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 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVttSITV Of 
 
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CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES 
 
 j <k.cJ^£yO Vv 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOL 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 COMPILED BY THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE AND APPROVED 
 BY THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 DOCUMENTS DEPARTMENT 
 
 MAY 9 1955 
 
 LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SACRAMENTO: 
 
 W. W, SHANNON, SUPERINTENDENT STATE PRINTING 
 
Copyright 1904 by 
 THE PEOPLE OP THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Copyright 1898 and 1901 by 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 
 
 In the compilation of this work certain matter from the Natural 
 Advanced Geography, by Jacques W. Redway and Russell Hin- 
 man, has been used. All such matter is protected by the copyright 
 entries noted above. 
 
 nr ^ 
 
 3E— 30M — 5'o6 
 
G 127 
 
 PREFACE. si- 
 
 The present is a period of marked increase in the attention and thought given to geography. This is shown in various 
 ways. The demand for greater markets for manufactured goods and for cheaper raw materials has caused European nations to 
 push actively the colonization of Africa. For the same reasons the leading nations of the world are contending for commercial 
 supremacy on the Asiatic shores of the Pacific, and our own country is exploring and developing its new possessions. Renewed 
 interest in all fields of geographical inquiry is indicated by the establishment of departments of geography in our great univer- 
 sities and by the increasing number of publications on related topics. 
 
 It is hoped that these new books of the California State Series will put the schools in touch with the spirit of this move- 
 ment. ^The essential idea of the modern teaching of geography is the mutual relation and reaction of man and his physical 
 environment. Both books in this series are characterized by the attention given to the two phases of this thought — on the one 
 hand, by a fuller treatment of the natural phenomena and facts of the world about us than that which has been commonly 
 given, and, on the other hand, by a greater attention to the activities of man as developed in modern civilization. The proper 
 treatment of the first phase involves an appreciation by the teacher of the general facts of physical geography. Familiarity 
 with the ideas in the modern text-books in this line will enable the teacher to recognize the frequent examples of physiographic 
 changes as they occur in each locality. The text-book should be constantly enriched and made vital by the study of nature 
 itself. The second phase of the work involves a cultivation of a broad sympathy with the life of our fellow men in their 
 various occupations — first in our own country, and finally in the world at large. For this the teacher will find ever new illus- 
 trations in the commercial, industrial, and political life of today as recorded in our best journals. 
 
 Specific helps to the better teaching of the subject will be found in the New Basis of Geography by J. W. Redway, one of 
 the authors of this book, and also in the Journal of Geography, published at Chicago, which gives the current geographical 
 news and reviews the publications in this subject as they appear. 
 
 i/ The New Grammar School Geography treats first of the earth as a whole, and of the general manner in which its physical 
 features, its plants, its animals, and its human inhabitants have reached their present condition and distribution through 
 centuries of change and development. This part of the subject has been presented with considerable detail, because of its 
 fundamental importance. No country, no people has attained its present condition unaffected by the influences of other, 
 and often of remote regions. The remainder of the book is devoted to the various parts or countries of the earth. The 
 development of each part is studied and' analyzed in the light of the preceding lessons on the Earth as a Whole, and thus 
 true relationships are established. 
 
 The topics for Oral and Written Work and the exercises in Correlations and Comparisons which have been inserted at 
 convenient intervals in this book not only serve as reviews, but are so framed that they stimulate thought and lead the pupil 
 to view what he has learned from a somewhat different standpoint. These features form a nucleus for the "laboratory work" 
 now recognized as an essential feature in the study of geography. 
 
 The optional supplemental work at the ends of the various sections is not essential to the course, but it abounds in 
 suggestions of appropriate collateral reading and of variations in the exercises of the class or of individual pupils. This work 
 the teacher may use to the extent which time and circumstances permit. 
 
 Corresponding maps throughout the book are drawn on the same scale. Care should be taken to prevent the pupil from 
 forming misconceptions regarding the comparative size of countries. On the physical maps, the relief features are shown by 
 contour lines in the manner now used on the best topographical maps issued by the Government. 
 
 MS03118 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 THE EARTH. 
 Form and Size 
 Rotation 
 
 Page. 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 
 
 The Surface of the Earth 9 
 
 The Continental Plateau - - 9 
 
 Highlands and Lowlands . 10 
 
 Coasts 10 
 
 Upheaval of Mountains 11 
 
 WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND. 
 
 Atmospheric Agents 12 
 
 Ground Water 14 
 
 Streams and Lakes 15 
 
 Divides and Slopes 17 
 
 Work of Streams 17 
 
 Stream Features 18 
 
 Glaciers 19 
 
 Waves and Tides . _ _ 20 
 
 Rocky Layers of the Land 22 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Seasons 23 
 
 Zones and Heat Belts '. . . 23 
 
 Winds 25 
 
 \ 
 
 Page. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Rainfall 26 
 
 Ocean Currents 27 
 
 LIFE. 
 
 Distribution of Life 
 
 Great Life Regions 
 
 Australian Region 
 
 South American, African, and Oriental Regions. 
 
 . 28 
 
 . 29 
 
 . 29 
 
 . 30 
 
 Eurasian and North American Regions.. ... 31 
 
 Island and Ocean Life.. 32 
 
 MAN. 
 
 Races of Men _ 32 
 
 Density of Population _ 34 
 
 Man's Culture 34 
 
 Government and Religion 35 
 
 Industries 36 
 
 Agriculture 37 
 
 Herding. 38 
 
 Fishing 38 
 
 Lumbering 39 
 
 Mining 40 
 
 Manufacturing 41 
 
 Commerce 41 
 
 Towns and Cities 42 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Page. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 45 
 
 United States 49 
 
 Northeastern Section 63 
 
 Northern Section 66 
 
 Southern Section 78 
 
 Plateau Section 85 
 
 Pacific Section 89 
 
 Other Countries of North America 93 
 
 REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 100a 
 
 REPUBLIC OF CUBA 100a 
 
 PORTO RICO AND VIRGIN ISLANDS 1006 
 
 TERRITORY OF HAWAII 100c 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 100c 
 
 Correlations and Comparisons 101 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 103 
 
 Correlations and Comparisons Ill 
 
 Page. 
 
 EURASIA 113 
 
 Europe 117 
 
 Central Europe ' 122 
 
 Southwestern Europe 128 
 
 Eastern Europe 132 
 
 Asia 135 
 
 Correlations and Comparisons ' 143 
 
 AFRICA 145 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 151 
 
 COLONIES AND COMMERCIAL ROUTES 154 
 
 Correlations and Comparisons 156 
 
 TABLES 157 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 160 
 
 REFERENCE MAPS I-XXIV 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 1-16 
 
NATURAL ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 THE EARTH. 
 
 FORM AND SIZE. 
 
 Long ago people believed the earth to be flat, but there 
 are several ways by which we know that its surface is 
 
 curved: (1) when a ship sails away from us, we can see 
 the sails and the tops of the masts long after the lower 
 part of the ship is hidden from view ; 
 
 (2) people have traveled in one general 
 direction entirely around the earth to 
 the place from which they started; 
 
 (3) when the earth passes between the 
 sun and the moon, the earth's shadow, 
 which falls on the moon and darkens, 
 or eclipses, it, is seen to be always 
 round. As a sphere is the only body 
 
 whose shadow is always round, we know that the earth 
 is spherical. 
 
 The earth is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened on two 
 
 opposite sides, so that its shape is somewhat like that of an orange. A 
 
 body with such a shape is called a splieroid. The earth is so slightly 
 
 flattened, however, that we may think of it as 
 
 a perfect sphere. 
 
 The diameter of the earth, or the distance 
 
 through its center from side to side, is about 
 
 8000 miles. The circumference of a sphere, or 
 
 the greatest distance around it, is about 3} 
 
 times its diameter. About how many miles 
 
 are there in the circumference of the earth? 
 We are likely to wonder why the people and 
 
 loose objects do not slide off from the round 
 
 earth or drop away from the other side of it. If you raise a stone from the 
 
 ground and then let go of it, what happens to the stone? If a man who 
 
 lives on the opposite side of the earth lifts a stone and then lets go of 
 it, which way do you suppose the stone falls ? 
 On every part of the earth's surface heavy 
 bodies if unsupported fall toward the ground. 
 The earth has the power of pulling objects 
 toward itself, and the pull is so strong that it 
 keeps loose bodies close to the earth's surface. 
 This wonderful power is called gravity. 
 
 Tests. How do we know that the earth's 
 surface is curved ? How do we know that the 
 shape of the earth is spherical? What is a 
 spheroid ? Define diameter ; circumference. 
 What is the size of the earth ? What is gravity ? Of what use is it ? 
 
 Optional Supplementary Work. For what is Magellan famous? 
 A fast steamship sails about 500 miles a day; how long would it take 
 to sail the greatest distance around the earth ? 
 
 .,^^5e^ 
 
6 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 ROTATION. 
 
 The earth is always rotating, or spinning, slowly upon its 
 shortest diameter, or axis. The rotation of the earth is im- 
 portant to us in several ways. 
 
 Day and Night. The sun and most of the stars are so 
 hot that they send out light as a piece of white-hot iron 
 does. The surfaces of the moon and the earth are so cool 
 that, like a piece of cold iron, they 
 give out no light of their own. The 
 stars are so far away that they give us 
 very little light. It is only the sun- 
 lighted part of the moon that appears 
 bright. From what does the earth get 
 most of its light? About how much 
 of the earth is lighted at one time ? 
 What causes day and night to follow each other? 
 
 The line between the light half and the dark half of the earth may be 
 called the sunrise and sunset line, because it is when places are carried 
 by rotation across this line that the sun appears to rise or to set. 
 
 Time. The speed at which the earth rotates never 
 varies ; hence the earth always occupies the same amount 
 of time in making a complete rotation. This amount of 
 time is called a day,* and for convenience it has been di- 
 vided into twenty-four equal parts called hours, which 
 are subdivided into equal parts. 
 
 Clocks are simply machines to indicate the speed of 
 the earth's rotation in such a way that we may easily 
 determine these subdivisions of time. In ordinary clocks 
 the hour hand is made to move twice around the dial 
 while the earth is turning once upon its axis. 
 
 Direction. The earth always rotates in the same direc- 
 tion. This direction is called east, from an old word mean- 
 ing " dawn " or " morning." As the earth turns eastward 
 the sun appears to move across the sky in the opposite 
 direction, which is called west, from an old word meaning 
 "evening." Why are these names ap- 
 propriate ? North is the direction on 
 the earth's surface from any place to 
 the end of the earth's axis called the 
 north pole, while south is the direction 
 to the other end of the axis, called the 
 south pole. If you stand facing east 
 your left side is toward the north pole, 
 and your right side toward the south pole. What direc- 
 tion is called northeast ? What direction, northwest ? De- 
 fine some other intermediate directions. 
 
 The earth moves so slowly that it is hard to tell at once which way it 
 is turning, but there are several easy ways to find north, south, east, or 
 west, and when one direction is known the others may be found. 
 
 * The exact time required for one complete rotation of the earth is a sidereal 
 day, and is measured by timing the return of a star to the same position on suc- 
 cessive nights. There are 366^ sidereal days in a year. In ordinary affairs of 
 life wo use the mean solar day, which is the average time occupied by the sun 
 in returning to the same position over the earth on successive days. The 
 mean solar day is about four minutes longer than the sidereal day, and in- 
 cludes a little more than one complete rotation of the earth. There are but 
 365*4 mean solar days in a year. 
 
 NORTH 6TAR 
 * 
 
 / 
 
 ■ (1) About the 21st of March and the 21st of September the sun rises 
 exactly in the east, and sets exactly in the west. Observe from your 
 home the precise directions in which the sun rises and sets during the 
 third week in September. During our summer months the sun is exactly 
 in the east shortly after rising, and exactly in the west shortly before 
 setting. During our winter months the sun 
 rises south of east, and sets south of west. 
 
 (2) In our part of the world the sun is never 
 exactly overhead ; that is, in the zenith. When 
 highest in the sky it is always due south of the 
 zenith ; hence in our country shadows cast by 
 the sun at noon point exactly north. Observe 
 this at noon to-day or to-morrow. 
 
 (3) One star is nearly in line with the earth's 
 axis, and would appear directly overhead to a 
 person at the north pole. It is called the Pole 
 Star or the North Star. In our country it may 
 be found any clear night by the aid of the two 
 stars called " the pointers " in the group of 
 seven stars called the Dipper. Try to find the 
 North Star to-night. The direction along the 
 earth's surface toward this star is north. 
 
 (4) The directions may be found very closely at any time by means 
 of the compass. This is a little bar of magnetized steel, called the mag- 
 netic needle, balanced on a pivot so that it can swing freely. When the 
 needle comes to rest it always points to a place known as the north mag- 
 netic pole and located north of Hudson Bay and west of Baffin Land. 
 In central Greenland the needle points to the west. In the western part 
 
 NORTH IPOLE 
 
 Engineer's compass. 
 
 Mariner's compass. 
 
 of the United States it points east of north. In California the variation 
 is from 13° to 19°. Ask a surveyor how much it is at your home. 
 
 Tests. Define axis; poles; rotation. Explain day and night. Define 
 a day ; its divisions. How is a clock related to rotation ? Name and de- 
 fine the chief directions. Give four ways of finding them. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Illustrate the succession of day and night by 
 means of a ball and a candle. If your house fronts south, are the sunny 
 rooms at the front or at the back ? Why t 
 
 ROTATION, Concluded. 
 
 Try to describe the position of the cross on the left-hand sphere below 
 so that a person can locate a cross in exactly the same position on the 
 
 other sphere. Since a sphere is equally curved in all directions, and has 
 no corner or edge from which to measure in locating points on its surface, 
 it would be very hard to describe the location of points on the spherical 
 
 earth, were it not for the earth's rotation. 
 
THE EARTH. 
 
 Location. The turning of the earth gives to it an 
 axis, and the ends of the axis, or poles, afford two fixed 
 points from which we may locate any other place on the 
 
 surface. We imagine an east and 
 west line drawn around the earth 
 halfway between the poles. This 
 line is called the equator, because 
 it divides the earth's surface into 
 equal parts — a northern and a 
 southern half, or hemisphere. 
 
 To locate a place in a north 
 and south direction, we indicate 
 its distance north or south of the 
 equator. This distance is called latitude. Places north of 
 the equator are in north latitude; those south of the 
 equator, in south latitude. All places on the same side of 
 the equator and at the same distance from it are in the 
 same latitude. A line connecting such places is parallel 
 with the equator, and so such a line is called a parallel 
 of latitude. Any number of such parallels may be drawn. 
 The dotted lines in the diagram 
 represent parallels. 
 
 At all places on the same north 
 and south line noon occurs at the 
 same instant. A north and south 
 line extending from the north pole 
 to the south pole may therefore 
 be called a mid-day line, or merid- 
 ian. We may imagine a meridian 
 to pass through any place on the earth's surface. The 
 
 meridian which passes through 
 Greenwich, a part of London, is 
 called the prime meridian. 
 
 A place is located in an east and 
 west direction by indicating the dis- 
 tance of its meridian east or west 
 of the prime meridian. This dis- 
 tance is called the longitude of the 
 place. The dotted lines in the dia- 
 gram represent several meridians. 
 
 Thus we can describe the exact location of any place on 
 the earth's surface by stating its latitude and longitude ; 
 that is, its distance north or south of the equator, and its 
 distance east or west of the prime meridian. 
 
 How Latitude and Longitude are measured. The equator and the 
 parallels extend entirely around the earth, and are circles ; the meridians, 
 which extend from one pole to the 
 other, are called half circles. We 
 therefore use circular measure in 
 reckoning latitude and longitude. 
 In circular measure a complete 
 circle is divided into 360 equal 
 parts, called degrees (°). How many 
 degrees are there in the equator? 
 How many degrees in each parallel ? How many degrees in each me- 
 ridian ? How many degrees distant from the equator is the north pole ? 
 The south pole ? 
 
 As latitude is measured north and south from the equator, degrees of 
 latitude are numbered from the equator to the poles. Thus a place 
 north of the equator and distant one degree from it is said to be in lati- 
 
 100_J>080 
 
 tude one degree north, and a place south of the equator and distant 10° 
 from it is in latitude 10° south. 
 
 Put your pencil on the parallel of 10° south latitude in figure A. In 
 what latitude is the north pole ? What is the latitude of a place whose 
 distance from the equator is one third the way from the equator to the 
 
 pole ? What is the latitude of a place halfway from the equator to the 
 north pole ? Put your pencil on the parallel of 30° N. Lat. ; 20° S. Lat. 
 Show where the parallel of 45° N. Lat. should be drawn. 
 
 In figure B the north pole is represented as tilted toward the observer, 
 so that the whole of several parallels near the pole are brought into view, 
 and we can see that they represent circles. On this figure put your 
 pencil on the parallel of 80° N. Lat. Follow this parallel through its entire 
 length. What is the highest latitude that a place can have ? 
 
 As longitude is measured east and west from the prime meridian, 
 degrees of longitude are numbered east and west from that meridian, 
 halfway around the earth. How many degrees are there in half the dis- 
 tance around the earth ? Hence the meridian of 180° east longitude is 
 the same as the meridian of 180° west longitude. How far around the 
 earth is it from the prime meridian ? 
 
 In what longitude is a place that is one fourth the way round the 
 earth west from the prime meridian ? Put your pencil on the meridian 
 of 90° west longitude ; 30° east longitude. Locate a point in Lat. 20° 
 N. and Long. 40° W. Locate an- 
 other in 35° N. and 65° W. 
 
 Several parallels are usually 
 drawn on maps, sometimes as 
 straight lines, but generally as 
 curved lines, as shown in this 
 diagram, and the distance of each 
 in degrees from the equator is 
 marked on the side margins of 
 the map. Several meridians are 
 also usually drawn on maps, and 
 the distance of each in degrees 
 east or west of the prime me- 
 ridian is marked on the top and 
 bottom margins of the map. 
 
 Tests. What is the equator? How does its location depend upon 
 rotation? What is a hemisphere? What are parallels? Meridians? 
 What is latitude ? Longitude ? How are they measured ? 
 
 Supplemental Work. On a clay ball draw the equator, parallels, and 
 meridians. Through how many degrees does rotation carry each merid- 
 ian in an hour ? When it is noon on any meridian, what time is it on 
 the meridian fifteen degrees to the east ? Thirty degrees to the west ? 
 One degree to the east ? When it is noon on any meridian, in which di- 
 rection, and how many degrees distant, is the meridian on which it is 
 6 a.m.? 3 p.m.? 3 a.m.? 12.20 p.m.? 
 
 TOPICS FOR ORAL OR WRITTEN REVIEW ON THE EARTH. 
 I. Poem. Apparent ; real. 
 II. Size. Definition and length of diameter ; of circumference. 
 
 III. Gravity. Facts about it ; use. 
 
 IV. Rotation. Four things depending on it ; explanation of each. 
 
 40 20 
 
WORTH POU 
 
THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 
 
 THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 
 
 THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 The surface of the earth is not perfectly smooth and 
 evenly curved. Some parts bulge out slightly, forming 
 regions of elevation, while other parts are slightly sunken, 
 forming regions of \ depression. The regions of depression 
 are completely filled and covered to a great depth with 
 salt water which forms the sea, while parts of the regions 
 of elevation protrude above the surface of the sea and 
 form the land. 
 
 Maps of the Hemispheres. Each of the maps at the top of the op- 
 posite page shows one half of the earth, or a hemisphere. The blue color 
 represents the sea and the other colors represent the land. Is there more 
 sea or land on the earth's surface ? From the table on p. 157 estimate 
 the proportion of each. Most of the land in the world lies in three- great 
 continuous masses, or continents ; the remainder consists of many small 
 masses, or islands. Because one of the continents was discovered by 
 sailing westward, it is called the Western Continent, and the side of the 
 world on which it is situated is called the western hemispliere. The 
 opposite side of the world, or the eastern hemisphere, contains two 
 continents. The larger is called the Eastern Continent. What is the 
 name of the smaller ? 
 
 Name the two grand divisions of the Western Continent. By what 
 isthmus, or narrow neck of land, are they connected ? What group of 
 islands lies between these grand divisions ? What large island is north- 
 east of North America ? What island near Greenland is partly in the 
 eastern and partly in the western hemisphere ? 
 
 The Eastern Continent, hke the Western, is at one place nearly sepa- 
 rated into two parts by arms of the sea. What isthmus connects these 
 parts? What grand division is southwest of the Isthmus of Suez ? The 
 grand division to the northeast is Eurasia ; but Europe, the western part 
 of Eurasia, is usually considered as a grand division, and Asia, the east- 
 ern part, as another grand division. What islands are near the coast of 
 Europe? A small part of Asia extends into the western hemisphere; 
 by what strait, or narrow passage of water, is it separated from tne 
 Western Continent ? 
 
 Australia, though really a continent, is sometimes called an island, 
 and sometimes a grand division. What island group, or archipelago, lies 
 between Asia and Australia ? 
 
 In which grand division do we live ? Examine the table on p. 157, 
 and make a list of the grand divisions in the order of their size. 
 
 What is the name of the part of the sea surrounding the south polar 
 region ? Prom this broad expanse of sea great oceans extend northward 
 between the continents. What ocean extends northward between Amer- 
 ica and Africa? Between Africa and Australia? Between Australia 
 and America ? Which of these oceans is largest ? Which is narrowest ? 
 Name the branch of the Atlantic Ocean which surrounds the north 
 pole. From the table on p. 157 make a list of the oceans in the order 
 of their size. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Make a map containing an island, an isthmus, 
 a strait, and an archipelago. Model these forms. 
 
 THE CONTINENTAL PLATEAU. 
 
 The Star-shaped Map. If we peel one half of an orange in gores, 
 and then turn back the skin, as in the pictures to the right, we bring the 
 skin of the whole orange into view. On the same principle a single map 
 showing the surface of the whole round earth may be drawn as at the 
 bottom of the opposite page. 
 
 The north pole is represented at the center of the map ; hence north 
 on this map is toward the center from all sides, and the direction of the 
 earth's rotation, or east, is shown by the arrow points. The northern 
 hemisphere is included in the largest continuous circle, which marks 
 the equator, and the surface of the southern hemisphere is represented 
 as divided into gores and turned up from below to form the six points. 
 
 In this map the blue tint represents the sea, and the land is colored 
 green and buff. 
 
 Find the Arctic Ocean on the star map. What two grand divisions of 
 land nearly surround the Arctic Ocean? With what ocean has the 
 Arctic a broad connection ? With what ocean is it connected by Bering 
 Strait ? What is a strait ? Put your pencil on the islands Greenland, 
 Iceland, and the British Isles. Find South America ; the West Indies ; 
 Africa ; Australia ; the East Indies ; the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Regions of Depression and of Elevation. In the part 
 of the sea which is represented by the darker blue, the 
 water is very deep, in some places more than five miles, 
 but it has a general depth of about two and one half miles. 
 This is the true region of depression on the earth's surface. 
 
 The lighter blue represents places where the sea is much 
 shallower, the water being less than one mile deep. If the 
 surface of the sea were to sink one mile lower than its 
 present level, what would this light blue region become ? 
 How would this affect the number of continents? The 
 parts of the sea colored dark blue would still have an 
 average depth of one and one half miles. Thus not only 
 the laud surface but also the bottom of the shallower part 
 of the sea (colored light blue on the map) may be consid- 
 ered as forming a single great region of elevation. 
 
 Continental Plateau. Any broad region of elevation 
 may be called a plateau ; and, as this great region of eleva- 
 tion contains all the continents, it is called the continental 
 plateau. Besides the continents it embraces all the large 
 and many of the small islands of the world ; hence these 
 islands are called continental islands. The continental 
 plateau stretches across the northern hemisphere. In how 
 many places does it extend into the southern hemisphere ? 
 
 Near the north pole, and again between Eurasia and Australia, the 
 water of the sea extends entirely across the continental plateau, forming 
 great continental seas. Continental seas, as shown by the dark blue areas 
 in them, are very deep in places, but their deep places are separated from 
 the great depths of the oceans by the submerged edge of the conti- 
 nental plateau. What is the name of the northern sea ? In the other 
 sea, parts of the plateau are high enough to appear above the water and 
 form a large group of islands. What is this group called ? Find two 
 places where the water extends nearly across the plateau, forming three 
 continental seas and a deep gulf. Name them. What grand divisions 
 do these bodies of water separate ? 
 
 There is reason to believe that in past ages the surface of the conti- 
 nental plateau has been at times higher and at other times lower than it 
 now is. Much of the present land was once so low that the water flowed 
 over it, forming continental seas, and parts of the plateau now covered 
 by water were once so elevated as 
 to connect land masses now sepa- 
 rate. Thus the Gulf of Mexico once 
 extended much further north over 
 the central part of North Amer- 
 
 ica ; Australia and Asia are thought to have once been connected by land, 
 which sank until now the islands of the East Indies alone remain above 
 water ; animals may once have walked from North America to Eurasia 
 by land, where now the Arctic Ocean forms a water barrier. 
 
10 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 Almost all the land in the world is embraced in the continental plateau ; 
 but there are many very small islands in the midst of the oceans and far 
 from the shores of the continents. These are called oceanic islands. They 
 have probably never been connected with the continental plateau. In 
 which ocean are many oceanic islands ? 
 
 TOPICS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATEH. 
 
 I. Continental Plateau. Position. Continents. Continental seas. 
 II. Islands. Continental. Oceanic. 
 HI. The Sea. Position. Depth. Oceans. 
 
 HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS. 
 
 The surface of the land slopes gradually upward from 
 the sea and in a few places reaches heights of about five 
 miles, but its general height is a little less than half a mile. 
 All parts of the laud below this average height may 
 
 A Norwegian fiord. 
 
 therefore be called lowland, 
 while all higher parts may be 
 called highland. 
 
 Upon the star map and other phys- 
 ical maps in this book the lowlands 
 are colored green, and the highlands 
 buff. Which side of the Western 
 Continent is mostly highland ? Which 
 side is mostly a broad lowland ? To- 
 ward' which ocean is the highland 
 side of the Western Continent ? To- 
 ward which, oceans are most of the 
 highlands of the Eastern Continent? 
 
 the broad lowland sides of 
 
 the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. These oceans are thus 
 bordered by broad lowlands, broken only by comparatively 
 small and disconnected areas of highland, and even these, 
 as a rule, are not very high. Point out some small dis- 
 connected highlands. 
 
 Is the Australian branch of the continental plateau high or low? 
 About half of it is covered with water. What island group occupies this 
 part? The highest side of this part is toward the Indian Ocean and 
 forms an almost continuous chain of islands between Asia and Aus- 
 tralia. Toward which ocean is the highest side in Australia itself? 
 This rim is not very high, and most of the continent is lowland. 
 
 Tests. Define lowlands ; highlands. Where are the great highlands 
 of the continental plateau ? The smaller areas of highland ? Describe 
 the two chief slopes of this plateau. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Model a plateau with a short, abrupt slope 
 on one side, and a long, gentle slope on the other. 
 
 COASTS. 
 
 We have learned that during past ages the surface of the continental 
 plateau has been at times higher and at other times lower than at pres- 
 ent. But upward or downward movements of the earth's surface are 
 not confined to the past ; they are still taking place in most parts of the 
 world, though so slowly that we seldom notice them. The movement 
 may be only a few inches or a few feet in a hundred years. 
 
 In some regions old buildings which long ago stood on the coast 
 and near the level of the sea are now several feet above sea level and 
 some distance inland, showing that those regions have slowly risen above 
 the sea. In other regions old buildings are now found partly covered 
 
 by the sea. What does this show? 
 
 Sinking Coasts. The sur- 
 face of the land is seldom ex- 
 actly smooth or level. It is al- 
 most always broken by higher 
 places, or hills, and intervening 
 lower places, or valleys. There- 
 fore, when a coast region is 
 slowly sinking beneath the sea, 
 long or wide arms of the sea 
 
 Which oceans are bordered by 
 
 continents ? 
 
 The Great Highlands. The high side of the conti- 
 nental plateau is the side toward the Pacific and Indian 
 oceans. These highlands contain the highest and most 
 rugged parts of the earth's surface. They are almost 
 continuous, forming a great horseshoe-shaped curve from 
 Cape Horn to Cape of Good Hope. Where are these capes ? 
 
 Trace a route between these capes that shall lie on the highland as 
 much as possible. At how many places must the route leave the high- 
 lands ? Name these places. These low places divide the great curve of 
 highlands into natural sections, one for each grand division of the land. 
 
 The Broad Lowlands. On the outside of the highland 
 curve the slope is comparatively short and steep to the 
 shores of the Pacific and Indian oceans. On the inside of 
 the horseshoe, however, the slope is long and gradual to 
 
 Islands off the Maine coast. 
 
 gradually creep up the valleys, extending far into the land. 
 They form gulfs or bays if they are wide, and fiords or es- 
 tuaries if they are long and narrow. The higher parts of 
 the coast are left projecting into the sea between the in- 
 dentations as great masses or narrow fingers of land, 
 
THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 
 
 11 
 
 called peninsulas. The ends of some such peninsulas form 
 high capes, or promontories. Some peninsulas are con- 
 nected with the mainland only by a narrow neck of land. 
 What is such a neck of land called ? By the continued 
 sinking of such a coast the water may at last overflow a 
 low isthmus. Into what will this transform the higher 
 
 parts of the peninsula? 
 Thus a sinking coast is very 
 likely to be irregular, much 
 broken by bays and penin- 
 sulas, and perhaps fringed 
 with islands. 
 
 Rising Coasts. The bot- 
 tom of the sea is much 
 
 smoother and more nearly 
 level than the surface of the 
 land. It has long and grad- 
 ual slopes, but very few 
 short and steep slopes such 
 as make ordinary hills and 
 valleys. Therefore, when the 
 smooth sea bottom along the 
 
 Rook layers standing on end, Utah. 
 
 rising margin of a continent is brought above the surface of 
 the sea, it usually makes a comparatively even and regular 
 coast line. 
 
 Which is more even and regular, the coast of America which borders 
 the Atlantic and Arctic oceans, or that which borders the Pacific Ocean ? 
 (star map, p. 8.) The Arctic and the northern parts of the Atlantic 
 Ocean coasts of both the Eastern and the Western Continent are very 
 irregular, and are in general bordered by lowlands. Long stretches 
 of these coasts are slowly sinking. 
 
 On the other hand, the Pacific coast of America is quite even and 
 regular, and is closely bordered by highland. Much of this coast is 
 being slowly upheaved. 
 
 The Pacific and Indian Ocean coasts of the Eastern Continent are 
 more irregular than the Pacific coast of America, and are bordered in 
 places by broader areas of lowland. It is probable that parts of these 
 coasts are sinking, and that other parts are rising. 
 
 Tests. How do we know that portions of the earth's surface have 
 varied in elevation? Explain the effect of sinking on a coast; the 
 effect of rising. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw a map showing a gulf or bay, a 
 peninsula, and a cape. Model in a pan, with clay or putty, an island 
 having a regular coast line but an irregular surface. Show, by pour- 
 ing water into the pan, how the sinking of the island would make 
 the coast quite irregular. 
 
 UPHEAVAL OF MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Level Rock Layers. In many places the land has been 
 raised so evenly that its rock layers have been but little 
 disturbed and are still nearly level. This is very likely to 
 be the case in lowland regions. 
 
 Folded rock layers, Maryland. 
 
 Rock Folds. In other places the layers have risen in 
 long waves or folds, as though the region had been 
 crowded into less width by enormous side pressure. In- 
 stead of being level, these layers of rock slant at all 
 angles, or even stand on end. They are bent and broken 
 across, and at the cracks, or faults, they have slid up or 
 down or over each other, as shown at the bottom of the 
 page. Such disturbance of the rocks is common in the 
 highlands and is nearly always found in mountain regions, 
 for most mountains are nothing but the harder parts of these 
 rock folds left projecting high above the surrounding country ; 
 the softer parts having been gradually worn off and washed 
 away by the rain and the streams. 
 
 One fold, if its top has not been greatly worn and washed away, may 
 make a single line, or range, of mountains, as in the picture above. 
 
 Illustrating parallel ridges formed by worn rock folds. 
 
 If the top of the fold has been worn away, the projecting layers of 
 harder rocks in its two sides may form nearly parallel ranges of moun- 
 tains. Point to the parallel ranges in this diagram ; to the valleys between. 
 
 As a single fold may thus produce one or more ranges, and as there 
 are often several folds side by side, mountains usually occur in roughly 
 parallel ranges. The individual ridges may not be very long, but parallel 
 ridges may continue, and thus a single region of folded rocks may pro- 
 duce a series of ranges, forming a great mountain chain or system 
 several thousand miles long. 
 
 (%^ 
 
 Folded and broken or faulted rock layers, Tennessee. 
 
12 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 r 
 
 An extinct volcano : Mt. Shasta, California. 
 
 An active volcano : Mt. Vesuvius. 
 
 Earthquakes. The ris- 
 ing or the sinking of the 
 land, and the folding and 
 breaking and slipping of the 
 rocks, have been going on 
 for ages, a very little at a 
 time. Each break or slip 
 has caused a jar, or earth- 
 quake, which may have been felt for many miles around. 
 Earthquakes are common in all parts of the world, but 
 are most frequent in the great highlands and along the 
 margin of the Pacific Ocean. In these regions, therefore, it 
 is thought that upheaval is now taking place most rapidly. 
 
 Volcanoes. At many places in the world, steam and 
 white-hot melted rock, or lava, occasionally issue out of 
 the earth. Such places are called volcanoes. 
 
 Sometimes the lava issues quietly and flows in great 
 streams over the surrounding country, where it cools into 
 sheets of hard lava rock. Generally, however, there are 
 terrific underground explosions of the steam, which hurl 
 the melted lava high into the air, where it cools and falls 
 over a wide region, as a rain of rocky fragments. 
 
 These explosions are generally so violent that they jar 
 the whole region about the volcano, and hence explosive 
 eruptions are frequently accompanied by earthquakes. 
 
 The lava which issues from the volcano generally accumulates around 
 it into a great conelike hill or mountain, called a volcanic cone. Through 
 this the throat, or duct, of the volcano leads to a cup-shaped opening, or 
 crater, near the top. 
 
 An eruption of lava may last for weeks or months, and then years may 
 pass before another eruption takes place. After perhaps centuries of 
 such occasional activity, the eruptions of a volcano may cease entirely. 
 The volcano is then said to be extinct. 
 
 Nobody knows what causes volcanoes, but they are supposed to be one 
 of the results of the upheaval or the sinking of the earth's surface, the 
 cause of which is likewise unknown. Lava from active or extinct vol- 
 canoes is found in nearly every mountain region where the rocks are 
 greatly disturbed, and most of the active volcanoes occur near the Pacific 
 margin of the continental plateau, where the rising of the earth's surface 
 is supposed to be now going forward most rapidly. But volcanoes also 
 
 occur on the sea bottom, in the great 
 region of depression, far from the 
 continental plateau. Here they build 
 up huge cones, whose tops mark the 
 location of all oceanic islands. 
 
 Tests, "What is a mountain ; a 
 range ; a system ? Explain earth- 
 quakes. Define volcano ; its features. 
 Where are many volcanoes ? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out 
 something about the Charleston earth- 
 quake of 188G. Read about the de- 
 struction of Pompeii in Baldwin's 
 Readers, 5th year. 
 
 TOPICS ON EFFECTS OF UPHEAVAL. 
 
 I. Continental Plateau. Continents. Grand divisions. Con- 
 tinental islands. 
 
 II. Surface Movements. Speed. Results : on surface ; on coast. 
 Indications : volcanoes ; earthquakes. 
 
 III. Surface Forms. Great highlands : location ; shape ; divisions. 
 Slopes : short ; long. Broad lowlands : location ; extent. 
 
 THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERIC AGENTS. 
 
 Erosion. As soon as any part of the sea bottom is raised 
 above the water, it is exposed to the changes of the weather 
 and the action of the winds; that is, to atmospheric agents. 
 It is also exposed to the action of water in its various 
 forms. These are constantly at work, slowly but surely, 
 breaking up the solid rocks, and moving the material 
 
 Cinder cone, near Lassens Peak, California, showing a recent lava flow which by damming a valley caused two lakes. 
 
THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND. 
 
 13 
 
 Rocks worn by wind-blown sand, Colorado. 
 
 down the slopes of the land. This work of the atmos- 
 pheric agents and of water is called erosion. It results in 
 the gradual wearing away and lowering of the surface 
 of the land. 
 
 Detritus. To a slight depth the surface of the land is 
 warmed or cooled as the weather changes. With each 
 change of temperature it expands or contracts very 
 slightly, but with sufficient force to loosen grains from 
 the exposed surface of 
 the hardest rocks, and 
 often to crack off larger 
 fragments. Bain water 
 slowly dissolves and 
 carries away the cement 
 which binds together 
 the grains of many 
 rocks. When rain water 
 freezes in crevices of the 
 rocks, it expands and 
 pries off pieces of stone, 
 which slowly crumble 
 under the effects of heat 
 and cold. Sand, blown 
 by the wind against the 
 rocks, wears their sur- 
 face and finally may re- 
 duce them entirely to 
 powder. 
 
 By the operation of these processes of weathering, the 
 surface of nearly all parts of the land is kept covered with 
 a layer of detritus composed of the coarser or finer frag- 
 ments of the solid rocks. 
 
 Near the surface, this layer of detritus is generally quite fine and is 
 mixed with decaying animal and vegetable matter, forming soil. At 
 greater depths the rock fragments are larger, while deeper still is the 
 solid bed rock. In some places the detritus accumulates many feet deep. 
 In other places it is removed by the rain and wind as fast as formed. 
 In which of these places do you think the solid rock beneath the detritus 
 will crumble away more quickly 1 ? 
 
 Movement of Detritus. Whenever disturbed, the soil 
 particles move most readily down the sloping surface. 
 Why? These tiny particles are almost always being 
 slightly disturbed by such causes as the splash of rain 
 drops ; their own expansion and contraction as the 
 weather makes them warmer or cooler; the expansion of 
 freezing water in the soil ; the action of the wind ; worms, 
 insects, or other animals ; and the growth of roots beneath 
 them. As a result, the detritus is very slowly but cease- 
 lessly moving down the slopes of the land. The movement 
 is fastest on steep slopes, slower on gentle slopes, and 
 slowest of all on the nearly level surface of plains. 
 
 By reason of this movement we find the foot of nearly every 
 cliff and steep hill covered with a talus, or apron of detritus, 
 which has traveled more quickly down the steep slope 
 above than it could travel over the flatter land below. 
 It has therefore accumulated about the foot of 
 the hill, flattening its lower slope and 
 making it merge gradually into 
 the plain. 
 
 Devils Lake, Rocky Mountains, showing talus slopes. 
 
 Winds. The winds are powerful agents, not only in 
 wearing away the solid rocks, but in moving the detritus. 
 What causes the clouds of dust which you sometimes 
 see ? What is dust ? Strong winds may carry coarse sand 
 and keep larger fragments rolling and tumbling along the 
 ground. In this way both the moving fragments and 
 the surface which they strike are worn away. 
 
 Are dust clouds more likely to rise from dry or from wet places? 
 From bare regions, or from regions covered with vegetation ? In dry or 
 desert places and on sandy seashores an enormous amount of sand and 
 fine rocky material is kept constantly in motion by the wind. Sometimes 
 
 Sand dune on the shore of Lake Michigan. 
 
 it is blown into dome-shaped hummocks or into great billows, and often 
 into long ridges, or dunes, two or three hundred feet high. 
 
 The sand grains of such hills are blown up the slope exposed to the 
 wind, and drop down on the sheltered 
 slope; thus the hill gradually ad- 
 vances in the direction in which the 
 wind blows. In regions where this 
 movement of dunes has threatened 
 the destruction of fertile farms, the 
 advance is checked or stopped by planting the dunes with coarse grass 
 or other vegetation. Why does this check the movement ? 
 
 Illustrating movement of dunes. 
 
 Atmospheric Moisture. From every moist surface in 
 the world, but mostly from the extensive surface of the 
 sea, water is nearly always rising into the atmosphere in 
 the form of invisible vapor. This process is called evap- 
 oration. The vapor, mingled with the air, is carried about 
 by the winds, and thus much of that from the sea is 
 brought over the land. The impurities in water are left 
 behind when it evaporates; therefore, though sea water 
 is salt, its vapor is fresh and pure. 
 
14 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 When vapor-laden air is chilled, part of its invisible 
 vapor condenses into minute drops of water, which can be 
 seen. If it is chilled by coming into contact with cold 
 vegetation, we may find the vegetation covered with dew. 
 What is dew ? When the vegetation is so cold that the 
 vapor condenses into little ice crystals, we have hoarfrost 
 instead of dew. If the vapor-laden air is chilled at some 
 distance above the earth, countless tiny drops or ice crys- 
 tals appear in the atmosphere, forming a cloud. What is a 
 cloud called that hangs close to the earth? If the air 
 about a cloud grows warmer, the tiny cloud drops or crys- 
 tals may evaporate and disappear, but if it continues cool 
 they may unite into larger drops and fall as rain, or into 
 flakes which may fall to the earth as snow. 
 
 Tests. Define atmospheric agents; erosion; detritus; soil; talus; 
 dunes. How is detritus formed? How are soil particles disturbed? 
 How do dunes travel ? Define vapor ; evaporation ; dew ; hoarfrost ; 
 cloud; mist; rain; gnow. How does evaporation affect the purity of 
 water % 
 
 Supplemental Work. Observe at a road cutting or new-dug cellar 
 the layers of rock, earth, and soil. Bring to school in a bottle a speci- 
 men of each placed in order. With colored crayons sketch the layers 
 which you saw. Put a cold plate into the steam from boiling water and 
 show that vapor condenses into drops when chilled. Boil some salt 
 water. Condense some of the vapor. Taste the water thus obtained. 
 Write an account of the experiment and tell what it proves. 
 
 GROUND WATER. 
 
 Much of the rain or snow water that reaches the earth 
 sinks into the ground, penetrating not only the detritus 
 but the solid rock beneath, often to a great depth. An 
 enormous amount of water is thus contained in the ground. 
 However dry the soil may be at the surface, it is usually 
 kept moist at a slight depth by this ground water. It is 
 the ground water that supplies all wells. 
 
 Springs. Part of the ground water from the higher 
 lands creeps very slowly through the earth to the lower 
 lands, where it may bubble forth at the surface as a spring. 
 The distance which the ground water thus travels may be 
 many miles, so that the journey may require weeks or 
 months. If no rain or snow should fall on the higher 
 lands, all springs would gradually decrease and finally dry 
 up. Some surface springs do disappear in dry seasons, 
 but the flow of deeper-seated springs is permanent, be- 
 cause the ground water creeps so slowly through the earth 
 that the supply is not exhausted before rains or snows 
 replenish it. 
 
 HIGHER LAND 
 
 ARTESIAN 
 
 WELL ARTE8IAN 
 
 LOWER LAND v WELL 
 
 Illustrating artesian wells. 
 
 In this diagram the ground water from the higher land has completely 
 filled the pores in the coarse-grained rocks beneath the neighboring 
 lower lands, and yet no springs have been formed. This is because the 
 slanting layers of close-grained rock or clay, which lie above the porous 
 
 rocks, prevent the ground water from 
 rising to the surface. In such re- 
 gions an artificial outlet to the porous 
 rocks is sometimes opened by bor- 
 ing from the surface of the lower 
 land through the close-grained rock. 
 The pressure of the water in the 
 porous rock then forces the water 
 up the opening to the surface, thus 
 forming an artificial spring, or ar- 
 tesian well. 
 
 In regions where the rocks are 
 greatly disturbed, the ground water 
 may follow some folded layer of 
 porous rock to great depths, where 
 it comes in contact with heated rocks, 
 and it may then reach the surface as 
 a hot spring. In some springs the 
 water is so hot that, as it nears the 
 surface and the weight of overlying 
 water becomes less, part of it, at 
 short intervals, flashes into steam, 
 which throws the rest of the water 
 high into the air, like a little water 
 volcano. Such spouting hot springs 
 are called geysers. 
 
 Work of Ground Water. 
 
 Ground water creeps along so 
 slowly, and passes through such small pores in the rocks, 
 that it can carry along with it very little detritus ; hence 
 spring or well water is generally clear and limpid, though 
 it usually contains mineral matter which it has dissolved 
 from the rocks through which it has passed. 
 
 Some spring water contains so much dissolved mineral 
 matter that, though clear, it has the taste of salt, or of 
 iron, or of sulphur. Such a spring is called a mineral 
 
 Old Faithful Geyser, Wyoming. 
 
 Hot spring deposits of basins and terraces, Wyoming. 
 
 spring. Hot water dissolves the rocks much more readily 
 than cold, and consequently when the water of hot 
 springs reaches the surface it contains much mineral 
 matter. 
 
 While such waters cool, or as they evaporate, much of this mineral 
 matter is deposited about the springs in the form of basins, terraces, 
 icicle-like pendants, and other beautiful forms, which are often highly 
 colored. 
 
THE WEARING AWAY OF THE J. AND. 
 
 15 
 
 Stalactites and stalagmites, Luray Cavern, Va. 
 
 Limestone is easily dissolved, and in regions composed of such rock 
 the underground waters often dissolve long channels and make great 
 eaves or caverns many miles in extent. Water in which lime is dissolved 
 trickles through the roofs of these caverns, where part of it evaporates, 
 while the rest drops down to the floor below and there evaporates. Does 
 the water on evaporating carry with it the lime it contains? Thus 
 there gradually grows downward from the roof, like an icicle, a stalactite 
 of glistening lime crystals, while from the floor beneath a stalagmite 
 gradually grows upward until they may meet and form a continuous 
 column. Occasionally a part of the roof of a cavern breaks in, forming 
 a sink hole in the land above. In time the entire roof falls in, trans- 
 forming the cavern into an open gorge or valley ; but over this a small 
 part of the roof may remain for a time to form a natural bridge. A nat- 
 ural bridge may also be formed by the washing away of softer rock from 
 beneath an outflow of hard lava. 
 
 Iron, gold, silver, copper, and other metals are dissolved from the 
 rocks by ground water. One or more of them may be collected and de- 
 posited in a rock fault or fissure. Some of the richest mines in the 
 world are in veins formed in this way. 
 
 Tests. Define and explain the formation of a spring j an artesian 
 well ; a mineral spring ; a geyser ; a vein ; a cave ; a natural bridge. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out about the geysers of Yellowstone 
 Park, and about Mammoth Cave or Luray Cavern. 
 
 STREAMS AND LAKES. 
 
 Streams and Stream Basins. Nearly every spring is 
 the beginning, or source, of a stream of water which flows 
 from it. Water flows to the lowest place that it can 
 reach, and therefore 
 a stream usually flows 
 along the bottom of 
 a valley, the two 
 sides of which slope 
 downward toward the 
 stream. As the stream 
 advances it is generally 
 increased in size by 
 other streams, or 
 branches, which flow 
 into it from either slope 
 of the valley. 
 
 The Mississippi river system. 
 
 Natural bridge, Yellowstone Park, Wyoming. 
 
 These branches may have their sources in springs, or in banks of melt- 
 ing snow ; or they may flow only during wet weather, carrying the down- 
 fall of a passing shower to the more permanent, spring-fed streams. 
 
 By the flowing together of many streams as they ad- 
 vance down the sides of a great valley, thei-e is formed, 
 along the bottom of the trough, a mighty stream, or river, 
 which, after a course of perhaps hundreds of miles, may 
 finally reach the sea. A river with all its branches is 
 called a river system, and the great valley drained by the 
 system is called the river basin. 
 
 Lakes. If a stream meets a dam or barrier across its 
 valley, it spreads out above the barrier, forming a pond or 
 lake of still water. The inlets, or streams flowing into a lake, 
 must raise its surface until the water can escape over the 
 barrier before an outlet stream can flow from it down the 
 valley below the dam. 
 
 Water is almost always evaporating from the surface of a stream. 
 When a stream widens to form a lake it loses much water by evapora- 
 tion. In a dry region a lake, before its surface is raised high enough to 
 form an outlet, may lose as much water by evaporation as is supplied by 
 its inlets. Such a lake of course can have no outlet. In general, when 
 we find a lake with no outlet we may know that the climate is very dry 
 and evaporation very rapid. Why f 
 
 We have learned that spring water usually contains minerals which 
 it has dissolved from the rocks. Salt is plentiful in the rocks and is 
 very easily dissolved, and hence the water of spring-fed streams nearly 
 always contains this mineral, though so little that we do not taste it. If 
 a lake loses water by evaporation only, the salt and all the other minerals 
 brought in by the inlets gradually accumulate until the lake water be- 
 comes very salt and bitter. Therefore, as a rule, a lake that has no outlet 
 is salt, while an outlet, by preventing much mineral matter from collecting in a 
 lake, usually keeps its water fresh. 
 
 Some rivers flow into a region where the atmosphere is so dry and 
 evaporation so rapid that the rivers grow smaller and salty as they ad- 
 vance. They may finally disappear entirely, while a coating of salt is 
 left on the dry beds by the last of the water that evaporates. 
 
 Tests. Define stream; source; branch; river; system; basin; lake; 
 inlet ; outlet. Explain the formation of salt lakes. 
 
 Supplemental Work. After a rain, find in a road or field a little sys- 
 tem of streams; sketch it ; and model its basin. 
 
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THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND. 
 
 17 
 
 DIVIDES AND SLOPES. 
 
 Divides. Any region from which the land slopes down- 
 ward in two opposite directions is called a water parting, 
 or divide, because the water which falls on it is divided, 
 part of it flowing down one slope and part down the other. 
 The crest of every mountain range is a divide, and so too 
 
 is the crest of every im- 
 perceptible swell of land 
 — from both the surface water flows in opposite directions. 
 Every stream basin is partly surrounded by a divide, from 
 which water flows down into the stream, and by which the 
 basin is separated from adjoining basins. 
 
 Slopes. The streams which rise in the great highlands 
 of the world (p. 10) flow down toward the Atlantic and 
 Arctic oceans on one side, toward the Pacific Ocean on 
 another side, and toward the Indian Ocean on the third 
 side. The highland region may therefore be said to sep- 
 arate the continental plateau into three main slopes: (1) 
 the Arctic-Atlantic slope; (2) the Pacific slope; (3) the In- 
 dian Ocean slope. The crest or meeting of any two of these 
 slopes may be called a continental divide. 
 
 South America. Beginning with Cape Horn, trace the continental 
 divide through South America. Which slope of the grand division is 
 the larger ? What four large river systems drain this slope ? Why are 
 there no large river systems on the Pacific slope ? Do you find any 
 lakes without outlets in this grand division ? What do they indicate ? 
 
 North America. Trace the continental divide through North 
 America. Is the Arctic-Atlantic slope or the Pacific slope the larger ? 
 Name five great river systems on that slope. Name three on the Pacific 
 slope. Why are these smaller than the systems on the other slope ? Do 
 you find any dry regions in the grand division ? How can you tell them ? 
 
 Eurasia. Trace the divide at the top of the Arctic- Atlantic slope of 
 Eurasia. Trace the divide between its Pacific and Indian Ocean slopes. 
 Which of these three slopes is the largest ? Which contain the largest 
 river systems ? Name seven river systems on the Arctic-Atlantic slope ; 
 four on the Pacific ; four on the Indian Ocean slope. 
 
 Salt Lakes of Eurasia. Do you find any lakes in Eurasia which have 
 no outlet ? Name three river systems which flow into such lakes. These 
 are all large rivers, and the lakes which they form are the largest salt 
 lakes in the world. Many years ago Lake Aral overflowed into the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and the Caspian Sea was connected by a strait with the Black 
 Sea and thus with the waters of the Atlantic. But a slow upheaval of 
 the land raised a barrier between the Caspian and Black seas, and the 
 climate is so dry that the Volga cannot raise the surface of the. Caspian 
 to the top of this barrier. How does the dry region of Eurasia compare 
 in size with the dry regions of America ? 
 
 Africa. Trace the continental divide through Africa. Which slope 
 is the larger? Which contains the greater river systems? Name four 
 river systems of the Atlantic slope ; one system of the Indian Ocean 
 slope. What large part of Africa is quite dry ? This region is so dry 
 that in crossing it the Nile River becomes smaller than it is nearer its 
 source. Explain this. 
 
 Australia. Trace the continental divide through Australia. Which 
 slope is the larger ? What river system is on this slope ? As a whole, is 
 the continent moist or dry ? Why do you think so ? 
 
 After comparing the slopes of each of the grand divisions, state which 
 of the three main slopes of the whole continental plateau is in your opin- 
 ion the largest. Make a list of the large river systems on each of the main 
 slopes of the continental plateau. How do they compare in number ? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw a map of an island containing several 
 river systems, and show by dotted lines the divides between them. 
 Model two river systems with a low divide between them. 
 
 WORK OF STREAMS. 
 
 Valleys. Running water is constantly picking up par- 
 ticles of earth and carrying them downward iu its current. 
 In wet weather every stream is made more or less muddy 
 by the load of detritus that is washed into it; but even 
 in dry weather some particles are carried or rolled along 
 by the current. 
 
 These particles, by striking against the sides and bottom 
 of a stream, gradually wear them away, even if they are 
 composed of the hardest rock; thus each stream is con- 
 stantly cutting its valley deeper. 
 
 Meanwhile the sides of every valley are gradually weath- 
 ering into detritus, which rolls or is washed down into the 
 stream below and by it is carried away ; thus the valley 
 gradually grows wider. 
 
 These processes are very slow, but they are continuous 
 and have been going on for untold ages. By them all the 
 valleys in the world have been hollowed out or formed. 
 
 Illustrating the erosion of valleys. 
 
 Highland Valleys. A swift stream can carry more 
 detritus and wear away its bed more rapidly than a 
 stream with a gentle current. In highlands, where the 
 slopes are steep, the streams are swift, and so the valleys 
 are generally deep and narrow. In the western highlands 
 of our country, where there is comparatively little rainfall, 
 the valleys are deepened by the swift, snow-fed streams 
 
 Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. 
 
 which flow in them from the mountains much faster than 
 they are widened by weathering. Many of these valleys 
 thus become unusually deep and narrow and have steep 
 or precipitous sides. Such valleys are called canyons. 
 
 Lowland Valleys. In lowlands, where the slopes are 
 usually gentle, the cutting power of streams is slight, so 
 
18 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 A wide and comparatively shallow valley, New York. 
 
 the valleys may be widened by weathering faster than they 
 are deepened by the streams. Hence, in lowland regions, 
 the valleys are usually wide and comparatively shallow, 
 with gently sloping sides. This is particularly the case in 
 regions where there is abundant rainfall. 
 
 Peneplains. But even in dry highlands, as the canyons are cut 
 deeper their bottoms approach nearer the level of the sea, and the slope, 
 current, and cutting power of the streams in them become gradually less, 
 until the further deepening of the canyon may proceed even more slowly 
 than the slow weathering of its sides. Thus the canyons will grow wider 
 and their sides less steep, until eventually all the highlands may be re- 
 duced to lowlands, with wide valleys and low intervening hills. By a 
 continuation of the same processes these hills would be gradually worn 
 away and the region finally reduced to an almost level surface, but 
 slightly elevated above the sea, and called a peneplain. 
 
 It is thought that some extensive regions in the eastern part of our 
 country and elsewhere have been thus worn down to peneplains, or 
 nearly so, and afterwards upheaved. It is certain that the whole land 
 surface of the world would finally be thus reduced by the atmospheric 
 agents, if there were not an unknown force within the earth by which the 
 land is upheaved. Some regions are thus upheaved after they have been 
 worn down, other regions are upheaved as fast as they are reduced, and 
 still other regions are raised more rapidly than they are worn away. 
 
 Tests. How are valleys deepened; widened? How are canyons 
 made; peneplains? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw a section of a highland valley. Of a 
 lowland valley. If a stream flows east, and a north and south mountain 
 range begins to rise across its course, under what circumstances will the 
 stream change its course ? Under what circumstances will it cut a 
 canyon through the range ? Make sketches showing the two cases. 
 
 STREAM FEATURES. 
 
 Rapids and Cataracts. In cutting down its bed a stream 
 may encounter a very hard layer of rock, which retards 
 
 Illustrating rapids and cascades. 
 
 Illustrating cataracts. 
 
 the deepening of the valley above its edge, while the deep- 
 ening of the valley below continues. Thus the stream 
 
 Lachine Rapids, St. Lawrence River. 
 
 makes a sharp descent at the edge of the hard layer, form- 
 ing rapids or cascades, or perhaps a cataract. 
 
 If the layer of rock is nearly level, the more rapid wearing away and 
 weathering of the softer rock below may undermine its edge and form a 
 precipice over which the stream leaps as a true waterfall, or cataract. If 
 the stream is large enough to remove the fragments as fast as they fall 
 from the overhanging hard layer, the cataract continues, but retreats 
 gradually upstream. Why? If the fragments accumulate below the 
 fall, however, they finally convert it into rapids or a series of cascades. 
 
 Sand Banks and Bars. When a swift stream enters a 
 more level region, its current is checked and can no longer 
 carry so much solid material ; it therefore drops part of its 
 load of detritus, or sediment. Thus at the mouths of steep 
 mountain valleys there are frequently formed huge cones 
 of sediment, or alluvium, which the streams have brought 
 down from the valleys above but cannot carry so rapidly 
 over the flatter part of the course below. 
 
 In the same manner steeply sloping branch streams may 
 bring down sediment more rapidly than a gently sloping 
 main stream can carry it off. Part of it is therefore de- 
 posited near the mouth of the branch, forming temporary 
 sand banks or bars. 
 
 Deltas. When a stream enters a lake or the sea, its cur- 
 rent is stopped and it drops most of its sediment. If the 
 currents in the lake or sea are too feeble to carry it away, 
 the sediment accumulates as a very flat alluvial cone at the 
 mouth of the stream. Part of this cone may reach the sur- 
 
 A small cataract, Alabama. 
 
THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND. 
 
 19 
 
 face of the water and be gradually converted into a tri- 
 angular tract of marshy land. This impedes the outflow of 
 the stream and divides it into several channels, through 
 which it empties. Such a formation is called a delta, from 
 its resemblance to the Greek letter of that name (A). By 
 the continued deposit of sediment at the several mouths, 
 the delta is continually enlarging and advancing further 
 into the lake or sea. 
 
 Flood Plains. The rapid melting of snow, or a continued 
 rainfall in its basin, swells a stream far beyond its usual 
 limits, causing it to increase 'in width, and producing a 
 flood, or freshet. At such times great quantities of detritus 
 are washed into the stream and so load it with sediment 
 that its waters become exceptionally muddy. The chan- 
 nel, where the current is swiftest, may carry its part of 
 this load, but toward the sides of the flooded stream, where 
 the current is more sluggish, part of the load is deposited 
 on the valley floor. This deposit is left as a coating of 
 
 Illustrating formation of flood plains. 
 
 fine alluvium when the stream subsides to its ordinary 
 width. Thus is gradually built up in time of flood a strip 
 of "bottom land," or a flood plain, on either side of the or- 
 dinary channel of nearly every stream. 
 
 The flood plain deposit may become quite deep, and is generally very 
 fertile, but it is subject to overflow, for it cannot be built higher than 
 the highest floods, and, being composed of alluvium, it wears away 
 rapidly in time of low water. 
 
 The surface of the flood plain is nearly level, but is often highest near 
 the channel of the stream. Thus swampy places and sluggish streams, 
 or bayous, are formed during low water along the lower, outside edges 
 of flood plains. 
 
 Oxbow Loops. A sand bar, formed in the low-water 
 bed of a stream, partly blocks the channel and forces the 
 current against one of the banks of the flood plain. The 
 soft alluvial bank is easily washed away, and thus a slight 
 bend in the stream is formed (1). The current always 
 flows against the outside of a bend and thus gradually in- 
 creases it, while sediment is deposited in the more slug- 
 gish water along the inside bank (2). Thus streams cut 
 for themselves very crooked low-water channels which 
 meander back and forth across the flood plain. 
 
 In the lower courses of many large rivers which have 
 wide and deep flood plains, these bends eventually take the 
 form of great oxbow loops (3). Finally a cut-off is formed 
 at the narrowing neck of the loop (4), which then becomes 
 
 Illustrating formation of oxbow loops. 
 
 the main channel. The ends of the old channel then gradu- 
 ally fill up with sediment, and the deserted part of the loop 
 becomes a crescent-shaped pool or lake of stagnant water (5). 
 
 Tests. Define and explain the formation of rapids and cascades; 
 cataracts; sediment; alluvium; sand bar; delta; flood plain; bayou; 
 oxbow loop. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw a diagram and explain why a ledge of 
 hard rock across a stream retards the deepening of the valley above. 
 
 GLACIERS. 
 
 
 Aletsch glacier, Switzerland. 
 
 Formation. In polar regions, and in high 
 in all latitudes, the climate throughout the y 
 that more snow falls than can be melted, 
 accumulates and becomes hundreds or e 
 feet deep, so that its weight packs the 
 mass into solid ice, and forces this ice 
 inch by inch, down the slope of the land. S 
 of slowly moving ice is called a glacier. J% 
 
 In Greenland and in other regions near the poles, glaciers cover the 
 entire surface of the land with a continuous or " continental " ice theet 
 which moves downward into the sea, where great fragments, sorrre of 
 them as big as a small mountain, break off and float away as icebergs. 
 
 In regions where the lowlands are warm and where snow accumulates 
 only near the summits of the mountains, the glaciers occupy the upper 
 valleys only, creeping down the mountain sides, and many of them melt- 
 ing away entirely before they reach the sea. 
 
 Iceberg floating near Newfoundland. 
 
20 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 Work of Glaciers. As a glacier creeps forward, the de- 
 tritus under it — sand, stones, and huge masses of rock — 
 becomes imbedded in the ice and is dragged forward over 
 the solid rock beneath, scratching, grooving, polishing, and 
 wearing away its surface, while the fragments are them- 
 selves worn round and smooth or ground to powder. 
 Thus glaciers in their movement excavate rock basins, 
 widen and deepen valleys, and lower and round the out- 
 lines of hills over which they travel. Much detritus rolls 
 or is washed upon the surface of a valley glacier from the 
 sides of the mountains which rise above it. 
 
 An enormous quantity of rocky material is thus carried 
 by glaciers. If a glacier descends to the sea this material 
 may be borne away by icebergs and distributed over the 
 sea bottom when they melt ; but if a glacier does not 
 reach the sea, its rocky load is deposited along its melting 
 end as a great irregular sheet of sand, gravel, bowlders, 
 and clay, called glacial drift. 
 
 If the melting end of a glacier remains long at the same place, the drift 
 accumulates into an irregular range of hills called a terminal moraine. 
 
 Bowlders deposited by an old valley glacier in California. 
 
 The Glacial Period. Thousands of years ago there was a long period 
 of time, called the glacial period, when the climate of the northern hemi- 
 sphere was colder than at present, and when the glaciers were much more 
 extensive. The valley glaciers were larger than they now are, and glaciers 
 were formed where none now exist. From the highland north of the St. 
 Lawrence River, the Laurentian glacier then moved outward in all direc- 
 tions and covered North America with a continental ice sheet as far south 
 as the Ohio and Missouri rivers, while another continental glacier moved 
 over most of northern Europe from the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 
 When these great glaciers finally melted away they left their work so 
 deeply impressed upon the surface of the land that it is yet plainly visible. 
 
 Much of each region is deeply covered with glacial drift ; with many 
 huge rounded bowlders which are unlike any of the neighboring rock 
 and must have been brought by the ice from a distance ; and with thou- 
 sands of peculiar whaleback-shaped hills, or drumlins ; there are many 
 great and small rock basins hollowed out by the moving ice sheet ; and 
 the solid rock of the region, wherever exposed, is found to be covered 
 with glacial scratches and grooves. 
 
 In the hollows formed by the glacier, and in the old valleys in 
 which the drift formed dams, many lakes collected. Some of these have 
 been entirely filled up by sediment from their inlets, and others have 
 been gradually emptied by the cutting down of their outlet streams. 
 Thousands, however, remain and make the sites of the old Laurentian 
 and Scandinavian glaciers the great lake regions 6i the world. 
 
 Tests. How are glaciers formed t How can their former presence in 
 a region be detected t Define glacial drift ; terminal moraine ; drumlin. 
 
 A drumlin near Amherst, Massachusetts. 
 
 WAVES AND TIDES. 
 
 Waves. The wind blowing over any sheet of water 
 throws its surface into waves. Light breezes cause mere 
 ripples, but storm winds may heave the surface of deep 
 water into billows as high as a three-story house. 
 
 The waves raised by a storm in one part of the sea may finally spread 
 to the shores hundreds of miles away, and as there is seldom a time when 
 strong winds are not blowing in some part of the sea, its surface is nearly 
 always heaving and tossing in waves. 
 
 Waves do not affect the water to any great depth, but when a wave 
 enters shallow water its lower part drags on the bottom, while the upper 
 part, rushing onward, rolls over or breaks, thus forming a breaker. Little 
 waves break very close to the shore line, but big waves drag on the 
 bottom in much deeper water, and hence may break at some distance 
 from the land. 
 
 Tides. Since waves depend upon the wind, they are 
 very irregular — at times high and fierce, at times low and 
 gentle. There is another movement of the sea, however, 
 which is very regular. On the seacoast the water for sev- 
 eral hours gradually rises, at some places becoming many 
 feet deeper; then for several hours it gradually falls to 
 about its former level, when it again slowly rises, and so 
 on. This slow and regular rise and fall of the sea is called 
 the tide. The rise is flood tide, and the fall, ebb tide. 
 
 Like the earth, the sun, the moon, and the stars possess gravity ; that 
 is, each has the power to pull loose objects toward itself. The pull is 
 strongest on objects near these bodies, but it also affects objects at any 
 distance. Thus the earth itself is affected by the gravity of both the sun 
 and the moon. Though the attraction of the sun on the whole earth 
 is much stronger than that of the ntoon, still the moon is so much nearer 
 us that its effect is more apparent. It causes the surface of the sea to 
 rise in two low but broad tidal swells or waves, one on each side of the 
 earth. 
 
 moonQ 
 
 As the earth rotates, these waves travel over the surface of the sea, 
 keeping a little behind the moon. When the crest of one of these waves 
 reaches the coast, it is high tide ; when the trough between the waves 
 reaches the coast, it is low tide. 
 
 While the earth is rotating, the moon is moving forward in the sky, so 
 that the earth has to turn for nearly twenty-five hours to bring the same 
 
THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND. 
 
 21 
 
 point under the moon again, and during this time two complete tidal 
 waves pass the point. 
 
 Wind waves affect the surface water only, and make little or no cur- 
 rent; but in following the moon around the earth the tidal waves cause 
 powerful currents which extend to the very bottom of the sea. 
 
 In the open sea the tidal wave is so low that its passage is impercep- 
 tible, but as it advances between the headlands of a coast the shallowing 
 water and the approaching shores force the wave to become much higher. 
 At the heads of some narrowing bays it is as much as 50 or 60 feet 
 high ; oh more open coasts heights of from 6 to 12 feet are usual. 
 
 In some estuaries and river mouths the drag of the heightened tidal 
 wave on the bottom causes the wave to for-m a breaker, called a bore, 
 which rushes rapidly up the river and is very dangerous to shipping. 
 
 Work of Waves and Tides. The force with which 
 waves dash upon the coast is very great. If the shore is 
 high and rocky, the waves pick up fragments of loosened 
 rock and hurl them against the cliffs, thus loosening other 
 fragments and undermining and rapidly cutting back the 
 front of the cliffs. The fragments, pounded against the 
 cliffs or rolled backward and forward upon one another, 
 are worn away, first to pebbles and then to fine sand. 
 
 Bass Head, on the high and rocky coast of Maine. 
 
 Some of the sand is carried out into deep water, where 
 it settles to the bottom, making its slope gentler. But 
 much of the sand made in this way on exposed and rocky 
 headlands is carried by tidal currents and by the wash 
 of the waves into sheltered coves, or to straight stretches 
 of low and gently sloping coast. There it is thrown upon 
 the shore to form a smooth sand beach. Such a beach is 
 really a protection to the shore, and it is more lasting than 
 a high and rocky coast, which receives the full force of the 
 waves. 
 
 i£= «= 
 
 tnll-i^ 
 
 Thus the action of the waves tends to make the coast more/ 
 uniform, by cutting back and reducing rocky headlands, and 
 by building out the shore lines of the bays. 
 
 Barrier Beaches. Great storm waves break at some distance out 
 from the shore line of a low and uniform coast. The saud they deposit 
 where they break forms a shoal, or bank, which is gradually built up 
 into a bar and by continued deposit may at last reach the surface, form- 
 ing a long line of narrow, sandy islands, or barrier beaches, fringing 
 the coast and separated from it by a shallow lagoon. 
 
 The lagoon, however, is gradually tilled up by the sediment carried 
 into it by the streams from the mainland, and by the remains of vegeta- 
 tion that grows along its margins. It is thus converted into a marsh 
 and then into solid land, while another line of barrier beaches may form 
 outside ; thus the coast grows outward. 
 
 Spits and Sandy Hooks. Tidal currents carrying sand are constantly 
 flowing along the coast close to the shore. Such currents flowing out 
 of a bay are frequently turned to the right or the left by meeting other 
 currents flowing along the coast. Between such currents is a narrow 
 strip of still water, in which sand from both currents is deposited. 
 Thus may be built out into the bay, from one side of its mouth, a long, 
 narrow spit or sandy hook. Many low capes are formed in this way. 
 
 Coral Reefs and Islands. Where the sea water is warm, and not 
 too deep, and where currents bring plenty of food, little animals called 
 coral polyps live in great colonies attached to the sea bottom. The 
 polyp extracts from the sea water some of its dissolved lime, and this goes 
 to enlarge the stony skeleton by which the animal is attached to the 
 rocky base of the colony. 
 
 When a polyp dies its stony skeleton remains as an addition to the 
 base, while young polyps appear upon the base like buds, on a tree. 
 These grow and die, leaving their skeletons behind, and are replaced 
 by other polyps. Thus by the growth and death of countless polyps the 
 rocky base of the colony may gradually be built up to the surface of the 
 sea to form a coral reef, which by the beach-forming action of waves and 
 currents may be raised above the water to form a coral island. 
 
 Long Beach, Florida. 
 
 Great Barrier coral reef, Australia. 
 
22 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 ro . * -- h.y 
 
 Such coral islands often take the form of rings of low land wholly or 
 partly surrounding shallow lagoons ; such a ring-shaped coral island is 
 called an atoll. Coral reefs which fringe the warmer coasts of the con- 
 tinents may eventually become part of them, as do barrier beaches. 
 
 Tests. Define and explain waves ; breakers ; tides ; flood tide ; high 
 tide ; ebb tide ; low tide ; a bore ; a barrier beach ; a sandy hook ; a coral 
 reef. Why is high tide at any spot a little later every day ? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bead or recite Ingelow's "High Tide on 
 the Coast of Lincolnshire," Kingsley's "Sands of Dee," Tennyson's 
 " Crossing the Bar," Holmes's " Chambered Nautilus." 
 
 THE ROCKY LAYERS OF THE LAND. 
 
 Thus the atmospheric agents and moving water are con- 
 stantly wearing away the surface of the land and trans- 
 porting the material to some lake or to the sea, where 
 it is deposited on the bot- 
 tom in nearly level layers 
 of sand, gravel, or mud. 
 
 The gravel or sand, being heav- 
 ier, sinks sooner and is deposited 
 nearer the shore, while the finer 
 particles which compose mud are 
 carried farther away from land. 
 But nearly all the sediment brought 
 down to the sea is deposited 
 within a few hundred miles of 
 the coast, and with it are mixed 
 the bones of animals washed from 
 the land, or of sea animals that die 
 and sink from the water above. 
 Farther from land almost the only 
 deposits are the shells of sea ani- 
 mals. There are millions of them, 
 however, many of them very tiny, 
 and their deposit gradually makes 
 a thick layer of slime, or ooze, on 
 the deep sea floor. 
 
 Year after year layer is deposited on 
 layer, until the weight above, aided pos- 
 sibly by heat from within the earth, 
 changes the lower layers into stone 
 again, in which the forms of the shells 
 and bones are preserved as fossils. The 
 sandy deposits near the shore become 
 layers of sandstone; the deposits of 
 mud and clay become layers of shale or soapstone; and 
 the oozes become different kinds of limestone and chalk, 
 which are often little more than a mass of tiny fossils. 
 
 By gradual upheaval these layers of hardened sediments on the sea 
 bottom become land, and by the pressure and heat produced in the up- 
 heaval they may be hardened, crystallized, and changed still further — 
 thus limestone may become marble; sandstone, quartzite; and shale, 
 £iate. Some of the more deeply buried layers may even be melted and 
 changed to granite or to lava. 
 
 . l'.'^Q, .'1 
 
 -^"s^'SV 
 
 Ooze magnified. 
 
 
 m 
 
 In this way have been formed nearly all the a lid rocks which we see. 
 At some time in the past the material of which they are composed was 
 part of an old land surface ; it was worn away and became soft sediment 
 on the sea floor ; it slowly hardened to rock and was upheaved to become 
 the present land, which is now being worn away again. 
 
 Peat and Coal. Certain kinds of moss and other plants 
 grow thickly on the surface of fresh water near the shore 
 in many shallow ponds and lakes. By the interlacing 
 
 of their roots they may in time cover the entire surface of 
 the water with a floating mat of vegetation. The thick 
 mat is increased by the yearly growth on top, while 
 from beneath it pieces of dead vegetable matter fall to 
 the bottom of the lake, and accumulate as a dark mudlike 
 mass called muck or peat. This may eventually fill the lake, 
 converting it into a peat swamp, or bog. The muck, being 
 partly decayed vegetable matter, makes a good fertilizer, 
 and when thoroughly dried is also used for fuel. 
 
 Thousands of years ago great swamps, somewhat like 
 the present peat bogs, but containing a vastly more luxu- 
 riant vegetation, existed in many lowlands. After their for- 
 mation they were slightly depressed below the sea and were 
 covered by layers of mud and sand. The sediment gradu- 
 ally hardened to layers of rock, and the peat to beds of 
 the black stonelike substance which we call coal. 
 
 As the buried peat slowly changed it gradually became lignite, or 
 brown coal, which is much better fuel than peat, while with greater age 
 it is changed to true bituminous or soft coal, which is still better fuel. If 
 these beds are greatly folded in upheaval, the heat and pressure hasten 
 their change into coal, and may change them into hard or anthracite coal 
 — or even into graphite, of which lead pencils are made. 
 
 Petroleum and Natural Gas. Vegetable or animal 
 matter, which ages ago was deeply buried under sediments, 
 has sometimes been gradually changed, not into coal, but 
 into rock oil, or petroleum, and into natural gas. Both of 
 these substances also make good fuel. They are obtained 
 by boring wells through the overlying layers of rock. 
 
 Tests. How does the 
 ocean deposit near the 
 shore differ from the 
 deep sea deposit ? Why? 
 Explain the formation 
 of sandstone ; quartz- 
 ite ; shale ; slate ; lime- 
 stone ; marble. Of peat ; 
 lignite; bituminous coal; 
 anthracite coal. Of pe- 
 troleum ; natural gas. 
 
 ra*S 
 
 Supplemental Work. 
 
 Bring to school speci- 
 ».^fy^t-'ivSB^BiBBI^^Ut J iVkfl 7 ^«wBBEBB mens of one kind of rock 
 Fossiliferous limestone. and of one kind of min- 
 
 eral formed from animal 
 or vegetable matter. Label each specimen, and keep the collection in 
 the schoolroom. Write a short story of the formation of one of the 
 specimens. 
 
 TOPICS ON LOWERING OF THE LAND SURFACE. 
 
 I. Erosion. Definition. Wind : erosive work. Atmospheric moist- 
 ure : source ; forms ; erosive work. Ground water : source ; uses ; erosive 
 work. Streams : source ; deepening work ; broadening work. Glaciers : 
 source ; motion ; erosive work. Waves : erosive work. 
 
 II. Transportation. Wind. Water. Ice. Direction. 
 
 III. Deposition. Dunes. Stream deposits: alluvial cones; sand 
 bars; flood plains; deltas. Spring deposits. Cave deposits. Veins. 
 Glacial drift. Shore deposits : beaches ; bars ; sandy hooks ; coral reefs. 
 The layers of rocks : of rocky origin ; of animal or vegetable origin. 
 
 IV. Features of Surface Waters. Springs : origin ; classes ; uses. 
 Streams : source ; bed ; divides ; flood plains ; falls ; meanders ; bayous ; 
 mouths. Lakes : origin ; inlets ; outlets ; classes. Glaciers : regions ; 
 classes. 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 23 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 SEASONS. 
 
 Revolution. While the earth is turning on its axis it is 
 also moving forward in an almost circular path, or orbit, 
 around the sun. This movement of the earth is called its 
 revolution. "What is the difference between a rotation and 
 a revolution of the earth? How long does it take the 
 earth to rotate once on its axis? The time required by 
 the earth to make one complete revolution around the 
 sun is called a year. 
 
 The orbit is really elliptical, but differs so slightly from a circle that 
 it is most accurately represented as circular. 
 
 Inclination of Axis. As the earth travels around its 
 orbit, the axis always points in nearly the same direction. 
 
 The axis is not perpendicular to the orbit; it leans, or 
 inclines, about 23£ degrees from the perpendicular, as 
 shown in the diagram above. 
 
 Effects. It is because of this inclination of the axis that 
 the hours of sunrise and sunset change from day to day, 
 and that one half of the year is warmer than the other half. 
 
 MARCH EQUINOX 
 
 SEPTEMBER EQUINOX 
 
 Length of Days and Nights. The diagram above shows the position 
 of the north pole with respect to the edge of the sun-lighted half of the 
 earth each month in the year. Name the months in which the pole is 
 exactly on the line between the lighted and the dark half of the earth. 
 At these times the sun is exactly over the equator ; hence the sunlight 
 extends to the same distance on both sides of the equator, or to both 
 poles. As the earth rotates in this 
 position the sun rises and sets at 
 six o'clock, and the days and nights 
 are everywhere of equal length ; 
 hence these dates are called equi- 
 noxes (equal nights). 
 
 The days and nights are always 
 of equal length on the equator, but 
 elsewhere, except at the equinoxes, At the March equinox. 
 
 they are never equal. During what months is the north pole in the 
 lighted hemisphere ? During what months is it in the dark hemisphere ? 
 Thus, at the poles there are six months of continuous daylight, fol- 
 lowed by six months of continuous darkness. When the earth passes 
 either equinox, the poles gradually recede from the sunrise and sunset 
 line for three months, and then approach and reach it again three months 
 later at the other equinox. 
 
 When is the north pole farthest within the lighted hemisphere ? When 
 farthest within the dark hemisphere ? At these dates the day and night 
 are of most unequal length. 
 
 p. * 3 £ 
 
 HX° 
 
 £ SU N'S 
 
 PERPENDICULAR RAY 
 
 RAYS 
 
 About June si. 
 
 About December si. 
 
 About June 21 the north pole is 23j° within the lighted hemisphere ; 
 the perpendicular rays of the sun fall on places 23i° north of the equator. 
 How far within the dark hemisphere is the south pole ? As the earth 
 rotates in this position, the sun rises and sets at six o'clock at the 
 equator, and the days and nights there are equal, but the sun rises earlier 
 and earlier at places nearer and nearer to the north pole, and later and 
 later at places nearer and nearer to the south pole ; hence in the northern 
 hemisphere the days are longer than the nights. Are they then longer 
 or shorter than the nights in the southern hemisphere ? Places within 
 23|° of the north pole are in the sunlight, while places within 23|° of 
 the south pole are in darkness, throughout an entire rotation of the earth. 
 
 About December 21 the north pole is within the dark, and the south 
 pole within the lighted half of the earth, while the perpendicular rays of 
 the sun fall on places 23j° south of the equator. From the diagram ex- 
 plain what effect this position has upon the length of the days and nights 
 in the northern and in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 The Seasons. Why is it usually warmer during the daytime than at 
 night ? Do we live north or south of the equator? Compare the lighted 
 part of the northern hemisphere about June 21 with its lighted part about 
 December 21. Does the northern hemisphere receive more sunshine in 
 June or in December? In which of these months is the weather warmer 
 in the northern hemisphere ? Why ? In which of these months is the 
 weather warmer in the southern hemisphere ? Why ? 
 
 Thus the inclination of the earth's axis causes summer 
 and winter. When it is winter in the southern hemisphere 
 what season prevails in the northern hemisphere ? At the 
 equinoxes just one half of each hemisphere is in the warm 
 sunshine. At these times occur spring and autumn, when 
 the temperature is intermediate between those of summer 
 and winter. 
 
 Tests. Define the earth's orbit. What is its shape ? Define revolu- 
 tion ; a year ; equinoxes ; summer ; winter ; spring and autumn. What 
 two causes combine to produce changes in the length of day and night ? 
 
 Supplementary Work. Darken the schoolroom, and, by means of 
 a ball and a lamp, illustrate the position of the earth at the equinoxes ; 
 about June 21 ; about December 21. Eead or recite " They come ! The 
 Merry Summer Months," Motherwell ; " The First Snowfall," Lowell ; 
 " The Voice of Spring," Hemans ; " The Death of the Flowers," Bryant. 
 
 ZONES AND HEAT BELTS. 
 
 The Tropics. At the March equinox the sun is directly 
 overhead at the equator. By about June 21 the perpen- 
 
24 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 dicular rays have advanced into the northern hemisphere. 
 On what parallel do they then fall ? Here they turn back 
 and recede southward. When do they again fall on the 
 equator? Where do the perpendicular rays fall about 
 December 21 ? There they turn back and advance north- 
 ward, reaching the equator in March. Hence the parallels 
 23i° north and south of the equator are called tropics, from 
 a word meaning " to turn" — the northern one is the Tropic 
 of Cancer ; the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 The Polar Circles. The parallel 23J° from either pole 
 incloses a region which at one time in the year is in 
 darkness during a complete rotation of the earth, and at 
 another time is in sunshine during a complete rotation. 
 These parallels are called polar circles — the northern one, 
 the Arctic Circle; the southern, the Antarctic Circle. 
 
 The Zones. Is it usually warmer when the sun's rays 
 fall from high in the sky, as they do in the middle of the 
 day, or when they are nearly horizontal, as at sunrise and 
 sunset? The sun's rays are always perpendicular some- 
 where between the tropics, and that part of the earth's 
 surface is quite warm throughout the year; hence the 
 strip between the tropics is called the torrid, or hot, zone. 
 Because the sun's rays do not reach the regions within the 
 polar circles during part of the year, and during the re- 
 mainder are nearly horizontal, these regions are nearly 
 
 THESE RAY8 ALWAYS HORIZONTAL 
 
 THESE^AYS ALWAYS HORIZONTAL 
 
 always cold and are called the frigid, or cold, zones. The 
 regions between the torrid and the frigid zones are called 
 temperate zones. 
 
 How do the temperate zones compare in temperature with the torrid 
 zone ; with the frigid zones ? Still there are parts of the temperate 
 zones which at times are hotter than parts of the torrid zone, and there 
 are parts which at times are colder than parts, of the frigid zones. So 
 the tropics and polar circles do not form the boundaries of the true 
 heat belts. 
 
 This is partly due to the fact that, as the sun advances to its June 
 position over the northern tropic, the boundaries of all the heat belts also 
 advance northward ; and as the sun retreats to its December position 
 over the southern tropic, the boundaries of all the heat belts retreat 
 southward with it. 
 
 Other reasons for the irregular boundaries of the true heat belts are 
 the irregular distribution of land and water over the earth, and the dif- 
 ferences in elevation of the land surface. 
 
 Effect of Land and Water. The sea does not change 
 greatly in temperature during the year. The temperature 
 of the land, however, changes greatly in latitudes where 
 
 the days and nights are of very unequal length. The 
 land is slightly warmer than the sea in summer, but 
 much colder in winter. 
 
 The upper part of the atmosphere, resting on the part beneath, com- 
 presses it and makes it denser; thus the atmosphere is densest at the 
 surface of the sea, but on high mountain tops is so rare, or thin, that it 
 will scarcely support life. 
 
 
 
 Illustrating comparative density of the air. 
 
 The heat rays of the sun pass easily through the rare part of the at- 
 mosphere, and, as there is scarcely any air to warm, they lose but little of 
 their heat there. They pass through the lower, denser part with in- 
 creasing difficulty, however, and give to it about half of their heat 
 before they reach the earth's surface ; hence the rays themselves warm 
 the lower air more than the upper air. 
 
 The heat rays which reach the solid land can penetrate it to a very 
 slight depth, and thus quickly make its surface even warmer than the 
 lower air. This excess of heat tries to escape back through the atmos- 
 phere, but it penetrates the dense air above lowlands very slowly and 
 heats it still further. > 
 
 At night, however, the supply of sun heat being cut off, the rare 
 upper air permits the escape of heat from the dense lower air, which in 
 turn robs the land surface of its heat. Thus during the long nights of 
 winter the land quickly loses the heat that accumulates at its surface 
 during the long days of summer. 
 
 The sun's heat rays which reach the sea penetrate and warm it to 
 a greater depth than the land is warmed, and the warm water may 
 move to cooler regions in waves or currents. Hence the surface of the 
 sea is not warmed so quickly or so greatly as the land. But neither does 
 it cool so quickly at night, for as the surface water cools it is replaced by 
 warmer water from below. 
 
 Effect of Elevation. At great elevations the air is so 
 rare that it is but slightly warmed either by the sun's rays 
 or by the heat escaping from the earth. It thus happens 
 that the climate, or prevailing weather, of highlands is 
 colder than that of lowlands. 
 
 Thus in the torrid zone, although snow is never seen in the lowlands, 
 the tops of high mountains bear snow banks that are never entirely 
 melted away. 
 
 But it must not be supposed that mountain summits are always cold. 
 For the very reason that the thin air cannot take much heat from the 
 sun's rays, the sunshine itself on mountains is hotter than on lowlands ; 
 but at night, or in the shade, the weather is cold. 
 
 True Heat Belts. Why do the true heat belts differ 
 from the zones? The boundaries of the true heat belts 
 in January and in July are shown on the following maps. 
 Each boundary line is an isotherm; that is, a line passing- 
 through places having the same temperature. The bound- 
 ary of the cold belt has about the temperature of freezing 
 water (30°) ; that of the hot belt has the comfortable tem- 
 perature of a sitting room (70°). 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 25 
 
 with their July positions. Explain the differ- 
 ences in position. 
 
 In the lowest pair of maps the boundaries 
 of the heat belts in both January and July 
 are drawn, in order to show the temperature 
 changes of each region during the whole year. 
 What parts of the land surface of the world are 
 always hot? What parts have a temperate 
 winter and a hot summer ? What parts of the 
 land surface are always temperate? What 
 parts have a temperate summer and a cold win- 
 ter? What parts have a hot summer and a 
 cold winter ? What part of the world is always 
 cold? 
 
 Tests. Name the zones; their boundaries. 
 Define zone; tropic; rare; dense; isotherm. 
 How is heat distribution affected by land and 
 water; by elevation? Why do the true heat 
 belts differ from the zones? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw maps of the 
 hemispheres, showing the tropics, polar circles, 
 and true heat belts in summer and in winter. 
 Read " The Discoverer of the North Cape," by 
 Longfellow ; and " Tropical Vegetation in South 
 America," by Kingsley, in Barnes's Fifth Reader. 
 
 WINDS. 
 
 When a fire is burning on the hearth the air 
 moves toward it along the floor of the room 
 and rises up the chimney with 
 the smoke. In the same way 
 the air moves toward the bot- 
 tom of the chimney of a lighted 
 lamp and when heated rises 
 through the chimney. 
 
 Like nearly all other 
 substances, the air ex- 
 pands and occupies more 
 space when it is heated. If the at- 
 mosphere over any region becomes 
 warmer than that over surrounding 
 regions, it expands upward and be- 
 comes deeper over the hot region. 
 The upper air therefore flows off side- 
 
 •* WARMER 
 
 'EftRTHS" SURF ACE 
 
 Where are the sun's rays perpendicular about July 1? At this 
 season the accumulation of heat in the great land masses of North Amer- 
 ica and Eurasia carries the edge of the hot belt far northward. Where 
 does the heat equator, or line of greatest heat, lie farthest north at this 
 season? Where is it nearest the true equator? What heat belt sur- 
 rounds the north pole at this season ? The south pole ? As July is in 
 the winter of the southern hemisphere, the hot belt in that hemisphere 
 shrinks in width, while the south cold belt is greatly enlarged. As the 
 surface of the southern hemisphere is mostly water, the boundaries of 
 its heat belts are comparatively regular. 
 
 Compare the January positions of the heat equator and the heat belts 
 
 wise from above the warmer region, 
 
 while surface currents of cooler and 
 
 heavier air flow in below and force the warmer and lighter 
 
 air upward. Such surface currents of air are called winds. 
 
 Trade Winds. Over the heat equator the air is 
 always warmer and more expanded than that nearer 
 the poles, and hence throughout the year there are 
 nearly constant winds blowing toward the heat equator 
 from some distance on both sides. These winds are 
 especially well marked on the level surface of the 
 
26 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 open oceans. They are gentle, steady winds, and are 
 called trade winds. 
 
 Because of the rotation of the earth, the moving air turns out of a 
 straight course as it advances, turning to the right in the northern hemi- 
 sphere, but to the left in the southern. The trade winds, therefore, ap- 
 proach the heat equator obliquely. What is their direction north of 
 the equator? South of the equator? 
 
 Belts of Calms. The northeast and southeast trade 
 winds, when they meet, are forced slowly upward by the 
 cooler and heavier air behind. The rising air expands and 
 cools. What becomes of its vapor? (p. 14.) The place 
 of meeting of the trade winds is therefore marked by a 
 narrow belt of light breezes or calms, in which there is 
 almost constant cloudy and rainy weather. This belt is 
 called the equatorial calms. Find it on the map. 
 
 At the outer edge of the trade winds, in both the 
 northern and the southern hemisphere, is a narrow belt 
 or region in which the air is slowly settling down from 
 the upper atmosphere, and becoming warmer as it de- 
 scends. Why are 
 these not rainy 
 belts? These belts 
 are consequently 
 marked by calms 
 and clear weath- 
 er. They are 
 called the tropical 
 calms. 
 
 Prevailing West- 
 erly Winds. Be- 
 yond the tropical 
 calms the general 
 movement of the 
 atmosphere is to- 
 ward the poles — 
 from the southwest in the northern hemisphere, and from 
 the northwest in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 Winds gradually acquire the temperature of the surface over -which 
 they blow. The prevailing westerlies occur in latitudes where the land 
 is warmer than the sea in summer, and cooler than the sea in 
 winter. These winds, therefore, tend to equalize the temperature on 
 the west coasts of the continents in the temperate zones — making the 
 summers cooler and the winters warmer than they are on the east coasts. 
 
 Cyclones. The winds of the temper- 
 ate zones, however, are rendered very ' 
 irregular by being drawn into vast 
 whirls called cyclones, which are con- 
 stantly forming and moving eastward 
 in various parts of these zones. 
 
 Because of the earth's rotation, cyclones on 
 the same side of the equator always whirl in 
 the same direction, but on the other side of the 
 equator they whirl in the opposite direction, as 
 shown in the diagram. Do the winds move from 
 or toward the equator on the east side of cy- 
 clones? On the west side? 
 
 As the winds whirl around the center of the 
 cyclone, they get nearer and nearer to it, and 
 
 travel faster and faster until they may become storm winds. In the 
 center of the cyclone the air rises and rapidly cools, and on the east side 
 of the cyclone the air also cools, because it is blowing away from the 
 equator. Hence the center and east side of cyclones are generally 
 marked by clouds and rain or snow. The western side of the cy- 
 clone, in which the wind is whirling from a colder region toward the 
 equator, is marked by clearing, cool, or cold weather. Why? 
 
 Nearly all of our ordinary storms are simply the passing of such 
 cyclones. These great atmospheric whirls form so frequently that the 
 regions of the westerly winds are the stormiest in the world. The whirls 
 move eastward for great distances, sometimes traveling as much as 
 halfway around the earth, before they finally die away. 
 
 Monsoon Winds. Owing to the shifting of the heat 
 equator, and of the belts of calms, with the change of 
 seasons, much of the land in the torrid zone is north of 
 the equatorial calms in January, and south of them in 
 July. As the prevailing winds blow obliquely toward 
 these calms, it follows that in many torrid lands the 
 winds blow from one direction in summer and from an- 
 other direction in winter. This seasonal change in the 
 
 direction of the 
 wind is strongly 
 marked in south- 
 ern Asia and east- 
 ern Africa, and on 
 those coasts the 
 prevailing winds 
 are called mon- 
 soons, from a word ' 
 meaning "season." 
 
 Where does the heat 
 equator lie in January 
 in the eastern hemi- 
 sphere? (p. 25.) In 
 winter the regular 
 northeast trades pre- 
 vail over the northern 
 Indian Ocean. Why? 
 Where is the heat equator over the eastern hemisphere in July? In 
 summer the southeast trade winds sweep north of the true equator, and, 
 being turned to the right by the rotation of the earth, reach the coast 
 of Asia as a steady southwest monsoon. This blows for several months, 
 until the heat equator gradually approaches the true equator in the early 
 fall. Then the northeast monsoon (or regular trade wind) prevails, 
 while the heat equator is in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 Tests. Define and explain winds; trade winds; equatorial calms; 
 tropical calms ; prevailing westerlies ; cyclones ; monsoons. 
 
 Supplemental Work. By holding narrow strips of paper over a 
 lighted lamp, show that heated air is lighter than the colder air around 
 it. Read pp. 207-229 Waldo's " Elementary Meteorology." Read or reci f e 
 " The Hurricane," by Bryant ; " The Wind on a Frolic," by Wm. Howitt. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 Cause. Where does most of the vapor in the atmosphere come 
 from ? (p. 13.) What causes it to change into cloud, rain, or snow f 
 The winds are the great vapor carriers, and hence the rainfall of the 
 world depends largely upon the winds. But the winds do not yield 
 cloud and rain unless the vapor they carry is chilled. The vapor may 
 be chilled (1) by rising higher in the atmosphere, or (2) by being carried 
 into a colder region. The term rainfall usually includes snowfall also. 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 27 
 
 Rainfall of the Torrid Zone. Bo the trade winds blow 
 toward warmer or toward colder regions ? Does this indi- 
 cate that the trade-witid regions are dry, or rainy ? As the 
 trade winds advance over the oceans they grow warmer and 
 thirstier, and evaporate so much water that the sea is more 
 salty in these regions than elsewhere. How is the vapor 
 chilled and condensed into rain in the equatorial calms? 
 Over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, this belt never moves 
 far from the equator, and so much fresh water pours down 
 as rain in that region that the sea there is less salty than in 
 the trade-wind belts on either side. In which zones does 
 most of the land receive a heavy or a moderately heavy 
 rainfall?" In which zones is the rainfall on the land less 
 than moderate ? 
 
 Over the land the equatorial rain belt shifts north and south through 
 nearly the entire width of the torrid zone, and, as it passes, it gives a 
 season of ample rains to the greater part of the land surface in the torrid 
 zone. In the southern part of the zone the rainy season occurs in the 
 January half of the year ; but in the northern part, in the July half. "Why ? 
 In the central parts of the zone there are apt to be two rainy seasons in 
 the year — one when 
 the rain belt sweeps 
 northward in . our 
 spring, and another as 
 it sweeps southward in 
 our fall. 
 
 Where the vapor- 
 bearing trade winds 
 are forced to rise over 
 highlands, a heavy 
 rainfall results. Why ? 
 Compare the rain map 
 (p. 26) with the map 
 on p. 16, and give rea- 
 sons for the heavy 
 rainfall on the north- 
 east and southeast 
 coasts of South Amer- 
 ica; in the upper Ama- 
 zon valley; on the west 
 coast of Africa. When does the heavy rainfall occur in east Africa? 
 In southern and southeastern Asia ? Why do the East Indies have a 
 heavy rainfall ? Do the heat equator and equatorial rain belt ever reach 
 the coast of South America near the southern tropic? (map, p. 25.) Are 
 winds from the sea forced up the west slope of the highlands in that 
 region ? Why does that coast receive little rain ? 
 
 Rainfall of the Temperate Zones. Do the prevailing 
 winds of the temperate zones advance into warmer or into 
 colder latitudes? These winds cool quite slowly. They 
 start from the tropical calms as dry winds, and do not 
 yield much rain until they are chilled either in cyclones or 
 by rising over highlands. Thus highlands and cyclones 
 are the rain producers of the temperate zones. 
 
 Compare the maps on pp. 26 and 16. Why do the northwest coast 
 of North America and the southwest coast of South America receive 
 abundant rainfall? Why is there little rainfall in the region east of 
 these coasts? The eastern half of North America gets its rainfall by 
 the cyclone winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic. Western 
 Europe gets its moderate rainfall chiefly from cyclones. Farther east 
 the rainfall is light because the region is so far from the sea that the 
 winds contain little vapor. 
 
 What is the general movement of the air in the tropical calm belts ? 
 What kind of weather prevails there ? Can you tell why there is little 
 
 rain in regions near the tropics in north and south Africa, southwest 
 Asia, Australia, and western North America ? 
 
 Tests. Explain the existence of rainy or dry weather accompanying 
 equatorial calms ; trade winds ; tropical calms ; monsoons ; the parts of 
 a cyclone. Give effects of surface on rain distribution, with examples. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bead or recite " Rain in Summer," and " The 
 Rainy Day," by Longfellow. 
 
 OCEAN CURRENTS. 
 
 In nearly every part of the sea there are slow movements, 
 or currents, of the surface water. The currents move in 
 the general directions of the prevailing winds, and are 
 generally believed to be caused chiefly by them. 
 
 The trade winds drive the equatorial waters of all the 
 oceans westward, while the prevailing westerly winds urge 
 the sea water eastward in temperate latitudes ; and thus on 
 each side of the equator, in both the Atlantic and the Pa- 
 cific Ocean, the water is thrown into a great whirl or 
 eddy around the region of tropical calms. In what di- 
 rection do these 
 whirls move on the 
 side toward the 
 equator ? In what 
 part of these oceans 
 do they move 
 away from the 
 equator ? In what 
 part of the oceans 
 do they move to- 
 ward the equator ? 
 A branch from 
 the north Atlantic 
 eddy follows the 
 coast of Europe in- 
 to the Arctic Ocean 
 and sweeps around 
 its basin, returning southward near the coast of Greenland. 
 South of the equator in the Indian Ocean, there is a 
 great eddy similar to those in the south Atlantic and 
 Pacific oceans, but north of the equator the currents of 
 the Indian Ocean move generally eastward during half of 
 the year, and generally westward during the Other half. 
 During which half do you think they move eastward? 
 
 Wherever the ocean eddies move from the equator their water is 
 warmer than that of the surrounding ocean, and that part of the whirl 
 is called a warm current ; but that part of the whirl which moves toward 
 the equator is a cold current, because it is cooler than the surrounding 
 water. 
 
 Currents affect the climate of the neighboring coasts chiefly by warming 
 or cooling the winds which blow from them to the coasts. Which coasts 
 of the continents are most affected by the ocean currents in the temperate 
 zones ? Which in the torrid zone ? 
 
