MANUAL OF 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 MORE THAN 100,000 FACTS, FIGURES AND FANCIES, DRAWN FROM 
 EVERY LAND AND LANGUAGE, AND CAREFULLY CLASSI- 
 FIED FOR THE READY REFERENCE OF TEACHERS, 
 STUDENTS AND THE FAMILY CIRCLE. 
 
 COMPILED UNDER DIRECTION OP 
 
 J. C. THOMAS, 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 
 
 FRANK A. FITZPATRICK, 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEB 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 THE WERNER COMPANY 
 1895. 
 
T 
 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1893. 
 
 By THE WERNER COMPANY. 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 MAN'LOF INF'N. 
 
PUBLISHERS 1 PREFACE. 
 
 THE aim of this Manual is to present in accessible form facts 
 and figures of general interest to teachers and scholars ; to the 
 man of affairs, the student and the people at large. It contains 
 not one useless or superfluous sentence. The grain has been 
 sifted from the chaff; the precious metal extracted from the 
 ore. In it will be found terse answers to thousands of ques- 
 tions, the solution of which is a matter of daily need to busy 
 men. The work is designed as a compendium of useful knowledge, 
 of problems not covered by other books, or of information that, 
 to seek out personally, would require the possession of many vol- 
 umes. The ruling idea in its preparation has been to furnish in 
 as few words as possible such data as would be of service to men 
 of inquiring minds, to scholars and to their instructors. Matters 
 of general interest, scattered through scores of reference books ; 
 and facts and figures from a hundred technical works are here col- 
 lated and arranged in such a manner as to render the ''Manual 
 of Useful Information" a work o! great intrinsic value to all 
 classes of readers. Whether for the school, the home or the 
 office; for the educator, the parent or the professional man, this 
 volume will be found alike interesting and instructive. 
 
 It does not cover the entire domain of art and science, of liter- 
 ature and history, but the most important facts have been culled 
 from the world's great storehouses of knowledge with much 
 painstaking care, and these have been judiciously classified and 
 systematically arranged so that it offers an epitome of general 
 information at once accessible, accurate and needful constitut- 
 ing an invaluable aid to the seeker of light. The work has in- 
 volved the tillage of a wide field, and it is hoped that the gar- 
 nered product may prove a serviceable contribution to the 
 literature of our time. ^51869 
 
 (3) 
 
THE WORKING TEACHERS' LIBRARY 
 
 COMPRISES 
 
 Five Standard, Reliable and Comparatively Inexpensive Volumes, 
 
 covering in the most successful manner the whole field of 
 
 the actual needs of the Public School Teacher: 
 
 I. The Complete Writings Of David P. Page, edited by J. M. Greenwood, Superintendent 
 Kansas City Schools, contains a new life with portrait of this great educator, and includes 
 the Theory and Practice of Teaching, thoroughly revised and modernized. The Mutual 
 Duties of Parents and Teachers and the " Schoolmaster " a Dialogue, to which are added 
 the Legal Status of the Teacher, also Reading Outlines the latter for reading circles, for 
 reviews and as an aid to individual study. 
 
 II. The Teacher in Literature is a publication of exceptional merit, containing selection*! 
 from ASCHAM, MOLIERE, ROUSSEAU, SHENSTONE, PESTALOZZI, COWPER, GOETHE, IRVING, 
 MITFORD, BRONTE, THACKERAY, DICKENS, and others, who have written on educational 
 subjects, from the reign of Queen Elizabeth to the present time. It is a pleasing presentation 
 of the " schools of literature," and illustrates in an exceedingly practical manner the gradual 
 development of the public school system. 
 
 III. Practical Lessons in Science, by Dr. J. T. Scovell, for ten years professor of Natural 
 Science, Indiana State Normal School, is designed to cultivate observation and perception 
 as it deals with the common everyday facts and phenomena which are the familiar events 
 of our lives. It crystallizes the facts and laws of the various sciences and presents an 
 abundance of easy experiments suited to the ordinary school-room conveniences, making 
 it a work of inestimable value to teachers of all grades. 
 
 IV. Practical Lessons in Psychology, by Prof. W. O. Krohn, of the University of Illinois, 
 is a book on tact and "common sense" in teaching. One of the most important requisites 
 of the teacher is a knowledge of at least the elementary principles of the Science of the 
 Mind. Before he can enter intelligently upon his work, he must know something of his 
 own mental powers and have some idea of how to measure the intellectual needs and 
 capabilities of the children under his charge. In no other publication is this subject so 
 comprehensively, so interestingly and so instructively treated. 
 
 V. The Manual Of Useful Information, with an Introduction by F. A. Fitzpatrick, Superin- 
 tendent Omaha City Schools contains more than 100,000 facts, figures and fancies drawn 
 from every land and language, and carefully classified for the ready reference of the student, 
 the teacher and the home circle. It is a compendium of the most important facts of general 
 interest, and so arranged as to supply the teacher with more food for reflection, more 
 subjects for discussion, more curious and helpful suggestions, and more general exercise 
 material than was ever before published in such convenient and practical form. 
 
 These Five Volumes are handsomely printed on heavy paper 
 and elegantly bound in uniform style. Price for the Library complete, 
 $6.50. For further information, address the Publishers. 
 
 THE WERNER COMPANY, 160-174 Adams Street, CHICAGO. 
 
INTKODUCTION. 
 
 THE teacher, more than the member of any other profession, 
 is expected to answer any question that may be propounded by 
 the outside world. This requirement, added to the special tech- 
 nical knowledge needed to successfully impart instruction to the 
 young, puts upon him a heavy burden. 
 
 The "Manual of Useful Information" places in the hands of 
 the teacher a mass of information apparently indispensable to 
 any well-informed man, and in such a shape as to be usable. The 
 classification is admirable and of itself possesses great value. 
 The terse, excellent English in which the information is clothed, 
 adds a charm to the book. 
 
 In this age the attention of the best thought in education is 
 directed to the unification of studies, relating each to the other 
 in such a way as to unite the entire topics of school-life into a 
 harmonious, complete whole. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties in the way of accomplishing 
 this work of unification has been the meager educational advan- 
 tages available for the majority of teachers. The necessity which 
 impels many to plunge into the practice of a profession before 
 they have finished their studies, prevents the acquisition of 
 power that would readily know the way to knowledge. Teachers 
 have not known enough of the world, of history, of language, 
 of literature, of the things which go to constitute that acquisi- 
 tion which the educated world calls culture. 
 
 Culture may be defined: "To know the best that has been 
 said and done" in all time in such a way as to make the inherit- 
 ance our own. To the majority of mankind information is a 
 prerequisite of culture. 
 
 (5) 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The information contained in this little Manual is the woof 
 and warp of the more perfect fabric which is to be worked out 
 from these foundations. The material presented has been most 
 carefully selected with a view to assisting teachers to help them- 
 selves, and thus to pave the way toward helping their pupils. 
 
 In teaching history how useful it will be to the pupils to place 
 on the blackboard day by day some selected topic from "Facts 
 About Our Country." 
 
 The items of information contained in the chapter on "Time 
 and Its Landmarks" are related to almost every day's work in 
 geography and history. 
 
 The chapter on "Language; Its Use and Misuse," by calling 
 attention to definite, specific points, will illustrate and intensify 
 the generalizations of grammar, and enable the teacher to con- 
 centrate his efforts from time to time upon defects which might 
 otherwise escape his attention. 
 
 The table of " Synonyms and Antonyms" cannot fail to be of 
 immense value to any student or teacher of English. Pointing 
 the way toward the obtaining of a large and plastic vocabulary, 
 its study must surely tend in the direction of a nice appreciation 
 and correct use of language. 
 
 Is it desirous to enliven the dreary monotony of a recitation in 
 arithmetic, the chapter on "Mystic Numbers" will furnish both 
 amusement and instruction. 
 
 Indeed, with this little volume the teacher may look out upon 
 the world through each and all of twenty-two windows, gather- 
 ing at a glance the rays of light which are reflected from the 
 elevations which are illuminated and able, in a way, from the ra- 
 diated light to get a glimpse of the valleys between the heights. 
 
 Equally valuable to the student or teacher, it is believed that 
 a judicious use in the recitation of the information that may be 
 found within these pages will increase the interest of the pupils 
 and lead to better comprehension of the topics studied. 
 
 FRANK A. FITZPATRICK. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Facts About Our Country: 
 
 Points of Peculiar Interest. 
 Minor Political Parties. 
 Mayflower's Passenger List. 
 Climates in the U. S. 
 How Our Country Grew. 
 State and Territorial Capi- 
 tals. Increase of Popula- 
 tion by Decades. Popula- 
 tion and Area Centers. 
 Figures of National Impor- 
 tance. Where Illiteracy 
 Prevails. Origin of State 
 Names. Mottoes of the 
 States. Nicknames of 
 States and Cities. Noted 
 National Nicknames. 
 Wonders of American 
 Railroading. Our Coal 
 Fields. Immigration to 
 the U. S. Nationality of 
 our Immigrants. Growth 
 of Fifty Cities. Succession 
 of the Presidents. Gener- 
 als of the U. S. Army. 
 Wars of the United States. 
 Guide to the Civil Serv- 
 ice. Government Salary 
 List. Patent Office Meth- 
 ods. Land and Homestead 
 Laws. Alien Landholders. 
 Public Land Grants. 
 Public LandTi ties. Public 
 Lands Still Vacant. Ind- 
 ians and their Reserva- 
 tions. Indians in the 
 United States. Slavery and 
 Serfdom. Public Debt of 
 United States. Armies of 
 the Civil War. World's 
 Fair in a Nutshell. Es- 
 sence of the Constitution. 
 Twelve American Won- 
 ders. The American No- 
 bility 11-40 
 
 Time and Its Landmarks: 
 Dates and Facts to Ponder. 
 Standard Time. Where the 
 
 Sun Jumps a Day. Harvest 
 Months of the World. 
 Ship's Time. French 
 R e p u b licau Calendar. 
 Chief Christian Festivals. 
 Calendars of History. 
 Months and their Names. 
 Origin of Week-day Names. 
 The Historic Ages. 
 Legal Holidays in the 
 States. The Adjustment of 
 the Calendar 41-52 
 
 Language, Its Use and Hisuse: 
 Pickings for the Student. 
 Chief Languages of the 
 World. How to Speak Cor- 
 rectly. The Art of Letter 
 Writing. Punctuation as 
 it Should be. The Use of 
 Capitals. Analysis of Vol- 
 apiik. Meanings of 
 Christian Names. A Pli- 
 able Language. Guide to 
 Correct Pronunciation. 
 Rules of Pronunciation. 
 Common Errors of Speech. 
 12,000 Synonyms and 
 Antonyms. Foreign 
 Phrases Interpreted. List 
 of Useful Abbreviations. 
 Stray Hints for Writers. .53-108 
 
 Poetry and General Literature: 
 Books, Authors and Titles. 
 Vanity of the Scholastics. 
 Copyright, Home and 
 International. How L i t- 
 erature Pays. Literary 
 Pseudonyms. T h e Forty 
 Immortals. Some Famous 
 Libraries. Honors Among 
 Books. First Newspapers. 
 BooksWe Hear About. 109- 124 
 
 Mythology and Folk=Lore: 
 
 Vagaries of Human Belief. 
 
 Story of The Nibelungen 
 
 Lied, -The Sagas of the 
 
 Norsemen. Old Rip Van 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Winkle and OtherSleepers. 
 Indian Folk Lore. The 
 Language of G e in s. The 
 Gift of Second Sight- 
 Olympian Deities and He- 
 roes 125 138 
 
 Industry and Commerce: 
 Facts and Channels of Trade. 
 Railway Mileage of the 
 World. Around the World 
 in 82 Days. Theory of 
 Auctions. Curious By- 
 Products of Coal. Coal 
 Products of the United 
 . States. The World's Coal 
 Fields. The World's Fin- 
 est Harbors. Condensed 
 Postal Information 139-150 
 
 Handicraft and Invention: 
 Triumphs of Skill and Genius. 
 The World's Noted 
 Bridges. Durability of 
 Various Woods. Selected 
 Hints for Artisans. Har- 
 mony and Relations of 
 Colors The Phonograph 
 Synopsis of Great Inven- 
 tions 151-164 
 
 Money and Finance: 
 
 Pecuniary Facts and Defini- 
 tions. A Lesson to Bor- 
 rowers. National Debts of 
 the World. Gold and Sil- 
 ver Production. The 
 Standard Silver Dollar. 
 Great Financial Panics. 
 A "Penny-Wise" Table. 
 Merchants' Cost and Price 
 Marks. Import Duties of 
 the Nations. Our Bank- 
 rupt Laws. Short Interest 
 Rules. About Trade Dis- 
 counts. Wonders of Com- 
 pound Interest Slang of 
 the Stock Broker. Our 
 Banki ng System E x - 
 plained 165-175 
 
 Coins, Weights and Measures: 
 Home and Foreign Stand- 
 ards. All about an Acre. 
 Capacity of a Ten-Ton 
 Freight Car. Money of the 
 
 PAGE 
 
 World. The Value of For- 
 eign Coins. Weights of 
 Metals without weighing. 
 Domestic Weights and 
 Measures. Ratio of Apoth- 
 ecaries and Imperial 
 Measure. Handy Metric 
 Tables. Sundry Weights 
 and Measures. The Area 
 of a Circle. Coal Weighed 
 by Measure. Measure of 
 Earth, etc. Trade Sizes of 
 Books. Value o f Dia- 
 monds. Valuable Calcula- 
 tions. The Story of our 
 Coinage. Numismatics as 
 a Study 177-188 
 
 War and Its Appliances: 
 Armies, Arms and Armor. 
 Ratio of Loss in Great Bat- 
 tles. Chief Battles of The 
 Civil War. Blood and 
 Treasure Cost in Wars. 
 Length and Cost of Amer- 
 ican Wars. American 
 Dockyards. Decisive Bat- 
 tles of History. R e c e n t 
 Desperate Wars. The 
 Latest Explosive 189-204. 
 
 Creeds of the World: 
 Notes on Faith and Worship. 
 The Seven Bibles of The 
 World. Nationality of The 
 Popes. Fate of the Apos- 
 tles. The Name of God in 
 Forty-Eight Languages. 
 The Salvation Army. 
 Worship of the Human 
 Family. The Great Coun- 
 cils. Mormons and Their 
 Book. Creedsof The Presi- 
 dents. Religious Bodies in 
 the U. S. What is a State 
 Religion? An Omitted 
 Psalm. Rel igion as a 
 Science. The Testimony 
 of Literature 205-224 
 
 Jottings in Science: 
 
 Answers to many Queries. 
 The Largest River Systems. 
 The Zodiac and its Signs. 
 Freezing, Fusing and Boil- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 9 
 
 ing Points. Specific Grav- 
 ity of Substances. The 
 Solar System. Some Great 
 Waterfalls. L ightning 
 Conductors. Latitude and 
 Longitude. --The Thermom- 
 eter. Summer Heat in 
 Various Lands. Historic 
 Cold Weather. Extreme 
 Heat in Europe. Horse 
 Power of Steam Engines. 
 Terms in Electricity. 
 Heights of Chief Moun- 
 tain Peaks. Curious Facts 
 about Fishes. The Aurora 
 Borealis. Names of Chem- 
 ical Substances. The Neb- 
 ular Hypothesis. Aero- 
 lites. To Measure The 
 Earth. What is Ventrilo- 
 quism? Some Facts in Hy- 
 draulics. Genesis of He- 
 liography. The Artesian 
 Well. The Last Word on 
 Electricity 225-248. 
 
 Plain Law for Plain People: 
 
 A Definition with a Purpose. 
 Business Law in Brief. 
 Agreements and Contracts. 
 Notes and Negotiable 
 Paper. Partnership. 
 Agency and Attorney. 
 Landlord and Tenant. 
 Law Relating to Farms, 
 etc. Lien Laws. Deeds, 
 Transfer of Property . 
 Mortgages. Assignments. 
 Inns, Hotels and Boarding 
 Houses. Bonds. Bills of 
 Sale. Corporations. Law 
 of Finding. Wills and 
 How to Make Them. The 
 Right of Dower. Marriage 
 and Divorce. Rights of 
 
 Married Women 249-268 
 
 Politics and Statecraft: 
 Definitions and Details. 
 What is Tammany? When 
 are you Twenty-One? 
 A.bout State Election. The 
 Australian Ballot System. 
 The Presidential Elec- 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 tion. How to become a 
 C i ti z e n . Parliamentary 
 Law Condensed. Woman 
 Suffrage. Parties that 
 Elected Presidents. The 
 Fugitive Slave Law. Con- 
 gress and its Duties 269-282 
 
 Music and the Fine Arts: 
 Stray Hints on Art and 
 Artists. The Largest Sta- 
 tue on Record. Some 
 Marvelous Paintings. 
 Story of the "Art Divine." 
 The Portland Vase. 
 The Impressionists. The 
 Great Masters and Great 
 Schools. The Symbolism 
 of Colors. The Organ in 
 America. M e a n i rgs of 
 Musical Terms 283-294 
 
 Side= Lights on History: 
 
 Influences for Good or Evil. 
 The First French Revolu- 
 tion. Modes of Executing 
 Criminals. Monarchs who 
 Retired from Business. 
 Fathers of Their Country. 
 History in Rhyme. The 
 Champ de Mars. Origin of 
 
 Some 'Isms 295-312 
 
 riystic Letters and Numbers: 
 Sundry Odd Pickings. 
 France's Fatal Three. The 
 Apocalyptic Number. 
 Dates of the Second Em- 
 pire. The Five Wits. The 
 Sacred Number. Lessons 
 of The Letters. A Few 
 Curious Anagrams. Three 
 for a Finish. Seven Sleep- 
 ers. The Poetry on T. 
 Some "Lucky" and "Un- 
 lucky" Numbers. The 
 Vowels. Masterpieces of 
 Alliteration. Easy Sums 
 in Arithmetic. Honors to 
 Forty. The Enigma "H" 
 Curious Misnomers. 
 Destiny of The Stuarts. 
 The Letter M. Try it and 
 then Explain. Three 
 Times Three 313-326 
 
10 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Famous Persons and Places: 
 
 The Truth about Aspasia. 
 The Story of Acadie. The 
 English Claimant. Notes 
 on Mammoth Cave. Crad- 
 les and Graves. Famous 
 Ancient Cities. -The Father 
 of the Cenobites. Giants 
 and Dwarfs. The Colos- 
 seum. Exhibit of Local 
 Names. Washington and 
 Education. The World's 
 Seven Wonders. The 
 World's Noblest Park. 
 Marvels of Old Egypt. .341-348 
 The World and Its Ways: 
 
 A Myriad Questions An- 
 swered. T i 1 1 e s, Offices, 
 and Dignities. Previous 
 World's Fairs. Remark- 
 able Modern Plagues. 
 Great Famines of History. 
 Rulers of all Nations. 
 Area and Population of The 
 Continents. Salaries of 
 The Crowned Heads. 
 Crossing The Line. Statis- 
 tics of The Leading Coun- 
 tries. All The Famous 
 Diamonds. The Sweating 
 System. Caste Among The 
 Hindoos. -Heights of Noted 
 Edifice s. Language of 
 Flowers. End of The 
 World. Great Floods and 
 Inundations. H i stori c 
 Fires. All Who Ever 
 
 Lived 349-374 
 
 Races and Tribes of Hen: 
 
 Features, Types and Studies. 
 About th e Saracens. 
 OurNations Predecessors. 
 The Great Human Family. 
 The Gypsy Tribe. The 
 Scattered Nation. U n i ty 
 
 of The Race 375-386 
 
 Health, Hygiene and Physiol= 
 ogy: 
 
 Medley ot Facts and Counsels. 
 Weight and Stature of 
 Man. Composition andDi- 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 gestion of Foods. Periods 
 of Digestion. Bleeding at 
 the N o s e. Neuralgia. 
 The Dreaded Consumption. 
 Insomnia. Colds and 
 Hoarseness. Asthma. 
 Coryza. Catarrh. 
 - Bronchitis. Typhoid 
 Fever. Lead Colic. 
 Rheumatism. Malaria- 
 Fever- Ague. T y p h u s 
 Fever. How to CatchCold. 
 Cure of Felons. Preven- 
 tion of Cholera. A Famous 
 Cholera Mixture. Reme- 
 dies For Croup. Value of 
 Hot Water. The Cure of 
 Earache. Notes on Food 
 Products. Wonders of The 
 HumanBody. Gymnastics 
 and Physical Development. 
 Secrets of Good Health. 
 Sundry Health Hints. 
 The Human Pulse. The 
 Philosophy of Eating. 
 
 The Vital Fluid 387-420 
 
 Hearth and Home: 
 
 Crystals that form Gentle- 
 men. Uses of Ammonia. 
 Management of Stoves. 
 To Destroy Insects and 
 Vermin. To Take Stains 
 from Carpets. Incombust- 
 ible Dresses. How to 
 Freshen Up Furs. To 
 Wash Feathers. The Art 
 o f Conversation. The 
 Household and Toilet. 
 Accidents and Injuries. 
 Antidotes For Poisons. 
 How to Carve at Table. 
 Conduct at Table. George 
 Washington's Rules of Con- 
 duct. Care of the Person. 
 Etiquette of the Street 
 Hints on Traveling. Suc- 
 cess and its Secrets. 
 Choice of Occupation. 
 Method and Detail. Self 
 Reliance. Never Despair. 
 Talent and Tact. Part- 
 ing Counsels 421-460 
 
 See also ALPHABETICAL INDEX, pp. 461-480. 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
 Who never to himself hath said 
 This is my own my native land ! 
 
 SCOTT. 
 
 POINTS OF PECULIAR INTEREST. 
 
 It was Thursday, July 4th, 1776 ! 
 
 The first Atlantic cable operated in 1858. 
 
 The first steamer crossed the Atlantic in 1819. 
 
 Leif Ericsson was the Columbus of the Northmen. 
 
 Gas was first used in the United States at Boston in 1822. 
 
 The battles of Bunker Hill and Lexington were fought, 1775. 
 
 San Salvador, or Guanahani, is now one of the Bahamas Islands. 
 
 The name America comes from the Florentine, Amerigo Vespucci. 
 
 The first theater in the United States was at Williamsburg, Va., 1752. 
 
 Watling Island is the British name for Columbus' first landing place. 
 
 The first iron ore discovered in this country was mined in Virginia 
 in 1715. 
 
 The first American library was founded at Harvard College, Cam- 
 bridge, 1638. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot was the first navigator to sight the territory of the 
 now United States. 
 
 First cotton raised in the United States was in Virginia, in 1621; 
 first exported, 1747. 
 
 The population of the original thirteen States at the first census in 
 1790, was 3,929,214. 
 
 St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States was founded by 
 the Spaniards in 1505. 
 
 Oberlin College, Ohio, was the first college in the United States to 
 admit female students. 
 
 Jamestown, Va., founded 1607, was the first permanent English 
 settlement in America. 
 
 The largest park in the United States is Fairmount, at Philadelphia, 
 and contains 2,740 acres. 
 
 Guanahani was the native name of the first American island on 
 which Columbus landed. 
 
 11 
 
12 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The first public schools iti , America were established in the New 
 England States about- 1642. - 
 
 Modern inveM-fgati^a ha? shown that ,the Vikings visited America in 
 the tenth and/efeveuth'ceiitnries, 
 
 Gaelic students claim that St. Brendan, an Irish monk, reached this 
 continent in the sixth century. 
 
 The first telegraph in operation in America was between Washing- 
 ton and Baltimore, May 27, 1844. 
 
 The largest tree in the world is in Tulare county, California. It is 
 275 feet high and 106 feet in circumference at its base. 
 
 The first electrical signal ever transmitted between Europe and 
 America passed over the Field submarine cable on August 5, 1858. 
 
 The present national colors of the United States were not adopted 
 by Congress until 1777. The flag was first used by Washington at Cam- 
 bridge, January 1, 1776. 
 
 Tobacco was discovered in San Domingo in 1496; afterwards by the 
 Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. It was introduced into France in 1560 
 and into England in 1583. 
 
 The part of United States territory most recently acquired is the 
 island of San Juan, near Vancouver's Island. It was evacuated by Eng- 
 land at the close of November, 1873. 
 
 The greatest cataract in the world is Niagara, the height of the 
 American Falls being 165 feet. The highest fall of water in the world is 
 that of the Yosemite in California, being 2,550 feet. 
 
 The first English settlement on the present territory of the United 
 States was that made in Virginia by the English London Company in 
 1607. The Plymouth Company about the same time settled Massachu- 
 setts Bay. 
 
 The "copperhead'' is a venomous serpent, closely allied to the rattle- 
 snake and is found along our coast from New England to Florida. The 
 term was applied by the Unionists to the peace party during the civil 
 war, as suggesting insidious foes. 
 
 The largest producing farm in the world lies in the southwest corner 
 of Louisiana, and is owned by a northern syndicate. It runs one hundred 
 miles north and south. The immense tract is divided into convenient 
 pastures, with stations of ranches every six miles. The fencing alone 
 cost nearly $50,000. 
 
 The largest State in our grand republic is Texas, which contains 
 274,356 square miles, capable of sustaining 20, 000, 000 of people, and then 
 it would not be more crowded than Scotland is at present. It has been 
 estimated that the entire population of the globe could be seated upon 
 chairs within the boundary of Texas and each have four feet of elbow 
 room. 
 
 What have been called Secession Ordinances were passed by the 
 following States: (1) South Carolina, Dec. 20, 1860; (2) Florida, Jan. 7, 
 1861; (3) Mississippi, Jan. 9, 1861; (4) Alabama, Jan. 11, 1861; (5) 
 Georgia, Jan. 19, 1861; (6) Louisiana, Jan. 26, 1861; (7) Texas, Feb. 7, 
 3861; (8) Virginia, April 17, 1861; (9) Arkansas, May 6, 1861; (10) Ten- 
 nessee, May 6, 1861; (11) North Carolina, May 20, 1861. The Civil War 
 commenced April 13, 1861. 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 13 
 
 The historic term "Border States" was usually applied to Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. They were so called 
 because they bordered upon the line of Free States and Slave-holding 
 States. The term is now an anachronism. 
 
 The Whisky Insurrection occurred in Western Pennsylvania in the 
 summer of 1794. It arose from discontent with the excise regulations, 
 and culminated in open riot and the destruction of private property; but 
 by the efforts of leading citizens the rising was quelled without the aid 
 of the fifteen thousand troops which Washington promptly sent against 
 the insurgents. 
 
 "Common Sense" is the title of a pamphlet published in 1776 by 
 Thomas Paine, then living in Philadelphia, urging Americans to claim 
 independence. It ridiculed the idea of a small island, 3,000 miles off, 
 ruling the immense continent of America, and threatening three million 
 men, more vigorous and more virtuous than their would-be enslavers. 
 This spark was sufficient to arouse our forefathers, who at once signed 
 their Declaration of Independence. 
 
 The largest body of fresh water in the world is Lake Superior, It is 
 400 miles long and 180 miles wide; its circumference, including the wind- 
 ings of its various bays, has been estimated at 1,800 miles. Its area in 
 square miles is 32,000, which is greater than the whole of New England, 
 leaving out Maine. The greatest depth of this inland sea is two hundred 
 fathoms, or 1,200 feet. Its average depth is about one hundred and sixty 
 fathoms. It is 636 feet above sea level. 
 
 L,uray cavern, a cave, not large, but remarkable for the vast number 
 and extraordinary shapes of its stalactites, is close to Iviiray village, 
 Virginia (ninety miles from Richmond). Many of these wonderful col- 
 umns exceed fifty feet in length; numbers of them are hollow, giving 
 out bell-like notes when struck; and the colors range from waxy white 
 to yellow, brown, 01 rosy red. The cavern, which is lit with the electric 
 light, attracts thousands of visitors every year. 
 
 The origin of the term "Uncle Sam," a nickname for the United 
 States government, is traced by some to the following story: Samuel 
 Wilson, one of the inspectors of provisions in the War of Independence 
 was called by his workmen and friends "Uncle Sam." Goods came into 
 his hands one day consigned to one of the contractors named Elbert An- 
 derson, and marked "E. A., U. S." These initials were construed by one 
 ofthehands, "Elbert Anderson and Uncle Sam." The joke has lived and 
 "Uncle Sam" is now a synonym for the Republic itself. 
 
 Our country has the fastest* war vessel in the world. The "New 
 York" is a splendid example of an all-around warship, an unusual com- 
 bination of great offensive and defensive power. On her recent trial 
 trip she made the fastest time on record, 21.1 knots per hour. Her 
 length on the water line is 380 feet 6^ inches, her breadth, moulded, 64 
 feet 10 inches, and her mean draft 23 feet 3)4 inches. Her twin screw, 
 vertical, triple expansion engines furnish an aggregate of 16,500 maxi- 
 mum indicated horse power. The main battery consists of six 8-inch 
 and twelve rapid-firing 4-inch guns; her second battery of eight 6-pounder 
 and four 1-pounder rapid-fire guns and four Gatlings. There are six 
 above- water torpedo tubes; she has no sail power and carries two mili- 
 tary masts with double fighting tops. Her armor is two to ten inches 
 thick. 
 
14 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The American Bison is interesting as the only living species of the 
 ox family indigenous to America, except the musk ox of the subarctic 
 regions. It is commonly called buffalo by Americans, but must be dis- 
 tinguished from the true buffalo. The bison was within recent times 
 very abundant in America, especially in the prairies beyond the Missis- 
 sippi, and from 63 N. lat. to New Mexico. Now it is nearly extinct 
 a -result of hard winters, cattle-ranching, railways and immigration. 
 
 The Sons of Liberty was an association of the colonists of North 
 America, called into existence in 1765 by Lord Grenville's Stamp Act. 
 The colonists combined to throw off allegiance to Great Britain and to 
 make North America independent. The association began in New York 
 and Connecticut. The term ''Sons of Liberty" was suggested by a speech 
 of Colonel Barrels. The " Daughters of Liberty" mutually bound them- 
 selves to drink no tea and wear no article of apparel imported from 
 England while the import duties were unrepealed. 
 
 When the Southern States were practically disfranchised after the 
 Civil War, there grew up swarms of adventurers who went down to that 
 section and organized the negro voters, got elected to all the chief offices, 
 plundered the state treasuries, contracted huge state debts, and stole the 
 proceeds. Government in the South Carolina and Mississippi states was 
 a mere caricature. When, in 1876, President Hayes refused the "carpet- 
 baggers' ' the protection of Federal troops, the regime fell to pieces, and 
 the rule fell again into the hands of the resident whites. 
 
 The Alien and Sedition Laws were passed by Congress June 25, 1798, 
 empowering the President for two years to banish at his discretion the 
 alien enemies of the Republic. This power was (July 6) enlarged by 
 authorizing the President to apprehend and remove aliens. The Sedition 
 Act, denning sedition, with heavy penalties for the offence, became law 
 July 14. These statutes were principally directed against Frenchmen, 
 when war between France and the United States seemed imminent. The 
 laws were bitterly opposed as undemocratic and were repealed when Jef- 
 ferson came into power. 
 
 What is called the affair of the "Trent," took place on November 8, 
 1861, when Captain Wilkes, of the Federal war steamer "San Jacinto," 
 boarded the Royal British packet ' 'Trent, ' ' and carried off Messrs. Mason 
 and Slidell, Confederate commissioners and their secretaries, and con- 
 veyed them to Boston. There were great rejoicings in the Northern 
 States, and the thanks of Congress were voted to Captain Wilkes (De- 
 cember 2); but the foreign envoys at Washington protested against his 
 act, and a firm dispatch arrived from the British Government ( December 
 18), in consequence of which Messrs. Mason and Slidell and their secre- 
 taries were released, and sailed for Kurope (January 1, 1862). 
 
 The Danites, or ' ' destroying angels, ' ' were a secret society founded 
 by Joseph Smith in 1838, professedly merely for the defence of the Mor- 
 mon sect against the mob. The members, originally some 300 in num- 
 ber, were bound by an oath, under penalty of death, to sustain the "first 
 presidency" and one another in all things, whether right or wrong. 
 They were divided into companies of fifties and tens, with suitable offi- 
 cers and a general over the whole; special "destruction companies " were 
 appointed for the purpose of burning and destroying, at first by way of 
 reprisal; but afterwards assassinations, to fulfil prophecies of Smith's, 
 were laid to their charge. 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY 15 
 
 Wilmot Proviso is the name given to an amendment to a bill appro- 
 priating $2,000,000 for the purchase of Mexican territory, moved (Aug. 
 8, 1846) in the United States Congress by Mr. David Wilmot, Democrat, 
 in the following terms: "That, as an express and fundamental condition 
 to the acquisition of any territory from the Republic of Mexico by the 
 United States, neither slavery or involuntary servitude shall ever exist 
 in any part of the said territory." This proviso, adopted by the House 
 of Representatives, rejected by the Senate, became the starting point for 
 the " Free-soil " movement of 1848. 
 
 "Pilgrim Fathers" is the name given to the one hundred and two 
 Puritans who came to this country in 1620, in a ship called the "May- 
 flower," and colonized what are now the Northeastern States, called New 
 England. This was the second English settlement in the New World, 
 and was planted at New Plymouth, near Boston. The tyranny of the 
 Ecclesiastical Commission in England raised up a host of dissenters, and 
 in 1580 they chose John Robinson for their leader. Their independence 
 soon drew upon them the heavy hand of the law, and they left the king- 
 dom. The larger part settled at Leyden, in Holland, whence 102 of them 
 came to America, and many others followed later. 
 
 The Capital of the United States has been located at different times 
 at the following places: At Philadelphia from Sept. 5, 1774, to Dec., 
 1776; at Baltimore from Dec. 20, 1776, to March, 1777; at Philadelphia 
 from March 4, 1777, to Sept., 1777; at Lancaster, Pa., from Sept. 27, 1777, 
 to Sept. 30, 1777; at York, Pa., from Sept. 30, 1777, to July, 1778; at 
 Philadelphia from July 2, 1778, to June 30, 1783; at Princeton, N. J., 
 June 30, 1783, to Nov. 20, 1783; Annapolis, Md., Nov. 26, 1783, to Nov. 30, 
 1784; Trenton from Nov., 1784, to Jan., 1785; New York from Jan. 11, 1785, 
 to 1790; then the seat of government was removed to Philadelphia, where 
 it remained until 1800, since which time it has been in Washington. 
 
 The "Alabama Question" was raised in the winter of 1862-63, when 
 Mr. Seward declared that the Union held itself entitled to demand full 
 compensation for the damages inflicted on American property; and the 
 divergence of view more than once threatened to issue in the gravest 
 consequences to both nations. In 1871 a commission met at Washing- 
 ton; and by a treaty concluded there, provision was made for referring 
 this claim to a tribunal composed of five arbitrators, of whom the Queen, 
 the President of the United States, the King of Italy, the President of 
 the Swiss Confederation, and the Emperor of Brazil, were each to appoint 
 one. The tribunal met at Geneva in December, 1871, and by its final 
 award Great Britain was ordered to pay a sum of $15,000,000; this sum 
 covering also some responsibility for the depredations of the ships 
 1 'Florida' ' arid ' 'Shenandoah. ' ' The claim for indirect damage to Ameri- 
 can commerce was dropped. 
 
 Vinland (" Wineland ") is the name given to the chief settlement of 
 the early Norsemen in North America. It is undoubtedly represented in 
 modern times by a part of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The first 
 that saw it was Bjarne Herjulfson, who was driven thither by a storm in 
 the summer of 986 A.D., when making a voyage from Iceland to Green- 
 land, of which country his father, Herjulf, and Eric the Red were the 
 earliest colonists. But Bjarne did not touch the land, which was first 
 visited by Leif the Lucky, a son of Eric the Red, about 1000 A.D. One 
 part of the country he named Helluland ("Stoneland "); another Mark- 
 land ("Woodland"), the modern Newfoundland and Nova Scotiaj a Ger- 
 
16 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 man in his company having found the grape (most probably the Vitis 
 vulpina] growing wild, as in his native country, Leif called the region 
 Vinland. The natives from their dwarfish size they called skraelings. 
 Two years afterward Leif's brother, Thorwald, oame, and in the summer 
 of 1003 led an expedition along the coast of New England southwards, but 
 was killed the year following in an encounter with the natives. The 
 most famous of the Norse explorers, however, was Thorfinn Karlsefne, 
 an Icelander, who had married Gudrid, widow of Thorstein, a son of 
 Eric the Red, and who in 1007 sailed from Greenland to Vinland with a 
 crew of one hundred and sixty men, where he remained for three years, 
 and then returned, after which no further attempts at colonization were 
 made. 
 
 Pocahontas, daughter of the Indian chief, Powhatan, born about 
 1595, figures prominently in the travels of Captain John Smith, in con- 
 nection with the part she played in the history of the early English col- 
 onists in Virginia. The expedition under Captain Bartholomew Gosnold 
 and others had landed in Chesapeake Bay in 1607. The James River was 
 explored, and a settlement formed, but a great drawback was the lack of 
 food-supplies. In one of the expeditions for food, and to explore the 
 Chickahominy, Smith was taken prisoner, brought before the chief Pow- 
 hatan, and his head laid on a stone preparatory to having his brains 
 beaten out with clubs. At this juncture, Pocahontas, then a young girl, 
 "when no entreaty could prevail, got his head in her arms, and laid her 
 own upon his to save him from death. ' ' 
 
 The stars and stripes of the United States of America are said to 
 have been suggested by the coat armorial of the Washington family, but 
 it is hardly possible to reconcile this supposition with the actual history 
 of the American flag. The earliest flag consisted of horizontal stripes, 
 with the earlier British union device in the place which it occupies in 
 the British ensign. Soon after the Declaration of Independence congress 
 resolved that the flag of the United States should have thirteen stripes, 
 alternately red and white, and that the British union device should be 
 superseded by a blue field with thirteen white stars, the number both of 
 stripes and of stars being correspondent to the number of States. In 1808 
 it was enacted. that the stripes should continue to be thirteen, that the 
 stars should be twenty in number, there being then twenty States, and 
 that a star should be added for every new State that came into the union. 
 
 Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is eighty-five miles by rail south- 
 west of Louisville. The cave is about ten miles long; but it is said to 
 require upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of traveling to explore 
 its multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, rivers and cataracts. 
 The main cave is only four miles long, but it is from forty to three 
 hundred feet wide, and rises in height to one hundred and twenty-five 
 feet. Lucy's Dome is three hundred feet high, the loftiest of the many 
 vertical shafts that pierce through all the levels. Some avenues are 
 covered with a continuous incrustation of the most beautiful crystals; 
 stalactites and stalagmites abound. There are several lakes or rivers 
 connected with Green River outside the cave, rising with the river, but 
 subsiding more slowly, so that they are generally impassable for more 
 than six months in the year. The largest is Echo River, three-fourths 
 of a mile long, and in some places two hundred feet wide. The air of 
 the cave is pure and healthful; the temperature remains constant 
 at about 54. 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 17 
 
 The "Alabama" was a steamer built at Birkenhead, near Liverpool, 
 England, by Messrs. Laird, for the Confederacy during the Civil War. 
 In spite of the remonstrances of Mr. Adams, then United States min- 
 ister to England, the "Alabama," then known as the "No. 290, "^ was 
 allowed to leave the Mersey. She obtained cannon and ammunition 
 at the Azores, and hoisted the Confederate flag, with Captain (afterwards 
 Admiral) Raphael Semmes in command. From this time, August, 1862, 
 until June 19, 1864, when she was beaten and sunk in the English Channel 
 by the United States warship "Kearsarge," the "Alabama" carried on 
 a career of privateering, closely approximating to piracy. She preyed 
 on the American merchant marine, capturing and sinking or burning 
 over sixty vessels and destroying $4,000,000 worth of property. No 
 attempt was made to take the prizes into port for condemnation, and 
 until she met the "Kearsarge" the noted cruiser kept well out of the 
 way of American war-ships. 
 
 In the United States, under the Pre-emption Act of 1841, an actual 
 settler on the public lands enjoys the right, in preference to. any one else, 
 of purchasing at a fixed price the land on which he has settled, to the 
 extent of not more than one hundred and sixty acres. In the case of 
 "offered" lands the settler must file his "declaratory statement" within 
 thirty days after entry, and within a year proof must be made of settle- 
 ment and cultivation, and the land thereupon paid for, at $1.25 per acre 
 if outside the limits of a railroad grant, or $2. 50 if within such limits. 
 If the tract settled on is "unoffered, " an approved plan of the township 
 must first be received at the district land office; the statement must then 
 be filed within three months, and final proof and payment be made 
 within thirty months thereafter. Title to land is thus obtained much 
 sooner (possibly within six months) than under the homestead laws; but 
 a homestead settler may at any time after six months purchase the laud 
 under the pre-emption laws; as, on the other hand, the holder of a pre- 
 emption claim may convert it into a homestead. 
 
 HISTORIC MINOR POLITICAL PARTIES. 
 
 The minor American parties which have appeared and disappeared 
 during our century and over of national life are the following: Anti- 
 Renters, a New York party which flourished about 1841. They resisted 
 the collection of back rents on the Van Rensselaer manor near Albany. 
 They had strength enough to defeat Wright, the regular Democratic can- 
 didate for Governor of New York. Barn-burners, New York, 1846, se- 
 ceders from the Democratic party. They were opposed to slavery exten- 
 sion. Bucktails, New York, about 1815; they supported Madison. 
 Conservatives, New York and some other states, 1837; paper money 
 Democrats. Doughfaces, 1820, Northern members of Congress, who 
 voted in favor of the Missouri compromise. Hunkers, New York, a fac- 
 tion of the Democrats favoring the South, the Barn-burners being the 
 other factor. Know- Nothings, New York, 1854, opposed to naturaliza- 
 tion of foreigners unless they had been twenty-one years in the country. 
 Loco-Focos, New York, 1835; a branch of the Democratic party. Liberal 
 Republicans, 1872; Republicans who joined with the Democrats in sup- 
 port of Greeley for president. Temperance, or Prohibition, from 1830 
 down, in many States; in favor of preventing or restricting the sale of 
 liquors. Woman's Rights, from 1860 down; those who favored granting 
 to women the right of suffrage. 
 U. I.-2 
 
18 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 PASSENGER LIST OF THE MAYFLOWER. 
 
 The following is a complete list of the male passengers landed at 
 Plymouth from the Mayflower: 
 
 Isaac Allerton. Francis Eaton. 
 
 Jno. Alden. Thomas English. 
 
 Jno. Allerton. Samuel Fuller. 
 
 William Bradford. John Rowland. 
 
 William Brewster Stephen Hopkins. 
 
 John Billington. Edward Leister. 
 
 Peter Brown. Christopher Martin. 
 
 Richard Britterage. William Mullins. 
 John Carver. 
 Francis Cook. 
 James Chilton. 
 
 John Crackston. 
 Richard Clarke. 
 Edward Dotey. 
 
 Servants as follows: 
 
 Edmund Margeson. 
 Degony Priest. 
 Thomas Rogers. 
 John Rigdale. 
 Edward Fuller. 
 Moses Fletcher. 
 
 John Goodman. 
 Richard Gardiner. 
 George Soule. 
 Capt. Miles Standish. 
 Edward Tilly. 
 John Tilly. 
 Thomas Tinker. 
 John Turner. 
 Edward Winslow. 
 William White. 
 Richard Warren. 
 Thomas Williams. 
 Gilbert Winslow. 
 
 Carter. 
 Cooper. 
 Ely. 
 Holbeck. 
 
 Hooke. 
 Langmore. 
 Latham. 
 Minter. 
 
 More. 
 Power. 
 Sampson. 
 Story. 
 
 Thompson. 
 
 Trevore 
 
 Wilder. 
 
 THE CLIMATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 Mean annual temperature, Fahrenheit, at places named: 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mobile 
 
 66 
 46 
 69 
 63 
 55 
 48 
 50 
 47 
 53 
 55 
 69 
 58 
 52 
 50 
 51 
 60 
 49 
 51 
 56 
 69 
 45 
 54 
 48 
 47 
 42 
 
 Mississippi 
 Missouri 
 Montana 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 64 
 55 
 43 
 49 
 50 
 46 
 53 
 51 
 48 
 59 
 53 
 53 
 54 
 48 
 62 
 58 
 67 
 52 
 43 
 57 
 51 
 52 
 45 
 41 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Arizona . . . 
 
 Sitka 
 Tucson 
 Little Rock 
 San Francisco 
 Denver 
 Hartford 
 Fort Randall 
 
 St. Louis 
 Helena 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Nebraska 
 Nevada 
 
 Omaha 
 C'p Winfield Scott 
 Concord 
 
 California . . 
 
 Colorado 
 Connecticut 
 Dakota 
 
 New Hampshiie.. 
 New Jersey 
 ! New Mexico 
 
 Trenton 
 
 Santa Pe 
 
 Delaware 
 District Columbia. 
 
 Wilmington 
 Washington 
 Jacksonville 
 Atlanta 
 
 New York 
 
 Albany 
 
 North Carolina 
 Ohio 
 
 Raleigh 
 Colutnbus 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Portland 
 Harrisburg 
 Providence 
 Columbia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Fort Boise 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 Rhode Island 
 South Carolina 
 Tennessee 
 
 Illinois 
 Indiana 
 Indian Territory.. 
 Iowa 
 Kansas 
 
 Springfield 
 Indianapolis 
 Fort Gibson 
 Des Moines 
 Leavenworth 
 Louisville 
 New Orleans 
 
 Nashville 
 
 Texas 
 
 Austin 
 
 Utah 
 
 Salt Lake City . .. 
 Montpelier 
 Richmond 
 Steilacoom 
 Romney 
 Madison 
 Fort Bridger 
 
 Kentucky 
 Louisiana 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Virginia 
 Washington Ter.. 
 West Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 Wyoming 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland. .... . 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Michigan 
 
 Boston .... 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 HOW OUR COUNTRY GREW. 
 
 The following gives the area of our country, and when and how the 
 territory was acquired: 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Territory ceded by England in 1783 815,615 
 
 Louisiana acquired from France in 1803 930.928 
 
 Florida acquired from Spain in 1821 59.268 
 
 Texas admitted into the Union in 1845 237,504 
 
 Oregon, by treaty in 1846 280,425 
 
 California taken from Mexico in 1845 649,762 
 
 Arizona, from Mexico by treaty in 1854 27,500 
 
 Alaska, from Russia by treaty in 1867 577,390 
 
 Total square miles 3.578,392 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 19 
 
 OUR STATE AND TERRITORIAL CAPITALS. 
 
 Alabama, Montgomery; Arizona, Phoenix; Arkansas, Little Rock; 
 California, Sacramento; Colorado, Denver; Connecticut, Hartford; North 
 Dakota, Bismarck; South Dakota, Pierre; Delaware, Dover; Florida, 
 Tallahassee; Georgia, Atlanta; Idaho, Boise City; Illinois, Springfield; 
 Indiana, Indianapolis; Indian Territory, Tahlequah; Iowa, Des Moines; 
 Kansas, Topeka; Kentucky, Frankfort; Louisiana, Baton Rouge; Maine, 
 Augusta; Maryland, Annapolis; Massachusetts, Boston; Michigan, Lans- 
 ing; Minnesota, St. Paul; Mississippi, Jackson; Missouri, Jefferson City; 
 Montana, Helena; Nebraska, Lincoln; Nevada, Carson City; New Hamp- 
 shire, Concord; New Jersey, Trenton; New Mexico Territory, Santa Fe; 
 New York, Albany; North Carolina, Raleigh; Ohio, Columbus; Oregon, 
 Salem; Pennsylvania, Harrisburg; Rhode Island, Newport and Provi- 
 dence; South Carolina, Columbia; Tennessee, Nashville; Texas, Austin; 
 Utah Territory, Salt Lake City; Vermont, Montpelier; Virginia, Rich- 
 mond; Washington, Olympia; West Virginia, Charleston; Wisconsin, 
 Madison; Wyoming Territory, Cheyenne. 
 
 THE INCREASE OF POPULATION BY DECADES. 
 
 Natural. Immigration. Total per cent. 
 28.02 4.65 32.67 
 
 1841-50 26.19 9.68 3587 
 
 1851-60 24.20 1138 35.58 
 
 1861-70 15.38 7.25 22.63 
 
 1871-80 22.78 7.29 3007 
 
 The increase of population since 1830 has averaged 32 per cent every 10 years. At 
 this rate there would be eighty-eight millions in 1900. From 1880 to 1890 the increase 
 was 24.87 per cent. 
 
 POPULATION AND AREA CENTER. 
 
 The center of area of the United States, excluding Alaska, is in North- 
 ern Kansas, in approximate latitude 39 55', and approximate longitude 
 98 50'. The center of population is in latitude 39 II' 56", and longi- 
 tude 85 32' 53", being about thiee-fourths of a degree south and more 
 than seventeen degrees east of the center of area. The following table 
 shows the movement of the center of population since 1790. 
 
 YEAR. APPROXIMATE LOCATION. MILES WESTW'D. 
 
 1790 23 miles east of Baltimore. Md 
 
 1800 18 miles west of Baltimore, Md 41 
 
 1810 40 miles N. W. by W. Washington, D. C 36 
 
 1820 16 miles north of Woodstock, Va 50 
 
 1830 19 miles W. S. W. Mooreville, W. Va 39 
 
 1840 16 miles south of 4 Clarksburg, W. Va 55 
 
 1850 23 miles S. E. of Parkersburg, W. Va 55 
 
 1860 20 miles south of Chillicothe, 81 
 
 1870 48 miles E. by N. of Cincinnati, 42 
 
 1880 8 miles W. by S. of Cincinnati, O 58 
 
 1890 20 miles east of Columbus, Ind 43 
 
 FIGURES OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE. 
 
 The last census of the United States, taken in 1890, and the results of 
 which were announced in 1891, shows that we have a population o f 62,- 
 622, 250. The census of 1880 counted 50, 155, 783, of whom 17, 392, 099 were 
 earners. 
 
 The combined wealth of the country in 1880 amounted to over $50,- 
 
20 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 000,000,000 about $880 per head, or $2,600 per worker. Half of this 
 was in lands and houses. This half was made up of farms, $10,197,000,- 
 000; residence and business real estate, $9,881,000,000; public buildings, 
 churches, etc., not taxed, $2,000,000,000. One-eighth was railroads ($5, - 
 536,000,000); another eighth, household furniture and supplies, ($5,000,- 
 000,000); the other quarter, live stock and farm tools, ($2,406,000,000); 
 mines and quarries, ($781,000,000); telegraphs, ships and canals, ($419,- 
 000,000); specie, $(612,000,000); miscellaneous ($650,000,000); and the stock 
 of products and imports, ($6,160,000,000). 
 
 The annual product or earnings of the nation are given by the cen- 
 sus of 1880 as $8,500,000,000. One tenth of this is used on farms. The 
 product is very unevenly divided. An even division would give about 
 $450 per year to each earner, or less than 45 cents per day for each person. 
 But it has been reckoned that in 1880 fifty persons had an average income 
 of $1,000, 000 each per year; 2,000, $100,000; 100,000, $10,000; a million, 
 $1,000; 14,000,000 under $400 per year. 
 
 The chief wastes are as follows: 
 
 1. Drink. The "liquor bill" of this country, at the price paid dram- 
 shops, is estimated at from $474,000,000 up, of which a large part is worse 
 than waste. 
 
 2. Fire. The loss by fire each year now exceeds $100,000,000, of 
 which the $50,000,000 paid back by insurance companies is none the less 
 loss. The expenses of insurance companies are $35,000,000 in addition, 
 and for fire departments, $25,000,000 more. 
 
 3. Crime and pauperism. The census reported 59,255 criminals in 
 jail, and 67,067 paupers in poor-houses. These are by no means all. 
 Their support costs over $12,500,000 per year, but the full loss by crime 
 runs probably toward fifty millions. 
 
 4. Waste of food. We consume now about $500,000,000 worth of 
 food, of which probably 10 per cent is wasted by extravagance, bad cook- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 5. Strikes and lack of employment. There were in one year (1880) 
 762 strikes recorded, of which 226 are known to have resulted in a loss of 
 $3,700,000 unearned wages. Still greater is the loss by lack of employ- 
 ment for men \villing to work. 
 
 WHERE ILLITERACY PREVAILS. 
 
 The United States compares very favorably with most of the Euro- 
 pean countries in the method of education. The preponderance of illiter- 
 ates in the Southern States is largely owing to the presence of a dense 
 colored population. 
 
 The 1880 census enumerates 36,761,607 persons often years of age 
 and upward. Of this number 4,923,451, or 13.4 per cent., are returned as 
 unable to read, and 6,239,958, or 17 per cent., as unable to write. The 
 following States show over 40 per cent, of their population as unable to 
 write. Alabama, 60; Florida, 43; Georgia, 50; Louisiana, 49; Mississippi, 
 50; New Mexico, 65; North Carolina, 48; South Carolina, 55, and Vir- 
 ginia, 41; and the following States with less than 5 per cent, unable to 
 read: Connecticut,_4; Dakota, 3; Illinois, 4; Indiana, 5; Iowa, 2; Kansas, 
 4; Maine, 4; Michigan, 4; Minnesota, 4; Montana, 5; Nebraska, 2^; New 
 Hampshire, 4; New Jersey, 5; New York, 4; Ohio, 4; Oregon, 4; Penn- 
 sylvania, 5; Utah, 5; Virginia, 5, and Wisconsin, 4. 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 21 
 
 ORIGIN OF STATE NAMES. 
 
 Alabama Indian; meaning "Here we rest. " Arkansas "Kansas," 
 the Indian name for "smoky water," with the French prefix "arc," bow 
 or bend in the principal river. California Caliente Somalia, Spanish 
 for "hot furnace," in allusion to the climate. Colorado Spanish; mean- 
 ing "colored," from the red color of the Colorado river. Connecticut 
 Indian; meaning "long river." Delaware Named in honor of Lord 
 Delaware. Florida Named by Ponce de Leon, who discovered it in 
 1512, on Easter Day, the Spanish Pascua de Flores, or "Feast of Flowers," 
 Georgia In honor of George II. of England. Illinois From the In- 
 dian "illini," men, and the French suffix "ois," together signifying 
 "tribe of men." Indiana Indian land. Iowa Indian; meaning "beauti- 
 ful land." Kansas Indian; meaning "smoky water." Kentucky In- 
 dian; for "at the head of the river;" or "the dark and bloody ground." 
 Louisiana In honor of Louis XIV. of France. Maine From the prov- 
 ince of Maine, in France. Maryland In honor of Henrietta Maria, 
 queen of Charles I. of England. Massachusetts The place of the great 
 hills (the blue hills southwest of Boston). Michigan The Indian name 
 for a fish weir. The lake was so called from the fancied resemblance of 
 the lake to a fish trap. Minnesota Indian ; meaning ' 'sky-tinted water. ' ' 
 Mississippi Indian; meaning "great father of waters." Missouri In- 
 dian-, meaning "muddy." Nebraska Indian; meaning "water valley." 
 Nevada Spanish; meaning "snow-covered," alluding to the mountains. 
 New Hampshire From Hampshire county, England. New Jersey 
 In honor of Sir George Carteret, one of the original grantees, who had 
 previously been governor of Jersey Island. New York In honor of the 
 Duke of York. North and South Carolina Originally called Carolina, 
 in honor of Charles IX. of France. Ohio Indian; meaning "beautiful 
 river. Oregon From the Spanish "oregano, " wild marjoram, which 
 grows abundantly on the coast. Pennsylvania Latin: meaning Penn's 
 woody land. Rhode Island From a fancied resemblance to the island 
 of Rhodes in the Mediterranean. Tennessee Indian, meaning "river 
 with the great bend." Texas Origin of this name is unknown. Ver- 
 mont French; meaning green mountain. Virginia In honor of Eliza- 
 beth, the "Virgin Queen." Wisconsin Indian] meaning "gathering of 
 the waters," or "wild rushing channel." 
 
 MOTTOES OF THE STATES. 
 
 Arkansas Regnant populi: The peoples rule. California Eureka: 
 I have found it. Colorado Nil sine numine: Nothing without the Di- 
 vinity. Connecticut Qui transtulit sustinet: He who has transferred, 
 sustains. Delaware Liberty and Independence. Florida: In God is 
 our trust. Georgia- -Wisdom, Justice, Moderation. Illinois State 
 Sovereignty and National Union. Iowa Our liberties we prize, and our 
 rights we will maintain. Kansas Ad astra per aspera: To the stars 
 through rugged ways. Kentucky United we stand, divided we fall. 
 Louisiana Union and Confidence. Maine Dirigo: I direct. Mary- 
 land Crescite et multiplicamini: Increase and multiply. Massachusetts 
 Ensc. petit placidam sub liber tate quietem: By her sword she seeks under 
 liberty a calm repose. Michigan Si quceris peninsulam amcsnam cir~ 
 cumspice: r If thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, look around. Minne- 
 sota L'Etoile du Nord: The Star of the North. Missouri Salus populi 
 suprema lex esto: Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law. 
 
22 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Nebraska Popular Sovereignty. Nevada Volens et potens: Willing 
 and able. New Jersey Liberty and Independence. New York Ex- 
 celsior: Higher. Ohio Imperium in imperio: An empire within an 
 empire. Oregon Alis volat propriis: She flies with her own wings. 
 Pennsylvania Virtue, Liberty, Independence. Rhode Island Hope. 
 North Carolina Esse quam videri: To be, rather than to seem. South 
 Carolina Animis opibusque parati: Ready with our lives and property. 
 Tennessee Agriculture, Commerce. Vermont Freedom and Unity. 
 Virginia Sic semper tyrannis: So be it ever to tyrants. West Virginia 
 Montani semper liberi: The mountaineers are always free. Wisconsin 
 Forward. United States E pluribus unum: From many, one. An- 
 nuit cceptis: God has favored the undertaking ; Novus ordo seculorum: 
 A new order of ages. The first named on one side of the great seal, the 
 other two on the reverse. 
 
 NICKNAMES OF STATES, CITIES AND PEOPLE. 
 
 Alabama, Cotton State; Arkansas, Toothpick and Bear State; Cali- 
 fornia, Eureka and Golden State; Colorado, Centennial State; Connecti- 
 cut, Land of Steady Habits, Freestone State and Nutmeg State; Dakota, 
 Sioux State; Delaware, Uncle Sam's Pocket Handkerchief and Blue Hen 
 State; Florida, Everglade and Flowery State; Georgia, Empire State of 
 the South; Idaho, Gem of the Mountains; Illinois, Prairie and Sucker 
 State; Indiana, Hoosier State; Iowa, Hawkeye State; Kansas, Jayhawker 
 State; Kentucky, Corn-cracker State; Louisiana, Creole State; Maine, 
 Timber and Pine Tree State; Maryland, Monumental State; Massachu- 
 setts, Old Bay State; Michigan, Wolverine and Peninsular State; Minne- 
 sota, Gopher and North Star State; Mississippi, Eagle State; Missouri, 
 Puke State; Nebraska, Antelope State; Nevada, Sage State; New Hamp- 
 shire, Old Granite State; New Jersey, Blue State and New Spain; New 
 Mexico, Vermin State; New York, Empire State; North Carolina, Rip 
 Van Winkle, Old North and Turpentine State; Ohio, Buckeye State; 
 Oregon, Pacific State; Pennsylvania, Keystone, Iron and Oil State; 
 Rhode Island, Plantation State and Little Rhody; South Carolina, Pal- 
 metto State; Tennessee, Lion's Den State; Texas, Lone Star State; Utah, 
 Mormon State; Vermont, Green Mountain State; Virginia, Old Dominion; 
 Wisconsin, Badger and Copper State. 
 
 Atlanta, Gate City of the South, Baltimore, Monumental City; Ban- 
 gor, Lumber City; Boston, Modern Athens, Literary Emporium, City of 
 Notions, and Hub of the Universe; Brooklyn, City of Churches; Buffalo, 
 Queen of the Lakes; Burlington (Iowa) Orchard City; Charleston, Pal- 
 metto City; Chicago, Prairie, or Garden City; Cincinnati, Queen of the 
 West and Porkopolis; Cleveland, Forest City; Denver, City of the Plains; 
 Detroit, City of the Straits; Hartford, Insurance City; Indianapolis, Rail- 
 road City; Keokuk, Gate City; Lafayette, Star City; Leaven worth, Cot- 
 tonwood City; Louisville, Falls City; Lowell, Spindle City; McGregor, 
 Pocket City; Madison, Lake City; Milwaukee, Cream City; Nashville, 
 Rock City; New Haven, Elm City; New Orleans, Crescent City; New 
 York, Empire City, Commercial Emporium, Gotham, and Metropolis of 
 America; Philadelphia, City of Brotherly Love, City of Penn, Quaker 
 City, and Centennial City; Pittsburgh, Iron City and Smoky City; Port- 
 land (Me.), Hill City; Providence, Roger Williams' City, and Perry 
 Davis's Pain Killer; Raleigh, Oak City; Richmond (Va.), Cockade City; 
 Salt Lake City, Mormon City; San Francisco, Golden Gate; Savannah, 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 23 
 
 Forest City of the South, Sheboygan, Evergreen City; St. Louis, Mound 
 City; St. Paul, North Star City; Vicksburg, Key City; Washington, City 
 of "Magnificent Distances, and Federal City. 
 
 Alabama, lizards; Arkansas, toothpicks; California, gold-hunters; 
 Colorado, rovers; Connecticut, wooden nutmegs; Dakota, squatters; Dela- 
 ware, muskrats; Florida, fly-up-the-creeks; Georgia, buzzards; Idaho, 
 fortune-seekers; Illinois, suckers; Indiana, hoosiers; Iowa, hawkeyes; 
 Kansas, jayhawkers; Kentucky, corn-crackers; Louisiana, Creoles; Maine, 
 foxes; Maryland, clam-humpers; Massachusetts, Yankees; Michigan, wol- 
 verines; Minnesota, gophers; Mississippi, tadpoles; Missouri, pukes; Ne- 
 braska, bugeaters; Nevada, sage-hens; New Hampshire, granite boys; 
 New Jersey, blues, or clam-catchers; New Mexico, Spanish Indians; New 
 York, Knickerbockers; North Carolina, tarheels; Ohio, buckeyes; Ore- 
 gon, hard cases; Pennsylvania, pennamites, or leather-heads; Rhode 
 Island, gunflints, South Carolina, weazles; Tennessee, whelps; Texas, 
 beef-heads; Utah, polygamists; Vermont, green-mountain boys; Virginia, 
 beagles; Wisconsin, badgers. 
 
 NOTED NATIONAL NICKNAMES. 
 
 Pupils in United States history and the general reader, who is at 
 times puzled to know who is meant, will take interest in the following 
 list: 
 
 The Father of his Country.Washinjflon. 
 
 Old Man Eloquent J . Q . Adams, 
 
 The Sage of Monticello Jefferson. 
 
 Old Hickory Jackson. 
 
 Young Hickory Polk. 
 
 Great Pacifier Clay. 
 
 Mad Anthony Wayne. 
 
 Old Rough and Ready Taylor. 
 
 Expounder of the Constitu- 
 tion Webster. 
 
 Unconditional Surrender 
 Grant U. S. Grant. 
 
 Poor Richard Franklin. 
 
 Political Meteor. Randolph. 
 
 Little Mac McClellan . 
 
 Stonewall T. J. Jackson. 
 
 Honest Abe Lincoln. 
 
 Rock of Chickamauga Thomas. 
 
 Old Put Putnam. 
 
 Old Tecumseh Sherman- 
 
 Light Horse Harry Henry Lee. 
 
 Uncle Robert R. E. Lee. 
 
 Fighting Joe Hooker. 
 
 Bayard of the South Marion. 
 
 The Little Magician Van Buren. 
 
 Father of the Constitution.James Madison 
 
 The Superb Hancock. 
 
 The Rail Splitter Lincoln. 
 
 Great American Commoner. Thad. Stevens. 
 
 Old Ossawatomie John Brown. 
 
 Old Public Functionary... Jas. Buchanan. 
 
 Carolina Game Cock Sumter. 
 
 Teacher President. . . Garfield. 
 
 Father of Greenback s Salm'n P Chase 
 
 Little Giant S. A. Douglas. 
 
 Colossus of American Inde- 
 pendence John Adams. 
 
 Sage of Chappaqua Gieeley. 
 
 Prince of American Letters W. Irving. 
 
 Mill Boy of the Slashes Clay. 
 
 Pathfinder of the Rockies. .Fremont. 
 Cincinnatus of the West.. ..Washington. 
 
 Great Indian Apostle Eliot. 
 
 Motoax King Phillip 
 
 WONDERS OF AMERICAN RAILROADING. 
 
 1. There are in the United States 150,600 miles of railway about 
 half the mileage of the world. 2. The estimated cost is $9,000,000,000. 
 3. The number of people employed by American railways is more than 
 1,000,000. 4. The fastest time made by a train is 422 6-10 miles in 7 
 hours, 23 minutes (443 minutes), one mile being made in 47 11-29 seconds, 
 on the West Shore Railroad, New York. 5. The cost of a high-class 
 eight-wheel passenger locomotive is $8,500. 6. The longest mileage 
 operated by a single system is about 8,000 miles. 7. The cost of a pal- 
 ace sleeping car is about $15,000 or $17,000 if ' 'vestibuled. " 8. The 
 longest railway bridge span in the United States is the Cantilever span in 
 Poughkeepsie bridge 548 feet. 9. The highest railroad bridge in the 
 United States is the Kinzua viaduct on the Erie road 305 feet high. 10. 
 
24 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The first locomotive in the United States was built by Peter Cooper. 11. 
 The road carrying the largest number of passengers is the Manhattan 
 Elevated Railroad, New York -525, 000 a day, or 191,625,000 yearly. 12. 
 The average daily earning of an American locomotive is about f 100. 13. 
 The longest American railway tunnel is the Hoosac, on the Fitchburg 
 railway 4# miles. 14. The average cost of constructing a mile of rail- 
 road at the present time is about $30,000. 15. The first sleeping-car was 
 used upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad of Pennsylvania; from 1836 
 to 1848. 16. The chances of fatal accident in railway travel are very 
 slight one killed in ten million. Statistics show more are killed by fall- 
 ing out of windows than in railway accidents. 17. The line of railway 
 extending farthest east and west is the Canadian Pacific, running from 
 Quebec to the Pacific Ocean. 18. A steel rail, with average wear, lasts 
 about eighteen years. 19. The road carrying the largest number of 
 commuters is the Illinois Central at Chicago 4,828,128 commutation 
 fares in 1887. 20. The fastest time made between Jersey City and San 
 Francisco is 3 days, 7 hours, 39 minutes and 16 seconds. Special theat- 
 rical train, June, 1876. 
 
 NOTE. Twenty-hour regular train service was established between 
 New York and Chicago, May 28, 1893. Average speed throughout, 51 
 miles. 
 
 OUR COAL FIELDS. 
 
 This country has an area of between three and four hundred thou- 
 sand square miles of known coal fields, from which one million tons are 
 mined yearly enough to belt the earth at the equator with a ring five 
 and a half feet thick by five and a half feet wide. The quantity "in 
 sight" is estimated to be sufficient to supply the whole world for a period 
 of fifteen hundred to two thousand years. 
 
 IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1820-1892. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 Total Alien 
 Passengers. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 Total Alien 
 Passengers. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 Total 
 Immigrants. 
 
 Total 
 YEAR. Immigrants. 
 
 1820 
 
 8,385 
 
 1840 . . . 
 
 . 84066 
 
 I860.. 
 1861 . . . 
 1862... 
 1863... 
 1864 
 
 .. 150237 
 
 1879 . . 177 826 
 
 1821 
 
 9 127 
 
 1841 
 
 80289 
 
 .... ... 89,724 
 89,007 
 174,524 
 193 195 
 
 1880 457 257 
 
 1822 .. 
 
 6,911 
 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 104,565 
 52,49(5 
 78 615 
 
 1881 669 431 
 
 1823 
 
 . . 6354 
 
 1882 788 992 
 
 18^4 
 
 7912 
 
 1883 603 322 
 
 1825 
 
 10,199 
 
 1845... 
 1846 
 
 114,371 
 ... .154 416 
 
 1865 
 
 . . 247 453 
 
 1884 518592 
 
 1826 
 
 10837 
 
 1866 
 
 163 594 
 
 1885 395,346 
 1886 334 203 
 
 1827 . 
 
 .. 18875 
 
 1847 
 
 234,968 
 
 Fisc.Y 
 
 1867... 
 18G8... 
 1869... 
 1870 
 
 'r end'g Tun. 30 
 298.967 
 282 189 
 
 1828 
 
 27382 
 
 1848. ... 
 1849 
 
 226,527 
 .. 297 024 
 
 1887 . . . 490 109 
 
 1829 
 
 22 520 
 
 1888 546 889 
 
 1830 
 
 23322 
 
 1850. ... 
 
 369 986 
 
 352.569 
 387 203 
 
 1889 444,427 
 1890 455.302 
 ,891 560,319 
 
 1831 . 
 
 22 633 
 
 1851 
 
 379 466 
 
 1832 .... 
 
 60,482 
 
 1852.... 
 1853 
 
 .... 371,603 
 368 645 
 
 1871 
 
 321 350 
 
 1833 . 
 
 58 640 
 
 1872 
 
 404806 
 
 1892 623 084 
 
 1834 
 
 65 365 
 
 1854 
 
 427 833 
 
 1873 
 
 459 803 
 
 
 1835 ... 
 
 45,374 
 
 1855 
 
 200877 
 
 1874 
 
 313339 
 
 Total ...*16,004,093 
 
 From 1779 to 1820, 
 estimated... 350,000 
 
 1836 .. 
 
 76 242 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 . . 
 
 195,857 
 246.945 
 119501 
 
 1875... 
 1876 
 
 227,498 
 169 986 
 
 1837 
 
 79 340 
 
 1838 
 
 38,914 
 
 1877 
 
 . . 141 857 
 
 1839 
 
 RSOfi9 
 
 1859 
 
 118 616 
 
 1878 
 
 138 469 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Immigrants from the British North American possessions and Mexico are not 
 included since July 1, 1885. 
 
 Of the whole number of immigrants in the fiscal year ending June 
 30, 1891, 533,164 came through the customs district of New York; 41,- 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 995 through Baltimore; 36,149 through Boston; 28,120 through Phila- 
 delphia, and 10,115 through San Francisco. 
 
 The reported occupations of immigrants who arrived during the year 
 ending June 30, 1890, were as follows: Laborers, 139,365; farmers, 29,296; 
 servants, 28,625; carpenters, 3,776; miners, 3,745; clerks, 3,653; tailors, 
 3,879; shoemakers, 2,232; blacksmiths, 1,792. The total number of pro- 
 fessional immigrants was 3,236; of skilled laborers, 44,540; of miscellan- 
 eous, 211,756. 
 
 NATIONALITY OF IMMIGRANTS DURING FORTY YEARS. 
 (Compiled by the Superintendent of the Census.) 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 1851 to 1860. 
 
 1861 to 1870. 
 
 1871 to 1880. 
 
 1881 to 1890. 
 
 Kngland 
 
 247 125 
 
 251 288 
 
 440 961 
 
 649 052 
 
 Ireland 
 
 914 119 
 
 456 593 
 
 444 589 
 
 655 381 
 
 Scotland 
 
 38331 
 
 44 681 
 
 88925 
 
 149856 
 
 Wales 
 
 6 319 
 
 4642 
 
 6 779 
 
 11 990 
 
 Great Britain, not specified 
 
 132 199 
 
 349.766 
 
 7908 
 
 147 
 
 Total United Kingdom 
 
 1 338093 
 
 1,106970 
 
 989 163 
 
 1 466 426 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 9398 
 
 69558 
 
 226020 
 
 Belgium 
 
 4 738 
 
 7.416 
 
 7,278 
 
 17,506 
 
 Denmark .... 
 
 3749 
 
 17,885 
 
 34,577 
 
 88 108 
 
 France 
 
 76 358 
 
 37 749 
 
 73301 
 
 50 460 
 
 Germany 
 
 951 667 
 
 822,007 
 
 757,698 
 
 1,452 952 
 
 
 
 448 
 
 13,475 
 
 127 678 
 
 Italy 
 
 9231 
 
 12 892 
 
 60830 
 
 307095 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 10 789 
 
 9,539 
 
 17,236 
 
 53701 
 
 Norway and Sweden 
 Russia and Poland 
 
 20,931 
 1,621 
 
 117,798 
 5,047 
 
 226,488 
 54,606 
 
 560,483 
 265,064 
 
 
 10 353 
 
 9,047 
 
 9,767 
 
 5.564 
 
 
 25011 
 
 23,839 
 
 31,722 
 
 81 987 
 
 All other countries in Europe 
 
 116 
 
 234 
 
 1,265 
 
 22,770 
 
 Total Kurope 
 
 2,452 657 
 
 2,180,399 
 
 2,346,964 
 
 4,725,814 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 41,397 
 
 68,059 
 
 122.436 
 
 59,995* 
 
 Total Asia 
 
 41,458 
 
 68,444 
 
 123,068 
 
 63,932 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 210 
 
 324 
 
 221 
 
 375* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 59.309 
 
 184,713 
 
 430,210 
 
 392,802f 
 
 Mexico. ... 
 
 3,078 
 
 2,386 
 
 5,164 
 
 l,913f 
 
 Central America 
 
 449 
 
 96 
 
 229 | 
 
 
 
 1 224 
 
 1 443 
 
 1,152 j 
 
 1,646 
 
 West Indies 
 
 10,660 
 
 9698 
 
 14,461 
 
 26,487*J 
 
 Total America . 
 
 74 720 
 
 198336 
 
 451,216 
 
 4iJ2,848 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 169 
 
 19 249 
 
 23226 
 
 25759 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 2.598.214 
 
 2,466,752 
 
 2,944,695 
 
 5,238,728 
 
 given in 18W. ^Reports discontinued after 1885. ^Includes Central and South 
 America for 1889. 
 
 As the reports for British North American Provinces and for Mexico 
 have been discontinued since 1885 by the Treasury Department, the 
 figures here represented only cover five years of the decade. An esti- 
 mate based upon the immigration of the years from 1881 to 1885, inclu- 
 sive, would give 785, 604 to British North America for the decade from 
 1881 to 1890, and 3,826 to Mexico, making the aggregate for America 
 817,563, instead of 422,848. 
 
 Mulhall estimates the number of individuals who emigrated from 
 Europe in 72 years, 1816 to 1888, at 27,205,000. Of these 15,000,000 came 
 to the United States, 
 
26 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 GROWTH OF OUR FIFTY CHIEF CITIES. 
 
 Cities. 
 
 1 New York. 
 
 2 Chicago 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 4 Brooklyn. , 
 Louis . 
 
 6 Boston 
 
 7 Baltimore . . 
 
 8 San Francisco. 
 
 9 Cincinnati . 
 10 Cleveland 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 12 New Orleans. 
 
 13 Pittsburg. . . 
 
 14 Washington .. 
 
 15 Detroit 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 n 
 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 
 Milwaukee. .. 
 
 Newark 
 
 Minneapolis.. 
 Jersey City 
 
 Louisville 
 
 Dmaha , 
 
 Rochester 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Kansas City.. 
 Providence 
 
 Popula- 
 tion, 1890 
 
 1,513,501 
 1,098,576 
 1,044,894 
 806,343 
 450,245 
 446,507 
 434,151 
 297,990 
 296309 
 261,546 
 254,457 
 241,995 
 238,473 
 829,796 
 
 203,979 
 181,51* 
 164.738 
 163,987 
 161,005 
 139,526 
 138,327 
 133,156 
 
 15 
 38 
 17 
 16 
 63 
 & 
 45 
 
 132,416 30 
 
 132,043 
 
 Popula- 
 tion, 1880 
 
 1,206,209 
 503,185 
 847,170 
 566,663 
 350,518 
 
 332,313 
 233,959 
 255,139 
 160,146 
 155,134 
 216,090 
 156,389 
 147,293 
 116,340 
 115,587 
 136,508 
 
 46,887 
 120,722 
 123,758 
 
 30,518 
 
 41,473 
 55.785 
 104,857 
 
 32 Worcester. 
 
 33 Scranton. 
 
 Denver , 
 
 28 Allegheny.... 
 
 29 Albany 
 
 30 Columbus 
 
 Cities. 
 
 Indianapolis . , 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Toledo 
 
 35 New Haven 
 
 36 Richmond... 
 
 37 Paterson 
 
 38 Lowell. . . 
 
 Nashville. 
 
 39 
 
 40 Fall River.... 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Memphis 
 
 Grand Rapids. 
 Wilmington ... 
 
 46 Troy 
 
 Reading. 
 Dayton . 
 
 49 Trenton, 
 
 50 Camden 
 
 Popula- 
 tion, 1890 
 
 107.445 
 106,670 
 104.967 
 94,640 
 
 84,536 
 83,450 
 82,652 
 81,451 
 80,838 
 78,358 
 77,605 
 
 74,351 
 
 65.514 
 64,586 
 64,147 
 61,437 
 
 58,926 
 58,838 
 58,488 
 58,274 
 
 Totals 11.286,500 7,750.715 
 
 Popula- 
 tion, 1880 
 
 75.056 
 35,629 
 
 90,758 
 51,647 
 51,792 
 58,291 
 45,850 
 50,137 
 62,882 
 63,600 
 51,031 
 59,475 
 43.3JO 
 48.961 
 
 37,409 
 
 32,016 
 42,478 
 56,747 
 43,278 
 
 29,910 
 41,669 
 
 THE SUCCESSION OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 NATIVE 
 STATE. 
 
 ANCESTRY. 
 
 W 
 y 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 PI 
 
 INAUG- 
 URATED 
 
 POLITICS. 
 
 PLACE OF DEATH. 
 
 pi 
 > 
 
 pi 
 
 3 
 
 George Washington. . . 
 
 Va ... 
 
 English . . 
 
 Va... 
 
 1789 
 
 57 
 
 Fed.... 
 
 Mount Vernon, 1799. 
 
 John Adams .... Mass. 
 
 English 
 
 Mass. 
 
 1797 
 
 62 
 
 Fed.... 
 
 Quincy, Mass., 1826. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson | Va . . . 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Va. . . . 
 
 1801 
 
 58 
 
 Reo... 
 
 Monticello, Va., 1826. 
 
 James Madison Va. . . . 
 
 English. . . . 
 
 Va.... 
 
 1809 
 
 58 |Rep.... 
 
 Montpelier, Va., 1836. 
 
 James Monroe ?Va 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Va.... 
 
 1817 
 
 59 
 
 Rep 
 
 New York City, 1831. 
 
 John Quincy Adams.. Mass. 
 
 English ... 
 
 Mass. 
 
 1825 
 
 58 
 
 Rep 
 
 Washington, 1848. 
 
 Andrew Jackson 
 Martin Van Buren 
 
 S. C.. 
 N. Y. 
 
 Scot-Irish.. 
 Dutch 
 
 Tenn 
 N. Y. 
 
 1839 
 1837 
 
 62 
 55 
 
 Dem . . . 
 Dem. . 
 
 Hermitage,Tenn., '45. 
 Kinderhook.N.Y.,' 62. 
 
 William H. Harrison. 
 John Tyler 
 
 Va... 
 
 Va.... 
 
 English.... 
 English.... 
 
 Ohio. 
 Va.... 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 58 
 51 
 
 Whig.. 
 Dem.. . 
 
 Washington, 1841. 
 Richmond. Va., 1862. 
 
 James K. Polk 
 
 N.C.. 
 
 Scot-Irish. . 
 
 Tenn 
 
 1845 
 
 60 
 
 Dem .. 
 
 Nashville, Tenn., 1849. 
 
 Zachary Taylor 
 Millard Fillmore 
 
 Va... 
 N. Y. 
 
 English.... 
 English.... 
 
 La.... 
 N. Y. 
 
 1849 
 1&50 
 
 55 
 50 
 
 Whig.. 
 Whig.. 
 
 Washington, 1850. 
 Buffalo, N. Y., 1876. 
 
 Franklin Pierce 
 
 N. H. 
 
 English 
 
 N. H. 
 
 1853 
 
 49 
 
 Dem.. . 
 
 Concord, N. H., 1869. 
 
 James Buchanan 
 
 Pa... 
 
 Scot-Irish. . 
 
 Pa.... 
 
 1857 
 
 60 
 
 Dem... 
 
 Wheatland, Pa., 1868. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 
 
 Ky ... 
 
 English.... 
 
 111.... 
 
 1861 
 
 52 
 
 Rep 
 
 Washington, 1865. 
 
 Andrew Johnson 
 
 N:C.. 
 
 English.... 
 
 Tenn 
 
 1865 
 
 57 
 
 Rep. . . . 
 
 Greenville, Tenn., '75. 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Scotch 
 
 111.... 
 
 1869 
 
 47 
 
 Rep. . . . 
 
 MtM 'Gre*or,N.Y. , '85. 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes.. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 English.... 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 1877 
 
 55 
 
 Rep.... 
 
 Cleveland, O., 1893. 
 
 James A. Garfield 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 English. . . . 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 1881 
 
 49 
 
 Re?.... 
 
 Long Branch, 1881. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur 
 
 Vt.... 
 
 Scot-Irish. . 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 1881 
 
 51 
 
 Rep 
 
 New York City, 1886. 
 
 Qrovcr Cleveland . * . 
 
 N.J.. 
 
 English 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 1885 
 
 48 
 
 Dem 
 
 
 Bdiimniti HflrrisoQ 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 T?n crl i <;Vi 
 
 Tnd. 
 
 1889 
 
 56 
 
 Rep 
 
 
 Grover Cleveland 
 
 N J..I English... 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 1893 
 
 56 
 
 Dem. .. 
 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 27 
 
 GENERALS COMMANDING THE U. S. ARMY. 
 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 lieorge Washington. . . . 
 
 1775 
 
 1783 
 
 Alexander Macomb 
 
 1828 
 
 1841 
 
 Henry Knox 
 
 1783 
 
 1784 
 
 Winfield Scott 
 
 1841 
 
 1861 
 
 Josiah Harmer 
 
 1788 
 
 1791 
 
 George B McClellan 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 Arthur St. Clair 
 
 1791 
 
 1796 
 
 Henry W Halleck 
 
 1862 
 
 1864 
 
 James Wilkinson 
 
 1796 
 
 1798 
 
 Ulysses S Grant 
 
 1864 
 
 1869 
 
 George Washington 
 James Wilkinson ... 
 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 1799 
 1812 
 
 William T. Sherman 
 Philip H Sheridan . . 
 
 1869 
 1883 
 
 1883 
 1888 
 
 Henry Dearborn 
 
 1812 
 
 1815 
 
 John M Schofield 
 
 18&8 
 
 
 Jacob Brown 
 
 1815 
 
 1828 
 
 
 
 
 WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 Statement of the Number of United States Troops Engaged. 
 
 WARS. 
 
 FROM. 
 
 To. 
 
 REGU- 
 LARS. 
 
 MILITIA 
 
 ' AND 
 
 VOLUN- 
 TEERS. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 War of the Revolution 
 
 Apr. 17,1775 
 Sept. 19, 1790 
 July 9,1798 
 June 10 1801 
 July 27,1813 
 June 18,1812 
 Nov. 20,1817 
 Apr. 21,1831 
 1836 
 May 5, 1836 
 Dec. 23,1825 
 1838 
 Apr. 14,1846 
 1849 
 1856 
 1861 
 
 Apr. 11,1783 
 Aug. 3,1793 
 Sept 30, 1800 
 June 4,1805 
 Aug. 9,1814 
 Feb. 17,1815 
 Oct. 21,1818 
 Sept 31, 1832 
 1837 
 Sept 30, 1837 
 Aug.14,1843 
 1839 
 July 4,1848 
 1855 
 1858 
 1865 
 
 130,711 
 
 164,080 
 
 309,781 
 8,983 
 *4,593 
 *3,330 
 13,731 
 576,622 
 7,911 
 6,465 
 9,494 
 13,418 
 41,122 
 1,500 
 112,230 
 2,561 
 2,687 
 2,772,408 
 
 Northwestern Indian wars 
 
 War with France 
 
 
 
 War with Tripoli 
 
 "'ebb' 
 
 85,000 
 1,000 
 1,339 
 
 ' '13,181 
 471,622 
 6,911 
 5.126 
 9,494 
 12.483 
 29,953 
 1,500 
 73,776 
 1,061 
 3,687 
 
 C reek Indian war 
 
 War 1812 with Great Britian.... 
 Seminole Indian war 
 
 Black Hawk Indian war 
 
 Cherokee disturbance or removal. 
 Creek Indian war or disturbance. 
 Florida Indian war 
 
 935 
 11,169 
 
 
 
 30,954 
 1,500 
 
 Apache, Navajo and Utah war... 
 Seminole Indian war 
 
 Civil wart 
 
 *Naval forces engaged. tThe number of troops on the Confederate side was about 
 600,000. 
 
 The number of casualities.in the volunteer and regular armies in the 
 United States, during the war of 1861-65, was reported by the Provost Mar- 
 shal General in 1866: Killed in battle, 61,362; died of wounds, 34,727; 
 died of disease, 183,287; total died, 279,376; total deserted, 199,105, 
 Number of soldiers in the Confederate service who died of wounds 
 or disease (partial statement), 133,821. Deserted (partial statement, 
 104,428. Number of United States troops captured during the war, 
 212,608; Confederate troops captured, 476,169. Number of United State* 
 troops paroled on the field, 16,431; Confederate troops paroled on the 
 field, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died while prisoners, 
 29,725; Confederate troops who died while prisoners, 26,774. 
 
 GUIDE TO THE CIVIL, SERVICE. 
 
 The officials and clerks over one hundred and twenty thousand in 
 all by whom the people's business in the administration of government 
 is carried on, constitute the Civil Service. About five thousand of these 
 are appointed by the President, alone or with the consent of the Senate; 
 about fifteen thousand under what is known as the "Civil Service Rules;" 
 but the great body of officeholders is appointed by heads of departments. 
 
 Those employed in the civil service have always been theoretically 
 
28 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 entitled to serve "during good behavior," but practically, until within a 
 few years, their positions have depended upon their allegiance to the 
 political party in power. 
 
 In 1883 Congress passed a law for the improvement of the civil service 
 of the United States. This act provides for the appointment by the Presi- 
 dent of three commissioners to have general charge of filling the vacan- 
 cies in the civil service department, and stipulates that the fitness of all 
 applicants for all subordinate positions in the departments at Washington, 
 and in all custom-houses and postomces having as many as 50 office- 
 holders, shall be tested by examinations, and the positions assigned with 
 reference to the capacity, education and character of the applicants, 
 regardless of political preferences. 
 
 According to this, no absolute appointment to office can be made 
 until the applicant has proven his or her ability to fill the position satis- 
 factorily by six months' service; no person habitually using intoxicating 
 beverages to excess shall be appointed to, or retained in any office; no 
 recommendation which may be given by any Senator or member of the 
 House of Representatives, except as to character and residence, shall be 
 considered by the examiners; men and women shall receive the same pay 
 for the same work. 
 
 The general competitive examinations for admission to the service 
 are limited to the following subjects: 1. Orthography, penmanship and 
 copying. 2. Arithmetic fundamental rules, fractions and percentage. 
 
 3. Interest, discount, and the elements of bookkeeping and of accounts- 
 
 4. Elements of the English language, letter writing, and the proper con. 
 struction of sentences. 5. Elements of the geography, history and 
 government of the United States. 
 
 A standing of 65 per cent, in the first three branches is necessary to 
 qualify an applicant for appointment. Where special qualifications are 
 necessary for specific work the examinations are adapted to test the 
 knowledge of the applicant in that particular line. 
 
 No applicant will be examined who cannot furnish proof that he is 
 of good moral character and in good health. 
 
 There is a board of examiners in each of the principal cities of the 
 United States and several examinations are held each year. Applications 
 must be made on the regular ' 'application paper, ' ' which can be obtained 
 of the commissioners, or any board of examiners. 
 
 Several of the States have adopted the principles laid down in the 
 civil service act and applied them to the State civil service, and it is prob- 
 ably only a question of time when civil service reform will be consum- 
 mated throughout the United States and the public service will thereby 
 be rendered much more efficient. 
 
 GOVERNMENT SALARY LIST. 
 
 The salary of the President of the United States is $50,000 a year, the 
 Vice-President, |8,000; Cabinet officers, $8,000. Senators receive $5,000 
 and mileage. Congressmen, $5,000 and mileage. The Chief Justice of the 
 Supreme Court receives $10,500; Associate Justices, $10,000. The dip- 
 lomats get good pay; Ministers to Germany, Great Britain, France and 
 Russia, $17,500; Ministers to Brazil, China, Austra-Hungary, Italy, 
 Mexico, Japan and Spain, $12,000; Ministers to Chili, Peru and Central 
 America, $10,000; Ministers to Argentine Confederation, Hawaiian 
 Islands, Belgium, Hayti, Colombia, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey and 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 29 
 
 Venezuela, $7,500, Ministers to Switzerland, Denmark, Paraguay, Bolivia 
 and Portugal, $5,000; Ministers to Liberia, $4,000. The heads of the 
 Government departments receive: Superintendent of Bureau of Engrav- 
 ing and Printing, $4,500; Public Printer, $4,500; Superintendent of Census, 
 $5,000; Superintendent of Naval Observatory, $5,000; Superintendent 
 of the Signal Service, $4,000; Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000; 
 Director of the Mint, $4,500; Commissioner of General Land Office, $4,000; 
 Commissioner of Pensions, $3,600, Commissioner of Agriculture, $3,000; 
 Commissioner of Indian Affairs, $3,000; Commissioner of Education, 
 $3,000; Commander of Marine Corps, $3,500; Superintendent of Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey, $6,000. 
 
 In 1893 the Ministers to Great Britain, Germany and France, were 
 made Ambassadors without increase of pay. 
 
 The pay of army officers is fixed as follows: General, $13,500; Lieut- 
 General, $11,000; Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier-General, $5,500; Colo- 
 nel, $3,500; Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000; Major, $2,500; Captain, mounted, 
 $2,000; Captain, not mounted, $1,800; Regimental Adjutant, $1,800; 
 Regimental Quartermaster, $1,800; 1st Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; 1st 
 Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,500; 2d Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; 2d 
 Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,400; Chaplain, $1,500. The navy salaries 
 are: Admiral, $13,000; Vice-Admiral, $9,000; Rear-Admiral, $6,000; Com- 
 modore, $5,000; Captain, $4,500; Commander, $3,500; Lieut. -Commander, 
 $2,800; Lieutenant, $2,400; Master, $1,800; Ensign, $1,200; Midshipman, 
 $1,000; Cadet Midshipman, $500; Mate, $900; Medical and Pay Director 
 and Medical and Pay Inspector and Chief Engineer, $4,400; Fleet Sur- 
 geon, Fleet Paymaster and Fleet Engineer, $4,400; Surgeon and Pay- 
 master, $2,800; Chaplain, $2,500. 
 
 WAYS AND WORK OF THE PATENT OFFICE. 
 
 Applications for United States patents must be addressed to the Com- 
 missioner of Patents, Washington, D.C., and signed and sworn to by the 
 inventor. The invention must not have been in public use or on sale for 
 more than two years prior to the application. The applicant must fully 
 describe his invention and distinctly claim those parts which he believes 
 to be new. The application must be illustrated with drawings when pos- 
 sible. When filed, a first fee of $15 is payable, and a second fee of $20 is 
 exacted if the application is allowed before the patent will be issued. The 
 patent runs seventeen years from date of issue. Extensions can be obtained 
 only by special act of Congress. A pamphlet of rules and forms is distributed 
 free by the Commissioner of Patents. Suits to enjoin infringement of 
 letters patent are brought by bill in equity in U. S. District or Circuit 
 courts. The profits realized by an infringer can also be recovered. 
 
 The total number of United States Patents granted up to and includ- 
 ing Oct. 25, 1892, was 485,158. The average issue is about 25,000 a year. 
 The average number of applications for patents is 40,000 a year. Since 
 1881, the annual receipts of the Patent Office have exceeded $1,000,000. 
 The figures for fiscal year ending June 30, 1892, were $1,268,727.35. The 
 expenditures for the same year were $1,114,134.23. The total balance to 
 the credit of the Patent Fund in the United States Treasury on June 30, 
 1892, was $4,102,441.00. The two main items of expense are salaries, 
 about $650,000, and printing and photo-lithographing, about $400,000 
 annually. The Patent Office Library contains 60,000 volumes. The 
 model hall has 154,000 models. The office does not require models now, 
 except in special cases. 
 
30 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 N W 
 NW 
 
 SW 
 
 N W 
 
 N W 
 S W 
 
 S W 
 
 SW 
 
 NE 
 N W 
 
 SE 
 
 N W 
 
 N E 
 S W 
 
 SE 
 
 SW 
 
 NW 
 N E 
 
 S W 
 N E 
 
 NE 
 N E 
 
 SE 
 
 NE 
 
 N W 
 SE 
 
 S W 
 SE 
 
 NE 
 SE 
 
 SE 
 SE 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 UNITED STATES LAND MEASURE AND HOMESTEAD LAW. 
 
 A township is thirty -six sections, each a mile square. A section is 
 
 six hundred and forty acres. A quarter section, half a mile square, is one 
 
 hundred and sixty acres. An eighth 
 
 section, half a mile long, north and 
 
 south, and a quarter of a mile wide, is 
 
 eighty acres. A sixteenth section, a 
 
 quarter of a mile square, is forty acres. 
 The sections are all numbered 1 to 
 
 36, commencing at northeast corner, 
 
 thus: 
 
 The sections are all divided in quar- 
 ters, which are named by the cardinal 
 
 points, as in section 1. The quarters 
 are divided in 
 the same way, 
 as shown in the 
 smaller dia- 
 gram. The de- 
 scription of a 
 
 forty-acre lot would read: The south half of the 
 west half of the south-west quarter of section 1 in 
 township 24, north of range 7 west, or as the case 
 might be; and sometimes will fall short and some- 
 times overrun the number of acres it is supposed 
 to contain. 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 ALIEN HOLDERS OF OUR LANDS. 
 
 The following is a table of the leading alien holders of lands in the 
 United States, with amount of holdings in acres: 
 
 An English syndicate, No. 3, in Texas 3,000,000 
 
 The Holland Land Company, New Mexico 4,500,000 
 
 Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida 2,000,000 
 
 English syndicate in Mississippi 1,800,000 
 
 Marquis of Tweedale 1,750,000 
 
 Phillips, Marshall & Co., Condon 1,300,000 
 
 German-American syndicate, London 750.000 
 
 Bryan H. Evans, of London 700 000 
 
 Duke of Sutherland 425,000 
 
 British Land Company in Kansas 320.000 
 
 Wm. Wharley, M.P., Peterboro, England 310,000 
 
 Missouri Land Company, Edinburgh, Scotland 300,000 
 
 Robert Tennent, of London 230,000 
 
 Dundee Land Company, Scotland 247,000 
 
 LordDunmore 120,000 
 
 Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool 100.000 
 
 Lord Houghton in Florida 60,000 
 
 Lord Dunraven in Colorado 60,000 
 
 English Land Company in Florida 50,000 
 
 English Land Company in Arkansas. 50,000 
 
 Albert Peel, M.P., Leicestershire, England 10,000 
 
 SirJ. L. Kay, Yorkshire, England 5,000 
 
 Alexander Grant, of London, in Kansas 35,000 
 
 English syndicate. Wisconsin 110,000 
 
 M. Bllerhauser, of Halifax, in W. Va 600,000 
 
 A Scotch syndicate in Florida 500,000 
 
 A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee 50,000 
 
 Missouri Land Company, of Edinburgh 166,000 
 
 Total 20,647,000 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 31 
 
 To these syndicate holdings should be added the following: The 
 Arkansas Valley Company in Colorado, a foreign corporation, whose in- 
 closures embrace upwards of 1,000,000 acres; the Prairie Cattle Company 
 (Scotch) in Colorado, upwards of 1,000,000; H. H. Metcalf, River Bend, 
 Colorado, 200,000; John W. Powers, Colorado, 200,000; McDaniel & 
 Davis, Colorado, 75,000; Routchler & Lamb, Colorado, 40,000; J. W. 
 Frank, Colorado, 40,000; Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30,000; B. C. 
 Tane, Colorado, 50,000; Leivesy Brothers, Colorado, 150,000; Vrooman & 
 McFife, Colorado, 50,000; Beatty Brothers, Colorado, 40,000; Chick, 
 Brown & Co., Colorado, 30,000; Reynolds Cattle Company, Colorado, 
 50,000; several other cases in Colorado, embracing from 10,000 to 30,000; 
 Coe & Carter, Nebraska, fifty miles of fence; J. W. Wilson, Nebraska, 
 forty miles; J. W. Boster, twenty miles; William Humphrey, Nevada, 
 thirty miles; Nelson & Son, Nevada, twenty-two miles; Kennebec Ranch, 
 Nebraska, from 20,000 to 50,000 acres. 
 
 PUBLIC LAND GRANTS AND FORFEITS. 
 
 CANAL GRANTS. 
 
 May 26, 1824, to June 30, 1891. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Wisconsin 325,431 
 
 Michigan 1,250.000 
 
 Ohio 1, 100,361 
 
 Indiana 1 ,457,366 
 
 Illinois 290,915 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 .4,424,073 
 
 RIVER IMPROVEMKNT GRANTS. 
 
 From 182ato June 30, 1891. 
 
 Alabama... 400,016 
 
 Wisconsin 683.802 
 
 Iowa 322,392 
 
 Total 1,406,210 
 
 MILITARY WAGON ROADS. 
 
 March 3, 1863, to June 30, 1891. 
 
 Wisconsin .' 302.930 
 
 Michigan 221,013 
 
 Oregon 1,258,786 
 
 Total... ...1,782/729 
 
 Lands actually conveyed from 1850 to 
 June 30, 1891, for railroad companies. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Illinois 2,595,053 
 
 Mississippi 935, 158 
 
 Alabama 2,931,780 
 
 Florida 1,764,412 
 
 Louisiana 1,908,059 
 
 Arkansas 2,552.344 
 
 Missouri 1.395,429 
 
 Iowa 4.709.759 
 
 Michigan 3,229,010 
 
 Wisconsin 3,056,011 
 
 Minnesota 8,206,714 
 
 Kansas 4,637.650 
 
 Nebraska 3,783,327 
 
 Colorado 209,232 
 
 Wyoming 159,437 
 
 Utah 116,298 
 
 Nevada 361.821 
 
 California 3,047.534 
 
 Oregon 322,062 
 
 New Mexico 23,037 
 
 Arizona 373,099 
 
 Total . : 46, 31 7,226 
 
 Lands forfeited to U. S. Lands forfeited by acts of Congress and re- 
 stored to the public domain aggregate about 36,681,527 acres. 
 
 TITLES TO THE PUBLIC LANDS HOW ACQUIRED. 
 
 The public lands of the United States still unsold and open to settle- 
 ment are divided into two classes, one class being sold by the Govern- 
 ment for $1.25 per acre as the minimum price, the other at $2.50 per 
 acre, being the alternate sections reserved by the United States in land 
 grants to railroads, etc. Such tracts are sold upon application to the 
 Land Register. Heads of families, or citizens over twenty-one years, 
 who may settle upon any quarter section (or one hundred and sixty acres) 
 have the right under the pre-emption law of prior claim to purchase, on 
 complying with the regulations. 
 
 Under the homestead laws, any citizen, or intending citizen, has the 
 right to one hundred and sixty acres of the $1.25 land, or eighty acres of 
 
32 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 the $2.50 land, after an actual settlement and cultivation of the same for 
 five years. Under the timber culture law, any settler who has cultivated 
 for two years as much as five acres in trees of an eighty-acre homestead, 
 or ten acres of a homestead of one hundred and sixty acres, is entitled to 
 a free patent for the land at the end of eight years. 
 
 PUBLIC LANDS STILL VACANT IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Alabama 807,947 
 
 Arizona 54,608.531 
 
 Arkansas 5,091 ,313 
 
 California 50,132,241 
 
 Colorado 41,998,377 
 
 Florida 2,806,587 
 
 Idaho 34,225.149 
 
 Kansas 734,080 
 
 Louisiana 1,172,518 
 
 Michigan 724,232 
 
 Minnesota 6,510,611 
 
 Mississippi 978,418 
 
 Missouri 808,799 
 
 Montana 74,558,143 
 
 ACRES- 
 
 Nebraska 10,799,33.1 
 
 Nevada 42,385,734 
 
 New Mexico 54,720,863 
 
 North Dakota 19,500,555 
 
 Oklahoma 6,324,863 
 
 Oregon 38,435,873 
 
 South Dakota 13,006,396 
 
 Utah 35,231 ,466 
 
 Washington 19.098,420 
 
 Wisconsin 871,087 
 
 Wyoming 52,055,248 
 
 Total 567,586,783 
 
 INDIANS AND THEIR RESERVATIONS. 
 
 The entire extent of territory now in a state of reservation for Indian 
 purposes, including all portions of the Indian Territory, whether in fact 
 occupied or unoccupied by Indians, is 112,413,440 acres, being equiva- 
 lent to an average of 456 acres for each Indian, computed on the last 
 reported number of the total population, including those estimated as 
 outside the reservations. Of this area about 81,020,129 acres are within 
 the scope of the general allotment law of 1887, and afford an average for 
 the population residing upon such lands, amounting to 173,985, of about 
 465 acres to each. It will be seen that, by the execution of the general 
 allotment law and breaking up of the reservations, a wide area of the 
 public domain will be opened to settlement. 
 
 The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Seminoles, con- 
 stituting the five civilized tribes; the Osages, Miamis, Peorias, and Sacs 
 and Foxes of the Indian Territory, and the Seneca nation in New York, 
 are excepted from the provisions of the allotment act. The territory 
 occupied by them embraces 21,969,695 acres, not counting therewith the 
 6,024,239 acres of the Cherokee outlet, the 1,887,801 acres known as 
 Oklahoma, and the 1,511,576 acres lying in the Indian Territory south of 
 the north fork of the Red River. The number of these excepted Indians 
 is shown by the reports to be 72,110 in all. 
 
 INDIANS IN UNITED STATES, 1890. 
 
 Total number Indians in the United States, 249,273 (exclusive of 
 Alaska, but including 32,567, taxed or taxable and self-sustaining, 
 counted in general census). On reservations or at schools under control 
 of Indian Office (not taxed or taxable), 133,382. Five Civilized Tribes, 
 Indians and colored, incidentally under the Indian Office and self-sup- 
 porting, 68,371 (Cherokee, 25,357, colored, 4,242, total, 29,599; Chicka- 
 saw, 3,464, colored, 3,718, total, 7,182; Choctaw, 9,996, colored, 4,401, 
 total, 14,397; Creek, 9,291, colored, 5,341, total, 14,632; Seminole, 2,539, 
 colored, 22, total, 2,561); or 64,871, less 3,500 colored, estimated, not 
 members of tribes. The Chickasaw nation contains 1,161 other Indians, 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 33 
 
 the Choctaw 257. Population of Five Civilized Tribes, 66,289 (Indians, 
 52,065, colored Indian citizens and claimants, 14,224). New Mexico 
 Pueblos, 8,278; Six Nations, Saint Regis and other New York Indians, 
 5,304; North Carolina, Eastern Cherokees, 2,885. Apaches held as pris- 
 oners of war, Mount Vernon barracks, 384, Indians in State or Territo- 
 rial prisons, 184. 
 
 SLAVERY AND SERFDOM: A COMPARISON. 
 
 Some of the wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. The 
 minimum price fixed by the law of Rome was $80, but after great victo- 
 ries they could sometimes be bought for a few shillings on the field of 
 battle. The day's wages of a Roman gardener were about sixteen cents, 
 and his value about $300, while a blacksmith was valued at about $700, a 
 cook at $2,000, an actress at $4,000 and a physician at $11,000. 
 
 The number of slaves emancipated in the British Colonies in 1834 
 was 780,993, the indemnity aggregating, in round figures, $100,000,000. 
 In Brazil, in 1876, there were 1,510,800 slaves, 15 per cent, of the entire 
 population. These were held by 41,000 owners, averaging 37 to each 
 owner. In 1882 the number of slaves was 1,300,000. Owing to the 
 gradual abolition of slavery in Brazil by law, it is expected that it will be 
 entirely obsolete in 1900. 
 
 SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 YEAR. NUMBER. 
 
 1790 69790J 
 
 1800 .. 893,040 
 
 1810 1,191,400 
 
 1820, 1,538,100 
 
 YEAR. NUMBER. 
 
 1830 2,009.030 
 
 1840 ^,487,500 
 
 1850 3.20t,300 
 
 1860 3,979,700 
 
 SERFDOM IN RUSSIA. 
 
 There were 47,932,000 serfs in Russia in 1861, as follows: Crown 
 serfs, 22,851,000; appanage, 3,326,000; held by nobles, 21,755,000. The 
 cost of redemption was, in round numbers, about $325,000,000, as follows: 
 
 Mortgages remitted $152,000,0f 
 
 Government scrip 101,000,000 
 
 Paid by serfs 52,000,000 
 
 Balancedue 20,000,000 
 
 The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per serf. The lands are mort- 
 gaged to the state till 1912. The lands ceded to Crown serfs are mort- 
 gaged only till 1901. The item of " mortgages remitted" is the amount 
 due by nobles to the Imperial Bank and canceled. 
 
 AUSTRIAN SERVITUDE (1840). 
 
 VALUE.. 
 
 Labor (two days per week) $175.000,000 
 
 Tithe of crops, etc 60,000,000 
 
 Male tribute, timber 7,000,000 
 
 Female tribute, spun wool. 9,000,000 
 
 Fowl, eggs, butter 5,000,000 
 
 Total $256,000,000 
 
 There were 7,000,000 serfs, whose tribute averaged more than $35 per 
 head, which was, in fact, the rent of their farms. Some Bohemian nobles 
 had as many as 10,000 serfs. The redemption was effected by giving the 
 nobles 5 per cent. Government scrip, and land then rose 50 per cent, in 
 value. 
 
 U. I.-S 
 
34 
 
 MANUAL OP USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNION. 
 
 1856 " 3l'972'537 90 
 
 1873 ' 2*234 482 993 20 
 
 1857 ' 28 699 831.85 
 
 1874 2 251 690 468 43 
 
 1858 ' 4491188103 
 
 1875 . 2 232 284 531 95 
 
 1P59 58,496,837.88 
 
 1876 2,180 395,07.15 
 
 18(50 ' 6484228788 
 
 1877 2 205 301 392 10 
 
 1861 ' ... 90 580 873 72 
 
 1878 2 256 203 892 53 
 
 1862 ' 524.176,412.13 
 
 1879 2,245,49507204 
 
 1863 ' 1119772,13863 
 
 1880 2 120 415 370 63 
 
 1864 ' 1-81578437057 
 
 1881 2 069 013 569 58 
 
 1865 ' 2,680 647,869.74 
 
 1882 1,91831299403 
 
 1866 ' .2773 236 173 69 
 
 1883 1 884 171 728 07 
 
 1867 ' 2,678.126,103.87 
 
 1884 1,830528,^2357 
 
 1868 " ... 261167885119 
 
 1885 1 876 424 275 14 
 
 1869 " 2 588 452 213 94 
 
 186 1 756 445 205 78 
 
 1870 " 248067242781 
 
 1887 Dec 1 l'664'461 '53638 
 
 1871 " 2 353 211 332 32 
 
 1888 " 1 680 917 706 23 
 
 1890 Dec. 1 ' ' 
 
 1 547 296 426 00 
 
 OFFICIAL DEBT STATEME 1 
 INTEREST-BEARING DEBT. 
 
 Funded loan of 1891 $25,364,500.00 
 Funded loan of 1907 659 592 050 00 
 
 NT OF DECEMBER 1, 1892. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF DEBT DECEMBER 
 1. 1892. 
 Interest-bearing debt $585,032,980.00 
 
 Refunding Certificates ... 76 430 00 
 
 Debt on which interest has 
 
 
 ceased since maturity. . . 2,432,015.26 
 
 
 Debt bearing no interest . . 377,777 804.37 
 
 bearing debt, exclusive 
 of United States bonds 
 
 Aggregate of interest 
 and non-interest bear- 
 ing debt $965 242 799 63 
 
 roads $585 032 980 00 
 
 Certificates and Treasury 
 
 DEBT ON WHICH INTEREST HAS 
 
 notes offset by an equal 
 amount of cash in the 
 Treasury 598 369 656 00 
 
 CEASED SINCE MATURITY. 
 
 Aggregate of debt on which 
 interest has ceased since 
 maturity $2,432 015 26 
 
 Aggregate of debt, in- 
 cluding certificates 
 and Treasury notes.. $1,663,612,455.63 
 CASH IN THE TREASURY. 
 
 DEBT BEARING NO INTEREST. 
 Legal-tender notes . . $346 681 016 00 
 
 Gold certifi- 
 cates $142,821,639.00 
 Silver certifi- 
 cates 326,251,304.00 
 
 Old demand notes, 55,647.50 
 National bank notes: 
 Redemption account 24,137,678.25 
 Fractional currency: 
 Less $8,375,934 estimated 
 as lost or destroyed, 
 .act of June 21, 1879.... 6,903,462.62 
 
 tificates.... 8,500,000.00 
 Treas'y notes 
 of 1890 120,796,713.00 
 $598,369,658.00 
 Fund for re- 
 demption of 
 u n c u r rent 
 
 Aggregate of debt bear- 
 ing no interest $877,777,804.37 
 
 CERTIFICATES AND NOTES ISSUED ON 
 DEPOSITS OF COIN AND LEGAL-TEN- 
 DER NOTES AND PURCHASES OF SIL- 
 VER BULLION. 
 
 Gold certificates $142 821,639.00 
 
 banknotes.. $5,855,916.24 
 Outstanding 
 checks and 
 drafts 4,822,165.98 
 Disb ursing 
 officers' bal- 
 ances 22,786,939.77 
 A g e n c y ac- 
 counts, etc. 3,281,906.86 
 
 qfl 77 007 fig 
 
 Silver certificates 326 251 304 00 
 
 
 Currency certificates 8 500 000 00 
 
 
 Treasury notes of 1890 120.796J 13.00 
 
 ance 30,328.918.50 
 
 
 130,328,918.50 
 
 and Treasury notes 
 
 Total $765,474,8X)2.35 
 
 offset by cash in the 
 Treasury... ...$598.369.666.00 
 
 Cash balance in the Treas- 
 ury, November 30, 1891. . $130,328,918.50 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 35 
 
 ARMIES OF THE CIVIIv WAR, 1861-65. 
 
