the most humble 
 among us. It is strong and vigorous, plain or ornamental and is 
 not out of place either in the backwoodsman's cabin or in the 
 stately cathedral, and like a true man of the world, it adapts 
 ,itself to every condition that circumstances may place it in. 
 
 Pine can be made to look like any known wood, but is at its 
 best when left natural and finished in clear shellac. There is no 
 wood grows, that will convey so cheerful a feeling to the 
 beholder as yellow or white pine finished in a natural state. 
 Next to being finished in a natural state, is to imitate mahogany 
 or light cherry which coloring it takes readily. 
 
 Where the pine of any kind is to be either stained or left 
 natural, it should be " quarter sawed " as it will show a finer grain 
 shrink less, and last longer. The softness of its texture and 
 its susceptibility to injury may have had some influence 
 in preventing its general use for ornamental purposes, but 
 the wood can be "filled," so that much of this objection is 
 removed. Its pure white color white as compared with other 
 woods recommends it for purposes for which holly has been 
 heretofore used ; and the size of the timber from which clear 
 boards may be cut is greatly in its favor, boards of a width of 
 sixteen, and even twenty inches being not uncommon, with no 
 shade of distinction between sap wood and heart, and only the 
 faintest perceptible grain. 
 
 Some specimens lately examined show a greatly enhanced 
 beauty by very simple treatment the filling with warm shellac 
 5
 
 66 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 varnish, bleached shellac in alcohol, applied with a brush while 
 warm. Several coats are given, the last coat being rubbed with 
 pumice and rotton stone, moistened with water, not oil. A 
 finish of a flowing coat of copal varnish completes the prepara- 
 tion. Thus treated, the wood is of a faint creamy tint, with an 
 appearance of semi-transparency. Beautiful gradations of tone 
 were obtained by panels of this prepared pine. 
 
 Most of the stains given under previous heads, are applicable 
 to pine, I add, however a few more, so that the workmen may 
 have a number of recipes to draw from : 
 
 For Walnut No. i. Dissolve by boiling one part each of 
 Epson salt and permanganate of potash in about twenty-five parts 
 of water. This stain may be improved by adding a little cosine, 
 and it works best when applied hot. 
 
 2. Catechu broken into crumbs and boiled in about twice its 
 bulk of water until dissolved. To darken to the. required depth, 
 add bichromate of potash previously dissolved in about eight 
 times its equivalent of water. If the deep yellok shade peculiar 
 to the Southern walnut be required, add yellow chromate of 
 potash. For the reddish shade of the Northern wood, add more 
 cosine. 
 
 3. For oil stain, use Vandyke brown toned up with the 
 siennas, the colors being strictly pure and finely ground in oil, 
 and diluted with turpentine and a small amount of japan. 
 
 . 4. Burnt Turkey umber mixed in the same way as the 
 former. 
 
 5. Mix together, by stirring, i quart spirits of turpentine, i 
 pint asphaltum varnish, i pint of japan, i Ib. dry burnt umber, i 
 Ib. dry Venetian red ; apply with a brush. This stain is trans- 
 parent, and allows the grain of the wood to show through. 
 
 6. Boil \y? ounces washing soda, and ^ ounce bichromate 
 of potash, in i quart of water; add 2^ ounces Vandyke brown. 
 This stain may be used either hot or cold. 
 
 7. With a brush apply a thin solution of permanganate of
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 67 
 
 potassa in water, until the desired color is produced, allowing 
 each coat to dry before another is applied. 
 
 For Mahogany or Cherry No. i. For mahogany, use a pint 
 of turpentine and an ounce of color known as dragon's blood. 
 Dissolve and shake well before applying. For ebony, use hot 
 liquor from logwood chips, and after dry apply a coat of tincture 
 of steel. For walnut, use two ounces of washing soda, darkened 
 with Vandyke brown in water. Add two ounces of bichromate 
 of potash in pint and a half of water. 
 
 2. Mix together, by stirring, i quart of spirits of turpentine, 
 i pint of varnish, and i Ib. of dry burnt sienna ; apply with a 
 brush, and after it has been on about five minutes wipe it off 
 with rags. This stain takes about 12 hours to dry. 
 
 3. Take i quart alcohol, 2 ozs. of dragon's-blood ; pulverize 
 the latter along with ^ oz. of alkanet root ; mix, and let stand 
 in a warm place a couple of days. Shake frequently in the 
 meantime. Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three coats 
 may be required. This makes a fine stain. 
 
 For Rosewood No. i. Mix in a bottle ^ Ib. of extract of log- 
 wood, i oz. salts of tartar, and i pint of water ; in another 
 bottle, put i Ib. of old iron in small pieces, and i pint of vine- 
 gar, which, after standing twenty-four hours, will be ready for 
 use ; make a hard stiff brush with a piece of rattan sharpened at 
 one end in a wedge shape, pounding it so as to separate the fibre. 
 Mix in i pint of varnish, *^ Ib. of finely-powdered rose-pink. 
 The materials are now ready, and the first thing in the process is 
 to stain the wood with the logwood stain ; give two coats of this, 
 allowing the first to become nearly dry before applying the 
 second; then dip the rattan brush in the vinegar, and with it 
 form the grain, after which give the work a coat of the varnish 
 and rose pink. There can be no definite directions given for 
 graining, except to study the natural wood and imitate it as near 
 as possible. With the above materials skilfully applied, any 
 common wood can be made to resemble rosewood so nearly that 
 it will take a good judge to distinguish the difference.
 
 68 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 2. Boil i Ib. of logwood in i gallon of water, add a double 
 handful of walnut shell, boil the whole again, strain the liquor 
 and add to it i pint of the best vinegar. It is then ready for 
 use. Apply it boiling hot, and when the wood is dry, form red 
 veins in imitation of the grain of rosewood with a brush dipped 
 in the following solution : Nitric acid, i pint ; metallic tin, i 
 oz.; sal ammoniac, i oz. Mix and set aside to dissolve, occa- 
 sionally shaking. If carefully executed it will give the appear- 
 ance of dark rosewood. 
 
 For surface stains the following are sometimes used : The 
 colors are all to be mixed with very thin glue size, laid on warm 
 with a soft woollen material, and the wood wiped dry after 
 application. All the colors used is staining should be well pul- 
 verized, and before use the liquid should be strained. 
 
 Imitation Oak Stain, Equal parts burnt umber and brown 
 ochre. 
 
 Imitation Mahogany Stain- One part Venetian red, and two 
 parts yellow lead. 
 
 Imitation Rosewood Stain, Venetian red, darkened with lamp 
 black to required shade. 
 
 Imitation Walnut Stain, Burnt umber and yellow ochre, mixed 
 in proportions to give desired shade. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of pine, it may be as well to say a 
 few words regarding the long leaved, or Georgia pine (Pinus 
 Pulustris.) as a great deal of it is used now in and about the city 
 of New York, and other large centres. This wood is very fine, 
 strong and lasting. Some of it is insusceptible of fine finish, but 
 the best success with it, is when treated with shellac finish. In 
 all other respects, when used as a finishing material, it may be 
 treated the same as ordinary pine. 
 
 Walnut, (Jiiglans Nigra.} As this wood is seldom or never 
 stained it is unnecessary to say more about it other than it may 
 be treated like oak cherry or birch. It looks well filled and 
 finished in shellac. Birch stained and properly finished looks 
 very much like walnut, and with a little care in getting a proper
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 69 
 
 tint in the stain, can scarcely be known from the real thing. 
 "Filling," in walnut finishing, is one of the most important 
 processes, if the richness of the wood is desired to be shown as 
 much depends on the "tint" as on the filling material. 
 
 Po D I ar- (Populus balsamifera) . 
 
 BaSS WOOd, ( Tieia Americana. ) 
 
 CedaPi White (cupressus thuyoides} which is really a spruce, 
 and all similar woods, should never be finished in a natural state. 
 Deep stains or surface stains should always be employed on these 
 woods if they are not to be painted. 
 
 Beech- (Fagus ferrugtnea) This is one of the unnoticed woods 
 of former years but is now gradually gaining in favor as a decora- 
 tive wood. It is cheap and also quite abundant, while the more 
 popular hard woods are beginning to grow scarcer and higher in 
 price. Beechwood has a fine grain, is quite durable, and can be 
 used in the manufacture of furniture and for decorative purposes 
 generally. The red variety has a handsome appearance and is 
 especially suitable for use where a good imitation of cherry is 
 desired. 
 
 If " quarter sawed " it shows a fine grain and has a character 
 distinctly its own which I think has never been properly appreci- 
 ated. When quartered, properly finished, filled and polished, it 
 looks something like dark leopard wood. It will assume a dark 
 mahogany color if prepared like cherry or birch, or it may be 
 made to appear like walnut if treated with walnut stains and 
 finish. 
 
 Elm- ( Ulinus Americana. ) 
 
 Chestnut, (castanea vesca.~) 
 
 Buttern \A,(J u S lans cinerea. ) 
 
 These three woods are often used in inferior work, and are 
 very soft and and easily dented. The best is perhaps the elm, 
 which does very well for bath-room finish, panels for ash doors 
 and similar work. All require a great deal of " filling " and 
 this should be well rubbed in if a good job is required. All of 
 these woods have a very coarse grain, but if care is taken in select-
 
 70 THE HAEDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 ing the material, very odd and oftimes pleasing effects may be 
 obtained. Any of the stains used on pine, will answer for these 
 woods, dependent of course on the tints desired. The best re- 
 sults with these woods is derived by giving the work one coat of 
 shellac after filling and staining, then sandpaper well and apply 
 your varnish or oil finish or whatever you purpose finishing in. 
 