 Names of Currents. Various parts of these great surface eddies of the 
 oceans have been given special names. What is the part of all the great 
 eddies called which moves west near the equator? What is the part 
 of the north Atlantic eddy north of the West Indies called? This is 
 because part of it appears to flow out of the Gulf of Mexico between 
 Florida and Cuba. The narrowness of this channel makes the Gulf 
 Stream here one of the most rapid of the ocean currents. Is it a 
 warm or a cold current 1 What is the corresponding part of the north 
 
28 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 Pacific eddy flowing past the 
 Japanese Islands called f Its 
 Japanese name is Kuroshiwo, 
 or "Black Stream." Is it a 
 warm or a cold current 1 
 What is the eastern part of 
 the whirl in the north Pacific 
 called? The eastern part of 
 the south Pacific whirl ? Are 
 these warm or cool currents ? 
 
 Tests. Name, describe, 
 and explain the chief currents 
 of the Atlantic Ocean ; the Pa- 
 cific ; the Indian ; the Antarc- 
 tic. Explain the effect of 
 ocean currents upon climate. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Us- 
 ing the maps on pp. 26 and 
 27, write a comparison of the 
 climates of the eastern and 
 western shores of the northern Pacific. 
 Ocean." 
 
 Eead Byron's " Address to the 
 
 TOPICS ON DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT AND MOISTURE. 
 
 I. Heat. Day and night : cause ; differences in length. Seasons : 
 causes; names; times. Zones: boundaries; names; modifications — by 
 altitude, by land and water, by earth's position, by winds, by currents. 
 
 II. Rain. Cause. Influence of winds : trade winds ; prevailing west- 
 erlies; calms — equatorial, tropical; cyclones; monsoons. Influence of 
 seasons. Effect of surface: mountains; land and water; plains. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE. 
 
 Plants and animals are found in nearly all parts of 
 the world, but they are most abundant in warm, moist 
 regions. Thus there is an irregular but gradual de- 
 crease in life forms from the 
 moist equatorial lowlands 
 toward the cold polar re- 
 gions, and also toward the 
 cold summits of high moun- 
 tain ranges. 
 
 Dense Forests. In what 
 zone are most of the dense 
 forests! How great is the 
 rainfall of these forest re- 
 gions? This forest vegeta- 
 tion is wonderfully dense 
 and luxuriant. The great 
 trees stand close together, 
 and are often covered and 
 interlaced with hundreds of 
 climbing vines and air plants. 
 As there is no cold season, 
 vegetation grows through- 
 out the year and is always 
 green. The leaves of the 
 plants are very large, like 
 
 those of the palms. Dense equatorial forest 
 
 Open Forests. In what zone are most of the open for- 
 ests? How great is the rainfall of these forest regions? 
 The forest vegetation of the temperate zones is much less 
 dense and luxuriant than that of the torrid zone. 
 
 Only such plants live in the temperate zones as can 
 ripen their fruit during the warm season. They either 
 stop growing or die during the cold season. 
 
 Most of the broad-leafed trees, such as the oaks and maples, lose their 
 leaves in autumn, while nearly all the evergreen trees have needle-like 
 leaves, as the pines, or scale-like foliage, as the cedars. 
 
 The animals of these zones are adapted for the changing seasons by 
 having heavier coats of hair, fur, or feathers in winter, and some of them 
 lie dormant or asleep in sheltered places throughout the cold season. 
 
 Grassy Lands. Are there any grassy lands in the tor- 
 rid and temperate zones? Are they mostly in regions of 
 heavy or of light rainfall ? In both zones, where the rain- 
 fall is too light or too unevenly distributed through the 
 year for forests, it may yet be sufficient for a 
 growth of grass, shrubs, and other low plants. 
 In such places are found open grassy lands. 
 
 These are called prairies, steppes, llanos, and pampas, in 
 different parts of the world. They are often very fertile, 
 and when the rainfall is sufficient, make excellent farms. 
 The animal life of these regions is different from that of 
 the forests — for animals adapted to live on or among 
 trees cannot secure food in open lands. 
 
 Tundras. In the frigid zones, it is so 
 cold that comparatively few kinds of plants 
 and animals can live. Throughout this re- 
 gion the soil is frozen to a great depth. Only 
 its surface thaws in summer, and, as the water 
 cannot sink through' the frozen soil beneath, 
 a wide strip of country along the Arctic coast 
 of America and Eurasia is thus converted 
 at that season into a great swamp, or tundra. 
 
 The life forms are specially adapted to live through 
 the long winters. Most of the animals have coats of 
 thick fur or coverings of fat to keep them warm. Though 
 some kinds of flowering plants manage to blossom and 
 fruit during the short summer, the vegetation consists 
 mostly of mosses and lichens and a few dwarfed trees. 
 
LIFE. 
 
 29 
 
 Deserts. What besides warmth is necessary for plant 
 life? A very dry region, even if it is warm, can have 
 little or no vegetation. Such a region is a desert. 
 
 On the rainfall map (p. 26) find the warm regions having little rainfall. 
 Compare these with the deserts on the vegetation map. Are there deserts 
 in all the grand divisions ? Where are the most extensive deserts ? 
 
 The few plants of deserts are peculiarly adapted for a dry climate, 
 having hard, close bark and small leaves through which their juices can- 
 not evaporate easily. Many, like the cactus, are armed with thorns or 
 spikes. These prevent plant-eating animals from touching the plants 
 and breaking the bark which preserves the sap from evaporation. The 
 animals, therefore, must be specially adapted to procure food in these 
 dry regions. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bring to school leaves of several varieties of 
 evergreen and of broad-leaved trees growing in your own neighborhood. 
 Mount them on cardboard and label them. Find out about the palm or 
 the banana; its distribution, appearance, and use. Find out about the 
 cactus, the maguey, the acacia, and their uses. 
 
 GREAT LIFE REGIONS. 
 
 Barriers. As there are differences in heat and mois- 
 ture, so are there differences in the life forms of different 
 regions, each form being specially fitted, or adapted, 
 to the climate and other conditions of its own region. 
 Animals are free to roam, birds to fly, and the seeds of 
 plants are scattered far and wide by winds, currents, and 
 animals ; yet, sooner or later, both animals and seeds are 
 likely to reach a region in which they are unfitted to live, 
 and which thus acts as a natural barrier to their further 
 diffusion. 
 
 The greatest natural barrier for land life is the sea, though a wide des- 
 ert, or a high mountain chain, is quite as impassable to many animals 
 and plants. But a barrier may consist simply of a difference in climate, 
 the absence of proper food, or the presence of enemies which the animal 
 or plant cannot withstand. 
 
 Great Life Regions. The deserts and the mountain 
 ranges that lie between the torrid and north temperate 
 heat belts, together with the sea, are such important bar- 
 riers to the spread of animal and plant life that they may 
 be taken to mark the division of the continental plateau 
 into six great life regions. In each of these tl 3 plants 
 and animals differ to a greater or less extent fr>m those 
 of all + he other regions. 
 
 Name the six great life regions. What forms the barri' oetween the 
 South American and the North American life region ' Between the 
 
 African and the Eurasian region f In these transitional regions life 
 forms are found somewhat resembling some of those in the neighboring 
 regions, but strangely changed and adapted to fit them to their dry sur- 
 roundings. The barrier between the Eurasian and the Oriental region 
 is the edge of the Eurasian highland. In the west it is sharply marked, 
 for there the edge of the highland rises into the Himalaya Mountains, 
 the loftiest range in the world. Farther east there is a broad transi- 
 tional region, where the barrier is chiefly the difference in climate between 
 the temperate and torrid heat belts. What is the barrier between 
 the Oriental and Australian life regions? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read "How Plants Travel" in Johonnot's 
 "Glimpses of the Animate World," "Migration of Birds" in Lock- 
 wood's " Animal Memoirs," Part II. ; Dana's " Plants and their Children." 
 
 THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 
 
 The Australian is the most peculiar of the life regions. 
 Nearly all of the native four-footed animals either are 
 hatched from eggs or are so helpless at birth that for 
 some time they are carried in a pouch or fold of skin on 
 the breast of the mother. 
 
 There are many kinds of such pouched animals. Many of them are 
 of the kangaroo type ; others, the koala and the Tasmanian devil, are 
 bearlike animals about the size of a poodle dog ; another, the Tasmanian 
 wolf, is as big as a Newfoundland dog. Still others are somewhat like 
 squirrels, rabbits, rats, mice, or moles in size and habits. The kangaroos 
 are leapers, having short, weak fore legs and long, stout hind legs, upon 
 which they squat upright and with which they leap over the ground. 
 The largest kangaroo, when sitting upright, is as tall as a man, but some 
 kinds are as small as rats. 
 
 Life regions. 
 
30 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 m 
 
 cassowmiyI 
 
 7/ * : 
 
 Some animals of the Australian region. 
 
 The egg-laying mammals are the echidna, a kind of ant-eater hav- 
 ing a beaklike snout and a body covered with thick spines ; and the 
 duckbill, which has a bill like a duck's, fur like a mole's, and webbed 
 feet. The duckbill lives mostly in the water, making its burrow in the 
 banks as a muskrat does. The echidna and the duckbill are each 
 about as large as a terrier dog. 
 
 Among the birds are the large ostrichlike running birds — the emu, 
 the cassowary and the kiwi ; the brush turkeys, which do not sit on 
 their eggs, but after heaping up great mounds of brush over them 
 leave them to hatch themselves ; the lyre bird, so named from the 
 form of its tail; and the bower birds, which build a covered play- 
 ground or bower which they decorate with shells or colored stones. 
 
 Among the more peculiar plants are the leafless she oak or beef- 
 wood trees ; flowering but leafless acacia trees, which produce a bark 
 . excellent for tanning ; and many kinds of eucalyptus trees. Some of 
 these are among the tallest trees in the world ; others are peculiar in 
 having several forms of leaf on the same tree ; and on many the 
 leaves grow with their edges instead of their sides toward the sun. 
 The tropical forests along the north coast contain many palms and 
 other plants similar to those of southern Asia. 
 
 Recently man has introduced into Australia sheep, 
 cattle, rabbits, and other kinds of animals. These thrive 
 wonderfully, showing that other than pouched animals 
 might have lived in this region had not some barrier pre- 
 vented them from reaching it. 
 
 What Australian Life indicates. Egg-laying mam- 
 mals are now found nowhere else in the world, and the opos- 
 sums of America are the only pouched animals now found 
 outside of the Australian region. Fossils, however, of such 
 .animals are found buried in the rocks of Eurasia, and 
 it is supposed that ages ago they were the only kind 
 of mammals in the world. At that time Australia is 
 thought to have had a land connection with Eurasia and 
 to have been stocked with these animals. Afterward it 
 became separated from Eurasia by an impassable barrier 
 of sea, thus preserving its ancient animal forms, while 
 in the larger land masses these early animals were re- 
 placed by more highly organized descendants. 
 
 Supplemental WorK. Bring to school a picture, an anecdote, or a de- 
 scription of one plant or animal peculiar to the Australian region. Write 
 
 next day a reproduction of an anecdote or description brought by one 
 of your schoolmates. 
 
 The Cyclopedia and books on natural history contain these descrip- 
 tions, but you may find anecdotes and poems in the readers used in 
 your school. 
 
 THE SOUTH AMERICAN, AFRICAN, AND ORIENTAL 
 REGIONS. 
 
 The South American Region contains more kinds 
 of plants and animals than any other region, and, next 
 to the Australian, is the most peculiar. It is the home of 
 many kinds of opossums. Some carry their young in a 
 pouch, but in other kinds the pouch is not well de- 
 veloped, and the young ride on the mother's back as 
 she climbs among the trees. 
 
 The sloth is a forest-loving animal -that spends most of its life 
 hanging by its long curved claws from the branches of trees. Tiny air 
 plants growing from its fur give the animal a greenish color. The 
 
 i2m£ %\ 
 
 ARMADILLOS , 
 
 - . 2fl 
 
 Some animals of the South American region. 
 
 ant-eater has no teeth, but has a long, sticky tongue to which the 
 ants adhere. The armadillos are burrowing animals often met with in 
 the open plains. They are covered with a flexible horny armor, in which 
 they roll themselves into a ball when frightened. This region is the home 
 of the guinea pig, the tapir, the long-tailed monkey, the piglike peccary, 
 and the jaguar, or American tiger. Several kinds of llamas live in the 
 Andes and in the southern lowlands. These animals are related to the 
 camel, and like it can live many days without water ; they are trained 
 as beasts of burden, and yield a wool or hair that is woven into cloth. 
 
 Among the birds are beautiful parrots and macaws, the condor of the 
 Andes, — the largest of flying birds, — the ostrichlike rhea, and the 
 curassow, which is related to the Australian brush turkey. 
 
 Among the peculiar plants of this region are the mahogany, rosewood, 
 logwood, and cinchona or Peruvian-bark trees ; plants yielding India rub- 
 ber, the vanilla bean, and useful gums ; palms, bananas, bamboos, and 
 tree ferns. C me pepper, the potato, the tomato, tobacco, and Indian 
 corn are native in this region, but the coffee tree, sugar cane and wheat 
 were bro.'jrht to South America by man. 
 
 The /ifrican Region ranks next to the Australian 
 South .American in peculiar plants and animals, 
 specially \oted for the great number of its flesh 
 animals — rons, leopards, panthers, hyenas, and jackals - 
 
LIFE. 
 
 31 
 
 and for its hoofed animals, such as many antelopes, the 
 Cape buffalo, the hippopotamus, the giraffe, the zebra, and 
 the wild ass, from which the donkey is descended. 
 
 Besides these there are the elephant, the rhinoceros, and many mon- 
 keys, including the huge gorilla and the smaller chimpanzee, which are 
 more like man than are any other animals. 
 
 Among the birds are the ostrich, the large secretary vulture, which is 
 both a powerful runner and a flyer, guinea fowl, and the beautiful blue 
 and copper-colored plantain eaters. 
 
 The plants include many palms, among them the oil palm and the date 
 palm ; and many acacias, most of them thorny shrubs growing in desert 
 lands and yielding valuable gums, as gum arabic. The baobab is a 
 peculiar tree of Africa; its spreading branches droop so that a single 
 tree may resemble a whole grove. The coffee tree is a native of north- 
 eastern Africa. 
 
 The Oriental Region is noted even more than the Afri- 
 can for flesh-eating animals ; besides the lion, leopard, and 
 hyena, it has the tiger, the largest, strongest, and fiercest 
 of the cat family. Like south Africa, too, this region has 
 the elephant and the rhinoceros, and herds of wild buffalo, 
 some of which are domesticated as beasts of burden. An- 
 
 i\0" 
 GIRAFF 
 
 and Eurasia. Their fossil remains are now found in the 
 rocks of those grand divisions, above the fossils of the 
 pouched animals. Then, by changes of climate or the slow 
 movements of the earth's crust, the barriers came into ex- 
 istence and shut off the life of South America, and Africa, 
 and southeast Asia from the large land mass to the north, 
 where these animals gradually perished and were replaced 
 by more highly organized descendants. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bring to school a picture, an anecdote, or a 
 description of one animal and one plant belonging to each of these re- 
 gions. Write next day a reproduction of the anecdote or the description 
 given by some other pupil. 
 
 THE EURASIAN AND NORTH AMERICAN REGIONS. 
 
 The Eurasian and North American regions differ from 
 each other less than any other two regions. It is re- 
 markable that the plants and animals of two such large 
 regions, separated by the cold Arctic climate and a sea 
 barrier, should be so similar. Yet the native life forms of 
 
 the two regions are seldom exactly alike, and in some 
 
 instances are quite different. 
 
 In both regions are found bears, wild cats, wolves, foxes, deer, bea- 
 vers, and squirrels. The white polar bear and the black bear are the 
 same in the two regions, while the fierce Rocky Mountain grizzly bear 
 is much the same as the European browu bear. The reindeer that is 
 trained to draw sledges over the Arctic snows of Eurasia is practically 
 the same as the wild caribou which is hunted for food in the region near 
 Hudson Bay. The European elk is the same as the American moose 
 The Rocky Mountain goat and the bighorn sheep are cousins of nine- 
 teen or twenty kinds of wild goats and sheep, including the ibex and 
 chamois, of Eurasia; even the American bison (buffalo) and musk 
 ox are close kin to wild cattle found in Eurasia. 
 
 Yet the puma, skunk, raccoon, prong-horned antelope, muskrat, 
 prairie dog, otter, and opossum are found only in America, while 
 wild boars, camels, and wild horses are found only in Eurasia, for 
 the ancestors of the horses in America were introduced by man. 
 
 Eagles, owls, hawks, crows, and wrens are found in both regions, 
 but wild turkeys, buzzards, blue jays, orioles, mocking birds, and hum- 
 ming birds are American, while vultures, pheasants, true partridges, 
 starlings, magpies, and nightingales are peculiar to Eurasia. 
 
 Some animals of the African and Oriental regions 
 
 other domestic animal, the zebu, is much like our cattle, 
 but has a hump over its shoulders. 
 
 There are bears in this region, and several kinds of deer, wild cattle 
 and wild swine, and tapirs, much like those found in South America. 
 This is the home of true mice and squirrels, and of several kinds of 
 monkeys, including the manlike orang-outang. 
 
 Among the birds are the beautiful little bulbul, which the natives 
 train to fight, and many kinds of pheasants, including the peacock 
 and the jungle fowl, from which our chickens are descended. 
 
 The plants include cedars, yews, pines, and oaks along the slopes 
 of the Himalayas, but in the hot lowland forests are many spice- 
 yielding plants, bamboos, palms, and fine hard woods and cabinet 
 woods, as teak, ebony, satinwood, and sandalwood. 
 
 What South American, African, and Oriental Life 
 indicates. For ages after Australia had become perma- 
 nently separated from Eurasia, the present barriers to 
 the north of South America, Africa, and southeast Asia 
 did not exist, and most of the kinds of animals now 
 found only in those regions lived also in North America 
 
 Some animals of the Eurasian and North American regions. 
 
32 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 These regions are both noted for the great number of cone-bearing 
 trees, as the pines, spruces, firs, hemlocks, and cedars ; and for such 
 trees as the oak, chestnut, beech, ash, elm, sycamore, walnut, maple, 
 birch, and willow ; as well as for the gentian, rush, and primrose. 
 
 America is peculiar in its golden rod and asters, the bald cypress 
 trees, and the great sequoias and redwoods of the Pacific slope. Eurasia 
 has a greater number of heathers, roses, and the olive and almond trees. 
 
 What North American and Eurasian Life indicates. 
 
 The similarity in life forms indicates that the present bar- 
 riers between the North American and Eurasian regions 
 have existed for a comparatively short time, and that they 
 are not now so effectual as the barriers between these and 
 the other regions. 
 
 The present life forms of North America and Eurasia are highly or- 
 ganized, but in the rocks there are found fossils of forms which are less 
 
 An extinct tapirlike animal of North America. 
 
 highly organized and are more like those now living 
 in the other regions. This indicates that the life forms 
 now found in North America and Eurasia are the 
 youngest, or most recent, in the world. They are the 
 descendants of the older fossil forms which used to 
 live there. The conditions of life changed rapidly 
 in these regions, and the life forms changed with 
 them until they gradually assumed their present form, 
 which differs greatly from that of their ancestors. 
 In other regions the conditions changed more slowly, 
 and the present life forms in those regions (especially 
 in Australia) are more like their remote ancestors. 
 
 hence their plants and animals are generally quite similar 
 to those of the neighboring continent. 
 
 The Oceanic Islands also have received their life forms 
 from the continents, but they contain chiefly birds which 
 can fly long distances, and such forms of life as have seeds 
 or eggs which can be easily transported. Some of these 
 are so light that they will float or can be carried by the 
 winds. Some are carried in the stomachs of birds, or 
 attached to the mud on their feet. 
 
 Most of these forms of island life have some resemblance to kinds 
 found in the continent from which the prevailing winds or currents 
 move toward the islands. 
 
 Ocean Life. Many warm-blooded animals, such as 
 whales, porpoises, seals, and walruses, live during a part 
 or all of the time in the sea, but have to" come to the sur- 
 face to breathe. In addition to these there are hosts of 
 true fishes that can live and breathe under water, as 
 sharks and mackerel and codfish, besides hundreds of kinds 
 of shellfish, as oysters and lobsters. The sea also con-, 
 tains thousands of lower forms of animal life, such as 
 jellyfishes, sponges, and coral polyps ; and many kinds 
 of seaweed and other marine vegetation. 
 
 Light penetrates the ocean to a comparatively slight depth, and all 
 the water there, except a thin surface layer, is almost as cold as ice ; 
 hence vegetable life in the ocean is most plentix 
 ful near the surface, and especially in the shal-. 
 low waters near the continents. As food is thus 
 abundant, animal life also is most plentiful in 
 these regions, though a few kinds of marine 
 animals live near the bottom of the deepest parts 
 of the sea. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read "Animal Life in 
 Madagascar" in Johonnot's "Flyers, Creepers, 
 and Swimmers," and Parts III. and IV. of 
 Johonnot's " Glimpses of the Animate World." 
 
 The mammoth, an extinct North American 
 elephant. 
 
 Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants are descend- 
 ants of wild ones, but, under the care of man, many of 
 them have changed so greatly that it is now hard to tell 
 from which of the wild animals and plants they descended- 
 As Eurasia seems always to have been the home of by 
 far the greater part of mankind, it is not surprising that 
 most of our domestic animals and cultivated plants are de- 
 scended from wild animals and plants of that grand division. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bring to school a picture, an anecdote, a speci- 
 men, or a description of some plant or animal of the North American 
 region, and of some plant or animal of the Eurasian region. Write next 
 day a reproduction 6f some other pupil's anecdote or description. 
 
 ISLAND AND OCEAN LIFE. 
 
 Continental Islands are usually close to the mainland, 
 and many of them have not long been separated from it ; 
 
 TOPICS ON DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE. 
 I. Number of Life Forms. Effect of cli- 
 mate on ; resulting distribution. 
 
 II. Kinds of Life. Forests: equatorial — 
 trees, animal inhabitants; temperate — trees, 
 animal inhabitants. Open lands : grassy lands — 
 cause, distribution, life ; tundras — cause, distri- 
 bution; deserts -cause, distribution, forms of life. 
 
 III. Means of Distribution. Without man's aid. With man's aid. 
 
 IV. Barriers. What they are. What they cause- 
 
 V. Life Regions. Continental plateau: central regions— common 
 forms, peculiar forms, present barriers ; outlying regions — number, or- 
 der in peculiarity of forms, chief forms of each; islands. Oceanic 
 region : island forms ; marine forms. 
 
 MAN. 
 
 RACES OF MEN. 
 
 Distribution of Mankind. In some respects man is 
 like other animals. Like them, he must have air to 
 breathe, a certain amount of heat, water to drink, and 
 food to eat. But he is vastly superior to them all in in- 
 telligence. 
 
MAN. 
 
 33 
 
 His intelligence has 
 taught him how to start a 
 fire, so as to warm himself 
 when he is cold ; to make 
 tools with which to fashion 
 clothing and a shelter to 
 protect himself from the 
 weather; and to make 
 weapons with which to 
 secure food. His intelli- 
 gence also gives him the 
 foresight to lay up food in 
 summer for use during the 
 winter, or to carry food 
 with him when he travels 
 to regions that do not. 
 supply it. Hence the 
 natural barriers to other 
 forms of life are not 
 
 great barriers to man. Men live in nearly 
 all the lands of the earth, from the torrid 
 to the frigid zones. 
 
 It is believed that many ages ago men gradually 
 wandered away in various directions from some cen- 
 tral region, and made homes for themselves in new 
 lands and thus peopled the earth. The people who 
 wandered to different parts of the earth found very 
 different surroundings, to whi«h their descendants 
 gradually adapted themselves, just as the descend- 
 ants of plants and animals gradually change and 
 adapt themselves to changing conditions of life. Thus 
 would arise different races and types of men, in each of 
 which the people resemble one another in manners and customs, and, in 
 a general way, in appearance, while they differ more or less in these 
 particulars from the people of other races and types. 
 
 Races. Mankind may be divided into three principal 
 races, in each of which the people resemble one another 
 somewhat in color of the skin and in the kind of hair. 
 These three races may be called the ivhite race, the yellow 
 race, and the black race. 
 
 White Race. The home of the white or "Caucasian" 
 race is Europe, southwestern Asia, and northern Africa. 
 The people have wavy hair, which may be light or dark 
 
 in color. Most of the people have pinkish-white skin, 
 though some are quite dark. This race includes nearly 
 half the people in the world, and is the most civilized 
 of all the races. 
 
 The principal division of this race is the Mediterranean 
 type, to which we belong. The home of this type is the 
 shores of the Mediterranean Sea, western Europe, and 
 southern Asia as far east as the mouth of the Ganges. 
 
 The two principal peoples of this type are the Aryans, embracing the 
 Hindus and the Persians of southern Asia, and most Europeans, together 
 with their descendants in all parts of- the world ; — and the Semitic people, 
 embracing the Jews, Arabs, and Berbers south and southeast of the Med- 
 iterranean Sea, together with their descendants. 
 The Aryan people are rapidly increasing in 
 numbers. In -recent times thousands of them 
 have left Europe to found homes for themselves 
 in each of the other grand divisions, and these 
 new settlers have practically taken possession 
 of North and South America and of Australia, 
 and are rapidly taking possession of Africa. 
 
 Yellow Race. The home of the 
 yellow race is northern and eastern Eu- 
 rasia, America, and most of the islands 
 of the Pacific. The hair is straight, 
 coarse, and black, and the skin yel- 
 lowish or yellowish-red. The people 
 of the yellow race are about as nu- 
 merous as those of the white race, but 
 they are not so highly civilized. 
 
 The principal, and by far the 
 most numerous, type of this race 
 is the Mongolian, the people of 
 which, in addition to the yellow 
 skin, are distinguished by nar- 
 row, almond-shaped eyes. This 
 type occupies nearly the whole 
 of northern, central, and eastern 
 Asia. 
 
 The Malays form a second 
 type of this race. They are 
 often called the brown race be- 
 cause they have brownish-yel- 
 low skin. In the main they 
 are fierce and warlike, and 
 much less civilized than the 
 Mongolians. They live in ex- 
 treme southeastern Asia, in the 
 East Indies, and in the islands 
 of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The third type of this race 
 consists of the American Indians, 
 including the Eskimos. They 
 
 Chinese girl. 
 
34 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 are sometimes said to form the red race because 
 of their reddish-yellow or copper-colored skin. 
 They are not so numerous as the Malays, but 
 they occupied nearly the whole of the American 
 continent before it was settled by whites. Many 
 of them were savages, though some tribes in the 
 western highlands of both North and South 
 America were much more advanced. 
 
 Black Race. The home of the black 
 race is central and southern Africa and 
 some of the Australian islands. The 
 people of this race have coarse woolly 
 or kinky hair, protruding lips, and dark 
 brown or black skin. The black race 
 includes about one tenth of the people 
 in the world, and is the least civilized 
 of all the races. 
 
 The negroes, whose home is central Africa, form 
 the principal type of this race, while the small 
 Papuan type includes the savages of New Guinea 
 and some other Australian islands. The natives of Australia itself have 
 black skin but straight hair, and by some are called a separate race. 
 
 Natives of Kaffraria, South Africa. 
 
 DENSITY OF POPULATION. 
 
 Although people are found in nearly all parts of the 
 world, very many more lire in some parts than in others. 
 A region very thickly peopled is said to have great den- 
 sity of population. 
 
 In other regions one might travel for hundreds or even 
 thousands of miles, seldom, if ever, seeing a human being 
 or any sign that people lived there. Such a region is said 
 to be thinly peopled, or to have a sparse population. 
 
 On this map the most thickly peopled regions are shown by the dark- 
 est lining ; the regions of moderato density of population, by the lighter 
 lining; and the most thinly peopled regions, by dots. 
 
 In which grand division are the largest regions of very dense popula- 
 tion ? In what part of the grand division is each ? What type lives in 
 each ? These regions do not form a large part of the continental pla- 
 teau, yet they are so densely populated that they contain about two 
 thirds of the people in the world ! 
 
 In which two grand divisions are the largest regions of moderately 
 dense population? To what types do the people of these regions in 
 Eurasia belong? To what type 
 do the people in central Africa 
 belong? Where is the largest 
 region of moderately dense pop- 
 ulation in the western hemi- 
 sphere ? This is the eastern half 
 of our own country. Nearly all 
 the regions of dense and moder- 
 ately dense population in North 
 and South America, Australia, 
 and southern Africa are occupied 
 chiefly by Aryan people whose 
 ancestors went there from Eu- 
 rope to live within the last 
 hundred years. 
 
 What part of North America 
 is very thinly peopled? What 
 part of South America; of Eu- 
 rasia; of Africa; of Australia? 
 These regions together include 
 more than half of all the conti- 
 
 nents, but the population is so sparse that they 
 do not contain so many people as live in the two 
 little island groups, the one east, and the other west 
 of Eurasia. Compare this population map with 
 the rainfall map (p. 26), and tell why some of 
 these thinly peopled regions are not fitted for a 
 dense population. 
 
 MAN'S CULTURE. 
 
 The Progress of Man. Man is con- 
 stantly learning how to make things 
 and to do things which enable him 
 to live more comfortably. 
 
 We have many conveniences nowadays, such as 
 the electric light, railroads, sewing machines, and 
 hundreds of other common things, which were en- 
 tirely unknown when our grandparents were 
 children. Name several other?. A few hundred 
 years ago the art of printing was unknown ; the 
 only books which then existed were written by 
 hand, and comparatively few people knew how to read. Some of these old 
 books were histories, from which we learn how people lived at that time. 
 A few thousand years ago no one in the world had yet learned how to 
 write, and we know very little of how people then lived, since they left 
 no written record of anything. Still it is certain that people lived long 
 before that, because in rock deposits that are many thousands of years 
 old, we find things that must have been made by men, such as stone 
 arrowheads, stone axes, bits of pottery, and pieces of reindeer horn with 
 rude pictures scratched on them. 
 
 Savagery. We therefore conclude that at one time, 
 many thousands of years ago, all, or nearly all, people were 
 more ignorant than the most savage tribes now living. 
 
 They probably did not know how to make many things, but lived in 
 caves, wore no clothing, and ate only fruits, nuts, roots, and such insects 
 as they could catch, and such small animals as they could kill with clubs 
 and stones. At last some one may have learned how to tie a sharp stone 
 on the end of a stick, and thus make a spear with which to spear fish or 
 kill animals. Then some one may have learned that sticks rubbed 
 together will get hot and at last burn, thus starting a fire. The most 
 ignorant tribes in Australia to-day do not know how to do much more 
 than this. Gradually some of the early men invented bows and arrows, 
 discovered how to chip stones rudely into shape for arrowheads and axes, 
 and learned how to make a canoe by hollowing out a log with fire and 
 stone scrapers. 
 
MAN. 
 
 35 
 
 Each of these discoveries enabled people to live more comfortably 
 than before. People who have not learned how to do much more than 
 this are savages. 
 
 Some tribes in Africa, and some of the most ignorant tribes of the 
 American Indians, are scarcely more advanced than this to-day. 
 
 Barbarism. The next important step in the progress 
 of man seems to have been the learning how to make rude 
 pottery, by roughly shaping bowls and other vessels of soft 
 clay, and baking them hard by fire. In Eurasia, where there 
 were wild horses and many kinds of wild cattle, sheep, and 
 goats, men gradually learned how to tame and domesticate 
 these animals, and to cultivate several kinds of grain; 
 while in America men learned how to plant and raise corn, 
 which is perhaps the easiest of all grains to cultivate. 
 
 With their increasing knowledge the more advanced races gradually 
 learned how to improve their tools and weapons. They smoothed and 
 
 Nearly all the Indians who lived in the eastern part of North America 
 when it was first visited by white men knew how to make pottery and 
 to cultivate corn, while some of the Indians living in the western high- 
 lands had advanced nearly through the highest stage of barbarism. 
 
 Civilization. When men at last learned to write, and 
 were thus able to leave records of what they did and 
 thought, they had advanced to a stage that may be called 
 the beginning of civilization. 
 
 The greater part of the Mongolian type have reached tho beginning of 
 civilization, but have not progressed far beyond it. Tho greater part 
 of the Mediterranean type, and especially its great Aryan branch, have 
 continued to improve, and are still making inventions and discoveries ; 
 and these people form the enlightened nations of to-day. The knowl- 
 edge of the arts of navigation, of printing, of architecture, the discov- 
 eries of nature's laws, and the application of steam and electricity to 
 the needs of man, mark the highest stage to which he has advanced. 
 Mention any other discoveries which belong to the age of civilization. 
 
 About 500 years before Christ. 
 
 About the time of Christ. 
 
 About the year 500. 
 
 About the year 1000. 
 
 The progress of geographical discovery ; the darkest tint indicates unknown regions. 
 
 polished their rough stone arrowheads and spearheads and axes, made 
 fishhooks of bone, and rough needles with which they could sew to- 
 gether the skins of animals for clothing. Then some one found copper 
 in the earth and discovered that it was soft enough to be hammered 
 into the proper shape for ornaments, while some one else found tin and 
 discovered that both tin and copper would melt, and when melted to- 
 gether would cool into a very hard metal (bronze). Out of this metal 
 the people molded tools that were a great improvement on their old stone 
 and bone implements. With these tools they learned to quarry and 
 roughly to shape stone to make houses, while some one else learned how 
 to make bricks from clay. They also twisted the stringy fibers of plants 
 into rude threads and wove them into a coarse cloth. Finally, those in- 
 terested in working metals found out how to get iron from the minerals, 
 or ores, in which it is found in the earth, and soon learned some of the 
 many uses of this metal. 
 
 Though no one in the world had yet learned how to write, and hence 
 every one was ignorant in comparison with the people we know, still the 
 people who knew how to do some or all of these things could live much 
 more comfortably than the savage tribes. 
 
 People who have advanced far enough to make pottery, to have do- 
 mestic animals or some cultivated plants, and to know something of the 
 use of the metals, but who have not yet learned to write, are said to be 
 in the condition of barbarism. Very many of the negro tribes of Africa 
 and the Mongolian tribes of northern Asia are barbarians to-day. 
 
 The maps above indicate the gradual growth of man's knowledge of 
 the world after he became civilized enough to leave a record of what he 
 knew upon the subject. From the first map tell in what part of the 
 world man first became civilized enough to leave such a record. What 
 parts of the world next became known to civilized man ? What great 
 geographical discovery was made about 400 years ago ? Why are tho 
 later maps surrounded by circles, while the earlier ones are not t What 
 part of the world is still unknown 1 
 
 Supplementary Work. Bring to school, or describe, any implements 
 or utensils used in your ancestors' time, and tell what improvements have 
 been made since then. Bring to the school collection any stone spear- 
 heads, arrowheads, pipes, or other stone implements which you or your 
 friends may have found in the fields near your home. Read chapter 14 
 of " New State Series Grammar School History of the United States." 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION. 
 
 Government. In the earlier stages of human progress, when men 
 owned but little property and so could own it in common, there was 
 no necessity for government as we know it. In time of war the ablest 
 warriors were chosen as chiefs to lead the various war parties, and in 
 times of peace the older men and women gave counsel to the others. 
 
36 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 In Eurasia, however, man gradually became civilized, and, because of 
 his greater knowledge, was able to accumulate flocks and herds and other 
 valuable property. Then disputes arose as to the ownership of the 
 property, and it was seized by the strongest and shrewdest men, who 
 made the weaker people serve them. Thus, in many parts of Europe, 
 the people were divided into two classes : the rich and powerful families, 
 or aristocrats, who made all the laws, and the great mass of poor 
 people, who at last came to think that the aristocrats were nobles 
 born to rule. 
 
 The strongest of the nobles finally claimed to be the king, or 
 monarch, of a great region surrounding his home, and to own all 
 the land and the people living on it ; but he gave parts of the region 
 to the weaker nobles 
 
 living in it, on condi- 
 tion that they sho«ld 
 help him in war and ac- 
 knowledge that he, and 
 one of his family after 
 his death, should be 
 monarch. Thus mon- 
 archies were established 
 in many parts of Eura- 
 sia. 
 
 Monarchies. For 
 many years mon- 
 archies were abso- 
 lute, or despotic ; 
 that is, the mon- 
 arch, with perhaps 
 a few nobles to ad- 
 vise him, made all the laws and could 
 put any of his subjects to death at his 
 pleasure. Absolute monarchies still 
 exist in some parts of Eurasia. In 
 other parts, the people gradually be- 
 came so civilized that they learned 
 how to take some of the power away 
 from the monarch. In such countries 
 the laws are made by a body of men, 
 composed partly of nobles and partly 
 of men chosen from the common people, while the mon- 
 arch can only approve or disapprove of the laws thus 
 made. Such are the governments of most of the coun- 
 tries of Europe to-day. They are called limited or con- 
 stitutional monarchies. 
 
 Republics. In some countries, when the common peo- 
 ple became strong and civilized, they decided to take all 
 the powers of government into their own hands and to 
 do away entirely with the monarch and nobles who held 
 office because of their birth. In such countries the people 
 elect a body of men to make the laws, and a chief officer, 
 or president, to see that the laws are executed. These men 
 hold office only a few years, and then others are chosen 
 to succeed them. Such a government is called a republic. 
 Our own government and most of the other governments 
 established by white men in America, as well as a few of 
 the governments of Europe, are of this form. 
 
 Religions. The Jewish religion was proclaimed by 
 Abraham in southern Asia about four thousand years ago. 
 The Jews believe in one G-od and in the Old Testament. 
 
 St. Basil's, Moscow. 
 
 Jews are now found in all civilized countries, but most of 
 them live in Europe. 
 
 Christianity teaches that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, 
 and the Savior of mankind. Christians believe in one 
 God and in the Holy Bible. This is the prevailing re- 
 ligion in Europe, America, 
 and the other more highly 
 civilized parts of the world. 
 About one fourth of mankind 
 profess Christianity. The 
 chief divisions are the Catho- 
 ic, the Greek Orthodox, and 
 the Protestant churches. 
 
 Mohammedanism was pro- 
 claimed by Mohammed about 
 thirteen hundred years ago. 
 Mohammedans believe in one 
 God, but the Koran is their 
 holy book. This is the pre- 
 vailing religion in most of 
 northern Africa and 
 southwestern Asia. 
 Itsfollowers include 
 about one tenth of 
 the people in the 
 world. 
 
 Brahm'anism is a 
 very old religion of 
 southern Asia. Its 
 chief god is called 
 Brahma. This reli- 
 gion divides its fol- 
 lowers into classes, 
 or castes, and the 
 members of differ- 
 ent castes may not 
 eat the same kind 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome. 
 
 of food, nor pursue the same kind of business, nor asso- 
 ciate with one another. More than one tenth of mankind 
 are Brahmanists. 
 
 Buddhism is professed by most of the people of eastern 
 Asia, and its followers embrace more than one third of the 
 human race. It denies the existence of a soul, but teaches 
 charity and kindness to all living things. 
 
 The more ignorant tribes of men are pagans. They 
 believe in many gods or spirits, and worship them, or idols 
 representing them. There are about as many pagans as 
 Brahmanists. 
 
 INDUSTRIES. 
 
 A savage has comparatively few wants, and nearly all the things 
 he needs are supplied by the labor of his own hands. He makes the 
 rude tools and weapons with which he procures raw materials, out of 
 which he prepares his food, clothing, and shelter. 
 
 When man has advanced to the stage of barbarism, he has learned to 
 want more and better things, a more certain supply of food, better 
 clothing, and more perfect shelter. To supply these things better tools 
 and implements are necessary. Hence some of the people devote much 
 of their time to making tools, others to procuring food, and others still 
 
MAN. 
 
 37 
 
 to some other industry, while each exchanges the result of his labor for 
 the needful things produced by others. By such division of labor each 
 one learns to do his own special kind of work better than it could other- 
 wise be done. But in the stage of barbarism, as in savagery, men's 
 wants do not extend much beyond the things that can be supplied 
 from their own neighborhood. 
 
 As man advances in civilization, however, his wants increase very 
 greatly, and as he has learned how to make roads, and ships, and 
 railroads, he has come to depend upon nearly all parts of the world to 
 supply his needs. As the wants of civilized man have increased, so 
 has the division of labor by which they are satisfied. Gradually it has 
 come about that each person more and more confines himself to a single 
 kind of work or occupation, depending more and more upon those 
 who do other kinds of work to supply his own different wants. Thus 
 very many different occupations, or industries, have grown up wherever 
 civilized man lives. 
 
 The production of raw material for food, clothing, and 
 shelter gives rise to five great industries: — agriculture, 
 herding, fishing, lumbering, and mining. The fitting of raw 
 material for use gives rise to the industry of manufactur- 
 ing; the distribution of raw material and of the manufac- 
 tured product gives rise to the industry of commerce, or 
 trade and transportation. In these seven industries the 
 greater part of civilized mankind finds occupation and 
 earns a livelihood. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The work of tilling the soil and raising plants for the 
 use of man is called agriculture. It is the most impor- 
 tant of all industries, and gives occupation to about one 
 fourth of the civilized workers of the world. 
 
 The preparation of the soil is important. If the land is too wet it 
 must be drained, or the roots of the plants will decay. If it is too dry dur- 
 ing the growing season, the water from the better-supplied regions may be 
 led to it by ditches, or the rain which falls at other seasons may be stored 
 in reservoirs to be used when needed. The watering of land in this way 
 is called irrigation. Some of the most productive parts of southern Asia 
 and the western United States are made fertile by irrigation. 
 
 Plants draw a part of their food from the ground through their roots, 
 but all plants do not require the same kind of food. To prevent the soil 
 of a field from becoming exhausted and poor, farmers plant, in succes- 
 sive years, crops which draw different materials from the ground. This 
 is called the rotation of crops. Sometimes, instead of rotating -crops, 
 there is added to the soil plant food of the same kind as the crops 
 have taken away. The materials added are called fertilizers. In parts of 
 Europe, where the land has been cultivated for hundreds of years, a 
 
 An irrigating canal in the California V&lley. 
 
 great deal of fertilizing material is used, but in many parts of the United 
 States, where land is as yet plentiful and cheap, men have found it 
 cheaper to use new land than to preserve the old by fertilizing. 
 
 Many of the best farming lands of the world are in the 
 plains drained by the great livers of the temperate regions ; 
 but wherever there is soil watered and heated sufficiently 
 for plants to grow, food is raised if there is a good market 
 within reach. The crops from the farms must be trans- 
 ported to places where food materials are not produced, 
 and yet where there are many people to be fed. Garden 
 vegetables and many kinds of fruit are grown in the 
 neighborhood of cities, for transportation over long dis- 
 tances is difficult and expensive. 
 
 Cultivated Plants. The chief food plants store nour- 
 ishment in their seeds and are called grains. Of these, 
 wheat, rice, corn, rye, oats, and barley are the most im- 
 portant. 
 
 Wheat forms the chief food of the people of America and western 
 Europe. It grows best in a rather cool climate, and hence is extensively 
 cultivated in the lowlands of the temperate zones, both north and south, 
 but it also grows well in the highlands of the torrid zone. Why ? It thus 
 happens that a crop of this important food is ripening in some part of 
 the earth during every month of the year. 
 
 Rice is raised in rather warm climates, and chiefly in localities that 
 can be easily flooded. 
 
 Corn, though a tropical plant, grows very rapidly and thrives well 
 wherever the weather is hot and moist during its short growing season. 
 It is one of the chief foods both of man and of the domestic animals. 
 
 
 Wheat harvesting on the Central Lowland of the United States. 
 
38 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 Rye, oats, and barley are cultivated in the cool parts of nearly all coun- 
 tries in the temperate zones. 
 
 Some plants store nourishment in their underground stems or in their 
 roots. The potato is a kind of underground stem, but the beet is a root. 
 Both belong to temperate climates, and both are used directly as food, 
 but from the beet sugar is also made. About half of the sugar used in 
 the world is made from the beet. The other great sugar-producing plant 
 is the sugar cane, a kind of grass which looks like Indian corn. It 
 requires a hot, moist climate. 
 
 Of fruits, the apple is the most important of the temperate zone, since 
 it can easily be kept throughout the winter. Grapes are very widely dis- 
 tributed ; oranges and lemons are raised in the warm parts of the tem- 
 perate regions. Bananas and dates form the chief food of man in some 
 tropical countries. 
 
 Tea is grown only in the temperate parts of the eastern hemisphere, 
 while coffee is a native of the tropical climate and is cultivated in both 
 
 The most useful draught and pack animals in different parts of the 
 world are the horse, the camel, the donkey, the elephant, the ox, the 
 llama, and the reindeer, though the dog is used in the northern part of 
 North America to drag sledges, and in many parts of Eurasia to draw 
 little wagons. 
 
 The chief use which man makes of animals, however, is for food. 
 Cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry supply most of the animal food used 
 in the world. 
 
 Cattle are the most important food animals. They are raised in great 
 numbers to supply milk, butter, cheese, and beef. Pork is not so whole- 
 some as either beef or mutton, but it is more easily preserved ; hence 
 hogs are raised in enormous numbers, especially in regions where corn 
 can be grown to feed them, and in forest regions where they can feed on 
 the wild nuts, or mast. 
 
 The meat of these animals is eaten fresh or is preserved for use by 
 curing ; that is, by salting or smoking. A great deal of meat is canned, 
 
 as are also soups and meat extracts. 
 Live cattle and sheep are sent im- 
 mense distances on cars or in cattle 
 ships, or the fresh meat is shipped in 
 iced chambers. 
 
 Poultry are raised in great numbers 
 in nearly all civilized countries, not 
 only for food but also for their eggs. 
 Both the live fowls and their eggs are 
 articles of export from many countries. 
 Sheep and goats are raised chiefly 
 for their wool or hair, which is con- 
 
 hemispheres. Tobacco grows well in the warmer parts of the temperate 
 zones where there is an ample rainfall. Our own country produces 
 about one half of the tobacco of the world. 
 
 Fibers. Cotton i3 the most important plant cultivated for other pur- 
 poses than food. From this plant is obtained a fiber of which is made 
 the. most widely used cloth in the world. The cotton regions of the world 
 lie in the moist lowlands of the temperate regions. Flax, from which 
 linen is made and linseed oil is obtained ; and hemp and jute, from 
 which rope and cordage are manufactured, are also fiber plants. They 
 grow in both warm and cool countries. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bring specimens of useful plants to school to 
 form a collection. Bring to school a description of one grain, or root, 
 or fruit, used by man as a food ; of one useful plant not used for food. 
 Write, next day, a reproduction of one description given by a school- 
 mate. Read or recite " Ode for an Agricultural Celebration," or " Plant- 
 ing of the Apple Tree," by Bryant ; and " The Huskers," by Whittier. 
 
 HERDING. 
 
 Man has domesticated such animals chiefly as are use- 
 ful as beasts of burden or serve to supply him with material 
 for food and clothing. Name some such animals. Can 
 you think of some domestic animals not useful in these 
 ways ? How are they useful ? 
 
 The raising and breeding of domestic animals is closely 
 associated with farming and nearly every farmer pursues 
 this industry also to supply the needs of his own family. 
 In many parts of the world, however, especially in the 
 drier parts of the open grassy regions, where the rainfall 
 is not sufficient for successful farming, the herding of 
 horses, cattle, and sheep is the chief occupation. 
 
 Hog raising in the Central Lowland, Illinois. 
 
 verted into clothing; but their flesh is also eaten. The alpaca, which 
 yields a long, fine wool, is kept in large herds in the Andes Mountains, 
 and in some parts of the world the hair of the camel is used in making 
 coarse shawls and carpets. 
 
 As men have grown more civilized they have learned to make greater 
 use of animal products. The skins of domestic animals are made into 
 leather. Bones, horns, and hoofs are used in making combs, buttons, 
 knife handles, and glue. The hair of cattle and refuse wool are used 
 in making felt, and the bristles of the hog in making brushes. What 
 use is made of down and feathers ? Name some other uses of animal 
 products. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Supply to the school collection such animal 
 products as you can obtain. Bring to school an account of one domestic 
 animal, describing it, and telling where and how it is raised, and what 
 are its uses. Write, next day, a reproduction of the account given by 
 one of your schoolmates. Read or recite " The Drovers," by Whittier. 
 
 FISHING. 
 
 The most valuable fishing grounds of the world are the 
 shallow parts of the sea near the shores of the continents, 
 in the north temperate zone. 
 
MAN. 
 
 39 
 
 Cod fishing on Newfoundland Banks. 
 
 The great cod fisheries are on the Newfoundland 
 " Banks," east of the northern part of North America. 
 
 Here hundreds of fishing schooners may be seen, from which each 
 day the men go in rowboats, called dories, to their long lines, or trawls. 
 These are baited every few feet, and are held down at the end by anchors. 
 The men take the codfish off, rebait the hooks, and re- 
 turn to the schooner, where they clean and salt the fish. 
 When the schooner has a full fare, or catch, she steers for 
 home, which may be Europe, or the northeastern part of 
 our country, for all nations may fish in any part of the 
 great ocean. On shore the cod are first dried in the sun, 
 and then packed and sent to market. There are also valu- 
 able cod fisheries off the northwestern coast of Europe. 
 
 Herring and mackerel, which are smaller than cod, 
 are usually caught with long nets, called seines. Her- 
 ring are salted, smoked, and dried, but mackerel are pre- 
 served in a strong brine. Very small herring, caught on 
 the North American coast, are extensively canned in oil 
 and called sardines, though the true sardines are caught 
 in great numbers only off the south and west coasts of 
 Europe. 
 
 Salmon are caught in rivers, up which they come 
 from the sea to lay their eggs. These fishes are canned 
 in great numbers on the west coast of North America. 
 
 Oysters live upon the bottom of shallow shore waters 
 and are obtained by dredging, or with tongs. Immense 
 quantities of them are taken along the coasts both of Europe and of Amer- 
 ica, packed in ice, and sent to all parts of these grand divisions. What 
 other kinds of shellfish have you eaten ? From what part of the world 
 did they come ? 
 
 The most valuable fresh-water fish are the whitefish from 
 the Great Lakes of North America and from the lakes of 
 northern Europe. 
 
 What large animals, other than fish, live in the sea ? How do they 
 differ from fish ? 
 
 Seals live in the summer of each year on land, where they gather 
 | in groups or families and devote themselves to the rearing of their young. 
 For what are seals valuable ? They are found mostly in the cold waters 
 of the polar oceans. 
 
 From the whale an oil is obtained, which was formerly used as kerosene 
 is now. Of what use is whalebone ? It is obtained from the mouth of 
 the whale. 
 
 The sponge, which is the skeleton of a marine animal, is a 'valuable 
 product of the sea, as are also pearls from tH pearl oyster, and the beau- 
 tiful coral which is found in the warmer parts of the sea and is used for 
 ornamental purposes. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Supply to the school collection some product 
 of the sea. Bring to school an account of some sea animal or plant, or 
 of the fisherman's life. Write, next day, a reproduction of the account 
 given by one of your schoolmates. Find out about the Fish Commission at 
 Washington, and its work. Read or recite " The Three Fishers," by 
 Kingsley, and "The Fishermen," by Whittier. 
 
 LUMBERING. 
 
 Among the chief needs of man are shelter and warmth, 
 both of which are, in great measure, supplied by forests. 
 About two thirds of the timber cut is used for fuel, while 
 the remainder is used in making houses, vehicles, furni- 
 ture, and hundreds of other useful articles. 
 
 Besides lumber and fuel, many other useful products 
 are obtained from trees. The pines yield tar, pitch, rosin, 
 and turpentine. The sap of several kinds of tropical trees 
 and huge climbing vines yields rubber ; oak and hemlock 
 barks are used in tanning leather; the cheaper kinds of 
 paper are made from wood ground to a pulp ; and many 
 trees yield drugs and dyewoods. 
 
 In many places trees are cut in the autumn and winter by lumbermen 
 who at these seasons live in camps in the forests. They fell the trees 
 
 bli^'i 
 
 w^ 
 
 ■-'■: W^ :& . 
 
 
 ' JP"" 
 
 
 
 < -j&l 
 
 
 MmT 
 
 ' "' ' Y^^ " ■'' : ... .. 
 * // > AT;S- 
 
 
 ■ #mh( 
 
 
 
 
 .--"^■^8 
 
 •Z^^*-*^^? 
 
 
 :^^^ 
 
 j'ia^^yvv? i^y*"'**- * 
 
 Lumbering in Washington. 
 
 with ax and saw, and cut them into logs, which during high water are 
 floated down the nearest stream to the sawmill. Logs cut on a moun- 
 tain side are often slid down an artificial chute. In some places 
 railroads are built to carry logs to the mills or to the water. At the 
 sawmills the logs are cut into square timber or into planks, which are 
 then generally dried or seasoned before use. 
 
 The various kinds of woods differ in grain, hardness, and durability. 
 The cone-bearing trees, including pine, spruce, and fir, are valuable for 
 many purposes because the wood is soft, easily worked, and light in 
 weight, though it is not so durable as the hard woods — oak, walnut, ash, 
 and maple. Soft woods, especially pine, are used for housebuilding and 
 in the manufacture of many kinds of wooden articles, while the hard 
 woods are used in shipbuilding and are manufactured into carriages, fur- 
 niture, and farming implements. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Supply to the school collection specimens of 
 wood and forest products. Bring to school a description of one kind of 
 useful tree, or an account of methods of lumbering. Write next day a 
 reproduction of the account given by one of your schoolmates. Find out 
 what is done to preserve or to plant forests in this and other countries. 
 Find out about Arbor Day. Read or recite "The Lumbermen," by 
 Whittier. 
 
40 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 MINING. 
 
 Milling is the getting of minerals out of the earth. In 
 all parts of the world peopled by the white race, this in- 
 dustry has increased more rapidly in recent years than 
 any of the other great industries, except trade and trans- 
 portation. 
 
 The most useful minerals are coal, iron, petroleum, cop- 
 per, gold, silver, tin, lead, zinc, and building stones. 
 
 Gold milling and washing, Montana. 
 
 Coal. The most important 
 branch of this industry is the 
 mining of coal, which is ex- 
 tensively used for fuel, and 
 for making illuminating gas. 
 Coal is found in all the grand 
 divisions, but by far the 
 greater part is mined in west- 
 ern Europe and eastern North 
 America. 
 
 How is cpal formed ? (p. 22.) In 
 some places the coal beds crop out 
 at the sides of a valley, and the coal is mined by blasting tunnels right 
 into the bed ; but in many places the coal can be reached only by sinking 
 a deep hole, or shaft, down to it from the earth's surface. From the bot- 
 tom of the shaft, parallel and cross tunnels are made in the coal bed, and 
 then the coal between the tunnels is taken out. Railroad tracks are 
 laid in the mines, and on them trains of cars dragged by mules, or some- 
 times by electric engines, carry the coal to the mouth of the mine, or to 
 the foot of the shaft, up which it must be hoisted to the surface. 
 
 The mines are perfectly dark, and the miners are lighted about their 
 work by little lamps attached to their caps. Gases which may escape 
 into the mine from seams in the coal are sometimes ignited by these 
 lamps. A terrible explosion follows, and hundreds of poor miners may 
 be suffocated or buried alive by the falling roof of the mine. Mines are 
 nearly always rendered damp by the ground water which runs into them. 
 This must be drained off through a tunnel, or pumped out up the shaft. 
 It is difficult to ventilate deep mines, and a current of fresh air must 
 often be forced down the shaft by fans run by machinery. 
 
 Iron. After coal, the most important product of the 
 mining industry is iron. Like most of the other metals, 
 iron is not found pure, but is combined with other sub- 
 stances, forming ore. 
 
 The ore is put into great furnaces with coal, coke, or 
 charcoal. The burning of this fuel melts the ore, and the 
 
 metal iron, set free, then flows off nearly pure. A sub- 
 stance called a flux is generally added to make the molten 
 ore more liquid. This process is called smelting. 
 
 Iron ore is found in nearly every country, but those 
 mines which are most convenient to coal have been most 
 worked ; hence the great iron-mining regions of the world 
 are usually in or near the great coal-mining regions. 
 
 Iron ore is often found close beneath the surface of the ground, where 
 it is collected by pick, shovel, and scraper ; but iron ore, as well as the 
 ores of the other metals, is also mined underground in much the same 
 manner as coal is mined. 
 
 Of all the metals, iron is the most useful. It can be molded and ham- 
 mered into any shape ; it can be drawn into fine wire, or rolled into 
 thin sheets ; it can be made so soft that a pin will scratch it, or, in the 
 form of steel, so hard that it will cut glass. Make a list of ten uses to 
 which iron and steel are put. 
 
 Gold and Silver are much scarcer than many of the 
 more useful metals. They do not wear away by rusting, 
 as most metals do, and one or both of them are used as 
 money throughout the civilized world. Both metals are 
 usually found in veins in very old rocks, or in volcanic rocks 
 of mountain regions. How are these veins formed 1 (p. 15.) 
 
 The rock bearing the gold is 
 crushed to the finest powder in a 
 "stamp mill," and the powder is 
 then washed with water containing 
 a substance which extracts all the 
 gold, but leaves the rock. 
 
 Fine pieces of gold, or " gold 
 dust," are also found in the detritus 
 of gold-bearing rock, from which 
 they may be separated by washing 
 and sometimes by collecting on 
 quicksilver. 
 
 Stone is obtained in all parts of the 
 world, either from the detritus or 
 from quarries opened in the solid 
 
 Machine shop, New York. 
 
 rock. The stone is used not only for building purposes, but also for 
 making roads and pavements. Slate rock is used for roofs, and much 
 limestone as a flux in smelting iron. Some limestone, when highly 
 heated, yields the cement and lime of which mortar is made. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bring to the school collection specimens of 
 minerals, metallic ores, or stones. Bring to school an account of one 
 mineral product, or of one method of mining or quarrying. Write next 
 day a reproduction of the account given by one of your schoolmates. 
 
MAN. 
 
 41 
 
 MANUFACTURING. 
 
 In olden times to manufacture meant "to make by 
 hand," but now in all civilized countries it means also " to 
 make by machinery." The amount and quality of the 
 manufactures of a country to a great extent determine the 
 civilization of that country. 
 
 After man ceased to manufacture entirely by hand, he used falling 
 water to turn the wheels of his machinery, and many towns were built 
 where waterfalls exist ; but water power, though much better than hand 
 power, is not so great and certain a 
 labor saver as the steam engine. The 
 first rude engine was invented less than 
 200 years ago. Much more recently it 
 was discovered that a steam engine 
 could be made to drag trains of cars 
 over the land, and to propel vessels 
 through the water, and still later that 
 it could be made to generate the won- 
 derful power called electricity. 
 
 With engines to run machinery, and 
 with railroads and steamships to bring 
 
 linen is made ; and jute, used for making coarse cloth. Find out about 
 silk, flax, hemp, and jute, — what they are and where obtained. 
 
 Metals. Which is the most important and useful of the metals? 
 Several times as much iron and steel are used in manufactures as of all 
 the other metals put together. Copper, tin, lead, and zinc are also used 
 in the manufacture of hardware. Copper wire is used in electrical work. 
 Tinware is made of sheet iron, to which has been given a thin coating 
 of tin. Shot and water pipes are made of lead, and white lead is used 
 in mixing paints. Zinc is used as a coating for iron, forming what is 
 called galvanized iron; and when mixed with copper it forms brass. 
 
 Old-time method ot weaving and spinning. 
 
 Food. The converting of the 
 various grains into flour and 
 meal, the canning of fish,' meat, 
 fruit, and vegetables, and the 
 making and refining of sugar af- 
 ford employment for thousands 
 of people. Name the two great 
 sugar-producing plants. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read 
 or recite " The Shoemakers," by 
 Whittier. Find out about James 
 Watt, Sir Richard Arkwright, 
 Eli Whitney, Elias Howe, Rob- 
 ert Hoe, or any other great in- 
 ventor who has improved meth- 
 ods of manufacture. 
 
 fuel and raw material and to distribute the manufactured goods, manu- 
 facturing towns grow up at convenient localities throughout the civilized 
 world. Countries in which coal and iron are extensively mined have 
 become famous for their manufactures. 
 
 While labor-saving machines have decreased the number of hands 
 required to make a certain number of articles, they have made the 
 articles cheaper, so that more people can buy them. To supply the in- 
 creased demand more hands are employed in manufacturing than ever 
 before, so that now about one fourth of the people in the civilized world 
 are engaged in this industry. 
 
 Manufacturing Regions. The great manufacturing re- 
 gions of the world are about the same as the great coal- and 
 iron-mining regions. Where are they ? • 
 
 Chief Manufactures. The chief manufacturing indus- 
 tries of the world are the weaving of cloth, the smelting 
 and working of metals, and the preparing and preserving 
 Of food. 
 
 Textiles. Cotton is the most important cloth-making material. 
 Where are the great cotton fields of the world 1 There the fiber is sepa- 
 rated from the seed and then pressed into bales by machinery. Ocean 
 steamers or railways carry the bales of cotton to the mills and factories, 
 where the fiber is cleaned, spun, and woven into cloth. If a great cloth- 
 ing manufactory buys the cloth, machinery is also employed to cut and 
 sew it into garments. 
 
 Somewhat as cotton is treated, so also is wool ; silk ; flax, of which 
 
 Interior of a woolen mill, Massachusetts. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 Different parts of the world produce different things, 
 and what is produced in one part is often needed in an- 
 other ; hence the people of different regions sell their sur- 
 plus products to one another. The buying, selling, and 
 carrying of commodities make the industries of trade 
 and transportation, which together are called commerce. 
 When commerce is carried on between parts of the same 
 country it is known as domestic commerce, but trade be- 
 tween different countries is called foreign commerce. 
 
 Railroads and steamships have made transportation so cheap, rapid, 
 and certain that it has become profitable in many cases, not only to send 
 raw materials to some distant region, nearer coal and iron mines, to be 
 manufactured, but for the people of manufacturing regions to have 
 much of their food brought to them from distant agricultural regions. 
 
 Thus, much wool from Australia, cotton from our own country, and 
 silk from Asia are sent to Europe to be sold and made into cloth, part of 
 which is often sent back to be sold in the very countries where the raw 
 
42 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 
 
 materials were raised ; and the people of 
 the western part of Europe rely upon the 
 people of the United States for much of their 
 wheat, flour, beef, and pork, and upon Aus- 
 tralia for part of their mutton. Nearly all 
 the tea used in the world comes from Asia ; 
 nearly all the coffee that we use comes from 
 ■ South America ; and most of our sugar from 
 the West Indies, South America, and the is- 
 lands of the Pacific. India rubber comes 
 from the equatorial regions of South America, 
 Africa, and southeastern Asia, and many 
 people in all the grand divisions light their 
 homes at night by burning kerosene made 
 of the petroleum from the wells in the United 
 States. 
 
 Because of railroads and steamships and 
 labor-saving machinery, all these, and hun- 
 dreds of other things, can be manufactured 
 and transported many thousands of miles 
 
 and then sold at a profit, and yet are so cheap that few people are too 
 poor to buy and use them. 
 
 As only the products not used at home are exported to other countries, 
 foreign commerce forms a very small part (about one seventh) of the 
 whole commerce of the world. 
 
 Means of Transportation. Goods are transported 
 not only on railroads and ships, but also by teams on com- 
 mon roads and by boats on rivers 
 and canals. Teaming is necessary 
 in carrying goods to all the com- 
 mercial routes, but it is the most 
 expensive mode of transportation. 
 . A team can di'ag so small a load, and 
 travels so slowly, that if the distance 
 is great the food and care of the 
 team will cost as much as the load 
 is worth. Transportation by river, 
 canal, or sailing vessel on the ocean 
 is very cheap, though much slower 
 than by railroad or steamship, and 
 this method of transportation is still 
 much used, especially for heavy, bulky articles; but in the 
 more civilized countries most of the traffic is by railroad, 
 and about half of the ocean traffic is by steamship. 
 
 Aids to Commerce. Telegraph cables, laid on the sea 
 bottom, connect all the continents, so that information can 
 be sent instantly to the most distant countries ; and postal 
 routes have been established, by which, at little cost, letters 
 may be quickly and surely delivered at almost any place 
 in the world. The telegraph, the telephone, and the post 
 office are invaluable aids to commerce. 
 
 In order to promote foreign commerce, each country has, in all the 
 large trading cities in the world, men called consuls to look after the 
 interests of its sailors and merchants who trade there, and to collect 
 information about what the people of the country produce and what they 
 need. Most civilized countries also issue maps of the coasts and har- 
 bors, and build lighthouses and life-saving stations along the coasts. 
 Many countries also deepen their harbors and rivers and build canals 
 connecting them. In some countries the government owns the railroads, 
 and in nearly all civilized countries it has aided in building them. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Make a list of the articles on the breakfast 
 table this morning and try to find where each article came from, and 
 
 how it was manufactured. Write a history 
 of one article on your list. Find whether any 
 article produced in your neighborhood enters 
 into our foreign or domestic commerce. Find 
 out ahout Robert Fulton, Samuel F. B. Morse, 
 George Stephenson, Alexander Graham Bell, 
 or any other inventor who has improved the 
 methods of commerce. 
 
 TOWNS AND CITIES. 
 
 Use. Towns and cities are the 
 places where the trade and manu- 
 
 An American railway train. 
 
 facturing of the world are chiefly 
 centered. Neither grain and cattle 
 for food, nor cotton and wool for 
 clothing, nor lumber and iron for the 
 hundreds of useful things made from 
 them, nor petroleum and coal for 
 light and fuel, nor any other raw ma- 
 terials are usually produced in cities. 
 But, if we want to buy any of these 
 things, we do not seek the place 
 where it is produced; we go to a 
 town or a city, where all kinds of products are sent to be 
 manufactured and sold. Thus a city is a convenience both 
 to producers and to purchasers, and therefore it must be 
 within easy reach of both. Hence cities have usually 
 grown up at good harbors, or on navigable rivers or lakes, 
 or at the junction of railroads ; at waterfalls or rapids, or 
 near mines of some kind. Why are such places favorable 
 for the growth of cities ? Among the cities and towns, the 
 one that can be most easily reached by the greatest num- 
 ber of people, and by the greatest amount and variety of 
 products, is sure to grow to be the largest. 
 
 Try to find out why the town in which you live, or the town nearest 
 your home, is located where it is. It was built there for some reason, 
 which probably has to do with trade or manufacturing. A town, how- 
 ever, may grow up about a great school or college, or at a place selected 
 as the seat of government, or capital, of a country, or because it is a con- 
 venient or beautiful place of residence for those doing business in a 
 much larger neighboring city or town. 
 
 Features. The most striking feature of a large city is 
 the great number of people that are crowded within it. 
 The streets are lined on both sides with houses, from two 
 
MAN. 
 
 43 
 
 and three to twenty stories high, built close side by 
 side, often with only a single wall between. 
 
 Parts. A part of the city is composed largely of great whole- 
 sale stores and warehouses, banks, and factories ; it is here that the 
 business of the great region that sells its products in the city is 
 mostly transacted. The raw materials are received here and are 
 sold to the manufacturers, and it is here that the manufactured 
 
 A business street, New York. 
 
 Advantages and Disadvantages. 
 
 Some of these features are unneces- 
 sary in the country or in villages 
 and towns where the people are less 
 crowded together, but all of these 
 and many other subdivisions of labor 
 are necessary for health and com- 
 fort in large cities. While those 
 who live in cities enjoy certain con- 
 veniences and advantages, life in the 
 country is generally more healthful 
 and is much freer from constraint. 
 It should be remembered also that 
 the city depends absolutely upon the 
 country, not only for its daily bread, 
 but for the materials in which it 
 trades and which it manufactures. 
 
 Supplemental Work. If you 
 
 live in the city, write an ac- 
 count of some visit which 
 you have made to the country ; 
 
 A street cleaner. 
 
 Elevated railroad. 
 
 goods are brought to be sold in large quantities 
 to any part of the world. 
 
 This part of the city is crowded with workers 
 during the business day, but at night and on holi- 
 days it is nearly deserted, for the property becomes 
 so valuable for business purposes that the homes 
 of the people are forced into other parts of the city, 
 often several miles distant. 
 
 The people who live in the city have hundreds 
 of personal wants. They must have food and 
 clothing and shelter and many other things. To 
 supply them, retail stores are established near the 
 residence quarter, and come at last to occupy another part of the city. 
 
 Thus nearly every great city is really composed of several parts, each 
 devoted to a different object — there is the part in which the citizens live, 
 the retail part from which the wants of the citizens are supplied, and the 
 wholesale and manufacturing part. Which of these parts is of most use 
 to the outside world ? 
 
 Streets. The streets of a city are bordered with sidewalks, which, 
 together with a central driveway, are paved or laid in asphalt to prevent 
 them from quickly wearing into ruts and becoming impassable in wet 
 weather. Currents of water, gas, and electricity are conveyed along 
 the streets in great lines of buried pipes, from which smaller pipes carry 
 them to every house and often to every room. The liquid refuse from 
 the houses flows in other pipes to great sewers, which are built deep be- 
 neath the streets, and which also receive the surface drainage and carry 
 all these impurities out of the city. A great army of men with brooms, 
 hoes, and carts are constantly employed in removing the dirt and snow 
 from the streets, and the ashes, garbage, and rubbish from the houses. 
 
 Public Conveyance. Through many of the streets are laid tracks on 
 which cars, propelled by horses, cables, or electricity, run every few 
 minutes, day and night, to carry the people about the city. In some 
 cities the residence part is so far from the business part, that steam or 
 electric railroads, running either on trestles elevated above or in tunnels 
 beneath the streets, are provided for more rapid transit. Another army of 
 men are employed day and night in attending to the public conveyances. 
 
 Protection. A thickly peopled city is always in danger from fire, and 
 a third great army of men are employed to be ready at any instant, day 
 or night, to go with steam fire engines and hose and ladders to put out 
 fires and to save people and property from burning buildings. A fourth 
 great army are the police who patrol the streets day and night to pre- 
 vent disorder and to protect life and property. 
 
 A steam fire engine. 
 
 if you live in the country, write a description of the largest town which 
 you have seen. Read or recite " Hymn of the City," by Bryant, and 
 one selection from " City Ballads," by Carleton. 
 
 TOPICS ON MAN AND HIS PROGRESS. 
 
 I. Industries. Procuring material: vegetable; animal; mineral. 
 Transforming materials : by hand ; by machinery. Exchanging goods : 
 transportation — by land, by water ; trade — domestic, foreign, whole- 
 sale, retail ; use ; aids. 
 
 II. Population. By races: white; yellow; black. By number: dense; 
 moderate ; sparse. By occupations : producers ; manufacturers ; mer- 
 chants. 
 
 III. Advance. In intelligence; in culture; in government. 
 
PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The Three Tetons, — Rocky Mountains, Wyoming. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 Location, Extent, and Coast Features. What part of the conti- 
 nental plateau is occupied by North America? (p. 8.) What strait 
 separates it from Eurasia? What isthmus joins it to South America? 
 What ocean is east of it ; west of it ? In what zones does it he ? 
 
 Using the scale of miles, find the width of North America at its 
 widest part; its length from Bering Sea to Panama. How does it 
 rank among the grand divisions in size ? About what proportion of the 
 land surface of the earth does it contain ? (p. 157.) 
 
 What is its general shape ? What great indentation has the northern 
 coast ? Name two peninsulas of the northern coast. What two great 
 gulfs indent the east coast ? Name three peninsulas on this coast. What 
 gulf aud sea are on the west coast ? What two peninsulas project from the 
 west coast ? Which of the coasts is most indented ? Which is least in- 
 dented? Off which coast are the largest islands? Which is the largest 
 island? What island is east of Greenland? What large island is east 
 of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? What island chain is east of the Gulf of 
 Mexico ? What sea does this chain partly inclose ? Near what part of 
 the west coast are there many islands ? 
 
 Surface.* Review the lesson on the highlands and lowlands of the 
 the world (p. 10). In which part of North America is the great high- 
 land region ? In what direction does it extend ? In what part of the 
 continent is it widest ? What long mountain chain extends through 
 the central part of the highland region ? What three ranges border 
 the highland on the west ? 
 
 * In the map of North America on the opposite page, and in the physical 
 maps throughout the remainder of the book, the dark green indicates the parts 
 of the lowlands which are less than 1000 feet above the sea, while the light green 
 indicates such parts of the lowlands as have an elevation between 1000 and 
 2000 feet. The lightest buff tint shows the lowest parts of highlands, where 
 the elevation is between 2000 and 4000 feet ; the medium buff tint shows re- 
 gions between 4000 and 6000 feet ; the darkest buff tint shows the parts of 
 highlands which are over 6000 feet above the sea. 
 
 The lines separating these different tints and colors indicate definite eleva- 
 tions, and are called contour lines ; thus the line between the dark and light 
 green is called the " contour of 1000 feet," for every point on that line is 
 1000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 What two highland regions are in the eastern part of North America ? 
 Compare the eastern and western highlands in length and breadth. 
 
 Where is the great lowland plain of North America ? In what gen- 
 eral direction does its northern part slope ? In what direction does its 
 central part slope ; its southern part? Compare the Atlantic and Pacific 
 coast plains in width. 
 
 The great mountain ranges of the west reach heights of 
 from two to nearly four miles above the sea. The plateau 
 from which they rise is itself a mile high. Find Mount 
 McKinley, in the north, and the volcano Orizaba, in the 
 south. Mount McKinley is the highest peak in the grand 
 division. East of the Rocky Mountains the highlands slope 
 gradually and imperceptibly to the Central Lowland. 
 West of the Rocky Mountains the highlands are broken 
 by a great number of short mountain ranges, and in 
 many places they are traversed by deep, impassable can- 
 yons. Throughout the western part of the highland re- 
 gion there are numerous volcanoes, many of which, both 
 in the north and in the south, are still active. Old out- 
 flows of lava, known as " lava fields," are common through- 
 out the region, and earthquakes occur frequently. What 
 do these features indicate respecting the age of this 
 highland region? 
 
 The eastern highlands, though less extensive, are much 
 older than the western highlands. They have been worn 
 down by ages of weathering until their highest peaks are 
 but little higher than the plateaus at the foot of the Rocky 
 Mountains. In the Appalachian Mountains find Mount 
 Mitchell. It is the highest peak. Find Mount Washing- 
 ton. It is the loftiest peak in the northern part. Neither 
 is much over a mile high. The Laurentian plateau is 
 generally low, with many isolated hills. 
 
 45 
 
46 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Drainage. Name the two longest rivers of 
 the Central Lowland. Which flows south ? What 
 * great river basin occupies the part of the Central 
 Lowland between the Mississippi and Mackenzie 
 basins ? In what general direction does the Nelson- 
 Saskatchewan River flow? In what part of the 
 Central Lowland are the Great Lakes situated? 
 The divide between the Great Lakes and the Mis- 
 sissippi system is so low that in some places the 
 water of the lakes may be easily turned into the 
 Mississippi system. Through what river does the 
 water of the Great Lakes reach the ocean ? Into 
 what does the Rio Grande empty? What is the 
 general direction of its flow ? 
 
 Name the three largest rivers of the Pacific 
 slope. In what mountains do they all rise? 
 
 In what direction do most of the rivers of the 
 Atlantic plain flow ? How do they compare in 
 length with those of the Central Lowland ; with 
 those of the Pacific slope ? 
 
 Most of the great rivers of the grand division have their head waters 
 in what divide ? What is the only exception among the great rivers ? 
 
 What parts of North America have no drainage to the sea ? What 
 becomes of the water of these regions ? 
 
 The Missouri is really the main stream of the upper 
 Mississippi system. From the table on p. 159 tell how the 
 Mississippi-Missouri ranks among the world's great rivers 
 in length. It is useful as a commercial highway. 
 
 Just below the Great Lakes the St. Lawrence is ob- 
 structed by rapids, so that canals are necessary for the 
 ascent of boats; but below the rapids large seagoing 
 vessels ply during that part of the year when the river 
 and gulf are not blocked by ice. 
 
 Into what waters does the Mackenzie empty ; the Yu- 
 kon ; the Colorado ; the Mississippi ? All these waters, 
 at the points where the rivers empty, are nearly tideless, 
 and consequently these four large rivers have built great 
 deltas. How were these deltas formed ? There is a bar 
 at the mouth of the Columbia, though it is well covered 
 with water even at low tide. The estuary of the St. Law- 
 rence is a submerged valley. 
 
 The northern half of the great Central Lowland has 
 thousands of lakes. Why is this part of the grand divi- 
 sion rich in lakes? (p. 20.) They are so numerous, and 
 many of them are so close together, that the usual mode 
 
 of travel is by canoes; 
 these are carried on 
 the shoulders of the 
 travelers from one 
 lake to another across 
 the short divides. 
 Such a divide is there 
 called a portage, from 
 a word which means 
 " to carry." 
 
 A I ways 
 
 HEAT BELTS 
 
 Climate. What part of 
 North America has cold 
 winters and temperate 
 summers? Which part has 
 temperate winters and hot 
 summers ? Which parts 
 are always hot? Which 
 
 parts are always temperate? Which parts have 
 cold winters and hot summers? What part of 
 North America lies in the trade-wind region? 
 (map, p. 26.) What winds prevail over the greater 
 part of North America ? 
 
 The central part of the west coast is 
 always temperate, because the prevail- 
 ing westerlies, which have the nearly 
 uniform temperature of the Pacific 
 Ocean, warm the coast in winter and 
 cool it in summer. By the time the 
 winds reach the eastern coast they have - 
 acquired the temperature of the land 
 over which they have traveled; hence 
 the east coast is colder in winter and 
 hotter in summer than the west coast. 
 Along the northwest coast the prevail- 
 ing westerly winds deposit copious rainfall as they ascend 
 the abrupt slope of the great highland region. What 
 part of this coast is crossed by the tropical calms ? (p. 26.) 
 Are these calms accompanied by wet or by dry weather? 
 Hence the climate in the region north of the Gulf of Cali- 
 fornia is quite dry. In the southern part of North Amer- 
 ica the northeast trade winds bring copious rains to the 
 east slopes in the winter half of the year ; but in summer, 
 when the heat equator lies farthest north, monsoon winds 
 blow toward it from the Pacific and bring rain to the south- 
 west coasts. Farther north, the westerly winds, which have 
 lost their moisture on the west side of the mountains, reach 
 the plateaus as dry winds. In the eastern half of the grand 
 division, however, where the southerly winds in cyclones 
 bring vapor from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic, there 
 is abundant rainfall. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw a circle to represent the western hemi- 
 sphere, and make a sketch map showing what part of the hemisphere is 
 covered by North America. Draw, on a larger scale, the outline of this 
 grand division. Model North America. Write a comparison of the cli- 
 mates on the eastern and western coasts of North America. 
 
 VEGETATION AND ANIMALS. 
 
 In what part of North America are there dense forests? Why are 
 these regions densely wooded? Where are the regions of more open 
 forests? Where are the 
 regions of grassy lands; 
 of tundras? What are 
 tundras? Where are the 
 desert regions? Why are 
 these parts of North Amer- 
 ica deserts ? 
 
 Animals. (Review 
 the lesson on the North 
 American life region, 
 pp. 31, 32.) Along the 
 Arctic coasts of North 
 America the largest 
 animals are the polar 
 bear and the musk ox. 
 Farther south, in the 
 open forests, range the 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 47 
 
 Some animals of North America. 
 
 moose, the elk, and vast herds of woodland caribou, or 
 American reindeer, and many small fur-bearing animals, 
 such as the beaver, otter, and mink. Why are fur-bearing 
 animals found in this part of the grand division ? In the 
 highlands of the west are found the terrible grizzly bear, 
 the shy bighorn sheep, the Rocky Mountain goat, and the 
 puma, or American panther. 
 
 Throughout the eastern part of the grand division, south 
 of the Great Lakes, the larger native animals have been 
 nearly exterminated and replaced by yast numbers of do- 
 mestic animals, — horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, and chick- 
 ens, — whose ancestors were brought to America from Eu- 
 rasia by the white man. 
 
 In the dry transitional region of the southwest are found 
 some animals of both the North American and the South 
 American region, as well as many peculiar scorpions, liz- 
 ards, and other reptiles. 
 
 In the hot lowlands of the southern part of the grand 
 division, animals of the South American region are com- 
 mon, such as alligators, tapirs, monkeys, vampire bats, 
 and jaguars, as well as brilliantly colored parrots and 
 many kinds of humming birds. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Make a list of the trees growing in your 
 neighborhood. Tell of each, if you can, whether it is native or has 
 been planted. Make a list of the wild and domestic animals found in 
 yonr neighborhood. 
 
 MAN. 
 
 About six hundred years before Columbus discovered 
 America, the Northmen, bold sea rovers from countries 
 on the northwest coast of Europe, made settlements in 
 Iceland and, later, in Greenland. Both these islands now 
 belong to Denmark, a country of northwestern Europe. 
 
 When did Columbus discover America? From what country in 
 Europe did he sail ? What race did the Spanish find in North America ? 
 Some of the Indians were savages, but most of them had learned to 
 make bows and arrows, pottery, and other rude utensils, and had thus 
 reached some stage of barbarism. West and south of the Gulf of 
 Mexico, in the narrow part of the grand division, where most of the In- 
 dians lived, they had advanced nearly to the lowest stage of civilization. 
 
 After Columbus discovered it, North America was ex- 
 plored by the Spanish, French, and English. Still later 
 the Russians came across Bering Sea and established fur- 
 trading posts in Alaska. 
 
 Find Mexico and Central America. The Spanish explored and made 
 settlements in this region and in the West Indies. Find Canada. The 
 French made settlements in the St. Lawrence valley, which they called 
 Canada, and explored the Great Lake region and the Mississippi valley. 
 Find the peninsulas of Nova Scotia and Florida. The English estab- 
 lished thirteen colonies along the Atlantic coast between these peninsulas, 
 and also explored the northern part of the continent. 
 
 Several wars occurred between France, Great Britain, and 
 Spain, after which France gave up to Great Britain Can- 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 49 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 H3 Sparse 
 ^^Moderately dense 
 ^QDenee 
 
 ada and the land claimed by her east 
 of the Mississippi River. Great Britain 
 still owns the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 In 1776 the thirteen English colonies 
 south of Canada declared their indepen- 
 dence, and united to form the republic in 
 which we live. What is its name ? After 
 the Revolution, Great Britain ceded to 
 the United States the country south of 
 Canada as far west as the Mississippi. 
 Later, the United States acquired the 
 region west to the Pacific, bought Alaska 
 from Russia, annexed the Hawaiian and 
 other islands in the Pacific, and obtained 
 possessions in the West Indies. 
 
 Many thousands of white men from western and 
 centra] Europe have come across the Atlantic 
 
 Ocean to seek homes in the United States and in Canada, until their de- 
 scendants now far outnumber the original Indian inhabitants. The 
 Indians have been gradually driven westward and northward into the 
 drier and colder and hence less desirable parts of the grand division by 
 the ever-advancing tide of civilized white settlers. 
 
 Not long after the United States was formed, the Spanish 
 colonies west and south of the Gulf of Mexico secured 
 their independence from Spain and became republics. 
 What is the largest of these Spanish republics? South 
 of this there are six small Spanish-speaking republics, 
 which together make up Central America. 
 
 There were always many more Indians in Mexico and Central America 
 than in the wider part of the grand division further north, and not 
 nearly so many white men have settled in these countries, so that now 
 by far the greater part of the people living in Spanish North America 
 are either Indians or people of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. The 
 Indians and these half-breeds are four times as numerous as the white 
 population of that region, and form about one eighth of the population 
 of North America. 
 
 Find Cuba and Porto Rico. (p. 96.) Spain once claimed 
 all the West Indies, she gradually lost all but these two, 
 and in 1898 she lost these also. Find Jamaica and the 
 Bahamas; Great Britain now owns these and many of 
 the other small islands. France, Holland, and Denmark 
 also own islands in the group. Find the island of Haiti. 
 It is divided between two independent republics. 
 
 When the Spaniards took possession of the West 
 Indies they enslaved the inhabitants and treated 
 them so cruelly that soon all the Indians died. 
 Then negro slaves were brought from Africa to 
 the islands and afterwards to the United States. 
 Slavery has long since been abolished, but the de- 
 scendants of these negroes still form a large part of 
 the population in the southern United States and 
 in the West Indies. They are about as numerous 
 as all the Indians in North America. 
 
 Name the political divisions of North America. 
 Which are independent countries ? Which belong 
 to European countries ? Which are English-speak- 
 ing? Which are Spanish- speaking? 
 
 What is the population of North America? 
 (p. 157.) What part of the population of the world 
 is that? How does North America rank among 
 the grand divisions in population ? As a whole, 
 North America is very thinly peopled. It has only 
 one fourth as many people as it would have if the 
 population of the world were evenly distributed over the land surface. 
 From this map tell what part of North America is most thinly peopled. 
 What races live in this region ? Where is the largest region of dense 
 and moderately dense population ? Locate the races in this region. In 
 what country is most of it ? It contains about three fourths of all the 
 people in North America. About how many people is that ? In what 
 countries is the next largest' region of moderately dense population? 
 What races live in this region ? More than nine tenths of all the Indians 
 in North America are found in this region. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Sketch a map of North America and indicate 
 the various regions originally settled by different European nations. 
 Read the story of " Evangeline." Find in a history a map showing the 
 growth of the United States in territory, and put a copy on the board 
 with colored crayons. 
 
 TOPICS ON NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 I. History. Of continent: old part; new part; rising regions 
 — highlands, coasts ; sinking regions — highlands, coasts. Of man : dis- 
 coveries; conquest ; formation of nations — United States, Canada, Span- 
 ish republics; treatment of Indians; of negroes. 
 
 II. Physical Description. Location. Surroundings. Extent. 
 Shape: general shape ; projections; indentations; river mouths — estu- 
 aries, deltas. Surface: highlands — western, eastern; lowlands — cen- 
 tral, western, eastern; divides — continental, lesser; slopes — Pacific, 
 Great Basin, Central, Atlantic. Climate : temperature ; winds ; rainfall. 
 III. Life. Vegetable: forests— northern, eastern, western, southern; 
 plains — tundras, pasture lands, farming lands. Animal: northern; 
 western; eastern; southern. Human: races; nations; distribution. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE ATLANTIC PLAIN. 
 
 Find Long Island, on the Atlantic coast. What river empties at its 
 western end ? 
 
 South of the Hudson River the eastern half of the At- 
 lantic plain is low, flat, and sandy. The coast is fringed 
 with barrier beaches inclosing long, narrow lagoons, and 
 is bordered with wide salt marshes. The sluggish streams 
 flow in wide flood plains, and, as the ocean tides ascend 
 the larger streams through the width of the region, it may 
 be called the Tidewater region. Find it on the map. 
 
 West of the Tidewater region the Atlantic plain rises 
 more rapidly. The swift streams have cut wide and rather 
 deep valleys, leaving knolls and uplands of moderate ele- 
 vation between. This is the foothill or Piedmont region. 
 
 The boundary between these two regions is often called the Fall line, 
 because falls or rapids occur on nearly- all the streams where they cross > 
 it. The larger streams are navigable from the coast to these falls, and 
 thus the Fall line has determined the location of many cities and towns. 
 Give two reasons why this is a favorable location for a town. 
 
 Ages ago the seacoast was at the Fall line. The Piedmont had long 
 before been rough highland, but ages of erosion had lowered its surface 
 
50 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 almost to sea level, reducing it to a low peneplain (p. 18), while the de- 
 tritus worn from it was deposited in nearly level layers on the sea bot- 
 tom to the east of the Fall line, where it gradually hardened into rock. 
 Then both regions were slowly upheaved, and the newly made layers 
 of rock became the low, flat Tidewater region. The upheaval of 
 the Piedmont region quickened the current of its streams and en- 
 abled them to cut their present valleys in its nearly level surface and 
 render it somewhat rough and hilly again. Thus the Tidewater region 
 was made beneath the sea, while the Piedmont region was formed by pro- 
 longed erosion. After river valleys had been worn in the Tidewater 
 region some parts of it sank slightly, permitting the sea to extend far up 
 the valleys to form estuaries. Find New York, Delaware, and Chesa- 
 peake bays. They were made in this way. 
 
 Northeast of the Hudson River the Atlantic plain is 
 narrower and is composed mainly of the Piedmont region, 
 which extends in most places to the seacoast. There its 
 hard rocks form bold headlands and high, rocky islets, 
 between which are deep fiords and sheltered sounds. The 
 whole region is covered with the remains of the old Lau- 
 rentian glacier — gravels, clays, huge bowlders, and round- 
 backed glacial hills. Many of the old valleys were 
 dammed or partly filled by the glacial drift, above which 
 lakes formed, and the streams thus turned from their old 
 courses have had to cut new channels in the hard rocks. 
 These channels are not yet worn down to uniform slopes ; 
 therefore the streams abound in falls and rapids. 
 
 Long Island and the smaller islands east of it, as well as the hook- 
 shaped peninsula of Cape Cod, are largely composed of the clays and 
 gravels heaped up in the terminal moraine along the melting end of this 
 old glacier. 
 
 TOPICS ON THE ATLANTIC PLAIN. 
 
 I. Northern Part. Width. Surface: hills; lakes; soil. Coast: 
 indentations; projections; islands. 
 
 II. Southern Part. Western region : surface ; drainage ; forma- 
 tion; name. Eastern region: surface; coast — borders, indentations; 
 drainage; formation; name. Fall line: reason for; formation; value. 
 
 THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. 
 
 What region lies west of the Atlantic plain ? (map, p. 48. ) Between 
 what two gulfs does this region lie ? Measure the length of the region, 
 using the scale of miles. 
 
 South of Hudson River, the eastern half of the Appa- 
 lachian region consists of a series of long, narrow moun- 
 tain ridges, nearly parallel to one another, and sepa- 
 
 The northern part of the Appalachian ridge and valley belt. 
 
 rated by wide and fertile valleys. This part of the region 
 is called the Appalachian ridge and valley belt. 
 
 The ridges are of nearly uniform height — a little less than half a 
 mile. They have remarkably smooth and even summits. The eastern 
 range is most massive and irregular. What is it called south of Po- 
 tomac River ? It grows higher toward the south. Find Mount Mitchell. 
 About how high is it? (p. 45.) The valley just west of Blue Ridge is the 
 longest and widest of the Appalachian valleys. This " Great Valley " 
 extends southwest from the Hudson to the Alabama River. 
 
 The western half of the Appalachian region is a broad 
 upland, having about the same height on the east as the 
 Appalachian ridges, but decreasing in elevation toward 
 the west. The streams have worn deep, narrow valleys 
 into its surface, thus cutting it into a number of de- 
 tached plateaus, called the Alleghany plateaus. 
 
 Trace the divide of the Atlantic slope southwestward 
 from the source of the Hudson. Near which side of the 
 Appalachian region does it lie in the north; in the 
 south? In the north the larger streams flow southeast 
 
 The Lehigh water gap near Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania. 
 
 The Delaware water gap between Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 51 
 
 The Prairie plains, eastern Kansas. 
 
 to the Atlantic, crossing the mountain ranges one after 
 another in water gaps. Name three such streams. In the 
 south, on the contrary, the larger streams rise in the east- 
 ern range and are tributaries of the Ohio, to the north- 
 west. They have cut deep gorges through the whole 
 width of the plateau to reach that river. Name two such 
 streams. These gorges and water gaps are of great use to 
 commerce in affording low routes across the mountains. 
 
 "When the Appalachian Mountains were first upheaved above the sea, 
 the rocks in the eastern half of the region were thrown into many long 
 folds or waves_, which were crowded close together. Most of the rock 
 layers in the folds are quite soft, but some of them are very hard. The 
 erosion of ages carried away the tops of the folds (p. 11), exposing the 
 edges of the layers within, and reducing the region to a peneplain near sea 
 level. Then this leveled region was again upheaved, but so slowly that the 
 larger streams flowing across it to the sea could cut their channels across 
 the hard layers as fast as the region rose. The branches of the larger 
 streams, from the right and left, rapidly eroded the soft layers as the 
 region rose, forming the long Appalachian valleys, while the hard layers 
 in the sides of the old folds were eroded more slowly, and were thus left 
 projecting as the parallel, even-topped Appalachian ridges. 
 
 In the western half of the Appalachian region the rock layers are 
 nearly level. The surface is now composed of a hard and thick layer, 
 which weathers very slowly, and as it rose it was cut through only by 
 the narrow valleys of the larger streams ; so that this region now remains 
 as the rough upland called the Alleghany plateaus. 
 
 Find where the glacial moraine crosses the mountains. 
 North of this the Appalachian region was once so deeply 
 covered by the Laurentian glacier that only the highest 
 mountain peaks projected above the ice. The glacier 
 widened many of the valleys, rounded and softened the 
 mountain outlines, and left the region covered with drift. 
 
 TOPICS ON THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. Northern Part. Valleys : formation ; drainage — lakes, rivers, 
 falls. Mountains : shape ; position. 
 
 II. Southern Part. Western region : slope ; surface. Eastern 
 region: ridges — formation, height, shape, direction, chief peak; val- 
 leys — shape, formation, chief one. Drainage : northern ; southern ; 
 uses of river valleys. 
 
 THE CENTRAL LOWLAND. 
 
 What three slopes of the United States lie mostly or entirely in the 
 Central Lowland ? (map, p. 48.) What river system drains most of the 
 .Central Lowland in the United States? What is the largest eastern 
 
 tributary of the Mississippi ? Name the three largest western tributaries. 
 What is the largest system of the Gulf slope, after the Mississippi? 
 Name several other streams of the Gulf slope west of the Mississippi 
 system ; several east of that system. 
 
 The Central Lowland slopes from the Alleghany pla- 
 teaus imperceptibly southwestward to the Mississippi 
 River, where a more rapid but still imperceptible as- 
 cending slope begins and continues to the very foot of 
 the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of over a mile. 
 
 The surface of this vast region is remarkable for its 
 smoothness. In the main it is broken only by the 
 " bluffs," or hillsides which border the broad flood plains. 
 
 Trace the terminal moraine through this region. North 
 of its low, gravelly " kettle hills," the country is thickly 
 covered with glacial drift and contains thousands of 
 lakes ; so that this region may be called the Lake plains. 
 Find it on the map. 
 
 In the drift-covered region south of the moraine most 
 of the glacial lakes have been drained or filled with sedi- 
 ment. The uplands of this region, and of the country 
 to the south and west, were grassy prairies when first 
 visited by white men. The region may therefore be 
 called the Prairie plains. Find it on the map. 
 
 From the mouth of the Ohio trace lines to the southeast 
 and to the southwest. Into what do nearly all the streams 
 south of these fines empty? This region is called the 
 Gulf plain. Toward the coast it is much like the Tide- 
 water region. 
 
 Through the center of the Gulf plain the mighty Mississippi meanders 
 in a great flood plain seventy miles wide. This is one of the most fertile 
 regions in the world, and contains many farms or plantations. Levees, 
 or embankments, have been built along the river to prevent overflows. 
 During high water a break, or crevasse, sometimes occurs, and then the 
 country far and wide is covered with water. The mouth of the river pro- 
 jects far into the Gulf beyond the even curve of its shore line. Why f 
 
 Where are the Ozark Mountains ? They are the most 
 rugged part of the Central Lowland. What river divides 
 this region into two parts ? North of this river the land 
 consists of rugged plateaus. South of it, however, the 
 rocks have been folded and eroded into ranges of hills 
 and low mountains. 
 
 A levee on the lower Mississippi River. 
 
52 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 TOPICS ON THE CENTRAL LOWLAND. 
 
 I. Slopes. Eastern. Western. Northern. Southern. 
 II. Rivers. Chief: basin; divides; branches; banks; mouth. 
 Other rivers. 
 
 III. Regions. Northern : edge ; surface ; covering. Central : limits ; 
 covering. Southern : drainage ; covering ; coast. Mountains : position ; 
 northern part ; southern part. 
 
 THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN HIGHLAND. 
 
 About how much of the United States is embraced in the Rocky 
 Mountain highland ? (map, p. 48.) About how much of the width of 
 the highland lies east of the Rocky Mountain chain ? Trace through the 
 highland region the divides of the two great river basins west of the 
 continental divide. What is peculiar about the drainage between these 
 basins 1 What does this peculiarity indicate about the climate ? 
 
 Most of this region is quite dry. Only its higher parts 
 receive enough rainfall to support forest growth; the 
 general surface of the plateaus in some places is a true 
 desert. East of the Eocky Mountains the highland de- 
 scends imperceptibly into the lowland plains, and, as it 
 has the same general smoothness of surface, it is called 
 the Great Plains. 
 
 The larger streams flowing across the Great Plains are kept so 
 choked with the sand brought in by their tributaries, that the valleys 
 are widened faster than they are deepened, and are therefore generally 
 broad and shallow. In some places toward the north, however, the soft 
 rock has been eroded into a maze of deep gullies. As it is therefore 
 difficult to travel across these places, they are known as Bad Lands. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains occupy the highest extensive part 
 of the highland. The base of these mountains is nearly 
 li miles high, while the ranges themselves rise between 
 one and two miles higher. The lower slopes are forest- 
 clad; the jagged crests are bare rocks except when cov- 
 ered with snow. 
 
 Find the break in the chain known as South Pass. North of this the 
 ranges are quite irregular in direction. Some of them are the remnants 
 of rock folds, some are upheaved and tilted blocks of rock, and others 
 are formed of volcanic outflows, though the only indication of present 
 volcanic activity is a wonderful geyser region near the source of the 
 Yellowstone. South of the pass the ranges are more nearly parallel. 
 As a rule, each range is a single broad rock fold, from which the top 
 layers have been eroded away, thus exposing the hard granite rock 
 which now forms the higher, central part of the range. Between the 
 ranges are wide, grass-carpeted valleys, or " parks." 
 
 Crater of Castle Geyser, Wyoming. 
 
 When the great plateau region west of the Rocky 
 Mountains was upheaved, the rocks were broken into 
 great blocks, many miles in length. Some of them were 
 lifted higher than others, forming plateaus at different 
 levels, separated by lines of cliffs. Other blocks were 
 greatly tilted in rising, the upturned edge forming a 
 range of mountains, and thus the surface of the plateau 
 region was rendered very uneven. 
 
 Illustrating the tilted block structure of the Plateau region. 
 
 Where are the Columbia plateaus f After the upheaval in that region, 
 lava forced its way up through the fissures, and spread over the surface. 
 Repeated outflows, meeting and overlapping, covered nearly the whole 
 region with lava to a great depth, completely burying many of the up- 
 heaved and tilted rocks. 
 
 Into this vast lava plateau Snake River has cut a narrow canyon 
 which is in some places three fourths of a mile deep. 
 
 Where are the Colorado plateaus f Here there were only slight out- 
 flows of lava, and the region is divided into many plateaus, some high, 
 some low, separated by long lines of cliffs along the sides of the up- 
 heaved blocks. The region is remarkable for the deep, narrow canyons 
 in which nearly all the streams flow. 
 
 These streams have been flowing in their present channels through- 
 out much of the period of upheaval, and have deepened their channels 
 about as fast as the surrounding country rose, and much faster than 
 weathering could widen the channels in that dry region. Hence the 
 channels have become narrow and impassable gorges or canyons, in 
 some places over a mile deep. 
 