 Number of men in the Union Army, furnished by each state and 
 territory, from April 15, 1861, to close of war. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 NUMBER 
 OF MEN 
 
 FURNISH' D 
 
 AGG'GATE 
 
 REDUCED 
 TOATHREE 
 YEARS' 
 STANDING. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 NUMBER 
 OF MEN 
 FURNISH' D 
 
 AGG'GATE 
 
 REDUCED 
 TOATHREE 
 YEARS' 
 STANDIVG. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 2,556 
 8.289 
 15,725 
 4,903 
 55,864 
 12,284 
 1,290 
 
 1,611 
 
 7,836 
 15,725 
 3,697 
 50,623 
 10,322 
 1,290 
 
 New York 
 North Carolina... 
 Ohio 
 
 448,850 
 3,156 
 313,180 
 1.810 
 337,936 
 23,236 
 
 392,270 
 3,156 
 240,514 
 1.773 
 265,517 
 17,866 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 Colorado 
 Connecticut 
 Delaware. . , 
 Florida 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 Rhode Island 
 South Carolina . . . 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 
 31 ,092 
 1,965 
 33,288 
 
 26,394 
 1,632 
 29,068 
 
 Illinois 
 
 259,092 
 196,363 
 76242 
 80,149 
 75,760 
 5,224 
 70,107 
 46,638 
 146,730 
 87,364 
 24,020 
 545 
 109,111 
 3,157 
 1,080 
 33,937 
 76,814 
 
 214.133 
 153.576 
 68.630 
 18,706 
 70,833 
 4.P54 
 56,776 
 41,275 
 134,104 
 80,111 
 19,693 
 545 
 86,530 
 2,175 
 1,080 
 30.849 
 57,908 
 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Kansas 
 
 West Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 
 32.068 
 91,327 
 206 
 16534 
 3,530 
 
 27,714 
 79,260 
 206 
 11.506 
 3,530 
 
 Kentucky 
 Louisiana 
 
 Dakota 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 Indian Te.ritory.. 
 Montana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Michigan 
 
 New M exico. 
 Utah 
 
 6.561 
 
 4,432 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Washington Ter. . . 
 U. S. Army 
 
 964 
 
 964 
 
 Missouri . . . 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 U. S. Volunteers . . 
 U.S. colored troops 
 
 ' Total 
 
 
 
 Nevada 
 New Hampshire. . . 
 New Jersey 
 
 93,441 
 
 91,789 
 
 2,778,408 
 
 2.320,272 
 
 The armies of the United States were commanded during the whole 
 Civil War by President Lincoln as commander-in-chief under the con- 
 stitutional provision; and under him, as general commanders, by Brevet 
 Lieutenant General Wiufield Scott until November 6, 1861; by Major 
 General George B. McClellan from November 6, 1861, to March 11, 1862; 
 by Major General Henry W. Halleck from July 11, 1862, to March 12, 
 1864 (there being no general commander between March 11 and July 11, 
 1862); and Lieutenant General and General U. S. Grant from March 12, 
 1864, to March 4, 1869. The first of the principal armies into which 
 the force of the United States was divided was the Army of the Potomac. 
 This army was called into existence in July, 1861, and was organized by 
 Major General George B. McClellan, its first commander; November 5, 
 
 1862, Major General A. B. Burnside took command of it; January 25, 
 
 1863, Major General Joe Hooker was placed in command, and June 27, 
 1863, Major General George G. Meade succeeded him. The Army of the 
 Ohio was organized by General D. C. Buell, under a general order from 
 the War Department dated November 9, 1861, from troops in the military 
 department of the Ohio. General Buell remained in command until Oc- 
 tober 30, 1862, when he was succeeded by General W. S. Rosecrans. At 
 this time the Army of the Ohio became the Army of the Cumberland and 
 a new department of the Ohio was formed and Major General H. G.Wright, 
 assigned to the command thereof. He was succeeded by Major General 
 Burnside, who was relieved by Major General J. G. Foster of the com- 
 mand of both department and army. Major General Schofield took com- 
 mand January 28, 1864, and January 17, 1865, the department was merged 
 
36 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 into the Department of the Cumberland. It continued under the com 
 mand of General Rosecrans until October, 1863, when General George 
 H. Thomas took command of it. The Army of the Tennessee was origi- 
 nally the Army of the District of Western Tennessee, fighting as such at 
 Shiloh. It became the Army of the Tennessee on the concentration of 
 troops at Pittsburgh Landing under General Halleck, and when the De- 
 partment of the Tennessee was formed, October 16, 1862, the troops serv- 
 ing therein were placed under command of Major General U. S. Grant. 
 October 27, 1863, Major General William T. Sherman was appointed to 
 the command of this army; March 12, 1864, Major General J. B. McPher- 
 son succeeded him; July 30, 1864, McPherson having been killed, Major 
 General O. O. Howard was placed in command, and May 19, 1862, Major 
 General John A. Logan succeeded him. Other minor armies were the 
 Army of Virginia, which was formed by the consolidation of the forces 
 under Major Generals Fremont, Banks and McDowell, by order of the 
 War Department, August 12, 1862. Major General John Pope was placed 
 in command, but after the disastrous defeat of this general at Manassas 
 the army as such was discontinued and its troops transferred to other or- 
 ganizations. The Army of the James was formed of the Tenth and Four- 
 teenth corps with cavalry, and was placed under the command of Major 
 General Butler. Its operations were carried on in conjunction with the 
 Army of the Potomac. Other temporary arrangements of the troops 
 formed the Army of the Mississippi in the Mississippi River operations 
 in 1862; the Army of the Gulf in Louisiana in May, 1863; the Army of 
 West Virginia, in the valley of the Shenandoah, in May, 1864; and the 
 army of the Middle Military Division in Virginia in the fall of 1864. 
 
 THE WORLD'S FAIR IN A NUTSHELL. 
 
 The World's Columbian Exposition, or the World's Fair, was created 
 by an act of Congress, approved April 25, 1890, entitled "An act to pro- 
 vide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of 
 America by Christopher Columbus, by holding an international exhibi~ 
 tion of arts, industries, manufactures, and the product of the soil, mine 
 and sea, in the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois." 
 
 The act provided for the appointment of commissioners, who should 
 organize the Exposition, and when these preliminaries were completed 
 the President was required to make a public proclamation of the fact and 
 officially invite "all the nations of the earth" to participate in the Expo- 
 sition. This proclamation was issued December 24, 1890. 
 
 The dedication ceremonies took place October 21, 1892, and the days 
 preceding and following, the President of the United States being repre- 
 sented by the Vice-President, who, accompanied by the Cabinet and 
 many prominent officers of the Government, army and navy, and dis- 
 tinguished citizens, officially dedicated the Exposition. 
 
 Immediately upon the completion of these ceremonies the installing 
 of the exhibits began. 
 
 The great Exposition was opened to the public on May 1, 1893, and 
 will continue open until October 30 following. The admission fee is 
 placed at 50 cents. 
 
 The total cost of the Exposition, from its beginning to its close, is 
 estimated at $25,000,000. 
 
 THE LOCATION OF THE GREAT FAIR. 
 
 So far as visitors to the Fair are concerned, the location of the 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 37 
 
 grounds upon which the main buildings stand is a favorable one. Jack- 
 son Park and Midway Plaisance, 1 he Exposition site, are in the south- 
 eastern part of the city of Chicago. The two together embrace six hun- 
 dred and thirty-three acres, attractively situated on the shore of Lake 
 Michigan, the park front being a mile and a half long from northwest to 
 southeast. 
 
 THE EXPOSITION BUILDINGS. 
 
 BUILDINGS. 
 
 Dimensions 
 in Feet. 
 
 Area in 
 Acres.* 
 
 Approximate 
 Cost. 
 
 Art Galleries 
 
 320 x 500 
 
 46 | 
 
 
 Art Annexes 
 
 136 x 220 
 
 144 
 
 1670,500 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 162 1 x S61 1 
 
 L4 
 
 
 Fisheries Annexes 
 
 135 diameter 
 
 If 
 
 224,750 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 787 x 1 687 
 
 44 
 
 1 600 750 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 500 x 800 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 Agriculture Annex.. 
 
 312 x 550 5 
 
 4 f 
 
 691,500 
 
 Machinery 
 
 494 x 842 
 
 17 1 
 
 
 Machinery Annex . ... 
 
 490 x 551 
 
 62f 
 
 1,050,750 
 
 Machinery, Machine Shop and Boiler House 
 Administration 
 
 86 x 1,103.6 
 262 x 262 
 
 2.2 
 4 5 
 
 75,000 
 436 500 
 
 Electricity 
 
 345 X 690 
 
 93 
 
 413500 
 
 Mines 
 
 350 x 700 
 
 85 
 
 266 500 
 
 Transportation 
 
 256 x 960 
 
 94 | 
 
 
 Transportation Annex 
 
 435 x 850 
 
 85 f 
 
 369,000 
 
 Horticulture 
 
 250 8 x 997 8 
 
 8 
 
 287 000 
 
 Woman's 
 
 198 8 x 398 
 
 33 
 
 138 000 
 
 
 208 x 528 
 
 2 6 
 
 90 250 
 
 Leather 
 
 150 x 625 
 
 43 
 
 100 000 
 
 Dairy 
 
 94 1 x 199 8 
 
 $ 
 
 30 000 
 
 Sawmill 
 
 60 x 100 
 
 2 
 
 35 000 
 
 Stock Pavilion 
 
 265 x 960 
 
 58 
 
 125 000 
 
 Stock Sheds 
 
 
 25 
 
 210 000 
 
 Other Buildings Music Hall, Choral Hall. Ca- 
 sino, Indian School, Education Building. 'La 
 Rabida," Merchant Tailors. Assembly Hall, 
 
 
 223 
 
 1 203000 
 
 United States Government Building .... 
 
 351 x 421 
 
 62 
 
 400 000 
 
 
 69 25 x 348 
 
 5 
 
 100 000 
 
 Illinois State Building 
 
 160 x 450 
 
 32 
 
 250000 
 
 State and Foreign Buildings (approximate). 
 
 
 12 
 
 2000000 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 500000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 $12,267,000 
 
 *Floor space and including galleries. 
 MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING. 
 
 The principal building in point of area and importance is that of 
 Manufactures and Liberal Arts, a mammoth structure, measuring 1,687 
 to 1,787 feet and covering 44 acres the largest exposition structure ever 
 built. It cost $1,600, 750. 
 
 STATE BUILDINGS. 
 
 Nearly all the States and Territories of the United States have made 
 appropriations toward the expense of special exhibits at the Exposition, 
 and most of them have characteristic buildings in the grounds. The New 
 York and Illinois buildings are conspicuously fine. 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The following are the countries which have received allotments : 
 Argentine Republic, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, 
 China, Colombia, Corea, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, Ecuador, 
 France and its provinces, Great Britain and all the British Colonies, 
 Greece, Guatemala, Hawaiian Islands, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, 
 Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Madagascar, Netherlands and colonies, Nica- 
 
38 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ragua, Norway, Paraguay, Persia, Peru, Russia, Salvador, Santo Domingo, 
 Servia, Siam, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay and Venezuela. 
 
 Of these the following countries have independent Government 
 buildings: Austria, Canada, Ceylon, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecua- 
 dor, France, Great Britain, Guatemala, Haiti, Italy, Japan, Nicaragua, 
 Norway, Russia, Sweden and Turkey. 
 
 THE MIDWAY PI,AISANCE SHOWS. 
 
 The Midway Plaisance, which is a great tract lying between 59th and 
 60th streets, extending east and west, contains the principal ' 'side shows, ' ' 
 some of which are of both an unique and elaborate character. Among 
 these are the Ferris Wheel, over 250 feet high, Bohemian Glass Factory, 
 Japanese Bazaars, the Animal shows, Dutch Settlement, German Village, 
 Natatorium, Panorama of the Bernese Alps, Turkish Village, Minaret 
 Tower, Moorish Palace, Street in Cairo, Chinese Theater, Captive Balloon, 
 Indian Village, Roman House, Chinese Tea House, Barre Sliding Rail- 
 way, Ice Railway, etc. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Means of easy and rapid transportation from all parts of Chicago and 
 from railroad stations to the Exposition are provided. The steam, elec- 
 tric, cable and horse railroads and the elevated railroad convey passen- 
 gers by land to the principal entrances, and numerous steamboats ply 
 between the city and the great pier on the water side of the grounds. 
 
 In the extreme south part of the grounds the stock exhibit, under 
 sheds covering forty acres, is located. 
 
 During the Exposition there are restaurants and dining-rooms in all 
 the main buildings, a luncheon place in the Dairy Building and a rail- 
 road luncheon counter in the Transportation Building. 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The following are the officers of the "World's Columbian Com- 
 mission: " 
 
 President, Thomas W. Palmer ; Secretary, John T. Dickinson ; 
 Director-General, George R. Davis. 
 
 Department Chiefs. Agriculture, W I. Buchanan; Horticulture, 
 John M. Samuels; Live Stock, Eber W. Cottrell; Fish and Fisheries, 
 John W. Collins; Mines and Mining, F. J. V Skiff; Machinery, L. W. 
 Robinson; Transportation, W. A. Smith; Manufactures, James Allison; 
 Electricity, John P. Barrett; Fine Arts, Halsey C. Ives; Liberal Arts, 
 S. H. Peabody; Ethnology, F. W. Putnam; Forestry, W. I. Buchanan, 
 in charge; Publicity and Promotion, Moses P. Handy; Foreign Affairs, 
 Walker Fearn; Secretary of Installation, Joseph Hirst; Traffic Manager, 
 E. E. Jaycox. 
 
 There are eight commissioners at large and two from each State and 
 Territory and the District of Columbia. There are the same number of 
 lady managers. 
 
 President of the Board of Lady Managers, Mrs. Potter Palmer; Sec- 
 retary, Mrs. Susan Gale Cook. 
 
 The officers of the World's Columbian Exposition are as follows: 
 
 President, H. N. Higinbotham; Secretary, H. O. Edmonds; Treas 
 urer, A. F. Seeberger; Auditor, William K. Ackerman; Chief of Con- 
 struction, D. H. Burnham. 
 
 WORLD'S CONGRESS AUXltlARY. 
 
 A series of world's congresses in all departments of thought are a 
 feature during the Exposition season. This work is divided into seven- 
 teen great departments, as follows: Agriculture, Art, Commerce and 
 
FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 39 
 
 Finance, Education, Engineering, Government, Literature, Labor, Medi- 
 cine, Moral and Social Reform, Music, Public Press, Religion, Science 
 and Philosophy, Temperance, Sunday Rest, and a General Department, 
 embracing congresses not otherwise assigned. These general depart- 
 ments have been divided into more than one hundred divisions, in each 
 of which a congress is to be held. Each division has its own local com- 
 mittee of arrangements. 
 
 Representative men from all parts of the world take part in these 
 gatherings. They assemble for the most part in the Art Institute. The 
 officers of the Auxiliary are Charles C. Bonney, President; Thomas B. 
 Bryan, Vice-President; Lyman J. Gage, Treasurer; Benjamin Butter- 
 worth, Secretary. 
 
 ESSENCE OF THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Congress must meet at least once a year. 
 
 One State cannot undo the acts of another. 
 
 Congress may admit as many new States as desired. 
 
 One State must respect the laws and legal decisions of another. 
 
 The Constitution guarantees every citizen a speedy trial by jury. 
 
 Congress cannot pass a law to punish a crime already committed. 
 
 A State cannot exercise a power which is vested in Congress alone. 
 
 Bills for revenue can originate only in the House of Representatives. 
 
 A person committing a felony in one State cannot find refuge in 
 another. 
 
 United States Senators are chosen by the legislatures of the States by 
 joint ballot. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States forbids excessive bail or cruel 
 punishment. 
 
 When Congress passes a bankruptcy law it annuls all the State laws 
 on that subject. 
 
 Treaties with foreign countries are made by the President and rati- 
 fied by the Senate. 
 
 In the United States Senate Rhode Island or Nevada has an equal 
 voice with New York. 
 
 Writing alone does not constitute treason against the United States. 
 There must be an overt act. 
 
 Congress cannot la^ any disabilities on the children of a person con- 
 victed of crime or misdemeanor. 
 
 The Territories each send a delegate to Congress, who has the right 
 of debate, but not the right to vote. 
 
 The Vice-President, who ex-officio presides over the Senate, has no 
 vote in that body except on a tie ballot. 
 
 An act of Congress cannot become a law over the President's veto 
 except on a two-thirds vote of both houses. 
 
 An officer of the Government cannot accept title of nobility, order or 
 honor without the permission of Congress. 
 
 Money lost in the mails cannot be recovered from the Government, 
 Registering a letter does not insure its contents, 
 
40 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 It is the House of Representatives that may impeach the President 
 for any crime, and the Senate hears the accusation. 
 
 If the President holds a bill longer than ten days while Congress is 
 still in session, it becomes a law without his signature. 
 
 Silver coin of denominations less than $1 is not a legal tender for 
 more than $5.00. Copper and nickel coin is not legal tender. 
 
 The term of a Congressman is two years, but a Congressman may be 
 re-elected to as many successive terms as his constituents may wish. 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution require a two-thirds vote of each 
 house of Congress and must be ratified by at least three-fourths of the 
 States. 
 
 When the militia is called out in the service of the General Govern- 
 ment, they pass out of the control of the various States under the com- 
 mand of the President. 
 
 The President of the United States must be thirty-five years of age; 
 a United States Senator, thirty; a Congressman, twenty-five. The Presi- 
 dent must have been a resident of the United States fourteen years. 
 
 A grand jury is a secret tribunal, and may hear only one side of a 
 case. It simply decides whether there is good reason to hold for trial. 
 It consists of twenty-four men, twelve of whom may indict. 
 
 A naturalized citizen cannot become President or Vice-President of 
 the United States. A male child born abroad of American parents has 
 an equal chance to become President with one born on American soil. 
 
 A )OZEN AMERICAN WONDERS. 
 
 Croton Aqueduct, in New York City. 
 
 City Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The largest park in the 
 world. 
 
 Lake Superior, the largest lake in the world. 
 
 Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky. 
 
 Niagara Falls. A sheet of water three-quarters of a mile wide, with 
 a fall of 175 feet. 
 
 Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, in Virginia. 
 
 New State Capitol, at Albany, N. Y. 
 
 New York and Brooklyn Bridge. 
 
 The Central Park, in New York City. 
 
 Washington Monument, Washington, D. C., 555 feet high. 
 
 Yosemite Valley, California; 57 miles from Coulterville. A valley 
 from 8 to 10 miles long, and about one mile wide. Has very steep slopes 
 about 3,500 feet high; has a perpendicular precipice 3,089 feet high; a 
 rock almost perpendicular, 3,270 feet high; and waterfalls from 700 to 
 1,000 feet. 
 
 Jackson Park, Chicago, with the World's Columbian Fair of 1893. 
 
 THE AMERICAN NOBILITY. 
 
 Whoe'er amidst the sons 
 Of reason, valor, liberty, and virtue 
 Displays distinguished merit, is a noble 
 Of Nature's own creating. 
 
 THOMSON. 
 
TIME AND ITS LANDMARKS. 
 
 Time's the king of men 
 For he's their parent, and he is their grave, 
 And gives them what he will, not what they crave. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE. 
 
 DATES AND FACTS TO REMEMBER. 
 
 Twenty-four hour clock time is gaining in favor. 
 
 Fifteen degress of longitude represent one hour of time. 
 
 All over Western Canada 4 p. M. is called "sixteen o'clock." 
 
 The axial rotation of the earth is the measure of time everywhere. 
 
 The astronomers of Egypt were the first to give names to the days. 
 
 It takes just one second of time for electricity to travel 288,000 
 miles. 
 
 Fenelon says suggestively: "God never gives us two moments to- 
 gether." 
 
 A vessel sailing eastwards across the Pacific has two consecutive 
 days of the same name and date. 
 
 The old advice to ' ' seize time by the forelock ' ' is from Pittacus, 
 one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. 
 
 The first clock mentioned in history was a gift from the Sultan of 
 Egypt to Emperor Frederic II., A. D. 1232. 
 
 A good instrument for measuring short spaces of time, invented by 
 Wheatstone in 1840, is called the chronoscope. 
 
 It was Montgomery who said that "man cannot make a single 
 second of time, but can waste whole years of it." 
 
 Time will bring to light, says Horace, whatever is hidden; it will 
 conceal and cover up what is now shining with the greatest luster. 
 
 We understand by a generation a single succession in natural 
 descent, the children of the same parents; in years three generations are 
 accounted to make a century. 
 
 The sun-dial, as a time-measurer, was known in very early ages, 
 and is mentioned in Scripture 713 B.C. A sun-dial only agrees with a 
 clock on four days in the year. 
 
 It is the science of chronology which arranges the events of history 
 in their order of time. The earliest modern works on the subject appear 
 to have been compiled by the Benedictines, 1783 et seq. 
 
 If a railway were built to the sun, and trains upon it were run at the 
 rate of 30 miles an hour, day and night, without a stop, it would require 
 350 years to make the journey from the earth to the sun. 
 
42 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 A chronograph is an instrument noting time within the fraction of 
 a second. By the electrical chronograph , used by astronomers, the transit 
 of a star can be recorded to within one-hundredth of a second. 
 
 Th,e Christian era begins with the birth of Christ. Its beginning 
 coincides with the middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad; the 
 753rd of the building of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian era. 
 
 The clepsydra is an instrument to measure time by the trickling or 
 escape of water. In Babylonia, India and Egypt, the clepsydra was 
 used from before the dawn of history, especially in astronomical obser- 
 vations. 
 
 Decoration Day, or Memorial Day, in the United States, is a day 
 set apart on which the graves of soldiers are visited and decorated with 
 flowers by surviving comrades and friends. It has been created a 
 national holiday. 
 
 There is no such thing as time, argues Leigh Richmond, "it is but 
 space occupied by incident; it is the same to eternity as matter is to infi- 
 nite space a portion out of the immense, occupied with something within 
 the sphere of mortal sense." 
 
 Thanksgiving Day was first established as a holiday in the year 1622. 
 The custom now obtains throughout the United States, the last Thursday 
 in November being usually the thanksgiving day appointed by the 
 President for the mercies of the past year. 
 
 Watches were invented at Nuremberg prior to 1500, and were brought 
 to England from Germany in 1577. The spiral hair-spring was invented 
 by Dr. Hooke in 1651, the compensation balance by John Harrison in 
 1726, and the English lever escapement by Thomas Mudge in 1766. 
 
 We call that a Chronicle in which events of history are treated in 
 the order of time. A chronicle differs from annals in being more con- 
 nected and full, the latter merely recording individual occurrences under 
 the successive dates. Most of the older histories were called chronicles. 
 
 The familiar hour glass is an instrument made up of two glass globes 
 placed one above another. From the upper globe, through a small hole 
 of communication, there runs a quantity of fine sand. The name is 
 derived from the time the sand takes to run from the upper to the lower 
 glass. 
 
 In America Arbor Day is a day set apart for the planting of shade 
 trees, shrubs, etc., by school children. Millions of trees have been 
 planted since its institution. The first Friday in May has been selected 
 for this purpose in Canada; in the United States, different days are 
 chosen in the several States. 
 
 Clocks are of ancient date, one having been made by Pacificus, arch- 
 deacon of Verona, in the ninth century. Clocks with wheels w r ere used in 
 monasteries about the twelfth century, and were made to strike the hour. 
 Pendulum said to have been first applied by Harris, 1641; dead-beat 
 pendulum invented, 1700; and the compensating pendulum, 1715. 
 
 The chronometer is an instrument for measuring time, now gener- 
 ally applied only to those watches specially made for determining longi- 
 tude at sea. A chronometer which gained a prize of $100,000, offered by 
 the British Board of Longitude for a timepiece to ascertain longitude 
 within thirty miles, was made in 1761, by John Harrison, of Foulby, 
 near Pontefract, 
 
TIME AND ITS LANDMARKS. 43 
 
 The Japanese divide the day into six day hours, from the rising to 
 the setting of the sun, and six night hours, from sunset to sunrise. Ac- 
 cordingly, although the dials of their clocks are figured with twelve 
 numerals, the movement of the hands do not correspond with our own, 
 these movements being regulated by ingenious mechanism to correspond 
 with the variations in the length of days and nights. 
 
 July 15 was called St. Swithin's Day from the legend of St. Swithin, 
 Bishop of Winchester, the tutor of King Alfred. To signify his displeas- 
 ure at an attempt to bury him in the chancel of the minster instead of the 
 churchyard, according to his directions, the bishop is said to have caused 
 rain to fall for forty days. From this the popular superstition arose that 
 if rain falls on July 15 it will continue for forty days. 
 
 A watch on shipboard is a division of the crew into two or if it be a 
 large crew into three sections, that one set of men may have charge of 
 the vessel while the others rest. The day and night are divided into 
 watches of four hours each, except the period from 4 to 8 p. M., which is 
 divided into two dog-watches of two hours' duration each. The object 
 of the dog-watches is to prevent the same men being always on duty at 
 the same hours. 
 
 Another name for Palm Sunday is Fig Sunday. The term is derived 
 from the custom in some countries of eating figs on this day, as snap- 
 dragons on Christmas Eve, plum-pudding on Christmas Day, oranges 
 and barley sugar on St. Valentine's Eve, pancakes on Shrove Tuesday, 
 salt cod-fish on Ash Wednesday, frumenti on Mothering Sunday (Mid- 
 leut), cross-buns on Good Friday, gooseberry tart on Whit Sunday, goose 
 on Michaelmas Day, nuts on All-Hallows, and so on. 
 
 A Cycle in astronomy and mathematical chronology is a period or 
 interval of time in which certain phenomena always recur in the same 
 order. There are two great natural cycles, that of the sun and that of 
 the moon. The solar cycle is a period of twenty-eight Julian years, after 
 which the same days of the week recur on the same days of the year. 
 The lunar or metonic cycle consists of nineteen years or two hundred 
 and thirty-five lunations, after which the successive new moons happen 
 on the same days of the year as during the previous cycle. 
 
 Christmas Day, a festival of the Christian church, observed on the 
 2~>th of December in memory of the birth of Jesus Christ. There is, 
 however, a difficulty in accepting this as the date of the nativity, Decem- 
 ber being the height of the rainy season in Judea, when neither flocks 
 nor shepherds could have been at night in the fields of Bethlehem. The 
 Christian communities which keep Christmas, however, would probably 
 agree in laying more stress on keeping a day in memory of the Nativity, 
 than on success in fixing the actual and precise date of the event. 
 
 The third season of the year, between summer and winter, is called 
 autumn. Astronomically, in the northern hemisphere, it begins at the 
 autumnal equinox, when the sun enters Libra, 22d September, and ends 
 at the winter solstice, when the sun enters Capricorn, 21st December; 
 but popularly, in Great Britain, it comprises the three months, August, 
 September, and October. According to Littre, it extends in France from 
 the end of August to the first fortnight of November; according to Web- 
 ster, in North America it Includes the months of September, October, 
 and November. In the southern hemisphere it corresponds in time to 
 the northern spring. 
 
44 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The era of the Olympiads is a system of dates adopted by the ancient 
 Greeks. An Olympiad was the interval of four years between two con- 
 secutive celebrations of the Olympic games. These games were trials of 
 strength and agility tested by running, boxing, leaping, wrestling and 
 so on, held at Olympia, a plain of Elis, every fourth year. They were 
 first employed for chronological purposes when Chorcebos won the foot- 
 race, the principal match before chariot races were introduced. 
 
 A merry old holiday was St. Valentine's Day, the 14th of February, 
 on which, in England and Scotland in former times, each young bachelor 
 and maid received by lot one of the opposite sex as ' ' valentine ' ' for the 
 year. It was a kind of mock betrothal, and was marked by the giving 
 of presents. From Pepys' Diary we see that married as well as single 
 people could be chosen. The usage, no doubt, grew out of the old 
 notion, alluded to by Chaucer and Shakspeare, that on this day birds 
 first choose their mates. 
 
 In Holland the following names for the months are in use: January 
 Lauromaand, chilly month; February Sprokelmaand, vegetation month; 
 March - lyentmaand, spring month; April Grasmaand, grass month; 
 May Blowmaand, flower month; June Zomermaand, summer month; 
 July Hooymaand, hay month; August Oostmaand, harvest month; 
 September Hertsmaand, autumn month; October Wynmaand, wine 
 month; November Slagmaand, slaughter month; December Winter- 
 maand, winter month. 
 
 The Roman month was divided into Calends^ Nones and Ides. The 
 Calends always fell upon the first of the month; in March, May, July 
 and October, the Nones on the 7th and the Ides on the 15th; and in 
 the remaining months, the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. 
 The Roman year began with March, and the months corresponded with 
 ours except that their fifth and sixth months were called Quintilis and 
 Sextilis. Afterwards they were changed to July and August in honor of 
 the emperors Julius and Augustus. 
 
 STANDARD TIME. 
 
 What is known as the "new standard time " was adopted by agree- 
 ment by all the principal railroads of the United States, at 12 o'clock, 
 noon, on November 18, 1883. The system divides the continent into 
 five longitudinal belts and fixes a meridian of time for each belt. These 
 meridians are fifteen degrees of longitude, corresponding to one hour of 
 time, apart. Eastern Maine, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia use the 
 60th meridian; the Canadas, New England, the Middle States, Virginia 
 and the Carolinas use the 75th meridian, which is that of Philadelphia; 
 the States of the Mississippi Valley, Alabama, Georgia and Florida, and 
 westward, including Texas, Kansas, and the larger part of Nebraska and 
 Dakota, use the 90th meridian, which is that of New Orleans. The 
 Territories to the western border of Arizona and Montana go by the 
 time of the 105th meridian, which is that of Denver; and the Pacific 
 States employ the 120th meridian. The time divisions are known as 
 intercolonial time, eastern time, central time, mountain time and Pacific 
 time. A traveler passing from one time belt to another will find his 
 watch an hour too fast or too slow, according to the direction in which 
 he is going. All points in any time division "using the time of the mer- 
 idian must set their time-pieces faster or slower than the time indicated 
 by the sun, according as their position is east or west of the line. This 
 
TIME AND ITS LANDMARKS. 45 
 
 change of system reduced the time standards used by the railroads from 
 fifty-three to five, a great convenience to the railroads and the traveling 
 public. The suggestion leading to the adoption of this new system 
 originated with Professor Abbe of the Signal Bureau at Washington. 
 
 WHERE THE SUN JUMPS A DAY. 
 
 Chatham Island, lying off the coast of New Zealand, in the South 
 Pacific Ocean, is peculiarly situated, as it is one of the habitable points 
 of the globe where the day of the week changes. It is just in the line of 
 demarkation between dates. There, at high 12 Sunday, noon ceases, and 
 instantly Monday fneridian begins. Sunday comes into a man's house 
 on the east side and becomes Monday by the time it passes out the west- 
 ern door. A man sits down to his noonday dinner on Sunday and it is 
 Monday noon before he finishes it. There Saturday is Sunday and Sun- 
 day is Monday, and Monday becomes suddenly transferred into Tuesday. 
 It is a good place for people who have lost much time, for by taking an 
 early start they can always get a day ahead on Chatham Island. It took 
 philosophers and geographers a long time to settle the puzzle of where 
 Sunday noon ceased and Monday noon began with a man traveling west 
 fifteen degrees an hour, or with the sun. It is to be hoped that the next 
 arctic expedition will settle the other mooted question . "Where will one 
 stop who travels northwest continually?" 
 
 HARVEST MONTHS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 JANUARY. The greater part of Chili, portions of the Argentine 
 Republic^ Australia and New Guinea. 
 
 FEBRUARY to MARCH. The East Indies. 
 
 APRII,. Mexico, Egypt, Persia and Syria. 
 
 MAY. Japan, China, Northern Asia Minor, Tunis, Algiers, Morocco 
 and Texas. 
 
 JUNE. California, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece and some 
 of the southern departments of France. 
 
 JULY. The larger part of France, Austria, Southern Russia and the 
 larger part of the United States of America. 
 
 AUGUST. Germany, England, Belgium, Netherlands, part of Rus- 
 sia, Denmark, part of Canada, and the Northeastern States of America. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. Scotland, the larger part of Canada, Sweden, Norway 
 and the north midlands of Russia. 
 
 OCTOBER. The northern parts of Russia and the northern parts of 
 the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 
 SHIP'S TIME. 
 
 On shipboard time is kept by means of "Bells," though there is but 
 one bell on the ship, and to strike the clapper properly against the bell 
 requires some skill. 
 
 First, two strokes of the clapper at the interval of a second, then an 
 interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a second's interval 
 apart, then a rest of two seconds, thus: 
 
 Bell, one second; B., two seconds; B. s; B. ss, B. s; B. ss; B. 
 
 1 Bell is struck at 12:30, and again at 4:30, 6:30, 8:30 P. M.; 12:30, 4:30 
 and 8:30 A. M. 
 
46 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION, 
 
 2 Bells at 1 (struck with an interval of a second between each B. s, 
 B.), the same again at 5, 7, and 9 p. M. ; 1, 5 and 9 A. M. 
 
 3 Bells at 1:30 (B. s, B. ss, B.), 5:30, 7:30, and 9:30 p. M.; 1:30, 5:30 
 and 9:30 A. M. 
 
 4 Bells at 2 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.), 6 and 10 p. M.; 2, 6, and 10 A. M. 
 
 5 Bells at 2:30 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B.) and 10:30 p. M.; 2:30, 6:30 
 and 10:30 A. M. 
 
 6 Bells at 3 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.) and 11 p. M.; 7, 3 and 11 
 p. M. 
 
 7 Bells at 3:30 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B.) and 11:30 p. M.; 
 3:30, 7:30 and 11:30 A. M. 
 
 8 Bells (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.)^every 4 hours, at 
 noon, at 4 P. M., 8 p. M., midnight, 4 A. M. and 8 A. M. 
 
 FRENCH REPUBLICAN CALENDAR. 
 
 I. The Months, beginning September 22. Each month 30 days. 
 
 AUTUMN. 
 
 Vendemiaire (Vintage month) September 22 October 21 . 
 
 Brumaire (Foggy month) October 22 November 20. 
 
 Frlmaire (Sleety month) November 21 December 20. 
 
 WINTEB. 
 
 Nivose (Snowy month) December 21 January 19. 
 
 Pluviose (Rainy month) January 20 February 18. 
 
 Ventose (Windy month) February 19 March 20. 
 
 SPRING. 
 
 Germinal (Budding month) . March 21 April 19. 
 
 Floral (Flowery month) April 20 Mny 19. 
 
 Prairial (Pasture month) May 20 June 18. 
 
 SUMMER. 
 
 Messidor (Harvest month) June 19 July 18. 
 
 Thermidor (Hot month) July 19 August 17. 
 
 Fructidor (Fruit month) August 18 September 16. 
 
 From September 16 to September 22 are five days. These were called Sans culot- 
 tides (4syl.),and were national holidays; 17 dedicated to Venus, 18 to Genius, 19 to 
 Labor, "JO to Opinion, and 21 to Rewards. 
 
 II. The Years. 
 
 Year I. From September 22 1792, to September 21, 1793. 
 
 
 II. 
 
 ' 
 
 " 1793, 
 
 
 
 ' 1794. 
 
 
 III. 
 
 1 
 
 " 1794, 
 
 
 
 ' 1795. 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 ' 
 
 ' " 1795, 
 
 
 
 ' 1796. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 ' " 1796 
 
 
 
 ' 1797. 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' 1797, 
 
 
 
 ' 1798. 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 1798. 
 
 
 
 1 1799. 
 
 
 VIII. 
 
 
 
 
 1 1799. 
 
 
 
 ' 1800. 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 M 
 
 ' 1800, 
 
 
 
 ' 1801. 
 
 
 X. 
 
 " 
 
 ' 1801, 
 
 
 
 ' 1802. 
 
 
 XI. 
 
 " 
 
 ' 1802, 
 
 
 
 1803. 
 
 
 XII. 
 
 11 
 
 ' 1803. 
 
 
 
 1 1804. 
 
 
 XIII. 
 
 H 
 
 ' 1804. 
 
 
 
 ' 1805. 
 
 XIV. " " " 1805, to the close of the year, when the 
 reckoning was abolished by Napoleon. 
 
 THE CHIEF CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS. 
 
 Christian Feasts are (a) Fixed; (t>) Movable. 
 (a) The Fixed Christian Festivals are: 
 All Saints or All Hallows, November 1. 
 
 All Souls in honor of all the faithful dead, whether canonized or not, 
 November 2. 
 
TIME AND ITS LANDMARKS. 47 
 
 Candlemas Day or the Purification of the Virgin Mary, February 2. 
 
 Christmas Day or the Nativity, December 25. 
 
 Circumcision, January 1. 
 
 Epiphany or Twelfth Day, January 6. 
 
 Innocents' Day, December 28. 
 
 Lady Day or Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, March 25. 
 
 The following are also called Saints' Days, or Red Letter Days: 
 
 Andrew November 30 
 
 Barnabas June 11. 
 
 James the Elder July 25. 
 
 John the Baptist (his Nativity) June 24. 
 
 John the Evangelist December 27. 
 
 Luke the Evangelist October 18. 
 
 Mark the Evangelist April 25. 
 
 Matthew the Evangelist SeptemberSl. 
 
 Matthias February 24. 
 
 Michafl (Michaelmas Day) September 29. 
 
 Paul (his Conversion) January 25. 
 
 Peter (by Catholics Peter and Paul) June 29. 
 
 Philip and James the Less... May 1. 
 
 Simon and Jude October 28. 
 
 Stephen (the first martyr) December 26. 
 
 Thomas (the shortest day) December 21. 
 
 () Movable Christian Feasts: 
 
 Ascension Day or Holy Thursday, ten days before Whit Sunday. 
 Ash Wednesday, the first day in Lent. 
 Easter Sunday. 
 
 Good Friday, the Friday before Easter Day. 
 Palm Sunday, the Sunday before Easter Day. 
 Pentecost or Whit Sunday, the seventh Sunday after Easter. 
 Sexagesima Sunday (about) sixty days before Easter, second Sunday 
 before Lent. 
 
 Trinity Sunday, the Sunday following Whit Sunday. 
 
 THE CALENDARS OF HISTORY. 
 
 The Jewish Calendar dates all the years downwards from the crea- 
 tion, which it reckons at 3760 years and 2 months before the Christian 
 era. The civil year begins with the month Tisri, the ecclesiastical with 
 the month Nisan. 
 
 The Mohammedan Calendar begins with the first day of the first 
 month of the year in which the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed, took 
 place, i. e. 622 A. D. , and was instituted in 639 or 640. 
 
 The year of this calendar is shorter than ours by 10 days, 21 hours and 
 14| seconds. 
 
 The Julian Calendar, that adjusted by Julius Caesar, made the year 
 to consist of 365 days 6 hours, the fourth year containing 366 days; this 
 was superseded by that of the Gregorian Calendar (New Style), so called 
 from its having been authorized by Pope Gregory XIII. That pontiff, to 
 harmonize the civil with the solar year, the former being in arrear, charged 
 the Council of Trent with the correction of the Julian Calendar, and in 
 1582 issued a. new calendar, omitting ten days, October 5 becoming 
 October 15. All the nations of Europe, excepting Turkey, Greece and 
 Russia, have adopted it. The New Style came into force in Great Brit- 
 ain in 1751; September 3 becoming September 14 in 1752. 
 
 In 1793 the National Convention of the first French republic decreed 
 that the common era should be abolished in all civil affairs, anc that a 
 new era should commence from the foundation of the republic, Septem- 
 
48 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ber 22, 1792. The year was to be divided into twelve months of thirty 
 days each, with five complementary days at the end, which were to be 
 celebrated as festivals, and were dedicated to Virtue, Genius, I/abor, 
 Opinion, Rewards. Every fourth or "Olympic" year was to have a 
 sixth complementary day to be called "Revolution Day," and every 
 period of four years was to be called a Franciade. The first, second and 
 third centurial years viz. 100, 200, 300 were to be common years, the 
 fourth centurial year 400 was to be a leap year, and this was to continue 
 till the fortieth centurial year 4000, which was to be a common year. 
 The months were to be divided into three parts of ten days each, called 
 decades. The names of the months and the days of the Gregorgian Cal- 
 endar to which they corresponded are given in another section. 
 
 THE MONTHS AND THEIR NAMES. 
 
 January, the first month of the year, was among the Romans held 
 sacred to Janus, from whom it derived its name, and was added to the 
 calendar along with February by Numa in 713 B.C. It was not till the 
 eighteenth century that January was universally adopted by European 
 nations as the first month of the year, although the Romans considered 
 it as such as far back as 251 B.C. 
 
 February is the name given to the second month, in which were 
 celebrated the Februa, or feasts to the manes of deceased persons. 
 
 March, the first month of the Roman year, and the third according 
 to our present calendar, consists of 31 days. It was considered as the 
 first month of the year in England until the change of style in 1752, and 
 the legal year was reckoned from the 25th of March. Its last three days 
 (old style) were once popularly supposed to have been borrowed by 
 March from April, and are proverbially stormy. 
 
 To the fourth month of our year the Romans gave the name of 
 Aprilis, derived from aperire, "to open," probably because it is the sea- 
 son when the buds begin to open. By the Anglo-Saxons it was called 
 Eastermonth. 
 
 The name of the fifth month, May, is said to be derived from Maia, 
 the mother of Mercury, to whom the Romans on the first day offered sac- 
 rifices. It was the third month of the Roman year. 
 
 June, the sixth month of the year in our calendar, but the fourth 
 among the Romans, consisted originally of 26 days, to which four were 
 added by Romulus, one taken away by Numa, and the month again 
 lengthened to 30 days by Julius Caesar. 
 
 The seventh month of the year in our calendar, and fifth in the 
 Roman calendar, was originally called Quintilis ("the fifth"). At first 
 it contained 36 days, was reduced to 31, then to 30, but was restored to 
 31 days by Julius Caesar, in honor of whom it was named July. 
 
 August, the eighth month of the year, was so named by the Emperor 
 Augustus (B.C. 63 A.D. 14), who commanded that his name should be 
 given to the month. August was the sixth month of the Roman year and 
 was previously called Sextilis. 
 
 September (Lat. septem, seven) was the seventh month of the Roman 
 calendar, but is the ninth according to our reckoning. The Anglo- 
 Saxons called it gerst-monath, "barley-month." 
 
 October (Lat. octo, eight) was the eighth month of the so-called 
 "year of Romulus," but became the tenth when (according to tradition) 
 
TIME AND ITS LANDMARKS. 49 
 
 Numa changed the commencement of the year to January 1st, though it 
 retained its original name. 
 
 November (Lat. novem, "nine") was among the Romans the ninth 
 month of the year (the Ger. Wind "month) at the time when the year 
 consisted of ten months, and then contained 30 days. It subsequently 
 was made to contain only 29, but Julius Caesar gave it 31; and in the 
 reign of Augustus the number was restored to 30, which number it has 
 since retained. 
 
 December means the tenth month, and received that name frorr the 
 Romans when the year began in March, and has retained its name since 
 January and February were put at the beginning of the year. 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE DAYS OF THE WEEK. 
 
 The names of these are derived from Saxon idolatry. The Saxons 
 had seven deities more particularly adored than the rest, namely: The 
 Sun, the Moon, Tuisco, Woden, Thor, Friga and Saeter. Sunday being 
 dedicated to the sun, was called by them Sunandaeg; his idol represented 
 the bust of a man, with the face darting bright rays, holding a wheel be- 
 fore his breast, indicative of the circuit of the golden orb around our 
 sphere. Monday was dedicated to the moon, and was represented by a 
 female on a pedestal, with a very singular dress and two long ears. Tues- 
 day was dedicated to Tuisco, a German hero, sire of the Germans, Scy- 
 thians and Saxons. He was represented as a venerable old man, with a 
 long, white beard, a scepter in his hand and the skin of a white bear 
 thrown over his shoulders. Wednesday was consecrated to Woden, or 
 Odin, a supreme god of the northern nations, father of the gods and god 
 of war. He was represented as a warrior in a bold martial attitude, clad 
 in armor, holding in his right hand a broad, crooked sword and a shield 
 in his left. Thursday was consecrated to Thor, eldest son of Woden, 
 who was the Roman Jupiter. He was believed to govern the air, preside 
 over lightning and thunder, direct the wind, rain, and seasons. He was 
 represented as sitting on a splendid throne, with a crown of gold adorned 
 with twelve glittering stars, and a scepter in his right hand. Friday was 
 sacred to Friga Hertha or Edith the mother of the gods and wife of 
 Woden. She was the goddess of love and pleasure and was portrayed as 
 a female with a naked sword in her right hand and bow in her left hand, 
 implying that in extreme cases women should fight as well as men. Sat- 
 urday was named in honor of Saeter, who is the Roman Saturnus. He 
 was represented on a pedestal, standing on the back of a prickly fish 
 called a perch, his head bare, with a thin, meager face. In his left hand 
 he held a wheel and in his right a pail of water with fruits and flowers. 
 The sharp fins of the fish implied that the worshipers of Saeter should, 
 pass safely through every difficulty. The wheel was emblematic of their 
 unity and freedom, and the pail of water implied that he could water the 
 earth and make it more beautiful. 
 
 THE HISTORIC AGES. 
 
 The Age of the Bishops, according to Hallam, was the ninth century, 
 
 The Age of the Popes, according to Hallam, was the twelfth century. 
 
 Varo recognizes Three Ages: 1st. From the beginning of man to 
 
 the great Flood (the period wholly unknown). 2nd. From the Flood 
 
 U. I. 4 
 
50 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 to the first Olympiad (the mythical period). 3rd. From the first Olym- 
 piad to the present time (the historical period). 
 
 The Golden Age, a mythical period when the earth brought forth 
 spontaneously, and the gods held converse with men. 
 
 The Silver Age the second period, when the gods taught men the 
 useful arts. 
 
 The Age of Bronze, the third or transition period, semi-historical. 
 The age of heroes. It followed the "Stone Age." 
 
 The Iron Age, the historic period, when wars abound, and man 
 earns his food by labor. 
 
 LEGAL HOLIDAYS IN THE VARIOUS STATES. 
 
 JANUARY 1. NEW YEAR'S DAY: In all the States except Massachu- 
 setts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island. 
 
 JANUARY 8. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS: In 
 Louisiana. 
 
 JANUARY 19. LEE'S BIRTHDAY: In Georgia, North Carolina and 
 Virginia. 
 
 FEBRUARY 12. LINCOLN'S BIRTHDAY: In Illinois. 
 
 FEBRUARY 14. 1893. MARDI GRAS: In Alabama and Louisiana. 
 
 FEBRUARY 22. WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAY: In all the States except 
 Arkansas, Iowa and Mississippi. 
 
 MARCH 2. ANNIVERSARY OF TEXAN INDEPENDENCE: In Texas. 
 
 MARCH 4. FIREMAN'S ANNIVERSARY: In New Orleans, La. 
 
 MARCH 31, 1893. GOOD FRIDAY: In Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, 
 Pennsylvania and Tennessee. 
 
 APRIL 5, 1893. STATE ELECTION DAY: In Rhode Island. 
 
 APRIL 21. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE OF SANJACINTO: In 
 Texas. 
 
 APRIL 26. MEMORIAL DAY. In Alabama and Georgia. 
 
 MAY 10. MEMORIAL DAY: In North Carolina. 
 
 MAY 20. ANNIVERSARY OF THE SIGNING OF THE MECKLENBURG 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: In North Carolina. 
 
 MAY 30. DECORATION DAY: In Arizona, California, Colorado, Con- 
 necticut, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Michi- 
 gan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New 
 Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin, Washing- 
 ton and Wyoming. 
 
 JUNE 3. JEFFERSON DAVIS' BIRTHDAY: In Florida. 
 
 JULY 4. INDEPENDENCE DAY: In all the States. 
 
 JULY 24. PIONEERS' DAY: In Utah. 
 
 SEPTEMBER 4, 1893. LABOR DAY: In California, Colorado, Connecti- 
 cut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Montana, 
 Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
 South Dakota, Utah, Virginia and Washington. 
 
 SEPTEMBER 9. ADMISSION DAY: In California. 
 
 OCTOBER 31. ADMISSION IN.THE UNION DAY: Nevada. 
 
 NOVEMBER . GENERAL ELECTION DAY: In Arizona, California, 
 Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Mon- 
 tana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, 
 Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, West 
 Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In the States which 
 hold elections in November, 1893, election day falls on the 7th instant. 
 
TIME AND ITS LANDMARKS. 51 
 
 NOVEMBER 30, 1893. THANKSGIVING DAY: Is observed in all the 
 States, though in some it is not a statutory holiday. 
 
 NOVEMBER 25. LABOR DAY: In Louisiana. 
 
 DECEMBER 25. CHRISTMAS DAY: In all the States, and in South 
 Carolina the two succeeding days in addition. 
 
 Sundays and Fast Days (whenever appointed) are legal holidays in 
 nearly all the States. 
 
 ARBOR DAY is a legal holiday in Kansas, Rhode Island and Wyom- 
 ing, the day being set by the Governor in Nebraska, April 22; Califor- 
 nia, September 9; Colorado, on the third Friday in April; Montana, third 
 Tuesday in April; Utah, first Saturday in April; and Idaho, on Friday 
 after May 1. 
 
 Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal holiday in New York, 
 New Jersey, and the city of New Orleans, and from June 15 to September 
 15 in Pennsylvania. 
 
 There is no national holiday, not even the Fourth of July. Con- 
 gress has at various times appointed special holidays, and has recognized 
 the existence of certain days as holidays, for commercial purposes, in 
 such legislation as the Bankruptcy act, but there is no general statute on 
 the subject. The proclamation of the President designating a day of 
 Thanksgiving only makes it a holiday in those States which provide by 
 law for it. 
 
 THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE CALENDAR. 
 
 The Chaldeans, Egyptians and Indians, and indeed almost all the 
 nations of antiquity, originally estimated the year, or the periodical re- 
 turn of summer and winter, by 12 lunations; a period equal to 354 days, 
 8 hours, 48 minutes, 36 seconds. But the solar year is equal to 365 days, 
 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49 seconds; or 10 days, 21 hours, 13 seconds longer 
 than the lunar year, an excess named the epad; and accordingly the sea- 
 sons were found rapidly to deviate from the particular months to which 
 they at first corresponded; so that, in 34 years, the summer months would 
 have become the winter ones, had not this enormous aberration been cor- 
 rected by the addition or intercalation of a few odd days at certain in- 
 tervals. Thus was the calendar first adjusted, and the solar year esti- 
 mated to consist of 12 months, comprehending 365 days. But no account 
 was taken of the odd hours, until their accumulation forced them into 
 notice; and a nearer approximation to the exact measurement of a year 
 was made about 45 years before the birth of Christ, when Julius Caesar, 
 being led by Sosigenes, an astronomer of his time, to believe the error to 
 consist of exactly 6 hours in the year, ordained that these should be set 
 aside, and accumulated for four years, when, of course, they would amount 
 to a day of 24 hours, to be accordingly added to every fourth year. This 
 was done by doubling or repeating the 24th of February; and, in order to 
 commence aright, he ordained the first to be a "year of confusion," made 
 up of 15 months, so as to cover the 90 days which had been then lost. 
 The "Julian style" and the "Julian era" were then commenced; and so 
 practically useful and comparatively perfect was this mode of time-reck- 
 oning, that it prevailed generally amongst Christian nations, and re- 
 mained undisturbed till the renewed accumulation of the remaining 
 error, of 11 minutes or so, had amounted, in 1582 years after the birth of 
 Christ, to 10 complete days; the vernal equinox falling on the llth in- 
 stead of the 21st of March, as it did at the time of the council of Nice, 325 
 
52 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 years after the birth of Christ. This shifting of days had caused great 
 disturbances, by unfixing the times of the celebration of Easter, and 
 hence of all the other movable feasts. And, accordingly, Pope Gregory 
 XIII, after deep study and calculation, ordained that 10 days should be 
 deducted from the year 1582, by calling what, according to the old cal- 
 endar, would have been reckoned the 5th of October, the 15th of October, 
 1582. In Spain, Portugal and parts of Italy, the pope was exactly obeyed. 
 In France the change took place in the same year, by calling the 10th 
 the 20th of December. In the Low Countries the change was from the 
 15th of December to the 25th, but was resisted by the Protestant part of 
 the community till the year 1700. The Catholic nations in general adopted 
 the style ordained by their sovereign pontiff, but the Protestants were 
 then too much inflamed against Catholicism in all its relations to receive 
 even a purely scientific improvement from such hands. The Lutherans 
 of Germany, Switzerland, and, as already mentioned, of the Low Coun- 
 tries, at length gave way in 1700, when it had become necessary to omit 
 eleven instead of ten days. A bill to this effect had been brought before 
 the Parliament of England in 1585, but does not appear to have gone 
 beyond a second reading in the House of Lords. It was not till 1751, 
 and after great inconvenience had been experienced for nearly two cent- 
 uries, from the difference of the reckoning, that an act was passed (24 
 Geo. II, 1751) for equalizing the style in Great Britain and Ireland with 
 that used in other countries of Europe. It was enacted, in the first place, 
 that eleven days should be omitted after the 2d of September, 1752, so 
 that the ensuing day should be the 14th; and, in order to counteract a 
 certain minute overplus of time, that "the years 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 
 2300, or any other hundredth year of our Lord which shall happen in 
 time to come, except only every fourth hundredth year of our Lord, 
 whereof the year 2000 shall be the first, shall not.be considered as leap 
 years." Our present Eastern States being then British colonies, the 
 forefathers of the Republic, of course, used this altered calendar as soon 
 as it was adopted. A similar change was about the same time made in 
 Sweden and Tuscany; and Russia is now the only country which adheres 
 to the old style; an adherence which renders it necessary, when a letter 
 is thence addressed to a person in another country, that the date should 
 
 1 June 26 
 be given thus: April or ; for it will be observed, the year 1800 
 
 13 July 9 
 
 not being considered by us as leap year, has interjected another (or 
 twelfth) day between old and new style. 
 
 The twelve calendar or civil months were so arranged by Julius 
 Caesar, while reforming the calendar, that the odd months the first, 
 third, fifth, and so on, should contain 31 days, and the even numbers 30 
 days, except in the case of February, which was to have 30 only in what 
 has been improperly termed leap year, while on other years it was as- 
 signed 29 days only; a number which it retained till Augustus Caesar 
 deprived it of another day. How the changes were effected is shown in 
 a prior chapter on "The Months." 1 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 The grand debate, 
 
 The popular harangue, the tart reply, 
 The logic, and the wisdom, and the wit, 
 And the loud laugh -I long to know them al'. 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 PICKINGS FOR STUDENTS. 
 
 There are said to be 2,754 languages. 
 
 Rhetoric, as an art, dates from 466 B. C. 
 
 A poet terms words "the soul's embassadors. " 
 
 The rude speech of fishwives is called Billingsgate. 
 
 Lyric poetry has to do with the feelings and emotions. 
 
 A terse and poetical expression of an idea is an Epigram. 
 
 Leibnitz was first to reduce philology to a science of induction. 
 
 Appolonius of Alexandria was called the Prince of Grammarians. 
 
 In the Turkish language are to be met the longest compound words. 
 
 When we express a principle very concisely we employ an Aphorism. 
 
 The tales, ballads and legends of a people constitute its Folk-lore. 
 
 A pithy saying that conveys an important truth, is called an Apoph- 
 thegm. 
 
 Rhetoric is the theory and practice of eloquence, whether spoken or 
 written. 
 
 Language is claimed to have begun in the use of cries to help out 
 gestures. 
 
 A Hellenist is one that is versed in the Greek languages and 
 literature. 
 
 One verse in the Bible (Ezra vii. 21) will be found to contain all the 
 letters of our alphabet. 
 
 Orientals aver that the serpent who tempted Eve spoke Arabic, 
 ' 'the most suasive of tongues. ' ' 
 
 The Italian, Spanish, French and other tongues derived mainly from 
 Latin, are called the Romance languages. 
 
 It was not Talleyrand, but Montron, the diplomat, who said: "Lang- 
 uage is given to man to conceal his thoughts. ' ' 
 
 Acrostic is a term for any given number of verses, the first letters of 
 which in their order form a given word, phrase or sentence. 
 
 Didactic poetry is that class which aims, or seems to aim, at instruc- 
 tion as its object, making pleasure entirely subservient thereto. 
 
 53 
 
54 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The combined ingenuity of the world has not surpassed this sentence 
 as containing all the letters and most only once: "Quiz, Jack; thy frowns 
 vex. G. D. PUJMB." 
 
 If the riches of the Indies, says Fenelon, or the crowns of all the 
 kingdoms of Burope, were laid at my feet in exchange for my love for 
 reading, I would spurn them all. 
 
 The ancient Scandinavians employed an alphabet of letters formed 
 principally of straight lines, which has been called Runic from an Ice- 
 landic word r una, meaning a furrow or line. 
 
 Charles V used to say that he would talk Spanish to the gods, Ital- 
 ian to ladies, French to men, German to soldiers, English to geese, 
 Hungarian to horses, and Bohemian to the devil. 
 
 Cipher as a method of secret writing was known as early as the time 
 of Julius Caesar. It consisted of a transposition of the letters of the 
 alphabet. The most complicated ciphers known can be translated by 
 modern experts. 
 
 Taboo is a Polynesian word, signifying something set apart, either 
 as sacred or accursed, clean or unclean, but in any case as a thing for- 
 bidden. All the law and morality of the Polynesians had their origin 
 in the taboo or system of religious prohibitions. 
 
 The writing in use among the Arabs between the sixth and eleventh 
 centuries, and, supposed to have been invented at Cufa, is called Cufic 
 writing. Cufic coins are those of the Mohammedan sovereigns and are 
 of great use in throwing light on the history of the Bast. 
 
 The longest words in the language, taken from the "Century Dic- 
 tionary:" Suticonstitutionalist, Incomprehensibility, Philoprogenitive- 
 ness, Honorificibilitudinity, Anthropophagenarian, Disproportionable- 
 ness, Velocipedestrianistical, Transubstantiationableness, Palatopharyn- 
 geolaryngeal. 
 
 The term Colophon applies to the inscription or monogram on the last 
 page of a book, which in old times contained the author's and printer's 
 names, date of publication, and so on. It is derived from the Greek 
 phrase "to add a colophon," to put the finishing stroke to an engagement 
 by a cavalry attack. 
 
 Outside of medical and technical terms the word "unexceptionable- 
 ness" is, according to some lexicographers, the longest English word. 
 "Incomprehensibility"' has the same complement of letters, nineteen, 
 but four of them are "i," and it would occupy less space in type than its 
 sesquipedalian brother. 
 
 Americanisms are words or phrases peculiar to the United States. 
 Many of them, however, are the renewal of old English words that have 
 become obsolete in the mother country. Others have sprung into exist- 
 ence through the n~w conditions consequent in the rapid development 
 of our western territory. 
 
 A sonnet is a poetic form, of Italian origin, used to express a single 
 thought or single wave of emotion. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of 
 fourteen lines, divided into an octave of two rhymes, and a sestet of 
 two or three rhymes. The Shakspearian sonnet consists of six alternate 
 rhymes clinched by a couplet. 
 
 In 1879, Johann Martin Schleyer, a Swabian pastor and latterly a 
 teacher in Constance, invented the universal language called Volapiik. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 55 
 
 Of the vocabulary about one third is of English origin, while the Latin 
 and the Romance languages furnish a fourth. The grammar is simplified 
 to the utmost. The most practical disciples limit their aims to making 
 Volapiik a convenience for commercial correspondence, a kind of ex- 
 tended international code. 
 
 An anagram is the formation of a new word, phrase or sentence out 
 of anothor by a transposition of the letters. To be effective the anagram 
 must have the element of sarcasm, surprise or revelation involved. ' 'Love 
 to ruin" is an anagram for revolution, "sly ware" for lawyers, "a man 
 to wield great wills" for William Ewart Gladstone. 
 
 Mac (contracted M')is a Gaelic prefix occurring frequently in Scot- 
 tish names, as Macdonald, M'Lennan, and the like, meaning "son," "tribe" 
 or "kin." It corresponds to the son in names of Teutonic origin, as Da- 
 vidson; the Fitz in Norman names, as Fitzherbert; the Irish O, as in 
 O'Connell; and the Welsh Map, shortened into ' p or '/, as Ap Richard, 
 whence Prichard. 
 
 We find in a historical incident the true etymology of the term La- 
 conisms. When Philip of Macedon wrote to the Spartan magistrates, "If 
 I enter Laconia I will level Lacedaemon to the ground," the ephors wrote 
 back the single word "If." Similarly, in 1490, O'Neill wrote to O'Donnel, 
 "Send me the tribute, or else ;" to which O'Donnel returned answer, "I 
 owe none, and if ." 
 
 The Brogue (Irish and Gaelic brog} is a light shoe formed of one 
 piece of hide or half-tanned leather, gathered round the ankle, which 
 was formerly much in use among the native Irish and the Scottish High- 
 landers, and of which there were different varieties. Whence comes the 
 term brogue signifying the peculiar pronounciation of English that dis- 
 tinguishes natives of Ireland. 
 
 An allegory is a "prolonged metaphor" or figurative representation 
 conveying some moral or teaching. Of very early origin it is especially 
 common among the Oriental people. It is of frequent occurrence in the 
 Bible. In English literature there are many fine examples, among the 
 most familiar of which are Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" and Spenser's 
 "Faerie Queen." The latter is a double allegory. 
 
 Among the puzzle-pastimes based on the alphabet a logogram is 
 simply a complicated or multiplied form of the anagram, where the 
 puzzle-monger, instead of contenting himself with the formation of a 
 single new word or sentence out of the old by the transposition of the 
 letters, racks his brain to discover all the words that may be extracted 
 from the whole or from any portion of the letters, and throws the whole 
 into a series of verses in which synonymic expressions for these words 
 must be used. 
 
 Sanscrit is one of the Indo-European group of languages, intimately 
 connected with the Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian and Celtic 
 languages. It is the classical language of the Hindus, and the parent of 
 all the modern Aryan languages of India. It ceased to be a spoken lan- 
 guage about the second century B. C. Sanscrit literature, which extends 
 back to at least 1,500 B. C. and is very voluminous, was introduced to 
 the western world by Sir Wm. Jones, who founded the Asiatic Society in 
 Calcutta in 1784. 
 
 Our familiar and valuable friends, the letters of the common alpha- 
 bet, are said to have originated in the hieroglyphic symbols of Egypt, 
 
56 MANUAL OF USEFUL' INFORMATION. 
 
 legendarily ascribed to Memnon, 1822 B. C. From the Egyptians and 
 Assyrians the Phoenicians introduced the chief letters of the present 
 alphabet. Cadmus is traditionally stated (149 B. C.) to have brought 
 into Greece the Phoenician letters which ultimately became the basis of 
 the present alphabet. The number of letters composing the alphabet 
 varies among different nations. The true theory of an alphabet requires 
 a single sign to represent each single sound. 
 
 When the Ephraimites, after their defeat by Jephthah, tried to pass 
 the Jordan, a guard stationed on the banks of the river tested everyone 
 who came to the ford by asking him to pronounce the word "Shibboleth" 
 which the men of Ephraim called sibboleth. Everyone who said "sibbo- 
 leth" was immediately cut down by the guard, and there fell in one day, 
 42,000 Ephraimites (Judges xii: 1-6). Hence arises the present meaning 
 of the word as the test, criterion or watchword of a party. 
 
 To "speak for bunkum" is a common expression indicating bombast 
 or mere show. The phrase no doubt owes it origin to the perseverance 
 of an old mountainer, Felix Walter by name, representative in Congress 
 from North Carolina, in whose district was the county of Buncombe. It 
 was at the close of the famous debate on the Missouri Compromise. Mr. 
 Walker rose to speak. The House was impatient and frequent calls for 
 the "Question" were heard. Mr. Walker insisted, saying that he was 
 bound to "speak for Bumcombe." 
 
 The sixteen Greek letters, said to have been introduced into Thebes 
 (in Bceotia) by Cadmus, sou of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, are called the 
 Cadmean letters. The letters are a, b, g, d, e, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. 
 These letters were subsequently increased by eight Ionic letters, z, e, th, 
 x, ph, eh, ch, ps, and 6. Simonieds of Cos is credited with the four let- 
 ters th, z, ph, ch, and Epicharmos the Sicilian, with the four letters x, 
 e, ps, 6. The lonians were the first to employ all the twenty-four letters, 
 whence the eight added were called Ionic letters. 
 
 We use the term "bull" to describe a ridiculous blunder in speech 
 implying a contradiction. Bulls in their best form are usually alleged 
 to be an especial prerogative of Irishmen at least it is certain that the 
 best examples have come from Ireland. For instance, on a rustic Irish- 
 man being asked what a bull was he naively replied: "Whin ye see five 
 cows lyin' down in a field the wan standin' up is a bull." The follow- 
 ing sentence is also a good illustration: "All along the untrodden paths 
 of the past we perceive the footprints of an unseen hand. " 
 
 Critics employ the term Bathos to designate a ludicrous descent from 
 the elevated to the commonplace in writing or speech, or a sinking below 
 the ordinary level of thought in a ridiculous effort to aspire. It is of the 
 essence of bathos that he who is guilty of it should be unconscious of his 
 fall, and while groveling on the earth, should imagine that he is still 
 cleaving the heavens. A good example of bathos is the well-known cou- 
 
 "And thou, Dalhousie, thou great fjod of war, 
 Lieutenant-general to the Earl of Mar!" 
 
 or the well-known encomium of the celebrated Boyle: "Robert Boyle 
 was a great man, a very great man; he* was father of chemistry and 
 brother to the Earl of Cork." 
 
 A dictionary is a book containing the words of a language alpha- 
 betically arranged, with their definitions and significations set forth more 
 or less fully. It differs from a mere list or index, in that it contains 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 57 
 
 explanations about each word included within its scope, except where it 
 is more convenient, by a cross-reference, to refer the reader for a part or 
 the whole of the account of one word to what is said under some other 
 word. There are several other terms that are used synonymously, or 
 nearly so, with dictionary. The Greek word "lexicon " is in common 
 use for a dictionary of languages. 
 
 CHIEF LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Some estimate that there are over three thousand languages in the 
 world ; and above a thousand different religions, including w r hat are 
 called "sects." English is spoken by above one hundred and thirty 
 millions of the human race ; German by one hundred millions ; Russian 
 by seventy millions ; French by forty-five millions ; Spanish by forty 
 millions ; Italian by thirty millions, and Portuguese by thirteen millions. 
 
 English is spoken by four million Canadians ; over three and a half 
 million West Indians ; three million Australians ; one million East 
 Indians ; thirty-eight millions in the British Isles, and sixty -three mill- 
 ions in America ; besides Africa, Jamaica, etc. 
 
 German is spoken by two millions in the United States and Canada ; 
 two millions in Switzerland ; forty thousand Belgiums ; forty-six millions 
 in the German empire, and ten millions in the Austro-Hungarian 
 empire. 
 
 French is spoken by two and a quarter million Belgians ; one million 
 in the United States and Canada ; one million in Algiers, India and 
 Africa ; six hundred thousand Swiss ; six hundred thousand in Hayti ; 
 two hundred thousand in Alsace-Lorraine ; and thirty-eight millions in 
 France. 
 
 HOW TO SPEAK CORRECTLY. 
 
 There are several kinds of errors in speaking. The most objection- 
 able are those in which words are employed that are unsuitable to con- 
 vey the meaning intended. Thus, a person wishing to express his 
 intention of going to a given place says, "I propose going," when, in 
 fact, he purposes going. The following affords an amusing illustration 
 of this class of error : A venerable matron was speaking of her son, 
 who, she said, was quite stage-struck. "In fact," remarked the old 
 lady, " he is going to a premature performance this evening ! " Consid- 
 ering that most amateur performances are premature, it cannot be said 
 that this word was altogether misapplied ; though, evidently, the ma- 
 ternal intention was to convey a very different meaning. 
 
 Other errors arise from the substitution of sounds similar to the 
 words that should be employed ; that is, spurios words instead of genu- 
 ine ones. Thus, some people say " renumerative " w r hen they mean 
 "remunerative." A nurse, recommending her mistress to have a per- 
 ambulator for her child, advised her to purchase a preamputator! 
 
 Other errors are occasioned by imperfect knowledge of the English 
 grammar; thus, many people say: "Between you and I," instead of 
 "Between you and me." And there are numerous other departures 
 from the rules of grammar, which will be pointed out hereafter. 
 
 MISUSE OF THE ADJECTIVE: "What beautiful butter!" "What a 
 nice landscape!" They should say: "What a beautiful landscape!" 
 "What nice butter!" Again errors are frequently occasioned by the 
 following causes ; 
 
58 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TION. 
 
 MISPRONUNCIATION OK WORDS: Many persons say prononnciatton 
 instead of pronunciation; others say pro-nun-ce-a-shun, instead of pro- 
 nun-she-a-shun. 
 
 MISDI VISION OF WORDS AND SYLLABLES: This defect makes the 
 words an ambassador sound like a nambassador , or an adder like a nadder. 
 
 IMPERFECT ENUNCIATION, as when a person says hebben for heaven, 
 ebber for ever, jocholate for chocolate. 
 
 To correct these errors by a systematic course of study would involve 
 a closer application than most persons could afford, but the simple and 
 concise rules and hints here given, founded upon usage and the authority 
 of scholars, will be of great assistance to inquirers. 
 
 Who and whom are used in relation to persons, and which in rela- 
 tion to things. But it was once common to say, "the man which." 
 This should now be avoided. It is now usual to say, " Our Father who 
 art in heaven;" instead of " which art in heaven." 
 
 Whose is, however, sometimes applied to things as well as persons. 
 We may therefore say, " The country whose inhabitants are free." 
 
 Thou is employed in solemn discourse and you in common lang- 
 uage. Ye (plural) is also used in serious addresses, and you in familiar 
 language. 
 
 The uses of the word it are various, and very perplexing to the un- 
 educated. It is not only used to imply persons, but things, and even 
 ideas, and therefore in speaking or writing, its assistance is constantly 
 required. The perplexity respecting this word arises from the fact that 
 in using it in the construction of a long sentence, sufficient care is not 
 taken to insure that when it is employed it really points out or refers 
 to the object intended. For instance, "It was raining when John set 
 out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so long that it 
 was over before he arrived." Now what is to be understood by this sen- 
 tence? Was the rain over? or the market? Either or both might be in- 
 ferred from the construction of the sentence, which, therefore, should be 
 written thus: " It was raining when John set out in his cart to go to 
 market, and he was delayed so long that the market was over before he 
 arrived." 
 
 Rule. After writing a sentence always look through it, and see that 
 wherever the word it is employed, it refers to or carries the mind back 
 to the object which it is intended to point out. 
 
 The general distinction between this and that may be thus defined: 
 this denotes an object present or near, in time or place; that something 
 which is absent. 
 
 These refers, in the same manner, to present objects, while those 
 refers to things that are remote. 
 
 Who changes, under certain conditions, into whose and whom; but 
 that and which always remain the same, with the exception of the pos- 
 sessive case, as noted above. 
 
 That may be applied to nouns or subjects of all sorts; as the girl 
 that went to school, the dog that bit me, the opinion that he entertains. 
 
 The misuse of these pronouns gives rise to more errors in speaking 
 and writing than any other cause. 
 
 When you wish to distinguish between two or more persons, say, 
 " Which is the happy man? " not who " Which of those ladies do you 
 admire? " 
 
 Instead of " Whom do you think him to be? " say, " Who do you 
 think him to be ?" 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 59 
 
 Whom should I see ? 
 
 To whom do you speak ? 
 
 Who said so ? 
 
 Who gave it to you ? 
 
 Of whom did you procure them ? 
 Who was he? 
 
 Who do men say that / am ? 
 
 Self should never be added to his, their, mine, or thine. 
 
 Each is used to denote every individual of a number. 
 
 Every denotes all the individuals of a number. 
 
 Either and or denote an alternative: "I will take either road, at 
 your pleasure," "I will take this or that." 
 
 Neither means not either; and nor means not the other. 
 
 Either is sometimes used for each "Two thieves were crucified, on 
 either side one." 
 
 " Let each esteem others as good as themselves," should be, "Let 
 each esteem others as good as himself" 
 
 " There are bodies each of which are so small," should be, " each of 
 which is so small." 
 
 Do not use double superlatives, such as most straightest, most high- 
 est, most finest. 
 
 The term worser has gone out of use; but lesser is still retained. 
 
 The use of such words as chief est, extremest, etc. , has become obso- 
 lete, because they do not give any superior force to the meanings of the 
 primary words, chief , extreme, etc. 
 
 Such expressions as more impossible, more indispensable, more uni- 
 versal, more uncontrollable, more unlimited, etc., are objectionable, as 
 they really enfeeble the meaning which it is the object of the speaker or 
 writer to strengthen. For instance, impossible gains no strength by 
 rendering it more impossible. This class of error is common with per- 
 sons who say " A great large house," "A great big animal," "A little 
 small foot, " "A tiny little hand. ' ' 
 
 Hence, whence and thence, denoting departure, etc., may be used 
 without the word from. The idea of/Vow is included in the word whence 
 therefore it is unnecessary to say, "From whence.' 1 '' 
 
 Hither, thither and whither, denoting to a place.have generally been 
 superseded by here* there and where. But there is no good reason why 
 they should not be employed. If, however, they are used, it is unnec- 
 essary to add the word to, because that is implied " Whither are you 
 going ? " " Where are you going ?' ' Each of these sentences is complete. 
 
 Two negatives destroy each other, and produce an affirmative. "Nor 
 did he not observe them," conveys the idea that he did observe them. 
 
 But negative assertions are allowable. "His manners are not im- 
 polite," which implies that his manners are in some degree marked by 
 politeness. 
 
 Instead of "Let you and /," say "Let you and me." 
 
 Instead of "I am not so tall as him" say "I am not so tall as he." 
 
 When asked "Who is there?" do not answer "Me," but "I." 
 
 Instead of "For you and /," say "For you and me." 
 
 Instead of "Says /," say "I said." 
 
 Instead of "You are taller than me," say "You are taller than I." 
 
 Instead of ."I ain't," or "I arri*t," say "I am not." 
 
 Instead of "Whether I be present or no," say "Whether I be pres- 
 ent or not." 
 
60 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 For "Not that I know on," say "Not that I know." 
 Instead of " Was I to do so," say "Were I to do so." 
 Instead of "I would do the same if I was him,' say "I would do the 
 
 same if I were he." 
 
 Though "I had as lief go myself," is not incorrect, some prefer "I 
 
 would as soon go myself," or "I would rather go myself." 
 
 It is better to say "Six weeks ago," than "Six weeks back." 
 It is better to say "Since which time," than "Since when." 
 It is better to say "I repeated it," than "I said so over again." 
 
 Instead of "He was too young to have suffered much," say "He was too 
 
 young to suffer much." 
 
 Instead of "Less friends, " say "Fewer friends." Less refers to 
 
 quantity. 
 
 Instead of "A quantity of people," say "A number of people. " 
 Instead of "As far as I can see," say "So far as I can see." 
 Instead of "A new pair of gloves, " say "A pair of new gloves." 
 Instead of "I hope you'll think nothing on it," say "I hope you'll 
 
 think nothing of it." 
 
 Instead of "Restore it back to me," say "Restore it to me." 
 Instead of "I suspect the veracity of his story," say "I doubt the 
 
 truth of his story. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "I seldom or ever see him," say "I seldom see him." 
 Instead of "I expected to have found him," say "I expected to find 
 
 him." 
 
 Instead of "Who learns you music ? " say "Who teaches you music ?" 
 Instead of I never sing whenever I can help it," say "I never sing 
 
 when I can help it." 
 
 Instead of "Before I do that I must first ask leave," say "Before I 
 
 do that I must ask leave." 
 
 Instead of saying "The observation of the rule," say "The observ- 
 ance of the rule." 
 
 Instead of "A man of eighty years of age," say "A man eighty 
 
 years old. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "Here lays his honored head," say "Here lies his hon- 
 ored head." 
 
 Instead of "He died from negligence" say "He died thro ugh neglect," 
 
 or "in consequence of neglect." 
 
 Instead of "Apples are plenty," say "Apples are plentiful." 
 Instead of "The latter end of the year," say "The end, or the close of 
 
 the year." 
 
 Instead of "The then government," say "The government of that 
 
 age, or century, or year or time." 
 
 Instead of "A couple of chairs," say "Two chairs." 
 
 Instead of "They are united together in the bonds of matrimony," 
 
 say "They are united in matrimony," or "They are married." 
 Instead of "We travel slow" say "We travel slowly." 
 Instead of "He plunged down into the river," say "He plunged into 
 
 the river." 
 
 Instead of "He jumped from off of the scaffolding," say "He jumped 
 
 off the scaffolding." 
 
 Instead of "He came the last of all," say "He came last." 
 
 Instead of "universal," with reference to things that have any limit, 
 
 say "general;" "generally approved, " instead of "universally approved;" 
 
 "generally beloved," instead of "universally beloved." 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS t7S AND MISUSE. 61 
 
 Instead of "They ruined one another," say "They ruined each 
 other. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "If incase I succeed," say "If I succeed." 
 
 Instead of "A large enough room," say "A room large enough." 
 
 Instead of "I am slight in comparison to you," say "I am slight in 
 comparison with you." 
 
 Instead of "I went_/bf to see him," say "I went to see him." 
 
 Instead of "The cake is all eat up," say "The cake is all eaten." 
 
 Instead of "The book fell on the floor," say "The book fell to the 
 floor." 
 
 Instead of "His opinions are approved of by all," say "His opinions 
 are approved by all. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "I will add one more argument," say "I will add one ar- 
 gument more," or "another argument." 
 
 Instead of "He stands six foot high," say "He measures six feet," 
 or "His height is six feet." 
 
 Say "The first two," "and the last two," instead of "the two first" 
 "the two last." 
 
 Instead of "Except I am prevented," say "Unless I am prevented." 
 
 Instead of "It grieves meto.y<?<? you," say "I am grieved to see you." 
 
 Instead of "Give me them papers," say "Give me those papers." 
 
 Instead of "Those papers I hold in my hand," say "These papers I 
 hold in my hand." 
 
 Instead of "I could scarcely imagine but what" say "I could scarcely 
 imagine but that." 
 
 Instead of "He was a man notorious for his benevolence," say "He 
 was noted for his benevolence." 
 
 Instead of "She was a woman celebrated for her crimes," say "She 
 was notorious on account of her crimes." 
 
 Instead of "What may your name be?" say "What is your name?" 
 
 Instead of "I lifted it up," say "I lifted it.'" 
 
 Instead of "It is equally of the same value," say " It is of the same 
 value," or "equal value." 
 
 Instead of "I knew \i previous to your telling me," say "I knew it 
 previously to your telling me." 
 
 Instead of "You was out when I called," say "You were out when 
 I called." 
 
 Instead of "I thought I should have won this game," say "I thought 
 I should win this game." 
 
 Instead of "This much is certain," say, "Thus much is certain," or 
 "So much is certain." 
 
 Instead of "Put your watch in your pocket," say "Put your watch 
 into your pocket." 
 
 Instead of "He has got riches," say "He has riches." 
 
 Instead of "Will you set down ?" say "Will you sit down ?" 
 
 Instead of "No thankee " say "No, thank you." 
 
 Instead of "I cannot do it without farther means," say "I cannot do 
 it without further means." 
 
 Instead of "No sooner but" or "No other but" say "than." 
 
 Instead of "Nobody else but her," say "Nobody but her." 
 
 Instead of "He fell down from the balloon," say "He fell from the 
 balloon." 
 
 Instead of "He rose up from the ground," say "He rose from the 
 ground." 
 
62 MANUAL OP USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Instead of "These kind of oranges are not good," say "This kind of 
 
 oranges is not good." 
 
 Instead of "Somehow or another," say "Somehow or other." 
 Instead of " Will I give you some more tea?" say "Shall I give you 
 
 some more tea?" 
 
 Instead of "Oh, dear! what willl do?" say "What shall I do?" 
 
 Instead of "To be given away gratis,'" say "To be given away." 
 
 Instead of "Will you enter in?" say "Will you enter?" 
 
 Instead of ' ' This three days or more, ' ' say ' 'These three days or more. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "Heisabad^rawzwdTzaw," say "He is not a grammarian." 
 
 Instead of "We accuse him for," say "We accuse him of." 
 
 Instead of We acquit "hinifrom," say "We acquit him of." 
 
 Instead of "I am averse from that," say "I am averse to that." 
 
 Instead of "I confide on you," say "I confide in you." 
 
 Instead of "As soon as ever" say "As soon as." 
 
 Instead of "The very best," or "The very worst," say "The best, or 
 
 the worst." 
 
 Avoid such phrases as "No great shakes," "Nothing to boast of," 
 
 "Down in my boots," "Suffering from the blues." All such sentences 
 
 indicate vulgarity. 
 
 Instead of "No one hasn't called," say "No one has called." 
 Instead of "You have a right to pay me," say "It is right that you 
 
 should pay me." 
 
 Instead of "I am going over the bridge," say "I am going across the 
 
 bridge." 
 
 Instead of "I should just think I could," say "I think I can." 
 Instead of "There has been a good deal," say "There has been 
 
 much." 
 
 Instead of saying, "The effort you are makingy^ meeting the bill," 
 
 say "The effort you are making to meet the bill." 
 
 To say "Do not give him no more of your money," is equivalent to 
 
 saying "Give him some of your money." Say "Do not give him any of 
 
 your money." 
 
 Instead of saying "They are not what nature designed them," say 
 
 "They are not what nature designed them to be." 
 
 Instead of saying ' ' I had not the pleasure of hearing his senti- 
 
 jnents when I wrote the letter," say "I had not the pleasure of hav- 
 ing heard," etc. 
 
 Instead of "The quality of the apples were good," say "The quality 
 
 of the apples was good." 
 
 Instead of "The want of learning, courage and energy are more vis- 
 ible," say "Is more visible." 
 
 Instead of "We die/<?rwant," say "We die of want." 
 
 Instead of "He died by fever," say "He died of fever." 
 
 Instead of "I enjoy bad health," say "My health is not good." 
 
 Instead of "Either of the three," say "Any one of the three." 
 
 Instead of "Better nor that," say "Better than that." 
 
 Instead of "We often think on you," say "We often think of you." 
 
 Instead of "Mine is so good as yours," say "Mine is as good as 
 
 yours. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "This town is not as large as we thought, " say "This town 
 
 is not so large as we thought." 
 
 Instead of "ecausevf\\yl" say "Why?" 
 Instead of "That there boy," say "That boy." 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 63 
 
 Instead of " That horse is not much worth," say "The horse is not 
 worth much." 
 
 Instead of "The subject-matter of debate," say "The subject of de- 
 bate." 
 
 Instead of saying "When he was come back," say "When he had 
 come back." 
 
 Instead of saying "His health has been shook," say "His health has 
 been shaken.' 
 
 Instead of "It was spoke in my presence," say "It was spoken in my 
 presence." 
 
 Instead of "Very right," or " Very wrong," say "Right," or 
 "Wrong." 
 
 Instead of "The mortgageor paid him the money," say "The mort- 
 gagee paid him the money," the mortgagee lends; the mortgageor 
 borrows. ' ' 
 
 Instead of "I took you to be another person," say "I mistook you for 
 another person." 
 
 Instead of "On either side of the river," say "On each side of the 
 river." 
 
 Instead of "There's fifty," say "There are fifty." 
 
 Instead of "The best of the two," say "The better of the two." 
 
 Instead of "My clothes have become too snta I for me," say "I have 
 grown too stout for my clothes." 
 
 Instead of "Two spoonsful of physic," say "Two spoonfuls of 
 physic." 
 
 Instead of "She said, says she," say "She said." 
 
 Avoid such phrases as "I said, says I," "Thinks I to myself," etc. 
 
 Instead of "I don't think so," say "I think not." 
 
 Instead of "He was in eminent danger," say "He was in imminent 
 danger." 
 
 Instead of "The weather is hot, " say "The weather is very warm." 
 
 Instead of "I sweat," say "I perspire." 
 
 Instead of "I only want two dollars," say "I want only two dollars." 
 
 Instead of "Whatsomever," say "Whatever," or "Whatsoever." 
 
 Avoid such exclamations as "God bless me!" "God deliver me!" 
 "By Gosh !" "My Lord !" "Upon my soul !" etc., which are vulgar on 
 the one hand, and savor of impiety on the other, for "Thou shalt not 
 take the name of the Lord thy God in vain." 
 
 THE ART OF LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 A business letter should be clear, explicit and concise. 
 
 Figures should be written out, except dates; sums of money should 
 be both in writing and figures. 
 
 Copies of all business letters should be kept. 
 
 When you receive a letter containing money it should be immedi- 
 ately counted and the amount marked on the top margin. 
 
 Letters to a stranger about one's own personal affairs, requesting 
 answer, should always inclose a stamp. 
 
 Short sentences are preferable to long ones. 
 
 Letters requiring an answer should have prompt attention. 
 
 Never write a letter while under excitement or when in an unpleas- 
 ant humor. 
 
 Never write an anonymous letter. 
 
64 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Do not fill your letter with repetitions and apologies. 
 
 Avoid writing with a pencil. Use black ink. Blue or violet may be 
 used, but black is better. 
 
 In acknowledging receipt of a letter always mention date. 
 
 Note, packet or letter size should be used. It is unbusiness-like and 
 very poor taste to use foolscap or mere scraps. 
 
 If single sheets are used they should be carefully paged. Business 
 letters should be written on but one side of the sheet. 
 
 A letter sheet should be folded from bottom upward. Bring lower 
 edge near the top so as to make the length a trifle shorter than the enve- 
 lope, then fold twice the other way. The folded sheet should be just 
 slightly smaller than the envelope. 
 
 If note sheet, fold twice from bottom upward. If envelope is nearly 
 square, single fold of note sheet is sufficient. 
 
 Envelopes, like the paper, should be white, and of corresponding 
 size and quality. It is poor taste to use colored paper, or anything but 
 black ink. 
 
 The postage stamp should be placed at the upper right hand corner. 
 
 The address should be so plainly written that no possible mistake 
 could be made either in name or address. It is unnecessary to add the 
 letters P. O. after the name of the place. When the letter reaches the 
 town it is not likely to go to the court house or jail. Letters of introduc- 
 tion should bear upon envelope the name and address of the person to 
 whom sent, also the words in the lower left hand corner, "Introducing 
 Mr. . 
 
 PUNCTUATION AS IT SHOULD BE. 
 
 A period (.) after every declarative and every imperative sentence; as, 
 It is true. Do right. 
 
 A period after every abbreviation; as, Dr., Mr., Capt. 
 
 An interrogation point (?) after every question. 
 
 The exclamation point (!) after exclamations; as, Alas! Oh, how 
 lovely! 
 
 Quotation marks (" ") enclose quoted expressions; as, Socrates said: 
 "I believe the soul is immortal." 
 
 A colon (:)is used between parts of a sentence that are subdivided by 
 semicolons. 
 
 A colon is used before a quotation, enumeration, or observation, that 
 is introduced by as follows, the following, or any similar expression; as, 
 Send me the following: 10 doz. "Armstrong's Treasury." 
 
 A semicolon (;) between parts that are subdivided by commas. 
 
 The semicolon is used also between clauses or members that are dis- 
 connected in sense; as, Man grows old; he passes away; all is uncertain. 
 When as, namely, that is, is used to introduce an example or enumera- 
 tion, a semicolon is put before it and a comma after it; as, The night 
 was cold; that is, for the time of year. 
 
 A comma (,) is used to set off co-ordinate clauses, and subordinate 
 clauses not restrictive; as, Good deeds are never lost, though sometimes 
 forgotten. 
 
 A comma is used to set off transposed phrases and clauses; as, "When 
 the wicked entice thee, consent thou not. ' ' 
 
 A comma is used to set off interposed words, phrases and clauses; as, 
 Let us, if we can, make others happy. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 65 
 
 A comma is used between similar or repeated words or phrases; as, 
 The sky, the water, the trees, were illumined with sunlight. 
 
 A comma is used to mark an ellipsis, or the omission of a verb or 
 other important word. 
 
 A comma is used to set off a short quotation informally introduced; 
 as, Who said, ''The good die young"? 
 
 A comma is used whenever necessary to prevent ambiguity. 
 
 The marks of parenthesis ( ) are used to enclose an interpolation where 
 such interpolation is by the writer or speaker of the sentence in which it 
 occurs. Interpolations by an editor or by anyone other than the author 
 of the sentence, should be inclosed in brackets, [ ]. 
 
 Dashes ( ) may be used to set off a parenthetical expression, also to 
 denote an interruption or a sudden change of thought or a significant 
 pause. 
 
 THE USE OF CAPITALS. 
 
 1. Every entire sentence should begin with a capital. 
 
 2. Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should begin 
 with a capital. 
 
 3. All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital. 
 
 4. Official and honorary titles begin with a capital. 
 
 5. Every line of poetry should begin with a capital. 
 
 6. Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and divisions are 
 printed in capitals. 
 
 7. The pronoun I, and the exclamation, O, are always capitals. 
 
 8. The days of the week, and the months of the year, begin with 
 capitals. 
 
 9. Every quotation should begin with a capital letter. 
 
 10. Names of religious denominations begin with capitals. 
 
 11. In preparing accounts, each item should begin with a capital. 
 
 12. Any word of special importance may begin with a capital. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF VOLAPUK. 
 
 Numerous efforts have been made for two centuries past to found a 
 universal language, but these have all seemed to lack some important 
 particular of success. The most recent attempt in this line is much more 
 promising than any which has preceded it. Volapuk is the invention of 
 the Rev. Dr. Johan Martin Schleyer, of Baden, Germany, an accom- 
 plished linguistic student. He can speak and write, it is said, twenty- 
 eight languages. He had been working upon his universal language 
 scheme for some time when in 1879 he announced it, and he had so far 
 perfected the plan of it in 1880 as to publish a pamphlet concerning it. 
 The name is from vola, of the world, and puk, language. It is founded 
 on the model of the Aryan tongues, the signs representing letters and 
 words, not ideas; and all the root words, or nearly all, are taken from 
 living modern tongues, the English being used to a much greater extent 
 than any other language. The Roman alphabet is used, with some Ger- 
 man dotted letters, and the continental sounds are given to all letters. 
 All words are phonetically spelled. The Arabic numerals are used, and 
 the names of the numbers are indicated by the use of the vowels in reg- 
 ular order. All plurals are formed in "s." All verbs are regular, and 
 there is only one conjugation. Tenses are shown by vowels before the 
 verbs; preceding these vowels by "p" gives the passive voice. The per- 
 
 U. I.- 
 
MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TION. 
 
 sonal pronoun placed after the root shows the person. One advantage 
 of this language is that it can be learned very quickly. It is estimated 
 that over 10,000 persons in Europe have mastered it, and it has been tried 
 to some extent in this country also. If it could be adopted in commer- 
 cial transactions between nations speaking different languages it would, 
 no doubt, prove a very great advantage as well as an economy. 
 
 THE MEANING OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 To trace the origin of names is always a pleasing and interesting 
 task. We have prepared for our readers the subjoined list of Christian 
 or first names of men and women: 
 
 CHRISTIAN NAMES OF MEN. 
 
 Aaron, Hebrew, a mountain, a loft. 
 
 Abel, Hebrew, vanity. 
 
 Abraham, Hebrew, the father of many. 
 
 Absalom, Hebrew, the father of peace. 
 
 Adam, Hebrew, red earth. 
 
 Adolphus, Saxon, happiness and help. 
 
 Adrian, Latin, one who helps. 
 
 Alan, Celtic, harmony; or Slavonic, a 
 
 hound. 
 
 Albert, Saxon, all bright. 
 Alexander, Greek, a helper of men. 
 Alfred, Saxon, all peace. 
 Alonzo, form of Alphonso, q. v. 
 Alphonso, German, ready or willing. 
 Ambrose, Greek, immortal. 
 Amos, Hebrew, a burden. 
 Andrew, Greek, courageous. 
 Anthony, Latin, flourishing. 
 Archibald, German, a bold observer. 
 Arnold, German, a maintainer of honor. 
 Arthur, British, a strong man. 
 
 ASfSSS \*"tin, venerable, grand. 
 Baldwin, German, a bold winner. 
 Bardulph, German, a famous helper. 
 Barnaby, Hebrew, a prophet's son. 
 Bartholomew, Hebrew, the son of him who 
 
 made the waters to rise. 
 Beaumont, French, a pretty mount. 
 Bede, Saxon, prayer. 
 
 Benjamin, Hebrew,ihQ son of a right hand. 
 Beuuet, Latin, blessed. 
 Bernard, German, bear's heart. 
 Bertram, German, fair, illustrious. 
 Bertrand, German, bright raven. 
 Boniface, Latin, a well doer. 
 Brian, French, having a thundering voice. 
 Cadwallader, British, valiant in war. 
 Caesar, Latin, adorned with hair. 
 Caleb, Hebrew, a dog. 
 Cecil, Latin, dim-sighted. 
 Charles, German, noble-spirited. 
 Christopher, Greek, bearing Christ. 
 Clement, Latin, mild tempered. 
 Conrad, German, able counsel. 
 Constantine, Latin, resolute. 
 Cornelius, Latin, meaning uncertain. 
 Crispin, Latin, having curled locks. 
 Cuthbert, Saxon, known famously. 
 Dan, Hebrew, judgment. 
 Daniel, Hebrew, God is judge. 
 David, Hebrew, well-beloved. 
 Denis, Greek, belonging to the God of 
 
 wine. 
 
 Douglas, Gaelic, dark gray. 
 
 Duncan, Saxon, brown chief. 
 
 Dunstan, Saxon, most high. 
 
 Edgar, Saxon, happy honor. 
 
 Edmund, Saxon, happy peace. 
 
 Edward, Saxon, happy keeper. 
 
 Edwin, Saxon, happy conqueror. 
 
 Egbert, Saxon, ever bright. 
 
 Elijah, Hebrew, God the Lord. 
 
 Elisha, Hebrew, the salvation of God. 
 
 Emmanuel, Hebrew, God with us. 
 
 Enoch, Hebrew, dedicated. 
 
 Ephraim, Hebrew, fruitful. 
 
 Erasmus, Greek, lovely, worthy to be 
 
 loved. 
 
 Ernest, Greek, earnest, serious. 
 Esau, Hebrew, hairy. 
 Eugene, Greek, noble, descended. 
 Eustace, Greek, standing firm. 
 Evan or Ivan, British, the same as John.. 
 Everard, German, well reported. 
 Ezekiel, Hebrew, the strength of God. 
 Felix, Latin, happy. 
 Ferdinand, German, pure peace. 
 Fergus, Saxon, manly strength. 
 Francis, German, free. 
 Frederic, German, rich peace. 
 Gabriel, Hebrew, the strength of God. 
 Goeffrey, German, joyful. 
 George, Greek, a husbandman. 
 Gerard, Saxon, strong with a spear. 
 Gideon, Hebrew, a breaker. 
 Gilbert, Saxon, bright as gold. 
 Giles, Greek, a little goat. 
 Godard, German, a godly disposition. 
 Godfrey, German, God's peace. 
 Godwin, German, victorious in God. 
 Griffith, British, having great faith. 
 Guy, French, a leader. 
 Hannibal, Punic, a gracious lord. 
 Harold, Saxon, a champion. 
 Hector, Greek, a stout defender. 
 Henry, German, a rich lord. 
 Herbert, German, a bright lord. 
 Hercules, Greek, the glory of Hera or Juno. 
 Hezekiah, Hebrew, cleaving to the I,ord. 
 Horace, Latin, meaning uncertain. 
 Horatio, Italian, worthy to be beheld. 
 Howell, British, sound or whole. 
 Hubert, German, a bright color. 
 Hugh, Dutch, high, lofty. 
 Humphrey, German, domestic peace. 
 Ignatius, Latin, fierv. 
 Ingram, German, of angelic purity. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 Isaac, Hebrew, laughter. 
 
 Jabez, Hebrew, one who causes pain. 
 
 Jacob, Hebrew, a supplanter. 
 
 James or Jacques, beguiling. 
 
 Joab, Hebrew, Fatherhood. 
 
 Job, Hebrew, sorrowing. 
 
 Toel, Hebrew, acquiescing. 
 
 ohn, Hebrew, the grace of the Lord. 
 
 onah, Htbrew, a dove. 
 
 onathan, Hebrew, the gift of the Lord. 
 
 oscelin, German, just. 
 
 oseph, Hebrew, addition. 
 
 oshua, Hebrew, a Savior. 
 
 osiah or Josias, Hebrew, the fire of the 
 Lord. 
 
 Julius, Latin, soft hair. 
 Lambert, Saxon, a fair lamb. 
 Lancelot, Spanish, a little lance. 
 Laurence, Latin, crowned with laurels. 
 Lazarus, Hebrew, destitute of help. 
 Leonard, German, like a lion. 
 Leopold, German, defending the people. 
 Lewis or Louis, French, the defender oi 
 
 the people. 
 
 Lionel, Latin, a little lion. 
 Llewellin, British, like a lion. 
 Llewellyn, Celtic, lightning. 
 Lucius, Latin, shining. 
 Luke, Greek, a wood or grove. 
 Manfred, German, great peace. 
 Mark, Latin, a hammer. 
 Martin, Latin, martial. 
 Matthew, Hebrew, a gift or present. 
 Maurice, Latin, sprung of a Moor. 
 Meredith, British, the roaring of the sea. 
 Michael, Hebrew, Who is like God ? 
 Morgan, British, a mariner. 
 Moses, Hebrew, drawn out. 
 Nathaniel, Hebrew, the gift of God. 
 Neal, French, somewhat black. 
 Nicholas, Greek, victorious over the people. 
 Noel, French, belonging to one's nativity. 
 Norman, French, one born in Normandy. 
 Obadiah, Hebrew, the servant of the Lord. 
 Oliver, Latin, an olive. 
 Orlando, Italian, counsel for the land. 
 Orson, Latin, a bear. 
 Osmund, Saxon, house peace. 
 Oswald, Saxon, ruler ofa house. 
 Owen, British, well descended. 
 Patrick, Latin, a nobleman. 
 Paul, Latin, small, little. 
 Paulinus, Latin, little Paul. 
 
 Percival, French, a place in France. 
 "Percy, English, adaptation of "pierce eye." 
 Peregrine, Latin, outlandish. 
 Peter, Greek, a rock or stone. 
 Philip, Greek, a lover of horses. 
 Phineas, Hebrew, of bold countenance. 
 Ralph, contracted from Randolph, or 
 Randal, or Ranulph, Saxon, pure help. 
 Raymond, German, quiet peace. 
 Reuben, Hebrew, the son of vision. 
 Reynold, German, a lover of purity. 
 Richard, Saxon, powerful. 
 Robert, German, famous in counsel. 
 Roderick, German, rich in fame. 
 Roger, German, strong counsel. 
 Roland or Rowland, German, counsel for 
 
 the land. 
 
 Rollo, form of Roland, q. v. 
 Rufus, Latin, reddish. 
 Samson, Hebrew, a little son. 
 Samuel, Hebrew, heard by God. 
 Saul, Hebrew, desired. 
 Sebastian, Greek, to be reverenced. 
 Seth, Hebrew, appointed. 
 Silas, Latin, sylvan or living in the woods. 
 Simeon, Hebrew, hearing. 
 Simon, Hebrew, obedient. 
 Solomon, Hebrew, peaceable. 
 Stephen, Greek, a crown or garland. 
 Swithin, Saxon, very high. 
 Theobald, Saxon, bold over the people. 
 Theodore, Greek, the gift of God. 
 Theodosius, Greek, given of God. 
 Theophilus, Greek, a lover of God. 
 Thomas, Hebrew, a twin. 
 Timothy, Greek, a fearer of God. 
 Titus, Greek, meaning uncertain. 
 Toby, or Tobias, Hebrew, the goodness of 
 
 the Lord. 
 
 Valentine, Latin, powerful. 
 Victor, Latin, conqueror. 
 Vincent, Latin, conquering. 
 Vivian, Latin, living. 
 Walter, German, a conqueror. 
 Walwin, German, a conqueror. 
 Wilfred, Saxon, bold and peaceful. 
 William, German, defending many. 
 Zaccheus, Syriac, innocent. 
 Zachary, Hebrew, remembering the Lord. 
 Zachariah, Hebrew, remembered of the 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Zebedee, Syriac, having an inheritance. 
 Zedekiah, Hebrew, the justice of the Lord- 
 
 CHRISTIAN NAMES OF WOMEN. 
 
 Ada, German, same as Edith, q. v. 
 
 Adela, German, same as Adeline, q. -v. 
 
 Adelaide, German, same as Adeline, ,q. v. 
 
 Adeline, German, a princess. 
 
 Agatha, Greek, good. 
 
 Agnes, German, chaste. 
 
 Alethea, Greek, the truth. 
 
 Althea, Greek, hunting. 
 
 Alice, Alicia, German, noble. 
 
 Alma, Latin, benignant. 
 
 Amabel, Latin, lovable. 
 
 Amy, Amelia, French, a beloved. 
 
 Angelina, Greek, lovely, angelic. 
 
 Anna, or Anne, Hebrew, gracious. 
 
 Arabella, Latin, a fair altar. 
 
 Aureola, Latin, like gold. 
 
 Aurora, Latin, morning brightness. 
 
 Barbara, Latin, foreign or strange' 
 
 Beatrice, Latin, making happy. 
 
 Bella, Italian, beautiful. 
 
 Benedicta, Latin, blessed. 
 
 Bernice, Greek, bringing victory. 
 
 Bertha, Greek, bright or famous. 
 
 Bessie, short form of Elizabeth, q. v. 
 
 Blanch, French, fair. 
 
 Bona, Latin, good. 
 
 Bridget, Irish, shining bright 
 
 Camilla, Latin, attendant at a sacrifice. 
 
 Carlotta, Italian, same as Charlotte, q. v. 
 
 Caroline, feminine o/Carolus, the Latin of 
 
 Charles, noble spirited. 
 Cassandra, Greek, a reformer of men. 
 
68 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION, 
 
 Catherine, Greek, pure or clean. 
 
 Cecilia, Latin, from Cecil. 
 
 Cecily, a corruption of Cecilia, q. v. 
 
 Chanty, Greek, love, bounty. 
 
 Charlotte, French, all noble. 
 
 Chloe, Greek, a green herb. 
 
 Christiana, Greek, belonging to Christ. 
 
 Clara, Latin, clear or bright. 
 
 Clarissa, Latin, clear or bright. 
 
 Constance, Latin, constant. 
 
 Dagmar, German, joy of the Danes. 
 
 Deborah, Hebrew, a bee. 
 
 Diana, Greek, Jupiter's daughter. 
 
 Dorcas, Greek, a wild rose. 
 
 Dorothea or Dorothy, Greek, the gift of 
 
 God. 
 
 Edith, Saxon, happiness. 
 Eleanor, Saxon, all fruitful. 
 Eliza, Elizabeth, Hebrew, the oath of God. 
 Ellen, another form 0/Helen, q. v. 
 Emily, corrupted from Amelia. 
 Emma, German, a nurse. 
 Esther, Hesther, Hebrew, secret. 
 Eudoia, Greek, prospering in the way. 
 Eudora, Greek, good gift. 
 Eudosia, Greek, good gift or well-given. 
 Eugenia, French, well-born. 
 Eunice, Greek, fair victory. 
 Eva, or Eve, Hebrew, causing life. 
 Fanny, diminutive of Frances, q. v. 
 Fenella, Greek, bright to look on. 
 Flora, Latin, flowers. 
 Florence, Latin, blooming, flourishing. 
 Frances, German, free. 
 Gertrude, German, all truth. 
 Grace, Latin, favor. 
 Hagar, Hebrew, a stranger. 
 Hadassah, Hebrew, form o/Esther, q. v. 
 Hannah, Hebrew, gracious. 
 Harriet, German, head of the house. 
 Helen, or Helena, Greek, alluring. 
 Henrietta, fern, and dim. of Henry, q. v. 
 Hephzibah, Hebrew, my delight is in her. 
 Hilda, German, warrior maiden. 
 Honora, Latin, honorable. 
 Huldah, Hebrew, a weazel. 
 Isabella, Spanish, fair Eliza. 
 Jane, or Jeanne, fern. of John, q. v. 
 Janet, Jeanette, little Jane. 
 Jemima, Hebrew, a dove. 
 Joan, Hebrew, fern, of John, q. v. 
 Joanna, or Johanna, form o/Joan, q. v. 
 Joyce, French, pleasant. 
 Judith, Hebrew, praising. 
 Julia, Juliana, feminine oj Julius, q. v. 
 Katherine,ybrw of Catherine, q. v. 
 Keturah, Hebrew, incense. 
 Kezsiah, Hebrew, cassia. 
 Laura, Latin, a laurel. 
 Lavinia, Latin, of Latium. 
 Letitia, Latin, joy or gladness. 
 Lilian, Lily, Latin, a lily. 
 Lois, Greek, better. 
 Louisa, German, fem. of Louis, q. v. 
 Lucretia, Latin, a chaste Roman lady. 
 
 Lucy, Latin, feminine of Lucius. 
 
 Lydia, Greek, descended from Lud. 
 
 Mabel, Latin, lovely or lovable. 
 
 Madeline, form of Magdalen, q. v. 
 
 Magdalen, Syriac, magnificent. 
 
 Margaret, Greek, a pearl. 
 
 Maria, Marie, form s of Mary, q. v. 
 
 Martha, Hebrew, bitterness. 
 
 Mary, Hebrew, bitter. 
 
 Matilda, German, a lady of honor. 
 
 Maud, German form of Matilda, q. v. 
 
 May, Latin, month of May, or dim, cf 
 
 Mary, q. v. 
 
 Mercy, English, compassion. 
 Mildred, Saxon, speaking mild. 
 Minnie, dim. of Margaret, q. v. 
 Naomi, Hebrew, alluring. 
 Nest, British, the same as Agnes. 
 Nicola, Greek, feminine 0/Nichclas. 
 Olive, Olivia, Latin, an olive. 
 Olympia, Greek, heavenly. 
 Ophelia, Greek, a serpent. 
 Parnell, or Petronilla, little Peter. 
 Patience, Latin, bearing patiently. 
 Paulina, Latin, feminine of Pauliuus. 
 Penelope, Greek, a weaver. 
 Persis, Greek, destroying. 
 Philadelphia, Greek, brotherly love. 
 Philippa, Greek, feminine of Philip. 
 Phoebe, Greek, the light of life. 
 Phyllis, Greek, a green bough. 
 Polly, variation of Molly, dim. of Ma.~y, q. v. 
 Priscilla, Latin, somewhat old. 
 Prudence, Latin, discretion. 
 Pysche, Greek, the soul. 
 Rachel, Hebrew, a lamb. 
 Rebecca, Hebrew, fat or plump. 
 Rhoda, Greek, a rose. 
 Rosa, or Rose, Latin, a rose. 
 Rosalie, or Rosaline, Latin, little Rose. 
 Rosalind, Latin, beautiful as a rose. 
 Rosabella, Italian, a fair rose. 
 Rosamond, Saxon, Rose of peace. 
 Roxana, Persian, dawn of day. 
 Ruth, Hebrew, trembling, or beauty. 
 Sabina, Latin, sprung from the Sabines. 
 Salome, Hebrew, perfect. 
 Sapphira, Greek, like a sapphire stone. 
 Sarah, Hebrew, a princess. 
 Selina, Greek, the moon. 
 Sibylla, Greek, the counsel of God. 
 Sophia, Greek, wisdom. 
 Sophronia, Greek, of a sound mind 
 Susan, Susanna, Hebrew, a lily. 
 Tabitha, Syriac, a roe. 
 Temperance, Latin, moderation 
 Theodosia, Greek, given by God 
 Tryphena, Greek, delicate. 
 Tryphosa, Greek, delicious. 
 Victoria, Latin, victory. 
 Vida, Erse, feminine of David. 
 Ursula, Latin, a she bear. 
 Walburga, Saxon, gracious. 
 Winifred, Saxon, winning peace 
 Zenobia, Greek, life from Jupitei 
 
 A PUABLE LANGUAGE. 
 
 trated 
 
 The flexibility of the English language is in no way better illus- 
 ed than by the use made of it by sportsmen in designating particular 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 69 
 
 groups of animals. The following is a list of the terms which have 
 been applied to the various classes: 
 
 A covey of patridges. 
 
 A nide of pheasants. 
 
 A wisp of snipe. 
 
 A flight of doves or swallows. 
 
 A muster of peacocks. 
 
 A siege of herons. 
 
 A building of rooks. 
 
 A brood of grouse. 
 
 A plump of wild fowl. 
 
 A stand of plovers. 
 
 A watch of nightingales. 
 
 A clattering of cloughs. 
 
 A flock of geese. 
 
 A herd or bunch of cattle. 
 
 A bevy of quails. 
 
 A. cast of hawks. 
 Atripofdottrell. 
 A swarm of bees. 
 A school of whales. 
 A shoal of herrings. 
 A herd of swine. 
 A skulk of foxes. 
 A pack of wolves. 
 A drove of oxen. 
 A sounder of hogs. 
 A troop of monkeys. 
 A pride of lions. 
 A sleuth of bears. 
 A gang of elk. 
 
 GUIDE TO CORRECT PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Accent is a particular stress or force of the voice upon certain sylla- 
 bles or words. This mark ' in printing denotes the syllable upon which 
 the stress or force of the voice should be placed. 
 
 A word may have more than one accent. Take as an instance aspira- 
 tion. In uttering this word we give a marked emphasis of the voice 
 upon the first and third syllables, and therefore those syllables are said 
 to be accented. The first of these accents is less distinguishable than the 
 second, upon which we dwell longer, therefore the second accent in point 
 of order is called the primary, or chief accent of the word. 
 
 When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel should have a long 
 sound, as in vo'cal; but when it falls on or after a consonant, the preced- 
 ing vowel has a short sound, as in hab'it. 
 
 To obtain a good knowledge of pronunciation, it is advisable for the 
 reader to listen to the examples given by good speakers, and by educated 
 persons. We learn the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by 
 imitation, just as birds acquire the notes of other birds which may be 
 near them. 
 
 But it will be very important to bear in mind that there are many 
 words having a double meaning or application, and that the difference of 
 meaning is indicated by the difference of the accent. Among these 
 words, nouns are distinguished from verbs by this means: nouns are 
 mostly accented on the first syllable, and verbs on the last. 
 
 Noun signifies name: nouns are the names of persons and things, as 
 well as of things not material and palpable, but of which we have a con- 
 ception and knowledge, such as courage, firmness, goodness, strength; 
 and verbs express actions, movements, etc. If the word used signifies 
 that anything has been done, or is being done, or is, or is to be done, 
 then that word is a verb. 
 
 Thus when we say that anything is "an in'sult," that word is a noun, 
 and is accented on the first syllable; but when we say he did it "to insult 
 another person," the word insult 7 implies acting and becomes a verb, 
 and should be accented on the last syllable. 
 
 A list of nearly all the words that are liable to similar variation is 
 given here. It will be noticed that those in the first column, having the 
 accent on the first syllable, are mostly nouns; and that those in the 
 second column, which have the accent on the second and final syllable, 
 are mostly verbs: 
 
MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Noun, etc. 
 
 Verb, etc. 
 
 Noun, etc. 
 
 Verb, etc. 
 
 Noun, etc. 
 
 Verb, etc. 
 