 CypreSSi {Cupressus sempervierens.*) The light the dark and 
 the bald are good woods and are coming more and more in 
 favor every day. 
 
 This wood contains a very small amount of resin, and a very 
 high polish can be given it ; in fact, because of its not being af- 
 fected by moisture, it is being used for cisterns, hogsheads, and 
 sugar, molasses and honey barrels. The red cypress is the favor- 
 ite, and some of it is so heavy that it will sink upon being placed in 
 water. The white variety in much lighter, and will float after 
 being deadened a short while before being cut, but it has not the 
 firm grain of the red. The red cypress has a straight trunk with 
 a small top, and the bark when cut has a reddish tint. These 
 woods may be treated like cherry or brich with good results. 
 They look well when left their natural color and finished " dead 
 finish." 
 
 Sycamore^ or Buttonwood, as it is sometimes called (acer pseudo 
 platanus) when quarter sawed and properly finished makes a 
 good appearance, and in many cases is superceding cherry owing 
 to its beauty and cheapness. Heretofore its natural beauty has 
 been destroyed in many cases by staining the wood, and thus pre- 
 venting the development of many chemical changes which take 
 place and are thrown to the surface when properly treated. When 
 quarter sawed, a light bodied and light colored shellac should be 
 used, when by a natural chemical process a beautiful silver leaf 
 is developed and the surface assumes a charming pink hue. 
 
 Hemlocki (Abies Canadensis.^) This is rarely used for finish- 
 ing owing to its brittleness and splintery nature. Clean boards, 
 however, made into panels or other similar work and then finished 
 in natural color, assumes a very handsome appearance. It has a
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 71 
 
 a pink tint of the most delicate kind which improves and mel- 
 lows with age. It should be finished in the same manner as pine. 
 Rosewood. {Dalbergia Nigra.*) It seldom falls to the lot of 
 the ordinary finisher to have to " try his hand " on the genuine 
 wood, but sometimes it does happen and it is just as well that he 
 should be armed with the means to wrestle with the work if such is 
 ever thrown in his way. To finish rosewood, requires about the 
 same treatment as mahogany, though, as a matter of fact, many 
 pieces of rosewood will be found to have a coarser grain than 
 mahogany, and will require much care in filling. The main thing 
 to be observed, is to see that the filling is a shade or two darker 
 than the wood to be filled, before any varnish is laid on. For 
 imitation of rosewood I give below a few recipes : 
 
 Take half a pound of logwood, boil it with three pints 
 of water till it is of a very dark red, to which add about half 
 an ounce of salt of tartar. When boiling hot, stain your 
 wood with two or three coats, taking care that it is nearly dry 
 between each ; then, with a stiff, flat brush, such as is used for 
 graining, make streaks with a very deep black stain, which if 
 carefully executed will be very near the appearance of dark rose- 
 wood. The following is another method: Stain your wood all 
 over with a black stain, and when dry, with a brush as above 
 dipped in the bright liquid form real veins in imitation of the 
 grain of rosewood, which will produce, when well managed, a 
 beautiful effect. A handy brush for the purpose of graining may 
 be made by taking a flat brush such as used for varnishing, 
 and cuttting the sharp points of the hairs and making the edge ir- 
 regular ; by cutting out a few hairs here and there the grain may 
 be imitated with great accuracy. 
 
 This is suitable to pine, cedar, Cyprus, whitewood, bassvvoods 
 while the following should only be used in mahogany, cherry, 
 or birch, spread on the surface of the material a concentrated 
 solution of hypermagnate of potassa, to act until the desired shade 
 is obtained. Five minutes suffice, ordinarily, to give a deep 
 color, a few trials indicating the proper proportions. The hyper-
 
 72 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 magnate of potassa is decomposed by the vegetable fibre with the 
 precipitation of brown peroxide of maganese, which the influ- 
 ence of the potassa, at the same time set free, fixes in a 
 durable manner the fibres. When the action is terminated the 
 wood is carefully washed with water, dried, and then oiled and 
 polished in the usual manner. The effect produced by this 
 process in several woods is really remarkable. 
 
 It has been a mystery to many people why the dark wood so 
 highly prized for furniture is called " Rosewood." Its color 
 certainly does not look much like a rose, so we must look for 
 some other reason. It is claimed by some that when the tree is 
 first cut the wood possesses a very strong roselike fragrance, hence 
 the name. This is the most probable reason for its name. There 
 are about a half a dozen kinds of rosewood trees. The varieties 
 are found in South America, and in the East Indies and neigh- 
 boring islands. Sometimes the trees grow so large that boards or 
 planks four feet broad and ten feet in length can be cut from them. 
 The broad boards are used for the tops of piano fortes. When 
 growing in the forests the tree is remarkable for its beauty, but 
 such its value in manufacturing as an ornamental wood that some 
 of the forests where it once grew abundantly now have scarcely a 
 single specimen left. 
 
 I have purposely left unmentioned a number of our finest woods 
 such as our maples, and others, which, would it not increase the 
 size of this volume, beyond reasonable dimensions. I should 
 have more to say concerning them. The workmen will know, from 
 what has already been said, how these light woods may be 
 treated, and I may add, that the various maples, though rather 
 light in color for general purposes, make the most delicate of 
 finish. Gum wood of late, has been used to some extent and is 
 not hard to deal with when to be finished. It should be treated 
 about as cherry and birch, and finished in a similar way, and 
 when done nicely the work looks quite well. 
 
 Redwood is getting to be a favorite wood with some builders, 
 owing no doubt to its cheapness, and its easiness to work. It
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. <3 
 
 may be classed among the softer woods and requires treating 
 about the same as chestnut, butternut and the cedars. The fol- 
 lowing formula and directions have been highly recommended as 
 a finish, but for my own part, I prefer using Wheeler's filler as 
 I think better results are obtained. Here is the formula : 
 
 Take one quart Spirits Tupentine. 
 
 Add one pound Corn Starch. 
 
 Add % " Burnt Sienna. 
 
 Add one tablespoonful Raw_Linseed Oil. 
 
 Add " ' Brown Japan. 
 
 Mix thoroughly, apply with a brush, let it stand say fifteen 
 minutes ; rub off all you can with fine shavings or a soft rag, then 
 let it stand at least twenty-four hours that it may sink into and 
 harden the fibres of the wood, afterward apply two coats of white 
 shellac; rub down well with fine flint paper, then put on from 
 two to five coats best polishing varnish ; after it is well dried rub 
 with water and pumice-stone ground very fine, stand a day to 
 dry ; after being washed clean with chamois, rub with water and 
 rotten-stone ; dry, wash as before clean, and rub with olive oil 
 until dry. 
 
 Some use cork for sand-papering and polishing, but a smooth 
 block of hard wood like maple is better. When treated in this 
 way redwood will be found the peer of any wood for real beauty 
 and life as a house trim or finish. By proper attention, redwood 
 may be made to appear like mahogany or cherry but its softness 
 is very much against it. 
 
 General RecipeSi Ebomzing. Prepare some shellac varnish 
 by dissolving half a pound of gum shellac in a quart of alcohol ; 
 put in a tightly corked bottle, set in a warm place, and shake 
 frequently. When completely dissolved, add sufficient dry lamp 
 or bone black. It will require only about a heaping tablespoon- 
 ful to half a pint of varnish. Should it be too thick to flow 
 easily from the brush, and spread evenly, add alcohol. Give 
 the wood two or three coats of this, which can be done within 
 two days. For fine work give three coats of the black varnish
 
 74 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 and allow it to dry thoroughly ; then take some oo or ooo sand- 
 paper and rub the work down lightly until the surface is smooth 
 and even, being careful not to rub through to the wood. Then 
 apply two or three coats more, and rub down again with the 
 sandpaper; give two coats more and allow it to dry perfectly 
 hard. Make some rubbers of felt, an old felt hat is good, by 
 tacking the felt on blocks of soft wood of proper shape, which 
 should be flat, concave or convex to fit the work. Apply a few 
 drops of sewing machine oil to the felt and sprinkle on a pinch of 
 pulverized pumice stone. Rub the work with this, keeping the 
 rubber moist with oil and supplied with the pumice, until the 
 wood shows a perfectly smooth surface, without any gloss. When 
 it has all been gone over wipe off the surface and rub clean with 
 dry flannel cloths. The result is fine imitation of ebony. If 
 the shellac varnish is colored with aniline instead of lamp-black, 
 the finished surface is smoother and finer. 
 