 What mountain range borders the upper Colorado basin on the west 1 
 The region between this range and the Sierra Nevada, extending south 
 to the Gulf of California, is the driest part of the United States. There 
 are few permanent streams. What becomes of their water? Why is 
 the region called the Great Basin f 
 
 The uptilted edges of the blocks into which this region was broken as 
 it rose have been eroded into numerous low, north and south mountain 
 ranges. Between these are broad, level plains formed from the detritus 
 washed down from the mountains. During the season when some rain 
 falls, shallow lakes form in many of these valleys ; but during the dry 
 season they evaporate, leaving their beds incrusted with salt. 
 
 About the time that the Laurentian glacier covered the eastern part 
 of North America, extensive lakes covered much of the Great Basin. 
 Gradually the climate became drier, and the lakes became smaller as 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 53 
 
 Old lake terraces, Utah. 
 
 they evaporated. Great Salt Lake and a few smaller lakes are rem- 
 nants of these old inland seas. Around the edges of the basin are now 
 found several nearly level terraces which mark different heights of these 
 old great lakes as their surface gradually receded. 
 
 Along the west side of the plateau region the upheaval 
 has resulted in two prominent mountain ranges whose 
 tops, like those of the Rocky Mountains, rise from one to 
 two miles higher than the general surface of the plateau. 
 What are the names of these ranges ? 
 
 The Sierra Nevada is an enormous block of rock uptilted along its 
 eastern edge, so that its surface slopes to the west. The dry eastern 
 side is short and steep. The long western slope, however, is well 
 watered. "Why 1 The streams running down this long slope have cut 
 deep canyons, leaving a succession of long mountain spurs between. 
 
 There were outflows of lava in the Sierra Nevada, but north of Lassens 
 Peak the outflows were so great that the tilted blocks are generally 
 buried, and the impression is given that the Cascade Mountains are entirely 
 composed of outflows of lava. The outflows here built up huge volcanic 
 cones which now form the highest peaks of the Cascade Mountains. Find 
 ten peaks north of Lassens Peak. These are all old volcanoes, some of 
 which are probably not yet extinct. Mt. Rainier, the highest, is nearly 
 three miles high, and several of the others are high enough to be always 
 capped with snow. 
 
 TOPICS ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN HIGHLAND. 
 
 I. Plains akd Plateaus. Eastern: surface; river valleys — south, 
 north. Western: general appearance ; formation; northern part — for- 
 mation, valley ; central part — limits, surface, drainage ; southern part 
 — surface, valleys, formation. 
 
 II. Mountains. Eastern: northern part — appearance, formation; 
 southern part — ranges, valleys. Western : southern range — formation, 
 slopes, streams ; northern range — formation, peaks. 
 
 III. Climate. Regions : western ; eastern ; mountain tops ; Great 
 Basin ; lakes. Effect : on surface ; on vegetation. 
 
 THE PACIFIC COAST REGION. 
 
 What mountains closely border the Pacific coast 1 ! What mountain- 
 ous island lies at the northern end of these ranges ? By what strait is it 
 separated from them ? 
 
 The Coast Ranges are much lower than the Sierra Nevada 
 and the Cascade Mountains. They are the remains of wide 
 rock folds. While they were being elevated they were a 
 chain of mountainous islands, like Vancouver Island, or 
 high peninsulas, like Lower California, and like them were 
 bordered on the east by long, narrow sounds or gulfs. 
 
 Rainier, Washington. 
 
 Continued elevation has brought the bottoms of these 
 gulfs slightly above the level of the sea to form the great 
 lowland valleys of the region. What are their names ? 
 
 The bottoms of these valleys have been rendered very fertile by the 
 fine detritus washed into them from the bordering mountains, so that 
 now they are among the most fertile parts of the country. Through 
 what bay does the drainage of the California valley now reach the ocean f 
 It occupies the site of an old strait somewhat like the present Strait of 
 Juan de Fuca. What great river flows across the Northwestern valleys ? 
 The deeper northern valley is still occupied by a small island-studded 
 arm of the sea. What is its name 1 
 
 The upheaval of the Rocky Mountain highland and of the Pacific 
 coast region has occupied thousands of years, but this period is really 
 very short in comparison with the great age of the earth, and it has been 
 the latest period in the earth's long history. The Appalachian Mountains 
 were already old and had been worn down by ages of erosion long be- 
 fore the region of the western highlands had appeared above the sea. 
 Thus, in comparison with the Appalachians, the western mountains 
 are very young ; they are among the youngest mountains in the world. 
 But it is thought that the upheaval of the western highland is not 
 yet completed. The region is still subject to earthquakes, caused by 
 slight movements of the great blocks into which the region is broken, 
 and some of its volcanoes, though they appear to be nearly extinct, 
 still show occasional signs of activity. 
 
 TOPICS ON THE PACIFIC COAST REGION. 
 
 I. Ranges. Position. Extent. Height. Formation. 
 II. Valleys. Formation. Divisions. Drainage. Soil. 
 III. Comparative Age. Evidences of. 
 
 California valley and Sierra Nevada, California. 
 
54 
 
 parts of the earth. 
 
 HEAT BKLTS 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 In what zone is the main part of the United States? The north 
 temperate heat belt travels northward in summer and southward in 
 winter. Why ? In summer it is so far north that its southern edge oc- 
 cupies the position represented by the dotted line in the left-hand chart 
 above. All the country south of this line is in the hot belt at that season. 
 In winter, however, the edge of the hot belt is in Mexico, and the tem- 
 perate belt covers only the southern part of the United States, while all 
 the country north of the heavy line in the chart is in the cold belt. 
 
 It thus follows that, as regards summer and winter 
 temperature, there are four climatic belts or regions in the 
 United States. Name and locate them from the chart. 
 Why is the Pacific coast always temperate, but not the 
 Atlantic coast ? (pp. 26, 46.) Explain why the temperate 
 belt in summer and the cold belt in winter extend farther 
 south in the Eocky Mountain 
 region than elsewhere (p. 24). 
 
 While the northern part of the 
 United States is generally cooler 
 than the southern part, the difference 
 is but slight during the summer days, 
 which are almost equally warm in 
 all parts of the country east of the 
 Pacific coast region. The great dif- 
 ference is in the winters, which are 
 much longer and colder in the north 
 than in the south. 
 
 In the region shown by the dots 
 in the middle chart at the top of the 
 page, there is no day in the year 
 whose average temperature is below 
 freezing. The number of freezing 
 days in a year increases north- 
 wardly over the shaded portion of the chart, the first line showing 
 where there are thirty days of freezing weather, the second line 
 sixty days, and so on. In the central portion of the northern boundary, 
 how many months are there whose average temperature is below freez- 
 ing T How many days is that ? 
 
 Throughout the United States, east of the Pacific coast 
 region, but especially in the northern or northeastern half, 
 the weather is subject to great and rapid changes at all 
 seasons. These are caused by the cyclones or cyclonic 
 storms which are almost always drifting eastward over 
 the country. What is a cyclone ? (p. 26.) 
 
 The effect of a cyclonic storm upon the weather is illustrated by the 
 chart in the center of the page. The point of the heavy arrow lies in a 
 storm center, around and into which the winds are whirling, as shown 
 by the light arrows. 
 
 To the east of the center the winds come from the south and south- 
 east and make the weather warm. What is the direction of the winds 
 
 to the west of the storm center? These winds bring cool or cold 
 weather to that region. Why ? 
 
 But the storm center is moving all the time. Twenty-four hours 
 before it reached the position C it was at B ; and a day before that at 
 A ; while observations on many cyclones indicate that a day's drifting 
 from C will probably carry it to the neighborhood of D. Thus, as the 
 storm drifts rapidly eastward over the country, it pushes warmer weather 
 along in front of it, and drags colder weather along in its rear. 
 
 In the eastern half of the country the southerly winds in front of the 
 cyclone are vapor-laden when they leave the Gulf of Mexico, but are 
 somewhat chilled as they advance northward ; hence cloudy, rainy, or 
 snowy weather sweeps over that part of the country in front of the 
 drifting cyclone. When the storm center is far west of the Gulf, how- 
 ever, the southerly winds in front of it come from the dry highlands 
 instead of from the Gulf, and hence give little rain to the western half 
 of the United States. The northerly winds on the western side of the 
 storm center grow warmer as they advance southward, and hence are 
 accompanied by clear, dry weather. Why ? 
 
 Cyclones follow one another so 
 rapidly that there are almost always , 
 one or more storm centers in the 
 United States. The observers of 
 the United States Weather Bureau 
 take daily observations of the 
 weather in different parts of the 
 country, by which they are able to 
 locate the existing storm centers, 
 and by judging in what direction 
 and how far the cyclone, with its 
 warm wave, cold wave, and rain and 
 cloud regions, will advance during 
 the next twenty-four hours, they are 
 able to determine the " weather 
 probabilities " for the following day. 
 In the rainfall chart above, the 
 regions shaded by lines would each 
 year be covered more than twenty 
 inches deep by the rainfall, if the water remained where it fell. This 
 amount is ample for almost all kinds of farming. In the parts of the 
 United States shown by dots, or left unshaded, the rainfall is less than 
 twenty inches and is too little for successful farming, except in some 
 parts of the north where the rains occur during the few weeks when the 
 growing crops most need moisture. As a rule, however, irrigation is 
 necessary for farming in these regions of light rainfall. 
 
 Explain why the eastern half of the United States has a heavier rain- 
 fall than the highland region of the west. Explain why the Pacific 
 coast region has a heavier rainfall. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read chapter 11, on Weather and Weather 
 Predictions, in Waldo's " Elementary Meteorology." _^^ 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Name several forms of government (p. 36). What is the form of gov- 
 ernment in the United States ? Who has the power under this form t 
 
UNITED STATES.. 
 
 55 
 
 When the English colonies became independent states, 
 each formed a state government, which deals with local 
 matters only. But all the states united to form a single 
 nation under a Federal government, which deals only with 
 matters of interest to more than one state. 
 
 When the Union was formed there were but thirteen states. How 
 many stripes are there in our flag 1 What do they represent ? Nearly 
 all the settled part of the thirteen states was east of the Appalachian 
 Mountains. The land between the mountains and the Mississippi River 
 was unsettled. It was given up to the Federal government, and, with 
 most of the territory afterward acquired by the United States, was 
 known as public land. The Federal government had this public 
 land divided into great tracts called territories, and surveyed. 
 When enough people had settled in a territory it was admitted to 
 the Union as a state. From the list on p. 157, find how many 
 states there are now ; how many territories. How many stars are 
 there in our flag ? For what do they stand f 
 
 The Federal Government consists of three great 
 branches. These are (1) a law-making, or legisla- 
 tive, branch, called Congress, to which each state 
 sends a number of representatives and two senators, 
 chosen directly or indirectly by the people of the 
 state; (2) a law-enforcing, or executive, branch, at 
 the head of which is the President, who is elected 
 every four years; (3) a law-explaining, or judicial, 
 branch, consisting of Federal courts presided over 
 by judges who are appointed for life. 
 
 White House, Washington city. ■ 
 
 Congress meets, the Supreme Court has its sessions, and 
 the President lives in Washington city, which is therefore 
 the capital of the United States. Congress and the 
 Supreme Court meet in the great Capitol. The residence 
 of the President is called the White House. 
 
 The President is assisted by the heads of the nine great departments 
 into which the executive branch of the government is divided. These 
 are the President's chief advisers, and they are said to form his Cabinet. 
 The Secretary of State has charge of our foreign ministers and consuls 
 and all the government's business with foreign countries. The Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury controls the collection, payment, and coinage of 
 money for the government. The Secretaries of War and the Navy con- 
 trol the army and the navy. The Attorney General is the government's 
 
 chief lawyer. The Postmaster General controls the post offices of the 
 country, the carrying of the mails, and the manufacture and sale of pos- 
 tage stamps. The Secretary of the Interior has charge of the surveying 
 and sale of the public lands, of pensions, of patents, and of Indian 
 affairs. The Secretary of Agriculture collects and publishes information 
 about the crops and the conditions favorable or unfavorable to them ; 
 he also has charge of the Weather Bureau. The Secretary of Commerce 
 and Labor collects and publishes information about these subjects ; he 
 also has charge of the lighthouses. 
 
 The State Governments are similar to the Federal 
 government. Each has a law-making branch, usually 
 
 The Capitol, Washington city. 
 
 called a legislature, composed of senators and representa- 
 tives; a law-enforcing branch, ccfmposed of a governor 
 and his assistants ; and a law-explaining branch, consisting 
 of the state courts, presided over by judges. These officers 
 are generally elected by the people of the state, though in 
 some states the judges are appointed. 
 
 Almost all of the laws which regulate the affairs of our daily lives, 
 such as marriage and the family relations, public education, and the 
 manner of conducting business, are made by the state government. In 
 order that the money issued shall be equally good in every state, and 
 that letters shall be carried without delay from one state to another, 
 these matters are controlled by the Federal government, and they are 
 about the only matters which usually bring that government into direct 
 contact with the great mass of the people. 
 
 The Territories, or divisions of the public land which 
 have not yet been admitted as states, are controlled by 
 the Federal government. The people of a territory are 
 allowed to elect their own legislature, but the governor 
 and judges and other officers are appointed by the Presi- 
 dent, and Congress may set aside laws made by the ter- 
 ritorial legislature. Each territory sends to Congress a 
 representative who may speak but has no vote. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find when and by whom the first United 
 States flag was made. Sing or recite " The Star-spangled Banner." Find 
 the names of the present President and his Cabinet. Read or recite 
 some suitable selection from Morgan's " Patriotic Citizenship" — such as 
 " The Poor Voter on Election Day," by Whittier (p. 285), or the poem by 
 Bryant on pp. 130, 131. Read chapter 33 from Eggleston's " History of 
 the United States." 
 
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UNITED STATES. 
 
 57 
 
 Before taking the following lessons devote several days to the study of the 
 map on the opposite page, until you can name or locate without hesitation any 
 state or territory on the little population map below. 
 
 POPULATION AND PROGRESS. 
 
 Imagine a north and south line and two east and west lines to be 
 drawn across the United States, dividing it roughly into quarters as in 
 the map below. Which quarter has the densest population? Which 
 quarter ranks next in density of population ? What part is very thinly 
 peopled? With what climatic region does the thinly settled region 
 nearly correspond ? (p. 54.) With what great physical region ? 
 
 trmj Sparsc 
 
 DENSITY 
 OF POPULATION \/~ x 
 
 Moderately dense 
 
 |Pery dense V' 
 
 Population. The eastern half of the United States con- 
 tains nearly nine tenths of the people in the country. At 
 the close of the Revolutionary "War there were about four 
 million people in the United States. In what part of the 
 country did most of them live ? What is the population 
 now? (p. 157.) Over what part of the country has it 
 spread ? Such a rapid increase and spread of population 
 has never before been known in the history of the world. 
 It has been caused by the millions of people, who, at- 
 tracted by our cheap and fertile lands and the great op- 
 portunities for success in life under our free government, 
 have left their homes in Europe and come to settle 
 in the United States, as thousands still do every 
 year. 
 
 People have come from all countries, but mostly 
 from Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, and the 
 Scandinavian countries. Whatever their nationality, 
 however, they soon adopt our language, manners, 
 and customs, and become thorough Americans. 
 
 Most of the European immigrants have landed on our northeast 
 coast, and have moved inland to seek new homes. Hence the 
 northeastern quarter of the country is not only most densely settled, 
 but has the largest foreign population. 
 
 Few immigrants land in the southeastern quarter, and most of 
 the people in that region were born in this country. Hence there 
 are few foreigners in that quarter ; but there are about as many 
 negroes there as foreigners further north. 
 
 What races inhabit the thinly settled region? (p. 49.) There 
 are many more whites than Indians, and most of them were born 
 in the United States. 
 
 On the Pacific coast there is a large foreign population. They 
 are mainly Europeans who have crossed the country from the east 
 coast; but about one fourth of the foreigners are Chinese. To 
 what race do they belong ? 
 
 Progress. No other highly civilized nation occupies so 
 large a continuous territory as the United States, or is so 
 well fitted for the successful pursuit of so many branches 
 of human industry. Nowhere else in the world is there so 
 vast a number of highly civilized and energetic people 
 living under a single government, speaking the same lan- 
 guage, and having the same general customs and standards 
 of life. 
 
 Because of these advantages, industries of all kinds have 
 increased in this country even more rapidly than the pop- 
 ulation, so that to-day the United States, though one of 
 the youngest, is one of the greatest nations in the world. 
 Not only is the total product of all the seven chief indus- 
 tries pursued by man greater in this country than in any 
 other, but the product of each of these industries is 
 greater than in any other nation. Make a list of the 
 seven great industries of man. 
 
 By most of these industries the people in the United 
 States produce some articles in such large quantities that 
 there is sufficient to supply the wants of our own great 
 population and to leave a surplus for export to other 
 countries where the article is needed. Thus the people of 
 nearly every country in the world have come to rely upon 
 the workmen of the United States for some of the neces- 
 saries of life. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Make enlarged copies of the maps opposite 
 p. 64 and the diagram opposite p. 124 in Gannett's "Building of a 
 Nation," for your schoolroom wall. Read or recite " The Axe of the 
 Settler," by Mary E. Hewitt, or "The Pioneer," by Lowell. Read 
 chapters 1, 4, and 15 in " Children's Stories of American Progress," by 
 Henrietta Christian Wright. 
 
 PRODUCTION. 
 
 Agriculture. More of our people are engaged in farm- 
 ing than in any other occupation. What parts of the 
 country are best adapted for farming ? (p. 54.) Why ? 
 
 Immigrants landing at New York city. 
 
58 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 COTTON REGION 
 
 One of our most important crops is cotton. 
 For what is cotton used? Cotton is our 
 chief export. What part of the world's 
 crop is grown in this country ? Cotton re- 
 quires a warm, moist climate. In what part 
 of the United States is there such a climate ? 
 The shaded portion of the above map 
 shows where cotton is grown. Which quar- 
 ter of the country embraces most of the 
 cotton-growing region? There are other important crops and other 
 industries in this region, but the cotton crop is the most valuable product. 
 
 UNITED STATES - REST OF WORLD 
 
 The world's cotton crop. 
 
 REST OF WORLD 
 
 The world's wheat crop. 
 
 Wheat and corn are our most valuable food 
 crops. For what is wheat used ? What part 
 of the world's wheat crop do we produce? 
 We export great quantities of this grain 
 every year. Wheat and corn require less 
 heat and moisture than cotton. The shaded 
 portions of the above map show the great 
 
 wheat-growing regions of the United States. In which quarter of the 
 
 country is most of the wheat grown ? Al- 
 though the greater part of the wheat is 
 
 grown in the northeastern quarter, much is 
 
 also raised in the fertile valleys near the 
 
 Pacific coast. Corn is our largest crop. 
 
 What part of the corn crop of the world do 
 
 we raise ? Corn grows in nearly all parts of 
 
 the eastern United States, but most of it 
 
 in the southern half of the wheat region. 
 
 Much corn is used by people in this country for food," and much is exported 
 
 for that purpose, but by far the greater part is used here to fatten hogs. 
 Many other food crops are raised in the United States, but chiefly in 
 
 the northeastern quarter, which is thus, except in the extreme northeast, 
 
 the great food-producing section of the country. 
 
 UNITED 
 
 „.,.,-<- REST 
 STATES -WO°RLD 
 
 The world's corn crop. 
 
 TOBACCO REGIONS \ 
 
 UNITED STATES - REST OF WORLD 
 
 The world's tobacco crop. 
 
 As much tobacco is raised in the United 
 States as in all the rest of the world to- 
 gether, and of this crop there is a large 
 surplus for export. The chief tobacco- 
 growing regions are shaded on the above 
 map, three quarters of the crop being 
 raised in the regions of darker shading. 
 
 Herding. About half of the hogs and one fourth of the 
 cattle in the world are raised in the United States, and 
 
 UNITED STATES -REST OT WORLD 
 
 The world's product of cattle and hogs. 
 
 from them is obtained so large a surplus of pork and 
 beef that, after cotton, meat is our greatest export. 
 Horses and sheep are raised in greater numbers than in 
 most countries, but scarcely in excess of our own wants. « 
 
 Where is the great corn-growing belt ? The greatest number of hogs 
 are raised in that belt. Why? Cattle are raised chiefly in the same 
 region and westward over the Great Plains, where there is sufficient 
 moisture for coarse pasturage. Most of the horses are reared on the 
 richer pastures of the Prairie plains. Where are they ? What fiber is 
 obtained from sheep ? Fleeces grow thickest and best in a rather cool 
 climate, hence the great sheep ranges are in the northern part of the 
 Appalachian region, on the uplands of the Lake plains, in the western 
 highlands, and on the Pacific coast. 
 
 Fishing. The product of the fisheries of the world is 
 of less value than that of the other great industries, but 
 more fish are caught by people from the United States 
 than by any other people. What 
 part of the catch of the world is 
 obtained by our fishermen ? 
 
 Oysters and codfish from the northeast 
 coast and salmon from the northwest coast 
 
 — . . . are the most important products. These 
 
 _— m =-i*W / =»&sJ I are exported in considerable quantities, but 
 
 ■ / 1" / F ^ e ^otal amoun t is not large in comparison 
 
 ^A ■ >fK / / ^§\ / / with our great exports. 
 
 M 
 
 US - REST OF. WORLD 
 
 Fisheries of the world. 
 
 U.S.- REST OF WORLD. 
 Lumbering of the world. 
 
 Lumbering. Fully one third of 
 the timber cut in the world each 
 year comes from the forests of the 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 59 
 
 FOREST REGIONS 
 
 United States. Indeed, lumbering is carried on so exten- 
 sively and recklessly in this country that in a few years 
 our best forests will be destroyed unless cutting is more 
 carefully regulated. Lumber, in the shape of logs, beams, 
 boards, and shingles, forms one of our important exports. 
 
 In what two parts of the country do the largest forests occur ? Why 
 are forests found in these regions rather than in the others ? Where are 
 the heavily forested regions 1 What kinds of valuable woods prevail in 
 each region 1 
 
 Mining. The mines of the United States are among its 
 most valuable resources, and yield about one third of the 
 mineral product of the world. By far the most valuable 
 of the mineral productions are coal and iron ; then follow 
 in value petroleum, gold, copper, and silver. The yield of 
 each of these is enormous. The petroleum and copper 
 amount to more than half of the world's supply, and these 
 two minerals, together with coal, are important articles of 
 export. 
 
 Which quarter of the country contains the greater part of the three 
 largest coal fields ? Three fourths of our coal is mined in the large east- 
 
 COAL FIELDS 
 
 ern field and in the small detached fields 
 northeast of it, and most of the remainder 
 comes from the large middle and western 
 
 U.S. - REST OF WORLD fields. 
 
 The world's output of coal. Iron ore is found m nearly every state> 
 
 but about two thirds of our product is mined 
 near the south and west shores of Lake 
 Superior, and most of the rest is found in the U.S. -REST OF WORLD 
 eroded rock folds of the Appalachian ridges. The world's output of iron ore. 
 
 £SS§) 
 
 7±m 
 
 i^sa 
 
 More than nine tenths of the petroleum occurs near the northwestern 
 part of the great eastern coal field and westward nearly to the great 
 middle coal field. 
 
 Gold and silver are mined chiefly in the 
 Eocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, 
 while by far the greater part of the copper 
 comes from two small clusters of mines, 
 one near the south shore of Lake Superior 
 and the other near the source of the Mis- 
 souri River. 
 
 U.S. -REST OF WORLD 
 
 The world's output of 
 
 gold and silver. 
 
 U.S. - REST OF WORLD 
 
 The world's manufactures. 
 
 Manufacturing. Not only is the United States the great- 
 est manufacturing country, but in the extent and variety 
 of manufactures it surpasses any 
 two other countries in the world. 
 Nearly every kind of manufactured 
 article wanted by civilized man is 
 made somewhere in our country, 
 and nearly always it is made more 
 cheaply here than anywhere else, for in no other country 
 is there so much labor-saving machinery used as in the 
 United States. 
 
 The ten greatest manufactures of our country are : 
 
 1. Flour and corn meal. 6. Lumber. 
 
 2. Cotton and woolen cloth. 7. Clothing. 
 
 3. Packed meats (beef and.pork). 8. Liquors. 
 
 4. Iron and steel goods. 9. Shoes and leather goods. 
 
 5. Machinery. 10. Books and newspapers. 
 
 Nearly all of these, and many other manufactured 
 goods, are important articles of export — particularly 
 meats, flour, and iron and steel goods. 
 
 *m 
 
 CITIES AND TOWNS 
 
 The sizes of the dots indicate 
 comparative population 
 
 You have learned that most of the manufacturing of the world is car- 
 ried on in cities and towns. On this map the cities and towns of the 
 United States are shown by dots, the larger dots standing for the larger 
 manufacturing centers. In which quarter of the United States is most 
 of the manufacturing carried on 1 Why do you think so ? About nine 
 tenths of our manufacturing is done in that quarter of the country. 
 Compare this map with that of the coal region. Mention one advantage 
 which that quarter of the country has for manufacturing. Where is 
 most of our iron ore mined ? To smelt the iron from the ore, much fuel 
 is necessary, and as the ore can be transported cheaply by water, the 
 regions where the great coal fields approach the Great Lakes have 
 become the most important centers of the iron and steel industry. 
 Why? The manufacture of flour, meat, the liquors which are made 
 from grain, and lumber is also carried on chiefly west of the Appa- 
 lachian Mountains. Why? What are the other great manufactures t 
 They are made chiefly east of the mountains. 
 
60 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read chapters 3, 4, and 5 in Carnegie's " Tri- 
 umphant Democracy." Make an enlarged copy of the plates opposite 
 pp. 164 and 170 in Gannett's " Building of a Nation," for the school- 
 room wall. 
 
 COMMERCE AND WEALTH. 
 
 Commerce. The collection of raw materials from the 
 various parts of the United States at the points of manu- 
 facture or export, the distribution of the manufactured 
 products to the places where they are to be used or ex- 
 ported, and the importation and distribution of goods 
 
 U. S+REST OF WORLD + 
 The world's commerce. 
 
 not produced in the country, give rise to a commerce 
 greater than that of any two other nations in the world. 
 
 Although our foreign commerce (exports and imports) 
 is exceeded by that of only one other country, it forms but 
 one tenth of our total commerce. Make a list of our chief 
 exports. The greatest of our imports are sugar, from the 
 West Indies, and coffee, from South America. Other 
 leading imports are : 
 
 1. Cloth — woolen, silk, and cotton. 
 
 2. Iron and steel goods. 
 
 3. Drugs and chemicals. 
 
 4. Raw fibers — flax, wool, and silk. 
 
 5. Hides and leather. 
 
 6. Raw India rubber. 
 
 i 
 
 Fully three fourths of the merchandise which enters into the com- A 
 merce of this country is transported by railroad, and but one fourth by J 
 
 "* BY RAILROADS X BY BOATS > 
 
 Methods of commercial transportation in the United States. 
 
 boats on the oceans and lakes which border the country, or on the rivers 
 and canals which traverse it. In what waters does most of the trans- 
 portation by boats take place ? Nearly half of the world's length of 
 
 railroad is in the United States. Which quarter of the country is most 
 completely supplied with railroads ? Which quarter has the next greatest 
 
 supply? How does the distribution of railroads compare with the 
 distribution of population ? (map, p. 57.) How do the Appalachian 
 Mountains affect the distribution of railroads? How do the Ozark 
 Mountains ? Do you think that these mountains have been hindrances 
 to the carrying trade? In which quarter of the United States do you 
 think the industry of commerce is greatest ? Why ? 
 
 Wealth. The value of the farms, houses, railways, and 
 other improvements in the United States, together with 
 the accumulation from all our industries, constitutes an 
 amount of wealth much greater than that of any other 
 nation. 
 
 Europe contains a greater number of highly civilized people than any 
 other grand division. How does the population of our country com- 
 pare with that of Europe ? (p. 157.) How does the wealth of the United 
 
 U. S. — ALL OF EUROPE 
 
 Comparative population of the United States and Europe. 
 
 States compare with that of the whole of Europe? (p. 159.) The 
 wealth of the United States, if equally divided, would yield to every 
 man, woman, and child in the country $1246 ; while the wealth of Europe 
 would yield to every person in that grand division only about $683. 
 Hence, in proportion to its population, this country is about twice as 
 wealthy as Europe. 
 
 — ALL OF EUROPE 
 
 Comparative wealth of the United States and Europe. 
 
 Earnings. Not only the accumulated wealth but the 
 daily earnings in this country are far greater than in any 
 other nation. This is due principally to the fact that we 
 use labor-saving machinery in all the great industries to- 
 a greater extent than any other people. Therefore, one 
 man in this country can produce as many things in a 
 given time as several men can produce in any other coun- 
 try. Since a man can produce more, wages are higher 
 here than elsewhere, and the earnings of the people are 
 very great. 
 
 A little less than half (forty-five per cent) of the people of the United 
 States earn money. If the total earnings in our country were di- 
 vided equally among the money-earners, each one would receive $1.50 
 for each week day in the year ; while an equal division of the earn- 
 ings of Europe would yield but sixty-seven cents a day to the money- 
 earners of that grand division. It is this great difference in the earning 
 power of men in the two regions that has caused so large and rapid an 
 emigration of people from Europe into the United States. 
 
 Supplemental Work. From the tables on pp. 157, 159, prove that 
 the figures given for the average wealth and earnings here and in 
 Europe are correct. If each money-earner in your family received an 
 equal share of the earnings of the country, what would the income of 
 the family be ? Read chapters 5, 10, and 12 in " Children's Stories of 
 American Progress." Read " Travels in America One Hundred Years 
 Ago," by Thomas Twining. Read sections 280 to 286 and chapter 22 of 
 McMaster's " School History of the United States." 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 61 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 Review the lesson on longitude (p. 7) and study the supplemental 
 work following it. In about what longitude is Philadelphia, in Pennsyl- 
 vania ? St. Louis, in Missouri ? Denver, in Colorado ? San Francisco, 
 on the Pacific coast ? When the rotation of the earth brings the meridian 
 of Philadelphia exactly beneath the sun, what time is it at Philadelphia 1 
 How long must the earth then rotate before the meridian of St. Louis is 
 brought exactly beneath the sun ? How long before the meridian of San 
 Francisco is brought to that position ? When it is noon at Philadelphia 
 what time is it at St. Louis ; at Denver ; at San Francisco ? 
 
 Standard Time Belts. The main body of our coun- 
 try is so broad from east to west that more than three 
 hours are required for rotation to carry it past the sun. 
 Hence, if we are told that a railroad train starts " at noon," 
 we cannot be sure of its time of starting, because it is 
 noon at different places in our country for more than three 
 hours after that time occurs on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 To avoid mistakes, delays, and confusion, the railroad 
 companies of the country have adopted the times of the 
 meridians of 75°, 90°, 105° and 120°, as the standards by 
 which to run their trains. Thus, on most of our Atlantic 
 coast the standard time of all the railroads is that of the 
 meridian of 75° and is called " Eastern time " ; throughout 
 most of the Mississippi valley the standard is that of the 
 meridian of 90°, and is called " Central time " ; in the Rocky 
 Mountain region the time of the meridian of 105° is stand- 
 ard for the railroads and is called " Mountain time " ; and 
 on the Pacific coast the standard is the time of the merid- 
 ian of 120° and is called " Pacific time." 
 
 What is the difference in time between each two of these " standard" 
 meridians 1 When it is noon by standard time in the Central time belt, 
 what time is it in the Mountain belt; in the Eastern belt; in the 
 Pacific belt ? Thus, if a traveler's watch marks railroad time in one part 
 of the country, he can easily tell from it the correct railroad time in any 
 other part by adding or subtracting the proper number of full hours. 
 
 Each railroad company suits its own convenience as to the point on its 
 fine where a change of standard time is made. It is usually at some 
 station where the locomotives and train men are changed ; and as such 
 stations on different roads are seldom on the same meridian, the edges 
 of the time belts are irregular. In the extreme southwest, Mountain time . 
 is not used, but a change is made from Central time directly to Pacific 
 time. What is the amount of this change t At what city is it made T 
 
 International Date Line. Suppose that two men, starting from the 
 prime meridian on Monday noon, travel the one eastward and the other 
 
 westward, each traveling just as fast as the earth rotates. The man 
 who goes west as fast as the earth turns east keeps exactly beneath 
 the sun all the time, and it seems to him to be still Monday noon when 
 he reaches his starting point again twenty-four hours later. He has lost 
 a day in his reckoning by traveling westward around the earth. 
 
 The other man travels eastward over the earth as fast as the earth 
 itself turns eastward, and therefore he moves away from the sun twice 
 as fast as the prime meridian does. After twelve hours' travel he reaches 
 the meridian of 180°, but twelve hours' rotation has carried this meridian 
 beneath the sun, and so the traveler reaches it at noon. In twenty-four 
 hours the man reaches his starting point on the prime meridian, but 
 twenty-four hours' rotation has brought this meridian beneath the sun 
 again, so the traveler reaches it on the second noon after his start ; he 
 therefore supposes it to be Wednesday noon, though really it is but 
 twenty-four hours after Monday noon. He has gained a day in his reck- 
 oning by traveling eastward around the earth. To correct such errors 
 in their dates, navigators usually add a day to their reckoning when they 
 sail westward across the meridian of 180°, and subtract a day when they 
 cross it to the eastward, and for this reason the meridian of 180° is some- 
 times called the International date line. 
 
 Industrial Sections. We have seen that, owing largely 
 to differences in surface structure, climate, and soil, the 
 
 
 v\ 5- £ -d. o..n 1 ) V y "i^|, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ^^\ f^ ~*^ \ \ 
 SECTIONS V f S.) 
 
 great productions of our country are confined more or less 
 definitely to different regions. Hence the United States 
 may be naturally separated into (1) the Northeastern, or 
 cloth-manufacturing section; (2) the Northern, or food-, 
 iron-, and coal-producing, and manufacturing section ; (3) 
 the Southern, or cotton-producing section ; (4) the Plateau, 
 or grazing and gold- and silver-mining section ; and (5) the 
 Pacific, or Western food- and gold-producing section. 
 
 TOPICS ON RESOURCES AND PEOPLE. 
 
 I. People. Races: Indians — number, location ; negroes — origin, 
 location, number ; native whites — ancestors, distribution; white immi- 
 grants—attraction, origin, landing place, distribution. Population: 
 amount ; increase ; distribution. Government : origin ; Federal ; state ; 
 territorial. Wealth : amount ; reasons for ; average earnings. 
 
 II. Advantages. Soil: alluvial; glacial. Climate: heat regions — 
 northern, central, southern, western ; extremes of temperature ; length 
 of winters ; rainfall regions ; influence of storms. Manufacturing facul- 
 ties : streams ; minerals. Transportation facilities : railroads ; rivers. 
 
 III. Products. Food: vegetable — region, amount, kinds; animal 
 — kinds, regions, amount ; manufactures. Fibers : vegetable ; animal ; 
 manufactures from. Timber : regions ; kinds ; amount ; danger. Min- 
 erals: regions; kinds; amounts. 
 
 IV. Exports. Natural products: chief; second; other. Manu- 
 factured products. . .. 
 
BfUDLtV L POATES ENGH'S PM 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 63 
 
 ^ THE NORTHEASTERN SECTION. 
 
 Which states compose this section ? What large river basin is north 
 of the Northeastern Section ? What waters are south and east? In what 
 latitude is the central part of this section ? How does the distance of 
 the section from the equator compare with its distance from the north 
 pole ? What highland region is in these states ? Locate the Green Moun- 
 tains ; the Berkshire Hills ; the White Mountains ; Mount Katahdin. 
 Locate the chief lakes. How were the lakes mostly formed ? Name the 
 chief rivers, and locate their sources, courses, and mouths. What facili- 
 ties do they afford for manufacturing ? Name the states of the group 
 in the order of their size. 
 
 The six states in the extreme northeastern part of 
 our country are ' often called New England. They oc- 
 cupy a region less suitable for agriculture than is 
 any other portion of the eastern lowlands. The larger 
 river valleys of the section are fertile, but over most of 
 the uplands the soil is thin and unproductive, and is cov- 
 ered with glacial bowlders. Hay, apples, and potatoes 
 are raised in the valleys, and market gardening and 
 dairying are carried on; but not nearly enough food 
 is raised to supply the wants of the people, and the section 
 is supplied with grain and meat from the West. In the 
 northern part are extensive forests. 
 
 The chief occupation is manufacturing. Why are wa- 
 terfalls specially numerous in this region f (p. 50.) Since 
 in this section the hard rocks of the Piedmont region 
 extend to the seacoast, many of the falls and rapids 
 afford water power for manufacturing near good harbors, 
 where raw materials may be received, and the manufac- 
 tured goods shipped. The. greater part of the manufac- 
 turing, however, is now done by steam power, most of 
 the coal, for fuel, being brought by sea from the ports 
 of Chesapeake and Delaware bays. 
 
 Because there are few mines of coal or iron in the section, the articles 
 manufactured are those whose value depends upon the ingenuity and 
 fine workmanship displayed in making them, rather than upon the 
 amount of fuel and raw material used. The chief manufactures are 
 cotton and woolen goods and boots and shoes, of which this section pro- 
 duces more than all the rest of the country. Other characteristic manu- 
 factures are paper, light hardware, fine machinery, clothing, jewelry, 
 and rubber goods. 
 
 New England, especially the southern half, is thickly 
 covered with a network of railways, which connects it 
 
 Bar Harbor, Mt. Desert Island, Maine. 
 
 with the south and west, and also with the railway sys- 
 tems of Canada. The glacier-carved fiords and bays of 
 the New England coast contain many fine harbors, from 
 which vessels carry on an active coast or fishing trade; 
 and Boston maintains a large foreign commerce. 
 
 About half the granite and marble, and much of the 
 slate, used in the country are quarried in New England. 
 
 New England contains the most densely peopled part of 
 the United States. How does this section compare with 
 the rest of the country in the distribution of cities and 
 towns ? (p. 59.) More than half the people live in cities. 
 
 These states have a well-educated and energetic popula- 
 tion, and fine school systems. They contain several of 
 the oldest and most noted colleges in the country. 
 
 The population of the beautiful mountain and lake regions of this 
 section, as well as that along the seacoast of nearly the whole of New 
 England, is much more than doubled during the summer months by the 
 thousands of people who, at that season, leave their regular occupations 
 in the crowded cities of the eastern part of the Union for a period of 
 rest and recreation. The care of the " summer boarders " is an important 
 occupation throughout these regions. 
 
 jw The beach at Newport, H. I. 
 
 'v 
 MAINE. What natural boundaries has Maine? By what political 
 
 divisions is it bordered? How does it compare with the rest of New 
 England in size? Turn to the map of the United States (p. 56) and 
 compare it with New York in size; with Texas. Describe its surface; its 
 rivers ; its coast. Name and locate the capital and the five chief cities. 
 
 About one half of the surface of Maine is covered with 
 forests of pine, spruce, hemlock, and birch, which supply 
 lumber and material for wood pulp used to make paper. 
 Hay, oats, potatoes, and apples are the most important farm 
 products. Maine is one of the foremost granite-producing 
 states, and yields much slate. The fiords of the rocky 
 coast form good harbors. Along the shore, herring, sar- 
 dines (p. 39), and cod are caught, and there are many 
 sardine-packing and herring-smoking establishments. 
 
 Portland, the chief seaport and most important city, is 
 the terminus of the principal railway system of eastern 
 Canada. It has an important foreign commerce when the 
 St. Lawrence is frozen. The harbor is among the largest 
 and finest in the country. Boots and shoes are manufac- 
 
64 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 tured, and much ice and fish are exported. Lew- 
 iston manufactures cotton and woolen goods. 
 What city is just opposite? Auburn has large 
 boot and shoe factories. Bangor, at the head of 
 navigation on the Penobscot, is one of the great 
 
 lumber depots of the country. Bid- 
 deford has large cotton mills. Au- 
 gusta, the capital, manufactures 
 cotton goods and shoes. Bath is 
 the shipbuilding center. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. What natural 
 boundaries has New Hampshire? What 
 political boundaries ? How does it com- 
 pare with Maine in size ? What two rivers 
 drain the larger part of it ? What moun- 
 tain group is in the north ? Name the chief peak. Name and locate 
 the largest lake ; the capital ; the seaport ; three other cities. 
 
 Because of its beautiful mountain scenery New Hamp- 
 shire has been called the " Switzerland of America." The 
 forests and the granite quarries give rise to important in- 
 dustries. The state ranks third in the manufacture of 
 boots and shoes. Cotton manufacture is centered chiefly 
 at Manchester and Nashua, which are located at falls on the 
 Merrimac. Concord, the capital, also has cloth mills, wagon 
 and carriage factories, and granite quarries. The fine water 
 power at Dover is utilized by large cotton and woolen mills. 
 
 VERMONT. What lake and river form nearly half the boundary of 
 Vermont? What states and country border it? Compare Vermont with 
 New Hampshire in shape ; in size ; in surface. Has Vermont a seaport ? 
 Why ? Draw the main divide of the state. Name and locate the mountains 
 of Vermont ; the capital ; the five chief cities and towns. 
 
 Vermont means " Green Mountain." The rounded sum- 
 mits of this mountain range are covered with forests of 
 evergreen pines and spruces. There are many fine dairy 
 farms and sheep ranges. Much hay is produced, and fine 
 breeds of live stock are kept. Lumber is obtained from 
 the forests, and more maple sugar is produced than in any 
 other state. Over two thirds of the marble quarried in the 
 United States, and much granite and slate, come from 
 
 Vermont. Less cotton goods are made than in the other New England 
 states. Why ? Lumber, woolens, musical instruments, and scales are 
 manufactured. There is considerable trade with Canada through 
 Lake Champlain. 
 
 Burlington, the chief city, has a fine harbor and is an important 
 lumber market. Near Rutland there are extensive marble quarries; 
 St. Albans is a center for dairy products ; and Barre has fine granite 
 quarries 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. By what states and waters is Massachusetts surrounded? 
 Turn to the map of the United States and compare with New Jersey in size ; with 
 New York ; with Texas. Describe its coast ; its surface. Name and locate its moun- 
 tains ; rivers ; capes ; bays ; islands. Name and locate its capital ; four other sea- 
 ports ; three cities on the Merrimac ; two on the Connecticut ; three other large cities. 
 
 Massachusetts, although one of the smallest, is one of the wealth- 
 iest and most thickly settled states of the Union. Manufacture and 
 commerce are the leading industries. In this state are manufactured 
 
 half of the boots and shoes and a 
 very large part of the cotton and 
 woolen cloth and of the paper made 
 in the United States. The com- 
 merce, both foreign and domestic, 
 is very large. Many vessels enter 
 the harbors, and the eastern part 
 of the state is thickly intersected 
 by railroads from the north, the 
 west, and the south. 
 
 Massachusetts is foremost among 
 the states of the Union in the quar- 
 rying of granite and in the value 
 of cod fisheries. 
 
 Boston owes its growth and im- 
 portance chiefly to the great size, 
 depth, and excellence of its beautiful island-studded har- 
 bor at the head of Massachusetts Bay. It has become 
 the great commercial center for nearly the whole of New 
 England, receiving and distributing throughout the sec- 
 tion raw materials, — wool, cotton, hides, leather, rubber, 
 and coal, — and receiving in return manufactured goods 
 
 Paper mill, Holyoke, Mass. 
 
 for distribution by sea or by railroad. 
 
 Public Library, Boston, Mass. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 65 
 
 Though not particularly noted for the characteristic 
 manufactures of the section, — cloth and boots and shoes, — 
 Boston is one of the great manufacturing centers of the 
 United States; the making of clothing and fine machinery 
 and the printing of books are leading industries. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. By what states and waters is Connecticut sur- 
 rounded ? Describe its surface ; drainage ; coast. Name and locate its 
 capital ; its chief cities. 
 
 Much tobacco is grown in the Connecticut valley ; and 
 in the western and southern parts of the state dairying 
 
 Boston is among the oldest of the 
 great cities of the country, having been 
 founded by the Puritans in 1630 on a 
 small peninsula between the estuary of 
 the Charles River and the harbor. 
 
 The peninsula contained three low 
 hills, from which it got the name " Tri- 
 mountain " (or Tremont). Between 
 these hills and the mainland were wide 
 salt marshes which were flooded by the 
 tides, so that at high water the penin- 
 
 A shoe factory, Lynn, Mass. 
 
 sula was connected with the mainland only 
 by a long, narrow " neck" of land. On the 
 highest of the hills was built the Statehouse, 
 which commands a fine view over the city 
 and harbor. The people long since widened 
 thte neck by filling up the marshes, so that 
 it no longer resembles an isthmus. 
 
 The newly made land and much of the 
 mainland over which the city has spread 
 have become fine residential quarters, while 
 most of the old peninsula is given up to business. On the east front, 
 where the water is deep, are the great docks where foreign commerce is 
 carried on ; the estuary of the Charles, to the north, is used more for 
 the coast trade.' Nearly the whole railroad system of the section also 
 radiates from this city. 
 
 Because of the fine schools, colleges, and libraries there, and the 
 great number of authors, musicians, and artists who have lived in or 
 near the city, the citizens often call Boston the " Athens of America." 
 
 Worcester is a great railroad center, and is noted for the 
 manufacture of machinery, shoes, and wire. At Cambridge 
 is located Harvard University, the oldest and one of the 
 largest in the country. Fall River, Lowell, and New Bed- 
 ford are the great centers of cotton manufacture; Law- 
 rence, of both cotton and wool; Lynn, Brockton, and 
 Haverhill make millions of boots and shoes; and at 
 Springfield' is a United States arsenal, where firearms are 
 made. Holyoke has large paper mills. Gloucester, is a 
 great fishing port. Salem has large tanneries. 
 
 Spinning in a cotton mill, Fall River, Mass. 
 
 that of Texas. Name a bay, 
 capital ; three other cities. 
 
 and the raising of vegetables and seeds 
 are important industries. In Long Is- 
 and Sound many oysters are dredged. 
 The state has valuable sandstone 
 quarries and is especially noted for 
 the variety of its manufactures. 
 
 Besides cotton and woolen goods, almost 
 every kind of fine cutlery and hardware, in- 
 genious tools and machinery, needles, pins, 
 hooks and eyes, clocks, firearms, bicycles, sew- 
 ing machines, and all kinds of brass and plated 
 ware, come from the factories of this state. 
 
 New Haven is the largest city and 
 chief port. It is the seat of Yale 
 University, one of the most famous in 
 the country. Hartford 
 is the headquarters of 
 many insurance com- 
 panies, and is noted for 
 firearms, bicycles, and 
 rubber goods. Bridge- 
 port manufactures car- 
 riages and sewing ma- 
 chines; Waterbury, brass 
 work, clocks, and pins; 
 and Meriden, silver and 
 plated ware. New Brit- 
 ain makes locks and 
 builders' hardware. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. De- 
 scribe the "position of Rhode 
 Island ; its drainage. Turn 
 to the map of the United 
 States and compare its size 
 with that of Delaware; with 
 
 a cape, and a river of this state; its 
 
 Rhode Island is the smallest and most densely populated 
 of all the states, and in proportion to its size has more 
 manufacturing than any other. 
 
 Providence, the second city in New England, contains 
 the largest cotton factory in the world, and exceeds all 
 other cities in this country in the manufacture of jewelry. 
 It also has many woolen mills. Pawtucket and Woonsocket 
 also are centers of cotton and woolen manufacture. New- 
 port is a famous summer resort. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Tell one anecdote of Revolutionary times in 
 New England. Read " A New England Girlhood," by Lucy Larcom, or 
 " A New England Boyhood," by E. E. Hale. Read or recite one selec- 
 tion from Vols. 25 and 26 of " Poems of Places," edited by Longfellow. 
 Describe as fully as Boston is described one other city or place in New 
 England. Write next day what you remember of the description given 
 by one of your schoolmates. 
 
66 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 ZL S IN 
 
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 town ^*"^/*~Vv? Clinton 
 
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 -P K3ME N T tT C K 
 
 Longitude 
 
 THE NORTHERN SECTION. 
 
 Which states of this section are crossed by the Appalachian Moun- 
 tains? Which state lies wholly in the Atlantic plain? Which states 
 he between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River? 
 Which states lie mostly in the Lake plains ? Which lie mostly in the 
 Prairie plains ? Which lie partly in the Great Plains ? Which quarter 
 of the United States embraces most of the Northern Section? 
 
 Although snow lies on the ground in winter for a month 
 or more throughout the greater part of this section, and 
 the winters in the northwest are long and cold, the summers 
 in nearly all parts are warm enough, and have sufficient 
 
 rainfall, for the most useful grains to grow and ripen. Ex- 
 cept in the Appalachian Mountains, the surface is generally 
 smooth and flat, and the soil nearly everywhere is deep 
 and fertile, the old Laurentian glacier having deposited 
 detritus in this section instead of having scraped it off 
 into the sea, as in New England. 
 
 Because of these advantages, agriculture is the most 
 important industry, and because of the use of improved 
 agricultural implements, by which one man here produces 
 as much as four or five men in any foreign country, this has 
 become the greatest food-producing region of the world. 
 
In every, state of the section, and especially in the 
 states of the Prairie plains and the Lake plains, the chief 
 food crops for man and beast — wheat, corn, oats, hay, and 
 potatoes — are raised in enormous quantities, so that -about 
 five sixths of our country's yield of all these articles comes 
 from these states. Other food crops of lesser importance 
 are grown, as well as the bulk of the tobacco crop of the 
 United States. 
 
 Domestic animals are largely dependent upon the crops 
 for food, and hence most of the hogs, cattle, and butter 
 and eggs produced in the country come from this section. 
 
 On the Atlantic coast of the section occur the greatest 
 oyster fisheries of the United States. 
 
 Where are the most heavily forested parts of the sec- 
 tion ? (map, p. 59.) In all these regions lumbering is an 
 important industry. The pine belt of the Great Lakes is 
 one of the greatest timber-producing regions of the Union. 
 
 Where are the largest coal fields of the country T (p. 59.) 
 Where is the principal petroleum region f Where is most 
 of the iron ore of the country produced ? In what part 
 of this section are there rich copper mines! There are 
 valuable lead and zinc deposits west of the Ozark Moun- 
 
 
68 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 tains. In all these regions mining is an ex 
 tensive industiy. 
 
 Mention the important food crops and 
 two very important meat products for whicM 
 this section is noted; two other important 
 raw vegetable materials; the most impor- 
 tant mineral products. 
 
 From the city map on p. 59 locate the 
 great manufacturing region of the United 
 States. What part of this section does it 
 embrace ? In the Northern Section the man- 
 ufacture of the raw materials produced in 
 the section — food, lumber, and iron and 
 steel — forms the bulk of the manufacturing 
 industry. 
 
 Throughout the grain- and meat-producing regions 
 of the central part of the section, flour milling and 
 the packing and curing of meat are characteristic in- 
 dustries. In the region bordering the Great Lakes 
 and on the Alleghany plateaus are the great sawmills 
 of the country, while the iron and steel industries are 
 centered at points where coal and iron ore, with lime- 
 stone for flux, can be most cheaply brought together. 
 The manufacture of tobacco is also very important 
 in this region, especially in the southern and south- 
 eastern parts. East of the Appalachian Mountains the manufactures are 
 more varied and, like those of New England, consume much raw ma- 
 terial not produced in the section. Why ? The weaving of cotton, wool, 
 and silk, and the refining of sugar, are extensive industries of this kind. 
 
 What three bays indent the east coast of this section ? 
 How were they formed? They are all deep enough for 
 the largest vessels, and contain the best harbors on our 
 Atlantic coast south of New England. What river 
 flows into New York Bay ? What one flows into Delaware 
 Bay? Name the two largest that flow into Chesapeake 
 Bay. These four rivers rise west of the Appalachian 
 ridges and cross the ridges in a series of deep water 
 gaps, while south of the Potomac Eiver, Blue Ridge rises 
 as an almost continuous wall between the coast and the 
 Mississippi valley. Turn to the railroad map (p. 60) and 
 tell what effect this peculiar Appalachian drainage has 
 had upon the railroad system of the country. Thus the 
 seaports on the three bays of this section are among the 
 
 Niagara Falls, 
 est cataracts in the world 
 
 The Erie Canal at JLockport, N. V. 
 
 largest cities of 'the country, 
 and through them by far the 
 greater part of our foreign 
 commerce passes. Why ? 
 West of the Appalachian 
 Mountains the smooth sur- 
 face of the section is covered 
 with a perfect network of 
 railroads, by which raw ma- 
 terials are collected at manu- 
 facturing centers and the 
 manufactured products are 
 distributed. The Great Lakes 
 are all connected by navi- 
 gable straits or canals, and, 
 because transportation is 
 cheaper by water than by rail, 
 they form a commercial route 
 of great importance. 
 
 The natural channel between lakes 
 Erie and Ontario is Niagara River, 
 which in its course plunges over a 
 precipice about 160 feet high, form- 
 ing Niagara Falls — one of the grand- 
 As the falls interrupt the navigation of the 
 river, the Welland Canal has been constructed between the lakes, 
 through Canada. Canals have also been constructed in Canada around 
 the rapids of the St. Lawrence River to tidewater at Montreal. ' But the 
 mouth of the St. Lawrence is so far north that it is closed by ice many 
 months in winter, and besides is in Canada. Advantage has been taken 
 of the water gaps and the low valley of the Hudson to construct the 
 Erie Canal from that river to Lake Erie, thus securing a most important 
 water route through our own country from the Great Lakes to tidewater. 
 
 The Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri rivers are navi- 
 gable for great distances, and many of their larger tribu- 
 taries for shorter distances, and are much used for 
 transporting coal, lumber, and other bulky freight. Sev- 
 eral canals have been constructed through the low divide 
 to connect the Great Lakes with the Mississippi system. 
 
 The Northern Section contains about two thirds of all 
 the people in the United States, and nearly three fourths 
 of all the foreign immigrants in the country. 
 
 The Northern Appalachian States. The seven states 
 of this section which are crossed by the Appalachian re- 
 gion or the Atlantic plain are sometimes called the " Mid- 
 dle States." A very large part of our coal and petroleum, 
 and much iron ore, come from this region. Manufactur- 
 ing and the production of food crops are more important 
 in the northern part, while the production of oysters and 
 tobacco are of great importance in the southern. 
 
 NEW YORK. What states and country border New York 1 What 
 three lakes form part of the boundary? What river system drains 
 the northern part? Trace its divide across the state. To what great- 
 river system does the southwestern part drain ? In what slope is the 
 southeastern half of the state ? Name and locate the mountains of New 
 York; the islands; the lakes. By what river are the Finger Lakes 
 drained into Lake Ontario? What is the chief tributary of the Hud- 
 son ? Name and locate the capital ; the chief city ; the chief lake port; 
 a city on the Genesee River ; three other large cities. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 69 
 
 New York, the "Empire State," ranks first in the Union 
 in wealth, population, manufacture, and commerce, and is 
 one of the leading states in agriculture. Its position is 
 favorable for both foreign and domestic commerce. 
 
 The Hudson and Mohawk valleys afford the lowest route across the 
 Appalachian Mountains from the Atlantic seaboard to the Central Low- 
 land, and before the days of railroads nearly all freight was shipped by the 
 Erie Canal through this " natural gate- 
 way." This made New York city, at 
 the mouth of the Hudson, the great 
 Atlantic seaport of the United States, 
 and made New York the Empire State, 
 with its many large cities along this 
 route. Railroads have since been built 
 westward over the mountains from 
 other good harbors, as Philadelphia, 
 Baltimore, and Norfolk, but the charges 
 for carrying freight over them are 
 still regulated by the cost of carnage 
 through the low " natural gateway." 
 Canals connect the Hudson with the 
 St. Lawrence through Lake Champlain, 
 and with the Delaware and the coal 
 fields of Pennsylvania. 
 
 by far the greatest industry. Large quantities of raw sugar from the 
 West Indies are refined, and near by petroleum, flowing from western 
 Pennsylvania through pipe lines, is made into kerosene. More books, 
 magazines, and newspapers are published in New York than in any 
 other city of the United States. 
 
 So much money is controlled by the banks of New York that when 
 great business enterprises are started anywhere in the country the 
 capital required is generaEy obtained in New York. 
 
 Columbia University, one of the 
 
 New York and Brooklyn Bridge, East River. 
 
 largest in the country, is located 
 in New York. 
 
 The lower half of Manhattan Is- 
 land embraces the wholesale busi- 
 ness region, and it is much crowded. 
 Thousands of the business men 
 live ten or more miles from their 
 places of business — in the upper 
 part of the city, on Long Island, on 
 Staten Island, and in New Jersey. 
 
 Buffalo is the great lake 
 port and railroad center of 
 western New York. What 
 
 sup- 
 one 
 
 E- 
 
 There are many waterfalls in 
 the state, and coal is easily ob- 
 tained from the Penn- 
 sylvania coal fields. 
 Therefore, manufactur- 
 ing is extensive. Cloth- 
 ing, packed meats, ma- 
 chinery, carpets and 
 woolen goods, beer, and 
 flour are the chief manu- 
 factures. 
 
 New York is noted for 
 its dairy products, and 
 for its large crops of 
 barley, buckwheat, and 
 hops. The state 
 plies more than 
 third of the salt pro- 
 duced in the Union. 
 
 New York city is the largest and most important in the 
 United States, and is second only to London among the 
 great cities of the world. 
 
 New York city was founded by the Dutch on Manhattan Island, at 
 the mouth of the Hudson, a few years before Boston was settled. Name 
 the waters surrounding Manhattan Island. After spreading over the 
 island and the mainland to the north, the city has taken within its limits 
 Staten Island and the west end of Long Island, including the great city 
 of Brooklyn, besides several large suburbs. This greater New York 
 contains about three and a half millions of people, and covers a land 
 area of about 360 square miles. 
 
 Railroad lines from the west and south end in Jersey City, the pas- 
 sengers and loaded freight cars being ferried to Manhattan Island. 
 Railroads from the north and east cross the Harlem River and reach 
 the heart of the city. The harbor is large enough to accommodate 
 many hundreds of ships. More than half of the foreign trade of the 
 country is carried on through this port. 
 
 New York is the chief manufacturing city of the country. Nearly 
 everything needed by man is made here, but the making of clothing is 
 
 Part of the harbor at Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Collar factory, Troy, N. Y. 
 
 important canal leads eastward from this city ? 
 
 The transshipment of wheat, flour, and meat 
 
 from the West is a very important industry. 
 
 Much coal and salt are shipped westward. 
 Lumber, flour, and packed meats are the chief manufac- 
 tures. Part of the water power of Niagara Falls is used 
 to generate electricity, some of which is used in Buffalo. 
 Rochester, at the falls of the Genesee River, manufac- 
 tures clothing, boots and shoes, and flour, and has many 
 nurseries in its vicinity. Syracuse manufactures cloth- 
 ing, chemicals, and agricultural machinery, and is near 
 valuable salt works. Utica has large rose nurseries, and 
 is the chief cheese market of central New York. Albany, 
 the capital, is an important railroad center, and has ex- 
 tensive manufactures of stoves and lumber. Troy is near 
 the junction of what canals ? It is also at the head of tide- 
 water in the Hudson. It has important foundries and stove 
 works, and large manufactories of shirts, collars, and cuffs. 
 At West Point is the United States Military Academy. 
 Cornell University, at Ithaca, is among our largest insti- 
 tutions of learning. 
 
76 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Locomotive works, Philadelphia. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. What states border 
 Pennsylvania ? Describe its surface. Trace 
 across the state the principal divide. What 
 two large rivers are on the eastern slope ; 
 on the western? Into what does each 
 flow? Locate the capital; the chief city; 
 two other important cities of the eastern 
 slope ; three of the western. 
 
 Pennsylvania ranks first among 
 the states in the production of coal, 
 and second in population and the 
 value of manufactures. Bitumi- 
 nous coal is found in the Alleghany 
 plateaus, and anthracite coal in 
 the rock folds of the ridges in the northeastern part of 
 the state. Much petroleum is obtained in the Allegheny 
 and Monongahela valleys. 
 
 The characteristic manufactures of the state, par- 
 ticularly of the western part, are iron and steel, which 
 require much fuel. In this industry Pennsylvania ex- 
 ceeds all the other states combined. In the eastern 
 part of the state, the weaving of woolen, cotton, and silk, 
 and the making of engines and machinery are important 
 industries. 
 
 From the timber-covered mountains lumber is floated 
 down the rivers to the sawmills and planing mills, and 
 with the oak and hemlock bark much leather is tanned in 
 the northwestern half of the state. 
 
 The soil of the valleys and of the eastern lowland is fer- 
 tile and gives to Pennsylvania a high rank as a wheat- 
 growing and dairying state. 
 
 The water gaps through the Appalachian ridges have 
 made the state the great railroad thoroughfare between 
 the seaboard and the upper Mississippi valley. Canals 
 connect the bituminous coal regions with Lake Erie and 
 the anthracite coal regions with New York, Delaware, and 
 Chesapeake bays. 
 
 Philadelphia is the third city in the Union in popula- 
 tion. It was founded about fifty years later than New 
 York or Boston, and for a long time it was called " The 
 Quaker City." Why ? It was laid out between the Dela- 
 ware and Schuylkill rivers near their junction, though it 
 
 Smelting furnaces, Pittsburg. 
 
 locomotives, 
 industries. 
 
 and 
 
 Rug weaving, Philadelphia. 
 
 has now spread far west of the 
 Schuylkill and along the Delaware 
 for many miles. Ocean steamers 
 ascend to its wharves, and the city 
 exports much coal. 
 
 The nearness of the anthracite 
 coal region makes fuel plenty and 
 cheap, and Philadelphia has be- 
 come one of the greatest manu- 
 facturing cities of the country. 
 
 Chief among its manufactures 
 are woolen goods, carpets, and 
 clothing. Sugar refining, and the 
 making of heavy iron machinery, 
 steel steamships, are also important 
 
 For over a century Philadelphia was the chief commercial city of the 
 United States, but as the Central Lowland became settled the Erie Canal 
 was made, and trade followed the natural route through the low Mohawk 
 valley ; so New York became the greater seaport. 
 
 Congress was in session in Philadelphia when it declared the inde- 
 pendence of this country in 1776. After the Revolutionary War Phila- 
 delphia was the capital of the country for several years, and the Federal 
 Constitution was prepared there. Independence Hall, in which the 
 Declaration of Independence was made and the Constitution framed, is 
 still standing and is much visited. 
 
 In Philadelphia is located the great University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pittsburg and Allegheny together form the great center 
 of population in western Pennsylvania. They are in the 
 heart of the bituminous coal, petroleum, and natural gas 
 region. More than half the coke of the country, and one 
 fifth of the iron and steel, are made in and near Pitts- 
 burg. This too is the greatest center in the world for 
 the manufacture of plate glass. Allegheny has important 
 tanneries. 
 
 Before the days of railroads these cities possessed the great commer- 
 cial advantage of the river routes afforded by the Ohio and the two 
 rivers which here unite to form it, and millions of bushels of coal are 
 still shipped from Pittsburg down the Ohio. 
 
 Scranton is a mining center of the anthracite coal re- 
 gion. It is also a railroad center, and has large iron 
 and steel works, breweries, and silk mills. Beading is 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 71 
 
 in a rich agricultural region, and receives by canal cheap 
 fuel from the anthracite regions to supply its iron and 
 steel works and foundries. Erie has a fine harbor and 
 a large trade in iron ore, lumber, and coal. It has im- 
 portant iron works, foundries, and flour mills. Harris- 
 burg, the capital, is located in a fertile region, and manu- 
 
 factures iron, steel, and rail- 
 road cars. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. Describe the situa- 
 tion of New Jersey. What two rivers 
 and what bay form part of its bound- 
 'ary? Describe the coast. Locate the 
 mountains ; the capes ; two canals ; the 
 capital ; three large cities in the north- 
 ern part ; one in the western part. 
 
 New Jersey is one of the 
 smallest states. The beaches 
 of its seacoast are much re- 
 sorted to during the summer. 
 The state is crossed by two 
 canals and many railroads, and 
 
 Silk factory, Paterson, 
 
 the northeastern part is a 
 great commercial and manu- 
 facturing region. The state 
 ranks first in the manufac- 
 ture of silk, pottery, and cast 
 iron pipe. The making of 
 leather and machinery, and 
 the refining of petroleum, 
 are important industries. 
 Vegetables and fruits are 
 raised in large quantities. 
 
 Jersey City is practically a 
 part of New York city. It 
 is the terminus of the railroads from the south and west, 
 and is bordered by many steamship docks. It contains 
 large chemical works and soap factories. Hoboken and 
 Bayonne are continuous with Jersey City. 
 
 Neivarlc refines metals and manufactures machinery, 
 leather, and thread. In Paterson more silk is manufac- 
 tured than in any other American city. Trenton is one 
 of the leading pottery centers of the country. Camden, 
 really a suburb of Philadelphia, manufactures oilcloths. 
 
 Gathering oysters, Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 DELAWARE. Give the physical boundaries of the peninsula of 
 which Delaware is a part; the political boundaries of Delaware. Com- 
 pare it in size with New Jersey. Locate the capital ; the chief city. 
 
 The northern part of Delaware belongs to the manufac- 
 turing region about Philadelphia; the southern part to 
 the vegetable- and fruit-growing region, peaches being 
 particularly excellent and abundant. The manu- 
 facture of the crates and baskets in which these 
 products are shipped°forms a common industry 
 in the state. 
 
 Wilmington contains almost half the popula- 
 tion of the state, and is noted for its car works, 
 shipyards, and for the manufacture of leather 
 and gunpowder. 
 
 MARYLAND. Compare the seacoast of Maryland 
 with its bay coast. What other states own parts of the 
 peninsula including eastern Maryland ? What river forms 
 most of the southern boundary of Maryland? By what 
 states is Maryland bounded ? Which part is in the Atlantic 
 plain? Which is in the mountain region? Locate the 
 capital ; the chief city ; one other city. 
 
 The short seacoast of Maryland is fringed 
 with barrier beaches, but Chesapeake Bay con- 
 tains many good harbors, and the chief oyster 
 
 beds of the country. 
 Fruits, vegetables, and 
 tobacco are important 
 products. In the west- 
 ern part of the state are 
 valuable coal mines. 
 
 Baltimore is one of the 
 cities that bas grown up 
 on the Fall line. Its 
 fine harbor, in the estu- 
 ary of Patapsco River, 
 is nearer the great grain 
 fields of the Central 
 Lowland tban is that of 
 any other Atlantic sea- 
 port, and to it the water 
 gaps of the Potomac 
 River afford a convenient route. For these reasons Balti- 
 more has become one of the great food-shipping ports. 
 
 The making of clothing, the canning and preserving of fruit and vege- 
 tables from the surrounding region and of oysters from Chesapeake Bay, 
 and the manufacture of tobacco, are thfe principal manufacturing industries. 
 
 Baltimore is the seat of the famous Johns Hopkins University. 
 
 Cumberland has a canal to tidewater in the Potomac, 
 and is the shipping point for the Maryland coal regions. 
 It has important iron and steel works and foundries. 
 
 At Annapolis is the United States Naval Academy. 
 
 ^THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The District of Columbia was 
 given to the United States by Maryland as a site for the national capital. 
 
 Washington, the most beautiful city in the Union, is 
 situated where the Potomac River crosses the Fall line. 
 Unlike most cities, "Washington did not grow up from an 
 irregular village, but a large capital city was planned 
 
72 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Glass furnace, Wheeling, W. Va. 
 
 before it was built at all; hence its streets are straight 
 arid broad. When the settled part of the United States 
 was a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, a position 
 was chosen for its capital about midway between its 
 northern and southern limits. Why was the location ad- 
 vantageous ? Has it the same convenience 
 now ? For whom was the city named ? 
 
 Not only do the President and the Vice President 
 of the United States live in Washington, but there also 
 reside the members of the President's Cabinet and the 
 foreign ministers, who come to our country from all 
 the nations of the earth to represent their govern- 
 ments and to look after the interests of their people. 
 The senators and representatives meet in the Capitol 
 (p. 55), and Congress is in session for several months of 
 each year, making laws for the entire country. 
 
 Though "Washington is built where water power can 
 be obtained, and where navigation from the sea is 
 possible, the city has little commerce or manufactur- 
 ing, other than government printing. It has grown 
 up simply as the national capital. 
 
 VIRGINIA. What states border Virginia? Trace 
 through the state the divide of the Mississippi basin. 
 Name three rivers of the Atlantic slope; two of the Mississippi slope. 
 Locate two capes ; the mountain ranges ; the capital ; the chief seaport ; 
 three other important cities. 
 
 More than half the people of the state are engaged in 
 agriculture. Virginia ranks among the foremost states in 
 the Union in the production of tobacco, and the peanut 
 crop is the largest in the country. 
 
 There are valuable coal and iron mines. By means 
 of the valleys and water gaps of the Kanawha, Roanoke, 
 James, and Potomac rivers, several railway lines cross the 
 mountains and convey coal and other products to the fine 
 harbors of Chesapeake Bay. The Great Valley west of 
 Blue Ridge is very fertile. In it are the caverns of Luray 
 and the Natural Bridge. How were these formed ? (p. 15.) 
 
 Richmond and Petersburg, on the Fall line, manufacture 
 much tobacco. Norfolk has a fine harbor and is an im- 
 portant shipping point for coal, cotton, lumber, fish, and 
 peanuts. A United States Navy Yard is located here. 
 Eoanoke has large iron and machine works. Newport News 
 is an important railroad terminus and seaport. Lynchburg 
 is a great tobacco market. 
 
 Natural Bridge, Virginia. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. What rivers form part of the boundary of West 
 Virginia 1 What is the eastern boundary of the state 1 Trace the main 
 divide across the state. What river basin embraces most of the state T 
 Locate the capital ; three cities on the Ohio. 
 
 In the production of petroleum, coal, and natural gas, 
 West Virginia is one of the foremost states. Much salt 
 also is produced. There are extensive forests and fine 
 grazing lands on the plateaus, while farming is pursued 
 chiefly in the fertile lower lands farther west. 
 
 mieeling, in the coal and gas region, manufactures 
 iron, glass, and steel. What cities in Pennsylvania have 
 the same industries? Huntington ships coal and lumber, 
 and Parkersburg is in the oil region. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Tell one anecdote of the Dutch in New York, 
 the Quakers in Pennsylvania, or the early settlers in some other north- 
 ern Appalachian state. Read " Stories of New Jersey," by Stockton, 
 " Stories of Pennsylvania," by Walton and Brumbaugh, " The Story of 
 the City of New York," or of Washington, by Todd. Describe as fully as 
 New York is described one other city in this section. Read or recite 
 one selection from Longfellow's " Poems of Places," Vols. 27 and 28. 
 
 The Ohio Valley and Upper Lake States. The six 
 
 states of this section that lie between the Appalachian 
 Mountains and the Mississippi River are 
 sometimes called the " East Central States." 
 Through these states trace the divide be- 
 tween the St. Lawrence and Mississippi 
 basins. Which states are in both basins ? 
 Which are in only one basin? A larger 
 or smaller part of each of these states lies 
 in the Prairie plains, and all are heavy pro- 
 ducers of grain and meat. Which of them 
 contain extensive forests? Which are in 
 the coal region ? (map, p. 59.) 
 
 OHIO. Give the natural boundaries of Ohio. What 
 states border it ? Name one tributary of Lake Erie ; 
 two of the Ohio. Trace through the state the main 
 divide. Locate the capital ; two lake ports ; five other 
 important cities. 
 
 Ohio has a high rank both as a manufacturing and as an 
 agricultural state, and it is one of the first wool-growing 
 states in the Union. It ranks first in the production of 
 petroleum and natural gas. The abundance of iron ore 
 
 Tobacco field, Virginia. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 73 
 
 and bituminous coal in the eastern part of 
 the state, and the ease with which ore can 
 be obtained from the Lake Superior re- 
 gions by way of the G-reat Lakes, give to 
 Ohio great advantages for manufacturing. 
 Iron and steel, agricultural machinery, rail- 
 road cars, flour, and liquors are all very 
 important manufactures. Fruit farming, 
 dairying, and tobacco raising are carried 
 on extensively. What advantages has the 
 state for commerce ? 
 
 Cleveland, the largest 
 city of Ohio, and Cin- 
 cinnati are among the 
 ten greatest cities in 
 the country. Both are 
 important as commer- 
 cial and manufacturing 
 centers. 
 
 Cincinnati was one of the 
 first places founded after 
 the Revolutionary War in 
 the public lands north of the 
 Ohio River, and was settled 
 by emigrants from New Jer- 
 sey. It is situated on the 
 broad flood plain of the Ohio, 
 
 Public landing, Cincinnati. 
 
 Inclined-plane railroad, Cincinnati. 
 
 between the Great and Little Miami rivers, and opposite the mouth 
 of the Licking — the valleys of these streams affording at this point 
 gradual descents to the Ohio River from the general upland surface 
 of the country. In the days before railroads existed, the navigable 
 Ohio was the chief trade route of this whole region, and Cincinnati soon 
 became the greatest commercial center of the Ohio basin. Coal is ob- 
 tained cheaply by river from Pittsburg, and so Cincinnati has become 
 a great manufacturing center. The chief manufactures are clothing, 
 distilled and malt liquors, machinery, carriages, and furniture. The 
 part of the city in the flood plain is now devoted largely to business, 
 while the residential part on the surrounding hill tops is reached by 
 numerous inclined-plane railroads up the steep face of the bluffs. 
 
 Cleveland. When, shortly after the Revolutionary War, the several 
 states surrendered to the nation their claims to the public lands, Con- 
 necticut reserved to herself a tract in what is now northeastern Ohio. 
 Soon after Cincinnati was founded, General Cleaveland was sent from 
 Connecticut to survey this " Western Reserve " and to lay out a "capital 
 town.'' The town was laid out where the small Cuyahoga River joins 
 Lake Erie, and thus Cleveland was started. Soon after the Erie Canal 
 was finished, a canal was constructed from Cleveland across the low 
 divide and on to the Ohio River by way of the Scioto valley, and then 
 railroads were built. Its nearness to coal and iron beds and petroleum 
 fields to the east and south, and the low rate at which grain, lumber, 
 and iron ore can be received by way of the Great Lakes, have made 
 Cleveland a great commercial city as well as a great manufacturing 
 center. The chief industries are the making of iron and steel and 
 machinery, the refining of petroleum, the milling of lumber, and ship- 
 building for the lake trade. 
 
 Columbus, the capital, has canal communication with 
 Lake Erie and the Ohio, is an important trade center, and 
 manufactures carriages and cars. Toledo, at the lake ter- 
 minus of a canal from Cincinnati, carries on an extensive 
 lake commerce and has great flour mills. Dayton, Spring- 
 field, and Akron manufacture agricultural implements, and 
 Dayton has extensive car shops and limestone quarries. 
 Youngstown has large iron and steel works. 
 
 INDIANA. What waters 
 form part of the boundary ? 
 About how much lake coast 
 has Indiana? What states 
 border it? What tributary 
 of the Ohio drains most of the 
 state? Locate the capital; 
 two cities on the Ohio ; two 
 in the northern part of the 
 state; one west of the capital. 
 
 Indiana holds very 
 high rank as an agricul- 
 tural state, and manu- 
 facturing is facilitated 
 by the abundance of 
 fuel from the great 
 middle coal field, as 
 well as by the natural gas found in the state. 
 In order to pass the south end of Lake Michi- 
 gan, most of the great east and west railroads 
 of the country cross this state. What com- 
 mercial highway forms its southern boundary ? 
 Indianapolis, an important railroad center, has 
 an immense domestic trade. A belt railroad 
 encircles the city and connects all the centering 
 lines with the packing houses, grain elevators, 
 flour mills, stock yards, and machine shops. 
 Evansville is the chief shipping port of southern Indi- 
 ana, and has flour and lumber mills. Fort Wayne and 
 South Bend are near the timber region, and manufacture 
 railroad cars, wagons, and agricultural implements. 
 Terre Haute, at the head of navigation on the Wabash, 
 has large distilleries, and Muncie and New Albany manu- 
 facture glass and iron and steel. 
 
 ILLINOIS. Name the boundary waters of Illinois. Compare the ex- 
 tent of lake coast with that of Indiana. What states border Illinois ? 
 Trace the Mississippi-St. Lawrence divide through the state. Name 
 three tributaries of the Mississippi. Name the capital ; the great lake 
 port ; four other cities. How can a cargo of grain go from Chicago 
 to the Atlantic ports? 
 
 Illinois has been called the " Prairie State." It is in the 
 heart of the corn-, wheat-, and meat-producing region, and 
 
 Part of the harbor at Cleveland. 
 
74 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Lumber yards at Chicago. 
 
 a canal across the low divide 
 
 is one of the greatest 
 food-producing states 
 of the Union. The mid- 
 dle coal field underlies 
 almost the entire state, 
 and has enabled Illinois 
 to take a very high rank 
 as a coal-producing and 
 manufacturing state. 
 It has more miles of 
 railroad than any other 
 state, and is traversed 
 by a navigable water 
 route connecting the 
 Mississippi River with 
 Lake Michigan by way 
 of the Illinois River and 
 to Chicago. 
 
 Chicago is the largest city on the continent, except New 
 York, and it is the greatest market in the world for meat 
 and grain. 
 
 It was settled at the mouth of the little Chicago Eiver, which rises so 
 near a branch of the Illinois River that it was a favorite Indian route 
 between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi valley. After both Cincin- 
 nati and Cleveland had been founded, the United States government 
 buflt Fort Dearborn, where Chicago now stands, to protect the few 
 traders from the Indians who were constantly passing to and from the 
 portage. About this fort clustered many white men who came to trade. 
 A flourishing city grew so rapidly that it now has about two million 
 people. It stretches twenty-five miles along the lake front and extends 
 several miles back over the prairies. 
 
 What conditions are necessary to the rapid growth and prosperity of 
 a city ? (p. 42.) Chicago is in the center of the greatest grain-growing 
 and stock-raising region of the world, and the forests of the north are 
 easy of access. There is an ample supply of coal in the region just south 
 of the city, and from the shores of Lake Superior is received the best of 
 iron ore. Its commerce may be carried on by way of the Mississippi River 
 or the Great Lakes, or goods may be transported by railroads which enter 
 the city from the north, west, and south, for Chicago has become the 
 greatest railroad center in the world. As a result Chicago is not only 
 a great commercial city but a great manufacturing center. Thousands 
 of cattle and hogs are killed every day in the stock yards, and loads of 
 beef, pork, and other manufactured animal products are sent to all parts 
 of the country. Tanneries take the hides and convert them into leather, 
 and mills change the timber of the North into planed lumber, sashes, 
 doors, and furniture, railroad cars, and agricultural implements. Cloth- 
 ing, machinery, books and other printed matter, beer, and electrical 
 goods are manufactured extensively. 
 Iron ore from Lake Superior and coal 
 from the Ilhn ois coal fields can be brought 
 to Chicago so cheaply that it has become 
 a great iron- and steel-making center. 
 
 The University of Chicago, though one 
 of the youngest, is one of the largest in 
 the United States. 
 
 The business quarter borders the Chi- 
 cago River, which flows through the city 
 and forms the harbor, while the resi- 
 dence portion surrounds this quarter on 
 the north, west, and south. 
 
 and meat-packing establishments, and man- 
 ufactures agricultural implements and ma- 
 chinery. Quincy is a large trade center, and 
 has extensive flour mills and iron foundries. 
 Springfield, the capital, is an important coal- 
 mining center. Mockford manufactures agri- 
 cultural implements, furniture, and knit goods, 
 and, like Elgin, has large watch works. Joliet 
 has important iron and steel works and ex- 
 tensive limeston^quarries. 
 
 KENTUCKY. "What states border Kentucky 1 What 
 three rivers form much of its boundary 1 In what drain- 
 age basin is the state ? Name the principal rivers. Lo- 
 cate the capital; four important cities. 
 
 The most valuable ci'op is corn, but the state 
 produces nearly half of the tobacco raised in 
 the whole country. Hemp and sorghum are also charac- 
 teristic crops. Kentucky raises much live stock, and is 
 noted for its fine horses. It has iron and coal mines and 
 
 Peoria, on an expansion of the 
 Illinois River called Peoria Lake, 
 has great distilleries, stock yards, 
 
 A blue-grass stock farm, Kentucky. 
 
 Stock yards at Chicago. 
 
 fine hard-wood forests. Mammoth Cave, in the central 
 part of the state, is one of the largest caverns known. 
 
 Louisville, at the rapids or " falls ff of the Ohio, is one 
 of the largest tobacco markets in the world. A canal for 
 river steamers is built around the rapids. The manufac- 
 ture of tobacco, distilling, brew- 
 ing, meat packing, and tanning 
 are leading industries. 
 
 Covington and Newport are op- 
 posite Cincinnati and have simi- 
 lar industries. What are they? 
 Lexington is the center of the 
 stock-raising country known as 
 the Blue Grass region. 
 
 MICHIGAN. What states farther 
 east are in the same latitude as Michigan ? 
 By which of the Great Lakes is it bor- 
 dered 1 Locate the Strait of Mackinac ; 
 the St. Marys River and Canal; Lake 
 St. Clair ; the capital ; four other cities. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 75 
 
 The chief occupation in the southern part of Michigan 
 is agriculture, the state taking a high rank in the yield of 
 wheat, dairy products, apples, and wool. Lumbering and 
 mining are the important industries in the central and 
 northern parts. The pine forests of Michigan have fur- 
 nished much of the lumber used for building in the At- 
 lantic slope of the United States, and from this state is 
 also obtained about one third of the iron ore, copper, and 
 salt produced in the country. Through the St. Marys 
 
 Lock in the " Soo " Canal, St. Marys River, Mich. 
 
 or " Soo " Canal a greater amount of freight is carried than 
 through any other canal in the world. 
 
 Detroit has water communication with the whole St. 
 Lawrence valley, and this has made it a great commercial 
 and manufacturing center. The chief manufactures are 
 cars, machinery, tobacco, drugs, iron and steel, and lumber. 
 
 Detroit is one of the oldest of the large cities in the Central Lowland, 
 having been founded by the French from the lower St. Lawrence valley 
 about a hundred years before Cincinnati was settled. For more than 
 fifty years it was an important settlement of French farmers and fur 
 traders ; then for many years during the Revolutionary period it was in 
 the possession of Great Britain, and it was the last post surrendered to 
 the United States by the British after the Revolution. 
 
 Grand Rapids has the best water power 
 and is especially noted for the manufacture 
 Saginaw and Bay City are centers for 
 the lumber trade and for the manu- 
 facture of salt, the refuse of the saw- 
 mills being used as fuel in evaporat- 
 ing the brine from the salt wells. Ann 
 Arbor is the seat of the famous Univer- 
 sity of Michigan. 
 
 WISCONSIN. What rivers and lakes form 
 part of the boundary of Wisconsin ? What 
 states border it ? / What is the general altitude 
 of the southeastern half of the state ; of the 
 northwestern half? Name three tributaries of 
 the Mississippi River; one of Lake Michigan. 
 Locate the chief canal. Why is this canal im- 
 portant ? Locate the capital ; the chief cities. 
 
 Oats, barley, and tobacco are spe- 
 cially important crops. The northern 
 part of the state is covered with valu- 
 able pine forests, and contains rich de- 
 
 in the state, 
 of furniture. 
 
 City Hall, Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Lumbering, Michigan. 
 
 posits of iron ore. An important water route between 
 Lake Michigan and the Mississippi by way of the Fox 
 and Wisconsin rivers crosses the state. 
 
 Milwaukee, like Detroit, occupies the site of an old In- 
 dian town, whither white men came early to trade for 
 furs. It is one of the great cities of the country, being 
 an important shipping port for grain and lumber, and 
 having extensive breweries and foundries. 
 
 La Crosse and Oshkosh are centers of the lumber trade, 
 with a large flour-milling industry. Superior ships wheat, 
 iron ore, and lumber, and receives great quantities of 
 coal. It has important flour and lumber mills, shipyards, 
 and iron foundries. Racine has a large commerce on the 
 lake, and manufactures agricultural machines. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Tell about Daniel Boone in Kentucky, Hull's 
 surrender of Detroit, or an anecdote of some other state of this section. 
 Read " Stories of Ohio," by Howells, or " Stories of Indiana," by Thomp- 
 son. Describe as fully as Chicago is described one other city in the section. 
 Read or recite one selection from Longfellow's " Poems of Places," Vol. 29. 
 
 States of the Missouri Basin. The seven states of 
 the Northern Section west of the Mississippi River are 
 sometimes called the "West Central 
 States." Which of them lie partly or 
 wholly in the Missouri basin ? Through 
 these states trace the divide between 
 the Oulf slope and the St. Lawrence 
 and Hudson Bay slopes. Which state 
 is in all three of these slopes ? The 
 northern states of this group lie partly 
 in the Lake plains; the rest partly or 
 wholly in the Prairie plains. 
 
 The highland portion of these states, 
 while affording excellent pasturage for 
 cattle, is subject to droughts which 
 render farming uncertain except by 
 the aid of irrigation. The lowland 
 portion, however, has ample rainfall 
 and great fertility, and yields nearly 
 half of the grain and meat product of 
 the country. This group of states pro- 
 
76 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 duces nearly all the flaxseed, or linseed, raised in the 
 United States. What is made from linseed ? 
 
 MINNESOTA. Give the boundaries of Minnesota. What three great 
 river systems have their head waters in Ahis state ? Which system drains 
 the greater part of the state ? Locate the capital ; three other cities. 
 
 More than half of the state is forest- clad, — with pine in 
 the north and with oak and other hard woods in the south- 
 east, — and lumbering is an extensive industry. Yet Min- 
 nesota is the greatest wheat-producing state in the Union. 
 
 The flat valley of the Red River is probably the most perfect -wheat- 
 farming region in the world. During the glacial period most of this valley 
 was a vast lake, upon the 
 bottom of which sediment 
 was deposited to form the 
 fertile soil and level surface 
 of the present wheat fields. 
 
 The iron mines in 
 the northeastern part 
 of the state are among 
 the richest and most 
 extensive in the world. 
 
 Minneapolis and St. 
 
 Paul, though separate Harvesting 
 
 cities lying side by side, really form a single center of 
 population and one of the ten greatest commercial and 
 manufacturing centers in the country. 
 
 In 1819 the United States built Fort Snelling at the mouth of the 
 Minnesota River, at the head of navigation in the Mississippi, and a few 
 miles below the Falls of St. Anthony in that river. No town could be 
 built until the government had bought the region from the Indians. 
 When this was done, about twenty years later, a settlement was made at 
 the falls. Emigrants from New England soon settled there and built 
 sawmills and flour mills, and thus grew the greatest flour-milling and 
 
 Mills at Minneapolis below the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 
 one of the greatest lumber-milling cities in the world. It was well called 
 Minneapolis (water-city), since its location, growth, and greatness de- 
 pend largely upon the water power of the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 
 About the same time that Minneapolis was settled, Father Gaultier 
 built on the banks of the Mississippi, opposite Fort Snelling, the little log 
 chapel of St. Paul, which gave its name to the settlement of French and 
 Swiss Canadians that sprang up around it. Later came many Germans 
 and emigrants from Ohio and Pennsylvania, and thus grew the great com- 
 mercial city and state capital at the head of navigation on the Mississippi. 
 
 Duluth, at the head of navigation on the Great Lakes, 
 forms, with the city of Superior opposite, another center 
 of population. It has a fine harbor and great docks and 
 elevators. It is at the eastern end of a railroad to the Pa- 
 cific, and ships wheat, flour, lumber, iron ore, and copper. 
 Winona has a large trade in lumber and wheat. 
 
 IOWA. What rivers form part of its boundary ? What states sur- 
 round it? Which three states of the Northeastern Section are within the 
 parallels that bound Iowa ? How does Iowa compare in area with these 
 three states 1 Locate its capital ; four other cities. 
 
 Iowa produces more corn, oats, hay, and hogs than any 
 other state in the Union, and it is among the first in the 
 
 production of barley, 
 potatoes, cattle, and 
 dairy products. It 
 yields more bitumin- 
 ous coal than any 
 other state west of 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 Des Moines, the capi- 
 tal, is an important 
 railroad and trade cen- 
 ter in a mining and 
 oats, Iowa. rich, grazing region. 
 
 Dubuque has large lumber mills, candage factories, and 
 meat-packing establishments. Davenport, with Rock Island 
 and Moline opposite, forms an important center of trade 
 and manufacture. It is a great grain market, and manu- 
 factures lumber and flour. Sioux City has large meat- 
 packing establishments, and is an important trade center. 
 Burlington has many lumber mills. 
 
 MISSOURI. What rivers form part of the boundary of Missouri? 
 What states surround it ? What mountains are in the state ? Locate 
 its capital; its four chief cities. 
 
 On the rolling prairies of the northern half of the state 
 the raising of grain, sorghum, and cattle and hogs is the 
 chief occupation, while in the forest-covered plateau of 
 the Ozark Mountains the production of fruit and wool, and 
 lumbering, are important industries. Much coal is mined 
 in the northern, central, and western parts of the state. 
 The greater part of the zinc mined in the country, and 
 much lead, come from a small region including the south- 
 west corner of the state. 
 
 St. Louis is the largest city in the Mississippi basin, and 
 is exceeded in population by but three cities in the Union. 
 It is one of the great commercial centers of the country, 
 and the principal collecting and distributing point for the 
 southwestern quarter of the United States. 
 
 St. Louis was settled by French fur traders from New Orleans, 
 about the time France surrendered the eastern half of the Mississippi 
 valley to Great Britain. The site was selected because of its central loca- 
 tion and admirable facilities for river trade with all parts of the Missis- 
 sippi valley. These advantages later made it a groat railroad center, and 
 are the reasons for its growth and prosperity. For forty years nearly all 
 the settlers were French or Spanish, and it was not until after the 
 United States bought the western half "of the Mississippi basin in 1803, 
 that ferries across the river were established at St. Louis, and English- 
 speaking emigrants from the East began to settle there. The rapid 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 77 
 
 Growing corn, Nebraska. 
 
 building of railroads, and the development of the agricultural resources 
 of the surrounding regions, have made St. Louis a great center for the 
 collection and manufacture of farm products. The principal manufac- 
 tures are malt liquors, tobacco, flour, and meat products. 
 
 Kansas City is an important receiving and distributing 
 point for a large region to the west. It forms a center of 
 population with Kansas City, Kansas. St. Joseph is noted 
 for the making of men's shirts and overalls, and for 
 flour milling. Joplin is a mining center. Springfield 
 has important flour mills and a large local trade. 
 
 KANSAS. What states border it ? What can you say of the 
 altitude of the state ? Name its two chief rivers ; its capital ; 
 three other cities. 
 
 The surface of Kansas is a long, gradual slope, the 
 western boundary being about half a mile higher 
 than the eastern. In the west, cattle herding is the 
 chief industry; in the east, farming. Explain this 
 difference. Kansas ranks among the first four or five 
 states in the production of corn, wheat, cattle, and 
 hogs. There are im- 
 portant coal, zinc, and 
 lead mines in the east- 
 ern, and salt m ines in the 
 central part of the state. 
 
 Kansas City is contin- 
 uous with Kansas City, 
 Missouri, the middle of 
 a public street being the 
 dividing line. The city 
 ranks next to Chicago 
 in slaughtering and 
 meat packing, which 
 are leading industries. 
 
 Topeka, the capital, has large flour mills. Wichita is in 
 a wheat-growing and stock-raising region. Leavenworth is 
 in the coal-mining region of northeastern Kansas. 
 
 NEBRASKA. How does Nebraska resemble Kansas in surface ; in 
 drainage? What states surround it? What river forms its eastern 
 
 Steam plow, Kansas. 
 
 boundary? What tributary of the Missouri drains most of the state? 
 Locate the capital ; one other large city. 
 
 Nebraska, like Kansas, lies on the long, gradual slope 
 west of the Missouri River, down which the wide, shallow 
 tributaries of that stream flow in broad but not deep val- 
 leys. The rainfall in the east is sufficient for very success- 
 ful farming. The west is drier, but affords excellent pastur- 
 age for vast herds of cattle. 
 
 Omaha, with Council Bluffs and East Omaha in Iowa, 
 and South Omaha in Nebraska, forms a single center of 
 population, commerce, and manufacture. There are ex- 
 tensive breweries, works for smelting and refining silver 
 ore from the Eocky Mountains, and very large meat- 
 packing establishments. 
 
 Lincoln, the capital, is a trade center, doing a large dis^ 
 tributing business in coal, grain, and live stock. 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA. What states border it ? What rivers form part 
 of its boundary ? In what part of the state is the greatest elevation of 
 land? What river drains nearly the whole state? Compare the area 
 of South Dakota with that of New England. Locate the capital and 
 chief cities. 
 
 The surface of South Dakota is somewhat less smooth 
 than that of Kansas and Nebraska. In the east are hills 
 of glacial drift, and in the west there is a flat dome-shaped 
 upheaval of rock, which has been gradually worn down 
 
 into a cluster of mountain 
 ridges called the Black 
 Hills. Here gold and sil- 
 ver are mined and a low 
 grade of tin ore is found. 
 In the east wheat and 
 flaxseed are the most im- 
 portant crops. 
 
 Sioux Fallsh&s fine water 
 power, and is the railroad 
 center of the state. Dead- 
 wood is the mining center 
 in the Black Hills region. 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA. What 
 states and country bound North 
 Dakota ? What river boundary 
 has it ? What three states does 
 it resemble in surface ? In what 
 
 two drainage slopes does North Dakota he ? Trace the divide between 
 
 them. Locate the capital and chief cities. 
 
 Much of North Dakota east of the Missouri is covered 
 with glacial drift. How was the Red River valley formed ? 
 Some of the wheat farms in this valley are thousands of 
 acres in extent. Grazing and stock raising are impor- 
 tant industries. 
 
 Fargo is at the head of navigation on the Red River, 
 and is the center of several railroad lines. Grand Forks is 
 in the rich wheat region. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read chapter 21 of McMaster's " School His- 
 tory of the United States," and tell some anecdote connected with the his- 
 tory of this section. Read " Stories of Missouri," by Musick. Describe 
 as fully as St. Louis is described one other city in the section. Read or 
 recite one selection from Longfellow's " Poems of Places," Vol. 29. 
 
 Union railroad station, St. Louis. 
 
78 
 
 FARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 _ Delta of the 
 "Mississippi River 
 
 SOUTHERN SECTION 
 
 Scale 133 miles to one inch, same as the maps of Northern Section, Plateau Sec 
 Paciiic Section, British Isles, Central Europe, and Southwestern Europe 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 50 100 150 200 260 300 
 
 The highlands above 2000 feet are shown in the buff tints, 
 the lowlands in the green tints, and the submerged part of 
 the continental plateau tn the light blue tint. 
 
 Longitude 
 
 THE SOUTHERN SECTION. 
 
 Which part of this section is highland ? Which part is lowland ? 
 Which states contain part of the Appalachian Mountains ? Which states 
 he partly or wholly in the Atlantic plain ? Which lie partly or wholly in 
 the Gulf plain ? Which divisions are broken by the Ozark Mountains ? 
 Which he partly in the 'Great Plains? Which quarter of the United 
 States embraces most of the Southern Section ? What kind of sum- 
 mers and winters prevail in this section ? (map, p. 54.) 
 
 Long, hot summers and short, temperate winters pre- 
 vail over nearly the whole of this section. Although 
 snow sometimes falls in all the states, it soon melts. 
 Over nearly the whole section the rainfall is abundant for 
 purposes of farming. It is only in the extreme west that 
 serious droughts occur. 
 
 The surface for a hundred miles or more from the coast 
 
 is quite flat, then occur the low Piedmont hills in the east, 
 and the gently rolling plains in the west. The surface 
 is rugged only near the Appalachian and Ozark ridges 
 and near the mountains in the extreme west. The soil, 
 though sandy toward the coast, is generally very fertile. 
 Agriculture is the great industry, and cotton is by far 
 the most important crop (map, p. 58). More than one 
 fourth of the farm land is devoted to the cultivation of 
 this fiber, and this section is the world's greatest cotton- 
 producing region. 
 
 Most of the ordinary or " upland " cotton is grown in a broad belt 
 lying about one hundred miles from the coast, and stretching from Texas 
 to North Carolina, with extensions up the valleys of the Mississippi and 
 its great tributaries. The finest cotton, however, — that with the longest 
 and toughest fiber, — comes from the sea islands along the Atlantic coast. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 79 
 
 After cotton, corn is the most extensive crop of the 
 section, particularly in the northern part, where wheat 
 and tobacco are also grown, while from the southern 
 part come all rice and cane sugar produced in this country, 
 and many of the oranges. This section also produces most 
 of the peaches and sweet potatoes raised in the United 
 States. In the northern part, where grain is grown, 
 many hogs and fine horses are raised, and in the .west- 
 ern part, many cattle and sheep. 
 
 What part of this section is wooded? (map, p. 59.) 
 Why are forests not found in the western part ? In the 
 northern part of the section, especially in the valleys of 
 the Appalachian and Ozark Mountains, are our most ex- 
 tensive forests of oak, hickory, ash, poplar, and cotton- 
 wood. The forests of the coast plain are composed chiefly 
 
 of yellow or southern pine, which is a much harder 
 wood than the white pine of the North. These forests 
 not only yield valuable building lumber, but from the 
 abundant pine sap are made great quantities of naval 
 stores — pitch, rosin, and turpentine. 
 
 In what parts of this section are there coal fields ? 
 (map, p. 59.) Coal mines are worked in all these 
 fields, ' but the most extensive are in the Appalachian 
 and Ozark regions. Near the southern end of the Ap- 
 palachians, so much iron ore is obtained that it has 
 become the greatest iron-mining region in the country, 
 after the Lake Superior region. 
 
 From the city map, on p. 59, how do you think 
 this section compares with the northeastern quarter of 
 the country as a manufacturing region? 
 
 Until about forty years ago nearly all the labor in the Southern 
 Section was done by negro slaves, who could plant and gather cotton 
 and do farm work, but few of them were able to manage machinery ; 
 so very little manufacturing was then done in the South, nearly all 
 manufactured goods used there, such as cloth, furniture, tools, and 
 implements, being brought from abroad or the North in exchange for 
 raw cotton. Since the Civil War the labor conditions are greatly 
 changed. Many white people have turned their attention to manu- 
 facturing and mining, and the negroes, who have been freed, are being 
 employed as laborers in factories and shops as well as on the farms. 
 
 Cotton cloth is made at many places, especially in the 
 eastern part of the section, and this branch of manufac- 
 ture is rapidly increasing. Cottonseed oil is extensively 
 made in the central and west central parts, and sugar in 
 the Mississippi delta. Much iron and steel are manufac- 
 tured in the iron-mining region, and there are many 
 sawmills in the forest regions, and turpentine distilleries 
 in the great pineries of the Southeast. 
 
 The coast of nearly the whole section is fringed with 
 barrier beaches, and many of the inlets between them 
 have narrow, crooked channels, often obstructed by shift- 
 ing bars. Hence foreign commerce is not so great as on 
 our northeastern coast, though much cotton and some 
 coal and lumber are exported, and there is an active 
 coasting trade in small vessels. Turn to the railroad 
 map (p. 60), and notice that the railroads of the section 
 are separated by the Appalachian Mountains into two 
 groups. Where is the eastern group ? The other group 
 connects the Southwest with the northern part of the 
 Mississippi valley on either side of the Ozark Mountains. 
 