 Ab'ject 
 
 abject' 
 
 Con'trast 
 
 contrast' 
 
 In'lay 
 
 inlay' 
 
 Ab'sent 
 
 absent' 
 
 Con'verse 
 
 converse' 
 
 In'su t 
 
 insult' 
 
 Ab'-trac 
 
 abstract' 
 
 Con vert 
 
 convert' 
 
 Ob'ject 
 
 object' 
 
 Ac'cent 
 
 accent' 
 
 Con'vict 
 
 convict' 
 
 Out leap 
 
 outleap' 
 
 Affix 
 
 affix' 
 
 Con'voy 
 
 convoy' 
 
 Per feet per f 
 
 ct or perfect 
 
 As'pect 
 
 aspect' 
 
 De'crease 
 
 decrease' 
 
 Per'fume 
 
 perfume' 
 
 At'tribute 
 
 attrib'ute 
 
 Des'cant 
 
 descant' 
 
 Per mit 
 
 permit' 
 
 Aug'ment 
 
 augment' 
 
 i>es'ert 
 
 desert' 
 
 Prefix 
 
 prefix' 
 
 Au'gust 
 
 august' 
 
 De'tail 
 
 detail' 
 
 Prem'ise 
 
 premise' 
 
 Bom'bard 
 
 bombard' 
 
 L4'gest 
 
 digest' 
 
 Pres age 
 
 presage' 
 
 Col'league 
 
 colleague' 
 
 Dis'cord 
 
 discord' 
 
 Pres'ent 
 
 present' 
 
 Collect 
 
 collect' 
 
 Dis'count 
 
 discount' 
 
 Prod'uce 
 
 produce 
 
 Com'ment 
 
 comment' 
 
 Efflux 
 
 efflux' 
 
 Proj'ect 
 
 project' 
 
 Com 'pact 
 
 compact' 
 
 Es'cort 
 
 escort' 
 
 Protest 
 
 protest' 
 
 Com'plot 
 
 complot' 
 
 Es say 
 
 essay' 
 
 Reb'el 
 
 rebel' 
 
 Com'port 
 
 comport' 
 
 Ex'ile 
 
 exile' 
 
 . Rec ord 
 
 record 
 
 Com'pound 
 
 compound' 
 
 Ex'port 
 
 export' 
 
 Refuse 
 
 refuse' 
 
 Com'press 
 
 compress' 
 
 Extract 
 
 extract' 
 
 Re'tail 
 
 retail' 
 
 Con'cert 
 
 concert' 
 
 Fer'ment 
 
 ferment' 
 
 Sub'ject 
 
 subject' 
 
 Con'crete 
 
 concrete 7 
 
 Fore'cast 
 
 forecast' 
 
 Su'pine 
 
 supine' 
 
 Con 'duct 
 
 conduct' 
 
 Fore 'taste 
 
 f >rt taste' 
 
 Sur'vey 
 
 survey' 
 
 Con'fine 
 
 confine' 
 
 Fre quent 
 
 frequent' 
 
 Tor'ment 
 
 torment' 
 
 Conflict 
 
 conflict' 
 
 Im'part 
 
 impart' 
 
 Tra'j ct 
 
 traject' 
 
 Con'serve 
 
 conserve' 
 
 Im'port 
 
 import' 
 
 Trans fer 
 
 transfer' 
 
 Con'sort 
 
 consort' 
 
 Im'press 
 
 impress' 
 
 Trans'port 
 
 transport' 
 
 Con 'test 
 
 contest' 
 
 I m print 
 
 imprint' 
 
 Un'dress 
 
 undress' 
 
 Con 'text 
 
 context' 
 
 In 'cense 
 
 incense' 
 
 Upcast 
 
 upcast' 
 
 Con 'tract 
 
 contract 
 
 In'crease 
 
 increase' 
 
 Up'start 
 
 upstart' 
 
 RULES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 C before a, o, and u, and in some other situations, is a close articula- 
 tion, like k. Before e, i, and y, c is precisely equivalent to s in same, 
 this; as in cedar, civil, cypress, capacity. 
 
 E final indicates that the preceding vowel is long ; as in hate, mete, 
 sire, robe, lyre, abate, recede, invite, remote, intrude. 
 
 B final indicates that c preceding has the sound of s; as in lace, lance; 
 and that g preceding has the sound of/, as in charge, page, challenge. 
 
 E final in proper English words, never forms a syllable, and in the 
 most used words, in the terminating unaccented syllable it is silent. 
 Thus, motive, genuine, examine, granite, are pronounced motiv,genuin. 
 examin, granit. 
 
 E final in a few words of foreign origin, forms a syllable ; as syncope s 
 simile. 
 
 E final is silent after / in the following terminations, ble, cle, die, 
 fle, gle, kle, pie, tie, zle; as in able, manacle, cradle, ruffle, mangle, 
 wrinkle, supple, rattle, puzzle, which are pronounced ab'l, mana'cle^ 
 cra'dl, ruf'fl, man'gl, wrin'kl, sup' pi, puz'zl. 
 
 E is usually silent in the termination en; as in token, broken; pro- 
 nounced tokn, brokn. 
 
 OUS in the termination of adjectives and their derivatives is pro- 
 nounced us; as in gracious, pious, pompously. 
 
 CE, CI, TI, before a vowel, have the sound of sh; as in cetaceous, 
 gracious, motion, partial, ingratiate: pronounced cetashus, grashus, 
 moshun, parshal, ingrashiate. 
 
 SI, after an accented vowel, is pronounced like zh; as in Ephesian, 
 confusion; pronounced Epezhan, confuzhon. 
 
 GH, both in the middle and at the end of words is silent ; as in caught, 
 bought, fright, nigh, sigh: prounced caut, baut, frite, ni, si. In the 
 
 following exceptions, however, gh is pronounced as// cough, chough, 
 dough, enough, laugh, rough, slough, 
 
 tough, trough. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 71 
 
 When WH begins a word, the aspirate h precedes TV in pronuncia- 
 tion: as in what, whiff, whale; pronounced hwat, hwiff, hwale, w hav- 
 ing precisely the sound of oo, French ou. In the following words w is 
 silent: who, whom, whose, whoop, whole. 
 
 H after r has no sound or use; as in rheum, rhyme; pronounced rcum, 
 ryme. 
 
 H should be sounded in the middle of words; as in forehead, ab/?or, 
 behold, exhaust, inhabit, un//orse. 
 
 H should always be sounded except in the following words; heir, 
 herb, honest, honor, hour, humor, and humble, and all their derivatives, 
 ^ such as humorously, derived from humor. 
 
 K and G are silent before n; as know, gnaw; pronounced no, naw 
 
 W before r is silent; as in wring, wreath: pronounced ring, reath. 
 
 B after m is silent; as in dumb, numb; pronounced dum, num. 
 
 L before k is silent as in balk, walk, talk; pronounced bauk, wank, 
 tauk. 
 
 PH has the sound of/; as in philosophy; pronounced filosofy. 
 
 NG has two sounds, one as in singer, the other as \njin-ger. 
 
 N after m, and closing a syllable, is silent; as in hymn, condemn. 
 
 P before ^ and / is mute; as va. psalm, pseudo, ptarmigan; pronounced 
 salm, sudo, tarmigan. 
 
 R has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the beginning of 
 Words and syllables, such as robber, reckon, error; the other is at the 
 terminations of the words, or when succeeded by a consonant, as farmer, 
 morn. 
 
 There are other rules of pronunciation affecting the combinations 
 of vowels, etc., but as they are more difficult to describe, and as they do 
 not relate to errors which are commonly prevalent, it will suffice to give 
 examples of them in the following list of words. When a syllable in any 
 word in this list is printed in italics, accent or stress of voice should be 
 laid on that syllable. 
 
 COMMON ERRORS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Again, usually pronounced a-gen, not as Chaos, ka-oss. 
 
 spelled. Charlatan, .s/zar-latan. 
 
 Alien, ale-yen, not a-li-en. Chasm, kazm. 
 
 Antipodes, an-/fz>o-dees. Chasten, chasn. 
 
 Apostle, as a-pos'l, without the t. Chivalry, sfriv-alry. 
 
 Arch, artch in compounds of our own Ian- Cheniistry, keni-ts-try. 
 
 guage, as in archbishop, archduke; but Choir, kwire. 
 
 ark in words derived from the Greek, as Combat, kom-bai or knm-bat. 
 
 archaic, ar-^a-ik; archaeology, ar-ke-o/-o- Conduit, kon-dit. kun-dit. 
 
 gy, archangel, ark-az'w-gel; archetype, Corps, kor, the plural corps is pronounced 
 
 ar-ke-type; archiepiscopal, ar-ke-e-//j- korz. 
 
 co-pal; archipelago, ar-ke-/>/-a-go; ar- Covetous, cuv-e-lus, not cuv-e-chus. 
 
 chives, ar-kivz, etc. Courteous, curt-yus. 
 
 Asia, a-shia. Courtesy, (politeness), cwr-te-sey. 
 
 Asparagus, as spelled, not asparagrass. Courtesy (a lowering of the body), curt-sey 
 
 Aunt, ant, not azemt. Cresses, as spelled, not cr^-ses. 
 
 Awkward, awk-wurd, not aw'k.-urd. Cu'riosity, cu-re-os-e-ty, not curority. 
 
 Bade, bad. Cushion, coosh-un, not coosh-z'w. 
 
 Because, be-cazus, not be-cos. Daunt, dazt/nt, not dant or darnt. 
 
 Been, bin. Design and desist have the sound of 5, not 
 Beloved, as a verb, be-luvd; as an adjective of z. 
 
 be-luv-ed. Blessed, cursed, etc., are sub- Desire should have the sound of z. 
 
 ject to the same rule. Dew, due, not doo. 
 
 Beneath, with the th in breath, not with Diamond, as spelled, not rfz'-mond. 
 
 the th in breathe. Diploma, de-/>/o-ma, not dip-lo-ma. 
 
 Biog'raphy, as spelled, not beography. Diplomacy, de-/>/o-ma-cy, not rf/^-lo-ma-cy. 
 
 Caprice, capree^e. Divers (several), rfz-verz; but diverse (dif- 
 Catch, as spelled, not ketch. ferent), rfz'-verse. 
 
72 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Drought, drowt, not drawt. 
 
 Duke, as spelled, not dook. 
 
 Dynasty, rfjy-nas-ty, not rfjv 
 
 Edict, e-dickt, not ^rf-ickt. 
 
 E'en, and e'er, een and air. 
 
 Egotism, ^-go-tism, not ^-o-tism. 
 
 Either, ether. 
 
 Engine, en-jin, not m-jin. 
 
 Epistle, without the /. 
 
 Epitome, e-^z/'-o-me. 
 
 Epoch, ep-ock., not e-pock.. 
 
 Equinox, equi-nox, not ^-kwe-nox. 
 
 Europe, /-rup, not t/-rope. 
 
 European, not Eu-ro-pean. 
 
 Every, ^-er-y, not ev-ry. 
 
 Executor, egz-<?-utor, not with the sound 
 
 of.*-. 
 Extraordinary, ex-^ror-di-ner-i, not ex- 
 
 traordinary, nor extrornary. 
 February, as spelled, not Febuary. 
 Finance, ^?-nans, noty?-nance. 
 Foundling, as spelled, notybwrf-ling. 
 Garden, gar-An, not gar-den, nor garding. 
 Gauntlet, gawnt-let, not^awMet. 
 Geography, as spelled, not jography, or 
 
 eograpy 
 
 gehography. 
 
 eometry, 
 
 Geometry, as spelled, not/o/w-etry. 
 
 Haunt, hawnt, not hant. 
 
 Height, hite, not highth. 
 
 Heinous, Jiay-nus, not hee-nus. 
 
 Horizon, ho-ri-zn, not hor-'\ zon. 
 
 Hymeneal, hy-men-<?-al, not hy-menal. 
 
 Instead, in-sted, not instid. 
 
 Isolate, z-so-late, not z>-olate, nor zs-olate. 
 
 Jalap, jal-ap, notjolup. 
 
 January, as spelled, not Jenuary nor 
 
 Janewary. 
 
 Leave, as spelled, not leaf. 
 I,egend, lej-end, or fe-gend. 
 Many, men-ney, not man-ny. 
 Marchioness, zar-shun-ess, not as spelled. 
 Massacre, waj-sa-ker. 
 Mattress, as spelled, not wzaMrass. 
 Matron, wa-trun, not mat-ron. 
 Medicine, med-e-cin, not med-cin. 
 Minute (sixty seconds), min-it. 
 Minute (small), mi-nute. 
 Mischievous, ww-chiv-us, not mis-cA^z'-us. 
 Ne'er, for never, nare. 
 New, nu, not noo. 
 Oblige, as spelled, not obleege. 
 Oblique. ob-leek, or o-blike. 
 Odorous, o-der-us, not <?rf-ur-us. 
 
 when compounded with 
 
 Ostrich, ctf-trich, not o^-tridge. 
 
 Pageant, poj-ent, not/>a-jaut. 
 
 Parent, pare-ent, notpar-ent. 
 
 Partisan, par-te-zan, not par-te-^aw, nor 
 
 ^ar-ti-zan. 
 Physiognomy, asjiz-i-og-nomy, not physi- 
 
 onnomy. 
 
 Pincers, />m-cerz, not pinch-erz. 
 Plaintiff, as spelled, not plantiff. 
 Precedent (an example, pres-e-deui\ pre- 
 
 cedent (going before in point of time, 
 
 previous, former) is the pronunciation of 
 
 the adjective. 
 
 Prologue, pro-log, noiprol-og. 
 Radish, as spelled, not red-ish. 
 Raillery, raz7'er-y, or ral-er-y, not as 
 
 spelled. 
 
 Rather, ra-ther, not rayther. 
 Resort, re-zort. 
 Resound, se-zound. 
 Respite, res-pit, not as spelled. 
 Rout (a party; and to rout) should be pro- 
 
 nounced rowt. Route (a roacT, root or 
 
 rowt. 
 
 Saunter, sawn-ter, not sarn-ter or sa-ter. 
 Sausage, jaw-sage, not .sw-sidge, .raj-sage. 
 Schedule, sked-u\e, not shed-z/fe. 
 Seamstress is pronounced seem-stre&s, or 
 
 Shire, as spelled, when uttered as a single 
 word, but shortened into shir in compo- 
 tion. 
 
 Shone, shon, not shun, nor as spelled. 
 
 Soldier, sole-\er. 
 
 Solecism, w/-e-cizm, not w-le-cizm. 
 
 Soot, as spelled, not sut. 
 
 Sovereign, sov-er-in, orsuv-er-in. 
 
 Specious, spe-shus, not spesh-us. 
 
 Stomacher, stum-a-dier. 
 
 Stone (weight), as spelled, not stun. 
 
 Synod, stn-od, not .ry-nod. 
 
 Tenure, ^w-ure, not te-nure. 
 
 Tenet, ten-zt, not te-net. 
 
 Than, as spelled, not thun. 
 
 Twelfth should have the th sounded. 
 
 Umbrella, as spelled, not um-ber-el-la. 
 
 Vase, vaiz or vahz, not vawze. 
 
 Was, woz, not wuz. 
 
 Weary, weer-\, not wary. 
 
 Were, wer, not ware. 
 
 Wrath, ath, (as in arm) not rath; as an ad- 
 jective it is spelled wroth, and pro- 
 nounced with the vowel sound shorter, 
 as in wrathful, etc. 
 
 Of, ov, except . , . 
 
 there, here, and where, which should be Yacht, yot, not yat. 
 
 pronounced here-q/", there-o/, and where- Zenith, ze-nith or zen-ith. 
 
 of. Zodiac, ^o-de-ak. 
 
 Off, as spelt, not awf. Zoology should have both o's sounded as 
 Organization, or-gan-i-^a-shun. zo-ol-o-gy, not .eoo-lo-gy. 
 
 ace, not iss, as furnace, not furniss. 
 
 age, not idge, as cabbage, courage, postage, village. 
 
 ain, ane, not in, as certain, certane, not c~ert*. 
 
 ate, not it, as moderate, not modenV. 
 
 ect, not ec, as aspect, not aspec; subj^, not subj^r. 
 
 ed, not id, or ud, as wick<?d, not wickzd, or wickwd. 
 
 el, notl, model, not modi; novel, not nov\. 
 
 Note. The tendency of all good elocutionists is to pronounce as nearly in accord- 
 ance with the spelling as possible. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 73 
 
 -en, not n, as sudden, not suddw. Burden, burthen, garden, 
 lengthen, seven, strengthen, often, and a few others, have the e 
 silent. 
 
 -ence, not unce, as influence, not innu-unce. 
 
 -es, not is, as please, not pleaszs. 
 
 -ile, should be pronounced il, as fertz/, not fertzYe, in all words ex- 
 cept chamomile, (cam), exile, gentile, infantile, reconcile, and 
 senile, which should be pronounced ile. 
 
 -in, not n, as Latz'w, not Latw. 
 
 -nd, not n, as husbad, not husbad, thousaw, not thousaw. 
 
 -ness, not m'ss, as carefulness, not carefulness. 
 
 -ng, not n, as singing, not singi/ speakz>/g-, not speakz/z. 
 
 -ngth, not nth, as strength, not strewth. 
 
 -son, the o should be silent; as in treason, tre-zn, not ire-son. 
 
 -tal, not tie, as capital, not capitle; metal, not mettle; mortal, not 
 mortle; periodic/, not periodic. 
 
 -xt, not x, as next, not nex. 
 
 TWELVE THOUSAND SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 
 
 No two words in the English language have exactly the same signif- 
 icance, but to express the precise meaning that one intends to convey, 
 and to avoid repetition, it is often desirable to have at hand a Dictionary 
 of Synonyms. Take President Cleveland's famous phrase, "innocuous 
 desuetude." If he had said simply, ' 'harmless disuse," it would have 
 sounded clumsy, whereas the words he used expressed the exact shade 
 of meaning, besides giving the world a new phrase and the newspapers 
 something to talk about. 
 
 The following list of SYNONYMS, while not exhaustive, is quite com- 
 prehensive, and by cross-reference will answer most requirements. The 
 appended ANTONYMS, or words of opposite meaning, enclosed in paren- 
 theses, will also be found extremely valuable, for one of the strongest fig- 
 ures of speech is antithesis, or contrast: 
 
 ABANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish, quit, forego, 
 let go, waive. (Keep, cherish.) ABANDONED, deserted, forsaken, wicked, 
 reprobate, dissolute, profligate, flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious. 
 (Cared for, virtuous.) ABANDONMENT, leaving, desertion, dereliction, 
 renunciation, defection. ABASEMENT, degradation, fall, degeneracy, 
 humiliation, abjection, debasement, servility. (Honor.) ABASH, be- 
 wilder, disconcert, discompose, confound, confuse, shame. (Embolden.) 
 ABBREVIATE, shorten, abridge, condense, contract, curtail, reduce. (Ex- 
 tend.) ABDICATE, give up, resign, renounce, abandon, forsake, relin- 
 quish, quit, forego. ABET, help, encourage, instigate, incite, stimulate, 
 aid, assist. (Resist.) ABETTOR, assistant, accessory, accomplice, pro- 
 moter, instigator, particeps criminis, coadjutor, associate, companion, 
 co operator. (Opponent.) ABHOR, dislike intensely, view with horror, 
 hate, detest, abominate, loathe, nauseate. (Love.) ABILITY, capability, 
 talent, faculty, capacity, qualification, aptitude, aptness, expertness, skill, 
 efficiency, accomplishment, attainment. (Incompetency.) ABJECT, 
 grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, despicable, vile, servile, 
 contemptible. (Noble.) ABJURE, recant, forswear, disclaim, recall, re- 
 voke, retract, renounce. (Maintain.) ABLE, strong, powerful, muscu- 
 lar, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, compe- 
 tent, efficient, capable, clever, self-qualified, telling, fitted. (Weak.) 
 
74 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ABODK, residence, habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodg- 
 ings. ABOLISH, quash, destroy, revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, anni- 
 hilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify. (Establish, enforce.) 
 ABOMINABLE, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable. (Lovable.) 
 ABORTIVE, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile. (Effec- 
 tual.) ABOUT, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, 
 respecting, with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately. 
 ABSCOND, run off, steal away, decamp, bolt. ABSENT, a., inattentive, 
 abstracted, not attending to, listless, dreamy. (Present.) ABSOLUTE, 
 entire, complete, unconditional, unqualified, unrestricted, despotic, ar- 
 bitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imperious. (Limited.) 
 ABSORB, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, fuse. 
 ABSURD, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasonable, 
 nonsensical, inconsistent. (Wise, solemn.) ABUSE, Z'., asperse, revile, 
 vilify, reproach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, tra- 
 duce, disparage, depreciate, ill-use. (Praise, protect.) ABUSE, n., scur- 
 rility, ribaldry, contumely, obloquy, opprobrium, foul, invective, vitu- 
 peration, ill-usage. (Praise, protection.) ACCEDE, assent to, consent, 
 acquiesce, comply with, agree, coincide, concur, approve. (Protest.) 
 ACCELERATE, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, despatch. (Re- 
 tard.) ACCEPT, receive, take, admit. (Refuse.) ACCEPTABLE, agree- 
 able, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome. (Displeasing.) ACCI- 
 DENT, casualty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance. ACCOMMO- 
 DATE, serve, oblige, adapt, adjust, fit, suit. (Disoblige, impede.) AC- 
 COMPLICE, confederate, accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, 
 associate, particeps criminis. (Adversary.) ACCOMPLISH, do, effect, 
 finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, consummate. (Fail.) AC- 
 COMPLISHMENT, attainment, qualification, acquirement. (Defect.) AC- 
 CORD, grant, allow, admit, concede. (Deny.) ACCOST, salute, address, 
 speak to, stop, greet. ACCOUNT, narrative, description, narration, rela- 
 tion, detail, recital, moneys, reckoning, bill, charge. ACCOUNTABLE, 
 punishable, answerable, amenable, responsible, liable. ACCUMULATE, 
 bring together, amass, collect, gather. (Scatter, dissipate.) ACCUMULATION, 
 collection, store, mass, congeries, concentration. ACCURATE, correct, 
 exact, precise, nice, truthful. (Erroneous, careless.) ACHIEVE, do, ac- 
 complish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win. ACHIEVEMENT, feat, ex- 
 ploit, accomplishment, attainment, performance, acquirement, gain. 
 (Failure.) ACKOWLEDGE, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recognize, 
 allow, concede. (Deny.) ACQUAINT, inform, enlighten, apprise, make 
 aware, make known, notify, communicate. (Deceive.) ACQUAINTANCE, 
 familiarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, companionship, knowl- 
 edge. (Unfamiliarity.) ACQUIESCE, agree, accede, assent, comply, con- 
 sent, give way, coincide with. (Protest.) ACQUIT, pardon, forgive, dis- 
 charge, set free, clear, absolve. (Condemn, convict.) ACT, do, operate, 
 make, perform, play, enact. ACTION, deed, achievement, feat, exploit, 
 accomplishment, battle, engagement, agency, instrumentality. ACTIVE, 
 lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, supple, prompt, vigi- 
 lant, laborious, industrious. (Lazy, passive.) ACTUAL, real, positive, 
 genuine, certain. (Fictitious.) ACUTE, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, 
 piercing, keen. (Dull.) ADAPT, accommodate, suit, fit, conform. AD- 
 DICTED, devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated. ADDITION, 
 increase, accession, augmentation, reinforcement. (Subtraction, separa- 
 tion.) ADDRESS, speech, discourse, appeal, oration, tact, skill, ability, 
 dexterity, deportment, demeanor. ADHESION, adherence, attachment, 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 75 
 
 fidelity, devotion. (Aloofness.) ADJACENT, near to, adjoining, contigu- 
 ous, conterminous, bordering, neighboring. (Distant.) ADJOURN, defer, 
 prorogue, postpone, delay. ADJUNCT, appendage, appurtenance, appen- 
 dency, dependency. ADJUST, set right, fit, accomodate, adapt, arrange, 
 settle, regulate, organize. (Confuse.) ADMIRABLE, striking, surprising, 
 wonderful, astonishing. (Detestable.) ADMIT, allow, permit, suffer, 
 tolerate. (Deny.) ADVANTAGEOUS, beneficial. (Hurtful.) AFFECTION, 
 love. (Aversion.) AFFECTIONATE, fond, kind. (Harsh.) AGREEABLE, 
 pleasant, pleasing, charming. (Disagreeable.) ALTERNATING, halting, 
 intermittent. (Continual.) AMBASSADOR, envoy, plenipotentiary, min- 
 ister. AMEND, improve, correct, better, mend. (Impair.) ANGER, ire, 
 wrath, indignation, resentment. (Good nature.) APPROPRIATE, as- 
 sume, ascribe, arrogate, usurp. ARGUE, debate, dispute, reason upon. 
 ARISE, flow, emanate, spring, proceed, rise, issue. ARTFUL, disingen- 
 uous, sly, tricky, insincere. (Candid.) ARTIFICE, trick, stratagem, 
 finesse. ASSOCIATION, combination, company, partnership, society. 
 ATTACK, assail, assault, encounter. (Defend.) AUDACITY, boldness, 
 effrontery, hardihood. (Meekness.) AUSTERE, rigid, rigorous, severe, 
 stern. (Dissolute.) AVARICIOUS, niggardly, miserly, parsimonious. 
 (Generous.) AVERSION, antipathy, dislike, hatred, repugnance. (Affec- 
 tion.) AWE, dread, fear, reverence. (Familiarity.) AWKWARD, clumsy. 
 (Graceful.) AXIOM, adage, aphorism, apothegm, by-word, maxim, prov- 
 . erb, saying, saw. 
 
 BABBLE, chatter, prattle, prate. BAD, wicked, evil. (Good.) BAFFLE, 
 confound, defeat, disconcert. (Aid, abet.) BASE, vile, mean. (Noble.) 
 BATTLE, action, combat, engagement. BEAR, carry, convey, transport. 
 BEAR, endure, suffer, support. BEASTLY, brutal, sensual, bestial. BEAT, 
 defeat, overpower, overthrow, rout. BEAUTIFUL, fine, handsome, pretty. 
 (Homely, ugly.) BECOMING, decent, fit, seemly, suitable. (Unbecoming.) 
 BEG, beseech, crave, entreat, implore, solicit, supplicate. (Give.)BEHAViOR, 
 carriage, conduct, deportment, demeanor. BELIEF, credit, faith, trust. 
 (Doubt.) BENEFICIENT, bountiful, generous, liberal, munificent. (Cove- 
 tous, miserly.) BENEFIT, favor, advantage, kindness, civility. (Injury.) 
 BENEVOLENCE, beneficence, benignity, humanity, kindness, tenderness. 
 (Malevolence.) BLAME, censure, condemn, reprove, reproach, upbraid. 
 (Praise.) BLEMISH, flaw, speck, spot, stain. (Ornament.) BLIND, sightless, 
 heedless. (Far-sighted.) BLOT, cancel, efface, expunge, erase, obliterate. 
 BOLD, brave, daring, fearless, intrepid, undaunted. (Timid.) BORDER, brim, 
 brink, edge, margin, rim, verge, boundary, confine, frontier. BOUND, 
 circumscribe, confine, limit, restrict. BRAVE, dare, defy. BRAVERY, 
 courage, valor. (Cowardice.) BREAK, bruise, crush, pound, squeeze. 
 BREEZE, blast, gale, gust, hurricane, storm, tempest. BRIGHT, clear, 
 radiant, shining. (Dull.) BURIAL, interment, sepulture. (Resurrection,; 
 ^BUSINESS, avocation, employment, engagement, occupation, art, pro- 
 fession, trade. BUSTLE, stir, tumult, fuss. (Quiet.) 
 
 CALAMITY, disaster, misfortune, mischance, mishap. (Good fortune.) 
 CALM, collected, composed, placid, serene. (Stormy, unsettled.) CAPA- 
 BLE, able, competent. (Incompetent.) CAPTIOUS, fretful, cross, peev- 
 ish, petulant. (Good-natured.) CARE, anxiety, concern, solicitude, 
 heed, attention. (Heedlessness, negligence.) CARESS, kiss, embrace. 
 (Spurn, buffet.) CARNAGE, butchery, massacre, slaughter. CAUSE, mo- 
 tive, reason. (Effect, consequence.) CEASE, discontinue, leave off, end. 
 (Continue.) CENSURE, animadvert, criticise. (Praise.) CERTAIN, se- 
 cure, sure. (Doubtful.) CESSATION, intermission, rest, stop. (Contin- 
 
76 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 uance.) CHANCE, fate, fortune. (Design.) CHANGE, barter, exchange^ 
 substitute. CHANGEABLE, fickle, inconstant, mutable, variable. (Un- 
 changeable.) CHARACTER, reputation, repute, standing. CHARM, cap- 
 tivate, enchant, enrapture, fascinate. CHASTITY, purity, continence, 
 virtue. (L/ewdness.) CHEAP, inexpensive, inferior, common. (Dear.) 
 CHEERFUL, gay, merry, sprightly. (Mournful.) CHIEF, chieftain, head, 
 leader. (Subordinate.) CIRCUMSTANCE, fact, incident. CLASS, degree, 
 order, rank, CLEAR, bright, lucid, vivid. (Opaque.) CLEVER, adroit, 
 dexterous, expert, skillful. (Stupid.) CLOTHED, clad, dressed. (Naked.) 
 COARSE, rude, rough, unpolished. (Fine.) COAX, cajole, fawn, wheedle. 
 COLD, cool, frigid, wintry, unfeeling, stoical. (Warm.) COLOR, dye, 
 stain, tinge. COLORABLE, ostensible, plausible, specious. COMBINA- 
 TION, cabal, conspiracy, plot. COMMAND, injunction, order, precept. 
 COMMODITY, goods, merchandise, ware. COMMON, mean, ordinary, 
 vulgar. (Uncommon, extraordinary.) COMPASSION, sympathy, pity, 
 clemency. (Cruelty, severity.) COMPEL, force, oblige, neccesitate. 
 (Coax, lead.) COMPENSATION, amends, recompense, remuneration, re- 
 quital, reward. COMPENDIUM, compend, abridgment. (Enlargement.) 
 COMPLAIN, lament, murmur, regret, repine. (Rejoice.) COMPLY, ac- 
 cede, conform, submit, yield. (Refuse.) COMPOUND, complex. (Simple.) 
 COMPREHEND, comprise, include, embrace, grasp, understand, perceive. 
 (Exclude, mistake.) COMPRISE, comprehend, contain, embrace, include. 
 CONCEAL, hide, secrete. (Uncover.) CONCEIVE, comprehend, under- 
 stand. CONCLUSION, inference, deduction. CONDEMN, censure, 
 blame, disapprove. (Justify, exonerate.) CONDUCT, direct, guide, lead, 
 govern, regulate, manage. CONFIRM, corroborate, approve, attest. (Con- 
 tradict.) CONFLICT, combat, contest, contention, struggle. (Peace, 
 quiet.) CONFUTE, disprove, refute, oppugn. (Approve.) CONQUER, 
 overcome, subdue, surmount, vanquish. (Defeat.) CONSEQUENCE, effect, 
 event, issue, result. (Cause.) CONSIDER, reflect, ponder, weigh. CON- 
 SISTENT, constant, compatible. (Inconsistent.) CONSOLE, comfort, 
 solace. (Harrow, worry.) CONSTANCY, firmness, stability, steadiness. 
 (Fickleness.) CONTAMINATE, corrupt, defile, pollute, taint. CONTEMN, 
 despise, disdain, scorn. (Esteem.) CONTEMPLATE, meditate, muse. 
 CONTEMPTIBLE, despicable, paltry, pitiful, vile, mean. (Noble.) CON- 
 TEND, contest, dispute, strive, struggle, combat. CONTINUAL, constant, 
 continuous, perpetual, incessant. (Intermittent.) CONTINUANCE, con- 
 tinuation, duration. (Cessation.) CONTINUE, persist, persevere, pur- 
 sue, prosecute. (Cease.) CONTRADICT, deny, gainsay, oppose. (Con- 
 firm.) COOL, cold, frigid. (Hot.) CORRECT, rectify, reform. COST, 
 charge, expense, price. CovETOUSNESS, avarice, cupidity. (Beneficence.) 
 COWARDICE, fear, timidity, pusillanimity. (Courage.) CRIME, sin, vice, 
 misdemeanor. (Virtue.) CRIMINAL, convict, culprit, felon, malefactor. 
 CROOKED, bent, curved, oblique. (Straight.) CRUEL, barbarous, brutal, 
 inhuman, savage. (Kind.) CULTIVATION, culture, refinement. CURSORY, 
 desultory, hasty, slight. (Thorough.) CUSTOM, fashion, manner, prac- 
 tice. 
 
 DANGER, hazard, peril. (Safety.) DARK, dismal, opaque, obscure, 
 dim. (Light.) DEADLY, fatal, destructive, mortal. DEAR, beloved, 
 precious, costly, expensive. (Despised, cheap.) DEATH, departure, de- 
 cease, demise. (Ivife.) DECAY, decline, cousumption. (Growth.) 
 DECEIVE, delude, impose upon, over-reach, gull, dupe, cheat. DECEIT, 
 cheat, imposition, trick, delusion, guile, beguilement, treachery, sham. 
 (Truthfulness.) DECIDE, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, re- 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 77 
 
 solve. DECIPHER, read, spell, interpret, solve. DECISION, determina- 
 tion, conclusion, resolution, firmness. (Vacillation.) DECLAMATION, 
 oratory, elocution, harangue, -effusion, debate. DECLARATION, avowal, 
 manifestation, statement, profession. DECREASE, diminish, lessen, wane, 
 decline, retrench, curtail, reduce. (Growth.) DEDICATE, devote, conse- 
 crate, offer, set, apportion. DEED, act, action, commission, achievement, 
 instrument, document, muniment. DEEM, judge, estimate, consider, 
 think, suppose, conceive. DEEP, profound, subterranean, submerged, 
 designing, abstruse, learned. (Shallow.) DEFACE, mar, spoil, injure, 
 disfigure. (Beautify.) DEFAULT, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, 
 failure. DEFECT, imperfection, flaw, fault, blemish. (Beauty, improve- 
 ment.) DEFEND, guard, protect, justify. DEFENSE, excuse, plea, vin- 
 dication, bulwark, rampart. DEFER, delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, 
 adjourn. (Force, expedite.) DEFICIENT, short, wanting, inadequate, 
 scanty, incomplete. (Complete, perfect.) DEFINE, v., pollute, corrupt, 
 sully. (Beautify.) DEFINE, fix, settle, determine, limit. DEFRAY, 
 meet, liquidate, pay, discharge. DEGREE, grade, extent, measure. DE- 
 LIBERATE, v., consider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate. DELIBERATE, 
 a., purposed, intentional, designed, determined. (Hasty.) DELICACY, 
 nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, softness, modesty. (Boorishness, indeli- 
 cacy.) DELICATE, tender, fragile, dainty, refined. (Coarse.) DELICIOUS, 
 sweet, palatable. (Nauseous.) DELIGHT, enjoyment, pleasure, happi- 
 ness, transport, ecstasy, gladness, rapture, bliss. (Annoyance.) DE- 
 LIVER, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, give, hand over. (Retain.) 
 DEMONSTRATE, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate. DEPART, leave, quit, 
 decamp, retire, withdraw, vanish. (Remain.) DEPRIVE, strip, bereave, 
 despoil, rob, divest. DEPUTE, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, 
 delegate, authorize, accredit. DERISION, scorn, contempt, contumely, 
 disrespect. DERIVATION, origin, source, beginning, cause, etymology, 
 root. DESCRIBE, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, define, picture. 
 DESECRATE, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. (Keep holy.) 
 DESERVE, merit, earn, justify, win. DESIGN, n., delineation, sketch, draw- 
 ing, cunning, artfulness, contrivance. DESIRABLE, expedient, advisable, 
 valuable, acceptable, proper, judicious, beneficial, profitable, good. 
 DESIRE, n., longing, affection, craving. DESIST, cease, stop, discontinue, 
 drop, abstain, forbear. (Continue, persevere.) DESOLATE, bereaved, for- 
 lorn, forsaken, deserted, wild, waste, bare, bleak, lonely. (Pleasant, 
 happy.) DESPERATE, wild, daring, audacious, determined, reckless, 
 hopeless. DESTINY, fate, decree, doom, end. DESTRUCTIVE, detri- 
 mental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, baleful, baneful, sub- 
 versive. (Creative, constructive.) DESUETUDE, disuse, discontinuance. 
 (Maintenance.) DESULTORY, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, 
 superficial, unsettled, erratic, fitful. (Thorough.) DETAIL, ., partic- 
 ular, specification, minutiae. DETAIL, v., particularize, enumerate, 
 specify. (Generalize.) DETER, warn, stop, dissuade, terrify, scare. 
 (Encourage.) DETRIMENT, loss, harm, injury, deterioration. (Benefit.) 
 DEVELOP, unfold, amplify, expand, enlarge. DEVICE, artifice, expedient, 
 contrivance. DEVOID, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unpro- 
 vided. (Full, complete.) DEVOTED, attached, fond, absorbed, dedi- 
 cated. DICTATE, prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command. DICTATOR- 
 IAL, imperative, imperious, domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical, over- 
 bearing. (Submissive.) DIE, expire, depart, perish, decline, languish, 
 pass away, fade, decay. DIET, food, victuals, nourishment, nutriment, 
 sustenance, fare. DIFFERENCE, separation, disagreement, discord, dis- 
 
78 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 sent, estrangement, variety. DIFFERENT, various, manifold, diverse, 
 unlike, separate, distinct. (Similar, homogeneous.) DIFFICULT, hard, 
 intricate, involved, perplexing, obscure, -unmanageable. (Easy.) DIF- 
 FUSE, discursive, prolix, diluted, copious. DIGNIFY, aggrandize, elevate, 
 invest, exalt, advance, promote, honor. (Degrade.) DILATE, stretch, 
 widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, expatiate. DILATORY, 
 tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling. (Prompt.) 
 DILIGENCE, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry. (Negligence.) 
 DIMINISH-, lessen, reduce, contract, curtail, retrench. (Increase.) DISA- 
 BILITY, unfitness, incapacity. DISCERN, descry, observe, recognize, see, 
 discriminate, separate, perceive. DISCIPLINE, order, strictness, training, 
 coercion, punishment, organization. (Confusion, demoralization.) DIS- 
 COVER, make known, find, invent, contrive, expose, reveal. DISCRED- 
 ITABLE, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, disreputable. (Creditable.) 
 DISCREET, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious. (Indiscreet.) DISCREP- 
 ANCY, disagreement, difference, variance. (Agreement.) DISCRIMINA- 
 TION, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution. DISEASE, complaint, 
 malady, disorder, ailment, sickness. DISGRACE, n. , disrepute, reproach, 
 dishonor, shame, odium. (Honor.) DISGRACE, v., debase, degrade, de- 
 fame, discredit. (Exalt.) DISGUST, dislike, distaste, loathing, abomi- 
 nation, abhorrence. (Admiration.) DISHONEST, unjust, fraudulent, 
 unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive, wrongful. (Honest.) DISMAY, z/., 
 terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten. (Encourage.) DISMAY, 
 ., terror, dread, fear, fright. (Assurance.) DISMISS, send off, discharge, 
 discard, banish. (Retain.) DISPEL, scatter, drive away, disperse, dissi- 
 pate. (Collect.) DISPLAY, show, spread out, exhibit, expose. (Hide.) 
 DISPOSE, arrange, place, order, give, bestow. DISPUTE, v., argue, con- 
 test, contend, question, impugn. (Assent.) DISPUTE, n., argument,de- 
 bate, controversy, quarrel, disagreement. (Harmony.) DISSENT, disa- 
 gree, differ, vary. (Assent.) DISTINCT, clear, plain, obvious, different, 
 separate. (Obscure, indistinct.) DISTINGUISH, perceive, discern, mark 
 out, divide, discriminate. DISTINGUISHED, famous, glorious, far-famed, 
 noted, illustrious, eminent, celebrated. (Obscure, unknown, ordinary.) 
 DISTRACT, perplex, bewilder. (Calm, concentrate.) DISTRIBUTE, allot, 
 share, dispense, apportion, deal. (Collect.) DISTURB, derange, discompose, 
 agitate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, annoy, trouble, vex, worry. (Pacify, 
 quiet.) DISUSE, discontinuance, abolition, desuetude. (Use.) DIVIDE, 
 part, separate, distribute, deal out, sever, sunder. DIVINE, godlike, holy, 
 heavenly, sacred, a parson, clergyman, minister. Do, effect, make, per- 
 form, accomplish, finish, transact. DOCILE, tractable, teachable, com- 
 pliant, tame. (Stubborn.) DOCTRINE, tenet, articles of belief, creed, 
 dogma, teaching. DOLEFUL, dolorous, woe-begone, rueful, dismal, 
 piteous. (Joyous.) DOOM, n., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, 
 destiny. DOUBT, n., uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambi 
 guity. (Certainty.) DRAW, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, de- 
 scribe. DREAD, ?/., fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe. (Boldness, 
 assurance.) DREADFUL, fearful, frightful, shocking, awful, horrible, 
 horrid, terrific. DRESS, n., clothing, attire, apparel, garments, costume, 
 garb, livery. DRIFT, purpose, meaning, scope, aim, tendency, direction. 
 DROLL, funny, laughable, comic, whimsical, queer, amusing. (Solemn.) 
 DROWN, inundate,- swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf. DRY, a., 
 arid, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre. (Moist, in- 
 teresting, succulent.) DUE, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, 
 debt, right. DULL, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace. (Bright.) 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 79 
 
 DUNCE, simpleton, fool, ninny, idiot. (Sage.) DURABLE, lasting, per- 
 manent, abiding, continuing. (Ephemeral, perishable.) DWELL, stay, 
 stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry. DWINDLE, pine, waste, diminish, de- 
 crease, fall off. (Grow.) 
 
 EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient. (Diffident.) 
 EARN, acquire, obtain, win, gain, achieve. EARNEST, ., ardent, serious, 
 grave, solemn, warm. (Trifling.) EARNEST, n., pledge, pawn. EASE, n., 
 comfort, rest. (Worry.) EASE, v,, calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, ap- 
 pease, assuage, pacify, disburden, rid. (Annoy, worry.) EASY, light, 
 comfortable, unconstrained. (Difficult, hard.) ECCENTRIC, irregular, 
 anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward, particular, strange. 
 (Regular, ordinary.) ECONOMICAL, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, 
 frugal, careful, niggardly. (Wasteful.) EDGE, border, brink, rim, brim, 
 margin, verge. EFFACE, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, 
 erase. EFFECT, ., consequence, result, issue, event, execution, opera- 
 tion. EFFECT, z/., accomplish, fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, 
 complete. EFFECTIVE, efficient, operative, serviceable. (Vain, inef- 
 fectual. ) EFFICACY, efficiency, energy, agency, instrumentality. EFFI- 
 CIENT, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted. ELIMINATE, 
 drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge, banish, pro- 
 scribe. ELOQUENCE, oratory, rhetoric, declamation. ELUCIDATE, make 
 plain, explain, clear up, illustrate. ELUDE, evade, escape, avoid, shun. 
 EMBARRASS, perplex, entangle, distress, trouble. (Assist.) EMBELLISH, 
 adorn, decorate, bedeck, beautify, deck. (Disfigure.) EMBOLDEN, in- 
 spirit, animate, encourage, cheer, urge; impel, stimulate. (Discourage.) 
 EMINENT, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, noted, prominent, elevated, 
 renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious. (Obscure, unknown.) EMIT, 
 give out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent. EMOTION, perturbation, 
 agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict. EMPLOY, occupy, busy, 
 take up with, engross. EMPLOYMENT, business, avocation, engagement, 
 office, function, trade, profession, occupation, calling, vocation. EN- 
 COMPASS, z>., encircle, surround, gird, beset. ENCOUNTER, attack, con- 
 flict, combat, assault, onset, engagement, battle, action. ENCOURAGE, 
 countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, inspirit, embolden, ani- 
 mate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate. (Deter.) END, n., aim, ob- 
 ject, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expiration, termination, 
 extremity, sequel. ENDEAVOR, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim. EN- 
 DURANCE, continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation. EN- 
 DURE, v., last, continue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit to, 
 undergo. (Perish.) ENEMY, foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. 
 (Friend.) ENERGETIC, industrious, effectual, efficacious, powerful, bind- 
 ing, stringent, forcible, nervous. (Lazy.) ENGAGE, employ, busy, oc- 
 cupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, engross, take up, enlist. ENGROSS, 
 absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopolize. ENGULF, swallow 
 up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomb, overwhelm. EN- 
 JOIN, order, ordain, appoint, prescribe. ENJOYMENT, pleasure, gratifica- 
 tion. (Grief, sorrow, sadness.) ENLARGE, increase, extend, augment, 
 broaden, swell. (Diminish.) ENLIGHTEN, illumine, illuminate, in- 
 struct, inform. (Befog, becloud.) ENLIVEN, cheer, vivify, stir up, 
 animate, inspire, exhilarate. (Sadden, quiet.) ENMITY, animosity, 
 hostility, ill-will, maliciousness. (Friendship.) ENORMOUS, gigantic, 
 colossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious. (Insignificant.) ENOUGH, 
 sufficient, plenty, abundance. (Want.) ENRAGED, infuriated, raging, 
 wrathful. (Pacified.) ENRAPTURE, enchant, fascinate, charm, capti- 
 
80 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMAJ^ION. 
 
 vate, bewitch. (Repel.) ENROLL, enlist, list, register, record. ENTER- 
 PRISE, undertaking, endeavor, venture, energy. ENTHUSIASM, earnest 
 devotion, zeal, ardor. (Ennui, lukewarmness. ) ENTHUSIAST, fanatic, 
 visionary. EQUAL, equable, even, like, alike, uniform. (Unequal.) 
 ERADICATE, root out, extirpate, exterminate. ERRONEOUS, incorrect, 
 inaccurate, inexact. (Exact.) ERROR, blunder, mistake. (Truth.) 
 ESPECIALLY, chiefly, particularly, principally. (Generally.) ESSAY, 
 dissertation, tract, treatise. ESTABLISH, build up, confirm. (Overthrow.) 
 ESTEEM, regard, respect. (Contempt.) ESTIMATE, appraise, appre- 
 ciate, esteem, compute, rate. ESTRANGEMENT, abstraction, alienation. 
 ETERNAL, endless, everlasting. (Finite.) EVADE, equivocate, prevari- 
 cate. EVEN, level, plain, smooth. (Uneven.) EVENT, accident, advent- 
 ure, incident, occurrence. EVIL, ill, harm, mischief, misfortune. (Good.) 
 EXACT, nice, particular, punctual. (Inexact.) EXALT, ennoble, dignify, 
 raise. (Humble.) EXAMINATION, investigation, inquiry, research, 
 search, scrutiny. EXCEED, excel, outdo, surpass, transcend. (Fall 
 short.) EXCEPTIONAL, uncommon, rare, extraordinary. (Common.) 
 EXCITE, awaken, provoke, rouse, stir up. (Lull.) EXCURSION, jaunt, 
 ramble, tour, trip. EXECUTE, fulfill, perform. EXEMPT, free, cleared. 
 (Subject.) EXERCISE, practice. EXHAUSTIVE, thorough, complete. 
 (Cursory.) EXIGENCY, emergency. EXPERIMENT, proof, trial, test. 
 EXPLAIN, expound, interpret, illustrate, elucidate. EXPRESS, declare, 
 signify, utter, tell. EXTEND, reach, stretch. (Abridge.) EXTRAVAGANT, 
 lavish, profuse, prodigal. (Parsimonious.) 
 
 FABLE, apologue, novel, romance, tale. FACE, visage, countenance. 
 FACETIOUS, pleasant, jocular, jocose. (Serious. ) FACTOR, agent. FAIL, 
 to fall short, be deficient. (Accomplish.) FAINT, languid. (Forcible.) 
 FAIR, clear. (Stormy.) FAIR, equitable, honest, reasonable. (Unfair.) 
 FAITH, creed. (Unbelief, infidelity.) FAITHFUL, true, loyal, constant. 
 (Faithless.) FAITHLESS, perfidious, treacherous. (Faithful.) FALL, 
 drop, droop, sink, tumble. (Rise.) FAME, renown, reputation. FAMOUS, 
 celebrated, renowned, illustrious. (Obscure.) FANCIFUL, capricious, 
 fantastical, whimsical. FANCY, imagination. FAST, rapid, quick, fleet, 
 expeditious. (Slow.) FATIGUE, weariness, lassitude. (Vigor.) FEAR, 
 timidity, timorousness. (Bravery.) FEELING, sensation, sense. FEEL- 
 ING, sensibility, susceptibility. (Insensibility.) FEROCIOUS, fierce, sav- 
 age, wild, barbarous. (Mild.) FERTILE, fruitful, prolific, plenteous, 
 productive. (Sterile.) FICTION, falsehood, fabrication. (Fact.) FIG- 
 URE, allegory, emblem, metaphor, symbol, type. FIND, find out, descry, 
 discover, espy. (Lose, overlook.) FINE, ., delicate, nice. (Coarse.) 
 FINE, forfeit, forfeiture, mulct, penalty. FIRE, glow, heat, warmth. 
 FIRM, constant, solid, steadfast, fixed, stable. (Weak.) FIRST, fore- 
 most, earliest. (Last.) FIT, accommodate, adapt, adjust, suit. Fix, de- 
 termine, establish, settle, limit. FLAME, blaze, flare, flash, glare. FLAT, 
 level, even. FLEXIBLE, pliant, pliable, ductile, supple, (Inflexible.) 
 FLOURISH, prosper, thrive. (Decay.) FLUCTUATING, wavering, hesitat- 
 ing, oscillating, vacillating, change. (Firm, steadfast, decided.) FLUENT, 
 flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready. (Hesitating.) FOLKS, 
 persons, people, individuals. FOLLOW, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, 
 pursue. FOLLOWER, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursuer, 
 successor. FOLLY, silliness, foolishness, imbecility, weakness. (Wis- 
 dom.) FOND, enamored, attached, affectionate. (Distant.) FONDNESS, 
 affection, attachment, kindness, love. (Aversion.) FOOLHARDY, ven- 
 turesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash. (Cautious.) FOOLISH, 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 81 
 
 simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, absurd, preposterous, 
 ridiculous, nonsensical. (Wise, discreet.) FOP, dandy, dude, beau, cox- 
 comb, puppy, jackanapes. (Gentleman.) FORBEAR, abstain, refrain, 
 withhold. FORCE, #., strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, vio- 
 lence, army, host. FORCE, z/., compel. (Persuade.) FORECAST, fore- 
 thought, foresight, premeditation, prognostication. FOREGO, quit, re- 
 linquish, let go, waive. FOREGOING, antecedent, anterior, preceding, 
 previous, prior, former. FORERUNNER, herald, harbinger, precursor, 
 omen. FORESIGHT, forethought, forecast, premeditation. FORGE, coin, 
 invent, frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit. FORGIVE, pardon, remit, 
 absolve, acquit, excuse, except. FORLORN, forsaken, abandoned, de- 
 serted, desolate, lone, lonesome. FORM, ., ceremony, solemnity, 
 observance, rite, figure, shape, conformation, fashion, appearance, repre- 
 sentation, semblance. FORM, z/., make, create, produce, constitute, ar- 
 range, fashion, mould, shape. FORMAL, ceremonious, precise, exact, 
 stiff, methodical, affected. (Informal, natural.) FORMER, antecedent, 
 anterior, previous, prior, preceding, foregoing. FORSAKEN, abandoned, 
 forlorn, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. FORTHWITH, immediately, 
 directly, instantly, instantaneously. (Anon.) FORTITUDE, endurance, 
 resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness. (Weakness.) FORTUNATE, lucky, 
 happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful. (Unfortunate.) FORTUNE, 
 chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, possession, riches. FOSTER, 
 cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture. (Neglect.) FOUL, impure, nasty, 
 filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. (Pure, clean.) FRACTIOUS, cross, cap- 
 tious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevish, fretful, splenetic. (Tractable.) 
 FRAGILE, brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. (Strong.) FRAGMENTS, pieces, 
 scraps, chips, leavings, remains, remnants. FRAII/TY, weakness, failing, 
 foible, imperfection, fault, blemish. (Strength.) FRAME, v. ,. construct, 
 invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mold, feign, make, compose. FRANCHISE, 
 right, exemption, immunity, privilege, freedom, suffrage. FRANK, artless, 
 candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenuous, plain. (Tricky, 
 insincere.) FRANTIC, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied. (Quiet, 
 subdued. ) FRAUD, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition. 
 (Honesty.) FREAK, fancy, humor, vagary, whim, caprice, crotchet. 
 (Purpose, resolution.) FREE, #., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, 
 munificent, frank, artless, candid, familiar, open, independent, uncon- 
 fined, unreserved, unrestricted, exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. 
 (Slavish, stingy, artful, costly.) FREE, v., release, set free, deliver, res- 
 cue, liberate, enfranchise, affranchise, emancipate, exempt. (Enslave, 
 bind. ) FREEDOM, liberty, independence, unrestraint, familiarity, licence, 
 franchise, exemption, privilege. (Slavery.) FREQUENT, often, common, 
 usual, general. (Rare.) FRET, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. 
 FRIENDLY, amicable, social, sociable. (Distant, reserved, cool.) FRIGHT- 
 FUL, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible, horrid. 
 FRIVOLOUS, trifling, trivial, petty. (Serious, earnest.) FRUGAL, provi- 
 dent, economical, saving. (Wasteful, extravagant.) FRUITFUL, fertile, 
 prolific, productive, abundant, plentiful, plenteous. (Barren, sterile.) 
 FRUITLESS, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without 
 avail. FRUSTRATE, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. FULFILL, accomplish, 
 effect, complete. FULLY, completely, abundantly, perfectly. FULSOME, 
 coarse, gross, sickening, offensive, rank. (Moderate.) FURIOUS, violent, 
 boisterous, vehement, dashing, sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, 
 distracted, stormy, angry, raging, fierce. (Calm.) FUTILE, trifling, 
 trivial, frivolous, useless. (Effective.) 
 U. I.-6 
 
82 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 GAIN, #., profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings. 
 (Loss.) GAIN, z/., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, 
 reap, realize, reach. (Lose.) GALLANT, brave, bold, courageous, gay, 
 fine, showy, intrepid, fearless, heroic. GALLING, chafing, irritating, vex- 
 ing. (Soothing.) GAME, play, pastime, diversion, sport, amusement. 
 GANG, band, horde, company, troop, crew. GAP, breach, chasm, hollow, 
 cavity, cleft, crevice, rift, chink. GARNISH, embellish, adorn, beautify, 
 deck, decorate. GATHER, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, collect. 
 (Scatter.) GAUDY, showy, flashy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled. 
 (Sombre.) GAUNT, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, 
 spare, lean, thin. (Well-fed.) GAY, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, 
 sprightly, blithe. (Solemn.) GENERATE, form, make, beget, produce. GEN- 
 ERATION, formation, race, breed, stock, kind, age, era. GENEROUS, benefi- 
 cent, noble, honorable, bountiful, liberal, free. (Niggardly.) GENIAL, 
 cordial, hearty, festive, joyous. (Distant, cold.) GENIUS, intellect, inven- 
 tion, talent, taste, nature, character, adept. GENTEEL, refined, polished, 
 fashionable, polite, well-bred. (Boorish.) GENTLE, placid, mild, bland, 
 meek, tame, docile. (Rough, uncouth.) GENUINE, real, true, unaffected, 
 sincere. (False.) GESTURE, attitude, action, posture. GET, obtain, earn, 
 gain, attain, procure, achieve. GHASTLY, palHd, wan, hideous, grim, 
 shocking. GHOST, spectre, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom. GIBE, 
 scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, mock, taunt, deride. GIDDY, unsteady, flighty, 
 thoughtless. (Steady.) GIFT, donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gra- 
 tuity, boon, present, faculty, talent. (Purchase.) GIGANTIC, colossal, 
 huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense. (Diminutive.) GIVE, grant, 
 bestow, confer, yield, impart. GLAD, pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, 
 gratified, cheering. (Sad.) GLEAM, glimmer, glance, glitter, shine, flash. 
 GLEE, gayety, merriment, mirth, joviality, jovialness, catch. (Sorrow.) 
 GLIDE, slip, slide, run, roll on. GLIMMER, v., gleam, flicker, glitter. 
 GLIMPSE, glance, look, glint. GLITTER, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, 
 radiate. GLOOM, cloud, darkness, dimness, blackness, dulness, sadness. 
 (Light, brightness, joy.) GLOOMY, lowering, lurid, dim, dusky, sad, 
 glum. (Bright, clear.) GLORIFY, magnify, celebrate, adore, exalt. GLO- 
 RIOUS, famous, renowned, distinguished, noble, exalted. (Infamous.) 
 GLORY, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. (Infamy.) GLUT, 
 gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up. Go, depart, proceed, move, 
 budge, stir. GOD, Creator, Lord, Almighty, Jehovah, Omnipotence, Provi- 
 dence. GODLY, righteous, devout, holy, pious, religious. GOOD, benefit, 
 weal, advantage, profit, boon. (Evil.) GOOD, a., virtuous, righteous, up- 
 right, just, true. (Wicked, bad.) GORGE, glut, fill, cram, stuff, satiate. 
 GORGEOUS, superb, grand, magnificent, splendid. (Plain, simple.) GOV- 
 ERN, rule, direct, manage, command. GOVERNMENT, rule, state, control, 
 sway. GRACEFUL, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. (Awkward.) 
 GRACIOUS, merciful, kindly, beneficent. GRADUAL, slow, progressive, 
 (Sudden.) GRAND, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, 
 splendid, gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous. (Shabby.) 
 GRANT, bestow, impart, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest. 
 GRANT, gift, boon, donation. GRAPHIC, iorcible, telling, picturesque, 
 vivid, pictorial. GRASP, catch, seize, gripe, clasp, grapple. GRATEFUL, 
 agreeable, pleasing, welcome, thankful. (Harsh.) GRATIFICATION, 
 enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward. (Disappointment.) GRAVE, a., 
 serious, sedate, solemn, sober, pressing, heavy. (Giddy.) GSAVE, f*., 
 tomb, sepulchre, vault. GREAT, big, huge, large, maje^t'o vast. grW33, 
 noble, august. (Small.) GREEDINESS, avidity, eagerness voracity. (Gene- 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 83 
 
 rosity.) GRIEF, affliction, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulation. (Joy.) GRIEVE, 
 mourn, lament, sorrow, pain, hurt, wound, bewail. (Rejoice.) GRIEVOUS, 
 painful, afflicting, heavy, baleful, unhappy. GRIND, crush, oppress, 
 grate, harass, afflict. GRISLY, terrible, hideous, grim, ghastly, dread- 
 ful. (Pleasing.) GROSS, coarse, outrageous, unseemly, shameful, indel- 
 icate. (Delicate.) GROUP, assembly, cluster, collection, clump, order, 
 class. GROVEL, crawl, cringe, fawn, sneak. GROW, increase, vegetate, 
 expand, advance. (Decay, diminution.) GROWL,, grumble, snarl, mur- 
 mur, complain. GRUDGE, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion. 
 GRUFF, rough, rugged, blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish. (Pleasant.) 
 GuiLE, deceit, fraud. (Candor.) GUILTLESS, harmless, innocent. GUII/TY, 
 culpable, sinful, criminal. 
 
 HABIT, custom, practice. HAIL, accost, address, greet, salute, wel- 
 come. HAPPINESS, beatitude, blessedness, bliss, felicity. (Unhappiness. ) 
 HARBOR, haven, port. HARD, firm, solid. (Soft.) HARD, arduous, 
 difficult. (Easy.) HARM, injury, hurt, wrong, infliction. (Benefit.) 
 HARMLESS, safe, innocuous, innocent. (Hurtful.) HARSH, rough, 
 rigorous, severe, gruff, morose. (Gentle.) HASTEN, accelerate, de- 
 spatch, expedite, speed. (Delay.) HASTY, hurried, ill-advised. (De- 
 liberate.) HATEFUL, odious, detestable. (Lovable.) HATRED, enmity, 
 ill-will, rancor. (Friendship.) HAUGHTINESS, arrogance, pride. (Mod- 
 esty.) HAUGHTY, arrogant, disdainful, supercilious, proud. HAZARD, 
 risk, venture. HEALTHY, salubrious, salutary, wholesome. (Unhealthy. ) 
 HEAP, accumulate, amass, pile. HEARTY, a., cordial, sincere, warm. 
 (Insincere.) HEAVY, burdensome, ponderous, weighty. (Light.) HEED, 
 care, attention. HEIGHTEN, enhance, exalt, elevate, raise. HEINOUS, 
 atrocious, flagitious, flagrant. (Venial.) HELP, aid, assist, relieve, suc- 
 cor. (Hinder.) HERETIC, sectary, sectarian, schismatic, dissenter, non- 
 conformist. HESITATE, falter, stammer, stutter. HIDEOUS, grim, 
 ghastly, grisly. (Beautiful.) HIGH, lofty, tall, elevated. (Deep.) 
 HINDER, impede, obstruct, prevent. (Help.) HINT, allude, refer, sug- 
 gest, intimate, insinuate. HOLD, detain, keep, retain. HOLINESS, sanc- 
 tity, piety, sacredness. HOLY, devout, pious, religious. HOMELY, plain, 
 ugly, coarse. (Beautiful.) HONESTY, integrity, probity, uprightness. 
 (Dishonesty.) HONOR, v., respect, reverence, esteem. (Dishonor.) 
 HOPE, confidence, expectation, trust. HOPELESS, desperate. HOT, ar- 
 dent, burning, fiery. (Cold.) HOWEVER, nevertheless, notwithstand- 
 ing, yet. HUMBLE, modest, submissive, plain, unostentatious, simple. 
 (Haughty.) HUMBLE, degrade, humiliate, mortify, abase. (Exalt.) 
 HUMOR, mood, temper. HUNT, seek, chase. HURTFUL, noxious, per- 
 nicious. (Beneficial.) HUSBANDRY, cultivation, tillage. HYPOCRITE, 
 dissembler, impostor, canter. HYPOTHESIS, theory, supposition. 
 
 IDEA, thought, imagination. IDEAL, imaginary, fancied. (Actual.) 
 IDLE, indolent, lazy. (Industrious.) IGNOMINIOUS, shameful, scandal- 
 ous, infamous. (Honorable. ) IGNOMINY, shame, disgrace, obloquy, in- 
 famy, reproach. IGNORANT, unlearned, illiterate, uninformed, unedu- 
 cated. (Knowing.) ILL, ., evil, wickedness, misfortune, mischief, 
 harm. (Good.) ILL, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, diseased. (Well.) 
 ILL-TEMPERED, crabbed, sour, surly, acrimonious. (Good-natured.) 
 ILL-WILL, enmity, hatred, antipathy. (Good -will.) ILLEGAL, un- 
 lawful, illicit, contraband, illegitimate. (Legal.) ILLIMITABLE, bound- 
 less, immeasurable, unlimited, infinite. ILLITERATE, unlettered, 
 unlearned, untaught, uninstructed. (Learned, educated.) ILLUSION, 
 fallacy, deception, phantasm. ILLUSORY, imaginary, chimerical, vision- 
 
84 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ary. (Real.) ILLUSTRATE, explain, elucidate, clear. ILLUSTRIOUS, 
 celebrated, noble, eminent, famous, renowned. (Obscure.) IMAGE, 
 likeness, picture, representation, effigy. IMAGINARY, ideal, fanciful, ill- 
 usory. (Real.) IMAGINE, conceive, fancy, apprehend, think, presume. 
 IMBECILITY, silliness, senility, dotage. IMITATE, copy, ape, mimic, 
 mock, counterfeit. IMMACULATE, unspotted, spotless, unsullied, stain- 
 less. (Soiled.) IMMEDIATE, pressing, instant, next, proximate. IM- 
 MEDIATELY, instantly, forthwith, directly, presently. IMMENSE, vast, 
 enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous. IMMUNITY, privilege, prerog- 
 ative, exemption. IMPAIR, injure, diminish, decrease. IMPART, reveal, 
 divulge, disclose, discover, bestow, afford. IMPARTIAL, just, equitable, 
 unbiased. (Partial.) IMPASSIONED, glowing, burning, fiery, vehement, 
 intense. IMPEACH, accuse, charge, arraign, censure. IMPEDE, hinder, 
 retard, obstruct, prevent. (Help.) IMPEDIMENT, obstruction, hindrance, 
 obstacle, barrier. (Aid.) IMPEL, animate, induce, incite, instigate, em- 
 bolden. (Retard.) IMPENDING, imminent, threatening. IMPERATIVE, 
 commanding, authoritative, despotic. IMPERFECTION, fault, blemish, 
 defect, vice. IMPERIL, endanger, hazard, jeopardize. IMPERIOUS, com- 
 manding, dictatorial, authoritative, imperative, lordly, overbearing, 
 domineering. IMPERTINENT, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, 
 impudent, insolent. IMPETUOUS, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement. 
 (Calm.) IMPIOUS, profane, irreligious, godless. (Reverent.) IMPLICATE, 
 involve, entangle, embarrass, compromise. IMPLY, involve, comprise, in- 
 fold, import, denote, signify. IMPORTANCE, signification, significance, 
 avail, consequence, weight, gravity, moment. IMPOSING, impressive, 
 striking, majestic, august, noble, grand. (Insignificant.) IMPOTENCE, 
 weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness. (Power.) IMPOTENT, 
 weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm. (Strong.) IMPRESSIVE, 
 stirring, forcible, exciting, affecting, moving. IMPRISON, incarcerate, 
 shut up, immure, confine. (Liberate.) IMPRISONMENT, captivity, 
 durance. IMPROVE, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, 
 apply, use, employ. (Deteriorate.) IMPROVIDENT, careless, incautious, 
 imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, reckless, rash. (Thrifty.) IMPUDENCE, 
 assurance, impertinence, confidence, insolence, rudeness. IMPUDENT, 
 saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, insolent, immodest, 
 shameless. IMPULSE, incentive, incitement, motive, instigation. IM- 
 PULSIVE, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. (Deliberate.) IMPUTATION, 
 blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation. INADVERTENCE, error, 
 oversight, blunder, inattention, carelessness, negligence. INCEN- 
 TIVE, motive, inducement, impulse. INCITE, instigate, excite, provoke, 
 stimulate, encourage, urge, impel. INCLINATION, leaning, slope, dis- 
 position, tendency, bent, bias, affection, attachment, wish, liking, desire. 
 (Aversion.) INCLINE, v., slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, bias, dis- 
 pose. INCLOSE, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. INCLUDE, 
 comprehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in. INCOMMODE, annoy, 
 plague, molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble. (Accommodate.) IN- 
 COMPETENT, incapable, unable, inadequate, insufficient. (Competent.) 
 INCREASE, v., extend, enlarge, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise, 
 enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow. (Diminish.) INCREASE, n., aug- 
 mentation, accession, addition, enlargement, extension. (Decrease.) 
 INCUMBENT, obligatory. INDEFINITE, vague, uncertain, unsettled, 
 loose, lax. (Definite.) INDICATE, point out, show, mark. INDIFFER- 
 ENCE, apathy, carelessness, listlessness, insensibility. (Application, 
 assiduity.) INDIGENCE, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 85 
 
 privation. (Affluence.) INDIGNATION, anger, wrath, ire, resentment. 
 INDIGNITY, insult, affront, outrage, obloquy, opprobrium, reproach, 
 ignominy. (Honor.) INDISCRIMINATE, promiscuous, chance, indistinct, 
 confused. (Select, chosen.) INDISPENSABLE, essential, necessary, requi- 
 site, expedient. (Unnecessary, supernumerary.) INDISPUTABLE, un- 
 deniable, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, unquestionable, sure, 
 infallible. INDORSE, ratify, confirm, superscribe. INDULGE, foster, 
 cherish, fondle. (Deny ) INEFFECTUAL, vain, useless, unavailing, 
 fruitless, abortive, inoperative. (Effective.) INEQUALITY, disparity, 
 disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness. (Equality.) INEVITABLE, un- 
 avoidable, not to be avoided, certain. INFAMOUS, scandalous, shameful, 
 ignominious, opprobrious, disgraceful. (Honorable.) INFERENCE, de- 
 duction, corollary, conclusion, consequence. INFERNAL, diabolical, 
 fiendish, devilish, hellish. INFEST, annoy, plague, harass, disturb. 
 INFIRM, weak, feeble, enfeebled. (Robust.) INFLAME, anger, irritate, 
 enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, imbitter, exasperate. (Allay, 
 soothe.) INFLUENCE, v., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess. INFLUENCE, 
 n. y credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority, sway, ascend- 
 ency. INFRINGE, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate. 
 INGENUOUS, artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere. 
 (Crafty.) INHUMAN, cruel, brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, 
 ferocious. (Humane.) INIQUITY, injustice, wrong, grievance. INJURE, 
 damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve, harm, spoil, mar, sully. 
 (Benefit.) INJURIOUS, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, deleterious, noxious, 
 prejudicial, wrongful, damaging. (Beneficial.) INJUSTICE, wrong, in- 
 iquity, grievance. (Right.) INNOCENT, guiltless, sinless, harmless, 
 inoffensive, innoxious. (Guilty.) INNOCUOUS, harmless, safe, innocent. 
 (Hurtful.) INORDINATE, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, 
 immoderate. (Moderate.) INQUIRY, investigation, examination, re- 
 search, scrutiny, disquisition, question, query, interrogation. INQUISI- 
 TIVE, prying, peeping, curious, peering. INSANE, mad, deranged, de- 
 lirious, demented. (Sane.) INSANITY, madness, mental aberration, 
 lunacy, delirium. (Sanity.) INSINUATE, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, 
 introduce, ingratiate. INSIPID, dull, flat, mawkish, tasteless, vapid, in- 
 animate, lifeless. (Bright, sparkling.) INSOLENT, rude, saucy, pert, 
 impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, opprobrious, insulting, offensive. IN- 
 SPIRE, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, breathe, inhale. INSTABILITY, 
 mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering. (Stability, firmness.) 
 INSTIGATE, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, encourage. 
 INSTIL, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. INSTRUCT, inform, teach, 
 educate, enlighten, initiate. INTRUMENTAL, conducive, assistant, helping, 
 ministerial. INSUFFICIENCY, inadequacy, in competency, incapability, 
 deficiency, lack. INSULT, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy. (Honor.) 
 INSULTING, insolent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive. 
 INTEGRITY, uprightness, honesty, probity, entirety, entireness, com- 
 pleteness, rectitude, purity. (Dishonesty.) INTELLECT, understanding, 
 sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, talent, genius. (Body.) IN- 
 TELLECTUAL, mental, ideal, metaphysical. (Brutal.) INTELLIGIBLE, 
 clear, obvious, plain, distinct. (Abstruse.) INTEMPERATE, immoderate, 
 excessive, drunken, nimious, inordinate. (Temperate.) INTENSE, ar- 
 dent, earnest, glowing, fervid, burning, vehement. INTENT, design, 
 purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, purport, meaning. INTERCOURSE, 
 commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance. INTERDICT, forbid, 
 prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar, restrain from. (Allow.) INTERFERE, 
 
86 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 meddle, intermeddle, interpose. INTERMINABLE, endless, interminate, 
 infinite, unlimited, illimitable, boundless, limitless. (Brief, concise.) 
 INTERPOSE, intercede, arbitrate, meditate, interfere, meddle. INTER- 
 PRET, explain, expound, elucidate, unfold, decipher. INTIMATE, hint, 
 suggest, insinuate, express, signify, impart, tell. INTIMIDATE, dis- 
 hearten, alarm, frighten, scare, appal, daunt, cow, browbeat. (Encour- 
 age.) INTOLERABLE, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, unendur- 
 able. INTREPID, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, 
 courageous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. 
 (Cowardly, faint-hearted.) INTRIGUE, plot, cabal, conspiracy, combina- 
 tion, artifice, ruse, amour. INTRINSIC, real, true, genuine, sterling, 
 native, natural. (Extrinsic.) INVALIDATE, quash, cancel, overthrow, 
 vacate, nulify, annul. INVASION, incursion, irruption, inroad, aggres- 
 sion, raid, fray. INVECTIVE, abuse, reproach, railing, censure, sarcasm, 
 satire. . INVENT, devise, contrive, frame, find out, discover, design. IN- 
 VESTIGATION, examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny. IN- 
 VETERATE, confirmed, chronic, malignant. (Inchoate.) INVIDIOUS, en- 
 vious, hateful, odious, malignant. INVIGORATE, brace, harden, nerve, 
 strengthen, fortify. (Enervate). INVINCIBLE, unconquerable, impreg- 
 nable, insurmountable. INVISIBLE, unseen, imperceptible, impalpable, 
 unperceivable. INVITE, ask, call, bid, request, allure, attract, solicit. 
 INVOKE, inyocate, call upon, appeal, refer, implore, beseech. INVOLVE, 
 implicate, entangle, compromise, envelope. IRKSOME, wearisome, tire- 
 some, tedious, annoying. (Pleasant.) IRONY, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, 
 raillery. IRRATIONAL, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, absurd, ridicu- 
 lous. (Rational.) IRREGULAR, eccentric, anomalous, inordinate, in- 
 temperate. (Regular.) IRRELIGIOUS, profane, godless, impious, sacri- 
 legious, desecrating. IRREPROACHABLE, blameless, spotless, irreprov- 
 able. IRRESISTIBLE, resistless, irrepressible. IRRESOLUTE, wavering, 
 undetermined, undecided, vacillating. (Determined.) IRRITABLE, ex- 
 citable, irascible, susceptible, sensitive. (Calm.) IRRITATE, aggravate, 
 worry, embitter, madden, exasperate. ISSUE, v., emerge, rise, proceed, 
 flow, spring, emanate. ISSUE, ., end, upshot, effect, result, offspring, 
 progeny. 
 
 JADE, harass, weary, tire, worry. JANGLE, wrangle, conflict, dis- 
 agree. JARRING, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, inconsistent. 
 JAUNT, ramble, excursion, trip. JEALOUSY, suspicion, envy. JEOPARD, 
 hazard, peril, endanger. JEST, joke, sport, divert, make game of. 
 JOURNEY, travel, tour, passage. JOY, gladness, mirth, delight. (Grief.) 
 JUDGE, justice, referee, arbitrator. JOYFUL, glad, rejoicing, exultant. 
 (Mournful.) JUDGMENT, discernment, discrimination, understanding. 
 JUSTICE, equity, right. Justice is right as established by law; equity 
 according to the circumstances of each particular case. (Injustice.) 
 JUSTNESS, accuracy, correctness, precision. 
 
 KEEP, preserve, save. (Abandon.) KILL, assassinate, murder, 
 slay. KINDRED, affinity, consanguinity, relationship. KNOWLEDGE, 
 erudition, learning, science. (Ignorance.) 
 
 L/ABOR, toil, work, effort, drudgery. (Idleness.) LACK, need, de- 
 ficiency, scarcity, insufficiency. (Plenty.) LAMENT, mourn, grieve, 
 weep. (Rejoice.) LANGUAGE, dialect, idiom, speech, tongue. LASCIVI- 
 OUS, loose, unchaste, lustful, lewd, lecherous. (Chaste.) LAST, final, 
 latest, ultimate. (First.) LAUDABLE, commendable, praiseworthy. 
 (Blamable.) LAUGHABLE, comical, droll, ludicrous. (Serious.) LAW- 
 FUL, legal, legitimate, licit. (Illegal.) LEAD, conduct, guide. (Follow.) 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 87 
 
 meager. (Fat.) LEARNED, erudite, scholarly. (Ignorant.) 
 LEAVE, z>., quit, relinquish. LEAVE, ., liberty, permission, license. 
 (Prohibition.) LIFE, existence, animation, spirit, vivacity. (Death.) 
 LIFELESS, dead, inanimate. LIFT, erect, elevate, exalt, raise. (Lower.) 
 LIGHT, clear, bright. (Dark.) LIGHTNESS, flightiness, giddiness, lev- 
 ity, volatility. (Seriousness.) LIKENESS, resemblance, similarity. 
 (Unlikeness.) LINGER, lag, loiter, tarry, saunter. (Hasten.) LITTLE, 
 diminutive, small. (Great.) LIVELIHOOD, living, maintenance, sub- 
 sistence, support. LIVELY, jocund, merry, sportive, sprightly, vivaci- 
 ous. (Slow, languid, sluggish.) LONG, extended, extensive. (Short.) 
 LOOK, appear, seem. LOSE, miss, forfeit. (Gain ) Loss, detriment, 
 damage, deprivation. (Gain.) LOUD, clamorous, high-sounding, 
 noisy. (Low, quiet.) LOVE, affection. (Hatred.) Low, abject, mean. 
 (Noble.) LUNACY, derangement, insanity, mania, madness. (Sanity.) 
 LUSTER, brightness, brilliancy, splendor. LUXURIANT, exuberant. 
 (Sparse.) 
 
 MACHINATION, plot, intrigue, cabal, conspiracy. (Artlessness.) 
 MAD, crazy, delirious, insane, rabid, violent, frantic. (Sane, rational, 
 quiet.) MADNESS, insanity, fury, rage, frenzy. MAGISTERIAL, august, 
 dignified, majestic, pompous, stately. MAKE, form, create, produce. 
 (Destroy.) MALEDICTION, anathema, curse, imprecation, execration. 
 MALEVOLENT, malicious, virulent, malignant. (Benevolent.) MALICE, 
 spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, animosity, ill-will. (Benignity.) MA- 
 LICIOUS, see malevolent. MANACLE, v., shackle, fetter, chain. (Free.) 
 MANAGE, contrive, concert, direct. MANAGEMENT, direction, super- 
 intendence, care, economy. MANGLE, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, 
 maim. MANIA, madness, insanity, lunacy. MANIFEST, Z'., reveal, 
 prove, evince, exhibit, display, show. MANIFEST, a., clear, plain, evi- 
 dent, open, apparent, visible. (Hidden, occult.) MANIFOLD, several, 
 sundry, various, divers, numerous. MANLY, masculine, vigorous, cour- 
 ageous, brave, heroic. (Effeminate.) MANNER, habit, custom, way, 
 air, look, appearance. MANNERS, morals, habits, behavior, carriage. 
 MAR, spoil, ruin, disfigure. (Improve.) MARCH, tramp, tread, walk, 
 step, space. MARGIN, edge, _rim, border, brink, verge. MARK, ., 
 sign, note, symptom, token, indication, trace, vestige, track, badge, 
 brand. MARK, z>., impress, print, stamp, engrave, note, designate. 
 MARRIAGE, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock. MARTIAL, mili- 
 tary, warlike, soldier-like. MARVEL, wonder, miracle, prodigy. MAR- 
 VELOUS, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous. MASSIVE, bulky, 
 heavy, weighty, ponderous, solid, substantial. (Flimsy.) MASTERY, 
 dominion, rule, sway, ascendancy, supremacy. MATCHLESS, unrivaled, 
 unequaled, unparalleled, peerless, incomparable, inimitable, surpassing. 
 (Common, ordinary.) MATERIAL, a., corporeal, bodily, physical, tem- 
 poral, momentous, important. (Spiritual, immaterial. ) MAXIM, adage, 
 apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw. MEAGER, poor, lank, 
 emaciated, barren, dry, uninteresting. (Rich.) MEAN, a., stingy, nig- 
 gardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, contemptible, vulgar, despic- 
 able. (Generous.) MEAN, z>., design, purpose, intent, contemplate, 
 signify, denote, indicate. MEANING, signification, import, acceptation, 
 sense, purport. MEDIUM, organ, channel, instrument, means. MEDLEY, 
 mixture, variety, diversity, miscellany. MEEK, unassuming, mild, 
 gentle. (Proud.) MELANCHOLY, low-spirited, dispirited, dreamy, sad. 
 (Jolly, buoyant.) MELLOW, ripe, mature, soft. (Immature.) MELODI- 
 OUS, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sweet. (Discordant. ) MEMORABLE, 
 
88 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 signal, distinguished, marked. MEMORIAL, monument, memento, com- 
 memoration. MEMORY, remembrance, recollection. MENACE, #., 
 threat. MEND, repair, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rec- 
 tify. MENTION, tell, name, communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, dis- 
 close, inform, acquaint. MERCIFUL, compassionate, lenient, clement, 
 tender, gracious, kind. (Cruel.) MERCILESS, hard-hearted, cruel, un- 
 merciful, pitiless, remorseless, unrelenting. (Kind.) MERRIMENT, 
 mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity. (Sorrow.) MERRY, cheerful, mirth- 
 ful, joyous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, 
 sportive, jolly. (Sad.) METAPHORICAL, figurative, allegorical, sym- 
 bolical. METHOD, way, manner, mode, process, order, rule, regularity, 
 system. MIEN, air, look, manner, aspect, appearance. MIGRATORY, 
 roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant. (Settled, sedate, permanent.) 
 MIMIC, imitate, ape, mock. MINDFUL, observant, attentive, heedful, 
 thoughtful. (Heedless.) MISCELLANEOUS, promiscuous, indiscriminate, 
 mixed. MISCHIEF, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill. (Benefit.) 
 MISCREANT, caitiff, villain, ruffian. MISERABLE, unhappy, wretched, 
 distressed, afflicted. (Happy.) MISERLY, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, 
 grasping. MISERY, wretchedness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, 
 beggary. (Happiness.) MISFORTUNE, calamity, disaster, mishap, catas- 
 trophe. (Good luck.) Miss, omit, lose, fail, miscarry. MITIGATE, 
 alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish. (Aggravate. ) MODERATE, temperate, 
 abstemious, sober, abstinent. (Immoderate.) MODEST, chaste, virtuous, 
 bashful, reserved. (Immodest.) MoiST, wet, damp, dank, humid. 
 (Dry.) MONOTONOUS, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undi versified. (Varied.) 
 MONSTROUS, shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense. MONU- 
 MENT, memorial, record, remembrancer, cenotaph. MOOD, humor, dis- 
 position, vein, temper. MORBID, sick, ailing, sickly, diseased, cor- 
 rupted. (Normal, sound. \ MOROSE, gloomy, sullen, surly, fretful, 
 crabbed, crusty. (Joyous.) MORTAL, deadly, fatal, human. MOTION, 
 proposition, proposal, movement. MOTIONLESS, still, stationary, torpid, 
 stagnant. (Active, moving.) MOUNT, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, 
 climb, scale. MOURNFUL, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, grievous, doleful t 
 heavy. (Happy.) MOVE, actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, 
 persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. MULTITUDE, crowd, throng, host, 
 mob, swarm. MURDER, v. , kill, assassinate, slay, massacre, despatch. 
 MUSE, v., meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, ponder. 
 Music, harmony, melody, symphony. MUSICAL, tuneful, melodious, 
 harmonious, dulcet, sweet. MUSTY, stale, sour, fetid. (Fresh, sweet.) 
 MuTE, dumb, silent, speechless. MUTILATE, maim, cripple, disable, 
 disfigure. MUTINOUS, insurgent, seditious, tumultuous, turbulent, riot- 
 ous. (Obedient, orderly.) MUTUAL, reciprocal, interchanged, correl- 
 ative. (Sole, solitary.) MYSTERIOUS, dark, obscure, hidden, secret, 
 dim, mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. (Open, clear.) MYSTIFY, 
 confuse, perplex, puzzle. (Clear, explain.) 
 
 NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple. (Cov- 
 ered, clad.) NAME, v., denominate, entitle, style, designate, term, call, 
 christen. NAME, n., appellation, designation, denomination, title, cog- 
 nomen, reputation, character, fame, credit, repute. NARRATE, tell, re- 
 late, detail, recount, describe, enumerate, rehearse, recite. NASTY, 
 filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, gross, vile. NATION, 
 people, community, realm, state. NATIVE, indigenous, inborn, vernac- 
 ular. NATURAL, original, regular, normal, bastard. (Unnatural, forced.) 
 NEAR, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate. (Dis- 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 89 
 
 tant.) NECESSARY, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispens- 
 able. (Useless.) NECESSITATE, z>., compel, force, oblige. NECESSITY, 
 need, occasion, exigency, emergency, urgency, requisite. NEED, ., 
 necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, penury. NEED, v., require, 
 want, lack. NEGLECT, z/., disregard, slight, omit, overlook. NEGLECT, 
 ., omission, failure, default, negligence, rernissness, carelessness, slight. 
 NEIGHBORHOOD, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity. 
 NERVOUS, timfQ, timorous, shaky. NEW, fresh, recent, novel. (Old.) 
 NEWS, tidings, intelligence, information. NICE, exact, accurate, good, 
 particular, precise, fine, delicate. (Careless, coarse, unpleasant.) 
 NIMBLE, active, brisk, lively, alert, quick, agile, prompt. (Awkward.) 
 NOBILITY, aristocracy, greatness, grandeur, peerage. NOBLE, exalted, 
 elevated, illustrious, great, grand, lofty. (Low.) NOISE, cry, outcry, 
 clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult. (Silence.) NONSENSICAL, irrational, 
 absurd, silly, foolish. (Sensible.) NOTABLE, plain, evident, remark- 
 able, signal, striking, rare. (Obscure.) NOTE, s., token, symbol, mark, 
 sign, indication, remark, comment. NOTED, distinguished, remarkable, 
 eminent, renowned. (Obscure.) NOTICE, ., advice, notification, intel- 
 ligence, information. NOTICE, v., mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, 
 heed. NOTIFY, ZA, publish, acquaint, apprise, inform, declare. NOTION, 
 conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment. NOTORIOUS, conspicuous, 
 open, obvious, ill-famed. (Unknown.) NOURISH, nurture, cherish, 
 foster, supply. (Starve, famish.) NOURISHMENT, food, diet, sustenance, 
 nutrition. NovELj modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, rare. 
 (Old.) Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful. 
 (Beneficial.) NULLIFY, annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal. 
 (Affirm.) NUTRITION, food, diet, nutriment, nourishment. 
 
 OBDURATE, hard, callous, hardened, unfeeling, insensible. (Yield- 
 ing, tractable.) OBEDIENT, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful. 
 (Obstinate.) OBESE, corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy. (Attenuated.) 
 OBEY, v., conform, comply, submit. (Rebel, disobey.) OBJECT, s., aim, 
 end, purpose, design, mark, butt. OBJECT, z/., oppose, except to, con- 
 travene, impeach, deprecate. (Assent.) OBNOXIOUS, offensive. (Agree- 
 able.) OBSCURE, undistinguished, unknown, (Distinguished.) OBSTI- 
 NATE, contumacious, headstrong, stubborn, obdurate. (Yielding.) OCCA- 
 SION, opportunity. OFFENSE, affront, misdeed, misdemeanor, transgres- 
 sion, trespass. OFFENSIVE, insolent, abusive, obnoxious. (Inoffensive.) 
 OFFICE, charge, function, place. OFFSPRING, issue, progeny. OLD, 
 aged, superannuated, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete, old-fash- 
 ioned. (Young, new.) OMEN, presage, prognostic. OPAQUE, dark. 
 (Bright, transparent.) OPEN, candid, unreserved, clear, fair. (Hidden, 
 dark.) OPINION, notion, view, judgment, belief, sentiment. OPINION- 
 ATED, conceited, egoistical. (Modest.) OPPOSE, resist, withstand, 
 thwart. (Give way. ) OPTION, choice. ORDER, method, rule, system, 
 regularity. (Disorder.) ORIGIN, cause, occasion, beginning, source. 
 (End.) OUTLIVE, survive. OUTWARD, external, outside, exterior. 
 (Inner.) OVER, above. (Under.) OVERBALANCE, outweigh, prepond- 
 erate. OVERBEAR, bear down, overwhelm, overpower, subdue. OVER- 
 BEARING, haughty, arrogant, proud. (Gentle.) OVERFLOW, inunda- 
 tion, deluge. OVERRULE, supersede, suppress. OVERSPREAD, overrun, 
 ravage. OVERTURN, invert, overthrow, reverse, subvert. (Establish, 
 fortify.) OVERWHELM, crush, defeat, vanquish. 
 
 PAIN, suffering, qualm, pang, agony, anguish. (Pleasure.) PALLID, 
 pale, wan. (Florid.) PART, division, portion, share, fraction. (Whole.) 
 
90 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 PARTICULAR, exact, distinct, odd, singular, strange. (General.) PA- 
 TIENT, passive, submissive, meek. (Obdurate.) PEACE, calm, quiet, 
 tranquility. (War, riot, trouble, turbulence.) PEACEABLE, pacific, 
 peaceful, quiet. (Troublesome, riotous.) PENETRATE, bore, pierce, 
 perforate. PENETRATION, acuteness, sagacity. (Dullness.) PEOPLE, 
 nation, persons, folks. PERCEIVE, note, observe, discern, distinguish. 
 PERCEPTION, conception, notion, idea. PERIL, danger^ pitfall, snare. 
 (Safety.) PERMIT, allow, tolerate. (Forbid.) PERSUADE, allure, entice, 
 prevail upon. PHYSICAL, corporeal, bodily, material. (Mental.) PICT- 
 URE, engraving, print, representation, illustration, image. PITEOUS, 
 doleful, woeful, rueful. (Joyful.) PITILESS, see merciless. PITY, com- 
 passion, sympathy. (Cruelty.) PLACE, #., spot, site, position, post, 
 situation, station. PLACE, z>., order, dispose. PLAIN, open, manifest, 
 evident. (Secret.) PLAY, game, sport, amusement. (Work.) PLEASE, 
 gratify, pacify. (Displease.) PLEASURE, charm, delight, joy. (Pain.) 
 PLENTIFUL, abundant, ample, copious, plenteous. (Scarce.) POISE, 
 balance. POSITIVE, absolute, peremptory, decided, certain. (Negative.) 
 POSSESSOR, owner, master, proprietor. POSSIBLE, practical, practicable. 
 (Impossible.) POVERTY, penury, indigence, need, want. (Wealth.) 
 POWER, authority, force, strength, dominion. POWERFUL, mighty, 
 potent. (Weak.) PRAISE, commend, extol, laud. (Blame.) PRAYER, 
 entreaty, petition, request, suit. PRETENSE n., pretext, subterfuge. 
 PREVAILING, predominant, prevalent, general. (Isolated, sporadic.) 
 PREVENT, v. t obviate, preclude. PREVIOUS, antecedent, introductory, 
 preparatory, preliminary. (Subsequent.) PRIDE, vanity, conceit. (Hu- 
 mility.) PRINCIPALLY, chiefly, essentially, mainly. PRINCIPLE, ground, 
 reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rule, rectitude, integrity. PRIVILEGE, 
 immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right, claim. 
 PROBITY, rectitude, uprightness, honesty, integrity, sincerity, soundness. 
 (Dishonesty.) PROBLEMATICAL, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, question- 
 able, disputable, suspicious. (Certain.) PRODIGIOUS, huge, enormous, 
 vast, amazing, astonishing, astounding, surprising, remarkable, wonder- 
 ful. (Insignificant.) PROFESSION, business, trade, occupation, voca- 
 tion, office, employment, engagement, avowal. PROFFER, volunteer, 
 offer, propose, tender. PROFLIGATE, abandoned, dissolute, depraved, 
 vicious, degenerate, corrupt, demoralized. (Virtuous.) PROFOUND, 
 deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite. (Shallow.) 
 PROFUSE, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copious, 
 
 Rlentiful. (Succinct.) PROLIFIC, productive, generative, fertile, fruit- 
 il, teeming. (Barren.) PROLIX, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, 
 tiresome, wordy, verbose, prosaic. (Concise, brief.) PROMINENT, emi- 
 nent, conspicuous, marked, important, leading. (Obscure.) PROMIS- 
 CUOUS, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate. (Select.) PROMPT, 
 see punctual. PROP, v. y maintain, sustain, support, stay. PROPAGATE, 
 spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, increase. (Sup- 
 press.) PROPER, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, 
 fit, adapted, meet, becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate. 
 (Wrong.) PROSPER, flourish, succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance. (Fail.) 
 PROSPERITY, well-being, weal, welfare, happiness, good luck. (Poverty.) 
 PROXY, agent, representative, substitute, delegate, deputy. PRUDENCE, 
 carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom. (Indiscretion.) PRURIENT, 
 itching, craving, hankering, longing. PUERILE, youthful, juvenile, 
 boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak, silly. (Mature.) PUNCTILIOUS, 
 nice, particular, formal, precise. (Negligent.) PUNCTUAL, exact, pre- 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 91 
 
 cise, nice, particular, prompt, timely. (Dilatory.) PUTREFY, rot, 
 decompose, corrupt, decay. PUZZLE, v., perplex, confound, embarrass, 
 bewilder, confuse, pose, mystify. (Enlighten.) 
 
 QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank. (Sa- 
 vant.) QUAINT, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular. 
 QUALIFIED, competent, fitted, adapted. (Incompetent.) QUALITY, 
 attribute, ranlj, distinction. QUERULOUS, doubting, complaining, fret- 
 ting, repining. (Patient.) QUESTION, query, inquiry, interrogatory. 
 QUIBBLE, cavil, evade, equivocate, shuffle, prevaricate. QUICK, lively, 
 ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expeditious, adroit, 
 fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing, clever, sharp. (Slow-.) 
 QUOTE, note, repeat, cite, adduce. 
 
 RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic. (Rational.) RACE, course, 
 match, pursuit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. 
 RACK, agonize, wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass. (Soothe.) 
 RACY, spicy, pungent, smart, spirited, lively, vivacious. (Dull, insipid.) 
 RADIANCE, splendor, brightness, brilliance, brilliancy, luster, glare. 
 (Dullness.) RADICAL, organic, innate, fundamental, original, constitu- 
 tional, inherent, complete, entire. (Superficial. In a political sense, 
 uncompromising; antonym, moderate.) RANCID, fetid, rank, stinking, 
 sour, tainted, reasty. (Fresh, sweet.) RANCOR, malignity, hatred, hos- 
 tility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill-will, spite. (Forgiveness.) 
 RANK, order, degree, dignity, nobility, consideration. RANSACK, rum- 
 mage, pillage, overhaul, explore, plunder. RANSOM, emancipate, free, 
 unfetter. RANT,, bombast, fustian, cant. RAPACIOUS, ravenous, vora- 
 cious, greedy, grasping. (Generous.) RAPT, ecstatic, transported, rav- 
 ished, entranced, charmed. (Distracted.) RAPTURE, ecstasy, transport, 
 delight, bliss. (Dejection.) RARE, scarce, singular, uncommon, unique. 
 RASCAL, scoundrel, rogue, knave, scamp, vagabond. RASH, hasty, pre- 
 cipitate, foolhardy, adventurous, heedless, reckless, careless. (Delib- 
 erate.) RATE, value, compute, appraise, estimate, chide, abuse. RATIFY, 
 confirm, establish, substantiate, sanction. (Protest, oppose.) RATIONAL, 
 reasonable, sagacious, judicious, wise, sensible, sound. (Unreasonable.) 
 RAVAGE, overrun, overspread, desolate, despoil, destroy. RAVISH, 
 enrapture, .enchant, charm, delight, abuse. RAZE, demolish, destroy, 
 overthrow, ruin, dismantle. (Build up.) REACH, touch, stretch, attain, 
 gain, arrive at. READY, prepared, ripe, apt, prompt, adroit, handy, 
 (Slow, dilatory.) REAL, actual, literal, practical, positive, certain, genu- 
 ine, true. (Unreal.) REALIZE, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, 
 acquire, comprehend. REAP, gain, get, acquire, obtain. REASON, 
 motive, design, end, proof, cause, ground, purpose. REASON, deduce, 
 draw from, trace, infer, conclude. REASONABLE, rational, wise, honest, 
 fair, right, just. (Unreasonable.) REBELLION, insurrection, revolt. 
 RECANT, recall, abjure, retract, revoke. RECEDE, retire, retreat, with- 
 draw, ebb. RECEIVE, accept, take, admit, entertain. RECEPTION. 
 receiving, levee, receipt, admission. RECESS, retreat, depth, niche, 
 vacation, intermission. RECREATION, sport, pastime, play, amusement, 
 game, fun. REDEEM, ransom, recover, rescue, deliver, save, free. RE- 
 DRESS, remedy, repair, remission, abatement, relief. REDUCE, abate, 
 lessen, decrease, lower, shorten, conquer. REFINED, polite, courtly, 
 polished, cultured, genteel, purified. (Boorish.) REFLECT, consider, 
 cogitate, think, ponder, muse, censure. REFORM, amend, correct, bet- 
 ter, restore, improve. (Corrupt.) REFORMATION, improvement, reform, 
 amendment. (Corruption.) REFUGE, asylum, protection, harbor, shel- 
 
92 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ter, retreat. REFUSE, v., deny, reject, repudiate, decline, withhold. 
 (Accept.) REFUSE, ., dregs, dross, scum, rubbish, leavings, remains. 
 REFUTE, disprove, falsify, negative. (Affirm.) REGARD, r., mind, heed, 
 notice, behold, view, consider, respect. REGRET, ., grief, sorrow, lam- 
 entation, repentance, remorse. REGULAR, orderly, uniform, custom- 
 ary, ordinary, stated. (Irregular.) REGULATE, methodize, arrange, 
 adjust, organize, govern, rule. (Disorder.) REIMBURSE, refund, repay, 
 satisfy, indemnify. RELEVANT, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, perti- 
 nent, apt. (Irrelevant.) RELIANCE, trust, hope, dependence, confi- 
 dence. (Suspicion.) RELIEF, succor, aid, help, redress, alleviation. 
 RELINQUISH, give up, forsake, resign, surrender, quit, leave, forego. 
 (Retain.) REMEDY, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation. RE- 
 MORSELESS, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous. 
 (Merciful, humane.) REMOTE, distant, far, secluded, indirect. (Near.) 
 REPRODUCE, propagate, imitate, represent, copy. REPUDIATE, disown, 
 discard, disavow, renounce, disclaim. (Acknowledge.) REPUGNANT, 
 antagonistic, distasteful. (Agreeable.) REPULSIVE, forbidding, odious, 
 ugly, disagreeable, revolting. (Attractive.) RESPITE, reprieve, inter- 
 val, stop, pause. REVENGE, vengeance, retaliation, requital, retribution. 
 (Forgiveness.) REVENUE, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth, 
 REVERENCE, #., honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship, 
 homage. (Execration.) REVISE, review, reconsider. REVIVE, refresh, 
 renew, renovate, animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer, comfort. RICH, 
 wealthy, affluent, opulent, copious, ample, abundant, exuberant, 
 plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous. (Poor.) RIVAL, n., 
 antagonist, opponent, competitor. ROAD, way, highway, route, course, 
 path, pathway, anchorage. ROAM, ramble, rove, wander, stray, stroll. 
 ROBUST, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, able- 
 bodied. (Puny.) ROUT, ZA, discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter. 
 ROUTE, road, course, march, way, journey, path, direction. RUDE, 
 rugged, rough, uncouth, unpolished, harsh, gruff, impertinent, saucy, 
 flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish. (Polished, polite.) RULE, sway, 
 method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, formula, regulation, gov- 
 ernment, standard, test. RUMOR, hearsay, talk, fame, report, bruit. 
 RUTHLESS, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless, 
 relentless, unrelenting. (Considerate.) 
 
 SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted. (Pro- 
 fane.) SAFE, secure, harmless, trustworthy, reliable. (Perilous, dangerous.) 
 SANCTION, confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize. 
 (Disapprove.) SANE, sober, lucid, sound, rational. (Crazy.) SAUCY, 
 impertinent, rude, impudent, insolent, flippant, forward. (Modest.) 
 SCANDALIZE, shock, disgust, offend, calumniate, vilify, revile, malign, 
 traduce, defame, slander. SCANTY, bare, pinched, insufficient, slender, 
 meager. (Ample.) SCATTER, strew, spread, disseminate, disperse, dissipate, 
 dispel. (Collect.) SECRET, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, under- 
 hand, latent, private. (Open.) SEDUCE, allure, attract, decoy, entice, 
 abduct, inveigle, deprave. SENSE, discernment, appreciation, view, opin- 
 ion, feeling, perception, sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, 
 signification, import, significance, meaning, purport, wisdom. SENS- 
 IBLE, wise, intelligent, reasonable, sober, sound, conscious, aware. 
 (Foolish.) SETTLE, arrange, adjust, regulate, conclude, determine. 
 SEVERAL, sundry, divers, various, many. SEVERE, harsh, stern, strin- 
 gent, unmitigated, rough, unyielding. (Lenient.) SHAKE, tremble, 
 shudder, shiver, quake, quiver. SHALLOW, superficial, flimsy, slight. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 93 
 
 (Deep, thorough.) SHAME, disgrace, dishonor. (Honor.) SHAMEFUL, 
 degrading, scandalous, disgraceful, outrageous. (Honorable.) SHAME- 
 LESS, immodest, impudent, indecent, indelicate, brazen. SHAPE, form, 
 fashion, mold, model. SHARE, portion, lot, division, quantity, quota, 
 contingent. SHARP, acute, keen. (Dull.) SHINE, glare, glitter, radi- 
 ate, sparkle. SHORT, brief, concise, succinct, summary. (Long.) SHOW, 
 v., indicate, mark, point out, exhibit, display. SHOW, ., exhibition, 
 representation, sight, spectacle. SICK, diseased, sickly, unhealthy, mor- 
 bid. (Healthy.) SICKNESS, n., illness, indisposition, disease, disorder. 
 (Health.) SIGNIFICANT, a., expressive, material, important. (Insignifi- 
 cant.) SIGNIFICATION, import, meaning, sense. SILENCE, speechless- 
 ness, dumbness. (Noise.) SILENT, dumb, mute, speechless. (Talka- 
 tive.) SIMILE, comparison, similitude. SIMPLE, single, uncompounded, 
 artless, plain. (Complex, compound.) SIMULATE, dissimulate, dis- 
 semble, pretend. SINCERE, candid, hearty, honest, pure, genuine, real. 
 (Insincere.) SITUATION, condition, plight, predicament, state, position. 
 SIZE, bulk, greatness, magnitude, dimension. SLAVERY, servitude, en- 
 thrallment, thralldom. (Freedom.) SLEEP, doze, drowse, nap, slum- 
 ber. SLEEPY, somnolent, (Wakeful.) SLOV, dilatory, tardy. (Fast.) 
 SMELL, fragrance, odor, perfume, scent. SMOOTH, even, level, mild. 
 (Rough.) SOAK, drench, imbrue, steep. SOCIAL, sociable, friendly, 
 communicative. (Unsocial.) SOFT, gentle, meek, mild. (Hard.) SOLICIT, 
 importune, urge. SOLITARY, sole, only, single. SORRY, grieved, 
 poor, paltry, insignificant. (Glad, respectable.) SOUL, mind, spirit. 
 (Soul is opposed to body, mind to matter.) SOUND, z/., healthy, sane. 
 (Unsound.) SOUND, ., tone, noise. (Silence.) SPACE, room. SPARSE, 
 scanty, thin. (Luxuriant.) SPEAK, converse, talk, confer, say, tell. 
 SPECIAL, particular, specific. (General.) SPEND, expend, exhaust, con- 
 sume, waste, squander, dissipate. (Save.) SPORADIC, isolated, rare. 
 (General, prevalent.) SPREAD, disperse, diffuse, expand, disseminate, 
 scatter. SPRING, fountain, source. STAFF, prop, support, stay. STAGGER, 
 reel, totter. STAIN, soil, discolor, spot, sully, tarnish. STATE, common- 
 wealth, realm. STERILE, barren, unfruitful. (Fertile.) STIFLE, choke, 
 suffocate, smother. STORMY, rough, boisterous, tempestuous. (Calm.) 
 STRAIGHT, direct, right. (Crooked.) STRAIT, a., narrow, confined. 
 STRANGER, alien, foreigner. (Friend.) STRENGTHEN, fortify, invigorate. 
 (Weaken.) STRONG, robust, sturdy, powerful. (Weak.) STUPID, dull, 
 foolish, obtuse, witless. (Clever.) SUBJECT, exposed to, liable, ob- 
 noxious. (Exempt.) SUBJECT, inferior, subordinate. (Superior to, 
 above.) SUBSEQUENT, succeeding, following. (Previous.) SUBSTAN- 
 TIAL, solid, durable. (Unsubstantial.) SUIT, accord, agree. (Disagree.) 
 SUPERFICIAL, flimsy,' shallow, untrustworthy. (Thorough.) SUPER- 
 FLUOUS, unnecessary, excessive. (Necessary.) SURROUND, encircle, en- 
 compass, environ. SUSTAIN, maintain, support. SYMMETRY, propor- 
 tion. SYMPATHY, commiseration, compassion, condolence. SYSTEM, 
 method, plan, order. SYSTEMATIC, orderly, regular, methodical. (Cha- 
 otic.) 
 
 TAKE, accept, receive. (Give.) TALKATIVE, garrulous, loquacious, 
 communicative. (Silent.) TASTE, flavor, relish, savor. (Tastelessness.) 
 TAX, custom, duty, impost, excise, toll. TAX, assessment, rate. TEASE, 
 taunt, tantalize, torment, vex. TEMPORARY, a., fleeting, transient, 
 transitory. (Permanent.) TENACIOUS, pertinacious, retentive. TEND- 
 ENCY, aim, drift, scope. TENET, position, view, conviction, belief. 
 TERM, boundary, limit, period, time. TERRITORY, dominion. THANK- 
 
94 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 FUL, grateful, obliged. (Thankless.) THANKLESS, ungracious, profit- 
 less, ungrateful, unthankful. THAW, melt, dissolve, liquefy. (Freeze.) 
 THEATRICAL, dramatic, showy, ceremonious, meretricious. THEFT, 
 robbery, depredation, spoliation. THEME, subject, topic, text, essay. 
 THEORY, speculation, scheme, plea, hypothesis, conjecture. THERE- 
 FORE, accordingly, consequently, hence. THICK, dense, close, com- 
 pact, solid, coagulated, muddy, turbid, misty, foggy, vaporous. (Thin.) 
 THIN, slim, slender, slight, flimsy, lean, attenuated, scraggy. THINK, 
 cogitate, consider, reflect, ponder, contemplate, meditate, muse, con- 
 ceive, fancy, imagine, apprehend, hold, esteem, reckon, consider, re- 
 gard, deem, believe, opine. THOROUGH, accurate, correct, trustworthy, 
 reliable, complete. (Superficial.) THOUGHT, idea, conception, imagi- 
 nation, fancy, conceit, notion, supposition, care, provision, considera- 
 tion, opinion, view, sentiment, reflection, deliberation. THOUGHTFUL, 
 considerate, careful, cautious, heedful, contemplative, reflective, provi- 
 dent, pensive, dreamy. (Thoughtless.) THOUGHTLESS, inconsiderate, 
 rash, precipitate, improvident, heedless. TIE, v., blind, restrain, re- 
 strict, oblige, secure, unite, join. (L/oose.) TIE, ., band, ligament, 
 ligature. TIME, duration, season, period, era, age, date, span, spell. 
 TOLERATE, allow, admit, receive, suffer, permit, let, endure, abide. 
 (Oppose.) TOP, summit, apex, head, crown, surface. (Bottom, base.) 
 TORRID, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry. TORTUOUS, twisted,, 
 winding, crooked, indirect. TORTURE, torment, anguish, agony. TOUCH- 
 ING, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. TRACTABLE, docile, manage- 
 able, amenable. TRADE, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, em- 
 ployment, office. TRADITIONAL, oral, uncertain, transmitted. TRAFFIC, 
 trade, exchange, commerce, intercourse. TRAMMEL, n., fetter, shackle, 
 clog, bond, chain, impediment, hindrance. TRANQUIL, still, unruffled, 
 peaceful, quiet, hushed. (Noisy, boisterous.) TRANSACTION, negotiation, 
 occurrence, proceeding, affair. TRASH, nonsense, twaddle, trifles, dross. 
 TRAVEL, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, tour, voyage. 
 TREACHEROUS, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false-hearted, 
 perfidious, sly, false. (Trustworthy, faithful.) TRITE, stale, old, ordi- 
 nary, commonplace, hackneyed. (Novel.) TRIUMPH, achievement, 
 ovation, victory, conquest, jubilation. (Failure, defeat.) TRIVIAL, 
 trifling, petty, small, frivolous, unimportant, insignificant. (Important.) 
 TRUE, genuine, actual, sincere, unaffected, true-hearted, honest, up- 
 right, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, accurate, correct. 
 TUMULTUOUS, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, confused, unruly. 
 (ORDERLY.) TRUE, tone, air, melody, strain. TURBID, foul, thick, 
 muddy, impure, unsettled. (Placid.) TYPE, emblem, symbol, figure, 
 sign, kind, sort, better. TYRO, novice, beginner, learner. 
 
 UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous. (Beautiful.) 
 UMBRAGE, offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment. UMPIRE, 
 referee, arbitrator, judge, arbiter. UNANIMITY, accord, agreement, 
 unity, concord. (Discord.) UNANIMOUS, agreeing, like-minded. UN- 
 BRIDLED, wanton, licentious, dissolute, loose, lax. UNCERTAIN, doubt- 
 ful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambiguous, indistinct, varia- 
 ble, flunctuating. UNCIVIL, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, disobliging. 
 (Civil.) UNCLEAN, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. (Clean.') UNCOMMON, rare, 
 strange, scarce, singular, choice. (Common, ordinary.) UNCONCERNED, 
 careless, indifferent, apathetic. (Anxious.) UNCOUTH, strange, odd, 
 clumsy, ungainly. (Graceful.) UNCOVER, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, 
 divest. (Hide.) UNDER, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 95 
 
 inferior. (Above.) UNDERSTANDING, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, 
 faculty, comprehension, mind, reason, brains. UNDERTAKE, engage in, 
 embark in, agree, promise. UNDO, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, 
 destroy. UNEASY, restless, disturbed, unquiet, stiff, awkward. (QuiET. ) 
 UNEQUAL, uneven, not alike, irregular, insufficient. (Even.) UNEQUALED, 
 matchless, unique, novel, new, unheard of. UNFAIR, wrongful, dishonest, 
 unjust. (Fair.) UNFIT, #., improper, unsuitable, inconsistent, untimely, 
 incompetent. (Fit.) UNFIT, v., disable, incapacitate, disqualify. (Fit.) 
 UNFORTUNATE, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, miser- 
 bier. (Fortunate.) UNGAINLY, clumsy, awkward, lumbering, uncouth. 
 (Pretty.) UNHAPPY, miserable, wretched, distressed, afflicted, painful, 
 disastrous, drear, dismal. (Happy.) UNIFORM, regular, symmetrical, 
 equal, even, alike, unvaried. (Irregular.) UNINTERRUPTED, continuous, 
 perpetual, unceasing, incessant, endless. (Intermittent.) UNION, junction, 
 combination, alliance, confederacy, league, coalition, agreement, concert. 
 (Disunion, separation.) UNIQUE, unequal, uncommon, rare, choice, 
 matchless. (Common, ordinary.) UNITE, join, .conjoin, combine, con- 
 cert, add, attach, incorporate, embody, clench, merge. (Separate, disrupt, 
 sunder.) UNIVERSAL, general, all, entire, total, catholic. (Sectional.) 
 UNLIMITED, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite. (Limited.) UN- 
 REASONABLE, foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous. UNRIVALED, 
 unequaled, unique, unexampled, incomparable, matchless. (Mediocre.) 
 UNROLL, unfold, open, discover. UNRULY, ungovernable, unmanageable, 
 refractory. (Tractable, docile.) UNUSUAL, rare, unwonted, singular, un- 
 common, remarkable, strange, extraordinary. (Common.) UPHOLD, 
 maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate. (Desert, abandon.) UP- 
 RIGHT, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, honor- 
 able. (Prone, horizontal.) UPRIGHTNESS, honesty, integrity, fairness, 
 goodness, probity, virtue, honor. (Dishonesty.) URGE, incite, impel, 
 push, drive, instigate, stimulate, press, induce, solicit. URGENT, press- 
 ing, important, imperative, immediate, serious, wanted. (Unimportant.) 
 USAGE, custom, fashion, practice, prescription. USE, ., usage, practice, 
 habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, benefit, application. (Disuse, 
 desuetude.) USE, v., employ, exercise, occupy, practise, accustom, inure. 
 (Abuse.) USEFUL, advantageous, serviceable, available, helpful, benefi- 
 cial, good. (Useless.) USELESS, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, profitless. 
 (Useful.) USUAL, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, 
 customary, general. (Unusual.) USURP, arrogate, seize, appropriate, as- 
 sume. UTMOST, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. UTTER, ., ex- 
 treme, excessive, sheer, mere, pure. UTTER, v., speak, articulate, pro- 
 nounce, express, issue. UTTERLY, totally, completely, wholly, quite, 
 altogether, entirely. 
 
 VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking. 
 (Occupied.) VAGRANT, ., wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue. 
 VAGUE, unsettled, undetermined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite. (Defi- 
 nite.) VAIN, useless, fruitless, empty, worthless, inflated, proud, con- 
 ceited, unreal, unavailing. (Effectual, humble, real.) Valiant, brave, 
 bold, valorous, courageous, gallant. (Cowardly.) VALID, weighty, 
 strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient. (Invalid.) VALOR, courage, 
 gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism. (Cowardice.) VALUE, v., ap- 
 praise, assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. 
 (Despise, condemn.) VANISH, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve. VANITY, 
 emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, affectedness. VAPID, dull, flat, insipid, 
 stale, tame. (Sparkling.) VAPOR, fume, smoke, mist, fog, steam. 
 