 Others. i. infuse gall-nut in vinegar, into which rusty nails 
 have been soaked ; paint the wood with this, polish and burnish 
 when dry. 2. Wash the wood repeatedly with a solution of sul- 
 phate of iron, made by dissolving 2 oz. of sulphate in a pint of 
 hot water. When dry, apply a hot decoction of logwood and 
 nut-galls two or three times. When dry, clean with a wet sponge 
 and then polish. 3. Brush the wood with a strong decoction 
 of logwood chips several times. When dry, give it a coat of 
 vinegar in which rusty iron has been placed. Dissolve beeswax 
 in turpentine by setting in a warm place ; apply warm with a 
 brush, and rub it till it shines. 4. Wash with a concentrated 
 aqueous solution of logwood several times, and then with a solu- 
 tion of acetate of iron of 40 deg. Baume. Repeat till a deep 
 black is produced. 5. Put 2 oz. of logwood chips with i% oz. 
 of copperas in a quart of water, boil, and lay on hot. When dry, 
 wet the surface again with 2 oz. of steel filings dissolved in half 
 a pint of vinegar. When dry again, sand-paper- smooth, then oil, 
 then fill it with powdered drop-black mixed in the filler. Work 
 to be ebonized should be smooth and free from holes. Give it
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 75 
 
 a light coat of quick drying varnish, then rub with finely pulver- 
 ized pumice stone and linseed oil until very smooth. 6. Boil 
 y 2 pound of chip logwood in two quarts of water, and add y 2 oz. of 
 verdigris and y 2 oz. of copperas, strain, and put in y 2 pound of 
 rusty steel filings. With this go over the work a second time. 
 7. A pound of logwood boiled in four quarts of water, add two 
 handfuls of walnut shells or peel, boil up again, take out the 
 chips, add a pint of vinegar, and apply boiling. Afterwards 
 dissolve i oz. of green copperas in a quart of boiling water and 
 apply hot. 8. First sponge the wood with a solution of chlorhy- 
 drate of aniline in water, to which a small quantity of copper 
 chloride is added. When dry, go over again with a solution of 
 potassium bichromate. Repeat this twice or thrice. 9. One 
 gallon of vinegar, ^ pound of green copperas, ^ pound of 
 China blue, 2 oz. nut-gall, 2 pounds extract of logwood. Boil 
 all these over a slow fire, and add half a pint of iron-rust. 
 Apply as usual. A good varnish for ebonized work is made by 
 dissolving in alcohol some black wax. 
 
 StainSi Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by 
 using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown, raw and 
 burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied with a brush, with- 
 out previous preparation and then wiped off with a cloth a 
 method that brings out clearly the grain or marks of the wood, 
 which in pitch pine, now being extensively used for fittings, are 
 often extremely beautiful. A better method for general work, 
 French polish being ordinarily too expensive, is, where dark oak 
 or mahogany stains are not wanted, light varnishes, of which two- 
 coats are to be applied. The glue size with which the work is 
 first coated, in order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not 
 be too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack. 
 
 Logwood, lime, brown soft-soap, dyed oil, sulphate of iron, 
 nitrate of silver exposed to the sun'.s rays, carbonate of soda, 
 bichromate and permanganate of potash, and other alkaline prep- 
 arations, are used for darkening the wood ; the last three are 
 specially recommended. The solution is applied by dissolving
 
 76 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 one ounce of the alkali in two gills of boiling water, diluted to 
 the required tone. The surface is saturated with a sponge or 
 flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. The carbonate is 
 used for dark woods. Oil tinged with rose madder may be ap- 
 plied to hard woods like birch, and a red oil is prepared from 
 soaked alkanet root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can 
 be brought out by two or three coats of japan, much diluted with 
 turpentine, and afterwards oiled and rubbed. To give mahogany 
 the appearance of age, lime water used before oiling is a good 
 plan. In staining wood, the best and most transparent effect is 
 obtained by repeated light coats of the same. For oak stain a 
 strong solution of oxalic acid is employed ; for mahogany, dilute 
 nitric acid. A primary coat or a coat of wood fillers is advanta- 
 geous. For mahogany stains, the following are given : two 
 ounces of dragon's-blood dissolved in one quart of rectified 
 spirits of wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt 
 sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains boil half pound 
 of madder and two ounces of logwood chips in one gallon of 
 water, and brush the decoction while hot over the wood ; when 
 dry, paint with a solution of two ounces of potash in one quart of 
 water. A solution of permangate of potash forms a rapid and 
 excellent brown stain. 
 
 Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed oil and 
 benzine half and half, and burnt umber or Vandyke brown in- 
 corporated with this. Maple can be stained green-gray by using 
 copperas in water; oak will also be changed to a dark green blue 
 through the same agency, the effect on ash being various shades 
 of olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the bronze 
 olive tint now used so much by architects. 
 
 Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of logwood 
 three or four times, allowing it to dry between each application. 
 Then wash it with a solution of acetate of iron, which is made 
 by dissolving iron fillings in vinegar. This stain is very black, 
 and penetrates to a considerable depth into the wood, so that 
 ordinary scratching or chipping does not show the original color.
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 77 
 
 A wash of one part of nitric acid in ten parts of water will, if 
 well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany to pine wood which 
 does not contain much resin. When the wood is thoroughly dry, 
 shellac varnish will impart a fine finish to the surface. A glaze 
 of carmine or lake will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine 
 extract of alkanet root produces a beautiful stain which admits of 
 French polishing. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, makes an 
 excellent mahogany color on new wood. 
 
 A Methodi Of imparting to any plain white wood the ap- 
 pearance of cedar wood is as follows : Mix two parts of catechu, 
 and one part of caustic soda, in a hundred parts of water (all by 
 weight). The article to be stained should be boiled in this solu- 
 tion for some hours, and is then rinsed in clear water and dried. 
 If the desired depth of tone has not been obtained, a second 
 boiling must be resorted to. This stain is said to sink so deep 
 into the wood that even thick sheets of veneer thus treated will 
 be colored right through ; while other wood articles thus stained 
 may be safely manipulated without any fear of the original color 
 of the wood showing through. 
 
 For a Brown Stain, Boil i lb. of the brown pigment called 
 Terre de Cassel with 4 quarts of water, until it is reduced one- 
 third. Mix two ounces (Troy) of white potash with sufficient 
 water to dissolve it, and mix with the Terre de Cassel. This 
 stain must be applied with a brush, two or even three times, ac- 
 cording to the depth of the shade required. 
 
 Another- Paint the wood with a solution made by boiling one 
 pot of catechu with thirty parts of water and a little soda ; when 
 dry paint over with another solution made of one part bichro- 
 mate of potash and thirty parts water. By a little difference in 
 the mode of treatment, and by varying the strength of the solu- 
 tions, several shades of color may be given. 
 
 For a Black Dye, P ut 6 Ibs. of chip logwood into the copper, 
 with as many veneers as it will conveniently hold, without press- 
 ing too tight ; fill it with water, and let it boil slowly for 
 about three hours ; then add half a pound of powdered verdigris,
 
 78 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 half a pound of copperas, and four ounces of bruised nut-galls ; 
 fill the copper up with vinegar as the water evaporates ; let it boil 
 gently two hours each day till the wood is dyed through. 
 
 To Brighten Stains- Any of the stains named (except the sur- 
 face stains) will be rendered much more brilliant by an applica- 
 tion of the following : i oz. nitric acid, y z teaspoonful muriatic 
 acid, % oz. grain tin, 2 ozs. rain water. Mix in a bottle, at least 
 two days before using, and keep the bottle well corked. 
 
 The above stains are probably the most important to a house 
 finisher, and, as they have all been employed and found practi- 
 cable, they can be relied upon. In performing a small job it will 
 generally be found more convenient and economical to obtain 
 the stain from some furniture shop where it is kept in bulk. 
 
 The best way to preserve stain is to keep it in bottles or jugs. 
 It is said that four or five drops of creosote added to a quart of 
 stain will prevent it from becoming mouldy and stagnant. 
 
 The stainers at the furniture shops have contrived a scheme to 
 prevent their hands from becoming deeply stained while at work, 
 by dipping them into a quick-dry varnish or oil shellac, and then 
 in cleansing them they rinse them first in water to remove the 
 stain, and then submit them to a turpentine bath, thus removing 
 the varnish. 
 
 Miscellaneous- Many processes have of late been applied to 
 the finishing of woodwork, such as staining in various colors, 
 fumigating and other methods. A new finish is now practised 
 in the European market, and is known as the Rubenick process. 
 It is used for giving a metallic surface to wood, and consists in 
 first immersing the wood in a bath of caustic alkaline lye, in 
 which it is allowed to remain for two or three days, according to 
 the degree of permeability of the wood, at a temperature of 167 
 to 194 F. From this bath the wood passes to another of hydro- 
 sulphate of calcium, to which is added, after 24 or 36 hours, a 
 concentrated solution of sulphur. Here it remains for about 48 
 hours at a temperature of 95 to 122 F., and, lastly, for from 
 30 to 50 hours the wood is immersed in a solution of acetate of
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 79 
 
 lead at the same temperature. The timber, thus pickled, is al- 
 lowed to dry, when it is said to be susceptible, after burnishing, 
 of a high polish and even metallic luster, which is more brilliant 
 if the surfaces of the wood have been previously rubbed with lead, 
 tin or zinc plates, and then polished with a glass or porcelain bur- 
 nisher. Treated in this way the wood may assume the appear- 
 ance of a metallic mirror, being also hard and very strong. 
 