 These two groups are connected by several lines across the Appala- 
 chians and around their southern end; but each group indicates the 
 route taken by trade in its region : the Atlantic plain trading mostly 
 with the northeastern part of the country, but the Southwest and lower 
 Mississippi valley mostly with the great central prairie region. 
 
 Turn to the population map (p. 57), and tell how the 
 density of population in this section compares with that 
 in the northeastern quarter of the country. The Southern 
 Section contains about one fourth of the people in the 
 United States. There are very few foreigners ; but about 
 one third of the people are negroes, and in several of the 
 states the negroes are more numerous than the whites. 
 
80 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. What states border North Carolina? To 
 what two slopes does its drainage belong? Name the principal rivers. 
 Name two mountain ranges ; a mountain peak. What have you learned 
 about this peak ? Describe the coast, and tell the manner of its forma- 
 tion (p. 49). Locate the chief sounds; three capes. What part of the 
 state is swampy f Locate the capital; the other chief cities. 
 
 Much of the Tidewater region of the state is swampy or 
 covered with open pine forests. Rice, peanuts, sweet pota- 
 toes, and early vegetables are important crops in the light 
 and sandy soils of this region. In the Piedmont region 
 cotton, tobacco, corn, and wheat are raised, and the for- 
 est-covered mountains of the west yield much valuable 
 hard-wood lumber. 
 
 The manufacture of cotton is increasing rapidly, the 
 mills already consuming more cotton than is raised in the 
 state. Other important industries are the manufacture 
 of tobacco, lumber milling, and the distilling of rosin and 
 turpentine. 
 
 Wilmington, the chief seaport of the state, is an 
 important cotton market, and ships great quantities of 
 lumber and naval stores. Baleigh, on the Fall line, has 
 important cotton mills and tobacco factories. Charlotte 
 is the great cotton-manufacturing center of the state. 
 Asheville, the commercial center of the western part, is 
 a famous health resort. Greensboro and Winston have 
 large tobacco factories. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. Between what two states is South Carolina ? 
 What river separates it from Georgia? Describe the surface. Which 
 are its two largest rivers ? Locate the capital ; the other chief cities. 
 
 More than one third of the cultivated land is devoted to 
 cotton. The swampy Tidewater region yields much rice, 
 the state ranking second in the Union in this product. 
 Much attention is given to the cultivation of early fruit 
 and vegetables for the Northern markets. From the pine 
 forests lumber and naval stores are obtained. A great 
 deal of phosphate rock is dug in the Tidewater region, 
 and shipped for use as a fertilizer. Cotton weaving, 
 lumber milling, turpentine distilling, rice cleaning, and 
 fertilizer making are the chief manufacturing industries. 
 
 Charleston has long been one of the leading cities of 
 
 Rice field, South Carolina. 
 
 the South. It owes its prosperity largely to its fine har- 
 bor. It was at Fort Sumter in this harbor that the first 
 engagement of the Civil War took place. Much cotton, 
 rice, lumber, and fertilizers are shipped from this port. 
 Columbia, the capital, is on the Fall line. Its fine wa- 
 ter power is used by several large cotton factories. 
 Greenville and Spartanburg manufacture cotton cloth. 
 
 GEORGIA. What states border Georgia? What rivers form part 
 of the boundary ? What are the chief rivers of Georgia draining the 
 Atlantic slope; the Gulf slope? What part of the state is drained 
 by the Mississippi system? Trace the divides of these three slopes. 
 Locate Okeflnokee Swamp ; the capital ; the other chief cities. 
 
 Georgia is one of the leading cotton-growing states, and 
 exceeds all other states in the yield of peaches. The 
 crops of sweet potatoes, rice, and sugar are also large. 
 The pine forests yield much lumber, and more turpentine 
 
 Turpentine distillery, southern Georgia. 
 
 and rosin than any other region in the world. There are 
 valuable quarries of marble and granite in the north, 
 Georgia ranking as second state in the production of 
 marble. The fine water powers along the Fall line, and 
 the coal and iron mines in the north, give Georgia a high 
 manufacturing rank among the Southern states. The 
 chief manufactures are cotton, lumber, and naval stores. 
 
 Atlanta, the capital, was destroyed during the Civil 
 War, but has grown rapidly since, and is one of the great- 
 est commercial cities and railroad centers of the South. 
 It owes its prosperity largely to its location near the 
 southern end of the massive Blue Ridge, and thus where 
 communication is easy with the North and with both the 
 eastern and western groups of Southern railroads. It has 
 cotton mills and many other manufactories. 
 
 Savannah was the first place settled in the state. It 
 was taken by the British during the Revolution and was 
 the scene of fighting during the Civil War. It is eigh- 
 teen miles from the ocean, but has one of the deepest 
 harbors on the Southern coast. The first steamship to 
 cross the Atlantic sailed from this port. Savannah ships 
 much cotton, rice, and lumber, and more naval stores 
 than any other port in the world. 
 
 Augusta and Columbus, on the Fall line, have many 
 cotton mills. Macon, also on the Fall line, manufactures 
 cotton goods and lumber. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 81 
 
 FLORIDA. What states border on Florida ? What waters 1 Name 
 its chief bays ; capes ; rivers. Trace the main divide. Which slope 
 embraces the greater part of the state ? Locate the capital ; 
 the four chief cities. 
 
 The surface of Florida is everywhere 
 low and flat, so that the streams are slug- 
 gish, and many of them have numerous 
 lakelike expansions. The southern part 
 of the peninsula has been formed by 
 additions to the mainland of succes- 
 sive lines of coral reefs, or keys, that 
 grew up in the warm, shallow water 
 along the coast (p. 21). This part of 
 the state is now mostly a great marsh 
 called " The Everglades. 1 ' 
 
 The raising of early vegetables and 
 fruits, especially oranges; lumbering in 
 the north; and the making of cigars 
 from Cuban tobacco, are the chief in- 
 dustries. The mild climate has made the 
 state a favorite winter resort for invalids 
 
 Jacksonville, the business center of the state, exports 
 lumber and oranges, and is a great winter resort. Key 
 West, the most southerly city in the country, manufac- 
 tures many cigars and exports sponges. Pensacola is en- 
 gaged chiefly in shipping lumber. Tampa is an important 
 shipping point for southern Florida, and manufactures 
 cigars. St. Augustine is the oldest town in the United 
 States, and contains fine hotels for winter guests. 
 
 ALABAMA. What states border Alabama? What water bound- 
 aries has it? Trace the main divide of the state. What rivers drain 
 most of the state south of the divide ? Into what bay do they both 
 flow 1 What river drains the northern part of the state ? Into what 
 does it flow ? Locate the capital ; the other chief cities. 
 
 Besides the great agricultural industry, which produces 
 large crops of cotton, sweet potatoes, and corn, the indus- 
 try of mining is very important. More coal is mined in 
 
 are found so close together in Alabama that iron can be 
 very cheaply made, and the state has become the third 
 center in the Union for its manufacture. Lumber 
 milling is also an important industry. 
 
 Mobile, at the head of Mobile Bay, is the 
 oldest large city in the section. It is a great 
 cotton-shipping port, and has large lumber 
 mills. Birmingham and Anniston are in 
 the mineral region, and have many 
 iron furnaces and rolling mills. Mont- 
 gomery, the capital, is an important 
 trade center. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. What states border Missis- 
 
 •fe sippi? What water boundaries has it? What 
 
 river in the western part of the state is really a 
 
 large bayou of the Mississippi ? By what river is 
 
 the extreme northeastern part of the state drained ? 
 
 Locate the capital ; the chief cities. 
 
 es, 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Rolling mills near Birmingham, Ala. 
 
 northern Alabama than in any other Southern state, and 
 in the production of iron ore this state ranks next after 
 Michigan and Minnesota. Iron ore, coal, and limestone 
 
 Picking cotton, Mississippi. 
 
 The broad flood plain of the Mississippi includes all the 
 part of the state between that river and the Yazoo, and is 
 one of the most fertile regions of the Union. Upon these 
 alluvial lands is grown much of the great cotton crop. 
 A larger proportion of the land is planted with cotton in 
 Mississippi than with all other crops combined. Lumber- 
 ing is also an important industry. 
 
 Vicksburg is a cotton market and the largest city of 
 the state. Meridian is the commercial center of eastern 
 Mississippi. Natchez ships much cotton. 
 
 TENNESSEE. What states border Tennessee ? What is its -western 
 boundary ; its eastern ? What plateau crosses the state ? This is one 
 of the Alleghany plateaus. What tributaries of the Ohio cross the 
 state ? Compare the slopes of the eastern and western parts of the state 
 as indicated by these rivers. Locate the capital ; the other chief cities. 
 
 Tennessee is divided into three regions by the Tennes- 
 see River and the Cumberland plateau. Cotton growing is 
 confined chiefly to the western region. Much tobacco, 
 fruit, corn, and stock are raised in middle Tennessee, and 
 more wheat than in any other Southern state. East of 
 
82 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 the plateau lumbering and the mining of coal and iron are 
 important industries. Much beautiful variegated marble 
 is also quarried in east Tennessee. 
 
 Tennessee is the foremost Southern state in manufactur- 
 ing — the grinding of flour, lumber milling, the making of 
 
 Baling cotton, Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 iron and steel, and the manufacture of cottonseed oil be- 
 ing the leading branches of this industry. 
 
 Nashville, the capital, was founded during the Revolu- 
 tionary War, at a salt "lick" or spring, where game was 
 very plentiful, as buffaloes, deer, and other wild animals 
 came to the place to lick the salt-incrusted rocks surround- 
 ing the spring. It soon became an important trading 
 point because of its river route to the lower Mississippi 
 and the upper Ohio, and, with the building of railroads, 
 it became one of the important commercial cities south 
 of the Ohio River. 
 
 Memphis was settled about eighty years ago on the high 
 bluff overlooking the Mississippi River, from which De 
 Soto discovered the river more than 350 years ago. The 
 bluff is the important feature of the location, for south of 
 this point for several hundred miles the river occupies the 
 central part of its flood plain, and both banks are liable to 
 overflow. Because of its safe landing, Memphis rapidly 
 grew to be an important river port, and since the building 
 of a great railroad bridge here across the mighty river it 
 has become a noted railroad center. It has a large trade in 
 cotton, and many machine shops, and it is the great manu- 
 facturing center for cottonseed oil. 
 
 Knoxville is the trade center for eastern Tennessee, 
 and has foundries, rolling mills, and lumber mills. Chat- 
 tanooga is in the coal- and iron-mining region, and manu- 
 factures iron and steel. It is near the head of the narrow 
 gorge which the Tennessee River has cut through the Cum- 
 berland plateau, and which is utilized by several railroads; 
 hence the city has become an important railroad center. 
 
 ARKANSAS. What states border Arkansas ? What rivers form 
 part of. its boundaries t What great tributary of the Mississippi flows 
 
 through it? Name the mountains. In what direction does the state 
 slope f Locate the capital and other chief cities. 
 
 Nearly one half of the state is occupied by the broad 
 flood plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas rivers, whose 
 fertile soil produces great crops of cotton, corn, and 
 peaches. From the forest-covered uplands valuable hard- 
 wood timber is obtained, and excellent cottonwood and 
 cypress from the fertile lower land. Coal and fine sand- 
 stone for whetstones are obtained from the rock folds 
 in the western part of the state. South of the Ozark 
 ridges, in the region of folded rocks, occurs a group of 
 very celebrated hot springs, about which a town of hotels 
 and hospitals has grown up to accommodate the invalids 
 who come to bathe in the hot water. 
 
 Little Rock, the capital, has manufactures of cottonseed 
 oil and lumber. Fort Smith is the center of the coal re- 
 gion. Pine Bluff, on the bluff forming the western margin 
 of the great Mississippi flood plain, is a shipping point for 
 cotton and lumber. 
 
 LOUISIANA. What states border on Louisiana ¥ What waters ? In 
 what general direction does its surface slope ¥ What is the largest 
 tributary of the Mississippi in the state? What bayou flows to the 
 Gulf from near the mouth of the Red River ¥ Because of this bayou the 
 mouth of the Red River is sometimes said to be the head of the Missis- 
 sippi delta. What lake or arm of the Gulf is in the southeastern part of 
 the state 1 Locate the capital ; the chief city ; one other city. 
 
 Fully half of the state lies in the flood plains of the Missis- 
 sippi and Red rivers. The levees along these streams 
 are anxiously watched when the rivers are rising. Why ? 
 The lowlands are traversed by many bayous, and contain 
 great canebrakes and swampy forests. But in them are 
 raised by far the greater part of the sugar cane grown in 
 the United States, and more than half of the rice, while 
 cotton growing is confined largely to the uplands. The 
 
 Cutting sugar cane, Louisiana. 
 
 chief manufacturing industries are sugar refining, lumber ^ 
 milling, and rice cleaning. 
 
 New Orleans, the largest city of the South, and one of 
 the twelve greatest cities of the Union, lies on both banks 
 of the Mississippi River, about one hundred miles from 
 its mouth. Ocean vessels ascend the river to the city to 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 83 
 
 receive cargoes of freight that come down the river from 
 all parts of the Mississippi valley. 
 
 It is owing to these unrivaled natural advantages for commerce that 
 New Orleans has become one of the great cities of the country and the 
 greatest cotton-shipping point in the world, in spite of certain disadvan- 
 tages of its location. 
 
 Most of the city lies between the river and Lake Pontchartrain. How 
 is it protected from high water in the river ? Much of it is so low that 
 when strong east winds prevail it would be flooded by the lake but for 
 levees built along its shores. Thus the city is completely surrounded by 
 levees, over which the drainage and sewage is pumped by steam into 
 Lake Pontchartrain. 
 
 The city and the whole state were settled by the French about sixty 
 years before the Revolutionary War, and many descendants of these 
 settlers still live there and speak the French language. The city was 
 located where vessels could reach it from the Gulf, either by the river or 
 by the lake. Sailing vessels still use the lake approach and by canals 
 reach the heart of the city, but steamers generally use the river, espe- 
 cially since the deepening of one of the river mouths by means of ar- 
 tificial banks called jetties. These jetties were built out across the sand 
 bar from the natural mouth into the deep water of the Gulf. The cur- 
 rent of the river quickly wore away the bar between the jetties, so that 
 now the largest steamers can enter the river. 
 
 Shreveport is a cotton market. Baton Rouge, the capital, 
 is built on a bluff above the river. 
 
 Steamboat landing, New Orleans. 
 
 TEXAS. By what is Texas bordered ? What part of the state con- 
 tains mountains? What part is lowland? What part is highland? 
 In what general direction does the state slope ? Trace through the state 
 the divide of the Mississippi basin. Mention three rivers south of this 
 divide. How does Texas rank among the states of the Union in area ? 
 (map, p. 56.) Compare this area with that of all New England. Describe 
 the coast. Name the bays. Locate the capital ; two cities in the north ; 
 a seaport ; three other cities. 
 
 The warm, moist lowlands have valuable* forests and oil 
 wells, and produce sugar cane and more cotton than any 
 other state. The higher, cooler, and drier central prairie 
 region produces large crops of wheat, more corn and hogs 
 than any other Southern .state, and much fruit ; while the 
 pastures of this region and of the Great Plains farther 
 west have made this the greatest cattle-raising, and one of 
 the important wool-growing, states in the Union. It is one 
 of the great manufacturing states of the South, lumber 
 milling, the grinding of flour, and the making of cotton- 
 
 Alamo Plaza, San Antonio, Texas. 
 
 seed oil being the leading industries. Texas was part of 
 Mexico until shortly before it was admitted into the 
 Union, and many of its people are of Spanish descent. 
 
 Dallas and Fort Worth are the railroad and commercial 
 centers of northern Texas. San Antonio was settled by 
 Spanish Mexicans and still contains many of their de- 
 scendants. Galveston, the chief seaport, is one of the great 
 cotton-shipping points of the country. Austin, the capi- 
 tal, Houston, and Waco are important trade centers. 
 
 OKLAHOMA. What divisions surround Oklahoma? What river 
 crosses Oklahoma and receives most of its drainage ? Locate the 
 capital ; one other city. 
 
 Oklahoma was formed from Indian Territory, after the 
 Federal government had bought the lands from the Indian 
 tribes. When these lands were thrown open to public set- 
 tlement thousands of white families rushed in, procured 
 land, and built homes. Thus Oklahoma was peopled in a 
 few days' time. "Wheat, corn, and cotton are grown in the 
 eastern part of Oklahoma, but in the western part cattle 
 raising is the chief industry. Guthrie, the capital, and 
 Oklahoma are important trade centers. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. What divisions of the Union border Indian 
 Territory ? What river forms its southern boundary ? What great river 
 is in the north ? 
 
 This territory has been set apart by the Federal government for the 
 home of Indian tribes who have given up their homes in other parts of 
 the Union. About one fourth of the Indians in the country now live in 
 the territory. With them live many whites and negroes who have 
 been adopted by the Indians. The territory has no regular territorial 
 government, but each Indian tribe governs itself under the supervision 
 of Federal officers. The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and 
 Seminoles have organized governments and are called nations. They 
 are partly civilized, the Cherokees having schools and a newspaper pub- 
 lished in their language. Ardmore, in the Chickasaw nation, and Mus- 
 cogee, in the Creek nation, are the largest towns. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Tell one anecdote of Revolutionary times in 
 the South. Read " Stories of Georgia," by Joel Chandler Harris ; " The 
 Story of Louisiana," by Maurice Thompson ; " Palmetto Leaves," by 
 Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe ; " Dixie," by Julian Ralph ; or " Re- 
 member the Alamo," by Amelia E. Barr. Read or recite one selection 
 from Vol. 28 of Longfellow's " Poems of Places." Describe as fully as 
 New Orleans is described one other city or place in this section. Write 
 next day what you can remember of the description given by one of 
 your schoolmates. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 85 
 
 THE PLATEAU SECTION. 
 
 Which states of this section are. crossed or bordered by the Rocky 
 Mountains? Which states lie partly in the Great Plains? Which 
 states he partly in the Columbia plateaus ? Which he partly in the Colo- 
 rado plateaus 1 Which he partly in the Great Basin ? Which half of the 
 Union embraces this section f How does the rainf all in this section com- 
 pare with that in the eastern half of the Union ? (map, p. 54.) 
 
 This is the highland section of our country. The gen- 
 eral surface is about a mile high, but the mountain ranges 
 and many of the plateaus are much higher. Practically 
 the only lowland in the section is in the extreme southwest. 
 
 Smelter near Anaconda, Mont. 
 
 Through the central part of the section the 
 great Rocky Mountain chain extends from 
 northwest to southeast, its numerous irregular 
 ranges making this the roughest and most 
 rugged part of the United States. Except in 
 the extreme north and in the extreme south, 
 the lowest passes across this chain have an ele- 
 vation greater than the highest points of the 
 Appalachian Mountains, while very many of 
 the peaks reach heights of between two and 
 three miles, where it is too cold for any vege- 
 tation to grow. 
 
 East of the mountains the section embraces 
 a wide belt of the smooth but elevated surface of the Great Plains. In 
 the great plateau region west of the mountains the surface is much 
 broken by the deep canyons of the Colorado and Snake river systems ; 
 by lines of cliffs many miles in length; and by numerous detached 
 mountain ranges formed by tilted blocks (p. 52). Between these ranges, 
 cliffs, and canyons, however, the plateaus are smooth and nearly level. 
 
 On the highland the summer days are usually hot, but 
 because of the elevation the nights are cool. The winters 
 in the north are long and very cold, but the lowland in 
 the south is one of the hottest parts of the United States. 
 The winters there are mild and almost snowless, and in 
 summer the temperature is sometimes 120°. 
 
 Only on the mountain slopes and on the highest plateaus 
 is there enough rainfall to support forest growth. Else- 
 where the section is so dry that irrigation is necessary for 
 successful farming. In the Great Basin and southward 
 the lower lands are true deserts. Much of the section, 
 however, is covered with coarse bunch grass, which forms 
 good pasturage. 
 
 By far the most important industry is the mining of 
 the metals silver, gold, copper, and lead. This section 
 
 is the greatest silver-mining region of the world, and it 
 produces more than half of the gold, copper, and lead 
 mined in the United States. Enough coal to supply the 
 wants of the section is mined from numerous small coal 
 fields (map, p. 59). 
 
 The metal-bearing rock or ore is usually found as veins filling old 
 cracks or fissures in the upheaved rocks of the mountains. Very deep 
 mines are sunk in following the vein from which the ore is obtained. 
 Often several different metals, particularly silver and copper or silver 
 and lead, are found associated in the same vein. Though this is one 
 of the great lead-producing regions of the world, the lead is obtained 
 from silver ore. 
 
 After mining, herding is the most important industry. 
 Vast herds of cattle find pasturage on the Great Plains, 
 and thousands are annually shipped east to be converted 
 into beef. Large flocks of sheep also pasture both on the 
 Great Plains and on the high plateaus west of the Eocky 
 Mountains. About one fifth of the wool produced in the 
 Union comes from this section. 
 
 Some grain, vegetables, and fruit are produced for home 
 consumption, but, with few exceptions, farming is confined 
 
 to lands that can be 
 irrigated, either in the 
 larger river valleys or 
 near the base of the 
 mountains, where the 
 waters from mountain 
 streams can be led 
 over the land. The 
 lower mountain slopes 
 are covered with for- 
 ests of spruce, fir, and 
 bull pine, and here lum- 
 bering is carried on. 
 
 Prom the population 
 map (p. 57) compare 
 the density of popu- 
 lation in this section 
 with that of the eastern half of the Union. There are 
 not so many people in this whole section as in the state 
 of New Jersey or of South Carolina. Compare the size of 
 those states with that of this section. 
 
 Nearly one third of the Indians in the United States five in this section, 
 and yet there are ten times as many whites as Indians. The Indians live 
 in reservations which the government has set apart for them, and within 
 which no one else is allowed to settle. 
 
 From the map on p. 60, compare this section with the 
 eastern half of the country as to the number of railroads. 
 Not many railroads are necessary in a sparsely populated 
 region. In what general direction do most of the railroads 
 of this section extend ? Most of them are parts of trans- 
 continental lines which connect the railroad systems of 
 the East with the Pacific coast. 
 
 MONTANA. What states and country border Montana ¥ What 
 part is most mountainous 1 Trace the continental divide across the 
 state. What two great rivers are east of the divide ¥ What two rivers 
 are west 1 To what are they tributary ¥ What lake is in the northwest ¥ 
 Locate the capital; the other chief cities. 
 
 Sheep herding, Wyoming. 
 
86 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Montana produces more copper than any other state in 
 the Union, and ranks high in the output of gold and sil- 
 ver. What state east of the Mississippi River produces 
 much copper ? (p. 75.) In the broad 
 valleys east of the mountains more 
 wool is produced than in any other 
 state in the Union ; many cattle 
 are raised; and crops of wheat and 
 oats are grown. There are sev- 
 eral Indian reservations within the 
 state. - 
 
 Helena, the chief commercial city, 
 is in a rich mineral region. Butte 
 is one of the great copper-mining 
 
 The Yellowstone National Park has been reserved from 
 settlement by the Federal government. It contains the 
 most wonderful geyser region in the world, and hundreds 
 
 of hot springs whose 
 basins are composed 
 of beautiful mineral 
 deposits from the 
 cooling waters (p. 14). 
 Besides these there 
 are several beautiful 
 lakes, the Great Falls 
 and canyon of the 
 Yellowstone River, 
 and many lofty moun- 
 tain peaks. It is vis- 
 ited every year by 
 travelers from all 
 parts of the world. 
 
 COLORADO. What di- 
 visions border Colorado 1 
 Trace the continental di- 
 vide across the state. Name four mountain ranges. 
 Locate four " parks " among the mountains ; three 
 mountain peaks. What great rivers have head 
 waters within the state 1 Locate the capital ; 
 two other cities east of the mountains; one 
 city among the mountains, near the source of 
 the Arkansas River. 
 
 Entrance to the Garden of the Gods, Colorado. 
 
 centers of the world. Anaconda also has 
 large works for the reduction of copper ore, 
 Great Falls is an important manufacturing center 
 
 IDAHO. What states and country border Idaho 1 What river drains 
 the southern part ; the northern part ? What part is mountainous 1 
 To what physical region does Idaho belong ? What is the character of 
 its surface ? Locate the capital. 
 
 The silver ores of the northern part of the state are rich 
 in lead, and Idaho is one of the great lead-producing 
 states in the Union ; the yield of silver and gold is also 
 large. In the north the rainfall is sufficient for the growth 
 of wheat in the valleys and for fine forests on the moun- 
 tain sides, so that both agriculture and lumbering are car- 
 ried on. Boise is in an excellent grazing region. 
 ■ *■» 
 
 WYOMING. What states border Wyoming ?' Trace the continental 
 divide through the state. What three river systems have head waters in 
 this state ? What are the chief mountain ranges ? Locate the Yellow- 
 stone Park. Name the capital ; two other towns. 
 
 The raising of cattle and sheep, and coal mining, are the 
 chief occupations in Wyoming. It is the only state in the 
 section where coal mines are more valuable than the 
 mines of the metals. Yet much ore is smelted along 
 the transcontinental railroad which crosses the southern 
 part of the state. 
 
 Cheyenne and Laramie are railroad towns and important 
 collecting and distributing centers. Bock Springs is in the 
 coal region. 
 
 Bars of silver, Leadville, Colorado. 
 
 / Colorado contains about one third of all the people 
 of the Plateau Section. It produces more silver than 
 any other region in the world, and it ranks first among 
 the states of our country in the production of gold and 
 of lead. The state has also valuable mines of iron ore 
 and of coal. Considerable crops of wheat and garden 
 produce are raised, chiefly east of the mountains, and 
 herding is important in the "parks," especially in the 
 south. Many invalids resort to Colorado because of its 
 dry, pure air. 
 
 Denver is the receiving and distributing point for a wide 
 mining and herding region. It is the chief railroad center 
 of the state, and the largest city of the section, having 
 grown very rapidly since the discovery of gold in Colo- 
 rado just before the Civil War. Pueblo has easy access by 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 87 
 
 way of the Arkansas 
 canyon into the silver- 
 and lead-mining re- 
 gion in the mountains, 
 and is convenient to 
 regions where coal, 
 iron, and petroleum 
 are obtained. It has 
 smelting works, roll- 
 ing mills, and oil 
 refineries. Colorado 
 Springs is a great 
 health resort. Near 
 by is the beautiful val- 
 
 An Indian pueblo, New Mexico. 
 
 ley called the Garden of the Gods. Leadville, one of the high- 
 est cities in the world, is the silver- and lead-mining center. 
 
 UTAH. What divisions border Utah ? What mountain range tra- 
 verses the center of the state ? What river drains the eastern half of the 
 state ? In what physical region is the western half ? What large lake is 
 in the state ? What is the history of this lake ? (pp. 52, 53.) What is the 
 capital of Utah ? Name three other cities. Where are they located ? 
 
 By irrigation the region along the west base of the 
 Wasatch Mountains produces larger crops than are raised 
 anywhere else in the section. Much wool is also produced. 
 The lead-silver mines make Utah one of the great lead- 
 producing states. 
 
 Utah was settled earlier than the neighboring states, by 
 a band of people called Mormons. 
 
 Salt Lake City is the trade center of the state. Water 
 from the mountains is led through the city in pipes and 
 open ditches. Ogden is a railroad center on a transcon- 
 tinental line. Provo City and Logan are important busi- 
 ness centers of irrigated regions. 
 
 NEVADA. What divisions border Nevada? What parts of the 
 state are drained by rivers flowing into the Pacific ? What becomes of 
 most of the streams in the state ? Name the chief lakes. Which have 
 no outlets ? Locate the capital ; two other cities. 
 
 Nevada lies chiefly in the Great Basin, and much of it 
 is arid and desert land. Only along the valley of the Hum- 
 boldt, and in some of the 
 mountain valleys, is agricul- 
 ture carried on. Gold, silver, 
 and lead are mined. 
 
 Carson City contains hot 
 springs, and is a resort for 
 invalids. Virginia City, on 
 the famous Comstock lode, is 
 the mining center. Reno, on 
 a transcontinental railway, is 
 the commercial center. 
 
 NEW MEXICO". What section 
 of the Union is east of New Mexico ? 
 What divisions border New Mex- 
 ico t Trace the continental divide 
 th rough it. What river system drains 
 the west ? What large river crosses 
 from north to south ? What rivers 
 are east of the Rio Grande ? Locate 
 the capital ; two other cities. 
 
 The chief industry of New Mexico is stock rais- 
 ing, though there are coal mines and several gold 
 and silver mines. 
 
 There are in New Mexico many people of Spanish descent 
 who still speak the Spanish language. There are also many 
 Indians, among them several communities, each of which builds 
 its village or " pueblo "as a single great building, made of sun- 
 dried brick. The pueblos are often several stories high. Each 
 
 family occupies a separate 
 room, which is entered by 
 means of ladders from the 
 roof. 
 
 Albuquerque, the 
 largest city, is a rail- 
 road junction. Las 
 Vegas has iron found- 
 ries, woolen mills, 
 and famous medicinal 
 springs. Santa Fe 
 was a thriving pueblo 
 long before white men 
 came to America. 
 
 The Grand Canyon, Arizona. 
 
 The Tabernacle and the Temple, Salt Lake City. 
 
 ARIZONA. What di- 
 visions of the Union bor- 
 der Arizona? What for- 
 eign country? Name the 
 principal streams. What 
 
 part is lowland? Where is there a strip of lowland in the northern 
 
 part ? Locate the -capital ; another city. 
 
 The lowlands of southwestern Arizona are the driest 
 and hottest part of the United States, but, where irriga- 
 tion is possible, excellent fruit and semitropical plants are 
 raised. The mining of copper and silver is an important 
 industry. 
 
 Many of the people are of Spanish descent, and there are more 
 Indians than in any other division of this section. 
 
 Phoenix, the commercial center, is in a well-irrigated 
 region and is a growing town. Tucson is a mining center 
 
 and contains works for the 
 reduction of gold, silver, and 
 copper ores. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read chap- 
 ters 24 and 31 of McMaster's " School 
 History of the United States;" 
 "The Golden West," by Margaret 
 Sidney ; " Some Strange Corners of 
 Our Country," by Charles F. Lum- 
 mis ; " Zigzag Journeys in the Great 
 Northwest," by Hezekiah Butter- 
 worth ; " A Scene on the Yel- 
 lowstone," in Sheldon's Fifth 
 Reader ; " Through the Grand 
 Canyon," in McGuffey's Alternate 
 Sixth Reader ; Longfellow's " Poems 
 of Places," VoL 29. Describe one 
 city or scene in the Plateau states. 
 Write next day a reproduction of 
 the description given by one of your 
 schoolmates. 
 
Longitude 1% 
 
 West 
 
 [t.Y.FUBQUHUBPCL 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 89 
 
 THE PACIFIC SECTION. 
 
 What three states compose this section ? What great mountain ranges 
 traverse its central part 1 What part of the region receives ample rain- 
 fall 1 (p. 54.) What parts are quite 
 dry ? What have you learned of 
 the seasons on the Pacific coast? 
 
 The Sierra Nevada and the 
 Cascade Mountains are about 
 as high as the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, But they seem much 
 higher and grander when 
 viewed from the west, be- 
 cause they rise from lowland 
 valleys instead of from a high 
 plateau. 
 
 These great ranges contain some 
 of the grandest mountain scenery in 
 the country. The higher peaks of 
 both ranges reach the limit of per- 
 petual snow, and their upper valleys contain small glaciers. There are 
 • deep gorges and canyons in the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. 
 One of these, the Yosemite valley, is especially noted for its magnificent 
 scenery. The Cascade Mountains are noted for their high volcanic cones, 
 chief among which are Mount Shasta and Mount Rainier. 
 
 West of the Sierra Nevada and'Cascade Mountains there 
 is .comparatively little difference between summer and 
 winter temperatures. East of the mountains, however, 
 the climate is much drier, with hotter summers and colder 
 winters. The rainfall west of the mountains occurs almost 
 entirely during the winter months. Why 
 
 In the north the rainfall is much heavier than in the south, and enough 
 falls in the Columbia valley east of the Cascade Mountains for success- 
 ful farming. In the south, however, irrigation is necessary in many lo- 
 calities. North of Point Conception, chilly and foggy weather is com- 
 mon near the coast, but south of that point the weather is warm and 
 delightful throughout most of the year. 
 
 Agriculture is the principal industry in the valleys 
 west of the great mountain ranges, and wheat, grapes, 
 and other fruit are the most important crops. Much wheat 
 is also raised east of the Cascade Mountains in the Colum- 
 bia valley. Great 
 quantities of barley 
 and hops are also 
 grown in this sec- 
 tion. In the drier 
 regions, and on the 
 mountain slopes, 
 cattle and sheep 
 raising are impor- 
 tant occupations. 
 The wool clip of this 
 section is very large. 
 
 What part of the 
 section is wooded? 
 (map, p. 59.) These 
 forests are the heav- 
 iest in the United 
 States. Those in 
 the central part of 
 
 the section are composed chiefly of great redwoods, while 
 farther to the north the "Douglas fir" is the most valu- 
 able tree. In these regions lumbering is a great industry. 
 
 Gold mining is extensively 
 carried on in the west slope 
 of the Sierra Nevada, which 
 is one of the richest gold fields 
 in the world. Much quick- 
 silver is mined in the central 
 part of this section, and con- 
 siderable coal in the north. 
 
 Hydraulic gold mining, California. 
 
 hydraulic mining. 
 solid rock. 
 
 Ages ago grains of gold were 
 deposited with other detritus in the 
 flood plains of many of the moun- 
 tain streams. These gold-bearing 
 gravel banks are dissolved by squirt- 
 ing powerful streams of water 
 against them, and the gold is col- 
 lected from the muddy water which 
 flows away ; the process being called 
 Much gold is also mined directly from veins in the 
 
 Gathering grapes, California. 
 
 How does the density of population in this section 
 compare with that in the Plateau Section ? Although 
 the population, especially in the great valleys, is greater 
 than on the Rocky Mountain highland, the section is still 
 quite thinly settled. The whole section does not contain 
 so many people as the city of New York. About half 
 
 the people are foreign- 
 ers, mostly German and 
 Irish, but there are also 
 many Chinese. 
 
 Notice on the railroad 
 map (p. 60) that the 
 section is traversed by 
 railroads from north to 
 south along the line of 
 the Sound and California 
 valleys. Most of the rail- 
 roads which enter the 
 section, however, are the 
 great transcontinental 
 lines which cross the 
 Rocky Mountain high- 
 land from the Missis- 
 sippi valley. In what 
 two parts of the section do these trans- 
 continental lines converge? 
 
 The coast is closely bordered by the 
 Coast Ranges, and has few bays and 
 harbors. The ranges are broken in the 
 north, however, by Puget Sound and the 
 Columbia River, and in the central part 
 by the Bay of San Francisco. These 
 indentations afford safe harborage to 
 the largest vessels, and from them 
 almost all the foi-eign commerce of our 
 Pacific coast is carried on. Why, then, do 
 the railroads converge where they do ? 
 
90 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 WASHINGTON. By what is Washington bordered ? What parts 
 of the state lie in the Columbia valley ? What sound is in the north- 
 west ? By what strait is it joined to the Pacific ? ' What part of the 
 state is mountainous ? Locate the capital ; two 
 other cities in the west ; one in the east. -— — . . ._-._. — === — __ 
 
 The western part of the state is well 
 covered with cone-bearing forests, 
 which are its chief wealth. The largest 
 lumber mills in the world are along 
 Puget Sound. The fertile farming 
 lands in the Sound valley and east 
 of the Cascade Mountains yield large 
 crops of wheat, hops, and fruits. 
 Coal is mined in the north more ex- 
 tensively than elsewhere in the sec- 
 
 carried on chiefly in the mountains of the southwest 
 and the northeast. The Columbia River salmon fisheries 
 of Oregon are among the most valuable in the world. 
 
 __ Portland is the 
 
 largest city in the 
 Northwest. Now the 
 building of jetties 
 at the mouth of the 
 Columbia has made 
 it possible for large 
 steamships to ascend 
 to the city, and it's 
 foreign commerce is 
 extensive. Salem has 
 large flour and woolen 
 mills. Astoria is the 
 center of the salmon- 
 fishing and canning 
 industry, and ships 
 much lumber. 
 
 jj^B&S£?5& 
 
 Lumbering, Washington. 
 
 and 
 
 tion. The salmon fisheries of the Columbia River 
 Puget Sound add much to the wealth of the state. 
 
 Seattle is in the coal and lumber region. Tacoma is at 
 the western end of a transcontinental railway. Spokane 
 has a fine water power and many manufactories. 
 
 OREGON. By what is Oregon bordered? 
 Name its three mountain ranges. How does 
 eastern Oregon compare with eastern Wash- 
 ington in elevation, slope, and climate ? What 
 part of the state is quite dry ? How does the 
 map indicate this ? Name the capital ; one other 
 city on the Willamette ; one at the mouth of the 
 Columbia. 
 
 In the fertile Willamette valley great 
 quantities of wheat, oats, hops, and 
 fruit are raised, and much fine wheat 
 for export is grown by the aid of ir- 
 rigation in northeast Oregon. The 
 wool clip is large, and many cattle are 
 raised. Magnificent forests of " Doug- 
 las fir" cover much of the western 
 half of the state, and lumbering is an 
 important industry. Grold mining is 
 
 Mt. Hood, Oregon. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. By what 
 
 is California bordered ? 
 What cape on the Atlantic coast is in nearly the same latitude as the 
 northern state boundary? What Atlantic coast city is in nearly the 
 same latitude .as the southern state boundary? (map, p. 56.) Com- 
 pare the area of the state with that of New England. What mountain 
 ranges are in the state ? What two rivers drain the California valley ? 
 Into what do they flow ? Locate the capital ; the chief city ; three 
 other cities in the central part of the state ; two in the south. 
 
 California is nearly three times as large as any state of 
 the Union east of the Mississippi River, and is exceeded 
 in size by Texas only. It is one of the first states in the 
 Union in the production of wool, wheat, and fruit, greatly 
 exceeding all others, in the crops of grapes, plums, and 
 apricots. Oranges and lemons are raised in abundance. 
 
 California produces about one fourth of the gold mined 
 in the United States, and a large part of the world's yield 
 of quicksilver. 
 
 Valuable lumber is obtained from the redwood forests 
 
 in the northwestern part of the state. On the west slopes 
 
 of the Sierra Nevada are several small groves of a kind 
 
 of redwood, which contain some of the 
 
 most gigantic trees in the world. 
 
 The chief manufacturing industries 
 are flour and lumber milling, the tan- 
 ning of leather, wine making and fruit 
 preserving, shipbuilding, and the re- 
 fining of cane sugar brought from the 
 islands of the Pacific. "} 
 
 San Francisco, one of the nine 
 greatest cities of the Union, -and the 
 largest city on the Pacific slope of the 
 American continent, lies on the pen- 
 insula between San Francisco Bay and 
 the Pacific Ocean. It owes its growth 
 chiefly to the fine, deep harbor af- 
 forded by the large and beautiful bay. 
 The bay is nearly land-locked, being 
 connected with the ocean only by a 
 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 91 
 
 comparatively narrow strait, called the Golden Gate, just 
 north of the city. 
 
 The city was founded by Spanish Franciscan monks from Mexico, 
 who established here the Mission of San Francisco in the same year that 
 the English colonists on the Atlantic coast declared their independence 
 of Great Britain. A small Spanish settlement sprang up about the mis- 
 sion, and for nearly seventy-five years continued under the control of 
 Mexico. It then came into the possession of the United States. The 
 discovery of gold in California at about the same time brought thousands 
 of people to San Francisco, and it immediately became the most impor- 
 tant commercial center on the Pacific coast, a position it has since been 
 able to retain because of the excellence of its harbor and the ease with 
 which it is reached from nearly all parts of the Pacific coast region. 
 
 An extensive ocean commerce is carried on with Japan, China, Aus- 
 tralia, and the Pacific Islands, and by way of the Isthmus of Panama, 
 or around Cape Horn, with Europe and the east coast of the United 
 States. The heaviest commerce, however, is overland by the transcon- 
 tinental railroads. More than half of the manufacturing of the state is 
 centered in this city, the chief industries being sugar refining and the 
 manufacture of clothing and mining machinery. 
 
 Los Angeles, the commercial center of southern Cali- 
 fornia, is in the orange-growing region. Oakland, on the 
 opposite side of the bay from San Francisco, is a great 
 suburb and railroad terminus of that city, as Jersey City 
 is of New York. Sacramento is in a fertile agricultural 
 region. The city is protected from floods by levees. San 
 ~£-Jose and Stockton are important trade centers. San Diego 
 has a good harbor. 
 
 ALASKA. Where is Alaska ? What country is east of it ? What 
 waters are north, west, and south 1 By what is it separated from Asia ? 
 How wide is this strait ? What part is most mountainous ? What great 
 river traverses the country ? To what nation does Alaska belong 1 
 
 Alaska is almost as large as Washington, Oregon, Cali- 
 fornia, and Texas taken together, and yet it does not con- 
 
 Muir glacier, Alaska. 
 
 tain so many people as the city of Oakland. On the map 
 of North America (p. 44) compare the latitude of Alaska 
 with that of Greenland. Can you give one reason why 
 so few people live in Alaska ? 
 
 The southern coast of Alaska is very rough and moun- 
 tainous. Some of the peaks of these mountain ranges are 
 over three miles high; they are the highest in North 
 America. These mountains prevent the warm, moist winds 
 of the Pacific from reaching the interior, which is conse- 
 
 quently very cold during the greater part of the year. 
 Part of the interior is covered with open forests, but much 
 of it is a bleak tundra. The southern slopes of the moun- 
 tains are much warmer, receive abundant rains, and are 
 covered with forests. The summits of the mountains are 
 always snow-clad. Great glaciers creep down most of the 
 larger valleys, many of them extending to the sea. 
 
 About half of the inhabitants are whites, and the rest 
 are chiefly Indians and Eskimos. Most of the people live 
 
 l 
 
 A street in Sitka, Alaska. 
 
 near the southern and western coasts. Some hardy vege- 
 tables grow in the south, but it is too damp for grain. 
 
 The chief occupations are hunting fur-bearing animals, 
 fishing for cod and salmon, and gold mining. 
 
 Where are the Pribilof Islands f Thousands of fur seals go to these 
 islands every summer and establish rookeries, or nurseries, where their 
 young are born and taught to swim. Most of our sealskin garments are 
 made from the skins of seals killed on or near these islands. The sea 
 otter, the marten or sable, the black bear, and the silver fox are also 
 killed in Alaska for their fur. Gold is found in many places ic Alaska. 
 There are rich fields near Cape Nome and on the Koyukuk Biver. A 
 rich gold field is on the Klondike, a branch of the Yukon Biver in 
 Canada, just across the Alaskan boundary, and many white miners have 
 gone through Alaska to found Dawson and other mining towns in that 
 region. But mining in that latitude is very costly and dangerous because 
 of the rigor of the climate and the scarcity of food. 
 
 Alaska was formerly ruled by a governor and other 
 officers appointed by the President, but in 1900 a more 
 complete territorial government was established by act 
 of Congress. The chief settlements are Juneau, Nome, 
 and Skagway. Sitka is on Baranof Island. 
 
 Hawaii, Samoa, p. 153. Porto Rico, p. 100. Philippines, p. 142. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Bead " The Young Nimrods in North America," 
 by T. W. Knox ; " Three Vassar Girls at Home," by Lizzie W. Champney ; 
 " The Pacific Coast Scenic Tour," by Henry T. Finck, or " The Valley 
 of the Yosemite," in Sheldon's Fifth Beader. Bead or recite one selection 
 on these states from Longfellow's " Poems of Places," Vol. 29. Describe 
 one city or scene in this section as fully as San Francisco is described. 
 Write next day a reproduction of the description given by one of your 
 schoolmates. Bead " Our Western Archipelago," by Henry M. Field ; 
 "A Woman's Trip to Alaska," by Mrs. S. M. Collis. 
 

 
 if I 
 
 ft * / 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, Canada. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 What country borders the United States on the north ? In what zones 
 is Canada? Through how many degrees of latitude does it extend? 
 Through how many degrees of longitude ? How does it compare with 
 the main body of the 
 United States in extent 
 of latitude and longitude? 
 Do degrees of longitude in 
 central Canada and cen- 
 tral United States contain 
 the same number of miles ? 
 Compare the two countries 
 in area. 
 
 What great bay is in 
 Canada ? Compare it with 
 the Gulf of Mexico in posi- 
 tion, size, depth, and use- 
 fulness. What archipelago 
 is north of Canada ? What 
 strait separates the eastern 
 part of this archipelago 
 from the mainland ? What 
 two peninsulas are on the 
 north coast of Canada? 
 What gulf is east of Can- 
 ada? What four large is- 
 lands are bordered by the 
 waters of this gulf? What peninsula? What large islands are off the 
 west coast of Canada? 
 
 From the physical map of North America locate the highlands of 
 Canada. . Compare the width of the western highland with that of the 
 Rocky Mountain highland in the United States. Locate the principal 
 mountain ranges. What plateau is in the east ? What part of Canada 
 is lowland? Trace the divide of the Hudson Bay slope (p. 92). Name 
 the principal river basins of that slope ; of the Arctic slope ; of the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence slope. Name the chief basins of the Pacific 
 slope. In which of the basins of Canada are there large lakes 1 In 
 which are the largest lakes ? 
 
 From the maps on p. 46 describe the climate and rainfall of eastern, 
 central, and western Canada. 
 
 So much snow falls on the western highland of Canada 
 that the higher parts of the mountain ranges abound in 
 glaciers. Nearly all the large rivers which rise in this re- 
 gion flow from the melting ends of glaciers. Many of the 
 snow-topped mountains have precipitous sides, and their 
 lower slopes are covered with heavy evergreen forests, so 
 that this region is noted for its scenery. 
 
 Which side of the Laurentian plateau is highest ? The 
 coast of Labrador is mainly rough and rugged, but it 
 contains many good harbors. The greater part of the 
 plateau is bleak and unfit for cultivation. 
 
 The northern coast of Canada is so cold that neither 
 trees nor food plants can grow there. Farther south, a 
 broad forest belt stretches entirely across the continent, 
 though large parts of it have been injured by fire. In 
 the southern part of this belt are valuable forests of pine 
 
 and other building timber. Wheat and the hardier plants 
 of the temperate zone ripen in southern Canada, though the 
 winters are long and cold. The basin of the Saskatch- 
 ewan is the chief wheat-growing region, and tie penin- 
 sula between Lake Huron and Lake 
 Erie is a fruit and dairy region. 
 
 In the cold, uninhabited regions 
 of the north, caribou and fur-bearing 
 animals are abundant. The coast 
 fisheries of southern Canada are 
 among the most extensive in the 
 world. Cod, herring, and mackerel 
 are the chief catch in the eastern, 
 and salmon in the western coast 
 waters. 
 
 The mineral product is about equal 
 in value to that of the fisheries. 
 Gold, silver, and copper are mined 
 in the western part, and coal in both 
 east and west. Nickel also is a valu- 
 able mineral product. 
 
 Although Canada is about as large 
 as the United States, the population 
 is not so great as that of New York state. In what part 
 of Canada is the population most dense ? (map, p. 49.) 
 
 The first white settlers in the St. Lawrence basin were Frenchmen, 
 but thirteen years before the United States was formed, Great Britain 
 gained possession of Canada by war. British settlers and their descend- 
 ants now form the greater part of the population, and their energy has 
 made of Canada the most prosperous part of the Western Continent, after 
 the United States. There are, however, many descendants of the old 
 French settlers still living in Canada. Most of them live in the lower St. 
 Lawrence valley, and many of them are in language, dress, and manners 
 
 Fur trading post in northern Canada. 
 
 93 
 
94 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 much like the people of France a 
 hundred years ago. They belong 
 mainly to the Catholic Church, while 
 the greater part of the people of 
 English descent are Protestants. In 
 the region farther west there are 
 many " half-breeds" of mixed French 
 and Indian descent. 
 
 In the northern part are a few 
 thousand Eskimos and other Indi- 
 ans. In the winter the Eskimos build 
 their huts of snow or of stones along 
 the coast, but in summer they mi- 
 grate inland to the regions where the 
 caribou are abundant. The Indians 
 are hunters and trappers. The game 
 which they procure is valuable chiefly 
 for the fur. All through this region 
 the Hudson Bay Company has estab- 
 lished trading posts, where most of 
 the pelts are sold. 
 
 Although Canada remains a Brit- 
 ish possession, the French retain the 
 two small islands of St. Pierre and 
 
 Miquelon, south of Newfoundland, which they use as fishing stations. 
 Point them out on the map. 
 
 The kingdom of Great Britain has permitted the people 
 of Canada to form a government, for the management of 
 
 Wharves at Montreal. 
 
 j- «LB_»« Ja- W-«t.1 
 
 Parliament building, Ottawa. 
 
 Canadian affairs, something like that of the United States. 
 There are seven provinces, similar to our states, each with 
 its local government, and a number of thinly settled dis- 
 tricts, somewhat like our territories, which together have a 
 single local government. The people of each province 
 and of all the districts together elect representatives to a 
 Parliament, like our Congress, which makes laws for the 
 whole Dominion. But instead of an elected president, as 
 in our country, Canada has a governor general appointed 
 by the monarch of Great Britain. 
 
 Where is the province of Prince Edivard Island 1 It is 
 the smallest and most thickly settled province. What is 
 the name of its capital ? 
 
 Of what two natural divisions is the province of Nova 
 Scotia formed? The fisheries of this province are more 
 
 valuable than those of any 
 other. Most of the coal 
 mined in eastern Canada 
 comes from Nova Scotia. 
 Name and locate the capital. 
 It is the chief British naval 
 station in North America. 
 
 From the province of New 
 Brunswick lumber and cured 
 fish are exported. Name and 
 locate the capital. St. John 
 is the largest city and the 
 chief port. 
 
 By what waters are these 
 three provinces bordered? 
 
 What province is north of 
 New Brunswick ? Quebec is 
 settled mainly by people of 
 French descent. In popu- 
 lation and wealth it ranks 
 second among the provinces of Canada. The city of Que- 
 bec is the oldest city in Canada, and one of the oldest in 
 North America. The upper city is situated on a high 
 bluff overlooking the river, and is surrounded by fortifi- 
 cations; the business part of the city lies without the 
 walls, along the river front. Where is Montreal ? Ocean 
 steamships ascend the river to its wharves. In winter, 
 when the river and gulf are ice-locked, through what 
 American city does the trade of Montreal pass? (p. 63.) 
 What province borders the Great Lakes? Ontario is 
 the most prosperous and wealthy province of Canada, and 
 contains nearly half the population. Toronto is the capi- 
 tal. Where is it? The capital of the whole Dominion 
 is also in Ontario. What is its name ? 
 
 In what great river basin is the province of Manitoba ? 
 What three districts lie mostly in the same basin ? What 
 is the chief crop of these districts and this province? 
 What is the capital of Manitoba? It is the chief com- 
 mercial center of the region. 
 
 The Citadel, Quebec. 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 95 
 
 What province borders on the Pacific? This is the 
 largest of the provinces. Gold and coal mining are the 
 chief employments. Name and locate the capital. Van- 
 couver, the largest town on the mainland, 
 is an important commercial center. „ ; 
 
 The chief wealth of the districts in 
 northern Canada is derived from the fur 
 trade. The district of Yukon, however, 
 is more important for the rich gold mines 
 in the Klondike region. What city is 
 the center of this region ? 
 
 Most of the trade of Canada is with 
 the United States and Great Britain. 
 Her exports are largely to Great Britain ; 
 her imports largely from the United 
 States. From Montreal, from St. John, 
 and from Halifax steamship lines run to 
 European ports, and from Vancouver 
 there are steamship lines to Japan and 
 Australia. From Montreal to Vancouver 
 there is a great transcontinental rail- 
 road, connecting by branch roads with the chief northern 
 cities of the United States. This road is shorter than 
 any of the northern transcontinental roads in the United 
 States, and crosses the western highlands by lower passes. 
 Therefore, besides the foreign trade of the Dominion 
 itself, considerable traffic between Europe and Asia crosses 
 Canada. 
 
 The island of Newfoundland, together with the Labra- 
 dor coast, forms a British colony by itself, and is not a 
 part of the Dominion of Canada. The interior of the 
 island is a wilderness. The chief occupation is fishing, 
 and a large part of the population of the island live along 
 the coast of the mainland during the fishing season. What 
 is the capital of Newfoundland ? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read " The Story of Canada," by J. G. Bou- 
 rinot; "Zigzag Journeys in Acadia and New France," by Hezekiah 
 Butterwortb. ; " Great-grandmother's Girls in New France," by Lizzie 
 W. Champney ; chapters 40 and 41 of " Carpenter's Geographical Reader, 
 North America." Read or recite one selection about Canada from 
 Longfellow's " Poems of Places," Vol. 30. 
 
 A Newfoundland fishing schooner. 
 
 DANISH AMERICA. 
 
 What two islands rise from the continental plateau between Europe and 
 America ? (maps, pp. 8 and 16.) In what hemisphere is Greenland ; most 
 
 of Iceland? Are these islands 
 nearer to America or to Europe ? 
 Which of them is the larger ? 
 How does Greenland seem to rank 
 among the islands of the world 
 in size? 
 
 GREENLAND. Nearly the 
 whole of Greenland is cov- 
 \ ered hundreds, possibly 
 thousands, of feet deep by 
 a continental glacier. It 
 is only near the coast that 
 the surface of the land is 
 not covered with ice. It 
 is thought that Greenland 
 may not be a single island, 
 but may consist of several 
 islands connected by the 
 ice cap. What sort of 
 a coast has the southern half of Greenland? Judging 
 from the coast line, do you think the part of the continen- 
 tal plateau occupied by Greenland has recently sunk or 
 risen ? Some people believe that it is the great weight of 
 the ice sheet that has caused Greenland to sink ! In places 
 the ice sheet extends into the sea, forming long ice cliffs. 
 Icebergs broken from these cliffs render the navigation of 
 the Atlantic dangerous at cei'tain seasons as far south as 
 the neighborhood of Newfoundland. In southern Green- 
 land the ice sheet reaches the sea only at the heads of 
 the numerous long, narrow fiords, between which a nar- 
 row strip of high, rocky coast is not ice-covered. 
 
 On this coast region grows a scanty Arctic vegetation, 
 chiefly mosses and lichens, with here and there patches of 
 grass, and, during the short summer, some flowering 
 plants. There are also a few stunted trees, but they rarely 
 grow higher than a man's head. The principal wild animals 
 of the land are the musk ox, the reindeer, the arctic fox, 
 and the polar bear. The coast waters are frequented by 
 seals, walruses, whales, and fish, besides millions of eider 
 ducks, and other aquatic birds. 
 
 Montmorency Falls (near Quebec) in winter. 
 
 Traveling on the ice cap in Greenland. 
 
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 9? 
 
 But few people live 
 in Greenland, and most 
 of these are Eskimos. 
 They are a cheerful 
 but ignorant people, 
 and live in low, filthy 
 hovels made of loose 
 stones, or sometimes 
 of blocks of snow and 
 ice. They live chiefly 
 by fishing and hunt- 
 ing for sea animals, 
 using the flesh for 
 food, the fur for cloth- 
 ing, and the fat for 
 fuel. On the southwest 
 coast there are two 
 or three small trading 
 settlements of white men from Denmark. 
 
 ICELAND is about as large as the. state of 
 Indiana. It is mostly a rugged plateau con- 
 taining, in the north, many volcanoes, several 
 of which are active and cause frequent earth- 
 quakes. Most of the island is covered with 
 the lava outflows from these volcanoes. Hot 
 springs are numerous, and there are sev- 
 eral fine geysers. Parts of the island are 
 covered with ice fields, and the deep fiords 
 of the northern coast are often packed with 
 ice brought in by the Arctic currents. The 
 
 Eskimo boy and dog. 
 
 southern coast is much less broken, and is kept free from 
 ice by the warm currents from the south. 
 
 The climate, though raw and moist, is moderated in the 
 south by winds from the ocean, and grass and vegetables 
 grow well, though it is too cold for grain, and there are but 
 few trees. There are very few native land mammals, but 
 many birds, and the coast waters abound in excellent fish. 
 
 Iceland was discovered and settled by Northmen from 
 Europe long before Columbus discovered America, and 
 their descendants still live there, chiefly in the southern 
 part of the island. They are thrifty, intelligent, well- 
 educated people, and are employed chiefly in raising sheep, 
 
 cattle, and horses, 
 
 and in fishing. 
 
 The people choose 
 the members of the 
 Con gress, or A Ithing, 
 which meets at the 
 town of Reikiavik to 
 make the laws ; but 
 the governor is ap- 
 pointed by the King 
 of Denmark. 
 
 Supplemental Work. 
 Eead " My Arctic Jour- 
 nal," by Josephine D. 
 Peary, or 
 North," 
 Nansen. Read or recite 
 "The Skeleton in Ar- 
 mor," by Longfellow. 
 
 ' Farthest 
 by Fridtjof 
 
 Stone hut, Greenland. 
 
 COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 What country borders the United States on the south ? Through how 
 many degrees of latitude and longitude does it extend? Compare it 
 with the United States in size. In what zones is Mexico ? What waters 
 border it ? What peninsulas does it contain ? From the map on p. 44 
 locate the lowlands of Mexico. What part of the country is highland ? 
 Name and locate the chief mountain range. Are there many large rivers 
 in Mexico ? Name the two largest that drain portions of the country. 
 
 The surface of the Rocky Mountain highland in Mexico 
 is quite similar to that of the great plateau region in the 
 United States. It is bordered on the east and west by 
 mountain ranges corresponding to 
 the Rocky and the Cascade Moun- 
 tains, but the western Mexican range 
 is much higher and more continuous 
 than the eastern. In the north the 
 plateau is about three fourths of a 
 mile high, but it rises gradually to 
 twice that elevation in the south. 
 
 In this higher portion of the plateau are 
 many great volcanic cones. One of them, ^ ;?'■» 
 
 Mount Orizaba, is about three and one half Mexican cart. 
 
 miles high. Several of the volcanoes are active, and earthquakes are 
 not uncommon throughout Mexico. 
 
 Owing to the tropical position of Mexico there is little 
 difference between the temperature of summer and of 
 winter ; but because of the variation in elevation there is a 
 great difference in the temperature of different regions. 
 The lowlands are always hot; the plateau is always tem- 
 perate ; and the mountain region, more than 1 i miles high, 
 is cool or cold, some of the higher peaks being always 
 snow-clad. The seasons of Mexico are the wet and the 
 
 dry. Nearly all the rain falls dur- 
 ing the summer months. Why ? 
 The northern part has very little 
 rain at any time. Why? 
 
 Plants and animals of both the 
 North and the South American re- 
 gions are found in Mexico. Men- 
 tion some of the animals (pp. 30, 
 31). In the lowlands mahogany, 
 rosewood, logwood, rubber trees, 
 medicinal plants, and vanilla grow in 
 
98 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Drying coffee, Mexico. 
 
 the dense forests, and rice, sugar cane, tobacco, and tropical 
 fruits are cultivated, as well as the cassava, from the root of 
 which the natives make farina meal for their bread; and 
 Sisal hemp, or henequen, of which cordage and hammocks 
 are made. On the mountain slopes are more open forests 
 of oak, pine, and other trees of the temperate ^ones ; and on 
 the lower, warmer slopes coffee is cultivated. On the pla- 
 teaus grain and beans are the chief crops. Mexico exports 
 considerable coffee, Sisal hemp, and cabinet and dye woods. 
 
 A characteristic Mexican plant is the maguey, or " century plant," 
 from the sweet sap of which the natives make a kind of cider called 
 pulque, which is their favorite drink. It is a species of this plant that 
 yields the Sisal hemp. 
 
 In the drier portions of the plateau the raising of cattle, 
 horses, and sheep is an important industry, and many cattle 
 and hides are exported. 
 
 The mines of Mexico are its chief wealth. What min- 
 erals are found in the western highland of the United 
 States ? Mexico is one of the great silver-producing coun- 
 tries of the world, and this metal and its ore form the chief 
 exports. Smaller quantities of gold, lead, and copper are 
 also exported, as well as the beautiful stone called onyx, 
 which is used for interior decoration. 
 
 Long before America was colonized by white men, the Indians of central 
 Mexico, called Aztecs, had advanced nearly to the stage of civilization. 
 They had formed a confed- 
 eracy, and lived in pueblos 
 built of stone, cultivated corn 
 by th.e aid of irrigation, wore 
 ornaments of gold, and knew 
 something of working other 
 metals. 
 
 Not long after the dis- 
 covery of America a 
 Spaniard named Cortez 
 landed in Mexico, sunk 
 his ships so that his sol- 
 diers might not return, 
 and conquered Mexico 
 for Spain. After about 
 three hundred years of 
 
 Spanish rule the people rebelled and made their country 
 independent. Since then Mexico has had a government 
 modeled after that of the United States. The republic con- 
 sists of twenty-seven states, two territories, and a federal 
 district, like the District of Columbia. About one fifth of 
 the people are white, mostly descendants of Spanish set- 
 tlers; nearly one half are of mixed Spanish and Indian 
 blood ; and the rest are pure Indians. Most of the land is 
 owned by the white people. Many of the Indians are la- 
 borers in the mines, or on the stock "ranches," or farms. 
 Nearly all Mexicans are Catholics. 
 
 The manufactures of Mexico are mainly cotton cloth, pa- 
 per, and earthenware for home use ; but the Indians make 
 blankets and ornamental feather and leather work by hand. 
 
 The foreign commerce is chiefly with the United States, 
 both by sea and by the several lines of railroad which con- 
 nect the plateau region with the railroad system of the 
 United States. 
 
 The city of Mexico is located in the federal district. 
 It is the capital and largest city of the republic, and 
 is built in a great basin-shaped depression of the plateau, 
 
 Market place, city of Mexico. 
 
 Silver smeltery, Mexico. 
 
 which contains several large lakes. The sewage of the 
 city and the high-water overflow of the lakes are con- 
 veyed out of the basin by a drainage canal forty miles • 
 long, which for six miles of its length occupies a tun- 
 nel through the surrounding mountains. Most of the 
 
 buildings are low, and the dwell- 
 ings are built around courtyards 
 ornamented with flower gardens 
 and paved with stone. Railroads^ 
 connect the city with the railroad"^ 
 system of the United States. 
 
 Where is Puebla t Here are pro- 
 duced the most important manu- 
 factures of Mexico, among them 
 the famous Mexican blankets. 
 Nearly all the Mexican onyx is 
 quarried near Puebla. What is the 
 chief Atlantic seaport of Mexico? 
 It is connected by railroad with 
 the city of Mexico, and about two 
 thirds of the foreign trade goes 
 
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 99 
 
 huts, Mexico. 
 
 through this port. The harbor is so shallow, however, 
 that ships have to unload into small boats. Find Guay- 
 mas, on the Pacific coast. It has a good harbor, and is 
 connected by rail with the railway system of the United 
 States. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 By what waters is Central America bordered ? Which coast has the 
 greater width of lowland ? (map, p. 44.) In what direction does most 
 of the country slope 1 Name the chief lake of Central America. 
 
 The plateau of Central America is neither so broad 
 nor so high as that of Mexico. The mountain range near 
 the Pacific coast contains the 
 high cones of many active 
 volcanoes, and earthquakes 
 are more frequent and severe 
 than in Mexico. The climate 
 is similar to that of south- 
 ern Mexico, but warmer and 
 with a heavier rainfall on 
 the north coast. Why? 
 
 The countries of Central 
 America are more uniformly 
 forest-covered than is Mex- 
 ico, but in the interior there 
 are large tracts of grass land. 
 Sugar, coffee, cacao beans or 
 chocolate nuts, tropical fruits, 
 and cabinet and dye woods 
 are exported. 
 
 During his last voyage to 
 America, Columbus lauded 
 on the coast of what is now 
 called Honduras. When accounts of the country reached 
 Spain, Spanish adventurers established colonies in various 
 parts of Central America, and for about three hundred 
 years Spain claimed the whole region, except a strip along 
 the west coast of the Gulf of Honduras, which was settled 
 by English logwood cutters. This is still a British colony. 
 What is its name ? When Mexico rebelled against Spain 
 the Spanish people of Central America also became inde- 
 pendent, and out of their territory six small republics 
 have been founded. Name them. 
 
 
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 A house in Central America. 
 
 About how many people live in Central America? 
 (p. 157.) Which of the United States has about the same 
 population ? There are only a few thousand white people in 
 the Central American states. Most of these are merchants 
 and planters, and all the foreign trade is in their hands. 
 The people of mixed blood are more numerous than the 
 whites, but more than half the entire population are pure- 
 blooded Indians. Some of them are still barbarous, but 
 most of them are adopting the ways of civilized people. 
 What is the capital of Guatemala ; of Salvador ? These 
 two countries contain two thirds of the people in Central 
 America, and are by far the strongest and most progressive 
 of the six republics. 
 
 What is the capital of Honduras f Honduras mahogany 
 is specially noted. What is the capital of Nicaragua? 
 What river is the outlet of Lake Nicaragua ? 
 
 The name Costa Mica means " rich coast." What is the 
 capital of this state ? Coffee has been cultivated in Costa 
 Pica for a hundred years, and much of this product grown 
 elsewhere in Central America is also called Costa Rica coffee. 
 Across Panama is being constructed a ship canal between 
 the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. When com- 
 pleted the canal will make part of a short water route 
 between the east and west coast of America. Panama, the 
 capital, is at the south end, and Colon at the north end of 
 the canal. These two cities are at present connected by a 
 railway over which is transported much foreign commerce. 
 
 Several attempts have been 
 made to join the Central 
 American republics in a fed- 
 eral union, but no thorough 
 and permanent union has as 
 yet been formed. 
 
 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 What parallel of latitude crosses 
 the central part of the West Indies ? 
 Between what bodies of land does 
 this island chain extend 1 By what 
 waters is it surrounded ? What strait 
 and channel separate the chain from 
 the mainland of North America? 
 Measure the length of the chain, 
 using the scale of miles. On the 
 map of the United States (p. 56) 
 measure the same distance west from 
 New York city. Of what three prin- 
 cipal island groups does the chain 
 consist? Name the four largest 
 islands of the Greater Antilles. 
 
 The islands of the West Indies are partly volcanic and 
 partly of coral formation ; they are subject to earthquakes, 
 and are surrounded by coral reefs. Most of the Lesser 
 Antilles are high, and consist wholly or mostly of volcanic 
 rock. The islands of the Greater Antilles have broad 
 lowland coast regions; Cuba is mainly lowland. The 
 Bahamas are all low islands composed of coral limestone 
 and broken shell, and the hills on these islands are mostly 
 wind-formed. All the islands of the West Indies together 
 contain about as much land as the state of Wyoming, nearly 
 
100 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 half of this being in the single island of Cuba, which is 
 nearly as large as the state of New York or Pennsylvania. 
 
 The larger islands are 
 forest - covered. The 
 vegetation varies, as 
 in Mexico and Central 
 America, with the alti- 
 tude. The most valu- 
 able product of the is- 
 lands is sugar cane. 
 About one fourth of 
 all the cane sugar used 
 in the world comes from 
 the West Indies, and by 
 far the greater part of 
 it from Cuba, though it 
 is the most important 
 export of nearly every 
 one of the islands. To- 
 
 ^ 
 
 by Great Britain laborers have been brought from China 
 and southern Asia to work on the plantations. 
 
 The republic of Cuba is largely influenced, 
 and Porto Rico is owned, by the United 
 States. These two islands embrace about 
 half the area of the West Indies. The 
 former Spanish rule was so unfavorable to 
 the colonists that they were frequently at 
 war with Spain, and the great natural wealth 
 of the islands was but partly developed. 
 Name the capital of each island. Havana 
 is the largest city in the West Indies, and 
 the great exporting point for sugar and to- 
 
 Plowing in Cuba. 
 
 bacco, known as Havana leaf, is another crop for which 
 Cuba is specially noted. What cities of the United States 
 manufacture much Cuban tobacco ? (p. 81.) Other impor- 
 tant exports of the islands are coffee, cacao beans, fresh 
 fruit (bananas, pineapples, limes, oranges, and cocoanuts), 
 and cabinet and dye woods. Excellent iron ore is also ex- 
 ported to the United States from southeastern Cuba, and 
 asphalt from Trinidad. Find this island. Coarse sponges 
 are obtained from the sponge fisheries of the Bahamas, and 
 on some of these islands much salt is obtained by evapo- 
 rating sea water. 
 
 About how many people live in the West Indies ? (p. 157.) 
 Which state of our country contains about the same popu- 
 lation ? The Bahamas, which are scarcely more than coral 
 reefs, are very thinly peopled ; in Cuba the population is 
 moderately dense ; the rest of the islands are densely peo- 
 pled. Which islands of the West Indies formerly belonged 
 to Spain ? (p. 49.) By far the greater part of the white pop- 
 ulation of the whole chain live in these two islands, where 
 there are nearly twice as many whites as negroes. In al- 
 most all the other islands the negroes are much more 
 numerous than the whites, and in Haiti nearly all the peo- 
 ple are of the black race. In several of the islands owned 
 
 Sorting sponges in the Bahamas. 
 
 Sugar mill, Cuba. 
 
 bacco. Many cigars and cigarettes are made in that city 
 for export. Santiago de Cuba is also a large city, and ex- 
 ports iron ore and copper. 
 
 The island of Haiti includes nearly one third of the area 
 of the chain, and consists of two independent negro re- 
 publics. Name them. Years ago Haiti was a French 
 colony, and a form of the French language is used by 
 the negro inhabitants. Santo Domingo, however, was a 
 Spanish colony, and the Spanish language still prevails 
 in that part of the island. 
 
 Nearly one sixth of the area of the chain belongs to ' 
 Great Britain. Find Jamaica, Trinidad, and the little 
 island of Barbados. They are by far the most important 
 of the British West Indies. Barbados is the most densely * 
 settled island of the whole chain, and exports much sugar. 
 
 Find Guadelupe and Martinique. They are French pos- 
 sessions, and are the largest islands of the Lesser AntillesA 
 after Trinidad. 
 
 Several small islands of the Lesser Antilles belong to 
 the European kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands, 
 and several near the northern coast of South America are 
 part of the republic of Venezuela. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read " The Story of Mexico," by Susan Hale ; 
 " The Boy Travellers in Mexico," by Thos. W. Knox ; " A Winter in 
 Central America and Mexico," by Helen J. Sanborn ; "At Last : a Christ- 
 mas in the West Indies," by C. Kingsley ; chapters 42, 43, and 44 of 
 " Carpenter's Geographical Reader, North America." Read or recite a 
 selection from Longfellow's " Poems of Places," Vol. 30, about southern 
 North America. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL BULLETIN. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF PANAMA. 
 
 Physical Features. The Republic of Panama, which is situated 
 between Costa Rica and Colombia, occupies the Isthmus of Pan- 
 ama. It lies between the Caribbean Sea on the north, and the 
 Pacific Ocean on the south, and has an area of about 32,000 
 square miles, being almost the same size as the state of Maine. 
 
 The surface is mountainous, the Veragua Range attaining its 
 greatest elevation in Mount Chiriqui (1126 feet) in the extreme 
 
 west. The largest streams are in the central and eastern parts. 
 Chief among these are the Tuira, Chepo, and Chagres rivers. 
 
 The Climate is tropical, with an excessive rainfall. On the 
 northern coast, where the vegetation is most luxuriant, the damp 
 and hot climate is very unhealthful. On the higher mountains 
 and on the south coast west of the city of Panama it is more 
 healthful, as the rainfall is less and the temperature lower. 
 
 Resources and Industries. Dense forests cover most of the country, par- 
 ticularly on the Atlantic side. Here valuable timber and dye woods are ob- 
 tained. Gold, salt, copper, iron, and other minerals are found. Agriculture 
 is in rather a backward state, but some attention is given to grazing in the 
 western parts. The chief industries, however, are those which are centered 
 about the partly constructed interoceanic canal, and in the transport of foreign 
 commerce over the railroad which crosses between Panama and Colon. 
 
 History and People. The region was explored by Balboa, who crossed the 
 isthmus and discovered the Pacific in 1513. In 1718 Darien (Panama) became 
 a part of the Spanish viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia), which became 
 independent of Spain in 1819, and for many years the history of Panama has 
 been identified with that of Colombia. In November, 1903, the department of 
 Panama seceded from Colombia and declared itself an independent republic. 
 The new government was almost immediately recognized by the United States, 
 and later by various other nations. 
 
 Panama has a population of about 285,000, which consists mostly of a 
 mixed people of Spanish, Indian, and Negro origin. Panama, the chief city, 
 with a population of 30,000, and Colon, are the largest cities and are impor- 
 tant as the termini of both the railway and the proposed canal. 
 
 The Panama Canal. The route of the proposed canal follows closely that 
 of tho Panama Railway. While this route does not cross the isthmus at its 
 narrowest point, other considerations made its selection desirable ; particu- 
 larly the low altitude of the watershed at this point (about 300 feet above sea 
 level) and the location of its terminals, one at Colon on the Atlantic side, the 
 other at Panama on the Pacific, both of which possess good natural harbors. 
 
 The first attempt to cut a canal across the isthmus at this point was made in 
 1878, by a French company. The intention was to cut this canal through at 
 sea level, but after excavating about seven miles from Colon, and elsewhere, 
 the company failed and work ceased. Later another French company decided 
 to construct a canal with locks, which would give it a summit level of 98 feet 
 above the Caribbean Sea. Work on this project has been in operation for 
 several years, but comparatively little advance has been made in construction. 
 
 According to the plan proposed by the United States Isthmian Canal Com- 
 mission, the length of the canal is to be 49 miles ; its width at bottom, 150 feet ; 
 its depth, 35 feet ; number of locks, 5 ; height of summit level, 82 to 90 feet ; 
 estimated time of transit, 12 hours; estimated cost of construction, $144,000,- 
 000 ; acquiring property, etc., of present Panama Canal Company, $40,000,000 ; 
 total cost, $184,000,000; estimated time required to complete, 10 years. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF CUBA. 
 
 Physical Features. Cuba {see reference map XXIV), the largest 
 and most western of the West Indies, is long and narrow, with a 
 length of 720 miles and an average breadth of 80 miles. Its area, 
 including 1300 coast islands, is nearly 46,000 square miles— a 
 little larger than Pennsylvania. The irregular coast line is bor- 
 dered by coral reefs. From the lowland of the coast fertile 
 meadows and plains extend inland to the mountains. The gen- 
 eral course of most of the rivers is either north or south. 
 
 The Climate is tropical, but is considerably cooled by the ocean 
 breezes. In the mountain districts a mild atmosphere prevails. 
 
 There are two seasons in the year— a wet from May to October, 
 and a dry during our winter. Hurricanes are of almost yearly 
 occurrence, and are often very destructive. Earthquakes occur in 
 eastern Cuba, but are seldom felt in the western parts. 
 
 Resources and Industries. The soil is remarkably rich and almost inex- 
 haustible. The chief products are sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, oranges, ba- 
 nanas, and pineapples. The forests cover half the island. Of palms there are 
 over thirty species. Among the valuable woods are mahogany, lignum-vitas, 
 ebony, logwood, and the fragrant cedar of which cigar boxes are made. 
 
 Rich mines of copper and iron are worked in the vicinity of Santiago. 
 Near Santa Clara is a large bed of asphaltum. Except the making of cigars, 
 the industries of Cuba are mainly agriculture and the trade which grows out 
 of it, and there are no mills or factories of importance. Inland commerce is 
 aided by about 2000 miles of railroad. The common roads are mostly little 
 more than footpaths, and goods are carried by means of ox carts and mules. 
 The principal exports are sugar, tobacco, tropical fruits, molasses, and lum- 
 ber. The imports are chiefly wheat and flour, rice, petroleum, and all manu- 
 factured articles. 
 
 History and People. Cuba was discovered by Columbus, October 28, 1492, 
 and was named by him Juana. Afterwards it was known by several different 
 names, but finally retained the title Cuba, which the natives had given it 
 before the discovery. The tyranny of the Spanish government of the island 
 incited five noted rebellions among the Cubans, the last — the war for indepen- 
 dence—beginning in 1895. The war ended with the victory of the United 
 States over Spain in 1898, followed by a treaty by which Spain relinquished 
 her sovereignty in the West Indies, and Cuba was placed under the protection 
 of the United States, which transferred its control to the Cubans on May 20, 
 1902, when the Republic of Cuba was proclaimed. 
 
 A large sugar plantation, Cuba. 
 
 The census of 1899 gave the population as 1,572,797, of which about one 
 third were colored. The inhabitants embrace three classes : the Creoles, who 
 form the better class of native Cubans ; the Negroes, who are descended from 
 African slaves ; and the native Spaniards, numbering about 150,000. 
 
 Cities. Havana, with a population of about 236,000, is the capital and 
 largest city. Situated on a broad harbor of the same name, it is picturesque 
 by location, and by its fine public buildings, pleasure grounds, and parks. 
 Most of the foreign trade of the island passes through this port. 
 
 Santiago de-Cuba, in the southeastern part of the island, is the second city in 
 size and importance. It has a population of about 43,000, and is the center of 
 trade for the neighboring iron and copper mines. Other important towns are 
 Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Puerto Principe, Cardenas, Manzanillo, and Santa Clara. 
 
 100a 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL BULLETIN. 
 
 PORTO RICO AND VIRGIN ISLANDS. 
 
 (See reference maps XII, XXIV.) 
 
 Physical Features. Porto Rico is the smallest of the four large 
 islands of the Greater Antilles. The most eastern of the group, 
 this island is 1350 miles in direct line from New York. Its area 
 
 Coffee plantation, Porto Rico. 
 
 is 3531 square miles, exclusive of the small islands of Vieques 
 and Culebra to the east, and Mona to the west, which belong to 
 Porto Rico. Its average length is 95 miles ; its breadth, 35 miles. 
 
 The mountain range traversing the island east, and west is little 
 more than a range of hills, the highest peak of which is about 3600 
 feet high. From these hills, covered with vegetation, more than 
 1200 streams flow north and south into the sea. Many of them, 
 especially in the north, are rivers of considerable size. 
 
 The Climate is tropical, but more healthful than that of Cuba. 
 The average temperature during the summer months is 83° ; during 
 the winter months, 76°. The average rainfall is about 59 inches a 
 year. The driest month is February; the rainiest is November. 
 Tropical hurricanes are not uncommon between July and October. 
 
 Vegetation and Agriculture. The forests have been extensively 
 cleared, but there still remain in favorable localities many trees that 
 are valuable for lumber. Among these are mahogany, cedar, wal- 
 nut, and laurel. Beautiful flowering trees abound, and everywhere 
 grow cocoanut palms, tamarinds, prickly pears, guavas, mangoes, 
 and many trees and shrubs valuable for medicinal qualities. 
 
 The hills may be cultivated to their very tops. Bananas are the 
 most common and profitable product. Oranges, limes, cocoanuts, 
 and pineapples also grow in great abundance. 
 
 Coffee is a leading product, the trees thriving best on the hill- 
 sides at an elevation of a thousand feet or more. More than 
 34,000,000 pounds of coffee are produced annually. Sugar cane is 
 grown on the uplands, yielding about 140,000,000 pounds of sugar 
 annually. The lowlands produce tobacco to the extent of 7,000,000 
 pounds a year. Rice is cultivated on the hillsides, and is the main 
 food of the laboring classes. Indian corn is native to the island. 
 
 Large herds of cattle are pastured on the lowlands, and many 
 are exported. Horses of a small breed are also raised. Fowls 
 are abundant, and bee keeping produces much honey for export. 
 
 Animal Life in Porto Rico embraces no wild animal more for- 
 midable than the armadillo, and no reptiles that are poisonous. In- 
 sects thrive, and include centipedes, scorpions, ticks, and mosquitoes. 
 
 The Mineral Resources of the island are not extensive. Copper, 
 iron, and lead exist, but not in paying quantities. Coal has been 
 found, and salt is obtained from saline lakes near the seashore. 
 
 Commerce. A railroad around the island has been planned, and 
 137 miles of it are in operation. Five hundred miles of telegraph 
 
 lines are in use. Wagon roads are much better than in Cuba, and "" 
 a fine macadamized highway connects San Juan and Ponce. 
 
 The principal harbors are those of San Juan and Arecibo, on the 
 north ; Ponce, Arroyo, and Guayanilla, on the south. The chief 
 exports are coffee, sugar, tobacco, and honey. The value of all 
 exports in 1895 was $14,629,494. 
 
 History. Porto Rico, called Borinquen by the natives, was 
 discovered by Columbus on his second voyage, November, 1493. 
 In 1508 Ponce de Leon visited the island, was charmed with its 
 beauty and its gentle, hospitable people, and soon ' after founded 
 the city of San Juan Bautista, where he built his palace. The 
 people, who numbered over 500,000, were reduced to slavery, and 
 when they rebelled the Spaniards swept them out of existence. 
 
 The island was afterwards slowly colonized by Spanish immi- 
 grants, who were compelled, from time to time, to defend them- 
 selves against the English and the Dutch. In 1870 Porto Rico 
 was organized as a province with seven departments. Slavery had 
 existed from the first settlement, but was abolished in 1873. After 
 the Spanish-American war of 1898, the island was ceded by Spain 
 to the United States. 
 
 People. The latest census showed a population of about 953,000, 
 of whom more than 364,000 are negroes. The blacks are descended ' 
 from former slaves, live in miserable bamboo huts, and have little ., 
 disposition to work. The whites are mostly of Spanish descent 
 and include the small landowners of the country districts, and the 
 still higher class of large planters and traders. 
 
 Education has made little advancement, and but a small propor- 
 tion of the children attend the five hundred schools provided for 
 them. There are a few secondary schools and colleges, under the „ 
 control of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 A garden in Ponce, Porto Rico 
 
 ous by/its stately public buildings, presents an imposing appearance, situated »J 
 as it is on one of the finest harbors in the West Indies.' The private dwellings 
 are mostly of one story and are flat-roofed. The city is provided with electric 
 light, gas, and ice works, and there are small factories for making brooms,* 
 matches, and soap. The population is about 32,000. Ponce, the second city, 
 is on the southern coast. It has an ice factory and gas works, and a popula- 
 tion of about 28,000. Arecibo, on the north coast, is the center and shipping' 
 port of the sugar industry. Mayaguez, on the west coast, and Aguadilla, in 
 the northwest, are important commercial towns. Fajardo, on the east coast, 
 and Arroyo, in the southeast, are important sugar-making towns. ' 
 
 Virgin Islands. Besides owning Vieques and Culebra, in this group, which 
 lfe near Porto Rico, the United States has been negotiating with Denmark for 
 the purchase of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. These three islands 
 pave an area of 138 square miles, and a population of about 33,000, composed 
 mostly of negroes engaged in the cultivation of sugar cane. Christiansted, 
 on St. Croix, and Charlotte Amalie, on St. Thomas, are the chief towns. 
 
 100 J 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL BULLETIN. 
 
 THE TERRITORY 0>-HAWAII. 
 
 (See reference map XXIII.) 
 
 Physical Features. The Hawaiian Islands lie in the Pacific 
 Ocean, about 2500 miles southwest of San Francisco. The islands 
 of this group are twelve in number, and the chain extends in an 
 irregular line from northwest to southeast, between about 18° and 
 23° north latitude. The area of the seven inhabited islands is 
 G449 square miles, or about two thirds that of the state of Ver- 
 mont. The largest island, Hawaii, is somewhat smaller than the 
 state of Connecticut ; Oahu is half as large as Rhode Island. 
 
 The whole chain consists of a series of volcanoes, all now ex- 
 tinct, except Mauna Loa and Kilauea, in the island of Hawaii. 
 Mauna Kea, in the same island, has an altitude of 13,805 feet. 
 Nearly all the islands are partly surrounded by reefs, and the 
 mountainous surface is everywhere broken by valleys and running 
 streams, but there are no rivers. 
 
 Of mineral products there are none except those which occur in 
 volcanic regions, such as sulphur, copperas, and niter. 
 
 The Climate is warm, the air is pure and agreeable, being re- 
 freshed by the northeast trade winds, and the temperature, seldom 
 rising above 88°, is made equable by the vast surrounding ocean. 
 The average yearly rainfall is about 50 inches, although in the 
 island of Hawaii it reaches 200 inches. 
 
 Vegetation and Animals. The windward mountain slopes and 
 valleys are covered with a dense tropical growth, and the forests 
 contain much valuable timber. The more useful indigenous trees 
 and plants include the screw pine, the cocoanut, the candlenut, 
 used for lighting, the breadfruit, the banana, and the wonderfully 
 nutritive taro, the principal food plant of the natives. 
 
 Pigs, dogs, and rats are found, but have been introduced by 
 man. There are snipes, plovers, ducks, and a few singing birds. 
 Imported goats and cattle have increased into wild herds. The 
 only reptile is a small lizard. 
 
 Industries. As yet there is no extensive manufacturing, and 
 agriculture is the main occupation. Sugar cane is the most im- 
 portant crop, and sugar making is the leading industry. Coffee, 
 which grows on the elevated lands, is the next important product, 
 and is rapidly increasing in importance. Rice is raised on marshy 
 fields by Chinamen. 
 
 Hauling sugar cane to mill, Oahu, Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 The common garden vegetables, peaches, oranges, pineapples, 
 bananas, the guava for jelly— all produce abundantly. The tea 
 plant, and the ramie and the tree-fern pnlu, both* yielding a fine 
 fiber for weaving and for cushions, have been successfully intro- 
 duced. There are large sheep farms, and the wild cattle are killed 
 for their hides. 
 
 100c 
 
 Oahu College building, Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands are of great commercial importance to the 
 United States, and Honolulu is in direct line of vessels plying be- 
 tween the Pacific coast and China, Japan, and Australia. 
 
 History. The Hawaiian Islands were discovered by Captain 
 Cook in 1778, and by him were named Sandwich Islands, in honor 
 of the English earl of that name. Cook and the natives were 
 friendly until he unintentionally offended against their religious 
 customs, when they killed him, in 1779. In 1820 American mission- 
 aries began their labors in Oahu, and to them is largely due the rapid 
 advance in civilizing the islands, and in promoting education. 
 
 The islands were governed by chiefs and monarchs until 1893, 
 when the queen was deposed, and the group was formed into a 
 republic. In 1898 the Hawaiian republic was annexed to the 
 United States, and in 1900 established as the Territory of Hawaii. 
 
 The People, according to the census of 1900, number 154,001. 
 Of this total about one sixth are Japanese ; one eighth Chinese ; 
 one tenth Portuguese ; 2000 British ; and over 3000 Americans, 
 who are the ruling class. The natives, called Kanakas, are gentle, 
 intelligent, and brave, but, owing to the radical change in their 
 customs, they are rapidly decreasing in number. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Honolulu, the capital, having a population of about 
 39,000, is situated on a plain on the south coast of Oahu. The harbor is more 
 than a mile long, and admits the largest vessels. The city contains substan- 
 tial government buildings, churches, and handsome residences; also several 
 planing mills, rice mills, and iron works. 
 
 Hilo has about 20,000 inhabitants, is beautifully situated on the island of 
 Hawaii, and is next to Honolulu in importance. On the west side of the same 
 island is Kauhako, near the place where Captain Cook was killed, and where 
 a monument stands to his memory. On Maui, the most important town is 
 Lahaina ; and Wailuku, Kahului, and Spreckelsville are flourishing villages. 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE-ISLANDS. 
 
 (See reference map XXIII.) 
 
 Physical Features. The Philippine Islands lie east of Indo- 
 China, and about 600 miles southeast of China, from which they 
 are separated by the South China Sea. The most northern point 
 in the group is in about the latitude of southern Cuba, and the 
 most southern point is only 5£° from the equator. The length of 
 the archipelago is 1000 miles • the greatest width 640 miles. The 
 land area is over 114,000 square miles. 
 
 Various estimates have placed the number of these closely packed 
 islands at from 480 to 2000. Luzon and Mindanao include more 
 than half the area of the whole group. The surface is generally 
 broken by mountains of volcanic origin. There are many water 
 courses, the largest rivers being the Rio Grande in Luzon and the 
 Rio Agusan in Mindanao, each of which is over 200 miles long. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL BULLETIN. 
 
 The Climate is purely tropical, with three seasons: the cold, 
 with a temperature of 77° to 80°, from November to March ; the 
 hot, from March to July, reaching a temperature of 100° ; and the 
 wet, from July to November, during which torrents of rain fall. 
 Violent hurricanes, or typhoons, visit the northern islands. 
 
 The Mineral Resources are but little developed. In Luzon are 
 granite, limestone, and marl. Coal has been found in Luzon, Cebu, 
 and Negros. Copper is abundant in Luzon, where also is excel- 
 lent iron ore. Gold, lead, mercury, and sulphur have been found. 
 
 The Forests contain a variety of valuable trees, among which 
 are cedar, ebony, ironwood, logwood, and teak. The cocoanut 
 palm is everywhere, and bamboos, rattans, mangoes, jackfruit, and 
 all Malayan fruits grow in abundance. 
 
 Agriculture is the prevailing pursuit, and its chief products are 
 sugar cane, coffee, and the famous Manila hemp, a fiber obtained 
 from a species of banana. The finest sugar is produced in Panay ; 
 and the total yearly export of sugar is 250,000 tons. 
 
 Coffee grows in all the islands, and rice is the common food of 
 the natives. The cacao bean, brought from Mexico, and Indian 
 corn, introduced from America, with cotton, pepper, ginger, and 
 vanilla, are other products of importance. 
 
 The Wild Animals include the white monkey, deer, wild cat, 
 alligator, turtle, boa, python, and various kinds of snakes, of which 
 only one is poisonous. Of birds there are 200 species, and there 
 are numerous beautiful butterflies and destructive ants. The 
 wild buffalo is tamed and is the beast of all work. Small horses, 
 cattle, sheep, and goats, are raised in large herds and flocks. 
 
 Manufacturing by machinery has never been developed, but 
 handicraft is carried on by the natives with skill and art. They 
 weave cotton, and from the silken fiber of the piria plant make the 
 most delicate lace. In Manila women are employed in making 
 hats, mats, cigars, and cigar cases. 
 
 The buffalo is the beast of all work. 
 
 Commerce within the islands has suffered from the want of roads, 
 and there is but one railroad— that in Luzon, 123 miles long. 
 Foreign commerce centers in the main ports where export prod- 
 ucts are gathered, Manila ranking first. 
 
 Street scene in Manila. 
 
 People. Most of the population is of Malay descent, embracing 
 the Tagals of Luzon and the Visayans occupying several islands 
 south of Luzon. Both of these classes adhere to the Roman 
 Catholic Church. Another class of Malays is the piratical Moros, 
 who are Mohammedans. A few woolly-haired Negritos, descended 
 from the original inhabitants ; very many distinct and nearly 
 savage tribes inhabiting different islands ; over 30,000 Chinese, 
 with numerous mestizos ; and about 20,000 pure Spanish, mostly iu 
 Manila— all together make up a population estimated at 7,000,000. 
 The number of dialects spoken is said to be about 500. 
 
 History. The discovery of the Philippines is due to Magellan, who on the 
 first voyage by white men across the Pacific, in 1521, landed at Cebu. Here 
 he joined the friendly ruler in an attack upon his enemies, and was killed. 
 
 For nearly 400 years the Philippines were subject to Spain. Growing dis- 
 content under the tyranny and oppressive taxation of Spanish rule incited the 
 more civilized natives to insurrection, which broke out in 1896. During the 
 war between Spain and the United States, in 1898, Admiral Dewey destroyed 
 the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, and upon the conclusion of the war the entire 
 group of islands was ceded to the United States. 
 
 Cities. Manila, the capital, is a walled city of 350,000 inhabitants, situated 
 on a large bay of the same name. It is the main port for foreign commerce, 
 and has many modern improvements, including paved streets and electric lights. 
 Cavite, 15 miles from Manila, is a naval and military station. Iloilo, in the island 
 of Panay, is the second city of importance, and has a large trade in sugar. Cebu, 
 capital of the island Cebu, is a well-built city of 35,000 people. Several other 
 cities and towns have populations ranging from 1000 to 20,000 each. 
 
 GUAM (see reference map XXIII) is the largest and most populous of the 
 Ladrones, discovered by Magellan on his famous voyage, and so named on 
 account of the thieving habits of the natives (ladrones is Spanish for ' ' thieves"). 
 These natives, enslaved and oppressed by the Spaniards, were finally exter- 
 minated, and were succeeded by immigrants from Mexico and the Philippines. 
 Guam is important only as a naval and coaling station. 
 
 WAKE ISLAND (see reference map XXI) is an atoll in the North Pacific 
 Ocean, between Guam and the Hawaiian Islands. It has no inhabitants, and 
 was seized by the United States in 1899. 
 
 TUTUILA (see reference map XXIII) is one of the three largest of a group 
 known as the Samoa Islands ; it is about 18 miles long, and 6 miles wide, and 
 lies about 14° south of the equator and nearly 3000 miles east of northern 
 Australia. The natives are noted for their strength, bravery, and intelligence. 
 For several years the Samoa Islands were governed by their own king, under 
 the joint control of Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. By a re- 
 cent treaty Great Britain relinquished her claim, and Tutuila and several 
 other islands were ceded to the United States. The excellent harbor of Pago 
 Pago is occupied as a naval and coaling station. 
 
 ) 
 
 PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES. 
 
 Aguadilla, a-wa-theTya 
 Antilles, an-tll'lez 
 Arecibo, a-ra-se'bo 
 Arroyo, ar-ro'yo 
 Cavite, ka-ve-ta' 
 Cebu, tha-bu' 
 Cienfuegos, se-Sn-fwa'gos 
 Culebra, ku-lS'bra 
 Fajardo, ffi-har'do 
 Guam, gwam 
 Guayanilla, gwi-a-nel'ya 
 
 Havana, ha-van'a 
 Hawaii, ha-wi'e 
 Hilo, he'lo 
 Holguin, hol-gen' 
 Honolulu, ho-no-lu'lu 
 Iloilo, e-16-e'lo 
 Juana, hwa'na 
 Kabul ii i, ka-hu-lu'e 
 Kauhako, kou-ha'ko 
 Kilauea, ke-lou-a'a 
 Ladrones, la-dronz' 
 
 Lahaina, la-hi'na 
 Luzon, lu-zon' 
 Manila, ma-ne'la 
 Manzanillo, man-sa-nel'yo 
 Matanzas, ma-tan'zas 
 Maui, mou'e 
 
 Mauna Kea, mou'na ka'a 
 Mauna Loa, mou'na 16'a 
 Mayaguez, mi-a-hweV 
 Mindanao, men-da-na'6 
 Mona, mo'na 
 
 100<7 
 
 Moro, md'ro 
 Negrito, ne-gri'to 
 Negros, na'gros 
 Oahu, 6-a'hu 
 Panay, pa-ni' 
 Philippines, ffl'Ip-Inz 
 Pinar del Rio, pe-nar' d61 re'6 
 Ponce, pon'tha 
 Porto Bico, por'to re'eo 
 Puerto Principe, pwer'topren'- 
 se-pa 
 
 Rio Agusan, re'o a-gu-san' 
 Rio Grande, re'6 gran 'da 
 Samoa, sa-mo'a 
 San Juan, san hu-an' 
 Santa Clara, san'ta kla'ra 
 Santiago, san-te-a'go 
 Tagal, ta-gal' 
 Tutuila, tu-tu-e'la 
 Vieques, ve-5'kSs 
 Visayan, vS-si'an 
 Wailuku, wi-lu'ku 
 
CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS. 
 
 Size. Through how many degrees of latitude does North America 
 extend? Through how many degrees of longitude? When it is mid- 
 night in the Pribilof Islands, what time is it in eastern Greenland; in 
 Newfoundland ? 
 
 Coast. Name the chief seas and bays of the grand division; the chief 
 peninsulas; the chief islands. Compare Greenland and Cuba in size; in 
 surface ; in climate. Compare Newfoundland and Vancouver. Compare 
 Florida and Lower California in position; in latitude; in climate; in 
 formation. Compare Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Compare 
 the Chesapeake and San Francisco bays. Where are there low, sandy 
 coasts in North America? Name a cape on such a coast, and explain 
 the formation of bars and sandy hooks. 
 
 Surface. Name the chief mountain ranges of eastern and western 
 North America, giving the direction, the general height, the forma- 
 tion, and the comparative age of each system. Name some mountains 
 with jagged tops; some with smooth and level tops. Name and describe 
 the chief plateaus of North America. Name and describe the lowlands. 
 Where are there vaEeys between mountain ranges; gaps across moun- 
 tain ranges? 
 
 Drainage. Name some of the most noted springs of North America, 
 telling about their appearance, temperature, and use. How are these 
 classes of springs formed? Name some noted caves of North America. 
 How are caves often formed? Name the chief lakes. How are lakes 
 formed? Where are streams generally rapid? Why? Where are 
 streams sluggish? Why? Why are some streams rapid in some parts 
 and sluggish in other parts? Name some rivers which have built deltas, 
 and explain delta formation. Name some which flow into estuaries, and 
 give the history of estuary formation. Name some rivers whose mouths 
 are obstructed by bars. How are such obstructions formed? Name 
 some rivers which have cut canyons, and explain the formation of can- 
 yons. Name some which meander through flood plains, and describe 
 flood plain formation. Name some rivers which are obstructed by falls. 
 How are some falls formed? Where are there rivers which decrease as 
 they advance? Why? Name some rivers useful to commerce; some 
 which have no commercial usefulness. Name some high divides; some 
 low divides. 
 
 Soil. Name the unproductive regions of North America. Which are 
 so because the soil is too cold; too dry; too swampy? Where has the 
 presence of glaciers made the soil more fertile? How? Less fertile? 
 How? Where are there alluvial plains; sandy plains; old lake beds; 
 soil incrusted with salt? Why? What lands are artificially irrigated? 
 
 Rock Formations. Explain the formation of the Tidewater region 
 of eastern North America ; of the Piedmont region. In what region are 
 there mountain folds? In what region are there tilted strata? In what 
 region are there many veins containing mineral deposits? Describe 
 the formation of such a vein. In what western region are there great 
 outflows of lava? What is a lava bed? Where are there volcanoes in 
 North America? Describe volcano formation. What proofs of former 
 glacial action are found in North America? What proofs are found of 
 the power of wind in influencing land forms? Where are there coal de- 
 posits? Describe the formation of coal; of peat. Which of the West 
 Indies are coral islands? How are such islands formed? How may 
 coral polyps aid in the growth of the mainland? Where are there some 
 islands of volcanic formation near North America? 
 
 Climate. Locate the heat belts of North America in summer; in 
 winter. Describe the temperature in five climatic belts or regions. 
 Where are the greatest differences of climate owing to latitude? How 
 long does freezing weather last in several regions? Describe the circu- 
 lation of air over North America; the distribution of moisture. Show 
 by examples how climate may be affected by elevations of land; by dis- 
 tribution of land and water; how climate may affect products and occu- 
 pations. Describe the progress of a cyclone across North America: its 
 path, its direction of rotation, and the weather produced by its different 
 parts. Where are there snow-capped mountains; mountain glaciers; 
 continental glaciers? 
 