96 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 VARIABLE, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, shifting, wavering, fickle, 
 restless, fitful. (Constant.) VARIETY, difference, diversity, change, 
 diversification, mixture, medley, miscellany. (Sameness, monotony.) 
 VAST, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal, 
 gigantic, huge, prodigious. (Confined.) VAUNT, boast, brag, puff, 
 hawk, advertise, flouris. parade. VENERABLE, grave, sage, wise, old, 
 reverend. VENIAL, pardonable, excusable, justifiable. (Grave, serious.) 
 VENOM, poison, virus, spite, n.alice, malignity. VENTURE, n., specu- 
 lation, chance, peril, stake. VENTURE, v., dare, adventure, risk, hazard, 
 jeopardize. VERACITY, truth, truthfulness, credibility, accuracy. 
 (Falsehood.) VERBAL, oral, spoken, literal, parole. (Unwritten.) VER- 
 DICT, judgment, finding, decision, answer. VEXATION, chagrin, morti- 
 fication. (Pleasure.) VIBRATE, oscillate, swing, sway, wave, undulate, 
 thrill. VICE, vileness, corruption, depravity, pollution, immorality, 
 wickedness, guilt, iniquity, crime. (Virtue.) Vicious, corrupt, de- 
 praved, debased, bad, contrary, unruly, demoralized, profligate, faulty. 
 (Virtuous, gentle.) VICTIM, sacrifice, food, prey, sufferer, dupe, gull. 
 VICTUALS, viands, bread, meat, provisions, fare, food, repast. VIEW, 
 prospect, survey. VIOLENT, boisterous, furious, impetuous, vehement. 
 (Gentle.) VIRTUOUS, upright, honest, moral. (Profligate.) VISION, 
 apparition, ghost, phantom, st>ecter. VOLUPTUARY, epicure, sensualist. 
 VOTE, suffrage, voice. VOUCH, affirm, asseverate, assure, aver. 
 
 WAIT, await, expect, look for, wait for. WAKEFUL, vigilant, watch- 
 ful. (Sleepy.) WANDER, range, ramble, roam, rove, stroll. WANT, 
 lack, need. (Abundance.) WARY, circumspect, cautious. (Foolhardy.) 
 WASH, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, stain, tint. WASTE, v., squander, 
 dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwindle, wither. WASTEFUL, extrava- 
 gant, profligate. (Economical.) WAY, method, plan, system, means, 
 manner, mode, form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track, path, 
 habit, practice. WAVE, breaker, billow, surge. WEAK, feeble, in- 
 firm. (Strong.) WEAKEN, debilitate, enfeeble, enervate, invalidate. 
 (Strengthen.) WEARISOME, tedious, tiresome. (Interesting, entertain- 
 ing.) WEARY, harass, jade, tire, fatigue. (Refresh.) WEIGHT, gravity, 
 heaviness. (Lightness.) WEIGHT, burden, load. WELL-BEING, happi- 
 ness, prosperity, welfare. WHOLE, entire, complete, total, integral. 
 (Part.) WICKED, iniquitous, nefarious. (Virtuous.) WILL, wish, desire. 
 WILLINGLY, spontaneously, voluntarily. (Unwillingly . ) WIN, get, 
 obtain, gain, procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve. (Lose.) 
 WINNING, attractive, charming, fascinating, bewitching, enchanting, 
 dazzling, brilliant. (Repulsive.) WISDOM, prudence, foresight, far- 
 sightedness, sagacity. (Foolishness.) WIT, humor, satire, fun, raillery. 
 WONDER, v., admire, amaze, astonish, surprise. WONDER, n., marvel, 
 miracle, prodigy. WORD, n., expression, term. WORK, labor, task, 
 toil. (Play.) WORTHLESS, valueless. (Valuable.) WRITER, author, 
 penman. WRONG, injustice, injury. (Right.) 
 
 YAWN, gape, open wide. YEARN, hanker after, long for, desire, 
 crave. YELL, bellow, cry out, scream. YELLOW, golden, saffron-like. 
 YELP, bark, sharp cry, howl. YET, besides, nevertheless, notwithstand- 
 ing, however, still, ultimately, at last, so far, thus far. YIELD, bear, 
 give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, bestow, abdicate, resign, 
 cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, give up, let go, waive, 
 comply, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumb, submit. YIELDING, supple, 
 pliant, bending, compliant, submissive, unresisting. (Obstinate.) YOKE, 
 z>., couple, link, connect. YORE, long ago, long since. YOUNG, juve- 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 97 
 
 nile, inexperienced, ignorant, youthful. YOUTH, boy, lad, minority, 
 adolescence, juvenility. YOUTHFUL, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, 
 puerile. (Old.) 
 
 ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness. 
 (Indifference.) ZEALOUS, warm, ardent, fervent, enthusiastic, anxious, 
 (Indifferent, careless.) ZEST, relish, gusto, flavor. (Disgust.) 
 
 FOREIGN PHRASES INTERPRETED. 
 
 INCLUDING QUOTATIONS FROM LIVING AND DEAD LANGUAGES. 
 
 While it is not considered good form to interlard one's discourse 
 with phrases culled from foreign languages, there are many cases wherein 
 a thought is more aptly and strikingly put in Latin or French than in 
 English. When this is the case, it is certainly permissible to use that 
 which gives the best expression to the thought. It is also well to have 
 at hand a comprehensive dictionary that will show at a glance just what 
 a word, phrase or sentence in a foreign tongue means. The pages which 
 follow contain the most complete lexicon of the kind ever published. 
 
 A has, P., down with. 
 
 Ab extra, L-, from without. 
 
 Ab initio, L., from the beginning. 
 
 Ab intra, L-, from within. 
 
 Ab normis sapiens, L-, wise, without teach- 
 ing. 
 
 Aborigine^ L., from the origin. 
 
 Ab ovo, L., from the egg. 
 
 Absente reo, L-, the accused being absent. 
 
 Ab uno disce omnes, L-, from one judge all. 
 
 Ab urbo condita, L-, from the founding of 
 the city. 
 
 A compte, F., on account. 
 
 A corps perdu, F., headlong. 
 
 Ad aperturam, L., at the opening. 
 
 Ad astra per aspera, L-, to the stars 
 through difficulties. (The motto of Kan- 
 sas.) 
 
 Ad Calendas Graecas, L-, at the Greek 
 calends; meaning never, as the Greeks 
 had no calends. 
 
 Ad captandum vulgus, L-, to catch the 
 vulgar. 
 
 Ad eundem, L-, to the same (degree.) 
 
 Ad extremum, L-, to the extreme. 
 
 Adfinem, L-, to the end. 
 
 Adinfinitum, L-, to infinity. 
 
 Ad interim, L., in the meantime. 
 
 A discretion, F., at discretion. 
 
 Ad libitum, L-, at pleasure. 
 
 Ad literam, L-, (even) to the letter. 
 
 Ad modum, L., after the manner of. 
 
 Adnauseum, L., to disgust. 
 
 Ad referendum, L-, for reconsideration. 
 
 Ad rem, L-, to the point. 
 
 Ad unum omnes, L-, every one. 
 
 Ad valorem, L., according to value. 
 
 Ad vitam out culpam. L., for life or for 
 fault. 
 
 sEquo animo, L-, with mind content. 
 
 sEtatis suce, L., of his (or her) age. 
 
 Affaire d'amour, F., a love affair. 
 
 Affaire d'honneur, F., a duel. 
 
 Affaire de cceur, F., an affair of the heart. 
 
 A fortiori, L-, for stronger reason. 
 
 A la campagne, F., as in the country. 
 
 A la Francaise, F., after the French (man- 
 ner.) 
 
 U. I.-7 
 
 A VAnglaise, F., after the English (man- 
 ner.) 
 
 A la mode, F., after the fashion. 
 
 Alereflamman, L-, to feed the flame. 
 
 Al fresco, It., in the open air. 
 
 A Us volat propriis, L-, she flies with he/ 
 own wings. (The motto of Oregon.) 
 
 Allez vous en, F., begone. 
 
 Allans, F., come. 
 
 Alma mater, L., benign mother. 
 
 Alter ego, L-, another self. 
 
 Alter idem, L-, another similar. 
 
 Amende honorable, F.. an apology. 
 
 A mense et thoro, L., from bed and board. 
 
 Amor patrice, L-, patriotism. 
 
 Amour propre, F., self-love. 
 
 A ncien regime, F. , the old rule. 
 
 Anglice, L-, in English. 
 
 Animis opibusque parati, L-, prepared with 
 our lives and our money. (Motto of 
 South Carolina.) 
 
 Anno cetatis suce, L-, in the year of his (or 
 her) age. 
 
 Anno Christi, L., in the year of Christ. 
 
 Anno Domini, L., in the year of our 
 Lord. 
 
 Anno mundi, L., in the year of the world. 
 
 Annus mtrabilis, L-, the wonderful year. 
 
 Ante bellum, L-, before the war. 
 
 Ante lucem, L-, before the light. 
 
 Ante meridiem, L-, before noon. 
 
 A I'outrance, F., to the death. 
 
 Apercu, F., sketch. 
 
 Aplomb, F., firmly; perpendicularly. 
 
 A posteriori, L., reasoning from effect to 
 cause. 
 
 A priori, L-, reasoning from cause to effect. 
 
 A propos, F., to the point; by-the-by. 
 
 Aqua vit&, L., water of life; alcohol. 
 
 Argumentum ad hominem, L-, an argu- 
 ment to the man. 
 
 Argumentum ad ignorantiam, L-> an argu- 
 ment for the ignorant. 
 
 Argumentum ad baculum, L-, an argument 
 with a cudgel. 
 
 Arriere pensee, F., an after-thought. 
 
 Ars est celare artem, L., art is to conceal 
 art. 
 
MANUAL OP USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Ars longa, vita brevis est, I,., art is long, 
 
 life is short. 
 A sinus ad ly rant, I,., an ass with a harp; 
 
 an absurdity. 
 
 A teneris annis, I/., from tender years. 
 Audaces furtuna juvat, I/., fortune favors 
 
 the bold. 
 
 Aude sapere, I/., dare to be wise. 
 Audi alteram partem, L,., hear the other 
 
 side. 
 
 Aufait, F., expert. 
 Au fond, F., at the bottom. 
 Au pis aller, F., at the worst. 
 Aura popularis, L,., the wind of public favor. 
 Aurea mediocrilas, I/., the golden mean. 
 A u reste, F. , for the rest. 
 Au reyoir, F., till the next meeting. 
 Aussitot dit, aussitotfait, F., no sooner said 
 
 than done. 
 Aut amat out odit mutter, I,., a woman 
 
 either loves or hates. 
 Aut C&sar aut nullus, I*., either Csesar or 
 
 nobody. 
 Auto da fe, Portuguese, an act of faith; 
 
 burning a heretic. 
 Auto de se, I,., suicide. 
 Au troisieme, F., on the third floor. 
 Aut vincere aut mori, I/., either to conquer 
 
 or die. 
 
 Aux armes, F., to arms. 
 Avant-coureur, F., a forerunner. 
 Avant-propos, F,, a preface. 
 A vec permission, F., with permission. 
 A verbis ad verbera, i,., from words to 
 
 blows. 
 A vinculo matrimonii, L,., from the bond 
 
 of marriage. 
 
 A volonte, F., at pleasure. 
 A votre sante, F., to your health. 
 
 Bas bleu, F., a blue-stocking. 
 
 Beau ideal, F., an ideal beauty. 
 
 Beau monde, F., the fashionable world. 
 
 Beaux esprits, F., men of wit. 
 
 Beaux yeux, F., beautiful eyes. 
 
 Bel esprit, F., a brilliant mind. 
 
 Bete noire, F. , a bugbear. 
 
 Bien seance, F., politeness. 
 
 Billet doux, F., a love-letter. 
 
 Bis dat qui cito dat, i,., he gives twice who 
 
 gives quickly. 
 Blase, F., surfeited. 
 Bon ami, F., good friend. 
 Bonbon, F., candy. 
 
 Bon gre malgre, F., willing or unwilling. 
 Bonhomie, F., good nature. 
 Bonis avibus, I,., with lucky omens. 
 Bon jour, good day. 
 Bonne, F., nurse. 
 Bonne foi, F., good faith. 
 Bon soir, F., good evening. 
 Brevimanu, I,., immediately. 
 Brutum fulmen, I,., harmless thunder. 
 
 Cacoethes loquendi, I,., an itch for speak- 
 ing. 
 
 Cacoethes scribendi, I/., an itch for writing. 
 
 C&tera desunt, I,., the remainder wanting. 
 
 C&teris panbus, I,., other things being 
 equal. 
 
 Candida pax, I,., white-robed peace. 
 
 Caput, 1,., head. 
 
 Caput moituum, L,., the dead body. 
 
 Carpe diem, L,., be merry to-day. 
 
 Cassis tutisstma virtus, I*., virtue is the 
 safest shield. 
 
 Casus belli, I,., a cause for war. 
 
 Catalogue raisonne, F., a topical catalogue. 
 
 Causa sine qua non, I,., an indispensable 
 condition. 
 
 Cedant arnta togte, I,., let arms yield to the 
 gown. 
 
 Ce n'est que le premier pas qui coute, F., the 
 first step alone is difficult. 
 
 C'est a dire, F., that is to say. 
 
 Chacun a son gout, F., every man to his 
 taste. 
 
 Chef, F., the head; the leading person or 
 part. 
 
 Chefde bataillnn, F., a major. 
 
 Chef de cuisine, F., head cook. 
 
 Chef-d'oeuvre, F., a masterpiece. 
 
 Chere amie, F., a dear friend; a mistress. 
 
 Chevalier d'industrie, F., knight of in- 
 dustry; one who lives by his wits. 
 
 Chiaroscuro, It., distribution of light and 
 shade in painting. 
 
 Cicerone, It., a guide who explains curiosi- 
 ties. 
 
 Cicisbeo, It., a male attendant on a mar- 
 ried lady. 
 
 Ci-devant, F., formerly; heretofore. 
 
 Cogito, ergo sum, I,., I think, therefore, I 
 exist. 
 
 Colubrem in sinu favere, I,., to cherish a 
 serpent in one's bosom. 
 
 Comnie ilfaut, F., as it should be. 
 
 Compagnon de voyage, F. , a traveling com- 
 panion. 
 
 Compos mentis, Iy., sound of mind. 
 
 Compte rendu, F., account rendered; report. 
 
 Comte, F., count. 
 
 Comtesse, F., countess. 
 
 Con amore, L., with love or great pleasure, 
 earnestly. 
 
 Con commodo, It., at a convenient rate. 
 
 Conditio sine qua non, I,., a necessary con- 
 dition. 
 
 Confrere, F. , a brother of the same monas- 
 tery; an associate. 
 
 Conge d'elire, F., leave to elect. 
 
 Conquiescat in pace, I,., may he rest in 
 peace. 
 
 Conseil de famille, F., a family consulta- 
 tion. 
 
 Conseil d'etat, F., a counsel of state; a privy 
 council. 
 
 Contantia et virtute, I,., by constancy and 
 virtue. 
 
 Consuetudo pro lege servatur, I,., custom is 
 observed as law. 
 
 Contra bonos mores, I*., against good mor- 
 als or manners. 
 
 Coram nobis, L,., before us. 
 
 Coram non judice, I/., before one not the 
 proper judge. 
 
 Corps de garde, F., a body of men who 
 watch in a guard room; the guard-room 
 itself. 
 
 Corps diplomatique, F., a diplomatic body. 
 
 Corpus Christi, L,., Christ's body. 
 
 Corpus delicti, I,., the body, substance or 
 foundation of the offence. 
 
 Corrigenda, I,., corrections to be made. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 99 
 
 Couleur de rose, F., rose-color; an aspect 
 
 of beauty and attractiveness. 
 Coup d'essai, F., a first attempt. 
 Coup d'etat, F., a stroke of policy in state 
 
 affairs. 
 
 Coup de grace, F., the finishing stroke. 
 Coup de main, F., a sudden attack; a bold 
 
 effort. 
 
 Coup d'ceil, F., a slight view; a glance. 
 Coup de theatre, F., a theatrical effect; clap- 
 trap. 
 Coute qu't'l coute, F., let it cost what it 
 
 may. 
 Credula res amor est, I,., love is a credulous 
 
 affair. 
 
 Crescite et multiplicamini, I,., grow, or in- 
 crease, and multiply. (The motto of 
 
 Maryland. ) 
 Crimen 1czs& majestatis, I,., the crime of 
 
 high treason. 
 Cut bonoTL,., for whose benefit is it? what 
 
 good will it do? 
 Cul de sac, F., the bottom of a bag; a place 
 
 closed at one end. 
 Cum grano salt's, I,., with a grain of salt; 
 
 with some allowance. 
 Cum privilegio, I,., with privilege. 
 Currente calamo, L,., with a running or 
 
 rapid pen. 
 Custos rotulorum, I,., the keeper of the 
 
 rolls. 
 
 Da capo, It., from the beginning. 
 
 D' accord, F., agreed; in tune. 
 
 Damnant quod non intelligunt, L., they 
 condemn what they do not understand. 
 
 De bonne grace, F., with good grace; will- 
 ingly. 
 
 De die in diem, I,., from day to day. 
 
 De facto, L., from the fact; really. 
 
 Degage, F., easy and unconstrained. 
 
 Dei gratia, L., by the grace of God. 
 
 Dejeuner a lafourchette, F., a meat break- 
 
 De jure, I,., from the law; by right. 
 
 Delenda est Carthago, ~L,., Carthage must 
 be blotted out or destroyed. 
 
 De mortuis nil nisi bonum, I/., let nothing 
 but good be said of the dead. 
 
 De nihilo nihilfit, L,., of nothing, nothing 
 is made. 
 
 De novp, L,., anew; over again from the be- 
 ginning. 
 
 Deo gr alias, L,., thanks to God. 
 
 Deojuvante, L., with God's help. 
 
 Deo, non fortuna, I,., from God, not from 
 fortune. 
 
 Deo volente, I/., God willing; by God's will; 
 usually contracted into D. V. 
 
 De prnfundis, ~L,., out of the depths. 
 
 Dernier ressort, F., a last resource. 
 
 De bom's non, I,., of the goods not adminis- 
 tered on. 
 
 Degustibus non est disputandum, I,., there 
 is no disputing about tastes. 
 
 Desagrement, F., something disagreeable. 
 
 Desideratum, I,., a thing desired. 
 
 Desunl c&tera, I,., the other things are 
 wanting; the remainder is wanting. 
 
 De trap, F., too much, or too many; not 
 wanted. 
 
 Dies irce, I,., the day of wrath. 
 
 Dies non, L., in law, a day on which judges 
 
 do not sit. 
 Dieu defend le droit, F., God defends the 
 
 right. 
 
 Dieu et man droit, F., God and my right. 
 Dignus vindice nodus, L., a knot worthy to 
 
 be untied by such an avenger, or by such 
 
 hands. 
 
 Dii penates, I,., household gods. 
 Dii majores, I,., the greater gods. 
 Dii minores, I,., the lesser gods. 
 Dirigo, L,., I direct or guide. (The motto 
 
 of Maine.) 
 
 Disjecta membra, I,., scattered limbs or re- 
 mains. 
 
 Distingue, F., distinguished; eminent. 
 Distrait, F., absent in thought. 
 Divertissement, F., amusement, sport. 
 Divide et impera, I,., divide and rule. 
 Dolce far niente, It., sweet doing-nothing; 
 
 sweet idleness. 
 Double entente, F., double meaning; a play 
 
 on words; a word or phrase susceptible 
 
 of more than one meaning. (Incorrectly 
 
 written, double entendre.} 
 Dramatis persons, L,., the characters or 
 
 persons represented in a drama. 
 Droit des gens, F., the law of nations. 
 Dulce domun, L., sweet home; homewards. 
 Dulce est desipere in loco, L., it is pleasant 
 
 to jest or be merry at the proper time. 
 Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, I,., it 
 
 is sweet and becoming to die for one's 
 
 country. 
 Dum spiro, spero, I,., while I breathe, I 
 
 hope. 
 Dum vivimus, vivamus, I,., while we live, 
 
 let us live. 
 
 Eau de Cologne, F., a perfumed liquid; 
 Cologne water. 
 
 Eau de vie, F., water of life; brandy. 
 
 Ecce homo, L,., behold the man. (Applied 
 to a picture representing our Lord given 
 
 i up to the Jews by Pilate, and wearing a 
 crown of thorns.) 
 
 Editio princeps, L., the first edition. 
 
 Egalite, F., equality. 
 
 Ego et rex meus, L., I and my king. 
 
 Eldorado, Sp., the golden land. 
 
 Emigre, F., an emigrant. 
 
 Empressement, F., ardor; zeal. 
 
 En arriere, F., in the rear; behind. 
 
 En attendant, F., in the meanwhile. 
 
 En avant, F., forward. 
 
 En deshabille, F., in undress. 
 
 En echelon, F., in steps; like stairs. 
 
 En famille, F., in a domestic state. 
 
 Enfans perdus, F., lost children; in mil., 
 the forlorn hope. 
 
 En grande tenue, F., in full dress. 
 
 En masse, F., in a body. 
 
 En passant, F., in passing; by the way. 
 
 En rapport, F., in relation; in connection. 
 
 En regie, F., in order; according to rules. 
 
 En route, F., on the way. 
 
 Ense petit placidem sub libertate quietem, 
 L., with the sword she seeks quiet peace 
 under liberty. (The motto of Massachu- 
 setts.) 
 
 En suite, F., in company. 
 
 Entente cordiale, F., evidence of good- will 
 
100 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 towards each other, exchanged by the 
 chief persons of two states. 
 
 Entourage, F., surroundings; adjuncts. 
 
 En tout, F., in all; wholly. 
 
 Entree, F., entrance; first course at meals; 
 freedom of access. 
 
 Entremets, F., dainties; small dishes. 
 
 Entrepot, F., a warehouse, a place for de- 
 positing goods. 
 
 Entrenous, F., between ourselves. 
 
 Entresol, F., a suite of apartments between 
 the basement or ground floor and the 
 second floor. 
 
 En verite, F., in truth; verily. 
 
 E pluribus unum, Iy., one composed of 
 many. (The motto of the United States, 
 as one government formed of many inde- 
 pendent States. 
 
 Err are est humanum, I,., to err is hu- 
 man. 
 
 Esprit borne, F., a narrow, contracted 
 mind. 
 
 Esprit du corps, F., spirit of the body; fel- 
 lowship; brotherhood. 
 
 Esse quam videri, Iy., to be, rather than to 
 seem. 
 
 Esto perpftua, L., let it be perpetual; let it 
 endure forever. 
 
 Et ccetera, Iy., and the rest; etc. 
 
 Et hoc genus omne, Iy., and everything of 
 the kind. 
 
 Et sequentes, L,., Et sequentia, I,., and those 
 that follow. 
 
 Et sic de cceteris, I,., and so of the rest. 
 
 Et tu, Brute! Iy.. and thou also, Brutus! 
 
 Eureka, Gr., I have found it. (The motto 
 of California.) 
 
 Ex adverso, L,., from the opposite side. 
 
 Ex animo, L,., with the soul; heartily. 
 
 Ex capite, L,., from the head; from mem- 
 ory. 
 
 Ex cathedra, Iy., from the bench, chair or 
 pulpit; with high authority. 
 
 Excelsior, Iy., higher; more elevated. (The 
 motto of New York.) 
 
 Exceptioprobateregulam, Iy., the exception 
 proves the rule. 
 
 Excerpta, I,., extracts. 
 
 Ex concessio, Iy., from what is conceded. 
 
 Ex curia, I,., out of court. 
 
 Ex dono, I,., by the gift. 
 
 Exempli gratia, Iy., for example; for in- 
 stance. 
 
 Exeunt, Iy., they go out. 
 
 Exeunt omnes, I,., all go out. 
 
 Exit, Iy., departure; a passage out; death. 
 
 Exitus acta probat, Iy., the event justifies 
 the deed. (Washington's motto. ) 
 
 Ex necessitate rei, Iy., from the necessity of 
 the case. 
 
 Ex nihilo nihilfit, I,., out of nothing, noth- 
 ing comes. 
 
 Ex officio, I,., by virtue of office. 
 
 Ex parte, L., on one part or side only. 
 
 Ex pede Herculum, L., we see a Hercules 
 from the foot; we judge the whole from 
 the specimen. 
 
 Experimentum cruets, I/., the experiment 
 of the cross; a decisive experiment; a 
 most searching test. 
 
 Experto crede, L., trust one who has had 
 experience. 
 
 Ex post facto, I/., after the deed is done. 
 
 Ex tempore, Iy., off-hand; without premedi- 
 tation. 
 
 Extra muros, Iy., beyond the walls. 
 
 Ex uno disce omnes, L., from one learn all; 
 from one you can judge the whole. 
 
 Ex usu, Iy., from or by use. 
 
 Facetice, I,., witticisms; humorous pleas- 
 antry. 
 
 Facile princeps, Iy., evidently pre-eminent; 
 the admitted chief. 
 
 FacilisestdescensusAverni, L., the descent 
 to hell is easy; the road to evil is easy. 
 
 Fac-simile, Iy., an exact copy; a likeness. 
 
 Fait accompli, F., a thing already accom- 
 plished. 
 
 Fas est et ab hoste doceri, Iy., 'it is well to 
 learn even from an enemy. 
 
 Fata Morgana, It., a meteoric phenome- 
 non nearly allied to the mirage. 
 
 Fata obstant, Iy., the Fates oppose it. 
 
 Fauteuil, F., an easy chair. 
 
 Faux pas, F., a false step; a mistake. 
 
 Fecit, Iy., he made it; put after an artist's 
 name. 
 
 Felicitas rnultos habet amicos, Iy., prosper- 
 ity has many friends. 
 
 Feliciter, Iy., happily; successfully. 
 
 Felo de se, L., a-self-murderer; one who 
 commits felony by suicide. 
 
 Femme couverte, F., a woman covered or 
 sheltered; a married woman. 
 
 Femme de chambre, F., a woman of the 
 chamber; a chamber maid. 
 
 Femme sole, F., a single woman; an un- 
 married woman. 
 
 Ferez natures, Iy., of a wild nature said of 
 wild beasts. 
 
 Festina lente, I,., hasten slowly. 
 
 Fbte Champtere F., a rural festival. 
 
 Fete Dieu, F., the Corpus Christi festival 
 of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Feu de joie, F., a bonfire; a discharge of 
 fire-arms on joyful occasions. 
 
 Fiatjustitia ruat ccelum, Iy., let justice be 
 done, though the heavens should fall. 
 
 Fidei defensor, Iy., defender of the faith. 
 
 Fides Punica, I,., Punic faith; treachery. 
 
 Fidus Achates, Iy., faithful Achates, a true 
 friend. 
 
 Fille de chambre, F., a girl of the chamber- 
 a chamber-maid. 
 
 Finem respice, I,., look to the end. 
 
 Fit fabricando faber, L., a workman is 
 made by working; practice makes per- 
 fect. 
 
 Flagrante delicto, I,., in the commission of 
 crime. 
 
 Fortiter in re, I/., with firmness in acting. 
 
 Fortuna favet fortibus, F., fortune favors 
 the brave. 
 
 Frontt nulla fides, I,., no faith in appear- 
 ance; there is no trusting to appearances 
 
 Fuit Ilium, t,., Troy has been. 
 
 Fulmen brulum, I,., a harmless thunder- 
 bolt. 
 
 Functus officio, I,., having discharged his 
 office. 
 
 Furor loquendi, Iy., a rage for speaking. 
 
 Furor poeticus, poetic fire. 
 
 Furor scribendi, Iy., a rage for writing. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS. U$ AND MISUSE. 
 
 101 
 
 Garde du corps, F., a body-guard. 
 
 Garde mobile, F., a guard liable for general 
 service. 
 
 Gardez bien, F., guard well; take care. 
 
 Genius loci, L-, genius of the place. 
 
 Gens d'armes, F., armed police. 
 
 Gens de lettres, F., literary people. 
 
 Gens de memefamille, F., birds of a feather 
 
 Gentilhomme, F., a gentleman. 
 
 Germanice, L., in German. 
 
 Gloria in excelsis, L., glory to God in the 
 highest. 
 
 Gloria Patri, L-, glory to the Father. 
 
 Gradus ad Parnassum, L., a step to Par- 
 nassus, a mountain sacred to Apollo and 
 the Muses; a book containing aids in 
 writing Greek or Latin poetry. 
 
 Grande Parure, F., full dress. 
 
 Gratis dictum, L-, mere assertion. 
 
 Guerre a Voutrance, I,., war to the utter- 
 most. 
 
 Haud passibus cequis, L-, not with equal 
 steps. 
 
 Haul gout, F., fine or elegant taste; high 
 flavor or relish. 
 
 Hie et ubique, L-, here and everywhere. 
 
 Hicjacet, L-, here lies. 
 
 Hie labor, hoc opus est, L-, this is labor, 
 this is work. 
 
 Htc sepultus, L., here buried. 
 
 Hinc ill<z lacrimce, L-, hence proceed these 
 tears. 
 
 Historiette, F., a little or short history; a 
 tale. 
 
 Hoi polloi, Gr., the many; the rabble. 
 
 Hombre de un libra, Sp., a man of one 
 book. 
 
 Homme d' esprit, L-, a man of talent; a witty 
 man. 
 
 Honi soil qui mal y pense, F., evil be to him 
 who evil thinks. 
 
 Honorarium, L., a fee *>aid to a profes- 
 sional man. 
 
 Horribile dictu, I/., terrible to be said. 
 
 Hors de combat, F., out of condition to 
 fight. 
 
 Hortus siccus, L., collection of dried plants. 
 
 Hotel de mile, F., a town hall. 
 
 Hotel des Invalides, L. , the military hospi- 
 tal in Paris. 
 
 Humanum est errare, L., to err is human. 
 
 Ich dien, Ger. I serve. 
 
 Id est, L., that is, abbreviated to i.e. 
 
 Imitatores servum pecus, L-, imitators; a 
 servile herd. 
 
 Imperium in imperio, L., a government 
 within a government. 
 
 In (sternum, L-, forever. 
 
 In armis, L-, under arms. 
 
 In articulo mortis, L., at the point of death. 
 
 Index expurgatorius, I/., a list of prohib- 
 ited books. 
 
 In esse, L-, in being. 
 
 In extenso, L-, at full length. 
 
 In extremis, L., at the point of death. 
 
 Inflagrante delictu, L-, taken in the act. 
 
 In forma pauper is, L-, in the form of a poor 
 person. 
 
 In fora conscientiee, L., before the tribunal 
 pf conscience. 
 
 Infra dignitatem, L-, below one's dignity. 
 In hoc signo vinces, L-, under this sign, or 
 
 standard, thou shalt conquer. 
 In hoc statu, L.. in this state or condition. 
 In limine, L,., at the threshold. 
 In loco, L., in the place. 
 In loco parentis, L,,, in the place of a parent 
 In medias res, in the midst of things. 
 In menwriam, L- ,to the memory of; in 
 
 memory. 
 
 In nomine, L-, in the name of. 
 In nubibus, L. , in the clouds. 
 In pace, L., in peace. 
 In perpetuum, L., forever. 
 In petto, L-, within the breast; in reserve. 
 In plena, L,., in full. 
 In posse, L., in possible existence; that may 
 
 be possible. 
 
 Inprczsenti, L,., at the present time. 
 In propria persona, I,., in one's own person 
 In pur is naturalibus, "L,., in naked nature; 
 
 quite naked. 
 
 In re, I,., in the matter of. 
 In rem, t,., against the thing or property. 
 In rerum natura, ~L,., in the nature of 
 
 things. 
 
 In situ, L,., in its original situation. 
 Insouciance, F., indifference; carelessness. 
 In statu quo, I/., in the former state. 
 Inter alia, L,., among other things. 
 Inter nos, I,., between ourselves. 
 Inter pocula, I,., between drinks. 
 In terrorem, I,., as a warning. 
 Inter se, I,., among themselves. 
 In totidem verbis, I/., in so many words. 
 In toto, L,., in the whole; entirely. 
 Intra muros, I,., within the walls. 
 In transitu, I,., on the passage; during the 
 
 conveyance. 
 In vacua, I y ., in empty space; free, or 
 
 nearly free, from air. 
 
 In vino veritas, ~L. , there is truth in wine. 
 Invita Minervcz, I,., against the will of Mi- 
 
 nerva. 
 Ipse dixit, I,., he himself said it; dogma- 
 
 tism. 
 
 Ipsissima verba, I,., the very words. 
 
 Ipsissimis 
 
 Ipso facto 
 
 Ira furor brevis est, L,., anger is a short 
 
 , ,., . 
 
 Ipsissimis verbis, I,., in the very words. 
 Ips 
 
 so facto, L., in the fact itself. 
 
 a furor b 
 
 madness. 
 
 Jacta estalea, L,., the die is cast. 
 
 Je ne sais quoi, F., I know not what. 
 
 Jet d'eau, F.. a jet of water. 
 
 Jeu de mots, F., a play on words; a pun. 
 
 Jeu d' esprit, F., a play of spirit; a witti- 
 
 cism. 
 
 Jubilate Deo, L., be joyful in the Lord. 
 Judicium Dei, L., the judgment of God. 
 Jupiter tonans, L., Jupiter the thunderer. 
 Jure divino, L,- by divine law. 
 Jure humano, L-, by human law. 
 Jus canonicum, L-, canon law. 
 Jus civile, L-, civil law. 
 Jus divinum, L-, divine law. 
 Jus gentium, L-, the law of nations. 
 Juste milieu, F., the golden mean. 
 
 Labor e et honore, L-, by labor and honor. 
 Labor ipse voluptas, L,., labor itself is a 
 pleasure. 
 
102 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Labor omnia vincit, I,., labor conquers 
 
 everything. 
 Lafamenon vuol leggi. It., hunger obeys 
 
 no laws. 
 Laissez faire, F., let alone; suffer to have 
 
 its own way. 
 
 Lapsus calami, L., a slip of the pen. 
 Lapsus linguce, I,., a slip of the tongue. 
 Lapsus memories, I/., a slip of the memory. 
 Lares et penates, I,., domestic and house- 
 hold-gods. 
 Latet anguis in herba, I/., a snake lies hid 
 
 in the grass. 
 Laudaria viro laudato, I,., to be praised by 
 
 a man who is himself praised. 
 L'aventr, F., the future. 
 Laus Deo, I,., praise to God. 
 Le beau monde, F., the fashionable world. 
 Le bon temps viendra,^., the good time will 
 
 come. 
 Le grand monarquejt*., the great monarch 
 
 applied to L,ouis XIV. ofFrance. 
 Le pas, F., precedence in place or rank. 
 Le roi le veut, F., the king wills it. 
 Lbse-majeste, I,., high treason. 
 Letoile du nord, F., the star of the north 
 
 the motto of Minnesota. 
 Le tout ensemble, F., all together. 
 Lettre de cachet, F., a sealed letter; a royal 
 
 warrant. 
 Lettre de marque, F., a letter of marque or 
 
 reprisal. 
 
 Lex non scripta, I,., the unwritten law. 
 Lex scripta, L,., the written law; the statute 
 
 law. 
 
 Lex talionis, I,., the law of retaliation. 
 Liber um arbitrium, I,., free will. 
 Lima: labor, L., the labor of the file; the 
 
 slow polishing of a literary composition. 
 Lis subjudice, L., a case not yet decided. 
 Lite pendente, L,., the law-suit hanging; 
 
 during the trial. 
 Liter a scripta manet, I,., the written letter 
 
 remains. 
 
 Loci communes, I,., common places. 
 Locos y ninos dicen la verdad, Sp., children 
 
 and fools speak the truth. 
 Locum tenens, L,., one holding the place; a 
 
 deputy or substitute. 
 Locus standi, L,., a place for standing; a 
 
 right to interfere. 
 
 Locus pen iten tice, I/., place for repentance. 
 Lusus naturte, I,., a sport or freak of nat- 
 ure. 
 
 Ma chere, F., my deaf fern. 
 
 Mafoi, F., upon my faith. 
 
 Magna est veritas et prevalebit, I,., truth is 
 
 great and it will prevail. 
 Magnum bonum, i,., a great good. 
 Magnum opus, L,., a great work. 
 Maintien, F., deportment; carriage. 
 Maison de sante, F., a private hospital. 
 Maitre d' hotel, F., a house-steward. 
 Maladie du Pays, F., home sickness. 
 Mala fide, I,., with bad faith; treacherously 
 Mai a propos, F., ill-timed. 
 Male parta male dilabuntur, I,., things ill 
 
 gotten, are ill spent. 
 Afalgre nous. F., in spite of us. 
 Manibus pedibusque, I,., with hands and 
 
 feet. 
 
 Malum in se, "L,., bad in itself. 
 
 Manu propria, I,., with one's own hand. 
 
 Mardi Gras, F., Shrove Tuesday. 
 
 Mater familias, L,., the mother of a family. 
 
 Mauvaise honte, F., false shame. 
 
 Mauvais sujet, F., a bad subject; a worth- 
 less fellow. 
 
 Maximus in minimis, I,., very great in 
 trifling things. 
 
 Medio tutissimus ibis, I,., you will go most 
 safely in a middle course. 
 
 Mega biblion, mega kakon, Gr., a great 
 book is a great evil. 
 
 Mejudice, L., I being judge; in my opinion 
 
 Memento mori, L., remember death. 
 
 Mens sana in corpore sano, L,., a sound 
 mind in a sound body. 
 
 Mens sibiconscia recti, I,., a mind conscious 
 of rectitude. 
 
 Mens agitat molem, L,., mind moves matter 
 
 Menu, F., a bill of fare. 
 
 Mesalliance, F., improper association, mar- 
 riage with one of lower station. 
 
 Meum et tuum, I,., mine and thine. 
 
 Mirabile dictu, I,., wonderful to be told. 
 
 Mirabile visu, L,., wonderful to be seen. 
 
 Miseen scene, F., the getting up for the 
 stage, or the putting in preparation for it 
 
 Modus operandi, I,., the manner of opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Mollia tempora fandi, I,., times favorable 
 for speaking. 
 
 Mon ami, F., my friend. 
 
 Mon cher, F., my dear masc. 
 
 Montani semper liberi,^., mountaineers are 
 always freemen the motto of West Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 More majorum, I,., after the manner of our 
 ancestors. 
 
 More suo, I,., in his own way. 
 
 Motu proprio, L,., of his own accord. 
 
 Multum in parvo, L,., much in little. 
 
 Mundus vult decipi, t,., the world wishes to 
 be deceived. 
 
 Mutatis mutandis,I*.,\.\\e necessary changes 
 being made. 
 
 Natale solum, L., natal soil. 
 
 Necessitas non habet legem, 1,., necessity 
 has no law. 
 
 Nee, F., born, family or maiden name. 
 
 Ne exeat, "L,., let him not depart. 
 
 Ne fronti crede, I,., trust not to appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Nemine contradicente, I,., without opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Nemine dissentiente, I/., no one dissenting; 
 without opposition. 
 
 Nemo me impune lacessit, I,., no one pro- 
 vokes me with impunity the motto ot 
 Scotland. 
 
 Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit, I,., 
 no one is wise at all times. 
 
 Nemo repentefuit turpissimus, 1,., no man 
 becomes a scoundrel at once. 
 
 Ne plus ultra, L., nothing further. 
 
 Nequid detriments respublica capiat, L., lest 
 the republic should receive harm. 
 
 Ne sutor ultra crepidam, L., let the shoe- 
 maker stick to his last. 
 
 Nil admirari, I,., to wonder at nothing. 
 
 Nil desperandum, L., never despair. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 103 
 
 N'importe, F., never mind. 
 
 Nisidominusfrustra, unless the L,ord helps 
 nothing is gained. 
 
 Nisi prius, L,., unless previously. 
 
 Nitor in adversum, L,., I strive against op- 
 position. 
 
 Noblesse oblige, F., nobility obliges; nobles 
 must act nobly. 
 
 Nolens volens, i,., willy-nilly. 
 
 Neli me tangere, I,., don't touch me; hands 
 off. 
 
 Nolle prosequt, I,., to abandon prosecution. 
 
 Nolo episcopari, I,., I am unwilling to be a 
 Bishop. 
 
 Nom de guerre, F., a war name; an as- 
 sumed name. 
 
 Nom de plume, F., a pen name; name as- 
 sumed by an author. 
 
 Non compos mentis, L., not in one's right 
 mind. 
 
 Non constat, I,., it does not appear. 
 
 Non est inventus, L., he has not been found 
 
 Non multa, sed multum, L., not many 
 things, but much. 
 
 Non nobis solum, I,., not for ourselves 
 alone. 
 
 Non mi ricordo, It., I do not remember. 
 
 Noscitur a sociis., I,., he is known by his 
 companions. 
 
 Nota dene, L., mark well. 
 
 Nous avons change tout cela, F., we have 
 changed all that. 
 
 Nous verrons, F., we shall see. 
 
 Nonquam non paratus, L., never unpre- 
 pared. 
 
 Oderint dum meturant, L,., let them hate, 
 provided they fear. 
 
 Odi profanum, I,., I hate the vulgar. 
 
 Odium theplogicum, L., theological hatred. 
 
 Olla podrida, Sp., a mixture. 
 
 Omne ignotumpro magnifico, L., everything 
 unknown is thought magnificent. 
 
 Omnia vincit amor, L,., love conquers all 
 things. 
 
 On dit, F., they say; people say. 
 
 Onus probandi, L,., the burden of proof. 
 
 Ora pro nobis, I,., pray for us. 
 
 O temporal O mores! i,., oh, the times! oh, 
 the manners! 
 
 Otium cum dignitate, I,., ease with dig- 
 nity. 
 
 Outre, F., extravagant; extreme. 
 
 Palmam qui meruit ferat, L., who merits 
 
 bears the prize. 
 Par excellence, F., by way of eminence; in 
 
 the highest degree. 
 Par hasard, F., by chance. 
 Part passu, I*., with equal step. 
 Parvenu, F., an upstart; a rich "snob." 
 Paterfamilias, L., the father of a family. 
 Pater patriae, I,., the father of his country. 
 Pax vobiscum, L,., peace be with you. 
 Peccavi, L., I have sinned. 
 Pendente lite, I,., while the suit is pending. 
 Per annum, L., by the year. 
 Per capita, t,., by the head; on each person. 
 Per contra, I,., on the other hand. 
 Per diem, i,., by the day; everyday. 
 Periculum in mora, I,., danger in delay. 
 Perse, I*., by itself. 
 
 Personnel, F., the staff ; persons in any serv- 
 ice. 
 
 Petitio principri, L., begging the question. 
 
 Petite, F., small; little fern. 
 
 Piece de resistance, F., a joint of meat. 
 
 Pinxit, I,., he (or she) painted it. 
 
 Pis aller, F., a last expedient. 
 
 Plebs, L,., common people. 
 
 Poeta nascitur, non fit, L., a poet is born 
 not made. 
 
 Point dappui, F., point of support. 
 
 Populus vult decipi, L., the populace wish 
 to be deceived. 
 
 Posse commitatus, I,., the power of the 
 country; the force that may be sum- 
 moned by the sheriff. 
 
 Poste restante, F., to be left till called for. 
 
 Post meridiem, I,., afternoon. 
 
 Postmortem, I,., after death. 
 
 Post obitum, L., after death. 
 
 Pourparler, F., a consultation. 
 
 Pour prendre conge, F.. to take leave. 
 
 Precieuse, F., a blue stocking; a conceited 
 woman. 
 
 Preux chevalier, F., a gallant gentleman. 
 
 Prima donna, It., the first lady; the princi- 
 pal female singer in Italian opera. 
 
 Prima facie, I,., on the first face; at first 
 sight. 
 
 Primus inter pares, I,., first among his 
 peers. 
 
 Pro bono publico, !>., for the public good. 
 
 Proces -verbal, F., verbal process; the tak- 
 ing of testimony in writing. 
 
 Proet con, L., for and against. 
 
 Pro forma, 1,., for the sake of form. 
 
 Pro patria, L., for one's country. 
 
 Pro tempore, L. , for the time. 
 
 Punica fides, I*., Punic faith, i.e., treachery 
 
 Quantum sufficit, I,., as much as is suffi- 
 cient. 
 
 Quelque chose, F., something. 
 
 Quidnunc, L,., what now; a gossip. 
 
 Quid pro quo, L., an equivalent. 
 
 Qui vive, F., who goes there? 
 
 Quod er at demonstrandum, L,., which was 
 to be demonstrated. 
 
 Quonaam, I*., at one time; once. 
 
 Rara avis, L.. a rare bird. 
 
 Rechauffe, F., warmed over; stale. 
 
 Recherche, F., choice; elegant. 
 
 Redacteur, F., an editor. 
 
 Redtvivus, L., restored to life. 
 
 Reductio ad absurdum, L., reduction to an 
 
 absurdity. 
 
 Rentes, F., public funds; national securities 
 Requiescat in pace, I/., may he (or she) rest 
 
 in peace. 
 Res angusta domi, L., the narrow things 
 
 at home; poverty. 
 Res gestce, L., things done. 
 Resurgam, L., I shall rise again. 
 Revenons a nos moutons, F., let us return 
 
 to our sheep; come back to the subject. 
 Robe de chambre, F., a dressing gown. 
 Roue, F., a rake. 
 Rouge et noir, F., red and black; a game. 
 
 Sanctum sanctorum, T,., the holy of holies. 
 Sang froid, F., cold blood; self possession. 
 
104 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Sans culottes, F., without breeches; red re- 
 
 publicans. 
 
 Sartor resartus, L., the tailor patched. 
 Sauve qui peut, F., save himself who can. 
 Savoir-faire, F., knowing how to do things 
 Savoir vivre, F., knowledge of the world. 
 Semper idem, 1.., always the same. 
 Semper paratus, L., always prepared. 
 Sequitur, L., it follows. 
 Seriatim, L., in order. 
 Sic itur ad astro., L., thus the road to im- 
 
 mortality. 
 Sic semper tyrannis, L,., thus always with 
 
 tyrants. 
 Sic transit gloria mundi, L., so passes the 
 
 glory of the world. 
 Sic volo, sic ju 
 
 beo, I,., thus I will; thus I 
 
 command. 
 Similia similibus curantur, L., like things 
 
 are cured by like. 
 Similis simili gaudet, L., like is pleased 
 
 with like. 
 Si monumentum quceris, circumspice, L., if 
 
 you seek his monument, look around. 
 Sine die, L., without a day appointed. 
 Sine qua non, 1,., an indispensable condi- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Siste viator, L., stop, traveler. 
 Sivispacem, para bellum, i,., if you wish 
 
 peace, prepare for war. 
 Soi-disant, F., self-styled. 
 Spero meliora, L., I hope for better things. 
 Spirituel, L., intellectual; witty. 
 Spolia opima, TV., in ancient Rome, the spoils 
 
 of a vanquished general taken by the vic- 
 
 torious general; a rich booty. 
 Sponte sua, L., of one's own accord. 
 Statu quo ante helium, I,., in the state which 
 
 was before the war. 
 Status quo, L., the state in which. 
 S(et,-L., let it stand. 
 Suaviter in nwdo, fortiter in re, L., gentle 
 
 in manners, brave in deed. 
 Sub judice, L., under consideration. 
 Sub pcena, I^., under a penalty. 
 Sub rosa, L,., privately. 
 Sub silentio, L., in silence or stillness. 
 Sui generis, I,., of its own kind. 
 Summum bonum, L., the chief good. 
 Summumjus, sum ma injuria, L,., the rigor 
 
 of the law is the height of oppression. 
 Surgit amari aliquid, 1,., something bitter 
 
 Suum cuique, I,., let each have his own. 
 
 Tableau vivant, F., the representation of 
 some scene by groups of persons. 
 
 Tabula rasa, I,,., a smooth or blank tablet. 
 
 Tfsdium vittz, L., weariness of life. 
 
 Tant pis, F., so much the worse. 
 
 Te Deum, L., a hymn of thanksgiving. 
 
 Tempora mutantur, et nos mutanur in 
 illis, I,., the times are changed and we 
 are changed with them. 
 
 Tempusfugit, L., time flies. 
 
 Terminus ad quern, I,., the time to which. 
 
 Terminus a quo, L., the time from which. 
 
 Terra firma, I,., solid earth. 
 
 Terra incognita, L,., an unknown country. 
 
 Tertium quid, I,., a third something. 
 
 Tete-a-tete, F., head to head; a private con- 
 versation. 
 
 Toga virilis, L., the gown of manhood. 
 
 Tokalon, Gr., the beautiful; the chief good 
 
 Totidem verbis, I,., in just so many words. 
 
 Toties quoties, L,., as many as. 
 
 Toto ccelo, L., by the whole heavens; di- 
 ametrically opposite. 
 
 Toujours pret, F., always ready. 
 
 Tour deforce, F., a feat of strength or 
 skill. 
 
 Tout-a-fait, F., entirely; wholly. 
 
 Tout ensemble, F., the whole taken together 
 
 Trojafuit, I,., Troy was. 
 
 Trottoir, F., a sidewalk. 
 
 Tu quoque, Brute! !<., and thou, too, Bru- 
 tus. 
 
 Tutor etultor, L., protector and avenger. 
 
 Tuum est, I,., it is your own. 
 
 Ubimel, ibi apes, I,., where honey is, there 
 are bees. 
 
 Ultima ratio regum, I,., the last argument 
 of kings; war. 
 
 Ultima Thule, I,., the utmost boundary or 
 limit. 
 
 Un bien fait n'estjamais perdu, F., a kind- 
 ness is never lost. 
 
 Unfait accompli, L,., an accomplished fact. 
 
 Unguibus et rostro, i,., with claws and 
 beak. 
 
 Usque ad nauseam, L.. to disgust. 
 
 Usus loquendi, L,., us"age in speaking. 
 
 Utile dulci, I/., the useful with the pleasant. 
 
 Ut infra, L., as below. 
 
 Uti possidetis, L., as you possess; state of 
 present possession. 
 
 Ut supra, I,., as above. 
 
 Vade mecum, "L,., go with me. 
 
 Vale, L., farewell. 
 
 Valet de chambre, F., an attendant; a foot- 
 man. 
 
 Varies lectiones, L., various readings. 
 
 Variorum notes, L., the notes of various 
 authors. 
 
 Veni, vidi, vici, L,., I came, I saw, I con- 
 quered. 
 
 Vera progratiis, L., truth before favor. 
 
 Verbatim et literatim, I,., word for word 
 and letter for letter. 
 
 Verbum sat sapienti, L,., a word is enough 
 for a wise man. 
 
 Veritas prevalebit, I,., the truth will pre- 
 vail. 
 
 Veritas vincit, L., truth conquers. 
 
 Vestigia, I,., tracks; vestiges. 
 
 Vestigia nulla retrorsum, Iy., no footsteps 
 backward. 
 
 Vexata quczstio, L., a disputed question. 
 
 Vice, L., in the place of. 
 
 Vice versa, t,., the terms being exchanged. 
 
 Videlicet, I,., to wit; namely. 
 
 Vide ut supra, L,., see what is stated above. 
 
 Vi etarmis, I,., by force and by arms; by 
 main force. 
 
 Vincit qui se vincit, I,., he conquers who 
 overcomes himself. 
 
 Vinculum matrimonii, L,., the bond of mar- 
 riage. 
 
 Virtus laudatur, et alget, I,., virtue is 
 praised, and is not cherished (is starved.) 
 
 Virtus semper viridis, virtue is ever green 
 and blooming. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 105 
 
 Vis inertice, I,., the power of inertia; resist- 
 ance. 
 
 Vivat regina! I,., long live the queen! 
 
 Vivat rex! L,., long live the king. 
 
 Viva voce, I,., by the living voice; by oral 
 testimony. 
 
 Vivat respublica! L., long live the republic! 
 
 Vive la republique! F., long live the repub- 
 lic! 
 
 Vive V empereur! F., long live the emperor! 
 
 Vive le rot/ F., long live the king! 
 
 Voila, F., behold; there is or there are. 
 
 Volens etpotens, I,., able and willing; motto 
 of Nevada. 
 
 Volente Deo, L., God willing. 
 
 Volenti non fit injuria, L,., no injustice is 
 done to the consenting persons. 
 
 Vox et pr cetera nihil, L., a voice and noth- 
 ing more; sound without sense. 
 
 Vox populi, vox Dei, I,., the voice of the 
 people is the voice of God. 
 
 Vulgo, Iy., commonly. 
 
 Vultus est index animi I,., the face is the 
 index of the mind. 
 
 A HANDFUL, OF USEFUL ABBREVIATIONS. 
 Abbreviations are devices used in writing and printing to save time 
 and space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words and syl- 
 lables by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the letters ex- 
 cept the first. The following is a list of the more important: 
 A.B., artium baccalaureus, bachelor of arts; | Co., company or county. 
 
 able seaman 
 
 Abp. archbishop. 
 
 A.C., ante Christum, before Christ. 
 
 Ac., acre. 
 
 Ace., Ac., or Acct., account. 
 
 A.D., anno Domini, in the year of our Lord; 
 used also as equivalent to "after Christ," 
 or "of the Christian era." 
 
 A.D.C., aide-de-camp. 
 
 JEt. or ^3tat., cetatis (anno^, in the year of 
 his age. 
 
 A.H., anno Hejirce, in the year of the 
 Hegira. 
 
 A.M., ante meridiem; forenoon; anno 
 mundi, in the year of the world; artium 
 magister, master of arts. 
 
 Anon., anonymous. 
 
 A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy (Lon- 
 don ). 
 
 A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal Scottish 
 Academy. 
 
 A.U.C., ab urbe condita, from the building 
 of Rome (753 B-C.) 
 
 A.V., authorized version. 
 
 B. A., bachelor of arts. 
 
 Bart., or Bt., baronet. 
 
 B.C., before Christ. 
 
 B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. 
 
 B.D., bachelor of divinity. 
 
 B.L., bachelor of laws. 
 
 B.M., bachelor of medicine. 
 
 Bp., bishop. 
 
 B.S., bachelor of surgery. 
 
 B.Sc., bachelor of science. 
 
 B.V., Blessed Virgin. 
 
 C., cap., or chap., chapter. 
 
 C.A., chartered accountant. 
 
 Cantab., Cantabrigiensis of Cambridge. 
 
 Cantuar., Cantuariensis of Canterbury. 
 
 C.B., companion of the Bath. 
 
 C.D.V., carte de visite. 
 
 C.E., civil engineer. 
 
 Cf., confer, compare. 
 
 C.I., order of the Crown of India. 
 
 C.I.E., companion of the Indian Empire. 
 
 C.J., chief-justice. 
 
 C.M., chirurgicE magister, master in sur- 
 gery; common metre. 
 
 C.M.G., companion of the order of St. 
 Michael and St. George. 
 
 C.O.D., cash on delivery. 
 
 Cr., creditor. 
 
 Crim., con., criminal conversation. 
 
 C.S., civil service, clerk to the signet. 
 
 C.S.I., companion of the Star of India. 
 
 Ct., Connecticut. 
 
 Curt., current, the present month. 
 
 Cwt., hundredweight. 
 
 d., denarius, penny or pence. 
 
 D.C., district of Columbia. 
 
 D.C.L-, doctor of civil law. 
 
 D.D., doctor of divinity. 
 
 Del., delineavit, drew it. 
 
 D.F., defender of the faith. 
 
 D.G., Dei gratia, by the grace of God. 
 
 D.I,., deputy lieutenants. 
 
 D.Lit., doctor of literature. 
 
 Do., ditto, the same. 
 
 D.O.M., Deo Optimo Maximo, to God, the 
 
 best and greatest. 
 Dr., doctor, also debtor. 
 D.Sc., doctor of science. 
 D.V., Deo volente, God willing. 
 Dwt., pennyweight. 
 E., east. 
 
 Ebor., Eboracensis, of York. 
 E.G., established church. 
 E.E., errors excepted. 
 e.g., exempli gratia, for example. 
 E.I., East Indies. 
 
 Etc., or &c., et cetera, and the rest. 
 Exr., executor. 
 
 F., or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. 
 F.A.S., fellow of 'the Antiquarian Society. 
 F.C., Free Church. 
 
 T?.T>.,Jidei defensor, defender of the faith. 
 Pec., fecit, he made or did it. 
 F.G.S., fellow of the Geological Society. 
 F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society. 
 Fl., nourished. 
 Fla., Florida. 
 
 F.L.S., fellow of the Linnsean Society. 
 F. M., field marshal. 
 F.O.B., free on board (goods delivered.) 
 F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical 
 
 (or Asiatic) Society. 
 F.R.C.P., fellow of the Royal College of 
 
 Physicians. 
 F.R.C.S., rellow 01 ne Jftoyal College of 
 
 Surgeons. 
 
106 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical 
 Society. 
 
 F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 F.R.S.E., fellow of the Royal Society of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts or Anti- 
 quaries. 
 
 F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical Society. 
 
 Ft., foot or feet. 
 
 F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological Society . 
 
 Ga., Georgia. 
 
 Gal., gallon. 
 
 G.C.B., grand cross of the Bath. 
 
 G.C.M.G., grand cross of St. Michael and 
 St. George. 
 
 G. C.S.I., grand commander of the Star of 
 India. 
 
 G.P.O., general postoffice. 
 
 H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. 
 
 H.E.I.C.S., honorable East India Com- 
 pany's service. 
 
 Hhd., hogshead. 
 
 H.I.H., his or her imperial highness. 
 
 H.M.S., his or her majesty's ship. 
 
 Hon., honorable. 
 
 H.R., house of representatives. 
 
 H.R., his (her) royal highness. 
 
 H.S.H., his (her) serene highness. 
 
 la., Iowa. 
 
 Ib., or Ibid., ibidem, in the same place. 
 
 Id., idem, the same. 
 
 i. e., id est,, that is. 
 
 -|-I.H.S., Jesus homimim salvator, Jesus 
 the Saviour of men; originally it was IH2, 
 the first three letters of IH2O Y2 (lesous) , 
 Jesus. 
 
 Incog., incognito, unknown. 
 
 Inf., infra, below. 
 
 I. N.R.I., lesusNazarenus Rex ludceorum, 
 Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. 
 
 Inst., instant, or of this month; institute. 
 
 I.O.U., I owe you. 
 
 i.q., idem quod, the same as. 
 
 J. P. ,justice of the peace. 
 
 Jr., junior. 
 
 J.U.D., juris utriusque doctor, doctor both 
 of the civil and the canon law. 
 
 K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. 
 
 K.C.M.G., knight commander of St. Mich- 
 ael and St. George. 
 
 K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of 
 India. 
 
 K.G., knight of the Garter. 
 
 K.G.C.B., knight grand cross of the Bath. 
 
 K.P., knight of St. Patrick. 
 
 K.T., knight of the Thistle. 
 
 Kt., or Knt., knight. 
 
 Ky., Kentucky. 
 
 I/., 1., or , pound sterling. 
 
 L.A., literate in arts. 
 
 Lai., latitude. 
 
 L,b., or ft., libra, a pound (weight). 
 
 L,.C.J., lord chief-justice. 
 
 L,dp., lordship. 
 
 L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery. 
 
 Lit., D., doctor of literature. 
 
 L.L., Low Latin. 
 
 L.L.A., lady literate in arts. 
 
 LL.B., legum baccalaureus, bachelor of 
 laws. 
 
 LL.D., legum doctor, doctor of laws (that is 
 the civil and the canon laws). 
 
 LL.M., master of laws. 
 
 Lon., or Long., longitude. 
 
 L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College of Phy- 
 sicians. 
 
 L-R.C.S., licentiate of the Royal College of 
 Surgeons. 
 
 L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of Apothe- 
 caries. 
 
 L-S.D., libra, solidi, denarii, pounds, shil- 
 lings, pence. 
 
 M.A., master of arts. 
 
 Mass., Massachusetts. 
 
 M.B., medicines baccalaureus . bachelor of 
 medicine. 
 
 M.C., member of congress; master in sur- 
 gery. 
 
 M.D., medicines doctor, doctor of medicine. 
 
 Md., Maryland. 
 
 Me., Maine. 
 
 M.E., mining engineer; Methodist Episco- 
 pal. 
 
 Messrs., messieurs, gentlemen. 
 
 M F.H., master of fox hounds. 
 
 M.I.C.E., member of the Institute of Civil 
 Engineers. 
 
 Mile., mademoiselle. 
 
 Mme., madame. 
 
 Mo., Missouri. 
 
 M.P., member of Parliament. 
 
 M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of 
 Surgeons. 
 
 M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of 
 Veterinary Surgeons. 
 
 M.R.I. A., member of the Royal Irish 
 Academy. 
 
 MS., manuscript; MSS., manuscripts. 
 
 Mus. D., musiccs doctor, doctor of music. 
 
 N., north. 
 
 N.B., nota bene, take notice; also North 
 Britain, New Brunswick. 
 
 N.C., Noith Carolina. 
 
 N.D., no date. 
 
 Nem. con., nemine contradicente, no one 
 contradicting, unanimously. 
 
 N.H., New Hampshire. 
 
 N.J., New Jersey. 
 
 No., numero, number. 
 
 N.P., notary public. 
 
 N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. 
 
 N.S.W., New South Wales. 
 
 N.T., New Testament. 
 
 N.Y., New York. 
 
 N.Z., New Zealand. 
 
 O., Ohio. 
 
 Ob., obiit, died. 
 
 O.S., old style. 
 
 O.T., Old Testament. 
 
 Oxon., Oxoniensis, of Oxford. 
 
 Oz., ounce or ounces. 
 
 Pa., Pennsylvania. 
 
 P C., privy-councillor. 
 
 P.E-, Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 Per cent, per centum by the hundred. 
 
 Ph.D., philosophies doctor, doctor of philos- 
 ophy. 
 
 Pinx., pinxit, painted it. 
 
 P.M., post meridiem, afternoon. 
 
 P.O., post-office. 
 
 P.O.O., post-office order. 
 
 P.P., parish priest. 
 
 Pp., pages. 
 
 P.P.C., pour prendre conge, to take leave. 
 
LANGUAGE: ITS USE AND MISUSE. 
 
 107 
 
 Prox., proximo (mense), next month, 
 P.S., postcript. 
 
 e., question; queen. 
 .C., queen's council. 
 Q.E.D., quod erat demonstrandum, which 
 
 was to be demonstrated. 
 Q.E.F., quod erat faciendum, which was to 
 be done. 
 
 eu., query, 
 uant. sufF., quantum sujftcit, as much as 
 
 is needful. 
 
 Q. V., quod vide, which see. 
 R., rex regina, king, queen. 
 R.A., royal academician; royal artillery. 
 R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. 
 R.C., Roman Catholic. 
 R.E., royal engineers. 
 Rev., reverend. 
 
 R.H.A., Royal Hibernian Academician. 
 R.I., Rhode Island. 
 R.I. P., requiescat in pace, may he rest in 
 
 peace. 
 
 R.M., royal marine. 
 R.N., royal navy. 
 
 R.S.A., royal Scottish academician. 
 R.S.V.P., repondez, s'il vous plait, reply, if 
 
 you please. 
 
 Rt., Hon., right honorable. 
 Rt., Wpful., right worshipful. 
 R.V., revised version. 
 S., south. 
 S . or St., saint. 
 S.C., South Carolina. 
 
 Sc., scilicet, namely, viz. 
 
 S.J., Society of Jesus (Jesuits). 
 
 S.P.C.K., Society for promoting Christian 
 
 Knowledge. 
 S.P.Q.R., senatus populusque Romanus, the 
 
 senate and people of Rome. 
 S.S.C., solicitor before the supreme courts. 
 St., saint, street. 
 S.T.D., sacrcz theologies doctor, doctor of 
 
 divinity. 
 S.T.P., sacra theologies professor, professor 
 
 of divinity. 
 
 T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. 
 Ult., ultimo, last. 
 U.P., United Presbyterian. 
 U.S., United States. 
 U.S.A., United States of America. 
 U.S.N., United States navy. 
 V., vide, see; also versus, against. 
 Va., Virginia. 
 V.C., Victoria Cross. 
 Viz., videlicet, to wit or namely. 
 V.P., vice-president. 
 V.S., veterinary surgeon. 
 Vt., Vermont. 
 W., west. 
 W.I., West Indies. 
 W.S., writer to the signet. 
 Xmas, Christmas. 
 In LL.D., IvL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, 
 
 according to the Roman system, to show 
 
 that the abbreviation represents a plural 
 
 noun^- 
 
 STRAY HINTS FOR WRITERS. 
 
 That writer does the most who gives his reader the most knowledge 
 and takes from him the least time. Sidney Smith once remarked, "After 
 you have written an article, take your pen and strike out half of the 
 words, and you will be surprised to see how much stronger it is." In 
 literature, our taste will be discovered by that which we give and our 
 judgment by that which we withhold. 
 
 There is nothing so fascinating as simplicity and earnestness. A 
 writer who has an object and goes right on to accomplish it will compel 
 the attention of his readers. Montaigne, the celebrated French essayist, 
 whose clear style, as well as vigor of thought, has been the praise of 
 good critics the world over, made his boast that he never used a word 
 that could not be readily understood by anybody in the Paris markets. 
 Plain words are ever the best. 
 
 A man cannot put his thoughts, if he have any, into language too 
 plain. Good writing, like good speaking, consists in simplicity and 
 force of diction, and not in inflated, curiously balanced or elaborately 
 constructed sentences. The best writing is but a degree above the best 
 conversation, and that only because the writer has a little more time to 
 select his words than the speaker has. 
 
 Do not assume that, because you have something important to com- 
 municate, it is necessary to write a long article. A tremendous thought 
 may be packed into a small compass made as solid as a cannon ball, 
 and, like the projectile, cut down all before it. Short articles are gener- 
 ally more effective, find more readers and are more widely copied than 
 long ones. Pack your thoughts close together, and though your article 
 may be brief it will be more likely to make an impression, 
 
108 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Remember all the time that facility in composition as in all other 
 accomplishments, can only be obtained by practice and perseverance 
 True grace in writing comes by art, not chance; 
 As they move easiest who have learned to dance. 
 
 It should never be forgotten that the sole use of words and sen- 
 tences is to convey thought and impression. Hence words and sentences 
 should not be seen. The highest art in the use of language is to conceal 
 itself. The old maxim is in place: "Ars est celare artem" "Art is in 
 concealing art." The perfection of a window pane is in concealing 
 itself, so that as you look through it upon the objects beyond you do not 
 see it, are not conscious that it is there. 
 
 Many a man's destiny has been made or marred for time and for 
 eternity by the influence which a single sentiment has made on his mind, 
 by its forming his character for life, making it terribly true that mo- 
 ments sometimes fix the coloring of our whole subsequent existence. 
 Hence those who write for the public should do so under a deep sense of 
 responsibility, and endeavor to do it in that healthful and equable state 
 of mind and body which favors a clear, unexaggerated and logical 
 expression of ideas. 
 
 Mr. Webster once replied to a gentleman who pressed him to speak 
 on a subject of great importance: "The subject interests me deeply, but 
 I have not time. There, sir," pointing to a huge pile of letters on the 
 table, ' ' is a pile of unanswered letters to which I must reply before the 
 close of this session (which was then three days off), I have no time 
 to master the subject so as to do it justice." "But, Mr. Webster, a few 
 words from you would do much to awaken public attention to it." " If 
 there is so much weight in my words as you represent, it is because I do 
 not allow myself to speak on any subject until my mind is imbued 
 with it." 
 
 The writer who uses weak arguments and strong epithets makes 
 quite as great a mistake as the landlady who furnished her guests with 
 weak tea and strong butter. More people commit suicide with the pen 
 than with the pistol, the dagger and the rope. A pin has as much head 
 as a good many authors, and a great deal more point. Good aims do not 
 always make good books. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton once said to an intimate friend: " Men give me 
 some credit for genius. All the genius I have lies just in this: When I 
 have a subject in hand, I study it profoundly. Day and night it is before 
 me. I explore it in all its bearings. My mind becomes pervaded with 
 it. Then the effort which I make the people are pleased to call the fruit 
 of genius. It is the fruit of labor and thought." 
 
 Obscurity in writing is commonly an argument of darkness in the 
 mind. The greatest learning is to be seen in the greatest plainness. 
 Obscure writers, like turbid streams, seem deeper than they are. Unin- 
 telligible language is a lantern without a light. Some authors write non- 
 sense in a clear style, and others sense in an obscure one; some can rea- 
 son without being able to persuade, others can persuade without being 
 able to reason. 
 
 As 'tis a greater mystery in the art 
 Of painting to foreshorten any part 
 Than draw it out; so 'tis in books the chief 
 Of all perfections to be plain and brief. 
 
POETRY AND GENERAL LITERATURE. 
 
 The past but lives in words: a thousand ages 
 Were blank, if books had not evoked their ghosts, 
 And kept the pale, unbodied shades to warn us 
 From neshless lips. 
 
 BULWER 
 
 BOOKS, AUTHORS AND TITLES. 
 
 The term Bible means The Book. 
 
 Homer is called the "Father of poetry." 
 
 Thackeray's first success was "Vanity Fair." 
 
 Even Milton stumbled into "mixed metaphor." 
 
 Boswell has been termed the "prince of biographers. " 
 
 Poems giving instruction on certain subjects are called didactic. 
 
 The last six books of Spenser's "Faerie Queene" were lost at sea. 
 
 Roman authors all dedicated their works to some friend or patron. 
 
 The Early English Text Society made its first publication in 1864. 
 
 The authors of the seventeenth century wrote slavish "dedications." 
 
 The oldest book extant, Egyptian papyrus, is assigned to 2000 B. C. 
 
 "Read much, but not many works," is the advice of Sir \V. Ham- 
 ilton. 
 
 A man may play the fool in everything else but poetry, says Mon- 
 taigne. 
 
 Mr. W. E. Ellsworth, of Chicago, paid $14,800 for a Gutenberg Bible 
 in 1890. 
 
 Only two odes and a few fragments survive of all the great lyrics of 
 Sappho. 
 
 When burned in 640, A.D., the Alexandrian library had 700,000 
 volumes. 
 
 A few scattered verses are all that remain of Ennius, the "father of 
 Roman poetry." 
 
 Books in their present form were invented by Attains, king of Per- 
 gamus, in 887 B.C. 
 
 A rare edition of Bocaccio was bought by the Duke of Marlborough, 
 in 1812, for $11, 500. 
 
 The German government has paid $50,000 for a missal that belonged 
 to Henry VIII. of England. 
 
 Sandys' "Ovid," published 1626, was the first contribution of this 
 country to English literature. 
 
 109 
 
110 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TION. 
 
 Pastoral is the term applied to the poetry and literature that pro- 
 fesses to depict shepherd life. 
 
 Novelists make funny blunders. Amelia B. Edwards speaks of a 
 "Massachusetts cotton plantation." 
 
 John Ruskin, who never published a volume of poetry, so-called, is 
 the latest poet-laureate of England. 
 
 The art of poetry is to touch the passions, says Volta, and its duty 
 is to lead them on the side of virtue. 
 
 The term biblioklept is a euphemism which softens the ugly word 
 book-thief, by shrouding it in Greek. 
 
 Shelley said that "poetry is the record of the best and happiest 
 moments of the happiest and best minds." 
 
 With the foundation of Harvard, 1636, may be hailed the dawn of 
 literature in what is now the United States. 
 
 A Turkish name for the nightingale is bul-bul, and it has been in- 
 troduced into English poetry by Byron and Moore. 
 
 The most successful instance of a long-continued literary partner- 
 ship, was that of the French novelists, Erckmann and Chatrian. 
 
 America has given to the English language its most scientific gram- 
 marian, lyindley Murray, and its greatest lexicographer, Noah Webster. 
 
 Wordsworth defined poetry as "the breath and finer spirit of all 
 knowledge, the impassioned expression which is the countenance of all 
 science." 
 
 It is generally conceded that our greatest literary production, up to 
 date, is that entitled, "Declaration of Independence," 1776, by Thomas 
 Jefferson and "others." 
 
 The term Barmecides Feast is applied to an imaginary feast which 
 takes its name from the story of the barber's sixth brother in the "Arabian 
 Night's Entertainment." 
 
 It is manifest, says Sir Philip Sidney, that all government of action 
 is to be gotten by knowledge, and knowledge best, by gathering many 
 knowledges, which is reading. 
 
 Alastor is the name ol the mythical house -demon, the "skeleton in 
 the closet, ' ' which haunts and torments a family. Shelley has a poem 
 entitled Alastor, or the Spirit of Solitude. 
 
 Chap books were small stitched tracts written in popular style and 
 sold by the chapmen. The chap books of the seventeenth century are 
 valuable illustrations of the manners of that time. 
 
 The first English newspaper was the English Mercury, begun in the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, and was issued in the shape of a pamphlet. The 
 Gazette of Venice was the original model of the modern newspaper. 
 
 Columbine is the female mask of theltalian improvised plays, variously 
 figuring as the attendant of Pantaloon's daughter, or, occasionally, as 
 the daughter herself. In English pantomime plays she is the betrothed 
 of Harlequin. 
 
 Cinque Cento is an Italian contraction for "one thousand five hun- 
 dred" and a current term for the style in art and literature, which arose 
 in Italy about or after the year 1500. It thus represents the revival of 
 classical taste. 
 
POE TR Y AND GENERAL LITER A TURE. Ill 
 
 The so-called Aldine Editions were works from the press of Aldus 
 Manutius, at Venice, celebrated for their binding and beautiful types. 
 Many first editions of the Greek and Latin, as well as Italian classics, 
 were printed by Aldus. 
 
 Denouement, a French term naturalized in this country, is applied 
 generally to the termination or catastrophe of a play or romance; but, 
 more strictly speaking, to the train of circumstances solving the plot and 
 hastening the catastrophe. 
 
 The newspapers of India are published in many languages, and it 
 is said that those in the native tongues are more widely circulated and 
 read, in proportion to the number of copies printed, than is the case 
 anywhere else in the world. 
 
 The oldest newspaper in the world is said to be the British Press, 
 which was first issued in 1662 and has just celebrated its 231st birthday. 
 Three years later the London Gazette appeared, being published at Ox- 
 ford on account of the plague in London. 
 
 The troubadours were the minstrels of Southern France in the 
 eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They were the first to discard 
 Latin and use the native tongue in their compositions. Their poetry was 
 either about love and gallantry or war and chivalry. 
 
 The Capulets and Montagues were two noble families of Verona, 
 whose feuds have been rendered familiar by Shakspeare's tragedy of 
 "Romeo and Juliet." Dante in his "Purgatorio" (VI.) alludes to the same. 
 The story of Romeo and Juliet forms one of Bandello's famous tales. 
 
 Saga (Icel. "a tale") is the term applied to a heroic tale among 
 the Scandinavian nations, especially the Icelanders. The old literature 
 of Iceland is rich in Sagas, supposed to have been committed to writ- 
 ing about the twelfth century. Some of the Sagas have been trans- 
 lated into English. 
 
 The Trouveres were the minstrels of the north of France in the 
 twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The language they em- 
 ployed was the "Walloon" or "Langue d'oil." The themes they sang 
 were satires and romances, tales of knavery and adventure, legends and 
 historical traditions. 
 
 There are 753 periodicals and newspapers in Russia, which contains 
 a population of one hundred millions. According to the statistics of 
 1892 there were 19,573 in this country, and a population of say sixty-five 
 millions. The newspapers in Russia, however, are misnamed. They 
 dare not print the news. 
 
 The artistic representation in continuous narrative of the life and 
 character of a particular individual is called a Biography. It may be 
 either a mere curriculum vitce, detailing only the historical sequence of 
 the incidents of a man's life, or it may be an elaborate attempt at an 
 analysis of his character and a complete reconstruction of the whole 
 motives of his actions. 
 
 Biblical students take much interest in "Bel and the Dragon," an 
 apocryphal book of the Old Testament in which the writer aims to warn 
 some of his brethren against the sin of idolatry. Appearing first in the 
 Septuagint, there is no evidence that it was ever accepted by the Jews as 
 inspired. Jerome considered it a fable, but the Council of Trent declared 
 the book canonical in 1546. 
 
112 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Ancient Mariner is the hero of a poem by Coleridge. For the 
 crime of having shot an albatross (a bird of good omen to seamen), terri- 
 ble sufferings are visited upon him, which are finally remitted through 
 his repentance; but he is doomed to wander over the earth, and to repeat 
 his story to others as a warning lesson. 
 
 Aladdin is the name of the hero of one of the tales of the " Arabian 
 Nights." He is presented with a "wonderful lamp, " the genius of 
 which appears whenever desired, and performs miraculous services. By 
 means of this lamp Aladdin explores a vast cave, obtains enormous 
 wealth, and marries the daughter of the Sultan. 
 
 Tennyson's beautiful poem, "Enoch Arden," has an interesting plot. 
 The hero is a seaman wrecked on a desert island, who returns home after 
 the absence of several years, and finds his wife married to another. 
 Seeing her both happy and prosperous, Enoch resolves not to mar her 
 domestic peace, so he leaves her undisturbed, and dies of a broken heart. 
 
 A club was organized at Venice in 1400, by some ladies and gentle- 
 men who wore blue stockings, and thus came to be known as the Blue 
 Stocking club. It appeared in France in 1590 as the has bleu, and in 
 1780 was transported to England. The name "blue stocking" is still 
 given to women who are vain and pedantic at the expense of womanly 
 duty and grace. 
 
 Grub Street is thus described in Dr. Johnson's "Dictionary": "Origi- 
 nally the name of a street near Moorfields in London, much inhabited 
 by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary poems, whence 
 any mean production is called Grub-street. ' ' Andrew Marvell used the 
 name in its opprobrious sense, which later was freely used by Pope, 
 Swift and the rest. 
 
 Any two lines which rhyme together may be called a couplet; but 
 the term is more frequently used to denote two lines which contain the 
 complete expression of an idea. Pope, as has been said, reasons in coup- 
 lets. For example: 
 
 'Tis with pur judgments as our watches, none 
 Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 
 
 A Madrigal is a short lyric poem, generally on the subject of love, 
 and characterized by some epigrammatic terseness or quaintness. It was 
 written, as a rule, in iambic meter, contained not less than ^ix or more 
 than thirteen lines, and ran chiefly upon three rhymes. The name is also 
 applied to the music for a simple song sung in a rich, artistic style, but 
 without musical accompaniment. 
 
 The term Black Letter (JSlacfc XcttCt) came into use about 1600, and 
 is now applied to the types that are most generally known as Gothic. 
 The first printed books imitated every peculiarity of the contemporary 
 manuscripts; and as printing was first practised in Germany and the 
 Netherlands, the first types were copies of the letters in use in those 
 countries in the middle of the fifteenth century. 
 
 The art of foretelling the future by opening the Bible at random, and 
 placing the finger on a chance passage, which is supposed to apply to the 
 person pointing to it, is called Bibliomancy. In the fifth century its use 
 was prohibited by the Council of Vannes, and again in the sixth century 
 by the Councils of Agde and Orleans. It is said to have been introduced 
 into England after the Norman Conquest. It is referred to by Tennyson 
 in Enoch Arden. 
 
POETRY AND GENERAL LITERATURE. 113 
 
 The Minnesingers were love-poets, contemporary in Germany with 
 the House of Hohenstauffen. Though called love-singers some of their 
 poems were national ballads, and some were extended romances. Walter 
 of Vogelweide was by far the best of the lyrists; Heinrich of Veldig was 
 the most naive and ingenuous; Hartman the most classical; Wolfram the 
 most sublime, and Gottfried the most licentious. 
 
 The original "Maid of Athens," rendered famous by Byron's song, 
 "Maid of Athens, fare thee well!" was Theresa Macri. Twenty-four years 
 after this song was written, an Englishman sought out "the Athenian 
 maid," and found a beggar without a single vestige of beauty. She was 
 married and had a large family; but the struggle of her life was to find 
 bread to keep herself and family from positive starvation. 
 
 The expressive title of Lyric has been given to a certain species of 
 poetry because originally accompanied by the music of the lyre. It is 
 rapid in movement, as befitting the expression of the mind in its emo- 
 tional and impassioned moments, and naturally its principal themes are 
 love, devotion, patriotism, friendship, and the Bacchanalian spirit. It 
 was a favorite form among the ancient Greeks and Romans. 
 
 The Iliad is the tale of the siege of Troy, an epic poem in twenty- 
 four books, by Homer. Menelaos, king of Sparta, received as a guest 
 Paris, a son of Priam, king of Troy. Paris eloped with Helen, his host's 
 wife, and Menelaos induced the Greeks to lay siege to Troy, to avenge 
 the perfidy. The siege lasted ten years, when Troy was taken and burnt 
 to the ground. Homer's poem is confined to the last year of the siege. 
 
 Verse without rhyme is called "blank" verse. The term is especi- 
 ally applied to the heroic verse used in English dramatic and epic poetry, 
 unrhymed iambic pentameter. Milton's Paradise Lost is a most notable 
 example. The name is applied more widely to unrhymed lines, irre- 
 spective of their length, from such examples as the "Hiawatha" of Long- 
 fellow, which contains eight syllables in its lines, to his "Evangeline," 
 which has as many as sixteen or even more. 
 
 Cinderella is the heroine of a fairy tale. She was the drudge of the 
 house, "put upon" by her two elder sisters. While the elder sisters were 
 at a ball, a fairy came, and having arrayed the "little cinder-girl" in ball 
 costume, sent her in a magnificent coach to the palace where the ball 
 was given. The prince fell in love with her, but knew not who she was. 
 This, however, he discovered by means of a "glass slipper" which she 
 dropped, and which fitted no foot but her own. 
 
 Famed in song and story is the Lorelei, or Lurlei, a rock which 
 rises perpendicularly from the Rhine, to the height of four hundred and 
 twenty-seven feet, near St. Goar. It used to be dangerous to boatmen, 
 and has a celebrated echo. But the name is best known from Heine's 
 song of the siren who sits on the rock combing her long tresses, and 
 singing so ravishingly that the boatmen, enchanted by the music of her 
 voice, forget their duty, and are drawn upon the rock and perish. 
 
 All Baba was a poor Persian wood-carrier, who accidentally learned 
 the magic words, "Open Sesame!" "Shut Sesame!" by which he gained 
 entrance into a vast cavern, the repository of stolen wealth and the lair 
 of forty thieves. He made himself rich by plundering from these stores; 
 and by the shrewd cunning of Morgiana, his female slave, the captain and 
 his whole band of thieves were extirpated. In reward of these services 
 AH Baba gave Morgiana her freedom, and married her to his own son. 
 
 U. I.-8 
 
114 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The venerable story of "Beauty and the Beast," from Les Contes 
 Marines of Mde. Villeneuve (1740), is perhaps the most beautiful of all 
 nursery tales. A young and lovely woman saved her father by putting 
 herself in the power of a frightful but kind-hearted monster, whose re- 
 spectful affection and melancholy overcame her aversion to his ugliness, 
 and she consented to become his bride. Being thus freed from enchant- 
 ment, the monster assumed his proper form and became a young and 
 handsome prince. 
 
 Gil Bias was the son of Bias of Santillane, 'squire or " escudero " to 
 a lady, and brought up by his uncle, Canon Gil Peres. Gil Bias went to 
 Dr. Godinez's school, of Oviedo, and obtained the reputation of being a 
 great scholar. He had fair abilities, a kind heart and good inclinations, 
 but was easily led astray by his vanity. He was full of wit and humor, 
 but lax in his morals. Duped by others at first, he afterwards played 
 the same devices on those less experienced. As he grew in years, how- 
 ever, his conduct improved, and when his fortune was made he became 
 an honest, steady man. 
 
 A daily record of events or observations made by an individual is 
 known as a diary. In it the man of letters inscribes the daily results of 
 his reading or his meditations. Pepy's diary is a notable example. In it 
 we find a mirror of the life of the seventeenth century in England. To 
 the mercantile man it serves the purpose of an order or memorandum 
 book ; while the physician finds it i ndispensable as a register of engage- 
 ments. Diaries in many forms and sizes are issued every year, contain- 
 ing also so much miscellaneous information that in one book we have at 
 once a diary and an almanac. 
 
 The "Sturm und Drang Period" of German literature extended from 
 1750 to 1800, and was the volcanic era, when French and Latin were 
 banished from the language, and German was left unadulterated. The 
 Sturm und Drang period of life is between twenty and twenty-five, all 
 enthusiasm and cram full of radical reform. All abuses are to be swept 
 away, and a Utopian millennium is to be introduced. So in this literary 
 period the language was to be purified, and German literature was to be 
 made the model literature of the world. Old things were to be done 
 away, and all things to become new. 
 
 The famous letters of Junius were a series of political letters signed 
 "Junius," dissecting the conduct and characters of British public men 
 the Duke of Grafton, the Duke of Bedford, Lord Mansfield, and others, 
 not excepting the King himself. These letters caused the utmost con- 
 sternation amongst the ministry, and were immensely popular for their 
 caustic satire, just censure, clear reasoning, their great knowledge of the 
 secret government movements, and the brilliancy of their style. It is 
 not known who was the author of these letters, but perhaps the most 
 weighty evidence points to Sir Philip Francis. 
 
 Among the weird creations of German folk-lore is Frankenstein, a 
 student, who constructed, out of the fragments of bodies picked from 
 churchyards and dissecting-rooms, a human form without a soul. The 
 monster had muscular strength, animal passions and active life, but "no 
 breath of divinity." It longed for animal love and animal sympathy, 
 but was shunned by all. It was most powerful for evil, and being fully 
 conscious of its own defects and deformities, sought with persistency to 
 inflict retribution on the young student who had called it into being. 
 The idea is powerfully embodied in Mrs. Shelley's " Frankenstein." 
 
POETRY AND GENERAL LITERATURE. 115 
 
 "Nowhere" is the name given by Sir Thomas More to the imaginary 
 island which he makes the scene of his famous political romance "Uto- 
 pia." More represents this island as having been discovered by Raphael 
 Hythloday, a companion of Amerigo Vespucci, but it of course is England, 
 its capital, Amaurote, London. Its laws and institutions are represented 
 as described in one afternoon's talk at Antwerp, occupying the whole of 
 the second book, to which, indeed, the first serves but as a framework. 
 More's romance has supplied (though incorrectly enough) the epithet 
 Utopian to all impracticable schemes for the improvement of society. 
 
 The Fiery Cross was a blazing torch in the form of a cross, carried 
 from hill to hill to summon the clans to battle. Sir Walter Scott speaks 
 of it in "The Lady of the Lake." He says the chaplain slew a goat, and 
 dipped the cross in its blood. It was then delivered to a swift runner, 
 who ran with all his speed to the next hamlet, where he presented it to 
 the principal person, who was bound to send it on. Every man, from 
 sixteen to sixty years of age, was expected instantly to repair fully 
 equipped for war to the place of rendezvous on pain of "fire and sword." 
 In the English civil war of 1745-46 the Fiery Cross was sent round thus. 
 
 A passion for the collection of rare or curious books, originating in 
 Holland, but attaining its highest point in France and England, has been 
 well called Bibliomania. In its nobler aspect Andrew Lang has defined 
 bibliomania as the "love of books for their own sake, for their paper, print, 
 binding, and for their associations, as distinct from the love of literature." 
 Most extravagant prices have been paid by collectors. Bernard Quaritch 
 has the credit of having paid the largest sum recorded for a single vol- 
 ume, $24,750 for Psalmorum Codex: (folio 1459). The first dated Decam- 
 eron brought $11,300, and the Mazarin Bible, the first printed Bible, 
 brought $19,500. 
 
 The ./Eneid, Virgil's epic poem, is contained in twelve books. When 
 Troy was taken by the Greeks and set on fire, ^Eneas, with his father, 
 son and wife, took flight, with the intention of going to Italy, the original 
 birthplace of the family. The wife was lost, and the old man died on the 
 way; but after numerous perils by sea and land, ^Eneas and his son Asca- 
 nius reached Italy. Here Latinus, the reigning king, received the exiles 
 hospitably, and promised his daughter Lavinia in marriage to ^neas; 
 but she had been already betrothed by her mother to prince Turnus, son 
 of Daunus, king of Rutuli, and Turnus would not forego his claim. Lat- 
 inus, in this dilemma, said the rivals must settle the dispute by an appeal 
 to arms. Turnus being slain, ^neas married Lavinia, and ere long 
 succeeded his father-in-law on the throne. 
 
 Petrarch appears to have been the first of modern poets crowned 
 with laurel, 1341. Warton shows there were royal poets about the Eng- 
 lish kings before the time of Richard I., whose court poet, Blondel, is 
 said to have discovered the place of the king's captivity and to have 
 been the means of his release. Chaucer as royal poet was allowed a 
 gallon of wine a day, and before that time a harper to Henry III. had an 
 allowance of wine. Charles I. in 1630 made the office patent and settled 
 both a stipend and wine on the ' 'laureate. ' ' Till Tennyson was made poet 
 the stipend was $635 plus $135 for the purchase of a cask of canary. The 
 term arose thus: the king chose a laureated student of Oxford or Cam- 
 bridge, that is, a student to whom a laurel crown had been presented for 
 the best Latin ode in praise of Alma Mater. In France crowning with 
 laurels is continued still. 
 
116 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 John Alden was one of the early Pilgrim settlers in love with Pris- 
 cilia, the beautiful Puritan. Miles Standish, a bluff old soldier, wishing 
 to marry Priscilla, asked John Alden to go and plead for him; but the 
 maiden answered archly, "Why don't you speak for yourself, John." 
 Soon after this, Standish being reported killed by a poisoned arrow, John 
 spoke for himself, and the maiden consented. Standish, however, was 
 not killed, but only wounded; he made his re-appearance at the wedding, 
 where, seeing how matters stood, he accepted the situation with the good 
 natured remark- 
 
 If you would be served you must serve yourself; and moreover 
 No man can gather cherries in Kent at the season of Christmas. 
 
 Longfellow, Courtship of Miles Standish, ix. 
 
 The Harleian MSS. were a collection of MSS. formed by Robert 
 Harley, Earl of Oxford (1661-1725), and purchased by government in 
 1754 of the Duchess of Portland (his granddaughter) for $50,000. There 
 are 14, 236 original rolls, charters and other deeds, besides 7,639 volumes. 
 The collection is very miscellaneous, but its main character is historical. 
 It is rich in heraldic and genealogical MSS., in county visitations, par- 
 liamentary and legal proceedings, original records and calendars, abbey 
 registers, missals, antiphonaries, and other Catholic service - books, 
 ancient English poetry, and works on arts and sciences. It is kept in 
 the British Museum library. It also contains the oldest known MS. of 
 Homer's " Odyssey," two very early copies of the Latin Gospels in gold 
 letters, 300 MS. Bibles or Biblical books, 200 volumes of the Fathers, etc. 
 
 "Gesta Romanorum" (" the deeds of the Romans"), is the title of a 
 collection of short stories and legends, in the Latin tongue, widely spread 
 during the middle ages, but of the authorship of which little is known 
 save that it took its present form most likely in England about the end 
 of the thirteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth century. The stories 
 are invariably moralized, and indeed the edifying purpose throughout is 
 the sole unifying element of the collection. The title is only so far de- 
 scriptive as the nucleus of the collection consists of stories from Roman 
 history, or rather pieces from Roman writers, not necessarily of any 
 greater historical value than that of Androcles and the lion from Aulus 
 Gellius. Moralized, mystical and religious tales, as well as other pieces, 
 many of ultimate oriental origin, were afterwards added, and upon them 
 edifying conclusions hung but awkwardly, bringing the whole up to 
 about one hundred and eighty chapters. 
 
 Excalibur was the name of the famous mystic sword of King Arthur. 
 There seem to have been two swords so called. One was the sword 
 sheathed in stone, which no one could draw thence, save he who was to 
 be king of the land. Above two hundred knights tried to release it, 
 but failed; Arthur alone could draw it with ease, and thus proved his 
 right of succession. This sword is called Excalibur, and is said to have 
 been so bright "that it gave light like thirty torches. " After his fight 
 with Pellinore the king told Merlin he had no sword, and Merlin 
 took him to a lake, and Arthur saw an arm "clothed in white samite, 
 tliat held a fair sword in the hand," Presently the Lady of the Lake 
 appeared, and Arthur begged that he might have the sword, and the lady 
 told him to go and fetch it. When he came back to it he took it, "and 
 the arm and hand went under the water again." This is the sword gen- 
 erally called Excalibur. When about to die, King Arthur sent an attend- 
 ant to cast the sword back again into the lake, and again the hand 
 "clothed in white samite" appeared, caught it, and disappeared. 
 
POETRY AND GENERAL LITERATURE. 117 
 
 Lady Godiva is the famous patroness of Coventry, England, who 
 built herself an everlasting name by an unexampled deed of magnanim- 
 ity and devotion. About the year 1040 Leofric, Earl of Mercia and Lord 
 of Coventry, imposed certain exactions upon the inhabitants Lard and 
 grievous to be borne. His wife, the lady Godiva, besought her husband 
 to give them relief, and pleaded so earnestly that, to escape from her im- 
 portunities, he would grant her the favor, but only on the impossible 
 condition that she would ride naked through the town. Godiva ordered 
 proclamation to be made that on a certain day no one should be in the 
 streets, or even look from their houses, when, "clothed on with chastity," 
 she rode through the town; and her husband, in admiration of her intrepid 
 devotion, performed his promise. Tennyson's poem, "Godiva," is well 
 known. 
 
 Byron's tale called "The Giaour" is supposed to be told by a Turkish 
 fisherman who had been employed all the day in the gulf of ^Egina, and 
 landed his boat at night- fall on the Piraeus, now called the harbor of Port 
 Leone. He was eye-witness of all the incidents, and in one of them a 
 
 principal agent (see line 352: "I hear the sound of coming feet ".) 
 
 The tale is this: Leilah, the beautiful concubine of the caliph Hassan, 
 falls in love with a giaour, flees from the seraglio, is overtaken by an 
 emir, put to death, and cast into the sea. The giaour cleaves Hassan's 
 skull, flees for his life, and becomes a monk. Six years afterwards he 
 tells his history to his father confessor on his death-bed, and prays hin 
 to "lay his body with the humblest dead, and not even to inscribe his 
 name on his tomb." Accordingly, he is called "the Giaour," and is 
 known by no other name (1813). 
 
 El Dorado (" the Golden or Gilded Land"), originally existed but 
 vaguely in the imaginations of the Spanish conquerors of America, 
 whose insatiable avarice, feeding greedily on the marvellous accounts 
 readily supplied by the natives who were only anxious to get rid of their 
 robber-guests loved to dream of richer rewards than those of Mexico 
 and Peru. But after Orellana's voyage down the Amazon, in 1540, the 
 report was greatly embellished, and the locality of the fabulous region 
 placed near the head springs of the Orinoco. Many a soldier of fortune 
 perished in the search, many a brave troop of adventurers brought but a 
 fraction of their number back, before the vast Lake of Parime, with 
 Manoa, the city of gold, on its northern shore, was reluctantly relegated 
 to the atlas of the poets. The most famous expeditious were those of 
 Philip von Hutten (1541-46) and Sir Walter Raleigh; the last was that of 
 Antonio Santos, in 1780. 
 
 Every land and age has heard of Bluebeard, the hero of the well-known 
 nursery tale, so named from the color of his beard. The story is widely 
 known in Western Europe, but the form in which it has become familiar 
 is not an independent version, but a free translation of that given by Per- 
 rault in his famous " Contes " (1697). In this story Bluebeard is a seigneur 
 of great wealth, who marries the daughter of a neighbor in the country, 
 and a month after the wedding goes from home on a journey leaving 
 his wife the keys of his castle, but forbidding her to enter one room. 
 She cannot resist her curiosity, opens the door to find the bodies of all 
 Bluebeard's former wives, and at once sees the fate to which she herself 
 is doomed. Bluebeard, on his return, discovers, from a spot of blood 
 upon the key, w T hich could not be cleaned off, that his wife had broken 
 his command, and tells her that she must die. She begs for a short 
 
118 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 respite to commend herself to God, sends her sister Anne to the top of 
 the tower to look round if any help is near, and finally is just on the 
 point o<~ having her head cut off, when her two brothers burst in and 
 despatcn Rjuebeard. There are many versions of the story, all agreeing 
 in essential details. It is found in the German, French, Greek, Tuscan, 
 Icelandic, Bsthonian, Gaelic and Basque folk-lore. 
 
 Few but have read somewhat of the Flying Dutchman, a phantom 
 ship, seen in stormy weather off the Cape of Good Hope, and thought to 
 forebode ill-luck. The legend is that it was a vessel laden with precious 
 metal, but a horrible murder having been committed on board, the 
 plague broke out among the crew, and no port would allow the ship to 
 enter, so that it was doomed to float about like a ghost, and never to 
 enjoy rest. Another legend is that a Dutch captain, homeward bound, 
 met with long-continued headwinds off the Cape, but swore he would 
 double the cape and not put back, if he strove till the day of doom. He 
 was taken at his word, and there he still beats, but never succeeds in 
 rounding the point. Captain Marryat has a novel founded on this 
 legend, called "The Phantom Ship," 1836. 
 
 The "Wandering Jew" was last seen in the seventeenth century. 
 On January 1, 1644, he appeared at Paris, and created a great sensation 
 among all ranks. He claimed to have lived sixteen hundred years, and 
 to have traveled through all regions of the world. He was visited by 
 many prominent personages, and no one could accost him in a language 
 of which he was ignorant. He replied readily and without embarrass- 
 ment to any questions propounded, and he was never confounded by 
 any amount of cross-questioning. He seemed familiar with the history 
 of persons and events from the time of Christ, and claimed an acquaint- 
 ance with all the celebrated characters of sixteen centuries. Of himself 
 he said that he was usher of the court of judgment in Jerusalem, where 
 all criminal cases were tried at the time of our Savior; that his name 
 was Michab Ader; and that for thrusting Jesus out of the hall with these 
 words, " Go, why tarriest thou ? " the Messiah answered him, "I go, 
 but tarry thou till I come," thereby condemning him to live till the day 
 of judgment. The learned looked upon him as an impostor or madman, 
 yet took their departure bewildered and astonished. 
 
 The famous John Gilpin was a linen-draper, living in London. His 
 wife said to him, ' 'Though we have been married twenty years, we have 
 taken no holiday;" and at her advice the well-to-do linen-draper agreed 
 to make a family party, and dine at the Bell, at Edmonton. Mrs. Gilpin, 
 her sister, and four children went in the chaise, and Gilpin promised to 
 follow on horseback, having borrowed a horse from his friend, a calender. 
 As madam had left the wine behind, Gilpin girded it fast in two stone 
 bottles to his belt, and started on his way. The horse being fresh, began 
 to trot, and then to gallop; and John, being a bad rider, grasped the mane 
 with both his hands. On went the horse, off flew John Gilpin's cloak, 
 together with his hat and wig. The dogs barked, the children screamed, 
 the turnpike men (thinking he was riding for a wager) flung open their 
 gates. He flew through Edmonton, and never stopped till he reached 
 Ware, when his friend, the calender, gave him welcome, and asked him to 
 dismount. Gilpin, however, declined, saying his wife would be expect- 
 ing him. So the calender furnished him with another hat and wig, and 
 Gilpin harked back again, when similar disasters occurred, till the horse 
 stopped at his house in London. 
 
POETRY AND GENERAL LITERATURE. 119 
 
 VANITY OF THE SCHOLASTICS. 
 
 It was much the fashion, especially with German and Dutch authors 
 who wrote in Latin, to convert their names into a Greek or Latin equiva- 
 lent, or to give them a classic turn as: 
 
 The real name of Agricola, the reformer and friend of Luther, was 
 Schneider (a tailor). This was assuming another name. 
 
 Bucer was a Dominican and friend of Luther, whose real name was 
 Kuhhorn (cow-horn), of which bucer is the Greek. 
 
 Desiderius Erasmus was the assumed name of a Dutchman whose 
 real name was Gheraerd Gheraerd, of which Desiderius is the Latin and 
 Erasmos the Greek. 
 
 Melanchthon was one of Luther's friends, whose real name was 
 Schwartzerde (black earth). Melanchthon is the Greek for a " heap of 
 black earth." 
 
 CEcolampadius is the Latinized name of Johan Hausschein, the 
 reformer. 
 
 Paracelsus is Graeco-Latin for Bombast. The name was assumed 
 by A. T. Bombast. 
 
 Porphyry is the Grecized name of Malk, a disciple of Plotin. 
 
 Regiomontanus, a Latinized form of Konigsberger. Johann Miiller 
 called himself Konigsberg in Franconia. 
 
 Stobseus is Stubbs Latinized. 
 
 COPYRIGHT AND INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 
 
 Copyright is the exclusive right to multiply copies of a written or 
 printed composition, or of a work of art. Such rights were claimed by 
 authors even before the introduction of printing. After the invention of 
 the printing press, the right to publish books became the subject of 
 licenses and patents. The terms of copyright and the legal questions 
 bearing on them are so complex as to demand study in special treatises. 
 
 The first steps to secure international copyright to protect the works 
 of artists and authors were taken at Berne, September, 1885. Prominent 
 part in the proceedings was taken by representatives from Great Britain, 
 France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, 
 Switzerland, Tunis, Hayti, and Honduras. A draft of a convention was 
 settled to secure in each of these countries international copyright. An 
 office of International Union for protection of literary and artistic works 
 was established under the supervision of the Swiss Government. In 
 Great Britain, acts of Parliament were passed successively in 1844, 1852, 
 1875, and 1886, to secure to foreign authors and artists the copyright of 
 their works, provided British artists and authors were reciprocally pro- 
 tected in such foreign countries, discretion being given to Her Majesty, 
 by order in council, to fix conditions of compliance. In the United 
 States an international copyright act came into force July 1, 1891, secur- 
 ing under certain conditions, artistic and literary copyright between 
 Great Britain and the United States. One important condition of the 
 new act is its requirement that the work must be printed in the United 
 States to secure the advantages of international copyright. 
 
 HOW LITERATURE PAYS. 
 
 Idsmith recei 
 000 for 
 
 1\J VV -L/J. JL JJ/JN-rY X U-IX.LV JTrVXvJ. 
 
 Goldsmith received $300 for the "Vicar of Wakefield;" Moore, $15,- 
 for "LallaRookh; "Victor Hugo, $12, 000 for "Hernani;" Chateaubrj- 
 
120 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 and, $110,000 for his works; L/amartine, $16,000 for "Travels in Palestine;" 
 Disraeli, $50,000 for "Endymion;" Anthony Trollope, $315 ; 000 for forty 
 five novels; Lingard, $21,500 for his "History of England;" Mrs. Grant 
 received over $600,000 as royalty from the sale of "The Personal Memoirs 
 of U. S. Grant." 
 
 LITERARY PSEUDONYMS. 
 
 Pseudonyms are false names adopted by an author to conceal his 
 identity. Originally ' 'pseudonymous' ' was used of works deliberately 
 published under a false name, so as to induce people to believe them the 
 works of those whose names they bore, or of works erroneously attributed 
 to a wrong person. 
 
 The following list of pseudonyms adopted by famous authors has 
 been specially compiled for this Manual: 
 
 Meredith, Owen Earl ofLytton. 
 
 Miller, Joaquin ... . C. H Miller. 
 Nasby. Petroleum V..D. R. Locke. 
 North, Christopher.. Prof. John Wilson. 
 O'Dowd, Cornelius. . Charles Lever. 
 
 Ogilvy. Gavin J. M. Barrie. 
 
 Old Humphrey G. Mogridge. 
 
 Omnium. Jacob Matt. Jas. Higgins. 
 
 Opium Eater T. De Quincey. 
 
 Optic, Oliver Win. T. Adams. 
 
 O'Rell, Max Paul Blouet. 
 
 Ouida Louise de la Rame. 
 
 f Douglas Jerrold. 
 
 Q ( A. T. Quiller C9uch. 
 
 f Sam. G. Goodrich; 
 
 W. Martin; 
 Parley, Peter \ G. Mogridge; 
 
 W. Tegg; 
 
 J. Bennett. 
 
 Phiz Hablot K. Browne. 
 
 Pindar, Peter John Wolcot. 
 
 Plymley. Peter Sydney Smith. 
 
 Prout, Father F. S. Mahony. 
 
 Quirinus Dr. Dolilnger. 
 
 Rob Roy John Macgregor . 
 
 Sand, George Madame Dudevant 
 
 (nee Dupin.) 
 
 Scriblerus, MartinusSwift, Pope, and 
 Arbuthnot. 
 
 Shirley John Skelton. 
 
 Slick, Sam T. C. Haliburton. 
 
 Stepniak S. Kartcheffsky. 
 
 Stretlon, Hesba Sarah Smith. 
 
 Syntax, Dr Win. Combe. 
 
 Titcomb, Timothy....]. G. Holland. 
 
 A.L.O.E. (A ZarfyCharlotte Maria 
 of England) .... Tucker. 
 
 Adeler, Max Chas. Heber Clark. 
 
 Alexander, Mrs Mrs. A. F. Hector. 
 
 Anstey, F. F. Anstey Guthrie. 
 
 Atlas ("World") Edmund Yates. 
 
 Bab W. S.Gilbert. 
 
 Bede, Cuthbert Rev. Edw. Bradley. 
 
 Bell, Acton Anne Bronte. 
 
 " Currer Charlotte Bronte. 
 
 " Ellis Etnily Jane Bronte. 
 
 Bibliophile, Jacob Paul Lacroix. 
 
 Bicker-staff, Isaac Dean Swift. and 
 
 Steelein Taller. 
 
 Biglow, Hosea J. Russell Lowell. 
 
 Billings, Josh Henry W. Shaw. 
 
 Bon Gaultier Sir Theodore Martin 
 
 and W. E. Aytoun. 
 
 Boz Chas. Dickens. 
 
 Breitmann, Hans Chas. G. Iceland. 
 
 Carmen Sylva Queen of Roumania. 
 
 Conway, Hugh F- J- Fargus. 
 
 Cornwall, Barry . . B. W. Procter. 
 
 Crayon Geoffrey Washington Irving. 
 
 Danbury Newsman.]. M. Bailey 
 
 Elia Charles Lamb. 
 
 Eliot, George Mrs. Mary Ann Cross 
 
 (nee Evans.) 
 
 Ettrick Shepherd James Hogg. 
 
 Fern, Fanny Mrs. Sara P. Parton. 
 
 Graduate of Oxford. John Ruskin. 
 Greenwood, Grace. . . Mrs. Lippincott. 
 
 Greville, Henry Mme. Durand. 
 
 H. H Mrs. Helen Hunt 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 Hamilton, Gail Mary Abigail Dodge. 
 
 Harland, Marion Mrs. M. V. Terhuue 
 
 (nee Hawes. ) 
 Historicus Sir W. Veruon Har- 
 
 court. 
 
 Jean Paul J. P. F. Richter. 
 
 Kerr, Orpheus C . . . . R. H. Newell. 
 Knickerbocker, Die- 
 
 drich Washington Irving. 
 
 L. E. L Letitia E. Landou. 
 
 Lee, Vernon Violet Paget. 
 
 Loti, Pierre Julien Viaud. 
 
 Lyall. Edna Ada Ellen Bayly. 
 
 Maitland, Thomas. ..R.. Buchanan. 
 
 Malet, Lucas Mrs. Harrison (nee 
 
 Kingsley.) 
 Mathers, Helen Mrs. Reeves (nee 
 
 Matthews.) 
 
 Titmarsh, Michael 
 A ngelo W. M. Thackeray. 
 
 Twain, Mark Samuel L. Clemens. 
 
 Tytler, Sarah Miss H. Keddie. 
 
 Uncle Remus Joel Chandler Harris. 
 
 Urban, Sylvanus ...Editor of The Gentle- 
 man's Magazine. 
 
 Vacuus Viator Thomas Hughes. 
 
 Voltaire Francois M a r ie 
 
 Arouet. 
 
 IVard, Artemus Chas. F. Browne. 
 
 Warden, Florence. . .Mrs. G. James. 
 
 Wetherell, Elizabeth. Susan Warner. 
 
 Winter, JohnStrangeMr*. H. E. V. Stan- 
 nard. 
 
 Zadkiel Capt. R. J. Morrison, 
 
 R. N. 
 
POETRY AND GENERAL LITERATURE. 121 
 
 THE FORTY IMMORTALS OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 
 
 
 Year 
 
 Elected 
 
 Name. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Predecessor. 
 
 1 
 
 1855... 
 
 Ernest Wilfred Gabriel Bap- 
 tiste Legouve 
 
 Paris, 1807 
 
 Ancelot 
 
 2 
 ^ 
 
 1862. . 
 1865 
 
 Jacques Victor Albe, Due de 
 Broglie 
 Charles Camille Doucet. . . 
 
 Paris, 1821 
 Paris 1812 
 
 Lacordaire, Pere. 
 De Vigny 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 1870... 
 1870 ... 
 1871 . . . 
 
 Emile Olivier 
 Xavier Marmier 
 Henri Eugene Orleans. Due 
 d'Aumale 
 
 Marseilles, 1825 .... 
 Pontarlier, 1808 
 
 Paris 1 C 22 
 
 De Lamartine. 
 De Pongerville. 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 1871 .... 
 1874.... 
 
 Camille Felix Michel Rous- 
 set 
 Alfred Jean Francois M6z- 
 ieres 
 
 Paris, 1821 
 Paris 1826 
 
 Prevost-Paradol. 
 St Marc-Girardin 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 1874... 
 1875 
 
 Alexandre Dumas 
 John Emile Lemoinne 
 
 Paris. 1824 
 London 1815 
 
 Lebrun. 
 Janin. 
 
 11 
 
 1876 ... 
 
 Jules Francois Simon 
 
 Lorient, 1814 
 
 De Remusat. 
 
 12 
 
 1876.... 
 
 Marie Louis Antoine Bois- 
 
 Nimes 1823 
 
 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 Ifi 
 
 1877... 
 1878... 
 1878.... 
 
 1880 
 
 Victorien Sardou 
 Hippolyte Adolph Taine. . . . 
 Edmund Armand, Due 
 A' Audiffret-Pasquier.. .... 
 Maxime Du Camp 
 
 Paris 1831 
 Vouziers, 1826 
 
 Paris. 1823 
 Paris 1822 .... 
 
 Autran. 
 De Lomenie. 
 
 Dupanloup (Bishop^. 
 St. R<-n-Taillandier. 
 
 17 
 
 1880.... 
 
 Aim6 Joseph Edmund 
 
 Paris 1817 
 
 Jules Favre 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 1881.... 
 
 1881 . . . 
 1881.... 
 1882.... 
 
 Rene Francis Armand Sully- 
 Prudhomme 
 1 ouis Pasteur 
 Charles Victor Cherbulliez . . 
 Adolphe Louis Albert Per- 
 
 Paris. IS^ 
 D61e. 1822. 
 Geneva, 1829 
 
 Lyons 1828 
 
 Duvergier de Huranne. 
 ,ittre. 
 Dufaure. 
 
 22 
 
 1882 ... 
 
 Edouard Jules Henri Paill- 
 eron 
 
 Paris, 1839 
 
 Charles Blanc. 
 
 23 
 24 
 
 1882.... 
 It84.... 
 
 Louis Charles de Mazade- 
 Percin 
 Francoise Edouard Joachin 
 Coppde 
 
 Castelsarrazin, 1820.. 
 Paris 1842 
 
 Comte de Champagny. 
 De Laprade 
 
 25 
 ?fi 
 
 1884.... 
 1884 ... 
 
 Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps 
 Jean Victor Duruy 
 
 Versailles, 1805 
 Paris, 1811 
 
 Henri Martin. 
 Mignet. 
 
 27 
 
 1884.... 
 