 With the majority of lumbermen the term hardwood includes 
 everything except white pine, and is accepted in that sense gen- 
 erally by the trade, though in reality there are two or three 
 woods, such as buckeye and Southern white lynn, that are softer 
 than white pine. Some writer, we know not who, says : "The 
 relative hardness of woods is calculated by the hickory, which is 
 the toughest. Estimating this at 100, we get for pignut hickory 
 96, white oak 84, white ash 77, dogwood 75, scrub oak 73, while 
 hazel, 72, apple tree 70, red oak 79, white beech 65, black wal- 
 nut 65, black birch 62, yellow and black oak, 60, hard maple 56, 
 white elm 58, red cedar 56, cherry 55, yellow pine 54, chestnut 
 52, yellow poplar 51, butternut and white birch 43, and white 
 pine 35. " 
 
 According to this formula, woods possessing a degree of hard- 
 ness equal to only about 40 percent., or less than that of hickory, 
 should not be classed as hardwoods. Such woods are, however, 
 limited in quantity, and are not of sufficient importance to jus- 
 tify a classification, and the trade will continue to construe hard- 
 wood to mean everything except white pine. 
 
 Dyeing wood is mostly applied for the purpose of veneers, 
 while staining is more generally had recourse to give the de- 
 sired color to the article after it has been manufactured. In the 
 one case, the color should penetrate throughout, while in the lat- 
 ter the surface is all that is essential. 
 
 In dyeing, pear tree, holly and beech, take the best black ; but 
 for most colors holly is preferable. It is also best to have wood 
 as young and as newly cut as possible. After the veneers are cut, 
 they should be allowed to lie in a trough of water for four or five
 
 80 THE HARDWOOD FIXISHEK. 
 
 days before they are put into the copper ; as the water, acting as 
 a purgative to the wood, brings out an abundance of slimy matter, 
 which must be removed, or the wood will never be a good color. 
 After this purificatory process, they should be dried in the open 
 air for at least twelve hours. They are then ready for the cop- 
 per. By these simple means the color will strike much quicker, 
 and be of a brighter hue. It would also add to the improvement 
 of the colors, if, after the veneers have boiled a few bours, they 
 are taken out, dried in the air, and again immersed in the color- 
 ing copper. Always dry veneers in the open air, for fire invari- 
 ably injures the colors. 
 
 Fine Black Dyei P ut 6 Ibs. of chip logwood into the copper, 
 with as many veneers as it will conveniently hold, without press- 
 ing too tight ; fill it with water, and let it boil slowly for about 
 three hours ; then add half a pound of powdered verdigris, half 
 a pound of copperas, and 4 ounces of bruised nut-galls ; fill the 
 copper up with vinegar as the water evaporates ; let it boil gently 
 two hours each day till the wood is dyed through. 
 
 Another. Procure some liquor from a tanner's pit, or make a 
 decoction of oak bark, and to every gallon of the liquor add a 
 quarter of a pound of green copperas, and mix them well to- 
 gether ; put the liquor into the copper, and make it quite hot, but 
 not boil ; immerse the veneers in it, and let them remain for an 
 hour ; take them out, and expose them to the air, till it has pene- 
 trated its substance ; then add some logwood to the solution, 
 place the veneers again in it, and let it simmer for two or three 
 hours ; let the whole cool gradually, dry the veneers in the shade, 
 and they will be a very fine black. 
 
 Fine Blue Dye- Into a clean glass bottle put i Ib. of oil of vit- 
 riol, and 4 ozs. of the best indigo pounded in a mortar (take care 
 to set the bottle in a basin or earthen glazed pan, as it will fer- 
 ment ) ; then put the veneers into a copper or stone trough ; fill it 
 rather more than one-third with water, and- add as much of the 
 vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as will make a fine blue, which
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 81 
 
 may be known by trying it with a piece of white paper or wood, 
 Let the veneers remain till the dye has struck through. 
 
 The color will be much improved if the solution of indigo in 
 vitriol be kept a few weeks before using it. The color will strike 
 better if the veneers are boiled in plain water till completely soaked 
 through, and then allowed for a few hours to dry partially, previ- 
 ous to being immersed in the dye. 
 
 Another Throw pieces of quicklime into soft water ; stir it 
 well ; when settled, strain or pour off the clear part ; then to every 
 gallon add ten or twelve ounces of the best turnsole ; put the 
 whole into the copper with the veneers, which should be of white 
 holly, and prepared as usual by boiling in water; let them simmer 
 gently till the color has sufficiently penetrated, but be careful not 
 to let them boil in it, as it would injure the color. 
 
 A Fine Yellow Dye- Reduce 4 Ibs. of the root of barberry, by 
 sawing, to dust, which put in a copper or brass trough ; add 4 ozs. 
 of turmeric and 4 gallons of water, then put in as many white 
 holly veneers as the liquor will cover ; boil them together for three 
 hours, often turning them ; when cool, add 2 ozs. of aquafortis 
 and the dye will strike through much sooner. 
 
 A Bright Yellow Dye- To every gallon of water necessary to 
 cover the veneers, add i Ib. of French berries ; boil the veneers 
 till the color has penetrated through ; add to the infusion of the 
 French berries, the liquid for brightening colors given on page 78, 
 and let the veneers remain for two or three hours, and the color 
 will be very bright. 
 
 Bright Green Dye. Proceed as in either of the previous re- 
 ceipts to produce a yellow ; but instead of adding aquafortis or 
 the brightening liquid, add as much vitriolated indigo (see page 
 80) as will produce the desired color. 
 
 Green Dye- Dissolve 4 ozs. of the best verdigris, and of sap- 
 green and indigo half an ounce each in 3 pints of the best vine- 
 gar ; put in the veneers, and gently boil till the color has pene- 
 trated sufficiently. 
 
 The hue of the green may be varied by altering the proportion 
 6
 
 82 THE HAKDWOOD FINISHEE. 
 
 of the ingredients; and it is advised, unless wanted for a particu- 
 lar purpose, to leave out the sap-green, as it is a vegetable color 
 very apt to change, or turn brown, when exposed to the air. 
 
 Bright Red Dye ( To 2 I DS - of genuine Brazil dust, add 4 
 gallons of water ; put in as many veneers as the liquor will cover ; 
 boil them for three hours ; then add 2 ozs. of alum, and 2 ozs. of 
 aquafortis, and keep it lukewarm until it has struck through. 
 
 Red DyCi To every pound of logwood chips, add 2 gallons of 
 water; put in the veneers, and boil as in the last; then add a 
 sufficient quantity of the brightening liquid (see page 78) till you 
 see the color to your mind ; keep the whole as warm as the fin- 
 ger can be borne in it, till the color has sufficiently penetrated. 
 
 The logwood chips should be picked from all foreign sub- 
 stances, with which it generally abounds, as bark, dirt, etc.; and it 
 is always best when fresh cut, which may be known by its appear- 
 ing of a bright-red color ; for if stale, it will look brown, and not 
 yield so much coloring matter. 
 
 Purple Dv6t To 2 Ibs. of chip logwood and half a pound of 
 Brazil dust, add 4 gallons of water, and after putting in the ve- 
 neers, boil them for at least three hours ; then add 6 ozs. of pearl- 
 ash and 2 ozs. of alum ; let them boil for two or three hours every 
 day, till the color has struck through. 
 
 The Brazil dust only contributes to make the purple of a more 
 red cast ; you may, therefore, omit it, if you require a deep bluish 
 purple. 
 
 Another. Boil 2 Ibs. of logwood, either in chips or powder, 
 in 4 gallons of water, with the veneers; after boiling till the color 
 is well struck in, add by degrees vitriolated indigo (see page 80) 
 till the purple is of the shade required, which may be known by 
 trying it with a piece of paper ; let it then boil for one hour, and 
 keep the liquid in a milk-warm state till the color has penetrated 
 the veneer. This method, when properly managed, will produce 
 a brilliant purple, not so likely to fade as the foregoing. 
 
 Liquid For Brightening AND SETTING COLORS. To every 
 pint of strong aquafortis, add i oz. of grain tin, and a piece of
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER 83 
 
 sal-ammoniac of the size of a walnut; set it by to dissolve, shake 
 the bottle round with the cork out, from time to time ; in the 
 course of two or three days it will be fit for use. This will be 
 found an admirable liquid to add to any color, as it not only 
 brightens it, but renders it less likely to fade from exposure to the 
 air. 
 
 Orange D ye- Let the veneers be dyed by either of the methods 
 given in page 81, of a fine deep yellow, and while they are still 
 wet and saturated with the dye, transfer them to the bright red 
 dye as in page 82, till the color penetrates equally throughout. 
 
 Silver Grey Dye- Expose to the weather in a cast-iron pot 
 of six or eight gallons, old iron nails, hoops, etc., till covered 
 with rust ; add i gallon of vinegar and 2 of water, boil all well 
 for an hour ; have the veneers ready, which must be hard-wood 
 (not too dry,)put them in the copper used to dye black, and pour 
 the iron liquor over them ; add i Ib. of chip logwood and 2 ozs. 
 of bruised nut-galls ; then boil up another pot of the iron liquor 
 to supply the copper with, keeping the veneers covered, and boil- 
 ing two hours a day, till the required color is obtained. 
 
 Gray Dye- Expose any quantity of old iron, or what is better, 
 the borings of gun-barrels, etc., in any convenient vessel, and 
 from time to time sprinkle them with spirits of salt (muriatic acid) 
 diluted in four times its quantity of water, till they are very 
 thickly covered with rust; then to every six pounds add' a gallon 
 of water, in which has been dissolved two ounces of salt of tartar ; 
 lay the veneers in the copper, and cover them with this liquid ; 
 let it boil for two or three hours till well soaked, then to every 
 gallon of liquor add a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and 
 keep the whole at a moderate temperature till the dye has suffi- 
 ciently penetrated. 
 
 Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing are processes of applying to 
 
 previously prepared surfaces a thin layer of gold or silver leaf, or 
 in bronzing, of a fine powder, prepared from various metals and 
 intended to imitate the peculiar appearance of genuine bronze.
 
 84 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 The processes of gilding and silvering being identical, the de- 
 scription of one will suffice to explain the other. 
 
 Gilding- Gold leaf, applied to articles of furniture as a means 
 of decoration, is used in two ways; it is applied over an ordinary 
 varnish or other finish, in which case but little special preparation 
 is necessary; or, as when used for picture frames, cornices, etc., 
 it is appled to a specially prepared foundation, the basis of which 
 is whiting, mixed with various other ingredients suggested by ex- 
 perience or fancy. In either case, the gold leaf is caused to ad- 
 here to the work, by size specially prepared for the purpose, re- 
 ceipts for which follow herewith ; the size being first applied to 
 the work, and when it has become of the right consistency, the 
 gold is laid upon it. OIL-GILDING and BURNISH-GILDING are 
 different methods used to obtain certain desired effects, the for- 
 mer principally for articles exposed to the weather, and for height- 
 ening the effect of incised carving or engraving, and the latter for 
 picture-frames and articles having a specially prepared founda- 
 tion, whose entire surface is to be gilded. It is intended that the 
 gold shall adhere to the work only in the places to which the size 
 has been applied, but the smallest portion of oil or even a slight 
 dampness may cause the gold to partially adhere to the adjoining 
 surface, resulting in slightly ragged edges ; to prevent this, before 
 applying the size to the desired design, the entire surface is cov- 
 ered with a thin film of some substance perfectly free from 
 moisture, and easily removable by water, after completion of the 
 process. 
 
 The Requisites- First > a sufficient quantity of leaf-gold, 
 which is of two sorts the deep gold, as it is called, and the pale 
 gold. The former is the best ; the latter very useful, and may oc- 
 casionally be introduced for variety or effect. 
 
 Second, a gilder's cushion : an oblong piece of wood, covered 
 with rough calf-skin, stuffed with flannel several times doubled, 
 with a border of parchment, about four inches deep, at one end, 
 to prevent the air blowing the leaves about when placed on the 
 cushion.
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINIS HER. 85 
 
 Thirdly, a gilding-knife, with a straight and very smooth edge, 
 to cut the gold. 
 
 Fourthly, several camel-hair pencils in sizes, and tips, made of 
 a few long camel's hairs put between two cards, in the same 
 manner as hairs are put into tin cases for brushes, thus making a 
 flat brush with a very few hairs. 
 
 Lastly, a burnisher, which is a crooked piece of agate set in a 
 long wooden handle. 
 
 SizGSi These are of two kinds : oil sizes are those which when 
 applied, present an adhesive surface, requiring the immediate lay- 
 ing of the gold-leaf upon it ; of this class is the oil-size com- 
 monly used in decorating furniture ; water-sizes are those that 
 are allowed to become dry and hard when applied, and are ren- 
 dered adhesive when the gold is to be laid, by brushing over with 
 water ; for burnish-gilding these are always employed, as oil-size 
 does not dry sufficiently hard to permit of burnishing. 
 
 Oil Size for Oil-Gilding, Grind calcined red-ochre with the 
 best and oldest drying-oil. When desired for use, add sufficient 
 oil of turpentine to make it work freely. 
 
 Parchment-Size, F o r preparing Frames, etc. To half a 
 pound of parchment shavings, or cuttings of white leather, add 
 three quarts of water, and boil it in a proper vessel till reduced to 
 nearly half the quantity ; then take it off the fire, and strain it 
 through a sieve. Be careful in the boiling to keep it well stirred, 
 and do not let burn. 
 
 Gold-Size for Burnish-Gilding, Grin d fine sal-ammoniac 
 
 well with a muller and stone ; scrape into it a little beef suet, 
 and grind all wet together ; after which, mix in with a pallet- 
 knife a small proportion of parchment-size with a double propor- 
 tion of water. When about to use, add parchment-size until it 
 will just flow from the brush. 
 
 Another. Grind a lump of tobacco-pipe clay into a very stiff 
 paste with thin size ; add a small quantity of ruddle and fine 
 black lead, ground very fine, and temper the whole with a small
 
 86 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 piece of tallow. When ready to use, reduce with parchment 
 size until it will just flow from the brush. 
 
 Another. Grind separately in water, i Ib. Armenian bole, 2 
 ozs. red lead, a sufficient quantity of black lead ; mix, and re- 
 grind with a small quantity of olive oil. Reduce with parchment 
 size to the proper consistency. 
 
 To Prevent Gold Adhering, Either one of the following 
 methods will prevent gold-leaf or bronze from adhering to the 
 surface beyond the outlines of the sizing laid on to receive it : 
 
 1. Whiting used dry, and applied by means of a pounce bag. 
 
 2. Whiting mixed in water, and applied with a soft brush. 
 When the water has evaporated, dust off the superfluous whiting 
 with an ordinary paint duster. By this method a very thin coat- 
 ing of whiting remains, which is free from any grittiness. One 
 advantage gained by the use of whiting thus applied is, it 
 furnishes a whitish ground over which clear varnish or oil-size 
 may be distinctly seen as the striping progresses. After the leaf 
 or bronze has been applied, the work must be carefully washed, 
 so as to insure the removal of the whiting. 
 
 3. White of egg reduced with water, and applied with apiece 
 of sponge. 
 
 4. A thin wash of starch water, either brushed on with a flat 
 camel-hair brush, or applied with a soft sponge. 
 
 5. Take ball liquorice and water, a weak solution, and apply 
 with a soft brush. This may be kept in a bottle ready for use at 
 any time. 
 
 6. Cut a new potato in two, amd rub over the part to be 
 sized with the raw face exposed, allowing the juice to remain 
 until dry. 
 
 It will be observed that any substance which interposes a film 
 over the varnish, itself being free from tackiness and readily 
 removed by water, will answer the purpose. 
 
 Oil Gilding, Applying the Gold. If the wood to be gilded is 
 finished with varnish or otherwise, no additional foundation is 
 necessary upon which to lay the gold-leaf ; if the wood is not
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 87 
 
 finished, after it has been smoothed and dusted, give it one or 
 two coats of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, 
 again smoothing the surface with fine sand-paper. That the gold 
 may not adhere to any part of the work except where the size is 
 hard, powder the surface lightly with whiting from a pounce- 
 bag, which is a small bag made of material sufficiently loose 
 to permit the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust ; if 
 preferred, any of the preceding receipts for that purpose can be 
 used instead. Remove the surplus whiting with the dusting- 
 brush, and the work is then ready for the size. Apply this with 
 a sable or fit brush of the proper size, carefully observing to 
 make the outer lines of the design clear and sharp, that the work 
 may not appear ragged. Let the size remain until it feels tacky, 
 when the gold may be applied. This is the most difficult part of 
 the operation, and experience is necessary before gold-leaf can 
 be laid smoothly without a wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf of 
 gold out of the book upon the cushion ; breathe gently upon the 
 centre of the leaf and it will lay flat on the cushion ; cut it to the 
 proper size by bringing the knife perpendicularly over it, 
 and sawing it gently until divided. Take your tip (a brush used 
 for the purpose) and after drawing it lightly over your hair 
 to remove any particles or dust that may be upon it, breathe upon 
 it gently, which will dampen it sufficiently to cause the leaf of 
 gold to adhere to it ; lay the tip upon the leaf of gold 
 and carefully transfer it to the work ; blow upon it gently and 
 it will straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered 
 quite smooth by slightly dabbing it with a bit of cotton. 
 In about an hour wash off the superfluous gold from the edges, 
 with a sponge and water. If the article is to be exposed 
 to the weather or much wear, the gilding may be varnished with 
 copal varnish. 
 
 Burnish-Gilding.- As previously stated, this process requires a 
 specially prepared foundation upon which to lay the gold, and as 
 the preparation of this foundation is a distinct trade, the 
 furniture dealer or cabinet-maker seldom finds it necessary
 
 88 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 to undertake it, the articles corning to his hand ready-prepared 
 for gilding ; but as in repairing picture-frames, cornices, mirror 
 frames, etc., it frequently becomes necessary to renew the 
 foundation, a comprehensive description of the whole process is 
 given. . 
 
 Preparing the Wood-WOrk, After smoothing and dusting the 
 work, coat the frames in every part with boiling-hot parchment- 
 size, as previously described, then mix a sufficient quantity 
 of whiting with size to the consistency of thick cream, and with 
 it by means of a brush, coat every part of the frame several times, 
 permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before proceeding 
 with the next. The wood will thus be covered with a layer 
 of hard whiting nearly or quite a sixteenth of an inch in 
 thickness. The size must not be too thick, and when mixed 
 with the whiting should not be so hot as the preliminary coat of 
 size. 
 