 Life. What are the three life regions of North America? Which is 
 the largest? Give reasons for the existence of these regions. How have 
 the plants and animals of these regions adapted themselves to their sur- 
 roundings? Where are there few life forms? Why? Where are there 
 few large~*CTM animals? Why? Give some uses to which the native 
 plants and animals of North America are put. 
 
 People. In what parts of North America do people of the black race 
 chiefly live? What part of the population do they form? In what 
 countries are they chiefly found? Tell what you know of their his- 
 tory. What types of the yellow race are found in North America? 
 In what part is each type found? Which of them was found here by 
 the first white discoverers? What two peoples are included in this 
 type? How do the Eskimos live? To what stage of progress have 
 they attained? Where are they found? Where do the Indians chiefly 
 live? What stages of progress have they reached? Where were they 
 most advanced when America was discovered? Where have they most 
 freely mingled with the whites? How numerous is this mixed race? 
 Where have the Indians remained largely separate from the whites? 
 Tell where and how some of the tribes live. What people of the white 
 race chiefly inhabit North America? What nations early settled there? 
 Why? From what nations do immigrants now come? Why? What 
 parts of North America are most densely populated; least densely? 
 Why? Try to explain the existence of the detached regions of 
 moderately dense population. Has North America its proportionate 
 share of the world's population? What nations occupy the grand di- 
 vision? Tell what you know of the history of these nations. What is 
 their prevailing form of government? What other forms of government 
 do you know? Describe each. What parts of North America belong to 
 European nations? Describe the government of one of these. Name 
 the republics of North America. Describe the government of the chief 
 of these. What religion prevails in North America? What are the 
 other chief religions of the world? What languages are spoken in North 
 America? In what parts is each spoken? In what parts of the grand 
 division is education most general? Name some important educa- 
 tional institutions. 
 
 Industries. How does the United States rank in each of the seven 
 great industries? What are the chief industries of British America; of 
 Danish America; of Mexico and Central America; of the West Indies? 
 
 Locate the chief agricultural regions of North America; describe the 
 soil of each. How does agriculture depend upon climate? What is 
 irrigation? Where is it practiced? Define fertilizers; rotation of crops. 
 Tell where each of the following is grown, and what are the advantages 
 of the regions where it thrives: wheat, corn, rice, hay, oranges, sugar 
 cane, cacao, tobacco, cotton. Which of these are foods? 
 
 In what regions of North America are these animals raised: cattle; 
 hogs; sheep; horses? Give the chief uses of each, and tell where they 
 are best raised. Where are there fur-bearing animals? In what waters 
 are obtained fish; coral; sponges? 
 
 Where are there dense forests; open forests; oak, cottonwood, pine, 
 cedar, cypress, mahogany, redwood? 
 
 What regions yield anthracite coal, bituminous coal; petroleum, 
 natural gas; iron, copper, gold, silver; marble? How are some of 
 these formed? How are some obtained? How are some used? 
 
 Where are the great manufacturing regions of North America? Where 
 are these articles made : cotton goods, woolen goods, clothing, silk goods, 
 boots and shoes ; lumber, rubber goods, pitch and rosin ; steel ships, iron 
 and steel, glass, cutlery, pottery, kerosene ; butter and cheese, packed 
 meat, canned fruit, canned fish, refined sugar, flour, tobacco? 
 
 Tell the chief trade advantages of each country of North America^ 
 Make a list of the chief trade centers, and tell the advantages of each. 
 Show that surface forms affect railroad routes. Point out some im- 
 portant canals and tell their uses. 
 
 Make a list of the capital cities in North America. Describe one capi- 
 tal. What is a capital? Make a fist of the large cities of North America 
 about which you know some historic associations; about which you can 
 tell the reason for their positions or importance. What are the parts of 
 a city; its uses? 
 
 101 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Location, Extent, and Coast Features. In what part of the conti- 
 nental plateau is South America? (map, p. 8.) What is its direction 
 from North America; from Africa; from Australia? What part of 
 South America is in tne same longitude as Florida ; as Newfoundland ; 
 as Greenland ? In what zones does it lie ? What waters surround it ? 
 How does it rank among the grand divisions in size ? (p. 157.) Is 
 the coast Of South America more or less indented than that of North 
 America ? On which coast are the great estuary bays ? Name the capes 
 at the four extremities of South America. Near what part of the coast 
 are there many islands ? What large island is south of South America ? 
 By what strait is it separated from the mainland? Is the submerged 
 part of the continental plateau wider off the east or off the west coast ? 
 
 Surface. Review the lesson on the highlands and lowlands of the 
 world (p. 10). Where is the great highland region of South America? 
 Compare it with that of North America in length ; in width ; in nearness 
 to the coast; in general direction. What plateaus are in the eastern 
 part of South America ? Compare them with the eastern highlands of 
 North America in size and position. Compare the great lowland of South 
 America with that of North America in position ; in size. Which has 
 the greater area lower than 1,000 feet elevation ? 
 
 The Andes Mountains are much loftier than the ranges 
 of the North American highland, and are much less broken. 
 They follow the north and west coasts as a continuous wall, 
 from the vicinity of the island of Trinidad nearly to the 
 Strait of Magellan. Except near the extremities there are 
 few passes across the chain less than two miles high, while 
 many of the peaks are four miles in height, and are the 
 highest in America. Even in the torrid zone these lofty 
 peaks always bear snow and glaciers near their summits, 
 and in the south glaciers descend to the sea. 
 
 Thirty or forty active volcanoes occur along the Andes, 
 and many of the high peaks are huge volcanic cones. Se- 
 vere earthquakes are common throughout the chain, and 
 sometimes cause great loss of life. On the west slopes of 
 the Andes are many terraces and shell deposits high above 
 present sea level, marking old positions of the sea beach. 
 What movement of the earth's crust is probably occurring 
 in this region ! 
 
 Andes Mountains. 
 
 In the north the Andes consist of three ranges separated by long 
 river valleys. Near the equator they narrow to a single high range. 
 South of the equator the highland widens and is bordered by two 
 lofty ranges, which form the rims of the highest plateau on the con- 
 tinent. What is its name ? It is about 1\ miles high. South of the 
 plateau of Bolivia the Andes extend as a single great range to the Strait 
 of Magellan, but in the south they are cut entirely through in several 
 places by the deep valleys of streams flowing into the Pacific. This 
 great range is bordered on the west by a much lower and more broken 
 range close along the coast. 
 
 The northern part of the plateau of Bolivia is extremely rugged, and is 
 traversed by deep valleys draining northwardly. The southern part is 
 smoother, for it was once the bed of a series of great lakes which covered 
 much of the region between the bordering ranges, when the climate was 
 moister than it is at present. As the climate changed, the lakes shrunk 
 in size or disappeared entirely, leaving terraces, or old beach lines, to 
 mark their former limits. What is the largest remnant of these former 
 lakes ? It is about half as large as Lake Ontario. What North Ameri- 
 can lake has had a history similar to that of Lake Titicaca ? 
 
 The Brazilian plateau is much lower than the Andean 
 highland. Its general height is less than half a mile. 
 Much of its surface is quite level, but there are numerous 
 rugged divides and several mountain ranges, with at least 
 one peak two miles high. The plateau slopes abruptly in 
 the east to a narrow coast plain, but inland it merges 
 gradually into the great central lowland. In what direc- 
 tion does the highland of Guiana extend? The eastern 
 highlands of South America, like those of North America, 
 are much older than the western highlands. 
 
 103 
 
104 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Between the highland regions, extending the entire length 
 of the grand division, and from the Andes to the Atlantic, 
 is a vast lowland plain. Low divides extend across this 
 lowland from the Andes to the eastern highlands, separat- 
 ing its surface into a northern, a central, and a southern 
 slope. In what general direction does each descend ? The 
 slopes, however, are so gradual and the divides so low that 
 they are quite imperceptible, and the characteristic fea- 
 tures of nearly the whole region are its flatness and its 
 slight elevation above sea level. 
 
 There are very few old, hard rocks exposed on the level surface of 
 this lowland, which is mostly covered with a fine clayey soil. Many peo- 
 ple believe that much of this region 
 was formed beneath a shallow sea 
 by sediment worn from the adjacent 
 highlands, and was upheaved in com- 
 paratively recent times, like the Tide- 
 water region of our Atlantic coast. 
 Parts of the region, especially in the 
 south, are still rising, but parts of 
 the northeastern and southeastern 
 coasts are thought to be now sinking. 
 
 Climate. Review the lesson on 
 the heat belts (pp. 24, 25). What 
 part of South America is always hot ? 
 What part has temperate winters 
 and hot summers? What parts are 
 always temperate? Mention some 
 part of South America that is al- 
 ways cold. Mention a South Ameri- 
 can winter month. Review the les- 
 sons on winds and rainfall (pp. 26, 
 27). What winds prevail over the 
 
 northern part of South America ; over the southern part ? Over what 
 part of South America does the equatorial rain belt lie in January? 
 Where does it lie iu July ? Where do the tropical calms cross South 
 America? What parts of South America have heavy or moderately 
 heavy rainfall? Why? What parts have light rains or little or no 
 rain? Why? In which half of the year do you think that most of 
 the rain falls in South America ? Why ? 
 
 There is comparatively little difference between the 
 temperatures of winter and summer in South America. 
 Most of the lowlands are always hot ; in the extreme south 
 they are stormy, chilly, and disagreeable, but seldom very 
 cold ; the elevated plateaus of the Andes are always tem- 
 perate, and the higher summits of this chain always cold. 
 It is only in a comparatively narrow central belt that 
 there is a notable difference between the temperatures 
 of summer and winter, and in this region the winters 
 are seldom cold enough for the formation of ice. 
 
 The most plainly marked seasons are the wet and the 
 dry, and they are determined by the position of the equa- 
 torial rain belt, 
 
 In our summer the rain belt lies north of the equator, and at this 
 season there is generally least rain in South America. As the rain belt 
 sweeps southward in our fall and winter, and northward again in our 
 spring, it yields the heavy daily rains which make the rainy season. At 
 all times the southeast or the northeast trades blow far inland and dis- 
 charge heavy rains wherever they are forced to rise. Hence the east 
 slope of the Andes in the torrid zone is one of the rainiest regions in the 
 world. The Pacific slope, however, south of the rain belt, receives only 
 the winds which have lost their moisture on the east slope, and there- 
 fore this region is one of the driest in the world. In the south, where 
 
 westerly winds prevail, the west slope receives a heavy rainfall, while 
 the region east of the mountains is quite dry. 
 
 Drainage. Trace the continental divide of South America. Trace 
 the divides of five river basins which together embrace nearly all 
 of the Atlantic slope, except its southern extremity. Which of these 
 basins is largest ? How does the Amazon basin compare in size with the 
 largest river basin in North America ? Compare these basins in amount 
 of rainfall, and number of tributary streams. From these comparisons 
 do you think the Mississippi-Missouri or the Amazon is the larger 
 stream ? What is the next largest river basin of South America ? Com- 
 pare it with the Mississippi basin in size and rainfall. Do you think the 
 Mississippi or the Plata discharges more water into the sea ? Name and 
 locate the three other great basins of South America. How do you think 
 they compare with the Yukon or the Colorado River in the amount of 
 
 water they carry ? Why ? Why are 
 there no long rivers on the Pacific 
 slope of South America ? 
 
 The enormous amount of 
 rain which falls on the Atlan- 
 tic slope of South America 
 gives to it some of the great- 
 est rivers in the world. The 
 Amazon, while not so long as 
 the Mississippi-Missouri, has 
 a larger basin and discharges 
 much more water into the 
 ocean. It is much the largest 
 river in the world. 
 
 The great river is several miles 
 wide and is deep enough for the 
 largest ocean steamers for more 
 than a thousand miles above its mouth; large steamboats can ascend 
 to the very foot of the Andes. When the river is flooded after the 
 rainy seasons, it spreads out over the flat lowland to a much greater 
 width, and it has built up a very wide flood plain, which is traversed 
 by many broad, deep bayous. Name the two largest tributaries from 
 the north. Count the large tributaries from the south. Name the largest. 
 Find the Tocantins River. What is its estuary called ? By what is 
 it separated from the main estuary of the Amazon ? As it is thus 
 separated, the Tocantins-Para River is sometimes not included in the 
 Amazon system, though its estuary is connected with the Amazon and 
 is always used by steamers ascending that river from the ocean. The 
 main Amazon estuary, north of Marajo Island, is filled with rocky 
 islands and is quite shallow near its mouth. Why? No well-marked 
 
 On the lower Orinoco River, Venezuela 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 105 
 
 Falls on the Sao Francisco, Brazil. 
 
 delta is formed at these great river mouths, because the eoast region 
 here is sinking quite rapidly, and because strong currents sweep much 
 of the sediment away. 
 
 The Plata River, or Rio de la Plata, is really a great 
 estuary formed by the submergence of a river valley. 
 "What two tributaries has it? Name the largest streams 
 of the Parana system. The Plata basin is nearly as 
 large as that of the Mississippi, and it discharges a much 
 greater volume of water. The Parana is navigable for 
 more than a thousand miles above its mouth, but the 
 sediment it brings down has nearly filled much of the 
 Plata estuary. 
 
 The basin of the Orinoco is not so large as that of the St. 
 Lawrence, but the amount of water discharged is almost 
 as great as that of the Mississippi. What are its lowlands 
 called ? The Orinoco is more than a mile wide, and is navi- 
 gable throughout most of its course in the lowlands. After 
 the rainy season, which here occurs in the early summer, 
 its floods convert much of the llanos into a great shallow 
 lake. This river has a delta larger 
 than the state of New Jersey. 
 
 The Sao Francisco and the Magdalena 
 have basins which together are not half 
 so extensive as that of the Mackenzie, but 
 they are much larger rivers. The Mag- 
 dalena is a great commercial route far 
 into the mountains. The lower course 
 of the Sao Francisco is broken by falls 
 by which it descends from the highlands, 
 but its upper course is navigable for long 
 distances. 
 
 The rivers in the 'southern part of the 
 Atlantic slope contain very little water 
 during much of the year. Why ? Many 
 short mountain streams fed by the melt- 
 ing snow descend the west slope of the 
 Andes, but few of them reach the sea. 
 The water is used for irrigation in that 
 dry region or it evaporates before it 
 reaches the coast. 
 
 Compare North and South America as 
 to the number of lakes. You have learned 
 why North America has so many lakes. 
 What do you suppose is the reason that 
 South America has so few ? 
 
 The.silvas, Brazil. 
 
 TOPICS ON THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 I. Western Highlands. Length. Height. Evidences of up- 
 heaval. Parts: northern — ranges, climate ; central — ranges, plateau, 
 climate ; southern — ranges, climate. Passes. Glaciers. 
 
 II. Eastern Highlands. Brazilian : height ; surface ; slopes ; age ; 
 climate. Guiana: height; direction; age; climate. 
 
 III. Lowlands. Surface. Slopes. Divides. Formation. Climate. 
 Rivers : length ; volume ; mouths. 
 
 IV. Coasts. Bays and estuaries. Capes. Islands. Movements. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw a circle to represent the western hemi- 
 sphere, and in it make a sketch map of North and South America, put- 
 ting in the chief rivers and mountains. Model South America. Write 
 a comparison between the northern and southern coasts of South Amer- 
 ica in regard to temperature and rainfall in winter and in summer. 
 
 VEGETATION AND ANIMALS. 
 
 Eeview the lesson on distribution of life (pp. 28-29). What parts of 
 South America have dense forests ? Why ? What part has more open 
 forests? Why? Where are there open grassy regions ? Why? Where 
 is the desert region ? Why ? Review the lesson on the South American 
 region (p. 30), and mention some of its characteristic plants and animals. 
 
 Vegetation. The equatorial forests of South America, 
 called silvas in the Amazon valley, are among the densest 
 and most extensive in the world. Even in the southwest- 
 ern part of the grand division the forests are quite dense 
 and the foliage is mostly evergreen. 
 
 In the east are many nearly treeless savannas and catnpos, but in the 
 central silvas, where the rainfall is heavier and more continuous, the 
 damp and gloomy forests are almost unbroken for hundreds of miles. 
 They are so dense, and in many parts so swampy, that it is almost impos- 
 sible for men to traverse them except on the rivers and numerous bay- 
 ous. Describe the character of these forests (p. 28). India rubber and 
 other gums, cabinet and dye woods, Brazil and cocoa nuts, vanilla and 
 cacao beans, and Peruvian bark, sarsaparilla, ipecac, and other medi- 
 cines, are among the useful products of these forests. 
 
 In the southwestern forests peculiar kinds of cedars, pines, oaks, 
 and laurels are abundant and valuable. 
 
 The plains of the Orinoco val- 
 ley, called llanos, are treeless ex- 
 cept for palms and mimosas which 
 fringe the streams and crown the 
 low hills. During the rainy sea- 
 son the region is covered with 
 grasses, and affords fine pasturage, 
 but in the dry season it is hardly 
 more than a desert. 
 
 The southern plains, or pampas, 
 are like the Great Plains of the 
 United States. They are nearly 
 treeless, are covered with coarse 
 grass, and are famous herding 
 grounds. 
 
 Animals. No other region is 
 so rich in animal life as South 
 America. 
 
 In the silvas most of the forms are 
 adapted for living on trees, and hence 
 are rather small. Almost the only ex- 
 ceptions are the tapir, jaguar, ant-eating 
 
E.Y.f «*3UH*> DEJ ■ 
 
 BRACUY 1 KJATES ENSH'« M,V 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 107 
 
 bear, and boa constrictor. Among the smaller animals are various 
 kinds of monkeys, sloths, peccaries, and ant-eaters ; many kinds of 
 humming birds, parrots, and other gorgeously colored but generally 
 songless birds ; and countless insects and reptiles. In the rivers are 
 found the whale-like manatee and many great alligators. 
 The llama, alpaca, vicuna, and little chinchilla 
 
 made greater progress than any others in America, hav- 
 ing nearly reached the lowest stage of civilization. 
 
 The most advanced tribe were the Incas, who lived near Lake Titi- 
 oaca. With the aid of irrigation and fertilizers they cultivated com, pota- 
 toes, and cotton; they had domesticated the llama as a beast of 
 burden, and the alpaca for its wool, which they wove into cloth ; 
 they built fine roads and immense buildings of stone ; they 
 made bronze and knew how to work gold 
 
 °A ( 3B and silver, of which they made beautiful 
 
 ornaments and utensils. They had 
 
 are adapted to the 
 colder climate of the 
 Andes by a heavy coat of wool 
 or fur, for which the llama and alpaca are 
 domesticated. The llama is also used as a 
 beast of burden. Among the mountains are 
 found also deer, bears, the puma or panther, and 
 the great condor. 
 
 The characteristic animals of the pampas are the 
 armadillo, the guanaco (a kind of llama), and the 
 
 American ostrich, or rhea. Deer are also found both on — 
 
 the pampas and on the llanos, but by far the most numerous 
 animals of these plains are the descendants of the cattle, sheep, 
 and horses introduced by man since the discovery of America. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Describe one plant of South America ; one 
 animal. Write a reproduction of the description given by one of your 
 schoolmates. Read " What Mr. Darwin Saw." 
 
 MAN. 
 
 Compare South and North America in area ; in population (p. 157). 
 Calculate the average number of people to the square mile, or- the 
 density of population, in each. If the people of the world were evenly 
 distributed over the land, South America would have six times its 
 present population. What parts of South America are most densely 
 
 peopled? Tell one reason why 
 
 POPUTATION 
 
 ^"1 Sparse 
 
 |H Moderately dense 
 
 so few people live in the central 
 region ; in the southern region. 
 What races live in South Amer- 
 ica? Where do the whites live 
 chiefly 1 Where are nearly all the 
 people Indians ? Where are there 
 many negroes ? 
 
 Peoples and Countries. 
 
 When Columbus discov- 
 ered the New "World there 
 were probably more Indi- 
 ans in South America than 
 in North America. Those 
 of the lowland were gen- 
 erally savages, but those 
 of the Andes highland had 
 
 ANT-EATER 
 
 Some animals of South America. 
 
 conquered nearly all the tribes of the Andes region and formed them 
 into a great confederacy or nation, which numbered several million 
 people. 
 
 The Spaniards who followed Columbus to the north 
 coast of South America in seai'ch of gold heard of the 
 gold-working Incas, and soon conquered them and estab- 
 lished themselves throughout nearly the whole Andes 
 highland as far east as the Orinoco. Spaniards also made 
 settlements in the Plata valley. 
 
 Meanwhile navigators from Portugal, a country lying 
 next to Spain in southwestern Europe, explored and 
 conquered much of the east coast, which came to be called 
 Brazil. Here the Portuguese made the first agricultural 
 settlements in America, to which they brought thousands 
 of negro slaves from Africa. 
 
 Thus most of eastern and central South America was claimed and 
 settled by the Portuguese, while the Andes region and the lower part 
 of the Plata basin were claimed and settled by Spaniards. On the 
 northeast coast the English, French, and Dutch founded a few small 
 settlements. 
 
 The Spaniards and the Portuguese enslaved the Indians, forced 
 them to work in the mines or on the plantations, and often treated 
 them cruelly. But many white settlers married Indian women, and 
 in the east many negroes and Indians also intermarried, so that now 
 fully one third of the people of South America are of a mixed race. 
 About one third are pure-blooded whites, and the rest are Indians 
 
108 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 and negroes. Slavery has been abolished, but most of the manual labor 
 is performed by the mixed races and the negroes. 
 
 The King of Spain ruled his South American colonies 
 so harshly that finally they rebelled, and after long wars 
 became independent republics, in which the Spanish lan- 
 guage still prevails. About the same time the Portuguese 
 colonists declared their independence of Portugal, and 
 formed the only independent monarchy that has ever 
 existed in America. In 1889, however, their country became 
 a republic, in which the Portuguese language is still spoken. 
 
 Name the Portuguese republic; the nine Spanish republics; the 
 three European colonies. Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela are com- 
 posed of states or provinces in which, as in our states, the officers are 
 elected by the people and are nearly independent of the federal govern- 
 ment in local affairs. The other republics are divided into provinces 
 or departments for which the central government appoints the officers. 
 There have been frequent wars in all the republics over the working of 
 their governments, and nearly all have fought with one another over 
 their boundaries, few of which are yet definitely settled. On account 
 of these wars the countries have not advanced in wealth and impor- 
 tance so rapidly as the United States. Still, much progress has recently 
 been made. Slavery having been abolished, free settlers are coming in 
 thousands from Europe. Some railroads have been built; the larger 
 cities are provided with street cars and electric lights ; and schools and 
 colleges have been established. Catholic missions were early founded 
 among the Indians, and most of the people in South America profess 
 
 Coffee plantation, southern Brazil 
 
 that faith ; but other religions are permitted by law in 
 all the countries except Peru and Ecuador. 
 
 Industries and Products. The chief in- 
 dustries in South America are herding, agri- 
 culture, and mining. Where are the chief 
 pasture lands ? The valleys of the Plata 
 River system, the southeastern part of the 
 Brazilian plateau, and the river valleys along 
 the northern coast of the grand division are 
 the chief agricultural regions. In the torrid 
 zone, coffee, corn, sugar, cotton, cacao, cassava, and tobacco 
 are grown; in the temperate zone, wheat, corn, and barley. 
 Gold, silver, and copper are mined in the Andes region, but 
 the chief mineral product is nitrate of soda, useful as a 
 fertilizer and in making gunpowder. This is obtained 
 from old lake beds on the dry western slope. In the 
 eastern highlands also some gold is found. 
 
 Most of the foreign trade is with the United States and 
 
 Europe. "We get most of our coffee and rubber, much wool 
 and sugar, and many hides from South America, to which 
 we send flour and some manufactured goods, for compara- 
 tively little manufacturing is done there. Most of the 
 South American imports come from Great Britain, Ger- 
 many, and France, to which countries wool, beef, mutton, 
 wheat, coffee, gold, silver, nitrates, and forest products are 
 exported in return. 
 
 Where are most of the railroads in South America? 
 (p. 106.) These carry the agricultural and animal prod- 
 ucts to the seaports, while the railroads in the north and 
 west carry the products of the mines to the coast. ■ 
 
 The most extensive railway system is in the southern part of South 
 America. Hero a transcontinental road is completed, with the exception 
 of a few miles in the west, where the two parts of the line will be con- 
 nected by a tunnel through the Andes. Throughout the central region 
 the Amazon, with its tributaries, is the great commercial route, by which 
 rubber and other forest products are carried from the very base of the 
 Andes to the seaport at the river mouth. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL. In what part of the grand 
 division is Brazil ? What countries border it ? What South American 
 countries do not 1 Trace the chief divides of Brazil. What river basins 
 do they separate ? Describe the surface ; the climate ; the chief rivers. 
 What is the history of Brazil ? Name and locate the capital ; four cities 
 north of the capital ; two south. 
 
 Only a small part of Brazil, mostly in the southeast, is cul- 
 tivated. The most valuable crop is coffee, of which Brazil 
 produces more than all the rest of the world. It is grown 
 on the uplands north and west of Rio de Janeiro. Farther 
 north, along the coast, sugar, cotton, and tobacco are raised. 
 Much corn and cassava are cultivated, and they form the 
 chief food of the laboring classes. In the Parana valley 
 an herb called mate is extensively grown. Its leaves are 
 much used in South America as a substitute for tea. 
 
 Herding cattle on the pampas, Argentina. 
 
 What products do the silvas supply! In the extreme 
 south the herding of cattle is the chief industry. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, the second city of South America in size, is 
 about as large as Boston. It has one of the few fine harbors 
 of South America, and ships much coffee, mostly to the 
 United States. What city is west of Rio ? It is in the cof- 
 fee region, and is the educational center of Brazil. Its port, 
 Santos, ships more coffee than Rio, but chiefly to Europe. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 109 
 
 . Bahia and Pernambuco, each about as large as Detroit, 
 are the ports of the sugar and tobacco district. Para is 
 the great rubber-shipping port, and Maranhao ships raw 
 cotton. Porto Alegre exports dried beef and hides. 
 
 ARGENTINA. What countries border Argentina? How does it 
 rank in size among South American countries ? Describe its surface ; 
 its chief rivers. What is the capital ? Name three cities of the interior. 
 
 Argentina is the most prosperous of the Spanish repub- 
 lics. It has more railroads than Brazil, and is being 
 rapidly settled by Italians and other southern Europeans. 
 It is one of the great wool-, 
 
 beef-, and mutton-exporting- hmhm«m«| 
 
 countries of the world. Hides, 
 tallow, and other animal prod- 
 ucts are also exported, as 
 well as much wheat from the 
 lower Parana valley. In that 
 region large crops of wheat, 
 corn, and flax are raised, and 
 
 Public square, Buenos Aires. 
 
 Cattle raising is an impor- 
 tant industry, but the climate 
 is too warm for sheep. Mate, 
 or " Paraguay tea," is exten- 
 sively cultivated, as weH as 
 corn, cassava, tobacco, and 
 sugar cane, the women work- 
 ing the crops, and the men 
 gathering the mate leaves 
 and herding the cattle. Lumbering is carried on in the 
 extensive forests. Asuncion is the chief trade center. 
 
 Public gardens, Bahia. 
 
 there are extensive sugar plantations and vineyards, as 
 well as many flour mills and wine-making establishments. 
 Buenos Aires, the largest city of South America, ranks 
 between Boston and Philadelphia in size. One half of 
 the population are Europeans. Its harbor has been deep- 
 ened at heavy cost. It is the great seaport of the re- 
 public and of nearly the whole Plata valley. "What city 
 in our country has similar commercial advantages? Ro- 
 sario, Cordova, and Tucuman are much smaller trade centers. 
 
 URUGUAY. What countries border Uruguay ? Describe its surface 
 and drainage. What is its capital ? 
 
 Though the smallest republic in South America, Uru- 
 guay ranks fourth in the value of its foreign com- 
 merce. Its industries are the same as those of Argen- 
 tina. Montevideo, the chief commercial city, is about 
 one third the size of Buenos Aires. 
 
 PARAGUAY. What countries border Paraguay ? In what zones is 
 it? By what rivers is it drained? What is the capital ? 
 
 CHILE. By what is Chile bordered ? Describe the surface of Chile 
 What peak is near the center of its eastern boundary ? It has an 
 elevation of about 4£ miles, and is the highest point of the Western 
 Continent. Explain the difference between northern and southern Chile 
 in temperature, rainfall, and vegetation. What is the capital? What 
 seaport is near it? Name three cities further south. Name two sea- 
 ports in the north. 
 
 Because of differences in climate, northern, central, and 
 southern Chile differ greatly in aspect and in industries. 
 In the warm northern deserts mining is the chief industry. 
 Silver, copper, and gold are mined, and from the old lake 
 beds between the Andes and the coast ranges great quan- 
 tities of nitrate of potash are obtained. Six sevenths of 
 the people live in the central region of moderate rainfall, 
 where agriculture and the herding of sheep and cattle 
 are leading industries, and fine crops of wheat and bar- 
 ley, grapes and other fruits are raised. Coal is mined 
 and exported from the coast range south of Concepcion. 
 In the southern region of heavy rainfall lumbering is 
 becoming an important industry, though Chile imports 
 much lumber from the United States. Coal and gold are 
 also mined in the south, near Punta Arenas. Chile ranks 
 third in commerce among the South American countries. 
 More than half the exports are nitrates ; then come silver, 
 copper, wheat and barley, and iodine. Most of the trade 
 is with Europe. 
 
 Santiago, the largest city, is about the size of Cincinnati. 
 It is almost half a mile above the sea, and fifty miles in- 
 land. Like most of the larger cities of South America, 
 it was founded within fifty years after the discovery of 
 
110 
 
 PAKTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Santiago, Chile. 
 
 America, and is therefore much older than any city in 
 the United States. Because of earthquakes, the houses, 
 as in all the cities of the Andes region, are generally low 
 and the streets wide. Valparaiso, the largest Pacific port 
 of South America, is the chief importing point of Chile. 
 Most of the minerals are shipped from Iquique. Why ? 
 
 BOLIVIA. What countries border Bolivia? In what respect does 
 Bolivia differ from all other South American countries except Paraguay ? 
 Describe the surface. What is the capital ? Locate two other cities. 
 
 The eastern range of the Andes is wide and exceedingly 
 rugged in Bolivia. Several of its vast volcanic cones are 
 nearly as high as Mt'. Aconcagua. In these mountains 
 are mined great quantities of silver and tin, which are 
 exported chiefly through the Chilean port of Antofagasta. 
 Most of the imports come through the Peruvian port of 
 Mollendo. Both ports are connected by railroads with the 
 plateau. On the plateau wheat, corn, barley, beans, and 
 potatoes are raised for local consumption, and cattle, 
 sheep, and llamas are herded. Cinchona, cacao beans, and 
 rubber are gathered from the forests of the east slopes and 
 exported by way of the Madeira and Paraguay rivers. 
 
 La Paz is the largest town and the usual seat of govern- 
 ment. The city is built in a deep gorge, through which 
 Lake Titicaca once found an outlet into the Amazon sys- 
 tem. Sucre, not far from the rich silver mines of Potosi, 
 is the constitutional capital. -^ 
 
 La Paz, Bolivia. 
 
 PERU. What countries border Peru? What great river rises in 
 Peru? Describe the surface. In what three climatic regions does 
 Peru he ? Locate the capital. What city is in the south ? What city 
 lies on the plateau ? 
 
 Few people live on the desert coast, because it is so dry, 
 or in the inland forests, because they are so wet. Much 
 sugar and cotton are grown, by the aid of irrigation, in 
 the valleys of the west slope, and they form the chief ex- 
 ports. On the plateau silver is mined, the same kinds of 
 food plants are raised as in Bolivia, and llamas, alpacas, 
 and goats are herded. Some wool and silver are also ex- 
 ported. On the east slope, rubber, cacao beans, and cin- 
 chona are gathered. There are rich petroleum wells in 
 the north, and extensive deposits of guano along the dry 
 coast. Three fourths of the people are of Indian descent. 
 
 Lima, the largest city, is about the size of Omaha. 
 It is six miles from the ocean and about 600 feet above 
 sea level. What is its seaport? Arequipa is an important 
 railroad town, more than one and a half miles above the 
 sea. Cuzco, the chief town of the plateau region, was the 
 old capital of the Incas. 
 
 The Cathedral, Lima. 
 
 ECUADOR. What countries border Ecuador ? Describe its surface. 
 Name two volcanoes. What is the capital ; the chief seaport ? 
 
 Ecuador has but little commercial importance. It claims 
 large areas to the east which have been occupied by Colom- 
 bia and Peru. Cacao is cultivated on the Pacific slope 
 and is the chief export, though some coffee is also exported. 
 Quito, the largest town, though nearly on the equator, is 
 about two miles above the sea and has a delightful climate. 
 Guayaquil is the principal commercial city. 
 
 The Galapagos group of thirteen volcanic islands belongs to Ecuador. 
 The lower slopes are dry and nearly bare of vegetation, but the upper 
 slopes receive ample rainfall and are covered with dense tropical forests. 
 There are few inhabitants. 
 
 COLOMBIA. By what countries and waters is Colombia bordered ? 
 Trace the divides between the Pacific, Caribbean, and Atlantic slopes. 
 Describe the surface. What is the capital ? Name two other cities. 
 
 Most of the people live in the upper valleys of the 
 Cauca and Magdalena rivers. On the hot lowlands cassava 
 and bananas are cultivated; at more temperate elevations, 
 corn, potatoes, tobacco, and cacao : and on the cool high- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Ill 
 
 lands, wheat, oats, potatoes, 
 and beans. Herding is an 
 important industry. Colom- 
 bia is rich in minerals, and 
 much gold and some silver 
 are mined and exported, to- 
 gether with coffee, cattle, 
 hides, and tobacco. 
 
 Bogota, on the healthful 
 highland, is the capital and 
 largest city. Medellin is sit- 
 uated at the center of the 
 chief gold-mining region. 
 Barranquilla is the great re- 
 ceiving and shipping point 
 for Colombian trade. 
 
 Natives of Venezuela. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA. What countries border 
 Venezuela ? Describe its surface and drainage. What lagoon is in the 
 northwest ? What is the capital ? Name two other cities. 
 
 Venezuela occupies most of the Orinoco River basin, 
 and also includes a large proportion of the llano region. 
 Most of the people in Venezuela live on the high slopes 
 of the Andes in the north. On the uplands excellent 
 " Maracaibo " coffee is grown for export. Some hides are 
 exported from the llanos ; from the southern forests some 
 rubber and dyewoods ; and much gold from the southeast. 
 
 Caracas, the largest city, is 
 more than half a mile above 
 the sea, and is connected 
 with its port, La Guaira, 
 by a railroad eight miles 
 long. Valencia, also on the 
 uplands, and Maracaibo, the 
 only large town on the un- 
 healthful lowlands, are trade 
 centers. 
 
 GUIANA. What countries bor- 
 der Guiana? To what European 
 nations does it belong? What is 
 the chief town of each division? 
 
 Sugar raising and gold 
 mining are the chief occu- 
 pations in British and Dutch Guiana, and both of these 
 articles are exported. There are comparatively few white 
 settlers, but many negroes and Hindus and some Chinese 
 laborers. French Guiana has little trade, as it is used by 
 France as a place to which criminals are banished. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read " The Boy Travellers in South America," 
 by T. W. Knox ; " Three Vassar Girls in South America," by Lizzie W. 
 Champney ; " Around and About South America," by Frank Vincent ; 
 " The Spanish American Republics," by Theodore Child ; or " Zephy- 
 rus," by E. R. P. Edgcumbe. Read or recite one selection from Longfel- 
 low's " Poems of Places," Vol. 30. Find out about Simon Bolivar. 
 
 CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS. 
 
 Size. How does South America compare with North America in ex- 
 tent of longitude ? When it is noon at Pernambuco what time is it at 
 Guayaquil ; in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; in Galveston Bay ; on Van- 
 couver Island ? Compare the two grand divisions in extent of latitude. 
 Use the scale of miles to compare the greatest widths and lengths of 
 the two grand divisions. 
 
 Shape and Coast. Compare the general shape of South America 
 with that of North America. Compare their coasts as to regularity of 
 outline. Compare Lake Maracaibo with Hudson Bay ; the estuaries of 
 eastern South America with those of eastern North America; the in- 
 dentations of the western coasts of the two Americas. Compare in 
 number and size the continental islands of South and of North 
 America. What island of South America is situated similarly to New- 
 foundland ? What coast of South America most resembles the western 
 coast of British America and southern Alaska? Why do you think"' 
 these coasts may have been similarly formed? 
 
 Surface. Compare the western highlands of North and South America 
 in general height ; in height of peaks ; in probable age ; in extent of 
 plateaus ; in number and regularity of ranges. Compare the eastern 
 highlands of the grand divisions in extent; in direction; in general 
 height. Is there any plateau region in North America which corre- 
 sponds with the Guiana highland in position? Compare the lowlands 
 of North and South America in position ; in surface ; in slopes. 
 
 Drainage. Compare the various river systems of the Atlantic slope 
 of South America with those of the Atlantic slope of North America in 
 position, size of basin, volume of water, mouth, usefulness. In the same 
 way compare the rivers of the Pacific slope in the two grand divisions. 
 Explain, where you can;. the reasons for the differences you notice. 
 Compare the lakes of South America with those of North America in 
 number, size, position, formation, and usefulness. 
 
 Climate. Compare the heat belts of South and North America in 
 number. Give some reasons why the eastern part of South America 
 
 has more rainfall than the eastern part of North America. Write a 
 short comparative description of the climate of the two grand divisions. 
 
 Life. Compare in extent the unproductive regions in the two Ameri- 
 cas. What cause for unproductiveness exists in the one and not in the 
 other ? Which has larger areas of dense forest ; of open forest ? Which 
 of the South American grassy regions most resembles our Great Plains 1 
 How much of North America does the South American life region in- 
 clude ? Compare the life forms of the silvas with those of the Andes ; 
 of the llanos ; of the pampas. 
 
 People. Compare the two Americas in density of population. Show 
 how this density has been affected in each case by latitude ; by ele- 
 vation ; by occupation. In what parts of South America does the black 
 race chiefly live ? Why ? What types of the yellow race are found ? 
 Chiefly in what parts? How did the Indians found in North and South 
 America compare in civilization? Compare the European settlements 
 of North and South America in date ; in purpose ; in nationality. Com- 
 pare the French settlements in the two Americas in extent; in purpose ; 
 in permanency. Compare in the same way the Dutch settlements ; the 
 English settlements. Compare the governments in the two Americas. 
 In which does a larger proportion of territory belong to European 
 nations ? " 
 
 Industries. What agricultural products are important in both 
 Americas? Which grow chiefly in South America? What minerals 
 are mined in both? Which chiefly in South America? What important 
 minerals are little mined in South America ? Compare the forest prod- 
 ucts of the two grand divisions. Find industrial regions of North 
 America to which the various countries of South America correspond 
 in products. To what industrial section of the United States is there no 
 corresponding country in South America ? Describe the commerce be- 
 tween the South American countries and Europe and the United States. 
 Compare the natural trade routes within South and North America ; the 
 artificial trade routes. 
 
EURASIA. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 Extent and Coast Features. In what part of the continental 
 plateau is Eurasia ? (map, p. 8.) Between which grand divisions of 
 land does it lie ? By what is it separated from or connected with 
 each of the three ? How does it compare with North America in 
 size ? (p. 157.) What part of the land surface of the world does 
 it embrace? 
 
 On the map, pp. 112, 113, connect with straight lines the most 
 northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern points of Eurasia. 
 Which of the three sides of the grand division has the most regu- 
 lar coast line ? Name four seas, two gulfs, and a bay which border 
 the northern coast. What two peninsulas project from it ? What 
 large islands are near it ? 
 
 Which is the most irregular coast of Eurasia ? What four seas 
 border it west of the isthmus of Suez f With what ocean are they 
 connected ? What three peninsulas project from this part of the 
 coast ? Name five large islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Name 
 two seas, a gulf, and a bay which border the coast east of the 
 isthmus. With what ocean are they connected ? What three great 
 peninsulas do they border ? 
 
 Name six seas and a gulf on the east coast. Of what ocean are 
 they a part ? What peninsulas project from this coast ? What 
 island groups are south and east of the South China Sea ? What 
 long island chain is north of the Philippine Islands ? 
 
 Surface. Review the lesson on highlands and lowlands (p. 10). 
 In what part of Eurasia are nearly all the highlands? Compare 
 them with the American highland in length; in width; in direc- 
 tion. Name four large plateaus of the Eurasian highland; five 
 smaller plateaus. What part of Eurasia is an almost continuous 
 lowland plain? By what mountain range is it divided? By 
 what oceans is it bordered? How do the Pacific and Indian Ocean 
 slopes of Eurasia compare with the Pacific slope of America in 
 amount of lowland? Name three lowland plains on the Pacific 
 slope of Eurasia ; two on the Indian Ocean slope. Name a great 
 detached plateau of this slope. 
 
 The Highlands. The great Eurasian highland ex- 
 tends as a continuous region of elevation from Bering 
 Strait to the Mediterranean Sea. It is cut eritirely 
 through by the outlet from the Black Sea, but extends 
 through southern Europe as a broken and much 
 narrower highland to the Spanish peninsula. In 
 central Asia this vast highland is as wide as the 
 United States from San Francisco to Chesapeake Bay. 
 There is no continuous mountain chain traversing 
 the great highland, as in America, but from Bering 
 Strait to the Strait of Gibraltar there is a broken suc- 
 cession of mountain ranges. Between them are broad 
 desert plateaus which differ greatly in elevation. The 
 small, rugged Pamir plateau and the extensive but 
 smoother plateau of Tibet are about three miles in 
 elevation, while the great plateaus to the northeast 
 and southwest of them are not one third as high. The 
 mountain ranges rise from one to three miles above 
 the surface of the plateaus, and some of them are the 
 highest in the world. 
 
 What three ranges extend eastward from the Pamir region, 
 forming the borders of the plateaus of Tibet and Mongolia ? These 
 are the loftiest mountains in the world. The upper third of their 
 slopes is always covered with snow, from which great valley glaciers 
 extend much lower. Mt. Everest, in the Himalayas, is the highest 
 measured peak, and has an elevation of 5£ miles, but there are 
 many peaks nearly five miles high in each of these chains. 
 
114 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 What two chains are in the northern part of the plateau of Mon- 
 golia? What chain forms its eastern border? What is this chain 
 called north of the Amur River? These chains are lower than those 
 nearer the Pamir plateau, but the snow-clad peaks of the Altai range 
 are three miles high. 
 
 What three chains form the northern border of the highland west of 
 Pamir plateau ? The Hindu Kush is a snow-capped range about four 
 miles high. The other chains are lower, but they contain lofty peaks, 
 and the upper valleys of the Caucasus are filled with glaciers. What 
 chains border the plateau of Iran on the east and on the southwest ? 
 
 What plateaus and ranges compose the Eurasian highland in south- 
 ern Europe ? Of these the Alps and the Pyrenees are snow-clad, and 
 have peaks between two and three miles high. 
 
 What two mountain ranges are in the great northern lowland ? These 
 ranges are scarcely a mile high. The Urals are a gradual swell in the 
 great plain. The Kiolen Mountains slope gradually to the east, but 
 their abrupt western slope forms the bold, rocky coast of the Scandi- 
 navian peninsula. Great glaciers descend from them to the sea. 
 
 What plateau occupies the peninsula of India ? It is composed of old 
 outflows of lava like those of the Columbia plateaus. 
 
 Earthquakes are not uncommon throughout the Eurasian highland, 
 and they indicate that its upheaval may still be in progress. There are 
 many old volcanic rocks in the highland region, but comparatively few 
 active volcanoes on the mainland of Eurasia, and these are widely sep- 
 arated—one is on the Italian peninsula, two or three near the Cas- 
 pian Sea, one or two northeast of the Pamir plateau, and several on 
 the peninsula of Kamchatka. About 150 active volcanoes, however, 
 occur on the long chain of mountainous islands which rise from the sub- 
 merged edge of the continental plateau east and southeast of Asia. 
 This region is the greatest center of volcanic activity in the world. 
 It is shaken by earthquakes almost constantly. Probably no other part 
 of the continental plateau is being upheaved so rapidly. 
 
 The Lowlands. Most of the great northern lowland 
 has an elevation of less than 500 feet, and in places it is 
 actually below sea level. Find such a place. In general 
 its flat surface is broken only by the low bluffs which 
 border the broad flood plains of the streams. 
 
 The detached lowland plains to the east and south of the 
 great highlands are composed of alluvium washed from the 
 bordering mountains, and their upheaval is thought to 
 have been comparatively recent. 
 
 rain ? What is peculiar about the winds of southern and southeastern 
 Asia? (p. 26.) What effect have these winds and the highlands upon 
 the rainfall of this region ; upon the rainfall of central and southwest- 
 ern Asia ? What are the causes of the moderately heavy and the light 
 rainfall in western and northern Eurasia ? 
 
 Climate. Review the lesson on the heat belts (pp. 24, 25). In what 
 five heat belts does Eurasia he ? What part of Eurasia lies in each heat 
 belt ? To which other grand division is Eurasia similar in the general 
 distribution of its heat belts ? Review the lessons on winds and rain- 
 fall (pp. 26, 27). Where are the largest regions of heavy or moderately 
 heavy rainfall in Eurasia ? Where are the regions of light rains or no 
 
 RAINFAIX 
 
 1 \LMU or no rain 
 
 FlM rmtiu 
 
 SH£| Mudiraltly htaty raim 
 
 Because of the greater extent of Eurasia the extremes 
 of temperature in the interior are greater than in North 
 America. Why ? The coldest winters in the world occur 
 in northeastern, and nearly the hottest summers in south- 
 western Asia. Thus, with the exception of the southern 
 and the western parts, Eurasia is characterized by excess- 
 ive temperature changes during the year. Even in the 
 hot belt there is a chilly season when the dry winds blow 
 southward from the highlands. The summer heat and 
 the winter cold in the west are tempered by the pre- 
 vailing winds from the Atlantic. 
 
 In the south and southeast the monsoon winds (p. 26) 
 blowing from the sea in summer yield copious rainfall 
 on the seaward slopes, while little rain falls at other" 
 seasons, when the winds blow seaward. The sea winds 
 lose most of their moisture on the seaward slopes of the 
 ranges bordering the great highlands, so that the plateaus 
 and lowlands behind these ranges receive little or no rain 
 and are therefore deserts. The westerly winds, with their x 
 cyclonic storms, yield ample rainfall at nearly all seasons 
 over western and central Europe, but have little moisture 
 left when they reach northern Asia. 
 
 Drainage. Beginning in the Khinghan Mountains trace a continu- 
 ous line around a great central region of Eurasia whose drainage does 
 not reach the ocean or any of its arms. Locate this region on the rain- 
 fall map, and tell why it is a region of " interior drainage." Does any 
 rain fall in this region ? Does the rainfall give rise to any streams ? 
 What becomes of these streams? (p. 15.) Is the water of these lakes 
 fresh or salt ? Why ? What is the largest sheet of water in this region ? 
 What two large tributaries has it ? If the rainfall of Central Asia were 
 sufficiently heavy, part of this great interior basin would be drained to 
 the Pacific, part to the Indian Ocean, and part to the Atlantic Ocean 
 through the Caspian, Black, and Mediterranean seas. What other part 
 of Eurasia sends no drainage to the sea ? What three large rivers of 
 Eurasia flow to the Arctic Ocean? What four flow to the Pacific 
 Ocean? Name four that flow to the Indian Ocean. Name three that 
 flow to the Atlantic Ocean, through the Black Sea. Do the Eurasian 
 rivers flowing to the Arctic and those flowing to the Indian Ocean have 
 their sources near together ? Why not ? 
 
EURASIA. 
 
 115 
 
 The Alps. 
 
 As so large a part of Eurasia receives light or scanty 
 rainfall, none of its streams equals in volume the great 
 rivers of America. On the moist southeast slope the 
 river basins are comparatively small, while the large 
 basins of the north receive only a light rainfall. Thus 
 the Yangtze, which is the longest and largest river of 
 Eurasia, is not much larger than the St. Lawrence in 
 volume, though the four large rivers of the north are 
 but little smaller. In general the streams in the south- 
 east and in the west are much larger in proportion to 
 their length than those in the north and in the south- 
 west. Why ? 
 
 The Caspian Sea is about five times as large as Lake 
 Superior, and is the largest lake in the world. The evap- 
 oration from it is so rapid that its surface lies about 
 eighty-five feet below sea level, though it receives the 
 Ural and the great Volga, a river as large as the Mac- 
 kenzie. The land barrier which separates the Black Sea 
 from the Caspian, north of the Caucasus, is so low that 
 if the Black Sea were to rise ninety feet it would overflow 
 into the Caspian. 
 
 The two large and many small lakes east of the Caspian are all higher 
 than the Caspian Sea, but because of the rapid evaporation none of them 
 can overflow its basin. What large lake is in the Yenisei basin ? It is 
 about twice the size of Lake Ontario, and is the largest fresh-water lake 
 in Eurasia. There are very many smaller fresh-water lakes, as well as 
 extensive swamps, on the low, flat surface of the northern plain, par- 
 ticularly near the central part. West of the Urals the surface is covered 
 with the drift of the old Scandinavian glacier (p. 20), and greatly re- 
 sembles the great Canadian lowland. Name the two largest lakes in this 
 region. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw circles representing the western and 
 eastern hemispheres, and sketch North and South America, and Eurasia. 
 
 Draw on a larger scale 
 a map of Eurasia, naming the 
 chief indentations and peninsulas, the 
 chief mountains and rivers, and indica- 
 ting the chief divides. Model Eurasia. Write 
 a comparison of the climates of central, southern, 
 and western Eurasia. 
 
 VEGETATION AND ANIMALS. 
 
 Review the lesson on distribution of life (pp. 28-29). Why do dense 
 forests grow in southeastern Eurasia ? What part of Eurasia is covered 
 with vast open forests ? What is the rainfall of this region ? What 
 part is an open grassy region or a desert ? Why ? What two great life 
 regions occupy most of Eurasia? (map, p. 29.) What physical fea- 
 tures form the barrier between these regions? Why are there broad 
 transitional regions between them in the east and west but not in the 
 center? Review the lessons on the Oriental and Eurasian life regions 
 (p. 31), and mention some of the characteristic plants and animals of 
 each region. 
 
 The Arctic coast of Eurasia, like that of America, is 
 bordered by dreary tundras in which mosses and lichens 
 form the principal vegetation. The broad belt of forests 
 south of the tundras is composed chiefly of cone-bearing 
 evergreen trees, such as spruce, pines, and firs, but is 
 broken by many great treeless areas and swamps covered 
 with birch and willow thickets. In the southwestern part 
 of this belt are fine forests of oak, beech, and other hard- 
 wood trees. Many years ago this forest belt extended 
 westward to the Atlantic, but it has long since been cleared 
 away from the fertile lowlands in that region. 
 
 The principal large animals of the forest region are rein- 
 deer, elk, and bear, but there are many wolves, and very 
 many small fur-bearing animals, as ermines, martens, sa- 
 bles, squirrels, and foxes. 
 
 In the drier region south of the forest belt, both in the 
 lowlands and on the plateaus, are vast grassy prairies, or 
 steppes, which merge into the exceedingly dry and barren 
 deserts. These steppes and deserts form the characteristic 
 feature of central Eurasia from the Mediterranean nearly 
 to the Pacific. 
 
 Almost the only forests throughout this whole region grow on the 
 moister sides of the mountain ranges. Oaks, beeches, chestnuts, cedars, 
 
116 
 
 PAKTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 ' ■' V ■'. „. . 
 
 ARGUS PHEASANT 
 
 Some animals of Eurasia. 
 
 laurels, and myrtles are common trees on the lower and moister slopes, 
 while firs, pines, and other trees yielding resinous gums grow at greater 
 elevations. 
 
 This is the true home of the ancestors of the horse, the 
 cow, the camel, the sheep, the goat, and the hog, and great 
 numbers of all these domesticated animals are raised 
 here, while wild animals closely related to them are the 
 most characteristic animals. There are many kinds of 
 wild sheep and goats, antelopes and gazelles, wild boars, 
 camels, asses, and wild oxen, including oxlike, hairy yaks, 
 and hairless buffaloes. There are several kinds of bears 
 among the mountains, while the tiger and the leopard 
 wander northward over, the transitional regions as far as 
 to the Amur River in the east and to the southern shores 
 of the Caspian Sea in the west. 
 
 The great deserts are almost entirely devoid of surface water for hun- 
 dreds of miles. In places, however, the ground water comes near 
 enough to the surface to supply the roots of plants. In such a place an 
 oasis of vegetation is formed in the midst of the barren desert. Some 
 oases are many miles in extent and contain springs and running 
 streams, but others are quite small and afford water to the thirsty traveler 
 only by means of shallow wells which have been dug down to the under- 
 ground supply. 
 
 Violent winds at times sweep over the open desert, raising dense 
 clouds of dust and sand, which are carried forward in such immense 
 quantities as nearly to bury any unfortunate travelers overtaken by the 
 storm. Because of such windstorms some parts of almost all deserts are 
 
 bare and stony, being swept nearly clean of the surface detritus, while ■ 
 other parts are deeply covered with shifting sand dunes. 
 
 The dense forests of southeastern Asia have been much 
 reduced by the crowded population, and are now confined 
 to tracts least favorable to cultivation — as marshy low- 
 lands or rough hilly districts. These forests are much 
 denser and more luxuriant than those of the north. In w 
 the lowlands are many kinds of palms, bamboos, and trees 
 yielding India rubber, spices, and dyewoods, together with 
 pitcher plants and hundreds of vines growing between the 
 trees, matting them together and forming with the rank 
 undergrowth an impenetrable jungle. 
 
 Here the rhinoceros and the wild boar make their 
 homes. Tigers and several kinds of leopards also live 
 in the jungle. These fierce animals wander out into the 
 cultivated lands at night and kill hundreds of people every 
 year, besides thousands of sheep and cattle. Many more 
 people, however, are killed by the bite of the cobra, a ven- 
 omous snake which abounds in India. 
 
 On the higher lands the forests are composed of many 
 fine timber trees, of which the toon, sal, teak, satinwood, 
 and sandalwood are 'the most valuable. In these forests 
 are found elephants, bears, monkeys, and wild cattle. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Make lists of the Eurasian plants and animals 
 which you have seen. Describe one plant and one animal of Eurasia 
 which you have not seen. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 117 
 
 MA M \^ uu ^yyV 
 
 What is the population of Asia ; of Europe ? (p. 157.) How does 
 the population of Eurasia compare with that of the whole world ; with 
 that of the whole of America? Has Eurasia or North America the 
 denser population ? Eurasia is the most densely peopled of all the grand 
 divisions. J£ the people were evenly distributed over the land surface of 
 the world Eurasia would have but half of its present population. In 
 what parts is the population dense or very dense ? Nearly four fifths of 
 the people of Eurasia live in these three regions. Why are northern, 
 central, and southwestern Asia not so well adapted for a dense popula- 
 tion ? What two races live in Eurasia ? In what parts do the whites 
 live chiefly ? Locate the homes of five peoples of the white race. What 
 people of the yellow race extends westward between the Europeans and 
 other Aryan peoples? Locate the homes of two other peoples of the 
 yellow race. Review the lesson on man's culture, pp. 34, 35. 
 
 By far the greater part of the people in all the thickly- 
 settled regions of Eurasia have reached some degree of 
 civilization. It is only in the dense forests of the islands 
 and mainland in the extreme southeast and along the 
 
 bleak Arctic shores that a few savage tribes are found. 
 Most of the native tribes in the sparsely settled northern 
 lowland are far advanced through the stage of barbarism. 
 
 Unlike America, Eurasia has been the home of civilized man ever 
 since the beginning of history, for it was probably in this grand division 
 that man first became civilized. People were already civilized more 
 than 4000 years ago in the plains of Mesopotamia, India, and China, as 
 well as in the fertile valley of the Nile just west of the Isthmus of Suez. 
 No one has yet been able to tell certainly in which of these localities 
 civilization appeared first. This early civilization, however, was very 
 imperfect, and it improved so slowly that the people of these regions are 
 not yet highly civilized. 
 
 More than 3000 years ago civilization reached the Grecian peninsula, 
 and thence it gradually spread through western Eurasia. This western 
 civilization improved so rapidly that the Aryans of Europe became more 
 highly civilized than the other people of Eurasia. As they advanced in 
 civilization their wants became greater, and they sought new and better 
 commercial routes by which their wants might be supplied. In this 
 search their ships sailed completely around the world, and they dis- 
 covered southern Africa, the unknown continents of America and Aus- 
 tralia, and the islands of the sea. They planted colonies in these and 
 other lands, thus carrying their civilization over the globe. This civili- 
 zation has constantly advanced until now the European Aryans and 
 their descendants in the new lands which they have settled are by far 
 the most enlightened people in the world. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Write a comparison of eastern and western 
 Eurasia in density of population, races, and culture of inhabitants. 
 
 TOPICS ON EURASIA. 
 
 I. Northern Plain. Coast. Surface. Climate. Drainage. Life: 
 vegetable; animal. Man: density; races; civilization. 
 
 II. Eastern and Southern Plains. Names. Formation. Cli- 
 mate. Drainage. Life: vegetable; animal. Man: density; races; 
 history; civilization. 
 
 III. Eastern Highlands. Plateaus. Mountains. Climate. Life. 
 rV. Western Highlands. Plateaus. Mountains. Climate. Life. 
 V. Islands. Western. Eastern. Chief groups. Movement. Climate. 
 Life. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Before studying the following lesson on People and Countries take the Map 
 Exercise on Europe at the top of page 119. 
 
 PEOPLE AND COUNTRIES. 
 
 People. Europe, though little larger than the United 
 States, contains five times as many inhabitants, and hence 
 is much more densely peopled. In what part is the popu- 
 lation dense or very dense ? Compare these regions in ex- 
 tent with the corresponding regions in the United States 
 (map, p. 57). "Where is the population of Europe sparse 1 
 
 Countries. Europe is composed of twenty or more in- 
 dependent states or countries, in nearly every one of which 
 the people differ from those of the others in language, cus- 
 toms, and standards of living. 
 
 This variety in language and customs in neighboring localities is one 
 of the most striking and characteristic differences between the popula- 
 tion of Europe and that of the United States. The difference arises 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 119 
 
 Map Exercise on Europe. The Ural and Caucasus mountains and 
 the Caspian and Black seas are often considered the boundaries be- 
 tween Europe and Asia. What is the most northern point of the Euro- 
 pean mainland? What point on the American mainland is in about the 
 same latitude? What point on the eastern coast of America is in about 
 the same latitude as the most southern point of the European mainland ? 
 How does Europe compare with the United States in size? 
 
 From the Ural Mountains trace the divide between the northern and 
 southern slopes of Europe. In what physical division does the east- 
 ern half of this divide lie? The western half? Into what arms of the 
 sea is the northern slope drained? Name two rivers that flow into the 
 -'Baltic Sea; two that flow into the North Sea; one that flows into the 
 Bay of Biscay. Into what seas is the southern slope drained? Trace 
 the divide in Europe of the Caspian basin; of the Black Sea basin. 
 Name the two largest rivers of the Caspian basin; the three largest of 
 the Black Sea basin. What river flows into the Adriatic? What two 
 flow into the western part of the Mediterranean? 
 
 Through what part of Europe does the great Eurasian highland ex- 
 tend? What moim tains and what plains are in the Danube basin? What 
 mountains form the southern divide of this basin? What mountains 
 extend south into the Grecian peninsula? What mountains traverse the 
 Italian peninsula? What mountains are between the Alps and the Pyre- 
 nees? Name two ranges of the Spanish plateau. What mountains are 
 in northwestern Europe? What group of large islands is near the west 
 coast? By what is Great Britain separated from the mainland? 
 
 Supplemental Work. Sketch Europe, locating its chief mountains, 
 plateaus, plains, divides, rivers, bays, and islands. Model Europe. 
 
 mainly from the different ways in which the two regions were civilized. 
 The United States received civilization through the overrunning and 
 settling of the country, during the last 300 years, by a vast number of 
 
 Ancient ruins in Rome. 
 
 highly civilized, white foreigners, most of whom used the English lan- 
 guage. This foreign population absorbed or drove off the comparatively 
 few native Indians and replaced barbarism with its own old and foreign 
 civilization. Civilization, on the contrary, was itself very young and 
 rude when it first appeared in Europe thousands of years ago, and it 
 spread among the many native tribes so slowly that the barbarous na- 
 tives themselves gradually became civilized, and then, as the centuries 
 passed, they invented the more modern civilization which was carried to 
 America. As among the American Indians, so among the barbarous 
 tribes of Europe there were many native languages. In the United 
 States the native languages and customs were swept away with the 
 Indians, but in Europe various tribes retained their languages and 
 many of their customs as they" gradually advanced in civilization. 
 The languages and customs of neighboring tribes were often some- 
 
 what similar but were quite different from those in distant regions, for 
 few people traveled far from home in those days. It was only when 
 some tribe conquered and settled among another people that distant tribes 
 mixed together. In such cases both of the old languages gradually disap- 
 peared, while from their blending a new language came to be used by 
 the descendants of the mixed people. 
 
 The states of our Union are merely political subdivisions formed 
 mainly for the convenience of local government— many of them having 
 been marked out on paper with straight and regular boundaries before 
 they were settled by civilized men. Most of the countries of Europe, how- 
 ever, are regions inhabited by people who during ages of occupation and 
 contact have become more closely related to one another in language, 
 customs, and history, than they are to the people of the other countries. 
 Hence the boundaries of European countries are very irregular. 
 
 Southwestern Europe. Name five countries of the European mainland 
 which have a seacoast and which lie west of the Rhine and the Adriatic 
 Sea. These are called Latin countries because the languages spoken in 
 them are derived from the Latin language used by the ancient Romans. 
 
 A Viking's ship. 
 
 The Latins were a people of Italy who early received civilization from 
 the Grecian peninsula. They built Rome, which 2000 years ago was the 
 largest and most magnificent city of the world. They conquered and 
 taught civilization to all the tribes of Europe southwest of the Rhine 
 and added that region to the great Roman Empire, which extended east- 
 ward through southern Europe and far into southwestern Asia. 
 
 The Christian religion was brought to Rome by the Apostles shortly 
 after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and Rome to this day is the resi- , 
 dence of the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church; and this form of 
 religion still prevails in all the Latin countries. 
 
 Central Europe. Trace a straight line from southeastern Italy to 
 North Cape. What seven countries he wholly or mostly between this 
 line and the Latin countries? Most of the languages in this region, as 
 well as the English language, which is used in the British Isles, resemble 
 the old German language, and so these countries are often called Ger- 
 manic or Teutonic countries. 
 
 The old Teutonic tribes remained barbarians long after the Romans 
 had conquered and civilized the Latin countries, for though the Romans 
 often fought the Teutons they could never conquer them, but were at 
 last conquered by them. Then followed the " Dark Ages," during which 
 the barbarians overran the civilized Latin countries, but in doing so 
 learned civilization from the conquered people. Two Teutonic tribes, 
 the Angles and the Saxons, whose home was near the shores of the North 
 Sea, crossed to Great Britain and settled in the southern part, which 
 came to be called Angle-land or England, while the blended language of 
 these settlers became Anglo-Saxon or early English. The tribes of the 
 Scandinavian and Danish peninsulas were fearless sea rovers called 
 Northmen and Vikings. They overran all the coasts of the North Sea 
 
120 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 and the English Channel and discovered and settled Iceland and Green- 
 land. They probably even visited New England, 500 years before Co- 
 lumbus reached the West Indies. 
 
 The Christian religion was spread throughout central Europe by 
 priests and monks belonging to the Catholic Church, but now the Protes- 
 tant faith prevails in all the Germanic countries, except Austria, which 
 is still mainly Catholic. 
 
 Eastern Europe. What great country occupies most of eastern Eu- 
 rope f What six countries occupy the southeastern part ? The eastern 
 part of Europe is called Slavonic Europe because nearly all of the 
 languages used show a blending with the language used by the Slavs, 
 a great tribe that once lived northeast of the Carpathian Mountains. 
 
 Although Greece was the first European region to become civilized, 
 most of eastern Europe received civilization through central Europe, and 
 was thus the last part of the grand division to become civilized. On 
 this account, and also because it has often been invaded by rude tribes 
 of the yellow race from Asia, it is not so highly civilized to-day as the 
 western half of Europe. By far the greater part of the population are 
 Aryans, but there are many people 
 of the Turkish branch of the yellow 
 race in all these countries. 
 
 Throughout most of Eastern Eu- 
 rope the Greek form of the Christian 
 religion is the prevailing faith, but 
 in Turkey and Bulgaria very many 
 of the people are Mohammedans. 
 
 Government. While the 
 governments of most Ameri- 
 can countries are republican 
 in form, there are in Europe 
 but two important republics, 
 France and Switzerland. All 
 the other large countries are 
 monarchies. 
 
 In France and Switzerland the 
 ruler is elected from among the com- 
 mon people to hold office for a definite 
 length of time. In the monarchies the ruler belongs to the class of aris- 
 tocrats or nobles, is a blood relation of a previous ruler, of his own or 
 some other country, and holds office for life. Most of the monarchies are 
 limited (p. 36) ; only Russia and Turkey are absolute or despotic. 
 
 Great Britain, Germany, Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, and Italy 
 are the strongest and most populous nations of Europe, and are often 
 called the " Six Great Powers." 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read " The Story of the Greeks" and " The 
 Story of the Romans," by H. A. Guerber; " The Story of Roland" and 
 "The Story of Siegfried," by James Baldwin; "Norse Stories retold 
 from the Eddas," by Hamilton W. Mabie ; and " The Passing of Arthur," 
 in Baldwin's School Readers, 5th and 6th years. 
 
 INDUSTRIES AND PRODUCTS. 
 
 All the great industries are actively pursued in Europe, 
 but by far the largest part of the working population is 
 engaged in agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. 
 
 Agriculture affords occupation to more than half the 
 people. It is pursued in nearly all parts of Europe except 
 in the extreme north and on the more rugged slopes. 
 
 In eastern Europe the light rains fall mostly during the summer, so 
 that crops grow well ; along the southern coasts, where the summers are 
 dry, irrigation is extensively practiced ; and many of the steep hillsides 
 in all regions are terraced and planted. Thus more than twice as much 
 land is cultivated as in the United States, and much larger quantities of 
 
 food crops are raised. There are so many people to be fed, however, 
 that in most of the countries the crops are insufficient and much food 
 must be imported. 
 
 The great agricultural regions are (1) the northern lowland from the 
 Atlantic eastward through southern Russia, and (2) the broad fertile 
 valleys of the Danube, the Po, the Rhone, and the streams of the Spanish 
 peninsula. The northern region, including the plains of Hungary, yields 
 three fourths of the rye, oats, wheat, barley, and potatoes, and is the chief 
 food-producing belt. Other crops of this belt are beets, beans, cabbages, 
 and the fibers flax and hemp. In southern Europe large quantities of 
 beans, garlic, and other vegetables are raised, and much grain, including 
 corn and some rice, but the characteristic crop is the grape, for this is 
 the world's greatest wine- and raisin-producing region. Other important 
 crops of southern Europe are olives, oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, and 
 chestnuts. Mulberry trees are also cultivated to afford food for silk- 
 worms, which are extensively reared. 
 
 Herding. There are four times as many sheep raised 
 in Europe as in the United States, twice as many cattle, 
 
 and about as many hogs ; but 
 in proportion to the popula- 
 tion herding is not so impor- 
 tant an industry as it is in 
 our country. Only four of the 
 countries of Europe produce 
 more meat than the people 
 consume, and several have to 
 import large quantities. 
 
 The great cattle and sheep pas- 
 tures and dairy farms are mostly in 
 the northern food belt, but some cat- 
 tle and very many sheep and goats 
 are pastured in the highland regions. 
 Hogs are raised mostly in the for- 
 ests, where they fatten on acorns, 
 beechnuts, and other mast. 
 
 Fishing. The long coast 
 line of Europe invites many 
 people to engage in this industry, and the product is more 
 than twice as great as in the United States. 
 
 The most valuable fisheries are those of the northwest coast, which yield 
 great quantities of herring, cod, mackerel, and oysters. The south.- 
 western coast waters afford sardines, anchovies, and tunny fish, while 
 the seas and rivers in the southeast yield great quantities of sturgeon, 
 from the roe of which caviare is made. 
 
 The richest coral fisheries of the world are along the shores of the 
 mainland and of the islands in the western half of the Mediterranean ; 
 and the best and most extensive sponge fisheries are in the eastern half 
 of this sea. 
 
 Lumbering. The forests of Europe, though nearly 
 twice as extensive as those of the United States, yield less 
 than half as much lumber. 
 
 The chief lumber regions are northern Russia, the Scandinavian pen- 
 insula, and the wooded slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, but most 
 of the highland regions in southern Europe are well wooded. 
 
 In nearly all the countries the forests belong to the government and 
 to a few of the noble families, and are carefully preserved from destruc- 
 tion. Only a certain amount of timber may be cut each year, and young 
 trees are planted to replace those that are cut down. The dead timber, 
 windfalls, and fagots are gathered for fuel, and thus, especially in western 
 Europe, many of these cultivated forests have come to resemble great 
 open groves, without underbrush and with the trees planted in rows. 
 It is only in the Balkan plateau that the forests are being destroyed by 
 indiscriminate cutting as in the United States. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 121 
 
 Mining. All the useful minerals are found in Europe, 
 and mining is an active industry in many of the countries, 
 the mineral output being almost twice as great as that of 
 the United States. 
 
 The mining of coal and of iron ore is by far the most important. 
 These minerals are obtained in nearly every country of Europe. About 
 half of the yield comes from the old rock folds in the island of Great 
 Britain, and most of the other half comes from the old and greatly eroded 
 region which extends northward from the Alps and the Carpathian 
 Mountains. Iron ore is also obtained from the Spanish and Scandina- 
 vian plateaus and from the southern Urals. 
 
 The Eurasian highland furnishes a large part of the world's supply of 
 copper, zinc, and quicksilver, and some tin, lead, silver, and gold. Salt 
 is obtained in many localities, and petroleum in great quantities along 
 the southern base of the Caucasus, and in smaller quantities along the 
 northeastern foot of the Carpathian Mountains. 
 
 Manufacturing. The great manufacturing region in- 
 cludes the island of Great Britain and the countries bor- 
 dering the English Channel and the North and Baltic seas 
 on the south. This region yields most of the coal and iron ; 
 in it modern machinery is extensively employed, and about 
 two thirds of the manufactures are produced. 
 
 Throughout nearly the whole of the western half of Europe a larger 
 proportion of the population is engaged in this industry than in the 
 United States, while in the eastern half the proportion is slightly less 
 than in our country. Except in the great manufacturing region, how- 
 ever, manufacturing is carried on chiefly " by hand" in Europe, so that 
 
 tive population 
 
 though there are seven times as many operatives in that grand division, 
 the total value of the manufactured product is only twice as great as in 
 the United States. 
 
 The chief manufactures are (1) food products, including butter and 
 cheese, olive oil, and beet sugar, besides wine, beer, and other liquors ; 
 (2) cloth — cottons, woolens, silks, and linens ; (3) clothing ; (4) iron and 
 steel, including machinery, ships, and other iron articles of all kinds ; and 
 (5) leather. Besides these, great quantities of glass, porcelain, pottery, 
 jewelry, woodenware, and nearly every other kind of article used by 
 civilized man, are manufactured in Europe. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Europe is about twice 
 as great as that of the United States, but foreign com- 
 merce forms a much larger share of the total than it does 
 in our country. 
 
 Our country is so large that it possesses a great variety of soils, cli- 
 mates, and rock formations, and thus can produce an abundance of 
 
 nearly everything required by its people. Most of the European coun- 
 tries, however, are very small in comparison with the United States, and 
 are much more thickly peopled, so that they do not produce a sufficient 
 variety or a sufficient quantity of articles for home consumption, and 
 hence have to obtain many things from neighboring countries or from 
 other grand divisions. 
 
 The chief imports from other grand divisions are such foods as tea, 
 coffee, wheat, and meat, and the raw fibers cotton, wool, and silk, 
 which, when manufactured into cloth, form the chief exports to other 
 grand divisions. Much machinery and great quantities of tools, cutlery, 
 and other iron and steel goods are also exported. 
 
 Water routes, both by sea and by the rivers, are much more exten- 
 sively used in Europe than in the United States. Nearly all the rivers 
 have been rendered navigable and are connected by canals with neigh- 
 boring systems ; thus, in the east, by means of rivers and canals, boats 
 can pass from the Caspian or the Black Sea into the Baltic and White 
 seas, and in the west from the Mediterranean into the Bay of Biscay or 
 the English Channel. The shipping of Europe is four times as great as 
 that of the United States, but its railroad system is not quite so extensive 
 as that of our country. 
 
 In what part of Europe are the railroads most numerous ? This part 
 conforms quite closely to the great manufacturing region. In what parts 
 are there comparatively few railroads 1 In what parts are there none ? 
 
 The great highland through southern Europe is so broken that there are 
 many places where commercial routes can pass the ranges. How does 
 the distribution of railroads show the effect of these ranges? Com- 
 pare the distribution of railroads in Europe with their distribution in the 
 United States (p. 60), and describe the general differences. 
 
 Wealth and Earnings. How does Europe compare 
 with the United States in wealth and the earning power 
 of the people? (p. 60.) Thus, with five times as many 
 people, Europe has only three times as much wealth as 
 our country, and the average daily earnings of the people 
 are less than half as much. 
 
 There are several reasons why people accumulate wealth more slowly 
 in Europe than in the United States. Not only is labor-saving ma- 
 chinery less generally used in all the great industries, but the various in- 
 dependent countries, in which different languages are used and different 
 customs and ideals prevail, are constantly jealous of one another and 
 maintain great armies and navies, so as to be ready to go to war at a 
 moment's notice. As a result wars have been very frequent and have 
 destroyed much wealth. In addition to this, the standing armies 
 and navies of Europe contain nearly five million men who are practi- 
 cally idle, and the wage-earners are taxed to support tbem. Nearly 
 every man on the mainland of Europe must serve from one to five years 
 
122 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 in the army or navy, besides drilling every year during a much longer 
 period, and while thus engaged he earns nothing at his regular trade. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Make illustrations showing what part of the 
 people of Europe practice agriculture ; how the amount of cultivated 
 land in Europe compares with that in the United States ; how the cattle 
 of the two compare ; the fishing product ; the extent of forests, and 
 lumber product; the mineral output; the number of manufacturing 
 hands, and the amount of the product; the commerce, shipping, and 
 railroads ; the population, wealth and average earnings. 
 
 CENTRAL EUROPE. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN 
 AND IRELAND. This kingdom includes all the 
 British Isles. By what waters are these isles sur- 
 rounded ? Name the largest island ; the next in 
 size. By what waters are these islands separated ? 
 Name three small groups off the north coast of 
 Great Britain ; one group off the south coast. 
 
 Name three great indentations of the east coast 
 of Great Britain ; four of the west coast ; three 
 on the west coast of Ireland. In what part of the 
 British Isles are there highlands ? Name the chief 
 ranges. How do these highlands compare in height 
 with the Appalachian Mountains? The hills of 
 Ireland occur near the coast. The low interior 
 plain contains many swamps or bogs. The Shet- 
 land Islands and the Hebrides are high and rocky. 
 The Orkneys are low and fertile. 
 
 Why is the climate of these islands milder and 
 moister than that of the eastern coast of America 
 in the same latitude ? The climate of Ireland is 
 especially mild and moist. Why ? 
 
 What three countries are included in the island 
 of Great Britain? Describe the surface of each. 
 Name four rivers of England ; two of Scotland ; 
 three of Ireland. 
 
 Which of the United States is about as large as 
 England ? Which is about the size of Ireland ? 
 Which is about the size of Scotland 1 How does 
 the population of each of these states compare 
 with that of the part of the British Isles which it 
 about equals in size ? The British Isles as a whole 
 are densely peopled, and England is one of the most . 
 densely peopled countries in the world. 
 
 Most of the land in the British Isles is 
 owned by a comparatively few rich fam- 
 ilies of nobles, and but one fourth of it is 
 under crops. A much larger proportion 
 is used for pasturage, and cattle and 
 sheep raising are important industries, 
 Great Britain producing more mutton 
 and wool than any other country in Eu- 
 rope except Russia. Grain, hay, vegeta- 
 bles, some fruits, and much dairy prod- 
 ucts and meat are produced, but only a 
 small part of the people are engaged in" 
 agricultural and pastoral pursuits, and 
 food of all kinds has to be imported in 
 large quantities. 
 
 More than half of the working popu- 
 lation is engaged in manufacturing, and 
 a large part of the remainder in com- 
 merce and mining, all these industries 
 being most active in England. In the 
 value of her manufactures Great Brit- 
 ain exceeds all other countries except the United States, 
 and in the making of cotton and woolen cloth she greatly 
 exceeds all other countries in the world. The coal and 
 iron mines of the British Isles are chiefly in northern and 
 southwestern England and in southern AVales. The coal 
 fields, though much smaller than those of the United States, 
 yield about as much coal, while the iron and steel manu- 
 factures exceed those of any other country except the 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 \ 
 
 123 
 
 "United States. Lead, tin, and copper ores are also mined, 
 but not abundantly. 
 
 The manufacturing greatness of Great Britain depends 
 chiefly upon the abundant supply of coal ; for raw materi- 
 als — cotton, wool, hides, iron ore, 
 and many others — are imported in 
 large quantities from beyond sea. 
 The importation of these raw ma- 
 terials and the necessary food sup- 
 plies, and the exportation of man- 
 ufactured goods and coal, give rise 
 to a foreign commerce twice as 
 great as that of any other country. 
 The greater part of this commerce, 
 besides much of the foreign com- 
 merce of other countries, is carried 
 
 Tower Bridge, London. 
 
 The supreme power of the empire is the law-making 
 branch of the government, which is called Parliament. It 
 is something like our Congress, and consists of a House 
 of Lords composed chiefly of the nobles, and a House of 
 
 Commons composed 
 of members elected 
 by the people who 
 live in the British 
 Isles. 
 
 The king is called 
 the head of the na- 
 tion, but the execu- 
 tive department really 
 consists of a prime 
 minister and his asso- 
 ciate ministers, who 
 hold office during the 
 pleasure of the House 
 of Commons. 
 
 
 on in British vessels, for Great Britain owns nearly half 
 the shipping of the world. 
 
 Ireland is admirably adapted for agriculture, but much 
 of the land is owned by people who live in England, and 
 the laws have been unfavorable to the tenants. Still, about 
 half of the people are engaged in farming, and they raise a 
 surplus of grain, potatoes, and eggs to send to Great Britain. 
 In the northeastern part of the island large crops of flax are 
 raised, from which the famous Irish linens and poplins are 
 manufactured. Much wool is also produced and manu- 
 factured chiefly by the aid of water power. 
 
 In general wealth the United Kingdom surpasses every 
 
 other country except the United States. 
 
 \ 
 
 Prior to the year 1100 Great Britain was invaded and occupied by 
 various nationalities ; and hence its people are of mixed descent. They 
 are mostly the descendants of the Angles and Saxons and of the Nor- 
 mans, a people of mixed Latin and Teutonic blood. The descendants of 
 the Celts, who were the earlier inhabitants of the British Isles, still, live 
 in Wales, in Ireland, and in the highlands of Scotland. 
 
 The British have been the most successful colonizers in the world. 
 During the last 300 years they have planted colonies in every one of the 
 grand divisions, and in many islands of the sea, so that now the British 
 possessions include nearly one fifth of the land surface and one quarter 
 of the people of the earth. What is their chief American possession? 
 Other important possessions are India, Australia, and southern Africa. 
 
 The United Kingdom and the colonial possessions form 
 the British Empire. 
 
 Bridge over the Firth of Forth, Scotland. 
 
 London, the capital of the British Empire, contains as 
 many people as New York city and Philadelphia together, 
 and is the largest city in the world. It is the world's 
 greatest commercial and financial center. It lies on both 
 banks of the Thames, across which are many bridges. The 
 harbor, formed by the broad estuary of the river, is fifty 
 miles long. The trade is mostly with Asia and the Euro- 
 pean mainland, and the imports greatly exceed the exports. 
 Glasgow, the second city of the kingdom in size, and the 
 third in importance as a seaport, is the great center of 
 Scottish trade and manufacture. The chief manufactures 
 are iron and steel ships and machinery, cotton and linen 
 cloth, carpets, and pottery. Liverpool, the third city, is 
 somewhat larger than Boston, and is the great seaport for 
 the manufacturing region of England. The trade is largely 
 with America, Australia, and South Africa, the exports 
 being chiefly cloth and hardware, and the imports cotton, 
 wool, and food stuffs. 
 
 East from Liverpool across England is an almost con- 
 tinuous succession of great manufacturing cities. Among 
 them the largest is Manchester, the world's greatest cotton- 
 manufacturing center ; Leeds, noted for its woolen manu- 
 
124 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 f actures ; and Birmingham and Sheffield, noted for machin- 
 ery, cutlery, and hardware. Hull is the important seaport 
 
 Edinburgh Castle. 
 
 for the trade of this region with the Euro- 
 pean mainland. Newcastle, on the Tyne, and 
 Cardiff are great shipbuilding and iron- 
 manufacturing centers and coal-exporting 
 points. Edinburgh, the seat of the local gov- 
 ernment of Scotland, and Dublin, of Ireland, 
 are important cities, and Belfast is the center 
 of the Irish linen manufacture. 
 
 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. What seas and coun- 
 tries border the German Empire ? (p. 127. ) Describe 
 its surface. Name five rivers of its northern slope; one 
 of its southern slope. Locate its chief mountains. Compare it with the 
 British Isles in area and population (p. 157) ; with Texas. What part 
 of the United States is in the same latitude ? 
 
 The southern half of the German Empire lies on the 
 Alpine plateau, from which rise several groups of low 
 and much worn volcanic mountains. The sandy low- 
 lands of the north are covered with the drift of the old 
 Scandinavian glacier. 
 
 The Rhine is the great river of Germany. It has cut through the pla- 
 teau a narrow, picturesque valley, whose steep side slopes are terraced 
 for vineyards and are crowned with the ruins of old castles. In its lower 
 course the river has deposited a broad flood plain, which is covered with 
 meadows and fertile fields. 
 
 About nine tenths of all the land in Germany is produc- 
 tive. Large areas are devoted to the cultivation of grain, 
 and the sandy soil in other places yields an abundance 
 of potatoes and sugar beets. Much of the southern high- 
 land is covered with forests, which are an important source 
 of revenue, and the river valleys are noted for their vine- 
 yards. Rye is the grain most grown, and the commonest 
 food of the people is a dark rye bread. 
 
 Among European countries, Germany ranks next to 
 Great Britain in the production of coal and iron ore; and 
 it exceeds all other countries in the world in the produc- 
 tion of zinc. Copper, lead, silver, sand for glass, clay for 
 porcelain, and salt are also obtained. 
 
 Like England, Germany is a great manufacturing na- 
 tion. More food products are manufactured than in any 
 
 other country except the United States, chiefly liquors and 
 beet sugar. Most of the sugar used in Europe is made in 
 Germany. The manufacture of woolens, cottons, silks, and 
 linens ranks next in importance. 
 
 Iron and steel and all kinds of hardware are extensively 
 made, especially in the west, and porcelain and wooden 
 articles are also important manufactures. 
 
 Commerce is very active. There are more railroads in 
 Germany than in any other country except the United 
 States. Nearly all the rivers are navigable and are con- 
 nected by canals. Even the Danube is thus connected 
 with the Rhine, through the river Main. There is also a 
 great ship canal through the isthmus of the Danish penin- 
 sula, connecting the 
 Baltic Sea and the 
 North Sea. 
 
 The German soldiers are 
 said to be the finest in Eu- 
 rope. Everymanmust serve 
 in the army at least a year, 
 and this period of service 
 may be much extended. 
 The Germans are also cele- 
 brated for their learning. 
 The German Empire 
 consists of twenty-two sep- 
 arate states, the free towns 
 of Lubeck, Bremen, and 
 Hamburg, and the terri- 
 tory of Alsace-Lorraine. 
 The largest of the states 
 is Prussia, which includes 
 more than half of the entire population. The King of Prussia is also the 
 Emperor, or Kaiser, of Germany. He is the chief executive. The laws 
 are made by an imperial parliament, consisting of a Bundesrath composed 
 of members appointed by the local governments of the various states, and 
 a Reichstag composed of representatives elected by the people. 
 
 Many thousand Germans have settled in the United States, and Ger- 
 man merchants are found in nearly all newly settled countries. The 
 foreign dependencies of Germany comprise extensive regions in Africay 
 possessions in Oceania, and a settlement in China. 
 
 The small Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, between Germany and Belgium, 
 is declared by treaty between the Great Powers to be neutral or inde- 
 pendent, but commercially it is very closely united with Germany. 
 
 Jaunting car, Dublin. 
 
 1 % 
 
 ' -- ' eH 
 
 -"Pi 
 
 ISP aR^ v a^H 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 T^ 
 
 A castle on the Rhine. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 125 
 
 A street in Berlin. 
 
 Find the capital of Germany. It is the largest city of 
 the empire. Because of its museums, libraries, and insti- 
 tutions of learning, the Germans call it the "City of 
 Intelligence." On what river is Hamburg? Where is 
 Bremen f Most of the trade between Germany and the 
 United States is carried on through these ports. Munich 
 and Dresden contain famous collections of pictures, and 
 fine porcelain ware is made at a town near Dresden. 
 Leipzig is famous for its great book-publishing houses. 
 Breslau and Cologne are great cotton-manufacturing cen- 
 ters. Essen is the center jof the iron and steel industry. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, OR HOLLAND. 
 
 Bound the Netherlands. What sea indents the coast ? What river delta 
 crosses the southern part? What is peculiar about the elevation of 
 the western part of the kingdom ? (p. 127.) Compare its area and pop- 
 ulation with those of Germany. 
 
 The Netherlands, or "lowlands," is composed chiefly 
 of alluvium deposited by the Rhine. The rich soil makes 
 perhaps the most fertile farm and pasture land of Europe. 
 Although grain must be imported, there is a large surplus 
 of dairy products for export. The fisheries are valuable. 
 
 Shipbuilding and the making of bricks and pottery give 
 employment to a great many persons. Butter and cheese, 
 sugar and starch, and linen and cotton goods, are among 
 the leading manufactures. 
 
 The sea and rivers would overflow nearly half of Holland to a depth 
 of ten feet or more, but for the dikes, or embankments, which the people 
 have built to protect their lands. The surface 
 water of these lowlands is collected in ditches 
 and canals which intersect the whole country, 
 and is pumped out by means of steam power 
 and by hundreds of windmills. The many 
 miles of canal serve as highways of travel, by 
 boat in summer and by sledge or skates in 
 winter. 
 
 With its numerous canals and railroads, Hol- 
 land has a large domestic commerce, and it 
 ranks fourth among the nations of Europe in 
 foi-eign commerce. The exports include not 
 only home products and manufactures, but also 
 the spices, coffee, chocolate, and other mer- Milk cart, 
 
 A scene in Rotterdam. 
 
 chandise derived from the country's foreign possessions in the East and 
 West Indies and in South America. 
 
 The people of Holland are called the Dutch. They are noted for their 
 cleanliness, industry, and thrift. 
 
 Amsterdam is the largest city. The houses are built on 
 piles, and canals which run through many of the streets 
 divide the city into about ninety islands. 
 
 More than half of the foreign trade of the country 
 passes through Rotterdam, which is the greatest seaport 
 on the mainland of Europe. What is the capital ? 
 
 ■~1 ■ 
 
 ' THE KINGDOM OF DENMARK. Bound Denmark. Of what nat- 
 ural divisions of land is it composed ? Name the peninsula ; the largest 
 island. Compare Denmark with New Jersey in area. 
 
 The surface of Denmark is somewhat more hilly than 
 that of the Netherlands. There are salt marshes in the 
 west, and the coast is bordered by shifting dunes. Parts 
 of the country are covered with beech forests ; the soil is 
 fertile, and farming, the raising of cattle and hogs, and 
 dairying are the leading industries. 
 
 The land is not held in large estates, but is divided into small farms, 
 many of which are owned by the peasants. Compare this with the way 
 land is held in England ; in Ireland. 
 
 Denmark is celebrated for its butter, which, with meat, forms its chief 
 export. Most of the trade is with Great Britain and Germany. 
 
 Find the Faroe Islands, northwest of the British Isles. These, with 
 Iceland, Greenland, and three of the West Indies, are Danish possessions. 
 
 Where is Copenhagen? It is about the same size as 
 Cleveland and is the only large city of Denmark. 
 
 THE KINGDOMS 0^ NORWAY AND 
 SWEDEN. What peninsula do these king- 
 doms occupy? (p. 118.) Describe their sur- 
 face ; their drainage. Compare their eastern 
 and western coasts. Name their chief moun- 
 tain ranges. On which slope are there most 
 lakes? Name two of these lakes. 
 
 Norway is mostly a mountainous 
 plateau which extends to the west 
 coast, where it is much indented with 
 deep, narrow fiords, at the heads of 
 Holland. which glaciers descend to the sea. 
 
 £o K>v 
 
126 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Sweden slopes gradually to the 
 east, and is covered with glacial 
 drift. It abounds in lakes and 
 waterfalls, like New England. 
 Why? (p. 50.) 
 
 Fishing and lumbering are the 
 most important industries in Nor- 
 way; and agriculture, dairying, 
 lumbering, and the mining of iron ore in Sweden. The lead- 
 ing manufactures are wooden ware, hardware, and fish oil. 
 
 Most of the trade of these countries is with Great Britain 
 and Germany. Their commercial fleet is large, but much 
 of its work consists in carrying goods between other 
 countries. 
 
 Norway and Sweden are under the same king, but each country has its 
 own parliament. 
 
 The Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes are closely related, and are called 
 Scandinavians. Their languages are much alike. In the north are many 
 Lapps and Finns who belong to the Turkish branch of the yellow race. 
 
 Norway and Sweden are the most sparsely settled countries of Eu- 
 rope, and yet the population is about as dense as in the southeastern 
 United States. Many of the farmers in the upper Mississippi valley are 
 natives of the Scandinavian countries. 
 
 Name and locate the capital of each country. Stock- 
 holm, about the size of Detroit, is the largest city on the 
 peninsula, and is a center of iron manufacture. Gothen- 
 burg and Christiania have cotton and woolen factories and 
 lumber mills. Bergen is the center of a great fish trade. 
 
 MONARCHY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Bound Austria-Hun- 
 gary. Name its mountain ranges. What river valley occupies its cen- 
 tral part ? Through what part of the country does the European divide 
 pass ? On what waters does the only seacoast of the country border ? * 
 
 Mountain ranges surround and cross Austria-Hungary, 
 and nearly inclose the low, fertile plains of Hungary. The 
 Danube enters and leaves these plains through gaps which 
 it has cut in the mountains. 
 
 The chief occupation is agriculture, and grain, flax, and 
 hemp, as well as olives and grapes, are raised. This is the 
 only European country which has a surplus for export of 
 all the great food products — grain, meat, dairy products, 
 
 Parliament building, Vienna. 
 
 and wine. The rearing of silkworms is an important 
 industry in the warmer parts of the country, and the 
 cutting of lumber in the east, while in the north much 
 iron, coal, silver, and rock salt are mined. In the north- 
 west is a busy manufacturing region, in which cloth, iron 
 and steel goods, fine Bohemian glass, porcelain, and pianos 
 are made. Much weaving and spinning by hand are also 
 done in all parts of the country, and much wine is made, 
 especially in Hungary. 
 With its short seacoast on the Adriatic Sea, which is 
 
 separated by mountain 
 
 ranges from the rest of 
 the country, Austria- 
 Hungary has compara- 
 tively little shipping 
 or sea-borne commerce, 
 but it has a large 
 overland trade with 
 surrounding countries, 
 chiefly by railroad, but 
 to some extent by the 
 Danube Eiver. 
 
 In the eastern half of the 
 country the population and 
 language are mostly Slavonic, 
 though there are also many 
 people of the yellow race. 
 Austria-Hungary consists of several provinces formerly separate, but 
 now united as the two states of Austria and Hungary under one mon- 
 arch. Each state has its own constitution and its own parliament, and 
 sends delegates to a general parliament by which affairs of common inter- 
 est are controlled. The little Principality of Liechtenstein, between Austria 
 and Switzerland, and the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
 in the south, are practically parts of Austria-Hungary. 
 
 Vienna is a brilliant and beautiful capital, and the 
 fourth city of Europe in size. It is a great educational 
 center. Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is an impor- 
 tant grain market and milling center. Prague is in the**" 
 manufacturing region. Trieste is the chief seaport. 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF SWITZERLAND. By what countries is Swit- 
 zerland surrounded ? Describe its surface. Name the two largest lakes 
 in the Alpine plateau. What four great rivers receive drainage from 
 Switzerland? 
 
 Switzerland is much visited by tourists in summer, be- 
 cause of its high snow-covered mountains, its great gla- 
 ciers, which creep down into the green valleys, its glacier- 
 made lakes, and its beautiful waterfalls. 
 
 The land is utilized to the snow limit, largely for pas- 
 tures, and cattle raising is a leading industry. While some 
 grapes, grain, and vegetables are raised, much of the food 
 is imported, except dairy products — of these there is a 
 large surplus for export, chiefly in the form of cheese and 
 condensed milk. 
 
 Switzerland is an active manufacturing region, though 
 most of the articles are handmade. Almost every house 
 is a miniature factory. Textiles, embroideries, plaited 
 straw, watches and clocks, and carved wood are among 
 the manufactured products. 
 
Scale, 133 miles to one Inch, same as the maps 
 northern Section, Southern Section, Hateau Section- 
 Pacific Section, British Isles, and Southwestern Europ 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 100 So 
 
 The highlands above 2000 feet are shown in the buff tint; 
 the lowlands above sea level in the green tints, and the low 
 lands below sea level in the purple tint 
 
 10 Longitud 
 
128 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Alps, Switzerland. 
 
 Railroad routes follow the Rhine, 
 Rhone, and Inn valleys. To what 
 country does each of these routes 
 give acces.?? The longest railroad 
 tunnel in the world has been made 
 under the St. Gotthard pass into 
 Italy. 
 
 The Swiss people are of mixed 
 descent. German language and cus- 
 toms prevail in the north, French in 
 the west, and Italian in the south. 
 
 Zurich, the largest city, is a 
 bustling manufacturing town, 
 producing chiefly leather and 
 silk goods. Geneva is noted 
 for watch maki ng. Basel man- 
 ufactures silk ribbons. Bern 
 is the capital and chief rail- 
 road center. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out 
 about William E. Gladstone ; Prince 
 Bismarck ; Prince Metternich ; Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus ; William the Silent ; 
 Thorwaldsen; Hans Christian An- 
 dersen. Read one of the following: "Story of the English," by H. A. 
 Guerber; "Tom Brown's School Days," by Hughes; "David Copper- 
 field," by Dickens; " Tales of a Grandfather," by Scott; " Kidnapped," 
 by R. L. Stevenson ; " Adventures in Thule," by Black ; " Orange and 
 Green," by G. A. Henty ; " Irish Idylls," by Jane Barlow ; " With Fred- 
 erick the Great," by Henty; "Our Young Folks in Norway," by A. M. 
 Kellogg; "The Lion of the North," by Henty; "Hans Brinker," by M. 
 M. Dodge ; " Three Vassar Girls in Switzerland " and " Three Vassar 
 Girls in the Tyrol," by Champney ; " Wonder Stories of Travel," by E. 
 McCormick, and Longfellow's " Poems of Places." Begin a scrapbook 
 of clippings and pictures about Europe, especially in its relations to the 
 United States. A-Jtd ~ft 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN EUROPE. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. By what countries and sea is 
 Belgium bordered 1 (pp. 131, 118.) Compare it in area and population 
 with the other countries of Europe ; with Massachusetts. 
 
 Belgium is the most densely populated country of 
 Europe. The greater part is a low, fertile plain, much 
 like Holland. Agriculture is here the chief 
 occupation. Rye, wheat, flax, beets, and 
 beans are raised, yet nearly half the food 
 must be imported. 
 
 In the south the land is poor, hilly, and 
 forest-covered, but contains rich mines of 
 coal and iron, and here manufacturing is 
 the leading industry. Belgium is famous 
 for the manufacture of iron and steel and 
 hardware. Woven goods — carpets, wool- 
 ens, linens, and lace — are also made. 
 
 In the north the people are Germanic 
 and speak Flemish, a language much like 
 the Dutch. In the south the people are 
 like the French in race, language, and 
 customs. 
 
 Brussels is a fine city, noted for the man- 
 ufacture of lace, carpets, linens, ribbons, 
 and embroideries. Antwerp is one of the French peasants 
 
 chief seaports of continental Europe. Ghent 
 is the chief seat of cotton weaving and 
 leather manufacturing in Belgium. Liege, 
 in the iron and coal region, is noted for the 
 making of firearms. 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE. Bound France. 
 Describe its surface, naming the mountains (p. 131). 
 Trace through it the main European divide. What 
 four rivers are on the northwestern slope? What 
 river is on the southeastern 1 From the mouth of the 
 Rhone trace a route by river and canal to Bordeaux 
 on the Garonne ; to Nantes on the Loire ; to Havre on 
 the Seine ; to Strassburg on the Rhine. What large 
 island is part of France? From p. 157, compare 
 France in size and population with the largest state in 
 our Union. How does France compare with other 
 European countries in density of population ? 
 
 Palace of Justice, Brussels. 
 
 France is about twice as large as the British Isles, and 
 
 is a much more important agricultural country. On th^ 
 
 prairie lands of northern France more wheat is raised 
 
 than in any other country of Europe, except Russia, and 
 
 almost three fourths as much as in the United States. 
 
 Great crops of sugar beets, potatoes, and other vegetables 
 
 are also cultivated, and thousands of cattle 
 
 and sheep are raised. The grape is a lead- 
 
 ingproductof central and southern France. 
 
 In the south, olives also are grown, as well 
 
 as very many mulberry trees — for rearing 
 
 silkworms is an important industry. In 
 
 spite of its great agricultural industries, 
 
 France is obliged to import both grain and 
 
 meat, though there is a surplus of dairy 
 
 products and wine for export. 
 
 There are several small coal fields in 
 the east and north, and some iron mines 
 in the same region, but mining is not 
 nearly so important in France as in either 
 Great Britain or Germany. 
 
 Next to the British, the French are the 
 chief cloth makers of Europe, and they 
 are the foremost manufacturers of silks 
 and velvets. They also make about one 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 129 
 
 The river Seine at Paris. 
 
 fourth of the world's product of wine. Among other 
 French manufactures are fine carpets and porcelain ware, 
 steel goods, chemicals, olive oil, chocolate, and fancy 
 ■ articles. • \ 
 
 Among the countries of Europe, France ranks next after 
 Great Britain and Germany as a commercial nation. 
 