 Joseph Louis Francois Bert- 
 rand 
 
 Paris 1822 
 
 J B Dumas 
 
 0^ 
 
 1884 
 
 
 Paris 1834 
 
 
 29 
 30 
 
 1886 ... 
 1886.... 
 
 fean Baptiste Leon Say 
 Charles Marie Leconte de 
 Lisle 
 
 Paris, 1816 
 Isle de Reunion 1818 
 
 Edmond About. 
 Victor Hugo. 
 
 31 
 32 
 
 1886.. . 
 1886.... 
 
 Aime Marie Edouard Hervg 
 Vallery Clement Octave 
 Gr&ird . . 
 
 Isle de Reunion, 1835. 
 Vire 1828 
 
 Due de Noailles. 
 Comte de Falloux. 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 1888... 
 1888... 
 
 1888.... 
 1888.... 
 
 1890.... 
 1891. .. 
 1892.... 
 
 Othenin Paul de Cleron, 
 Comte d'Haussonville 
 Tules Arnaud Arsene Cla- 
 retie 
 ^enri Meilhac 
 Eugene Marie Melchior Vi- 
 comte de Vogue 
 Charles Louis de Saulces de 
 Freycinet 
 Louis Marie Julien Viaud 
 (Pierre Loti) 
 Jrnest Lavisse 
 Seat Vacant * 
 
 Gurey, 1843 
 
 Limoges. 1840 
 Paris, 1830 
 
 Nice. 18,8 
 Foix, 1828 
 
 Rochefort. 1850 
 Nouvien, 1842 
 
 Caro. 
 
 Cuvillier-Fleury. 
 Labiche. 
 
 Desire Nisard. 
 
 Emile Augier. 
 Octave Feuillet. 
 
 Jurien de la Gravire. 
 Joseph Ernest Rnan. 
 
 M. 
 
 *In April, 1893, M. Challemel-Lacour was elected to fiU vacancy caused by death of 
 
122 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 SOME LARGE LIBRARIES. 
 
 Statistics of twenty leading libraries in this country show that of over 
 $500,000 spent, a little more than $170,000 was devoted to books, while 
 other expenses consumed $358,000. In the Mercantile Library of New 
 York city it cost 14 cents to circulate a volume; in the Astor 14)4 cents 
 are spent on each volume, or 27 cents on each reader; in Columbia Col- 
 lege Library, 21 y 2 cents per reader; in the Library Company of Philadel- 
 delphia, 26 Cents per ^/olume, or 10 cents per head. The largest library 
 in the world is the National Library of France, founded by Louis XIV, 
 which now contains 1,400,000 books, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manu- 
 scripts, 300,000 maps and charts, 150,000 coins and medals, 1,300, 000 en- 
 gravings, and 100,000 portraits. The Library of Congress is the largest 
 in this country, as it contained 570,000 volumes in 1886. The Mercantile 
 Library of Philadelphia was the seventh in point of size in this country 
 in the same year. There are in the United States 5,338 libraries. 
 
 The famous institution called the British Museum began with the 
 purchase by the government for $100,000 of the magnificent library and 
 collection of Sir Hans Sloane, which has since been constantly added to, 
 and now contains a million and a half printed volumes. It now comprises 
 the Cottonian, the Harlean, theTowney, the Elgin, the Knight, theSlade, 
 and other collections. In 1881 the Natural History, Geological and Mineral- 
 ogical Collections were removed to a new building at South Kensington. 
 
 The famous Bodleian Library was originally the public library of 
 Oxford University, restored by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1598. His first act 
 was the presentation of a large collection of valuable books, purchased 
 on the Continent at an expense of $50,000. By the Copyright Act it is 
 entitled to a copy of every book printed in Great Britain. The number 
 of volumes it possesses is estimated at about four hundred thousand, in 
 addition to between twenty thousand and thirty thousand in manuscript. 
 
 HONORS AMONG BOOKS. 
 
 I. The first book printed in German (1461) was the "Edelstein," (or 
 "precious stone") by Ulrich Boner a collection of fables, tales, and 
 maxims in reproof of evil ways and for the encouragement of piety and 
 virtue. The first printed book was the Psalter of Mainz, 1457; the next 
 was William Durand's "Holy Office" ( "Rationale divinorum officiorum 
 libris viii distinctum"}, printed 1459; the third was Balbis' "Gatholi- 
 con," a sort of dictionary, 1460; then comes the "Edelstein," in German. 
 
 II. The highest price ever offered fora book was $96, 000. It was 
 a Hebrew Bible in the possession of the Vatican. In 1512, the Jews of 
 Venice wished to buy this book, but though Julius II. was greatly pressed 
 for money in order to keep up the Holy League against Louis XII. of 
 France, he declined to part with the volume. 
 
 The German Government paid $50,000 for the missal given by Leo 
 X. to Henry VIII., along with the parchment conferring on him the 
 right to assume the title of "Defender of the Faith." Charles II. gave 
 these relics to the ancestor of the famous Duke of Hamilton, whose 
 library was sold by Messrs. Sotheby, Wilkinson, and Hodge of London. 
 
 III. The largest book on one subject is the "Ada Sanctorum," of 
 the Bollandists, not yet completed (1893). The 61st volume was published 
 in 1875. 
 
 IV. The oldest book in the world is a papyrus containing the prov- 
 erbs of PUh-hotep, an Egyptian king, who reigned some 3000 B.C., which 
 
FOE TR Y AND GENERAL LITER A TURE. 123 
 
 was before the birth of Abraham. It has been in part translated by 
 Chabas and others, and may be seen in English dress in J. D. Heath's 
 "Record of the Patriarchal Age." 
 
 FIRvST NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 In ancient ROME an official gazette, called "Ada Diurna," was issued 
 under the management and authority of the government, and posted 
 up daily in some prominent place in the city. 
 In VENICE a paper of public intelligence, called "Gazetta" was 
 
 published in 1620 
 
 In ENGLAND the first weekly newpaper was published by Nathaniel 
 
 Butler in 1622 
 
 In ENGLAND the first daily newspaper in 1709 
 
 In FRANCE the first weekly newspaper was published in 1631 
 
 In FRANCE the first daily in 1777 
 
 In AMERICA, at Boston, a newspaper was published in 1690 
 
 In IRELAND the first newspaper, called "Pue's Occurrences.," ap- 
 peared in 1700 
 
 In IRELAND the oldest Dublin newspaper, "The Freeman's Jour- 
 nal," in 1755 
 
 In GERMANY the first newspaper was published in 1715 
 
 In HOLLAND the first newspaper was published in 1732 
 
 In TURKEY the first newspaper was published in 1795 
 
 In AUSTRALIA the first newspaper was published in 1803 
 
 BOOKS WE HEAR ABOUT. 
 
 "The Pilgrim's Progress," by John Bunyan: Pt. i., 1678; pt. ii., 1684. 
 This is supposed to be a dream, and to allegorize the life of a Christian, 
 from his conversion to his death. His doubts are giants, his sins a pack, 
 his Bible a chart, his minister Evangelist, his conversion a flight from 
 the City of Destruction, his struggle with besetting sins a fight with 
 Apollyon, his death a toilsome passage over a deep stream, and so on. 
 The second part is Christiana and her family led by Greatheart through 
 the same road, to join Christian, who had gone before. 
 
 Robinson Crusoe, a tale by Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe ran 
 away from home, and went to sea. Being wrecked, he led for many years 
 a solitary existence on an uninhabited island of the tropics, and relieved 
 the weariness of life by numberless contrivances. At length he met a 
 human being, a young Indian, whom he saved from death on a Friday. 
 He called him his "man Friday," and made him his companion and serv- 
 ant. Defoe founded this story on the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, 
 sailing master of the "Cinque Ports Galley," who was left by Captain 
 Stradling on the desolate island of Juan Fernandez for four years and 
 four months (1704-1709), when he was rescued by Captain Woodes Rog- 
 ers and brought to England. 
 
 "The Vicar of Wakefield," a novel, by Oliver Goldsmith, 1766. Dr. 
 Primrose, a simple-minded, pious clergyman, with six children. He be- 
 gins life with a good fortune, a handsome house, and wealthy friends, 
 but is reduced to utter poverty without any fault of his own, and, being 
 reduced like Job, like Job he is restored. First he loses his fortune 
 through the rascality of the merchant who held it. His next great sor- 
 row was the elopement of his eldest daughter, Olivia, with Squire Thorn- 
 
124 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 hill. His third was the entire destruction by fire of his house, furniture, 
 and books, together with the savings which he had laid by for his 
 daughters' marriage portions. His fourth was being incarcerated in the 
 county jail by Squire Thornhill for rent, his wife and family being driven 
 out of house and home. His fifth was the announcement that his daughtei 
 Olivia "was dead," and that his daughter Sophia had been abducted. 
 His sixth was the imprisonment of his eldest son, George, for sending a 
 challenge to Squire Thornhill. His cup of sorrow was now full, and 
 comfort was at hand: (1) Olivia was not really dead, but was said to be 
 so in order to get the vicar to submit to the squire, and thus obtain his 
 release. (2) His daughter Sophia had been rescued by Mr. Burchell (Sir 
 William Thornhili), who asked her hand in marriage. (3) His son 
 George was liberated from prison, and married Miss Wilmott, an heiress. 
 (4) Olivia's marriage to the squire, which was said to have been informal, 
 was shown to be legal and binding. (5j The old vicar was released, re- 
 established in his vicarage, and recovered a part of his fortune. 
 
 "Ivanhoe," a novel by Sir W. Scott (1820). The most brilliant and 
 splendid of romances in any language. Rebecca, the Jewess, was Scott's 
 favorite character. The scene is laid in England in the reign of Richard 
 I., and we are introduced to Robin Hood in Sherwood Forest, banquets 
 in Saxon halls, tournaments, and all the pomp of ancient chivalry. 
 Rowena, the heroine, is quite thrown into the shade by the gentle, meek, 
 yet high-souled Rebecca. 
 
 "Vanity Fair," a novel by W. M. Thackeray (1848). Becky (Re- 
 becca) Sharp, the daughter of a poor painter, dashing, selfish, unprin- 
 cipled, and very clever, contrives to marry Rawdon Crawley, afterwards 
 his excellency Colonel Crawley, C. B., governor of Coventry Island. 
 Rawdon expected to have a large fortune left him by his aunt, Miss 
 Crawley, but was disinherited on account of his marriage with Becky, 
 then a poor governess. Becky contrive" to live in splendor on "nothing 
 a year," gets introduced at court, and is patronized by Lord Steyne, 
 earl of Gaunt; but this intimacy giving birth to a great scandal, Becky 
 breaks up her establishment, and is reduced to the lowest Bohemian life. 
 Afterwards she becomes the "female companion" of Joseph Sedley, a 
 wealthy "collector," of Boggley Wollah, in India. Having insured his 
 life and lost his money, he dies suddenly under very suspicious circum- 
 stances, and Becky lives for a time in splendoron the Continent. Subse- 
 quently she retires to Bath, where she assumes the character of a pious, 
 charitable Lady Bountiful, given to all good works. The other part of 
 the story is connected with Amelia Sedley, daughter of a wealthy Lon- 
 don stock-broker, who fails, and is reduced to indigence. Captain 
 George Osborne, the son of a London merchant, marries Amelia, and old 
 Osborne disinherits him.. The young people live for a time together, 
 when George is killed in Waterloo. Amelia is reduced to great poverty, 
 but is befriended by Captain Dobbin, who loves her to idolatry, and 
 after many years of patience and great devotion, she consents to marry 
 him. Becky Sharp rises from nothing to splendor, and then falls; Amelia 
 falls from wealth to indigence, and then rises 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. 
 
 'Tis a history 
 
 Handed from ages down; a nurse's tale. 
 Which children, open ey'd and mouth'd devour, 
 And thus, as garrulous ignorance relates, 
 We learn it and believe. 
 
 SOUTHEY. 
 
 VAGARIES OF HUMAN BELIEF. 
 
 Chinese history, or fable, begins 2205 B. c. 
 
 Orion was a giant hunter, noted for his beauty. 
 
 Puck and Robin Goodfellow. are identical myths. 
 
 The Ogri were giants said to feed on human flesh. 
 
 Euphrasia was the name of ''the Grecian Daughter." 
 
 Olympus, in Greece, was on the confines of Macedonia. 
 
 In Vulcan's mirror were seen the past, present and future. 
 
 The toadstool is called in Ireland the "fairy's mushroom." 
 
 A task that makes no progress is likened to Penelope's web. 
 
 At the age of one year Jupiter was making war on the Titans. 
 
 All known languages have a story of "Jack the Giant-Killer. " 
 
 Loki was the god of strife and evil in Scandinavian mythology. 
 
 Jupiter chose the eagle as the best preservative against lightning. 
 
 The original Tom Thumb was a dwarf knighted by King Arthur. 
 
 The obi superstitions of the negro are still prevalent in the South. 
 
 The leprechaun was an Irish goblin who could direct you to hidden 
 gold. 
 
 Apotheosis was the deification, or raising of a mortal to the rank of 
 a god. 
 
 The pagan priests of Egypt were the first to reduce mythology to a 
 system. 
 
 As late as 1805 a woman was tried for witchcraft at Kircudbright, 
 Scotland. 
 
 The oak is sacred to Jupiter because he first taught mankind to live 
 upon acorns. 
 
 Where fable ends and real history begins is an obscure line in the an- 
 nals of all nations. 
 
 The chief astronomers, from Ptolemy down to Kepler, were all be- 
 lievers in astrology. 
 
 125 
 
126 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 According to Homer Mesopotamia had a breed of asses which never 
 fled from an enemy. 
 
 "Born in the foam of the sea," is the signification of Aphrodite, the 
 Greek name for Venus. 
 
 The goat was the animal usually sacrificed to Bacchus, on account of 
 its propensity to destroy the vine. 
 
 It is Memnon's statue, at Thebes, which is said to make musical 
 sounds when struck by the morning sun. 
 
 The ordinary events of nature transformed into allegory would ex- 
 plain very many of the legends of the ancients. 
 
 The gypsies are said to be wanderers because they refused shelter to 
 the Virgin and Christ Child on the flight into Egypt. 
 
 The peculiar term "Black Art," is applied to the jugglery of con- 
 jurers and wizards who profess to have dealings with the devil. 
 
 The wave-crests in Killarney Lake, Ireland, are called by the fisher- 
 men . the "white horses of O'Donoughue," from a chieftain of that ilk 
 who perished in its waters. 
 
 The proper name of Confucius was "Kong," but his followers added 
 "fu-tse," meaning master or teacher. His books are regarded by the 
 Chinese as the fountain of all wisdom. 
 
 Davy Jones is a sailor's familiar name for a malignant sea-spirit or 
 the devil generally. The common phrase "Davy Jones' locker" is 
 applied to the ocean as the grave of men drowned at sea. 
 
 In all ancient mythologies the sneeze is significant. If a Hindoo, 
 while performing his morning ablutions in the Ganges, should sneeze 
 before finishing his prayers, he immediately begins them over again. 
 
 It was at one time a common belief that infants were sometimes 
 taken from their cradles by fairies, who left instead their own weakly 
 and starveling elves. The children so left were called "changelings." 
 
 In the northern mythology the Walkyri are either nine or three 
 times nine divine maidens who cleave their way through air and water 
 to lead to Odin those who have fallen in battle and who are worthy of 
 Walhalla. 
 
 Dagon, the national god of the Philistines, half-man, half-fish, is 
 mentioned in the Old Testament as having temples at Gaza and Ashdod, 
 Several names of places prove that the worship of Dagon existed also in 
 other parts of Palestine. 
 
 The supposed spirits which pervade the stars, each star having its 
 own spirit (or soul), are termed astral spirits. Paracelsus taught that 
 every human being had an astral spirit; hence the influence of a per- 
 son's particular star on his life. 
 
 According to the ancient German superstition, the werewolf was a 
 man-wolf, who had the form of a man by day and that of a wolf by 
 night. L/ycanthropy, or wolf-madness, was prevalent in Europe, and 
 especially in Germany, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
 
 The name of the favorite charger of Alexander the Great was Buceph- 
 alus, and this was probably also the name of a peculiar breed of horses 
 in Thessaly. The young hero was the first to break in the steed, and 
 thus fulfilled the condition stated by an oracle as necessary for gaining 
 the crown of Macedon. 
 
MYTHOL OG Y AND FOLK-L ORE. 127 
 
 Cynosure is the Greek name for the constellation of the Little Bear, 
 which contains the pole star, by which the Phoenician mariners steered 
 their course. The name is metaphorically applied to anything that 
 attracts attention, or to which all eyes are turned. 
 
 The Scottish brownie has a rival in Spain who is called the Ancho, 
 and who haunts the shepherds' huts, warms himself at their fires, tastes 
 their clotted milk and cheese, converses with the family, and is treated 
 with familiarity mixed with terror. The Ancho hates church bells. 
 
 Sibylline books in Roman history contained the prophecies of the 
 Cumaean Sibyl, bought by Tarquin the Proud, and preserved in the temple 
 of Jupiter Capitolinus, with which they were burnt, 83 B. c. They were 
 consulted by order of the senate, in cases of prodigies and calamities. 
 
 An amulet was any object worn as a. charm. It is often a stone, or 
 a piece of metal, with an inscription or some figures engraved on it, and 
 is generally suspended from the neck, and worn as a preservative against 
 sickness or witchcraft. Its origin, like its name, seems to be oriental. 
 
 The cockatrice is a fabulous monster, often confounded wittt the 
 basilisk and regarded as possessing similar deadly powers. To the charms 
 of the basilisk it added a dragon's tail, armed with a sting; and it shared 
 also its power of destroying by a glance, so often referred to in Shakes- 
 peare and other early writers. 
 
 Cuneiform is a term descriptive of a form of writing of which the 
 component parts resemble a wedge. It was used by the peoples of 
 Babylonia, Assyria and other ancient nations, and was inscribed upon 
 stone, bronze, iron, glass and clay. It was not until the seventeenth 
 century that the wedge-shaped characters were suspected to be other than 
 "idle fancies of the architects." 
 
 The talisman was a species of charm, consisting of a figure engraved 
 on metal or stone when two planets are in conjunction, or when a star is 
 at its culminating point, and supposed to exert some protective influence 
 over the wearer of it. The terms talisman and amulet are often consid- 
 ered nearly synonymous, but the proper distinctive peculiarity of the 
 former is its astrological character. 
 
 Arthur's Round Table contained seats for one hundred and fifty 
 knights. Three were reserved, two for honor, and one (called the "siege 
 perilous 1 ') for Sir Galahad, destined to achieve the quest of the sangreal. 
 If any one else attempted to sit in it, his death was the certain penalty. 
 The table shown visitors at Winchester is one of several claimed to be 
 the "original" Arthur' s Round Table. 
 
 In the fanciful system of the Paracelsists the Undines were female 
 water-sprites. They intermarry readily with human beings, and the 
 Undine who .gives birth to a child under such a union receives, with her 
 babe, a human soul. But the man who takes an Undine to wife must be 
 careful not to go on the water with her, or at least must not vex her 
 while there, or she returns to her native element. 
 
 Isis was an Egyptian goddess. The deities of ancient Egypt might 
 be male or female, but in neither case could the Egyptian worshipper 
 conceive a deity as existing in isolation: to every deity of either sex 
 there must be a counterpart of the other sex. It was to this notion that 
 the goddess Isis owed her origin; she was the counterpart of Osiris, and 
 this fact is expressed in the statement that she was at once wife and sis- 
 ter of Osiris. 
 
128 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 In classical antiquities the cornucopia, the horn or symbol of plenty, 
 is placed in the hands of emblematical figures of Plenty, Liberality, and 
 the like, who are represented as pouring from it an abundance of fruits 
 or corn. It is frequently used in architecture, sculpture and heraldry. 
 
 A redoubtable hero was Berserker in the Scandinavian mythology. 
 He was the father of twelve sons who inherited the name of Berserker, 
 together with his frenzied war-like fury or "berserker rage" Baring 
 Gould connects the name with the were- wolf myth. It literally means 
 "bear-sark" (shirt), not "bare-shirt." 
 
 The word hippodrome is derived from the Greek hippos, "a horse," 
 and dromos, "a racecourse," and is the Greek name for the place set 
 apart for horse and chariot races. Its dimensions were, according to the 
 common opinion, half a mile in length, and one-eighth of a mile in 
 breadth. In construction and all the most important points of arrange- 
 ment it w r as the counterpart of the Roman Circus. 
 
 The circus originally was an open oblong building for Roman enter- 
 tainments. There were eight in Rome, the largest being the Circus 
 Maximus, said to be 9,331^ feet long and 2,187 feet wide, and able to seat 
 260,000 persons. There were held in them horse and chariot races, gym- 
 nastic contests, the Trojan games, and contests with wild beasts. The 
 modern circus is so universally known as to need no description. 
 
 Befana is a kind of Santa Klaus, who visits children on Twelfth 
 Night to put presents in a stocking hung at their bed. Befana, it is said, 
 was an old woman busy cleaning her house when the Magi passed by, 
 but she said she would look out for them on their return. As they went 
 home another way, she is looking out for them still, but entertains a 
 great fondness for young children. The word is a corruption of "Epi- 
 phania" (Epiphany.) 
 
 The tall, narrow circular towers called round towers tapering grad- 
 ually from the base to the summit, found abundantly in Ireland, and 
 occasionally in Scotland, are among the earliest and most remarkable 
 relics of the ecclesiastical architecture of the British Islands. They 
 have long been the subject of conjecture and speculation, but there can 
 be now no doubt that they are the work of Christian architects, and 
 built for religious purposes. 
 
 Walhalla is the place of residence for the fallen in battle in Scandina- 
 vian Mythology. The name Walhalla was given to a magnificent 
 marble structure of nearly the same proportions as the Parthenon, erected 
 by Ludwig I. of Bavaria (1830-41) as a temple of fame for all Germany, 
 on an eminence two hundred and fifty feet above the Danube, near Ratis- 
 bon. By means of statues, busts, reliefs, and tablets the mythology and 
 history of Germany are illustrated, and her greatest names commemor< 
 ated. 
 
 Thule was the name given by ancient Greeks and Romans to the 
 most remote northern portion of the world then known. Whether an 
 island or part of a continent nobody knows. It is first mentioned by 
 Pytheas, the Greek navigator, who says it is "six days' sail from Britain," 
 and that its climate is a "mixture of earth, air and sea." Ptolemy, 
 with more exactitude, tells us that the 03 of north latitude runs through 
 the middle of Thule, and adds that ' ' the days there are at the equinoxes 
 [sic\ twenty-four hours long." This, of course is a blunder, but the 
 latitude would do roughly for Iceland. 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. 129 
 
 The sacred geese were kept by the ancient Romans in the temple of 
 Juno on the Capitoline Hill. These geese are especially noted in Roman 
 story, because when a party of Gauls climbed stealthily up the steep 
 rock unobserved by the sentinels, and even without disturbing the 
 watch-dogs, the geese gave the alarm by their cackling, and Manlius, 
 being aroused, reached the rampart just in time to push over the foremost 
 Gaul, and thus saved the capitol. 
 
 Idris was a mythical figure in Welsh tradition, supposed to have been 
 at once a giant, a prince and an astronomer. On the summit of Cader 
 Idris in Merionethshire may be seen his rock-hewn chair, and an 
 ancient tradition told that any Welsh bard who should pass the night 
 upon it would be found the next morning either dead, mad, or endowed 
 with supernatural poetic inspiration. This tradition forms the subject of 
 a fine poem by Mrs. Hemans; the gigantic size of the chair is alluded to 
 in Tennyson's "Geraint and Enid." 
 
 The name of Bucentaur was that of the state-galley in which the 
 former Doges of Venice used to sail out every year on Ascension Day, 
 amid great festivities, in order, by sinking a ring into the sea, to wed it 
 in token of perpetual sovereignty. The word signifies a monstrous figure 
 of half bull half man, such as may originally have been depicted on the 
 vessel. The ceremony was already in use in the thirteenth century; in 
 1798 the last Bucentaur, built in 1722^29, was burned by the French, but 
 some portions, spared for their gold work, are still preserved in the 
 arsenal. 
 
 The Griffin is a chimerical creature, and first mentioned by Aristeas 
 about 500 B. c. The griffin is variously described and represented, but 
 the shape in which it most frequently appears is that of a cross between 
 a lion' and an eagle, having the body and legs of the former, with the 
 beak and wings of the latter, and the addition of pointed ears. Sometimes 
 the four legs are all like those of an eagle, ?ud the head is that of acock. 
 The figure seems to have originated in the East, as it is found in ancient 
 Persian sculptures. Amongst the Greeks it appears on antique coins, and 
 as an ornament in classical architecture. 
 
 Nectar is the name given by Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the Greek 
 poets generally, and by the Romans, to the beverage of the gods, their 
 food being called Ambrosia. But Sappho and Alcman make nectar the 
 food of the gods and ambrosia their drink. Homer describes nectar as 
 resembling red wine, and represents its continued use as causing immor- 
 tality. By the later poets nectar and ambrosia are represented as of most 
 delicious odor; and sprinkling with nectar or anointing with ambrosia is 
 spoken of as conferring perpetual youth, and they are assumed as the 
 symbols of everything most delightful to the taste. 
 
 Vishnu, " the Preserver," is the second god of the Hindu triad, now 
 the most worshipped of all Hindu gods. Originally in the oldest Vedas 
 a sun-god, he gradually increased in influence at the expense of other 
 gods, and in the later Purana is the supreme god. Always a friendly 
 god, he became specially the friend and benefactor of man in his avatars 
 or incarnations. The Vishnuite doctrines were gathered into one body 
 in the eleventh century as the Vishnu-Purana. Of twenty principal 
 sects and a hundred minor brotherhoods some are merely local, others 
 are wealthy bodies and wide-spread, and one has grown into a warlike 
 nation, the Jains. 
 
 U. I, 9 
 
130 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Damon and Pythias, two noble Pythagoreans of Syracuse, are re- 
 membered as the models of faithful friendship. Pythias having been 
 condemned to death by the elder Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 
 begged to be allowed to go home, for the purpose of arranging his 
 domestic affairs, Damon pledging his own life for the reappearance of 
 his friend at the time appointed for his doom. Dionysius consented, and 
 Pythias returned just in time to save Damon from death. Struck by so 
 noble an example of mutual affection, the tyrant pardoned Pythias, 
 and desired to be admitted into their sacred fellowship. 
 
 The Sacred Ibis was one of the birds worshipped by the ancient 
 Egyptians, and was supposed, from the color of its feathers, to symbolize 
 the light and shade of the moon. Its feathers were supposed to scare- 
 and even kill the crocodile. It appeared in Egypt at the rise and disap, 
 peared at the inundation of the Nile, and was said to deliver Egypt from 
 the winged and other serpents which came from Arabia. As it did not 
 make its nest in Egypt it was believed to be self-engendering, and to lay 
 eggs for a lunar month. It was celebrated for its purity, and only drank 
 from the purest water; besides which, it was fabled to entertain the most 
 invincible love of Egypt, and to die of self-starvation if transported else- 
 where. 
 
 A very engaging though mythical creature is the "brownie", which 
 in Scottish rural districts is believed to assist in the housework at nights. 
 The brownie is good tempered and industrious, but has a great objection 
 to slovenliness and marks his sense of neglect by pinching slatternly 
 maids. Good housewives leave out a bowl of milk for him. If the farm 
 changed hands the brownie usually left, which may explain why there 
 are none now. The resemblance of the Scotch brownie to the Robin 
 Goodfellow, of English, and the Kobold of German folklore is obvious, 
 but perhaps they may be traced further to the lares or hearth spirits of 
 the ancients. The Russian domovoy, Mr. Ralston tells us, lives behind 
 the stove, and in some families a portion of the supper is always set aside 
 for him; for if he is neglected he waxes wroth and knocks the tables and 
 benches about at night. Spirits with the same functions elsewhere are 
 the Lithuanian kanka, the Finnish paara, and the French lutin. 
 
 Here and there in the highways and byways of the world many 
 legends and superstitions still linger and continue to retain their ancient 
 prestige. In Galicia, the province northeast of Hungary, the peasants 
 believe that when a star falls to earth it is at once transformed into a 
 rarely beautiful woman with long hair, blonde and glittering. This 
 splendid creature, miraculously engendered, exercises on all who come 
 in contact with her a magical influence. Every handsome youth unfor- 
 tunate enough to attract her attention becomes her victim. Thus having 
 allured them to her, she encircles them with her arms in an embrace 
 that becomes gradually tighter and tighter until the poor dupes are 
 strangled to death. If certain words are murmured the moment the star 
 starts to fall, they cause her allurements to lose their power. From this 
 superstition springs the custom of wishing, while a star is seen hurrying 
 through the air, a wish said surely to come true if completely for- 
 mulated before the light is extinguished. The Spaniards saw in the 
 falling stars the souls of their dead friends, the thread of whose exist- 
 ence was cut short by destiny. The Arabs thought these stars to be burn- 
 ing stones thrown by the angels onto the heads of devils who attempted 
 to enter paradise. 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. 131 
 
 Hecatomb, in the worship of the Greeks, and in other ancient reli- 
 gions, meant a sacrifice of a large number of victims, properly, although 
 by no means necessarily, one hundred. As early as the time of Homer 
 it was usual only to burn the legs wrapped up in the fat and certain 
 parts of the intestines, the rest of the victim being eaten at the festive 
 meal after the sacrifice. In Athens the hecatomb was a most popular 
 form of sacrifice; while the thrifty Spartans, on the contrary, limited the 
 number both of the victims and of the sacrifices. In the hecatomb, 
 strictly so called, the sacrifice was supposed to consist of one hundred 
 bulls, but other animals were frequently substituted. 
 
 Belief in witches has caused the death of thousands of innocent per- 
 sons in almost .all countries. In England alone it is computed that 
 thirty thousand persons were burned at the stake for witchcraft. The 
 witchcraft frenzy rose to its height in the reign of James I., who wrote a 
 book on demonology. It revived under the Long Parliament, when 
 Matthew Hopkins, the witch-finder, plied his trade (1645-7). Executions 
 for witchcraft were prohibited by an edict of Louis XIV. in 1670. At 
 Salem, New England, in 1692, nineteen persons were hanged by the 
 Puritans for witchcraft. The last execution for witchcraft in England 
 was that of Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, who were hanged 
 at Huntingdon in 1716. The last execution in Scotland was at Dornoch 
 in 1722. The laws against witchcraft were repealed in 1736. The last 
 witch was officially tried and executed in 1793 in Posen. 
 
 STORY OF THE NIBELUNGEN LIED. 
 
 This famous historic poem, which is called the Iliad of Germany, 
 was produced about 1210, and is divided into two parts, and thirty-two 
 lieds or cantos. The first part ends with the death of Siegfried, and the 
 second part with the death of Kriemhild. 
 
 Siegfried, the youngest of the kings of the Netherlands, went to 
 Worms, to crave the hand of Kriemhild in marriage. While he was stay- 
 ing with Giinther, king of Burgundy (the lady's brother), he assisted him 
 to obtain in marriage Brunhild, queen of Issland, who announced pub- 
 licly that he only should be her husband who could beat her in hurling 
 a spear, throwing a huge stone, and in leaping. Siegfried, who possessed 
 a cloak of invisibility, aided Giinther in these three contests, and Brun- 
 hild became his wife. In return for these services Giinther gave Sieg- 
 fried his sister Kriemhild in marriage. After a time the bride and bride- 
 groom went to visit Giinther, when the two ladies disputed about the 
 relative merits of their respective husbands, and Kriemhild, to exalt 
 Siegfried, boasted that Giinther owed to him his victories and his wife. 
 Brunhild, in great anger, now employed Hagan to murder Siegfried, and 
 this he did by stabbing him in the back while he was drinking from 
 a brook. 
 
 Thirteen years elapsed, and the widow married Etzel, king of the 
 Huns. After a time she invited Brunhild and Hagan to a visit. Hagan, 
 in this visit, killed Etzel's young son, and Kriemhild was like a fury. A 
 battle ensued, in which Giinther and Hagan were made prisoners, and 
 Kriemhild cut off both their heads with her own hand. Hildebrand, 
 horrified at this act of blood, slew Kriemhild; and so the poem ends. 
 Authors unknown (but the story was pieced together by the minnesingers. ) 
 
 The "Volsunga Saga" is the Icelandic version of the "Nibelungen 
 Lied. ' ' This saga has been translated into English by William Morris, 
 
132 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The ' 'Nibelungen Lied' ' has been ascribed to Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 
 a minnesinger; but it certainly existed before that epoch, if not as a com- 
 plete whole, in separate lays, and all that Heinrich von Ofterdingen 
 could have done was to collect the floating lays, connect them, and form 
 them into a complete story. 
 
 THE SAGAS OP THE NORSEMEN. 
 
 "Edda" was the name of the Bible of the ancient Scandinavians. A 
 saga is a book of instruction, generally, but not always, in the form of a 
 tale,like a Welsh "mabinogi." In the "Edda" there are numerous sagas. 
 As our Bible contains the history of the Jews, religious songs, moral prov- 
 erbs,and religious stories,sothe "Edda" contained the history of Norway, 
 religious songs, a book of proverbs and numerous stories. The original 
 "Edda" was compiled and edited by SaemunSigfusson, an Icelandic priest 
 and scald, in the eleventh century. It contains twenty-eight parts or 
 books, all of which are in verse. 
 
 Two hundred years later, Snorro Sturleson, of Iceland, abridged, re- 
 arranged, and reduced to prose the ' 'Edda, ' ' giving the various parts a kind 
 of dramatic form, like the dialogues of Plato. It then became needful to 
 distinguish these two works; so the old poetical compilation is called the 
 "Elder"or"Rhythmical Edda, "and sometimes the"Sremund Edda" while 
 the more modern work is called the "Younger"or "Prose Edda" and some- 
 times the "Snorro Edda. " The "Younger Edda" is,however, partly origi- 
 nal. Pt.i. is the old "Edda" reduced to prose, but pt. ii.is Sturleson 'sown 
 collection. This part contains "The discourse of Bragi" (the scald of the 
 gods) on the origin of poetry; andhere,too, we find the famous story called 
 by the Germans "Nibelungen Lied." Besides the sagas contained in the 
 "Eddas," there are numerous others. Indeed, the whole saga literature 
 extends over two hundred volumes. 
 
 RIP VAN WINKLE AND OTHER SLEEPERS. 
 
 Almost all nations have a tradition about some sleeper, who will wake 
 after a long period of dormancy. Of these the best known to us is Rip 
 Van Winkle, who, according to the legend (Washington Irving's ver- 
 sion), was a Dutch colonist of New York, who met a strange man in a 
 ravine of the Kaatskill Mountains. Rip helped the stranger to carry a 
 keg to a wild glen among rocks, where he saw a host of strange person- 
 ages playing skittles in mysterious silence. Rip took the first opportu- 
 nity of tasting the keg, fell into a stupor and slept for twenty years. On 
 waking he found that his wife was dead and buried, his daughter married, 
 his village remodelled, and America had become independent. 
 
 Epimenides the Gnostic slept for fifty-seven years. 
 
 Nourjahad, wife of the Mogul emperor Geangir, who discovered the 
 otto of roses, slept seven years. 
 
 Gyneth slept five hundred years, by the enchantment of Merlin. 
 
 The seven sleepers slept for two hundred and fifty years in Mt. Celion. 
 
 St. David slept for seven years. 
 
 The following are not dead, but only sleep till the fullness of their re- 
 spective times: Elijah, Endymion, Merlin, King Arthur, Charlemagne, 
 Frederick Barbarossa and his knights, the three Tells, Desmond of Kil- 
 mallock, Thomas of Erceldoune, Bobadil el Chico, Brian Boroimhe, Knez 
 Lazar, King Sebastian of Portugal, Olaf Tryggvason, the French slain in 
 the Sicilian Vespers, and one or two others, 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. 133 
 
 INDIAN FOLK LORE. 
 
 As a specimen of the folk-lore of our own aborigines none can sur- 
 pass in interest the story of Hiawatha, the prophet-teacher, son of Mud- 
 jekeewis (the west wind} and Wenonah daughter of Nokomis. He 
 represents the progress of civilization among the North American Indians. 
 Hiawatha first wrestled with Mondamin (maize}, and having subdued 
 it, gave it to man for food. He then taught man navigation ; then he sub- 
 dued Mishe Nahma (the sturgeon], and taught the Indians how to make 
 oil therefrom for winter. His next exploit was against the magician 
 Megissognon, the author of disease and death; having slain this mon- 
 ster, he taught men the science of medicine. He then married Minne- 
 haha (laughing water}, and taught man to be the husband of one wife, 
 and the comforts of domestic peace. Lastly, he taught man picture- 
 writing. When the white men came with the gospel, Hiawatha ascended 
 to the kingdom of Ponemah, the land of the hereafter. Among many 
 other accomplishments when Hiawatha put on his moccasins, he could 
 measure a mile at a single stride. 
 
 He had moccasins enchanted, 
 
 Magic moccasins of deer-skin; 
 
 When he bound them round his ankles 
 
 At each stride a mile he measured! 
 
 LONGFELLOW, Hiawatha, iv. 
 
 THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS. 
 
 AMETHYST. Peace of mind. Regarded by the ancients as having 
 the power to dispel drunkenness. 
 
 BLOODSTONE. I mourn your absence. Worn by the ancients as an 
 amulet or charm, on account of the medicinal and magical virtues it was 
 supposed to possess. 
 
 DIAMOND. Pride. Awarded supernatural qualities from the most 
 remote period down to the Middle Ages. Has the power of making men 
 courageous and magnanimous. Protects from evil spirits. Influences 
 the gods to take pity upon mortals. Maintains concord between hus- 
 band and wife, and for this reason was held as the most appropriate 
 stone for the espousal ring. 
 
 EMERALD. Success in love. Mentioned in the Bible as worn in the 
 breast plate of the High Priest as an emblem of chastity. 
 
 RUBY. A cheerful mind. An amulet against poison, sadness, evil 
 thoughts. A preservative of health. Admonishes the wearer of impend- 
 ing danger by changing color. 
 
 SAPPHIRE. Chastity. Procures favor with princes. Frees from 
 enchantment. Prevents impure thoughts. 
 
 TOPAZ. Fidelity. Calms the passions. 
 
 TURQUOISE. Success and happiness. Preserves from contagion. 
 
 GARNET. Fidelity in every engagement. Onyx. Reciprocal love. 
 Opal. Pure thoughts. Pearl. Purity and innocence. 
 
 THE GIFT OF SECOND SIGHT. 
 
 Second-sight, a gift of prophetic vision, was long supposed in the 
 Scottish Highlands and elsewhere to belong to particular persons. The 
 most common form it took was to see the wraith, fetch, or shadowy sec- 
 ond self of some person soon to die, often wrapped in a shroud, or at- 
 tended with some other of the special circumstances of death or burial. 
 
134 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Of course the prophetic character may easily enough have been a mere 
 additional assumption, the time of occurrence of distant events being apt 
 to be confused with the time of hearing of them. In the popular mind 
 everywhere the mystery of death, and the instinctive human longing to 
 believe in a continuity of conscious spiritual life and sympathy, have gen- 
 erated a belief in the probability of an appearance coinciding with, or 
 soon succeeding, the death of an individual; and from this the step is 
 easy to a belief in the possibility of similar appearances before death, in 
 order to foreshadow or forewarn. 
 
 OLYMPIAN DEITIES AND HEROES. 
 
 ACHA'TES. The trusty friend of ^neas. 
 
 ACH'ERON. The son of Sol and Terra, 
 changed by Jupiter into a river of hell. 
 Used also for hell itself. 
 
 ACHIL'LES. A Greek who signalized him- 
 self in the war against Troy. Having 
 been dipped by his mother in the river 
 Styx, he was invulnerable in every part 
 except his right heel, but was at length 
 killed by Pans with an arrow. 
 
 ACT^E ON. A famous hunter, who, having 
 surprised Diana as she was bathing, was 
 turned by her into a stag and killed by 
 his own dogs. 
 
 ADO'NIS. A beautiful youth beloved by 
 Venus and Proserpine. He was killed 
 by a wild boar. When wounded, Venus 
 sprinkled nectar into his blood, from 
 which flowers sprang up. 
 
 ./EGE'US. A king of Athens, giving name 
 to the Aegean Sea by drowning himseli 
 in it. 
 
 .^3'Gis. A shield given by Jupiter to Mi- 
 nerva. Also the name of a Gorgon whom 
 Pallas slew. 
 
 ^NE'AS. A Trojan prince, son of Anchises 
 and Venus; the heroe of Virgil's poem, 
 the "^neid." 
 
 JE OLUS. The god of the winds. 
 
 -<5JscuLA'PiDS. The god of medicine and 
 the son of Apollo. Killed by Jupiter with 
 a thunderbolt for having restored Hip- 
 polytus to life. 
 
 AGAMEM'NON. King of Mycenae and Ar- 
 gos, brother to Men elans, and chosen 
 captain-general of the Greeks at the 
 siege of Troy. 
 
 A' JAX. Next to Achilles, the bravest of all 
 the Greeks in the Trojan war. 
 
 AL'BION. The son of Neptune; went into 
 Britain and established a kingdom. 
 
 ALCES TE, or ALCESTIS. The daughter of 
 Pelias and wife of Admetus, brought 
 back from hell by Hercules. 
 
 AMPHI'ON. A famous musician, the son of 
 Jupiter and Antiope, who built the city 
 of Thebes by the music of his harp. He 
 and his brother Zethus are said to have 
 invented music. 
 
 AMPHITRI TE. Goddess of the sea and 
 wife of Neptune. 
 
 ANDROM'ACHE. Wife of Hector. 
 
 ANDROM'EDA. The daughter of Cepheus 
 and Cassiopeia, who, contesting with 
 Juno and the Nereides for the prize of 
 beauty, was bouud to a rock by them 
 
 and exposed to a sea monster, but was 
 rescued and married by Perseus. 
 
 ANTIG'ONE. The daughter of CEdipus and 
 Jocasta, famous for her filial piety. 
 
 A'PIS. Son of Jupiter and Niobe; called 
 also Serapis and Osiris. Taught the 
 Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines, 
 and worshipped by them in the form of 
 an ox. 
 
 APOL LO. The son of Jupiter and Latona, 
 and the god of music, poetry, eloquence, 
 medicine and the fine arts. 
 
 ARACH'NE. A Lydian princess, turned 
 into a spider for contending with Mi- 
 nerva at spinning. 
 
 ARETHU'SA. One of Diana's nymphs, who 
 was changed into a fountain. 
 
 AR'GUS. The son of Aristor; said to have 
 had a hundred eyes; but being killed by 
 Mercury when appointed by Juno to 
 guard lo, she put his eyes on the tail of 
 a peacock. Also an architect, who built 
 the ship Argo. 
 
 ARIAD'NE. The daughter of Minos, who, 
 from love to Theseus, gave him a clew 
 of thread to guide him out of the Cretan 
 labyrinth; being afterward deserted by 
 him, she was married to Bacchus and 
 made his priestess. 
 
 ARI'ON. A lyric poet of Methymna, who, 
 in his voyage to Italy, saved his life from 
 the cruelty of the mariners by means of 
 dolphins, which the sweetness of his 
 music brought together. 
 
 ATALAN'TA. A princess of Scyros, who 
 consented to marry that one of her suit- 
 ors who should outrun her, Hippomenes 
 being the successful competitor. 
 
 AT'LAS. One ot the Titans and king of 
 Mauretania; said to have supported the 
 world on his shoulders; he was turned 
 into a mountain by Perseus. 
 
 AURO'RA. The goddess of morning. 
 
 BAC'CHUS. The son of Jupiter and Semele 
 and the god of wine. 
 
 BELLER'OPHON. The son of Glaucus, king 
 of Ephyra. He underwent numerous 
 hardships for refusing an intimacy with 
 Sthenoboea, wife of Proetus. the king of 
 Argos. With the aid of the horse Pegasus 
 he destroyed the Chimera. 
 
 BELLO NA. Goddess of war; sister of 
 Mars. 
 
 BERENI'CE. A Grecian lady; the only per- 
 son of her sex permitted to see the Olym- 
 pic games. 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. 
 
 135 
 
 BO'REAS. The son of Astrseus and Aurora; 
 the name of the north wind. 
 
 BRIA RETJS. A giant who warred against 
 heaven, and was feigned to have had 
 fifty heads and one hundred arms. 
 
 BUSI'RIS. The son of Neptune; a tyrant of 
 Egypt and a monstrous giant, who fed 
 his horses with human flesh; was killed 
 by Hercules. 
 
 CAD'MUS. The son of Agenor, king of 
 Phoenicia; founder of Thebes and the 
 reputed inventor of sixteen letters of the 
 Greek alphabet. 
 
 CADU'CEUS. Mercury's golden rod or 
 wand. 
 
 CALYP'SO. One of the Oceanides, who 
 reigned in the island of Ogygia, and 
 entertained and became enamored of 
 Ulysses. 
 
 CASSAN'DRA. A daughter of Priam and 
 Hecuba, endowed with the gift of proph- 
 ecy by Apollo. 
 
 CAS'TOR. A son of Jupiter and Leda. He 
 and his twin brother Pollux shared im- 
 mortality alternately, and were formed 
 into the constellation Gemini. 
 
 CEN TAURS. Children of Ixion, half men 
 and half horses, inhabiting Thessaly, 
 and vanquished by Theseus. 
 
 CER'BERUS. The three-headed dog of Pluto, 
 guarding the gates of hell. 
 
 CE'RES. The daughter of Saturn and Cy- 
 bele, and goddess of agriculture. 
 
 CHA'RON. The son of Erebus and Nox, 
 and ferryman of hell, who conducted 
 the souls of the dead over the rivers Styx 
 and Acheron. 
 
 CHARYB pis. A ravenous woman, turned 
 by Jupiter into a very dangerous gulf or 
 whirlpool on the coast of Sicily. 
 
 CHI'MERA. A strange monster of I^ycia, 
 killed by Bellerophon. 
 
 CIR'CE. A noted enchantress. 
 
 CLYTEMNES'TRA. The faithless wife of 
 Agamemnon, killed by her son Orestes. 
 
 Co MUS. The god of merriment. 
 
 CRO'CUS. A young man enamored of the 
 nymph Smilax, and changed into a 
 flower. 
 
 CRCE sus. King of L,ydia; the richest man 
 of his time. 
 
 CU'PID. Son of Mars and Venus; the god 
 of love 
 
 CYB'ELE. The daughter of Ccelus and 
 Terra; wife of Saturn and mother of the 
 gods. 
 
 CY'CLOPS. Vutoan's workmen, giants who 
 had only one eye in the middle of their 
 foreheads; slain by Apollo in a pique 
 against Jupiter. 
 
 D^D'ALUS. A most ingenious artificer of 
 Athens, who formed the Cretan laby- 
 rinth and invented the auger, axe, glue, 
 plumb-line, saw, and masts and sails for 
 ships. 
 
 DANA'IDES, or BE'LIDES. The fifty daugh- 
 ters of Danaus, king of Argos, all of 
 whom, except Hypermnestra, killed their 
 husbands on the first night of their mar- 
 riage, and were therefore doomed to 
 draw water out of a deep well and eter- 
 nally pour it into a cask full of holes. 
 
 DAPH'NE. A nymph beloved by Apollo, 
 the daughter of the River P e n e u s , 
 changed into a laurel tree. 
 
 DAPH'NIS. A shepherd of Sicily and son 
 of Mercury, educated by the nymphs 
 and inspired by the Muses with the love 
 of poetry. 
 
 DEJANI'RA. Wife of Hercules, who killed 
 herself in despair, because her husband 
 burnt himself to avoid the torment occaT 
 sioned by the poisoned shirt she had 
 given him to regain his love. 
 
 DEL'PHI, A city of Phocis, famous for a 
 temple and an oracle of Apollo. 
 
 DEUCA'LION The son of Prometheus and 
 king of Thessaly, who, with his wife 
 Pyrrha, was preserved from the general 
 deluge, and repeopled the world by 
 throwing stones behind them, as di- 
 rected by the oracle. 
 
 DIAN'A. Daughter of Jupiter and Latona 
 and goddess of hunting, chastity and 
 marriage. 
 
 DI'DO. Founder and queen of Carthage; 
 daughter of Belus and wife of Sichseus. 
 According to Virgil, she entertained 
 ^neas on his voyage to Italy, and burnt 
 herself through despair because he left 
 her. 
 
 DIOME'DES. Son of Tydeus and king of 
 ^2$tolia; gained great reputation at Troy, 
 and, with Ulysses, carried off the Pal- 
 ladium. 
 
 DRY'ADES. Nymphs of the woods. 
 
 ECH'O. The daughter of Aer, or Air, and 
 Tellus, who pined away for love of Nar- 
 cissus. 
 
 ELEC'TRA. Daughter of Agamemnon and 
 Clytemnestra ; instigated her brother 
 Orestes to revenge their father's death 
 upon their mother and ^gisthus. 
 
 ELYS'IUM. The happy residence of the 
 virtuous after death. 
 
 ENCEL'ADUS. Son of Titan and Terra and 
 the strongest of the giants; conspired 
 against Jupiter and attempted to scale 
 heaven. 
 
 ENDYM'ION. A shepherd and astronomer 
 of Caria, condemned to a sleep of thirty 
 years. 
 
 ER'EBUS. The son of Chaos and Nox; an 
 infernal deity. A river of hell, and often 
 used by the poets for hell itself. 
 
 EUMEN'IDES. A name of the Furies. 
 
 EURO PA. The daughter of Agenor; car- 
 ried by Jupiter, in the form of a white 
 bull, into Crete. 
 
 EORY'ALTJS. A Peloponnesian chief in 
 the Trojan war. Also a Trojan and a 
 friend of Nisus, for whose loss ^Jneas 
 was inconsolable. 
 
 EURYD'ICE. Wife of Orpheus; killed by a 
 serpent on her marriage day. 
 
 EVAD'NE. Daughter of Mars and Thebe; 
 threw herself on the funeral pyre of her 
 husband, Cataneus. 
 
 FATES. Powerful goddesses, who pre- 
 sided over the birth and the life of man- 
 kind, were the three daughters of Nox 
 and Erebus, named Clotho, Lachesis and 
 Atropos. Clotho was supposed to hold 
 the distaff, I^achesis to draw the thread 
 
136 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 of human life, and Atropos to cut it 
 off. 
 
 FAU'NI. Rural gods, described as having 
 the legs, feet and ears of goats. 
 
 FAU NUS. Son of Mercury and Nox and 
 father of the Fauni. 
 
 Fi.o RA. The goddess of flowers. 
 
 FORTU'NA. The goddess of fortune; said 
 to be blind. 
 
 FUR IBS. The three daughters of Nox and 
 Acheron, named Alecto, Tisiphone and 
 Megsera, with hair composed of snakes, 
 and armed with whips, chains, etc. 
 
 GALATE A. A sea-nymph, daughter of Ne- 
 reus and Doris, passionately loved by 
 Polyphemus. 
 
 GAN'YMEDE. The son of Tros, king of 
 Troy, whom Jupiter, in the form of an 
 eagle, snatched np and made his cup- 
 bearer. 
 
 GOR DIUS. A husbandman, but afterward 
 king of Phrygia, remarkable for tying a 
 knot of cords, on which the empire of 
 Asia depended, in so intricate a manner 
 that Alexander, unable to unravel it, cut 
 it asunder. 
 
 GOR'GONS. The three daughters of Phor- 
 cus and Ceta, named Stheno, Euryale 
 and Medusa. Their bodies were covered 
 with impenetrable scales, their hair en- 
 twined with serpents; they had only one 
 eye betwixt them, and they could change 
 into stones those whom they looked on. 
 
 GRA'CES. Three goddesses, Aglaia, Thalia 
 and Euphrosyne, represented as beauti- 
 ful, modest virgins, and constant attend- 
 ants on Venus. 
 
 HAR'PIES. Winged monsters, daughters 
 of Neptune and Terra, named Aello, Ce- 
 laeno and Ocypete, with the faces of vir- 
 gins, the bodies of vultures and hands 
 armed with claws. 
 
 HE'BE. The daughter of Juno; goddess of 
 youth and Jupiter's cup-bearer ; ban- 
 ished from heaven on account of an un- 
 lucky fall. 
 
 HEC/TOR. The son of Priam and Hecuba; 
 the most valiant of the Trojans, and 
 slain by Achilles. 
 
 HEC/UBA. The wife of Priam, who tore 
 her eyes out for the loss of her children. 
 
 HEL'ENA, or HEL'EN. The wife of Mene- 
 Iseus and the most beautiful woman of 
 her age, who, running away with Paris, 
 occasioned the Trojan war. 
 
 HER CULES. The son of Jupiter and Alc- 
 mena; the most famous hero of antiquity, 
 remarkable for his great strength and 
 numerous exploits. 
 
 HERMI'ONE. The daughter of Mars and 
 Venus and wife of Cadmus; was changed 
 into a serpent. Also, a daughter of Mene- 
 laeus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 
 
 HE'RO. A beautiful woman of Sestos, in 
 Thrace, and priestess of Venus, whom 
 Leander of Abydos loved so tenderly 
 that he swam over the Hellespont every 
 night to see her; but he, at length, being 
 unfortunately drowned, she threw her- 
 self, in despair, into the sea. 
 
 HRSPER'IDES. Three nymphs, ^5igle, Are- 
 thusa and Hesperethusa, daughters of 
 
 Hesperus. They had a garden bearing 
 golden apples, watched by a dragon, 
 which Hercules slew and bore away the 
 fruit. 
 
 HES'PJBRUS. The son of Japetus and 
 brother to Atlas; changed into the even- 
 ing star. 
 
 HYACIN THUS. A beautiful boy, beloved 
 by Apollo and Zephyrus. The latter 
 killed him, but Apollo changed the blood 
 that was spilt into a flower called hya- 
 cinth. 
 
 HY ADES. Seven daughters of Atlas and 
 JEihra, changed by Jupiter into seven 
 stars. 
 
 HY DRA. A celebrated monster, or ser- 
 pent, with seven, or, according to some, 
 fifty heads, which infested the I,ake 
 L,erna. It was killed by Hercules. 
 
 HY MEN. Son of Bacchus and Venus, and 
 god of marriage. 
 
 HYP'ERION. Sou of Ccelus and TeiTa. 
 
 ICA'RIUS. Son of CEbalus; having received 
 from Bacchus a bottle of wine, he went 
 into Attica to showmen the use of it, but 
 was thrown into a well by some shep- 
 herds whom he had made drunk, 
 and who thought he had given them 
 poison. 
 
 Ic ARUS. The son of Daedalus, who, flying 
 with his father out of Crete into Sicily 
 and soaring too high, melted the wax of 
 his wings and fell into the sea, thence 
 called the Icarian sea. 
 
 I'o. The daughter of Inachus, turned by 
 Jupiter into a white heifer, but after- 
 ward resumed her former shape; was 
 worshipped after her death by the Egyp- 
 tians under the name of Isis. 
 
 IPHIGENI'A. The daughter of Agamem- 
 non and Clytemnestra, who, standing 
 ready as a victim to be sacrificed to ap- 
 pease the ire of Diana, was by that god- 
 dess transformed into a white hart and 
 made a priestess. 
 
 I'RIS. The daughter of Thumas and Elec- 
 tra: one of the Oceanides and messenger 
 and companion of Juno, who turned her 
 into a rainbow. 
 
 IXI'ON. A king of Thessaly and father of 
 the Centaurs. He killed his own sister, 
 and was punished by being fastened in 
 hell to a wheel perpetually turning. 
 
 JA'NUS. The son of Apollo and Creusa 
 and first king of Italy, who, receiving 
 the banished Saturn, was rewarded by 
 him with the. knowledge of husbandry 
 and of things past and future. 
 
 JA'SON. The leader of the Argonauts, who, 
 with Medea's help, obtained the golden 
 fleece from Colchis. 
 
 JU'NO. The daughter of Saturn and Ops; 
 sister and wife of Jupiter, the great 
 queen of heaven and of all the gods, and 
 goddess of marriages and births. 
 
 JU'PITER, or ZEUS. The son of Saturn and 
 Ops; the supreme deity of the heathen 
 world, the most powerful of the gods and 
 governor of all things. 
 
 l,AOc'6qN. A son ofPriam and Hecuba 
 and high priest of Apollo, who opposed 
 the reception of the wooden horse into 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. 
 
 137 
 
 Troy, for which he and his two sons 
 were killed by serpents. 
 
 LAOM EDON. A king of Troy, killed by 
 Hercules for denying him his daughter 
 Hesione after he had delivered her from 
 the sea-monster. 
 
 IVA'RES. Inferior gods at Rome, who pre- 
 sided over houses and families; sons of 
 Mercury and Lara. 
 
 LE'THE. A river of hell whose waters 
 caused a total forgetfulness of things 
 past. 
 
 I,rj CIFER. The name of the planet Venus, 
 or morning star; said to be the son of 
 Jupiter and Aurora. 
 
 ivU'NA. The moon; the daughter of Hy- 
 perion and Terra. 
 
 LUPER'CALIA. Feasts in honor of Pan. 
 
 MARS. The god of war. 
 
 MEDE'A. The daughter of ^tes and a 
 wonderful sorceress or magician; she as- 
 sisted Jason to obtain the golden fleece. 
 
 MEM NON. The son of Tithonus and Au- 
 rora and king of Abydon; killed by 
 Achilles for assisting Priam, and changed 
 into a bird at the request of his mother. 
 
 MENELA'US. The son of Atreus, king of 
 Sparta; brother of Agamemnon and hus- 
 band of Helen. 
 
 MEN TOR. The faithful friend of Ulysses, 
 the governor of Telemachus, and the 
 wisest man of his time. 
 
 MERCURY, or HERMHS. The son of Ju- 
 piter and Maia; messenger of the gods, 
 inventor of letters, and god of eloquence, 
 commerce and robbers. 
 
 Mr DAS. A king of Phrygia, who had the 
 power given him of turning whatever he 
 touched into gold. 
 
 MINER'VA, or PALLAS. The goddess of 
 wisdom, the arts, and war; produced from 
 Jupiter's brain. 
 
 MIN OTAUR. A celebrated monster, half 
 man and half bull. 
 
 MNEMOS YNE. The goddess of memory, 
 and mother of the nine Muses. 
 
 Mo MUS. The son of Nox and god of folly 
 and pleasantry. 
 
 MOR PHEUS. The minister of Nox and 
 Somnus, and god of sleep and dreams. 
 
 Mu SES. Nine daughters of Jupiter and 
 Mnemosyne, named Calliope, Clio, 
 Erato, Euterpe, Melpomene, Polyhym- 
 nia, Terpsichore, Thalia and Urania. 
 They were mistresses of all the sciences 
 and governesses of the feasts of the gods. 
 
 Mu TA. Goddess of silence. 
 
 NA'IADES. Nymphs of streams and fount- 
 ains. 
 
 NAKCIS'SUS. A beautiful youth, who, fall- 
 ing in love with his own reflection in the 
 water, pined away into a daffodil. 
 
 NEM ESIS. One of the infernal deities and 
 goddess of revenge. 
 
 NEP'TUNE. The son of Saturn and Ops; 
 god of the sea and, next to Jupiter, the 
 most powerful deity. 
 
 NES'TOR. The son of Neleus and Chloris 
 and king of Pylos and Messenia. He 
 fought against the Centaurs, was distin- 
 guished in the Trojan war, and lived to 
 a great age. 
 
 NI'OBE. Daughter of Tantalus and wife 
 of Amphion, who, preferring herself to 
 L.atona, had her fourteen children killed 
 by Diana and Apollo, and wept herselt 
 into a stone. 
 
 Nox. The most ancient of all the deities 
 and goddess of night. 
 
 OCEAN'IDES. Sea-nymphs, daughters of 
 Oceanus; three thousand in number. 
 
 OCE'ANTJS. An ancient sea-god. 
 
 OSp'iprjs. King of Thebes, who solved the 
 riddle of the Sphinx, unwittingly killed 
 his father, married his mother, and at 
 last ran mad and tore out his eyes. 
 
 OM'PHALE. A queen of L,ydia, with whom 
 Hercules was so enamored that he sub- 
 mitted to spinning and other unbecom- 
 ing offices. 
 
 ORES'TES. The son of Agamemnon. 
 
 OR PHKUS. A celebrated Argonaut, whose 
 .kill in music is said to have been so 
 great that he could make rocks, trees, 
 etc., follow him. He was the son of Ju- 
 piter and Calliope. 
 
 PALLA'DIUM. A statue of Minerva, which 
 the Trojans imagined fell- from heaven, 
 and with which their city was deemed 
 unconquerable. 
 
 PAN. The son of Mercury and the god of 
 shepherds, huntsmen and the inhabi- 
 tants of the country. 
 
 PANDO'RA. The first woman, made by 
 Vulcan, and endowed with gifts by all 
 the deities. Jupiter gave her a box 
 which contained all the evils and m^er- 
 ies of life, but with hope at the bottom. 
 
 PAR'IS, or ALEXANDER. Son of Priam and 
 Hecuba ; a mos-t beautiful youth, who 
 ran away with Helen, and thus occa- 
 sioned the Trojan war. 
 
 PARNAS'SUS. A mountain of Phocis famous 
 for a temple of Apollo; the favorite resi- 
 dence of the Muses. 
 
 PEG'ASUS. A winged horse belonging to 
 Apollo and the Muses, which sprang 
 from the blood of Medusa when Perseus 
 cut off her head. 
 
 PENA'TES. Small statues, or household 
 gods. 
 
 PENEL'OPE. A celebrated princess of 
 Greece, daughter of Icarus and wife of 
 Ulysses; celebrated for her chastity and 
 constancy in the long absence of her 
 husband. 
 
 PER'SEUS. Son of Jupiter and Danae; per- 
 formed many extraordinary exploits by 
 means of Medusa's head. 
 
 PHA'ETON. Son of Sol (Apollo) and Cli- 
 .mene. He asked the guidance of his 
 father's chariot for one day as a proof of 
 his divine descent; but, unable to man- 
 age the horses, set the world on fire, and 
 was therefore struck by Jupiter with a 
 thunderbolt into the River Po. 
 
 PHILOME'LA. The daughter of Pandion, 
 king of Athens; changed into a nightin- 
 gale. 
 
 PHIN EAS. King of Paphlagonia; had his 
 eyes torn out by Boreas, but was recom- 
 pensed with the knowledge of futurity. 
 Also, a king of Thrace, turned into a 
 stone by Perseus. 
 
138 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 PHCE'BUS. A title of Apollo. I 
 
 PLE'IADES. Seven daughters of Atlas and 
 Pleione, changed into stars. 
 
 PLU'TO. The son of Saturn and Ops, 
 brother of Jupiter and Neptune and the 
 god of the infernal regions. 
 
 POMO'NA. The goddess of fruits and an- 
 tumn. 
 
 PRI' AM. The last king of Troy, the son of 
 Laomedon, under whose reign Troy was 
 taken by the Greeks. 
 
 PROME'THEUS. The son of Japetus; said 
 to have stolen fire from heaven to ani- 
 mate two bodies which he had formed 
 of clay, and was therefore chained by 
 Jupiter to Mount Caucasus, with a vul- 
 ture perpetually gnawing his liver. 
 
 PROSERPINE. Wife of Pluto. 
 
 PRO'TEUS. The son of OceanusandTethys; 
 a sea-god and prophet, who possessed 
 the power of changing himself into any 
 shape. 
 
 PSY'CHE. A nymph beloved by Cupid and 
 made immortal by Jupiter. 
 
 PYG'MIES. A nation of dwarfs only a i pan 
 long, carried away by Hercules. 
 
 PYR'AMUS and THISBE. Two lovers of 
 Babylon, who killed themselves with 
 the same sword, and thus caused 
 the berriesof the mulberry tree, under 
 which they died, to change from white 
 to red. 
 
 PY'THON A huge serpent, produced from 
 the mud of the deluge; killed by Apollo, 
 who, in memory thereof, instituted the 
 Pythian games. 
 
 RE'MUS. The elder brother of Romulus, 
 killed by him for ridiculing the city 
 walls. 
 
 ROMULUS. The son of Mars Ilia; thrown 
 into the Tiber by his uncle, but saved, 
 with his twin brother, Remus, by a shep- 
 herd; became the founder and first king 
 of Rome. 
 
 S^T'URN. A son of Ccelus and Terra; god 
 of time. 
 
 SAT'YRS. Attendants of Bacchus; horned 
 monsters, half goats, half men. 
 
 SEMIR'AMIS. A celebrated queen ot As- 
 syria, who built the walls of Babylon; 
 was slain by her own son Ninyas and 
 turned into a pigeon. 
 
 SILE'NUS. The foster-father, master and 
 companion of Bacchus. He lived in Ar- 
 cadia, rode on an ass and was drunk 
 every day. 
 
 SI'RENS. Sea-nymphs, or sea-monsters, 
 
 the daughters of Oceanus and Amphi- 
 trite. 
 
 SIS'YPHUS. The son of ^olus; a most 
 crafty prince, killed by Theseus and con- 
 demned by Pluto to roll up hill a large 
 stone, which constantly fell back again. 
 
 SOM'NUS. The son of Erebus and Nox and 
 the god of sleep. 
 
 SPHINX. A monster who destroyed her- 
 self because CEdipus solved the enigma 
 she proposed. 
 
 STEN'TOR. A Grecian whose voice is re- 
 ported to have been as strong and as 
 loud as the voices of fifty men together. 
 
 STYX. A river of hell. 
 
 SYLVANUS. A god of woods and forests. 
 
 TA'CITA. A goddess of silence. 
 
 TAN'TALUS. The son of Jupiter and king 
 of L,ydia, who served up the limbs of his 
 son Pelops to try the divinity of the 
 gods, for which he was plunged to the 
 chin in a lake of hell and doomed to 
 everlasting thirst and hunger. 
 
 TAR'TARUS. The part of the infernal re- 
 gions in which the wicked were pun- 
 ished. 
 
 TAU'RUS. The bull under whose form Ju- 
 piter carried away Europa. 
 
 TELEM'ACHUS. The only son of Ulysses.' 
 
 TI'TAN. The son of Coelus and Terra, 
 elder brother of Saturn and one of the 
 giants who warred against heaven. 
 
 TRI'TON. The son of Neptune and Amphi- 
 trite, a powerful sea-god and Neptune's 
 trumpeter. 
 
 TROY. A city of Phrygia, famous for hold- 
 ing out a siege of ten years against the 
 Greeks, but finally captured and de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 ULYS'SES. King of Ithaca, who, by his 
 subtlety and eloquence, was eminently 
 serviceable to the Greeks in the Trojan 
 war. 
 
 VE'NUS, or APHRODITE. One of the most 
 celebrated deities of the ancients, the 
 wife of Vulcan, the goddess of beauty, 
 the mother of love, and the mi tress of 
 the graces and of pleasures. 
 
 VES'TA. The sister of Ceres and Juno, the 
 goddess of fire and patroness of vestal 
 virgins. 
 
 VUI/CAN. The god who presided over 
 subterraneous fire, patron of workers in 
 metal. 
 
 ZEPH'YRUS. The west wind, son of JEolus 
 and Aurora and lo'ver of the goddess 
 Flora. 
 
 ELYSIUM AND HADES. 
 
 Elysium, among the Greeks and Romans, was the regions inhabited by the blessed 
 after death. They are placed by Homer at the extremities of the earth, by Plato at 
 the antipodes, and by others in the Fortunate Islands (the Canaries). They were at 
 last transferred to the interior of the earth, which is Virgil's notion. The happiness of 
 the blessed consisted in a life of tranquil enjoyment in a perfect summer land, where 
 the heroes, freed from all care and infirmities, renewed their favorite sports. 
 
 Hades was originally the Greek name of the lord of the lower or invisible world, 
 afterwards called Pluto; but in later times, as in the Greek Scriptures, it is applied to 
 the region itself. With the ancients Hades was the common receptacle of departed 
 spirits. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 
 
 Each climate needs what other climes produce, 
 And offers something to the general use; 
 No land but listens to the common call, 
 And in return receives supply from all. 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 FACTS AND CHANNELS OF TRADE. 
 
 Envelopes were first used in 1839. 
 
 The first lucifer match was made in 1829. 
 
 First steamer crossed the Atlantic in 1819. 
 
 The first horse railroad was built in 1826-7. 
 
 The first newspaper advertisement was in 1652. 
 
 The greatest grain port in the world is Chicago. 
 
 Cork is the bark taken from a species of oak tree. 
 
 Edward III. is called the Father of English commerce. 
 
 The canning industry is making great headway in Georgia. 
 
 There are 20,000,000 acres under cotton in the United States. 
 
 Soap was first manufactured in England in the sixteenth century. 
 
 First American express ran from New York to Boston W. F. Ham- 
 den's. 
 
 Until 1776 cotton spinning was performed by the hand spinning 
 wheel. 
 
 The first mill-stones sent over here from England paid /"ll freight 
 in 1628. 
 
 Postage stamps first came into use in England in 1840; in this coun- 
 try in 1847. 
 
 The Wetherills of Philadelphia made white lead before the American 
 Revolution. 
 
 During 1891 there were 584 factories in this country engaged in the 
 silk industry. 
 
 Since 1840 the world's production of meat has increased 57 per cent, 
 that of grain 120 per cent. 
 
 The exports of this country in the fiscal year 1891-2, amounted to 
 1970,506,282; imports, $828,321,646. 
 
 The largest number of whaling ships in the world is sent out by 
 Nantucket and New Bedford, Mass. 
 
140 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Certificates for proficiency in commercial knowledge are now granted 
 at Cambridge and Oxford universities. ' 
 
 Ostrich taming is a very profitable industry in Africa, where it is 
 computed there are over 150,000 tame birds. 
 
 First sugar-cane in the United States was. cultivated near New 
 Orleans, 1751; first sugar mill was built in 1758. 
 
 From August '91 to August '92 our cotton crop was reported at 9,035,- 
 379 bales, an increase of 382,000 over previous year. 
 
 The Harrisons, who figure so extensively in our manufactures, made 
 oil of vitriol in Philadelphia in 1806, the first in the country. 
 
 The leather industry in the United States was worth $130,000,000 in 
 the administration of Gen. Taylor and employed 146,000 persons. 
 
 Virginia led off just before the Constitution in putting a tariff on 
 foreign leather and shoes, and Congress soon followed the example. 
 
 It is said to cost less to send the product of an acre of wheat from 
 Dakota to England than it does to manure an acre of land in England 
 so that it can grow good wheat. 
 
 In 1860 Chicago had less than twelve millions of total products for 
 all her factories, while today such factories as the Pullman works turn 
 out that value of cars alone in a year. 
 
 The name demurrage in mercantile law means the sum paid by the 
 owner of a ship to the charterer for keeping the ship in port a longer 
 time than that provided in the charter. 
 
 According to Orfila, the proportion of nicotine in Havana tobacco is 
 two per cent; in French six per cent, and in Virginia tobacco seven per 
 cent. That in Brazilian is still higher. 
 
 The production of mercury reaches about 55,000 to 66,000 frascos a 
 year. The frascos are enormous bottles of cast iron, which contain four 
 arrobes of about twenty-five pounds each. 
 
 The Cinchona tree is indigenous to Peru, and from it quinine is ex- 
 tracted; it derives its name from the Countess of Chinchon, who was 
 cured of fever by the bark (Peruvian bark). 
 
 Paper making ranks high among the industries of the United States. 
 Last year there were about 1,100 mills in operation in this country, 
 having an average capacity of about 16,000 pounds of paper. 
 
 A new substance called valzin is now being manufactured in Berlin 
 under a patent, and it is claimed to be two hundred times sweeter than 
 sugar and free from certain objectionable properties of saccharin. 
 
 A commission agent, or merchant, is a person employed to sell goods 
 consigned or delivered to him by another who is called his principal, for 
 a certain percentage, commonly called his commission or factorage. 
 
 The world annually consumes about 650,000 tons of coffee. Esti- 
 mating coffee as being worth about $400 per ton, which is about a good 
 average, this represents an outlay of $260,000,000 for this one beverage 
 each year. 
 
 New Orleans boasts the largest custom-house in this or any other 
 land. It was begun in 1848 and over thirty years elapsed before it was 
 finished and ready for use. It is built of Quincy granite and the interior 
 is finished in finest marble. It has 111 rooms. The height from the 
 
INDUSTR Y AND COMMERCE. 141 
 
 pavement to the top of the cornice is 80 feet, and to the top of the 
 light on the dome, 187 feet. The dome itself is 49 feet square and 61 
 feet high. The estimated total cost of building, $4, 900,000. 
 
 Caviare is the salted roe of the common sturgeon and other fishes of 
 the same genus. It is esteemed by epicures as a delicacy, but the taste is 
 purely an acquired one hence the phrase, "caviare to the multitude." 
 
 A commercial traveler is a person whose occupation is to transact 
 business as the accredited traveling representative of a trading house to 
 other trading houses. In this country he is commonly styled a "drum- 
 mer." 
 
 The latest authority puts the silk production of the world down at 
 |320,000,000 worth of silk annually, of which France produces two-fifths 
 of the whole, with her 230,000 looms. China and Japan grow one-half of 
 all the raw silk. 
 
 Clipper is a name familiarly given to a sailing ship built expressly 
 for speed. Aberdeen was long celebrated for building swift tea-clippers, 
 which since 1860 have been gradually superseded by steamers. The Bal- 
 timore clippers were also famous. 
 
 The Zollverein ("Customs Union") was a union of the German States 
 for fiscal purposes under the leadership of Prussia. The first step towards 
 its establishment was taken in 1818. It continued to exist until the Ger- 
 man Empire was founded in 1871. 
 
 In 1820 we made only 400 tons of white lead in the whole country, 
 and at the end of the civil war we made 14,000 tons. A white lead manu- 
 facturer of Cincinnati, Mr. Goshorn, was the President or Director-Gen- 
 eral of the Philadelphia Exhibition. 
 
 Customs duties are the portion of the revenue derived from a tax on 
 imports. In some countries, customs duties are imposed on certain ex- 
 ports also. Customs is the general term applying to the service of their 
 collection, also to the amounts collected. 
 
 One tug on the Mississippi can take in six days, from St. Louis to 
 New Orleads, barges carrying 10,000 tons of grain, which would require 
 seventy railway trains of fifteen cars each. Tugs in the Suez Canal tow 
 a vessel from sea to sea in forty-four hours. 
 
 The average annual production of flax is as follows: Russia, 270,000 
 tons; Austria, 53,000; Germany, 48,000; Belgium and Holland, 38,000; 
 France, 37,000; United Kingdom, 25,000; Italy, 23,000; United States, 
 12,000; Scandinavia, 4,000-total, 510,000 tons. 
 
 Corundum is a mineral consisting essentially of mere alumina, yet 
 of great specific gravity about four times that of water and of retnark- 
 ble hardness, being inferior in this respect only to the diamond. Miner- 
 alogists regard the sapphire as a variety of corundum. 
 
 Having imported some big cattle from Denmark, the Ingalls family 
 of Lynn, near Boston, began a tannery about 1630, and a shoemaker fol- 
 lowed in five years, and from these beginnings we record the vast shoe 
 industry of Lynn, which has produced a Vice-President in Henry Wilson. 
 
 The Alpaca is a half domesticated fawn of the wild vicuna, closely 
 related to the llama. It somewhat resembles the sheep in form, but has 
 a longer neck and a more elegant head. It is a native of the Andes. 
 About fifty years ago the wool of the alpaca, which, if allowed to remain 
 for some seasons grows to a great length, became a regular article of 
 
142 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 commerce. Sir Titus Salt, of England, was the first person to take steps 
 toward raising the alpaca manufacture to its present status as a consider- 
 able industry. Various attempts have been made to introduce the alpaca 
 into the United States, but all have resulted in failure. 
 
 There is a lake of pitch in the island of Trinidad about a mile and a 
 half in circumference. While the asphaltum near the shores is sufficiently 
 hard at most seasons to sustain men and quadrupeds, it grows soft and 
 warm toward the center, and there it is in a boiling state. 
 
 Rum is a kind of spirit made by fermenting and distilling the 
 "sweets" that accrue in making sugar from cane-juice. The scummings 
 from the sugar pans give the best rum that any particular plantation can 
 produce; scummings and molasses the next quality; and molasses the 
 lowest. 
 
 Anthracite, called in America hard coal, as opposed to bituminous 
 or soft coal, has its largest fields in Pennsylvania. It has only a small 
 proportion of the constituents of bitumen and consists almost entirely of 
 carbon. It burns nearly without smell, smoke or flame and gives out an 
 intense heat. 
 
 The Chamber of Commerce is a body of merchants, traders, bankers 
 and others, associated for the purpose of promoting the interests of its 
 own members, of the town or district to which the society belongs, and 
 of the community generally, in so far as these have reference to trade and 
 merchandise. 
 
 The United States produces 2,220 pounds of grain to each inhabitant; 
 Denmark, 2,005; Canada, 1,500; Russia, 1,200; Roumania, 1,150; Spain, 
 1,100; France, 990; Sweden, 980; Argentine Republic, 850; Australia, 760; 
 Germany, 700; Belgium, 600; Portugal, 550; Ireland, 500; Scotland, 490; 
 England, 360. 
 
 Disston sold his common saws for a profit of only seven cents on the 
 dozen in order to underbid the English, who then controlled our market. 
 Out of that manufacture the Disston boys have erected a whole town, and 
 there is no man in Australia or the British Colonies that would not prefer 
 the American saw to a foreign one. 
 
 The ways of auctioneers in different parts of the world vary greatly. 
 In England and America the seller bears the expense of the sale, but in 
 France the purchaser pays the cost, five per cent being added to the price 
 he pays. In Holland it is still worse, the buyer being required to pay 
 ten per cent additional for the expenses of the sale. 
 
 A Galleon was a large ship formerly used by the Spaniards to carry 
 home the gold, silver, and other wealth contributed by the Mexican and 
 South American colonies. They were armed, and had usually three or 
 four decks, with bulwarks three or four feet thick, and stem and stern 
 built up high like castles. They had a particular fascination for Drake 
 and other Elizabethan rovers who so contrived that many of them never 
 reached the ports of Spain. 
 
 The blue pigments in common use by artists are few in number, and 
 consist of native and Artificial Ultramarine, Cobalt, Indigo and Prussian 
 Blue. Genuine ultramarine, prepared from the mineral lapis lazuli, and 
 ordinary cobalt blue, sold for artists' work, are permanent colors. They 
 are used either alone, or mixed with other pigments, chiefly for skies and 
 distances in landscape; and by themselves, or to make up grays and 
 other mixed tints in figure painting. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 143 
 
 The Mississippi river, from the source of the Missouri to the Eads 
 jetties, is the longest river in the world. It is 4,300 miles in length and 
 drains an area of 1,726,000 square miles. The Amazon, Which is without 
 doubt the widest river in the world, including the Beni, is 4,000 miles in 
 length and drains 2,330,000 square miles of territory. 
 
 The name bitumen is especially given to a mineral substance of a 
 highly inflammable character, marked by a peculiar odor. It is gener- 
 ally supposed to be a vegetable origin. The term is very broad in its 
 use by mineralogists and by some is made to include the mineral resins, 
 naphtha, petroleum, asphalt and mineral caoutchouc. 
 
 Bricks and common pottery ware owe their red color to the iron 
 naturally contained in the clay of which they are formed, the iron, by 
 the action of the heat, being converted into red oxide of iron. Some 
 varieties of clay, like that found near Milwaukee, contain little or no iron, 
 and bricks made from such clay are consequently of a light yellow color. 
 
 Curacoa is a well known and esteemed liqueur, usually made in 
 Holland with the dried peel of the Curacoa orange, the peel being 
 macerated with water, and then distilled with spirit and water. The 
 result is sweetened with sugar, and a little Jamaica rum is often added. 
 A palatable imitation can be made from the fresh peel of bitter oranges 
 and whisky. 
 
 The fair of Nijni-Novgorod is the greatest in the world, the value of 
 goods sold being as follows: 1841, $35,000,000; 1857, $60,000,000; 1876, 
 $140,000,000; the attendance in the last named year including 150,000 
 merchants from all parts of the world. In that of Leipsic the annual 
 average of sales is $20,000,000, comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, 
 of which two-fifths is books. 
 
 Coastguard is the name of a British organization formerly intended 
 merely to prevent smuggling, but now constituted so as to serve as a 
 defensive force also. The old coastguardsmen were in the employment of 
 the Customs department; they were posted along the shore at spots com- 
 manding extensive views of the beach, and were expected to be always 
 on the lookout for smugglers. In 1856 the coastguard was transferred to 
 the Admiralty. 
 
 Ambergris is a fatty substance supposed to be a morbid secretion in 
 the intestinal canal of the spermaceti whale. It is found in lumps weigh- 
 ing from half an ounce to one hundred pounds and upwards, either 
 floating upon the sea or washed up on beaches. Often it is taken imme- 
 diately from the whale. Ambergris is largely used in perfumery, and is 
 worth about $30 an ounce. In general appearance it is like dirty, gray fat, 
 with yellow or reddish striae. It contains little black spots, caused by the 
 presence of the beaks of the sepia octopodia. Spec, gravity .780 to .920. 
 
 In commerce and political economy Barter is the exchange of one 
 commodity for another, as contrasted with the sale of commodities for 
 money. It is simply a primitive form of exchange carried on in coun- 
 tries in which the use of money has not yet been introduced or is not 
 prevalent. It was an economic stage through which all communities 
 must have passed. Even yet in many rude countries barter is very com- 
 mon; and European travelers find it convenient to take with them weap- 
 ons, tools and ornaments to exchange with the natives for their commod- 
 ities. In civilized communities barter is a very exceptional thing, hav- 
 ing been superseded by the use of money in various forms. 
 
144 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The much abused "potato bug" or Colorado beetle is an oval insect, 
 half an inch long, its body of yellow color, spotted with black, with ten 
 black longitudinal stripes on the elytra. It is a native of the Rocky 
 Mountains. It is specially destructive to potato crops, and has at various 
 times done great damage to those of the United States aud even managed 
 to get into England and other countries. 
 
 General Washington, in 1789, visited a mill at Hartford, Conn., 
 which made 5, 000 yards of cloth and sold it at $5 a yard. Washington 
 wrote in his diary: "Their broadcloths are not of the first quality as yet, 
 but they are good, as are their cassinets, cassimeres, serges, and everlast- 
 ings; of the broadcloth I ordered a suit to be sent to me at New York, 
 and of the commoner goods a whole piece to make breeches for my serv- 
 ants." 
 
 In the working of railways very important advantages have been 
 reaped from what is now known as the "block-system." The line is 
 divided into a number of comparatively short sections, and no train is 
 allowed to pass into a section till the signals at either end indicate that 
 the section is entirely clear of other trains. The signals are directed by 
 telegraph; and, if the system is strictly observed, collisions become im- 
 possible. 
 
 A viscid and adhesive substance which is placed on twigs of trees, 
 or wire-netting, to catch the birds that may alight thereon, is thence 
 called birdlime. It is generally prepared from the middle bark of the 
 holly, mistletoe or distaff-thistle, by treating with water, boiling for sev- 
 eral hours, straining and exposing to fermentation for several weeks. 
 The result is a gelatinous mucilage, consisting mainly of a substance 
 called viscin. 
 
 The degrees of alcohol in wines and liquors are: Beer, 4.0; porter, 
 4.5; ale, 7.4; cider, 8.6; Moselle, 9.6; Tokay, 10.2; Rhine, 11.0; Orange, 
 11.2; Bordeaux, 11.5; hock, 11.6; gooseberry, 11.8; Champagne, 12.2; 
 claret, 13.3; Burgundy, 13.6; Malaga, 17.3; Lisbon, 18.5; Canary, 18.8; 
 sherry, 19.0; Vermouth, 19.0; Cape, 19.2; Malmsey, 19.7; Marsala, 20.2; 
 Madeira, 21.0; port, 23.2; Curacoa, 27.0; aniseed, 33.0; Maraschino, 34.0; 
 Chartreuse, 43.0; gin, 51.6; brandy, 53.4; rum, 53.7; Irish whisky, 53.9; 
 Scotch, 54.3 
 
 "High seas" means the open sea, including the whole extent of sea so 
 far as it is not the exclusive property of any particular country. The rule 
 of international law is that every country bordering on the sea has the 
 exclusive sovereignty over such sea to the extent of three miles from its 
 shores; but all beyond, not within three miles of some other country, is 
 open or common to all countries. The part of sea within three miles' 
 distance is generally called the territorial sea of the particular country, 
 or mare clausum. 
 
 Koumiss is an intoxicating beverage much esteemed by the Kal- 
 mucks. It is made from the soured and fermented milk of mares, and 
 has an acidulous taste. A spirit is obtained from it by distillation. The 
 tribes which use koumiss are free from pulmonary phthisis, and the 
 observation of this fact has led to the beneficial use of an artificial kou- 
 miss made of ass's and cow's milk in cases of consumption. Of late ex- 
 tensive establishments have been founded in the southeast of Russia for 
 treating invalids with genuine koumiss; one at Samara is visited by fif- 
 teen hundred patients in a season. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 145 
 
 The Non-importation Act was passed by Congress on March 26, 1806, 
 to prohibit the importation of British manufactures into the United 
 States. The immediate cause of this prohibition was the annoyance 
 caused by the "Leander" cruising off New York, and insisting 
 on searching American vessels under pretence of looking for desert- 
 ers. In one of these searches an American sailor, named Pearce, was 
 killed, and the hostility of the States, which had long been smouldering, 
 burst into a blaze. 
 
 India rubber is obtained mostly from the Seringueros of the Amazon, 
 who sell it for about 12 cents a pound to the merchants of Para, but its 
 value on reaching England or the United States is over 50 cents a 
 pound. The best rubber forests in Brazil will ultimately be exhausted, 
 owing to the reckless mode followed by the Seringueros or tappers. 
 The ordinary product of a tapper's work is from 10 to 16 pounds daily. 
 There are 120 india rubber manufacturers in the United States, employing 
 15,000 operatives, who produce 280,000 tons of goods, valued at $260,000 
 000, per annum. 
 
 Amber is a substance analogous to the vegetable resins, usually of 
 a pale-yellow color. It occurs in round, irregular lumps, grains or 
 drops, slightly brittle and emits a pleasant odor when rubbed. It melts 
 at 536 F. Amber becomes negatively electric by friction, and possesses 
 this property in a high degree which, indeed, was first observed in it, 
 and the term electricity is derived from elektron, the Greek name of 
 amber. The specific gravity of amber is 1.065 to 1.070. Amber was 
 anciently regarded as a charm against witchcraft. It is employed exten- 
 sively in the arts, for the mouthpieces of pipes, for jewelry and other 
 ornamental purposes. 
 
 The name alcohol (Arab, al-kofi'l, originally applied to a collyrium, 
 a very fine powder of antimony for staining the eyelids; afterwards 
 "essence," "spirits"). Ordinary or ethyl alcohol is a limpid, colorless 
 liquid, of a hot pungent taste, and having a slight but agreeable smell. 
 It is the characteristic ingredient of fermented drinks, gives them their 
 intoxicating quality, and is obtained from them by distillation. It is 
 said to have been first obtained by this process by Abucasis, in the 
 twelfth century. If we look at the extraordinary consumption of these 
 liquors for various purposes, it is seen to be one of the most important 
 substances produced by art. 
 
 The overland route to India, Australia and the East, is now under- 
 stood to be that from England across France, through Mont Cenis by 
 tunnel, to Brindisi in Italy, thence through the Levant, the Suez Canal, 
 Red Sea and Indian Ocean. This makes the journey only about half as 
 long as the voyage round by the Cape of Good Hope, a little over six 
 thousand miles instead of more than twelve thousand. The saving in 
 time is even more considerable. The time from London to Bombay is 
 about four weeks, instead of three months by the Cape. In 1838 a 
 monthly service was started to carry the mails across Egypt; but to Lieu- 
 tenant Waghorn (1800-50) belongs the credit of first showing how the 
 voyage from India could be still further shortened. On October 31, 1845, 
 he arrived in London with the Bombay mail of October 1 (via Austria, 
 Bavaria, Prussia and Belgium) The railway from Suez to Alexandria by 
 Cairo was opened in 1858; but the great event that rendered the over- 
 land route available for passengers generally was the opening of the Suez 
 Canal in 1869. 
 
 U. I. 10 
 
146 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The variety of starch called Arrowroot is extracted from the roots 
 of certain plants growing in tropical countries. It is a fine starchy farina, 
 much valued as a delicacy, and as an easily digestible food for children 
 and invalids. It is obtained from the root-stocks of different species of 
 Maranta. The species chiefly yielding it is a native of tropical America, 
 cultivated in the West India Islands, and growing about two feet high, 
 with ovate-lanceolate somewhat hairy leaves, clusters of small flowers on 
 two-flowered stalks, and globular fruit about the size of currants. The 
 rhizomes are often more than a foot long, of the thickness of a finger, 
 jointed, and almost white, covered w T ith large papery scales. They are 
 dug up when a year old, washed, carefully peeled, and reduced to a 
 milky pulp. In Jamaica the roots are reduced by beating in deep wooden 
 mortars; in Bermuda by means of a wheel-rasp; but modern machinery 
 has now been introduced. 
 
 Steam navigation practically commenced in 1802, with the launch of 
 the "Charlotte Dundas," which plied on Forth and Clyde Canal. She 
 had one paddle-wheel near the stern. Fulton, who invented the paddle- 
 box, established the American steamboat system with his "Clermont" 
 (1807), which plied on the Hudson. The first steamer used in ocean 
 navigation was Stevens' "Phcenix," which steamed from New York to 
 Philadelphia in three days (1808.) The first passenger steamer in Great 
 Britain was Henry Bell's "Comet," built at Port Glasgow (1812.) The 
 first steam vessel in the British navy was also called the "Comet," built 
 at Woolwich dockyard (1822). Regular steamboat communication across 
 the Atlantic was established in 1838. The first screw steamer in Great 
 Britain was the "Archimedes," built on the Thames (1839); the first 
 screw steamer in the British navy was the "Dwarf (1843); and the first 
 iron screw steamer was the "Fire Queen," built at Glasgow(1845). Ocean 
 steamers are now built of steel. 
 
 A famous Indian product is Arrack, or Rack, a name often used for 
 all sorts of distilled spirituous liquors, but chiefly applying to that pro- 
 cured from toddy or the fermented juice of the cocoa or other palms, as 
 well as from rice, and the kind of brown sugar called jaggery. The palms in 
 other tropical countries furnish a fermented beverage similar to the toddy 
 of India, and in a few instances also it is distilled, but arrack essentially 
 belongs to India and the adjacent countries. The cocoanut palm is a chief 
 source of toddy or palm wine, which is obtained from trees ranging from 
 twelve to sixteen years old, or in fact at the period when they begin to 
 show the first indication of flowering. After the flowering shoot orspadix 
 enveloped in its spathe is pretty well advanced, and the latter is about to 
 open, tne toddy-man climbs the tree and cuts off the top of the flower- 
 shoot; he next ties a ligature round the stalk at the base of the spadix, 
 and with a small cudgel he beats the flower-shoot and bruises it. This he 
 does daily for a fortnight, and if the tree is in good condition, a consid- 
 erable quantity of a saccharine juice flows from the cut apex of the flower- 
 shoot, and is caught in a pot fixed conveniently for the purpose, and 
 emptied every day. It flows freely for fifteen or sixteen days, and less 
 freely day by day for another month or more; a slice has to be removed 
 from the top of the shoot very frequently. The juice rapidly ferments, 
 and in four days is usually sour; previous to that it is a favorite drink 
 known in some parts of India as callu, and to the Europeans as toddy. 
 When turning sour, it is distilled and converted into arrack. It is 
 largely manufactured in Goa, Batavia, Ceylon and Siam. A similar 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 147 
 
 spirit is made pretty largely from the magnificent fan-leaved palm, and 
 also from the so-called date-sugar palm. The name is also given to a 
 spirit obtained from rice and sugar fermented with cocoanut sap. An 
 imitation arrack may be prepared by dissolving ten grains of benzoic 
 acid in a pint of rum. 
 
 RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The dates of the opening of the first railways, and the mileage in 
 1891, of the principal countries are as under: 
 
 Austria-Hungary 20th September, 1828 16,467 
 
 Belgium 5th May, 1835 3,215 
 
 Denmark 18th September, 1844 1 ,223 
 
 France 1st October, 1828 22,586 
 
 Germany 7th December, 1835 25,969 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 27th September, 1825 20,073 
 
 Greece 18th February, 1869 239 
 
 Italy 3d October, 1839 8,117 
 
 Netherlands 13th September, 1839 1,887 
 
 Norway 14th July, 1853 970 
 
 Portugal 9th July, 1854 1,280 
 
 Russia 4th April, 1838 19,027 
 
 Spain 30th October, 1848 6, 127 
 
 Sweden 9th February, 1851 1,623 
 
 Switzerland 15th June, 1844 1,929 
 
 Turkey 4th October, 1860 1,096 
 
 Egypt 26th January, 1856 1 ,494 
 
 India 18th April, 1853 16,996 
 
 United States 17th April, 1827 167,000 
 
 Canada 19th March, 1847 14,000 
 
 Mexico 8th October, 1850 5, 827 
 
 Argentine Republic 14th December, 1864 5,798 
 
 Brazil SOthApril, 1854 5,779 
 
 Chili January, 1852 1,926 
 
 Colombia January, 1880 230 
 
 Paraguay 1st October, 1863 149 
 
 Peru 29thMay, 1851 994 
 
 Uruguay 1st January, 1869 637 
 
 Venezuela 9th February, 1866 441 
 
 AROUND THE WORLD IN EIGHTY-TWO DAYS. 
 This will be of interest to those "tourists" who contemplate the 
 "girdling of the earth!" 
 
 Start from any of the Atlantic cities to Omaha, Neb., via the regular trunk lines of 
 railway about 1,400 miles, in two days and two hours. 
 
 From Omaha to San Francisco, Cal., via Union and Central Pacific railroads 1,914 
 miles, in four days and six hours. 
 
 From San Francisco to Yokohama, Japan, by Pacific Mail line of steamers 4,700 
 miles, in twenty-two days. 
 
 From Yokohama to Hong Kong, China, by Pacific Mail or Peninsular and Oriental 
 steamers 1,600 miles, in six days. 
 
 From Hong Kong to Calcutta, India, by Peninsular and Oriental steamers 3,500 
 miles, in fourteen days. 
 
 From Calcutta to Bombay, India, by the East Indian and Great Indian Peninsular 
 railways 1,450 miles, in three days. 
 
 From Bombay to Suez, Egypt, by Peninsular and Oriental steamers 3,600 miles, 
 in fourteen days. 
 
 From Suez to Alexandria, Egypt, by rail 225 miles, in ten hours. 
 
 From Alexandria to Brindisi, Italy, by Peninsular and Oriental steamers 850 miles, 
 in three days. 
 
 From Brindisi to I<ondon, England, by rail, via Paris or the Rhine 1,200 miles, in 
 thieedays. 
 
 From Ix>ndon to Liverpool, England, by railway 200 miles, in six hours. 
 
 From Liverpool to the Atlantic cities, America, by either of the great Atlantic steam- 
 ship lines 3,000 miles, in ten days. 
 
 Total distance, 23,639 miles. Time, eighty-two days. Fare, about $1,100; with $4 
 per day for meals and incidentals, the total cost of the trip, |1,500. 
 
148 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 THEORY OF AUCTIONS. 
 
 One of the most convenient modes of offering property for sale is 
 correctly indicated by the name "Auction," which means an arrange- 
 ment for increasing the price by exciting competition amongst purchas- 
 ers. In the Dutch Auction of the "Cheap Jack," the usual mode of pro- 
 ceeding is reversed, the property being offered at a higher price than 
 that which the seller is willing to accept, and gradually lowered till a 
 purchaser isfound. "Cheap John" auctions are extensively in vogue in 
 the larger cities of this country, in which "cappers" and other shady 
 characters are employed to bid upon articles and entrap unwary persons 
 into extravagant purchases. These institutions have become public 
 nuisances, and many of them are little better than "fences" for stolen 
 goods. Thus far not much has been accomplished in the way of their 
 suppression. In legitimate auctions "Conditions of Sale" are usually 
 published, which constitute the terms on which the seller offers his prop- 
 erty, and form an integral part of the contract between seller and pur- 
 chaser. The contract is completed by the offer or bid on the part of the 
 purchaser, and the acceptance by the seller or his representative, which 
 is formally declared by the fall of the auctioneer's or salesman 'shammer, 
 and in former times by the running of a sandglass, the burning of an inch 
 of candle (hence the term "sale by the candle"), or any other means 
 which may have been specified in the conditions of sale. Mere adver- 
 tisement does not make a contract. These conditions or articles ought 
 further to narrate honestly and fully the character of the object or the 
 nature of the right to be transferred, to regulate the manner of bidding, 
 prescribe the order in which offerers are to be preferred, and to name a 
 person who shall be empowered to determine disputes between bidders, 
 and in cases of doubt to declare which is the purchaser. 
 
 CURIOUS BY-PRODUCTS OF COAL. 
 
 There are a good many products from coal, of which the majority of 
 people know nothing. Their number will go into the thousands, and 
 research into this particular branch of inorganic chemistry is bringing 
 new and rich rewards to scientists each year. One of the hydrocarbons 
 distinctly produced from coal tar is benzole. This is the base of magenta 
 red and blue coloring matters and of the oil of bitter almonds. This oil 
 formerly came entirely from the vegetable product from which it takes 
 its name, but now it is to a large extent made from benzole, and a chemi- 
 cally pure product is secured. The vegetable oil of bitter almonds con- 
 tains a certain amount of prussic acid, which is a poisonous substance. 
 Toluene, or tolulo, is another product from coal tar, which is the base of 
 a great many chemicals. Benzoic acid, which used to be made almost 
 entirely from plants, is now readily made from toluene. Carbolic acid 
 is another product of tolulo. The latter is a colorless fluid with a smell 
 very much like crude petroleum, while carbolic acid and salicylic acid, 
 two of its products, are far from being sweet-smelling compounds. Yet 
 this same tolulo is the basis of a number of very fragrant products. Win- 
 tergreen oil, much purer than from the plant, and generally preferred 
 by confectioners and others who use it, is one; oil of cinnamon, cinna- 
 mic acid, and oil of cloves are among the middle products which are in 
 great demand. As yet the products of coal tar have not been made use 
 of for medicines to any great extent, except as disinfectants, but, from 
 experiments now going on, it is hoped to produce pure quinine from 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 
 
 149 
 
 chinolene, one of the coal tar products, and scientists say that it is only 
 a question of time when all alkaloids known, and probably others not 
 now known, will be made from coal tar. It would take a good-sized 
 book to even begin to give an idea of the commercial products alone of 
 coal tar. Nearly every known color, except cochineal red and indigo 
 blue, is made, and the latter was produced after nine years of experiment 
 by the eminent German scientist, Byer of Munich, but the manufacture 
 was so expensive that it has never been done except for scientific pur- 
 poses. The logwood and madder dyes of our grandmothers' days are 
 rarely seen in the market now, owing to the cheapness with hich they 
 are manufactured. Red ink, which formerly was made almost ex- 
 clusively from carmine, is now made from cosine, one of the numerous 
 coal-tar progeny. 
 
 COAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Compiled from the Report of the Eleventh Census, covering product 
 of 1889. Weight expressed in short tons of 2,000 pounds: 
 
 STATES 
 
 TONS 
 
 STATES. 
 
 TONS. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 TONS. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 3,378,484 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 2.399,755 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1,925,689 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 279,584 
 
 Maryland 
 
 2,939.715 
 
 Texas 
 
 128216 
 
 California and 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 67 431 
 
 Utah 
 
 236 601 
 
 
 186 119 
 
 
 2 567 823 
 
 
 
 Colorado 
 
 2,360,536 
 
 Montana 
 
 363,301 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 2817 
 
 Georgia and 
 
 226 156 
 
 Nebraska and 
 Dakotas 
 
 30307 
 
 Bituminous . .. 
 
 865,786 
 993 724 
 
 Illinois 
 Indiana 
 
 12,104,272 
 2845057 
 
 New Mexico 
 Ohio 
 
 486,983 
 9 976 787 
 
 West Virginia.... 
 Wyoming . . . 
 
 6.231.880 
 1 388 947 
 
 Indian Territory 
 Iowa 
 Kansas 
 
 732832 
 4,061,704 
 2,230,763 
 
 Pennsylvania: 
 Anthracite 
 Bituminous . . . 
 
 45 544,970 
 36,174.089 
 
 
 
 Total product, 1889, short tons, 140,730,288, equivalent to 125,652,056 long tons of 
 2,240 pounds. 
 
 THE WORLD'S COAL-FIELDS. 
 
 AREA IN SQUARE MILES. China and Japan, 200,000; United States, 
 194,000; India, 35,000; Russia, 27,000; Great Britain, 9,000; Germany, 
 3,600; France, 1,800; Belgium, Spain, and other countries, 1,400. Total, 
 471,800. 
 
 The coal-fields of China, Japan, Great Britain, Germany, Russia, and 
 India contain apparently 303,000,000,000 tons, which is enough for 
 seven hundred years at present rate of consumption. If to the above be 
 added the coal-fields in the United States, Canada, and other countries, 
 the supply will be found ample for one thousand years. Improved ma- 
 chinery has greatly increased the yield per miner, and thus produced a 
 fall in price to the advantage of all industries. 
 
 THE WORLD'S FINEST HARBORS. 
 
 San Francisco may fairly claim to have the most capacious natural 
 harbor of any of the world's great trading marts. It is also one of the 
 very safest. It is entered through the Golden Gate, a passage a mile 
 wide and thirty-five feet deep at low tide admitting the largest ships 
 afloat without danger of grounding. The landlocked bay of which this 
 harbor is part is fifty miles long, and averages five miles in width. There 
 all the shipping of the entire globe could anchor in perfect safety. Port 
 
150 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Philip bay, the chief harbor of Victoria, Australia, is larger than the 
 bay of San Francisco, being about thirty-eight miles long by thirty-three 
 broad, but its very breadth, with its surroundings, leaves it exposed to 
 storms from certain quarters. Port Jackson, on which Sydney, New 
 South Wales, Australia, is located, is a magnificent harbor, completely 
 landlocked, extending inland in some places fully twenty miles, and 
 having ample depth of water for vessels of the heaviest burden. The 
 harbors of New York City, Rio Janeiro, Brazil, and Havana, Cuba, are 
 capacious and secure. Next come those of Boston, Norfolk, Va., Port- 
 land, Me., Halifax, N.S., Copenhagen, Constantinople, Hong Kong, 
 Yokohama and Nagasaki. The great ports situated on the -banks of 
 rivers, such as London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Lisbon, Philadelphia, New 
 Orleans, Quebec, Shanghai, Canton, Calcutta, etc., are not included in 
 the definition of harbors as here considered. 
 
 CONDENSED POSTAL INFORMATION. 
 
 LOCAL, or DROP LETTERS, two cents for each ounce at all letter cal' 
 rier offices, and at other offices 1 cent. 
 
 LETTERS to any part of the United States or the Dominion of Canada, 
 2 cents for each ounce or fraction thereof. 
 
 LETTERS to Great Britain or Ireland, or the Continent of Europe, 5 
 cents for each half ounce. 
 
 LETTERS may be registered by paying a charge of 10 cents. 
 
 POSTAL CARDS costing one cent each can be sent to any part of the 
 United States or Canada. They may be sent to Newfoundland, Great 
 Britain and Ireland by adding a 1 cent stamp. 
 
 PRINTED MATTER: 1. Printed Books, Periodicals, Transient News- 
 papers and other matter wholly in print, in unsealed envelopes 1 cent 
 for each two ounces or fraction thereof. 
 
 2. Printed circulars may bear the date, address and signature at 
 this rate. 
 
 3. Reproductions by electric pen, Hektograph, and similar pro- 
 cesses, same as Printed Matter. 
 
 ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE, SEEDS, CUTTINGS, ROOTS, and other 
 mailable matter 1 cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. 
 
 ALL PACKAGES of mail matter not charged with letter postage must 
 be arranged so the same can be conveniently examined by postmasters. 
 If not so arranged, letter postage will be charged. 
 
 ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE may be registered at the rate of 10 cents 
 a package, subject to proper examination before registration. The name 
 and the address of sender must be indorsed in writing, or in print, on 
 each package offered for registration. 
 
 ANY PACKAGE may have the name and address of the sender, with 
 the word "from" prefixed on the wrapper, and the number and names 
 of the articles may be added in brief form. 
 
 POSTAL NOTE, payable to bearer at any money order office designed 
 by the purchaser of the note, must be for an amount under five dollars, 
 and will cost three cents. 
 
 MONEY ORDERS: The fee for a money order amounting to $10 is 
 8 cents; $10 to $15, 10 cents; $15 to $30, 15 cents; $30 to $40, 20 cents; $40 
 to $50, 25 cents; $50 to $60, 30 cents; $60 to $70, 35 cents; $70 to $80 dol- 
 lars, 40 cents; $80 to $100, 45 cents. 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION. 
 
 Toiling rej oicing sorrowing, 
 
 Onward through life he goes; 
 Each morning sees some task begun, 
 
 Each evening sees it close; 
 Something attempted, something done, 
 
 Has earned a night's repose! 
 
 IONGFELL(JW. 
 
 TRIUMPHS OF SKILL AND GENIUS. 
 
 Telescopes were invented in 1590. 
 
 The first steel pen was made in 1830. 
 
 The telephone was invented in 1861. 
 
 The Chinese invented paper, 170 B. C. 
 
 Ben Franklin used the first lightning rods in 1752. 
 
 The phonograph was invented by T. A. Edison in 1877. 
 
 Stained glass windows were used in the eighth century. 
 
 The first illumination with gas was in Cornwall, Eng., in 1792. 
 
 Spectacles were invented by an Italian in the thirteenth century. 
 
 St. Peter's church at Rome was begun in 1415, and opened in 1626, 
 
 Daguerre and Nieper invented the process of daguerreotype in 1839. 
 
 The first illumination by gas in the United States was at Boston in 
 1822. 
 
 The first complete sewing machine was patented by Elias Howe, 
 Jr., in 1846. 
 
 The first, electric telegraph, Paddington to Brayton, Eng., was put 
 into operation in 1835. 
 
 The first musical, notes were used in 1338; they were first printed 
 in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Umbrellas were not seen in England until 1768, when Gen. Washing- 
 ton was thirty -six years old. 
 
 A minister in England made $50,000 by inventing an odd toy that 
 danced by winding it with a string. 
 
 The great wall of China, built 200 B. C., is 1,250 miles in length, 20 
 feet high, and 25 feet thick at the base. 
 
 Glass mirrors were first made by Venetians in the thirteenth century. 
 Polished metal was used before that time. 
 
 It appears that on the Santee river, in South Carolina, they were 
 manufacturing cotton by machinery in 1790. 
 
 151 
 
152 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The different shot towers in this country, such as that in Philadelphia, 
 were put up as early as 1808 to the height of 180 feet. 
 
 Printing was known in China in the sixth century. It was intro- 
 duced into England about 1474, and into America in 1536. 
 
 Pins date to 1543 in France, and were made in England in 1626. Be- 
 fore that time they used thorns and clasps in place of pins. 
 
 Burnt brick are known to have been used in building the Tower of 
 Babel. They were introduced into England by the Romans. 
 
 The man who invented the return ball, an ordinary wooden ball with 
 a rubber string attached to pull it back, made $1, 000, 000 from it. 
 
 The first cigar-ship was a steam pleasure yacht built in the shape of 
 a cigar from the design of Mr. Ross Winans. It was launched on the 
 Thames in 1886. 
 
 The longest fence in the world is in Australia one thousand two 
 hundred and thirty-six miles. It is made of wire netting, and its object 
 is to keep out rabbits. 
 
 The longest span of wire in the world is used for a telegraph in India 
 over the river Ristuah. Its length is over six thousand feet, and it is 
 stretched between two hills twelve hundred feet high. 
 
 As large a sum as was ever obtained for any invention was enjoyed 
 by the Yankee who invented the inverted glass bell to hang over gas jets 
 to protect ceilings from being blackened by smoke. 
 
 Every one has seen the metal plates that are used to protect the heels 
 ana soles of rough shoes, but every one doesn't know that within ten 
 years the man who hit upon the idea has made $250,000. 
 
 The common needle threader, which every one has seen for sale, and 
 which every woman owns, was a boon to needle users. The man who 
 invented it has an income of $10,000 a year from his invention. 
 
 The Great Wall of China was completed B. c. 214 by Chi-Hwang-Ti 
 of the Tsin dynasty. Every third man of the whole empire was em- 
 ployed on the work, and half a million of them died of starvation. 
 
 The screw propeller of the steamship "Umbria," is twenty-four and 
 one-half feet in diameter, and weighs thirty-nine tons. Its four blades 
 are made of manganese bronze, and the metal in them cost over $16,- 
 000. 
 
 The use of granite and flint broken to pieces one or two ounces in 
 weight to form roads, was recommended by John Macadam, a Scotchman, 
 in 1819; the plan was adopted, and he received $50,000 from the British 
 government, and was appointed surveyor-general of the Metropolitan 
 roads. 
 
 Paris claims the finest theater in the world. It is of solid stone, fin- 
 ished with marble floors, and covers about four acres of ground. L/aScala, 
 of Milan, has the largest seating capacity, while the Auditorium, at Chi- 
 cago, completed in 1889, seatii g seven thousand, ranks second in that 
 respect. 
 
 When Catherine of Russia was on the throne, an ingenious peasant 
 presented her with a marvelous watch, which is at present being exhib- 
 ited in St. Petersburg. In size and shape it somewhat resembles a chick- 
 en's egg. When wound up to the proper pitch it plays religious chants, 
 accompanied with scenic effects. 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION. 153 
 
 The Chubb lock was named after its inventor, a London locksmith. 
 In addition to the usual tumblers, it had an extra one, which fixed the 
 bolt immovably if one of the ordinary tumblers was lifted a little too 
 high. 
 
 The inventor of the roller skate has made $1,000,000, notwithstand- 
 ing the fact that his patent had nearly expired before the value of it was 
 ascertained in the craze for roller skating that spread over the country a 
 few years ago. 
 
 The highest monument in the world is the Washington monument, 
 being five hundred and fifty-five feet. The highest structure of any kind 
 is the Eiffel Tower, Paris, finished in 1889, and nine hundred and eighty- 
 nine feet high. 
 
 The American hunting dagger or bowie-knife was named after its 
 inventor, Colonel Jim Bowie, who, born about 1790, fell at Fort Alamo 
 in the Texan war (1836). Its curved, double-edged blade is ten to fifteen 
 inches long, and above an inch wide. 
 
 They were making cannons in 1814 at the Fort Pitt works, Pitts- 
 burg, to be used by Commodore Perry on Lake Erie. It was many a year 
 before we began to make copper and brass out there, say in 1850, after we 
 had developed Lake Superior copper. 
 
 How old do you suppose silk is? It was spun in China two thousand 
 six hundred and forty years before Christ, and Isaiah seems to refer to it 
 when he says: "They that work in sirokott or fine flax, and they that 
 weave network, shall be confounded." 
 
 Out of Sussex Co., Eng., William Penn took seven hundred of the 
 best mechanics, millwrights, carpenters etc., and brought them to the 
 United States. The first county he struck, at the mouth of the Dela- 
 ware, he named in their honor Sussex County. 
 
 Glass paper or cloth is made by powdering glass more or less finely 
 and sprinkling it over paper or calico still wet with a coat of thin glue; 
 the powdered glass adheres as it dries. Glass paper is very extensively 
 employed as a means for polishing wood-work. 
 
 It was only one hundred and six years ago that a committee was ap- 
 pointed in Philadelphia to inquire into the process of coloring leather as 
 practiced in Turkey and Morocco. They paid an Armenian whom they 
 found ^100 and a gold medal to give them the information. 
 