 Polishing, When the preparations are quite dry, clean 
 and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece at a time, and, 
 with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, dipped in water, rub the part 
 till all the bumps and inequalities are removed ; and for those 
 parts where the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., 
 wind the wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this means 
 make the surface all smooth and even alike. 
 
 Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes be 
 necessary to bring the mouldings to their original sharpness 
 by means of chisels, gouges, etc., as the preparation will be apt 
 to fill up all the finer parts of the work, which must be thus 
 restored. It is sometimes the practice, after polishing, to go 
 over the work once with fine yellow or Roman ochre ; but this is 
 rarely necessary. 
 
 Applying the Size, Select the proper gold size from the 
 receipts previously given ; add parchment size until it will just 
 flow from the brush ; make it quite hot, and apply it to the wood 
 with a very soft brush, taking care not to make the first coat too 
 thick ; let it dry and give two or three successive coats, after
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 89 
 
 the last brushing it with a stiff brush to remove any inequalities. 
 The work is then ready for the gold. 
 
 Laying the gold. The manipulation of the gold leaf has been 
 described under the heading OIL GILDING. In the paint now 
 being described, size used (being water-size, which previously ex- 
 plained is permitted to become hard and dry after being 
 applied) must be moistened to cause the gold-leaf to adhere to it. 
 For this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil, dipped in 
 water, go over as much of the work as you intend the piece of gold to 
 cover; then lay the gold upon it in the manner previously explained. 
 Be sure that the part to which the gold is applied is sufficiently wet ; 
 indeed it must be floating, or the gold will be apt to crack. Pro- 
 ceed in this manner a little at a time, and do not attempt to cover 
 too much at once, until by experience you are going to handle 
 the gold with freedom. 
 
 Burnishingi When the work is covered with gold, set it by 
 to dry ; there is a particular state or degree of dryness, known 
 only by experience in which the moulding is in a fit state for bur- 
 ishing ; it will probably be ready to burnish in about eight or ten 
 hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room or state of 
 the air. 
 
 When it is ready, those parts intended to be burnished must 
 be dusted with a soft brush ; then wiping the burnisher with a 
 piece of soft wash-leather (quite dry) begin to burnish about an 
 inch or two in length at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, 
 but with a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool until all 
 the parts of the surface are equally bright. 
 
 Matting OP Dead Goldi Certain portions only of the work are 
 burnished, according to the fancy, and the facility with which 
 the burnishing tool can be applied ; the remaining parts are now 
 to be deprived of their metallic lustre, to make a more effective 
 contrast with the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said to 
 be matted or dead-gold. The process is as follows : 
 
 Grind some vermillion or yellow ochre very fine, and mix a 
 very small portion either with the parchment size or with the
 
 90 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 white of an egg, and with a very soft brush lay it evenly on the 
 parts to be dulled ; if well done, it will add greatly to the beauty 
 of the work. Previous to matting, the work must be well cleared 
 of superfluous gold, by means of a soft brush. 
 
 Finishing- I n elaborate works it is frequently impossible to lay 
 gold-leaf into all the intricacies of an elaborate design, and the 
 parts thus left bare must be finished by touching up with a 
 small brush charged with shell-gold, or gold-powder, mixed with 
 gum-Arabic to the proper consistency. The following receipt de- 
 scribes the preparation of shell-gold : 
 
 Shelled Gold. Take any quantity of leaf-gold and grind it 
 with a small portion of honey, to a fine powder, add a little gum- 
 Arabic and sugar-candy, with a little water, and mix it well 
 together ; let it dry. 
 
 Silver Size, Grind pipe-clay fine with a little black-lead and 
 good soap, and add parchment-size as directed for gold-size. 
 
 Composition for Frame Ornaments, The ornaments for gilded 
 
 mirror-frames, etc., are usually moulded from some plastic sub- 
 stance that is somewhat tougher and more durable than the ordi- 
 nary gilding foundation of whiting and size. The proper moulds 
 being prepared they are thoroughly rubbed upon the inside with 
 sweet oil, aud the composition firmly pressed in ; after removing 
 the mould the cast may be dried by a gentle heat, or while still 
 plastic it can be applied in its proper place and bent into any 
 position. Following are receipts for composition : 
 
 Dissolve i Ib. of glue in i gallon of water. In another kettle 
 boil together 2 Ibs. of resin, i gill of Venice turpentine, and i 
 pint of linseed oil ; mix altogether in one kettle, and boil and 
 stir till the water has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of 
 finely-rolled whiting, and work till it is the consistency of dough. 
 
 Boil 7 Ibs. of best glue in 7 half-pints of water. Melt 3 Ibs. of 
 white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed oil. When the above has 
 been well-boiled put them into a large vessel and simmer them 
 for half an hour, stirring the mixture and taking care that it does 
 not boil over. The whole must then be turned into a box of
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 91 
 
 whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is of the consistency 
 of dough. 
 
 To Manipulate Gold Leaf, Get a piece of paper, thin enough 
 to show shadow of gold-leaf through, slightly wax it, lay it on gold- 
 leaf, the latter will then adhere, and can be easily worked and 
 will come off clean. The paper should be slightly larger than the 
 gold-leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make the gold- 
 leaf adhere. 
 
 Bronzing. This is a process for imitating on metal, plaster 
 wood, or other material, the peculiar appearance produced by 
 chemical action upon the surface of bronze metal. It is accom- 
 plished by spreading over the surface of the material to be orna- 
 mented a very thin coating of bronze-powder, which is caused to 
 adhere either by applying it directly upon a coating of any of the 
 sizes mentioned in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a ve- 
 hicle, such as gum-Arabic or transparent varnish. The latter is 
 most desirable, as in the other case, being subject to the direct 
 action of the atmosphere, the bronze-powder soon tarnishes. In 
 ornamenting furniture, bronzing is generally employed to repre- 
 sent gilding, a variety of bronze called gold -bronze being used, 
 which affords an excellent imitation but is not very lasting. It is 
 usually applied after the completion of the other finishing proc- 
 esses, the ground-work being prepared in the manner de- 
 scribed under OIL-GILDING, and the size likewise applied as 
 there described. A small wad of cotton batting is then dipped in 
 the bronze and passed gently over the sized portions, causing the 
 bronze to adhere. In the other method that of applying the 
 bronze by means of a vehicle the preliminaries of whiting the 
 ground and sizing are not necessary, a small quantity of bronze 
 being simply mixed with the vehicle employed to such a degree 
 of fluidity that it will flow easily, and in that condition applied 
 with a fine brush. Many preparations are used as vehicles such 
 as transparent varnish thinned with turpentine, gum-Arabic, dis- 
 solved in water, and gold-size reduced with parchment-size. 
 There are a variety of colors in bronze-powders, and to produce
 
 92 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER. 
 
 the best effect the size or vehicle should be of a color similar to 
 that of the bronze used ; in gold-size the coloring pigment is 
 ochre, and in its place, for green-bronze, or blue-bronze, may be 
 employed respectively verditer, vermillion or Prussian blue, a 
 very small quantity being sufficient. In bronzing on painted 
 work the ground should be as nearly as possible the color of the 
 bronze to be applied. 
 
 THE END.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 filler for rosewood, 18. 
 Another method of filling, 1 8. 
 A good recipe for French polish, 47. 
 Another recipe for French polish, 47. 
 A good polish, 48. 
 A polish that will resist water, 48. 
 A French polish reviver, 49. 
 Antique oak, 53. 
 Ash, 63. 
 
 A fine yellow dye, 8l. 
 A bright yellow dye, 81. 
 Applying size, 88. 
 
 DERRY BROS, hard oil finish, 25. 
 
 Brushes for varnishing, 35. 
 
 Birch, 64. 
 
 Basswood, 69. 
 
 Beech, 69. 
 
 Butternut, 69. 
 
 Brown stain, 77. 
 
 Brown stain by another method, 77. 
 
 Black dye, 77. 
 
 Bright green dye, 81. 
 
 Bright red dye, 82. 
 
 Burnish gilding, 87. 
 
 Burnishing, 89. 
 
 G 
 
 CARRIAGE varnish, 41. 
 Chamois skin, 41. 
 Cleanliness in polishing, 42. 
 Cotton wads for polishing, 45. 
 Cherry, 62. 
 Cedar, 69. 
 Chestnut, 69. 
 Cypress, 70. 
 
 Cedarvvood imitation, 77. 
 Composition for frame ornaments, 90. 
 
 UEAD finish, 49. 
 
 Dying wood, 79. 
 
 CLM, 6 9 . 
 
 JT ILLER for light woods, 17. 
 
 Filler for cherry, 18. 
 
 Filler for oak, 18. 
 
 Filler for rosewood, 18. 
 
 Filler for mahogany, redwood and 
 cherry, 20. 
 
 F. W. Devoe & Co.'s wax finishing, 
 24. 
 
 Finishing, varnishing and polishing, 
 27. 
 
 Flowing, 42. 
 
 French polishing, 44. 
 
 First and best recipe for French pol- 
 ishing, 47. 
 
 Finish dead, 49. 
 
 Fine black dye, 80. 
 
 Fine blue dye, 80. 
 
 Finishing, 90. 
 
 G 
 
 LUE size, 34. 
 General recipes, 73. 
 Green dye, 8l. 
 Grey dye, 83. 
 
 Gilding, silvering and bronzing, 83. 
 Gilding, 84. 
 Gold size for burnish gilding, 85. 
 