 Foreign commerce is carried on from the northern, western, and 
 southern coasts by sea, as well as across the eastern boundary by means 
 of railroads, rivers, and canals. One of the longest railroad tunnels in the 
 world, near Mont Cenis in the Alps, gives access to the basin of the Po 
 and northern Italy. The chief exports are wines, silks, velvets, woolens, 
 and fancy articles, while the chief imports are raw materials, metals, 
 food, and petroleum. 
 
 The French are noted for their vivacity, intelligence, and thrift. 
 Their earnings and wealth are greater than those of any other people on 
 the mainland of Europe. What colonial possessions has France in the 
 western hemisphere ? Her chief possessions in the eastern hemisphere 
 are in northern and western Africa, the island of Madagascar, and the 
 eastern part of Indo-China. • , 
 
 Andorra, a small republic in the Pyrenees, is largely under the joint in- 
 fluence of France and a Spanish bishop. Monaco is a tiny independent 
 principality near the southeastern extremity of France. 
 
 Where is Paris ? Compare its latitude with that of an 
 American city. It is the third city of the world in popu- 
 lation, but it probably surpasses all others in magnificence 
 and beauty. It is a great center of music, art, and learning. 
 It is an important railroad center and has water communi- 
 cation with its port, Havre, at the mouth of the Seine. 
 
 Lyons is about as large as Boston, and is the center of 
 the silk manufacture. Marseilles is the greatest port on 
 the Mediterranean Sea. Bordeaux is the great shipping 
 point for wines. At Lisle flax and hemp are made into 
 yarn, and beets into sugar. St. Etienne, in a region of 
 coal and iron mines, is the great iron- and steel-manu- 
 facturing city of France. 
 
 THE KINGDOMS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. What penin- 
 sula do these countries occupy? Describe its location and surface. 
 Locate the chief mountains. Trace the main divide. Name four rivers 
 of the Atlantic slope ; one of the Mediterranean slope. What part of 
 the peninsula is occupied by Spain ; by Portugal ? The Balearic Isles 
 form a part of Spain. How does the peninsula compare with California 
 
 in position ; in latitude ; in rainfall? (pp. 54, 114.) In what part is the 
 population most dense ? Name the capital of each country. 
 
 The uplands of the Spanish peninsula are too dry for 
 agriculture, which is confined to the moister seaward slopes 
 and to the deep river valleys, where irrigation is possible. 
 Only about one fourth of the land is cultivated. Some 
 grain is raised, chiefly wheat, barley, and corn, but not 
 enough for home consumption. The grape, however, is 
 extensively cultivated, as well as onions, garlic, tomatoes, 
 peas, and beans. There are forests of cork oak, and groves 
 of the best olives, and the mulberry, almond, orange, fig, 
 and peanut are grown. 
 
 The uplands and mountain slopes afford pasturage for 
 millions of sheep and goats and for smaller herds of cattle ; 
 and the sardine and tunny fisheries of the coast waters 
 are very valuable. 
 
 Mining is an important industry, and Spain leads Eu- 
 rope in the production of copper, lead, and quicksilver. 
 
 Where is Almaden ? Its quicksilver mines are among the richest in 
 the world. Where is Bilbao f Much iron ore is obtained in its vicinity. 
 As there is but little coal in the peninsula, much ore is shipped from this 
 port to Great Britain to be smelted. 
 
 The most important manufactures are wine and raisins, 
 for which the peninsula is famous, and which are largely 
 exported, together with olive oil, dried fruits, canned fish, 
 corks, and leather. Other manufactures are textiles, paper 
 made from esparto grass, soap, and some metal goods. 
 
 While Spain ranks fifth among the European nations in 
 shipping, the vessels are largely engaged in the coasting 
 trade, in the .fisheries, or in carrying goods for other 
 countries, for the foreign commerce of the peninsula is not 
 large. There is an active domestic trade, however, both 
 
 Spanish ox carts. 
 
 along the coasts and by the rivers and the canals and rail- 
 roads which follow the river valleys through the plateau. 
 
 What parts of America did Spain and Portugal once own 1 (pp. 49, 
 107.) Spain once held the Philippine Islands also (p. 142) ; and she now 
 owns a strip of the west coast of Africa, the volcanic Canary Islands off 
 that coast, and some other small oceanic islands. 
 
130 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 The colonial possessions of Portugal are more extensive, and include 
 the Azores (p. 155), Madeira, and Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic, large 
 parts of both the east and the west coasts of Africa, and small tracts of 
 coast in southeastern Asia. 
 
 Where is Madrid? Although on the dry and barren 
 plateau, it is about as populous as Baltimore, and is the 
 great railroad center and largest city of the peninsula. 
 Barcelona is the chief manufacturing center and the chief 
 seaport of Spain. Valencia manufactures silk and velvet 
 and exports fruits, oil, and wine produced in the fertile 
 region behind it. Seville, at the head of tide water on the 
 Guadalquivir, is a busy port, and has manufactories of silk 
 and of iron. Malaga exports grapes, wine, and raisins. 
 
 Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, is the second city of the 
 peninsula in size, and has one of the best harbors in the 
 world. Where is Oporto ? It is a great shipping point for 
 wine. The name "port" wine is a contraction of the 
 name of this city. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. What countries and waters border 
 Italy ? What mountains border or traverse it ? What river basin is in 
 the north? These lowlands are often called the plains of Lombardy. 
 The great islands Sicily and Sardinia and several smaller neighboring 
 islands form part of Italy. Find Mount Vesuvius, on the peninsula. 
 It is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe. But Mount 
 Etna, in Sicily, Stromboli, and Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands, 
 are also active volcanoes. How does Italy rank among the countries of 
 Europe in density of population? How does it compare with the 
 United States in this particular? Because it is sheltered by the Alps 
 from north and northwest winds, Italy has an exceptionally warm 
 climate for its latitude. The rainfall is abundant in the fall and winter, 
 but the summers, especially in the south, are quite dry. 
 
 A large part of the land 
 is cultivated by the aid of 
 irrigation, and half the 
 people are engaged in ag- 
 riculture. Much wheat 
 and corn are grown, and 
 in the Po valley some 
 rice, but grain must also 
 be imported. Vineyards 
 
 ■■■■■■ 
 
 ■ .■■■■■!" 
 
 Macaroni and fruit stand, Naples. 
 
 are numerous and extensive, and thousands of mulberry 
 trees are cultivated, for Italy is one of the greatest wine- 
 and silk-producing countries in the world. On the slopes 
 of the Apennines are chestnut and olive trees, and figs, 
 lemons, oranges, and citrons are largely raised. 
 
 Wonderful crops of grass and other forage are produced 
 in the Po valley, and so many cattle are raised that there 
 is a surplus of meat for export. The fisheries afford an 
 important part of the food supply. 
 
 The most important mineral product of Italy is sulphur, 
 from the sides of the volcano Mount Etna, but excellent 
 iron ore is mined on the island of Elba, and fine marble is 
 quarried on the mainland. Much fine coral is obtained 
 from the coast waters. 
 
 More than one fourth of the people of Italy are engaged 
 in manufacturing, chiefly by hand, and mainly in the reel- 
 ing of raw silk from the cocoons, though much silk is also 
 spun and woven on hand looms. Other important indus- 
 tries are the making of wine, macaroni, glass, and mosaics, 
 and the cutting of coral and shells for jewelry. 
 
 Italy has some sea-borne foreign commerce, but most of the foreign 
 trade is carried on by railroad through the Mont Cenis and St. Gotthard 
 tunnels. The chief exports are raw silk, wine, olive oil, and sulphur. 
 
 Italy has colonial possessions in East Africa, but is not a great colon- 
 izing country. Many Italians emigrate ; some come to the United States, 
 but most of them go to the South American republics of Argentina and 
 Brazil (pp. 108, 109). 
 
 San Marino is a small independent republic in eastern Italy. 
 
 Where is Rome? It is the capital, and, because of S 
 its ancient greatness, the most famous of the Italian 
 
 cities, though it ranks second in 
 population. Among its noted 
 buildings are the Pope's palace, 
 called the Vatican, with its mag-*- 
 nificent collection of paintings 
 and statuary ; St. Peter's, the 
 largest church in the world ; and 
 many famous ruins. 
 
 Naples, the largest city of 
 Italy, is somewhat larger than 
 Boston. It is the commercial 
 center of the kingdom, and one 
 of the most crowded cities of Eu- 
 rope. Milan and Turin are beau- 
 tiful cities, and the commercial 
 and manufacturing centers of 
 northern Italy. Where is Pa- 
 lermo t Genoa f Venice f These are all important sea- ' 
 ports. Genoa is famous as the birthplace of Columbus. 
 Venice is built on a number of small islands, and its main 
 thoroughfares are canals instead of streets. Florence is 
 noted for its art treasures and its romantic history. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out about Napoleon Bonaparte ; Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella ; Garibaldi. Find who are the present rulers in the 
 countries of Europe. Read " A Tale of Two Cities," by Dickens ; 
 "Young Franc-tireurs," by Henty; "A Child's History of Spain," by 
 J. Bonner ; " A Vagabond in Spain," by C. B. Luffmann ; " Held Fast 
 for England," by Henty ; " The Improvisatore," by Andersen ; " The 
 Lion of St. Mark's," by Henty ; " Stories of Other Lands," by Johonnot. 
 
 Part of Venice. 
 
132 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 EASTERN EUROPE. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. By what country and waters is 
 Greece bordered? (p. 118.) What can you say of its coast line? The 
 kingdom includes some islands on the west coast, and the Grecian or 
 Mge&n Archipelago to the east. Name and locate the capital. 
 
 Like Switzerland, Greece is divided by mountains into 
 many small valleys. Its few rivers are rapid mountain 
 streams, of little use for inland trade, but its deeply in- 
 dented coast affords good harbors. The land is owned 
 largely by the peasants themselves, but there is little skill 
 employed in its cultivation. The products are similar to 
 those of Italy. Dried grapes, of a peculiar kind known as 
 currants, form the principal article of export. The Greeks 
 have always been famous sailors. Much of the commerce 
 of the Black and Mediterranean seas is conducted by them, 
 and shipbuilding is quite an important industry. Most of 
 the fine sponges of commerce are gathered from the eastern 
 part of the Mediterranean Sea, and cured by Greeks. 
 
 Greece was the home of art and literature, of commerce and good 
 government, long before the rise of Rome. But the country was de- 
 spoiled by the Romans and then by the Teutons, and from the middle of 
 the fifteenth century until after the beginning of the nineteenth, it was 
 ruled by the Turks. Under the dominion of these foreign peoples 
 Greece has been sadly reduced in both wealth and culture. 
 
 Athens is a growing commercial city and contains relics 
 of former splendor, among them the ruins of the Parthe- 
 non, a famous ancient temple/ , i. t 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF TURKEY. By what countries and waters is 
 European Turkey bordered % (p. 118.) This is but part of the Turkish 
 Empire, which extends over southwest Asia and part of northern Africa, 
 and claims Egypt, Bulgaria, Crete, and other states as tributary. 
 Name the capital. The entrance to what sea is controlled by Turkey ? 
 Through what straits and what sea is this entrance ? 
 
 Turkey receives its name from the Turks, a people of 
 the yellow race, who, about five hundred years ago, ex- 
 tended their Asiatic empire over a large part of southeast- 
 ern Europe. Their European territory has been gradually 
 reduced until it is not now so large as the state of 
 Missouri. 
 
 It contains nearly twice as many people as Missouri, however, and the 
 population is very mixed, consisting of Turks, Greeks, Slavs, Gypsies, 
 
 Ruins in Athens. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 and many Asiatics. The emperor, called the sultan, is an absolute 
 monarch. The officers of the government are often dishonest and cruel 
 in collecting the heavy taxes. 
 
 In Turkey more land is devoted to pasture than to farm- 
 ing, and the agricultural methods and implements are very 
 rude. Grain, tobacco, cotton, grapes, and tropical fruits 
 are grown. Manufactures are few. Carpets, cloth, and 
 jewelry are made by hand. The trade is conducted mainly 
 by Greeks, Jews, and foreigners. Raw materials, wine, and 
 food are exported in exchange for manufactured goods. 
 There are few railroads in the country, and roads are bad, 
 so that domestic trade does not flourish. 
 
 Where is Constantinople f The location of this city is 
 so commanding that it is considered a key to the military 
 control of eastern Europe. It is almost twice as large as*. 
 Boston, and is noted for its beautiful mosques, or Moham- 
 medan places of prayer, but most of the streets are un- 
 paged and filthy. Saloniki is an important port, with a 
 large Jewish population. 
 
 THE MINOR BALKAN STATES. Name the four states between 
 Turkey and Austria (p. 118). All these states formerly belonged to 
 Turkey, but became independent in 1878. Which of them lie in the 
 Danube basin ? Which border on the Black Sea ? Which borders on the 
 Adriatic Sea? Which has no seacoast? By what mountains is each 
 bordered or crossed ? 
 
 In the Kingdom of Roumania and the Principality of Bul- 
 garia agriculture is the leading occupation, and both coun- 
 tries export wheat, corn, and wine, and raise cattle and 
 sheep. The imports are manufactured goods, chiefly from 
 Austria. Roumania is so named because it was settled by 
 the ancient Romans. Bulgaria was settled by people of 
 the Turkish type of the yellow race. Both countries 
 have been so overrun by Slavs, however, that there is little 
 trace of the early settlers. What is the capital of Rou- 
 mania; of Bulgaria? Bulgaria and Crete, though nomi- 
 nally tributary to Turkey, are practically independent. 
 
 The Kingdom ofServia and the Principality of Montenegro 
 are less advanced in industry than Bulgaria and Roumania. 
 Both are mountainous, forest-covered countries. Hogs 
 fatten in the forests, and grain and wine are produced 
 What is the capital of Servia ; of Montenegro ? 
 
VT 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 133 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF RUSSIA. Is the greater part of the Russian 
 Empire in Europe or in Asia ? (map, pp. 134, 135.) About six sevenths of 
 the people, however, live in European Russia. How does the extent of the 
 whole empire in latitude and longitude compare with that of the United 
 States ? How does European Russia compare with the United States in 
 extent ; in population ? What two mountain systems are on the bor- 
 ders of European Russia t What ocean, seas, and rivers ? What coun- 
 tries ? What group of islands is in the Arctic Ocean north of the Ural 
 Mountains? Describe the surface of European Russia; its drainage. 
 What can you tell of the climate of Russia ? (maps, p. 114.) 
 
 The surface of European Russia is remarkably smooth 
 and flat, like that of our Prairie plains. In the north are 
 hills of glacial drift and many lakes, and 
 in the extreme southeast are many small 
 salt lakes. Explain how both kinds were 
 formed. 
 
 In the north many people are engaged in 
 fishing, hunting, and lumbering, but the 
 great industry of Russia is farming. Much 
 more grain and meat are raised than are 
 consumed at home. More wheat is pro- 
 duced than in any other country except the 
 United States, and a large part of it is ex- 
 ported. Rye is extensively grown, and rye 
 bread is almost the only food of the poorer 
 people. Sugar beets, tobacco, and flax, both 
 
 A drosky, or Russian carriage. 
 
 for the fiber and for the seed, are widely cultivated, and 
 in the south are many vineyards. 
 
 Most of the land in Russia belongs to the government or to the nobles. 
 The peasants, or farmers, are generally very poor, and live in villages, 
 or mirs. The land around a village is owned or rented by the whole 
 mir. It is portioned out to each family according to the number of its 
 members, a large piece being reserved as a common grazing ground. 
 
 Most of the platinum in the world, much gold, and some 
 coal and iron ore are mined in the southern Ural Moun- 
 tains. Salt is obtained from the salt lakes. Near Baku, 
 on the west coast of the Caspian Sea, are petroleum wells 
 which, with those of our country, produce most of the 
 world's supply of kerosene. 
 
 The Russian manufactures made in factories are mostly 
 confined to a few large cities, and consist chiefly of coarse 
 cotton and woolen cloth and leather. A great deal of 
 manufacturing is carried on by the peasants in their 
 
 homes. How are the rivers of Russia commercially useful f 
 Western Russia is moderately well supplied with railroads 
 (p. 121), and its trade is increasing. At almost four hun- 
 dred places in Russia there are annual fairs, where mer- 
 chants exhibit their wares, and the people of neighboring 
 regions buy the next year's supply of goods. 
 
 While most of the people of Russia are Slavs, the Lapps and Finns 
 in the northwest, and many tribes in the north and in the southeast are 
 people of the yellow race, distantly related to the Turks. There are 
 many Jews in Russia. 
 
 The Emperor, or Czar, of Russia is an absolute monarch, advised 
 by a council which he himself selects, and among 
 the people there is much discontent with their lack 
 of liberty. The citizen in private life is subject 
 to police inspection, and if suspected of political 
 crimes and offenses he may be imprisoned, or 
 exiled to Siberia. 
 
 Name and locate the capital of Russia. 
 St. Petersburg is situated in a desolate, 
 marshy region, where the ground is frozen 
 for five months in winter, yet it is a beau- 
 tiful city as large as Philadelphia, and the 
 fifth European city in s.ze. The czar has 
 here his great palace. The city is entered 
 by half a dozen railways, and a ship canal 
 connects it with the sea. Many manufac- 
 tures are carried on. 
 
 Moscow, another residence of the czar, 
 is but little smaller than St. Petersburg. 
 Warsaw is a city larger than Boston, and 
 is an important center of manufacture 
 and trade. Odessa is a flourishing modern city somewhat 
 larger than Cincinnati, and the chief wheat-shipping 
 port. Kharhof and Kief are large trade centers of the 
 agricultural region, and Riga is the great northern sea- 
 port. Each of these three cities is about as large as 
 Minneapolis. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out about Peter the Great ; Kosciusko. 
 Read one of the following : " The Land of the Nihilist," by Curtis ; 
 " Jack Archer," by Henty ; " Thaddeus of Warsaw," by Jane Porter ; 
 " The Story of Greece," by J. A. Harrison; " The Charge of Balaclava," 
 and " The Fall of Constantinople," from Baldwin's Readers, 8th year ; 
 and selections from Longfellow's " Poems of Places." 
 
 TOPICS ON EUROPE. 
 
 I. Eastern Europe. Balkan states: governments; people— history, 
 races, religions, condition ; products. Russia : extent ; government ; 
 people ; climate ; soil ; products. 
 
 II. Northern Europe (North of 50° N. Lat.). Peninsular: coun- 
 tries ; governments ; people — races, density, history, occupations ; prod- 
 ucts; climate. Continental: countries; governments; people — race, 
 density ; occupations ; products ; soil. Insular : divisions ; possessions ; 
 people — descent, density, history, occupations ; products. 
 
 III. Southern Europe. Peninsular: countries; governments; 
 people — race, history, occupations ; products ; climate. Continental : 
 countries ; governments ; people — races, history, occupations ; products 
 — western, central, eastern. 
 
 IV. European Trade. Routes: by water; by land. Products ex- 
 changed. Chief carriers. 
 
 V. European Cities. Capitals : each pupil may describe one. Sea- 
 ports : each pupil may describe one. Manufacturing centers : each pupil 
 may describe one. 
 
 Russian peasants. 
 
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 EURASIA 
 
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 ASIA. 
 
 Review of Physical Features and Life. (pp. 113-117.) 
 What physical features are often considered boundaries separating 
 Eurasia into the two grand divisions of Europe and Asia ? How 
 do these divisions compare in size? Name the oceans and ocean' 
 arms which border the northern, eastern, and southern coasts of 
 Asia. Locate five peninsulas of Asia, and name the waters they 
 separate. What three island groups are off the east coast ? Name 
 three great rivers of the Arctic slope ; four of the Pacific slope ; 
 four of the Indian Ocean slope. Is the interior region between the 
 basins of these rivers entirely highland ? Explain the relation be- 
 tween the rainfall and the drainage of this interior region. Describe 
 briefly the great highland of Asia, its extent, altitude, mountain 
 ranges, climate, and surface peculiarities. Describe briefly the 
 great northern lowland ; the Pacific slope ; the Indian Ocean slope. 
 
 Locate and describe briefly the characteristic forms of vege- 
 tation in the northern lowland of Asia ; the characteristic forms 
 of animal life. In the same manner describe the distribution of 
 life forms in the highland region ; on the southern and southeast- 
 ern slopes of Asia. Locate the two races of men which inhabit 
 Asia. Locate four peoples of the white race ; three peoples of the 
 yellow race. How does Asia compare with Europe in population ; 
 with North America 1 Locate the two great regions of very dense 
 popidation in Asia. More than three fourths of all the people in 
 Asia live in these two regions, and about half the remainder live 
 on the islands to the east and southeast. In what stage of culture 
 are most of the people in Asia ? 
 
 PEOPLE. 
 
 Civilization. More than half of all the people in 
 the world have their homes in Asia. Nearly all of 
 these people have gradually become somewhat civil- 
 ized, though their civilization is as rude and imper- 
 fect as that of Europe was a thousand years ago'. 
 But it is different in many ways from the earlier 
 civilization of Europe, for the peoples of Asia and of 
 Europe mixed with one another very little in olden 
 times. Therefore the languages, habits, dress, and 
 manners of the peoples of Asia seem very strange to 
 us, who have received our civilization from Europe. 
 
 Throughout most of Asia the women are considered as little 
 more than servants or slaves. They are seldom educated and 
 are often bought and sold. Boys and men are also enslaved in 
 many of the countries, and are often very cruelly treated. None 
 of the native peoples of the mainland of Asia have yet learned to 
 recognize the value of the steam engine, or of improved machinery 
 and implements of any kind, and nearly everything is done by 
 human labor or by that of domestic animals. There is little profit 
 in such slow labor, and hence the great mass of the people are 
 wretchedly poor. In the sparsely settled regions the people use 
 animal food chiefly. Why 1 In the moister regions of the south- 
 east food is mainly vegetable and is much more plentiful, and that 
 is why these regions are more densely peopled. But even there, 
 when the crops fail in any large district, a terrible famine occurs 
 and thousands of people starve, because there are few or no rail- 
 roads, steamboats, or good roads by which food may be quickly 
 brought from other districts. The few railroads and the little 
 improved machinery are in the hands of the comparatively few 
 Europeans who have settled in Asia. 
 
 Commerce. Because of the lack of improved im- 
 plements and means of transportation, the products 
 and commerce of Asia are slight in comparison with 
 its large population. Although there are more than 
 twice as many people in Asia as in Europe, the foreign 
 
136 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 commerce is but one fourth as 
 great as that of Europe, and is 
 less than twice as great as that of 
 the United States. 
 
 Fully nine tenths of the foreign com- 
 merce of Asia is carried on by the coun- 
 tries and islands in the southeast which 
 have a heavy or moderately heavy 
 rainfall. 
 
 Governments. None of the 
 native peoples on the mainland 
 of Asia have become civilized 
 
 '■ ; <: 
 
 ■ § ■ i. 
 
 A house in Russian Turkestan. 
 
 enough to know how to organize governments for the 
 benefit of the mass of the people. Most of the countries, 
 therefore, are absolute monarchies, much as the countries 
 of Europe were a thousand years ago. The ruler holds 
 his position by force, and has supreme power over the 
 lives and property of his subjects, whom he often treats 
 cruelly and unjustly. 
 
 What great country in southern Asia belongs to Great Britain t 
 Anam, on the southeast coast, belongs to the Republic of France. These 
 nations send Europeans to govern these countries as colonial possessions. 
 All the other countries of the Asiatic mainland are governed by absolute 
 monarchs. What island empire is east of Asia ? The Japanese are the 
 most civilized native people of Asia. They have recently adopted many 
 of the customs of European civilization ; among others, a limited mon- 
 archy as their form of government. The United States, the Netherlands, 
 and Great Britain control the islands between the Empire of Japan and 
 Australia. 
 
 Religion. Southwest of the Kirghiz Steppe and the 
 Indus Eiver, Mohammedanism is the prevailing religious 
 faith in Asia, although there are many Christians and 
 Jews in Asia Minor. In India the mass of the people 
 believe in Brahmanism, but there are also very many 
 Mohammedans, and Mohammedanism is the prevailing 
 religion in the East Indies. In Indo-China, China, 
 Korea, and Japan most of the people are Buddhists, 
 while in Siberia the Greek form of the Christian religion 
 prevails. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 ASIATIC RUSSIA. By 
 
 what name is the greater part 
 of Asiatic Russia called ? De- 
 scribe the boundaries of Asiatic 
 Russia. Find the distance in 
 miles from the Ural Mountains 
 to the Sea of Okhotsk. De- 
 scribe the surface of Siberia. 
 Name its great rivers. Why 
 are there no seaports on the 
 northern coast? What kind 
 of climate has Siberia ? Why ? 
 
 The summers of Si- 
 beria, though short, are 
 so warm that grain ripens 
 almost as far north as 
 the Arctic Circle; but 
 in winter the cold is in- 
 tense even in the south- 
 ern parts. In southern Siberia are broad tracts of fertile 
 land and grassy plains, which furnish pasturage for thou- 
 sands of cattle and horses. Gold is found along the edge 
 of the highland, and there are deposits of coal, iron, and 
 other minerals. 
 
 Branches of the Siberian rivers flow so near to one an- 
 other that they form, with but short interruptions, a natu- 
 ral water way far through the interior. It is mainly by this 
 route that the more distant provinces are reached, though 
 a post road traverses this region from Tinmen, through 
 Irkutsk, to the Amur River. Find these towns. They are 
 the principal trade centers of Siberia. 
 
 The Russian government has built a railroad across the country 
 from east to west. Its eastern terminus is Vladivostok. What is the 
 distance from Vladivostok to St. Petersburg ? What advantages does 
 the construction of this road give to Russia ? 
 
 Siberia is very sparsely settled. It is larger than the whole United 
 States, but contains fewer people than the state of Pennsylvania. Most 
 of the inhabitants are free immigrants from European Russia. Many, 
 however, are exiles who, having been convicted of crimes or suspected 
 of unfriendly sentiments toward the government, are obliged to live 
 there under Russian officers appointed to watch them. There are also 
 
 Oil works at Baku. 
 
ASIA. 
 
 137 
 
 several small tribes of semibarbarous natives who have no fixed place of 
 abode. 
 
 "What is that part of Asiatic Russia called which lies south of the west- 
 ern part of Siberia ? What people live in this region ? (map, p. 117.) 
 What lakes are in this region ? What kind of lakes are they ? 
 
 The greater part of the Kirghiz Steppe is dry and bar- 
 ren. The few people who live there raise cattle or culti- 
 vate the oases that occur here and there 
 in the great plain. Farther south, in 
 Turkestan, the land is better watered and 
 better tilled. Here not only are cattle 
 raised, but grain, cotton, and fruit are 
 cultivated. The production of raw silk 
 is also an important industry. Tash- 
 kend, about the size of Eochester, N. Y., 
 is an important center of trade and do- 
 mestic manufactures. 
 
 Where is Transcaucasia ? By what is it sepa- 
 rated from European Russia ? Between what seas 
 does it lie ? It is about twice as large as the state 
 of Pennsylvania, and con- 
 tains about as many people 
 as the whole of Siberia. 
 
 Many Aryans from 
 European Russia have 
 recently migrated into 
 both Russian Turkes- 
 tan and Transcaucasia. 
 Wheat, corn, and bar- 
 ley are raised in Trans- 
 caucasia. Much petro- 
 leum, refined near the 
 Baku wells, is shipped 
 into Russia by the Cas- 
 pian Sea and the Volga 
 River, and much is 
 sent by rail to Batum, 
 whence it is shipped to 
 other countries. Tiflis 
 is the largest city of 
 Asiatic Russia. 
 
 Bokhara and Khiva are small states under native rulers who are vassals 
 of Russia. The people and products resemble those of Turkestan. 
 
 ASIATIC TURKEY. What waters form part of the boundaries of 
 Asiatic Turkey? What countries border on it? By what is it sep- 
 arated from European Turkey? Where are its mountains? Name 
 its rivers and describe its drainage. 
 
 The valleys of Asiatic Turkey once yielded large quanti- 
 ties of grain and other products, and contained a large and 
 powerful population, but under the rule of the Turks, the 
 whole country is in a state of decay. 
 
 About half of the people are Turks, and there are a 
 great many Arabs, Armenians, Greeks, and Jews. The 
 raising of sheep and goats is the leading occupation. 
 The wool is woven by hand into carpets and rugs, and the 
 goats' hair into shawls. In the fertile parts of the country 
 figs and dates are grown, and some cotton, tobacco, opium, 
 and raw silk are produced. 
 
 Syrian women. 
 
 Find Smyrna, Damascus, and Bagdad. They are the 
 chief commercial cities. Each of them is about as large 
 as Louisville, and all were famous in olden times. About 
 1000 years ago Bagdad was one of the greatest cities in 
 the world. Now it serves as one of the ports for the Per- 
 sian trade. Trebizond is also a port for this trade. Where 
 is it ? Beirut is the port for Damascus, and exports much 
 silk. Jerusalem was the holy city 
 of the Jews, and the scene of many 
 events described in the Bible. Mecca 
 is noted as the birthplace of Mo- 
 hammed. 
 
 ARABIA. What waters partly surround 
 the Arabian peninsula? To what country 
 does most of the coast land belong? The 
 greater part of the peninsula is a desert 
 plateau more than half a mile above the level 
 of the sea. Why are there no rivers in Ara- 
 bia ? There are several large oases, however, 
 which are watered by short streams and are 
 green with vegetation. 
 
 The people of Arabia are in much 
 
 the same condition as they were 
 
 four thousand years ago. There is 
 
 no central government, but each 
 
 tribe is ruled by its own chief, or 
 
 sheik. The Bedouins, or desert Arabs, 
 
 live in tents and move with their camels and herds of 
 
 horses from place to place as the seasons change. Other 
 
 Arabs live in villages, cultivate the soil, and carry on a 
 
 limited commerce. The land, wherever it is irrigated, 
 
 yields abundantly, and dates, indigo, coffee, and barley 
 
 are produced. These, with myrrh, gum arabic, and pearls, 
 
 are the chief exports. 
 Most of the trade is 
 carried on by cara- 
 vans. 
 
 The chief sea- 
 port is Aden, which 
 belongs to Great 
 Britain. It is an im- 
 portant coaling sta- 
 tion for steamers. 
 
 Find Oman. It is an 
 Arabic state under the 
 rule of an hereditary sul- 
 tan, but is dependent on 
 Great Britain. Maskat, 
 the capital, is a seaport of 
 some importance, from 
 which dates and other 
 fruits and pearls are ex- 
 ported. In the Persian 
 Gulf are the richest pearl 
 Arab barber. fisheries in the world. 
 
 PERSIA. What waters partly surround Persia? What countries 
 border on it ? Describe its surface and drainage ; its climate. 
 
 Persia is about four times as large as the state of Cali- 
 fornia. A great part of its surface is a desert, though 
 
138 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 near the seacoasts and mountains some 
 rain falls. Along the southern shores 
 the date palm flourishes, and there are 
 fine forests of cedars, elms, and oaks. 
 All kinds of fruit grow in the lowlands. 
 Wheat, barley, rice, cotton, and opium 
 are cultivated. The raising of cattle, 
 sheep, camels, and horses is the chief 
 business of many of the people. 
 
 Besides the Persians, who compose the greater 
 part of the population, there are many Arabs, Ar- 
 menians, and Turks in different parts of the coun- 
 try. The ruler of Persia is called the shah. 
 
 Handmade carpets and camel's-hair 
 cloth are almost the only manufactures. 
 Trade is carried on by caravans. There 
 are practically no railroads or carriage 
 
 roads. The principal exports are opium, Persian grocery 
 
 pearls, carpets, and dates. 
 
 What is the capital of Persia? Teheran and Tabriz 
 are the chief centers of the caravan trade. Ispahan, 
 the former capital, has great bazars and magnificent 
 palaces. Bushire and Bar/rush are the most important 
 ports. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. What countries surround Afghanistan ? Describe 
 its surface and its drainage. 
 
 Although the climate of Afghanistan is dry, the soil is 
 fertile and in many parts of the country yields two har- 
 vests each year. Wheat and barley are harvested in sum- 
 mer, and rice, millet, and corn in autumn. Fruits are 
 abundant, and drugs are produced. 
 
 The population of Afghanistan is made up of many 
 tribes, mostly of Aryan descent, all loosely united under 
 one ruler called the ameer. 
 
 Next to agriculture and stock raising the chief indus- 
 tries are the making of silk goods, felts, and carpets. 
 Other exports are horses, spices, and fruits. 
 
 Name the capital. Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul are for- 
 tified towns and centers of considerable caravan trade. 
 
 BALUCHISTAN. By 
 
 what countries and sea is 
 Baluchistan bordered? De- 
 scribe its surface and cli- 
 mate. 
 
 Baluchistan is about 
 half as large as the state 
 of Texas. It is governed 
 by a native ruler, or 
 khan, who is under the 
 control of the British 
 government in India. 
 The people are very sim- 
 ilar to those of Afghan- 
 istan. Much of the 
 country is stony and 
 barren, but there are 
 good pastures, and the 
 nomad tribes are en- Persian woman. 
 
 gaged in raising camels and horses, sheep 
 and goats. Name the capital. 
 
 INDIA. Bound India. Describe the surface 
 and drainage of Hindustan ; of the Dekkan. De- 
 scribe the climate. What two rivers are fed by the 
 snows on the northern slopes of the Himalayas? 
 What branch of the Indus pierces these moun- 
 tains? Which slope of the Himalayas does the 
 Ganges drain ? 
 
 India is about half as large as the 
 United States, but its population is about 
 four times as great. There are peo- 
 ple of various types in all parts of the 
 country, yet they are but little mixed. 
 By far the largest part of the popula- 
 tion consists of Hindus, a dark-skinned 
 branch of the Aryan people. 
 
 Within the past three centuries the 
 English, French, and Portuguese estab- 
 lished trading stations on the coasts. The British finally 
 gained control over nearly all the native states, and now 
 
 Weaving tapestry, Persia. 
 
 govern almost the entire country, although the number of 
 British people in India is quite insignificant in comparison 
 with the dense native population. The King of Great 
 Britain is called the Emperor of India. He appoints a 
 British governor general, or viceroy, who lives in India and 
 governs the country under the direction of the executive 
 branch of the British government in London. 
 
 The Hindus had attained a somewhat high degree of civilization long 
 before the Europeans entered their country. Some of the most beautiful 
 temples in the world are the work of the Hindus centuries ago. They 
 had a written language, an ancient literature, and a highly organized 
 system of society. The peculiarity of the Hindu social system is its 
 division into castes, or fixed classes. A Hindu must live, marry, and die 
 in the same class of society and follow the same occupation as his 
 father. This system very naturally discourages all kinds of progress, 
 and the Hindus have made no improvement among themselves for a 
 long time. The houses of the common people are small and miserable 
 hovels, without floors and with little or no furniture. The farming im- 
 plements and methods are of the rudest description, and the flour or meal 
 is generally ground by hand as shown in the picture on the opposite page. 
 
ASIA. 
 
 139 
 
 The population of India is most dense in the Ganges valley and in 
 those parts of southeastern Dekkan where irrigation is successful. It is 
 least dense in the dry and barren parts of the Indus valley. 
 
 Most of the people live by agriculture, raising millet and 
 rice for their own use, and various other products for ex- 
 port. Rice, jute, and 
 
 bamboo grow in the 
 delta of the Ganges. 
 Farther up the river 
 the mulberry and the 
 opium poppy are cul- 
 tivated. Cotton, wheat 
 and pepper are grown 
 in the Dekkan, where 
 there are also large 
 plantations of coffee. 
 Tea, and the cinchona 
 
 Grinding millet, India. 
 
 The British have caused good roads to be constructed 
 in nearly all parts of the country, and have built more 
 than 20,000 miles of railroad. These are the chief 
 means of transportation, for the detritus in the rivers 
 of northern India, and cascades in the rivers of the 
 Dekkan, interfere with the use of these streams 
 as trade routes. 
 
 The foreign commerce of India is nearly as great 
 as that of the United States, and almost equals that 
 of all the rest of Asia. About half of it is with Great 
 Britain, and a large part of the remainder with China. 
 
 tree from South America, are cultivated 
 on the Himalaya foothills. In the valley 
 of the Brahmaputra the growing of seeds 
 for making oil similar to linseed oil is 
 one of the most important industries. 
 
 Many miles of irrigating canals have been dug 
 in the Ganges valley, and reservoirs have been built 
 in the Dekkan to supply water in times of drought. 
 Yet the rainfall is so irregular in many districts that 
 terrible famines frequently occur on account of the 
 failure of crops. 
 
 Elephants and camels, as well as buffaloes and 
 zebus, are used as beasts of burden. 
 
 Manufacturing industries are being rapidly developed 
 by the Europeans, and cotton, woolen, and jute goods, 
 and paper are made. There are some iron mines in India, 
 and many coal mines,, but they are not close together, and 
 there are consequently but few manufactures of iron. 
 Most of the manufactured goods are still made by hand: 
 fine cottons and silks, gold embroideries, soft cashmere 
 shawls, carved ivory, jewelry, beautiful rugs, and embroid- 
 ered leather goods in great variety are produced in this 
 way by the native workmen. 
 
 Stairway for bathers, Benares. 
 
 The principal 
 exports are cot- 
 ton, jute, rice, 
 oilseeds, opium, 
 tea,hides,indigo, 
 and wheat. Cot- 
 ton cloth, ma- 
 chinery, iron- 
 ware, and re- 
 fined sugar are 
 the chief im- 
 ports. 
 
 Calcutta is the 
 capital and chief 
 seaport. Bombay 
 is the largest city 
 on the western 
 
 coast, and is important as the chief port for the shipment 
 of Indian cotton. Each of these cities is about the size of 
 Brooklyn. Madras and Haidarabad, each about the size 
 of Baltimore, are great centers of trade. Lucknow, Benares, 
 and Delhi are large and important native cities. 
 
 Nepal and Bhutan are native monarchies in northern India, 
 is partly in British control. Nepal is tributary to China. 
 
 Bhutan 
 
 Ceylon is a British colony by itself. Its chief products 
 are tea and cocoanuts. Name the chief city. 
 
140 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 THE COUNTRIES OF INDO-CHINA. What divisions of British 
 India lie east of the Bay of Bengal 1 What narrow peninsula extends 
 still farther south ? What British possession occupies the southern part 
 of the Malay peninsula? What country comprises the eastern part of 
 Indo-China ¥ What is the country in the central part called ¥ 
 
 Name the chief rivers and gulfs of Indo-China. In what direction do 
 the mountain ranges extend ¥ 
 
 Most of the people of Indo-China are of the Mongolian 
 type, but there are many Malays in the south. In the 
 mountainous regions there 
 
 Into what does each flow ¥ Besides China proper, what four other coun- 
 tries are included in the Chinese Empire ¥ 
 
 China proper, or the Middle Kingdom, as the Chinese 
 call it, contains about nine tenths of the population of the 
 empire. Why is it better fitted for habitation than other 
 parts of the empire ? The Yangtze is navigable for hun- 
 dreds of miles by the largest ocean steamers. This river, 
 with its tributaries, and the Si River to the south afford 
 
 the only easy means of corn- 
 
 are but few inhabitants, but 
 in the valleys and river deltas 
 the population is very dense. 
 The chief products of Indo- 
 China are rice, sugar, spices, 
 lumber, and tin. There are 
 mines of coal, iron, copper, 
 silver, and gold, but the re- 
 sources of none of the coun- 
 tries have yet been fully de- 
 veloped. The foreign corn- 
 
 Houses on the Mekong. 
 
 merce of Indo-China is greater than that of any other 
 part of Asia except India. It is conducted almost 
 entirely by Europeans, although many of the mer- 
 chants are Chinese. 
 
 Upper and Lower Burma are part of the British government of India, 
 but the Straits Settlements form a separate British colony. Anam, with 
 Tonkin, Cambodia, and Cochin China, is under the control of the French, 
 though Anam and Cambodia have native rulers. Siam is a native king- 
 dom, about four times as large as the state of New York. 
 
 Name and locate the capital of Siam. Bangkok is built 
 partly on piles in the river and is about the size of Louisville. 
 Mandalay and Rangoon are the principal cities and trade 
 centers of Burma. Saigon is the seat of government for 
 French Indo-China. Singapore, in the Straits Settlements, 
 exports spices and the larger part of the world's supply of 
 tin, and is important as a coaling station for steamers and 
 as a^center of trade for the surrounding region. 
 
 THE CHINESE EMPIRE. In what part of Asia is the Chinese 
 Empire ¥ What waters border it ¥ What mountains are on its south- 
 western border ; on its northwestern border ¥ What plateau forms the 
 western part ; the northern part ¥ Compare it with the United States 
 and with Europe in area and population. What are its two great rivers ¥ 
 
 A Burmese family. 
 
 munication in the interior. 
 TheHoang is loaded with sed- 
 iment and is so obstructed by 
 sand bars that it is not nav- 
 igable. It often overflows its 
 banks, causing widespread 
 disaster to villages and farms, 
 and several times it has 
 changed its course entirely. 
 
 Where is the Grand Canal, and 
 what two rivers does it connect ¥ It 
 was built more than a thousand years 
 ago and is still much used as a high- 
 way of trade and communication. 
 There are several other canals in 
 different parts of the country, 
 but owing to the prejudices 
 of the Chinese there are 
 few railroads. The public 
 roads are in a poor condition; 
 and, away from rivers and ca- 
 nals, goods are carried for the 
 most part on the backs of por- 
 ters. 
 
 The people of Chinabelong 
 to the Mongolian type of the 
 yellow race, and are peculiar 
 in language, religion, cus- 
 toms, and dress. Buddhism 
 is a prevailing religion, but 
 there are many followers of 
 Confucius, a Chinese philoso- 
 pher who lived many centu- 
 ries ago. The strangest fea- 
 ture of their religion is the 
 worship of their ancestors. 
 This makes them unwilling to 
 
 f 
 
 leave the ways which these ancestors followed; hence they are suspi- 
 cious of foreigners and dislike foreign customs. Their dress and man- 
 ners, and even the construction of their houses, are regulated by laws 
 made hundreds of years ago. It was not until near the middle of the 
 nineteenth century that they consented to have any intercourse with 
 other nations. Yet they were among the first people in the world to 
 become civilized. Silk spinning and weaving were brought to great 
 perfection by them many centuries before such arts were known in 
 Europe. The Chinese were among the first people to make paper; they 
 invented printing and discovered gunpowder long before such things 
 were known to Europeans. Tea was introduced into Europe from 
 China. 
 
 The government is an absolute monarchy, in which the emperor ap- 
 points his own successor. The officers of the government are selected by 
 the emperor from those scholars best informed in Chinese learning. 
 Every candidate for office must pass severe examinations. 
 
 Education is general among the men, but neglected among the women. 
 The language has no alphabet ; each written character stands for a syl- 
 lable or word, and a Chinese boy must learn to know several thousands 
 of these characters by sight. 
 
ASIA. 
 
 141 
 
 Making pottery, China. 
 
 Agriculture is the chief and most honorable occupation. 
 Wheat and other cereals are grown in the north, while in 
 the south rice is the principal crop. China exceeds all 
 other countries in the production of tea and of raw silk. 
 
 Coal is found in many parts of China, but is not exten- 
 sively mined, though it was used as fuel by the Chinese long 
 before its value was known in Europe. There are also 
 rich deposits of iron and copper, which with modern 
 methods of mining may be made very productive. 
 
 Trade is chiefly with Great Britain, Japan, Russia, and 
 the United States; and tea and silk are the most im- 
 portant exports. Beautiful hand- woven silk, lacquered 
 ware, and ivory carvings are also exported. Opium, 
 cotton cloth, and other manufactures are the principal 
 imports. 
 
 China is remarkable for its many large cities, but their 
 streets are narrow, unpaved, and filthy. The houses are 
 low and generally frail, being built mostly of bamboo or 
 of sun-dried brick, with earthen floors and paper win- 
 dows, and without fireplaces or stoves. Peking, the capital, 
 is the center of a large caravan trade, chiefly with Siberia, 
 and is supposed to have as many people as Philadelphia. 
 Tientsin, its seaport, has about a million inhabitants. Can- 
 ton and Shanghai are the chief ports of American trade. 
 Hankau and Hangchau are both large cities. 
 
 Hongkong is an island which was ceded to Great Britain 
 in 1842. It is the center of a large foreign trade. 
 
 Tibet. Describe its boundaries, surface, drainage, and climate. The 
 people of Tibet, although, belonging to the yellow race, resemble the 
 Hindus in many of their habits. By means of caravans they carry .on a 
 considerable trade with lowland China and some little with India through 
 passes in the Himalayas. The chief products are silver, gold, salt, wool, 
 and borax. There are few manufactures, but woolen cloth is woven by 
 the women and exported. It is almost impossible for Europeans to enter 
 any part of the country. Lassa, the capital, is so jealously guarded that 
 very few white men have ever been admitted within its walls. 
 
 Chinese Turkestan. Describe its physical features. It is inhabited by 
 wandering barbarous tribes, who are engaged in herding and sheep 
 raising, and are mainly Mohammedans. 
 
 Mongolia. Describe its physical features. It has an area greater than 
 
 that of the United States east of the Mississippi, but only about as many 
 inhabitants as Indiana. It is the original home of the Mongols, whose 
 empire once extended from the Yellow Sea to the Black Sea. The chief 
 wealth of the people is their herds of camels, horses, and sheep. 
 
 Manchuria. Describe its physical features. It is about as large as 
 Texas and New Mexico taken together. The Manchus are brave and 
 warlike, and about 250 years ago conquered China. The rulers of China 
 have ever since been Manchus. Opium and indigo are the chief products, 
 but cotton, tobacco, and wheat are raised in abundance. The country is 
 rich in coal, gold, and iron ; but the mines are not much worked. Mukden 
 is the capital. Manchuria is now largely under the control of Russia. 
 
 Kwangtung, including Port Arthur and Talienwan, has been given by 
 lease to Russia ; Kiauchau, to Germany ; Weihaiwei, to Great Britain ; 
 and Kwangchau, to Prance. Macao belongs to Portugal. 
 
 KOREA. What waters nearly surround Korea 1 What is the capi- 
 tal ; its seaport ? 
 
 The people of Korea resemble the Chinese in appearance, 
 in religion, and in many of their customs. Until very re- 
 
 Packing tea, China. 
 
 cently they have refused to have intercourse with for- 
 eigners, and hence but little is known of the interior of 
 their country. The government is an almost absolute 
 monarchy, but, owing to the influence of the Japanese, the 
 power of the king has been somewhat limited. The chief 
 industry is agriculture, and yet only a small portion of the 
 land is cultivated. The principal products are rice, beans, 
 and wheat. Gold, iron, copper, and coal are found, but 
 not extensively mined. Trade with the interior is carried 
 on by means of pack horses and porters. 
 
 JAPAN. Of what is the Empire of Japan composed ? Compare the 
 extent of the Japanese Islands in latitude with that of the eastern coast 
 of the United States. Compare their area with that of California. What 
 seas separate these islands from the mainland ? Name the largest is- 
 land; four other large islands. 
 
 The Japanese islands contain over fifty volcanoes, 
 among them the famous Fujiyama. Earthquakes are 
 very frequent. The surface is mountainous, and the 
 rivers are generally mountain torrents. 
 
 Much of the land is unfit for farming, yet agriculture 
 is the chief occupation. The farming implements are very 
 simple, but irrigating and fertilizing are well understood. 
 Rice, which forms the chief food, and other grains and 
 many vegetables are grown. There are many mulberry 
 trees, for Japan, after China, is the world's greatest silk- 
 producing country. Much tea is raised, and the forests 
 
14! 
 
 2 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 yield lumber, lacquer gum, and camphor. The bamboo is 
 abundant, and is used for many purposes. 
 
 There are few sheep or cattle; hence little wool or 
 leather is obtained, and dairy products are rare. But 
 many hogs and fowls are raised, and the Japanese fisheries 
 are valuable. 
 
 The chief mineral products are silver, copper, coal, iron, 
 and sulphur. 
 
 Several branches of manufacture, as we understand the term, have 
 lately been started in Japan, and are flourishing, but for many centuries 
 the Japanese have been producing wonderfully skillful and artistic handi- 
 work. Japanese silk, cloth, and embroidery, jute floor mats, paper, and 
 bamboo work, matches, inlaid metal work, lacquered ware, and pottery 
 now found in all European and American cities. 
 
 ilroads are being built, and steam vessels are being 
 or coasting trade, so that commerce is very active. 
 
 The foreign commerce is as great 
 as that of all northern and western 
 Asia. The chief exports are raw 
 and manufactured silk, but tea, 
 rice, coal, and copper are also im- 
 portant exports. 
 
 The Japanese are by far the most civ- 
 ilized of the Asiatic peoples. They are 
 of mixed Mongol and Malay blood, rather 
 small of stature, but with lively, pleasing 
 features. For many centuries they lived secluded from other nations, 
 cultivating their peculiar arts, and having a literature of their own. 
 About fifty years ago, realizing that they were less strong than the na- 
 tions of Europe, they invited American and European specialists and 
 teachers into their country, sent their brightest youths to study in our 
 cities, and established schools, railroads, postal and telegraph systems, 
 factories, and an army and navy, after European or American models. 
 Their' emperor rules by the aid of a parliament consisting of two houses, 
 the members of one being nobles and the members of the other being 
 representatives elected by the people. 
 
 Education is almost universal, and newspapers are read by the people 
 of the cities ; but most of the people are still Buddhists or worship their 
 ancestors, dress in loose robes, with girdles and straw sandals, and follow 
 the ancient customs of the country. Their manners are courteous, their 
 wits quick and keen, and their ambition great. 
 
 Tokyo, the capital, is a city of rapid growth and contains 
 over a million people. The foreign quarter is much like 
 a European city. Yokohama, its seaport, is the chief cen-, 
 
 Threshing rice, Japan 
 
 ter of foreign commerce. Osaka and Kyoto are the seats 
 of important manufactures. 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. In what direction from Japan are 
 the Philippine Islands? What waters surround them? Through how 
 many degrees of latitude do they extend? Describe their climate. 
 Name the chief island. What is the capital ? 
 
 The Philippine Islands were the most important of the 
 Spanish colonial possessions, but the control of these 
 islands passed to the United States after the war of 1898. 
 There are about two thousand islands in the group, the 
 largest being about the size of Kentucky. The bulk of 
 the population are Malays, but there are many Chinese, 
 and a few Spaniards. Manila is the capital. Rice, sugar, 
 Manila hemp, and tobacco are the chief products. 
 
 THE^EAST INDIES, OR THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. Name 
 the largest islands of this group. Name the seas and straits between 
 the islands. Describe the climate. 
 
 The surface of these islands is rugged and mountain- 
 ous. Among the islands are many active volcanoes. The 
 soil is generally fertile. In the larger islands are dense 
 and extensive forests. 
 
 The greater part of this group of islands belongs to the 
 Netherlands and is known as the Dutch East Indies. Most 
 of the inhabitants are Malays, but there are many Chinese 
 and a few Arabs. The Europeans, who are the ruling • 
 class, form but a small part of the population. 
 
 Java is the most important of thg 
 Dutch possessions. It is about as 
 large as the state of New York, but 
 contains four times as many inhab-^ 
 itants. It produces much cane su- 
 gar, and, after Brazil, more coffee 
 than any other country in the world. 
 Batavia is the capital and com-< 
 mercial center of the Dutch East 
 Indies. 
 
 Sumatra produces coffee, black 
 pepper, rice, and India rubber, and 
 has mines of gold, coal, tin, and 
 lead. Banca and Billiton supply 
 much of the world's output of tin. 
 Borneo is a little larger than 
 Texas. Some parts of its wooded interior have not yet 
 been explored. Most of the inhabitants are Malays. The 
 northern part belongs to Great Britain, the rest to the 
 Netherlands. The chief products are timber, sago, rice, 
 coffee, pepger, gutta-percha, tapioca, and tobacco. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Collect pictures and objects illustrating the 
 customs and occupations of Asiatic peoples. Read " Carpenter's Geograph- 
 ical Reader, Asia;" " Boy Travellers in the Far East," by T. W. Knox; 
 " Story of Japan," by R. Van Bergen ; " When I was a Boy in China,'' 
 by Yan Phou Lee ; " Child Life in Chinese Homes," by Mrs. Bryson ; 
 " Our Boys in China" and " Our Boys in India," by H. W. French ; "Old 
 Deccan Days," edited by Frere ; " With Clive in India " and " On the 
 Irrawaddy," by Henty ; " Java," by S. J. Higginson ; " The Lost City," 
 by David Ker ; " Life with Trans-Siberian Savages," by B. D. Howard; 
 " Tent Life in Siberia," by Kennan ; " For Name and Fame," by Henty ; 
 "Behind an Eastern Veil," by C. J. Wills; "For the Temple," by 
 Henty ; selections from Longfellow's " Poems of Places." 
 
CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS. 
 
 Extent. How does Eurasia compare in size with the other grand 
 divisions? How does Asia? How does Europe? How do the two 
 parts of the grand division compare with each other? With which of 
 the other grand divisions is communication from Eurasia easiest? With 
 which is it most important? Why? 
 
 Coast. Compare Arabia and Spain in size; in latitude; in surface; 
 in climate. Compare the Italian and Indian peninsulas; the Grecian 
 and Malay peninsulas. Compare Kamchatka and the Scandinavian pen- 
 insula in latitude, direction, surface, climate. Compare Korea and the 
 Danish peninsula. Compare the Japanese and the British islands in po- 
 sition, latitude, size, climate. Are the seas of Europe or of Asia more 
 inclosed? Name and locate the closed or nearly closed seas and gulfs 
 of Eurasia ; the open seas, gulfs, and bays. 
 
 Surface. Compare the European and Asiatic highlands in length, 
 extent, height. In which of these divisions is there easier communica- 
 tion between different river systems? Why? In which of these divi- 
 sions are the highlands a barrier between life regions? Compare the 
 Spanish and Balkan plateaus with the plateaus of Iran and Tibet in 
 extent, height, and drainage. Compare the Pyrenees with the Caucasus 
 in length, direction, and probable effect on travel and life forms. 
 Compare the Alps with the Himalayas ; the Apennines with the Western 
 Ghats. Compare the rivers of the northern slope, in Asia and in Europe, 
 in length and usefulness. Compare the rivers of the great basin of in- 
 terior drainage in the two divisions. Compare the Ural and the Volga 
 with the Syr and the Amu in direction, length, and outlet. Compare 
 the Ural and the Volga with the Don and the Dnieper. Compare the 
 Rhone valley with the plains of Mesopotamia in extent, climate, pro- 
 ductions, and commercial advantages. Compare the Po valley with 
 the plains of India; the Danube valley with the plains of China. Com- 
 pare the Amur and Mekong rivers in length, direction, and usefulness. 
 Compare the northern and the southern streams of Asia in extent of 
 basin and volume of water. Explain these differences. Compare the 
 lakes of northern and southern Eurasia in number, size, and causes. 
 Compare the lakes of Eurasia and North America. Study the map and 
 the text of Eurasia for some examples of the effects of water erosion; 
 of deposition; of glacial action; of wind action; of subsidence; of up- 
 heaval; of surface movements now in progress. 
 
 Climate. |Compare the heat belts of Eurasia and North America, 
 and give some reasons for their similarity of position. JFind and account 
 for some differences in the distribution of heat in these two grand divi- 
 sions. Is the distribution of rainfall in Eurasia and in North America 
 as similar as the distribution of heat? : Why? i Why is the region of 
 moderately heavy rainfall more extensive in Europe than in western 
 North America?! Explain the regions of heavy rains in western 
 Europe and in western North America. Explain the regions of moder- 
 ately heavy rain in eastern North America and in eastern and south- 
 eastern Asia. Compare the regions of little or no rain in'the two grand 
 divisions; show that their causes are the same, and why their positions 
 are different. 
 
 Life. Compare the maps of temperature, rainfall, and vegetation: 
 what are the two necessities for the growth of dense forests? Show that 
 in Eurasia the absence of either of these features in any region affects 
 its vegetation. Find examples of forest-covered mountain regions. 
 Why are the forests still found there? Locate some regions with- 
 out forests from natural causes; some made so by man. Show that in 
 Eurasia increase in elevation is accompanied by some of the same differ- 
 ences in distribution of life as is increase of latitude. Find some river 
 valleys of Eurasia which are forested regions; find some which are 
 grassy land. Which of these two classes of valleys is the more densely 
 inhabited ? In what plains have the people reduced the forested area? 
 Compare the transitional regions of eastern and western Asia in climate ; 
 in life forms. What kinds of wild animals might be found in traveling 
 from north to south through central Asia? 
 
 Man. What parts of Eurasia were first known to geographers? 
 Which of the two grand divisions of Eurasia first became completely 
 known? Compare the population maps with the physical map, the heat 
 and rainfall maps, and the vegetation map. Are the highlands or the 
 
 lowlands of Eurasia generally more densely peopled? Why? Is Asia 
 or Europe more evenly peopled? Why? Are the densely peopled re- 
 gions mainly in very cold, in very hot, or in temperate regions? Is any 
 part of the region which is always hot sparsely peopled? Why? What 
 two temperature regions, as a whole, are most sparsely populated? Com- 
 pare the regions of little or no rain with the regions of sparse population, 
 and explain their relations. Are the forested regions or grassy regions 
 of Eurasia more densely peopled? Why? Compare the civilizations of 
 Europe and America in age; in rapidity of progress; in present condi- 
 tion. Compare the civilizations of Europe and Asia in age ; in rapidity 
 of progress ; in effect upon the civilizing of the world ; in present condi- 
 tion. What races are represented in Europe; in Asia? What is the 
 chief race in each? Where is the most numerous Aryan population of 
 Asia; the most numerous Mongolian population of Europe? Compare 
 the chief forms of government in Europe and America; in Europe and 
 Asia. In which division of Eurasia are there nations which own large 
 foreign possessions? In which division are there large territories owned 
 by foreign nations? What is the chief religion in Europe? What are 
 the chief religions of Asia? What forms of Christianity prevail in the 
 various parts of Europe? What religions other than Christianity exist 
 in Europe? Where? Where is Christianity chiefly believed in Asia? 
 In what form? 
 
 Industries. What are the chief agricultural regions of Europe? 
 What are the characteristic crops of each? What are the chief agricul- 
 tural regions of Asia? Compare the chief agricultural products of 
 Europe and Asia. Where are there herding regions in Europe; in Asia? 
 Where is the original home of many domestic animals? Name some 
 domesticated animals employed in one of the divisions of Eurasia, but 
 not in the other. Compare the methods of forest preservation and forest 
 destruction in America and various parts of Europe. Compare the 
 kinds of wood obtained from Europe and from Asia. Compare the 
 mineral products of western Europe and of southeastern Asia. What 
 are the great mining countries of Eurasia? What are the chief minerals 
 obtained in each? Compare the manufacturing methods employed in 
 Europe and in North America; in Europe and in Asia. Compare the 
 character of the chief European and Asiatic manufactured products. 
 Where are the chief commercial nations of Europe; of Asia? Compare 
 the facilities for commerce in Europe and in Asia. What are some of 
 the effects of this difference upon the lives of the people? Give several 
 routes by which goods may be taken from eastern Asia to western Eu- 
 rope, giving the advantages or disadvantages of each route. 
 
 Countries. Including wealth, manufactures, commerce, possessions, 
 power, and civilization, what do you think is the greatest country of 
 Eurasia? Give reasons for your choice. Compare France and Ger- 
 many in size, agricultural products, minerals, manufactures, people, re- 
 ligion, and government. Compare the German Empire and Austria- 
 Hungary in size, products, people, and prosperity. Give reasons for 
 some of the differences you mention. What are the Scandinavian coun- 
 tries? What characteristics have they in common? Give some distinc- 
 tive characteristic of each. Name the Mediterranean countries. Give 
 their common and distinctive characteristics. Compare Belgium and 
 Holland. In what respects does Switzerland resemble each country on 
 her borders? Give some distinctive characteristics of Switzerland. 
 Five very small countries have been mentioned in Europe; name them 
 and tell what country really controls each. Name two empires each of 
 which covers continuous territory in Europe and Asia. Compare them 
 in size, products, people, religion, government, and power. Compare 
 China and Japan. Compare Persia and Arabia. Compare the Asiatic 
 possessions of the British and the French; the British and the Dutch. 
 
 Cities. Give an account of a merchant's voyage from London to 
 Bombay and back again, describing both cities and telling what goods he 
 carries on each trip. Describe similarly a voyage from Paris to St 
 Petersburg; from Bordeaux to Calcutta; from Bombay to Hongkong; 
 from Singapore to Liverpool; from Lisbon to Copenhagen; from Ham- 
 burg to Constantinople; from Marseilles to Yokohama; from Stockholm 
 to Naples. Make several other such voyages between places which you 
 yourself select. 
 
 143 
 
Scale, 600 mfles to one inch, same as Che maps of 
 North America, South America, Eurasia, and Australia 
 
 scale op miles 
 
 q" 100 200 300 100 600 000 700 800 900 1000 
 
 The highlands above 2000 feet are shown in 
 the buff tints, the lowlands In the green tints 
 and the submerged part of tL continental pl&' 
 . teau in the ligh* blur tint. 
 
 r- 
 
 40 Gre 
 
 t.v rmauHweiL 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 Extent and Coast. What part of the continental plateau does Africa 
 occupy ? By what is this grand division separated from the rest of the 
 Eastern Continent 1 ? What oceans border if? In what zones does it 
 lie ? What American city has about the latitude of the northern point of 
 Africa ; of the southern point ? How does Africa rank among the grand 
 divisions in size ? Compare its extent with that of North America. 
 
 How does Africa compare with the other grand divisions in regularity 
 of coast line ? It has even fewer good harbors than South America. 
 What gulf is on the west coast ? What two bights or bays ? What 
 two gulfs and strait are on the north ? What gulf and channel are on 
 the east? What strait connects the Gulf of Aden with the Red Sea? 
 Name the capes at the northern, eastern, southern, and western ex- 
 tremities of Africa. Name another 
 cape near the southern extremity. 
 What large island is east of Africa ? 
 Is it a continental or an oceanic 
 island ? Name some oceanic islands 
 west of Africa (small map). 
 
 Surface. Review the lesson on 
 the highlands of the world (p. 10). 
 What part of Africa is mostly high- 
 land? What part is mostly lowland? 
 
 Highlands. Most of the 
 southeastern half of Africa 
 is a continuous plateau ex- 
 tending from the Strait of 
 Bab el Mandeb to the At- 
 lantic Ocean. It is highest 
 in the northeast, but in gen- 
 eral the margins are more 
 elevated than the interior, 
 and are about a mile high. 
 From this great plateau three narrow and roughly parallel 
 tongues of highland extend far to the northwest — one 
 along the Red Sea coast, one through the center of the 
 grand division, and one, broken into a succession of pla- 
 teaus, along the Atlantic coast. 
 
 There are many detached mountain ranges on the plateau, but none 
 of any very great length or elevation. In the eastern part of the pla- 
 teau region are many evidences of volcanic activity, and the frequent 
 earthquakes indicate that the region may still be undergoing upheaval. 
 Mt. Kenia and Mt. Kilimanjaro in this region are huge cones of extinct 
 volcanoes nearly four miles high. They are the only peaks of Africa 
 that are covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 A narrow isolated highland in the extreme northwest contains the 
 longest and most definitely marked mountain range of Africa. Name it. 
 
 Lowlands. South of the Atlas Mountains, northwestern 
 Africa is mostly a continuous lowland, with broad south- 
 ward extensions on either side of the central highland 
 tongue. The coast lowlands decrease in width toward the 
 south, and near the southern extremity of the grand divi- 
 sion are exceedingly narrow. 
 
 Climate. What part of Africa is always hot? (map, p. 25.) What 
 parts have temperate winters and hot summers ? Has any other grand 
 division a northern and a southern region of temperate winters ? Why ? 
 What part of Africa is always temperate ? Which other grand division 
 
 
 
 AB0 ftSBft --- 
 
 
 An oasis in southern Algeria. 
 
 most resembles Africa in the distribution of heat belts ? What belt of 
 calms crosses northern Africa (p. 26) ; southern Africa ? How does this 
 affect the rainfall of these regions ? What belt of calms sweeps north- 
 ward and southward over central Africa? (p. 27.) How does this affect 
 the rainfall of that region ? At what season is the rain belt farthest south 
 in Africa ; farthest north ? At what times of the year do the rainy and 
 dry seasons occur in the different parts of central Africa ? 
 
 Drainage. Which slope of the continental divide of Africa contains 
 the greater rivers? Name five great river systems of Africa (p. 16). 
 Do all these rivers flow from the region of abundant rainfall ? (map, 
 p. 26.) Between what arms of the highlands is the Nile River? In 
 
 what lakes does it rise ? Name its 
 chief branches. 
 
 What two great rivers flow into 
 the Gulf of Guinea ? Between what 
 arms of the plateau is the greater 
 part of their courses ? Each of these 
 rivers has cut through the western 
 arm to reach the sea. What is the 
 chief eastern branch of the Niger ? 
 What lakes are near the sources of 
 the Kongo ? How does the Kongo 
 compare with the other rivers of 
 Africa in number of tributaries? 
 How does its basin compare with 
 that of the Nile in size and rain- 
 fall? 
 
 What large river of South Africa 
 flows to the Atlantic Ocean ? How 
 does the climate of its valley re- 
 semble that of the Nile valley ? What 
 two rivers of southern Africa flow 
 to the Indian Ocean ? What large 
 lake is tributary to the Zambezi ? 
 Compare the lake region of eastern Africa with that of North America 
 in the number and size of its lakes. What lake is between the central 
 and western highland tongues ? What river system is tributary to this 
 lake ? What small lake in southern Africa has no outlet ? 
 
 Trace the continental divide of Africa, and describe the two chief 
 slopes and each of the drainage basins. 
 
 The Kongo and the Niger carry about half of the 
 drainage waters of Africa. The Kongo ranks next to the 
 Amazon in volume among the world's great rivers. 
 
 With the exception of the Mississippi-Missouri, the Nile is 
 the longest river in the world, but it ranks only fourth among 
 African rivers in the amount of water discharged. Why 
 is this so ? The water which falls during the rainy season 
 in equatorial Africa causes the lower portion of the Nile to 
 overflow its banks, thus irrigating and fertilizing its flood 
 plain through the arid region. 
 
 The African rivers flowing from the moist plateau are generally ob- 
 structed in their middle or lower courses by cataracts or waterfalls, which 
 interrupt the navigation that is possible above and below the falls. The 
 lowest cataracts of the Nile and of the Niger are above 700 miles from 
 the sea. But in the Kongo cascades occur where it cuts through the 
 western highland arm, much nearer its mouth. The Zambezi and the 
 Orange rivers have many falls and are not extensively navigated. The 
 Victoria Falls of the Zambezi rival those of Niagara in grandeur. 
 
 145 
 
146 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Some animals of Africa. 
 
 Lake T^had, although having no outlet to the sea, is a fresh-water 
 lake. When do the rains fall in this region ? (p. 27.) At that season 
 the lake is a sheet of water overflowing by an outlet to the northeast into 
 a lower region. In the dry season the lake becomes a great marsh, and 
 its outlet is a wady, or dry stream bed. Near the southern edge of the 
 Atlas highland are several deep depressions in the lowlands, called 
 shotts ; they contain salt lakes during part of the year. 
 
 Life. What animals and plants are peculiar to the African life re- 
 gion? (pp. 30, 31.) Where are the dense forests? Where are the open 
 forests ? Where are the deserts ? (map, p. 28.) What is the great north- 
 ern desert region called (map, p. 144) ; the southern desert region ? 
 
 More than a third of Africa consists of deserts. Some 
 parts of these arid regions are covered with shifting sands 
 and wind-formed dunes, with here and there fertile oases. 
 Other parts are stony and barren, and still others rough 
 and mountainous. In the oases grow date palms and 
 such other plants as thrust their roots deep down to the 
 ground water. Along the edges of the deserts are plains 
 where grow acacias and rough grasses like those of our 
 own plateau region. 
 
 In the dense forests of central Africa are sago and oil 
 palms, mimosa and rubber trees, besides the other plants 
 peculiar to this life region. Along the coasts are marshes, 
 where are mangrove trees and enormous grasses resem- 
 bling cane and bamboo. Where are the grass lands of 
 Africa ? (map, p. 28.) 
 
 More large wild animals are found in Africa than in 
 
 any other of the grand divisions. But these are rapidly 
 being exterminated by white hunters. Snakes and insects 
 abound. 
 
 People. To what race do most of the people in central and southern 
 Africa belong ? (p. 34.) To what race do the people in northern Africa 
 belong? What parts of Africa have a dense or moderately dense popu- 
 lation? (map, p. 34.) In what parts is the population very sparse? 
 How does the distribution of people correspond with the distribution of 
 rainfall? (map, p. 26.) 
 
 None of the negro tribes in Africa have advanced to the 
 stage of civilization, and many of them are still in the sav- 
 age state. The white peoples who occupy the countries 
 bordering on the Mediterranean are chiefly Arabs, Berbers, 
 and Jews. Many are quite dark-skinned. In most parts 
 of Africa, especially near the coasts, Europeans have es- 
 tablished missionary settlements and colonies. In the 
 south they have built towns and roads, improved the 
 country, and introduced the arts of civilization. 
 
 For many centuries negroes were carried from Africa into various 
 countries as slaves. Into what parts of America were negro slaves in- 
 troduced ? (pp. 49, 107.) Most of these slaves were obtained from the 
 countries on the west coast. The barbarous tribes in central Africa still 
 make slaves of the prisoners whom they capture in war, selling them to the 
 Arab slave-dealers from the eastern coast. These Arabs often make raids 
 into the interior for the purpose of obtaining ivory and capturing slaves. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw on a large scale a map of Africa, nam- 
 ing the chief natural features. Model Africa. Write a comparison 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 147 
 
 Egyptian boats on the Nile. 
 
 between northern and southern Africa in climate, products, and inhabit- 
 ants. Make a list of the African plants and animals which you have 
 seen, and describe one of them. Read " Slavery and the Slave Trade 
 in Africa," by H. M. Stanley, or " Europe in Africa in the Nineteenth 
 Century," by M. E. W. Latimer. Begin an African scrapbook. 
 
 COUNTRIES OF NORTHERN AFRICA. 
 
 EGYPT. What water boundaries has Egypt? What country is 
 northwest 1 What river passes through Egypt 1 What ship canal is in- 
 cluded within its limits ? What desert oc- 
 cupies its western part ? 
 
 The habitable part of Egypt is 
 but a strip of land a few miles 
 wide that can be irrigated by the 
 waters of the Nile, together with 
 its delta. A great dam at Assouan 
 retains a supply of water to irri- 
 gate the lower valley between the 
 flood seasons. The fertile flood 
 plain is bordered by steep, rocky 
 bluffs, beyond which stretches the 
 desert. The southern boundary is 
 undetermined, but Egypt claims 
 Nubia and the fertile grassy region 
 called Kordofan. 
 
 Agriculture is the chief occu- 
 pation, but the methods are very 
 primitive; the soil is not even 
 plowed, but the seeds are scat- 
 tered, and then trampled in by oxen. The water supply is 
 lifted from the river by wheels or pumps, and distributed 
 by dikes and ditches. Wheat, corn, cotton, sugar cane, 
 rice, and semitropical fruits are grown. Donkeys, oxen, 
 camels, and sheep are raised, and hosts of pigeons. 
 
 There are but few manufactures except handmade embroideries, jew- 
 elry, and leather work. The Nile River and a line of railroad up its 
 valley are the principal means of transportation. Cotton, cotton seed, 
 and sugar are exported in exchange for cloth, tobacco, timber, and coal. 
 By far the most important commercial route, however, is the ship canal 
 which Europeans have constructed across the Isthmus of Suez, and 
 
 through which passes a large part of the commerce between Europe and 
 Asia. What ports are at the two ends of this canal ? (see corner map, 
 p. 144.) 
 
 The mass of the laboring people are of mixed Arab and negro blood. 
 The more cultivated people are the Copts, descendants of the ancient rul- 
 ing class. There are also many Turks and Arabs, and a few Europeans. 
 Most of the people are Mohammedans, but the Copts profess Christianity. 
 
 The ruler of Egypt is an absolute monarch called the khedive, but he 
 pays tribute to the Sultan of Turkey. In reality, however, the govern- 
 ment is controlled by Great Britain. 
 
 What is the capital ? It is about the size of St. Louis, 
 and is the largest city of Africa. Near Cairo are the great 
 pyramids, which are among the oldest structures in the 
 world. Alexandria is the chief seaport of Egypt. 
 
 Many people visit Egypt to see the pyramids, temples, and to'mbs built 
 thousands of years ago when this region was the center of the learnipg and 
 the civilization of the world. From the pictures found in these moriu- ■ 
 ments, and the inscriptions carved upon them, much has been learned 
 concerning ancient Egyptian life. .^. 
 
 THE BARBARY STATES. What four states occupy the Mediter- 
 ranean coast west of Egypt ? By what region are they bounded on the 
 south 1 Which are traversed by the Atlas Mountains f 
 
 The eastern part of this region is too dry for agricultui'e 
 except in occasional oases. In the western part, where the 
 rainfall is greater, grain is grown on the plateaus, and 
 tropical fruits on the lower lands. But the methods of 
 agriculture are generally rude, and the crops are small. 
 Many mules, horses, camels, and goats are raised, and 
 along the coasts fishing and the collection of sponges and 
 coral are important industries. There is some 
 hand manufacture of woolen and silk goods, 
 shawls, carpets, felt, and leather. 
 
 The exports are fruits, grains, olive oil, 
 wine, wool, skins, wax, cork, esparto grass 
 used for making cordage and paper, and 
 ostrich feathers brought across the Sahara. 
 
 The native peoples are chiefly Mohammedans. They 
 
 include Berbers, who are mostly farmers ; Arabs, who 
 
 wander about with their flocks and herds ; and Moors, 
 
 who are closely related to the Arabs but live in the 
 
 towns. The leading merchants and traders are Jews. 
 
 There are also many negro 
 
 slaves. In Algeria and Tunis 
 
 there are quite a number of 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 These four countries are 
 sometimes called the Barbary 
 States, from the Berbers, who 
 were the first inhabitants. All 
 were formerly tributary to 
 Turkey, and the most eastern 
 is still a part of the Turkish 
 Empire. 
 
 What is the capital of 
 Tripoli? Its bazars are 
 rich in ostrich plumes, 
 ivory, and slaves brought 
 across the desert. Mo- 
 rocco is ruled by an abso- 
 lute monarch called the 
 a Morocco merchant. sultan. What are the 
 
148 
 
 PARTS OP THE EARTH. 
 
 A camp on the Sahara. 
 
 chief towns? The sultan resides part of the time in one 
 and part of the time in the other. Algeria is part of the 
 French Republic. What is its capital? It is the chief 
 commercial city and seaport. At Oran there are valuable 
 marble quarries. Biskra, in a beautiful oasis on the edge 
 of the desert, is the terminus of important caravan routes. 
 The government of Tunis is nominally still in the hands of 
 a native ruler called the bey, but a French resident really has 
 most of the governing power. What is the capital of this 
 country ? 
 
 THE SAHARA. How does the Sahara compare with the United 
 States in size ? 
 
 The word Sahara means "desert," and the region to 
 which it is applied is the largest desert in the world. This 
 region ig not entirely arid, however, for there are many 
 oases ; some of them are many miles in extent, and there 
 date palms, olive trees, wheat, and barley are grown. The 
 region is very sparsely peopled by wandering tribes of 
 Arabs. The most important product of the Sahara is 
 salt from deposits at Kawar and Taudeni. Most of this is 
 bartered to the natives of central Africa. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out about the life and work of " Chinese 
 Gordon." Find out about the troubles our country once had with the 
 Barbary pirates. Read "A Family Flight over Egypt and Syria," by 
 Hale ; " The Romance of a Mummy," by T. Gautier ; " Winters in Al- 
 geria," by F. A. Bridgeman ; or "-The Cat of Bubastes," by Henty. 
 
 CENTRAL AFRICA. 
 
 Central Africa includes the region between the Sahara and the Zam- 
 bezi River. Describe the surface and drainage of this region ; the dis- 
 tribution of heat and moisture. Where are the forests'? (map, p. 28.) 
 Where are the prairies? What is the region just south of the Sahara 
 called? (p. 144.) 
 
 The climate of the central plateau is more healthful 
 than that of the coast, and the soil is generally fertile. 
 The forests contain valuable woods, rubber-yielding vines, 
 trees yielding gums from which varnish is made, the 
 palm, from whose fruit is obtained palm oil used in mak- 
 ing soap, and other useful plants. In these forests are 
 herds of elephants, and in the rivers are hippopotamuses. 
 
 The tusks and teeth of these animals are exported as 
 ivory. In parts of the region the tsetse fly carries a dis- 
 ease that is fatal to cattle and horses; but through- 
 out the upper meadow lands cattle and sheep may be 
 raised, while bananas, corn, rice, cotton, tobacco, cacao, 
 sugar, and, at higher elevations, wheat can be grown 
 with ease. 
 
 This region is the true home of the negro, and in it live most of the 
 negroes in the world. What part of the region is most densely peopled? 
 (map, p. 34.) The natives of the interior are generally more intelligent 
 and sturdy than those near the coast. Many of them weave a cloth of 
 palm fiber, make rude canoes, spears, and bows and arrows, and many 
 use firearms and weapons obtained from white men. Some cultivate 
 the soil, and some are good fishermen. In this region also live the pyg- 
 mies, a dwarfish people of the black race. The eastern Sudan is occu- 
 pied by a Mohammedan people of mixed Arab and negro descent, who 
 have disputed the Egyptian control of this region. 
 
 It is only recently that central Africa has been explored 
 by civilized man, but now five European nations claim 
 nearly the whole of the region. 
 
 Name and locate the regions claimed by various European nations on 
 the east coast between the Strait of Bab el Mandeb and the Zambezi 
 (small map, p. 144) ; on the west coast of central Africa, south of the 
 mouth of the Niger. What state occupies much of the interior of equa- 
 torial Africa? Locate and name the owners of the divisions of the 
 west coast between the Niger and Cape Verde. What European nat&n 
 claims most of the interior of this region ? 
 
 The European " possessions " in central Africa have generally grown 
 from a few trading settlements made along the coasts by white men. 
 After the traders had secured a foothold, the home government sent ouj 
 soldiers and officers to protect and manage the affairs of the colony, and 
 to extend its " sphere of influence " in the tributary country in the' 
 interior. 
 
 The exports from most of these possessions are similar, 
 and consist chiefly of palm oil, rubber, ivory, varnish gums, 
 hides, and some cotton, sugar, and coffee. 
 
 Sierra Leone was founded during the time when the slave trade was 
 flourishing, and was intended as a place of refuge for negroes rescued 
 from slave ships. Liberia is a negro republic. It was formed during 
 the time of slavery in our country by some of our citizens as a home for 
 freed slaves from the United States. Its capital was named after one of 
 our presidents. 
 
 The Kongo State was established by the European powers for the pur- 
 poses of trade. The King of the Belgians was chosen its ruler, although 
 
 Trading post on the Kongo. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 149 
 
 it has no connection with the Bel- 
 gian government, and trade is open 
 to all nations on the same conditions. 
 
 The Italians have control of the 
 northern part of the east coast, but 
 they have been unable to conquer 
 the native kingdom of Abyssinia. 
 The Abyssinians have reached a low 
 stage of civilization, and profess 
 Christianity. They are shrewd trad- 
 ers, raise horses, sheep, and camels, 
 and produce fine handmade woven 
 fabrics and leather goods. 
 
 One of the most important posts 
 on the east coast is the island of Zan- 
 zibar, which, with the island of Pem- 
 ba, is ruled by a native sultan under 
 British control. Cloves and other 
 central African products are ex- 
 ported. 
 
 To what European country does 
 the great island of Madagascar belong? The natives of thfirwjestern part 
 are black savages ; those of the eastern part, a Malay people/fcalled Hovas, 
 are somewhat civilized. They had formed an absolute kingdom before 
 France took possession of the island. The French are now building roads 
 and opening up the mineral resources of the country. Name the capital. 
 
 Mauritius, a British colony, and Reunion, a French possession, produce 
 large quantities of sugar, also rice, cotton, coffee, indigo, and spices. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Read " My Kalulu," by Stanley, or " Five 
 Years with the Congo Cannibals," by Herbert Ward and D. D. Bidwell. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 South Africa includes the region south of the Zambezi River. De- 
 scribe the surface and drainage of this region; its distribution of heat 
 and moisture. Locate the forests (map, p. 28) ; the prairie regions ; the 
 deserts. 
 
 The surface of south Africa rises quite rapidly by a 
 series of terraces from a narrow coast plain to a gently 
 undulating, treeless plateau, called the veldt. On the east- 
 ern and southern slopes there is sufficient rainfall to sup- 
 port forests of palm, ebony, and rubber trees toward the 
 north, while olives, cypresses, and some evergreens flour- 
 ish farther south. In the eastern part of the plateau there 
 is enough moisture to make excellent pasturage, but the 
 western portion is mostly a desert. 
 
 While the eastern lowland slopes are well adapted for 
 the cultivation of sugar cane, coffee, cotton, and wheat, 
 the uplands are better adapted for herding, and vast num- 
 bers of sheep, cattle, and goats are raised. 
 
 The region is rich in minerals. At Kimberley, north 
 of the Orange River, are the chief diamond mines of the 
 world, and farther northeast are extensive gold mines. 
 
 South Africa contains the most flourishing European colonies of the 
 grand division. What European country owns the greater part of south 
 Africa? (small map, p. 144.) What other countries own part of. the 
 coasts ? What is the climate of the German territory t Because of its 
 dryness this territory is of little value. What bay indents the southern 
 coast of Portuguese East Africa ? The Portuguese colonies are not pro- 
 gressive, but some sugar, coffee, and cotton are exported. 
 
 The British colony of Cape of Good Hope, usually called 
 Cape Colony, is in the extreme south. Orange River 
 Colony and Transvaal Colony comprise the territory of two 
 Boer republics, which were annexed by Great Britain. 
 
 Sorting gravel for diamonds, South Africa. 
 
 These are the most progres- 
 sive countries of Africa. 
 Many miles of railroad have 
 been built, and the towns 
 have well-paved streets, elec- 
 tric lights, and street cars. 
 
 The natives of this part of south 
 Africa have either been pushed back 
 into the interior or have partly adopt- 
 ed the ways of the white men and 
 work for them as servants and la- 
 borers. Uprisings of the natives 
 still sometimes occur in the interior. 
 While the British were settling 
 the United States, the Dutch made 
 coast settlements at the southern 
 extremity of Africa. Not long after 
 our Revolution, the British took pos- 
 session of these settlements. Many 
 of the Dutch farmers, or Boers, not liking English rule, moved northward 
 and founded the two republics. Previous to the annexation by Great 
 Britain, the Orange Free State was independent, but the South African 
 Republic, or Transvaal, was subject to Great Britain in foreign affairs. 
 
 What is the capital of Cape Colony? It is also the 
 chief port. The exports are gold, diamonds, wool, goat's 
 hair, feathers, hides, and a little wine. Port Elizabeth 
 also has an active commerce. 
 
 What is the capital of Orange River Colony? What 
 are the chief towns of the Transvaal Colony? Johan- 
 
 South African ox team. 
 
 nesburg is the center of the gold-mining region. These 
 places are connected with the coast by railroad. The ex- 
 ports of thes^ colonies are similar to those of Cape Colony. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Find out about the life and work of Cecil 
 Rhodes. Read " Home Life on an Ostrich Farm," by Annie Martin ; 
 " The Story of South Africa," by G. M. Theal ; or " Yankee Girls in Zulu- 
 land," by Louise V. Sheldon. 
 
 TOPICS ON AFRICA. 
 
 I. Physical Features. Extent: latitude; longitude. Surface: 
 highlands — distribution, mountains; lowlands — interior, coastal. 
 Drainage : divide ; rivers — sources, mouths, size, obstructions, useful- 
 ness; lakes. Climate: heat belts; winds; moisture— distribution, causes. 
 II. Life. Vegetable: distribution; reasons; peculiar plants. Ani- 
 mal : regions ; barriers ; chief animals. Man : races — distribution ; 
 density — distribution, causes; history — early civilization, the slave 
 trade. 
 
 III. Products. Vegetable; animal; mineral. 
 
 IV. Countries. European settlements : independent ; colonial. Na- 
 tive states : dependent ; independent. 
 
AUSTKALIA AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Extent and Coast Line. What part of the continental platean does 
 Australia occupy? (p. 8.) What tropic crosses it ? Is any other conti- 
 nent wholly in the southern hemisphere 1 ? How does Australia rank 
 among the grand divisions in size ? Compare its area with that of the 
 United States (p. 157). Name three indentations of the coast. On which 
 side are there most islands ? Name the chief of these. What obstacle to 
 navigation is parallel to the northeast coast ? 
 
 Surface. Compare Australia with the other grand divisions in the 
 proportion of lowland and of highland. In what part of Australia is the 
 greatest extent of highland ? Locate the other highlands of Australia. 
 
 As a whole, the surface of Australia is flat. Most of the 
 eastern half is a low plain, which rises imperceptibly east- 
 
 In the northern forests of Australia. 
 
 ward to form a narrow but continuous rim of highland. 
 The eastern slope of this highland is so steep and rugged 
 that, when viewed from the narrow coast plain, it appears 
 as a range of mountains. Its loftiest points are about 1£ 
 miles high, but in general it has less than half that eleva- 
 tion. The western half of Australia is a low plateau 
 which, near its eastern and western margins, rises in places 
 slightly above the limit of lowland. 
 
 Climate. What heat belt embraces most of Australia ? (map, p. 25.) 
 What part is always hot ? What part is always temperate ? In what 
 season does Christmas occur in Australia ? Why ? In what wind belts 
 does Australia lie ? (map, p. 26.) What part receives a moderately 
 heavy rainfall ? What part receives light rains or little or no rain ? 
 What calms lie over central Australia part of the year ? 
 
 Most of Australia is deficient in rainfall. The equa- 
 torial rain belt brings copious rains in spring and summer 
 to the north coast, but the tropical calms make these sea- 
 sons dry on the south coast. In winter the tropical calms 
 lie farther north and the prevailing westerly winds bring 
 rain to the southwest, while the north coast is dry. The 
 
 southeast trades deposit ample moisture at all seasons, 
 but especially in summer, on the steep eastern slope ; but 
 much of the interior receives little rain and is a desert. 
 
 Drainage. What is the largest river system in Australia ? Where 
 are there other streams ? Show the relation between the location of the 
 streams and the distribution of the rainfall. Where are there lakes? 
 What can you say of these lakes in view of what you have learned of 
 the climate ? 
 
 The Murray River and its tributary the Darling are 
 both over 1,000 miles long, but their supply of water 
 comes mostly from the eastern highlands, and they de- 
 crease in volume as they advance. For about half the 
 year they are navigable for small steamers, but during 
 the dry season they are greatly reduced. There are many 
 short but beautiful streams along the east slope and the 
 north coast. In the interior are many stream beds, dry 
 except after the infrequent showers, and terminating in 
 dry depressions or in salt lakes or marshes. 
 
 Vegetable and Animal Life. What parts of Australia are forest- 
 covered? (map, p. 28.) What parts are grassy lands? What parts are 
 deserts ? Review the lesson on the Australian life region (pp. 29, 30). 
 Describe some of the characteristic forms of vegetable and animal life, 
 and tell wherein the Australian life region differs from all others. 
 
 The hot, well-watered, northeast coast has forests as 
 luxuriant as those of the Amazon and Kongo valleys. 
 From these fine cabinet woods are obtained, and farther 
 south on the east coast pines, cedars, and great eucalyptus 
 or gum trees make excellent building timber. Most of 
 the interior, however, is covered with a " scrub " of reed- 
 like grasses which make excellent pasturage, or, in the 
 drier regions, with an almost impenetrable "bush" of 
 thorny acacias. 
 
 Many of the smaller animals live in the forest regions, 
 
 Transporting wool, Australia. 
 
 151 
 
152 
 
 PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Native Australian. 
 
 but the great kangaroos 
 and the ostrichlike casso- 
 waries and emus live on 
 the open plains. 
 
 People. How does Australia 
 compare with Ohio in size; in 
 population ? Australia is the most 
 thinly settled of all the grand 
 divisions of the land. What 
 part of Australia is least sparsely 
 settled? (p. 34.) Fully three 
 fourths of all the people live in 
 this southeastern portion, while 
 much of the western portion is 
 practically uninhabited and but 
 partly explored. 
 
 When white men first 
 settled in Australia, about 
 a hundred years ago, they 
 found its only inhabitants 
 to be a few tribes of de- 
 graded, black-skinned sav- 
 ages. Of these but few 
 remain. Most of the pres- 
 ent inhabitants are emi- 
 grants from the British Isles or their descendants, though 
 there are some Chinese, Malay, and Hindu laborers. 
 
 About the beginning of the nineteenth century some of 
 the emigrants brought the first sheep and cattle to Aus- 
 tralia and started the industry of stock raising. Australia 
 is now the greatest of wool-producing, and one of the 
 greatest meat-exporting countries. Nearly one half of the 
 land in Australia is devoted to sheep farms and cattle 
 ranges. Agriculture is carried on with improved machin- 
 ery in the moist east and south coast region, as in the 
 United States, and some wheat is exported, but all the 
 crops raised have only half the value of the wool and 
 meat. 
 
 Gold, silver, coal, copper, and tin are mined principally 
 on the inner slope of the eastern highland. Nearly one 
 fourth of the world's supply of gold comes from Australia, 
 yet the yearly product from all the mines is but one fifth 
 as valuable as the pastoral and farm products. 
 
 More than half the people live in cities, and manufactur- 
 ing is an important industry, but much cloth, machinery, 
 and general manufactures are imported. About three 
 fourths of the foreign trade is with Great Britain. There 
 is an extensive system of railroads in the southeast, and 
 the continent is connected with Eurasia by telegraph cable. 
 
 Government and Divisions. Australia belongs to Great Britainand 
 is divided into five colonies, which, with Tasmania, form the Common- 
 wealth of Australia. This federation has a governor-general appointed 
 by the queen, and a parliament to which the people elect members. 
 Name the colonies of Australia. Which is the largest ; the smallest ? 
 
 Bound Victoria. Describe its surface. Name its capi- 
 tal. It is the great agricultural and coal-mining colony, 
 and has also large pastoral and manufacturing interests. 
 The chief exports are wool, gold, meat products, and wheat. 
 Melbourne, about as large as Boston, is the center of 
 
 many railroad lines, and the chief port of the colony. 
 Ballarat is in the gold fields. 
 
 Bound New South Wales. Describe the surface. Name 
 the capital. This is the oldest and wealthiest colony. It 
 supplies one half of the wool product of Australia, besides 
 much wheat, corn, sugar cane, and wine, and. many 
 oranges. Gold, silver, and coal are extensively mined. 
 Sydney is but little smaller than Melbourne, and has a 
 much larger foreign commerce. 
 
 Bound Queensland. Describe the surface. Name the 
 capital. Nearly half the surface is forested. Corn and 
 sugar cane are the chief crops. In the interior many 
 sheep are pastured, and more than half the cattle in Aus- 
 tralia. Much gold is mined, and some coal. There are 
 many Chinese and people from the East Indian islands. 
 The chief exports are wool, gold, preserved and frozen 
 meats, tallow, and hides. 
 
 Bound South Australia. Describe its surface and name 
 its capital. It has rich copper mines, and raises impoVtant 
 crops of wheat and grapes. The chief exports are wool, 
 wheat, flour, and copper. Adelaide is the only large city. 
 
 Bound Western Australia. Describe the surface and 
 name the capital. Its coast regions are less fertile than is 
 the surrounding country nearer the sources of the rivers. 
 
 In an Australian gold mine. 
 
 Gold forms the most valuable export, though much wool 
 is also exported. Perth is the chief city. 
 
 Supplemental Work. Draw circles representing the eastern and 
 western hemispheres, and sketch the grand divisions. Model Australia. 
 Read " Harry Heathcote of Gangoil," by Anthony Trollope. 
 
 ISLAND GROUPS. 
 
 TASMANIA. This island is more equable in climate than is Aus- 
 tralia. Why ? Describe its surface and name its capital. 
 
 Tasmania is surrounded by many small islands, and its 
 coast has many bays. It is (tailed the " Switzerland of the 
 South," because of its mountainous surface. 
 
AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS. 
 
 153 
 
 The plant and animal forms are Aus- 
 tralian. The mountains are thickly for- 
 ested, and the flood plains are fertile. 
 
 Tasmania forms part of the Common- 
 wealth of Australia. The natives dis- 
 appeared rapidly after adopting civiliza- 
 tion. For half a century the island was 
 used for convict settlements, but now 
 it is studded with sheep farms. Wool 
 is the chief export, but both fresh and 
 preserved fruits are shipped to Australia 
 and England. Gold and tin are mined 
 for export, and coal for domestic use. 
 
 Hobart, the capital, is beautifully sit- 
 uated, and is a summer resort for people 
 from Australia. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. Name the islands of this 
 group. Describe their surface. What strait sep- 
 arates the two largest ? 
 
 Both of the large islands are moun- 
 tainous, with snow-clad peaks two miles 
 high. North Island contains active vol- 
 canoes, geysers, and hot springs. South Island is noted 
 for its glaciers, glacial lakes, and glacier-carved fiords, 
 resembling those of Norway. The climate is mild, moist, 
 and windy. Why? The vegetation is peculiar, but re- 
 sembles most nearly that of Australia. The mountains 
 are forest-covered, the hills are clothed with ferns, and the 
 plains with grass. A large tree called the kauri pine fur- 
 nishes fine timber for export. There are few native ani- 
 mals and none of the peculiar kinds so plentiful in Aus- 
 tralia, but New Zealand is the home of the kiwi (p. 30), 
 a singular running bird without wings. The natives, 
 called Maoris, are of Malay origin. They have adopted 
 civilized customs since white men settled the islands, but 
 they are rapidly decreasing in number. 
 
 New Zealand was settled by Englishmen about sixty 
 years ago, and is now a British colony. Sheep and cattle 
 raising, farming, and the mining of gold, coal, and fossil 
 kauri gum are the principal 
 occupations. The chief ex- 
 ports are wool, frozen and 
 preserved meats, gold, and 
 kauri gum, which are sent to 
 England. Name the capital 
 and chief cities. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN EAST INDIES. 
 
 What is the largest island north of 
 Australia ? Name the principal is- 
 lands west of New Guinea included 
 in the Australian life region (map, 
 p. 29). Name the seas between 
 them. To whom do most of these 
 islands belong? To whom does 
 part of Timor belong? Among 
 what three nations is New Guinea 
 divided ? Name two groups east of 
 New Guinea. To what nation do 
 most of these islands belong ? 
 
 Volcano in New Zealand. 
 
 Native Hawaiian women. 
 
 The larger islands are mostly volcanic 
 and fringed with coral reefs, but there 
 are many coral islands and atolls. The 
 climate is hot and moist. The products 
 are tropical fruits and vegetables, spi- 
 ces, sugar, cotton, pearls, and copra, or 
 the dried meat of cocoanuts. Copra is 
 extensively exported to be used in mak- 
 ing cocoanut oil. 
 
 Scattered through the western Pacific 
 are many clusters of small volcanic and 
 coi - al islands. The vegetation consists 
 of cocoanut palms, bananas, breadfruit 
 trees, a palm called the " screw pine," 
 yams, and sugar cane. The natives are 
 chiefly Malays, somewhat civilized by 
 European and American missionaries 
 and settlers. 
 
 THE FIJI ISLANDS. Where is this group? 
 What groups are between it and Australia ? What 
 groups are to the northeast and to the south- 
 east ? To whom do the Fiji Islands belong ? 
 
 These are volcanic islands, containing 
 sugar plantations and exporting sugar, fruits, and copra to 
 Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 SAMOA ISLANDS. What islands lie southeast of the Samoa Is- 
 lands ? With the scale of miles measure their distance from Sydney. 
 
 The Samoa Islands are mountainous, and are occasionally 
 visited by earthquakes. They are well watered, well for- 
 ested, and fertile, and export copra. The natives are partly 
 civilized. Savaii and Upolu belong to Germany. Tutuila 
 and several smaller islands are owned by the United States. 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. Name the chief islands of this group. 
 What is their capital ? 
 
 These islands are volcanic. They lie near the Tropic of 
 Cancer and about one third of the distance from America 
 to Asia; locate them on the map, p. 16. The island of 
 Hawaii is about the size of Connecticut. It contains 
 
 The natives are civilized, and 
 there are many Chinese and 
 Japanese laborers. The Ha- 
 waiian Islands were annexed 
 to the United States in 1898, 
 and later established as the 
 Territory of Hawaii. Much 
 sugar is produced and sent 
 to San Francisco. 
 
 Honolulu is celebrated for 
 its delightful climate. It is 
 an important coaling station 
 for Arctic whalers, war ships, 
 and merchant vessels. 
 
 SupplementalWork. Read"The 
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 BBS France S s P lia 1 I Denmark 
 
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 Only the navigable portions of rivers are shown. 
 
 Steamship Routes. Figures Indicate distances in geographical 
 
 or nautical miles between places marked thus : 
 Railroads and telegraph lines. 
 
 . Submarine cables and telegraph lines'. 
 
 I— 
 
 — Caravan Routes. 
 ■ i Canals. 
 
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 lit MATTHEWS N0*THf 
 
CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS. 
 
 Physical Features. What is the earth's size ; shape ; movements ? 
 What are the effects of these movements on the distribution of light ; 
 heat ? On the circulation of the air ; of the ocean ? On the tides ? 
 Compare the northern and southern hemispheres in their proportions of 
 laud and water ; in the circulation of air ; the distribution of heat. 
 
 Make a list of the world's great lowlands, and tell of each its climate, 
 products, the nations which inhabit it. Make a list of the world's great 
 plateaus, and tell of each its general elevation, climate, and products, and 
 the nations which occupy it. Make a list of the world's great mountain 
 systems and compare them in height; continuity; the number and 
 height of their mountain peaks. 
 
 Indicate on the map evidences of movements of the earth's crust; 
 of water erosion ; of deposition ; of the work of winds on surface forms. 
 Mention some places where cataracts occur. Where are there conti- 
 nental glaciers; valley glaciers; evidences of former glaciers? 
 
 Name the chief rivers draining the Atlantic-Arctic slope in Eurasia ; 
 North America ; Africa ; South America. Compare these rivers of Eura- 
 sia with those of Africa in size of basin, volume of water, usefulness. 
 Compare those of Eurasia with those of North America ; those of South 
 America with those of North America; those of Africa with those of 
 South America. Name the chief rivers draining the Pacific and Indian 
 Ocean slope in Africa ; Eurasia ; Australia : America. Compare these 
 river systems of North America with those of Africa; those of North 
 America with those of Eurasia ; those of Eurasia with those of Africa ; 
 those of Australia with the others. Make a list of the worlds great lake 
 regions. Tell of each the names, causes, outlets, and uses of the chief lakes. 
 
 Name the world's great seas and bays ; important isthmuses ; straits ; 
 peninsulas ; islands. Tell of each island or island group what you know 
 of its origin, climate, and surface. 
 