 The largest anvil known is that used in the Woolwich Arsenal, Eng- 
 land. It weighs sixty tons. The anvil block upon which it rests weighs 
 one hundred and three tons. Altogether six hundred tons of iron were 
 used in the anvil, the block and the foundation work. 
 
 The process for making Bessemer Steel was invented by Sir Henry 
 Bessemer in 1856. It converts fused pig iron into steel by blowing air 
 through it and clearing it of carbon, and then adding enough carbon to 
 make steel. Another kind of Bessemer steel is made from inferior pig 
 iron by a modified process and is termed Basic steel. 
 
 The telephone is an instrument designed to reproduce sounds at a 
 distance by means of electricity. Professor Graham Bell's articulating 
 telephone was produced in 1877. Communication by telephone between 
 New York and Chicago (1,000 miles), was opened in 1893, between Paris 
 and Marseilles (563 miles) in 1888, and between London and Paris in 
 1891. 
 
154 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The gimlet-pointed screw has produced more wealth than most sil- 
 ver mines, and the Connecticut man who first thought of putting copper 
 tips on the toes of children's shoes, is as well off as if he had inherited 
 $1,000,000, for that's the amount his idea has realized for him. 
 
 The largest bells in the world are the following, their weight being 
 given in tons: Moscow, 216; Burmab.,117; Pekin, 53; Novgorod, 31; Notre 
 Dame, 18; Rouen, 18; Olmutz, 18; Vienna, 18; St. Paul's, 16; West- 
 minster, 14; Montreal, 12; Cologne, 11; Oxford, 8; St. Peter's, 8. 
 
 The Chicopee works near Springfield, Mass., started in 1829, and 
 began to manufacture cutlery, and also cast the first American statuary, 
 such as the gates of the Capitol at Washington, the statue of Washington 
 in New York, and that of De Witt Clinton in Greenwood Cemetery. 
 
 French ingenuity has contrived an improved stone-cutting saw of 
 remarkable efficiency a circular saw having its edge set with black di- 
 amonds in the same way as the straight blades; but as the strain on the 
 diamond is all in one direction, the setting can be made much firmer. 
 
 Umbrellas commenced to be made on a large scale in this country in 
 1820 by the Wrights, who are still at it, and who were four brothers, all 
 from Oxfordshire, England. For ten years they made only one hundred 
 umbrellas a day, and by the time of the civil war made three thousand a 
 day. 
 
 A hot water fountain is in operation in Paris. The water that feeds 
 the fountain passes through a coil of copper tubing three hundred feet 
 long. By dropping a sou in a slot jets of gas are turned on and ignited. 
 By this means the water is heated. For each sou one is entitled to eight 
 liters. It is expected that this fountain will be of great assistance to 
 the poor. 
 
 The catamaran is a raft formed usually of three pieces of wood lashed 
 together, the middle piece being longer than the others, and serving as a 
 keel; on this the rower kneels or squats, and works a paddle. These 
 simple vessels are used by the natives of Madras to maintain communica- 
 tion between ships and the shore, ordinary boats being rendered unsafe 
 by the surf. 
 
 Many things we used to have in perfection we see no more. For 
 instance, paper collars in 1853 were being manufactured by the million. 
 Bismarck says that as late as the war of 1870, Burnside came to camp with 
 another American, who wore a paper collar. But celluloid has replaced 
 paper, and linen and cotton have become so cheap that it hardly pays to 
 wear the poor article. 
 
 Vellum is the name originally given to a fine variety of parchment, 
 made of calfskin. Vellum is prepared from the skins of kids, lambs, 
 and young calves. Some of the earliest printed books were done on 
 vellum, and some of the best of the early miniature portraits were 
 painted on a specially fine quality of vellum prepared from the skins of 
 calves prematurely born. 
 
 The Union arch of the Washington Aqueduct is the largest in the 
 world, being two hundred and twenty feet; 'twenty feet in excess of the 
 Chester arch across the Dee in England, sixty-eight feet longer than that 
 of the London Bridge; ninety-two feet longer than that at Neuilly on the 
 Seine, and one hundred feet longer than that of Waterloo Bridge. The 
 height of the Washington arch is one hundred feet. 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION. 155 
 
 A diamond cut at Antwerp is, with one exception, the largest in the 
 world. It weighed 474 carats, but has lost 275 in the cutting. It will 
 still, however, hold its place as second largest cut stone, being exceeded 
 only by the Persian Great Mogul, which weighs 280 carats. The Koh- 
 i-noor weighs only 102^ carats. The Antwerp diamond is about as large 
 as a pigeon's egg, and measures .786 inches each way. 
 
 The pretty trinkets called Bog Oak Ornaments are turned or carved 
 from the trunks of the black oak, which is especially suitable for the pur- 
 pose, the yew, fir and other woods, which are often found, of a dark color 
 and well preserved, in the peat bogs of Great Britain, Ireland and other 
 countries. The trade originated in the reign of George IV. The annual 
 value of such goods sold in Dublin has been estimated at $100,000. 
 
 In shipping the caisson is an apparatus for lifting a vessel out of the 
 water for repairs or inspection. It is usually a hollow structure, sunk by 
 letting water into it. There is an air chamber inside, which allows it to 
 sink only to a certain depth. In that state it is hauled under the ship's 
 bottom, the traps or openings are closed, the water is pumped out, and 
 the- caisson rises with the ship upon it. Pontoon is another term for the 
 same apparatus. 
 
 One of the cleverest inventions ever passed on by the patent office is 
 the machine for sticking common pins in the papers in which they are 
 sold. The contrivance brings up the pins in rows, draws the paper into 
 position, crimps it into two lines, then, at a single push, passes the pins 
 through the paper and sets them in position. The machine almost 
 seems to think as it works, and to examine the paper to see if it is prop- 
 erly folded before pushing the pins into place. 
 
 The steam engine in its present form was the invention of James 
 Watt (1768), whose great improvement consisted in performing conden- 
 sation in a separate vessel from the cylinder, and in producing both the 
 up and down stroke of the piston by steam. The compound engine, in 
 which the steam receives its expansion is a second and larger cylinder, 
 was the invention of Jonathan Hornblower (1781). The marine engine 
 of Elder (1854; is an adaptation of Horn blower's compound engine. 
 
 The Eiffel Tower is a colossal iron structure erected by Gustave 
 Eiffel, a French engineer, on the Champs de Mars. It was completed 
 March 31, 1889. It contains three stories, reached by a series of elevators 
 or lifts, and the platform at the summit is 985 feet above the ground. 
 About seventeen hundred tons of iron were employed in its construction ; 
 the cost was about $1,000,000. The London Great Tower now (1893) in 
 process of construction will exceed the Eiffel Tower in height by 200 feet 
 and is to be of polished steel. 
 
 . The largest and grandest temple of worship in the world is 
 St. Peter's Cathedral at Rome. It stands on the site of Nero's circus, in 
 the northwest part of the city, and is built in form of a Latin cross. The 
 total length of the interior is 612> English feet; transept, 446 >; height 
 of nave, 152^ feet; diameter of cupola, 193 feet; height of dome from 
 pavement to top of cross, 448 feet. The great bell alone without the 
 hammer or clapper weighs 18,600 pounds, or over nine and one- 
 fourth tons. The foundation was laid in 1450 A. D. Forty-three 
 Popes lived and died during the time the work was in progress. It was 
 dedicated in the year 1626, but not entirely finished until the year 1880. 
 The cost, in round numbers, is set down at $70,000,000. 
 
156 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 In engineering the caisson is a chest used in "laying" the founda- 
 tions of the piers of bridges, quays and like structures, in deep and rapid 
 rivers. It consists of a very strong platform of timber or metal plates, to 
 which the sides are attached. The site of the pier being leveled by dredg- 
 ing or otherwise, the caisson is brought over the spot, and moored in the 
 proper position. Two or three of the lower courses of masonry are then 
 built upon the platform of the caisson, and the water is slowly admitted 
 by a sluice, in order to cause the caisson to settle into its place. 
 
 The annual manufacture of looking glass in Europe is something 
 like eighteen hundred and fifty thousand square yards. In the mirrors of 
 today the light is reflected by a layer of silver or an amalgam of tin, but a 
 proportion of light is lost in the process of reflection, and the image is 
 less luminous than the original. The value of a looking glass is esti- 
 mated by the thickness of the glass, because the thicker they are the 
 stronger they must, be; but, speaking scientifically, thick glasses are de- 
 fective, because the outlines of the image reflected are less clearly defined. 
 
 The largest ship ever built, the Great Eastern, recently broken to 
 pieces and sold to junk dealers, was designed and constructed by Scott 
 Russell at Millwall on the Thames. Work on the giant vessel was com- 
 menced in May, 1854. She was successfully launched January 13, 1858. 
 The launching alone occupied the time from November 3, 1857, until the 
 date above given. Her total length was six hundred and ninety-two 
 feet; breadth, eighty-three feet; total weight when launched, twelve 
 thousand tons. Her first trip of any consequence was made to New 
 York in 1859-60. 
 
 The problem of silent machinery has been brought a step nearer solu- 
 tion by the introduction in Austria of cog-wheels made of pressed raw- 
 hide, which work in conjunction with wheels of cast iron, steel and other 
 metals. The wheels possess great strength. They do not require lubri- 
 cating, and are, therefore, clean in operation. They substantially reduce 
 the vibration of the machinery in which they are used. They can be had 
 ready-made or in the form of rawhide disks for shaping by the pur- 
 chaser. They are supported by a wooden framework, and after being 
 cut the wheel is covered with a shellac solution. 
 
 As a process of mining and engineering Blasting is the method of 
 loosening or shattering masses of solid fracturable matter by means of ex- 
 plosive compounds. It is an operation of fundamental importance for, 
 without the agency of powerful explosives, many of the greatest under- 
 takings of modern times would have been practically impossible. The 
 greatest blast ever exploded was in the removal of Flood Rock at Hell 
 Gate, in the East River, New York, when 80,166 cubic yards of rock were 
 tunneled out and 270,717 cubic yards were blasted. The resistance 
 offered equalled 500,000 tons of rock and 200,000 tons of water. 
 
 Solomon's Temple was dedicated in the year 1005 B. c. It was eighty 
 cubits in length, by forty cubits in width (cubic = eighteen in.) and 
 thirty cubits high, with a porch one hundred and twenty cubits in height. 
 The Holy of Holies was a cube of twenty cubits each way. Two pillars 
 of brass, eighteen cubits high and twelve cubits in circumference, named 
 respectively Joachim and Boaz, were set up in the porch of the temple, 
 and by some critics have been considered obelisks. Three tiers of small 
 chambers were ranged externally to the walls of the Temple on three 
 sides of the building, and were used for the accommodation of the priest- 
 hood. 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION. 157 
 
 One of the most famous roads in the world is the "Appian Way," or 
 ' 'The Queen of Roads. ' ' It was built by Appius Claudius Caecus while he 
 was censor, 313 B. C. It is the oldest and most celebrated of all the Roman 
 roads, and with its branches connected Rome with all parts of southern 
 Italy. It had an admirable substructure or foundation, from which all the 
 loose soil had been carefully removed. Above this were various strata 
 cemented with lime; and lastly came the pavement, consisting of large 
 hard hexagonal blocks of stone, composed principally of basaltic lava, 
 and joined together with great nicety, so as to appear one smooth mass. 
 
 The largest and costliest private mansion in the world is that belong- 
 ing to Lord Bute, called Mountstuart, and situated near Rothesay. It 
 covers nearly two acres; is built in gothic style; the walls, turrets and 
 balconies are built of stone. The immense tower in the center of the 
 building is one hundred and twenty feet high, with a balcony around 
 the top. The halls are constructed entirely of marble and alabaster, and 
 the rooms are finished in mahogany, rosewood and walnut. The fire- 
 places are all carved marbles of antique design. The exact cost of this 
 fairy palace is not known, but it has never been estimated at less than 
 $8,000,000. 
 
 In the rigging of a ship a block is an important part of the apparatas 
 necessary for raising sails and yards, tightening ropes, etc. The block 
 comprises both the frame or shell, and the pulley or pulleys usually 
 termed "sheaves" contained within it. In nautical and mechanical 
 language a tackle includes the rope as well as the block through which it 
 works. Ships' blocks vary greatly in size, shape, power, designation, 
 and use, but nearly every block comprises a shell or wooden exterior, a 
 sheave or wheel on which the rope runs, a pin or axle on which the 
 sheave turns, and a strap (of rope or iron) to fasten the block to any par- 
 ticular station. 
 
 A Sedan chair is a portable covered vehicle for carrying a single per- 
 son, borne on two poles by two men. The name is derived from the town 
 of Sedan, where this species of conveyance is said to have been invented. 
 The Duke of Buckingham used one in the reign of James I. The pro- 
 ceeding gave general offence, and it was made a matter of public remark 
 that this royal favorite used his fellow countrymen to do the work of 
 beasts. In September 1634 Sir Sanders Buncombe got a letter patent, 
 granting him the sole right and privilege for fourteen years to use and 
 let for hire within L,ondon and Westminster "covered chairs" to prevent 
 the unnecessary use of coaches; according to Evelyn he got the notion 
 from Naples. 
 
 The Sarcophagus is any stone receptable for a dead body. The name 
 originated in the property assigned to a species of stone, found at Assos 
 in Troas and used in early times, of consuming the whole body, with the 
 exception of the teeth, within the space of forty days. The oldest known 
 sarcophagi are those of Egypt, some of which are contemporary with the 
 pyramids. The earliest of these are of a square or oblong form, and either 
 plain or ornamented with lotus leaves; the later are of the form of 
 swathed mummies, and bear inscriptions. The pyramids were sepulchral 
 tombs built to contain the sarcophagi of the kings of Egypt; the Phoeni- 
 cian and Persian kings were also buried in sarcophagi. The Roman sar- 
 cophagi of the earlier republican period were plain. Sarcophagi were 
 occasionally used in the later republic, although burning had become 
 the more general mode of disposing of the dead. 
 
158 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The great pyramid of Cheops is the largest structure ol any kind ever 
 erected by the hand of man. Its original dimensions at the base were 
 764 feet square, and its perpendicular height in the highest point 488 feet; 
 it covers four acres, one rood, and twenty-two perches of ground and has 
 been estimated by an eminent architect to have cost not less than $145,- 
 200,000. Internal evidence proves that the great pyramid was begun 
 about the year 2170 B.C., or the time of the birth of Abraham. It is esti- 
 mated that about 5,000,000 tons of hewn stone were used in its construc- 
 tion, and the evidence points to the fact that these stones were brought 
 a distance of nearly seven hundred miles from quarries in Arabia. 
 
 The largest locomotive ever constructed prior to 1880 was that made 
 at the Baldwin Locomotive Works during the early part of 1879. It was 
 turned out ready for use April 10th of that year and named Uncle Dick. 
 Uncle Dick weighed 130,000 pounds; was sixty feet from headlight to the 
 rear end of the tender. He is now at work on the Atchison, Topeka & 
 Santa Fe] road. During the year 1883 the same works that constructed 
 Uncle Dick turned out several locomotives for the Northern Pacific rail- 
 road, each weighing 180,000 pounds. During the same year, as if to over- 
 shadow the Baldwin works, the Central Pacific Company caused to be 
 built at their shops in Sacramento, Cal. , what are really the largest loco- 
 motives in the world. They have eight drive-wheels each, the cylinders 
 are nineteen inches in diameter, and the stroke three feet. These engines 
 weigh, with the tender, as Uncle Dick's weight was given, almost 190,000 
 pounds. The Baldwin Works, in 1889, completed for the Northern Pacific 
 an engine weighing, with tender, 225,000 pounds. 
 
 The soldering of glass and procelain with metals is a novel French 
 process, and its adaptations are likely to be as numerous as they are 
 valuable. It is also simple. The portion of the tube that is to be sol- 
 dered is first covered with a thin layer of platinum, this deposit being 
 obtained by covering the slightly heated glass, by means of a brush, with 
 very neutral chloride of platinum, mixed with essential oil of chamomile, 
 the latter being slowly evaporated, and, when the white and odoriferous 
 vapors cease to be given off, the temperature is raised to a red heat; the 
 platinum is then reduced and covers the glass tube with a layer,of bright 
 metal. On connecting the tube thus metalized and placed in a bath of 
 sulphate of copper, to the negative pole of a battery of suitable energy, 
 there is deposited on the platinum a ring of copper, which will be mal- 
 leable and very adhesive if the operation has been properly performed. 
 In this state the glass tube, covered with copper, can be treated like a 
 genuine metalic tube, and be soldered to iron, copper, bronze, platinum, 
 or any metal that can be united with tin solder. 
 
 The great Egyptian obelisk in Central Park, New York, is one of the 
 most noted monoliths in the world. It was quarried, carved and erected 
 about the time of Abraham, to commemorate the deeds of an ancient 
 Pharaoh. Five hundred years later the conquering Sesostris, the bad 
 Pharaoh of Scripture, carved on its surface the record of his famous reign. 
 The royal cartouch (or oval) shows that the work was done under the im- 
 mediate order and sanction of the king. But Sesostris (or Rameses II) 
 reigned one hundred years before the Trojan war; so all the sym- 
 bols now seen on Cleopatra's Needle were already venerable with age in 
 the days of Priam, Hector, Helen, Agamemnon, Achilles and Ulysses. 
 The Roman poet Horace says there were brave men before Agamemnon, 
 but they lacked a Homer to save their names from oblivion. Sesostris, 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION. 159 
 
 however, was an exception. He escaped oblivion without the aid of a 
 Homer. Homer's heroes are to be congratulated above all men on hav- 
 ing their story sung by such a minstrel; but with this thought there 
 always goes a little doubt as to whether there ever were such heroes and 
 such deeds outside of Homer's imagination. The hard granite of the 
 Egyptian monuments leaves no doubt that Sesostris lived and reigned. 
 
 DURABILITY OF DIFFERENT WOODS. 
 
 Experiments have been lately made by driving sticks, made from 
 different woods, each two feet long and one and one-half inches square, 
 into the ground, only one-half an inch projecting outward. It was 
 found that in five years all those made of oak, elm, ash, fir, soft mahog- 
 any and nearly every variety of pine, were totally rotten. I/arch, hard 
 pine and teak wood were decayed on the outside only, while acacia, with 
 the exception of being also slightly attacked on the exterior, was other- 
 wise sound. Hard mahogany and cedar of Lebanon were in tolerably 
 good condition; but only Virginia cedar was found as good as when put 
 in the ground. This is of some importance to builders, showing what 
 woods should be avoided, and what others used by preference in under- 
 ground work. 
 
 The duration of wood when kept dry is very great, as beams still 
 exist which are known to be nearly 1,100 years old. Piles driven by the 
 Romans prior to the Christian era have been examined of late, and found 
 to be perfectly sound after an immersion of nearly 2,000 years. 
 
 The wood of some tools will last longer than the metals, as in spades, 
 hoes and plows. In other tools the wood is first gone, as in wagons, 
 wheelbarrows and machines. Such wood should be painted or oiled; 
 the paint not only looks well, but preserves the wood; petroleum oil 
 is as good as any other. 
 
 Hardwood stumps decay in five or six years; spruce stumps decay 
 in about the same time; hemlock stumps in eight to nine years; cedar, 
 eight to nine years; pine stumps, never. 
 
 Cedar, oak, yellow pine and chestnut are the most durable woods in 
 dry places. 
 
 Timber intended for posts is rendered almost proof against rot by 
 thorough seasoning, charring and immersion in hot coal tar. 
 
 THE WORLD'S NOTED BRIDGES. 
 
 The Sublician bridge at Rome is the oldest wooden bridge in exist- 
 ence. . It was built in the seventh century. The old London Bridge was 
 the first stone bridge. It was built in 1176. The first cast iron bridge was 
 erected at Coalbrookdale, Eng., in 1779. The Niagara Suspension 
 bridge was built by Roebling, in 1852. It cost $400,000, is 245 feet above 
 the water, 1,260 feet long. The Havre de Grace bridge over the Susque- 
 hanna is 3,271 feet long. The longest general traffic draw-bridge in the 
 world is at Rush Street, Chicago, 111. 
 
 The largest stone bridge on the face of the earth is that finished in 
 May, 1885, at Lagang, China. Chinese engineers had sole control of its 
 construction. It crosses an arm of the China Sea, is nearly six miles in 
 length, is composed entirely of stone, and has 300 arches, each 70 feet 
 high. It is the most colossal structure ever reared by man, yet we sneer 
 at the ''heathen Chinee." The largest truss iron bridge in the world 
 
160 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION, 
 
 crosses the Frith of Tay, Scotland. It is 18,612 feet in length and com- 
 posed of eighty-five spans. The Forth Bridge, across the Forth at 
 Queensferry, was commenced 1883, and opened March 4, 1890. The 
 river at Queensferry is about 4,000 feet wide at low water. The principal 
 feature of this work is the extraordinary length, for a rigid structure, of 
 the two main spans, each of which has a length of 1710 feet, made up of 
 two cantilevers, each 680 feet long, united by a central girder 350 feet long. 
 The two main spans are supported on the small island of Inchgarvie. 
 The Forth Bridge has a total height above high water of 361 feet, and 
 a clear headway above high water of 150 feet, and carries two lines of 
 rails. The longest wooden bridge in the world is that crossing Lake 
 Ponchartrain, near New Orleans, La. It is a trestle-work twenty-one 
 miles in length, built of cypress piles which have been saturated with 
 creosote oil to preserve them. The highest bridge in the United States 
 is over Kinzina Creek, near Bradford, Pa. It was built in 1882, has a 
 total span of 2,051 feet, and is 301 feet above the creek bed. 
 
 The oldest chain bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, 
 in China. The Menai Bridge, in Wales, was constructed by Mr. Telford, 
 1825; its length is 580 feet. Clifton Suspension Bridge at Bristol is 702 
 feet long and 245 feet above high water. The suspension bridge between 
 New York and Brooklyn is 1,595^ feet long in the center span, and 
 4,355 feet altogether; its width is eighty-five feet. It is a railway, vehi- 
 cular and foot bridge. 
 
 SELECTED HINTS FOR ARTISANS. 
 
 FURNITURE POLISH. For French polishing cabinet-makers use: Pale 
 shellac, 1 pound; mastic, 1| ounces; alcohol of 90 per cent standard, 1 to 
 1 pints. Dissolve cold, with frequent stirring. 
 
 CEMENT FOR RUBBER BOOTS. A good cement for rubber boots is 
 made by dissolving crude rubber in bisulphuret of carbon, making the 
 solution rather thin. Put the cement upon the patch and the boot, heat 
 both, and put them together. 
 
 PIANO POLISH. Take equal proportions of turpentine, linseed oil 
 and vinegar. Mix; rub in well with a piece of flannel cloth. Then 
 polish with a piece of chamois skin. This treatment will entirely re- 
 move the dingy appearance that age gives to fine woods 
 
 How To EXPEL RATS. Get a piece of lead pipe and use it as a 
 funnel to introduce about 1^ ounces of sulphide of potassium into any 
 outside holes tenanted by rats; not to be used in dwellings. To get 
 rid of mice use tartar emetic mingled with any favorite food; they will 
 eat, sicken and take their leave. 
 
 HAND GRENADES. Take chloride of calcium, crude, 20 parts; com- 
 mon salt, 5 parts; and water, 75 parts. Mix and put in thin bottles. In 
 case of fire, a bottle so thrown that it will break in or very near the fire 
 will put it out. This mixture is better and cheaper than many of the 
 high-priced grenades sold for the purpose of fire-protection. 
 
 To TEST WATER. The purity of water can be ascertained as fol- 
 lows: Fill a large bottle made of colorless glass with water; look through 
 the water at some black object. Pour out some of the water and leave 
 the bottle half full; cork the bottle and place it for a few hours in a warm 
 place; shake up the water, remove the cork, and critically smell the air 
 contained in the bottle. If it has any smell, particularly if the odor is 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION, 161 
 
 repulsive, the water should not be used for domestic purposes. By heat- 
 ing the water an odor is evolved that would not otherwise appear. 
 Water fresh from the well is usually tasteless, even if it contains a large 
 amount of putrescible organic matter. All water for domestic purposes 
 should be perfectly tasteless, and remain so even after it has been 
 warmed, since warming often develops a taste in water which is tasteless 
 when cold. 
 
 FIREPROOF WOOD. Soak 27.5 parts by weight of sulphate of zinc, 
 11 of potash, 22 of alum, and 11 of manganic oxide in luke warm water 
 in an iron boiler, and gradually add 11 parts by weight of 60 per cent 
 sulphuric acid. The wood to be prepared is placed upon an iron grating 
 in an apparatus of suitable size, the separate pieces being placed at least 
 an inch apart. The liquid is then poured into the apparatus, and the 
 wood allowed to remain completely covered for three hours, and is then 
 air-dried. 
 
 PROTECTING L,EAD WATER PIPES. To protect lead waterpipes from 
 the action of water, which often affects them chemically, partially dis- 
 solving them, and injuring the pipes, as well as poisoning the water, fill 
 the pipes with a warm and concentrated solution of sulphide of potas- 
 sium or sodium; leave the solution in contact with the lead for about 
 fifteen minutes and then blow it out. This coats the inside of the pipes 
 with sulphite of lead, which is absolutely insoluble, and cannot be acted 
 upon by water at all. 
 
 To MAKE CLOTH WATERPROOF. There have been various devices 
 for rendering cloth waterproof without the use of India rubber. The 
 most successful of these, no doubt, is the Stenhou.se patent. This con- 
 sists of the application of paraffine combined with drying oil. Paraffine 
 was first used alone, but it was found to harden and break off from the 
 cloth after a time. When drying oil was added, however, even in a 
 very small quantity, it was found that the two substances, by the absorp- 
 tion of oxygen, became converted into a tenacious substance very like 
 res'in. To apply this the paraffine is melted with drying oil and then 
 cast into blocks. The composition can then be applied to fabrics by 
 rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed. Or 
 the melted mixture may be applied with a brush and the cloth then 
 passed through hot rollers in order to cover its entire substance perfectly. 
 This application makes cloth very repellant to water, though still per- 
 vious to air. 
 
 PRESERVING WOOD. There have been a number of processes pat- 
 ended for preserving wood. One of them, very generally used, consists 
 in immersing the timber in a bath of corrosive sublimate. Another pro- 
 cess consists in first filling the pores with a solution of chloride of cal- 
 cium under pressure, and next forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron, 
 by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is formed in the body of the wood, 
 which is thus rendered nearly as hard as stone. Wood prepared in this 
 way is now very largely used for railroad ties. Another process consists 
 in impregnating the wood with a solution of chloride of zinc. Yet an- 
 other way is to thoroughly impregnate the timber with oil of tar con- 
 taining creosote and a crude solution of acetate of iron. The process 
 consists in putting the wood in a cylindrical vessel, connected with a 
 powerful air pump. The air is withdrawn, and the liquid subjected to 
 pressure, so that as much of it as possible is forced into the pores of the 
 wood. The processes above given not only season the timber, so that it 
 U. I 11 
 
162 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 is not subject to dry rot, but also keep it from being injured by the 
 weather, or being attacked by insects or worms. 
 
 To TRANSFER ENGRAVINGS. It is said that engravings may be 
 transferred on to white paper as follows: Place the engraving a few sec- 
 onds over the vapor of iodine. Dip a slip of white paper into a weak 
 solution of starch, and when dry, into a weak solution of oil of vitriol. 
 When again dry, lay the slip upon the engraving and place both for a 
 few minutes under a press. The engraving will be reproduced in all its 
 delicacy and finish. Lithographs and printed matter cannot be so trans- 
 ferred with equal success. 
 
 LUMINOUS PAINT. This useful paint may, it is said, be made by the 
 following simple method: Take oyster shells and clean them with warm 
 water; put them into the fire for half an hour; at the end of that time 
 take them out and let them cool. When quite cool pound them fine 
 and take away any gray parts, as they are of no use. Put the powder in 
 a crucible in alternate layers with flour and sulphur. Put on the lid ancj 
 cement with sand made into a stiff paste with beer. When dry, put over 
 the fire and bake for an hour. Wait until quite cold before opening the 
 lid. The product ought to be white. You must separate all gray parts, 
 as they are not luminous. Make a sifter in the following manner: Take 
 a pot, put a piece of very fine muslin very loosely across it, tie around 
 with a string, put the powder into the top, and rake about until only the 
 coarse powder remains; open the pot and you will find a very small pow< 
 der; mix it into a thin paint with gum water, as two thin applications 
 are better than one thick one. This will give a paint that will remain 
 luminous far into the night, provided it is exposed to light during the 
 day. 
 
 MAKING BLACKBOARDS. The following directions for this work are 
 given by an experienced superintendent: The first care must be to 
 make the wall surface or boards to be blacked perfectly smooth. Fill 
 all the holes and cracks with plaster of Paris mixed with water; mix but 
 little at a time; press in and smooth down with a case-knife. The cracks 
 between shrunken boards may be filled in the same way. Afterward use 
 sandpaper. The ingredients needed for slating are (1) liquid gum shel- 
 lac, sometimes called shellac varnish; (2) lampblack or drop black. Gum 
 shellac is cut in alcohol, and the liquid can be obtained of any druggist. 
 Pour some shellac into an open dish, and stir in lampblack to make a 
 heavy paint. With a clean brush, spread on any kind of surface but 
 glass. Put on a little and test it. If it is glossy and the chalk slips over 
 it, reduce the mixture with alcohol. Alcohol can be bought of any drug- 
 gist. If it rubs off, let the druggist put in more gum to make the liquid 
 thicker. One quart of the liquid and a five cent paper of lampblack are 
 sufficient to slate all the blackboards in any country school with two 
 coats. 
 
 HARMONY AND RELATIONS OF COLORS. 
 
 Most persons have observed that colors, when brought together, 
 mutually set each other off to advantage, while others have altogether a 
 different effect. This must be carefully attended to by every painter who 
 would study beauty or elegance in the appearance of his work. 
 
 Whites will set off with any color whatever. 
 
 Reds set off best with whites, blacks or yellows. 
 
 Blues set off best with whites or yellows. 
 
HANDICRAFT AND INVENTION. 163 
 
 Greens set offbest with blacks and whites. 
 
 Gold sets off best with blacks or browns. 
 
 In lettering or edging with gold a white ground has a delicate ap- 
 pearance for a time, but it soon becomes dingy. 
 
 The best grounds for gold are Saxon blue, vermilion and lake. 
 
 Following are the colors to be derived by mixing two or more pig- 
 ments: 
 
 Buff Mix together White, Yellow, Ochre, Red. 
 
 Chestnut " Red, Black, Yellow. 
 
 Chocolate " Raw Umber, Red, Black. 
 
 Claret Red, Umber, Black. 
 
 Copper Red, Yellow, Black. 
 
 Dove " White, Vermilion, Blue, Yellow. 
 
 Drab " White, Yellow, Ochre, Red, Black. 
 
 Fawn 
 
 Flesh 
 
 Freestone 
 
 French Gray.. 
 
 Gray 
 
 Gold 
 
 Green Bronze 
 
 Lemon 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Olive . . . 
 
 White, Yellow, Red. 
 
 White, Yellow, Ochre, Vermilion. 
 
 Red, Black, Yellow Ochre, Vermilion. 
 
 White, Prussian Blue, Lake. 
 
 White Lead, Black. 
 
 White, Stone Ochre, Red. 
 
 Chrome Green, Black, Yellow. 
 
 White, Chrome Yellow. 
 
 White, Yellow Ochre, Black, Red. 
 
 Yellow, Blue, Black, White. 
 
 Orange Yellow and Red 
 
 Peach " White and Vermilion. 
 
 Pearl " White, Black, Blue. 
 
 Purple. 
 
 Rose 
 
 Sandstone. 
 
 Snuff 
 
 Violet... 
 
 Violet, with more Red and White. 
 
 White, Madder Lake. 
 
 White, Yellow Ochre, Black, Red. 
 
 Yellow, Vandyke Brown. 
 
 Red, Blue and White. 
 
 THE PHONOGRAPH. 
 
 The phonograph was discovered accidentally. Mr. T. A. Edison 
 was at work on an apparatus for recording a telegraphic message, by 
 having an armature (with a needle fastened in one end) of the sounder 
 make indentations on a piece of tin foil wrapped around a cylinder. The 
 message would thus be punctured or indented on this tin foil, then by 
 substituting a blunt needle for the sharp one and turning the cylinder, 
 the armature would be vibrated as the needle entered into and passed out 
 of the indentations. While experimenting, he turned the cylinder very 
 rapidly, and instead of a succession of "clicks," a musical sound was 
 produced. He seized the idea, and the Edison Phonograph was the re- 
 sult. The perfected phonograph of today consists of a cylinder of wax, 
 or other plastic material, which is revolved either by hand, foot power or 
 an electric motor. This cylinder, called the phonogram, is used for re- 
 cording the sound. This is done by a diaphragm such as is used in a 
 telephone into the center of which is fastened a sharp needle, which 
 rests upon and just touches the phonogram. When the words are spoken 
 the diaphragm vibrates, moving this needle up and down, and a series of 
 indentations are made in a spiral line on the phonogram, which is turn- 
 ing around about eighty-five times a minute. To make the phonograph 
 speak, or repeat the words, another diaphragm, similar to the first or re- 
 corder, but having a blunt instead of a sharp needle, is placed at the 
 starting point, and the phonogram made to revolve; of course, as the 
 needle passes over the indentations it vibrates the diaphragm, and the 
 words are reproduced as in a telephone. 
 
164 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF GREAT INVENTIONS. 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 INVENTOR. 
 
 DATE. 
 
 Air Gun 
 
 Marin 
 
 1595 
 
 Air Pump 
 Anastatic Printing. . 
 Anchor 
 
 Otto von Guericke 
 
 654 
 
 Baldermus 
 
 1841 
 
 Aiiacharsis .... 
 
 594 BC 
 
 
 Wolfius 
 
 1709 
 
 Balloon 
 
 Montgolfier 
 
 1783 
 
 Barometer 
 Bellows 
 
 Evangelista Torricelli 
 
 1643 
 
 Anacharsis the Scythian 
 
 . . 593 BC 
 
 1688 
 
 Camel machine 
 Camera Lucida 
 Camera Obscura 
 
 Meuvis Neindertzoon Bakker 
 
 Dr Hooke 
 
 ...1635-1703 
 1297 
 .About 618 BC 
 1840 
 
 Roger Bacon 
 
 Chinese (Brass Cannon to John Owen) 
 
 Chronoscope 
 Clock 
 
 Wheatstone 
 
 First one erected in Padua ... 
 
 .. llth Century 
 1115 BC 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Cotton Gin 
 Dial 
 
 EH Whitney 
 
 1793 
 
 Anaximander . .... 
 
 550 BC 
 
 Diving Bell 
 
 
 1509 
 
 Electric Clock 
 Electric Light 
 
 Wheatstone .... 
 
 1840 
 
 Sir Humphrey Davy 
 
 1813 
 1837 
 
 Electrotype 
 
 Spencer and Jacobi ... 
 
 Engraving 
 
 Chinese 
 
 1000 BC 
 
 
 
 1364 
 
 Fire Engine 
 Gas 
 
 Hautsch . ... 
 
 1657 
 
 Van Helmont 
 
 1600-1625 
 
 Gas Meter 
 
 
 1815 
 
 Geographical Maps . 
 Glass 
 
 Anaximander . . . 
 
 550 BO 
 
 
 
 Gunpowder 
 Hydraulic Press 
 Hydraulic Ram 
 
 Barthold Schwarz 
 
 . 1320 
 
 Joseph Bramah 
 
 1796 
 
 Montgolfier 
 
 1797 
 
 Kaleidoscope . . . 
 
 Davia Brewster . 
 
 1814 
 
 Lightning Conductor 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 
 
 1752 
 
 
 1798 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 Watt 
 
 1759 
 
 Matches 
 
 Walker 
 
 1827 
 
 Microscope 
 
 Zacharias Jansen 
 
 1590 
 
 Organ 
 
 Archimedes and Ctesibius 
 
 220- 100 BC 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 Photography 
 Piano Forte . . 
 Pneumatic Railway. . 
 Stocking Frame 
 Printing 
 
 Thomas Wedgwood 
 
 1802 
 1714 
 
 Bartolommeo Christofali . 
 
 
 1835 
 
 William Lee 
 
 1589 
 
 Johann Gutenburg 
 
 1438 
 
 Railroad 
 
 
 1672 
 
 Ruling Machine 
 
 Sewing Machine 
 Steamboat 
 Steam Engine 
 
 j By a Hollander; subsequently improved by } 
 
 1782 
 
 Elias Howe 
 
 1841 
 
 Robert Fulton 
 
 1807 
 
 James Watt ... 
 
 1763 
 
 
 1837 
 
 Torpedo 
 
 David Bushnell 
 
 .. 1777 
 
 Telephone 
 
 j Elisha Gray, A. Graham Bell, A. C. Dolbear \ 
 1 and Thomas A. Edison j 
 Hans Lippersheim Jacob Adriansz 
 
 1877 
 . . . . 1608 
 
 Telescope 
 
 
 
 1609 
 
 Watch 
 
 I Said to have been first invented at Nurem- | 
 
 1 Viprcr 1477* ( 
 
 1477 
 
 
 
 
 * It is affirmed that Robert, King of Scotland, had a watch about 1310. Spring 
 watches have been ascribed to Dr. Hooke, and by some to Huyghens, about 1658; the 
 anchor escapement, by Clement, 1680; the horizontal watch by Graham, 1724; repeating 
 watches by Barlowe in 1776. 
 
MONEY AND FINANCE. 
 
 Mammon, the least-erected spirit that fell 
 
 From heaven; for e'en in heaven his looks and thoughts 
 
 Were always downward bent, admiring more 
 
 The riches of heaven's pavement, trodden gold, 
 
 Than aught, divine or holy, else enjoyed. 
 
 MILTON. 
 
 FACTS AND DEFINITIONS PECUNIARY. 
 
 Gold was first discovered in California in 1848. 
 
 Exchanges originated in the commercial cities of Italy. 
 
 Money simply means " a common medium of exchange." 
 
 The first currency used in this country was the Indian wampum. 
 
 National banks were first established in the United States in 1816. 
 
 International Monetary Conferences were instituted at Paris in 1878. 
 
 The highest denomination of United States legal tender notes is 
 |10,000. 
 
 Bills of exchange were first used by the Jews in 1160, and in Eng- 
 land in 1307. 
 
 The term "Almighty Dollar" seems to have been first used by 
 Washington Irving. 
 
 Collateral security is an additional and separate security for the per- 
 formance of an obligation. 
 
 Seneca concluded that " money is a greater torment in the posses- 
 sion than it is in the pursuit." 
 
 The original English exchange at London was called the "Burse," 
 and was opened by Queen Elizabeth in 1571. 
 
 During the complicated process of manufacturing stamps they are 
 counted eleven times in order to guard against pilfering. 
 
 A sinking fund is a fund formed by setting aside income every year 
 to accumulate at interest for the purpose of paying off debt. 
 
 To have your errands rightly done, says an Oriental, you must 
 employ a messenger who is deaf, dumb and blind and that is money. 
 
 Skins, cattle, shells, corn, pieces of cloth, mats, salt and many other 
 commodities have at different times and places been used as " money." 
 
 The largest circulation of paper money is that of the United States, 
 being seven hundred millions, while Russia has six hundred and seventy 
 millions. 
 
 165 
 
166 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Money is a terrible blab, says Bulwer; she will betray the secrets of 
 her owner, whatever he do to gag her; she will whisper of his virtues 
 and cry aloud his vices. 
 
 Indorsement is the term generally used to denote the writing of the 
 name of the holder on the back of a bill of exchange or promissory 
 note, on transferring or assigning it to another. 
 
 Circular notes are bank-notes specially adapted for the use of trav- 
 elers in foreign countries. Being bills personal to the bearer, they are 
 more safe as traveling money than ordinary notes or coin. 
 
 Impartial writers say that the gold contained in the medals, vessels, 
 chains and other objects preserved in the Vatican would make more gold 
 coins than the whole of the present European circulation. 
 
 Pine-tree money was the name given to silver money coined at 
 Boston, Massachusetts, in the seventeenth century (from 1652) and so 
 called from the coins bearing the rude figure of a pine-tree on one side. 
 
 Colton advises that, to cure us of our immoderate love of money, we 
 should reflect how many goods there are that money will not buy, and 
 these the best; and how many evils it will not remedy, and these the 
 worst. 
 
 Debentures are deeds charging property with the repayment of a 
 loan with a certain amount of interest. They are also issued by customs 
 officers, and entitle a merchant to bounty or drawback on goods ex- 
 ported. 
 
 Coupon is a term signifying any billet, check or other slip of paper 
 cut off from its counterpart. It is, however, applied chiefly to a divi- 
 dend or interest warrant, which is presented for payment by holders of 
 bonds of indebtedness. 
 
 In round numbers, the weight of $1,000,000 in standard gold coin 
 is one and three- fourths tons; standard silver coin, twenty-six and three- 
 fourths tons; subsidiary silver coin, twenty-five tons; minor coin, five- 
 cent nickel, one hundred tons. 
 
 An annuity is a payment generally (but not necessarily) of uniform 
 amount falling due in each year during a given term, such as a period of 
 years or the life of an individual; and payable, either in one sum at the 
 end of the year, or by half yearly or other instalments. 
 
 The term Lac, or Lakh, from a Sanskrit word meaning "one hundred 
 thousand," is generally employed in India to indicate 100,000 rupees, 
 the nominal value of which is $48,600; but in consequence of the depre- 
 ciation in the value of silver the real value is only $40,500. 
 
 The continental money consisted of bills of credit issued by Congress 
 during the War of Independence, which were to be redeemed with Span- 
 ish milled dollars. Two hundred million dollars worth were issued, 
 but they were never redeemed, and caused much suffering. 
 
 The financial term budget is cognate with the French bougette, a 
 small bag. In Great Britain, from long usage, it is applied to that mis- 
 cellaneous collection of matters which aggregate into the annual finan- 
 cial statement made to parliament by the chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Trusts are combinations of capitalists for the purpose of restricting 
 production and increasing the price of the manufactures, etc. , in which 
 the members of the trusts are interested. Trusts were first introduced by 
 American capitalists, and are in principle similar to syndicates, unions, 
 
MONE Y AND FINANCE. 167 
 
 etc. The operations of trusts in the United States, where they prevail 
 extensively, were investigated by a committee of the U. S. Senate, which 
 issued an adverse report in 1888. Among large trusts have been the salt 
 trust in England, and the Copper Syndicate in France. 
 
 Calculating machines were invented to perform mathematical opera- 
 tions by a series of toothed wheels, etc. The first was devised by Pascal, 
 1650. The most celebrated is that constructed by the late Mr. Babbage 
 (1821-33), who received a sum of $75,000 from the Parliament for his in- 
 vention. 
 
 The capital employed in banking in the principal countries is as fol- 
 lows: Great Britain, $4, 020, 000, 000; United States, $2,655,000.000; 
 Germany, $1,425,000,000; France, $1,025,000,000; Austria, $830,000,000; 
 Russia, $775,000,000; Italy, $455,000,000; Australia, $425,000,000; Canada, 
 $175,000,000. 
 
 Stock jobbing is a speculative business on the Stock Exchange. It 
 includes all "time bargains" in which there is no transference of stock, 
 but simply a payment of the difference by the buyer or the seller accord- 
 ing as the price of the stock at the time appointed stands above or below 
 the price named in the bargain. 
 
 The Clearing House is an organized system by which bankers effect, 
 atone central establishment, the collection and interchange of their bills, 
 checks and other obligations; the result is a great diminution of labor and 
 of the cash balances required for settlement. There are clearing houses 
 at all the important financial centers. 
 
 The word ' 'boom' ' is frequently used of late in America and Britain and 
 the colonies for a start or rapid development of commercial activity or 
 speculation, as when shares go off, or prices go up "with a boom." The 
 word is assumed to be suggested less by boom in the sense of noise, than 
 by the rushing progress which often accompanies the noise. 
 
 In round numbers the total amount of life insurance written by the 
 different insurance companies of the world is $12,000,000,000. Of this 
 sum $5,500, 000, 000 is placed in the United States. Between the years 
 1880 and 1890 there was $2, 500, 000, 000 new life insurance written in this 
 country, and but $1,000,000,000 in the whole of the British empire. 
 
 A letter of credit is a letter addressed to a correspondent at a distance, 
 requesting him to pay a sum therein specified to the person named, or to 
 hold the money at his disposal, and authorizing the correspondent to re- 
 imburse himself for such payment, either by debiting it in account be- 
 tween the parties, or by drawing on the first party for the amount. 
 
 In 1600 the world had in circulation ^"29,000,000 gold, ^"102,000,000 
 silver and no paper ; in 1890 these were ^"840,000,000 and ^"801, 000,000, 
 and ^"771,000,000 of paper money, a total of ^"2,402,000,000 or nearly 
 $12,000,000,000. This includes the money of Europe, the United States, 
 and the colonies of Great Britain, France and Spain. No account is 
 taken of the worthless currency of the South American states. 
 
 The employment of two metals, like gold and silver, of fixed legal 
 relative value, is termed bi-metallism. Till 1873 this had been the cus- 
 tom for nearly two hundred years. One ounce of gold was then equal 
 to fifteen and one-half ounces of silver. Up to 1873 silver was the stand- 
 ard of Germany, as it is still of India, China and Japan; but in 1873 
 gold was made the sole standard of Germany, and silver became a mere 
 article of commerce and circulating counter, which varied in value 
 
168 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 according to circumstances. The relative value might be one ounce of 
 gold worth twenty ounces of silver, or any other difference; and those 
 countries which pay in silver pay more as the relative value of silver 
 declines. Bi-metallists in the United States and elsewhere want to 
 restore the fixed relative value of these metals. 
 
 Currency is a term signifying originally the capacity of being current, 
 or, as Johnson defines it, "the power of passing from hand to hand." It 
 is applied in practice to the thing that is so current, and generally to 
 whatever, by being current among any nation or class of persons, serves 
 as the money with which they buy commodities or pay their debts. 
 
 The term bankrupt originated in connection with the money-changers 
 of Italy. They sat in the market place with their money displayed on a 
 bench (or banco, as it was called) before them. When one of these financial 
 gentlemen failed his banco (or bench) was said to be broken, and he was 
 styled a banco-rotto, or bankrupt. The modern bank inherits its name 
 from the unimposing money bench (banco) of mediaeval Italy. 
 
 The term bogus, meaning sham, forged, fraudulent, as bogus cmrency, 
 bogus transactions, is said to be a corruption of Borghese, a swindler, 
 who supplied the North American States with counterfeit bills, bills on 
 fictitious banks, and sham mortgages. Some think the word a corrupt- 
 ion of Hocus Pocus, and say that it refers to the German "Hocus Pocus 
 Imperatus, wer nicht sieht ist blind." The corresponding French term 
 is Passe muscade. 
 
 Tontine is a kind of life-annuity, shared by the subscribers to a loan, 
 the annuity increasing to the survivors as the subscribers die. The plan 
 was invented by Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapolitan banker, who settled in 
 France about 1650. The tontine was adopted by Louis XIV. and Louis 
 XV., and also in England, for the purpose of raising government loans. 
 The "Tontine Lafarge," opened in 1791, brought 1,218,000 francs to the 
 French government in December, 1888. The same idea has been incor- 
 porated into life insurance by several of the leading companies in the 
 United States. 
 
 Insurance is a contract under which one party, called the insurer or 
 assurer, agrees, in consideration of a sum of money called the premium, 
 to pay a larger sum of money to another party, called the insured or 
 assured, on the happening of a designated contingency. Insurance has 
 sometimes been said to be akin to gambling, but it is really the converse. 
 The gambler seeks excitement and gain by the artificial manufacture of 
 hazardous speculations. The prudent man resorts to insurance in order 
 to secure peace of mind and immunity from the loss which might arise 
 from contingencies beyond his control. The gambler creates or exagger- 
 ates risks; the insurance office equalizes them. 
 
 The Bank of England was projected by a Scotchman, William Pater*- 
 son and established 1694. It started with a Government loan of $6,000,- 
 000 at eight per cent, secured on taxes. The charter appointed a governor 
 and twenty four directors to be annually elected from members of the 
 company possessing not less than $2,000 of stock. The South Sea Bubble 
 (1720), the Jacobite Rebellion (1745), and the failure of a number of 
 country banks (1792) seriously affected the bank. The Bank Charter Act 
 of 1844 limited the note circulation to $70,000,000 against a like amount 
 lent to the Government, unless a similar value in bullion were in hand. 
 The Act was suspended during the panics of 1847, 1857 and 1866. 
 
MONE Y AND FINANCE. 169 
 
 Sterling signifies money of the legalized standard of coinage of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. The term, according to one theory, is a corruption 
 of Easterling a person from North Germany, on the continent of Eu- 
 rope, and therefore from the east in geographical relation to England. 
 The Easterlings were ingenious artisans who came to England in the 
 reign of Henry III., to refine the siver money, and the coin they pro- 
 duced was called moneta Esterlingorum the money of the Esterlings. 
 
 The Darien scheme was promulgated by William Paterson, founder 
 of the Bank of England in 1695, for colonizing the Isthmus of Darien. 
 Two million dollars were raised in Scotland for the purpose, and in 1698-9 
 three expeditions set out. The settlements were not recognized by the 
 English Government, and surrendered to the Spaniards in March 1700. 
 The break-up of the scheme, like the South Sea scheme, John Law's 
 Mississippi bubble, and the failure of the Panama canal, caused a great 
 financial panic. 
 
 The "South Sea Bubble" was a ruinous speculation which arose in 
 England at the same time as the Mississippi Scheme in France. The 
 South Sea Company (formed 1710) offered to take over the English 
 national debt on consideration of 5 per cent, and to advance $37,835,000 
 if the company were invested with the exclusive privilege of carrying 
 on the South Sea trade; and these terms were accepted by the House of 
 Commons. The shares, originally 77^ per cent, rose by midsummer, 
 1720, to 1,000. The crash quickly followed; thousands were reduced to 
 beggary. A parliamentary inquiry took place, disclosing fraudulent 
 dealings, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and others were 
 expelled the House in 1721. 
 
 Usury now means iniquitous or illegal interest, but formerly meant 
 interest of any kind on money lent. The Mosaic law forbade a Jew to 
 tak usury from a fellow-countryman. Greek and Roman moralists 
 mainly disapproved of any usury; the church fathers, the popes, the 
 canon law absolutely forbade it; hence the Jews had a kind of monopoly 
 of usury at the Reformation. Luther condemned interest, while Calvin 
 allowed it. A long series of laws were passed on the understanding that 
 usury was wrong, but admitting many exceptions, the usury laws thus 
 doing much harm and multiplying legal fictions. The moral question 
 is still debated, and moralists such as Ruskin wax fierce against the tak- 
 ing of interest. But it may broadly be said that modern civilization 
 fully recognizes the admissibility of fair interest. 
 
 Five States Iowa, Vermont, Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois 
 have no interest-bearing debt, and there are six or seven other States 
 whose bonded debts are mere bagatelles. Among the number are New 
 Jersey, Nebraska, Kentucky and California. To a foreigner or any one 
 else not familiar with the facts this would convey the impression that 
 the Americans bear an extremely light burden of debt. Such an idea 
 would be somewhat modified, however, by the knowledge that the Atchi- 
 son, Topeka & Santa Fe pays interest on $500,000,000 or more, the 
 annual interest charge exceeding $25,000,000 almost as much as the 
 entire interest charge of the federal government. The southern States 
 have a bonded indebtedness of $144,000,000 in round numbers. The 
 total bonded indebtedness of all the States in 1890 was $224,000,000, on 
 which the annual interest charge was $10,000,000. The total bonded 
 debt of the States is about one-third of the national intesest-bearing 
 debt. 
 
170 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 The Mississippi Bubble, or the "South Sea Scheme," of France, was 
 projected by John Law, a Scotchman. It was so called because the pro- 
 jector was to have the exclusive trade of Louisiana, on the banks of the 
 Mississippi, on condition of his taking on himself the National Debt (in- 
 corporated 1717, failed 1720). The.debt was two hundred and eight mil- 
 lions sterling. Law made himself sole creditor of the debt, and was 
 allowed to issue ten times the amount in paper money, and to open 
 "The Royal Bank of France," empowered to issue this paper currency. 
 So long as a twenty-franc note was worth twenty francs, the scheme was 
 a prodigious success, but immediately the paper money was at a discount, 
 a run on the bank set in, and the whole scheme burst. 
 
 Duringthe civil war (1861-1865) the immense expenditure of the United 
 States government led to the printing of an unprecedented number of bank- 
 notes, bonds, and currency papers of various kinds. These documents, 
 from the color presented by them, or some of them, obtained the name of 
 Greenbacks, a designation which came to be loosely used for all United 
 States bank notes. The first "demand notes" were issued in August 
 1861; the first greenbacks proper were of date March 10, 1862. Soon 
 forged notes and bonds were in circulation, but by degrees a large estab- 
 lishment was organized at Washington, under the immediate control of 
 the Secretary to the Treasury, and the precautions used were such as 
 almost completely to baffle forgers. The paper currency, whose value 
 had fluctuated greatly, was declared convertible into coin on 1st January 
 1879, and specie payments completely resumed. 
 
 A LESSON TO BORROWERS. 
 
 Peter Cooper was one of the most successful, careful and prudent 
 business men of his time. He was strongly opposed to the methods of 
 many merchants who launched out into extravagant enterprises on bor- 
 rowed money, for which they paid exhorbitant rates of interest. The 
 following anecdote illustrates this point very forcibly: 
 
 Once, while talking about a project with an acquaintance, the latter 
 said he would have to borrow the money for six months, paying interest 
 at the rate of 3 per cent per month. 
 
 "Why do you borrow for so short a time?" Mr. Cooper asked. 
 
 "Because the brokers will not negotiate bills for longer. " 
 
 "Well, if you wish," said Mr. Cooper, "I will discount your note 
 at that rate for three years." 
 
 ' ' Are you in earnest?' ' asked the would-be borrower. 
 
 "Certainly I am. I will discount your note for $10,000 for three 
 years at that rate. Will you do it?" 
 
 "Of course I will," said the merchant. 
 
 "Very well," said Mr. Cooper; "just sign this note for $10,000, 
 payable in three years, and give your check for $800, and the transaction 
 will be complete." 
 
 "But where is the money for me?" asked the astonished mer- 
 chant. 
 
 "You don't get any money," was the reply. "Your interest 
 for thirty-six months at 3 per centum per month amounts to 108 
 per centum, or $10,800; therefore your check for $800 just makes us 
 even." 
 
 The force of this practical illustration of the folly of paying such 
 an exorbitant price for the use of money was such that the merchant 
 
MONEY AND FINANCE. 
 
 171 
 
 determined never to borrow at such ruinous rates, and he frequently 
 used to say that nothing could have so fully convinced him as this 
 rather humorous proposal by Mr. Cooper. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 
 $611 415 880 
 
 Italy 
 
 4 362 8oO 000 
 
 Australian Colonies 
 
 787 692,605 
 
 Japan 
 
 249 108 517 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 2 322 658 340 
 
 Mexico 
 
 203 244 300 
 
 
 1 615 190 165 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 452 000 000 
 
 Hungary 
 
 '65?' 468 075 
 
 Norway 
 
 37 596 079 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 422 464 275 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 5 151 891 
 
 
 6500000 
 
 
 No debt 
 
 Brazil 
 
 598 658 310 
 
 Peru 
 
 367 226 890 
 
 Canada . . . . 
 
 286 112295 
 
 Portugal 
 
 490 493 599 
 
 Chili 
 
 80 568 887 
 
 
 171 292 560 
 
 China 
 
 38,500000 
 
 Russia 
 
 3 731 103 600 
 
 Colombia 
 
 29 163 480 
 
 
 62 550 000 
 
 
 54 369 325 
 
 
 No debt 
 
 Kcuador 
 
 13,738 490 
 
 Spain 
 
 1 299 500 000 
 
 Egypt 
 
 518,625 840 
 
 
 66 412 279 
 
 
 *6 427 500 000 
 
 
 7 543 273 
 
 
 307 500 000 
 
 
 900 000 COO 
 
 German States 
 
 1 827 977 750 
 
 United States 
 
 1 549 296 126 
 
 
 3 449 720 135 
 
 
 72 205 722 
 
 
 91 618 340 
 
 
 20 556 260 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 1 936 500 
 
 
 
 India, British 
 
 928,355',780 
 
 Total 
 
 35,040,265,657 
 
 * This is the estimate of Whitaker. M. Tirard, the late Prime Minister of France, 
 has estimated that the engagements of the French Treasury, the redemption of which 
 is obligatory at a date not later than 1960, amounts to $7,174,907,310. 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER PRODUCTION IN FIVE HUNDRED YEARS. 
 
 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 Africa 
 
 740 
 
 1520000000 
 
 7 1 
 
 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 1,840 
 
 1,290 000 000 
 
 17 8 
 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 460 
 
 325 000 000 
 
 4 4 
 
 7930 
 
 $305 000 000 
 
 4 i 
 
 Brazil 
 
 1,040 
 
 725,000,000 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 470 
 
 325 000 000 
 
 4 4 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 78600 
 
 3 040 000 000 
 
 407 
 
 Peru etc 
 
 
 
 
 72000 
 
 2 770 000 000 
 
 37 3 
 
 
 1 235 
 
 865 000 000 
 
 120 
 
 3 200 
 
 120 000 000 
 
 1 7 
 
 Spanish Ameiica 
 
 2 220 
 
 1,550 OOO'OOO 
 
 21 5 
 
 
 
 
 Uriited States 
 
 2042 
 
 1 430 000 000 
 
 197 
 
 11 600 
 
 445 000000 
 
 6 08 
 
 
 778 
 
 535 000 000 
 
 7 5 
 
 11 200 
 
 430 000 000 
 
 5 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The World 
 
 10,355 
 
 $7,240,000,000 
 
 100.0 
 
 193,000 
 
 $7,435,000,000 
 
 100.0 
 
 The estimates in this table of gold and silver production for five hundred years 
 (1380-1880) are made by Mulhall. 
 
 THE STANDARD SILVER DOLLAR. 
 
 The coinage of the standard silver dollar was first authorized by Act 
 of April 2, 1792. Its weight was to be 416 grains standard silver; fineness, 
 892.4; which was equivalent to 37 IX grains of fine silver, with 44^ grains 
 of pure copper alloy. This weight was changed by act of January 18, 
 1837, to 412^ grains, and fineness changed to 900, thus preserving 
 the same amount of pure silver as before. By act of February 12, 1873, 
 the coinage was discontinued. The total number of silver dollars coined 
 
172 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 from 1792 to 1873 was 8,045,838. The act of 1873 provided for the coinage 
 of the "trade dollar," of weight 420 grains, and an act passed in June, 
 1874, ordered that all silver coins should only be "legal tender at their 
 nominal value for amounts not exceeding $5. ' ' The effect of these acts was 
 the "demonetization" of silver, of which so much has been said. Feb- 
 ruary 28, 1878, the coinage of the standard dollar of 412)4 grains was re- 
 vived by act of Congress; $2,000,000 per month was ordered coined, and 
 the coins were made legal tender for all debts, public and private. From 
 February, 1878 to November 1, 1885, 213,257,594 of these standard dollars 
 were coined under the above act. 
 
 GREAT FINANCIAL PANICS. 
 
 The most remarkable crises since the beginning of the present cent- 
 ury have been as follows: 
 
 1814. England, two hundred and forty banks suspended. 
 
 1824. Manchester, failures, two millions sterling. 
 
 1831. Calcutta, failures, fifteen millions. 
 
 1837. United States, "Wild-cat" crisis, all banks closed. 
 
 1839. Bank of England saved by Bank of France. Severe also in France, where 
 ninety-three companies failed for six millions. 
 
 1844. England. State loans to merchants. Bank of England reformed. 
 
 1847. England, failures, twenty millions, discount, thirteen percent. 
 
 1857. United States, seven thousand two hundred houses failed for one hundred and 
 eleven millions. 
 
 1860. London, Overend-Gurney crisis; failures exceeded one hundred millions. 
 
 1869. Black Friday in New York (Wall street,) September 24. 
 
 A "PENNY- WISE" TABLE. 
 
 The way to accumulate money is to save small sums with regularity. 
 A small sum saved daily for fifty years will grow at the following rate: 
 
 DAILY SAVINGS. RESULT. 
 
 One cent |950 
 
 Ten cents 9,504 
 
 Twenty cents 19,006 
 
 Thirty cents 28,512 
 
 Forty cents 38,015 
 
 Fifty cents 47,520 
 
 DAILY SAVINGS. RESULT. 
 
 Sixty cents . $57,024 
 
 Seventy cents 66,528 
 
 Eighty cents 76,032 
 
 Ninety cents 85,537 
 
 One Dollar 475,208 
 
 MERCHANTS' COST AND PRICE MARKS. 
 
 All merchants use private cipher marks to note cost or selling price 
 of goods. The cipher is usually made up from some short word or sent- 
 ence of nine or ten letters, as: 
 
 CORNELIUS, A. 
 123456789 0. 
 
 Five dollars, according to this key, would be eaa. But generally an 
 extra letter is used to prevent repeating the mark for 0. If the sign lor 
 a second in this case were y, we would have eay instead of eaa. 
 
 AVERAGE IMPORT DUTIES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 
 
 Great Britain 
 France 
 
 RATIO TO 
 
 IMPORTS 
 
 PER CENT. 
 
 Germany ....................... 6 
 
 Russia ........................... 18 
 
 Austria ........................... 5 
 
 Italy ..................... ....... 11 
 
 Spain ........................ 24 
 
 Portugal ........................ 26 
 
 Holland.... 1 
 
 RATIO TO 
 IMPORTS 
 PER CENT. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark ........................ 9 
 
 Sweden and Norway ............. 12 
 
 Europe .......................... 7 
 
 United States ..................... 28 
 
 Canada .......................... 15 
 
 Australia ................ * ...... 13 
 
 Brazil ............................. 44 
 
 Argentine Republic ............ 37 
 
MONE Y AND FINANCE, 173 
 
 THE BANKRUPT LAWS. 
 
 Properly speaking, the Bankrupt Law is a thing of the past. 
 
 Laws have been enacted, however, in nearly all the States for the 
 purpose of distributing the property of an insolvent debtor proportion- 
 ately among his creditors and discharging the debtor from further liabil- 
 ity. Proceedings may be instituted by the debtor himself or by a 
 creditor. As a rule, proceedings in one State are not binding on a cred- 
 itor residing in another State; but if Congress were to pass a national 
 bankrupt law, this would annul all State laws on the subject, and pro- 
 ceedings under the national law would bind creditors in all the States 
 and Territories. 
 
 Insolvency proceedings are generally commenced by a petition to 
 the Judges of the court of insolvency, setting forth among other things 
 the debtor's inability to pay all his debts in full, and his desire to sur- 
 render all his property for the benefit of his creditors. 
 
 If satisfied of the truth of matters alleged in the petition, the judge 
 issues an order commanding the proper officer to take the debtor's prop- 
 erty and hold it until a certain time, when the creditors meet and choose 
 an assignee. 
 
 The assignee then takes charge of the property, turns it into money, 
 and declares a dividend for the creditors. 
 
 Pending the proceedings, the debtor may be examined on oath for 
 the purpose of making him disclose all matters concerning his property 
 and the disposal thereof. 
 
 If the debtor has conformed to the insolvent law in all respects, he 
 is entitled to a discharge from his debts, which is given him by the 
 judge on the debtor's obtaining the requisite assent from the creditors. 
 
 In nearly all the States an insolvent debtor may, with the consent 
 of his creditors, and in some States without such consent, assign all his 
 property to a trustee for the benefit of his creditors, who converts it into 
 money, dividing it pro rata among the creditors. 
 
 SHORT INTEREST RULES. 
 
 To find the interest on a given sum for any number of days, at any 
 rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of days and divide 
 as follows: 
 
 At 3 per cent, by 120 | At 9 per cent, by 40 
 
 At 4 per cent, by 90 I At 10 per cent, by , 
 
 At 5 per cent, by 72 
 
 At 6 per cent, by , . 60 
 
 At 7 per cent, by 52 
 
 At 8 per cent, by 45 
 
 At 12 per cent, by 30 
 
 At 15 per cent, by 24 
 
 At 20 per cent, by IS 
 
 ABOUT TRADE DISCOUNTS. 
 
 Wholesale houses usually invoice their goods to retailers at ' 'list' ' 
 prices. List prices were once upon a time supposed to be retail prices, 
 but of late a system of ' ' long' ' list prices has come into vogue in many 
 lines of trade that is, the list price is made exorbitantly high, so that 
 wholesalers can give enormous discounts. These discounts, whether 
 large or small, are called trade discounts, and are usually deducted at a 
 certain rate per cent from the face of invoice. 
 
 The amount of discount generally depends upon size of bill or terms 
 of settlement, or both. Sometimes two or more discounts are allowed. 
 
174 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Thus 30% and 5% is expressed 30 and 5, meaning first a discount of 30% 
 and then 5% from the remainder. 
 
 Thirty and 5 is not 35%, but 33^%. Ten, 5 and 3 off means three 
 successive discounts. 
 
 A wholesale house allowing 10, 5 and 3 off gets more for its goods 
 than it would at 18 off. 
 
 WONDERS OF COMPOUND INTEREST. 
 
 TIME IN WHICH MONEY DOUBLES. 
 
 2 
 2H 
 3 
 
 3H 
 
 Simple Interest. 
 
 Compound Int. 
 
 - I Per 
 ODOO<JOUX| C ent. 
 
 Simple Interest. 
 
 Compound Int. 
 
 50 years. 
 40 years. 
 33 years 4 montns. 
 28 years 208 days. 
 25 years. 
 22 years 81 days. 
 
 35 years. 
 28 years 26 days. 
 23 years 164 days. 
 20 years 54 days. 
 17 years 246 days. 
 15 years 273 days. 
 
 20 years. 
 16 years 8 months. 
 14 years 104 days. 
 12H years. 
 1 1 years 40 days. 
 10 years. 
 
 1 4 years 75 days. 
 11 years 327 days. 
 10 years 89 days. 
 9 years 2 days. 
 8 years 16 days. 
 7 years 100da>s. 
 
 DAILY SAVINGS AT COMPOUND INTEREST. 
 
 Daily Savings. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 Ten Years. 
 
 Fitty Years. 
 
 22 cents 
 
 $ 10 
 
 $ 130 
 
 $ 2 900 
 
 514 
 
 20 
 
 260 
 
 5 800 
 
 8^ 
 
 30 
 
 390 
 
 8 700 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 520 
 
 11 600 
 
 13% 
 
 50 
 
 650 
 
 14 500 
 
 27 Va 
 
 100 
 
 1.300 
 
 29 000 
 
 55 
 
 200 
 
 2 600 
 
 58000 
 
 $1 10 
 
 400 
 
 5 200 
 
 116 000 
 
 1 37 
 
 500 
 
 6 500 
 
 145000 
 
 2.74 
 
 1,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 HOW COMPOUND INTEREST ACCUMULATES. 
 
 If one dollar be invested and the interest added to the principal, annually, at th 
 rates named, we shall have the following result as the accumulation of one hundred 
 years: 
 
 One dollar 100 years, at 1 per cent. 
 2 
 
 r- 
 
 3 1 /* 
 
 4 l / 3 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 
 $2.75 
 7.25 
 11.75 
 19.25 
 31.25 
 P0.50 
 81.50 
 131.50 
 340.00 
 
 2,203.00 
 
 5,543.00 
 
 13,809.00 
 
 34,675.00 
 
 1,174,405.00 
 
 . 15,145,007.00 
 
 .2,551,799,404.00 
 
 TERMS OF THE STOCK BROKER. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION PAPER. Notes or bills not representing an actual sale or trade 
 transaction, but merely drawn to be discounted for the benefit of drawer, acceptor or 
 indorser, or all combined. 
 
 BALANCE OF TRADE. Difference in value between total imports and exports of a 
 country. 
 
 BALLOONING. To work up a stock far beyond its intrinsic worth by favorable stories 
 or fictitious sales. 
 
 BUYING LONG. Buying in expectation of a rise. 
 
MONEY AND FINANCE. 175 
 
 BREADSTUFFS. Any kind of grain, corn or meal. 
 
 BROKER. An agent or factor; a middleman paid by commission. 
 
 BROKERAGE. A percentage for the purchase or sale of money and stocks. 
 
 BULL AND BEAR. The "bull" is a stock exchange speculator who "goes long" on 
 stocks, trusting to a rising market; while the "bear" is one who sells stock "short," 
 which he does not possess, and who speculates for a decline. "Bulls and bears" is a 
 colloquialism for the whole fraternity of stock speculators. 
 
 CALL. Demand for payment of installments due on stocks. 
 
 CALL. A privilege given to another to "call" for delivery at a time and pnce 
 fixed. 
 
 CLIQUE. A combination of operators controlling large capital in order to unduly 
 expand or break down the market. . 
 
 COLLATERALS. Any kind of values given in pawn when money is borrowed. 
 
 CORNERS. The buying up of a large quantity of stocks or grain to raise the price 
 When the market is oversold, the shorts, if compelled to deliver, find themselves in a 
 "corner." 
 
 CURBSTONE BROKERS. -Brokers or agents who are not members of any regular 
 organization, and do business mainly on the sidewalk. 
 
 DELIVERY. When stock or grain is brought to the buyer in exact accordance with 
 the rules of the Exchange, it is called a good delivery. When there are irregularities, 
 the delivery is pronounced bad, and the buyer can appeal to the Exchange. 
 
 DIFFERENCES. The price at which a stock is bargained for and the rate or day of 
 delivery are not usually the same, the variation being termed the difference. 
 
 FACTOR. An agent appointed to sell goods on commission. 
 
 FACTORAGE. Commissions allowed factors. 
 
 FLAT. Inactive, depressed, dull. The^fa/ value of bonds and stocks is the value 
 without interest. 
 
 FLYER. A small side operation, not employing one's whole capital. 
 
 FORCING QUOTATIONS is where brokers wish to keep up the pnce of a stock and to 
 prevent its falling out of sight. This is generally accomplished by a small sale. 
 
 GUNNING a stock is to use every art to produce a break when it is known that a 
 certain house is heavily supplied and would be unable to resist an attack. 
 
 KITE-FLYING. Expanding one's credit beyond wholesome limits. 
 
 L,AME DUCK. Stock -brokers' slang for one unable to meet his liabilities. 
 
 L,ONG. One is long when he carries stock or grain for a rise. 
 
 POINTER. A theory or fact regarding the market on which one bases a specu- 
 tion. 
 
 POOL. The stock or money contributed by a clique to carry through a corner. 
 
 PRICE CURRENT. The prevailing price of merchandise, stock or securities. 
 
 SELLING SHORT. To "sell short" is to sell for future delivery what one has not got, 
 in hopes that prices will fall. 
 
 WATERING a stock is the art of inflating a quantity of stock without improving 
 its quality. 
 
 OUR BANKING SYSTEM EXPLAINED. 
 
 The present system, known as the National Bank-note System of the 
 United States, was devised first, to secure in the most effective way a 
 sure market for United States bonds, whose issue was rendered impera- 
 tive by the continuance of the civil war; and, second, to provide a uni- 
 form, safe and convenient monetary system for the promotion of busi- 
 ness transactions and the development of trade and industries among the 
 people. 
 
 The first act of the National Congress, under which the system was 
 organized, was approved February 25, 1863. The law was extensively 
 revised and re-enacted June 3, 1864. Previous to these dates the system 
 of State banks universally prevailed, of which there were, in the thirty- 
 four States then existing, 1,601, with an aggregate capital of $429,000,000. 
 More than 10,000 different kinds of bank-notes were in use in a total 
 circulation of about $202,000,000. 
 
 The act of 1864 provided for the establishment, in the Government 
 Treasury Department at Washington, of a national bank bureau, with a 
 chief officer, to be known as comptroller of the currency. Under the 
 provisions of the law any number of persons, not less than five, might be 
 organized into a national banking association, the capital in no case to 
 
176 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 be less than $100,000, except that in cities containing a population of 
 not more than 6,000 the capital should not be less than $50,000; and in 
 cities having a population of not less than 50,000 the capital must not 
 be less than $200,000. Not less than one-third of the capital was re- 
 quired to be invested in United States bonds, upon which circulating 
 notes could be issued equal to 90 per cent of the current market value, 
 but not exceeding 9 per cent of the par value of the bonds deposited. 
 These were to be received at par in the United States in all payments to 
 and from the Government, except for duties on imports, interest on the 
 public debt, and in redemption of national currency. As early as March 3, 
 1865, an important additional act was passed requiring that every bank- 
 ing association should pay a tax of 10 per cent on the notes of any person 
 or State bank used for circulation or paid out by them. This act virtu- 
 ally resulted in taxing State bank circulation out of existence. 
 
 A total issue of $300,000,000 of circulation was authorized by the act 
 of 1864; but an act of May 12, 1870, authorized an increase of circulation 
 to $354,000,000. Another act, that of June 20, 1874, provided that any 
 bank by depositing with the United States Treasury in sums not less 
 than $9,000 at a time, might withdraw a proportionate amount of the 
 bonds on deposit as security for its circulating notes. An act passed 
 January 14, 1875, removed all limitations as to the amount of the circulat- 
 ing notes of the banks, except the restrictions in the provisions in the law 
 then existing, but required the Treasurer to retire legal tender notes to 
 the amount of 80 per cent of the additional bank-notes issued, and to 
 continue such retirement until there should be a reduction of the legal 
 tender notes to the amount of $300,000,000. The provision of the law re- 
 quiring a reduction of legal tender notes was repealed May 31, 1878. 
 
 The National Bank act also required that the national banks in the 
 city of New York, and certain other ' ' redeeming ' ' cities, should hold 
 in lawful money 25 per cent of their deposits and circulation as a reserve 
 fund. Banks in other cities were required to hold a reserve of 15 per 
 cent. 
 
 With regard to interest on loans, the national banks were allowed 
 to charge at the rate allowed by the States in which they were located, 
 and in case the State had fixed no rate, the banks were allowed to charge 
 7 per cent. 
 
 Under the national banking law, shareholders are held individually, 
 equally and ratably liable for all the debts of the association to the extent 
 of their amount of stock in addition to the amount invested therein. 
 Also the law required that before declaring a dividend, the bank should 
 carry one-tenth of their net profits of the preceding half year to a surplus 
 fund until the same should amount to 20 per cent of the capital. 
 
 Originally the national banks realized a considerable profit from 
 their circulating notes, but the high rate of premium commanded in the 
 market in later years by the interest-bearing bonds of the United States, 
 which the law requires the banks to deposit as security for their circu- 
 lation, has rendered the issue of circulating notes in most localities un- 
 profitable. Hence the banks rely chiefly on their deposits as their 
 principal source of profit; these deposits are returned to the business 
 public in the shape of loans properly secured, and thus the money is 
 continually kept in circulation among the people. 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 I praise not those 
 
 Who in their petty dealings pilfer not, 
 But him whose conscience spurns at secret fraud, 
 When he might plunder and defy surprise. 
 
 CUMBERLAND. 
 
 HOME AND FOREIGN STANDARDS. 
 
 A ' ' stone' ' weight in England is fourteen pounds. 
 
 Counterfeiting was formerly treason under British law. 
 
 Abraham was "very rich in cattle, in silver and in gold." 
 
 Ninety coins per minute is fair working speed at the mint. 
 
 The double eagle, 516 grains, is the heaviest American coin. 
 
 A stiver was an ancient Dutch coin of about two cents value. 
 
 The so-called "coppers" of British money are now all bronze. 
 
 Five courses of brick will lay one foot in height on a chimney! 
 
 The standard gallon contains just ten pounds' weight of pure water. 
 
 The carat, which is used to weigh diamonds, is equal to 3.17 Troy 
 grains. 
 
 Silver is only a legal tender in England to the amount of forty 
 shillings. 
 
 The Saxons used an ell, or yard of thirty-six inches, based on the 
 Roman foot. 
 
 The L,ydians, according to Herodotus, were the first nation to use gold 
 and silver coin. 
 
 The coins of the Cromwellian period had the inscription in English 
 instead of Latin. 
 
 The moidore is a Portuguese gold coin, now almost extinct, worth 
 about seven dollars. 
 
 The first gold coin struck at Rome, 207 B.C., was the aureus, of the 
 value of about six dollars. 
 
 Modern Japanese coinage includes oblong pieces of gold and silver, 
 as well as large oval plates. 
 
 A cord of stone, three bushels of lime and a cubic yard of sand will 
 lay 100 cubic feet of wall. 
 
 The palm, or hand-breadth, was the original standard of measure, 
 then the foot and cubit successively. 
 U. I.-12 177 
 
178 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The so-called "Latin" Union was an agreement between France, 
 Italy, Belgium and Switzerland (1865-80) to maintain a uniform coinage. 
 
 One thousand shingles, laid four inches to the weather, will cover 
 100 square feet of surface, and five pounds of shingle nails will fasten 
 them on. 
 
 One-fifth more siding and flooring is needed than the number of 
 square feet of surface to be covered, because of the lap in the siding and 
 matching. 
 
 A denarius was a Roman silver coin, value about sixteen cents. It 
 was used in France and England for ready money generally. It was 
 also a weight (three scruples). 
 
 A cubic foot of cork weighs 1.5 Ibs. ; of bees, 65 Ibs. ; of blood, 66 Ibs. ; 
 of coal, 56 Ibs.; of earth, 94 Ibs.; of hay, 9 Ibs.; of ice, 57^ Ibs.; of 
 copper, 547 Ibs.; of cast iron, 450 Ibs.; of gold, 1,203^ Ibs.; of platina, 
 1,219 Ibs. 
 
 To find the quantity of shelled corn in a crib of corn in the ear, 
 measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside of the crib, 
 multiply them together and divide them by two and you have the num- 
 ber of bushels in the crib. 
 
 One thousand laths will cover seventy yards of surface, and eleven 
 pounds of lath nails will nail them on. Eight bushels of good lime, 
 sixteen bushels of sand and one bushel of hair^will make enough good 
 mortar to plaster 100 square yards. 
 
 Very large amounts of private gold coins were formerly minted in 
 this country by individuals. Reid of Georgia, the Bechtlers of North 
 Carolina, the Mormons in Utah, and several banking firms in California, 
 all once did a large business in this line. 
 
 A rupee is a silver coin, the standard or unit of the money system 
 of India; value at par, fifty cents; 100,000 rupees = a lac; 100 lacs = a 
 crore. Owing to the falling-off in the value of silver, a rupee is at pres- 
 ent not worth more than thirty cents in gold. 
 
 The picayune is a name derived from the Carib language, and used 
 in Louisiana for a small coin worth six and one-fourth cents, current in 
 the United States before 1857, and known in different states by various 
 names (fourpence, fippence, fip, sixpence, etc.). 
 
 The name of Bezants, or Byzantines, is given to the coins, either 
 gold or silver, of the Byzantine empire. They varied in value from five 
 dollars to two and a half dollars. As bezants were brought to England 
 by the crusaders, they frequently occur as English heraldic charges. 
 
 Goldsmiths and assayers divide the troy pound, ounce, or any other 
 weight into twenty-four parts, and call each a carat, as a means of stating 
 the proportion of pure gold contained in any alloy of gold with other 
 metals. Thus the gold of our coinage and of wedding rings, which con- 
 tains \\ of pure gold, is called ' '22-carats fine, " or 22-carat gold. 
 
 A guinea was an English gold coin, so called from having been 
 originally coined of gold brought from the Guinea cost in 1663. Its 
 value has varied at different periods. At first it equalled twenty shil- 
 lings, it was in 1685 worth thirty shillings, and in 1717 twenty-one shil- 
 lings, beyond which price it was by an Act of Parliament in 1811 for- 
 bidden to be sold, or exported. The issue of the sovereign (1817) virtually 
 abolished the coinage of the guinea. 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 179 
 
 A cubit was a Roman measure of length, supposed to equal the 
 length of the fore-arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. 
 It was \y z Roman feet (17)4 English inches). The English cubit is l*/ 2 
 English feet. The cubit of Scripture is generally estimated at twenty- 
 two inches. 
 
 It is a big job to count a trillion. Had Adam counted continuously 
 from his creation to the present day, he would not have reached that 
 number, for it would take him over 9,512 years. At the rate of 200 a 
 minute, there could be counted 12,000 an hour, 288,000 a day, and 105,- 
 120,000 a year. 
 
 The scudo (Ital., "shield"), is an Italian silver coin corresponding 
 to the Spanish piastre, the American dollar and the English crown. It 
 was so called from its bearing the heraldic shield of the prince by whose 
 authority it was struck, and differed slightly in value in the different 
 states of Italy, the usual value being about one dollar. 
 
 The tael is a money of account in China, and is equivalent to i tael 
 weight of pure silver, or to about twelve hundred and fifty of the copper 
 coin known as "cash." The value of the Haikwan tael or customs tael 
 is 4s. 9d., about $1.14, varying with the price of silver. In 1890 it was 
 superseded by the new dollar, equal in value to our dollar. 
 
 Gunter's chain is a chain used for land measuring. It is twenty-two 
 yards long, the square of which is 484. Now an acre is 4,840 square 
 yards, and therefore a square chain is a tenth of an acre, or 10=1 acre. 
 Again a chain contains 10,000 square links, and as 10 chains = an acre, 
 it follows that 100,000 square links = an acre. So that, in measuring a 
 field by a Gunter's chain, all that is required is to divide the result by 
 100,000, or (which is the same thing) to cut off the last five figures, to ob- 
 tain the area in acres. 
 
 The real is a silver coin and money of account in Spain, Mexico and 
 other old Spanish possessions, and is the ^th part of the piastre, or X*h 
 of the peseta, the franc of the new Spanish decimal system, and has a 
 value, varying with the exchange, of about five cents. The real was 
 first coined in Spain in 1497. It is also a money of account in Portugal, 
 being the equivalent of forty reis. In Java it is the name of a weight for 
 gold and silver articles, corresponding to seventeen penny weights and 
 fourteen grains troy weight. 
 
 The "foot" is named from the length of that member in a full- 
 grown man. Some say that it was so called from the length of the foot 
 of a certain English king, but it is believed to have been a standard of 
 measurement among the ancient Egyptians. The cubit is from the 
 Latin cubitus, an elbow, and is the distance from the elbow to the end 
 of the middle finger. Fathom is from the Aryan fat, to extend, and de- 
 notes the distance from tip to tip of the fingers when the arms of an 
 average-sized man are fully extended. 
 
 The decimal system is that by which weights and measures are cal- 
 culated by tens and multiples of ten. The basis of this system is the 
 metre = 39.37 in.; of liquid capacity the litre, one-tenth of the metre; of 
 solid measure the stere, the cube of the metre; of weight the gramme = 
 one cubic centimetre of distilled water at 39.2 Fahr. The decimal sys- 
 tem for monej 7 is used in France, where the franc (twenty cents) is the 
 unit of value. The system also obtains in the United States, Italy, Spain, 
 and other countries in Europe and elsewhere. 
 
180 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Counterfeiting is the making of false money. In the United States 
 the crime of counterfeiting coin or money is punishable with fine and 
 imprisonment at hard labor for a term of from two to ten years; and in- 
 cludes falsely making, forging or counterfeiting coins or notes, postal 
 money orders, postal cards, government stamps of all kinds, and govern- 
 ment securities, as also importing, possessing, uttering, or passing false 
 coins or notes with fraudulent intent. Mutilating and debasing the coin 
 is also counterfeiting, but is not so severely punished. 
 
 The talent was the heaviest unit of weight among the Greeks. The 
 word is used by Homer to signify indifferently a balance and a definite 
 weight of some monetary currency. Silver coin was first struck in 
 Hellas proper in the island of ^Bgina, and the ^Eginetan standard was 
 apparently adapted to the Babylonian gold standard. The Babylonian 
 commercial talent seems to have been either 65 pound, 5 ounces, or 66 
 pound, 5 l / 2 ounces, and its value in silver from $1,700 to $2,000. Deriva- 
 tives of this (containing 3,000 shekels) were in use in Phoenicia and 
 Palestine; but there was another silver talent, and a gold talent worth 
 |ths of the commercial talent. The Euboic talent was of smaller mone- 
 tary measure and weight than the ^ginetan. 
 
 ALL ABOUT AN ACRE. 
 
 An acre is a measure of ground approximately adopted by most 
 nations, which in America and England is 4,840 square yards. The 
 chain with which land is measured is 22 yards long, and a square chain 
 will contain 22x22, or 484 yards; so that 10 square chains make an acre. 
 The acre is divided into 4 roods, a rood into 40 perches, and a perch con- 
 tains 30X square yards. The old Scotch acre is larger than the English, 
 and the Irish than the Scotch. Twenty-three Scotch acres = 29 imperial 
 acres; 30 ^ Irish acres = 49 imperial acres. The hectare of the French 
 metric system has on the Continent superseded almost all the ancient 
 local measures corresponding to the acre such as the Prussian morgen. 
 
 English acre 1 .00 
 
 Scotch " 1.27 
 
 Irish " 1.62 
 
 j Hectare ( = 100 ares) 2.47 
 
 France | Arpent (old system) 0.99 
 
 ] Little Morgen 0.63 
 
 Prussia | Great Morgen 1.40 
 
 United States, English acre 1.00 
 
 CAPACITY OF A TEN-TON FREIGHT CAR. 
 
 Whisky 60 barrels. 
 
 Salt 70 
 
 Lime 70 
 
 Flour 90 
 
 Eggs 130 to 160 
 
 Flour 200 sacks. 
 
 Cattle 18 to 20 head. 
 
 Hogs 50 to 60 
 
 Sheep 80 to 100 
 
 Lumber, green 6,000 feet. 
 
 Lumber, dry 10,000 
 
 Barley 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Apples 
 
 Corn 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Oats 
 
 Bran. 1,000 
 
 300 bush. 
 
 340 
 
 370 
 
 400 
 
 430 
 
 680 
 
 MONEY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Brass money is spoken of by Homer as early as 1184 B. c. Gold 
 and silver were coined by Pheidon, of Argos, 862 B. c. Coins were made 
 sterling in 1216. New silver coinage struck, 1816; Jubilee coins struck, 
 1887; first gold coin on record struck, 1257; sovereigns first coined, 1489; 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 181 
 
 shillings first coined, 1503; crowns and half-crowns struck, 1553; copper 
 coined by Government, 1672; guineas, 1663; fourpenny-pieces, 1836; 
 threepenny-pieces, 1843; silver florins, 1849; bronze coinage, 1860. In 
 the reign of Elizabeth the amount of money coined was ^5,832,000. In 
 1890 (Victoria) it reached a total of .9,465,129. In the United States 
 the first coinage was made for Virginia Company, 1612; first colonial 
 coinage, 1652 (Mass); copper coined in Vermont and Connecticut, 1785; 
 New Jersey and Massachusetts, 1786. Decimal coinage adopted by 
 Congress, 1786, when following coins were issued: gold, eagle ($10), and 
 half-eagle; silver, dollar and divisions of dollar; copper, cent and half- 
 cent. The appended table shows the 
 
 THE VAUJE OF FOREIGN COINS. 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 MONETARY UNIT. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 VALUE 
 IN U. S. 
 MONEY. 
 
 STANDARD COIN. 
 
 Austria 
 Belgium 
 Brazil 
 Chili 
 
 Florin 
 
 Silver 
 Gold and silver 
 Gold 
 Gold and silver 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver 
 
 .40,1 
 .19,3 
 .54,6 
 .91,2 
 .93,2 
 .26,8 
 .04,9 
 .19,3 
 4.86.6K 
 .19,3 
 
 .23,8 
 
 1.00 
 
 .38,6 
 .19,3 
 .87,6 
 
 .88,2 
 
 .40,2 
 .26,8 
 1.08 
 
 .65 
 
 .19,3 
 
 .26,8 
 .19,3 
 .04,4 
 
 5, 10 and 20 francs. 
 
 Condor, doubloon and escudo. 
 I'B. y&i%, l /z and 1 doubloon. 
 Krone =100 ore. 
 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 piasters. 
 5, 10 and 20 francs. 
 Yz sovereign and sovereign. 
 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 drachmas. 
 
 5, 10 and 20 marks. 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 lire. 
 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 yen, gold and 
 silver yen. 
 Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25 and 60 
 centavo. 
 
 Krone =100 ore. 
 2, 5 and 10 milreis. 
 
 *4, y<i and 1 rouble 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesetas. 
 Krone =100 ore. 
 5, 10 and 20 francs. 
 25, 50, ICO, 250 and 500 pias- 
 ters. 
 
 Franc 
 Milreisofl.OOOreis 
 Peso 
 
 Cuba 
 Denmark 
 Egypt 
 France ... 
 Great Britain 
 Greece 
 German Em- 
 pire 
 Hawaiian Isl- 
 ands .... 
 India 
 Italy 
 
 Peso 
 Krone 
 
 Piaster 
 Franc 
 Pound sterling 
 Drachma 
 
 Mark 
 
 Dollar 
 Rupee of 16 annas . 
 Lira 
 
 Gold 
 Gold and silver 
 Gold 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Gold 
 Silver 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver 
 
 Silver 
 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver 
 Gold 
 
 Silver 
 
 Japan 
 Mexico 
 
 Netherlands . 
 Norway .... 
 Portugal 
 Russia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Yen 
 Dollar 
 
 Florin , 
 
 Krone 
 Milreis of 1,000 reis 
 Rouble of 100 co- 
 pecks ... 
 
 Peseta of 100 cen- 
 times 
 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver 
 Gold and silver 
 Gold 
 
 Sweden 
 Switzerland.. 
 Turkey 
 
 Krone 
 Franc 
 Piaster 
 
 WEIGHTS OF METALS WITHOUT WEIGHING. 
 Wrought Iron. Find the number of cubic inches in the piece; mul- 
 tiply them by .2816. The product will be in pounds. 
 
 Cast Iron. Multiply the number of cubic inches by .2607. 
 Copper. Multiply the number of cubic inches by .3242. 
 Lead. Multiply the number of cubic inches by .41015. 
 Brass. Multiply the number of cubic inches by .3112. 
 
 DOMESTIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 One quart of wheat flour is one pound. One quart of corn meal 
 weighs eighteen ounces. One quart of butter, soft, weights fourteen to six- 
 teen ounces. One quart of brown sugar weighs from a pound to a pound 
 and a quarter, according to dampness. One quart of white sugar weighs 
 
182 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 two pounds. Ten medium sized eggs weigh one pound. A tablespoonful 
 of salt is one ounce. Eight tablespoonfuls make a gill. Two gills or 
 sixteen tablespoonfuls are half a pint. Sixty drops are one teaspoonful. 
 Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful. Twelve tablespoonfuls are one 
 teacupful. Sixteen tablespoonfuls, or half a pint, are one tumblerful. 
 
 THE MEANING OF MEASURES. A square mile is equal to 640 acres. 
 A square acre is 208.71 feet on one side. An acre is 43,560 square feet. A 
 league, 3 miles. A span, 10^ inches. A hand, 4 inches. A palm, 3 
 inches. A great cubit, 11 inches. A fathom, 6 feet. A mile, 5,280 feet. 
 
 DOMESTIC AND DROP MEASURES APPROXIMATED A teaspoonful, 
 one fluid dram, 4 grams; a dessertspoonful, two fluid drams, 3 grams; a 
 tablespoonful, half fluid ounce, 16 grams; a wineglassful, two fluid ounces, 
 64 grams; a tumblerful, half pint, 256 grams. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 TROY WEIGHT 24 grains make 1 pennyweight, 20 pennyweights make 1 ounce. 
 By this weight, gold, silver and jewels only are weighed. The ounce and pound in this 
 are same as in Apothecaries' weight. 
 
 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 20 grains make 1 scruple, 3 scruples make 1 dram, 8 
 drams make 1 ounce, 12 ounces make 1 pound. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 16 drams make 1 ounce, 16 ounces make 1 pound, 25 pounds 
 make 1 quarter, 4 quarters make 1 hundredweight, 2000 pounds make 1 ton. 
 
 DRY MEASURE 2 pints make 1 quart, 8 quarts make 1 peck, 4 pecks make 1 bushel, 
 36 bushels make 1 chaldron. 
 
 LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE 4 gills make 1 pint, 2 pints make I quart, 4 quarts 
 make 1 gallon, 31% gallons make 1 barrel, 2 barrels make 1 hogshead. 
 
 TIME MEASURE 60 seconds make 1 minute, 60 minutes make 1 hour, 24 hours 
 make 1 day, 7 days make 1 week, 4 weeks make 1 lunar month, 28,. 29, 30 or 31 days 
 make 1 calendar month (30 days make 1 month in computing interest,) 52 weeks and 
 1 day, or 12 calendar months make 1 year; 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 49 seconds 
 make 1 solar year. 
 
 CIRCULAB MEASURE 60 seconds make 1 minute, 60 minutes make 1 degree, 30 
 degrees make 1 sign, 90 degrees make 1 quadrant, 4 quadrants or 360 degrees make 1 
 circle. 
 
 LONG MEASURE DISTANCE 3 barleycorns 1 inch, 12 inches 1 foot, 3 feet lyard, 5^4 
 yards 1 rod, 40 rods 1 furlong, 8 furlongs 1 mile. 
 
 CLOTH MEASURE 2^ inches 1 nail, 4 nails 1 quarter, 4 quarters 1 yard. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 3 inches 1 palm, 4 inches 1 hand, 6 inches 1 span, 18 inches 1 cubit, 
 21.8 inches 1 Bible cubit, 2% feet x 1 military pace. 
 
 SQUARE MEASURE 144 square inches 1 square foot, 9 square feet 1 square yard, 
 30}4 square yards 1 square rod, 40 square rods, 1 rood, 4 roods 1 acre. 
 
 SURVEYOR'S MEASURE 7.92 inches 1 link, 25 links 1 rod, 4 rods 1 chain, 10 square 
 chains or 160 square rods 1 acre, 640 acres 1 square mile. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURE 1,728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot, 27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard, 128 cubic 
 feet 1 cord (wood) 40 cubic feet 1 ton (shipping), 2,150.42 cubic inches 1 standard bushel, 
 268.8 cubic inches 1 standard gallon, 1 cubic foot four fifths of a bushel. 
 
 METRIC WEIGHTS 10 milligrams 1 centigram, 10 centigrams 1 decigram, 10 deci- 
 grams 1 gram, 10 grams 1 dekagram, 10 dekagrams 1 hektogram, 10 hektograms 1 kilo- 
 gram. 
 
 METRIC MEASURES (One milliliter Cubic centimeter.) 10 milliliters 1 centiliter. 
 10 centiliters 1 deciliter, 10 deciliters 1 liter, 10 liters 1 dekaliter, 10 dekaliters 1 hektoli- 
 ter, 10 hektoliters 1 kiloliter. 
 
 METRIC LENGTHS 10 millimeters 1 centimeter, 10 centimeters 1 decimeter, 10 deci- 
 meters 1 meter, 10 meters 1 dekameter, 10 dekameters 1 hektometer, 10 hektometers 1 
 kilometer. 
 
 RATIp OF APOTHECARIES' AND IMPERIAL. MEASURE. 
 Apothecaries. Imperial. 
 
 1 gallon equals 6 pints, 13 ounces, 2 drams, 23 minims. 
 
 Ipint " 16 5 18 
 
 1 fluid ounce equals 1 " " 20 
 
 Ifluiddram " 1 " V/* 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 183 
 
 HANDY METRIC TABLES. 
 
 The following tables give the equivalents of both the metric and 
 common systems, and will be found convenient for reference: 
 
 APPROXIMATE ACCURATE 
 
 EQUIVALENT. EQUIVALENT. 
 
 1 inch [length] Zy 2 cubic centimeters 2.539 
 
 1 centimeter, 0.4 inch 0.393 
 
 lyard 1 meter 0.914 
 
 1 meter (39.37 inches) 1 yard 1.093 
 
 1 foot 30 centimeters 30.479 
 
 1 kilometer (1,000 meters) % mile 0.681 
 
 1 mile \ l /z kilometers 1.600 
 
 1 gramme [weight] 15% grains 15.432 
 
 1 grain 0.064 gramme 0.064 
 
 1 kilogramme (1,000 grammes) 2.2 pounds avoirdupois 2.204 
 
 1 pound avoirdupois y z kilogramme 0.453 
 
 1 ounce avoirdupois (437^ grains) 28^ grammes 28.349 
 
 1 ounce troy, or apothecary (480 grains) 31 grammes 31.103 
 
 1 cubic centimeter [bulk] 1.06 cubic inch 0.060 
 
 1 cubic inch 16% cubic centimeters 16.386 
 
 1 liter (1,000 cubic centimeters) 1 United States standard quart 0.946 
 
 1 United States quart 1 liter 1.057 
 
 1 fluid ounce 29^ cubic centimeters 29.570 
 
 1 hectare (10,000 square meters) [surface] . . 2% acres 2.471 
 
 1 acre 0.4 hectare 0.40 
 
 It may not be generally known that we have in the nickel five-cent 
 piece of our coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights. 
 The diameter of this coin is two centimeters, and its weight is five gram- 
 mes. Five of them placed in a row will, of course, give the length of 
 the decimeter; and two of them will weigh a decagram. As the kiloliter 
 is a cubic meter, the key to the measure of length is also the key to the 
 measure of capacity. Any person, therefore, who is fortunate enough to 
 own a five-cent nickle, may carry in his pocket the entire metric system 
 of weights and measures. 
 
 SUNDRY WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, 
 multiply the length, breadth and thickness together; then multiply by 
 eight and point off one figure in the answer for decimals. 
 
 Three and one-half barrels of lime will do one hundred yards of 
 plastering, two coats. Two barrels will do one coat. One barrel will 
 lay one thousand bricks. To every barrel of lime estimate about five- 
 eighths yards of good sand for plastering and brick work. 
 
 Wheat from the time it is threshed will shrink two quarts to the 
 bushel, or six per ce,nt in six months. One hundred bushels of corn 
 husked in November will shrink to eighty by March. Potatoes will rot 
 and shrink thirty-three per cent of value from October to June. 
 
 Shekel (Heb., from shakal, "to weigh"), was originally a certain stand- 
 ard weight in use among the ancient Hebrews, by which the value of 
 metals, metal vessels and other things was fixed. Gradually it became a 
 normal piece of money, both in gold and silver, marked in some way or 
 other as a coin, although not stamped. The gifts to the sanctuary, the 
 fines, the taxes, the prices of merchandise are all reckoned in the Old 
 Testament by the shekel, not counted, but weighed. 
 
 Troy-weight seems to have taken its name from a weight used at the 
 fair of Troyes, an important center of commerce during the middle ages. 
 I/ike Cologne, Toulouse and other towns, Troyes may have had its own 
 
184 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 special system of weights. A troy pound (of what value is unknown) is 
 first mentioned in Britain in 1414, long before which period the stand- 
 ard pound of twelve ounces, as well as another pound of twelve ounces 
 (the Tower pound), was in use. The term "troy" was first applied to 
 the standard pound in 1495, but at the same time no change seems to 
 have been made in its value, and it continued, as before, to be exclusively 
 employed by the dealers in the precious metals, gems and drugs. The 
 troy pound contains twelve ounces, each ounce twenty pennyweights, 
 and each pennyweight twenty-four grains; thus the pound contains 
 5, 760 grains, and is to the avoirdupois pound as 144 to 175, while the 
 troy ounce is to the avoirdupois ounce as 192 to 175. (The apothecaries' 
 ounce and pound are now practically obsolete; drugs are bought and 
 sold by avoirdupois, though compounded by apothecaries' weight.) The 
 old English pound, to which the term troy was afterwards applied, was 
 doubtless the pound of silver; and the Tower pound -of twelve ounces 
 differed from it only by three-fourths of an ounce. 
 
 THE AREA OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 Of all plane figures the circle is the most capacious, or has the great- 
 est area within the same limits. It is geometrically demonstrable that it 
 has the same area as a right-angled triangle with a base equal to its cir- 
 cumference, and a perpendicular equal to its radius, that is, half the pro- 
 duct of the radius and circumference. It is obviously larger than any 
 figure, of however many sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller 
 than any circumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations 
 on this basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals without 
 reaching the end), it has been ascertained that the ratio of the diameter 
 to the circumference of any circle (sufficiently exact for all practical pur- 
 poses), is as 1 : 3.1416 (3.141592653-J-) or in whole numbers, approxi- 
 mately, as 7 : 22, or more nearly as 113 : 355. Hence, to find the circum- 
 ference or diameter, the other quantity being known, multiply or divide 
 by 3.1416; and to find the area, multiply half the diameter by half the 
 circumference, or the square of the diameter by .7854 (3.1416-4-4). 
 
 To FIND THE SURFACE OF A GLOBE, multiply the square of the diam- 
 eter by 3.1416. 
 
 To FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A GLOBE, multiply the cube of the diam- 
 eter by .5236. 
 
 COAL WEIGHED BY MEASURE. 
 
 There is a difference between a ton of hard coal and one of soft coal. 
 For that matter, coal from different mines whether hard or soft, differs in 
 weight, and consequently in cubic measure, according to quality. Then 
 there is a difference according to size. To illustrate: careful measure- 
 ments have been made of Wilkesbarre anthracite, a fine quality of hard 
 coal, with the following results: 
 
 Cubic feet Cubic feet in 
 
 Size in ton of ton of 
 
 of coal. 2,240 Ibs. 2,000 Ibs. 
 
 Lump 33.2 22.8 
 
 Broken 33.9 30.3 
 
 Egg 34.5 30.8 
 
 Stone 34.8 31.1 
 
 Chestnut 35.7 31.9 
 
 Pea 36.7 32.8 
 
 For soft coal the following measures may be taken as nearly correct; 
 it is simply impossible to determine any exact rule, even for bituminous 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 185 
 
 coal of the same district: Briar Hill coal, 44.8 cubic feet per ton of 2,240 
 pounds; Pittsburgh, 47.8; Wilmington, 111., 47; Indiana block coal, 42 to 
 43 cubic feet. 
 
 MEASURE OF EARTH, ETC. 
 One ton of soil = 18 feet cube. 
 45 cubic feet of soil = 2H tons. 
 
 A cubic foot contains 6 gallons and 1 quart of water, weighing 62V Ibs. 
 15H cubic feet of chalk weighs ............................................ 1 ton. 
 
 18 " " clay " .............................................. 1 " 
 
 21 " " earth " .............................................. 1 " 
 
 19 gravel " .............................................. 1 " 
 
 21 " " sand " ............................. .. 1 " 
 
 TRADE SIZES OF BOOKS. 
 
 The name indicates the number of pages in the sheet, thus: in folio 
 book, 4 pages or 2 leaves = 1 sheet; a quarto, or 4to., has 8 pages or 4 
 leaves to a sheet; an octavo, or 8vo., 16 pages or 8 leaves to a sheet. In 
 a 12mo., 24 pages or 12 leaves = 1 sheet, and the 18mo., 36 pages, or 18 
 leaves = 1 sheet, and so on. The following are the approximate sizes of 
 books: 
 
 Royal Folio 19 inches X 12 
 
 Demy 18 
 
 Super Imp. Quarto (4to) 15V 
 
 Royal 4to 1 2Y 2 
 
 Demy4to 11% 
 
 Crown 4to 11 
 
 Royal Octavo 10V 
 
 Medium 8vo 9J4 
 
 Demy 8vo 9 
 
 Crown 8vo.. . T l / 2 
 
 Foolscap 8vo 7 
 
 12mo 7 
 
 16mo 6H 
 
 Square 16mo 4 l / 2 
 
 Royal 24mo 5H 
 
 Demy 24mo 5 
 
 Royal 32mo 5 
 
 Post32mo 4 
 
 Demy 48mo 3% 
 
 VALUE OF DIAMONDS, 
 
 x 11 
 
 X 13 
 X 10 
 
 8H 
 
 5/2 
 
 Diamonds averaging one-half carat each, $60 per carat. 
 
 Diamonds averaging three-quarters carat each, $80 per carat. 
 
 Diamonds averaging one carat each, $100 per carat. 
 
 Diamonds averaging one and one-quarter carats each, $110 per carat. 
 
 Diamonds averaging one and one-half carats each, $120 per carat. 
 
 Diamonds averaging one and three-quarters carats each, $145 per carat. 
 
 Diamonds averaging two carats each, $175 per carat. 
 
 In other words, the value of the gem increases in the geometrical ratio of its weight. 
 Four diamonds weighing together two carats are worth $120; but one diamond weighing 
 just as much is worth $350. Stones weighing over two carats are about the same price 
 per carat as two-carat stones; they should be dearer, but they are not, simply because 
 the demand for them is limited. If the demand for diamonds were as imperative as the 
 demand for flour or beef, the geometrical ratio would again come into play, and five- 
 carat stones would be valued in the thousands. 
 
 VALUABLE CALCULATIONS. 
 
 To MEASURE BULK WOOD. To measure a pile of wood, multiply 
 the length by the width, and that product by the height, which will give 
 the number of cubic feet. Divide that product by 128, and the quotient 
 will be the number of cords. A standard cord of wood, it must be re- 
 
186 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 membered, is four feet thick; that is, the wood must be four feet long. 
 Farmers usually go by surface measure, calling a pile of stove wood 
 eight feet long and four feet high a cord. Under such circumstances 
 thirty-two feet would be the divisor. 
 
 GRAIN MEASURE To find the capacity of a bin or wagon-bed, mul- 
 tiply the cubic feet by .8 (tenths). For great accuracy add one-third of 
 a bushel for every 100 cubic feet. To find the cubic feet, multiply the 
 length, width and depth together. 
 
 LAND MEASURE To find the number of acres in a body of land, 
 multiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 
 160. When the opposite sides are unequal, add them, and take half the 
 sum for the mean length or width. 
 
 CISTERN MEASURE To find the capacity of a round cistern or tank, 
 multiply the square of the average diameter by the depth, and take 
 three-sixteenths of the product. For great accuracy, multiply by .1865. 
 For square cisterns or tanks, multiply the cubic feet by .2^. The re- 
 sult is the contents in barrels. 
 
 To MEASURE CASKS OR BARRELS Find mean diameter by adding 
 to head diameter two-thirds (if staves are but slightly curved, three- 
 fifths) of difference between head and bung diameters, and dividing by 
 two. Multiply square of mean diameter in inches by .7854, and the prod- 
 uct by the height of the cask in inches. The result will be the number 
 of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard or wine gallons and by 282 
 for beer gallons. 
 
 To ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CATTLE Measure the girt close 
 behind the shoulder, and the length from the forepart of the shoulder- 
 blade along the back to the bone at the tail, which is in a vertical line 
 with the buttock, both in feet. Multiply the square of the girt, ex- 
 pressed in feet by ten times the length, and divide the product by three; 
 the quotient is the weight, nearly, of the fore quarters, in pounds avoir- 
 dupois. It is to be observed, however, that in very fat cattle, the fore 
 quarters will be about one-twentieth more, while in those in a very lean 
 state they will be one-twentieth less than the weight obtained by the 
 rule. 
 
 MEASURES OP CAPACITY The following table, showing contents of 
 boxes, will often be found convenient, taking inside dimensions: 
 24 in. x 24 in. x 14.7 will contain a barrel of 31*4 gallons. 
 
 15 in. x 14 in. x 11 in. will contain 10 gallons. 
 8J4 in x 7 in. x 4 in. will contain a gallon. 
 
 4 in. x 4 in x 3.6 in. will contain a quart. . 
 24 in. x 28 in. x 16 in. will contain 5 bushels. 
 
 16 in. x 12 in. x 11.2 in. will contain a bushel. 
 
 12 in. x 11.2 in. x 8 in. will contain a half bushel. 
 
 7 in. x 6.4 in. x 12 in. will contain a peck. 
 
 8.4 in. x 8 in. x 4 in. will contain a half peck, or 4 dry quarts! 
 
 6 in. x 5f in., and 4 in. deep, will contain a half gallon. 
 
 4 in. x 4 in., and 2J n in. deep, will contain a pint. 
 
 How TO MEASURE A TREE. Very many persons, when looking for 
 a stick of timber, are at a loss to estimate either the height of the tree 
 or the length of timber it will cut. The following rule will enable any 
 one to approximate nearly to the length from the ground to any position 
 desired on the tree: Take a stake, say six feet in length, and place it 
 against the tree you wish to measure. Then step back some rods, twenty 
 or more if you can, from which to do the measuring. At this point a 
 light pole and a measuring rule are required. The pole is raised between 
 the eyes and the tree, and the rule is brought into position against the 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 187 
 
 pole. Then by sighting and observing what length of the rule is required 
 to cover the stake of the tree, and what the entire tree, dividing the lat- 
 ter length by the former and multiplying by the number of feet the stake 
 is long, you reach the approximate height of the tree. For example, if 
 the stake at the tree be six feet above ground and one inch on your 
 rule corresponds exactly with this, and if then the entire height of the 
 tree corresponds exactly with say nine inches on the rule, this would 
 show the tree to possess a full height of fifty-four feet. In practice it 
 will thus be found an easy matter to learn the approximate height of 
 any tree, building, or other such object. 
 
 RUIZES FOR MEASURING CORN IN CRIB, VEGETABLES, ETC., AND HAY 
 IN Mow This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic 
 feet of good, sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of shelled 
 corn; to get, then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib of corn in the 
 ear, measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail; 
 multiply the length by the breadth and the product by the height, then 
 divide the product by two, and you have the number of bushels of shelled 
 corn in the crib. 
 
 To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, 
 multiply the length, breadth and thickness together, and this product by 
 eight, and point off one figure in the product for decimals. 
 
 To find the amount of hay in a mow, allow 512 cubic feet for a ton, 
 and it will come out very generally correct. 
 
 THE STORY OF OUR COINAGE. 
 
 Among the North American Indians . strings of beads made from 
 shells were used as currency. They were called wampum. In Colonial 
 times the general court of Massachusetts soon recognized this money 
 and fixed an arbitrary rate of exchange. Six white beads made from the 
 sea-conch, or three purple beads made from the muscle-shell, were taken 
 as equivalent to an English penny. Later four white and two purple 
 ones were declared to have the same value. Musket balls were made 
 legal tender for small amounts and furs and peltry for large sums. The 
 coins brought from England and Holland tended to flow back to 
 Europe, and the remaining ones were insufficient for the needs of the 
 colonists. 
 
 In 1652, therefore, the general court of Massachusetts established a 
 mint in Boston, and John Hull, mint-master, struck silver shillings, six- 
 pences and threepences. All of these coins bore the device of the pine- 
 tree. They were of the same fineness as the English coins of like 
 denomination, but of less weight. This mint continued in operation 
 for thirty-six years. After a while the ' ' royal oak' ' was substituted for 
 the pine-tree in order to conciliate King Charles II., who disliked this 
 minting by a colony. All the above named coins bore the date of 1652; 
 but two-penny pieces were added with the date of 1662. No other col- 
 ony had a mint until 1659, when Lord Baltimore caused shillings, six- 
 pences and groats to be coined for use in Maryland. James II. issued 
 ten coins for circulation in America, though few of these have found 
 their way hither. In 1722, 1723 and 1733 copper coins were minted in 
 England with the legend " Rosa Americana." There were also copper 
 half-pence issued in 1773 for circulation in Virginia, and in 1774 silver 
 shillings were added. Florida and Louisiana had colonial coins of their 
 own before they became parts of the United States. 
 
188 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 After the Revolutionary war the Continental Congress passed an act 
 in 1786 which established a mint and regulated the value and alloy of 
 the national coin. The government prescribed the device for copper 
 coin the next year. Under this authority the so-called "Franklin 
 Penny," with the legend "Mind Your Business," was made by contract. 
 By the Federal Constitution, ratified in 1789, the right of coining money 
 was transferred from the States to the United States. Under this consti- 
 tution the United States mint was established at Philadelphia in 1792, 
 and the regular coinage began in the following year. Four have since 
 been added: New Orleans (1835), San Francisco (1854), Carson City and 
 Denver all under the charge of the Bureau of the Mint of the United 
 States Treasury Department. 
 