 E 
 
 .ARD oil finish, 25. 
 Hard oil finishing, 34. 
 Hemlock, 70. 
 
 (93)
 
 INDEX. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 5. 
 
 Imitation oak stain, 68. 
 Imitation mahogany stain, 68. 
 Imitation rosewood stain, 68. 
 Imitation walnut stain, 68. 
 
 LIQUID for brightening and set- 
 ting colors, 82. 
 
 MURPHY'S transparent varnish, 
 44- 
 
 Mahogany, 58. 
 Miscellaneous, 78. 
 Matting or dead gold, 89. 
 
 0, 
 
 "IL shellac, 33. 
 Other French polish recipes, 47. 
 Oak, 52. 
 Oak stains, 58. 
 Oak stain No. 2," 58. 
 Orange dye, 83. 
 Oil size for oil gilding, 85. 
 Oil gilding, 86. 
 
 PRELIMINARY, 9. 
 
 Preparation of wood for staining, 19. 
 Polishing and finishing, 27. 
 Preparing shellac, 32. 
 Pumice stone, 39. 
 Prepared spirits, 48. 
 Polish for turner's work, 49. 
 Pine, 65. 
 Poplar, 69. 
 Purple dye, 82. 
 Parchment size, 85. 
 Preparing wood-work, 88. 
 Polishing, 88. 
 
 R. 
 
 CUBBING and finishing, 29. 
 Rubber for polishing, 46. 
 
 Rosewood, 71. 
 Red dye, 82. 
 
 E and sizing, 26. 
 Staining, finishing, varnishing and 
 
 polishing, 27. 
 Shellacing, 30. 
 Shellac, preparing, 32. 
 Sandpapering, 36. 
 " Sag " in varnish, 37. 
 Sweating varnish, 40. 
 Sycamore, 70. 
 Stains, 75. 
 Silver grey dye, 83. 
 Sizes, 85. 
 Shelled gold, 90. 
 Silver size, 90. 
 
 THE various woods, their stains 
 and finish, 51. 
 To brighten stains, 78. 
 The requisites, 84. 
 To prevent gold adhering, 86. 
 To manipulate gold leaf, 91. 
 
 ARNISHING and polishing, 27. 
 Varnishing hardwood, 35. 
 Varnish brushes, 35. 
 Veneered panels, 43. 
 Varnish polishing, 43. 
 Varnish finish for cheap work, 50. 
 Varnish pans, 51. 
 
 We 
 
 OOD fillers and wood-filling, 14. 
 Walnut filler, medium, 17. 
 Walnut filler for wax finish, 17. 
 Walnut filler for first-class work, 17. 
 Wheeler's wood-filler, 22. 
 Wax finish, 50. 
 Walnut, 68.
 
 Established 18?0. 
 
 1870 STANDARD BOOKS 
 
 SALE BY THE 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO. 
 
 New York. 
 
 These books will Tie sent, postpaid, to any address on receipt o/ price. Full Descriptive 
 Catalogues may le had free. New Catalogues, with additions of new looks, are issued from 
 time to time, and will be sent free to any address on request. 
 
 All books are bound in extra cloth, unlens when otherwise stated. 
 
 The Steel Square and Its UseS.-By FRKD. T. HODGSON.- The most 
 valuabl". practical, and simple work for mechanics ever published. Third edition, 
 enlarged and improved, with 100 engravings. Just issued $1.00 
 
 Steel Squares and Their Uses.-Being a description of the various 
 Steel Squares and their Uses in solving B large number of Mechanical Problems in 
 
 methods, and new wrinkles for shortening work. Finely illustrated $1.00 
 
 With these two Volumes in his possession, the workman is prepared to lay out any 
 work more easily, quickly, and accurately than it can be done by any other method. 
 
 Practical Carpentry. Being a Guide to the Correct Working and Laying 
 Out ot all kinds of Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By FKED. T. HODGSON. Illustrated 
 by over 300 engravings $1.00 
 
 Stall-building Made Easy.- By FKED. T. HODGSON.- The only book tliat 
 "begins at the beginning." Over 120 engravings, many of them lull-page size. . $1.00 
 
 A New System Of Hand-Railing; or, How to Cut Hand-Hailing for 
 Circular and other Stairs, square from the plunk, without the aid ol'a falling mould. 
 Kditurt by FKIIX T. HODUSON. The system is new, economic, easily learned, and thor- 
 oughly practical. Several folding plates $1.00 
 
 Plaster: How to Make and How to Use.- illustrated with nu- 
 merous engravings in the text, and three plates giving some forty figures of ceilings, 
 centerpieces, cornices, panels, soffits, &c $1.00 
 
 Handsaws: Their Use, Care, and Abuse. How to Select and HOW 
 
 to Kile Them. By FRED. T. HODGSON. Over 75 engravings. The most complete and 
 practical work on the subject ever published $1.00 
 
 The Builders' Culde, and Estimators' Prfce-book.-By FRED. 
 
 T. HODUSON. This work has been prepared on a new and peculiar plan which great!}' 
 simplifies the work of getting up plans and estimates. It contains all the necessary 
 rules, data, tables, &c $2.00 
 
 Manual for Furniture-men, Cabinet-makers, Upholsterers, 
 
 &C. A thoroughly practical treatise on hardwood finishing. Contains many of the 
 
 secret recipes for which $5 to $50 have been charged $1.00 
 
 Easy Lessons In Architecture. -By THOMAS MITCHELL. -This book sets 
 forth in simple language the principles of architecture, describes the different styles, 
 aiid explains the terms. It is a standard authority. 150 engravings. . . . 50 cents. 
 
 Buck's Cottage and Other Designs. Just the book you want if you 
 
 are going to build a cheap and comfortable home. The information in regard to site, 
 general arrangement of plan, sanitary matters, &c., is worth a great (leal more than 
 the cost of the work, Paper. 50 cents
 
 CATALOGUE OF INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 Carpenters' and Joiners' Pocket Companion. Containing Rules, 
 
 Duta. ami Directions for Laying Out Work for Calculating and Estimating. By THOB. 
 MOLOXEY. Carpenter and Joiner. This book is by a thoroughly practical man. and just 
 meets the wants of the ordinary carpenter, to whom the algebraic formulae of the 
 high-priced pocket-books are so much Greek 50 cent*. 
 
 Water-ClOSetS. Gives a description of every water-closet ever invented, with 
 on account of their qualities, advantages, and defects. By GLENN BBOWH. Over 150 
 engravings. $1.00 
 
 Lightning- rods. Plain Directions for the Construction and Erection of 
 Lightning-rods. - By JOHN PHIS. C.E. Fully illustrated.- This is a well-known stand- 
 ard work. It is the only book on the subject published in this country that has not 
 been written in the interest of some patent, or some manufacturing concern. 75 cents. 
 
 Hints and Aids In Building and estimating. Gives hint*, prices, 
 
 tell* how to measure, explains building terms, lie. Paper. 25 cents. 
 
 Mechanical Draughting. The Students' Guide to Practical Draughting. 
 By T. P. PEMBEKTOS. Well ilhwtrated $1.00 
 
 Drawing Instruments. A Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with 
 Rules for their Use and Care, Exolanatlons of Scales, Sectors, Protractors, lie. By 
 FUED. T. HODGSOX. Paper, 25 cents. 
 
 The Slide Rule and HOW to Use It. -Possessed of this little book and a 
 good Slide Rule, mechanics might carry hi their pockets some hundreds of times the 
 power of calculation that they now have in their heads, and the use of the instrument 
 13 very easily acquired. Paper 25 cents. 
 
 The Engineer's Slide Rule, and Its Applications.- By WILLIAM 
 
 ToNKEg, Paper, 25 cents. 
 
 The Lightning Calculator. With Kales, Tables, Data, Formula, Mem- 
 oranda, *C. Paper, 20 cents. 
 
 Lectures In a Workshop. By T. P. PEMBKTOI $1.00 
 
 HOW tO Become a COOd Mechanic.- A Practical Guide for Self taught 
 Students of the Mechanic Arts. Tells What to Study ; How to Study ; What Difficult- 
 ies will be Met, and How to Overcome Them. Paper, 15 cents. 
 
 Electricians' POCket Companion. -Electrical Rules, Tablei, Tests, 
 and Formal*. By ANDRUW JAMIKSON, C.E.. F.K.S.E. This is the most compact and 
 thorough work in the market for the practical electrician. It contains minute direc- 
 tions for all calculations, tests, Arc., with clear engravings of the apparatus employed. 
 Fully illustrated 75 cents. 
 
 Trade "Secrets" and Private Recipes.- A Collection of Recipes, 
 
 Processes, and Formulae that have been offered (or sale at prices varying from 25 cents 
 to $500. With notes, corrections, additions, and special hints tor improvements.- By 
 JOHN PHIN 60 cents. 
 
 The Workshop CompanlOn.-A Collection of Useful and Reliable Recipes. 
 Rules, Processes, Methods. Wrinkles, and Practical Hints for the Household and the 
 Shop.- Paper. 35 cents. Cloth, 80 cents. 
 
 A hook of 164 closely printed pges. forming a Dictionary of Practical Information 
 for Mechanics. Amateurs, Housekeepers, Farmers, everybody. 
 