 Climate. Where are the summers temperate and the winters cold? 
 Compare these regions in latitude and altitude. What plants and ani- 
 mals live there ? What races of men ? How dense is the population ? 
 Where are the summers hot and the winters cold ? Where are the sum- 
 mers hot and the winters temperate ? Where is the entire year tem- 
 perate ? In what heat belts do the most advanced nations live in South 
 America; in North America; in Eurasia; in Africa; in Australia? 
 
 Describe and account for the trade winds ; equatorial calms ; tropical 
 calms ; prevailing westerly winds ; monsoons. Why do these belts move 
 northward and southward during the year ? What is the effect of this 
 movement ? Account for cyclones. 
 
 Make a list of the regions of heavy rainfall, and try to account for the 
 existence of each. Locate the largest regions of moderately heavy rain. 
 Compare the positions of the areas of interior drainage in the northern 
 and southern hemispheres ; in the two northern grand divisions ; in the 
 three southern grand divisions. Compare the positions of the rainless 
 regions of the world ; of the desert regions. Compare the maps on pp. 
 26 and 28 ; what are the chief farming regions of the world ? What 
 great regions suited by climate for farming are still forest-covered? 
 Where are there great herding regions? Compare them in climate. 
 
 Life. Compare the northern and southern hemispheres in the pe- 
 culiarity of their life forms. Name the great life regions. In which are 
 the life forms most peculiar ? Which two regions are most nearly alike 
 in life forms ? Which region is nearly identical with a continent ? What 
 regions cover parts of two grand divisions ; only part of a grand divi- 
 sion ? Locate and account for three transitional regions. Which grand 
 division contains forms belonging to three different regions ? Describe the 
 life forms of South America ; North America ; Eurasia ; Africa, Australia. 
 
 Man. Tell about the stages of man's progress. Where is it thought 
 that civilization first existed ? Tell of its spread over Asia, and its pres- 
 ent condition there. Tell of its spread over Europe, North America, 
 South America, Africa, and Australia ; and describe its condition in each 
 of these grand divisions. What parts of the world are not yet explored ; 
 not yet civilized ? 
 
 Is population denser in the eastern or in the western hemisphere ; in 
 the northern or in the southern ? In what grand division is it densest ; least 
 dense ? Explain the locations of the most densely peopled regions of 
 South America ; North America ; Africa ; Australia ; Eurasia. In what 
 
 regions is the sparseness of the population due to cold ; to little moisture 
 and vegetation ; to much moisture and vegetation ? 
 
 On an outline map of the world show the distribution of the chief re- 
 ligious beliefs, and compare these regions in civilization and wealth. 
 
 Make a list of the races of man. Tell of each where it is found ; its 
 advancement ; the chief nations representing it. 
 
 Agriculture and Herding. What are the world's great wheat-pro- 
 ducing regions ? In what respects are they similar ? What regions pro- 
 duce rice ; corn ; tea ; cotton ; flax ? Name some fruits which enter into 
 the world's trade, and tell where each is grown. Where are cattle, hogs, 
 sheep, and fowls raised ? Make a list of other domestic food animals ; 
 where are they raised ? Name some regions which export food. Why ? 
 Name some which import food. Why? What do they exchange for 
 the imported food? 
 
 Fishing. Make a list of some of the best ocean fishing grounds. 
 What kind of fish are caught in each ? Name waters famous for oysters ; 
 salmon; sponges; pearls; coral. 
 
 Lumbering. Locate some of the world's great lumbering regions. 
 Make a list of useful forest produces ; tell where each is obtained, and 
 how it is used. 
 
 Mining. Make a list of mineral prpducts produced by the alteration 
 of vegetable or animal remains. How was coal formed ? How is iPmined ? 
 Locate the world's great coal- mining regions ; regions which export coal ; 
 regions which import it. Where are the world's great petroleum regions ? 
 What mineral ranks next to coal in importance ? How is it mined ? Where 
 is it produced ; manufactured ? Why is it important to find coal and iron 
 near each other ? When both are not found in the same region, which is 
 usually transported to the other? Name some cities which manufacture 
 iron and steel. Where do gold and silver occur ? How were they de- 
 posited ? How are they mined ? Where are they, found ? Make a list of 
 other mineral products, and tell about their occurrence , mining, and uses. 
 
 Manufacture. In what two ways may manufacture be done? Where 
 do primitive methods prevail? Where do modern methods prevail? 
 Compare these regions with those of dense population ; of iron and coal 
 production. Make a list of manufactured products ; tell in what regions 
 each is made, and name some cities famous for it. 
 
 Commerce. Define commerce; foreign commerce; domestic com- 
 merce. Where are railroads numerous ; few ? Give instances of the in- 
 fluence of surface forms upon railroad routes ; of great natural obstacles 
 overcome in building railroads. For what purposes are canals better 
 than railways ? Locate some canals and show why they are useful. Tell 
 what you can of the methods of using canals ; of improving rivers ; har- 
 bors. How do governments aid commerce in their own countries ; in 
 foreign countries? Illustrate the comfort and convenience gained by 
 commerce ; the discomfort and distress occasioned by its absence. 
 
 From the map on pp. 154, 155, tell through what places a message 
 might pass if sent by telegraph and cable from New Zealand to San 
 Francisco ; from Valparaiso to Yokohama ; from Cape Town to St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 Countries. Make a list of the divisions and colonial possessions of 
 the British Empire. Tell of each its resources and products ; its history ; 
 what it contributes to and receives from the rest of the empire. Name 
 and describe the world's other great empires. Make lists of the world's 
 constitutional and absolute monarchies. Compare the two lists in civiliz- 
 ation, wealth, and power. Tell of each country its history, people, and 
 contributions to the world's trade. Make a list of the colonial possessions 
 of France ; Germany ; the Netherlands ; Portugal. 
 
 Cities. From the tables on pp. 158-159, make a list of the twenty 
 most populous cities of the world. Tell about each its position, general 
 appearance, importance, and industries ; the kind of country surrounding 
 it ; its trade facilities ; and something of its history and inhabitants. What 
 route might you follow, and what goods might you carry each way in mak- 
 ing trips between Halifax and Madras ; Odessa and Vera Cruz ; Adelaide 
 and Valparaiso ; San Francisco and Venice ; Batum and Zanzibar ; Du- 
 luth and Dublin ; Cape Town and Amsterdam ; Havana and Glasgow ? 
 
 156 
 
AREA AND POPULATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Length of earth's axis (miles) 7,900 
 
 Equatorial diameter " 7,926 
 
 Length of equator " 24,900 
 
 Earth's Surface (sq. mi.) 196,900,000 
 
 Pacific Ocean (sq. miles) 71,000,000 
 
 Atlantic Ocean " " 34,000,000 
 
 Indian Ocean " " 28,000,000 
 
 Antarctic Ocean " " 7,500,000 
 
 Arctic Ocean " " 4,000,000 
 
 The Sea " " 144,500,000 
 
 Area in 
 
 8q. Miles. Population. 
 
 North America 9,394,806 106,174,000 
 
 South America 6,856,223 38,391,000 
 
 Europe 3,857,504 397,003,000 
 
 Asia 17,055,665 910,544,000 
 
 Africa 11,514,825 155,653,000 
 
 Australia, etc. 3,456,444 6,258,000 
 
 S. Polar Lauds 253,678 
 
 The Land 52,389,145 1,614,023,000 
 
 North America. 
 
 Greenland . . . 837,776 12,000 
 
 Iceland 40,426 78,000 
 
 Nova Scotia.. 20,907 460,000 
 
 N. Brunswick. 27,960 331,000 
 
 Prince Edw. I. 2,133 103,000 
 
 §uebee .• 344,450 1,649,000 
 
 ntario 223,001 2,183,000 
 
 Manitoba . . 65,988 255,000 
 
 Brit.Columbia 384,996 179,000 
 
 Districts 2,518,284 212,000 
 
 Part Gt. Lakes 27,094 
 
 Dom.ofCanada 3,614,813 5,372,000 
 
 Newfoundland \ 42,732 217,000 
 
 East Labrador 120,005 4,000 
 
 Brit. America 3,777,550 5,593,000 
 
 French Is 91 7,000 
 
 U.S. (main body) 3,090,777 75,995,000 
 
 Alaska 590,884 64,000 
 
 Mexico 751,584 13,546,000 
 
 Guatemala . . . 48,303 1,647,000 
 
 Honduras 46,264 588,000 
 
 Salvador 8,135 1,007,000 
 
 Nicaragua . . . 47,859 500,000 
 
 Costa Rica . . . 20,877 313,000 
 
 Panama 31,571 285,000 
 
 Belize 8,292 38,000 
 
 CentralAmerica 211,301 4,373,000 
 
 Cuba Group . . H5,884 1,573,000 
 
 Haiti, Rep. of 11,072 1,295,000 
 
 Santo Domingo 18,757 610,000 
 
 Jamaica 4,193 770,000 
 
 Porto Rico . . . 3,531 953,000 
 
 Bahama Is 5,612 54,000 
 
 Other Islands. 5,349 1,228,000 
 
 West Indies... 94,393 6^83,000 
 
 Bermuda Is... 19 18,000 
 
 South America. 
 
 Colombia 432,966 3,715,000 
 
 Venezuela . . . 403,067 2,445,000 
 
 Guiana(Brit.). 88,652 294,000 
 
 " (Dutch) 49,848 69,000 
 
 " (Fr.) .. 30,465 33,000 
 
 Brazil 3,228,452 14,334,000 
 
 Paraguay .... 97,726 630,000 
 
 Uruguay 68,999 965,000 
 
 Argentina.... 1,077,032 4.894,000 
 
 Chile 299,626 3, 147. 000 
 
 Bolivia 515,156 1,853,000 
 
 Peru 439,014 4,610,000 
 
 Ecuador 118,646 1,400,000 
 
 Falk. Is., etc. . 6,574 2,000 
 
 Europe. 
 
 England 50,841 31,070.000 
 
 Wales 7,468 1,456,000 
 
 Scotland 30,406 4,472,000 
 
 Ireland 32,353 4,459,000 
 
 Man and Chan. Is. 303 151,000 
 
 Gt. Brit. & It. 1S1,371 41,608,000 
 
 Ger. Empire.. 210,229 56,367,000 
 
 Luxemburg... 1.0"° 237,000 
 
 Netherlands . . 
 Switzerland . . 
 
 Austi-ia 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Bosnia, etc. . . 
 Liechtenstein. 
 Aus.-Hungary 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Faroe Islands. 
 
 Europe {continued) 
 
 Area in 
 8q. Miles. 
 
 12,742 
 15,964 
 
 115,910 
 
 125,613 
 
 19,734 
 
 61 
 
 261,318 
 
 125.653 
 173,974 
 
 14,803 
 515 
 
 11,374 
 
 Belgium . . . 
 
 France 207,204 
 
 Monaco 
 
 Andorra 
 
 Spain 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 175 
 191,994 
 
 2 
 
 Population. 
 5,263,000 
 3,325,000 
 
 26,151,000 
 
 19,255,000 
 
 1,591.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 47,007,000 
 
 2,240,000 
 5,175,000 
 
 2,450,000 
 15,000 
 
 6,694,000 
 
 38,962,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 18,260,000 
 
 57,000 
 
 5,022,000 
 257,000 
 151,000 
 
 28,154,000 
 
 3,530,000 
 
 792,000 
 
 32,476,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 188,000 
 
 2,434,000 
 
 6,086,000 
 
 3,744,000 
 
 304,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 228,000 
 
 2,536,000 
 
 5,913,000 
 
 Russia (includ. 
 
 Pol.&Fiuland) 1,976,671 106,227,000 
 Caucasia (north 
 of mountains) 
 Sea of Azof . . 
 Nova Zembla . 
 Russia in Eur, 
 
 Portugal . . . 
 
 Azores 
 
 Madeira Is. . 
 
 34,508 
 922 
 315 
 
 91,446 
 9,938 
 9,296 
 
 Italy Proper. . 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Sardinia . 
 
 Italy 110,680 
 
 San Marino. . . 
 
 Malta 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey in Eur. 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Crete 
 
 Thasos (Eg'pt) 
 Montenegro . . 
 
 Servia 
 
 Roumania .... 
 
 24 
 
 125 
 
 24,974 
 
 64,602 
 
 37,322 
 
 3,328 
 
 152 
 
 3,506 
 
 18,651 
 
 50,589 
 
 86,661 
 14,520 
 35.445 
 
 2,113,297 
 
 3,733,000 
 
 109,960,000 
 
 Spitzbergen, 
 Franz Josef L'd, 
 and Jan Mayen 
 
 46,180 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Morocco 313,642 
 
 257,578 
 44,906 
 399,012 
 361,134 
 758,949 
 
 Sahara 2,386,352 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Egypt Proper. 
 Egyptian Sudan 
 
 Abyssinia . 
 
 Eritrea 
 
 Somaliland, etc. 
 British East Af . 
 
 Senegal 
 
 French Sudan. 
 French Guinea 
 Ivory Coast. . . 
 Dahomey .... 
 French Kongo 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Sierra Leone. . 
 Gold Coast . . . 
 
 Nigeria 
 
 Lagos 
 
 Port. Guinea. . 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Togoland 
 
 Kamerun 
 
 Kongo State . . 
 
 Angola 
 
 Port. East Af. . 
 Ger. East Af . . 
 Ger. S. W. Af. 
 Transvaal Col. 
 Orange R. Col. 
 Cape Colony. . 
 Other Br.S.Af. 
 Madagascar. . . 
 Is. of Ind. Ocean 
 Canary Islands 
 Cape Verde Is. 
 So. Atlantic Is. 
 
 196,147 
 
 88,500 
 396,120 
 328,000 
 
 80,000 
 720,000 
 
 95,000 
 125,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 425,000 
 
 2,769 
 
 30,000 
 
 40,000 
 347,000 
 
 22,000 
 4,440 
 
 35,000 
 
 33,000 
 191,130 
 865,383 
 517,183 
 309,653 
 368,826 
 322,446 
 120,005 
 
 50,465 
 
 298,139 
 
 684,384 
 
 229,328 
 
 3,777 
 
 2,944 
 
 1,487 
 
 126 
 
 5,000,000 
 4,739,000 
 L»00,000 
 1,300,000 
 9,735,000 
 3,500,000 
 2,500,000 
 3,500,000 
 450,000 
 1,100,000 
 8,000,000 
 1,800,000 
 4,000,000 
 2,200,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 i,oon,ooo 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 1,077,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 820,000 
 
 2,060,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 4,119,000 
 
 3,120,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 1,094,000 
 
 208,000 
 
 2,433,000 
 
 3,643,000 
 
 2,505,000 
 
 646,000 
 
 359,000 
 
 148,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Area in 
 8q. Miles. 
 
 Arctic Islands 14,904 
 
 Siberia 4,914,359 
 
 Kirghiz Steppe 706, 253 
 Russian Turk. 641,578 
 Aral&Caspian 195,551 
 Transcaucasia 95,801 
 Khiva, Rus. dep'cy 23,167 
 Bokhara " 79,154 
 
 Kwangtung . . 1,224 
 
 Russia in Asia 6, 671, 991 
 
 Isl. of Cyprus. 3,584 
 
 Turkey in Asia 683,155 
 Sinai Pen. (Eg'pt) 22,781 
 
 Arabia 879,984 
 
 Oman 74,842 
 
 Aden, etc. . . . 15,870 
 
 Persia 635,163 
 
 Afghanistan . 240,937 
 
 India Proper. 1,450,734 
 
 Burma 264,239 
 
 Baluchistan.. 141,628 
 
 Ceylon, etc... 25,449 
 
 Straits Settl's. 35,571 
 
 Brit. India, etc. 1J917.621 
 
 Population. 
 
 5,727,000 
 2,461,000 
 5,261,000 
 
 Nepal, Bhutan 
 Port. India . . 
 
 French India. 
 
 Tonkin 
 
 Anam 
 
 Laos 
 
 Cochin China. 
 Cambodia .... 
 Kwangchau . 
 
 72,590 
 1,413 
 
 197 
 46,025 
 52,126 
 98,460 
 21,970 
 37,415 
 
 270 
 
 Fr.Indo-China,etc.256,463 
 
 5,516.000 
 500,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 21,215,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 17,545,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 950,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 252,000 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 4,550,000 
 
 283,871,000 
 
 10,491,000 
 
 742,000 
 
 3,608,000 
 
 1,452,000 
 
 300,164,000 
 
 4,020,000 
 572,000 
 
 273,000 
 
 7,037,000 
 
 6,124,000 
 
 605,000 
 
 2,969,000 
 
 1,103,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 18,171,000 
 
 United States, 1900. 
 
 Siam 
 
 China Proper. 
 Manchuria . . . 
 Mongolia .... 
 Chinese Turk. 
 Tibet . 
 
 244,798 5,000,000 
 
 1,496,972 
 
 362,671 
 
 1,076,337 
 
 550,601 
 
 814,319 
 
 Chinese Empire 4,300,900 
 
 Hongkong and 
 
 Weihaiwei. . 
 
 Kiauchau . . . 
 
 Macao ....... 
 
 Korea. 
 
 Japanese Empire 
 
 Luzon Group. 
 
 Visayas 
 
 Mindanao . . . 
 Palawan Group 
 Sulu Islands. . 
 Philippine Is. . 
 
 Sumatra Group 
 Java Group . . 
 Borneo Group 
 Celebes Group 
 Moluccas, etc. 
 As. East Indies 
 
 687 
 
 194 
 
 4 
 
 84,251 
 
 161,135 
 
 47,968 
 
 21,671 
 
 37,827 
 
 5,453 
 
 1,491 
 
 114,410 
 
 185,039 
 
 50,777 
 
 289,948 
 
 71,784 
 
 75,344 
 
 787,302 
 
 407,337,000 
 8,500,000 
 2,580,000 
 1,200,000 
 6,430,000 
 
 426,047,000 
 
 508,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 79,000 
 
 9,670,000 
 
 46,521,000 
 
 3,818,000 
 
 2,829,000 
 
 298,000 
 
 29,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 6,977,000 
 
 3,277,000 
 28,746,000 
 1,933,000 
 1,743,000 
 1,282,000 
 43,958,000 
 
 Australia, etc. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New S. Wales . 
 Queensland . . 
 South Australia 
 Western Austr'l'a 975,920 
 
 Tasmania 26,215 
 
 Com. of Australia 2,972,865 
 
 New Zealand Gr. 104,663 
 New Guinea Gr. 
 Bismarck Arch. 
 Solomon Is. . . 
 New Hebrides 
 New Caledonia, etc. 
 Fiji Islands . . . 
 Samoa Islands 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Maui and Lanai 
 Kahoolawe . . . 
 
 Molokai 
 
 Oahu..' 
 
 Kaui and Niihau 
 Hawaiian Is. . . 
 
 .87,884 
 310,660 
 668,497 
 903,689 
 
 311,032 
 18,186 
 13,475 
 5,107 
 7,634 
 8,046 
 1,076 
 
 4,015 
 863 
 
 1,201,000 
 1,359,000 
 503,000 
 363,000 
 184,000 
 173,000 
 3,783,000 
 
 816,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 51,000 
 
 118,000 
 
 39,000 
 
 47,000 
 25,500 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California ... 
 
 Colorado .... 
 
 Connecticut . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky .... 
 
 Louisiana .... 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan ' 
 
 Minnesota. . . . 
 
 Mississippi . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hamp. . . 
 
 New Jersey . . . 
 
 New York .... 
 
 N. Carolina. . . 
 
 N. Dakota 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Rhode Island. . 
 
 S.Carolina 
 
 S. Dakota. . . 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington . . 
 
 W. Virginia. . . 
 
 Wisconsin. . . ^ 
 
 Wyoming. . 
 
 Delaware Bay 
 
 Lower New 
 York Bay 
 and Raritan 
 Bay 
 
 Part of the 
 Great Lakes 
 
 Total States. 
 
 Area in 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 52,250 
 
 53,850 
 
 158,360 
 
 103,925 
 
 4,990 
 
 2,050 
 58,680 
 59,475 
 84,800 
 56,650 
 36,350 
 56,025 
 82,080 
 40,400 
 48,720 
 33,040 
 12,210 
 
 8,315 
 58,915 
 83,365 
 46,810 
 69,415 
 146,080 
 77,510 
 110,700 
 
 9,305 
 
 7,815 
 49,170 
 52.250 
 70,795 
 41,060 
 96,030 
 45,215 
 
 1,250 
 30,570 
 77,650 
 42,050 
 265,780 
 84,970 
 
 9,565 
 42,450 
 69,180 
 24,780 
 56,040 
 97,890 
 620 
 
 100 
 
 65,177 
 
 2,784,677 
 
 Population. 
 
 1,828,697 
 1,311,564 
 1,485,053 
 
 539,700 
 
 908,420 
 
 184,735 
 
 528,542 
 2,216,331 
 
 161,772 
 4,821,550 
 2,516,462 
 2,231,853 
 1,470,495 
 2,147,174 
 1,381,625 
 
 694,466 
 1,188,044 
 2,805,346 
 2,420,982 
 1,751,394 
 1,551,270 
 3,106,665 
 
 243,329 
 
 1,066,300 
 
 42,335 
 
 411,588 
 1,883,669 
 7,268,894 
 1,893,810 
 
 319,146 
 4,157,545 
 
 413.536 
 6,302,115 
 
 428,556 
 1,340,316 
 
 401,570 
 2,020,616 
 3,048,710 
 
 276,749 
 
 343,641 
 1,854,184 
 
 518,103 
 
 958,800 
 
 2,069,042 
 
 92,531 
 
 74,607,225 
 
 Territories (Main Body). 
 
 Small Pacific Is. 
 
 261 
 600 
 641 
 6,449 
 7,911 
 
 2,500 
 
 58,500 
 
 20,500 
 
 154,000 
 
 157.000 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Dist. of Col... 
 
 Indian Ter 
 
 New Mexico. . 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Total Territories 306,100 1,387,350 
 Total main body 3,090,777 75,994,575 
 
 113,020 
 
 122.931 
 
 70 
 
 278,718 
 
 31,400 
 
 392,060 
 
 122,580 
 
 195,310 
 
 39,030 
 
 398,331 
 
 Outlying Territory, etc. 
 
 Ter. of Alaska. 590,884 
 
 Ter. of Hawaii 6,449 
 
 Porto Rico 3,531 
 
 Philippines ('03) 114,410 
 
 Tutuila, etc.. 
 
 Guam 
 
 Wake 
 
 Persons in the 
 military and 
 naval service 
 of the United 
 States sta- 
 tioned abroad 
 
 77 
 150 
 1 
 
 63,592 
 154,001 
 953,243 
 6,976,574 
 6,100 
 9,000 
 
 91,219 
 
 Total outlying . 715,501 8,263,729 
 Grand Total. . 3 £06,279 84,248,804 
 
 157 
 
POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900. 
 
 Akron, Ohio 42,728 
 
 Alameda, Cal 16,464 
 
 Albany, N. Y 94,151 
 
 Albuquerque, N. M 6,238 
 
 Alexandria, Va 14,528 
 
 Allegheny, Pa. .#. 31 . . • 129,896 
 
 Allentown, Pa 35,416 
 
 Alpena, Mich 11,802 
 
 Altoona, Pa 38,973 
 
 Amsterdam. N.Y 20,929 
 
 Anaconda, Mont 9,453 
 
 Anderson, Ind 20,178 
 
 Annapolis, Md 8,525 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich. ... 14,509 
 
 Anniston, Ala 9,695 
 
 Ansonia, Conn 12,681 
 
 Appleton, Wis 15,085 
 
 Ardmore, Ind. Ter 5,681 
 
 Asheville, N. C. 14,694 
 
 Ashland, Wis 13,074 
 
 Astoria, Ore 8,381 
 
 Atchison, Kan 15,722 
 
 Athens, Ga 10,245 
 
 Atlanta, Ga '89,872 
 
 Atlantic City, N. J 27,838 
 
 Auburn, Me -12,951 
 
 Auburn, N. Y 30,345 
 
 Augusta, Ga 39,441 
 
 Augusta, Me 11,683 
 
 Aurora, 111 24,147 
 
 Austin, Tex 22,258 
 
 Baltimore, Md. * -608,957 
 
 Bangor, Me TT 21,850 
 
 Barre, Vt 8,448 
 
 Bath, Me 10,477 
 
 Baton Rouge, La 11,269 
 
 Battle Creek, Mich 18,563 
 
 Bay City, Mich 27.628 
 
 Bayonne, N. J 32,722 
 
 Belleville, 111 17,484 
 
 Berkeley, Cal 13,214 
 
 Beverly, Mass 13,884 
 
 Biddeford, Me 16,145 
 
 Binghamton, N. Y : . 39,647 
 
 Birmingham, Ala 38,415 
 
 Bismarck, N. D 3,319 
 
 Bloomington, 111 23,286 
 
 Bo ; se, Ida. . .^n, 5.957 
 
 Boston, Mass .K 560,892 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn 70,996 
 
 Brockton, Mass 40,063 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y f ^2,387 
 
 Burlington, Iowa 23,201 
 
 Burlington, Vt. 18,640 
 
 Butte, Mont. 30,470 
 
 Cambridge, Mass 91.886 
 
 Camden, N. J 75,935 
 
 Canton, Ohio 30,667 
 
 Carson City, Nev 2,100 
 
 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 25,656 
 
 Charleston, S. C. . 55,807 
 
 Charleston, W. Va 11,099 
 
 Charlotte, N. C 18,091* 
 
 Chattanooga, Tenn 30,154 
 
 Chelsea, Mass 34,072 
 
 Chester, Pa 33,988 
 
 Cheyenne, Wyo v 14,087 
 
 Chicago, 111. ...... f^ .'.'vl > «>8!575 
 
 Chicopee, Mass. 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Clinton, Iowa 
 
 Cohoes, N.Y 
 
 Colorado Springs, Col. . 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 Columbus, Ga. 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
 Concord, N. H 
 
 Council Bluffs, Iowa. . . 
 
 Covington, Ky 
 
 Cripple Creek, Col 
 
 Cumberland, Md 
 
 Dallas, Tex 
 
 Danbury, Conn 
 
 Danville, Va 
 
 Davenport, Iowa 
 
 Dayton, Ohio 
 
 Decatur, 111 
 
 Denver, Col 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Dover, Del 
 
 Dover, N. H. . . 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa 
 
 Duluth, Minn . 
 
 Easton, Pa. 
 
 East St. Louis, 111 
 
 153 
 
 19,167 
 
 325,902 
 *. 881,768 
 22,698 
 23.910 
 21,085 
 21,108 
 17,614 
 
 125,560 
 19,632 
 25,802 
 42,938 
 10,147 
 17,128 
 42,638 
 16,537 
 16,520 
 35,254 
 85,333 
 20,754 
 
 133,859 
 62,139 
 
 285,704 
 3,329 
 13,207 
 36,297 
 52,969 
 25,238 
 29,655 
 
 Eau Claire, Wis 17,517 
 
 Elgin, 111. 22,433 
 
 Elizabeth, N. J 52,130 
 
 Elmira, N. Y 35,672 
 
 El Paso, Tex 15,906 
 
 Erie, Pa 52,733 
 
 Evanston, 111 ... 19,259 
 
 Evansville, Ind 59,007 
 
 Everett, Mass 24,336 
 
 Everett, Wash 7,838 
 
 Fall River, Mass 104,863 
 
 Fargo, N.D 9,589 
 
 Findlay, Ohio 17,613 
 
 Fitchburg, Mass 31,531 
 
 Flint, Mich 13.103 
 
 Fond du Lac, Wis 15,110 
 
 Fort Scott, Kan 10,322 
 
 Fort Smith, Ark 41,587 
 
 Fort Wayne, Ind 45,115 
 
 Fort Worth, Tex .26,688 
 
 Frankfort, Ky 9,487 
 
 Frederick, Md 9,296 
 
 Fresno, Cal 12,470 
 
 Galesburg, 111 18,607 
 
 Galveston, Tex 3?, 789 
 
 Glens Falls, N.Y 12,613 
 
 Gloucester, Mass 26,121 
 
 Gloversville, N.Y 18,349 
 
 Grand Forks, N. D 7,652 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich 87,565 
 
 Great Falls, Mont; 14,930 
 
 Green Bay, Wis 18,684 
 
 Greensboro, N. C 10,035 
 
 Greenville, Miss 7,642 
 
 Greenville, S. C 11,860 
 
 Guthrie, Okla 10,006 
 
 Hagerstown, Md 13,591 
 
 Hamilton, Ohio 23,914 
 
 Hannibal, Mo 12,780 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa 50,167 
 
 Hartford, Conn. 79,850 
 
 Haverhill, Mass. ..." 37,175 
 
 Helena, Mont 10,770 
 
 Henderson, Kv 10,272 
 
 Hoboken, N. J 59,364 
 
 Holyoke, Mass 45,712 
 
 Honolulu, Hawaii 39,306 
 
 Hot Springs, Ark 9,973 
 
 Houston, Tex 44.633 
 
 Huntington, W. Va 11,923 
 
 Huntsville, Ala '. . . . 8,068 
 
 IndiUnapolis, Ind , 169,164 
 
 Ishpeming, Mich 13,255 
 
 Ithaca, N.Y 13,136 
 
 Jackson, Mich 25,180 
 
 Jackson, Miss 7,816 
 
 Jackson, Tenn 14,511 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla 28,429 
 
 Jamestown, N. Y 22,892 
 
 Janesville, Wis 13,185 
 
 Jefferson City, Mo. 9,664 
 
 Jersey City, N. J * . 206,433 
 
 Johnstown, Pa 35^36 
 
 Joliet, 111 29,353 
 
 Joplin, Mo 26,023 
 
 Kalamazoo, Mich 24,404 
 
 Kansas City, Kan 51,418 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 163,752 
 
 Keene, N. H 9,165 
 
 Keokuk, Iowa 14,641 
 
 Key West, Fla 1T;114 
 
 Kingston, N. Y 24,535 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn -32,637 
 
 La Crosse, Wis 28,895 
 
 Lafayette, Ind 18,116 
 
 Lancaster, Pa 41,459 
 
 Lansing, Mich 16,485 
 
 Laramie, Wyo 8,207 
 
 Laredo, Tex. 13,429 
 
 Las Vegas, N. M 3,552 
 
 Lawrence, Kan 10,862 
 
 Lawrence, Mass 62,559 
 
 Leadville, Col 12,445 
 
 Leavenworth, Kan 20,735 
 
 Lebanon, Pa 17,628 
 
 Lewiston, Me 23,761 
 
 Lexington, Ky 26,369 
 
 Lima, Ohio 21.723 
 
 Lincoln, Neb 40,169 
 
 Little Rock, Ark 3$,307 
 
 Lockport, N. Y 16,581 
 
 Logan, Utah 5,451 
 
 Logansport, Ind ' 16,204 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal 102,479 
 
 Louisville, Ky >* 204,731 
 
 Lowell, Mass 94,969 
 
 Lynchburg, Va 18,891 
 
 Lynn, Mass 68,513 
 
 Macon, Ga 23,272 
 
 McKeesport, Pa 34,227 
 
 Madison, Wis 19,164 
 
 Maiden, Mass 33,664 
 
 Manchester, N. H. , . 56,987 
 
 Manistee, Mich 14,260 
 
 Mankato, Minn 10,599 
 
 Mansfield, Ohio 17,640 
 
 Marinette, Wis 16.195 
 
 Marion, Ind 17,337 
 
 Marlboro, Mass 13,609 
 
 Marquette, Mich 10,058 
 
 Medford, Mass 18,244 
 
 Melrose, Mass 12,962 
 
 Menominee, Mich. 12,818 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. .V. 1D2.320 
 
 Meriden, Conn 24,296 
 
 Meridian, Miss 14,050 
 
 Middletown, N. Y 14,522 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. j 285,315 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn £ 202,718 
 
 Mobile, Ala 38,469 
 
 Montgomery, Ala 30,346 
 
 Montpelier, Vt. 6,266 
 
 Mount Vernon, N. Y 21.228 
 
 Muneie, Ind 20,942 
 
 Muskegon, Mich 20,818 
 
 Nashua, N. H 23,898 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 80,865 
 
 Natchez, Miss 12,210 
 
 New Albany, Ind 20,628 
 
 Newark, N. J 246,070 
 
 Newark, Ohio 18,157 
 
 New Bedford, Mass 62,442 
 
 Newbern, N. C 9,090 
 
 New Britain, Conn 25,998 
 
 New Brunswick, N. J 20,006 
 
 Newburgh, N. Y 24,943 
 
 Newburyport, Mass 14,478 
 
 Newcastle, Pa 28,339 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 108,027 
 
 New London, Conn 17,548 
 
 New Orleans, La 287,104 
 
 Newport, Ky 28,301 
 
 Newport, R. 1 22,034 
 
 Newport News, Va 19,635 
 
 New Rochelle, N. Y 14,720 
 
 Newton, Mass 33,587 
 
 New York, N.Y. . . i . . «-». 3|437,202 
 
 Manhattan Borough 1,850,093 
 
 Brooklyn " 1,166,582 
 
 Bronx " 200,507 
 
 Queens " 152,999 
 
 Richmond " 67,021 
 
 Niagara Falls, N. Y 19,457 
 
 Nome, Alaska 12,488 
 
 Norfolk, Va 46,624 
 
 Norristown, Pa 22,265 
 
 NortK Adams, Mass 24,200 
 
 Northampton, Mass. 18,643 
 
 Norwich, Conn 17,251 
 
 Oakland, Cal 66,960 
 
 Ogdensburg, N. Y 12,633 
 
 Ogden, Utah 16,313 
 
 Oklahoma, Okla 10,037 
 
 Olympia, Wash 3,863 
 
 Omaha, Neb 102,555 
 
 Orange, N. J. 24,141 
 
 Oshkosh, Wis 28,284 
 
 Oswego, N. Y 22,199 
 
 Ottumwa, Iowa 18,197 
 
 Owensboro, Ky 13,189 
 
 Paducah, Ky 19,446 
 
 Parkersburg, W. Va 11,703 
 
 Passaic, N. J 27,777 
 
 Paterson, N. J 105,171 
 
 Pawtucket, R. 1 39,231 
 
 Pensacola, Fla 17.747 
 
 Peoria, 111. .. 56,100 
 
 Perth Amboy, N. J 17,699 
 
 Petersburg, Va 21,810 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. . . . !V . . .^ 1,2^)3,697 
 
 Phoenix, Ariz 5,544 
 
 Pierre, S. D 2,306 
 
 Pine Bluff, Ark 11,496 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa |21,616 
 
 Pittsfield, Mass 21,766 
 
 Plainfield, N. J 15,369 
 
 Port Huron, Mich 19, 158 
 
 Portland, Me. ,V 50,145 
 
 Portland, Ore 90,426 
 
 Portsmouth, N. H 10,637 
 
 Portsmouth, Ohio 17,870 
 
 Portsmouth, Va 17,427 
 
 Pottsville, Pa 15,710 
 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y 24,029 
 
 Providence, R. 1 175,597 
 
 Provo City, Utah 6,185 
 
 Pueblo, Col 28,157 
 
 Quincy, 111 36,252 
 
 Quincy, Mass 23,899 
 
 Racine, Wis 29,102 
 
 Raleigh, N. C 13,643 
 
 Reading, Pa 78,961 
 
 Reno, Nev 4,500 
 
 Richmond, Ind 18,226 
 
 Richmond, Va 85,050 
 
 Roanoke, Va 21,495 
 
 Rochester, N. Y 162,608 
 
 Rockford, 111 31,051 
 
 Rock Island, 111 19,493 
 
 Rome, N. Y 15,343 
 
 Rutland, Vt 11.499 
 
 Sacramento, Cal 29,282 
 
 Saginaw, Mich 42,345 
 
 St. Albans, Vt 6,239 
 
 St. Augustine, Fla 4,272 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo 102,979 
 
 St. Louis.'Mo ^t 5f 5,238 
 
 St. Paul, Minn 163,065 
 
 Salem, Mass 35,956 
 
 Salem, Ore 4,258 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 53.531 
 
 San Antonio, Tcj#r •56,321 
 
 San Diego, Cal 17,700 
 
 Sandusky, Ohio 19,664 
 
 San Francisco, Cal ^341,782 
 
 San Jose, Cal '21,500 
 
 Santa Fe, N. M 5,6( 3 
 
 Saratoga Springs, N V Y. . . . 12,409 
 
 SaultSte. Marie... 10,538 
 
 Savannah, Ga 54-,244 
 
 Schenectady, N. Y ,. 31,682 
 
 Scranton, Pa 102,026 
 
 Seattle, Wash 80,671 
 
 Sedalia, Mo 15,231 
 
 Selma, Ala 8,713 
 
 Shamokin, Pa 18,202 
 
 Sheboygan, Wis 22,962 
 
 Shenandoah, Pa 20,321 
 
 Shreveport, La 16,013 
 
 Sioux City, Iowa 33,111 
 
 Sioux Falls, S. D 10,266 
 
 Sitka, Alaska 1,396 
 
 Somerville, Mass 61,643 
 
 South Bend, Ind. 35,999 
 
 South Omaha, Neb 26,001 
 
 Spartanburg, S. C 11,395 
 
 Spokane, Wash 36,848 
 
 Springfield, 111 34, 159 
 
 Springfield, Mass 62,059 
 
 Springfield, Mo 23,267 
 
 Springfield, Ohio 38,253 
 
 Stamford, Conn 15,997 
 
 Stillwater, Minn 12,318 
 
 Stockton, Cal 17,506 
 
 Superior, Wis 31,091 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y 108,374 
 
 Tacoma, Wash 37,714 
 
 Tallahassee, Fla 2,981 
 
 Tampa, Fla 15,839 
 
 Taunton, Mass 31,036 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind 36,673 
 
 Toledo, Ohio 131,822 
 
 Topeka, Kan 33,608 
 
 Trenton, N.J 73,307 
 
 Troy, N. Y 60,651 
 
 Tucson, Ariz 7,531 
 
 Utica, N. Y 56,383 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss 14,834 
 
 Virginia City, Nev 2,695 
 
 Waco, Tex 20,686 
 
 Walla Walla, Wash 10,049 
 
 Waltham, Mass. . 23,481 
 
 Washington, D. C ^278,718 
 
 Waterbury, Conn 45,859 
 
 Watertown, N. Y 21,696 
 
 Watervliet, N. Y 14,321 
 
 Wheeling, W. Va 38,878 
 
 Wichita, Kan 24,671 
 
 Wilkesbarre, Pa 51,721 
 
 Williamsport, Pa 28,757 
 
 Wilmington, Del 76,508 
 
 Wilmington, N. C -40.976 
 
 Winona, Minn 19,714 
 
 Winston, N. C 10,008 
 
 Woburn, Mass ' 14,254 
 
 Woonsoeket, R. 1 28,204. 
 
 Worcester, Mass 118,421 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y 47,931 
 
 York, Pa 33,708 
 
 Youngstown, Ohio 44,885 
 
 Zanesville, Ohio 23,538 
 
POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL FOREIGN CITIES. 
 
 Aberdeen, Scotland 144,000 
 
 Adelaide, Australia 163,000 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt 320,000 
 
 Algiers, Algeria 97,000 
 
 Allahabad, India 172,000 
 
 Amsterdam, Netherlands 631,000 
 
 Antofagasta, Chile 16,000 
 
 Antwerp, Belgium 278,000 
 
 Arequipa, Peru 35,000 
 
 Asuncion, Paraguay 62,000 
 
 Athens, Greece 112,000 
 
 Auckland, New Zealand 34,000 
 
 Bagdad, Turkey 145,000 
 
 Baliia, Brazil 175,000 
 
 Baku, Transcaucasia 112,000 
 
 Ballarat, Australia 50,000 
 
 Bangalore, India 159,000 
 
 Bangkok, Siam 400,000 
 
 Barcelona, Spain 533,000 
 
 Barfrush, Persia 50,000 
 
 Barranquilla, Colombia 40,000 
 
 Basel, Switzerland 111,000 
 
 Batavia, Java 116,000 
 
 Beirut, Turkey 120,000 
 
 Belfast, Ireland 349,000 
 
 Belgrade, Servia 69,000 
 
 Benares, India 209,000 
 
 Bergen, Norway 72,000 
 
 Berlin, Germany 1,889,000 
 
 Bern, Switzerland 65,000 
 
 Bilbao, Spain 83,000 
 
 Birmingham, England 522,000 
 
 Bloeiufontein.OrangeRiverCol. 6,000 
 
 Bogota, Colombia 120,000 
 
 Bologna, Italy 152,000 
 
 Bombay, India 776,000 
 
 Bordeaux, Fiance 258,000 
 
 Bradford, England 280,000 
 
 Bremen, Germany 164,000 
 
 Breslau, Germany 423,000 
 
 Brisbane, Australia 120,000 
 
 Bristol, England 329.000 
 
 Brussels, Belgium 663,000 
 
 Budapest, Hungary 732,000 
 
 Buenos Aires, Argentina 836,000 
 
 Bnkharest, Roumania 282,000 
 
 Bushire, Persia 20,000 
 
 Cairo, Egypt 670,000 
 
 Calcutta, India 1,125,000 
 
 Callao, Peru 16,000 
 
 Canton, China 800,000 
 
 Cape Town, Cape Colony 61,000 
 
 Caracas, Venezuela 73,000 
 
 Cardiff, Wales 164,000 
 
 Catania, Italy 150,000 
 
 Cawnpur, India 197,000 
 
 Cayenne, French Guiana 13,000 
 
 Cetin je, Montenegro 4,000 
 
 Charlottetown, Canada 12,000 
 
 Chemnitz, Germany , . 207,000 
 
 Chilian, Chile 35,000 
 
 Christiania, Norway 228,000 
 
 Cochabamba, Bolivia 22,000 
 
 Cologne, Germany 873,000 
 
 Colombo, Ceylon 158,000 
 
 Concepcion, Chile 48,000 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey 1,126,000 
 
 COD 
 (01) 
 (•97) 
 (01) 
 C01) 
 (•01) 
 COD 
 C01) 
 C96) 
 COD 
 C96) 
 C01) 
 
 C90) 
 C97) 
 COD 
 (01) 
 
 COO) 
 
 C01) 
 COO) 
 
 (01) 
 COD 
 COD 
 COO) 
 
 COO) 
 COD 
 
 Coo) 
 COD 
 
 C86) 
 COD 
 Col) 
 
 (01) 
 COD 
 COO) 
 COO) 
 COD 
 COD 
 COD 
 Coo) 
 
 (01) 
 C99) 
 
 C97) 
 COD 
 C90) 
 COD 
 C9D 
 C94) 
 C01) 
 C01) 
 C01) 
 
 Col) 
 
 COD 
 Coo) 
 
 COO) 
 
 COO) 
 
 COO) 
 COO) 
 (01) 
 
 Coo) 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark 378,000 
 
 Cordova, Argentina 50,000 
 
 Cuzco, Peru 20,000 
 
 Damascus, Turkey 225,000 
 
 Danzig, Germany 141,000 
 
 Delhi, India 209,000 
 
 Dresden, Germany 396,000 
 
 Dublin, Ireland 291,000 
 
 Dundee, Scotland 161,000 
 
 Dunedin, New Zealand 25,000 
 
 Dusseldorf, Germany 214,000 
 
 Edinburgh, Scotland 317,000 
 
 Essen, Germany 119,000 
 
 Fez, Morocco 140,000 
 
 Florence, Italy 206,000 
 
 Frankfurt am Main, Germany . 289,000 
 
 Fredericton, Canada 7,000 
 
 Fuchau, China 650,000 
 
 Geneva, Switzerland 105,000 
 
 Genoa, Italy 235,000 
 
 Georgetown, British Guiana. . . 53,000 
 
 Ghent, Belgium 162,000 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland 776,000 
 
 Gothenburg, Sweden 131,000 
 
 Gratz, Austria 138,000 
 
 Guadalajara, Mexico 101,000 
 
 Guayaquil, Ecuador 51,000 
 
 Hague, Netherlands 218,000 
 
 Haidarabad, India 449,000 
 
 Halifax, Canada 41,000 
 
 Hamburg, Germany 706,000 
 
 Hamilton, Canada 53,000 
 
 Hangchau, China 700,000 
 
 Hankau, China 850,000 
 
 Hanover, Germany 236,000 
 
 Havana, Cuba 236,000 
 
 Havre, France 130,000 
 
 Hobart, Tasmania 26,000 
 
 Hull, England 241,000 
 
 Iquique, Chile 43,000 
 
 Irkutsk, Siberia 62,000 
 
 Ispahan, Persia 80,000 
 
 Jerusalem, Turkey 42,000 
 
 Johannesburg.Transvaal Colony 102,000 
 
 Kabul, Afghanistan 100,000 
 
 Kandahar, Afghanistan 50,000 
 
 Kharkof, Russia 175,000 
 
 Kief, Russia 247,000 
 
 Kimberley, Cape Colony 29,000 
 
 Konigsberg, Germany 190,000 
 
 Kyoto, Japan 353,000 
 
 La Guaira, Venezuela 14,000 
 
 Lahore, India 203,000 
 
 La Paz, Bolivia 57,000 
 
 La Plata, Argentina 35,000 
 
 Lassa, Tibet 25,000 
 
 Leeds, England 429,000 
 
 Leghorn, Italy 99,000 
 
 Leicester, England . 212,000 
 
 Leipzig, Germany 456,000 
 
 Lemberg, Austria 160,000 
 
 Leon, Mexico 58,000 
 
 Liege, Belgium 160,000 
 
 Lima, Peru 100,000 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal 357,000 
 
 Lisle, France 211,000 
 
 Liverpool, England 744,000 
 
 C01) 
 C01) 
 
 COO) 
 
 COD 
 COl) 
 COD 
 (01) 
 (01) 
 COO) 
 Coi) 
 
 ('00) 
 COl) 
 
 ('01) 
 (01) 
 (01) 
 (01) 
 COl) 
 C91) 
 
 Coi) 
 
 ('02) 
 (00) 
 COO) 
 COO) 
 
 COl) 
 Coi) 
 COD 
 COO) 
 COl) 
 
 Coi) 
 
 COD 
 COO) 
 C99) 
 COl) 
 
 Coi) 
 
 (01) 
 
 COl) 
 
 C97) 
 
 C96) 
 
 C97) 
 C97) 
 C91) 
 COO) 
 (98) 
 
 (01) 
 COO) 
 (01) 
 
 (01) 
 COl) 
 COD 
 COO) 
 COO) 
 COO) 
 
 Coi) 
 
 COO) 
 ('01) 
 C03) 
 
 Lodz, Russia 815,000 ('97) 
 
 London, Canada 38,000 ('01) 
 
 London, England 4,537,000 COI ) 
 
 Lucknow, India. 264,000 (01) 
 
 Lyons, France 469,000 (01) 
 
 Madras, India. 509,000 COl) 
 
 Madrid, Spain 640,000 COO) 
 
 Madgeburg, Germany 230,000 (00) 
 
 Malaga, Spain 130,000 ('00) 
 
 Managua, Nicaragua 30,000 (00) 
 
 Manchester, England 644,000 COl) 
 
 Mandalay, Burma. 184,000 ('01) 
 
 Manila, Philippine Islands . . . 220,000 (03) 
 
 Maracaibo, Venezuela 34,000 ('94) 
 
 Maranhao, Brazil 29,000 ('90) 
 
 Marseilles, France 491,000 ('01) 
 
 Maskat, Oman 40,000 
 
 Matanzas, Cuba 86,000 ('99) 
 
 Mecca, Turkey 60,000 
 
 Medellin, Colombia 40,000 C86) 
 
 Melbourne, Australia 496,000 ('01) 
 
 Messina, Italy 150,000 (01) 
 
 Mexico 346,000 (00) 
 
 Milan, Italy 492,000 ('01) 
 
 Molleudo, Peru 3,000 
 
 Monterey, Mexico 62,000 ('00) 
 
 Montevideo, Uruguay 268,000 ('00) 
 
 Montreal, Canada 268,000 COl) 
 
 Morocco 46,000 
 
 Moscow, Russia 989,000 ('97) 
 
 Mukden, Manchuria 200,000 
 
 Munich, Germany 600,000 ('00) 
 
 Nagoya, Japan 244,000 ('98) 
 
 Nantes, France 133,000 ('01) 
 
 Naples, Italy 664,000 ('01) 
 
 Newcastle, England 215,000 (01) 
 
 New Guatemala, Guatemala... 74,000 ('91) 
 
 Ningpo, China 255,000 (01) 
 
 Nottingham, England 240,000 ('01) 
 
 Nuremberg, Germany 261,000 ('00) 
 
 Odessa, Russia 405,000 C97) 
 
 Oporto, Portugal 173,000 COO) 
 
 Oran, Algeria 88,000 (01) 
 
 Osaka, Japan 821,000 ('98) 
 
 Ottawa, Canada 60,000 COl) 
 
 Palermo, Italy 810,000 (01) 
 
 Panama, Panama 30,000 ('86) 
 
 Para, Brazil 50,000 C90) 
 
 Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana 32,000 COO) 
 
 Paris, France 2,714,000 (01) 
 
 Peking, China 1,000,000 
 
 Pernambuco, Brazil 112,000 C90) 
 
 Perth, Australia 36,000 ('01) 
 
 Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony. . . 23,000 ('91) 
 
 Porto Alegre, Brazil 62,000 C90) 
 
 Port Said, Egypt 42,000 C97) 
 
 Portsmouth, England 189,000 ('01) 
 
 Prague, Austria 202,000 ('00) 
 
 Pretoria, Transvaal Colony 10,000 
 
 Puebla, Mexico 94,000 COO) 
 
 Quebec, Canada 69,000 ('01) 
 
 Quito, Ecuador 80,000 COO) 
 
 Rangoon, Burma 235,000 (01) 
 
 Rheims, France 108,000 ('OH 
 
 Riga, Russia 256,000 ('97) 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 750,000 (00) 
 
 Rome.Italy 463,000 ('01) 
 
 Rosario, Argentina 113,000 
 
 Rotterdam, Netherlands 332,000 
 
 Roubaix, France 142,000 
 
 Rouen, France 116,000 
 
 Saigon, French Indo-China 60,000 
 
 St. Etienne, France 147,000 
 
 St. John, Canada 41,000 
 
 St. Johns, Newfoundland 30,000 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia 1,267,000 
 
 Salford, England 221,000 
 
 Saloniki, Turkey 105,000 
 
 San Jose, Costa Rica 25,000 
 
 San Juan, Porto Rico 32,000 
 
 San Luis Potosi, Mexico 61,000 
 
 San Salvador, Salvador 60,000 
 
 Santiago, Chile 297,000 
 
 Santiago de Cuba 43,000 
 
 Santos, Brazil 15,000 
 
 Sao Paulo, Brazil 66,000 
 
 Seoul, Korea 197,000 
 
 Seville, Spain 148,000 
 
 Shanghai, China 620,000 
 
 Sheffield, England 381,000 
 
 Singapore, Straits Settlements 229,000 
 
 Smyrna, Turkey 201,000 
 
 Sofia, Bulgaria 68,000 
 
 Stettin, Germany 211,000 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden, 803,000 
 
 Strassburg, Germany 151,000 
 
 Stuttgart, Germany 177,000 
 
 Suchau, China 600,000 
 
 Sucre, Bolivia 21,000 
 
 Sydney, Australia 497,000 
 
 Tabriz, Persia 180,000 
 
 Talca, Chile 41,000 
 
 Tananarivo, Madagascar 50,000 
 
 Tashkend, Turkestan 157,000 
 
 Tegucigalpa, Honduras 13,000 
 
 Teheran, Persia 250,000 
 
 Tientsin, China 700,000 
 
 Tiflis, Transcaucasia 161,000 
 
 Tiumen, Siberia 30,000 
 
 Tokyo, Janan 1,440,000 
 
 Toronto, Canada 208,000 
 
 Toulouse, France 150,000 
 
 Trebizond, Turkey 35,000 
 
 Trieste, Austria 134,000 
 
 Tripoli, Tripoli 30,000 
 
 Tucuman, Argentina 60,000 
 
 Tunis, Tunis 170,000 
 
 Turin, Italy 336,000 
 
 Valencia, Spain 214,000 
 
 Valencia, Venezuela 39,000 
 
 Valparaiso, Chile 133,000 
 
 Vancouver, Canada 26,000 
 
 Venice, Italy 152,000 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico 24,000 
 
 Victoria, Canada 21,000 
 
 Vienna, Austria 1,675,000 
 
 Vilna, Russia 155,000 
 
 Vladivostok, Siberia 29,000 
 
 Warsaw, Russia 638,000 
 
 Wellington, New Zealand 44,000 
 
 Winnipeg, Canada 42,000 
 
 Yokohama, Japan 194,000 
 
 Zanzibar, Africa 60,000 
 
 Zurich, Switzerland 153,000 
 
 C01) 
 COO) 
 COl) 
 COD 
 
 C01) 
 (01) 
 COD 
 C97) 
 (•01) 
 
 C97) 
 C99) 
 (00) 
 C01) 
 COD 
 CM) 
 
 ('90) 
 COO) 
 (00) 
 C01) 
 COl) 
 COl) 
 
 COO) 
 COO) 
 COl) 
 COO) 
 (00) 
 COD 
 COO) 
 COl) 
 
 (00) 
 COl) 
 C97) 
 COO) 
 
 Coi) 
 
 ('97) 
 C97) 
 C98) 
 (01) 
 COl) 
 
 COO) 
 
 (01) 
 
 COl) 
 COO) 
 C94) 
 (01) 
 COD 
 COl) 
 COO) 
 COl) 
 
 Coo) 
 
 C97) 
 C97) 
 C97) 
 (01) 
 COl) 
 C98) 
 
 COD 
 
 HEIGHTS OF MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS. 
 
 WEALTH AND EARNINGS. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Abyssinian Highland 6,500 
 
 Aconcagua, Argentina 23,082 
 
 Alps, Switzerland 8,500 
 
 Altai Mountains, Mongolia 6,300 
 
 Andes, South America 13,000 
 
 Apennines, Italy 4,000 
 
 Appalachian Mountains, TJ. S 2,500 
 
 Atlas Mountains, Africa 9,000 
 
 Australian Mountains, E. Australia. 5,000 
 
 Balkan Mountains, Europe 4,500 
 
 Blanc, Mont, France 15,744 
 
 Bohmerwald, Austria-Hungary 2,500 
 
 Bolivian Plateau 12,500 
 
 Brazilian Plateau 2,000 
 
 Carpathian Mountains, Aus.-Hun. . 5,000 
 Cascade Mountains, North America. 9,000 
 
 Caucasus Mountains, Russia 10,000 
 
 Chimborazo, volcano, Ecuador 20,517 
 
 Coast Ranges, United States 3,000 
 
 Cotopaxi, volcano, Ecuador 16,291 
 
 Dekkan Plateau, India 2,000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Demavend, volcano, Persia 18,846 
 
 Elburz, Mount, Caucasus 18,493 
 
 Etna, volcano, Sicily 10,874 
 
 Everest, Mount, Nepal 29,002 
 
 Fremont Peak, Wyoming 13,790 
 
 Fujiyama, volcano, Japan 14,177 
 
 Guiana Plateau 2,000 
 
 Hecla, volcano, Iceland 5,110 
 
 Himalaya Mountains, Asia -. 19,000 
 
 Hindu-Kush, Afghanistan 18,000 
 
 Hooker, Mount, Canada 12,000 
 
 Iran Plateau, Persia 6,000 
 
 Jura Mountains, France 3,000 
 
 Karakoram Mountains, Tibet 18,500 
 
 Kenia, Mount, Africa 18,000 
 
 Kilimanjaro, Africa 20,000 
 
 Kiolen Mountains, Norway 3,000 
 
 Kuenlnn, Tibet 18,000 
 
 Longs Peak, Colorado 14,271 
 
 Mauna Kea, Hawaii 13,953 
 
 McKinley, Mount, Alaska 20,464 
 
 . Feet. 
 
 Mexican Plateau, Mexico 7,500 
 
 Mitchell, Mount, North Carolina . . . 6,711 
 
 Mongolian Plateau, Asia 3,500 
 
 Orizaba, volcano, Mexico 18,314 
 
 Pikes Peak, Colorado 14,147 
 
 Popocatepetl, volcano, Mexico 17,784 
 
 Pyrenees Mountains, Spain 8,000 
 
 Rainier, Mount, "Washington 14,626 
 
 Rocky Mountain Highland, U. 8 5,000 
 
 Rocky Mountains, North America . . 10,000 
 
 Sahama, volcano, Bolivia 22,350 
 
 Shasta, Mount, California 14,350 
 
 Sierra Nevada, United States 9,000 
 
 Sorata, Bolivia 21,286 
 
 St. Elias, Mount, Alaska 18,010 
 
 Thian Shan, Asia 18,000 
 
 Tibet Plateau 15,000 
 
 ! nil Mountains, Russia 3,500 
 
 Vesuvius, volcano, Italy 4,205 
 
 Washington, Mount, N. H 6,286 
 
 Whitney, Mount, California 14,898 
 
 Wealth 
 in million 
 dollars. 
 
 United States (main body) . . 78,480 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland . . . 56,669 
 
 France 40,512 
 
 Germany 38,650 
 
 European Russia 30,840 
 
 Austria-Hungary 21,658 
 
 Italy 15,168 
 
 Spain 11,424 
 
 Belgium 4,742 
 
 Netherlands 4,224 
 
 Sweden and Norway 3,792 
 
 Denmark 2,429 
 
 Switzerland 2,362 
 
 Portugal 1,973 
 
 Greece 1,066 
 
 Danubian States 4,925 
 
 Total Europe (exc. Turkey) . . 246,434 
 
 Australia and New Zealand . . 5,165 
 
 Canada 4,814 
 
 Argentina 2,957 
 
 Annual 
 Earnings 
 
 Av'ee 
 An. Earn. 
 
 Av'ge 
 
 Inhah. 
 
 in million 
 
 per money per sq. 
 
 dollars. 
 
 earner. 
 
 mile. 
 
 14,957 
 
 $473 
 
 26 
 
 6,830 
 
 406 
 
 343 
 
 6,765 
 
 333 
 
 187 
 
 6,163 
 
 258 
 
 268 
 
 4,819 
 
 100 
 
 62 
 
 3,394 
 
 164 
 
 180 
 
 2,093 
 
 160 
 
 293 
 
 1,310 
 
 179 
 
 94 
 
 869 
 
 296 
 
 699 
 
 595 
 
 275 
 
 401 
 
 682 
 
 212 
 
 24 
 
 288 
 
 290 
 
 165 
 
 336 
 
 278 
 
 205 
 
 807 
 
 175 
 
 185 
 
 134 
 
 125 
 
 97 
 
 706 
 
 137 
 
 110 
 
 34,281 
 
 207 
 
 103 
 
 1,032 
 
 680 
 
 1 
 
 878 
 
 363 
 
 1 
 
 456 
 
 264 
 
 3 
 
 RIVERS AND THEIR BASINS. 
 
 An. Rainfall 
 in Basin. 
 River System. Cubic Miles. 
 
 Amazon (exc. Tocantins) 2,833.8 
 
 Kongo 1,213.0 
 
 Plata 1,035.4 
 
 Nile 892.1 
 
 Mississippi .. .-. 673.0 
 
 Orinoco 603.3 
 
 Niger 570.0 
 
 Ganges-Brahmaputra 548.7 
 
 Yangtze 408.8 
 
 St. Lawrence 338.9 
 
 Yenisei 330.0 
 
 Zambezi 300.0 
 
 Ob.. 280.0 
 
 Lena 270.0 
 
 Amur 240.0 
 
 Slo Francisco 218.4 
 
 Mekong 200.0 
 
 Area of 
 
 Longest 
 
 Basin. 
 
 Stream. 
 
 quare Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 2,320,000 
 
 3,400 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 2,8001 
 
 1,150,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 3,900 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 4,200 
 
 425,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,900 
 
 600,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 690,000 
 
 3.100 
 
 565,000 
 
 2,100 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 680,000 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 2,800 
 
 780,000 
 
 2,700 
 
 210,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 280,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 An. Rainfall 
 In Basin. 
 River System. Cubic Miles. 
 
 Danube ., 198.7 
 
 Irawadi 180.8 
 
 Volga 152.3 
 
 Yukon 150.0 
 
 Murray 140.0 
 
 Nelson-Saskatchewan 130.0 
 
 Hoang 117.7 
 
 Magdalena 116.7 
 
 Mackenzie 115.0 
 
 Rio Grande 113.6 
 
 Indus 104.4 
 
 Columbia 90.0 
 
 Euphrates 60.0 
 
 Dnieper 66.0 
 
 Colorado , . . . 66.0 
 
 Orange 50.9 
 
 Po 23.9 
 
 Area of 
 
 Longest 
 
 Basin. 
 
 Stream. 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 320,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 180,000 
 
 (?) 
 
 690,000 
 
 2,300 
 
 380,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 470,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 390,000 
 
 2,800 
 
 90,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 680,000 
 
 2,100 
 
 230,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 360,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 290,000 
 
 1.400 
 
 490,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 197,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 230,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 270,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 27,000 
 
 460 
 
 LAKES. 
 
 Area. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Caspian 169,383± 
 
 Victoria 32,167 
 
 Superior ... 31,200 
 
 Aral 26,166± 
 
 Huron 23,800 
 
 Michigan 22,450 
 
 Tanganyika 14,000 
 
 Baikal 13,197 
 
 Tchad 10,400± 
 
 Erie 9,960 
 
 Winnipeg 9,400 
 
 Balkash 8,550± 
 
 Ontario 7,240 
 
 Ladoga 7,000 
 
 Titicaca 8,261 
 
 Nicaragua 2,800 
 
 Great Salt Lake 2,300 ± 
 
 Dead Sea 363 
 
 Altitude. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 -85 ± 
 
 3,096 ± 
 
 4,0007 
 
 620 
 
 602 
 
 1,008 
 
 168± 
 
 220 ± 
 
 681 
 
 702 
 
 581 
 
 870 
 
 2,670 
 
 1,300 ± 
 
 1,400? 
 
 4,600 
 
 1,100 ± 
 
 20± 
 
 673 
 
 210 
 
 710 
 
 72 
 
 900± 
 
 135± 
 
 247 
 
 738 
 
 66 
 
 732 
 
 12,500 
 
 926 
 
 108 
 
 320 
 
 4,200 ± 
 
 50± 
 
 -1,290± 
 
 1,308± 
 
 159 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 
 
 KEY.— Vowels : a in late, a in fat, a in c&re, a in far, a in last, a in fall, a in was, a, in final, au in author ; S in mS, 6 in met, berry, 
 § in veil, 6 in term, e in novel ; I in fine, I in tin, 5t in police, i in basin ; in nOte, 6 in n6t, 6 in s6n, 6 in for, o in do ; u in tune, fi in 
 niit, u in rude (= o), ii in full, a = French u, ua m wa, ue = we ; y in my, y in hymn. Consonants: c in cent, machine, e in ean ; g in 
 gem, f in get ; K = German ch ; n = ng, fi like ny in barnyard, N = ng but is silent ; § = z ; th in thine ; $ = gz. Italic letters are silent. 
 
 Ab-ys-sin'i-a 149 
 A-cdn-ca'gua, Mt. 109 
 Ad'g-laide 152 
 A'den 137 
 
 Adf-rdn'dackMts. 68 
 Ad-ri-at'ic 113 
 ^E-ge'an (§-) 113 
 Af-gA&n-Is-tan' 138 
 At 'ri-ca 9, 17, 144-149 
 African life region 29, 30, 
 
 31, 146 
 ag'ri-cul-ture 37, 38, 57, 
 
 58, 66, 78, 85, 89, 108, 
 
 120, 139, 141, 147, 152 
 Ak'ron 73 
 Al-a-ba'ma 81 
 A-las'ka 91, 47, 49 
 Al'ba-ny (al'-) 69 
 Al'be-marl'e Sd. 80 
 Al-bert'a 94 
 Al-bu-quer'que (-kar'ka) 
 
 87" 
 Al-6x-Sn'dri-a 147 
 Al-ge'ri-a 147, 148, 145 
 Al-gierg' 148 
 Al'Tg-gfca-ny plateaus 50, 
 
 51 
 Al'te-g/se-ny 70 
 al-lfl'vl-um 18, 19 
 Al-ma-den' 129 
 Alps 114, 115 
 Al-sace'-LSr-rat'ne' 124 
 Al-toi' Mts. 114 
 Al-ta-ma-ha' (al-) 80 
 Al'tAing~97" " 
 Am'a-zdn 104, 105, 108 
 a-meer' 138 
 A-mSr'I-ca: see Western 
 
 Continent 
 Am'ster-dam 125 
 A-mur' 114, 115 
 An-a-con'da 86 
 A-n8m' 140 
 An'deg 103, 104 
 An-dor'ra 129 
 An-dros-cog'gin 63 
 An 'gleg 119 
 an'i-mals 28-32, 38, 47, 93, 
 
 95, 97, 105, 107, 115, 116, 
 
 146, 151, 152 
 An-nap'o-lis 71 
 Ann Ar'bor 75 
 An'ms-ton 81 
 An-tarc'tic 9, 24 
 An-ti-c6s'ti 93 
 An-til'leg 99, 100 
 An-to-fa-gas'ta 110 
 Ant'werp 128 
 Ap-a-l&ch'ee Bay 81 
 A\-pa-lach-I-co'la 81 
 Ap'en-nineg 114 
 Ap-pa-la'chl-an 45, 50, 51 
 
 53 59 
 
 f-ra'bi-a 137, 113 
 r'abg 33, 137, 138, 142 
 .. 146, 147, 148 
 A-ra-fu'ra 153 
 A-ra-guay' 108 
 Ar'al 17, 115 
 ar-efti-pel'a-go 9 
 Arc'tic 9, 24, 27, 93 
 A-re-qui'pS (-ke'-) 110 
 Ar-gSn-ti'na 109, 108 
 a-ris'to-crats 36 
 Ar-I-zo'na 87, 17, 29 
 Ar'kan-sas 82 
 Ar-m§'nf-ang 137, 138 
 ^-roos'took 63 
 ar-te'sian (-zhan) well 14 
 Ar'yan 33, 35, 117 
 Ashe'vilte 80 
 Asia (a'sM-a) 9, 17, 135- 
 
 143 
 As-sIn-I-boi'a 94 
 As-to'rl-a 90 
 A-suri-ci'-dn' 109 
 At-ba'ra 145 
 Atch-af-a-luy'a 82 
 
 Ath-a-bas'ca 92 
 Ath'eng 132 
 At-lan'ta 80 
 At-lan'tic 9, 27 
 Atlantic plain 49, 50 
 At'las 145 
 
 at-mos-phgr'ic agents 12 
 a-toll' 22 
 Au'burn 64 
 Auck'land 153 
 Au-gus'ta, Ga. 80 ; Me. 64 
 Aus'tin 83 
 Aus-tra'li-a 9, 10, 17, 150- 
 
 152, 21, 34, 91, 95 
 Australian life region 29, 
 
 30, 151 
 Aus'tri-a-Hun'ga-ry 126, 
 
 119, 120, 132 
 au'tumn 23 
 
 Auvergne (o-varn') 128 
 ax'is 6, 23 
 4-zoreg' 130 
 Az'tecs 98 
 Bab el Man'dSb 145 
 Bad Lands 52 
 Bag-dad' 137 
 Ba-ha'mag 99, 100 
 Ba-M'a 109 
 Bai'kal 115 
 Bii-kn' 133, 136, 137 
 Bal-e"-ar'ic 129 
 Bal-kan' 132 
 Bal-kSsh' 115 
 Bal-la-rat' 152 
 Bal'tic 113 
 Bal'tl-more 71 
 Ba-lu-cMs-tan' 138 
 B&ne'a 142 
 Ban'da Sea 142 
 BSng-kSk' 140 
 Ban y g6r 64 
 Bang-we-6'16 145 
 Ban'try Bay 122 
 Ba-ra'n5f 91 
 Bar'ba-dos 100 
 bar-ba'rf-ans 35, 36 
 Bar'ba-ry States 147 
 Bar-cg-lo'na 130 
 Bar-frush' 138 
 Bar-raii-quil'la (-Kel'ya) 
 
 111 
 Bar're 64 
 bar'ri-er beach 21 
 Ba'sel 128 
 ba'sin 15 
 Ba-ta'vl-a 142 
 Bath 64 
 
 Bat'dn Rouge (rozh) 83 
 Ba-tum' 137 
 bay i'O 
 Bay City 75 
 Ba-y8nne' 71 
 bay'ow 19 
 BSd'ou-in§ 137 
 bed rock 13 
 beets 38, 120, 124 
 Bei'rut 137 
 Bel-fiist' 124 
 Bel'gi-um, Bel'gi-ans 128, 
 
 Bel-grade' 132 
 Bel-ize' 99 
 Ben-a'rSg 139 
 Ben-gal', Bay 113 
 Ben-In', Bight 145 
 Ber'berg 33, 146, 147 
 Ber'ggn 126 
 Be 'ring 45 
 Berk' shire Hills 63 
 Ber'lin 125 
 Ber-mu'da 44 
 BSrn 128 
 bey 148 
 Bhu-tan' 139 
 Bi-iif'ra, Bight 145 
 Bid'dg-ford 64 
 Big Sioux 76 
 Bil-ba'o 129 
 
 Bil-H-toV 142 
 Bin-u-e' 145 
 Bir'ming-ham (-im) Ala. 
 
 81 ; Eng. 124 
 Bis'cay, Bay 113 
 Bis'kra 148 
 Bis'marck 77 
 Black Hills 77 
 Bloem-fSn'tein 149 
 Blue Grass region 74 
 Blue Ridge 50, 68 
 bluff 51 
 Boerg 149 
 bog 22 
 
 B6-go-ta' 111 
 Bohmerwald (be'mer- 
 
 valt) 124 
 Boi'ge 86 
 
 BdK/t-"a'ra 137, 136 
 Bo-Hv'I-a 110, 108, 103 
 Bom-bay' 139 
 Boo'thi-a 93 
 Bor-deaux' (-do') 129 
 bore 21 
 B6r'ne-o 142 
 B6g'ni-a 131 
 B5s'pho-rus 132 
 Bds'ton 64, 65, 63 
 B6th'nl-a, Gulf 113 
 bottom land 19 
 bowl'der 20 
 BriiA'man-igm 36, 136 
 BraA-ma-pu'tra 138 , 
 branch 15 
 
 Brat'fle-bo-ro (-bur-ro) 64 
 Bra-zil', Bra-zil'ian (-yan) 
 
 108, 109, 103, 105, 130 
 Bra'zos 51 
 BrSm'en 124, 125 
 Bres'lau (-lou) 125 
 Bridge'port 65 
 Brig' bane 152 
 Bris'tol Channel 122 
 Brit'ish: see GreatBritain 
 Brit'ish Co-lum'bi-a 95 
 Brock'ton 65 
 Brook'lyn 69 
 Brus'selg 128 
 Bu'da-pest 126 
 Bud'dftigm 36, 136 
 Buenos Aires (bo'nus 
 
 a'riz) 109 
 Buf'fa-lo 69 
 Bu-k/ia-rest' 132 
 Bul-ga'ri-a 132, 120 
 Bun'd6s-rat/j 124 
 Bur'ling-ton, la. 76; Vt. 
 
 64 
 Bur'ma, Bur-mese' 140 
 bush 151 
 Bu-shire' 138 
 Butte 86 
 
 Ca'bes, Gulf 145 
 Cab'i-net 55 
 Cai'ro 147 
 Cal-cut'ta 139 
 Cal-I-f6r'nIa90, 91, 12, 20, 
 
 37, 41, 53, 89 
 Cal-la'6 110 
 caftng 26 
 
 Cam-bo'di-a (-de-) 140 
 Cam'bri-an Mts. 122 
 Cam'bridge 65 
 Cam 'den 71 
 cam'elg 31, 38, 116, 137, 
 
 138, 139, 141, 147, 148, 
 
 149 
 cam'pos 105 
 Can'a-da 92-95, 47, 49, 63, 
 
 68 
 Ca-na/di-an (-de-) R. 87 
 ci-nalg' 42, 60,~68, 69, 75, 
 
 121, 140, 147 
 Ca-na'ry Is. 129 
 Can'cer 24 
 
 Can-ta'bri-an Mts. 129 
 Can-ton' 141 
 can'y6n 17 
 
 cape 11, 21 
 
 Cape A-gul'has (-yas) 145 
 
 Cape Brgt'on 94 
 
 Cape Ca-nav'er-al 81 
 
 Cape Cod 50 
 
 Cape Col'o-ny 149 
 
 Cape Guar-da-fui' (-fwe') 
 
 145 
 Cape Hat'ter-as 80 
 Cape Men-do-c'i'no 88 
 Cape Pa-ri-na' 103 
 Cape Ro-ma'no 81 
 Cape St. Roque (rok) 103 
 Cape Town 149 
 Cape Verde Is. 130 
 cap'i-tal 42 
 Cap'ri-corn 24 
 Ca-ra'cas 111 
 Car'diff 124 
 Car-ib-be'an 9 
 Car-pa'thl-an 114, 126 
 Car-pen-ta'ri-a (-re-)151 
 Car'son City 87 
 cas-cade' 18 
 Cascade Mts. 53, 89 
 Cas'pi-an 17, 114, 115, 119 
 caste 138 
 cat'a-ract 18 
 Cats'kill Mts. 68 
 cattle 38, 58, 67, 79, 85, 89, 
 97, 98, 107, 108, 116, 120, 
 136, 137, 138, 148, 149, 
 152, 153 
 Cau'ca (kou'-) 110 ■ 
 Cau-ca'sian (-shgn) 33 
 Cau'ca-sus 114, 119 
 cave 15 
 
 Ca-yen«e' (or ki-Sn') 111 
 Ca-yu'ga L. 68 
 Cel'e-beg 142 
 Celts 123 
 Central A-mer'i-ca 99, 47, 
 
 49 
 Central Lowland 46, 51 
 Cetinje (cha-ten'ya) 132 
 Ce-vennes' 128 
 Ce>18V 139 
 Qham-plain', L. 64 
 Chan'nel Is. 122 
 Charleg'ton, S. C. 80; W. 
 
 Va. /72 
 Char'lotfe 80 
 (Jhar'lotte-town 94 
 Chat-ta-hoo'chee 80 
 Chat-ta-noo'ga 82 
 Chaw-tau'qua 68 
 ChSl'sea 62 
 Che-mul'pho 141 
 Cher-o-keeg' 83 
 Ch6s'a-peake 50, 68, 71 
 Che-sun'cook L. 63 
 Cheviot (chlv'e-ut) Hills 
 
 122 
 Chey-Sn»e' 86 
 Chi-ca'go (she-) 74, 43 
 Chick'a-sawgl53 
 Chi'le 109,' 108 
 Chilian (chel-y&n') 109 
 Chim-bo-ra'zo 110 
 Chi'na, Chi-nese' 140, 141, 
 33, 57, 89, 91, 100, 111, 
 117, 136, 139, 142, 152, 
 153 
 Chip'pe-wa 75 
 Choe'tawg 83 
 €hris-ti-a'ni-a 126 
 Chris-tian'i-ty (kris- 
 
 chan'-) 36, 94, 98, 108, 
 119, 120, 136, 147, 149 
 Chu-but' R. 109 
 Church'ill R. 93 
 Qin-cin-na'ti 73 
 cir-cum'fer-ence 5 
 city 42, 43, 59, 121 
 civ-Wi-za'tion 35, 37, 117, 
 
 119, 135 
 Cleve'land 73 
 cli'mate 24, 23-28 
 
 cloud 14 
 
 Clyde R. 122 
 
 coal 22, 40, 59, 93, 109, 
 
 121, 136, 139-142, 152, 
 
 153 
 coast 10, 11, 21 
 Coast Ranges 53, 89 
 Co-cha-bam'ba 110 
 Co'chin Chi'na 140 
 coffee 31, 38, 98, 99, 100, 
 
 108, 137, 139, 142, 148, 
 
 149 
 Co-logrne' 125 
 Co-lom'bi-a 110, 111, 108 
 C6-16m'bo 139 
 Col-o-rii'do 86, 87, 13; R. 
 
 17, 46, 52, 87 
 Colorado Springs 87 M 
 Co-lum'bl-a 80; plat. 52; 
 
 R. 46, 89, 90 
 Co-lum'bus, Ga. 80 ; O. 73 
 com'merce 41, 42, 60, 63, 
 
 68, 79, 89, 95, 98, 108, iDreg'den 125 
 
 121, 123, 135, 136, 139., drift 20 
 
 140, 142 ^ 
 
 c6m'pass 6 
 
 Con-cep'cion (-shun) 109 
 Cone'ord 64 
 Con'gress 55, 72 
 Con-nect'i-cut 65 
 Con-stan-ti-no'ple 132 
 con'sul 42 
 con'tl-nent 9 
 con-ti-nen'tal divide 17; 
 
 island 9, 32 ; plateau 9 ; 
 
 sea 9 
 con-towr' 45 
 Coo's'a R. 80 
 C6-pen-ha'gen 125 
 cop'per 15, 59, 85, 93, 98, 
 
 Den'mark 125, 95, 97, 100, 
 
 119, 120 
 Den'ver86 
 de-pres'sion 9 
 deg'ert 29 
 Des Moines' 76 
 de-tri'tus 13 
 De-troit' 75 
 dew 14 
 di-am'e-ter 5 
 dike 125 
 
 Di-nar'ie (de-) Alps 119 
 District of Columbia 71, 72 
 dl-vide' 17 
 Dnie'per 114 
 Don 114 
 
 Don-e-gal' Bay 122 
 D6r-d6fif'ne' 128 
 Dow'ro 129 
 Do'ver, Del. 71; N. H. 
 
 64 
 Do-vre-field' (-fygld') 125 
 
 drum'lin 20 
 
 Dub'lin 124 
 
 Du-buaue' (-buk') 76 
 
 Du-luth' 76 
 
 Du'n'a 119 
 
 dune 13 
 
 Dun-Sd'in 153 
 
 Dur'ham (-um) 80 
 
 Dutch 69, 149; see Nether- 
 lands 
 
 earth'quake 12, 53, 97, 99, 
 103, 114, 141, 145 
 
 east, 6 
 
 East Central States, 72 
 
 Eastern Continent, 9-11 
 
 East In'dieg 9, 10, 142 
 
 108, 121, 140, 141, 142, l East O'ma-ha 77 
 
 ] -,9 
 
 Copts 147 
 
 cor'al 21, 22, 39, 81, 99, 
 
 120, 147 
 C6>'d6-va 109 
 corn 30, 35, 37, 58, 67, 77, 
 
 79, 108, 120, 137, 138, 
 
 147, 148 
 C6r'si-ca 128 
 Cos'ta Ri'ca 99 
 Co-to-pfix'i 110 
 cot'ton 38, 58, 78, 81, 82, 
 
 108, 137, 138, 139, 141, 
 
 147, 148, 149 
 Coun'cil Bluffs 77 
 Cov'ing-ton 74 
 cra'ter 12 
 Creeks 83 
 Crete 132 
 cre-vasse' 51 
 Cu'ba 99, 100, 49 
 Cum'ber-land 71 ; plat. 
 
 81, 82 
 cut'-off 19 
 €tty-a-ho'ga R. 73 
 Cuzco (cus'co) 110 
 cy'clone 26, 27, 54, 114 
 Oy'priis 113 
 czar 133 
 Dallas 83 
 Da-mas'cus 137 
 Dan'ish : see Denmark 
 Dan'ube 126 
 Dar-da-n61?eg' 132 
 Dar'ling R. 151 
 Dav'en-port 76 
 Daw'son City 95, 91 
 day 6, 23 
 Day'ton 73 
 DSad'wood 77 
 de-gree' 7 
 
 Dek'kan 114, 138, 139 
 DSl-a-go'a Bay 149 
 Del'a-ware 71; Bay 50, 
 
 68; R. 50, 68, 70 
 Delhi (dSl'le) 139 
 del'ca 18, 19 
 
 E'bro 129 
 
 e-clipse' 5 
 
 Ec-ua-dor' 110, 108 
 
 Ed'in-burgh (-bur-ro) 124 
 
 E'gypt 147 
 
 El'ba 130 
 
 Elbe 124 
 
 El-burz' 114 
 
 el'e-phants 31, 38, 116, 
 139, 148 
 
 el-e-va'tion 9, 45 
 
 El'gin 74 
 
 El Pa'so 61 
 
 En 'gland (in'-), Eng'lish 
 122-124, 47, 49, 107, 119, 
 138 ; see Great Britain 
 
 e-qua'tor 7 
 
 e-qua-to'ri-al calms 26, 27 
 
 e'qui-nox 23 
 
 E'rie 71 
 
 Erie Canal 68, 69 
 
 e-ro'sion (-zhun) 12-22 
 
 e-rup'tion 12 
 
 Erz'ge-bir-ge (erts'-) 124 
 
 Es'ki-mog33; 91, 94, 97 
 
 Es'sen 125 
 
 es'tu-a-ry 10 
 
 Et'na, Mt. 130 
 
 i?u-phra'teg 114 
 
 J5^u-ra'sia (-shi-a) 9, 17, 
 112-143 
 
 -En-ra'sian (-shi-an) high- 
 land 113 
 
 Eurasian life region 29, 
 31, 32, 115, 116 
 
 Eu'rope 9, 17, 117-133 
 
 Ev'ang-vilte 73 
 
 e-vap-o-ra'tion 13 
 
 Ev'er-Sst, Mt. 113 
 
 Ev'er-gladeg 81 
 
 Faflc'land 106 
 
 Fall line 49 
 
 Fall River 65 
 
 Far'go 77 
 
 Fa'roe Is. 125 
 
 fault 11 
 
 fer'ti-li-zers 37 
 
 160 
 
INDEX. 
 
 161 
 
 Fez 148 
 
 Fi'jl 153 
 
 Finng 126, 133 
 
 fi&rd (fydrd) 10 
 
 Firth of Ldrne 122 
 
 fishing 38, 39, 58, 63, 90, 
 
 91, 93, 95, 97, 120, 142, 
 
 147 
 Flem'ish 128 
 flood 19 
 flood plain 19 
 FISr'ence 130 
 F16r'I-da 81, 21 
 fSr'gsts 28, 59, 63, 67, 79, 
 
 85, 89, 93, 97, 98, 100, 
 
 105, 115, 116, 120, 138, 
 
 142, 146, 148, 149, 151, 
 
 153 
 Fdr-mo'sa 141 
 Fort Dear'born (-burn) 74 
 Fort Smith 82 
 Fort Snel'ling 76 
 Fort Sum'ter 80 
 Fort Wayne 73 
 Fort Worth 83 
 fos'sil 22 
 France, Frgnch 128, 129, 
 
 47, 49, 83, 93, 94, 100, 
 
 107, 108, 111, 119, 120, 
 138, 148, 149 
 
 Frank'fort 74 
 Franz-Josef (frants'-yo'- 
 
 zef) Land 113 
 Fra'ger 93 
 Fred'er-ic-ton 94 
 frSsh'St 19 
 fruit 37, 38, 79, 89, 98, 99, 
 
 100, 109, 120, 137, 138, 
 
 147, 153 
 Fu-ji-ya'ma 141 
 GS-lap'a-gos 110 
 Gal'ves-ton 83 
 Gal'way Bay 122 
 Gan'geg 139 
 Qa-ronne' 128 
 Gen-e-see' 69 
 Ge-n§'va 128 
 GIn'o-a 130 
 Gedrge'town 111 
 Ge6r'gi-a 80 
 Ger'tna-ny, Ger'man 124, 
 
 125, ~57, 108, 119, 120, 
 
 126, 148, 149, 153 
 
 g ey'ser 14, 86, 97, 153 
 GA6nt 128 
 Gi-bral'tar 113 
 Gila (he'la) 87 
 Gi-r6Nde' (zhe-) 128 
 gla'cier (-sher) 19, 20, 91, 
 
 93, 95, 103, 113, 114, 153 
 Glas'gow 123 
 Glouces'ter 65 
 goats 38, 116, 120, 137, 
 
 138, 147, 149 
 Go'bi 141 
 gold 15, 40, 59, 85, 89, 91, 
 
 93, 98, 108, 121, 136, 140, 
 
 141, 142, 149, 152, 153 
 Gotfc'en-burg 126 
 g6v'ern-ment 35, 36, 55, 
 
 108, 120, 136 
 
 grain 37 
 ram'pi-an Mts. 122 
 
 Grand Canal 140 
 
 Grand Forks 77 
 
 Grand Rap' ids 75 
 
 grapes 38, 89, 120 
 
 grav'i-ty 5, 20 
 
 Great Bar'ri-er 21, 151 
 
 Great Ba'sin 52, 53 
 
 Great Brit'ain 122-124, 47, 
 49, 57, 93-95, 99, 100, 
 108, 111, 119, 120, 126, 
 129, 137-139, 141, 142, 
 147, 148, 149, 152, 153 
 
 Great Falls 86 
 
 Great Lakes 68 
 
 Great Plains 52; 38 
 
 Great Powers 120 
 
 Great Salt Lake 53 
 
 Great Valley 50, 72 
 
 Greece, Gre'cian (shan) 
 132, 120, 137 
 
 Greenland 35, 97, 47 
 
 Green Mts. 64 
 
 Green 'vilte 80 
 
 Green'wich (greVIj) 7 
 
 ground water 14, 15 
 Gua-dai-qui-vir' (-kg-) 130 
 Gua-de-lupe' 100 
 Gua-di-a'na 129 
 G«a-te-ma'la 99 
 Guay-a-quil' (-kel') 110 
 Guay'mas 99 
 GttJ-a'na 111, 103 
 Ginn'ea, G. 145 
 gulf 10 
 Gulf plain 51 
 Gulf Stream 27 
 Guth'rie 83 
 Hague 125 
 Hai-da-ra'bad' 139 
 Hai'ti 100 
 Hal'i-fax 94, 95 
 Ham'burg 124, 125 
 Har'lem R. 69 
 Har'ris-burg 71 
 Hart'ford 65 
 Ha-van'a 100 
 Ha'ver-/iill 65 
 Havre 129 
 Ha-wal'i 153 
 Ha-wai'ian (-yan) Is. 153 
 heat belt 24, 25 
 heat equator 25 
 HSb'ri-deg 122 
 Hel'e-na 86 
 hem'I-sphere 7, 9 
 Her-at' 138 
 herding 38, 58, 85, 108, 120, 
 
 149, 152 
 high'land 10, 24, 27, 45 
 Hlm-a'la-ya 113, 29 
 Hin'du Kush 114 
 Hin'dug 33, 138, 111, 152 
 Hin-dii'-stan' 138, 139 
 Ho-ang' 140 
 hoar'frost 14 
 Ho'bart 153 
 Ho'bo-ken 71 
 hogs 38, 58, 67, 79, 116, 
 
 120, 142 
 HSl'land 125 
 Hol's'ton R. 72 
 Hol'yoke 65, 64 
 HSn'do 141 
 Hon-du'ras 99 
 Hdng-kdng' 141 
 H6-no-lu'lu 153 
 Hood, Mt. 53, 90 
 horses 38, 58, 74, 79, 97, 
 
 98, 107, 116, 136, 138, 
 
 141, 147, 149 
 Hot Springs 82 
 HpM-sa-tSn'ic 63 
 Hous'ton 83 
 Ho'vag 149 
 
 Hiid'son B. 93 ; R. 68, 69 
 Hull 124 
 Hum'boWt 87 
 Hun'ga-ry 126 
 Hunt'ing-ton 72 
 Hunts'vilte 81 
 Hu'ron, L. 74 
 ice' berg 19 
 Ice'land 95, 97, 47 
 Pda-ho 86 
 Il-U-noi«' (or -noig') 73, 
 
 74, 38 
 In'cag 107, 110 
 iE'di-a 138, 139,-116, 117, 
 
 140 
 In-di-an'a 73 
 In-di-an-ap'o-lis 73 
 In'di-an Ocean 9, 27 
 In'di-ang 33, 34, 35, 47, 49, 
 
 83, 85, 87, 91, 94, 98, 99, 
 
 107, 108 
 Indian Ter. 83 
 In'do-Chi'na 140, 136 
 In'dus 138 
 inlet 15 
 In-ter-na'tion-al date line 
 
 61 
 I'6-wa 76 
 
 Iquique (e-ke'ka) 110 
 I-ran' 113 
 I-ra-wa'di 140 
 Ire'land, I'rish 122-124, 57 
 Ir-kutsk' 136 
 iron "15, 35, 40, 59, 70, 79, 
 
 100, 121, 136, 139-142. 
 ir-ri-ga'tion 37, 85, 89, 105, 
 
 107, 120, 138, 139, 141 
 
 is'land 9, 10 
 
 i' so-th erm 24 
 
 Is-pa-han' 138 
 
 isWt'mus 9 
 
 It'a-ly, I-tal'ian (-yan) 
 
 130, 119, 120, 149 
 Ith'a-ca 69 
 Jack'son 81 
 Jack'son-vilte 81 
 Ja-mat'ca 100 
 James R. 72 
 Ja-pan', Jap-a-nese' 141, 
 
 142, 91, 95, 136, 153 
 Ja'va 142 
 Jef 'fer-son City 76 
 Jer'gey City 71 
 Je-ru'sa-lem 137 
 jet'ty 83 
 Jews 33, 36, 132, 133, 136, 
 
 137, 146, 147 
 Jo-han'nes-burg (yo-) 149 
 J6'li-6t 74 
 
 Ju-an' (hu-) de Fu'ca 53 
 Ju-neau' (-no') 91 
 jun/gle 116 
 Ju'ra Mts. 128 
 Ju-ru'/m (zhu-) 108 
 Jut'land 125" 
 Ka'bul 138 
 kal'ge'r 124 
 Ka-la-ha'rii 146 
 Kam-chat'ka 113, 114 
 Ka-na'wfca 51, 72 
 Kan-da-har' 138 
 Kan'sas 77, 51 
 Kansas City 77 
 Ka'ra 113 
 
 Ka-ra-ko'ram Mts. 140 
 Kas-kas'ki-a R. 73 
 Ka-taft'din, Mt. 63 
 Kauai (kou-i'e) 153 
 Ka-war' 148 
 Ka-zan' R. 93 
 Ke'ni-a, Mt. 145 
 Ken-we-beo' R. 63 
 Ken-tuck'y 74 
 kettle hill 51 
 key 81 
 
 Key West 81 
 kftan 138 
 KAar-kdT 133 
 kAe-dive' 147 
 KAel-at' 138 
 KAin-g/mn' 114 
 KM'vft 137 
 Ki-ef 133 
 Kil-i-man-ja-ro' 145 
 Kim'ber-ley 149 
 king 36 
 
 Kio'len (kye'-) 114, 
 KIr-gMz' Steppe 137 
 Kiushu (kyu-shyu') 141 
 KloVdike 95, 91 " 
 JTndx'vilfe 82 
 Kdn'go 145 
 Kongo State 148 
 Koot'e-nai 85 
 K6r-do-fan' 147 
 K6-re'a 141, 136 
 KuSn-lun' 113 
 Ku-ro-shi'wo 28 
 Kyo'to 142 
 Lab-ra-d6r' 95, 93 
 La Cr6s*e' 75 
 Lad'6-ga 115 
 la-goon' 21 
 La Guai'ra 111 
 lake 15, 20 
 Lake plains 51 
 land 9, 24 
 Lan'sing 74 
 La Paz' (path') 110 
 Lapps 126, 133 
 L&r'a-mie 86 
 Las'sa 141 
 Las'sens. Peak 53 
 Las Ve'gas 87 
 Lat'ing 119 
 lat'i-tude 7 
 
 Lau-r6n'tian (-she-an) 
 ; glacier 20, 50, 51, 66 
 Laurentian plateau 45, 93 
 la'va 12, 22 
 Law'rence 65 
 lead 67, 85, 98, 121 
 LSad'vilJe 87, 86 
 L5av'gn-worth 77 
 
 Leeds 123 
 Leip'zig (-tslK) 125 
 Le'na 114, 115 
 lgv'ee 51 
 Lew'is-ton 64 
 Lex'ing-ton 74 
 Li-be'ri-a 148 
 LIb'y-an Desert 147 
 Liech'ten-stein (leK'-) 126 
 LI-ege' (azh') 128 
 life regions 29-32 
 Li 'ma 110 
 
 lime'stone 15, 22, 40 
 Lim-po'po 145 , 
 
 Linc'6in 77 
 Lip'a-ri Is. 130 
 Lig'bon 130 
 Li«le 129 
 Little Rock 82 
 LIv'er-pool 123 
 Ka'mag 30, 38, 107 
 1/a'nog 28, 105 
 Lo'gan 87 
 LoiriT(lwar) 128 
 Lom'bar-dv 130 
 L6n'd6n 12"3, 36 
 Long Island 50, 69 
 Long Island Sound 65 
 lon'g^-tude 7 
 Los AS'gel-Ss (-h61-) 91 
 LoM-i-gi-a'na 82, 83 
 Low'Is-viUe (or -is-) 74 
 Low'ell 65 
 low'land 10, 24, 45 
 Lu'beck 124 ' 
 Luck'now 139 
 lum'ber-ing 39, 58, 59, 63, 
 
 67, 75, 79, 85, 89, 109, 
 
 120, 140, 142, 151, 153 
 Lu-ray' 72, 15 
 Lux'§m-burg 124 
 Lu-zon' 142 
 Lynch 'burg 72 
 Lynn 65 
 Ly'ong 129 
 Ma-ca'6 135 
 Mac-k6n'z«'e 46 
 Mack'i-nac, Str. 74 
 Ma'con 80 
 MSd-a-g&s'car 149 
 Ma-dei^ra Is. 130 
 Ma-dei'ra R. 104 
 Mad'i-son 75 
 Ma-dras' 139 
 Ma-drid' 130 
 Mag-da-le'na 105 
 Ma-gel'ian Str. 103 
 Main R. 124 
 Maine 63, 64, 10, 21 
 Ma-kas'sar, Str. 142 
 Mal'a-ga 130 
 Ma-lay' penin. 140 
 Ma-layg' 33, 142, 149, 152, 
 
 153 
 Mam'moth Cave 74 
 Ma-na'gua 99 
 Man'ches-ter, Eng. 123 ; 
 
 N. H. 64 
 Man-chu'ri-a 141 
 Man-chug' 141 
 Man'da-lay 140 
 Man-hat' (an I. 69 
 Ma-ni'ia 142 
 Man-I-to-ba' 94 
 man-u-fac'tur-ing 41, 59, 
 
 63, 68, 79, 90, 98, 121, 
 
 123, 139, 142, 152 
 Ma'o-rig 153 
 Ma-ra-e«i'bo 111 
 Ma-ra-jo' (-zho') 104 
 Ma-ran-ha'o (-ya'oN) 109 
 Mar'mo-ra 132 
 Mar-seifleg' 129 
 Mar-ta-ban', G. 140 
 Mar'thag VIne'yard 64 
 Mar-H-nique' (-nek') 100 
 Ma'ry-land (m6r'-) 71, 11 
 MSs-kat' 137 
 
 Mas-sa-chu' setts 64, 65, 41 
 Mat-a-g6r'da B. 83 
 Maui (mou'e) 153 
 Mau-mee' R. 72 
 Mau-ri'ti-us (-rish'i-) 149 
 McKin'ley, Mt. 45 
 Mec'ca 137 
 
 Me-del-lin' (-thSl-y6n' ) 111 
 Mld-I-ter-ra'ne-an 9 
 
 Me-kSng' 140 
 Mel 'bourne 152 
 Mel'vilte, 93 
 Mem'phis 82 
 Me-nam' 140 
 Me-n8m'I-nee R. 75 
 Mer'I-den 65 
 me-rid'i-an 7 
 Me-rid'i-an 81 
 Mer'ri-mac R. 63 
 Mes-o-po-ta'ml-a 113, 117 
 Mex'I-co 96-99, 47, 49 83 
 Mi-am'i 73 
 Mich'I-gan 74, 75 
 Middle States 68 
 Mil'an 130 
 Mil-wau'kee 75 
 mining 40, 59, 67, 68, 79, 
 
 85, 89, 93, 98, 108, 121, 
 
 136, 141, 142, 149, 152, 
 
 153 
 Min-me-ap'o-lis 76 
 Wan-Mg-so'ta 76 
 Mi-que-16N' (-ke-) 94 
 mirl33 
 Mla-sia-sip'pi 81; R. 15, 
 
 46, 51, 68, 76, 82, 83 
 Mls-sott'ri 76; R. 46, 68 
 Mitch' ell, Mt. 45 
 Mo-bile' 81 
 
 Moero (mwa'ro), L. 145 
 Mo-ham 'med-an-Igm 36, 
 
 120, 136, 147 
 Mo'hawk R. 69 
 Mo-line' 76 
 
 Mol-len'do (-yen'-) 110 
 M6-luc'cag 142 
 M5n'a-c6 129 
 mSn'ar«ft-y 36 
 M5n-g6'H-a 141, 113 
 Mon-go'11-ang 33, 35 
 Mon'golg 141 
 Mon-o-moy' Point 64 
 M6-n5n-ga-he'la R. 70 
 Mon-ro'vi-a 148 
 m5n-soon' 26 
 Mdn-ta'na 85, 86, 38, 40 
 M6n« BlaNC 128 
 M6n« Qe-nis' 129, 130 
 M6n-te-ne'gro 132, 120 
 M6n-te-vi-de'6 109 
 Mont-g6m'er-y 81 
 M5nt-pe'H-er 64 
 Mont-re-al' 94, 95 
 Moorg 147 
 Moose'head L. 63 
 M6r'ay Firth 122 
 M6r'm6ns 87 
 M6-r5c'co 147, 148 
 MSs'cok; 133, 36 
 moun'tain 11 
 M6-zam-bique' (-bek')145 
 Muk-den' 141 
 Mu'ni-eft 125 
 Mur'ray 151 
 Mus-co'gee 83 
 Mus-kin'gum R. 72 
 Nantes"l28 
 Nan-tuck'et 64 
 Na'pleg 130 
 N&r-ra-g5n'sett B. 65 
 Nash'u-a 64 
 Nash'viUe 82 
 Natch 'ez 81 
 natural bridge 15, 72 
 natural gas 22 
 Ne-bras'ka 77 
 ne'groeg 34. 35, 49, 79, 100, 
 
 107, 108, 148 
 Nel'son R. 46 
 Ne-pai' 139 
 Nlth'er-landg 125, 100, 
 
 107, 111, 119, 120, 142, 
 
 153 
 Neuse 80 
 Ne-v&'da 87 
 New Al'ba-ny 73 
 New'ark 71 
 New Bed'ford 65 
 New'bern 80 
 New Brit'ain 65 
 New Brung'wick 94 
 New'cas-tte 124 
 New England 62-65, 66 
 New'found-land 95 
 Newfoundland Banks 39 
 New Gua-te-ma'la 99 
 
 New Guln'ea 153, 34 
 New Hamp'shire 64 
 New Ha'ven 65 
 New Jer'gey 71, 21, 69 
 New Mex'I-co 87 
 New Or'le-ang 82, 83 
 New'port, Ky. 74; R. L 
 
 65, 63 
 Newport News 72 
 New South Waleg 152 
 New York Bay 50, 68 
 New York (city) 69, 43, 
 
 57 
 New York (state) 68, 69, 
 
 11, 18, 40 
 New Zea'land 153 
 Nga'mi, L. 145 
 Nl-ag'a-ra 68, 69 
 Ni-ca-ra'gua 99 
 Ni'ger 145 
 Nile 17, 145, 147 
 nobles 36 
 Nor'foZk 72 
 Nor'mang 123 
 north 6 
 North A-mer'I-ca 9, 17, 
 
 44-101 
 North American life re^ 
 
 gion 29, 31, 32, 46, 47 
 North Car-o-li'na 80 
 North Da-ko'ta 77 
 Northeastern Sec, 61-65 
 Northern Section 61,66-77 
 North'men 47 
 North Star 6 
 Northwestern valleys, 53 
 Nor'way, Nor-we'gl-an 
 
 125, 126, 10, 119, 120 
 No'va Sco'tia (-shi-a) 94 
 No'va Zem'bla 113 
 Nu'W-a 147 
 Nueces (nwa'ses) 51 
 Ny-as'sa (ne-) 145 
 O-a'hu 153 
 Oak'land 91 
 q'a-sis 116 
 Ob 114, 115 
 6'cean (-shan) 9, 32 
 ocean currents 27, 28 
 6-ce-an'ic (-she-) island 
 
 10, 12, 32 
 Oc-mul'gee 80 
 O-co'nee 80 
 O'der 124 
 O-des'sa 133 
 Og'den 87 
 O-gee'chee 80 
 O-hi'o 72, 73 ; R. 68, 70, 
 
 73, 74 
 O-ke-fi-no'kee Swamp 80 
 O-KAotsk', Sea 113 
 Ok-ia-ho'ma 83 
 O-lym'pi-a 90 
 O'ma-ha 77 
 0-man'"l37 
 One'ga 115 
 Onei'da L. 68 
 On-ta'ri-o 94 
 ooze 22 
 O-por'to 130 
 O-ran' 148 
 Or'ange 145 
 Orange Free State 149 
 or' bit 23 
 ore 35, 40 
 Or'e-gon 90 
 0-ri-6n'tal life region 29, 
 
 31, 116 
 O-ri-nd'co 105, 104 
 O-ri-za'ba (-tha'-l 45, 97 
 Ork'ney Is. 122 
 O'ga-ka 142 
 Osh'kfish 75 
 Os-we'go R. 68 
 Ot'ta-wa 94 
 outlet 15 
 ox'bow loop 19 
 oys'ters 39, 58, 65, 67, 71, 
 
 120 
 O-zark' 51, 67, 79 
 Pa-cif'ic 9, 27 
 Pacific coast region 53 
 Pacific Section 61, 88-91 
 pa'gang 36 
 Pa-ler'mo 130 
 Pa-mir' 113 
 Pam'li-co Sound 80 
 
162 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 pam'pag 28, 105 
 Fan-a-ma' 99 
 Pap'u-an 34 
 Pa-ra"'109; B. 104 
 Pa-ra-guay' 109, 108 
 par'al-lel 7 
 Par-a-mar'1-bo 111 
 Pa-ra-na' 105 
 Par'Is 129 
 Par'kerg-burg 72 
 parks 52 
 
 Par'lla-ment 123, 94 
 Pa-taps'co B. 71 
 Pat'er-son 71 
 Paw-tuek'et 65 
 peat 22 
 Pe-chi-li' 140 
 Pe'cos B. 87 
 Pe-dee' B. 80 
 Pe-king' 141 
 Pem-a-dum'cook L. 63 
 Pem'ba 119 
 pe'ne-plain 18 
 pen-in'su-la 11 
 Pen'nlne Chain 122 
 Penn-syl-va'nl-a 70, 71, 
 
 40, 50, 69 
 Pe-nob'scot 63 
 Pen-sa-co'la 81 
 Pe-6'ri-a 74 
 Per-di'do B. 81 
 Per-nam-bu'co 109 
 Per'sia (-slil-a), Persians 
 
 137, 138, 33 
 Perth 152 
 
 Pe-ru', Pe-ru'vi-an 110, 
 
 108 
 Pe'terg-burg 72 
 pe-tro'le-um 22, 59, 110, 
 
 133 137 
 Phil-a-del'phi-a 70 
 Phil'Ip-pIne Is. 142 
 Phoe'nix (fe'-) 87 
 Pied'mSnt region 49, 50 
 Pierre 77 
 Pikes Peak 86 
 Pil-oo-may'6 105 
 Pln'dns 119 
 Pine Bluff 82 
 Pitts'burg 70 
 Pla'ta 105 
 pla-teau' (-to') 9 
 Plateau Section 61, 84-87 
 riiiUe B. 77 
 P6 130 
 
 Point Bar'rotc 44 
 Point Gral-li'na8 (-ye'-) 103 
 po'lar circle 24 
 pole 6 
 pond 15 
 
 P8nt-char-train' 83 
 Pope 119 
 
 Po-po'c&t-e-pe-tl 96 
 pop-u-la'tion 34, 57, 107, 
 
 117, 135, 157 
 por'tage 46 
 Port E-Hz'a-beth 149 
 Port'land, Me. 63; Ore. 
 