 By the act of Congress establishing the United States Mint the fol- 
 lowing coins were authorized, Gold, eagle, half-eagle, quarter-eagle; 
 silver, dollar, half-dollar, quarter-dollar, dime, half-dime; copper, cent, 
 half-cent. Changes have been made at various times, not only in weight 
 and fineness, but also in the metals used for the minor coins. At present 
 the following coins are struck: Gold, double-eagle, eagle, half-eagle, 
 three-dollar, quarter-eagle, dollar; silver, dollar, half-dollar, quarter-dol- 
 lar, dime; minor coins, of nickel and bronze, five-cent, three-cent and 
 cent. 
 
 By the act of February 12, 1873, the metric system was to a certain 
 extent used in determining the weight of the silver coins. Thus, the 
 half-dollar was to weigh 12^ grams, the quarter-dollar 6)4 grams, the 
 dime 2^ grams. 
 
 Till 1837 the obverse of our coins had generally a female head, either 
 with a liberty cap, or with a fillet bearing the word "Liberty." After- 
 wards it was replaced by a full-length seated figure with a liberty-cap 
 on a pole, and a shield with a band inscribed "Liberty." The reverse of 
 the principal coins has the eagle, often with a shield, arrows and olive 
 branch. But in the minor coins the denomination of the piece is encir- 
 cled by a wreath. 
 
 Up to 1849 eagles or ten-dollar gold pieces were the highest denomi- 
 nation authorized. But the discovery of gold in large quantity in Cali- 
 fornia caused the demand for a larger coin, and the double-eagle was 
 authorized by act of March 3, 1849, and issued in 1850. By the same act 
 gold dollars were also authorized. Beside the govermental issues there 
 were octagonal and ring dollars and even gold half-dollars and quarters 
 issued in California. The Mormans in Utah also had gold coins of their 
 own. These had peculiar devices, and their favorite inscription, "Holi- 
 ness to the Lord." 
 
 NUMISMATICS AS A STUDY. 
 
 Besides its bearing upon the history, the religion, the manners, and 
 the arts of the nations which have used money, the science of numismat- 
 ics has a special modern use in relation to art. Displaying the various 
 styles of art prevalent in different ages, coins supply us with abundant 
 means for promoting the advancement of art among ourselves. If the 
 study of many schools be at all times of advantage, it is especially so 
 when there is little originality in the world. Its least value is to point 
 out the want of artistic merit" and historical commemoration in modern 
 coins, and to suggest that modern types should be executed after some 
 study of the rules which controlled the great works of former times. 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 
 
 Is it, O man, with such discordant noises, 
 
 With such accursed instruments as these, 
 Thou drownest nature's sweet and kindly voices, 
 
 Andjarrest the celestial harmonies ? 
 
 LONGFKLLOW. 
 
 ARMIES, ARMS AND ARMOR. 
 
 Julius Caesar invaded Britain, 55 B. c. 
 
 French Revolution, 1789; Reign of Terror, 1793. 
 
 Bunker Hill and Lexington were fought in 1775. 
 
 A rifle ball moves at one thousand miles per hour. 
 
 War was declared with Great Britain June 19, 1812. 
 
 War has cost France six million lives in this century. 
 
 The mercantile and armed navies of the world have 1,693,000 seamen. 
 
 Flint-lock muskets came into use about 1692; percussion caps in 
 1820. 
 
 The first fire-arms were rude hand cannon, made at Perugia, Italy, 
 in 1346. 
 
 Franc-tireurs was the name of the French sharp-shooters in the war 
 of 1870-71. 
 
 "Bravest of the Brave," was the title given to Marshal Ney at Fried- 
 land, 1807. 
 
 A battalion is the unit of command in infantry; a regiment is the 
 administration unit. 
 
 Juvenal says that even those who do not wish to kill a man are will- 
 ing to have that power. 
 
 Crecy, Poictiers, and Agincourt were won with the long-bow, then 
 England's favorite war weapon. 
 
 Ishmael is mentioned as an archer, Gen. xxi, 20, and probably 
 among the first known warriors. 
 
 The proportion of men capable of bearing arms is estimated at 
 twenty-five per cent of the population. 
 
 The officers of the Swedish navy are considered as military officers, 
 and in full dress are obliged to wear spurs. 
 
 The first steam vessel to engage in a naval battle was operated by the 
 Spanish in the Don Carlos civil war of 1836. 
 
 It was Washington who said that to be prepared for war is one of 
 the most effectual means of preserving peace. 
 
190 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION, 
 
 Hetman was a title formerly borne by a general of Cossack troops; if 
 was an elective rank, but gave absolute authority. 
 
 The military chest is a technical name for the money and negotiable 
 securities carried with an army, and intended to defray the current ex- 
 penses. 
 
 The Seven Weeks' War is the term sometimes applied to the Austro- 
 Prussian war of 1866, which lasted from the middle of June till the end 
 of July. 
 
 The form of breech-loading needle gun, adopted by the French army 
 in 1866, was the invention of one Alphonse Chassepot, and was named in 
 his honor. 
 
 When L/ouis XI. asked Marshal de Trivulce what was needed to 
 make war, the answer came: "Three things, Sire; money, more money, 
 always money." 
 
 The victors' share in property captured from the vanquished is called 
 booty. It is generally a military term, the word prize being more com- 
 monly used in the navy. 
 
 In 1040 the Church forbid warriors from all combat between Wednes- 
 day of Passion Week and the following Monday this interval hence 
 being called the "Truce of God." 
 
 When a power maintains an armed force, and prepares itself for war 
 on the outbreak of hostilities between other powers, it is said to assume 
 an attitude of "armed neutrality." 
 
 According to Napoleon, the proportions of an army should be seventy 
 per cent infantry, seventeen per cent cavalry, and thirteen per cent be- 
 tween artillery, engineers and train. 
 
 Spahi is the Turkish form of the Persian word Sipahi (from which 
 we get Sepoy), and was the term for the irregular cavalry of the Turkish 
 armies before the reorganization of 1836. 
 
 A sabretache is a leather case for carrying letters, etc. It is usually 
 attached to the sword-belt of hussars and of most mounted officers. In 
 the latter case it is often highly ornamented. 
 
 In the military language of the middle ages the term cap-a-pie" was 
 applied to a knight or soldier armed at all points, or from head to foot, 
 with armor for defence and weapons for attack. 
 
 The word cartel means variously a challenge and a written agreement 
 between belligerents for an exchange of prisoners. Cartel ship is a ves- 
 sel commissioned to convey exchanged prisoners. 
 
 Belgium is called the "cock pit" of Europe because it has been the 
 site of more European battles than any other country, e. g. : Oudenarde, 
 Ramillies, Fontenoy, Fleurus, Jemappes, Ligny, Quatre Bras, Waterloo, 
 etc. 
 
 A countersign is a watchword used in military affairs to prevent un- 
 authorized persons passing a line of sentries whose orders are to stop any 
 one unable to give it. It is changed by the commanding officer every 
 day. 
 
 The greatest number of war prisoners at one time at Andersonville 
 was 33,006. The number of escapes was 328. The total number of deaths 
 was 12,462, about one-third of which took place in the stockade and two- 
 thirds in the hospital. 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 191 
 
 The " Victoria Cross," which we often read of having been conferred 
 upon some British soldier for conspicuous bravery, is of the Maltese 
 form, made from Russian cannon captured at Sebastopol. 
 
 A court-martial is a court for the trial of all persons subject to mili- 
 tary law or to the regulations of the navy. It is composed, according to 
 circumstances, of a certain number of officers of the service involved. 
 
 Sealed orders in the navy are orders which are delivered to the com- 
 manding officer of a ship or squadron sealed up, and only to be opened 
 after the ship or squadron has put to sea and proceeded to a certain point 
 previously designated. 
 
 Suits of a uniform color and pattern for soldiers in the British army 
 date from 1674, when the foot guards were clad in gray. The intro- 
 duction of a regular uniform for sailors dates from 1748, when the "blue 
 iacket" become customary. 
 
 The cockpit in the ship of war is the compartment in the lower part 
 of the ship where the wounded are attended to during action. The sur- 
 gery and the dispensary which contains the medicine chests for the ship's 
 company adjoin the cockpit. 
 
 What we call the Mexican war (June 4, 1845 to February 2, 1848), 
 was between the United States and Mexico. The Americans captured 
 the city of Mexico September 14, 1847. The treaty of peace was signed 
 Feburary 2, and ratified May 19, 1848. 
 
 At the close of the Franco-German war the Germans took from the 
 French 7,234 pieces of cannon, including 3,485 field pieces and 3,300 
 fortress guns. At the battle of Waterloo the British artillery fired 9,467 
 rounds, or one for every Frenchman killed. 
 
 The temporary suspension of hostilities between two armies or two 
 nations at war, by mutual agreement, constitutes an armistice. It takes 
 place sometimes when both are exhausted, and at other times when an 
 endeavor to form a treaty of peace is being made. 
 
 While the nominal pay of a British private is one shilling a day, or 
 twenty-four cents, he really does not receive much more than half that 
 in actual cash. Deductions are charged to his account for extra supplies 
 of rations and for washing, which bring the net amount down to about $1 
 a week. 
 
 There is a gun in the British navy, a twenty-two-ton Armstrong, 
 which hurls a solid shot a distance of twelve miles, the highest point in 
 the arc described by the shot being seventeen thousand feet above the 
 earth's surface. The discharge of the gun cannot be heard at the place 
 where the ball strikes. 
 
 Armed bands of peasants are called guerrillas in Spain. The insur- 
 rections of Jack Cade, Wat Tyler, and Robert Kett would be so called in 
 Spain. From 1808 to 1814 guerrillas were regularly organized against the 
 French, and the names of Empecinado, the Pastor Merino, and Mina, as 
 leaders, are well known. 
 
 Antietam is a narrow but deep river in Maryland, United States, fall- 
 ing into the Potomac, seven miles above Harper's Ferry. On its banks, 
 near Sharpsburg, was fought a bloody battle between the Union troops 
 under McClellan, and the Confederate army under Lee, in which the 
 former remained master of the field, though at a loss of nearly thirteen 
 thousand men. 
 
192 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Gaelic word claymore, meaning "the great sword," is properly 
 used of the old Celtic one-handed, two-edged long sword, often engraved 
 on ancient tombstones, with the guards pointing downwards. The name 
 is now commonly given, but inaccurately, to the basket-hilted sword of 
 the officers of Highland regiments. 
 
 The Seven Days' Battles is the designation of a series of fierce en- 
 gagements (June 25 to July 1, 1862), which took place in the neighbor- 
 hood of Richmond, Va., between the Federals, under McClellan, and 
 the Confederates, commanded by Lee, resulting in the retreat of the 
 former to Harrison's Landing on the James River. 
 
 By the naval term "boarding" is understood an attack upon one 
 vessel by another in which a company of armed men from the one forces 
 its way on board the ;other. In the days of ironclads, boarding of war 
 vessels is less frequent than of old. A "boarding net" is a framework 
 of stout rope-netting placed so as to obstruct boarders. 
 
 Cartouch was formerly a name for a portable wooden case for holding 
 cannon balls or musket bullets. A gun cartouch now means merely a 
 waterproof canvas case for holding the cartridges of a field battery, one 
 to each ammunition box. The cartridge box carried by the soldiers used 
 to be called a cartouch in Bngland, and still is in France. 
 
 The simultaneous discharge of all the guns on one side of a ship of 
 war is termed a broadside. The fighting power of a ship used to be 
 estimated by the weight of all the shot and shell that could be fired off 
 at once from one side or half of the ship. Thus, the broadside of the 
 old-fashioned "Duke of Wellington" 131-gun war steamer, amounted to 
 2,400 pounds. 
 
 The military term Uhlans was a name originally given to light cav- 
 alry armed and clothed in semi-oriental fashion. A body of Uhlans was 
 formed for the French army by Marshal Saxe. But the word is now 
 familiar as a term for the Prussian light cavalry armed with the lance, 
 who gained glory by their dash, bravery and swiftness of movement dur- 
 ing the Franco-German war. 
 
 The casus belli, occasion for war, is the reason alleged by one power 
 for going to war with another. It is quite impossible to reduce these 
 causes or reasons to any definite code; enough that in 1870 King Wil- 
 helm's cold-shoulder to M. Benedetti was a casus belli between France 
 and Germany, and that in 1847 the burning of a Jew's bedstead at Athens 
 was all but one between France and Britain. 
 
 In the French and some other continental armies, the vivandiere is 
 a female attendant in a regiment, who sells spirits and other comforts, 
 ministers to the sick, marches with the corps, and contrives to be a uni- 
 versal favorite. From the Algerian campaigns onward the vivandiere 
 wore a modified (short-petticoated) form of the regimental uniform; but 
 this arrangement has been forbidden by government. 
 
 The calumet or "peace-pipe" of the North American Indians, is a 
 tobacco pipe having a stem of reed or painted wood about two feet and a 
 half long, decorated with feathers, with a large bowl, usually of red 
 soapstone. After a treaty has been signed, the Indians fill the calumet 
 with the best tobacco, and present it to the representatives of the party 
 with whom they have been entering into alliance, themselves smoking 
 out of it afterwards. The presentation of it to strangers is a mark of 
 hospitality and to refuse it would be considered an act of hostility. 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 193 
 
 The European soldiery called Landwehr ("Land-defence") is a mili- 
 tary force in the German and Austrian empires, forming an army reserve, 
 but not always retained under arms. Its members, although care is 
 taken that they are sufficiently exercised, spend most of their time in 
 civil pursuits during peace, and are called out for military service only 
 in times of war or of commotion. 
 
 The battle of Lissa was the last great sea fight in history and the 
 only one wherein armor-clad vessels have opposed other similar vessels 
 in any number. It was fought on July 20, 1866, between the Austrians, 
 under Admiral Tegethoff, and the Italians, under Admiral Persano. Each 
 side had twenty- three vessels, but eleven of the Italian fleet were armor- 
 clad, while the Austrians mustered only seven armor-clads. 
 
 Infernal machines are contrivances made to resemble ordinary harm- 
 less objects, but charged with some dangerous explosive. An innocent- 
 looking box or similar receptacle is partly filled with dynamite or other 
 explosive, the rest of the space being occupied by some mechanical ar- 
 rangement, mostly clockwork, which moves inaudibly, and is generally 
 so contrived that, when it has run down at the end of a predetermined 
 number of hours or days, it shall cause the explosive substance to explode. 
 
 . The Wars of the Roses is the name given to the wars between the 
 house of York and that of Lancaster. It began with the battle of St. 
 Albans, May 23, 1455, and ended with the battle of Bosworth Field, 
 August 22, 1483. A white rose formed the badge of the House of York, 
 and a red rose was the cognizance of the House of Lancaster. The 
 political effects of the war were (1) the ruin of the ancient baronage, 
 and (2) the growth of monarchical power, being relieved of the baro- 
 nial check. 
 
 The boomerang is a wooden missile used by the aborigines of Aus- 
 tralia in hunting and in war. It is so constructed that the missile slowly 
 ascends into the air, whirling round and round, and describing a curved 
 line of progress till it reaches a considerable height, when it begins to 
 retrograde, and finally, if thrown with sufficient force, falls eight or ten 
 yards behind the thrower, or it may fall near him. Colloquially a boom- 
 erang is a story told for a political purpose, which, being proved false, 
 reacts upon its originator. 
 
 The mace, a thick, heavy club or staff, about five feet long, sur- 
 mounted by a metal head, frequently spiked, was used by knights and 
 warlike churchmen in the middle ages, The ornamental maces of par- 
 liament, the universities, and city corporations, borne as an ensign of 
 authority, may be traced to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when 
 princes armed their guards with spikeless maces as the handiest against 
 the sudden attacks of the assassins. The need passed away, but the maces 
 remained as symbols of rank. 
 
 An indefinite but interesting locality is the Wilderness, a region in 
 Virginia, two miles south of the Rapidan, covered with dense thicket, 
 and memorable for the dreadful two days' battle fought in its depths by 
 Grant and Lee, May 5-6, 1864. The Union loss was eighteen thousand, 
 the Confederate eleven thousand, and the desperate fighting utterly 
 without advantage to either side. The name Wilderness Campaign has 
 been given to all the movements of Grant's overland march to Rich- 
 mond, and including the battles of Spotsylvania Courthouse and Cold 
 Harbor. 
 
 U. I. 18 
 
194 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Shenandoah is a river tributary of the Potomac, which flows 
 through the valley of Virginia. It was the scene of numerous military 
 operations during the civil war, notably in 1864, when its neighborhood 
 was devastated by General Sheridan. One of the Confederate cruisers, 
 commanded by Captain Waddell, was named the Shenandoah and com- 
 mitted great devastation among the shipping of the Federal Government. 
 The vessel was surrendered to the British Government (Nov. 1865) and 
 given up to the United States consul. 
 
 Contraband of war is a name applied to certain commodities during 
 hostilities between states which acknowledge what are called the laws of 
 nations. One such law is, that neutral nations must not carry on, for the 
 advantage of either of the belligerent powers, any branches of commerce 
 from which they are excluded in time of peace. Another is, that the name 
 of contraband of war shall be given to such articles as pertain to military 
 or naval warfare guns, ammunition, and stores of all kinds. Negroes 
 were held to be contraband of war during the civil war. 
 
 A singular weapon, used by the natives and half-breeds of southern 
 South America, is the bolas, consisting of two heavy balls, generally of 
 stone covered with leather, connected by a plaited thong six to eight feet 
 long. One bola is held in the right hand, while the other is swung rap- 
 idly round the head at the full extent of the thong, and both are dis- 
 charged at the animal to be captured so as to wind round its feet and 
 bring it to the ground. In another form of bolas there are three balls, 
 not of the same size, connected at the common center by three short 
 thongs or ropes. 
 
 The sutlers and dealers in smallwares who follow an army are often 
 called camp followers. In India, owing to the peculiar habits and 
 customs of the natives, and the large number of servants retained by 
 European troops, the camp followers sometimes number four times the 
 actual force: comprising servants, grooms, grass cutters, mule and camel 
 drivers, water-carriers, sutlers, snake charmers, dancers, conjurers, and 
 women. Even in European armies they are necessary; they are at all 
 times under the control of the commanding officer, but only subject to 
 military law when in the field. 
 
 The military operation of capturing an enemy's town or fortress, 
 often without a bombardment or regular siege, is called a blockade. 
 The attacking party throws up works on the neighboring heights and 
 roads, so as to guard every exit from the town. The rest of the besieging 
 force remains under cover in villages, or in a temporary camp, ready to 
 repel any sortie attempted by the besieged. The whole purpose in view 
 is to prevent the besieged from receiving supplies of any kind, in order 
 that, when the food or the ammunition is exhausted, they may be com- 
 pelled to surrender. It was introduced by the Dutch about 1584. 
 
 Parole is the declaration made on honor by an officer in a case in 
 which there is no more than his sense of honor to restrain him from 
 breaking his word. Thus, a prisoner of war may be released from actual 
 prison on his parole that he will not go beyond certain designated limits; 
 or he may even be allowed to return to his own country on his parole 
 not to fight again, during the existing war, against his captors. To 
 break parole is accounted infamous in all civilized nations, and an officer 
 who has so far forgotten his position as a gentleman ceases to have any 
 claim to the treatment of an honorable man, nor can he expect quarter 
 should he again fall into the hands of the enemy he has deceived. 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 195 
 
 The zouaves were originally a warlike tribe of Kabyles in the mili- 
 tary employment of the Dey of Algiers. After the French occupation of 
 Algiers (1830) they were incorporated with the French army, but the 
 native element was gradually eliminated from the corps, and after 1840 
 the zouaves were simply French soldiers, bearing the native name and 
 wearing the native dress. The zouaves distinguished themselves in 
 Algiers, in the Crimean war, and in the Italian campaign of 1850, and 
 were long looked upon as the elite of the French infantry. 
 
 The famous bashi-bazouks are irregular troopers in the pay of the 
 Sultan. Very few of them are Europeans; they are mostly Asiatics from 
 some or other of the provinces in Asiatic Turkey. They are wild, tur- 
 bulent men, brave enough if serving under some leader who under- 
 stands them; they receive no regular pay. They may be either infantry 
 or cavalry, and their usual weapons are a long lance, a sabre, several 
 pistols and one or more daggers. The famous " Bulgarian atrocities" of 
 1876, which roused the indignation of Europe and ultimately cost the 
 corrupt Turks their supremacy, were mainly due to the lawless brutality 
 of these ruffians. 
 
 The use of the bow and arrow was probably known to man at a very 
 early period of his history, and triangular flint arrow-heads, chipped 
 into the requisite shape, are found in all parts of the world, showing 
 that they must have been known and largely used at a period anterior 
 to the discovery of the working of metals. The bow is mentioned in 
 Scripture as having been used in patriarchal times, and we know that all 
 the leading nations of antiquity were acquainted with it. No one coun- 
 try or continent can claim the bow exclusively as its own. The Hotten- 
 tots, Bushmen, South Sea Islanders and a few tribes in North America 
 are experts in the use of the bow. 
 
 Gendarmes (Fr., " men-at-arms" ) were originally mounted lancers, 
 armed at all points and attended by five inferior soldiers, who were fur- 
 nished by the holders of fiefs. These were replaced by Charles VII. 's 
 compagnies d'ordonnance, which were dissolved in 1787, one company 
 of gendarmerie being retained as the bodyguard of Louis XVI. Since 
 the Revolution, except for a short interval at the Restoration, the gen- 
 darmes have constituted a military police, which superseded the old 
 marechaussee, and comprise both cavalry and infantry. Divided into 
 legions and companies, and these latter into brigades, the organization 
 of the force corresponds to the territorial divisions of the army. The 
 men receive much higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, how- 
 ever, the corps is a part, its members being drafted from the line for this 
 service. Germany also since 1808 has had its gendarmen. 
 
 In 1478 Mohammed II., in forming the siege of Scutari, in Albania, 
 employed fourteen heavy bombards, the lightest of which threw a stone 
 shot of 370 pounds weight, two sent shots of 500 pounds, two of 750 
 pounds, two of 850 pounds, one of 1,200 pounds, five of 1,500 pounds 
 and one of the enormous weight of 1,640 pounds, enormous even in 
 these days, for the only guns whose shot exceed the heaviest of these are 
 our 80-ton guns, throwing a 1,700-pound projectile, our 100-ton, throw- 
 ing one of 2,000 pounds, and the 110-ton, throwing an 1,800-pound shot 
 with a high velocity. The stone shot of Mahommed's guns varied be- 
 tween twenty and thirty-two inches in diameter, about the same height 
 as a dining table; 2,534 of them were fired on this occasion, weighing, 
 according to a calculation of General I^efroy's, about 1,000 tons, and 
 
196 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 were cut out of the solid rock on the spot. Assuming twenty-four inches 
 as the average diameter of the shot fired at this siege, the total area Of 
 the surface dressed was nearly 32,000 square feet. At this siege the 
 weight of the powder fired is estimated to have been 250 tons. At the 
 siege of Rhodes, in 1480, Mohammed caused sixteen basilisks, or double 
 cannon, to be cast on the spot, throwing balls two to three feet in 
 diameter. 
 
 Italy expends every year $96,000,000 for her soldiers, and less than 
 $4,000,000 for schools. In Spain it costs $100,000,000 to maintain the 
 army, and only $1,500,000 to educate the children, but then it is the ex- 
 ception to find a Spanish farmer who is able to read or write. Germany 
 boasts of being in the foremost rank among the nations in the kultur- 
 kampf of the world, yet she expends $185,000,000 on her army, while $10,- 
 000,000 is deemed sufficient for the education of her children. France 
 maintains an army at an expense of $151,000,000, and supplies her schools 
 with $21,000,000. The United States expends $115,000,000 for public 
 schools, while the army and navy cost only $54,000,000. 
 
 We apply the term blockhouse to a stockade roofed in and loopholed. 
 The timber that forms the walls must be bullet proof and covered out- 
 side with earth up to the loop-holes to render them fire-proof. Where 
 the country is well-timbered and no artillery attack is to be feared the 
 blockhouse is a useful defense. The size and shape vary. It may be 
 cruciform in plan, the second story may project over the first, or may be 
 placed diagonally across the lower one. A ditch or moat is excavated 
 around the blockhouse, to furnish the earth that covers the wood work 
 and to provide a further defense. In the ditch stakes are planted as a hin- 
 drance to an attack by the enemy. 
 
 . The charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, often called the 
 "Death Ride," took place October 25, 1854. In this action 600 English 
 horsemen, under the command of the Earl of Cardigan, charged a Rus- 
 sian force of five thousand cavalry and six battalions of infantry. They 
 galloped through the battery of thirty guns, cutting down the artillery- 
 men, and through the cavalry, but then discovered the battalions, and 
 cut their way back again. Of the 670 who advanced to this daring charge, 
 not two hundred returned. This reckless exploit was the result of some 
 misunderstanding in an order from the commander-in-chief. Tennyson 
 has a poem on the subject, called "The Charge of the Light Brigade." 
 Sir Edw. Creasy in "The Fifteen Decisive Battles" says, that for chival- 
 rous devotion and daring "the Death Ride" of the Light Brigade will 
 not easily be paralleled. 
 
 The Janissaries or Janezaries were a body of Turkish soldiers first 
 organized about 1330 A. D. by Sultan Orean from the young Christian 
 prisoners. The name is from the Turkish yeni askari, new soldiers. 
 The janissaries formed the earlier standing army of Europe. They were 
 at first highly privileged and soon attained great power both in war and 
 politics. In 1512 they raised Selim to the throne and caused the death 
 of the famous Bajazet; in 1808 they objected to the organization of any 
 other army than their own body and massacred all the new troops they 
 could. In 1826 Mahomet II. suppressed them; his new troops remem- 
 bering the massacre eighteen years before slaughtered 20,000 of the 
 obnoxious troops. This put an end to the body. The massacre lasted 
 three days, June 14, 15 and 16. When it was ended Mahomet organized 
 his new armies in comparative peace. 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 
 
 197 
 
 The wager of battle is a mode of trial which prevailed in mediaeval 
 Europe, especially among the Teutonic nations, on writs of right and 
 appeals of treason and felony. After the Conquest, in England, trial by 
 combat superseded all other legal ordeals, which were abolished by 
 Henry III. The wager of battle was claimed and allowed in the Court 
 of King's Bench so late as 1818, but the appellant (the brother of the de- 
 ceased) refused the challenge, and the appellee (a man named Abraham 
 Thornton, accused of violating and murdering a maid named Mary Ash- 
 ford) was discharged. In the following year (1819) the law of wager of 
 battle was struck off the statute-book. The legal duel was the parent of 
 the illegal private duel, which still exists, though in a languishing con- 
 dition, in France and Germany. 
 
 RATIO OF LOSS IN GREAT BATTLES. 
 
 The number placed hors-de-combat in battle is not relatively so large 
 as formerly, as the table below will show: 
 
 Men Engaged. 
 
 Thrasymene 65,000 
 
 Cannae 146,000 
 
 Banuockburn 135,000 
 
 Agincourt 62,000 
 
 Crecy 117,000 
 
 Marengo , 58,000 
 
 Austerlitz 170,000 
 
 Borodino 250,000 
 
 Waterloo 145,000 
 
 Alma 103,000 
 
 Sadowa 402,000 
 
 Gravelotte 320,000 
 
 Hors-de-combat. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 17,000 
 
 27 per cent 
 
 52,000 
 
 34 
 
 38,000 
 
 28 
 
 
 11,400 
 
 18 
 
 
 31,200 
 
 27 
 
 
 13,000 
 
 22 
 
 
 23,000 
 
 13 
 
 
 78,000' 
 
 31 
 
 
 51,000 
 
 35 
 
 
 8,400 
 
 8 
 
 
 33,000 
 
 8 
 
 
 48,500 
 
 15 
 
 
 CHIEF BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 (From "Regimental Losses in the American Civil War," by William F. Fox, Lieutenant- 
 Colonel, U.S.V.) 
 
 As to the loss in the Union armies, the greatest battles in the war were: 
 
 DATE. 
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 KILLED. 
 
 WOUNDED* 
 
 MISSING. 
 
 AGGREGATE 
 
 July 1-3, 1863 
 May 8-18,- 1864 
 May 5-7, 1864 
 September 17 1862 
 
 Gettysburg 
 Spottsylvania 
 Wilderness 
 Antietamt 
 
 3,070 
 2,725 
 2,246 
 2 108 
 
 14,497 
 13,413 
 12,037 
 9 549 
 
 5,434 
 2.258 
 3,383 
 753 
 
 23,001 
 18,399 
 17,666 
 12 410 
 
 May 1-3, 1863 
 Sept. 19-20, 1863.... 
 June 1-4, 1864 
 Dec. 11-14, 1862. .. 
 August 28-30, 1862.. 
 April 6-7, 1862 
 December 31, 1862. 
 June 15-19, 1864.... 
 
 Chan eel lorsville . . 
 Chickamauga 
 Cold Harbor 
 Fredericksburg . . 
 Manassas:j: 
 Shiloh 
 Stone's River .... 
 Petersburg(as'a'lt) 
 
 1,606 
 ,656 
 ,844 
 ,284 
 1,747 
 ,754 
 ,730 
 .688 
 
 9,762 
 9,749 
 9,077 
 9,600 
 8,452 
 8,408 
 7,802 
 8.513 
 
 5.919 
 4,774 
 1,816 
 1,769 
 4,263 
 2,885 
 3,717 
 1.185 
 
 17,287 
 16,179 
 12,737 
 12,653 
 14,462 
 13,047 
 13.249 
 11.386 
 
 *Wounded in these, and the following returns include mortally wounded. 
 
 tNot including South Mountain or Crampton's Gap. 
 
 ^Including Chantilly, Rappahannock, Bristol Station and Bull Run Bridge. 
 
 Including Knob Gap, and losses on January 1 and 2, 1863. 
 
 The Union losses at Bull Run (first Manassas), July 21, 1861, were: Killed, 470; 
 wounded, 1,071; captured and missing, 1,793; aggregate, 3,334. 
 
 The Confederate losses in particular engagements were as follows: Bull Run (first 
 Manassas), July 21, 1861, killed, 387; wounded, 1,582; captured and missing, 13; aggre- 
 gate, 1,982. Fort Donelson, Tenn.. February 14-16, 1862, killed, 466; wounded, 1,534; 
 captured and missing, 13,829; aggregate, 15,829. Shiloh, Tenn., April 6-7, 1862, killed, 
 1,723; wounded, 8,012; captured and missing, 959; aggregate, 10,694. Seven Days' Bat- 
 tle, Virginia, June25-July 1, 862, killed, 3,478; wounded, 16.261; captured and missing, 
 875; aggregate, 20,614. Second Manassas, August 21-September 2, killed, 1,481; wounded 
 and missing, 7,627; captured and missing, 89; aggregate, 9,197. Antietam campaign, 
 September 12-20, 1862, killed, 1,886; wounded, 9,348; captured and missing, 1,367; aggre- 
 
198 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 gate, 12,601. Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862, killed, 596; wounded, 4,068; captured 
 and missing, 651; aggregate, 5,315. Stone's River, Tenn., December 31, 1862, killed, 
 1,294; wounded, 7,945; captured and missing, 1,027; aggregate, 10,266. Chancellorsville, 
 May 1-4, 1863, killed, 1,665; wounded, 9,081; captured and missing, 2,018; aggregate, 
 12,764. Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1803, killed, 2,592; wounded, 12,706; captured and missing, 
 5,150; aggregate, 20,448. Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863, killed, 2,268; wounded, 
 13,613;captured and missing, 1,090: aggregate, 16,971. 
 
 Gettysburg was the greatest battle of the war ; Antietam the bloodiest. The largest 
 army was assembled by the Confederates at the seven days' fight ; by the Unionists at 
 the Wilderness. 
 
 BLOOD AND TREASURE COST IN RECENT WARS. 
 The cost of recent wars, according to figures furnished by the Lon- 
 don Peace Society; is as follows: 
 
 Cnmean war $1,700,000,000 
 
 Italian war, 1859 300,000,000 
 
 American civil war North 4.700,000,000 
 
 "South 2,300,000,000 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein war 35,000,000 
 
 Austrian and Prussian war, 1866 330,000,000 
 
 Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Paraguay, etc. (say only) 200,000,000 
 
 Franco-Prussian war 2,500,000,000 
 
 Russian and Turkish war, 1877 1,100,000,000 
 
 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 50,000,000 
 
 $13,265,000.000 
 
 This would allow $10 for every man, woman and child on the habit- 
 able globe. It would make two railways all round the world at $250,000 
 per mile each. 
 
 BOSSES FROM WAR IN TWENTY-FIVE YEARS (1855-80.) 
 
 Killed in battle, or died 
 of wounds and disease. 
 
 Crimean war 
 
 Italian war, 1859 
 
 War of Schleswig-Holstein 
 
 American civil war -the North 
 
 " the South 
 
 War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, in 1866 
 
 Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin-China, Morocco, Paraguay, etc.... 
 
 Franco-German war of 1870-71 France 
 
 " " Germany 
 
 Russian and Turkish war of 1877 
 
 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 
 
 Total 1,588.000 
 
 LENGTH AND COST OF AMERICAN WARS. 
 
 Wars. Length. Cost. 
 
 1. War of the revolution 7 years 1775-1782 $ 135,193,703 
 
 2. Indian war in Ohio territory 1790 
 
 3. War with the Barbary States 1803-1804 
 
 4. Tecumseh Indian war. .. 1811 
 
 5. War with Great Britain 3 years 1812-1815 107,159,003 
 
 6. Algerine war 1815 
 
 7. First Seminole war 1817 
 
 8. Black Hawk war 1832 
 
 9. Second Seminole war 1845 
 
 10. Mexican war 2 years- 1846 1848 66,000,000 
 
 11. Mormon war 1856 
 
 12. Civil war 4 years 1861-1865 6,500,000,000 
 
 AMERICAN DOCKYARDS. 
 
 The navy yards of the United States are eight in number. They are 
 Portsmouth, Portsmouth, N. H., Charlestown, Boston, Mass., New York, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., League Island, Philadelphia, Pa., Washington, Wash- 
 ington, D. C., Norfolk, Norfolk, Va., Pensacola, Pensacola, Fla., and 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 199 
 
 Mare Island, San Francisco, Cal. There are also five naval stations 
 New London, Conn., Port Royal, S. C., Key West, Fla., Sackett's Harbor 
 N. Y., and Brie, Pa. 
 
 DECISIVE BATTLES OF HISTORY. 
 
 Actium, B. c. 31. The combined fleets of Antony and Cleopatra de- 
 feated by Octavius, and imperialism established in the person of Octavius. 
 
 Philippi, B. c. 42. Brutus and Cassius defeated by Octavius and 
 Antony. The fate of the Republic decided. 
 
 Metaurus, B. c. 207. The Carthaginians under Hasdrubul were de- 
 feated by the Romans under Caius and Marcus Livius. 
 
 Arbela, B. c. 331. The Persians defeated by the Macedonians and 
 Greeks under Alexander the Great. End of the Persian empire. 
 
 Syracuse, B. c., 414. The Athenians defeated by the Syracusans and 
 their allies, the Spartans, under Gylippus. 
 
 Marathon, B. c. 490. The Athenians under Miltiades defeated the 
 Persians under Datis. Free government preserved. 
 
 Winfeld-Lippe, A. D. 9. Teutonic independence established by the 
 defeat of the Roman legions under Varus at the hands of the Germans 
 under Arminius (Hermann.) 
 
 Chalons, A. D. 451. The Huns under Attila, called the "Scourge of 
 God, ' ' defeated by the confederate armies of Romans and Visigoths. 
 
 Tours, A. D. 732. The Saracens defeated by Charles Martel and 
 Christendom rescued from Islam. 
 
 Hastings, A. D. 1066. Harold, commanding the English army, de- 
 feated by William the Conqueror, and a new regime established in Eng- 
 land by the Normans. 
 
 Siege of Orleans, A. D. 1429. The English defeated by the French 
 under Joan of Arc. 
 
 Defeat of the Spanish Armada, A. D. 1588. England saved from 
 Spanish invasion. 
 
 Lutzen, A. D. 1632. Decided the religious liberties of Germany. 
 Gustavus Adolphus killed. 
 
 Blenheim, A. D. 1704. The French and Bavarians under Marshal 
 Tallard defeated by the English and their allies under Marlborough. 
 
 Pultowa, A D. 1709. Charles XII. of Sweden defeated by the Rus- 
 sians under Peter the Great. 
 
 Saratoga, A. D. 1777. Critical battle of the American War of Inde- 
 pendence. The English defeated by the Americans under General Gates. 
 
 Valmy, A. D. 1792. An invading army of Prussians, Austrians and 
 Hessians under the Duke of Brunswick, defeated by the French under 
 Kellermann. The first success of the Republic against foreigners. 
 
 Trafalgar. On the 21st of October, A. D. 1805, the great naval battle 
 of Trafalgar was fought. The English defeated the French and destroyed 
 Napoleon's hopes to successfully invade England. 
 
 Waterloo, A. D. 1815. The French under Napoleon defeated by ths 
 allied armies of Russia, Austria, Prussia and England under Wellington. 
 
 Siege of Sebastopol, A. D. 1854-5. The Russians succumbed to the 
 beleaguering armies of England, France and Turkey, and the result was 
 delay in the expansion of the Russian Empire. 
 
 Gettysburg, July, A. D. 1863. The deciding battle of the war for the 
 Union. The Confederates under General Lee defeated by the Union forces 
 under Meade. 
 
 Sedan, A. D. 1870, The decisive battle of the Franco-German war. 
 
200 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 RECENT DESPERATE WARS. 
 
 INDIAN MUTINY. General disaffection from a variety of real or 
 supposed grievances had been for a long time smoldering amongst the 
 Sepoys, who were the flower of the British East India Company's forces, 
 but when a report spread that cartridges smeared with cow and pork fat 
 were to be used by the native soldiers, open mutiny, attended with great 
 cruelty, broke out. The war which may be said to have commenced in 
 March 1857, raged until June 1858. It was marked by a succession of 
 romantic, pathetic, and heroic incidents the siege of Delhi, the massacre 
 of Cawnpore, the relief and capture of Lucknow but was suppressed in 
 the latter year, when the East India Company ceased to exist, and the 
 government of India was assumed by the British crown. A cruel ven- 
 geance was taken on the mutineers, hundreds of whom were strung toge- 
 ther and blown to pieces at the mouths of cannon. 
 
 THE ABYSSINIAN WAR arose out of the imprisonment of Consul 
 Capt. C. Cameron, Rev. H. Stern, a missionary, and others by King 
 Theodore, in consequence of a supposed slight by the British Govern- 
 ment, 1864. Mr. Rassam was sent on a mission to Abyssinia for their re- 
 lease. On the refusal of the king to surrender the prisoners, an English 
 army, some 12,000 strong, under Sir Robert (afterwards Lord) 
 Napier, defeated the Abyssinian forces at Arogee, April 10, 1868, and three 
 days later stormed the fortress of Magdala. In consequence of this King 
 Theodore committed suicide, the prisoners were released, and the war 
 terminated. 
 
 AMERICAN Civil, WAR. This began April 13, 1861, with the capture 
 of Fort Sumter, Charleston, by the Confederate forces. The North pre- 
 pared for the contest with energy, and blockaded the Southern ports. 
 Throughout the war the Confederates chiefly acted upon the defensive, 
 the Federals or Northern forces, being the attacking party, and possess- 
 ing the advantage of superior forces, money and war material. The prin- 
 cipal generals of the South were Lee, "Stonewall" Jackson, Hood, Albert 
 Sidney Johnston, Longstreet, Bragg, Beauregard, Stuart, Joseph E. John- 
 ston; and of the North, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, McClellan, Thomas, 
 Rosecrans, Pope, Butler, Halleck, Baker, Burnside, Fremont, Meade, 
 Banks and McDowell. In the campaign of 1861 the advantage was chiefly 
 on the side of the Confederates who were victorious at Bull Run (Manas- 
 sas, Va.) and Ball's Bluff, Va. (October 21), but suffered a reverse at 
 Springfield, Mo. (Aug. 10), and lost Fort Hatteras, N. C., captured by 
 Butler (August 29). During 1862 the Confederates were successful at Bull 
 Run (August 20) and in Virginia (June) at Fredericksburg, Va. (Dec. 10- 
 15), but sustained severe defeats at Mill Springs, Ky. (January 19), Pea 
 Ridge, Ark. (March 6-8), Winchester, Va. (March 23), Williamsburgh, 
 Va. Great battles were fought at Shiloh, Tenn. (April 7), Fair Oaks, 
 Va. (May 31, June 1), on the Chickahominy (June 25-July 1) and Antie- 
 tam Creek, Md. (September 17), in none of which either party could claim 
 a victory; but the battle of Antietam Creek obliged Lee to abandon his 
 invasion of the North. During this year the naval operations of the 
 Federals were generally successful, Admiral Farragut running past the 
 forts of the Mississippi and seizing New Orleans (May). The memorable 
 conflict between the '-Merrimac" (Confederate) and the Federal "Monitor" 
 resulted (March 9) in the repulse of the former, the "Merrimac" being 
 burnt by the Confederates on the capture of their arsenal at Norfolk, Va. 
 (May 11). The war during 1863 was decidedly in favor of the Federal 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 201 
 
 forces, although the Confederates, under "Stonewall" Jackson, defeated 
 Hooker at Chancellorsville (May 2-4), Jackson subsequently dying from 
 his wounds (May 10) and Lee invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania. At 
 Gettysburg, Pa. (July 1-3), Lee was defeated, and retreated into Virginia, 
 while at Chattanooga, Tenn. (Nov. 24-25) the Confederates, under Bragg, 
 sustained a severe repulse. Grant made a successful campaign in Ten- 
 nessee, gaining several battles and capturing, Vicksburg, Miss., which 
 after a gallant defence, surrendered (July 4). In August the siege of 
 Charleston began, and Fort Sumter was destroyed (August 21-22), but 
 the city was not taken until 1865 (February 18). With the appoint- 
 ment of Grant as commander-in-chief, in the early part of 1864 (March 
 3) and his vigorous reorganization of the army, the power of the North 
 was greatly strengthened. Taking the command of the army of the 
 Potomac, Grant opposed the Confederates under Lee, while Sherman 
 operated against Joseph E. Johnston. In the Virginian campaign, 
 after two days severe fighting (May 3-6) at the Wilderness, the result 
 was indecisive, and Grant's attempt to cut off Lee's army from Rich- 
 mond was unsuccessful. At Atlanta, Ga., Sherman, in three battles 
 (July 20, 22, 28), defeated the Confederates under Hood. In the Shenan- 
 doah valley the Federals were victorious in several engagements (August) 
 and under Sheridan at Winchester (September 9) and Cedar Creek 
 (October 19). In November General Sherman marched through Georgia 
 to Savannah, which was entered December 21, while atNashville, Tenn., 
 the Confederates under Hood were defeated (December 14-16) by the 
 Federals under Thomas. Among the incidents of this year were the sink- 
 ing (June 19) by the Federal corvette "Kearsarge" of the Confederate 
 steamer "Alabama" commanded by Captain Semmes, which had caused 
 great devastation among the Federal shipping, and the destruction 
 (August 5,) by Admiral Farragut, of the Confederate flotilla at Mobile. 
 The war closed in 1865 by the defeat of Lee at Five Forks, Va., 
 (March 31-April 2) by Sheridan, who again defeated Lee at Sailor's 
 Creek (April 6). Lee subsequently surrendered (April 9) his army to Grant 
 who had occupied Richmond, the capital of the Confederate States (April 
 2) on its evacuation by the Southern forces. The other Confederate 
 armies soon afterwards surrendered. An amnesty, with certain limita- 
 tions, was proclaimed (May 29) by President Andrew Johnson (1865-69), 
 who, as vice-president, succeeded Abraham Lincoln, assassinated in Ford's 
 Theatre, Washington, by J. Wilkes Booth (April 14) Lincoln having but 
 newly entered on his second term of office. 
 
 Russo-TuRKiSH WARS. Of the many wars between the Muscovite 
 and Mohammedan powers, we cite the two latest: (1) The first arose from 
 a demand on the part of Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, of a protectorate 
 over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The Sultan refused the demand, 
 and appealed to his allies. Russia declared war against Turkey, Novem- 
 ber 1, 1853. England and France declared war against Russia, March 
 27, 28, 1854. Sardinia joined the allies January 26, 1855. Among the 
 great battles of this war were Alma (September 20,1854),Balaclava(October 
 25, 1854), during which occurred the memorable "Charge of the Six 
 Hundred." Inkerman (November 5, 1854), Tchernaya (August 16, 1855), 
 in all of which the Russians were defeated. The great event of the war was 
 the siege of Sebastopol (commenced October 17, 1854), which fell Septem- 
 ber 8, 1855. The war which is usually termed the Crimean war, was 
 ended by the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, March 30, 1856. One 
 of the articles of this treaty was that the Christians of Turkey, without 
 
202 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 any preference to Russia, should have the protection of all the Powers 
 concerned, in the treaty. (2) The second war arose (1877-8; from sub- 
 stantially the same cause as the war of 1853-6, viz., the desire of Russia 
 to protect the Greek Christians of Turkey. By a protocol of March 31, 
 1877, the Great Powers agreed to see the promised reforms of Turkey 
 carried out. This protocol was repudiated by Turkey, and war was de- 
 clared by Russia against Turkey, April 24. Among the more prominent 
 events of this war were General Gourko's march through the Balkans 
 (July 13), his defeat by Suleiman Pasha at Eski Sagra (July 30), and Sulei- 
 man Pasha's desperate, but fruitless, attempt to gain the Schipka Pass 
 held by General Gourko; the fall of Kars (November 18), and of Plevna 
 (December 10), and Suleiman Pasha's defeat by Skobeloff and Radetsky 
 at Senova (January 9, 1878), the battle which virtually ended the war. 
 Treaty of San Stefano (March 3), modified by treaty of Berlin (July 13), 
 by which Bulgaria was created an automatic and v/ibutary principality, 
 Servia and Roumania were declared independent, and Bosnia and Her- 
 zegovina were ordered to be occupied and administered by Austria. 
 
 ZULU WAR (1879). Cetewayo, king of Zululand, became embroiled 
 with the British on the annexation by the latter of the Transvaal, and 
 the British, under Lord Chelmsford", crossed the Tugela, and entered 
 Zululand (January 12). They suffered a terrible reverse at Isandhlwana 
 (January 22), with a loss of eight hundred men, and in spite of the 
 heroic defence of Rorke's Drift (January 22), had to retreat. Eventually 
 reinforcements arrived, and the Zulus were defeated at Giughilono 
 (April 2), and Ulundi (July 4). Cetewayo was captured (August 28), and 
 a despatch from Sir Garnet Wolseley (September 3), announced the end 
 of the war. Cetewayo died (February 8, 1884), the New Republic was 
 formed by a party of Transvaal Boers (1886-87), and the annexation of 
 the remainder of Zululand as a British possession was proclaimed (June 
 21, 1887). Trouble subsequently arose, and several Zulu chiefs were con- 
 victed of high treason and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment 
 (1888-9). Towards the end of 1891, the resolution of the colonial authori- 
 ties to impose Zibebu as chief upon the northern tribes, was protested 
 against by Miss Colenso as likely to lead to further troubles in Zulu- 
 land. 
 
 FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. The friction between France and Prussia, 
 arising from the proposed cession of Luxembourg, became accentuated by 
 the demand of France that the Crown of Spain, offered (1870) to Prince 
 Leopold of Hohenzollern, should not be accepted by that Prince. On the 
 refusal of Prussia to accede to this request, war was declared by France 
 (July 19, 1870). The Prussian forces, about 640,000 strong, in which 
 were associated the states of the North and South German Confederation, 
 were divided into four armies, the first, that of the North, commanded 
 by Gen. Vogel von Falkenstein; the second, that of the Centre, com- 
 manded by Gen. Steinmetz; the third, that of the Right, under Prince 
 Frederick'Charles; and *he fourth, that of the Left, led by the Crown 
 Prince, the King (William) of Prussia being commander-in-chief, with 
 Gen. Von Moltke as head of the Staff. The whole army was in the 
 highest state of preparation and efficiency. The French army, about 
 300,000 strong, on the other hand, badly organized and practically un- 
 prepared for the contest, was formed into six army corps, respectively 
 commanded by Generals Frossard, De Failly, Bazaine, MacMahon, Lad- 
 nierault and Marshal Canrobert. The Emperor, nominally commander- 
 in-chief, had as his second in command, General Le Bceuf, to whom, 
 
WAR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 203 
 
 later, Marshal Bazaine succeeded. The war resulted in an almost un- 
 broken series of successes for the Germans. After victories at Woerth 
 and Forbach (both on August 6), the Germans invested the fortress of 
 Strasburg (August 10 capitulated September 28), and sat down before 
 Metz, which capitulated (October 27), after the battles of Longueville 
 (August 14), Mars La Tour (August 16), Gravelotte or Rezonville (Aug- 
 ust 18), and unsuccessful attempts at a sortie by Marshal Bazaine (August 
 26 and October 6). At Sedan the French under Marshal MacMahon were 
 hopelessly beaten (September 1), and the Emperor surrendered to the 
 Prussian King (September 2), and was deported as prisoner to Wilhelms- 
 hohe (Cassel). At Paris (September 4) the deposition of the Imperial 
 dynasty was declared, and the establishment of a Republic proclaimed by 
 M. Gambetta and other members of the Left in the Legislative Assembly. 
 A government of defence was proclaimed, with General Trochu as Presi- 
 dent, M. Gambetta as Minister of the Interior, M.Jules Favre (Foreign), 
 General Le Flo (War). The Empress Eugenie fled from Paris (September 
 4), and settled at Chiselhurst. Negotiations for peace between M. Favre 
 and Count Bismarck ended in failure (September 24), and a proclamation 
 from the Government at Tours was issued calling upon the people "to 
 fight to the bitter end. ' ' The siege of Paris was commenced by the Ger- 
 mans (September 15), and five days later the troops at Versailles sur- 
 rendered, and the Crown Prince of Prussia occupied the place. A levee en 
 masse of all under twenty-five years of age was ordered by the govern- 
 ment (September 23), and all Frenchmen between twenty and twenty- 
 five years were prohibited (September 26) leaving France, those between 
 twenty-one and forty years being organized as a national garde mobile. 
 M. Gambetta, escaping by means of a balloon from the beleagured city 
 (October 7), was appointed by the government at Tours Minister of War. 
 An attempt on the part of the Red Republicans at Paris, headed by 
 Blanqui, Ledru-Rollin and others, to establish a Commune in that city, 
 was successfully defeated (October 14). The news of the capitulation of 
 Metz caused riots at Paris (October 31). As the result of a plebiscite to 
 confirm the powers of the Government of Defence, the votes recorded 
 were 557,976 for, 62,638 against. The successes of the German arms 
 continued, the army of the Loire was defeated by the Grand Duke of 
 Mecklenburg (November 17), the fortresses of Verdun (November 8) and 
 Thionville (November 27) capitulated. The army of the Loire under 
 General Chanzy was again attacked and defeated at Beaugency (December 
 8). After various battles, the army of the Loire, fighting and retreating, was 
 defeated by Prince Frederick Charles at Le Mans (January 11, 1871), and 
 near Vosges (January 15-16). The army under General de Paladines, 
 entrenched at Orleans, suffered defeat by Prince Frederick Charles (De- 
 cember 4), and Orleans surrendered, Rouen being two days later occu- 
 pied by General Manteuffel, who engaged the army of the North under 
 General Faidherbe at Point a Noyelles (December 23), and at Bapaume 
 (January 2-3, 1871), the French retreating in each case. General Bour- 
 baki was also defeated by the German general Von Werder, near Belfort 
 (January 15-17), and General Von Goeben gained a victory over the 
 French under Faidherbe at St. Quentin (January 19). After gallant, 
 but unsuccessful sorties from Paris by Generals Trochu and Ducrot (No- 
 vember 20 and January 21), the city, which had been bombarded, capitu- 
 lated (January 28). Following the fall of Paris, Gen. Bourbaki's army 
 was defeated (January 30-February 1) by the Germans under General 
 Manteuffel, and driven across the frontier into Switzerland. The fortress 
 
204 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 of Belfort capitulated (February 16) with military honors after a long de- 
 fence. An armistice took place preparatory to negotiations for peace. On 
 the resignation of M. Gambetta a National Assembly was elected (Feb- 
 ruary 8) of which M. Grevy was chosen president, M. Thiers becoming 
 head of the executive power. The French Government was recognized 
 by the chief European powers (February 18), and (February 26) prelimi- 
 naries of peace were signed by MM. Thiers and Favre and fifteen dele- 
 gates of the National Assembly on the part of France, and Count Bis- 
 marck on the part of Germany. By this France was to cede certain 
 parts of Lorraine, including Metz and Thionville and Alsace, excluding 
 Belfort. In addition, five milliards of francs ($1,000,000,000) were to be 
 paid as war indemnity to Germany; certain departments to be occupied 
 by German troops until this was fully discharged. The treaty, signed 
 February 26, was accepted by the National Assembly sitting at Bordeaux 
 (March 1), by 546 votes to 107, at the some time unanimously confirming 
 the fall of the Empire. The Germans after occupying Paris for forty- 
 eight hours (March 1-3), withdrew from Versailles (March 12). A Peace 
 Conference met at Brussels (March 28), and at Frankfort a definite treaty 
 of peace was signed (May 10), and ratified by the French Assembly (May 
 21). The last instalment of the indemnity was paid September 5, 1873, 
 and the last of the German troops quitted French soil (September 16). 
 The Red Republicans under the lead of Blanqui, Gustav Flourens and 
 Felix Pyat rose in revolt (March 18, 1871) against the Government, held 
 Paris and established the Commune, which was not suppressed until the 
 insurgents had committed many outrages and destroyed much property, 
 after holding possession of Paris until May 28, when th^ troops under 
 Marshal MacMahon captured the city; some eight hundred troops were 
 killed, the Communist forces losing fifty thousand. One-fourth of Paris 
 was destroyed, the loss to property being estimated at $1 60, 000, 000. Great 
 numbers of the Communists were subsequently tried, some executed, and 
 the remainder transported. 
 
 THE LATEST EXPLOSIVE. 
 
 It begins to look as if the days of gunpowder as a charge for 
 the guns in the British navy were numbered. Recent experiments at the 
 government proof butts, Woolwich, appear to prove the decided superior- 
 ity of cordite. A six-inch quick firing gun was loaded with twenty-nine 
 pounds twelve ounces of the ordinary black gunpowder and yielded a ve- 
 locity of 2,890 feet per second, with a pressure strain on the gun of fif- 
 teen tons per square inch. The same gun was charged with fourteen 
 pounds three ounces of cordite, and gave a velocity of 2,274 feet per 
 second, and a pressure of 15.2 tons. More important still, after 250 
 rounds had been fired there were no signs of erosion. The new sub- 
 stance is manufactured by the English government, and contains fifty -six 
 percent of nitro-glycerine, thirty-seven of gun cotton and five of mineral 
 jelly. The velocity of the shot along the bore of the six-inch gun was 
 calculated to the millionth of a second from the first moment of being 
 set in motion. Minute as they may appear, Lieut. H. Watkin, R. A., 
 has invented an instrument which, it is said, will measure fractions of 
 time to the nine-billionth part of a second! About fifty of the six-inch 
 quick-firing guns have been supplied to the navy, and the authorities at 
 the Royal Gun Factories have begun the manufacture of the larger guns 
 of the same pattern, with a velocity of 1,300 miles per hour. 
 
CREEDS OE THE WORLD. 
 
 Happy the man who sees a God employed 
 In all the good and ill that checker life! 
 Resolving all events, with their effects 
 And manifold results, into the will 
 And arbitration wise of the Supreme. 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 NOTES ON FAITH AND WORSHIP. 
 
 Apollo was worshipped on Mt. Parnassus. 
 
 The name "diabolos" means "a slanderer." 
 
 There is no definition of religion in the Bible. 
 
 The first altar mentioned was that raised by Noah. 
 
 The cross was first displayed in churches about 431. 
 
 The term Puritan was first used in England in 1567. 
 
 In the Greek church all priests are called Papa, or Pope. 
 
 The Passion Play at Oberammergau was instituted in 1634. 
 
 Deism is the term for natural as opposed to revealed religion. 
 
 The poet Young wrote: "By night an atheist half believes a God." 
 
 The Jains are an East Indian sect, between the Hindus and Buddhists. 
 
 Marabouts are religious devotees held in great reverence by the 
 Berbers. 
 
 . Abrahamites were a Bohemian sect that prevailed about 1782, now 
 extinct. 
 
 Some writers insist that absolute atheism has never existed in a rea- 
 soning mind. 
 
 It was Shakspeare who said that ' ' the devil can cite Scripture for 
 his purpose." 
 
 The adherents of Zoroastrianism, the ancient faith of Persia, are 
 called Parsees. 
 
 The shamrock is said to have been used by St. Patrick as a symbol 
 of the Trinity. 
 
 The oldest church edifice in this country is that of San Miguel, 
 Santa F, N.M. 
 
 No general term equivalent to religion is found either in Chinese, 
 Sanscrit or Hebrew. 
 
 Giaour is a term applied by the Turks to all who do not believe in 
 Mahommedanism. 
 
 205 
 
206 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Tennyson calls faith " the great world's altar stairs, that slope thro* 
 darkness up to God." 
 
 What are called the monastic vows are three in number poverty, 
 chastity and obedience. 
 
 The British and Foreign Bible Society has issued the Good Book in 
 three hundred tongues. 
 
 The canonical books are those books of Holy Scripture accepted as 
 genuine by Christian churches. 
 
 He was a cunning wag who said: "Orthodoxy is my doxy and 
 heterodoxy is the other fellow's." 
 
 Washington endorsed the idea that if there had been no God men 
 would have been obliged to imagine one. 
 
 The ascetics were ancient Christians who sought a higher and more 
 spiritual life by means of severe penances. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton said: " I find more sure marks of authenticity in 
 the Bible than in any profane history whatever." 
 
 Charles Kingsley observes that true religion will make a man a more 
 thorough gentleman than all the courts in Europe. 
 
 A strict definition of nihilism is that system of philosophy which 
 totally rejects religion and substitutes nothing for it. 
 
 The ten persecutions of the early Christian church are dated from 
 the years 64, 95, 106, 166, 202, 235, 249, 258, 274 and 303 A.D. 
 
 Freethinker was the name applied from one to two centuries ago to 
 those deists who favored natural as against revealed religion. 
 
 The Stoics taught that God is the soul of the world, and that man's 
 supreme good is to live in the perfect harmony of the universe. 
 
 There are two places in London where clergymen can buy sermons 
 printed. They cover all subjects, and can be had for every season. 
 
 The Gnostics were an early speculative school, with principles based 
 on oriental philosophy, combined with certain tenets of Christianity. 
 
 The belief in and worship of one personal God is called monothe- 
 ism. Judaism, Christianity and Mahommedanism are all monotheistic. 
 
 Dervishes are Mohammedan devotees. They are divided into two 
 sections the Mevlevies, or dancing, and the Nakshbendies, or howling 
 dervishes. 
 
 The chamber or vault beneath a church, generally under the altars, 
 where the dead, and particularly ecclesiastics, were formerly entombed, 
 is called a Crypt. 
 
 The Treacle Bible is Beck's Bible of 1549, in which the word balm is 
 rendered treacle. The Bishops' Bible has tryacle (Jer. iii, 22; xlvi, 11; 
 and Ezek. xxvii, 17). 
 
 The Apple of Sodom is a fruit mentioned by Strabo, Josephus, and 
 others, as growing on the shores of the Dead Sea. It was tempting to 
 the eye, but if tasted filled the mouth with bitter ashes. It is supposed 
 to have been an oak-gall, or the fruit of the solanum. 
 
 The deluge is the inundation of the world recorded in the Mosaic 
 history. It began December 7, 1656, A.D., or 2348, B.C., and lasted 377 
 days (Gen. vi, vii, viii). The mythological history of many nations men- 
 tion inundations which correspond with the Scriptural account. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 207 
 
 Antichrist is a name which occurs only in the epistles of St. John, 
 and is identified by different writers with more or less probability with 
 false Christs, and other enemies of Christianity. 
 
 The Angelus Bell is, in Catholic churches, a bell rung at morning, 
 noon and sunset, to invite the faithful to recite the Angelic Salutation. 
 It gives name to a very famous picture by Millet. 
 
 The great writers and teachers who succeeded the Apostles from the 
 second to the sixth centuries are those called the Fathers of the Church. 
 They included St. Athanasius, St. Augustine, etc. , 
 
 The consistories were councils formed for maintaining ecclesiastical 
 discipline and regulating divine worship in the German Lutheran Church, 
 1542-55. A consistory is the highest papal council. 
 
 Many of the South Sea islanders believe that paradise can be inher- 
 ited only by persons of perfect physical forms. Where this belief pre- 
 vails a man will die rather than submit to amputation. 
 
 An assembly of the clergy of cathedral churches, usually held in the 
 chapter-house, is called a chapter. The Parliaments of England were 
 held in the chapter-house of Westminster Abbey from 1377 to 1547. 
 
 The five points of Calvinism as set forth by John Calvin of Picardy 
 are: (1) Predestination and reprobation; (2) original sin; (3) particular 
 redemption; (4) irresistible grace; (5) the perseverance of the saints. 
 
 Coverdale's Bible was issued in 1535. This translation of the Bible 
 by Miles Coverdale, afterwards Bishop of Exeter, was dedicated to Henry 
 VIII., and was the first English Bible sanctioned by royal authority. 
 
 The primary meaning of Chapel was a chest containing relics or 
 their shrine. Now it is a place of worship subordinate to a cathedral or 
 large church, or connected with a castle, university or other institution. 
 
 Though often treated as a proper name by the translators, Belial is 
 really an abstract term meaning "that which is without use or profit," 
 hence "wickedness." " Sons of Belial" is one of the commonest forms 
 in use. 
 
 The staff, terminating in a cross, carried before archbishops, is known 
 as the crozier; it was used as early as 500 A. D. The crozier of an arch- 
 bishop differs from that of a bishop in having a cross instead of a crook 
 on the top. 
 
 Canonization is the act by the Pope ot declaring a deceased person 
 to be a saint. The deceased's name is then put in the Canon or Litany 
 of the saints, and a day dedicated to his honor. Canonization cannot 
 take place within less than fifty years of the death of the person to be 
 canonized. 
 
 The Cartesian doctrines, founded on the principle "I know, there- 
 fore I am," were first promulgated by Rene Descartes of Touraine in 
 1837. He held that thought proceeded from the soul, so that man was 
 not entirely material, and that the soul must be from some being not 
 material i. e. God. 
 
 In the Roman Catholic Church, the reception of the tonsure, a bare 
 circle on the crown of the head, precedes admission into orders, and is 
 administered by the bishop. The Greek priests also bear the tonsure. 
 The earliest ecclesiastical precept on the tonsure occurs in a canon of 
 the Council of Toledo (633 A. D.). 
 
208 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 All travelers in India have seen the Bonze, which is the European 
 name for Buddhist priests, who in many respects resemble monks in the 
 Christian Church, doing penance and praying for the sins of the laity. 
 There are also female bonzes. 
 
 There are three religious systems in China: That of Yu, restored by 
 Koun-fou-tse (Confucius); the State religion, in which the emperor acts 
 as the priest and intermediator; and the third is Buddhism. There are, 
 however, Moslems, Christians and even a few Jews in China. 
 
 The^iame of Buddhists (i.e., "the enlightened,") is applied to the 
 followers of Gautama Siddhartha, the Sakya Muni, generally called Bud- 
 dha, a prince of Central India. Founded about 500 B.C. Buddhism is the 
 chief religion in India beyond the Ganges, China, Japan and Ceylon. 
 
 In the National Museum at the City of Mexico is the stone head of 
 an idol which, until its discovery by some missionaries a short time ago, 
 was still being worshipped by the Indians in the State of Morelos. The 
 head was on a statue of immense size, covered with a crocodile's hide. 
 
 The Swedehborgians, or "The New Jerusalem Church," are the fol- 
 lowers of Dr. Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772). They hold peculiar 
 views respecting salvation, inspiration, and the Trinity. In regard to 
 the Trinity, they believe it to be centred in the person of Jesus Christ. 
 
 The purgatory of the Islamites is called Al Araf, and it is supposed 
 to be located half way between hell and paradise. Mohammed is believed 
 by the whole sect of Islam to be the only person who has ever gone to 
 paradise without being forced to go through a preparatory course at Al 
 Araf. 
 
 Among curious copies of the Scriptures is one known as the Breeches 
 Bible, printed in 1577 by Whittingham, Gilby, and Sampson. So called 
 
 because Gen. iii. 7 runs thus: "The eyes of them bothe were opened 
 
 and they sewed figge-tree leaves together and made themselves breeches. ' ' 
 It is also called the "Geneva Bible." 
 
 Dies irtz (day of wrath) are the opening words of a Latin hymn 
 which describes the judgment of the world. Ascribed to various authors, 
 among others to Pope Gregory the Great (590) and St. Bernard, but more 
 generally to Tommaso da Celano (fifteenth century); c. 1385 adopted into 
 the Roman Catholic Church liturgy. 
 
 The Zendavesta is said to have been written by Zoroaster in letters of 
 gold on twelve thousand skins of parchment, and to have been deposited 
 by Darius Hystaspes in the Castle of Persepolis, about B. c. 500. ' 4 Zend ' ' 
 is the language and "avesta"=text. The compound word means the 
 sacred books of Zoroaster in the Zend tongue. 
 
 Gehenna is the place of everlasting torment. Strictly speaking, it 
 means the Valley of Hinnom (Ge Hinnom\ where sacrifices to Moloch 
 were offered, and where refuse of all sorts was subsequently cast, for the 
 consumption of which fires were kept constantly burning. There was 
 also a sort of aqua tofana, called liquor Gehenna. 
 
 Kulturkampf is the term applied to the ecclesiastical controversy with 
 the Church of Rome in Germany, arising from an effort of the State to 
 vindicate its right to interfere in the affairs of all religious societies. 
 The contest began in 1872 with the expulsion of the Jesuits, and ended 
 with Prince Bismarck's concessions in revisions of the politico-ecclesi- 
 astical legislation in 1886 and 1887. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 209 
 
 Taouism is the name given to a religious system in China founded 
 by L/ao-Tseu, who was born B. c. 604. It has degenerated into a sort of 
 polytheism. Its priests, who are looked on as magicians and astrologers, 
 are consulted about the sites of houses, burial grounds, fortunate days, 
 and other responses of the fortune-teller's character. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States holds a gen- 
 eral conference once in four years, which is the highest legislative body 
 in that Church. The Wesleyan-Methodists also hold an annual confer- 
 ence in Great Britain, at which the business of the body is transacted 
 and arrangements for the circuits made for the year. 
 
 The Agapemone (abode of love), is a conventual establishment near 
 Bridgewater, England, instituted 1859, by Henry J. Prince, formerly a 
 clergyman. Its members profess to devote themselves to spiritual 
 recreation, and maintain spiritual marriage. The sect, which had fallen 
 into obscurity, has recently come again into prominence. 
 
 The religion of the followers of Mahommed (570-632) is embo'died 
 in the Koran. It includes belief in one God, in angels, in good and evil 
 spirits, in a general resurrection and judgment, with future rewards and 
 punishments, in predestination, and in a Paradise where the faithful 
 spend their time in the society of beautiful women (houris). 
 
 Ultramontane, meaning "beyond the mountains," originally referred 
 to the Alps namely, in relation to France. I/ater it had reference to 
 that party in the Church of Rome which assigns the greatest weight to 
 the papal prerogative. Italians of course use the word in a converse 
 geographical sense for people beyond the Alps, and so in the north of 
 Europe. 
 
 Koran (Arab., from karaa, "to read"), The Reading, by way of emi- 
 nence; a term first applied to every single portion of Mahotnmed's "Rev- 
 elations," used at a later period for a greater number of these, and fin- 
 ally for their whole body, gathered together into the one book which 
 forms the religious, social, civil, commercial, military, and legal code 
 of Islam. 
 
 American pioneers were God-fearing and Bible-loving. They staked 
 out town lots in twenty-two Bethels, ten Jordans, nine Jerichos, fourteen 
 Bethlehems, twenty-two Goshens, twenty-one Shilohs, eleven Carmels, 
 eighteen Tabors and Mount Tabors, twenty-two Zions and Mount Zions, 
 twenty-six Edens, thirty Lebanons, twenty-six Hebrews and thirty-six 
 Sharons. 
 
 Secularism is the name given to the principles advocated (about 1846) 
 by George Jacob Holyoake, a native of Birmingham. The central idea 
 of Secularism is freedom of thought, and freedom of action without in- 
 jury to others. It is the religion of the present life only, and its stand- 
 ard of morals is utilitarian. Mr. G. J. Holyoake was succeeded in the 
 leadership of English secularists by Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, who died 
 in 1891. 
 
 The secular clergy are the clergy generally who live in private 
 houses. Nearly all archbishops, bishops, deans, canons and parochial 
 clergymen are seculars, in contradistinction to the regulars, who, having 
 vowed obedience, chastity and poverty, live in some religious house, 
 dead to the world and the " civil law " by their "entrance into religion." 
 Called ' ' regulars ' ' because they live under the regula or rule of some 
 religious house. 
 
 U. I. 14 
 
210 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Hades, in the religion of ancient Greece, was the name applied to 
 the kingdom of the under-world, the abode of the departed spirits or 
 shades. Hades and Pluto are also personal names for its king. It is 
 the Greek word by which the Septuagint translates the Hebrew slieol, 
 the abode of the dead, in which sense it occurs frequently in the New 
 Testament. 
 
 The devotional term litany applies to a form of prayer in which the 
 same thing is repeated several times at no long intervals. Hence in 
 Latin the word is always used in the plural, litanies. The common for- 
 mula, Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison "Lord, have mercy 
 upon us Christ, have mercy upon us Lord, have mercy upon us" is 
 the simplest ("lesser") litany. 
 
 The English church assembly termed Convocation, is recorded to 
 have met under the king's writ in 1294. Its power was limited by Henry 
 VIII., and further in 1716. Since 1854 its proceedings have been formal, 
 though it was authorized to deliberate on alterations of the Liturgy in 
 1872. Convocation is now a deliberative council of representative Church- 
 men, but has no official authority. 
 
 In the ceremony of the greater excommunication by the Catholic 
 Church, since the eighth century, after reading the sentence a bell is 
 rung, the book closed, and a caudle extinguished; and from that moment 
 the person excommunicated is excluded from the communion of the 
 faithful, from public worship, and the sacraments. Hence comes the 
 expression "bell, book and candle." 
 
 Camp-meetings are gatherings of devout persons, held usually in 
 thinly populated districts, and continued for several days at a time. It 
 was in connection with Methodism in America that such meetings became 
 especially prominent. The introduction of the protracted camp meetings 
 into England in 1799 by Lorenzo Dow, led to the separation of the Prim- 
 itive Methodists from the Wesleyans. 
 
 Humanitarians is a name assigned to anti-Trinitarians, who regard 
 Christ as a mere man, and refuse to ascribe to him any supernatural 
 character, whether of origin or of nature. The name Humanitarian is also 
 sometimes applied to the disciples of St. Simon, and in general to those 
 who look to the perfectibility of human nature as a great moral and social 
 dogma; also to those who, from over-philanthropy, object to severe 
 measures, such as capital punishment, etc. 
 
 The Temple Society is a body of German Christians who wait for the 
 second coming of Christ. They separated from the Church in Wurtem- 
 berg and formed a separate sect; and many of them settled in Palestine 
 in 1868, where they now have colonies at Haifa, Jaffa, Sarona and near 
 Jerusalem. They are distinguished for industry, enterprise and success. 
 There may be about five thousand in all of the community, of whom 
 about thirteen hundred are in Palestine. 
 
 The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Old Testament, made 
 from the Massoretic text at Alexandria. Tradition says that it was 
 executed in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (284-47 B. C.), by seventy- 
 two translators in 72 days; but critics hold that it is the work of different 
 times. The Septuagint was the official Bible of the Hellenistic Jews until 
 after the destruction of the Temple, and it became the official Bible ot 
 the Catholic Church. Most of the Old Testament quotations in the 
 Testament are taken from the Septuagint. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 211 
 
 Mephistopheles is the name of one of the best-known personifications 
 of the principle of evil. The word has been very variously explained, 
 but is probably of Hebrew origin, like most names of devils in the his- 
 tory of magic, confounded with, and approximated in form to, the Greek 
 mephostophiles, "one who loves not light." Mephistopheles owes all 
 his modern vitality to Goethe's "Faust." 
 
 The Mojaves believe that all who die and are not cremated are turned 
 into owls, and when they hear the dismal screech of one of the above 
 named creatures of the night, they tell you that it is the spirit of some 
 dead Mojave who has returned to advise his people to submit to the ordeal 
 of fire. When one of the tribe dies his relations and immediate friends 
 do not eat salt or wash themselves for four days. 
 
 The word bull is derived from the Latin bulla, "a bubble of water," 
 and then " a round ball of any kind." In the middle ages it came to 
 signify the capsule of the seal appended to letters from emperors or 
 popes, next it was used for the seal itself, and lastly for the document 
 to which the seal was appended. Its use is now commonly restricted to 
 papal documents issued with certain indispensable formalities. 
 
 The Douay Bible was a translation made by the professors connected 
 with the College of Douay, founded in 1568 by Dr. William Allen for the 
 education of English boys designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood. 
 These students were to be sent into England as itinerant preachers, 
 with the view of creating a reactionary feeling and upsetting the Re- 
 formed Church. Dr. Allen himself worked on the translation. 
 
 The title of Beelzebub was given to the form of Baal worshipped by 
 the Philistines at Ekron. As the heathen deities were all regarded as 
 demons by the Jews, the name Beelzebub became, in course of time, 
 commonly applied to the chief of evil spirits, and in this sense it is em- 
 ployed in the Gospels. The more correct reading of the word is Beelzebul, 
 variously explained as ' 'lord of the dwelling, " "lord of the dunghill. " 
 
 The Graal or "The Holy Graal" was a miraculous chalice made of a 
 single emerald, which was stated to possess the power of preserving 
 chastity and prolonging life. It is said to have been the cup from which 
 Christ drank at the last supper, and in which Joseph of Arimathea 
 caught the last drops of blood as Christ was taken down from the cross. 
 In 1170 Chretien of Troyes sang of the search by knights for this miracu- 
 lous cup, which was a very favorite subject in the middle ages. 
 
 The Veda is the sacred canon of the Brahmins. It is divided into 
 four collections: (1) the Rig-veda, or love of praise (hymns); (2) the 
 Sama-veda, or love of tunes (chants); (3) the Yajur-veda, or love of 
 prayer, and (4) the Atharva-veda, or love of the Atharvans. Each col- 
 lection is divided into three parts: (1) The sacred texts (mantra); (2) the 
 ritual (Brahmana); and (3) the philosophical portion (Upanishads). The 
 hymns of the Rig-veda are supposed to have been collected about 1000 B. c. 
 
 The Targums are paraphrastic translations of the Hebrew Script- 
 ures into Aramaic, the only tongue generally known to the Jews in 
 post-exilic times. No single Targum covers the whole of the Old Testa- 
 ment, but in one and another there are versions of all the books, except 
 Ezra and Nehemiah. The Targums, long oral, were committed to writ- 
 ing in Christian times. The Onkelos Targum and the Targum ascribed 
 to Jonathan ben Uzzill, the principal of the eighty disciples of Hillel, 
 are the most famous. 
 
212 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Among the great monastic orders Benedictines is the general name 
 given to the followers of St. Benedict (480-543), whose rule bound the 
 monk to permanent abode in the monastery, chastity, renunciation of 
 private property, daily and public solemnization of the divine office, a 
 life of frugality and labor, and filial obedience to the abbot. The order 
 has produced many literary works, but has taken little interest in poli- 
 tics. Though at one time very powerful, the membership today does 
 not exceed eight hundred. 
 
 The Tabernacle was the portable tent in which the Ark of the Cove- 
 nant was conveyed, and as such the sanctuary of Israel. It seems to 
 have been superseded by a more permanent building at Shiloh before 
 David's time. In Roman Catholic churches the name is given to the 
 receptacle in which the consecrated elements of the Eucharist are 
 retained. It is commonly a small structure of marble, metal or wood, 
 placed over the high altar and appropriated exclusively to the reserva- 
 tion of the Eucharist, no other object whatever being allowed to be 
 kept in it. 
 
 The .word cabbala, which literally means "tradition," in itself 
 might be used for any Jewish doctrine not explicitly contained in the 
 Hebrew Bible since the text assumed its present form. The moral and 
 ritual precepts of the Talmud are all ascribed to a tradition that can be 
 traced step by step. But in its technical sense, the cabbala signifies a 
 secret system of theology, metaphysics and magic prevalent among the 
 Jews. The cabbalists taught a pantheistic doctrine, which came to them 
 from the later and degenerate philosophies of Greece. 
 
 The Shakers are a religious sect, the official title of which is ' 'The 
 United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing. ' ' They are an 
 offshoot of the Quakers founded by Ann Lee, of Manchester, England, 
 who with eight of hei disciples came to America in 1774. Here the Shakers 
 have founded eighteen societies, distributed over seven States. They prac- 
 tise celibacy and community of goods, and are firm believers in the doc- 
 trine of spiritualism. The wild, violent motions, from which they obtained 
 their name, have given place to a regular dance to the singing of a hymn. 
 
 A synagogue is a Jewish place of worship. The origin of this insti- 
 tution is probably to be traced to the period of the Babylonian captivity, 
 although tradition finds it in the patriarchal times. When, through 
 Ezra's instrumentality, the ancient order of things was restored in Judea, 
 synagogues were established in all the towns for the benefit of those who 
 could not take part oftener than three times a year in the worship of the 
 temple at Jerusalem, and a special ritual of readings and prayers was in- 
 stituted. From the time of the Maccabees we find them even in all the 
 villages. 
 
 Hospitallers, in the Roman Catholic Church, are charitable brother- 
 hoods, founded for the care of the poor and of the sick in hospitals. 
 They follow for the most part the rule of St. Augustine, and add to the 
 ordinary vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, that of self-dedication 
 to the particular work of their order. The Knights of St. John of Jerusa- 
 lem and the Teutonic Knights were both originally hospitallers. The 
 Knights Hospitallers of the Holy Spirit were founded at Montpellier in 
 1198 by Guy of Montpellier, and the hospitallers of Our Lady of Christ- 
 ian Charity at Paris in the end of the thirteenth century by Guy de 
 Joinrille. And numerous similar orders have been established since 
 then. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 213 
 
 There is no date from beginning to end in the Bible. It comprises some 
 sixty documents, and is supposed to have been written by about forty men ; 
 fifty-four miracles are recorded in the Old and fifty-one in the New 
 Testament; total, one hundred and five. The shortest verse in the Old 
 Testament is "Remember Lot's wife." There is one in the New Testa- 
 ment shorter, i.e., John xi, 35, equaled in words, though not in letters, by 
 Thessalonians v, 16, "Rejoice evermore." Then there are two chapters 
 in the Bible alike verbatim, and one book, Esther, in which the Deity is 
 not mentioned. 
 
 The vigil was originally the watch kept, with public prayer on the 
 night before a feast, traceable in the very earliest centuries, and is one 
 of the usages against which Vigilantius inveighs, and which Jerome vin- 
 dicates in his reply, though he admits the abuses that often accompanied 
 it, and which ultimately brought about its suppression. The old observ- 
 ance survives in the Roman Church now only in the matins and lauds 
 and the midnight mass before Christmas, and the term is applied to the 
 day and night preceding a feast. The "watch night" service at New 
 Year's is analogous. 
 
 The Society of Friends or Quakers was founded in 1624 by George 
 Fox, a shoemaker, of Drayton, in Leicestershire. They believe in the 
 main fundamental principles of what is called "Orthodox Christianity," 
 but they express their religious creed in the very words of the New 
 Testament Scripture and each member has the liberty of interpreting 
 the words. Their main specialty is the belief of "the Light of Christ 
 in man," and hence they entertain a broader view of the Spirit's influ 
 ence than other Christians. In morals, propriety of conduct, good order, 
 and philanthropy, the Quakers are a pattern society. 
 
 The Tunkers, by corruption Dunkards (but by themselves called 
 "the Brethren"), is a religious sect found chiefly in Pennsylvania, 
 Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska 
 and Kansas. Altogether they number nearly one hundred thousand, 
 and are almost confined to the United States, although small bodies 
 exist in Denmark and Sweden. Yet the sect had its birth in Germany, 
 being indeed a child of the Pietist movement of the seventeenth cent- 
 ury; but betweeen 1719 and 1729 all the members, harassed and perse- 
 cuted at home, had, on Penn's old invitation, removed to Pennsylvania 
 and settled about Germantown and Philadelphia, from whence they 
 gradually spread southward and westward. In their creed the Brethren 
 are thoroughly evangelical. 
 
 The Gutenberg (? Schoffer) Bible is the earliest book printed in mov- 
 able metal type. It contains no date, but a copy in the " Bibliotheque 
 Mazarine," formed in 1648 for the Cardinal Mazarin by G. Naude, and 
 given to the public in 1688, contains the date of the illuminator Cremer, 
 1456, so that the Bible must have been printed before that date. Only 
 seven copies in vellum exist, but there are known to be twenty-two 
 copies on paper, some of them very imperfect. In 1855 Mr. Quaritch, 
 bookseller, of London (according to the Methodist Recorder] gave $19,- 
 500 for a copy at Sir J. Thorold's; certainly in 1887 he gave $13,250 
 for the copy in the library of the late Earl of Crawford. One was sold 
 in 1873 for $17,000, and a copy was sold in 1889 for $10,000. A good vel- 
 lum copy is worth $20,000. Of course it was called the Mazarine Bible 
 because the copy in the Mazarine Library, Paris, gives the approximate 
 date. 
 
214 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TION. 
 
 The term Apocrypha (a Greek word meaning "hidden", "secret") 
 seems, when applied to religious books or writings, to have been used (1) 
 for such as were suitable, not for the mass of believers, but for the initiated 
 only; works containing the esoteric or recondite teaching of the faith cr 
 sect; (2) works the date, origin, and authorship of which were unknown 
 or doubtful; (3) works which claimed to be what they were not, were 
 spurious or pseudepigraphic. When the Apocrypha is spoken of, the 
 Apocrypha of the Old Testament is generally meant. Another large 
 group may be called the apocryphal books of the New Testament. 
 
 The Vulgate is the authorized translation of the Scriptures into Latin 
 in use in the Roman Catholic Church. Before the end of the fourth 
 century the Vetus, or old Latin version, called also the Itala (because in 
 use in Italy), had become exceedingly corrupt, and in 382, Jerome, at 
 the request of Pope Damasus, undertook to revise and correct this version. 
 The Gospels were completed in 383, and the whole New Testament soon 
 after; and this revision of the old version is the present text of the Vul- 
 gate New Testament. The official edition of the authentic Vulgate now 
 in use in the Roman Catholic Church is that published by Clement 
 VIII. in 1592. 
 
 The Trappists are a religious order founded in 1140 in Normandy by 
 Rotrou, Compte de Perche. It was refouuded by Abbe de Ranee in 1636. 
 It is a reformed Benedictine order. The female order, called Trappis- 
 tines, was instituted 1822. When driven out of France in 1791 the Trap- 
 pists went to Switzerland and built the monastery called Val-Sainte, 
 which was suppressed in 1811. Fifty-nine monks of La Trappe migrated 
 from England to France in 1817 and settled in La Loire Inferieure. In 
 1822 the Trappists had sixteen houses in France. Their chief monas- 
 tery was burnt to the ground in August, 1871. They have several houses 
 in the United States. 
 
 Under the name of breviary Roman Catholics understand the book 
 which contains all the ordinary and daily services of their church except 
 (a) those connected with the celebration of the Eucharist, which are 
 contained in the Missal, and (b) those for special occasions, such as bap- 
 tisms, marriages, ordinations, funerals, etc., which are contained in the 
 Ritual or Pontifical, according as they fall within the sphere of ordinary 
 priests or of bishops. In the Established Church of England, therefore, 
 the breviary would be exactly represented by a prayer-book containing, 
 after the preface, tables, etc., the morning and evening prayer, litaii)', 
 Athanasian creed, collects, psalter and all the lessons for every day in 
 the year, with the addition of a complete set of hymns for the different 
 occasions. 
 
 Theosophy is a name often applied to the systems of the speculative 
 mystics of the mediaeval and later times, as Eckhart, Bohn, Schelling 
 and others. The term is now applied to the tenets of the Theosophical 
 Society, founded at New York (1875) by Colonel Olcott and Madame 
 Blavatsky (d. 1891 \ an American Russian. The search after divine 
 knowledge, the investigation of the powers of man and of the hitherto 
 unexplained laws of nature, the study of Eastern philosophy, and the 
 establishment of a universal brotherhood, are some of the objects which 
 it sets before itself. The most striking tenet of theosophy to outsiders 
 is that which asserts that man is possessed of hitherto undeveloped 
 powers over nature, in which respect it has affinities with mediaeval 
 Rosicrucianism and modern Spiritualism. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 215 
 
 The Holy Alliance was a league formed in 1816 after the fall of 
 Napoleon by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia, whereby they 
 pledged themselves to rule their peoples like fathers of families, and to 
 regulate all national and international relations in accordance with the 
 principles of Christian charity. But the alliance was made in actual fact 
 a means of mutual encouragement in the maintenance of royal and im- 
 perial absolutism, and an instrument for suppressing free institutions 
 and checking the aspirations for political liberty struggling into realiza- 
 tion amongst the nations of the Continent. The league died a natural 
 death after the lapse of a few years. 
 
 Wakes and lyke-wakes are very different things. A lyke or liche wake 
 is a watching of the dead body (Ang.-Sax. lie] all night by the friends 
 and neighbors of the deceased. It used to be a scene of revelry and 
 mourning, the object being to watch the body from being interfered 
 with by evil spirits. The other " wake " is about equal to "vigil," and 
 every church had its wake on the anniversary of the saint. A religious 
 service was given, but, as the crowd became great, hawkers and minstrels 
 assembled, and the wake became a fair, held in the churchyard. In 
 1285 Edward I. forbade fairs to be held in churchyards, but the practice 
 continued to the time of the Reformation. 
 
 Among the Jews the Talmud is a book held in high veneration, con- 
 taining the Mishna, or oral law, and the Gemara, or commentary on the 
 Mishna. There are two forms, or editions of the Talmud. (1) the Pales- 
 tinian (commonly called the Jerusalem Talmud) completed about the 
 middle of the fifth century and (2) the Babylonian Talmud completed 
 towards the end of the sixth century. The latter is the larger and more 
 valuable of the two. The Talmud is divided into Halaka, or legal part, 
 and Hagada, or legendary part. The Halaka still rules Jewish life, es- 
 pecially in regard to dietary laws, marriages and festivals, and is the 
 authoritative text-book of all rabbinic tribunals. 
 
 The Flagellants were fanatics who appeared at sundry times in 
 Europe, and marched about in procession along the streets and public 
 roads to appease the wrath of God. They marched two and two, singing 
 dolorous hymns, mingled with groans, and every now and then stopped 
 to whip each other with scourges to " atone for the sins of the people." 
 They first appeared in the eleventh century under St. Peter Damian; 
 again in 1268, when Reinier, a Dominican, formed them into a sect; again 
 in 1349, when Germany was attacked with the pestilence called the Black 
 Death; again in 1574, when Henri III. of France joined the sect. They 
 still exist in Italy, France, Mexico and New Mexico, but their number is 
 small. 
 
 The natives of Botocudes, one of the hottest regions of the earth, 
 believe that heaven will be a land of cool streams and shady groves 
 entirely cleared of all underbrush and cacti! All desert-dwellers, it is 
 said, die expecting to awake in a wooded land supplied bountifully with 
 cold water. Natives of the frozen north have paradise pictured as 
 a land of warm sunshine, with glowing fires overhung with pots of boil- 
 ing whale's blubber, and easeful couches of fur scattered here and there. 
 The Caroline islanders, who are passionately fond of liquor, but who 
 are in mortal dread of breaking their necks by falling from one of the 
 millions of cliffs with which their islands abound, believe that paradise 
 will be a land as level as a floor, where one can get drunk and not be in 
 constant dread of cracking his cervical Tertebrae. 
 
216 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Catholic sisterhood known as Beguines was organized in the 
 Netherlands in the twelfth century. They are still extant in Germany, 
 but there is at Ghent the noted Beguinage of St. Elizabeth, with seven 
 hundred sisters, who live in a separate quarter of the town in one hun- 
 dred and three little brick-built cottages, with eighteen convents and 
 two churches, arranged in streets and squares within a common wall, 
 open to the visits of strangers. Living here a life of retirement and 
 piety, the Beguines, in their simple dark dresses, go out as nurses to the 
 hospitals and perform other acts of kindness among the poor. Though 
 they are under no monastic vow, it is their boast that none is known to 
 have quitted the sisterhood. 
 
 The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, was founded by Ignatius Loyola, and 
 confirmed by Paul III. in 1540. It was monarchical in its constitution 
 and secular, while all other Catholic societies are more or less democratic 
 and regular. The head of the society is called the General, or Prtzpo- 
 situs Generalis, and holds his office for life. This General has absolute 
 command over the whole society, and from his decisions there is no ap- 
 peal. The four objects of the society are: (1) the education of youth; (2) 
 the education of others by preaching, etc.; (3) the defense of the Catholic 
 faith against all heretics and unbelievers, and (4) the propagation of the 
 Catholic faith among the heathen. The Jesuits wear no monastic garb, 
 but dress like any other of the "secular clergy," and live in no religious 
 house, but in private dwellings. 
 
 Candlemas is an ecclesiastical festival observed on 2d February in 
 honor of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, when she presented the in- 
 fant Jesus in the temple. The great feast of expiation and purification 
 (Februa)in ancient Rome was held on the 15th of February. Its institu- 
 tion as a Christian festival took place in the reign of Emperor Justinian 
 in 541 or 542. A principal part of the celebration is a procession of light- 
 candles hence the name. There is a tradition all over Christendom to 
 the effect that a fine Candlemas portends a severe spring. Sir Thomas 
 Browne in his Vulgar Errors quotes a Latin distich expressive of this 
 idea. In Scotland the prognostication is expressed in the following 
 distich : If Candlemas is fair and clear. 
 
 There '11 be twa winters in the year. 
 
 The Wahabees is the name of a reforming Mahommedan sect founded 
 by Abd-el-Wahhab (1691-1787), a renowned Oriental scholar of the prov- 
 ince of Nejd, in Arabia, who prohibited to his followers the use of intoxi- 
 cating liquors and tobacco, and reasserted the primitive doctrine and 
 practice of the Koran. Subjected to persecution, the Wahabees appealed 
 to the sword, and acquired, in addition to the character of a reforming 
 religious sect, that of a native Arabian political party. At one time their 
 power extended over almost the whole of Arabia, Mecca being conquered 
 in 1803, and Medina in 1804. The Wahabees' power was for a time 
 broken by Mehemet Ali, of Egypt, and his son, Ibrahim Pasha (acting 
 for the Ottoman Porte), and the Wahabees' chief was beheaded (December 
 19, 1818), in the public square in front of St. Sophia, Constantinople; but 
 the empire of the Wahabees was speedily re-established, with Nejd for its 
 nucleus, and at the present day extends, a well-organized and strong 
 independent state of Arabia, in a broad belt across the center of the pe- 
 ninsula, from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf, the population being esti- 
 mated at four millions. After 1823, for many years, the Wahabees gave 
 trouble in India. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 217 
 
 The societies formed to distribute the Holy Scriptures are called 
 Bible societies. The following are the names of the chief societies, their 
 nationality, date of foundation, and approximate total issue of copies( in 
 whole or in part) of the Bible: England, British and Foreign, 1804 (due 
 to the initiative of a Welsh clergyman), translated into some three hun- 
 dred different languages, 100,000,000; Scotland, National, 1861 (from 
 union of older soc. , as the Edinburgh, 1809), 6,000,000; Ireland, Hiber- 
 nian, 1806, 5,000,000; United States 1816, 40,000,000; France, two societies 
 f. 1818 and 1833; Germany, Prussian, 1814; Switzerland, Basle, 1804; Rus- 
 sian, 1826, suppressed, but revived 1831; Sweden, 1808; Norway, 1816; 
 Netherlands, 1815. 
 
 The Kaaba, or "Caaba, " was taken possession of by Cossai about 455, 
 and was restored in 1630 by the Sultan Mustapha. The word means ' 'the 
 square house, ' ' and it designates a stone building in the great mosque at 
 Mecca. Next the silver door is the famous Black Stone, "Dropped from 
 Paradise." It was originally white, but the sin of the world has turned 
 it black. In pilgrimages the devotee walks round the Kaaba seven 
 times, and each time he passes the stone either kisses it or lays his hand 
 thereon. According to Arabian legend Adam, after his expulsion from 
 the garden, worshipped Allah on this spot. A tent was then sent down 
 from heaven, but Seth substituted a hut for the tent. After the flood 
 Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the Kaaba. 
 
 By infallibility is meant entire exemption from liability to erro r 
 when the pope speaks ex cathedra. The dogma of papal infallibility was 
 promulgated by the Vatican Council in 1870. As adopted by the Council 
 it is thus defined: "We teach and define that it is a dogma Divinely re- 
 vealed, that the Roman pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, 
 when in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by 
 virtue of his supreme authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith and 
 morals to be held by the universal Church, by the Divine assistance 
 promised him in blessed Peter is possessed of that infallibility with which 
 the Divine Redeemer willed that His Church should be endowed for de- 
 fining doctrines regarding faith or morals; and that, therefore, such 
 definitions of the Roman pontiffs are irreformable of themselves and not 
 by consent of the Church. ' ' 
 
 The W T aldenses, or Vaudois, is a sect inhabiting the valleys of the 
 Cottian Alps, in Northern Italy. It was founded by Peter Waldo 
 (1170), a rich merchant of Lyons, who sold his goods and gave the money 
 to the poor, and then went forth as a preacher of the doctrine of Christ 
 from a translation of the New Testament made into Provencal. The 
 preaching of the Waldenses led to collision with the ecclesiastical au- 
 thorities, and they were formally condemned by the Lateran Council of 
 1215. Persecution increased, and the Waldenses, originally an esoteric 
 society within the Church, withdrew altogether from its ministrations, 
 and appointed ministers of their own, election taking the place of ordi- 
 nation. By the end of the thirteenth century they were found in France, 
 Italy, Spain and Germany; but their numbers were greatly reduced, and 
 their limits circumscribed, by persecution on the one hand, and the gen- 
 eral movement of Protestantism at the Reformation on the other. They 
 have, at present, about forty churches, with four thousand members. 
 
218 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 THE SEVEN BIBLES OF THE WORLD 
 
 Are the Koran of the Mahommedans, the Eddas of the Scandinavians, 
 the Try Pitikes of the Buddhists, the Five Kings of the Chinese, the 
 Three Vedas of the Hindoos, the Zendavesta, and the Scriptures of the 
 Christians. The Koran is the most recent of these seven Bibles, and not 
 older than the seventh century of our era. It is a compound of quota- 
 tions from the Old and New Testaments, the Talmud, and the Gospel of 
 St. Barnabas. The Eddas of the Scandinavians were first published in 
 the fourteenth century. The Pitikes of the Buddhists contain sublime 
 morals and pure aspirations, and their author lived and died in the sixth 
 century before Christ. There is nothing of excellence in these sacred 
 books not found in the Bible. The sacred writings of the Chinese are 
 called the Five Kings, king meaning web of cloth, or the warp that keeps 
 the threads in their place. They contain the best sayings of the best 
 sages on the ethico-political duties of life. These sayings cannot be 
 traced to a period higher than the eleventh century B. c. The Three 
 Vedas are the most ancient books of the Hindoos, and it is the opinion 
 of Max Muller, Wilson, Johnson, and Whitney that they are not older 
 than the eleventh century B. c. The Zendavesta of the Persians is the 
 grandest of all the sacred books, next to our Bible. Zoroaster, whose 
 sayings it contains, was born in the twelfth century B. c. Moses lived 
 and wrote his Pentateuch in the fifteenth century B. c., and, therefore, 
 has a clear margin of three hundred years older than the most ancient 
 of the sacred writings. 
 
 NATIONALITY OF THE POPES. 
 
 The various nations of Europe are represented in the list of Popes as 
 follows: English, 1; Dutch, 1; Swiss, 1; Portuguese, 1; African, 2; Aus- 
 trian, 2; Spanish, 5; German, 6; Syrian, 8; Greek, 14; French, 15; Italian, 
 197. Eleven Popes reigned over 20 years; 69, from 10 to 20; 57, from 5 to 
 10; and the reign of 116 was less than 5 years. The reign of Pius IX. 
 was the longest of all, the only one exceeding 25 years. Pope Leo XIII. 
 is the 258th Pontiff. The full number of the Sacred College is seventy, 
 namely: Cardinal Bishops, 6; Cardinal Priests, 50; Cardinal Deacons, 14. 
 At present there are 62 Cardinals. The Roman Catholic hierarchy 
 throughout the world, according to official returns published at Rome 
 in 1884, consisted of 11 Patriarchs and 1,153 Archbishops and Bishops. 
 Including 12 coadjutor or auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman 
 Catholic archbishops and bishops now holding office in the British Empire 
 is 134. The numbers of the clergy are approximate only. 
 
 FATE OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 The following brief history of the fate of the Apostles may be new 
 to those whose reading has not been evangelical: 
 
 St. Matthew is supposed to have suffered martyrdom or was slain 
 with the sword at the city of Ethiopia. 
 
 St. Mark was dragged through the streets of Alexandria, in Egypt, 
 till he expired. 
 
 St. Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in Greece. 
 
 St. John was put into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome and escaped 
 death. He afterward died a natural death at Ephesus in Asia. 
 
 St. James the Great was beheaded at Jerusalem. 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 219 
 
 St. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle or wing of the temple 
 ^iid then beaten to death with a fuller's club. 
 
 St. Philip was hanged up against a pillar at Hieropolis, a city of 
 Phrygia. 
 
 St. Bartholomew was flayed alive by the command of a barbarous 
 king. 
 
 St. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached unto the 
 people till he expired. 
 
 St. Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel, 
 in the Bast Indies. 
 
 St. Jude was shot to death with arrows. 
 
 St. Simon Zealot was crucified in Persia. 
 
 St. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. 
 
 St. Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salania. 
 
 St. Paul was beheaded at Rome by the tyrant Nero. 
 
 THE NAME OF GOD IN FORTY-EIGHT LANGUAGES. 
 
 Hebrew Eleah, Jehovah Olotu tongue Deu 
 
 Chaldaic Eiliah German and Swiss Gott 
 
 Assyrian Eleah Flemish God 
 
 Syrian and Turkish Alah Dutch God 
 
 Malay Alia English God 
 
 Arabic Allah Teutonic Goth 
 
 languages of the Magi Orsi Danish and Swedish Gud 
 
 Old Egyptian Teut Norwegian Gud 
 
 Armenian Teuti Slay Buch 
 
 Modern Egyptian Teun Polish Bog 
 
 Greek Theos Polacca Bung 
 
 Cretan Thios Lapp Jubinal 
 
 Aedian and Dorian Ilos Finnish Jumala 
 
 Latin Deus Runic As 
 
 Low Latin Diex Zemblian Fetiza 
 
 Celtic Gaelic Diu Pannonian Istu 
 
 French Dieu Hindoostanee Rain 
 
 Spanish Dios Coromandel Brama 
 
 Portuguese Deos Tartar Magatai 
 
 Old German Diet Persian Sire 
 
 Provincial Diou Chinese Prussa 
 
 Low Breton Done Japanese Goezer 
 
 Italian Dio Madagascar Zannar 
 
 Irish Dia Peruvian Puchecammae 
 
 THE SALVATION ARMY. 
 
 The Salvation Army is a missionary organization set on foot in Eng- 
 land by William Booth, who was called the "General" of the army. The 
 plan of operation is for a company to march about cities, towns, and vil- 
 lages, singing popular sacred songs and speaking between whiles for 
 about five minutes. The army has also a large number of religious period- 
 icals and small books. Mr. Booth was a minister of the Methodist New 
 Connexion, which he left in 1861 to begin "revivalistic services" in a 
 tent in Whitechapel. In 1865 his little band of followers called them- 
 selves "The East London Christian Revival Society," afterwards changed 
 to "The Christian Mission." In 1869 the Mission made expeditions to 
 provincial towns. Lastly, in 1873, the name was changed to ' 'The Salvation 
 Army." Their literary organ called "The Christian Mission* first appeared 
 monthly in 1874. In 1879 it was called "The Salvationist" and in the 
 same year its title was changed into "The War Cry." Its flag now flies 
 in thirty-four countries or colonies, where, under the leadership of 11,- 
 
220 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TTON. 
 
 149 men and women, whose lives are entirely given up to the work, it 
 holds 49,800 religious meetings every week. It has 27 weekly newspapers 
 and 15 magazines, with a total annual circulation of 49,015,044. It has 
 accumulated $4, 015, 085 worth of property, pays rentals amounting to 
 $1, 100, 000 per annum for its meeting places, and has a total income from 
 all sources of $3, 750, 000. The Army literature is issued in fifteen lan- 
 guages and services are held in 29 languages. The number of local officers, 
 bandsmen and office employes is 23,540. The United States branch was 
 established in 1880. There are now in this country 536 corps and out- 
 posts and 1,487 officers, with 15,000 adherents. The value of the prop- 
 erty held by the United States wing of the Army is $175, 000. 
 
 WORSHIP OF THE HUMAN FAMILY. 
 
 The following estimates, by M. Fournier de Flaix, are the latest that 
 have been made by a competent authority. (See Quarterly of the Ameri- 
 can Statistical Association for March, 1892.) 
 
 CREEDS. 
 
 No. of Followers. 
 
 CREEDS. 
 
 No. of Followers. 
 
 1 Christianity 
 
 477,088 158 
 
 5 Buddhism 
 
 147 900 000 
 
 2 Worship of Ancestors 
 
 
 6 Taoism 
 
 43000 000 
 
 and Confucianism 
 
 256,000,000 
 190000000 
 
 7 Shintoism 
 8 Judaism . . . 
 
 14,000,000 
 7 056 000 
 
 4 Mahommedanism .... 
 
 176,834,372 
 
 9 Polytheism 
 
 1 17 681 669 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 Total. 
 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Catholic Church 
 
 230,866,533 
 
 Armenian Church 
 
 1 690 000 
 
 Protestant Churches. 
 
 143237625 
 
 Nestorians 
 
 80 000 
 
 Orthodox Greek Church 
 
 98 016 000 
 
 
 70 000 
 
 
 3 000 000 
 
 
 
 Coptic Church .... 
 
 120000 
 
 
 477 080 158 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE GREAT COUNCILS. 
 
 A council or synod, is an assembly of ecclesiastics met to regulate doc- 
 trine or discipline. We first hear of such assemblies during the Mon- 
 tanist controversy, about 150 A. D. (Ecumenical councils are convoked 
 from all parts of Christendom, and claim to regulate the affairs of the 
 whole church. Other synods have represented the East and West respec- 
 tively. Patriarchal, national, and primatial councils represent a whole 
 patriarchate, a nation, or the several provinces subject to a primate, 
 while the bishops and other dignitaries of a province constitute a provin- 
 cial; the clergy of a diocese under the presidency of the bishop, a dio- 
 cesan council. Mixed councils during the middle ages dealt with civil 
 as well as ecclesiastical affairs, and were composed of secular persons 
 as well as churchmen. Sometimes, but not always, the lay and eccle- 
 siastical members voted in separate chambers. 
 
 The Greek Church recognizes seven general councils viz. : (1) The 
 first of Nicsea, 325 A. D. ; (2) the first of Constantinople, 381; (3) Ephesus, 
 431; (4) Chalcedon, 451; (5) second of Constantinople, 553; (6) third of 
 Constantinople, 680; (7) second of Nicaea, 787. To these Roman Cathol- 
 ics add: (8) fourth of Constantinople, 869; (9) first Lateran, 1123; (10) 
 second Lateran, 1139; (11) third Lateran, 1179; (12) fourth Lateran, 1215; 
 
CREEDS OF THE WORLD. 221 
 
 13) first of Lyons, 1245; (14) second of Lyons, 1274; (15) Vienne, 1311; 
 (16) Constance, 1414-18, of which Ultramontanes accept only the decrees 
 passed in sessions 1442-45 inclusive and such decrees of earlier sessions 
 as were approved by Martin V. ; (17) Basel, 1431 and the following years, 
 oecumenical according to Ultramontanes only till the end of the twenty- 
 fifth session, and even then only in respect of such decrees as were ap- 
 proved by Eugenius IV. ; (18) Ferrara- Florence, 1438-42, really a contin- 
 uation of Basel; (19) fifth Lateran, 1512-17; (20) Trent, 1545-63; (21) 
 Vatican, December 8, 1869, to July 18, 1870, and still unfinished. 
 
 MORMONS AND THEIR "BOOK." 
 
 The Mormons or Latter Day Saints, are a religious sect founded in 
 1830 by Joseph Smith, of Vermont, who declared that he received his 
 mission from an angel in 1823. This angel told him where to find certain 
 plates containing the records of the ancient American prophets. These 
 plates were about as thick as tin, and held together by three rings run- 
 ning through them all. The character employed was "Reformed Egyp- 
 tian," and with the plates were deposited the "Urim and Thummim," 
 or spectacles for deciphering them. The plates say that the Americans 
 were a colony from the Tower of Babel at the confusion of tongues. The 
 Mormonites receive their name from the prophet Mormon who wrote 
 the plates called "The Book of Mormon." There are in the United 
 States 856 organizations with 166,125 communicants in the Mormon 
 Church. Polygamy so long practiced has given place to monogamy. 
 
 A notable publication was the "Book of Mormon" claiming to be 
 the "revealed'' history of America from its first settlement by a colony 
 dispersed at the confusion of tongues to the fifth century of the Chris- 
 tian Era. Joseph Smith professed that this information was Obtained 
 by him in September, 1827, in a volume of metal plates engraved in 
 reformed. Egyptian, and discovered by revelation "on the west side of 
 a hill, not far from the top, about four miles from Palmyra, in the 
 county of Ontario." As Smith could not decipher the writing, a pair of 
 magic spectacles, which he called his Urim and Thummim, were given to 
 him, and one Oliver Cowdery wrote down on paper what Smith professed 
 to translate. It is said that the "Book" is a mere plagiary of a MS. 
 romance by the Rev. Solomon Spalding in 1816. Certainly the plates and 
 spectacles have disappeared. 
 
 CREEDS OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Washington, Garfield and HarrGon were the only Presidents who 
 were church members, but all, one excepted, were men who revered 
 Christianity. Adams married a minister's daughter, and was inclined to 
 Unitarianism. Jefferson was not a believer, at least while he was Chief 
 Magistrate. Madison's early connections were Presbyterian. Monroe 
 is said to have favored the Episcopal Church. John Quincy Adams was 
 like his father. Jackson was a Presbyterian and died in the communion 
 of that church. Van Buren was brought up in the Reformed Dutch 
 Church, but afterwards inclined to the Episcopal Church. Harrison 
 leaned toward the Methodist Church, and Tyler w r as an Episcopalian. 
 Polk was baptized by a Methodist preacher after his term of office expired. 
 Taylor was inclined to the Episcopal communion. Fillmore attended 
 the Unitarian Church, and Franklin Pierce was a member, but not a 
 communicant, of a Congregationalist Church, at Concord. Buchanan was 
 
222 
 
 MANUAL OP USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 a Presbyterian, as is also Benjamin Harrison. General Grant attended 
 the Methodist Church, and President Garfield the Church of the Disci- 
 ples. Grover Cleveland has worshipped with the Presbyterians. 
 
 RELIGIOUS BODIES IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 (ACCORDING TO REPORTS OF CENSUS OF 1890.) 
 
 DENOMINATIONS. 
 
 ORGANIZA- 
 TIONS. 
 
 CHURCH 
 EDIFICES. 
 
 COMMUNI- 
 CANTS. 
 
 
 1 756 
 
 744 
 
 60 491 
 
 Baptists 
 
 41 629 
 
 35093 
 
 3 594 093 
 
 (River) Brethren 
 
 111 
 
 69 
 
 ' 347 
 
 (Plymouth) Brethren 
 
 23^ 
 
 4 
 
 6 408 
 
 Catholics . ... 
 
 10 260 
 
 8 799 
 
 6 255 033 
 
 Catholic Apostolic 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 1 394 
 
 Chinese Temples . . 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 
 Christadelphians 
 
 63 
 
 4 
 
 1 277 
 
 Christians 
 
 1 424 
 
 1 097 
 
 103 722 
 
 Christian Missionary Association 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 754 
 
 
 221 
 
 7 
 
 8 724 
 
 Christian Union . 
 
 294 
 
 183 
 
 18 214 
 
 Church of God ( Winnebrenarian ) 
 
 479 
 
 338 
 
 22511 
 
 Church Triumphant (Schweinlurth) 
 
 12 
 
 
 384 
 
 Church of New Jerusalem 
 
 154 
 
 87 
 
 7 095 
 
 Communistic Societies 
 
 37 
 
 45 
 
 4 401 
 
 Congregationalists .... ... 
 
 4 868 
 
 4736 
 
 512 771 
 
 
 7 246 
 
 5 324 
 
 641 051 
 
 Dunkards 
 
 969 
 
 1 018 
 
 73 845 
 
 
 2310 
 
 1 99 
 
 133 313 
 
 Friends 
 
 1,056 
 
 995 
 
 107 208 
 
 Friends of the Temple 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 340 
 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 36 156 
 
 German Evan Synod 
 
 870 
 
 785 
 
 187 432 
 
 
 533 
 
 301 
 
 130496 
 
 Latter-Day Saints 
 
 856 
 
 388 
 
 166 125 
 
 
 8595 
 
 6703 
 
 1 ^31 072 
 
 
 550 
 
 405 
 
 41 541 
 
 Methodists ... . 
 
 51,503 
 
 46,! 50 
 
 4 588 662 
 
 
 94 
 
 114 
 
 11 781 
 
 Presbyterians 
 
 IV 76 
 
 12,452 
 
 1 278 332 
 
 Episcopalians 
 
 5 102 
 
 5,103 
 
 540 509 
 
 
 2 181 
 
 2079 
 
 309 458 
 
 
 '329 
 
 27 
 
 8 662 
 
 Schwenkfeldians . .... 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 306 
 
 Social Brethren 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 913 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 064 
 
 
 334 
 
 30 
 
 45 030 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 695 
 
 United Brethren 
 
 4,526 
 
 3,419 
 
 225 158 
 
 
 421 
 
 424 
 
 67 749 
 
 
 956 
 
 832 
 
 49 24 
 
 Unassociated congregations ... 
 
 150 
 
 103 
 
 12 228 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grand totals 
 
 163,786 
 
 139,928 
 
 20.489,697 
 
 WHAT IS A STATE RELIGION? 
 
 A state religion and a national religion are two different things. A 
 nation may, with more or less universal concurrence, accept a certain 
 type of religion as the people of the United States for the most part ac- 
 cept Christianity yet they may not commit to their government the 
 task either of representing officially or of maintaining financially their 
 
CREEDS OP THE WORLD. 223 
 
 religion. In that case it is a national but not a state religion. Wherever, 
 on the other hand, we witness either establishment or endowment com- 
 mitted to the government even if, as in Ireland till 1869, the religion 
 thus favored is very far from being national there we have the spectacle 
 of a state religion. 
 
 AN OMITTED PSALM. 
 