 The Workshop Companion.- PART It- This is an extension of the First 
 Part, and contains subjects which have not been discussed in the earlier volume. These 
 two volumes are not a mere collection of newspaper clippings, like most ol the books of 
 Recipes," but a series ol thorough articles on practical matters m regard to which 
 information is constantly desired m the shop, the house, an.l on the farm . - Paper, 
 : cents. Cloth, . ... . .... 60 cents 
 
 The two parts are also issued in one volume, handsomely hound in cloth, under the 
 title of "The Practical Assistant."- Price $1. 
 
 Success With Recipes. -A Practical Guide to Success in tht Use of Recipe* 
 l-'ormi-la". &c with Hints on Chemical and Mechanical Manipulation. Intended as * 
 ' npplem.-nt to all books ol Recipes- By JOHN PHI.M - Paper 25 cent*
 
 CATALOGUE OF INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 
 The Amateur's Handbook of Practical Information for the 
 
 Workshop and the Laboratory. Paper, 15 cents. 
 
 Hints for Painters, Decorators, and Paperhangers.- Prepared 
 
 with special reference to the wants of non-professionals.- Paper, .... 25 cents. 
 
 Cements and Clue. A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of 
 all kinds of Cementc, Glue, and Paste.- By JOHN PHIN.- Paper,. . . . 25 cent*. 
 
 WOOd-engravlng. I u " Instructions in the Art. By S. E. FUU*R. Fully 
 illustrated 50 cents. 
 
 CollOdlO-etChlng.- Fu " Instructions in this most delightful Art Illus- 
 trated with actual" photo-prints $1.00 
 
 A Century Of Inventions.- An Exact Eeprint of the famous "Century of 
 Inventions" of the Maquis of Worcester. One of the most curious books ever pub- 
 published $1-00 
 
 Common Sense In the Poultry-yard. -A full account of 1,000 hens, 
 
 and what they did. With many new wrinkles and economical dodges. The most 
 thoroughly practical book on poultry in market By J. P. HAIG. Illustrated. . $1.00 
 
 Dictionary of Practical Beekeeping.- With numerous illustrations, 
 
 notes, and practical hints. By JOHN PHIN 50 cents. 
 
 What to Do and How to Do It In Case of Accident.- One of tho 
 
 most useful books ever published 50 cents. 
 
 ShOOtlng On the Wing.- Plain Directions for Acquiring this Art With 
 several Valuable and hitherto Secret Kecipes of Great Practical Importance to the 
 Sportsman. Finely illustrated 76 cents. 
 
 The Pistol as a Weapon of Defense, In the House and on 
 
 the Road. How to choose It, and how to use it 50 cents. 
 
 HOW to Use the Microscope.- By JOHN PniN.-Sixth edition.-Ovcr 
 eighty engravings in the text, and eight full-page engravings. $1.25 
 
 A Book for Beginners with the Microscope. By JOHN PHIN.- 
 
 Fully illustrated, and very simple 30 cents. 
 
 The Microscope. A Practical Treatise. By ANDREW Ross (the famous 
 microscope-maker). Fully illustrated 75 cents, 
 
 Microscope Objectives. A Treatise on Angular Aperture. By GEOROB 
 E. BLACKHAM, M.D.- Eighteen full-page illustrations $1.25 
 
 Marvels Of Pond Life.- A Tear's Recreations among Polyps, Rotifers, 
 Infusoria, Water-Bears, and Polyzoa. By H. J. SLACK. Seven plates and numerous 
 illustrations $1.00 
 
 Section-Cutting. A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting of 
 Sections for the Microscope By SYLVESTKR MARSH, M.D. Numerous illustr's. 75 cts. 
 
 Handbook of Urinary Analysis, Chemical and Microscop- 
 ical. For the use of Physicians, Medical Students, and Chemical Assistants. By 
 FKANK M. DKKMS, M.D.- Fully illustrated $1.00 
 
 Diatoms. Practical Directions for Collecting, Preserving, Transporting. Pre- 
 paring, and Mounting Diatoms. By EDWARDS, JOHNSON, and SMITH. . . . 75 cents. 
 
 Bacteria.- A Practical Treatise illustrated with over 300 engravings, showing 
 tin- I'nnns and Mode? of Growth of the Various Species, and the apparatus used in the 
 different cultures.- By WATSON CHKYNE. Paper, 25 cents. 
 
 Trlchlna-Splralls. A Treatise on Pork-worms or Flesh-worms. How to 
 Detect Them. How to Avoid Them, How to Stamp Them Out By JOHN PHIN. author 
 of "How to Use the Microscope, Paper, 25 cents. 
 
 The MicroSCOpIstS' Annual for 1879. Contains a large amount of 
 useful matter of permanent value 25 cents. 
 
 The Sun. A Familiar Description of His Phenomena. By Eev. THOMAS W. 
 WBBB. Illustrated 40 cent*.
 
 CATALOGUE OF INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 The Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. -By JOBS 
 
 PHIN 75 cents 
 
 Rhymes of Science, Wise and Otherwise. -By OLIVKR \VKXUKI.!. 
 
 HC.I.MK.S, BKKT UABTK, INGOLOSBY, Prof. FOKBKS, Prof. J. \V. McQ. KAXKINK, Hon. K. \V. 
 
 KAVMONO, and others. With illustrations 50 cents. 
 
 A Book abOUt Books. Practical Notes on the Selection, Use, and Care 
 of Books. A readable, gossipy book, full of anecdotes and practical suggestions. Con- 
 tains some very curious engravings (tlie Birth of Eve, for example) 40 cents. 
 
 The N^!W POCket Cyclopedia. A Compendium of General Knowledge, 
 Useful and Interesting Facts, Valuable Statistics, and Practical Information. . 50 cts. 
 
 This is a handy volume, printed in small but clear type, on very fine thin paper, so 
 that the book may be readily carried in the pocket or trunk. It contain! nil those facts 
 and figures which are most commonly referred to in everyday life, great cnre being 
 taken to secure accuracy and clearness. It is not a collection of : ' curious information ' 
 made up from newspaper clippings, but a thoroughly arranged^ manual of the most 
 useful general knowledge. 
 
 Ready. 
 
 The Practical Upholsterer.- This work contains a number of original 
 designs in drapery and upholstery, with full explanatory text and an immense number 
 of working illustrations. Gives a description of tools, appliances, and materials. Tells 
 how to upholster chairs, parlor furniture, bedroom furniture. &c. It contains rules for 
 rutting bed-hangings, window-curtains, door-hangings, and blinds, and for measuring 
 and cutting carpets. Gives arithmetical calculations for cutting carpets, curtains, &c.. 
 mantelboard drapery, festoons, and, in short, everything pertaining to upholstery. There 
 is nothing published in this country that is so thorough and complete in the instructions 
 given for upholstering as this book. Handsomely bound in cloth. Price $1.00. 
 
 Facts and Figures for Practical Men. Containing Data, Formula-. 
 Rules, Tables, and Calculations used by Architects, Blacksmiths. Bricklayers. Builders. 
 Cabinetmakers, Carpenters, Contractors, Engineers. Farmers. Firemen. Founders, (iun- 
 smiths, Joiners, Machinists. Masons, Metalworkers, Millwrights. Painters, Pliuti TITS. 
 Koofers, Roadmaktrs, Surveyors. Tinsmiths, &c. By JOHN PHIN, author of "Practical 
 Treatise on Lightning-Kods," "How to Use the Microscope." &c. 
 
 It is intended to make this work a convenient and reliable manual for those who 
 have no knowledge of the higher mathematics. It will be published in four parts, price 
 25 cents each. Part I is nearly ready. 
 
 The Universal Carpenter and Jolner.-By FRED. T. HODGSON, author 
 
 of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," "Practical Carpentry," &c. 
 
 To be handsomely illustrated, and published in four parts, as follows : 
 
 Part I will contain Carpenter's Geometry, presented in an easy form, with 
 examples of its practical applications in Carpentry and Joinery, showing how to 
 get and work difficult "cuts " and pitches. 
 
 Part II will be an introduction to the Art and Science of Carpentry proper, 
 with working drawings of Roofs, Bridges, Bevel and Skew Work. 
 
 Part III will contain a practical treatise on American Joinery, with descrip- 
 tions mid examples of some of the best work in existence. This Part will be full of ex- 
 cellent material for the Joiner and Finisher. 
 
 Part IV will contain a large number of examples in mixed Joiners- and Car- 
 pentry, Kules for Working. Methods of Working. Tables. Data for Estimating. Form- 
 ulae for laying out work, and Recipes useful to the Practical Workman. 
 
 It will be the aim of the author to make this work the most complete treatise on 
 Carpentry and Joinery published to date. It will be issued in Four Parts, each Part 
 consisting of not less than 100 large royal octavo pages, printed on fine paper, and 
 strongly bound in stiff paper covers. The price will be one, dollar per Part ; am! when 
 complete the whole will torm one volume, the price of which, handsomely bound in 
 extra cloth, will be $5. 
 
 The First Part will be ready about the first of August, 1891, and the remaining Parts 
 at intervals of about three months. 
 
 To those sending advance orders for two Parts, accompanied with the cash, we will 
 send a coupon which will be accepted by us as payment in full for binding the complete 
 work in neat cloth, with gilt title.
 
 UCSB LIBKARV
 
 A 000 607 1 27 8