 90 
 Por'to A-le'gre 109 
 Por'to Bi'co 49, 100 
 Port Sii-M' 147 
 Ports'mouth 64 
 Por'tu-gal, Por'tu-gwege 
 
 129, 130, 107, 108, 119, 
 
 138, 148, 149, 153 
 Pd-to'mac 51, 68, 71, 72 
 Po-to'slllO 
 
 PoM^fe-keep'sle (-kip'-) 67 
 Prague 126 
 
 " -ai'rie 28 
 Prairie plains 51 
 
 ?reg'i-dent 36, 55 
 te-tor'I-a 149 
 prevailing westerlies 26 
 Pri-bi-lof 7 (-16V) 91 
 
 Prime me-rid'i-an 7 
 rince Ed'ward I. 94 
 prom'on-to-ry 11, 10 
 Prov'i-dence 65 
 Pro'vo City 87 
 Prussia (prush'a.) 124 
 Pruth 133 
 
 public land 55 
 
 Pueb'la 98 
 
 Pugb'16 86, 87 
 
 Pu'get 53, 89, 90 
 
 Pun'tS A-re'nas 109 
 
 Pu'rus 108 " 
 
 Py'r'a-mid L. 87 
 
 Pyr'e-neeg 114 
 
 Que-beV 94 
 
 Queen Char'lotte Is. 93 
 
 Queens land 152 
 
 Qum'cy f-zi) 74 
 
 Qui'to (ke'-) 110 
 
 race 33, 34 
 
 Ba-cine' 75 
 
 railroads 42, 60, 61, 95, 98, 
 
 108, 121, 136, 139, 142, 
 
 149 152 
 rain 14, 26, 27, 54, 104, 114 
 Eai'nier, Mt. 53, 89 
 Ea'leigh (-la) 80 
 range 11 
 
 Bange'ley Lakes 63 
 Ban-goon' 140 
 rap 'ids 18 
 Eead'ing 70 
 
 Bed E. of the North 76, 77 
 Bei€7js'tiig 124 
 Bei'ki-a-vik 97 
 re-li'gion 36 
 Be'no 87 
 re-pub'lie 36 
 reg-er-va'tion 85 
 Be-un'ion (-yun) 149 
 rev-o-lu'tion 23 
 E/iine 124 
 
 E/iodc Is'land 65, 63 
 Rhone 128 
 rice 37, 79, 98, 120, 138- 
 
 142, 147-149 
 Eich'mond 72 
 Ei'ga 133 
 Eii'o de Ja-ne'i-ro (zha-) 
 
 108, 109 
 Ei'o de la Pla'ta 105 
 Ei'o Gran'de 46 
 Bi'o Ne'gro 104 
 riv'er 15 
 E6-a-noke' B. 72 
 BSch'es-ter 69 
 Bock'ford 74 
 Bock Island 76 
 rock layers 11, 22 
 Bock Springs 86 
 Eocky Mountain high- 
 land 45, 52, 53, 93, 97 
 Eocky Mts. 45, 52, 85, 93 
 Borne, Bo'man 130, 36, 
 
 119 
 E6-sa'ri-6 109 
 ro-ta'tion 6 
 B5t'ter-dam 125 
 EoM-ma'ni-a 132, 120 
 ri'bber 39, 108, 142, 148 
 Bu'pert B. 93 
 Eussia (rfish'a) 133, 136, 
 
 137, 47, 49, 120, 122, 141 
 Eut'land 64 
 rye 38, 120 
 Sa-bine' E. 51 
 Sa'co B. 63 
 Sac-ra-men'to 91 
 Sag'i-naw 75 
 Sa-ha'ra 148 
 Sa'i-gon 140 
 St. Al'bang(al'-)64 
 St. An'tfco-ny, Falls 76 
 St. Au'giis-tine 81 
 St. Clair, L. 74 
 St. Croix E. 63, 75 
 St. E-tl-finne' (s&Nt-) 129 
 St. QoUh&Td' (sSn-) 128, 
 
 130 
 St. He-le'na 145 
 St. Hel'eng, Mt. 53 
 St. John 94, 95 
 St. Johns, 95 
 St. Jo'seph 77 
 St. Law'rence 18, 46, 68 
 St. Lom'Is (or -I*) 76, 77 
 St. Ma'ryg Canal 75 
 St. Paul 76 
 St. Pe'terg-burg 133 
 
 St. Pi-erre' (s&n-) 94 
 
 Sa-lft'do (-flio) E. 105 
 
 Sa'lem, Mass. 65 ; Ore. 90 
 
 Sa-16-m'ki 132 
 
 salt 69, 75, 121, 148 
 
 Salt Lake City 87 
 
 salt lick 82 
 
 Sal-va-dor' 99 
 
 Sal-wgn' 114 
 
 Sa-mp'a 153 
 
 San An-to'nI-6 83 
 
 San BSr-nar-di'no 90 
 
 sand bank 18, 21 
 
 sand bar 18, 21 
 
 San Dii-e'go 91 
 
 sandy hook 21 
 
 San Fran-cis'co 90, 91; 
 
 B. 53, 89 
 San'gre de Cris'to 8G 
 San Joaquin (ho-a ken') 
 
 90 
 San Jo-se' (ho-), Cal. 91 ; 
 
 Costa Eica 99 
 SanJu-an' (hu-) 100 
 San Lu-is' Park 86 
 San Mari'no 130 
 SSn Sal-va-dor' 99 
 San'ta Fe' 87 
 San-tee' E. 80 
 San-fi-ii'go 109 
 San-ti'-a'go de Cu'ba 100 
 San'to D6-min'g'6 100 
 San'tos 108 
 
 Sao (soun) Fran-^Is'co 105 
 Sao Paulo (soun pou'16) 
 
 108 
 Sar-dln'I-a 130 
 Sas-katch'e-wan 93, 94 
 sav'a-geg 34, 35, 36 
 sa-vfin'na 105 
 Sa-van'xa/( 80 
 Sax'ong 119 
 Sc&n-di-na'vl-an glacier 
 
 20;penin. 113 
 S«/ie-nec'ta-dy (-dg) 67 
 Se/mt/l'kilfE. 70 
 Sci-o'to E. 73 
 ScSt'land 122-124 
 Seran'ton 70 
 scrub 151 
 sea 9, 24, 27 
 sea'gong 23 
 Se-at'<le90 
 Se-ba'go L. 63 
 sed'i-ment 18, 22 
 See'land 125 
 Seine 128 
 Sgl'ma 81 
 Sem'I-ndleg 83 
 SSm-It'ic 33 
 S8n'e-ca L. 68 
 Se-owl' 141 
 Ser v 'vl-a 132, 120 
 Sev'ern E. 122 
 Sev'il^e (or se-vll') 130 
 shaft 138 
 Shang-ha'i 141 
 Sha'ri E. 145 
 Shas'ta, Mt. 12, 53, 89 
 sheep 38, 58, 72, 79, 85, 89, 
 
 97, 98, 107, 116, 120, 137, 
 
 138, 141, 147-153 
 Sheffield 124 
 sheik 137 
 ShSt'land Is. 122 
 Shi-ko'ku 141 
 Sho-sho'ne Eange 86 
 shott 146 
 Shreve'port 83 
 Si 140 
 Si-am' 140 
 Si-be 'ri-a 136, 137 
 SIc'I-ly 130 
 si-de're-al day 6 
 SJd'ra, G. 145 
 Si-§r'ra de Gua-dar-ra'ma 
 
 (-ftar-)"l29 
 Si-8r'ra Le-6'ne 148 
 Si-Sr'ra Ma'dre 97 
 Si-Sr'ra M6-re'na 129 
 Si-gr'ra Ne-va'da 53, 89 
 silk 128, 130, 137, 140, 141 
 sil'vag 105 
 
 silver 15, 40, 59, 85, 93, 98, 
 108, 121, 140-142, 152 
 
 Sin-ga-pore' 140 
 
 sink hole 15 
 
 Sioux City 76 
 
 Sioux Falls 77 
 
 Sl-'sai' 98 
 
 Sit'ka 91 
 
 Skee'na 93 
 
 Slavg 120, 132, 133 
 
 slope 17 
 
 Smyr'na (smer'-) 137 
 
 Snake B. 52 
 
 snow 14, 19, 26 
 
 S6-fi'a 132 
 
 soil 13 
 
 Sol'o-mon Is. 153 
 
 Sol'way Firth 122 
 
 S6-ma'li Land 144 
 
 Soo Canal 75 
 
 Sound valley 90 
 
 source 15 
 
 South African Bepublic 
 149 
 
 South A-mSr'I-ca 9, 17, 
 102-111 
 
 South American life re- 
 gion 29, 30, 31, 47, 105, 
 107 
 
 South Aus-tra'U-a 152 
 
 South Bend 73 
 
 South Car-o-li'na 80 
 
 South Da-ko'ta 77, 52 
 
 Southern Section 61, 78- 
 83 
 
 South O'ma-ha 77 
 
 Spain, Span'ish, Span'- 
 iards (-yerdg) 129, 130, 
 47, 49, 83, 87, 98, 99, 100, 
 
 107, 108, 119, 142 
 Spar'tan-burg 80 
 spit 21~ 
 
 Spitz-berg'en 113 
 Spo-kSne' 90 
 
 sponges 39, 100, 120, 147 
 spring 14 ; (season) 23 
 Spring' field, 111.74; Mass. 
 
 65; Mo. 77; O. 73 
 sta-iac'tite 15 
 sta-lag'mite 15 
 standard time 61 
 Sta-no-voi' 114 
 state 55 
 Stat'en I. 69 
 stSppe 28, 115 
 Stew'art I. 153 
 Stik-Ine' E. 93 
 StSck'holm 126 
 StSek'ton 91 
 storm center 54 
 strait 9 
 
 Straits Settlements 140 
 Strass'burg (-burK) 128 
 streams 17 
 Str5m'bo-li 130 
 Su'cre 110 
 Sii-dan' 148 
 Svi-ez' 113; Canal 147 
 sugar 38, 79, 82. 98, 99, 100, 
 
 108, 124, 140, 142, 147, 
 148, 149, 153 
 
 Su-lai-man' 114 
 sul'tan 132, 147, 149 
 Su-lu? Sea 142 
 Su-ma'tra 142 
 summer 23, 25 
 sunrise and sunset line 6 
 Su-pe'rI-or (-er) 75, 76 ; L. 
 
 59 
 Sus-que-han'na 51, 68 
 Sut'lfij 138 
 Su-wa'nee 81 
 Swe'den 125, 126, 100, 119, 
 
 120 
 Swit'zer-land 126, 128, 19, 
 
 119, 120 
 Syd'ney 152 
 Syr'a-cuse 69 
 system'! 1, 15 
 Ta-briz' 138 
 Ta-co'ma 90 
 Ta-c5n'ic Mts. 64 
 Ta'gus 129 
 
 Taft-16-qutt/(' 83 
 
 Ta-hoe', L. 87 
 
 Tal'ca 109 
 
 Tai-ia-h&s'see 81 
 
 ta'lus 13 
 
 Tam'pa 81 
 
 Ta-na'na-rl-vo' 149 
 
 Tan-gan-yi'ka 145 
 
 Ta-pa'jds (-zhos) 108 
 
 Tash-kend' 137 
 
 T&g-ma'nl-a 152, 153 
 
 Tau'de-ni (tou'-) 148 
 
 Tattn'ton 62 
 
 Tchad 146 
 
 tea 38, 139, 140, 141 
 
 Te-gu-iji'-gai'pa 99 
 
 Te-heran' 138 
 
 T6n-nes-see' 81, 82, 11 
 
 ter'mi-nal mo-raine' 20 
 
 ter'ra-9eg 14, 53 
 
 T6r're Haute' (hot') 73 
 
 tgr'ri-to-ry 55 
 
 Tex'as 83 
 
 Thames (tgmz) 122 j 
 
 TM-an' Shan 113 
 
 TI-bet' 141, 113 
 
 tide 20-21 
 
 Tide'wa-ter region 49, 50 
 
 Ti-6n'tsin 141 
 
 Ti-er'ra del Fue'go 1P3 
 
 Tif-lis' 137 
 
 Ti'gris 114 
 
 Ti-mor' 153 
 
 tin 142, 121, 140, 152, 153 
 
 TIt-i-ca'ca 103, 110 
 
 Ti-u-mSn' 136 
 
 to-bac'co 30, 38, 58, 72, 
 
 98, 100, 108, 137, 141, 148 
 T6-can-tins' 104 
 To'kyo (-ke-6) 142 
 T6-le'do 73 
 Tom-big'bee 51 
 Ton'ga Is. 153 
 Ton-kin' 140 
 T6-pe'ka 77 
 T6-r6Vto 94 
 trade winds 25, 26, 27 
 Trans-cau-ca'sia 137 
 Trans-vaal' 149 
 Tran-syl-va'nI-an Alps 119 
 Treb'i-z5nd 137 
 Tren'ton 71 
 Tri-Sste' 126 
 Trin-I-dad' 100 
 Trip'o-U 147 
 trop'ic 24 
 
 tropical calms 26, 27 
 Troy 69 
 Tuc-son' 87 
 Tu-cu-man' 109 
 tiin'dra 28 
 Tu'nis 147, 148 
 Tu'rin 130 
 
 Tur'kes-tan' 137, 141 
 Tur'key, Turks 132, 137, 
 
 120, 138, 147 
 Tyne E. 122 
 type 33, 34 
 TyrVAene 130 
 U'na-ka Mts. 80 
 United Kingdom 122-124 
 United States 49-91, 37, 
 
 42, 95, 98, 108, 109, 119, 
 
 141 
 up-heav'al 9-12 
 U'ral Mts. 114, 119, 133; 
 
 B. 115 
 U-ru-guay' 109, 108 
 U'taft (or -ta) 87, 11,53 
 U'tl-ca69 
 Va-len'cia (-shl-a), Spain 
 
 130; Venez. Ill 
 val'ley 10, 17 
 Vai-pa-rai'so 110 
 Van-cow'ver 95; I. 93 
 va'por 13 
 
 veg-e-ta'tion regions 28 
 vein 15 
 veldt 149 
 Ven-e-zue'la 111, 100, 104, 
 
 108~ 
 Ven'Ice 130 
 Ve'rft Cruz (cms) 98 
 
 Ver-mont' 64 
 VS-suM-us 130, 12 
 Vicks'burg 81 
 Vic-to'ri-a 95; Aust. 152 
 Victoria Falls 145 
 Vl-6n'na 126 
 Vik'ings 119 
 Vir-gin'I-a 72, 15 
 Virginia City 87 
 Vis'tu-!a 119 
 Vla-di-vos-tok' 136 
 vol-can'ic cone 12 
 vol-ca'no 12, 53, 97, 99, 
 
 103, 114, 141, 142, 153 
 Vol'ga 115 
 Vosges (vozh) 124 
 Vul-ca'no 130 
 Wa'bash 73 
 Wa'co 83 
 wad'y 146 
 Waleg 122-124 
 WaZk'er L. 87 
 Wiir'saw 133 
 Wa'satch 87 
 Wash 122 
 JVash'ing-ton (city) 55, 
 
 71, 72; Mt. 45, 64; 
 
 (state) 90, 38, 53 
 Wat'er-bur-y (-ber-) 65 
 water gap 50, 51 
 wave 20, 21 
 wealth 60, 121. 159 
 w6ath'er-ing 13 
 Wel'tend Canal 68 
 Wel'Hng-ton 153 
 Wen'ner (v6n'-) 125 
 We'ger (va'-) 124 
 West Central States 75 
 Western Aus-tra'li-a 152 
 Western Continent 9-11 
 West In'dieg 99, 100, 47, 
 
 49,69 
 West Point 69 
 West Vir-gin'i-a 72 
 Wet'ter (vet'-) 125 
 wheat 37, 58, 67, 89, 93, 
 
 108, 120, 133, 137-141, 
 
 147, 148, 149, 152 
 Wheel 'ing 72 
 White Mts. 64 
 Wich'I-ta 77 
 Wilkes'bar-re (-1) 67 
 WiWa'metfe B. 90 
 Wil'ming-ton, Del. 71; 
 
 N. C. 80 
 wind 13, 25, 26, 27 
 Win-ne-pe-sau'kee 63 
 Win'ni-peg 94 
 Wi-no'na 76 
 Win'ston 80 
 winter 23, 25 
 Wis-con'sin 75 
 Woon-sock'et 65 
 Worces'ter 65 
 fTran'gSll 113 
 Wy-6'ming 86, 14, 15, 45, 
 
 52 
 Xin-gu' (shen-) 108 
 Ya-blo-noi' 114 
 Y&d'kin 80 
 
 Yang'tze 114, 115, 140 
 Ya-pu'ra 104 
 Ya-zoo' 81 
 year 23 
 
 Yel'ioic-stone 85 
 Yellowstone National 
 
 Park 86, 15 
 Y6n-i-se'i 114, 115 
 Yes 'so 141 
 Yo-ko-ha'ma 142 
 Y6-sem'!-te 89 
 Yoiingg'town 73 
 Yu-ca-tan' 97 
 Yu'kon 95 ; B. 46 
 Za'gros Mts. 114 
 Zam-be'zi (-ze) 145 
 Zan'zl-bar 149 
 ze'nith 6 
 zinc 67, 121, 124 
 zone 24 
 
 Zurich (tsii'riK) 128 
 Zuyder Zee (zoi'der za) 
 
 125 
 
> 
 
 -■:, 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 / 
 
 / 1 bL*l 
 
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 \ 
 
 D'jCt 
 
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 rm. 
 
 fY TI( ««./ 
 
 Buffalo ) 
 
 B ffeSS 
 
 
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 Wichita^ 
 
 Wellinfftonri 
 
 ^ rt 
 
 
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 NOTE: Railroads appear in rtd; important Tru 
 are shown heavier than other*. Isotherm* appear i 
 Mean Annual Fahrenheit, 
 
 Canal* — -— Head of Navigation 4 
 
 V^ Corpus ChriatroC 
 
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 AU«heSS^gmtstuMN^B 
 
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 , "\\ ~ ' McConnollebarK 
 
 
 
 tebanonD » ea dm£ L,m ''^^^^rNTON ^WLong Branch I 
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 fh/. ' yi&ffl. W 
 
 /'aT/IL^'MVmuaF V ' CShcaWoali 
 
 (aHag«rsto*a Weatmln^ter 1 — JK'Jv'S 
 
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 HARLESTON 
 
 Av " "^N ^"J^v^ "^J>"nt«r.vi! 
 
 ^£Xi£ — NJj X ■ / JiV SdRogaa //Wayne 
 
 % M>t, & WUM MibO/ciiivk, 
 
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 Falj-field ' y* ( 
 
 Island Pond . JJ8 Colebrook 
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 ~. ^fl.j/ ™*-«&ow e DanvuVf^ConcW^ '}^f^T5&K Canton> 
 
 « Middlebary ^ (Cor inth" ^averhiU } M * £"""" '"*-° 
 
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 5 Rand,)ipa Bradford;} W-obd.ttx-k'iS S£Sii J 
 
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 ttaftnl ^^'""W^ (Plymouth**™ Sandwibl 
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 SprimaUldojEClarem. 
 W* ifc%V n. Hillst* 
 
 rSbaftEli.ir.v 
 
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 r>aiijrilrt£ji<° ula *<SlltoJJy MMeforifeMbld Orchart 
 
 'T"'" BochestertW"' "^"'o ^"Kcnnebunkpo t 
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 anchesterfe^ 5 Exeter • Lj «isles of »ho»ls 
 
 pf~.}^rr, ,'K „^ Soabwok. Hampton 
 
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 *M*FY 5.7. m /f"'»«4H^^S* to K7 A&^wre)tc?°^ c, P ,Ann 
 
 t/H* 
 
 
 
 <--UiUTiri»non* ) »V.-">r rmtjl^di,^,^- " Warren ■ Ttt >artlibri-luet >- oR«;l<lind 
 
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 4 > it«.[ PrTOVIDENCE' 
 
 Ufiono , v>Vl E . Hartf ,^jM\'illnndiiHc i» ,,-kj |f 
 ■ : ;itew!Eritai« : N_-"Tf o d **Cov°e»»n« 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 6 16 20 3ii S i>o ^ : ?o 35 5©^ I5o 
 
 NOTE: Railroads appear in red; important TruntcLtnes 
 are shown heavier than others. Isotherms appear in brown; 
 Mean Annual Fahrenheit. 
 
 fs^ ^.oxxiHli' i <i -u 't iK,:,:7U w ''V. 
 
 i &,. fP'ivZ. 
 
 Ir'Vork X 
 
 ■ *^Stonington f . x / l e * 
 4?. 'te-. « 
 
 A BL0( 
 
 ^OAJ.OJKERS I. 
 
 S«»"5-irtY^iC>Montauk Pt 
 
 Longitude 72 West from 
 
 BedfotdJftSirhi 
 
 fraIiing£ord\ . New ||jfcA T a rra^i,'ctt I'i-r/_V " W^^ ^ffi 00 ^ 6 c ?- 4J, . 
 
 PJ*IE8, ENfifl.,N T. 
 

 
 Ft.Pfen 
 
 / 1> TTnran ''A fl..!., ...tTS t * I*r-, .Vil.- i III 
 
 "WHUdiear L. 
 
 »,.! , ° afettuwatt 
 
 ideof-'wiiima^Mmiileapolis fo© i pM 
 
 dwix.d FalKS&v. H»d*rsoli,rCannonFaJJ«i>-----*S^fjX, c 
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 ,T ° . ., w l» -E,.^2~. S(Al'" !r r -Zuuii't-i^ 
 
 Huron '£ Desmet «*» VoBrcfomrtgSaiC-^^* j i 8 - ^J**^, Y Fari-SJ ~~~"~wi 
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 S A ( «^l» J^. A-j-J- Tr acy\i< ^^g^_M anjf 
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 iVVoonsoclieta 
 
 awford 
 
 Oatoma JCl'amberlalli^ 1 ix-ll ItapIdA ^P ":!""!^ l~£\>Wiiulom \\Vi, m i-l,axo Cy. 
 
 '^t, 
 
 >» 
 
 
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 (heeler^ $™t» .ffll.Xj* ./cvnte 
 
 kTyiUa 
 
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 I 
 
 iM l 
 
 <A. 
 
 Callaway 
 
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 a Hartinet3?rV»>i:llt Point >*"■ p 2 
 
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 eree 
 
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 $. 8 Jow» FallV< talla*<A rv^^PcAJ 
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 GCreiphton 
 
 ■ Dakota ^P Ida*roy«3 
 
 k^S? 1 T'-tYfe '' fcMadiaon ~f T"" JtJuhoii^ A \ \Xe.^^* U »I^n37^Y ^ 
 
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 I H,l,iri™ ' Hartlng.9 s .°£o ° Frijnd] ^ .^»6?' 
 
 VP^ldregB, Mill d<?IlFlli 5 )u ^ 9 | !ta ^WuberJ *V«^„i 
 
 ^IrC.HA^^^gXAIan lin.lnl Q) i,Uu-liop^r^ y 
 
 >bron ^S/»« or n Pawned OJ, ?a *^5. 
 
 aKeokii 
 
 vvV°, 
 
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 Osborue 
 
 I Gjigdlaild^^-^V — ■ — ■ — ^rt*(A 
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 aron Sprs. 
 
 ^ s&^€^l:x 
 
 Qolncy 
 
 40 
 
 Wak( MB 
 
 Bo 
 
 Minmajiblia ManhittaB Aj^"5 f Hansa« C?H»«J^~T^'^ X " 11<1 " U (,, i «. 
 
 ^^^^^b 1 leno3^ as< 1S^^^^^ 
 
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 Great 
 
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 ptTlysWB 
 
 Meade 
 
 St.Joh 
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 o 
 
 A 8, 
 
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 Cliniton viiui«f JEBFER^O" CY, 
 
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 puol aoKlrak Mt. 1 . 
 
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 Donu)lian&' 
 
 C'l,arl*>l»'> 
 tD'lv*' 1 ' 
 
 rfantat 
 
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 t.v.f MU h»b p oet.. 
 
 Longitude 
 
 from 
 
Time when Noon 5.52 A.M 
 at fffeenwich 92 * 
 
 
VIII 
 
Time when Noon at Greenwich 
 
 3.28 A.M. 
 
 t rom65° 116 Green wich7 0" 
 
Time when Noon at Greenwich 4.08 A.M. 
 118 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^/ Colli 
 
 %H 
 
 ^ 
 
 fj)*^?** 
 
 lernmifci 
 
 JTbuamfg 
 
 ihoteayfo 
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 — : " J8f 
 
 tarter , 
 
 / 
 
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 <S*reiKhli^fn\£-J ^_^y^^f; — Jff-S 
 
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 ^n * ' 
 
 N 0{ 
 
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 /^i»«o^ r l fiCr> 
 
 !V 
 
 1 3T°^ einari 5?T LewtsV>v-- 
 
 Lewis^bwn 
 Big Snowy- 
 
 Mta. ' 
 
 \* "\5 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 X, 
 
 ohi .',,;< , ; 
 
 ..Cra, 
 
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 L.L.FOATEI. ENS*., H.T. 
 
XXIV 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 Position, Boundaries, and Extent. In what section of the United 
 States is California ? What state bounds it on the north ? What state 
 and territory bound it on the east ? What peninsula borders it on the 
 south ? To what country does this peninsula belong ? What forms the 
 western boundary of California ? 
 
 The state extends from 32° 30' to 42° north latitude, a range about 
 equal to that between Charleston, S. C, and Cape Cod, on the Atlantic 
 coast. The southern end of California lies between 114° 80' and 117° 6', 
 and its northern end between 120° and 124° 15' west longitude. The west- 
 ernmost point of the state is Cape Mendocino, in longitude 124° 25' W. 
 
 With the scale of miles find the greatest length of the state from 
 northwest to southeast. Find its width at the northern and at the 
 southern boundary. Where is the broadest part of the state ? Its aver- 
 age length is about 750 miles ; its average width is about 200 miles. 
 
 Of the three states forming the Pacific section of the 
 Union, California is much the largest. It occupies more 
 than one half of our Pacific coast in that section. Its 
 area is 158,360 square miles. Only one state in the Union 
 is larger. Which is it? California is but little smaller 
 than Oregon and Washington united. It is more than 
 three times as large as Pennsylvania or New York, and 
 nearly two and a half times as large as all the New Eng- 
 land states combined. 
 
 Coast. California has a coast line of nearly 1000 miles. 
 It is longer than that of any other state except one. What 
 state is that ? The coast is bold and rocky, with but few 
 marked indentations or good harbors. The wind blows 
 almost constantly from the ocean, and the fogs makeftnavi- 
 gation along the coast dangerous. San Francisco Bay is 
 50 miles long, and its greatest width is about 12 miles. It 
 is entered through the Golden, Gate, a strait one mile wide. 
 The only landlocked harbor north of San Francisco is 
 Humboldt Bay, 230 miles distant. It is 14 miles long and 
 from one to four miles wide, and is protected by headlands 
 and a fine system of jetties. San Diego Bay, 12 miles long, 
 is also completely landlocked. 
 
 San Pedro and Tomales bays also afford well-protected harbors. An- 
 chorages more or less secure are found in Monterey, Drakes, Bodega, 
 Trinidad, and other bays. 
 
 Name the principal islands near the coast. What channel separates 
 the Santa Barbara Islands from the mainland ? The Farallone Islands, 
 some 30 miles west of San Francisco, are the home of innumerable sea 
 fowl. On the southernmost of this group is a noted lighthouse. Its 
 light is 360 feet above sea level. There are many other well-known 
 lights on the coast. 
 
 Surface. What mountain system traverses the western part of the 
 state; the eastern part? Beginning at their junction in the north, 
 describe the trend of each of these mountain systems to their place of 
 meeting in the south. About how large a portion of the state do they 
 inclose 1 ? What mountains in southern California? Of what great range 
 do these seem to be a continuation ? What parts of the state appear to 
 have a comparatively level surface? Where is the Mohave Desert? 
 Copyright, 1899, by American Book Company. 
 
 The variations of surface elevation in California are 
 very remarkable ; for here are both the lowest and (if we 
 except Alaska) the highest lands in our country. The 
 loftiest peaks of the Sierra Nevada rise more than 14,000 
 feet above the level of the sea ; in some parts of the Mo- 
 have Desert are depressions more than 300 feet lower than 
 sea level. The mean elevation of the state is about 2900 
 feet. 
 
 A considerable portion of California is literally sur- 
 rounded by mountain ranges — by the Coast Ranges on 
 the west and the Sierra Nevada on the east. Near the 
 northern boundary of the state, and also in the vicinity of 
 Tejon Pass in the south, the spurs and foothills of these 
 two systems interlock ; but through most of their length 
 the lines which mark their chief watersheds are from 100 
 to 140 miles apart. They thus inclose an elliptical basin, 
 the great central valley of California. 
 
 The Sierra Nevada is the grandest range of mountains in 
 our country. Its length is about 500 miles and its width 
 from 70 to 100 miles. It is highest and also broadest 
 toward the southern part of its extent. Its eastern slopes 
 are short and steep, and for the most part end on the pla- 
 teau of the Great Basin, more than 4000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Its western slopes, which are cut by deep 
 canyons, are long and gradual, and descend to the level of 
 the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. 
 
 The Sierra system is mainly a continuous line with many peaks, the 
 highest of which are always covered with snow. Nineteen of these peaks 
 are each 10,000 feet or more in height. Mount Whitney, the highest, has 
 an altitude of 14,522 feet above sea level. Other great elevations are 
 Mounts Tyndall (14,038 feet), Brewer (13,573 feet), Lyell (13,217 feet), 
 Dana (12,992 feet), and Castle Peak (13,000 feet). Mount Shasta, a mag- 
 nificent snow-clad volcanic cone in the northern part of the state, is 
 14,380 feet high. Lassens Peak (10,437 feet) is second in importance to 
 Mount Shasta among the extinct volcanoes of northern California. 
 Both of these peaks, though often spoken of as belonging to the Sierra 
 Nevada, are more closely associated geologically with the Cascade Moun- 
 tains, which stretch northward from them through Oregon and Wash- 
 ington. Sixty-five glaciers from half a mile to two miles in length exist 
 in California, most of them on the north sides of the highest mountains ; 
 and there are many indications that these glaciers were much more ex- 
 tensive at some time in the past. 
 
 The Coast Ranges extend in a broad, broken belt along 
 the western side of the state. They include many ridges, 
 generally parallel with the shore, and have numerous long 
 spurs on the west. The total width of the Coast Ranges is 
 almost equal to that of the Sierra, but their average height 
 is not half so great. At the Golden Gate the mountains 
 are broken down, making a grand outlet to the ocean. 
 
 To the east of San Francisco and of the hills of Contra Costa stands 
 Mount Diablo (3849 feet), which is the most prominent elevation of the 
 Coast Ranges in this part of the state. Mount St. Helena (about 4350 
 
m 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 m$ 
 
 
 
 V/l 
 
 
 JyJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 >1 
 
 feet), rising at the head of the lovely Napa valley, is also very conspic- 
 uous, and is a beautiful height. 
 
 In southern California the Coast Ranges merge into a 
 confused mass of mountains and hills extending beyond 
 the Mexican boundary. They are highest east of Los 
 Angeles, and are there called the San Bernardino Range. 
 North of Los Angeles they are known as the Sierra Madre ; 
 and farther west, where they merge with the Coast Ranges, 
 they are called the mountains 01 San Buena Ventura. The 
 loftiest peak is Mount San Bernardino (11,600 feet). 
 
 Valleys. Where is the great central valley of California ? What is 
 the general character of its slope 1 By what two great rivers is it 
 drained? What has already been said of some parts of the Mohave 
 Desert ? 
 
 The great central valley is about 400. miles long and 
 from 20 to 50 miles wide. The area of the entire basin is 
 computed to be about 65,000 square miles, of which nearly 
 20,000 square miles is comparatively level. The western 
 lower than the eastern, while of course all 
 slope toward the two main rivers by which 
 valley is drained. 
 
 i the heart of the Sierra, about 150 miles east 
 of San Francisco, is the famous Yosemite 
 j. This chasm is six miles long and 
 >m half a mile to a mile wide. Its al- 
 most vertical granite walls rise from 
 3000 to 5000 feet. From the top of 
 these cliffs the Merced River 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 SSI* 
 
 **& 
 
 a 
 
 RELIEF MAP OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 by N. F. Drake 
 
 6CAIE OF MILES 
 
 20 10 
 
 Copyright, 1898, by N. F. Drake. 
 
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 Santa Cru: 
 JHunterf 
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 and its tributaries fall in grand cataracts from 400 to 1600 
 feet in height. 
 
 Congress in 18G4 granted this valley to California for a public park, 
 and in 1891 the United States government established the Yosemite 
 National Park, which includes 42 townships. It embraces the state park 
 and the drainage basin about it, preserving the forest and water courses. 
 It includes also the Hetch Hetchy Valley, which resembles the Yosemite, 
 although not equal to it in grandeur. The highest point in the National 
 Park is Mount LyelL 
 
 Southward from Yosemite Park are the General Grant 
 and the Sequoia National parks in the grand Sequoia 
 gigantea forest ; and northeast of these forest parks, on the 
 middle and south forks of Kings River, aro two magnifi- 
 cent canyon valleys like tho Yosemite and Hetch Hetchy. 
 Between the western spurs of the Coast Ranges, and 
 running northwest, there aro many river valleys which 
 drain into the Pacific. Some of these are extensive and 
 very fertile. Tho Salinas River valley is one of the lar- 
 gest. The valleys of the Santa Ana, Santa Clara, Napa, 
 Sonoma, Russian, and Eel rivers are also important 
 and interesting. 
 
 A strip along the southwest coast, including the 
 western parts of Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los 
 Angeles, and San Diego counties, has been 
 called the Garden of California. East of 
 this there are fertile valleys, — San Ber- 
 nardino, Riverside, and others, — 
 which are thickly settled. East 
 and southeast of the Sierra 
 
 38) - 
 
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 PHYSICAL MAP OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 SCALE OP MILES 
 
 r 1 1 1 1 — — — r 
 
 20 10 CO 80 .100 
 
 ELEVATIONS 
 
 SAN MIGUEL^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Over 8000 feet 
 6000 to 8000 feet 
 L000 to 6000 feet 
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 1000 to 1000 feet 
 Sea Level WOO feet 
 
 Below Sea Level 
 
 
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 Longitude 
 
 alifornii 
 
there lies an arid region covering nearly one 
 fourth of the state. It belongs mainly to the 
 Great Basin, and is one of the driest and most 
 barren parts of the earth's surface. It includes 
 the sandy and rocky Mohave Desert, stretching 
 between the Sierra and the Colorado Kiver, 
 and also comprises a part of the Colorado 
 Desert. This region has but few inhabitants. 
 
 Other Regions. In the northeastern part of the state 
 there is a rocky plateau, high, bleak, and sterile, broken 
 by short mountain ranges, and traversed by the Pitt River 
 with its deep gorges. It is the lake region of California, 
 and a part of it lies in the Great Basin. In this rugged 
 district there are many beds of lava and volcanic ashes. 
 
 Above the great central valley, north of the parallel of 
 40° and west of Mount Shasta, is a rough, complicated 
 mountain region including the high and rugged plateau 
 of the Klamath. 
 
 Drainage. Which is the largest river in the state? 
 In what direction does it flow ? What river flowing in 
 the opposite direction joins it, and where do they unite ? 
 What great region do they together drain ? What bay 
 do they enter ? Through what other bodies of water do 
 they reach the Pacific? What rivers enter the Pacific 
 north of San Francisco ; south of that city ? What river 
 forms part of the boundary of the state ¥ What lakes are 
 in the northeastern part ; on or near the eastern boun- 
 dary ? Name other lakes in the state. 
 
 Except the Sacramento and the San Joa- 
 quin, the rivers of California are small, and 
 their importance lies in their service to agri- 
 
 culture, mining, and manufactures. The Sacra- 
 mento is about 400 miles long. It rises in the 
 elevated region near Mount Shasta, and soon 
 unites with Pitt River, which is properly re- 
 garded as the upper course of the same stream. 
 It is navigable for light steamers for more than 
 250 miles from its mouth. Many of its tribu- 
 taries, of which the Feather, Yuba, ancT&meri- 
 can rivers are the chief, flow through deep 
 mountain gorges. 
 
 Owing to the considerable rainfall on the western slopes 
 of the Sierra, and to the melting snow on the high moun- 
 tains, many of the streams flowing thence carry a large 
 volume of water even in the dry season. This is not the 
 case, however, with the streams from the eastern slopes of 
 the Coast Ranges. In the dry season most of these sink 
 and disappear soon after leaving the foothills. Most 
 of the permanent water courses on this side of the 
 great central valley rise north of Clear Lake in 
 Lake county. 
 
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 The head waters of the San 
 Joaquin take their rise at the 
 foot of a glacier near the 
 summit of Mount Lyell. 
 The south fork of this 
 river rises near Mount 
 Goddard. The San 
 Joaquin is about 
 350 miles long, 
 flows south- 
 
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■west for 100 miles, then northwest, and finally joins 
 the Sacramento not far east of Suisun Bay. It is 
 navigable for steamers to Stockton. For a considera- 
 ble distance from Suisun Bay the Sacramento and San 
 Joaquin rivers are bordered by tule swamps. The 
 principal tributaries of the San Joaquin are the Mer- 
 ced, Tuolumne, Fresno, Stanislaus, Calaveras, and 
 Mokelumne rivers, all rising in the Sierra. The San 
 Joaquin has* no western tributaries. The south and 
 main fork of the Tuolumne, rising in a glacier on the 
 north side of Mount Lyell, flows through the Big Can- 
 yon, which is noted for its grand scenery. 
 
 Of the rivers flowing directly to the Pacific the largest is the 
 Klamath, which rises in Oregon. From what lake does it issue to 
 enter California? Other important coast rivers are the Eel, Rus- 
 sian, and Salinas. Except the last, the streams from the Coast 
 Eanges south of San Francisco usually sink in the dry season, 
 flowing slowly through gravel and sand to the ocean. 
 
 The Colorado, though forming a part of the southeastern boun- 
 dary of the state, and navigable from the Gulf of California to 
 southern Nevada, is of small service to California from which it has 
 no tributary. Its current is very rapid. 
 
 In the plateau and desert regions east of the Sierra Nevada the 
 drainage has no outlet to the sea. The streams are small and ter- 
 minate in saline lakes, or else disappear by evaporation. The 
 Truckee, outlet of Lake Tahoe, flows into Pyramid Lake, Nevada ; 
 Walker River enters Walker Lake in the same state ; the Carson 
 River flows into Carson Lake, and thence into the sink of the 
 Humboldt and Carson in Nevada; Owens River ends in Owens 
 Lake, Inyo county; and the Mohave River, which is entirely in 
 San Bernardino county, evaporates in the desert. 
 
 Lakes. In the northeastern part of the state is a 
 remarkable lake region. The principal lakes here are 
 Goose, Rhett, and Lower Klamath, all of which are 
 partly in Oregon. These are counted among fresh- 
 water lakes, but earthy salts strongly affect the lake 
 waters of the entire region in Modoc and Lassen coun- 
 ties. Terraces about most of the lakes in this district 
 indicate the location of former shore lines, which tell 
 of times when there was more water in the lakes and 
 at higher levels than now. 
 
 Lake Tahoe, in the Sierra at the angle of the state 
 line, is partly in Nevada. It is a fresh-water lake, 
 about 22 miles long and 12 miles wide, with a some- 
 what regular oval shape. Its surface is over 6200 feet 
 above the level of the sea. It has been sounded to a 
 depth of 1645 feet, and is the deepest lake known in 
 North America, with the exception of Crater Lake in 
 Oregon. This "gem of the. Sierra" is set in a rim of 
 forest-clad mountains rising thousands of feet above 
 it, and occupies the place of what was once a great 
 glacier. The clear waters of the lake give back earth 
 and sky in many-colored, marvelous reflection. In 
 this lake are found several varieties of trout, some of 
 extraordinary size. 
 
 Mono Lake, lying at the eastern base of the Sierra 
 near the Nevada boundary, at an elevation of 6380 
 feet, is strongly alkaline. It is in a region of volcanic 
 cones, and receives streams which rise between Mount 
 Dana and Castle Peak, or drain the mountain slopes 
 and passes still farther south. In form it is nearly 
 circular, with an average diameter of about 12 miles. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Yosemite Valley. 
 
 Clear Lake, in the Coast mountains, is a beautiful body 
 of water and a favorite summer resort. Owens Lake, 
 about 100 miles south of Mono, is some 18 miles long. 
 The waters of Owens Lake are saline, and upon their 
 product has been founded a profitable soda industry. 
 
 In Kings county, in the southern part of the great central valley, is a 
 shallow depression known as Tulare Lake. This lake was formerly about 
 30 miles in length, and received through a number of small streams the 
 drainage from the southern part of the Sierra Nevada, soon losing it all 
 by evaporation. In very wet seasons it occasionally overflowed into the 
 San Joaquin. Most of the water from its tributary, streams is now 
 diverted elsewhere and used in irrigation, and much of the ground once 
 covered by the lake is farming land. 
 
 (Rocks and Soils. The principal rocks of California are 
 comprised in four classes — crystalline, secondary, tertiary, 
 and volcanic. 
 
 The crystalline class includes granites and metamorphic sedimentary 
 or aqueous rocks,— such as schists, sandstones, jasper, etc.,— of doubtful 
 age. Granite and metamorphic rocks constitute the great mass of the 
 Sierra Nevada and parts of the Coast Ranges. The secondary rocks are 
 mostly slates of the western foothill region of the Sierra. The tertiary 
 marine sandstone and shales compose the greater part of the Coast 
 Ranges. 
 
 Volcanic rocks,— lava, basalt, trap, etc.,— abound in California north 
 of the latitude of San Francisco. Although there is now no active volcano 
 in the state, the fact of comparatively recent volcanic activity is shown 
 by the numerous hot springs among the Coast mountains ; the so-called 
 geysers near Clear Lake and Lassens Peak and on the east side of the 
 Sierra south of Mono Lake ; the mud volcanoes of the Colorado Desert ; 
 and by the frequency of earthquakes, especially near the ocean and along 
 the great fault at the eastern foot of the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 In the valleys the soil is generally alluvial — fine wash- 
 ings from the mountain rocks. In the lower valleys it is 
 commonly a warm sandy loam, with here and there patches 
 of heavy black adobe and of yellow clay. In the higher 
 valley and foothill regions there is much gravelly soil. 
 The great central valley, where watered, is very fertile, and 
 the soils are generally of remarkable depth. 
 
 Both the valley and foothill soils are very rich and 
 easily cultivated. In many places they are adapted 
 
 equally for cereals and fruits. The tule lands along the 
 Sacramento and the San Joaquin, when reclaimed and 
 protected by levees against overflow of the rivers, are 
 among the most productive in the state. 
 
 Climate. In California there is a great variety of cli- 
 mate, but, generally speaking, it is dry and equable, and is 
 so healthful that few who conform to its requirements 
 ever suffer from it. Epidemics rarely occur. The temper- 
 ature varies much in different parts of the state, depend- 
 ing largely upon distance from the ocean, the influence of 
 mountains, and elevation above the sef» Relatively, in 
 summer, the weather is cool on the coast and hot in the 
 interior valleys. The sea causes comparative uniformity 
 between the. north and the south, but from east to west the 
 changes are very rapid. Within a few miles of the ocean 
 the climate is one of the most equable in the world. 
 
 In general there are two seasons — the dry, from May to November, 
 and the rainy, from November to May. Snow seldom falls in any but 
 the mountain regions, although the long, severe rainstorms from the 
 southwest are sometimes followed by cold waves, or even by sharp 
 northers. 
 
 The average yearly rainfall decreases quite regularly from nearly 80 
 inches in the extreme northwest to about 4 inches in the southeast cor- 
 ner. At San Diego it is about 10 inches, and at San Francisco 25 inches. 
 For the entire state it is about 20 inches — not more than half that of 
 the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Where the heaviest rainfall occurs, north of Cape Men- 
 docino, the prevailing winds are from the northwest. 
 Below that point, in all but the winter months, westerly 
 winds prevail. These come from the Pacific, where they 
 have been cooled by the California current. 
 
 Lake Tahoe. 
 
 In winter the coast waters are warmer than the land, and the winds 
 blowing from the ocean moderate the cold. Thus at all seasons of the 
 year the climate is modified by the prevailing winds, which have always 
 a nearly uniform temperature. The average monthly means of the tem- 
 perature of the water in the Golden Gate varied less than 10° F. during 
 a period of ten years. The cyclonic winds which move landward from 
 the Pacific carry with them an immense amount of moisture, which is 
 precipitated as rain in the valleys and on the foothills, and as snow on 
 the Sierra. 
 
 The ocean winds enter the great central valley through 
 the San Francisco water gap — the Golden Gate. Among 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 the foothills in this region the summer 
 is quite warm, the temperature ranging 
 from 85° to -95°, and even to 100° or 
 more; but the severity of the heat is 
 much lessened by the dryness of the air 
 and the coolness of the nights. The 
 rainy season here, though sometimes 
 chilly, usually has many agreeable quali- 
 ties. In the high Sierra the winters are 
 long and cold, but the summer middays 
 are often as warm* there as they are on 
 the coast. 
 
 In the Great Basin region east of the 
 Sierra in the Mohave Desert the climate 
 is very severe ; the summer heat is kill- 
 ing, the winter is bitterly cold. 
 
 Fogs are frequent along the coast in both sum- 
 mer and winter. In winter they often extend far 
 inland, modifying the temperature by checking 
 the radiation of heat. In the dry season tl 
 afford grateful moisture to vegetatio, 
 
 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. 
 
 Vegetation. There are more than 100 
 species of forest trees in California, the 
 most important of which are conifers. 
 
 Great forests cover the Coast Ranges A Big Tree 
 
 and the western slopes of the Sierra 
 Nevada, where the rainfall is heavy. They extend from the 
 northern boundary of the state to about latitude 36° 30'. 
 
 On the Sierra the main forest belt reaches from about 4000 to 9000 
 feet above sea level. Farther up, to a height of from 10,000 to 12,000 
 feet, are found junipers, hemlock, and alpine species of pines. On 
 the foothills and in the coast valleys there are sparse growths of oaks, 
 pines, and various kinds of underwoods. On the eastern slope of the 
 Sierra there are open groves of large yellow pine, silver fir, nut pine, 
 and many varieties of shrubs. The great central valley, though mostly 
 treeless, has some of the noblest parklike expanses of oak woods to be 
 found in the world. The southeastern portion of the state is almost 
 destitute of trees. California is rich in flowers of many species. The 
 California buckeye, various species of Ceanothus, and manzanita are 
 widely distributed. These, with thorny shrubs and scrub oaks, form 
 dense thickets called chaparral. 
 
 The most remarkable forest growths are the two species 
 of Sequoia, the giant sequoia (Sequoia giyantea) or " big 
 tree" of the Sierra and the towering redwood (Sequoia 
 semper vir ens) of the Coast Ranges. No other species of 
 Sequoia is known to exist on the globe. The giant 
 sequoia, though exceeded in height by an Australian 
 eucalyptus, is the grandest tree that grows. It is dis- 
 tributed in groves and forests along the western flank of 
 the Sierra, from the middle fork of the American River to 
 the head of Deer Creak, at a height of about 5000 to 8000 
 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 The largest forests are on the Kings, Kaweah, and Tule 
 rivers, but the best known of these gigantic trees are 
 those in the celebrated Mariposa and Calaveras groves. 
 Some of them are over 300 feet in height and measure 
 more than 100 feet in circumference. 
 
 The redwood timber belt is one of the 
 heaviest and most wonderful forests in 
 the world. It occupies a rather narrow 
 strip of the Coast mountains about 30,0 
 miles long, fronting the ocean from 
 Monterey Bay north to Oregon. Many 
 of these trees are of great size. 
 *■ Other trees growing in different parts 
 of the state, many of them among the 
 great forests, include, besides oaks and 
 large yellow pines, the sugar pine, the 
 largest and noblest of all the pines of 
 the world, the Douglas fir, white fir, 
 cedars, maples, and the sycamore, wal- 
 nut, ash, madrofia, and laurel. The ma- 
 drona flourishes in immense groves. The 
 propagation of hard-wood trees receives 
 much attention both from private in- 
 dividuals and from the state itself, whose 
 forestry work is great in scope. 
 
 Animals. There are many species of 
 animals in California. Among them are 
 grizzly, black, and cinnamon bears, deer, 
 antelopes, mountain sheep, cougars, wild- 
 cats, gray wolves, coyotes, foxes, beavers, 
 badgers, raccoons, otters, martens, minks, 
 skunks, hares, gophers, woodchucks, por- 
 cupines, woodrats, and squirrels. 
 
 Among the birds are vultures, eagles, hawks, owls, grouse, quail, 
 geese, ducks, swans, and chaparral cocks or road runners. Mention 
 some of the song birds. 
 
 Game is abundant in many parts of the state. Trout abound in 
 many of the streams. In the coast waters are found the salmon, tuna, 
 sturgeon, black sea bass or jewfish, barracuda, rockfish, turbot, herring, 
 sole, smelt, halibut, mackerel, flounder, cod, and oysters and other shell- 
 fish. The fisheries of California are steadily increasing in value. The 
 whale fishery carried on from this state is now the largest in the country. 
 
 Herds of seals and sea lions inhabit the coast. Some having perma- 
 nent rookeries on small islands close to San Francisco are of much inter- 
 est to sight-seers, but are considered very injurious to the fishing interest. 
 
 Ruins of an Old Spanish Mission. 
 
8 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Wheat Harvester. 
 
 Agriculture. It is truly said of California that the dis- 
 covery of her agricultural capabilities was greater than 
 the discovery of gold, and that her wealth in grains and 
 fruits is greater than that which is dug from her mines. 
 About 40" per cent of the land in the state is arable, and 
 
 irrigation is constantly in- 
 creasing the area of tillage, 
 particularly in the southern 
 part. Agriculture is the 
 most general occupation, 
 employing about one fourth 
 of the working people, the 
 profits of whose labor are 
 yearly counted in tens and 
 scores of millions of dollars. 
 In California there are 
 some of the largest wheat, 
 stock, and dairy farms in 
 the world; and the vine- 
 yards, orange groves, and 
 orchards embrace over 300,- 
 000 acres. No other state 
 has such a variety of agricul- 
 tural products. In wheat- 
 growing it is one of the leading states of the Union, 
 producing from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 bushels each year. 
 Most of the crop is raised in the great central valley, where 
 some single fields contain thousands of acres of productive 
 land. 
 
 Many varieties of wheat are grown. The climate imparts to wheat a 
 durable quality especially fitting it for export, and enormous quantities 
 are shipped to other states and to foreign ports. Barley, in the raising 
 of which California is the first state in the Union, is the next largest 
 crop, more than 17,000,000 bushels being sometimes produced in a single 
 year. Oats and rye are raised to some extent. Other productions are 
 hops, beans, pease, potatoes, sugar beets, sweet potatoes, alfalfa, and a 
 little ramie, cotton, and tobacco. Garden vegetables are cultivated in 
 large quantities. 
 
 Stock-raising is an industry of great extent. Fine 
 breeds of horses, cattle, and sheep are reared. California 
 
 Branch of Olives. 
 
 is one of the largest wool-growing states in 
 the Union. The bunch grasses, wild oats, 
 bur clover, and other natural herbage of the 
 mountain foothills and valleys afford rich 
 pasture. In October the grasses spring up, 
 and they-make fresh grazing until June, when 
 the sun cures the feed as it stands. 
 
 The long grazing seasons are favorable to the dairy 
 ing industry, which is represented by numerous cream- 
 eries and cheese factories. Most of the dairying lands 
 are in the coast counties from Point Conception north 
 for 400 miles, and in the San Joaquin and Sacramento 
 valleys, where, in addition to grazing, alfalfa flourishes. 
 In the river valleys of Humboldt county and other re- 
 gions of the north coast are some of the best dairy 
 districts in the United States. In southern California 
 there are several ostrich farms, where ostriches are bred 
 for the profit obtained from their feathers. 
 
 Over two thirds of the arable land is 
 adapted for fruit, and nearly all the important fruits of 
 the temperate and subtropical climates are produced in 
 abundance. Thousands of car loads of both deciduous 
 and citrus fruits are annually shipped from the state. 
 
 Grape-growing is an industry of the first importance. 
 The vine flourishes in nearly all parts of the interior below 
 an elevation of 4000 feet. The annual wine product is 
 from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 gallons, two thirds of which 
 is exported. In the hot, dry interior basins great quanti- 
 ties of grapes are made into raisins; of which several mil- 
 lion boxes are exported annually. More than half the 
 raisins consumed in our country are supplied by California. 
 
 Plums, peaches, pears, apples, cherries, prunes, apricots, nectarines, 
 figs, and olives thrive in most parts of the state. Oranges, lemons, limes, 
 and walnuts, almonds, and other nuts grow in southern California and 
 in the valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin. Strawberries, rasp- 
 berries, blackberries, currants, and other small fruits are grown -and 
 canned in large quantities. Strawberries are marketed in every month 
 except January and February. In several of the southern counties bee 
 culture is carried on, and a large amount of fine honey is exported. 
 
 Sheep Ranch. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Successful agriculture in many parts of the state depends on irriga- 
 tion. The practice of irrigation really began in California before the 
 nineteenth century, but although several million acres are now irrigated, 
 it is yet only local. In addition to the mountain streams, there are 
 thousands of artesian wells which are a valuable aid in irrigation. Some 
 in the Santa Ana River basin, the San Joaquin valley, and elsewhere, 
 have a flow of over 1,000,000 gallons a day. Irrigation is also assisted in 
 many places by windmills and steam pumps for raising water from wells. 
 
 Mineral Productions. Of all the resources of Cali- 
 fornia none are more extraordinary than her mineral treas- 
 ures. Chief among these are the immense gold deposits, 
 from which vast wealth has been derived, and which are 
 still among the richest in the world. 
 
 For 20 years after the discovery of gold, mining was the leading in- 
 dustry of California ; then it became second to agriculture. Gold de- 
 posits exist from the Oregon boundary to the Colorado Desert, but by 
 far the greater part of the gold-mining has been done in the northern 
 half of the Sierra Nevada and among the Shasta and Siskiyou mountains. 
 Mines in the southern desert regions, especially in the famous Rand dis- 
 trict about Randsburg, have been extensively opened up. 
 
 The gold obtained from California in 1902 was valued at about $17,- 
 000,000, being a little more than one fourth of the total product of the 
 United States. Since 1848 California is estimated to have produced in 
 
 New Almaden Quicksilver Mine. 
 
 gold more than $1,200,000,000. Experts declare that there is still more 
 gold in the mines of the state than has been taken out. 
 
 Gold is obtained from quartz mines by crushing the gold-bearing 
 quartz rock, and from gravel banks by washing away the earth. Many 
 methods are employed in gold-mining, and California has some of the 
 finest mining machinery in the country. 
 
 Silver is found in many places in California. There are 
 mines of this metal in the southern part and on the eastern 
 slope of the Sierra. Quicksilver is a valuable product, of 
 which California supplies nearly all that is obtained in our 
 country. It occurs in the Coast Ranges from Los Angeles 
 county to Trinity. Copper ore is found in Fresno, Cala- 
 veras, Nevada, Shasta, and other counties. The Shasta-belt 
 is especially important. Bituminous coal and lignite are 
 mined in the Coast Ranges and in the great central valley. 
 
 A good grade of lignite is mined at Tesla. From this place the dis- 
 tribution of electric power to many distant points is effected by the 
 burning of slack, screenings, carboniferous bone, etc., in furnaces con- 
 nected with the mine. Borax is an important product of San Bernardino 
 and Inyo counties, from which is obtained the greater part of all that is 
 produced in the United States. 
 
 Gathering Grapes. 
 
 Other minerals of California are petroleum and natural gas, soda, salt, 
 sulphur, cinnabar, asphaltum, chromic and hematite iron ores, asbestos, 
 plumbago, and antimony. Excellent building stones, — granite, sand- 
 stone, and marble, — are quarried in different parts of the state. Mexi- 
 can onyx, slate, and limestone are also obtained. 
 
 The total value of mineral products in the state is from $25,000,000 to 
 $30,000,000 a year. There are in California more than 100 mineral 
 springs possessing medicinal qualities. Some of them are famous resorts. 
 
 Lumbering. The mountain forests furnish unlimited 
 material for lumbering. The most valuable lumber trees 
 are the redwood, of which the largest growth is in Hum- 
 boldt county ; sugar and yellow pine, which are obtained 
 from the Sierra regions ; and the great firs and cedars. 
 
 Manufactures. No other industry of the state equals 
 manufacturing in the value of its products, which yearly 
 exceeds $300,000,000. The principal manufactures include 
 refined sugar, packed meat, lumber, flour, canned fruits and 
 vegetables, foundry and machine-shop products, wines and 
 malt liquors, cars, leather, printed matter, and explosives. 
 
 Entrance to a Gold Mine. 
 
10 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Library, University of California. 
 
 Mining machinery and tools and articles of general outfit for miners 
 are special products of great importance, a large part of which is sent to 
 regions beyond the state, even to the mining districts of the Yukon 
 country in Alaska and Canada. The numerous lumber mills of Hum- 
 boldt county manufacture over 200,000,000 feet of lumber annually. 
 Many million pounds of beet sugar are made eachyear. 
 
 Commerce and Transportation. The commerce of the 
 state, domestic and foreign, is very extensive. California 
 is connected by steamship lines with Hawaii, Japan, China, 
 India, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, and South America. 
 It carries on an important coasting trade in the Pacific, 
 from Alaska to Chile, and with Atlantic ports by way of 
 Panama and Cape Horn. Several trunk lines of railroad 
 connect it with the Atlantic seaboard. The railroads now 
 in operation within the state have an aggregate length of 
 over 6000 miles. 
 
 The leading exports are wheat and flour, wine, gold, 
 wool, and fresh, dried, and canned fruits. The chief im- 
 ports are tea, coffee, sugar, rice, and manufactured articles. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 The first white men within sight of what is now the 
 state of California were probably Hernando de Alarcon 
 and his party, who in 1540 ascended the Colorado Eiver 
 for perhaps 100 miles above its mouth. In 1542^3 an 
 expedition under Cabrillo, a Spanish officer, sailed along 
 the coast as far as the forty-second degree of north lati- 
 tude. In 1579 Sir Francis Drake, the famous English 
 navigator, visited the coast, and is supposed to have 
 landed in the bay which bears his name. 
 
 The name California was taken from an old Spanish romance. It was 
 first given to some locality of the peninsula or coast, and afterwards ex- 
 tended over the Great Basin and indefinitely northward. California has 
 been called the " Switzerland of America," the " Summerland of Amer- 
 ica," and the like. 
 
 The first Spanish settlement was made at San Diego in 
 1769, by Franciscan fathers. During the next 50 years 
 
 they established 20 missions along a narrow strip near the 
 coast from that point to San Francisco. About these mis- 
 sions they gathered the Indians, and taught and employed 
 them. Spanish dominion lasted until 1821. In that year 
 Mexico declared her independence of Spain, and in 1824 
 California became a territory of the republic of Mexico. 
 
 The Mexican rule continued till 1846, when, mainly 
 through the action of American settlers, the independence 
 of California was asserted and, with United States military 
 aid, maintained, the authority of our government being 
 established here in 1847. Meanwhile the Mexican war was 
 in progress. It was ended February 2, 1848, by the treaty 
 of Guadalupe Hidalgo, whereby California, with other 
 territory, was formally ceded to the United States. Just 
 before the conclusion of this treaty the great discovery of 
 gold was made, from which dates the rapid growth of Cali- 
 fornia and its development into a leading state of the Union. 
 
 Reports of gold in California had come from Drake and others before 
 the seventeenth century, and the Mexicans had probably found gold here. 
 But in January, 1848, came the discovery that aroused the world, when 
 James Wilson Marshall (from New Jersey) found gold grains in the 
 tailrace of John A. Sutter's /nill, in what is now the township of Coloma, 
 Eldorado county. Soon the gold-bearing nature of the region was 
 widely known, and the precious area rapidly enlarged under the search 
 of an ever-increasing number of prospectors. The excitement spread 
 throughout the world, and was followed by a rush of gold seekers, who 
 have been termed " Argonauts." Within a few months there were tens 
 of thousands of them in California. Many came overland across the 
 continent, and others by water, some crossing the Isthmus of Panama, 
 and some sailing round Cape Hqrn. 
 
 Many of them fell by the way from hardship, disease, and Indian as- 
 sault, but still the vast army increased. The great harbor of San Fran- 
 cisco was quickly crowded with the ships of different nations, and a 
 strange city of tents and sheds sprang up. This was to be rapidly 
 replaced by the noble metropolis at the Golden Gate. 
 
 California was admitted to the Union as a state Septem- 
 ber -0, 1850. During the next few years there was a strug- 
 gle for supremacy between the lawless and the law-abiding 
 in the new community, resulting in the complete estab- 
 lishment of social order. The subsequent growth of the 
 state has been normal and steady. Her career of pros- 
 perity has followed from the supplementing of great min- 
 eral industries by the rapid development of her vast agri- 
 cultural and manufacturing resources, and from her very 
 liberal provision for public education and advancement. 
 
 
 nit 
 
 Encina Hall, Leland Stanford Junior University. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 11 
 
 Lick Observatory. 
 
 During the civil war California remained faithful to the 
 Union, and with men and treasure maintained its cause. 
 
 The population of the state increased from 92,597 in 
 1850 to 379,994 in 1860. In 1900 it was 1,485,053. 
 
 Government. The legislative department consists of a senate and an 
 assembly. Senators are elected for four years, and members of the 
 assembly for two years. The sessions of the legislature are biennial. 
 
 The executive department includes a governor, lieutenant-governor, 
 secretary of state, controller, treasurer, attorney-general, surveyor- 
 general, clerk of the supreme court, superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion, and superintendent of state printing, all elected for four years. 
 
 The judicial department comprises the senate sitting as a court of im- 
 peachment, a supreme court, superior courts, justices of the peace, and 
 such inferior courts as the legislature may establish. 
 
 Calif ornia is divided into 57 counties. The state has 2 senators and 8 
 representatives in Congress, and 10 votes in the electoral college. 
 
 Education. The constitution provides that a free school 
 shall be kept up and supported in every district of the 
 state for at least six months of the year. 
 
 V 
 
 The state has a large school fund, and the total annual expenditure 
 for the support of the public schools is about $8,000,000. Each county 
 has a board of education and a superintendent, and every school district 
 has a board of trustees. High schools are maintained in the cities and 
 larger towns, and by union of school districts throughout the state. 
 
 The University of California at Berkeley is free to young 
 men and women. It is largely endowed, and is one of the 
 best equipped and most progressive institutions in the 
 country. It has a large bequest for the erection of new 
 buildings on its extensive grounds overlooking the Golden 
 Gate, and now has an enrollment of about 4000 students. 
 
 The Lick Observatory, which is located on Mount Hamilton, is a de- 
 partment of the University of California. The famous Lick telescope is 
 one of the largest instruments of its kind in the world. 
 
 There are five state normal schools — at San Francisco, 
 San Jose, Los Angeles, Chico, and San Diego. The state 
 also supports institutions for the deaf and dumb, the blind, 
 and the feeble-minded. Its reform schools and prisons are 
 well conducted, and it gives aid to various orphan homes. 
 
 There are many excellent private and denominational schools of vari- 
 ous grades. The Leland Stanford Junior University at Palo Alto has 
 an endowment of many million dollars, and offers free tuition to both 
 
 sexes. Both in tho public and the leading private schools of the state a 
 prominent feature is military instruction and training. The cadet corps 
 of the university of California includes the general body of male students, 
 and military drill is a regular requirement. aJ^ 
 
 CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 About one third of the people live in San Francisco, 
 Los Angeles, and Oakland; so, reckoning smaller cities, 
 the urban population of California is relatively large. 
 
 San Francisco, the principal city and seaport of the 
 Pacific coast, is coextensive with San Francisco county. 
 It is situated on the hilly peninsula lying between San 
 Franidsco Bay and the ocean, south of the Golden Gate. 
 Its harbor is one of the finest in the world. In foreign 
 commerce San Francisco is one of the leading cities of the 
 United States. Its chief exports and imports correspond 
 withjhxwse^5fthe state at large. 
 
 Among its important manufactures are mining machinery, ironwork, 
 clothing, furniture, fruit cans and boxes, agricultural implements, boots 
 and shoes, carriages, and saddlery. Here are shipyards, great sugar re- 
 fineries, flour mills, packing houses, steel, copper, lead, iron, and brass 
 works, breweries and distilleries, tanneries, salmon- and fruit-canning 
 establishments, and borax works. There are also many other manu- 
 factories with a variety of products. 
 
 The city had its beginning in the little American and British trading 
 village of Yerba Buena, to which the name of San Francisco was given 
 in 1847. Upon the opening of the gold fields, this was found to be the 
 natural place of entrance from the sea, and the growth here of a great 
 city was assured from the first. In January, 1848, the population was 
 some 800. The population in 1900 was 342,782. 
 
 San Francisco has many notable buildings, and is the location of a 
 great United States mint. Besides the Golden Gate Park, containing 
 1050 acres, there are several smaller parks and many handsome public 
 squares. In addition to its excellent public schools, the city has many 
 private and denominational schools and colleges of high rank. 
 
 Los Angeles, the county seat of Los Angeles county, is 
 the second city in the state, and the business center of 
 southern California. It is noted for its orange groves, de- 
 ciduous fruit orchards, and vineyards, and is a favorite 
 winter resort. Its , population in 1900 was 102,479. Here 
 are productive oil wells, and the city has growing manu- 
 
 City Hall, San Francisco. 
 
12 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 factures. The educational 
 facilities are excellent. 
 
 Oakland, the county seat of 
 Alameda county, is on the 
 east side of San Francisco 
 Bay, and is closely connected 
 with San Francisco by fer- 
 ries. It is a favorite place 
 of residence, with beautiful 
 trees and gardens and a very 
 mild climate. The city has 
 manufactures of hosiery, cot- 
 ton goods, jute, nails, borax, 
 and other articles; a lai'ge 
 trade, and a fine school sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Sacramento, the capital of 
 California and county seat of state Capitol, 
 
 Sacramento county, is situated at the junction of the 
 Sacramento and American rivers. The state capitol is a 
 grand building, erected at a cost of about $3,000,000. 
 
 The city is in the center of a rich farming and fruit-growing region. 
 It has a large trade, and ships deciduous fruits in immense quantities. 
 Here are extensive railroad shops, and manufactories of flour, agricul- 
 tural implements, and numerous other products. Sacramento has excel- 
 lent public schools, besides several institutions for higher education. 
 
 San Jose, the county seat of Santa Clara county, is the trade center of 
 the rich and beautiful Santa Clara valley. The city deals in large quan- 
 tities of fresh, cured, and canned fruits. Besides the state normal school, 
 San Jose has other excellent educational institutions. 
 
 San Diego, the county seat of San Diego county, has one of the best 
 harbors, after San Francisco, on the Pacific coast. On account of its 
 equable climate, it is a favorite summer and winter resort. It carries on 
 an active trade with Lower California, and exports much fruit and honey. 
 
 Stockton, the county seat of San Joaquin county, on the Stockton 
 channel, which connects the city with the San Joaquin River, carries on 
 an extensive trade with the surrounding country in wheat, wool, and 
 other agricultural products. Here are important manufactures, including 
 agricultural implements, flour, carriages, and many other articles. The 
 schools of Stockton are excellent, and the city has a fine public library. 
 
 Alameda, contiguous to Oakland on the south, is, like the latter, an 
 attractive place of residence for people doing business in San Francisco. 
 
 Berkeley, adjoining Oakland on the north, is not only the seat of the 
 University of California, but also of the State Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 
 Asylum. It has various manufactures. 
 
 Fresno^ the county seat of Fresno county, is the trade center of a 
 large vine- and fruit-growing region, made fertile by irrigation, and 
 noted for the production of raisins. 
 
 Pasadena, in Los Angeles county, is a favorite health resort and resi- 
 dence city, beautifully situated on high, well-drained mesa land, nine 
 miles north of Los Angeles. It is the center of a great fruit district. 
 
 Riverside, the county seat of Riverside county, is a beautiful thriving 
 city, and the center of a rich orange growing district. 
 
 Vallejo, in Solano county, on San Pablo Bay, has large flour mills and 
 other manufactories. Here is a United States navy yard on Mare 
 Island, near the city. 
 
 Eureka, the county seat of Humboldt county, is a seaport on Hum- 
 boldt Bay. It is in the redwood region, and besides its large lumber 
 trade, it has important interests in agriculture, horticulture, and dairying. 
 
 Santa Rosa, the county seat of Sonoma county, is the business center 
 of the fertile Russian River valley. It has large interests in agriculture, 
 wine making, and dairying. 
 
 Santa Barbara, the county seat of Santa Barbara county, is on the 
 sea-coast, in a beautiful region of fruits and flowers, and is a noted 
 health resort with a delightful climate. 
 
 San Bernardino, the county seat 
 of San* Bernardino county, is sur- 
 rounded by vineyards and orange 
 groves. It has many artesian wells. 
 Santa Cruz, the county seat of 
 Santa Cruz county, is a noted sum- 
 mer resort for sea bathing. The 
 city has numerous manufactures. 
 
 Pomona, in Los Angeles county, 
 is in a rich fruit region. Here are 
 olive oil works and other manufac- 
 tories. Pomona has good schools 
 and a public library. 
 
 Santa Ana, the county seat of 
 Orange county, is a flourishing city 
 in a rich agricultural and horticul- 
 tural district. The city has a large 
 trade and some manufactures. 
 
 Bakersfield, Kern county, railroad 
 machine shops and other manufac- 
 Sacramento. tories; center of fruit and agricul- 
 
 tural region and the important Kern River oil fields. 
 
 Auburn, Placer county, mining, fruit growing, and wine making} 
 breweries; health resort. Benicia, Solano county, tanneries, agricul- 
 tural works, fruit and fish canneries, pottery works, shipyard ; United 
 States arsenal and barracks. Chico, Butte county, large trade in farm 
 products, fresh and dried fruits, lumber, and mining supplies ; various 
 and important manufactures. Grass Valley, Nevada county, thriving 
 city in a region of extensive quartz mines. Hanford, Kings county, ship- 
 ping point for agricultural products and live stock. Long Beach, Los 
 Angeles county, summer resort on Pacific Ocean. Marysville, Yuba 
 county, large mining and agricultural trade ; variety of manufactories. 
 Modesto, Stanislaus county, center of a fine farming region. Napa, 
 Napa county, commands the large trade of Napa valley ; various impor- 
 tant manufactures. Nevada City, Nevada county, center of an extensive 
 gold quartz mining district. 
 
 Petaluma, Sonoma county, shipping point for farm products of the 
 county ; extensive manufactures. Placerville, Eldorado county, large 
 trade in agricultural and mining supplies ; a center of deciduous fruit 
 industry. Red Bluff, Tehama county, at head of steamer navigation on 
 the Sacramento, large trade in farm products and lumber. Redding, 
 Shasta county, trade center of a large district. Redlands, San Bernar- 
 dino county, extensive fruit and lumber business. Salinas, Monterey 
 county, large business in flour and lumber. San Leandro, Alameda 
 county, agriculture and fruit growing ; manufacturing. San Luis 
 Obispo, in county of same name, and in fine fruit-growing and agricul- 
 tural district ; various manufactures. San Rafael, Marin county, on San 
 Francisco Bay, in a great dairying region ; summer resort. Santa Clara, 
 Santa Clara county, a flourishing place in a rich agricultural region ; 
 various manufactures. Santa Monica, Los Angeles county, shipping 
 port for products of southern California ; summer resort. Tulare, Tulare 
 county, prosperous city in the southern part of the San Joaquin valley; 
 agriculture and fruit growing. Ventura, in county of same name, im- 
 portant business in oil, lumber, and asphaltum. Visalia, Tulare county, 
 center of large grain and fruit region in San Joaquin valley. Watson- 
 ville, Santa Cruz county, beet sugar, fruit and lumber industries. Wood- 
 land, Yolo county, flourishing city in fine agricultural and fruit district ; 
 variety of manufactures ; superior educational facilities. Yreka, Siskiyou 
 county, in northern part of California, trade center of large farming, 
 lumbering, fruit, and gold-mining region. Most of these places are the 
 county seats of their respective counties. 
 
 Among other places of importance may be mentioned: Gilroy, Los_ 
 Gatos, and Palo Alto, in Santa Clara county ; Hay wards and Liverrnore, in 
 Alameda county ; Healdsburg, in Sonoma county ; Merced, in Merced 
 county ; Monterey, in Monterey county ; Saint Helena, in Napa county ; 
 San Mateo and Redwood City, in San Mateo county; San Pedro and 
 Whittier, in Los Angeles county ; Sausalito, in Marin county ; Sonora, in 
 Tuolumne county ; and Ukiah and Fort Bragg, in Mendocino -county. 
 
 Xa^ <H d- 
 
 \~s 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 13 
 
 SOME GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 
 
 By Ruliff S. Holway, Instructor in the University of California. 
 
 On finishing this book, the graduates of the grammar 
 schools are presumed to be prepared to continue the intel- 
 ligent study of geography as they go on with their work 
 in life. Geography is a broad subject. No matter what 
 may be one's calling in life, he is constantly influenced 
 by geographical conditions. Uncivilized man was largely 
 controlled by the natural conditions surrounding him; 
 civilized man is more and more learning to make use of 
 his environment instead of being retarded by it. 
 
 The best industrial future for California is to be obtained 
 by a careful study of our winds and rainfall ; of our soil 
 and the structure of our mountains; of the storms, cur- 
 rents, and tides of the ocean we face; of the conditions 
 and wants of the peoples whose trade we desire : in fact, 
 of all the numberless problems of geography involved in 
 the different occupations of our people. 
 
 The youth of California are fortunate in that the physical geography 
 of the state is so extremely varied, and that it presents so many as yet 
 unsolved problems. There are many pressing questions of practical 
 importance the solution of 
 which means financial reward, 
 and still other problems of in- 
 terest to students of science for 
 its own sake. Furthermore, 
 the history of the past shows 
 that the questions of pure sci- 
 ence of to-day frequently be- 
 come the conditions of practical 
 business to-morrow. 
 
 In presenting in the simplest 
 and clearest way the fundamen- 
 tal facts and principles of a 
 school geography, it is not ad- 
 visable to point out the great 
 number of things which we do 
 not yet understand; conse- 
 quently there is danger that the 
 
 pupil may be given the impres- Irrigation 
 
 sion that everything in geog- 
 raphy is well settled and established. In reality it is difficult to be 
 entirely certain even of some of the facts and principles asserted in the 
 preceding pages. Every question solved reveals new ones to be attacked. 
 A few of the problems now apparent to the people of California will be 
 stated to supplement the main text of this book, and to suggest the need 
 for more investigation by the young men and women of the immediate 
 future. 
 
 These problems will be found to affect all kinds of business. The 
 merchant, the farmer, the miner — in fact, men in every occupation, will 
 be interested in the solution, which will often demand the best of prelim- 
 inary training and also long years of careful observation and study. The 
 thoughtful observations of the man engaged in practical work in the 
 field, and the most abstract studies of the university specialist are both 
 needed in such an every-day business as making the soil and the insect 
 life of a California ranch work together, with the changing weather con- 
 ditions, to produce the most valuable crop. 
 
 Irrigation. — If a man buys a piece of land, does he at 
 the same time buy the right to all the rain that falls on 
 that land ? The natural answer at first seems to be that 
 he does, as a matter of course. But if a man goes into the 
 foot-hills and buys a few thousand acres that form the 
 basin for the head- waters of a stream flowing out into some 
 
 Copyright, 1904, by the People of the State of California. 
 
 cultivated valley, does he buy the right to all the rain that 
 falls on that land? If so, he can build a dam and catch 
 all that water and sell it to a distant city, thereby depriv- 
 ing the people in the valley of the stream that formerly 
 flowed through their lands. 
 
 Is this question agitating your neighborhood now 1 It appears in so 
 many forms that it is not likely to be soon settled. Again, a man buys 
 a ranch with a flowing artesian well upon it. Does he buy the right to 
 keep other men on other laud from using water that may stop his well 
 from flowing? Who owns the underground waters of California? If 
 the people in the upper part of a valley put down so many wells that the 
 people in the lower part cannot get as much water as they need, have 
 those below a right to complain 1 
 
 Just think of the work to be done to settle all of these questions. We 
 must have the structure of the mountains and valleys worked out so 
 as to know from what place the water of our wells really comes. We 
 must also have fair and just laws as to the rights of these different 
 people. In law we wisely follow the precedent set by older decisions if 
 possible. But with new conditions, the people, through their lawyers, 
 their courts, and their legislatures, must work out new laws founded on 
 justice and equity. 
 
 Fortunately, the problem of irrigation in many parts of the state has 
 not brought up all these questions. Frequently there has been arid land, 
 suitable for cultivation, lying at the foot of the mountains and unoccupied 
 
 by people ; or mountains with 
 more water there than the peo- 
 ple can possibly use. In such 
 places the question has been 
 largely one for engineers. They 
 have had to plan dams that 
 would without question be 
 strong enough to hold the im- 
 mense pressure of the stored 
 water. They have had to make 
 surveys and to plan the loca- 
 tion of the dams and the distri- 
 bution of the ditches so as to 
 give the best service at the most 
 reasonable cost. The engineer- 
 ing questions that arise in doing 
 these things well are not by 
 any means solved. You see 
 Dam - that this irrigation question is 
 
 a question for farmers, lawyers, 
 judges, legislators, geologists, and engineers. These men are not all 
 geographers, but when this work is done, the changes that are brought 
 about in the occupation of the people and in the productions of the 
 state come within the province of geography and will be described in 
 the text-books of the future. Think of the work before the people of 
 California in this one question of irrigation ! 
 
 
 The Soil. — The farmers of this and of other states have 
 found that certain crops do well on certain soils and fail 
 on others. This knowledge has often been gained in Cali- 
 fornia fruit-raising by the expensive experience of giving 
 several years' labor and money to proving that a particu- 
 lar fruit tree is a failure in a certain locality. One of the 
 problems of the future is to determine for what crop a 
 particular soil in a given locality is best adapted without 
 an attempt to raise the crop. The fact that some of the 
 early efforts to make such a determination have not been 
 entirely satisfactory will doubtless spur to greater activity 
 the men working in this line. 
 
 In connection with the two general problems of soil and irrigation it 
 may be wise to call attention to the fact that irrigation is not to be 
 
14 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 thought of as an added burden for the agriculturist. It is generally true 
 that arid soils are from three to four times as rich as humid soils. 
 Hence, when water is brought to them, they are exceedingly productive. 
 Again, where the average rainfall is enough to produce crops, a year of 
 drought may cause an utter failure for the season. With irrigation the 
 farmer is independent of the time of rainfall. 
 
 Work of the United States Hydrographic Office.— Study the maps 
 of winds and ocean currents, pp. 26-27. What are trade winds ? Which 
 way do they blow near Honolulu ? What is the probable cause of ocean 
 currents ? Study the ocean currents of the North Pacific. 
 
 There are two important ways of improving commerce. 
 One is to make over geographical conditions so as to fit the 
 needs of man. For example, 
 you will probably see in a 
 few years a canal across the 
 Isthmus of Panama. So far 
 as commerce is concerned, 
 that is making a strait con- 
 necting the Atlantic with 
 the Pacific and separating 
 North and South America. 
 Another way to improve 
 commerce is to study the 
 geographical conditions as 
 they are and to learn to 
 make use of them. To help 
 in this latter way is the work 
 of the Hydrographic Office. 
 It studies the ocean with 
 regards to commerce, and 
 every month it issues pilot- 
 charts of the North Pacific 
 and of the North Atlantic 
 for the guidance of vessels. 
 
 These charts show the probable 
 winds, currents, fogs, the usual path 
 of storms, the fishing banks, and 
 many other things. Here is a re- 
 production of a part of the North 
 Pacific chart for January, 1904. 
 The routes of vessels, the variation 
 of the magnetic needle, and other 
 interesting things are omitted to 
 make the rest legible on the small 
 
 copy. Perhaps your teacher will write to the United States Hydro- 
 graphic Office at San Francisco or Washington and ask for a complete 
 chart. If you get one, see if you can tell the reason that sailing vessels 
 from San Diego or San Francisco start off to the south of west on their 
 way north to Puget Sound. 
 
 On the chart the small black arrows show the direction of the ocean 
 currents. The heavier arrows show the winds — the length of the arrow 
 being in proportion to the number of days in the month that the wind 
 is from that direction. 
 
 Now compare the idea of trade winds given in the first part of the 
 geography with this chart made for use in practical navigation. Study 
 the chart in the neighborhood of the Hawaiian Islands. What direction 
 has the wind directly east of these islands ? Can you find the place on 
 the chart where the winds are most like the idea you obtained from the 
 text-book? Do you see why in the text-book the trades are called 
 "nearly constant winds ? " The ocean currents on the pilot-chart are 
 shown by arrows representing the prevailing currents only. In the middle 
 of the North Atlantic the current flowed eastward as represented in the 
 
 geography in only 62 per cent, of a large number of observations. 1 The 
 pilot-chart for the North Pacific prints on the chart a statement that the 
 currents are marked from very scanty information, and asks masters of 
 vessels to help in the further study. Notice that the arrows in the 
 south-flowing current off California are not perfectly regular in direction, 
 and note particularly the north-flowing current close in shore. This is 
 called the Davidson Inshore Eddy. The water for 100 to 150 miles off 
 shore is also colder thah- that further out. This fact is important as one 
 cause of the coast fogs which are so common. 
 
 There does not seem to be a warm Japan current washing our coast 
 as is sometimes said. The equatorial current flowing northward by the 
 Philippines is about 86° F., but after its long drift of over 4000 miles 
 across the Northern Pacific it is not surprising that off San Francisco it 
 averages only about 55° F. So many things have been said about the 
 
 warm Japan current off the Califor- 
 nia shores that Professor McAdie's 
 recent statement is quoted : 2 
 
 " For some years there has been 
 an impression that the milder cli- 
 mate of the Pacific Coast was due 
 to a warming influence of the Kuro 
 Siwo or Japan current. No reli- 
 able data exisj to support such a 
 belief, and it is quite unlikely that 
 the Japan current plays any im- 
 portant part in modifying the cli- 
 mate of the Pacific coast." 
 
 The Atlantic Ocean has had so 
 many more vessels sailing on it 
 that there are a greater number 
 of reliable observations available 
 for that ocean than for the Pacific. 
 The pilot-charts for the former 
 ocean have been of great value 
 in bringing together thousands of 
 scattered observations, and the Hy- 
 drographic Office has pointed out 
 the steamer routes that are most 
 free from fogs and floating ice, and 
 most favorable in regard to winds 
 and currents. 
 
 Increasing commerce on the Pa- 
 cific will bring a need for better 
 charts and for more observers to 
 gather data. The February, 1904, 
 chart contains an appeal to "all 
 who use the sea" to cooperate in 
 getting definite information about 
 the variation of the magnetic needle. 
 (See p. 6 for variation of needle for 
 California.) At present there is 
 sometimes an uncertainty of 2° in 
 pointing a ship at sea because of the lack of definite knowledge on this 
 point. 
 
 In the summer of 1904 a pilot-chart will be issued for the South Atlan- 
 tic, and probably during the year following a similar chart for the South 
 Pacific. The government furnishes these charts free to cooperating 
 observers without regard to nationality, and others can secure them at 
 the cost of publication. 
 
 Weather and Weather Bureau.— Review pp. 25-27 and p. 54. What 
 are prevailing westerlies ? What are cyclones 1 If you are south of the 
 center of a cyclone, from which direction is the wind? How is rain 
 caused f In how many ways is the air in winds cooled f 
 
 The weather is part of our geographical environment 
 that affects the life of each one of us. Civilized people 
 have managed to protect themselves against the usual 
 
 1 James Page, Monthly Weather Review, August, 1902, p. 397. 
 ' Alexander McAdie, Climatology of California, 1903, p. 15. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 15 
 
 extremes of weather, but 
 there seems to be no hope 
 that man can ever make 
 the weather to suit himself. 
 Various schemes have been 
 devised for causing rain by 
 a heavy cannonade or by 
 firing explosives from bal- 
 loons, but without the slight- 
 est demonstrated effect. We 
 are, however, learning more 
 and more about the way that 
 nature makes the weather. 
 
 The observers of the Weather 
 Bureau Service are scattered over 
 the entire United States and a part 
 of Canada, and every morning at 
 eight o'clock they record certain 
 facts about the weather at that 
 moment — temperai ore, pressure, 
 wind, and general conditions. 
 These observations are telegraphed 
 to Washington and to a few gen- 
 eral stations like San Francisco, 
 then the forecast official estimates 
 the probable change for the next 
 thirty to thirty-six hours. 
 
 REFERENCE 
 
 ^| 0.00 to 10 inches 
 [gi;;«it-:| 10 to SO inches 
 H 80 to SO inches 
 S SO to 1*0 inches 
 H Over 1*0 inches 
 
 It is readily seen that the climate of California must 
 largely depend upon the fact that the Pacific Ocean lies to 
 the west and that the prevailing wind is from that direction. 
 Another important condition affecting the weather is the 
 unequal distribution of air over the world. Over great 
 areas having more air than others, the pressure at the 
 surface of the earth is more than the average. Such 
 a mass of air is called a "high" on the maps of the 
 Weather Bureau. When the pressure is less than\ the 
 average it is called a "low." Besides these great masses 
 of air, relatively smaller " highs " and " lows " (called " anti- 
 cyclones" and "cyclones," see p. 26) drift eastward in 
 our latitude, turning like whirlpools as they go. 
 
 getting water for irrigation ? Com- 
 pare this map with the forestry 
 map on p. 59. 
 
 If the wind is forced up by 
 mountains, it expands because the 
 pressure is less and, cooled by the 
 expansion of the air, more moisture 
 is precipitated. Lick Observatory, 
 on the top of Mt. Hamilton, has 
 about twice as much rainfall as 
 San Jose, only fourteen miles west 
 of it. 
 
 The little rainfall in California 
 in summer is due to the fact that 
 the path of the storm centers is 
 usually in British Columbia, too far 
 north to make south winds down 
 here. Oregon and Washington, be- 
 ing farther north, have more rain in 
 the summer months than we have. 
 The officials of the Weather 
 Bureau make a high average of 
 successful forecasts. When you 
 reflect on the fact that our lows 
 come from the North Pacific and 
 we can, as yet, have no telegraph 
 reports from mid-ocean, you will 
 realize how much is asked of fore- 
 cast officials on our coast. This is 
 a long preface to a statement of the 
 problem yet to be solved. We need 
 first to know better the reasons for the storms and the laws of their 
 motions. We need to have much longer forecasts, so that the work of 
 agriculture and commerce may be planned according to the weather. 
 We even want to know in the summer whether a wet or a dry winter is 
 coming. Many men are working hopefully along these lines. 
 
 Manufactures.— Review maps of the United States, pp. 57-60, show- 
 ing density of population, distribution of coal and distribution of 
 railroads. Read paragraph on p. 59 about the distribution of iron ore 
 and of petroleum. Review pages 41 and 42 on manufactures and com- 
 merce. What do you think of the opportunity for California in manu- 
 facturing? Read the paragraph on p. 9 of the Supplement relating 
 to the amount of California manufactures at present. 
 
 Forecasting is getting a map of 
 these whirls (lows and highs) as 
 they are at one instant, and judg- 
 ing how fast and in just what path 
 they will go eastward and whether 
 they will grow stronger or die out. 
 The average path of the storm 
 center in winter lies north of Cali- 
 fornia, and the winds blowing to- 
 ward the center of the low are 
 hence, for us, southerly winds, al- 
 though part of a whirl that is mov- 
 ing eastward. The moisture in 
 these winds drops as rain in pro- 
 portion to the degree to which the 
 winds are cooled. 
 
 Compare this map with the phy- 
 sical map of California. Try to 
 explain the location of the main 
 areas of heavy rainfall. What 
 areas must depend on irrigation? 
 Which areas have little prospect of 
 
 The coal fields of California are not important as com- 
 pared with those in the East, but the recent develop- 
 ment of petroleum fields will 
 greatly stimulate manufac- 
 turing. According to a 1903 
 bulletin of the United States 
 Geological Survey, the petro- 
 leum fields of California, as 
 known at present, lie on both 
 sides of the Central Valley, in 
 the Coast Banges, and along 
 the Pacific. The greatest de- 
 velopment is south of San 
 Francisco. Northward of 
 San Francisco there is one 
 field at present near Eureka, 
 and many prospects which 
 may become important. The 
 best known fields in the 
 
 Electric Power House, Colgate. Southern part of the state 
 
16 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 are Coalinga, Sunset, McKittrick, Kern River, Summer- 
 land, and those in and near the city of Los Angeles. 
 
 Locate these fields on the map. A pipe line has been laid from Kern 
 County to Point Richmond in San Francisco Bay to carry the oil to 
 tide-water. What effect will this have on manufactures 1 The Geologi- 
 cal Survey Bulletin, referred to above, states in its summary " That the 
 stratigraphic and structural conditions under which oil occurs in the 
 known fields are many times repeated elsewhere in the Coast Range and 
 the territory contiguous thereto, from which it'*may be argued that 
 additional fields will in turn be discovered." 1 
 
 In addition to the coal and oil which California has, there is an im- 
 mense quantity of energy going to waste in the waterfalls of the moun- 
 tains. These falls are so far from the cities that, formerly, the power 
 could not be utilized. To-day this water is carried down the steep slopes 
 in strong pipes and made to turn water-wheels. These run great 
 dynamos that transform the energy of the falling water into electricity, 
 which is carried by wire to the cities far away. What raised the water 
 to the top of the mountains to make possible this water power ? What 
 lines for the transmission of electric power are near your home ? In 
 addition to the geographical conditions affecting the future of manu- 
 facturing in California, we must remember that there is another impor- 
 tant element — the skill and energy 
 of our people. 
 
 The Development of Civ- 
 ilization on the Pacific. — 
 
 Civilization began in Asia. 
 From the valley of the Eu- 
 phrates it moved "out west" 
 to Greece, and then still 
 westward to Italy. For a 
 long time the Mediterranean 
 was the center of commerce. 
 Afterwards on the far west- 
 ern shores of the then known 
 world, Portugal and Spain be- 
 came rulers of the sea, only 
 to yield place to the Anglo- 
 Saxon of the British Isles. 
 As America developed the 
 Atlantic Ocean became the 
 
 Landing the Pacific Cable, Honolulu 
 
 great highway for the commerce of the world. Now the 
 wave of immigration has swept across the United States 
 to the shores of the greatest ocean. You have seen the 
 final impulse carry our flag to the Hawaiian Islands and 
 on to the Philippines clear across the Pacific. Our far 
 west is now in the midst of the far east of former days. 
 
 Many students of history are wondering what development will come 
 from this meeting of the Occident and the Orient. China's policy of 
 exclusion of foreigners is already broken for some of her ports. Her 
 power to yet affect the world is unknown. A single fact is full of sugges- 
 tion. Her coal fields are some of the most extensive in the world, and 
 they have hardly been touched. The end of the coal fields of England 
 is plainly seen, although still far distant. The wonderful development 
 of Japan in the last fifty years shows what a thoroughly awakened nation 
 may do. It is strange to be considering the Philippines, China, and 
 Japan as part of the geography problems of California. But we know 
 that already the business and lives of many people in the state have 
 been affected by the recent changes. To-day it takes no longer to send 
 a message to friends in the Philippines than to call on neighbors but a 
 short distance away. Do you remember the laying of the ocean cable to 
 Honolulu and Manila in 1903 ? Study this picture of the welcome Hono- 
 lulu gave the cable. 
 
 i Bulletin 213, U. 8. Geological Survey, p. 321. 
 
 Can you see more things of interest than the questions suggest? 
 Compare the cable lines of the Pacific with those of the Atlantic. (See 
 maps of the wprld, pp. 154-5.) Can the advance of civilization be 
 measured in the number of cable lines ? 
 
 The greatest single event for you to look forward to in 
 the development of the Pacific is probably the building of 
 a canal across the "isthmus of Panama. Few of us realize 
 how long such a thing has been planned and how many 
 men have been fascinated by the project. Long ago, when 
 Cortez was Governor of Mexico, the Spanish government 
 had engineers investigating a route across the isthmus. 
 Since then many nations have schemed to build and to 
 control a canal connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific. 
 It would be a story of thrilling interest if some one would 
 tell the history of the men who have planned and struggled 
 for this object and of the money and lives it has already 
 cost. The early canals that were planned were of a size to 
 carry the small ships of the time. Possibly with the 
 
 means of construction which 
 they had, the task for them 
 would have been even more 
 difficult than we shall find it 
 to-day. 
 
 We are now in the midst 
 of a new chapter in this long 
 story. On November 3, 1903, 
 the department of Panama 
 declared its independence of 
 Colombia, and the new re- 
 public has been recognized 
 by the United States and by 
 several European govern- 
 ments. 
 
 A treaty has been negotiated 
 between the new state of Panama 
 and the United States, which gives 
 our country the right to build an 
 interoeeanic canal across the isthmus. You and your teacher will have 
 to tell of the events since then. Has this revolution of Panama been an 
 important event to the world at large 1 To-day we feel sure that at 
 least some canal will soon be built, and that its control and protection 
 will belong to the United States. The building of this canal is bound to 
 stand as one of the greatest changes in geographical conditions which 
 the world has ever seen. So far as water communications are concerned, 
 San Francisco will be brought suddenly several thousand miles nearer to 
 the Atlantic ports. Its effect on commerce and the development of civ- 
 ilization in California will be interwoven with the results from the work- 
 ing out of all the other problems which have been discussed. If you 
 study the changes which are coming to our state, you will always have 
 before you a geography lesson that will continually present something 
 new and interesting. 
 
 To indicate some of the geographical problems which 
 must be worked out in order to facilitate the advance of 
 the material civilization of our state has been an easy mat- 
 ter. We must not forget, however, that real civilization 
 is finally measured by the advance in science, literature, 
 art, politics, and religion. Success in conquering physical 
 difficulties is but laying a better foundation for the things 
 of higher value. 
 

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