 Your Bible, if it is of the regulation sort, closes the Book of Psalms 
 with the 150th. In the Greek Bible, however, there is another entitled 
 "A Psalm of David After He Had Slain Goliath." Athanasius praises it 
 very highly in his "Synopsis of the Holy Scriptures." It was versified 
 by Apollinarius Alexandrius, A. D. 360, and a Latin translation of it 
 may be found in the works of Fabricus, Vol. II., pp. 995-997. The trans- 
 lation below is by Baring-Gould, the well-known antiquarian. 
 
 PSALM CLI 
 
 1. I was small among my brethren; and growing up in my father's house, I kept 
 his sheep. 
 
 2. My hands made the organ and my fingers shaped the psaltery. 
 
 8. And who declared unto my Lord. He, the Lord, he heard all things. 
 
 4. He sent his angels and they took me from my father's sheep; he anointed me 
 jn mercy from his unction. 
 
 5. Great and goodly are my brethren, but with them God was not well pleased. 
 
 6. I went to meet the [giant] stranger; and he cursed me by all his idols. 
 
 7. But I smote off his head with his own drawn sword; and I blotted out the re- 
 proach of Israel. 
 
 RELIGION AS A SCIENCE. 
 
 A religion is a group or whole of religious phenomena of religious 
 beliefs, practices and institutions so closely connected with one another 
 as to be thereby differentiated from those of any other religion. Each 
 religion has had a history, and its rise and spread, formation and trans- 
 formations, as a religion, can only be truly traced by being histori- 
 cally traced. Also religions are historically connected, are related to 
 one another, and have influenced one another, in ways which may 
 be discovered, and can only be discovered, by historical research. 
 Hence the History of Religions is also the history of religion, 
 not an aggregation of the histories of particular religions, but a 
 truly general history. Like the histories of art, industry, science, and 
 society in general, it is found on examination to have been a process of 
 development in which each stage of religion has proceeded gradually 
 from antecedent factors and conditions. The precise nature of the devel- 
 opment can only be ascertained by investigation of the history itself. No 
 hypothesis of development should be assumed as a presupposition of such 
 investigation. Naturalistic apriorism is as illegitimate in historical in- 
 quiry as theological or metaphysical apriorism. The history of religion 
 is not only of great importance in itself, but indispensable to the right 
 understanding of general history, of the history of art, of philosophy, 
 etc. It has been studied with more zeal and success during the nineteenth 
 century than in all the preceding ages. The history of religious beliefs 
 is, of course, only a part of the history of religions. It is, however, dis- 
 tinguishable, although inseparable from it, and is often and conveniently 
 designated Comparative Theology. It comprehends comparative myth- 
 ology and the history of doctrines, myths being beliefs which are mainly 
 the products of imagination and doctrines of reflection. 
 
 The Psychology of Religion, the History of Religions, and Compara- 
 tive Theology are clearly distinct, and ought not to be confounded. At 
 
224 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 the same time they are closely connected. They agree in that they are 
 alike occupied with religion as an empirical fact. Hence they may be 
 regarded as parts of a comprehensive* science, to which it might 
 be well to confine the designation "Science of Religions," instead 
 of using it in the vague and ambiguous way which is so com- 
 mon. Thus understood, the Science of Religions may be said to deal 
 with religion as a phenomenon of experience, whether outwardly mani- 
 fested in history or inwardly realized in consciousness; to seek to describe 
 and explain religious experience so far as it can be described and ex- 
 plained without transcending the religious experience itself. Its stu- 
 dents have only to ascertain, analyse, explain and exhibit experienced 
 fact. Were religion a physical fact, to study it merely as a fact would be 
 enough. The astronomer, the naturalist, the chemist have no need to 
 judge their facts; they have only to describe them, analyze them, and 
 determine their relations. But it is otherwise with the students of re- 
 ligion, of morality, of art, of reasoning. They soon come to a point 
 where they must become judges of the phenomena and pronounce on 
 their truth and worth. Experience in the physical sphere is experience 
 and nothing more; experience in the spiritual sphere is very often ex- 
 perience of what is irreverent and impious, immoral and vicious, ugly 
 and erroneous, foolish or insane. Has the mind simply to describe and 
 analyze, accept and be content with such experience? Even the logician 
 and thesesthetician will answer in the negative, will claim to judge their 
 facts as conforming to or contravening the laws of truth and the ideals 
 of art. Still more decidedly must the moralist and the student of re- 
 ligion so answer. Religion, then, is not completely studied when it is 
 only studied historically. Hence it must be dealt with by other sciences 
 or disciplines than those which are merely historical. 
 
 All the particular theological sciences or disciplines treat of particu- 
 lar aspects of religion or of religion in particular ways. Their relation- 
 ships to one another can only be determined by their relationship to it. 
 They can only be unified and co-ordinated in a truly organic manner by 
 their due reference to it. When religion is studied not merely in partic- 
 ular aspects and ways, but in its unity and entirety, with a view to its 
 comprehension in its essence and all essential relations, it is the object 
 of the Philosophy of Religion. Although a distinct and essential depart- 
 ment of philosophy, and the highest and most comprehensive theological 
 science, the philosophy of religion could only have appeared in an inde- 
 pendent and appropriate form when both philosophy and theology were 
 highly developed. 
 
 THE TESTIMONY OF LITERATURE. 
 
 To be of no church is dangerous. Religion, of which the rewards 
 are distant and which is animated only by Faith and Hope, will glide 
 by degrees out of the mind, unless it be invigorated and reimpressed by 
 external ordinances, by stated calls to worship and the salutary influence 
 of example. Johnson. 
 
 The writers against religion, whilst they oppose every system, are 
 wisely careful never to set up any of their own. Burke. 
 
 A little philosophy inclineth a man's mind to atheism, but depth of 
 philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion. Bacon. 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 
 
 Go abroad 
 
 Upon the paths of nature, and when all 
 Its voices whisper, and its silent things 
 Are breathing the deep beauty of the world, 
 Kneel at its simple altar. 
 
 N. P. WILLIS. 
 
 ANSWERS TO MANY QUERIES. 
 
 Newton was born in 1642. 
 
 The word philosophy means "I love wisdom." 
 
 Astrology rightly means the science of the stars. 
 
 Galileo constructed the first refracting telescope. 
 
 The term science comes from the Latin sew, I know. 
 
 At the equator the limit of perpetual snow is 14,400 feet. 
 
 Perigee is that point in the moon's orbit nearest the earth. 
 
 Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, invented the barometer in 1643. 
 
 The principle of the pendulum was discovered by Galileo in 1583. 
 
 Among all rude nations the healing art is practiced by the priests. 
 
 The I/eyden Jar was invented by Muschenbrock, of L,eyden, in 1746. 
 
 Perihelion is that point of a planet's orbit in which it is nearest 
 the sun. 
 
 The first balloon ascent was made in 1783 by Joseph and Stephen 
 Montgolfier. 
 
 Froebel reminds us that nature supplies the raw material, education 
 is the manufacturer. 
 
 As physics means the science of matter, it is about synonymous with 
 natural philosophy. 
 
 Aphelion is that point in the elliptical orbit of a planet which is 
 most remote from the sun. 
 
 The inductive school of philosophy, on which modern science has 
 been developed, began about 1624. 
 
 The horse-power of Niagara is three and one quarter million nomi- 
 nal, equal to ten million horses effective. 
 
 Three miles an hour is about the average speed of the gulf stream; 
 at certain places, however, this speed is considerably increased. 
 
 Cuvier says: "In the exact sciences at least, it is the patience of a 
 sound intellect, when invincible, which truly constitutes genius." 
 
 U. I. 15 225 
 
226 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Satellites are small members of the solar system, taking the place of 
 attendants of the larger planets, by which their motions are controlled. 
 
 On shipboard the term Binnacle is given to a wooden box or case 
 containing the compass, together with a lamp and other necessary ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 The crow flies at the rate of but twenty-five miles per hour. The 
 sparrow hawk flies six times as far, or 150 miles, in the same length 
 of time. 
 
 Rider Haggard makes a scientific error when in "King Solomon's 
 Mines" he describes a lunar eclipse taking place at the new moon instead 
 of at the full. 
 
 The Arctic whale never migrates to the southward as most species of 
 whales do, because of its inability to live in the heated waters of the 
 southern seas. 
 
 The carbon of the food, mixed with the oxygen of the air, furnishes 
 fuel for the body, which evolves the heat in exactly the same way that a 
 fire or candle does. 
 
 The smallest tree in Great Britain grows on the summit of Ben Lo- 
 mond. It is the dwarf willow, which is mature when it attains the 
 height of two inches. 
 
 Lightning is zig-zag because, as it condenses the air in the immediate 
 advance of its path it flies from side to side in order to pass where there is the 
 least resistance to its progress. 
 
 Generally speaking, we say that the curvature of the earth amounts 
 to about seven inches to the statute mile; it is exactly 6.99 inches, or 7.962 
 inches for a geographical mile. 
 
 The sciences that have been educed from reason are called abstract, 
 those that depend on cause and effect are natural, and those assumed to 
 be complete are exact sciences. 
 
 Good clear ice, two inches thick, will bear men to walk on; four 
 inches thick will bear horses and riders; six inches thick will bear horses 
 and teams with moderate loads. 
 
 The normal temperature of man is about 98.5 degrees; of the snail, 76 
 degrees; oyster, 82 degrees; porpoise, 100 degrees; sheep, 104 degrees; hog, 
 105 degrees; chicken, 11 degrees. 
 
 To discover the weight of our earth, Cavendish makes it 5,480 times 
 the weight of water, and the total weight to be 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,- 
 000 tons (/'. e. 6,000,000 trillions). 
 
 The properties and use of the mariner's compass were known to the 
 Chinese centuries ago. It was brought to Europe in the thirteenth century, 
 and first used on the Mediterranean. 
 
 That fragile and paradoxical wonder, the "snow plant," which is 
 found in the Sierra Nevada mountains, is pronounced by western botan- 
 ists as probably our most remarkable plant. 
 
 One horse-power will raise 16^ tons per minute a height of twelve 
 inches, working eight hours a day. This is about nine thousand nine 
 hundred foot-tons daily, or twelve times a man's work. 
 
 A gray, green, or yellowish green sunset indicates rain. A red sun- 
 set means rain. A deep blue sky means fair weather. A growing white- 
 ness, a storm. Unusually bright or twinkling stars mean rain. 
 
JO TTINGS IN SCIENCE. 227 
 
 Plants breathe through the " stomata," or breathing-pores in the 
 leaves. In case the plant or tree is of the leafless variety the stem, which 
 is also provided with stomata, performs the office of breathing. 
 
 In the manufacture of air gas, steam is passed over petroleum or other 
 rich mineral oil, which it volatilizes, and the resulting mixture burns 
 brilliantly. The process is, however, expensive, and not much used. 
 
 When we speak of chemical affinity we mean the tendency to combine 
 with one another which is exhibited by many substances; or to the force 
 by which the substances constituting a compound are held together. 
 
 The elephant is given the credit of being the most long-lived, as well 
 as the most intelligent of all animals. Cuvier says that there are in- 
 stances of their having lived to beyond the age of three hundred years. 
 
 Professor Barnard's photograph of the milky way shows the exist- 
 ence of 500,000,000 suns, each supposed to be the center of a system of 
 planets, where hitherto it was thought to contain only about 20,000,000 
 such suns. 
 
 A female codfish will lay 45,000,000 eggs during a single season. 
 Piscatorial authorities say that were it not for the work of the natural 
 enemies of fish, they would fill all the available space in the seas, rivers 
 and oceans. 
 
 Snow appears white because it is an aggregation of an infinite num- 
 ber of minute crystals, each reflecting all the colors of the rainbow; these 
 colors, uniting before they reach the eye, cause it to appear white to every 
 normal eye. 
 
 Army worm is a name sometimes given to the grubs of a small black 
 fly, very common in some European forests. In the United States the 
 name is given to a voracious moth, common everywhere, which collects 
 in large numbers. 
 
 One pair of rabbits can become multiplied in four years into one 
 million two hundred and fifty thousand. They were introduced in Aus- 
 tralia a few years ago, and now that colony ships six million rabbit skins 
 yearly to England. 
 
 The nautical term "trade winds" applies to constant winds which 
 blow at sea to the distance of about 30 on both sides of the equator. On 
 the north of the equator they blow from the north-east, and on the south 
 from the south-east. 
 
 Lead in the form of filings, under a pressure of two thousand atmos- 
 pheres, or thirteen tons to the square inch, becomes compressed into a 
 solid block, in which it is impossible to detect the slightest vestige of 
 the original grain. Under a pressure of five thousand atmospheres it 
 liquefies. 
 
 Below half a mile in depth the water of the ocean is intensely cold, 
 remaining both winter and summer at a point only slightly above freez- 
 ing. The contents of a trawl hauled up from the floor of the sea at 
 the equator, will be found to include mud and ooze that is nearly 
 freezing. 
 
 Simoom (Arab, samdm. fr. samma, he poisoned) is the designation 
 of a hot, dry wind, laden with dust and sand, which prevails in Africa 
 and Arabia, especially at the time of the equinoxes. It originates in the 
 sand deserts of the interior. Called Sirocco in South Italy, and Solano 
 in Spain. 
 
228 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Richard Proctor, the astronomer, said that when a novelist attempts 
 to describe a scientific phenomenon, he should take care to be exact, for 
 people pay more attention to the descriptions of the novel than to those 
 of the scientific text-book. 
 
 We have sixty divisions on the dials of our clocks and watches, be- 
 cause the old Greek astronomer, Hipparchus, who lived in the second 
 century before Christ, used the Babylonian system of dividing time, and 
 that system being sexagesimal. 
 
 Tin, when compressed in powder, becomes solid under a pressure of 
 ten tons on the square inch, zinc at thirty-eight tons, antimony at thirty- 
 eight tons, aluminum at thirty-eight tons, bismuth at thirty-eight tons, 
 and copper at thirty-three tons. 
 
 The volume of a portion of gas varies inversely as the pressure. Thus 
 if we double the pressure, the gas will be reduced one-half; if we treble 
 the pressure, the volume of gas will be reduced to one-third, and so on. 
 This is the fact which physicists term Boyle's Law. 
 
 It is believed that whales often attain the age of four hundred years. 
 The number of years these huge creatures have lived is ascertained by 
 counting the layers of laminae forming the horny substance known as 
 "whalebone." These laminae increase yearly, just as the "growths" do 
 on a tree. 
 
 Scientists say that if the bed of the Pacific ocean could be seen it 
 would disclose to view several mountains with truncated tops scattered 
 over it. These mountains would be perfectly bare at their bases, and all 
 around their tops they would be covered with a beautiful growth ot 
 coral polypi. 
 
 A camel has twice the carrying power of an ox; with an ordinary 
 load of four hundred pounds he can travel twelve to fourteen days with- 
 out water, going forty miles a day. Camels are fit to work at five years 
 old, but their strength begins to decline at twenty-five, although they live 
 usually till forty. 
 
 Should the earth collide with another world of equal bulk, it is 
 claimed the heat generated would be sufficient to melt, boil and com- 
 pletely evaporize a mass of ice seven hundred times the bulk of both the 
 colliding worlds in other words, an ice planet one hundred and fifty 
 thousand miles in diameter. 
 
 Scientists use the term Choke-damp (also called after-damp or foul 
 damp), to describe the carbonic acid gas given off by coal which ac- 
 cumulates in coal mines, and may suffocate those exposed to it. It is 
 distinguished from fire-da mj>, the marsh gas or light carburetted hydro- 
 gen which causes the explosions. 
 
 Our atmosphere which is a gaseous compound of oxygen and nitro- 
 gen surrounding the earth, is estimated to extend for a distance of forty- 
 five miles from the globe. It exerts a pressure of fifteen pounds to the 
 square inch on the surface of human and other bodies, but as the pres- 
 sure is balanced inside and out no inconvenience is felt. 
 
 Heredity is the term applied to the transmission to the offspring of 
 the characteristics, mental and physical, of the parent. Such peculiari- 
 ties may be imparted by the mother or by the father. The* study of 
 heredity has in recent years been much developed by Haeckti, Herbert 
 Spencer, Huxley, Darwin, Wallace, Galton, and others 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 229 
 
 When starch is carefully heated to 392 (200 C.), or until vapors 
 arise from it, it becomes soluble in cold and hot water, and loses its gela- 
 tinous character; it also has the property, when viewed by polarized 
 light, of turning the plane of polarization to the right; hence its name of 
 dextrine. It is often used as a substitute for gum arabic. 
 
 According to geological computation, the minimum age of the earth 
 since the formation of the primitive soils is 21,000,000 years 6,700,000 
 years for the primordial formations, 6,400,000 years for the primary age, 
 2,300,000 years for the secondary age, and 460,000 years for the tertiary 
 age, and 100,000 since the appearance of man upon the globe. 
 
 Cosmos is a term used to denote the order and harmony of the uni- 
 verse. Originally used by Homer to denote " order " it was applied by 
 Heraclitus and Anaxagoras to the divine order and arrangement of 
 nature; by Plato to celestial and terrestrial order. It was further ap- 
 plied to the habitable world and the world generally as an orderly 
 system. 
 
 In geography the basin of a river is the whole tract of country drained 
 by that river. The line or boundary which separates one river-basin from 
 another is called the watershed. By tracing these watersheds, the whole 
 of a country or continent may be divided into a number of distinct basins; 
 the basin of a lake or sea being made up of the basins of all the rivers that 
 flow into it. 
 
 In Mercator's Projection the maps are so constructed that the lines of 
 longitude are straight and not curved. This device of representing a 
 globe in perspective on a flat surface is due to Edward Wright, an English- 
 man; but the chart so arranged by Wright was printed and published by 
 Gerard Mercator, a printer of maps in Flanders, who died at the age of 
 eighty-two, in 1594. 
 
 Those who use pencils should know that "black lead" is but the 
 popular name for plumbago, a mineral consisting chiefly of carbon, to- 
 gether with alumina, silica, lime, iron, etc. No lead whatever enters 
 into its composition. It is employed in making pencils, to give a black 
 gloss to iron grates, railings, etc. , and to diminish the friction of belts, 
 machinery and rifle cartridges. 
 
 An English rainmaker operating in India has an apparatus consist- 
 ing of a rocket capable of rising to the height of a mile, containing a 
 reservoir of ether. In its descent it opens a parachute, which causes it to 
 come down slowly. The ether is thrown out in a fine spray, and its ab- 
 sorption of heat is said to lower the temperature about it sufficiently to 
 condense the vapor and produce a limited shower. 
 
 The greatest known depth of the ocean is midway between the islands 
 of Tristan d' Acunha and the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. The bottom was 
 here reached at a depth of 46, 236 feet, eight and three-fourths miles, ex- 
 ceeding by more than thirteen thousand feet the height of Mt. Hercules, 
 the loftiest mountain in the world. The average depth of all the oceans 
 is from two thousand to three thousand fathoms. 
 
 It is a rare thing to find a really lustrous pearl in an American oys- 
 ter, but a great many such pearls are found in the common fresh-water 
 mussel. The pearl-bearing mussel is distributed over a wide area in the 
 United States, and extremely valuable mussel pearls have been found in 
 New Jersey, Ohio, Tennessee and several other states. An occasional 
 black pearl of some value is found in the native oyster. 
 
230 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Davy lamp is a form of safety lamp for use in coal mines, in' 
 vented by Sir Humphry Davy in 1815. In it the frame is surrounded with 
 fine wire gauze, on the principle that flame will not pass through the holes, 
 and so does not ignite the gas surrounding the lamp. George Stephen- 
 son invented a similar lamp, but both are now largely susperseded by the 
 use of electric lights in mines. 
 
 With the aid of the great Lick telescope the astronomers in charge 
 of that institution have made the startling discovery that one of the satel- 
 lites of Jupiter is double in other words, that what has heretofore been 
 taken for a single moon is, indeed, two moons, a large and a small one, 
 the lesser slowly revolving around the greater. Hereafter it will be 
 proper to speak of the "twenty-one moons of the solar system." 
 
 The word comet is derived from the Greek kome, "hair," a title 
 which had its origin in the hairy appearance often exhibited by the haze 
 or luminous vapor, the presence of which is at first sight the most strik- 
 ing characteristic of the celestial bodies called by this name. The gen- 
 eral features of a comet are a definite point or nucleus, a nebulous light 
 surrounding the nucleus, and a luminous train preceding or following 
 the nucleus. 
 
 Nectar in flowers is not honey. This nectar is gathered by the tongue 
 of the bee, and enters what is called the honey bag, from which it is re- 
 gurgitated by the bee on its return to the hive, and deposited in the honey 
 cell. Bven then it is thin and watery, and does not become really honey 
 until the watery parts have evaporated. In collecting the sweets the bees 
 do not confine themselves wholly to flowers. They extract them also 
 from fruits. 
 
 According to the theory of evolution, the lower animals develop into 
 the higher animals, so that the larvae of Ascidians (marine molluscoid) 
 developed gradually into apes, and probably apes are only one link from 
 man; but hitherto no trace of that link has been discovered, unless, in- 
 deed, it be in the Neanderthal skull found in the Rhine province of Rus- 
 sia, which seems to be between the skull of an ape and the skull of a 
 human being. 
 
 Several meanings attach to the word Degree. (1.) The highest part 
 of an unknown quantity in algebra. (2.) The three hundred and sixtieth 
 part of a circle, as of the circumference of the earth, the length being 
 sixty-nine and one-half miles at the equator. Academical D. A dis- 
 tinction conferred by the various universities in recognition of proficiency 
 in arts, medicine, law and science. There are three degrees: Bachelor, 
 Master and Doctor. 
 
 The theory of gravitation is the law by which all atoms of matter are 
 attracted one to another with a force directly proportional to the product 
 of the two masses, and inversely as the square of their distances. The 
 power of gravitation was noticed and speculated upon by the Greeks, and 
 Seneca noticed the attractive power of the moon over the ocean. Kepler 
 investigated the subject of gravitation in 1615. Galileo (c, 1633) demon- 
 strated the theory of gravitation. A system of gravitation was also pro- 
 jected by Hooke at the latter part of the seventeenth century. To Newton, 
 however, is ascribed the honor of proving mathematically the truth of 
 the theory in his great work the "Principia," published 1687. Newton's 
 laws have since been carried out to great perfection in their application 
 to complicated problems of astronomical and physical science. 
 
JO TTINGS IN SCIENCE. 231 
 
 Telepathy is a word coined about 1886 from the Greek to express the 
 supposed power of communication between one mind and another by 
 means unknown to the ordinary sense-organs. Some members of the 
 Psychical Research Society believe that they have established the fact 
 that such a power does exist in the material universe, and have attempted 
 to turn the assumption to account in the explanation of certain unex- 
 plained natural phenomena. 
 
 The blowpipe is a small instrument used in the arts for glass-blow- 
 ing and soldering metals, and in analytical chemistry and mineralogy 
 for determining the nature of substances by the action of an intense and 
 continuous heat. Its utility depends on the fact, that when a jet of air 
 or oxygen is thrown into a flame, the rapidity of combustion is increased, 
 while the effects are concentrated by diminishing the extent or space 
 originally occupied by the flame. 
 
 The analysis of the spectrum, which is an image of white light passed 
 through a prism, and refracted and decomposed into various colors of 
 light is what scientists mean by the term spectrum analysis. The light 
 of the sun and stars has been examined by spectrum analysis, and 
 these heavenly bodies have thus been shown to contain some of the 
 same elements as those which exist on the earth. Spectrum analysis 
 has also, been usefully employed in physiology and pathology, and for 
 the discovery of metals, etc. 
 
 One of the most wonderful discoveries in science that have been 
 made, is the fact that a beam of light produces sound. A beam of sun- 
 light is thrown through a lense on a glass vessel that contains lamp- 
 black, colored silk or worsted, or other substances. A disk, having 
 slits or openings cut in it, is made to revolve swiftly in this beam of light, 
 so as to cut it up, thus making alternate flashes of light and shadow. On 
 putting the ear to the glass vessel strange sounds are heard so long as the 
 flashing beam is falling on the vessel. 
 
 A term which has been occasionally abused in English popular writ- 
 ing is biology, more especially in the absurd word electro-biology, which 
 at one time threatened to take root in popular usage, and has even by 
 some scientific writers been confused with general physiology, or a special 
 province of it. Yet the established and only legitimate meaning of bi- 
 ology is its literal one, that of the science of life ie. the science which 
 seeks to classify and generalize the vast and varied multitude of phenom- 
 ena presented by and peculiar to the living world. 
 
 The Stoics were a school of philosophers who followed immediately 
 after Plato and Aristotle. It was founded by Zeno of Citium (340-260 
 B. c.), who taught in the painted portico (Stoa poikile} on the north side 
 of the market place at Athens. The Stoics taught that God is the soul 
 of the world, and that man's supreme good consists in living in accord- 
 ance with the perfect life of the universe. For two hundred years all 
 the best of the Romans were Stoics. 
 
 St. Elmo's Fire is the popular name of an electric appearance some- 
 times seen, especially in southern climates during thunder- storms, of a 
 brush or star of light at the tops of masts, spires, or other pointed objects. 
 It is also observed at the tops of trees, on the manes of horses, and occa- 
 sionally about human heads. It is similar in kind to the luminous glow 
 seen at the point when a lightning-rod is working imperfectly, or when 
 there is any very rapid production of electricity. 
 
232 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 In the human body there is said to be more than two million perspi- 
 ration glands communicating with the surface by ducts, having a total 
 length of some ten miles. The blood contains millions of millions of 
 corpuscles, each a structure in itself. The number of rods in the retina, 
 supposed to be the ultimate recipient of light, is estimated at thirty- 
 million. A German scientist has calculated that the gray matter of the 
 brain is built of at least six hundred million cells. 
 
 The word Arctic means property, lying near the constellation of the 
 Bear (Gr. arctos} or Ursa Major, and hence, northern. The Arctic Circle 
 is a circle drawn round the North Pole, at a distance from it equal to the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, or 23^. The corresponding circle round the 
 South Pole is the Antarctic Circle. Within each of these circles there is 
 a period of the year when the sun does not set, and another when he is 
 never seen, this latter period being longer the nearer to the pole. The 
 word is also used figuratively to express extreme cold. 
 
 The Ignis Fatuus (I/at, ignis, "fire," fatuus, "foolish") is aluminous 
 appearance of uncertain nature which is occasionally seen in marshy 
 places and churchyards. The phenomenon has been frequently described, 
 but it has been observed so rarely in favorable circumstances by scientific 
 men that there is no satisfactory explanation. The light usually appears 
 in autumn evenings shortly after sunset; it is common in the north of 
 Germany, in Italy, in the south and north west of England, and on the 
 west of Scotland, but it has been noticed in many other countries. 
 
 A device of modern science called the bottle chart is one which pur- 
 ports to show the track of sealed bottles thrown from ships into the sea. 
 Lieutenant Becher, an English naval officer, constructed in 1843 a chart 
 of bottle- voyages in the Atlantic, so as to illustrate the currents. The 
 time which elapses between the launching of the bottle from the ship 
 and the finding it on shore, or picking up by some other ship, has varied 
 from a few days to sixteen years; while the straight-line distance between 
 the two points has varied from a few miles to five thousand miles. 
 
 Somnambulism (Lat. somnus^ "sleep," ambulo, "I walk") is a dis- 
 order of sleep. It is symptomatic of more or less activity in some of the 
 psychical and motor areas of the brain, while the centers that preside 
 over consciousness are slumbering soundly. There are different forms, 
 as sleep-crying, sleep-talking (somniloquy) and sleep-walking. These 
 all involve sensori-motor acts. Sleep-walking is closely related to hys- 
 teria and epilepsy, and it occasionally alternates with these and allied 
 diseases. It occurs mostly in youth, affecting males and females in 
 almost equal proportion; commonly, although not invariably, it disap- 
 pears when adult age is attained. It is met with chiefly in persons of 
 nervous temperament. 
 
 A Vienna scientist has made a series of interesting experiments with 
 the virus of such insects as bees and wasps, and comes to the conclusion 
 that the effectiveness of the irritating substance depends largely upon 
 the mood of the insect. A drop of the fluid taken from the poison bag 
 of a dead hornet, for instance, produces a slight itching, but nothing re- 
 sembling the inflammation caused by a hornet sting with a much smaller 
 quantity of the same virus. This theory is supported by the curious fact 
 that under the influence of rage the saliva of all sorts of otherwise harm- 
 less animals can become virulent enough to produce alarming and even 
 
 fatal symptoms. Death from blood poisoning has more than once re- 
 sulted from the bite of a wounded squirrel, a chi] 
 
 tipmunk or a caged rat. 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 233 
 
 Alchemy, a pseudo chemistry, the precursor, in the middle ages, of 
 the modern science, had for its primary object the transmutation of 
 metals into gold and silver by the discovery of a universal solvent con- 
 taining the primary principle of all matter. This solvent, called the phi- 
 losopher 's stone, was supposed to possess the power of renewing life and 
 eliminating disease. Harmes Trismegistus, an ancient Egyptian king, 
 was claimed to be the founder of alchemy by the alchemists. Among its 
 devotees were Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Valentinus, Paracelsus, 
 and others. 
 
 Nocturnal creatures are generally supposed not to see well in the 
 daylight, but facts collected are gradually dispelling the idea. It is well 
 known that felines, which see well by night, seem to be able to see quite 
 as well by day, and this is being found true of many other creatures. 
 The bat sees admirably by daytime, as anyone can ascertain by threat- 
 ening it with a twig. The owl also has first-rate day sight. Night-flying 
 lepidoptera, when disturbed in their places of refuge during the day, have 
 no difficulty in seeing at once where is the nearest and best place for a 
 temporary refuge. 
 
 When animals or plants are removed from their peculiar and natural 
 districts to one entirely different in climate some surprising changes take 
 place. As soon as possible after such removal they change their charac- 
 ter and habits so as to conform with their new homes, or else cease to 
 exist. A good wool-bearing sheep transferred from some northern past- 
 ure to the tropics changes his coat to a thin covering of straggling hairs 
 scarcely resembling wool; the dog becomes destitute of hair altogether, 
 and even bees cease to lay up their stores of honey, and in a great meas- 
 ure lose their industrious habits. 
 
 We apply the term buoyancy to that quality whereby a ship, or any 
 other floating body, is enabled to support a certain weight. In the case 
 of a ship, it is necessary that such weight should be carried without her 
 sinking too deeply in the water, or floating too lightly on it. The weight 
 of a ship not loaded with any cargo, is exactly equivalent to the weight 
 of the volume of water she displaces. Therefore, given a certain draught- 
 line to which a ship is to be loaded, multiply the number of cubic feet of 
 the volume of the immersed part by the weight of a cubic foot of sea- 
 water (64 lb.), and the product will be the weight of water displaced by 
 the ship at the given draught-line. If from this the weight of a ship her- 
 self be subtracted, the residue is the amount of extra weight, or cargo 
 she is capable of carrying at that draught-line, and is a measure of her 
 quality of buoyancy. 
 
 Vivisection is a term applied to experiments upon animals for the 
 purpose of physiological and pathological investigation. The term, 
 although strictly applicable only to cutting operations is extended so as 
 to embrace all scientific operations upon living animals, such as the ad- 
 ministration of poisons and the innoculation of disease. The anti- vivisec- 
 tion movement commenced in 1859 with the societies for the prevention 
 of cruelty to animals in Dresden and Paris. By the act of 1876, regulat- 
 ing vivisection, vivisectors must have a license or certificate, the experi- 
 ment must be performed in a registered place, and the animal to be 
 experimented upon must be rendered insensible by an anaesthetic. In 
 Great Britain, in 1880, there were thirty -three persons licensed to vivisect 
 and three hundred and eleven experiments; in 1889 the numbers had 
 risen to eighty-seven and 1,417. 
 
234 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 A planet is said to be in conjunction with another body when it has 
 the same longitude, and is seen in the same direction in the heavens. It 
 is obvious that in the case of the inferior planets this conjunction will be 
 of two kinds: the one when the planet is between the Earth and the Sun, 
 called inferior conjunction; and the other when at the opposite point of 
 of its orbit, with the Sun between the planet and the Earth, called superior 
 conjunction. The latter is the only kind of conjunction that can happen 
 to the superior planets Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune; the 
 inferior planets, Mercury and Venus, being subject to both positions. 
 
 In many mountain ranges rent by the action of torrents, isolated 
 cliffs have been left standing like monuments of former geological periods 
 while the softer strata of gravel and loose rocks have been washed away, 
 with the exception perhaps of a massive boulder resting, as it were, upon 
 the roof of a tower-like crag. On the island of Mauritius that arrangement 
 repeats itself on a marvelous scale in the mountain peak known as "Peter 
 Botte" a monolith towering above the coast range to a height of more 
 than 2,000 feet and supporting a rock so much broader than its pedestal 
 that it gives the combination the appearance of an inverted pyramid or 
 a gigantic toad-stool. 
 
 The stars which stud the firmament have, from a time earlier than 
 authentic records can trace, been formed into artificial groups, which 
 have received names borrowed from fancy or fable, mainly from Greek 
 mythology. These groups are called constellations. Though quite 
 devoid of anything like systematic arrangement, this traditional group- 
 ing is found a sufficiently convenient classification, and still remains the 
 basis of nomenclature for the stars among astronomers. They are divided 
 into northern, southern and zodiacal constellations. In old authors, 
 "constellation" is used to signify the relative positions of the planets at a 
 given moment. 
 
 It is only within a few years, one might almost say months, that the 
 wide effect of the warm, moist Pacific winds, called chinooks, has been 
 known in British Columbia and Alaska. These winds, corresponding 
 exactly to those that make England a fertile country in the latitude of 
 Labrador, keep the snow melted from the plains at the eastern base of 
 the Rockies, and they encourage a magnificent growth of root crops, cab- 
 bage, oats and grass a thousand miles north of New York. Wheat does 
 not do well and berries are small, though little attempt has been made to 
 cultivate fruit. The winters are biting cold, but dry, and the summer, 
 though short, is so hot that vegetation comes out of the earth with a rush. 
 
 Eureka! or rather Heureka! ("I have discovered it!") was the excla- 
 mation of Archimedes, the Syracusan philosopher, when he found out 
 how to test the purity of Hiero's crown. The tale is that Hiero suspected 
 that a craftsman to whom he had given a certain weight of gold to make 
 into a crown had alloyed the metal, and he asked Archimedes to ascertain 
 if his suspicion was well founded. The philosopher, getting into his 
 bath, observed that the water ran over, and it flashed into his mind that 
 his body displaced its own bulk of water. Now suppose Hiero gave the 
 goldsmith one pound of gold, and the crown weighed one pound, it is 
 manifest that if the crown was pure gold, both ought to displace the same 
 quantity of water; but they did not do so, and therefore the gold had 
 been tampered with. Archimedes next immersed in water one pound 
 of silver, and the difference of water displaced soon gave the clue to the 
 amount of alloy introduced by the artificer. 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 235 
 
 The phenomenon known as the blizzard is a fierce storm of bitter, 
 frosty wind with blinding snow, in which, especially in the western 
 States, man and beast often perish. The word seems to be akin to blast 
 and bluster and is no doubt onomatopoetic in character. The most severe 
 of record is the one that visited the Dakotas, Montana, Minnesota, Ne- 
 braska, Kansas and Texas in January, 1888. Within twenty-four hours 
 the thermometer fell from 74 above zero to 28 below zero in most places 
 and in Dakota to 40 below. The roar of the wind drowned the voices of 
 men six feet distant. Objects a few yards off became invisible. Some 
 two hundred and thirty-five lives were lost. The Colorado river in Texas 
 for the first time in the memory of man was covered with ice a foot thick. 
 
 Such fierce canivorous fishes as exist in the depths of the ocean are 
 unknown at the surface. There is the "black swallower," which devours 
 other finny creatures ten times as big as itself, literally climbing over its 
 victim, first with one jaw and then with the other. Another species is 
 nearly all mouth, and having no power of locomotion, it lives buried in 
 the soft ooze at the bottom, its head alone protruding, ready to engulf 
 any prey that may wander into its cavernous jaws. There is a ferocious 
 kind of shark, resembling a huge eel. All of these monsters are black 
 as ink. Some of them are perfectly blind, while others have enormous 
 goggling eyes. No ray of sunlight ever pierces the dark unfathomed 
 caves in which they dwell. Bach species is gobbled by the species next 
 bigger, for there is no vegetable life to feed on. 
 On metal rails a horse can draw: 
 
 One and two-thirds times as much as on asphalt pavement. 
 
 Three and one-third times as much as on good Belgian blocks. 
 
 Five times as much as on ordinary Belgian blocks. 
 
 Seven times as much as on good cobble-stone. 
 
 Thirteen times as much as on ordinary cobble-stone. 
 
 Twenty times as much as on an earth road. 
 
 Forty times as much as on sand. 
 
 A modern compilation of engineering maxims states that a horse can 
 drag, -as compared to what he can carry on his back, in the following 
 proportions: On the worst earthen road, three times more; on a good 
 macadamized road, nine; on plank, twenty-five; on a stone trackway; 
 thirty-three; and on a good railway, fifty-four times as much. 
 
 Whirlwinds occurring on the sea and other sheets of water are called 
 waterspouts. When fully formed they appear as tall pillars of cloud 
 stretching from the sea to the sky, whirling round their axes, and 
 exhibiting the progressive movement of the whole mass precisely as 
 in the case of the dust-whirl-wind. The sea at the base of the 
 whirling vortices is thrown into violent commotion, resembling the 
 surface of water in rapid ebullition. What are sometimes called 
 "waterspouts on land" are quite distinct phenomena. They are merely 
 heavy falls of rain of a very local character, and may or may not be ac- 
 companied with whirling winds. They generally occur during thunder- 
 storms, being quite analogous to severe hailstorms, from which they differ 
 only in point of temperature, the heavy drops being probably no more 
 than melted hailstones. Also all the moisture that falls is the result of 
 condensation; whereas, in the true waterspout, the rain is mixed with 
 spray which has been caught up from the broken waves, carried aloft by 
 the ascending currents of the whirlwind, and ultimately precipitated with 
 the rain. 
 
236 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Hypnotism is a method for the alleged cure of disease, by the concen- 
 trated action of the mind upon the body while in a state of trance, induced 
 by causing the patient to fix his eyes and concentrate his mind upon a 
 disc of bright metal held at a distance of about twelve inches above the 
 level of the eyes. The first effort to investigate hypnotism in a scientific 
 manner was made by James Braid, of Manchester (1846) from which cir- 
 cumstance hypnotism is sometimes called Braiaism. The power to 
 hypnotize is possessed only by persons of peculiar mental organization. 
 While in the hypnotized condition, which renders them insensible to pain, 
 patients may be operated upon for surgical or medical purposes, the 
 patient being entirely subject to the will of the hypnotizer. Hypnotism 
 can, however, only be considered as of quasi medical utility, though in- 
 vestigation is being made with the view to placing it on a sound scientific 
 basis. 
 
 The Copernican system is that which represents the sun to be at rest 
 in the center of the universe, and the earth and planets to move round it 
 as a center. It got its name from Copernicus, who (although some vague 
 general notion of the system seem to be due to Pythagoras) first distinctly 
 drew the attention of philosophers to it, and devoted his life to its dem- 
 onstration. For the rest, the glory of developing on the lines he 
 broadly laid down, belongs to Kepler, Galileo and others, and to Newton 
 who finally marked out the form of modern theoretical astronomy. 
 Many who reverence the name of Copernicus in connection with this 
 system, would be surprised to find, on perusing his work, how much of 
 error, unsound reasoning, and happy conjecture combined to secure for 
 him in all times the association of the system with his name; yet, with 
 all its faults, that work marks one of the greatest steps ever taken in 
 science. 
 
 The system of philosophy known as positivism, taught by Auguste 
 Comte (1799-1857), discarding the possibility of knowing the beginning 
 and the end of anything, concerns itself only with what lies between. It 
 accepts neither atheism, theism, nor pantheism. It may be divided into 
 two parts: The historic conception and the co-ordination of the sciences. 
 The former is this: That the human mind passes through three stages, 
 viz., the theological, the metaphysical and the positive. In all subjects 
 capable of experiment it passes from metaphysics to experimental verifi- 
 cation or exact science. In regard to the co-ordination of the sciences 
 the basis is mathematics; then follow astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
 biology and sociology. Take the last: The science of society is impossi- 
 ble without the science of life. The science of life is impossible without 
 chemistry. Chemistry presupposes physics, physics astronomy, and 
 astronomy mathematics. 
 
 If we look intently at a bright star we notice that the color and inten- 
 sity of the light is constantly changing from brilliancy to almost total 
 obscurity, and from bright red to blue, orange, yellow, etc. This is the 
 phenomenon usually spoken of as the "twinkling" or scintillation of the 
 stars. The "twinkling" will be noticed more plainly when the star is near 
 the horizon, and will diminish in intensity as it rises until it is near the 
 zenith, at which time the twinkling is scarcely noticeable. It must be 
 confessed that this twinkling has never been explained to the satisfaction 
 of all investigators. However, it is generally believed to be due to con- 
 trolling causes within the earth's atmosphere. That the cause may be 
 looked for within the belt of air that surrounds our planet (to particles of 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 
 
 237 
 
 vapor, dust, etc.) may be inferred from the fact that the planets never 
 exhibit the characteristic twinkling so noticeable in the star. One reason 
 for this is the size (apparent) of the planets. The planets each show a 
 sensible disk even to the naked eye, while the strongest instrument in 
 the world only shows the stars as being mere points of light. This being 
 the case, any foreign substance in the atmosphere would momentarily 
 hide the light and make the star appear to "twinkle." 
 
 Two synonymous terms in science are Equinoxes and Equinoctial 
 Points. More commonly, by the equinoxes are meant the times when 
 the sun enters those points viz. 21st March and 22d September, the 
 former being called the Vernal or Spring Equinox, and the latter the 
 Autumnal. When in the equinoxes, the sun, through the earth's rotation 
 on its axis, seems to describe the circle of the equator in the heavens, and 
 the days and nights are of equal length all over the world. At the vernal 
 equinox, the sun is passing from south to north, and in the northern 
 hemisphere the days are lengthening; at the autumnal, he is passing 
 from north to south, and the days are shortening. As the earth moves 
 more rapidly when near the sun, or in winter, the sun's apparent motion 
 is not uniform, and it happens that he takes eight days more to pass from 
 the vernal to the autumnal equinox than from the latter to the former. 
 The equinoctial points are not stationary. 
 
 Thought-reading, or mind-reading, is a term which came up in 1881 
 to designate the act or art of discerning what is passing in another's mind 
 by some direct and unexplained method, depending neither on gesture, 
 facial expression, nor any articulate or other voluntary indication. It 
 was brought into notice (1881) by Mr. W. Irving Bishop (d. 1889), who 
 professed, while blindfolded, and without the aid of confederates, or of 
 collusion with his subject whose hand and pulse he held, and with whom 
 he thereby became in mesmeric sympathy, to find any article previously 
 hidden by the subject, or to show in other ways that he was able to read 
 the subject's thought. The believing explanation is that thought-force, 
 nervous energy, or the like, passes in a perfectly natural but as yet un- 
 explained manner through A's forehead into B's hand, and so to B's 
 mind. The unbelieving theory is that A inevitably, but quite uncon- 
 sciously, communicates a succession of slight but sufficient muscular 
 indications to B, which B instinctively follows without being aware of 
 them severally. Enthusiasts have sought to include thought-reading in 
 the sphere of spiritualism. 
 
 THE LARGEST RIVER SYSTEMS. 
 
 RIVER. 
 
 Area of 
 Basin, 
 sq. m. 
 
 Length 
 Miles. 
 
 RIVERS. 
 
 Area of 
 Basjn. 
 sq. m 
 
 Length 
 Miles. 
 
 Amazon -... 
 
 2,230,000 
 1,540,000 
 1,290,000 
 1,290.000 
 1,060,000 
 1,190,000 
 995,000 
 942,000 
 880,000 
 689,000 
 607,000 
 592,000 
 
 3,400 
 2,600 
 3,700 
 4,100 
 2,600 
 3,200 
 2,303 
 2,900 
 3,200 
 3,200 
 2,300 
 2,200 
 
 Ganges and Brahmaputra 
 Zambesi 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 588,000 
 570,000 
 565,000 
 504,000 
 433,000 
 430,000 
 403,000 
 387,000 
 360,000 
 330,000 
 300,000 
 
 1,800 
 1,600 
 2,400 
 1,500 
 2,200 
 1,400 
 2,800 
 2,500 
 1,900 
 1,700 
 1,500 
 
 
 Nile 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Winnipeg- Nelson 
 
 Yukon 
 
 Obi 
 
 Orinoco 
 
 La Plata 
 
 Amur 
 
 
 Hoang-ho 
 
 Yenisei 
 
 
 Yang-tsze-kiang 
 
 
 Murray 
 
 Volga 
 
 
238 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 THE ZODIAC AND ITS SIGNS. 
 
 Zodiac was the name given by the ancients to an imaginary band 
 extending round the celestial sphere, having as its mesial line the ecliptic 
 or apparent path of the sun. It was fixed at about 16 in width, for the 
 purpose of comprehending the paths of the sun and of the five planets 
 (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) which were then known; and 
 as of these planets Mercury has by far the greatest inclination of orbit to 
 the ecliptic, and the value of that element in his case is only 7 0' 9" the 
 width given to the zodiac was amply sufficient for the required purpose. 
 
 SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. 
 
 V Aries The Ram. 
 
 # Taurus The Bull. 
 
 n Gemini The Twins. 
 
 5 Cancer The Crab. 
 
 St Leo The Lion. 
 
 1% Virgo : The Virgin. 
 
 =2= Libra ! . . . . * . . The Balance. 
 
 tt\, Scorpio The Scorpion. 
 
 / Sagittarius The Archer. 
 
 V$ Capricornus The Goat. 
 
 Z Aquarius The Water-Bearer. 
 
 X Pisces The Fishes. 
 
 FREEZING, FUSING AND BOILING POINTS. 
 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 CKNTIGRADE FAHRENHEIT 
 
 FREEZING 
 
 Bromine freezes at 
 
 Oil Anise 
 
 ' Olive 
 
 41 Rose : 12 
 
 Quicksilver. . 31 . 
 
 Water 
 
 FUSING 
 
 Bismuth metal fuses at 200 
 
 Cadmium 248.8 
 
 Copper 874.6 
 
 Gold 961 
 
 Iodine 
 
 Iron 
 
 Lead 255.5 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Phosphorus 34 
 
 Silver 816.8 
 
 " Nitrate 159 
 
 Sodium..* 72 
 
 Steel 1452 
 
 Sulphur 72 
 
 Tin 173 
 
 Zinc 328 
 
 BOILING 
 
 Alcohol boils at 
 
 Bromine ; . . . ?. 50 
 
 Ether 
 
 Nitrous 11 
 
 Iodine 140 
 
 Olive Oil 252 
 
 Quicksilver 280 
 
 Water 80 
 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 15 
 
 264 
 
 315 
 1093 
 1200 
 
 115 
 1538 
 
 325 
 
 58 
 
 44 
 
 1021 
 
 1856 
 
 90 
 
 230 
 
 410 
 
 78 
 53 
 35 
 14 
 175 
 315 
 350 
 100 
 
 - 4 
 50 
 50 
 60 
 
 -39 
 
 507 
 592 
 
 2000 
 
 2200 
 239 
 
 2800 
 617 
 136 
 111 
 
 1870 
 389 
 194 
 
 3300 
 194 
 446 
 770 
 
 173 
 
 145 
 
 95 
 
 57 
 
 347 
 
 600 
 
 662 
 
 212 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 
 
 239 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SUBSTANCES. 
 
 A gallon of water or. wine weighs 10 Ibs., and this is taken as the 
 basis of the following table: 
 
 LIQUIDS. 
 
 Water 
 
 .. 100 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Cork 
 
 24 
 
 METALS. 
 Zinc 
 
 719 
 
 Sea Water 
 
 103 
 
 Poplar 
 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 721 
 
 Dead Sea 
 
 124 
 
 Fir 
 
 55 
 
 Tin 
 
 729 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 84 
 
 Cedar 
 
 61 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 ... . 779 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 92 
 
 Pear 
 
 .. 66 
 
 Steel 
 
 783 
 
 
 99 
 
 Walnut 
 
 67 
 
 
 869 
 
 Wine 
 
 100 
 
 Cherry 
 
 72 
 
 Brass 
 
 840 
 
 Urine 
 
 . 101 
 
 Maple 
 
 75 
 
 Silver 
 
 051 
 
 Cider 
 
 102 
 
 Ash 
 
 84 
 
 I,ead 
 
 'l35 
 
 Beer 
 
 102 
 
 Apple .. 
 
 79 
 
 Mercury . . . 
 
 357 
 
 Woman's milk 
 
 102 
 
 Beech 
 
 85 
 
 Gold 
 
 926 
 
 Cow's milk 
 
 103 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 106 
 
 Platina 
 
 '950 
 
 Goat's milk 
 
 104 
 
 Oak 
 
 117 
 
 
 
 Porter . . . 
 
 .. 104 
 
 Ebonv . . . 
 
 .. 133 
 
 
 
 Emerald 
 
 PRECIOUS STONES. 
 
 2775| Diamond 353.0 Garnet 
 
 4063 
 
 Crystal 
 
 265 3 1 Topaz 
 
 .. 401.1 
 
 Riihv . . 
 
 4283 
 
 Indigo 
 
 SUNDRIES. 
 77 P^at 133 Porr-plnin 
 
 226 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 93 
 
 Opium . . . 
 
 134 
 
 Stone 
 
 252 
 
 Butter 
 
 94 
 
 Honey 
 
 145 
 
 Marble 
 
 970 
 
 Ice 
 
 117 
 
 Ivory 
 
 183 
 
 
 278 
 
 Clay 
 
 .... 120 
 
 Brick ... . 
 
 200 
 
 Chalk .... 
 
 . . 279 
 
 Coal 
 
 . 130 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 203 
 
 Glass 
 
 289 
 
 Cork 
 
 Ivbs. per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 15 
 
 SELECTED 
 
 Oak . . . 
 
 WEIGHTS. 
 
 L,bs. per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 70 
 
 Iron 
 
 I,bs. per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 470 
 
 Cedar 
 
 36 
 
 Clay ... . 
 
 72 
 
 Copper 
 
 520 
 
 Beech 
 
 51 
 
 Coal 
 
 80 
 
 Silver 
 
 630 
 
 Butter 
 
 56 
 
 Brick 
 
 120 
 
 I,ead 
 
 680 
 
 Water 
 
 62 
 
 Stone 
 
 150 
 
 Gold 
 
 1 155 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 Ice 
 
 70 
 
 Glass . 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 
 THE SOIvAR SYSTEM. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Mean 
 Distance 
 From Earth 
 in Millions 
 of Miles. 
 
 Mean 
 Distance 
 From Sun, 
 Millions of 
 Miles. 
 
 Sidereal 
 Period, 
 Days. 
 
 Orbit 
 Velocity, 
 Miles per 
 Second. 
 
 Mean 
 Diameter, 
 Miles. 
 
 Sun 
 
 929 
 
 
 
 
 866 400 
 
 Mercury 
 Venus 
 
 56.9 
 25.7 
 
 36.0 
 
 67.2 
 
 87.969 
 224.701 
 
 23 to 35 
 
 21 9 
 
 3,030 
 7700 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 929 
 
 365 256 
 
 185 
 
 7918 
 
 Mars 
 
 486 
 
 141 5 
 
 686 950 
 
 150 
 
 4 230 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 390.4 
 
 483.3 
 
 4,332.58 
 
 8.1 
 
 86,500 
 
 Saturn 
 Uranus 
 
 793.2 
 1 6890 
 
 886.0 
 1,781 9 
 
 10,759.22 
 3068682 
 
 6.0 
 4 2 
 
 71,000 
 31 900 
 
 Neptune 
 
 2,698.8 
 
 2,791.6 
 
 60,181.11 
 
 3.4 
 
 31,800 
 
 The number of asteroids discovered up to present date is 330. A number of these 
 small planets have not been observed since their discovery, and are practically lost. 
 Consequently it is now sometimes a matter of doubt, until the elements have been com- 
 puted, if the supposed new planet is really new, or only an old one rediscovered. 
 
 It is supposed that a Centuri, one of the brightest stars of the Southern Hemis- 
 phere, is the nearest of the fixed stars to the earth. The researches on its parallax by 
 Henderson and Maclear gave it for its distance from the earth, in round numbers, 
 20,000.000,000,000 of miles. At the inconceivably rapid rate at which light is propagated 
 through space, it would require three years and three months to reach the earth from 
 this star. 
 
240 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 SOME GREAT WATERFALLS. 
 
 Waterfalls occur most frequently in mountainous countries, where 
 the streams from the mountain sides enter the valleys. These mountain 
 waterfalls, however, are generally rather curious and picturesque than 
 grand, the volume of water being in most cases comparatively insignifi- 
 cant, though the height of fall is occasionally very great. 
 
 Among the leading waterfalls are: 
 
 Yosemite (3 plunges) 2,660 feet. 
 
 Roraima Falls, Guiana (2 plunges) .2,000 
 
 Grand Falls, Labrador 2,000 
 
 Sutherland Falls, New Zealand (3 plunges) 1 ,904 
 
 Kukenam Fall, Guiana (sheer plunge) 1,500 
 
 Gavarnie Fall, Pyrenees 1,380 
 
 Staubbach 866 
 
 Kaieteur Falls, Guiana 740 
 
 Tequendama Falls, near Bogota 625 
 
 Victoria Falls, Zambesi 400 
 
 Rio Iguassu, southern Brazil 21ft 
 
 Shoshone 210 
 
 Foyers, highest in Britain (2 plunges) 205 
 
 Hay River, Alaska 200 
 
 Niagara 169 
 
 .LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 
 
 Copper is the best material for conductors. When circumstances are 
 not such as to promote corrosion iron may be used, but of larger dimen- 
 sions. Its conductivity is about one-fifth that of copper. 
 
 Copper lightning conductors should be of the following dimensions: 
 
 Rods Y^ f diameter, tubes >6 X/ diameter, l /%" thick, or bands l l / 2 " 
 wide, %" thick. 
 
 Iron lightning conductors should be either solid rods V f diameter, 
 or bands 2" wide, #" thick. 
 
 Lightning conductors afford protection over a circle whose radius 
 equals their height from the ground; formerly considered twice. 
 
 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 A Table showing the number of miles in degree of longitude at each 
 degree of latitude. 
 
 J^AT. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 LAT. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 LAT. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 LAT. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 LAT. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 1 
 
 60. 
 
 19 
 
 56.7 
 
 37 
 
 47.9 
 
 55 
 
 34.4 
 
 73 
 
 17.5 
 
 2 
 
 60. 
 
 510 
 
 56.4 
 
 38 
 
 47.3 
 
 56 
 
 33.6 
 
 74 
 
 16.5 
 
 3 
 
 59.9 
 
 21 
 
 56.0 
 
 39 
 
 46.6 
 
 57 
 
 32.7 
 
 75 
 
 15.5 
 
 4 
 
 59.9 
 
 22 
 
 55.6 
 
 40 
 
 46.0 
 
 58 
 
 31.8 
 
 76 
 
 14.5 
 
 5 
 
 59.8 
 
 23 
 
 55.2 
 
 41 
 
 45.3 
 
 59 
 
 30.9 
 
 77 
 
 13.5 
 
 61 
 
 69.7 
 
 24 
 
 54.8 
 
 42 
 
 44.6 
 
 60 
 
 30.0 
 
 78 
 
 12.5 
 
 7 
 
 596 
 
 25 
 
 54.4 
 
 43 
 
 43.9 
 
 61 
 
 29.1 
 
 79 
 
 11.4 
 
 8 
 
 59.4 
 
 26 
 
 53.9 
 
 41 
 
 43.2 
 
 62 
 
 28.2 
 
 80 
 
 10.4 
 
 9 
 
 59.3 
 
 27 
 
 53.5 
 
 45 
 
 42.4 
 
 63 
 
 27.2 
 
 81 
 
 9.4 
 
 10 
 
 59.1 
 
 28 
 
 53.0 
 
 46 
 
 41.7 
 
 64 
 
 26.3 
 
 82 
 
 8.4 
 
 11 
 
 58.9 
 
 29 
 
 52.5 
 
 47 
 
 409 
 
 65 
 
 25.4 
 
 83 
 
 7.3 
 
 13 
 
 58.7 
 
 30 
 
 52.0 
 
 48 
 
 40.1 
 
 66 
 
 24.4 
 
 81 
 
 6.3 
 
 13 
 
 58.5 
 
 31 
 
 51.4 
 
 49 
 
 39.4 
 
 67 
 
 23.4 
 
 85 
 
 5.2 
 
 14 
 
 58.2 
 
 32 
 
 50.9 
 
 50 
 
 38.6 
 
 68 
 
 22.5 
 
 86 
 
 4.2 
 
 15 
 
 58.0 
 
 33 
 
 50.3 
 
 51 
 
 37.8 
 
 69 
 
 21.5 
 
 87 
 
 3.1 
 
 16 
 
 57.7 
 
 b4 
 
 49.7 
 
 52 
 
 36.9 
 
 70 
 
 205 
 
 88 
 
 2.1 
 
 17 
 
 57.4 
 
 35 
 
 49.1 
 
 53 
 
 36.1 
 
 71 
 
 19.5 
 
 89 
 
 1.0 
 
 18 
 
 57.1 
 
 36 
 
 48.5 
 
 54 
 
 35.3 
 
 72 
 
 18.5 
 
 90 
 
 0.0 
 
fOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 
 THE THERMOMETER. 
 
 241 
 
 The thermometer is an instrument for measuring the heat or temper- 
 ature of bodies by the regular expansion of mercury or alcohol in a 
 graduated glass tube. Halley proposed the substitution of mercury for 
 alcohol in 1697. The thermometers usually employed are Fahrenheit's, 
 the Centigrade and Reaumur's, the first invented in 1726, and the two 
 others soon afterwards. 
 
 The following table is interesting as a comparison of the three ther- 
 mometers: 
 
 
 Reaumur. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 32 
 40 
 48 
 56 
 64 
 72 
 80 
 
 
 10 
 20 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 
 32 
 50 
 
 68 
 lf)4 
 122 
 140 
 158 
 176 
 194 
 212 
 
 Vine Cultivation . . 
 
 
 
 Water boils 
 
 Ice melts at 32; temperature of globe, 50; blood heat, 98; alcohol boils, 174; 
 water boils, 2i2; lead melts, 594; heat of common fire, 1,140; brass melts, 2,233; iron 
 melts, 3,479. 
 
 To convert one thermometer into another, observe the following 
 rules: 
 
 To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade Deduct 32, multiply by 5 
 and divide by 9. 
 
 To convert Fahrenheit into Reaumur Deduct 32, divide by 9 and 
 multiply by 4. 
 
 To convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit Multiply by 9, divide by 5 
 and add 32. 
 
 To convert Centigrade into Reaumur Multiply by 4 and divide by 5. 
 
 To convert Reaumur into Centigrade Multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 
 
 To convert Reaumur into Fahrenheit Multiply by 9, divide by 4 
 and add 32. 
 
 SUMMER HEAT IN VARIOUS LANDS. 
 
 The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the various 
 countries of the world: Bengal and the African desert, 150 Fahrenheit; 
 Senegal and Guadaloupe, 130; Persia, 125; Calcutta and Central Amer- 
 ica, 120; Yuma, Arizona, 118; Afghanistan and the Arabian desert, and 
 at Umatilla, Oregon, and Poplar River, Montana, 110; in four places in 
 Western and southern United States the temperature has reached 108; 
 Cape of Good Hope and Utah, 105; Greece, 104; Arabia, 103; Mon- 
 treal, 103; New York, and at twelve other places in the United States, 
 102; Spain, India, China, Jamaica, and at eleven points in the United 
 States, 100; Sierra Leone, 94; France, Denmark, St. Petersburg, Shan- 
 ghai, the Burman Empire, Buenos Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands, 
 90; Great Britain, Siam, and Peru, 85; Portugal, Pekin and Natal, 80; 
 Siberia, 77; Australia and Scotland, 75; Italy, Venezuela and Madeira, 
 73; Prussia and New Zealand, 70; Switzerland and Hungary, 66; Ba- 
 varia, Sweden, Tasmania and Moscow, 65; Patagonia and the Falkland 
 Isles, 55; Iceland, 45; Nova Zembla, 34. 
 U. I.-16 
 
242 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 HISTORIC COLD WEATHER. 
 
 1234. Mediterranean frozen ; traffic with carts. 
 
 1420. Bosphorus frozen. 
 
 1468. Wine at Antwerp sold in blocks. 
 
 1658. Swedish artillery crossed the sound. 
 
 1766. Snow knee-deep at Naples. 
 
 1789. Fahrenheit thermometer marked 23 below zero at Frankfort, and 36 below 
 at Basle. 
 
 1809. Moscow, 48 below zero, greatest cold recorded there; mercury frozen. 
 
 1829. Jakoutsk, Siberia, 73 below zero on the 25th of January; greatest cold on 
 record. 
 
 . 1846. December marked 25 below zero at Pontarlier ; lowest ever marked in France. 
 
 1864. January, Fahrenheit stood at zero in Turin ; greatest cold recorded in Italy. 
 
 Captain Parry, in his Arctic explorations, suffered for some time fifty-one degrees 
 below zero Frost is diminishing in Canada with the increase of population, as shown 
 by the fact that Hudson's Bay was closed from 1828-'37, 184 days per annum, and from 
 1871-'80 only 179 days per annnm. 
 
 EXTREME HEAT IN EUROPE. 
 
 In 1303 and 1304 the Rhine, lyoire and Seine ran dry. The heat in 
 several French provinces during the summer of 1705 was equal to that of 
 a glass furnace. Meat could be cooked by merely exposing it to the sun. 
 Not a soul dare venture out between noon and 4 P.M. In 1718 many 
 shops had to close. The theaters never opened their doors for three 
 months. Not a drop of water fell during six months. In 1773 the ther- 
 mometer rose to 118 degrees. In 1778 the heat of Bologna was so great 
 that a great many people were stifled. There was not sufficient air for 
 the breath, and people had to take refuge under the ground. In July, 
 1793, the heat again became intolerable. Vegetables wers burned up, 
 and fruit dried on the trees. The furniture and wood- work in dwelling- 
 houses cracked and split up; meat, exposed, decayed in an hour. 
 
 HORSE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES. 
 
 The unit of nominal power for steam engines, or the usual estimate 
 of dynamical effect per minute of a horse, called by engineers a ''horse 
 power," is thirty -three thousand pounds at a velocity of one foot per 
 minute, or, the effect of a load of two hundred pounds raised by a horse 
 for eight hours a day, at the rate of two and a half miles per hour, or 
 150 pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the piston in square inches by the average force of 
 the steam in pounds and by the velocity of the piston in feet per minute; divide the 
 product by thirty-three thousand, and T 7 of the quotient equal the effective power. 
 
 TERMS IN ELECTRICITY. 
 
 The technical terms used in regard to electricity refer to units of va- 
 rious nature. Thus the unit of capacity is one farad; the unit of activity, 
 one watt; the unit of work, one joule; the unit of quantity, one coulomb; 
 the unit of current, one ampere; the unit of resistance, one ohm; the unit 
 of magnetic field, one gauss; the unit of pressure, one volt; the unit of 
 force, one dyne. The names are mostly derived from the names of men 
 that have been famous in the field of electrical research. Thus Michael 
 Faraday, James Watt and James P. Joule, famous English discoverers, 
 give their names to the first three units mentioned; Charles A. Coulomb 
 and Andre M. Ampere, French inventors, to the two units following; G. 
 S. Ohm and Carl F. Gauss, Germans, name two more units; and the volt 
 is named from the Italian discoverer, Volta. The dyne is derived from 
 the root word of dynamo, itself meaning force. 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 
 
 243 
 
 HEIGHTS OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 
 
 ASIA. Feet- 
 
 Everest, Himalayas 29,002 
 
 Dapsang, Karakorums 28,700 
 
 Tagarma, Pamir 25,800 
 
 Khan-tengri, Tian-shan 24,000 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Kilima-'Njaro 19,680 
 
 Kenia 19.000 
 
 Ruwenzori 18,000 
 
 I4gonyi 14,000 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. 
 
 Mount Hercules, Isle of Papua 32,763 
 
 Charles-L,ouis, New Guinea 20,000 
 
 Mauna Koa, Hawaii 13,805 
 
 Mt. Cook. New Zealand 12,349 
 
 Kinabalu, Borneo 11,582 
 
 Mt. Kosciusko, New South Wales ... 7,308 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Nevada de Toluca 19,454 
 
 Orizaba 18,314 
 
 Mount St. Elias. 18,010 
 
 Mount Brown 16,000 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Aconcagua 82,867 
 
 Mercedario 22,302 
 
 Gualtieri 22,000 
 
 Huascan 22,000 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Mont Blanc 16,782 
 
 Ben Nevis 4,406 
 
 Snowdon 3,571 
 
 Carran-Tual 3,414 
 
 Scaw Fell Pike 3.210 
 
 CURIOUS FACTS ABOUT FISHES. 
 
 Following are some curious facts about fishes. While naturalists 
 have generally accepted Cuvier's view that the existence of fishes is silent, 
 emotionless and joyless, recent observations tend to show that many 
 fishes emit vocal sounds. The anabas scandens, the climbing perch of 
 India, quits the water and wanders over banks for considerable distances, 
 and is even said to climb trees and bushes. At Tranquebar, Hindoostan, 
 may be seen the strange spectacle of fish and shell-fish dwelling high 
 on lofty trees. The perch there climbs up tall fan-palms in pursuit of 
 certain shell-fish which form his favorite food. Covered with viscid 
 slime, he glides smoothly over the rough bark. Spines, which he may 
 sheathe and unfold at will, serve him like hands to hang by, and with 
 the aid of side fins and a powerful tail he pushes himself upward. One 
 species of fish, the sticklebacks, are known to build nests. There are 
 several varieties of this fish, all natives of fresh water with one or two 
 exceptions. They are found in the Ottawa River. The cyprinodon is a 
 sightless fish which gropes in the dreary waters of the Mammoth Cave of 
 Kentucky. 
 
 The blind fish are so sensitive that the sound made by the dropping 
 of a grain of sand on the water will cause them to dart away beyond 
 reach. 
 
 THE AURORA BOREALIS. 
 Northern lights, or Aurora Borealis, is the name given to the luminous 
 
 Ehenomenon which is seen towards the north of the heavens by the in- 
 abitants of the higher latitudes. During the winter of the northern 
 hemisphere, the inhabitants of the arctic zone are without the light of 
 the sun for months together, and their long dreary night is relieved by 
 this beautiful meteor, which occurs with great frequency in those regions. 
 Those who have explored the southern seas have seen the same phenom- 
 enon in the direction of the south pole, so that the term Polar Lights 
 might be more appropriate than Northern Lights to designate the aurora. 
 For the phenomenon as seen in the southern hemisphere, the name aurora 
 Australis is used. The appearance of the aurora borealis has been de- 
 scribed by a great variety of observers in Northern Europe and in Amer- 
 ica, all of whom cive substantially the same account of the manner ill 
 which the phenomenon takes place. 
 
244 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Aqua Fortis Nitric Acid. 
 
 Aqua Regia Nitro-Muriatic Acid. 
 
 Blue Vitriol Sulphate of Copper. 
 
 Cream of Tartar Bitartrate Potassium. 
 
 Calomel Chloride of Mercury. 
 
 Chalk Carbonate Calcium. 
 
 Salt of Tartar Carbonate of Potassa. 
 
 Caustic Potassa Hydrate Potassium. 
 
 Chloroform Chloride of Gormyle. 
 
 Common Salt Chloride of Sodium. 
 
 Copperas, or Green Vitriol Sulphate of Iron. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate Bi-Chloride of Mercury. 
 
 Diamond Pure Carbon. 
 
 Dry Alum Sulphate Alluminum and Potassium. 
 
 Epsom Salts Sulphate of Magnesia. 
 
 IJthiops Mineral Black Sulphide of Mercury. 
 
 Galena Sulphide of Lead. 
 
 Glauber' s-Salt Sulphate of Sodium. 
 
 Glucose Grape Sugar. 
 
 Iron Pyrites Bi-Sulphide Iron. 
 
 Jeweler's Putty Oxide of Tin. 
 
 King's Yellow Sulphide of Arsenic. 
 
 laughing Gas Protoxide of Nitrogen. 
 
 Lime Oxide of Calcium. 
 
 Lunar Caustic Nitrate of Silver. 
 
 Muriate of Lime Chloride of Calcium. 
 
 Niter of Saltpeter Nitrate of Potash. 
 
 Oil of Vitriol Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Potash Oxide of Potassium. 
 
 Realgar Sulphide of Arsenic. 
 
 Red Lead Oxide of Lead. 
 
 Rust of Iron Oxide of Iron. 
 
 Salmoniac Muriate of Ammonia. 
 
 Slacked Lime Hydrate Calcium. 
 
 Soda Oxide of Sodium. 
 
 Spirits of Hartshorn Ammonia. 
 
 Spirit of Salt Hydro-Chloric, or Muriatic Acid. 
 
 Stucco, or Plaster of Paris Sulphate of Lime. 
 
 Sugar of Lead Acetate of Lead. 
 
 Verdigris Basic Acetate of Copper. 
 
 Vermilion Sulphide of Mercury. 
 
 Vinegar Acetic Acid (diluted). 
 
 Volatile Alkali Ammonia. 
 
 Water Oxide of Hydrogen. 
 
 White Precipitate Ammoniated Mercury. 
 
 White Vitriol Sulphate of Zinc. 
 
 THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 The nebular hypothesis, now generally accepted by scientists as ex- 
 plaining, as far as possible by human conception, the genesis of the 
 heavenly bodies, was first suggested by Herschel, and developed by 
 L/aplace. It assumes that the solar system was once an enormous mass of 
 gaseous substance. Rapid rotation being set up in this gaseous mass, it 
 took the form of a disc, and at last, centrifugal force overcoming cohe- 
 sion, whole rings and fragments flew off from this disc, and by centripe- 
 tal force contracted into spheroid masses. As in the original mass, the 
 velocity of the outer circle of each body thrown off is greater than the 
 inner circle, and this causes each spheroid to revolve on its own axis. 
 This process goes on, and the central mass continues to cool and shrink, 
 until we have at last a central body with a number of smaller spheroidal 
 bodies revolving around it in orbits the smaller the nearer they are to the 
 central orb. Certain points are assumed in this hypothesis to explain the 
 distribution of matter in our solar system. It is assumed that in the 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 245 
 
 throwing off of great masses from the central disk, immense quantities of 
 minute particles were also thrown, which continued to revolve, in the 
 same plane with the large mass, around the center body. By slow degrees 
 these minute atoms, by the law of gravitation, were aggregated into the 
 mass nearest to them. These subordinate aggregations would form with 
 most difficulty nearest the large central mass, because of the superior at- 
 tractive force of the latter, wherefore the interior planets Mercury, 
 Venus, the Earth, Mars are smaller than the two great orbs in the zone 
 beyond them. These two enormous planets, Jupiter and Saturn, occupy 
 the space where conditions are most favorable to subordinate aggrega- 
 tions, but, beyond them, the gravity of aggregating material becomes 
 reduced, and so the planets found in the outer zone, Uranus and Neptune, 
 are smaller than the planets of the middle zone. 
 
 AEROLITES. 
 
 B.C. 654, a shower of stone fell on the Alban Mount (Livy.) 
 
 B.C. 467, a great stone fell at ^gospotSmi, on the Hellespont (Par- 
 ian Chronicle). Pliny says it was about the size of a wagon. 
 
 A.D. 1492, November 7, a ponderous stone, weighing 250 pounds, 
 fell from the sky near the town of Ensisheim, in Upper Alsace. A part 
 of it is still preserved in the parish church. The Emperor Maximilian 
 witnessed the fall of this meteor, and had the stone placed in the church 
 to prove that "God insisted on a crusade against the Turks." 
 
 A.D. 1510, there was a great fall of meteors in Lombardy, some sixty 
 pounds in weight, and some as much as 120 pounds. They were of a 
 rusty color. 
 
 A.D. 1627, November 27, a stone weighing fifty-nine pounds fell on 
 Mount Vassier, in Provence. This is attested by Gassendi. 
 
 A.D. 1751, May 26. Two masses fell at Agram, in Sclavonia, one 
 weighing sixteen pounds and the other seventy-one pounds. The analy- 
 sis of these stones by Klaproth is preserved in the Vienna museum 
 (ninety-five parts are iron, three nickel). 
 
 A.D. 1803, April 26. A shower of stones fell near L'Aigle. M. Biot 
 was deputed by the French Government to repair to the spot and report 
 on the phenomenon. Between two thousand and three thousand stones 
 had fallen, the largest being seventeen pounds in weight. 
 
 A.D. 1807, March 13. A stone fell at Smolensk, in Russia, weigh- 
 ing 160 pounds. It was black and shiny. 
 
 A.D. 1813, September 10. A stone weighing seventeen pounds fell 
 in the county of Limerick, at 10 o'clock in the morning. 
 
 A.D. 1815, February 15. A stone weighing twenty-five pounds fell 
 in the town of Dooralla, in British India. The Indians consecrated it in 
 a temple, and approach it with reverence and clasped hands. 
 
 A.D. 1822, June 2, Sunday, 3 o'clock p. M. An aerolith fell, at Gis- 
 lingham. Suffolk. It made a deep hole in the earth and then bounded 
 off and burst. It fell with a tremendous noise, like crashing thunder. 
 
 In the Imperial Museum of St. Petersburg is an immense mass. The 
 fall was witnessed by Pallas in Siberia. 
 
 The largest aerolith known is one which fell in Brazil. It is estim- 
 ated to weigh about thirty tons. 
 
 A.D. 1887. An aerolith fell near St. Joseph, in the West Indies. 
 It weighs two tons and buried itself in the earth between fifteen and 
 eighteen feet. 
 
246 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 HOW WE MEASURE THE EARTH. 
 
 The circumference of the earth is measured in this way: Suppose two 
 astronomers, A and B, stationed on the same meridian, a certain distance 
 apart, and with accurate instruments, should make careful observations 
 on a certain star at the moment it crossed the meridian; and A should 
 find the star 16 degrees south of the zenith, and B, who is exactly 
 415 miles south of A, should find it only 10 degrees south of the zenith; 
 there would then be a difference of 6 degrees between the two places; and 
 as they are 415 miles apart, one degree must be J/6th of 415 or 69 ^th miles. 
 Now, if one degree, which is the 360th part of the earth's circumference, is 
 69 l /6 miles, the whole circumference must be 360 times 69 y$ t or 24,900 
 miles. 
 
 WHAT IS VENTRILOQUISM? 
 
 Ventriloquism is the art of producing tones and words without any 
 motion of the mouth, so that the hearer is induced to refer the sound to 
 some other place. It does not depend on any peculiar structure of the 
 organs of voice, but upon practice and dexterity. The name is founded 
 upon the mistaken supposition that the voice proceeds from the belly. 
 The art of the ventriloquist consists mainly in taking a deep inhalation 
 of breath, and then allowing it to escape slowly; the sounds of the voice 
 being modified and muffled by means of the muscles of the upper part of 
 the throat and of the palate. The ventriloquist avails himself at the same 
 time of means such as are employed by slight-of-hand performers to 
 mislead the attention. Ventriloquism is a very ancient art; the Greeks 
 ascribed it to the operation of demons, and called ventriloquists Epaast- 
 rimanteis ( ' 'belly-prophets. ' ' ) 
 
 SOME FACTS IN HYDRAULICS. 
 
 A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8^ pounds and contains 
 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water weighs 62 j^ pounds, and con- 
 tains 1,728 cubic inches or iy 2 gallons. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. 
 Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. 
 
 The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 
 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it will sustain a 
 column of mercury 20.9 inches or a column of water 33.9 feet high. 
 
 To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, 
 multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. " Approximately we 
 say that every foot elevation is equal to % pound pressure per square 
 inch; this allows for ordinary friction. 
 
 To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity 
 of water per minute (hundred feet of piston being the standard of speed), 
 divide the number of gallons by four, then extract the square root, and 
 the product will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder. 
 
 To find the quantity of water elevated in one minute running at one 
 hundred feet of piston speed per minute: Square the diameter of the water 
 cylinder in inches and multiply by four. Example: Capacity of a five- 
 inch cylinder is desired. The square of the diameter (five inches) is 
 twenty-five, which, multiplied by four, gives one hundred, the number of 
 gallons per minute (approximately). 
 
 To find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a given height, 
 multiply the total weight of the water in pounds by the height in feet 
 
JOTTINGS IN SCIENCE. 247 
 
 and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance of twenty-five per cent 
 should be added for water friction, and a further allowance of twenty- 
 five per cent for loss in steam cylinder). 
 
 The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pressure, gives 
 the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of the water 
 piston multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch gives the re- 
 sistance. A margin must be made between the power and the resistance 
 to move the pistons at the required speed say from twenty to forty per 
 cent, according to speed and other conditions. 
 
 To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying the area 
 in inches, by the length of stroke in inches, will give the total number 
 of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubical contents 
 of a U. S. gallon in inches), and the product is the capacity in gallons. 
 
 GENESIS OF HELIOGRAPHY. . 
 
 As long ago as 333 years before Christ, Alexander the Great employed 
 mirrors to convey signals by the light of the sun. Since the time of the 
 great warrior the idea has been reduced to a science and called " heliog- 
 raphy." The heliostat, an instrument invented in Holland early in 
 the eighteenth century, and the heliograph, invented by Manse in 1875, 
 have both been used by the British army in their eastern campaigns. 
 The instruments mentioned differ somewhat in construction, but the re- 
 sults are the same, no matter which instrument is used. In both signals 
 are produced by causing a reflected ray of the sun to appear and disap- 
 pear alternately at a distant point, the intervals of appearance and ob- 
 scuration being carried in lengths so as to produce the combination of 
 long and short signals known as the Morse alphabet. In these instru- 
 ments the reflecting body is a glass mirror, which varies in size accord- 
 ing to the distance to which it is desired to signal. A five-inch mirror 
 has given under favorable atmospheric conditions distinct signals that 
 could be read sixty miles away. The heliograph has also been found to 
 be of great service in defining distant points of large surveys and was 
 used to a fine advantage in verifying the arc of the meridian by the 
 astronomers at the Cape of Good Hope a few years ago. 
 
 THE ARTESIAN WELL. 
 
 A most valuable source of water supply are the artesian wells, which 
 are perpendicular borings into the ground, through which water rises 
 from various depths, according to circumstances, above the surface of the 
 soil. The possibility of success in a particular district depends on its 
 geological structure. All rocks contain more or less water. Arenaceous 
 rocks receive water mechanically, and, according to their compactness 
 and purity, part with a larger or smaller proportion of it. A cubic yard 
 of pure sea-sand can contain about one-third of its bulk of water. It 
 would part with nearly the whole of this into a well sunk in it and regu- 
 larly pumped from. Chalk and other rocks, composed of fine particles 
 closely compacted together, contain as large a proportion of water; but 
 from the power of capillary attraction little or none of this water would 
 be drained into a well sunk in such rock. From the existence, however, 
 of numerous crevices in chalk through which the water freely flows, 
 and from the general presence of a larger quantity of water than the 
 porous rock is able to retain, wells sunk in chalk often yield water. 
 
248 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 There is yet a third class of rocks which are perfectly impervious to 
 water: such are clays, which are absolutely retentive, neither allowing 
 water to be obtained from them nor to pass through them. The most 
 famous artesian well, perhaps, is that of Grenelle, near Paris, which 
 was bored in 1833-41, and whose water is brought from the gault at a 
 depth of 1,798 feet. It yields 516^ gallons of water in a minute, pro- 
 pelled thirty-two feet above the surface; temperature, 81 "7 F. An 
 artesian well bored at Pesth in 1868-79 yields, at a depth of 3482 feet, 
 water of a temperature of 165 F. In the United States numerous arte- 
 sian wells have been sunk, some of great depth, among which are two 
 in St. Louis, Missouri, 2,197 and 3,843 X feet deep respectively; several 
 in Chicago of from 700 to 1,200 feet in depth; one in Louisville, Ken- 
 tucky, 2,086 feet deep; one in Columbus, Ohio, 2,775> feet in depth, 
 with many others from 500 to 2,000 feet deep. 
 
 LAST WORD ON ELECTRICITY. 
 
 As to the question of the real nature of electricity, recent experi- 
 ments and further knowledge of its properties rather open fresh avenues 
 to new hypotheses than point to the truth of any one special theory. 
 Some identify electricity with energy, some with matter, and some with 
 the subtle all-pervading "ether." At all events it has been computed 
 that in every single cubic foot of ether there are locked up 10,000 foot- 
 tons of energy! The latest researches give well-founded hopes that this 
 inconceivably vast storehouse of power will one day be accessible to 
 man. And herein lies the splendid possibility of a new and mighty suc- 
 cessor to the decreasing energy of our coal-fields, with the speedy ex- 
 tinction of which alarmists threaten us. By creating in a room a pow- 
 erful electrostatic field alternating very rapidly, Professor Nicholas Tesla 
 brought it to such a state that illuminating appliances could be placed 
 anywhere, and kept lighted without being electrically connected with 
 anything! He suspended two sheets of metal, each connected with a 
 terminal of the electric coil, between which an exhausted tube, carried 
 any whither, remained always luminous. A true flame can now therefore 
 be produced without chemical aid a flame yielding light and heat with- 
 out the consumption of material or any chemical process! Further, 
 these and similar experiments on electric radiation, which now advances 
 so brilliantly to the forefront, by Tesla and Crookes, etc., point to the 
 bewildering possibility of telegraphy without wires, without cables, 
 without posts. There is considerable evidence to show that, could the 
 electric ether-waves be obtained sufficiently short, the rays would fall 
 within the limits of visibility, and thus place the final crown of proof 
 on the magnificent experiments ot Hertz and others, who would make 
 light an electric phenomenon. 
 
 As regards the effect on the human body of alternating currents of 
 very high frequency (which at best have a very doubtful reputation) it 
 has been found that, as the rapidity of the alternation increases, they 
 become, not more, but less dangerous. In fact, Tatum has shown that 
 their fatal effects are nearly inversely proportionate to their frequency. 
 Thus, with currents alternating about 5,000 per second, the current 
 needed to become fatal is about 10 times greater than at the ordinary low 
 frequency of about 120 per second. With still higher frequencies used 
 by Tesla (up to 20,000 per sec.) the currents are incomparably less dan- 
 gerous than at low frequencies; but still altogether harmless. 
 
PLAIN LAW FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 
 
 The lawless science of our law, 
 That codeless myriad of precedent, 
 That wilderness of single instances, 
 Through which a few, by wit or fortune led, 
 May beat a pathway out to wealth and fame. 
 
 TENNYSON. 
 
 A DEFINITION WITH A PURPOSE. 
 
 Blackstone defines law as the rules of human action or conduct, but 
 what is commonly understood by the term is the civil or municipal regu- 
 lations of a nation as applied to a particular country. The forms of law 
 which govern civil contracts and business intercourse are distinguished 
 as statute and common. Statute law is the written law of the land, as 
 enacted by State or national legislative bodies. The common law is 
 grounded on the general customs of England, and includes the law of 
 nature, the law of God, the principles and maxims of the law and the de- 
 cisions of the superior courts. It overrides both the canon and the civil 
 law where they go beyond or are inconsistent with it. To the man in- 
 volved in litigation the best advice is to go to the best lawyer he can find. 
 But an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, and the purpose, of 
 the following pages is to furnish the ounce of prevention. Knowledge 
 is power in nothing so much as in business law, especially since the law 
 presumes that no man is ignorant of the law. 
 
 BUSINESS LAW IN BRIEF. 
 It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 
 Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 
 A contract made on a Sunday is void. 
 A contract made with a lunatic is void. 
 The act of one partner binds all the others. 
 An agreement without consideration is void. 
 The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 
 Agents are liable to their principals for errors. 
 Principals are liable for the acts of their agents. 
 A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. 
 Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. 
 The seal of a party to a written contract imports consideration. 
 If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on demand. 
 
 249 
 
250 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a partial pay- 
 ment. 
 
 A check indorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in the drawer's 
 hands. 
 
 A lease of land for a longer term than one year is void unless in 
 writing. 
 
 Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated person, are not 
 collectable. 
 
 Each individual in a partnership is liable for the whole amount of 
 the debts of the firm. 
 
 An indorser can avoid liability by writing "without recourse" 
 beneath his signature. 
 
 A note which does not state on its face that it bears interest, will bear 
 interest only after due. 
 
 A contract made with a minor cannot be enforced against him. A 
 note made by a minor is voidable. 
 
 An indorser of a note is exempt from liability if notice of its dis- 
 honor is not mailed or served within twenty -four hours of its non-pay- 
 ment. 
 
 In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the holder is 
 not required to notify a surety that the note is not paid, before the settle- 
 ment of the maker's estate. 
 
 If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for the payment of 
 a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to demand payment and have 
 it protested when dishonored, the bank is liable to the owner for the full 
 amount of the paper. 
 
 Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand payment 
 before maturity; for instance, when a draft has been protested for non- 
 acceptance and the proper notices served, the holder may at once proceed 
 against the drawer and indorsers. 
 
 Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or indorsed in blank, which has 
 been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the thief or finder, but a holder 
 who receives it in good faith before maturity, for value, can hold it against 
 the owner's claims at the time it was lost. 
 
 Want of consideration a common defense interposed to the payment 
 of negotiable paper is a good defense between the original parties to 
 the paper; but after it has been transferred before maturity, to an in- 
 nocent holder, for value, it is not a defense. 
 
 If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is made, the con- 
 tract will be governed by the laws of that State. When negotiable paper 
 is payable in a State other than that in which it is made, the laws of that 
 State will govern it. Marriage contracts, if valid where they are made, 
 are valid everywhere. Contracts relating to personal property are gov- 
 erned by the laws of the place where made, except those relating to real 
 estate, which are governed by the laws of the place where the land is 
 situated. 
 
 AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS. 
 
 A contract or agreement is where a promise is made on one side and 
 assented to on the other, or where two or more persons enter into en- 
 gagement with each other by a promise on either side. In a written 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 251 
 
 contract assent is proved by the signature or mark. In verbal agree- 
 ments it may be given by a word or a nod, by shaking of hands, or by a 
 sign. The old saw, "Silence gives consent," is often upheld in law. 
 
 The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: 1. Age; 
 2. Rationality; and 3, as -to corporations, the possession of general or 
 special statutory powers. 
 
 Persons under age are incompetent to make contracts, except under 
 certain limitations. Generally such persons are incapable of making 
 binding contracts. 
 
 As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all persons not 
 rendered incompetent by personal disability, or by considerations of 
 public policy, are capable of making a contract. 
 
 Corporations have powers to make contracts strictly within the limits 
 prescribed by their charters, or by special or general statute. 
 
 The first step toward a contract is the proposition or offer, which 
 may be withdrawn at any time before it is agreed to. When the proposi- 
 tion is verbal, and no time is specified, it is not binding unless accepted 
 at once. To give one the option or refusal of property at a specified 
 price, is simply to give him a certain time to make up his mind whether 
 he w r ill buy the property or not. To make the option binding he 
 must accept within the time named. The party giving the option has 
 the right to withdraw it, and sell the property to another, at any time 
 previous to its acceptance, if the offer is gratuitous, and there is no con- 
 sideration to support it. 
 
 If a letter of acceptance is mailed, and immediately after a letter 
 withdrawing the offer is received, the contract is binding. An acceptance 
 takes effect from the time it is mailed, not from the time it is received; 
 it must, however, be in accordance with the original proposition, for any 
 new matter introduced would constitute a new offer. When the offer is 
 accepted, either verbally or in writing, it is an express assent, and is 
 binding. 
 
 A contract under a mistake of law is not void. Everybody is pre- 
 sumed to know the law. This, however, applies only to contracts per- 
 mitted by law and clear of fraud. 
 
 A refusal of an offer cannot be retracted without the consent of the 
 second party. Once a proposition is refused, the matter is ended. And no 
 one has the right to accept an offer except the person to whom it was made. 
 
 The consideration is the reason or thing for which the parties bind 
 themselves in the contract, and it is either a benefit to the promisor or 
 an injury to the other party. Considerations are technically divided 
 into valuable and good, and it sometimes happens that the consideration 
 need not be expressed, but is implied. A valuable consideration is either 
 money or property or service to be given, or some injury to be endured. 
 A promise to marry is considered a valuable consideration. A good con- 
 sideration means that the contract is entered into because of consanguin- 
 ity or affection, which will support the contract when executed, but will 
 not support an action to enforce an executory contract. Whether a 
 consideration is sufficient or not is tested by its being a benefit to the 
 promisor or an injury to the other party. If it has a legal value, it makes 
 no difference how small that value may be. The promisor need not always 
 be benefited, as, for instance, the indorser of a note, who is liable although 
 he gets no benefit. But if a person promises to do something himself 
 for which no consideration is to be received, there is no cause of action 
 for breach of the contract. 
 
252 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 There are several causes which void contracts, first among which is 
 fraud. Fraud is defined to be ' ' every kind of artifice employed by one per- 
 son for the purpose of wilfully deceiving another to his injury. ' ' No fraud- 
 ulent contract will stand in law or in equity. The party upon whom the 
 fraud has been practiced must void the contract as soon as he discovers 
 the fraud, for if he goes on after having knowledge of the fraud he can- 
 not afterwards void it. But the one who perpetrates the fraud cannot 
 plead that ground for voiding it. Contracts in restraint of trade are 
 void, as also .are contracts in opposition to public policy, impeding the 
 course^ of justice, in restraint of marriage, contrary to the insolvent acts, 
 or for immoral purposes. Any violation of the essential requisites of a 
 contract, or the omission of an essential requisite, will void it. 
 
 DON'T make a contract with a person of unsound mind or under the 
 influence of liquor, or otherwise under restraint of liberty, mind or 
 body. Use caution in making contracts with an illiterate, blind or dea 
 and dumb person, and see to it that witnesses are present. 
 
 DON'T put a forced construction on a contract the intent of the 
 parties is a contract. 
 
 DON'T suppose that you can withdraw a proposition made in writing 
 and sent by mail after the party to whom it was made has mailed an un- 
 conditional acceptance. 
 
 DON'T suppose that a conditional acceptance of a proposition is 
 binding on the party making the proposition. 
 
 DON'T forget that the courts will construe a contract according to 
 the law prevailing where it was made. 
 
 DON'T forget that the law says, " no consideration, no contract," and 
 that the courts will not enforce a contract which is too severe in its pro- 
 visions. 
 
 DON'T sign an agreement unless you have carefully weighed its pro- 
 visions, which should all be fixed and certain. 
 
 NOTES AND NEGOTIABLE PAPER. 
 
 The superstructure of business as it exists today rests on the broad 
 foundation of confidence the result of what may be called the evolution 
 of commerce, and the principal stages in this evolution are an interest- 
 ing study. First there was only barter in kind, as still practiced among 
 savages for example, the exchange of a bushel of corn for a handful of 
 arrow-heads. Then came the introduction of money as a medium of ex- 
 change; and today we have the substitution of negotiable paper as docu- 
 mentary evidence of indebtedness, including promissory notes, due bills, 
 drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, bank bills, 
 treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evidences of debt, the owner- 
 ship of which may be transferred from one person to another. 
 
 The mere acknowledgement of debt is not sufficient to make negotia- 
 ble paper; the promise of payment or an order on someone to pay is in- 
 dispensable. This promise must be for money only. The amount must 
 be exactly specified. The title must be transferable. This feature must 
 be visible on the face of the paper by the use of such words as "bearer" 
 or ' 'order. ' ' In some of the States peculiar phrases are ordered by statute, 
 
 as "Payable without defalcation or discount," or "Payable at ," 
 
 naming the bank or office. 
 
 A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another, at a fixed 
 time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory note. It becomes negotia. 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE, 253 
 
 ble by being made payable to an order on some one or to bearer. As it is 
 a contract, a consideration is one of its essential elements. Yet, although 
 it be void as between the two first parties, being negotiable and coming 
 into the hands of another person who gives value for it, not knowing of 
 its defect, it has full force and may be collected. 
 
 The date is of great consequence. In computing time the day of 
 date is not counted, but it is the fixed point beginning the time at the 
 end of which payment must be made. Omission of the date does not de- 
 stroy a note, but the holder must prove to the time of its making. The 
 promise to pay must be precise as to time which the note is to run. It 
 must be at a fixed period, or conditional upon the occurrence of some- 
 thing certain to happen, as "at sight" "five days after sight," "on de- 
 mand," "three months after date," "ten days after the death of John 
 Doe." The time not being specified, the note is considered "payable on 
 demand." 
 
 The maker, the person who promises and whose signature the note 
 bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots are naturally, and 
 aliens, minors and married women may be legally, incompetent. The 
 maker is responsible and binds himself to pay the amount stated on the 
 note at its maturity. He need not pay it before it becomes due, but 
 should he do so and neglect to cancel the note, he would be again respon- 
 sible if any other person, without knowledge of such payment, acquired 
 it for value before maturity. Even a receipt for payment from the first 
 payee would not stand good against the subsequent holder. 
 
 The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn the legal 
 holder, the person to whom the money must be paid. When a note is 
 made payable simply to bearer, without naming the payee, any one hold- 
 ing the note honestly may collect. 
 
 A subsequent party, one who comes into possession of the note after 
 the original holder, has a better claim than the first one, for the reason 
 that between the maker and the first payee there may have been, in the 
 contract, some understanding or condition militating against the pay- 
 ment when it would become due, but the third person, knowing nothing of 
 this, gives his value and receives the note. The law will always sustain 
 the subsequent party. 
 
 The indorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay when the 
 note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order must be indorsed by 
 a holder upon passing it to another, and, as value has been given each 
 time, the last holder will look to his next preceding one and to all the 
 others. 
 
 A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming due, the 
 temporary holder is the payee and must collect. 
 
 An indorsement is a writing across the back of the note, which makes 
 the writer responsible for the amount of the note. There are various 
 forms of indorsement: 
 
 1. In blank, the indorser simply writing his name on the back of the 
 note. 
 
 2. General, or in full, the indorser writing above his signature, 
 "Pay " or "Pay or order." 
 
 3. Qualified, the words "without recourse" being used after the 
 name of the payee in the indorsement. 
 
 4. Conditional, a condition being stated, as: "Pay , unless 
 
 payment forbidden beiore maturity. ' ' 
 
 5. Restrictive, as: "Pay only." 
 
254 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The blank indorsement, the full indorsement and the general in- 
 dorsement are practically the same; each entitles the holder of the note 
 to the money, and to look to the indorser for payment if the maker of 
 the note defaults. It has even been held that in a general indorsement 
 the holder had the right to fill in the words "or order" if he saw fit. 
 The qualified indorsement releases the indorser from any liability in 
 case the maker of the note defaults. The conditional and restrictive 
 indorsement are used only in special cases. Bach indorser is severally 
 and collectively liable for the whole amount of the note indorsed if it is 
 dishonored, provided it is duly protested and notice given to each. The 
 indorser looks to the man who indorsed it before him, and so back to 
 the original maker of the note. As soon as a note is protested, it is 
 vitally necessary that notice should be sent to each person interested at 
 once. 
 
 To BE ON THE SAFE SIDE, it is well to see to it that any note offered 
 for negotiation 
 
 Is dated correctly; 
 
 Specifies the amount of money to be paid; 
 
 Names the person to whom it is to be paid; 
 
 Includes the words ''or order" after the name of the payee, if it is 
 desired to make the note negotiable; 
 
 Appoints a place where the payment is to be made; 
 
 States that the note is made "for value received;" 
 
 And is signed by the maker or his duly authorized representative. 
 
 In some States phrases are required in the body of the note, such as, 
 "without defalcation or discount;" but, as a general thing, that fact is 
 understood without the statement. 
 
 PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 The general rule is that every person of sound mind, and not other- 
 wise restrained by law, may enter into a contract of partnership. 
 There are several kinds of partners: 
 
 1. Ostensible partners, or those whose names are made public as 
 partners, and who in reality are such, and who take ail the benefits and 
 risks. 
 
 2. Nominal partners, or those who appear before the public as part- 
 ners, but who have no real interest in the business. 
 
 3. Dormant, or silent partners, or those whose names are not known 
 or do not appear as partners, but who, nevertheless, have an interest in 
 the business. 
 
 4. Special, or limited partners, or those who are interested in the 
 business only to the amount of the capital they have invested in it. 
 
 5. General partners, who manage the business, while the capital, 
 either in whole or in part, is supplied by a special partner or partners. 
 They are liable for all the debts and contracts of the firm. 
 
 A nominal partner renders himself liable for all the debts and con- 
 tracts of the firm. 
 
 A dormant partner, if it becomes known that he has an interest, 
 whether creditors trusted the firm on his account or not, becomes liable 
 equally with the other partners. 
 
 The regulations concerning special or limited partnerships, in any 
 particular State where recognized, are to be found in the statutes of such 
 State; and strict compliance with the statutes is necessary in order to 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 255 
 
 avoid incurring the responsibilities attaching to the position of general 
 partner. 
 
 A person who lends his name as a partner, or who suffers his name 
 to continue in the firm after he has actually ceased to be a partner thereof, 
 is still responsible to third persons as a partner. 
 
 A partner may buy and sell partnership effects; make contracts in 
 reference to the business of the firm; pay and receive money; draw and 
 indorse, and accept bills and notes; and all acts of such a nature, even 
 though they be upon his own private account, will bind the other part- 
 ners, if connected with matters apparently having reference to the busi- 
 ness of the firm, and transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact 
 that such dealings are for the particular partner's private account. The 
 representation or misrepresentation of any fact made in any partnership 
 transaction by one partner, or the commission of any fraud in such trans- 
 action, will bind the entire firm, even though the other partners may 
 have no connection with, or knowledge of the same. 
 
 If a partner sign his individual name to negotiable paper, all the 
 partners are bound thereby, if such paper appear on its face to be on 
 partnership account. If negotiable paper of a firm be given by one 
 partner on his private account, and in the course of its circulation pass 
 into the hands of a bona fide holder for value, without notice or know- 
 ledge of the fact attending its creation, the partnership is bound thereby. 
 
 One partner cannot bind the firm by deed, though he may by deed 
 execute an ordinary release of a debt due the partnership. 
 
 If no time be fixed in articles of copartnership for the commence- 
 ment thereof, it is presumed to commence from the date and execution 
 of the articles. If no precise period is mentioned for continuance, a 
 partner may withdraw at any time, and dissolve such partnership at his 
 pleasure; and even if a definite period be agreed upon, a partner may, 
 by giving notice, dissolve the partnership as to all capacity of the firm 
 to bind him by contracts thereafter made. The withdrawing partner 
 subjects himself, however, to a claim for damages by reason of his breach 
 of the covenant. 
 
 The death of a partner dissolves the partnership, unless there be an 
 express stipulation that, in such an event, the representatives of the 
 deceased partner may continue the business in connection with the sur- 
 vivors for the benefit of the widow and children. 
 
 A partnership is dissolved by operation of law; by a voluntary and 
 bona fide assignment by any partner of his interest therein; by the bank- 
 ruptcy or death of any of the partners, or by a war between the coun- 
 tries of which the partners are subjects. 
 
 Immediately after a dissolution, notice of the same should be pub- 
 lished in the papers and a special notice sent to every person who has had 
 dealings with the firm. If these precautions be not taken, each partner 
 will still continue liable for the acts of the others to all persons who 
 have had no notice of such dissolution. 
 
 DON'T enter into a partnership without carefully drawn articles, and 
 don't sign the articles until the partnership funds are on deposit. 
 
 DON'T enter a firm already established unless you are willing to 
 become responsible for its debts. 
 
 DON'T do anything out of the usual run of business without the con- 
 sent of your partners. 
 
 DON'T mix private matters with partnership affairs, and don't con- 
 tinue in a partnership where trust and confidence are lacking. 
 
256 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 DON'T continue a partnership after expiration of articles, and do 
 not make any change without due public notice. 
 
 DON'T dissolve a partnership without due public notice or without 
 designating a member to settle all matters outstanding, 
 i DON'T forget that a partner may be called upon to make good part- 
 nership losses with his individual property, and that each partner may 
 be held for the acts of the other parners as well as for his own. 
 
 AGENCY AND ATTORNEY. 
 
 By agency is meant the substitution of one person by and for 
 another, the former to transact business for the latter. An agency may be 
 established by implication an express agreement with a person that he 
 is to become the agent of another not being necessary or verbally, or 
 by writing. A verbal creation of agency suffices to authorize the agent 
 to make a contract even in cases where such contract must be in writing. 
 
 Agency is of three kinds special, general and professional. A spe- 
 cial agency is an authority exercised for a special purpose. If a special 
 agent exceed the limits of his authority, his principal is not bound by 
 his acts. 
 
 A general agency authorizes the transaction ol all business of a par- 
 ticular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. The principal 
 will be bound by the acts of a general agent, though the latter act con- 
 trary to private instructions, provided he keep, at the same time, within 
 the general limits of his authority. 
 
 Professional agents are those licensed by the proper authority to 
 transact certain kinds of business for a compensation. The following 
 are among this class of agents: 1. Attorneys. 2. Brokers. 3. Factors. 
 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of ships. 
 
 In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is that what- 
 ever a man may do in his own right he may also transact through an- 
 other. Things of a personal nature, implying personal confidence on 
 the part of the person possessing them, cannot be delegated. 
 
 Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belligerents and 
 persons incapable of making legal contracts cannot act as principals in 
 the appointment of agents. Infants and married women may, however, 
 become principals in certain cases. 
 
 Agency may be terminated in two ways (1) by the act of the princi- 
 pal or agent; (2) by operation of law. In the latter case the termina- 
 tion of the agency is effected by lapse of time, by completion of the 
 subject-matter of the agency, by the extinction of the subject-matter, or 
 by the insanity, bankruptcy or death of either party. 
 
 DON'T do through another what would be illegal for you to do 
 yourself. 
 
 DON'T lose any time in repudiating illegal acts of your agent. 
 
 DON'T make an illegal act of your agent's your own by accepting 
 the benefit thereof. 
 
 DON'T transact business through an agent unless he can show that 
 he stands in his principal's stead in the matter in hand. 
 
 DON'T, as agent, appoint sub-agents without the consent of your 
 principal. 
 
 DON'T go beyond your authority in an agency uless you are willing 
 to become personally responsible. 
 
 DON'T accept an agency or act as an attorney in fact in complicated 
 matters unless your powers are clearly defined in writing. 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 257 
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT. 
 
 Leases for one year or less need no written agreement. Leases for 
 more than a year must be in writing; if for life, signed, sealed and wit- 
 nessed in the same manner as any other important document. 
 
 Leases for over three years must be recorded. No particular form 
 is necessary. 
 
 If no agreement in writing for more than a year can be produced, 
 the tenant holds the property from year to year at the will of the land- 
 lord. If there is no agreement as to time, the tenant, as a rule, holds 
 from year to year. 
 
 A tenancy at will may be terminated by giving the tenant one 
 month's notice in writing, requiring him to remove from the premises 
 occupied. 
 
 A tenant is not responsible for taxes, unless it is so stated in the 
 lease. 
 
 The tenant may underlet as much of the property as he desires, 
 unless it is expressly forbidden in the lease. Tenants at will cannot 
 underlet. 
 
 A married woman cannot lease her property under the common law, 
 but this prohibition is removed by statute in most of the States. A hus- 
 band cannot make a lease which will bind his wife's property after his 
 death. 
 
 A lease made by a minor is not binding after the minor has attained 
 his majority. It binds the lessee, however, unless the minor should 
 release him. Should the minor receive rent after attaining his majority, 
 the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease given by a guardian will not 
 extend beyond the majority of the ward. 
 
 A new lease renders void a former lease. 
 
 In case there are no writings, the tenancy begins from, the day pos- 
 session is taken. Where there are writings and the time of commence- 
 ment is not stated, the tenancy will be held to commence from the date 
 of said writings. 
 
 Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the mortgage was given 
 prior to the lease, terminate when the mortgage is foreclosed. 
 
 Where a tenant assigns his lease, even with the landlord's consent, 
 he will remain liable for the rent unless his lease is surrendered or can- 
 celled. 
 
 There are many special features of the law of landlord and tenant in 
 relation to agricultural tenancy. Generally an outgoing tenant cannot 
 sell or take away the manure. A tenant whose estate has terminated by 
 an uncertain event which he could neither foresee nor control is en- 
 titled to the annual crop which he sowed while his estate continued, by 
 the law of emblements. He may also, in certain cases, take the emble- 
 ments or annual profits of the land after his ! tenancy has ended, and, 
 unless restricted by some stipulation to the contrary, may remove such 
 fixtures as he has erected during his occupation for convenience, profit 
 or comfort; for, in general, what a tenant has added he may remove, if 
 he can do so without injury to the premises, unless he has actually built 
 it in so as to make it an integral part of what was there originally. 
 
 The following are immovable fixtures: Agricultural erections, fold- 
 yard walls, cart house, barns fixed in the ground, beast house, carpenter 
 shop, fuel house, pigeon house, pineries substantially fixed, wagon house, 
 box borders not belonging to a gardener by trade, flowers, trees, hedges, 
 
 U. I. 17 
 
258 MANUAL OP USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ale-house bar, dressers, partitions, locks and keys, benches, affixes to 
 the house, statue erected as an ornament to grounds, sun dial, chimney 
 piece not ornamental, closets affixed to the house, conduits, conserva- 
 tory, substantially affixed, doors, fruit trees if a tenant be not a nursery- 
 man by trade, glass windows, hearths, millstones, looms substantially 
 affixed to the floor of a factory, threshing machines fixed by bolts and 
 screws to posts let into the ground. 
 
 DON'T occupy premises until a written lease is in your possession, 
 and don't depend on promises of a landlord unless they are part of such 
 lease. 
 
 DON'T accept a married woman as tenant unless the law of the State 
 permit her to make an executory contract. 
 
 DON'T think that you can legally eject sub-tenants unless you have 
 given them notice of the tenant's forfeiture of his lease. 
 
 DON'T make such improvements in premises occupied by you as the 
 law would regard as immovable fixtures, unless you are willing to turn 
 them over to the landlord when your lease expires. A building erected 
 on foundations sunk into the ground would become part of the realty 
 and thus belong to tlje landlord. 
 
 DON'T think, however, that you have no right to remove trade fix- 
 tures erected by you. 
 
 DON'T accept less than thirty days' notice when you rent by the 
 month. 
 
 DON'T forget that where premises are let for illegal use the law will 
 not aid you in collecting arrears for rent. 
 
 IvAW RELATING TO FARMS, ETC. 
 
 In a deed to agricultural property the boundaries should be clearly 
 determined. The question, What does the farmer get? is answered by 
 these boundaries, and the deed to a farm always includes the dwelling 
 houses, barns and other improvements thereon belonging to the grantor, 
 even though these are not mentioned. It also conveys all the fences 
 standing on the farm, but all might not think it also included the fen- 
 cing-stuff, posts, rails, etc., which had once been used in the fence, but had 
 been taken down and piled up for future use again in the same place. 
 But new fencing material, just bought, and never attached to the soil, 
 would not pass. So piles of hop poles, stored away, if once used on the 
 land, and intended to be again so used, have been considered a part of 
 it, but loose boards or scaffold poles, merely laid across the beams of a 
 barn and never fastened to it, would not be, and the seller of the farm 
 might take them away. Standing trees, of course, also pass as part ot 
 the land; so do trees blown down or cut down, and still left in the woods 
 where they fell, but not if cut and corded up for sale; the wood has then 
 become personal property. 
 
 If there be any manure in the barnyard or in the compost heap on 
 the field, ready for immediate use the buyer ordinarily, in the absence 
 of any contrary agreement, takes that also as belonging to the farm, 
 though it might not be so if the owner had previously sold it to some 
 other party, and had collected it together in a heap by itself, for such an 
 act might be a technical severance from the soil, and so convert real into 
 personal estate; and even a lessee of a farm could take away the manure 
 made on the place while he was in occupation. Growing crops also pass 
 by the deed of a farm unless they are expressly reserved, and when it is 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 259 
 
 not intended to convey those it should be so stated in the deed itself; a 
 mere oral agreement to that effect would not be in most States valid in 
 law. Another mode is to stipulate that possession is not to be given un- 
 til some future day, in which case the crops or manures may be removed 
 before that time. 
 
 An adjoining road is, to its middle, owned by the farmer whose land 
 is bound, unless there are reservations to the contrary in the deeds 
 through which he derives title. But this ownership is subject to the 
 right of the public to the use of the road. 
 
 If. a tree grows so as to come over the land of a neighbor, the latter 
 may cut away the parts which so come over, for he owns his land and 
 all that is above or below it. If it be a fruit tree, he may cut every 
 branch or twig which comes over his land, but he cannot touch the fruit 
 which falls to the land. The owner of the tree may enter peaceably upon 
 the land of the neighbor and take up the branches and fruit. 
 
 LIEN LAWS. 
 
 Any one who, as contractor, sub-contractor or laborer, performs 
 any work, or furnishes any materials, in pursuance of, or in conformity 
 with, any agreement or contract with the owner, lessee, agent or one in 
 possession of the property, toward the erection, altering, improving or 
 repairing of any building, shall have a lien for the value of such labor 
 or materials on the building or land on which it stands to the extent of 
 the right, title and interest of the owner, lessee or person in possession 
 at the time of the claimant's filing his notice with the clerk of the county 
 court. Such lien is called a rnechanic's lien. 
 
 The notice should be filed within thirty days after completion of the 
 work or the furnishing of the materials, and should state the residence 
 of the claimant, the amount claimed, from whom due, when due, and 
 to whom due, the name of the person against whom claimed, the name 
 of the owner, lessee or person in possession of the premises, with a brief 
 description of the latter. 
 
 Liens cease in one year after the filing of the notice, unless an action 
 is begun, or the lien is continued by an order of court. 
 
 The following classes of persons are generally entitled to liens: 1. 
 Bailees, who may perform labor and services, on the thing bailed, at the 
 request of the bailor. 2. Innkeepers, upon the baggage of guests they 
 have accommodated. 3. Common carriers, upon goods carried, for the 
 amount of their freight and disbursements. 4. Vendors, on the goods 
 sold for payment of trie price where no credit has been expressly prom- 
 ised or implied. 5. Agents, upon goods of their principals, for advance- 
 ments for the benefit of the latter. 6. All persons are entitled to the 
 right of lien who are compelled by law to receive property and bestow 
 labor or expense on the same. 
 
 The right of lien may be waived: 1. By express contract. 2. By 
 neglect. 3. By new agreement. 4. By allowing change of possession. 
 5. By surrendering possession. 
 
 The manner of the enforcement of a lien, whether it be an innkeep- 
 er's, agent's, carrier's, factor's, etc., depends wholly upon the nature and 
 character of the lien. 
 
 DON'T purchase real estate unless the records have been thoroughly 
 searched for all liens known to the law, or until all notices of action 
 against the same have been discharged. 
 
260 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 DON'T think that you have no right to sell perishable property on 
 which you have a lien. Your lien will attach to the proceeds. 
 
 DON'T foreclose a lien without proper notice. 
 
 DON'T make payments to a contractor before you have full knowl- 
 edge of all liens filed. 
 
 DON'T forget that liens take precedence according to priority, and 
 that interest always runs on a judgment. 
 
 DEEDS TRANSFER OP PROPERTY. 
 
 A deed is a writing by which lands, tenements or hereditaments are 
 'conveyed, sealed and delivered. It must be written or printed on parch- 
 ment or paper; the parties must be competent to contract; there must be 
 a proper object to grant; a sufficient consideration; an agreement prop- 
 erly declared; if desired, it must have been read to the party executing 
 it; it must be signed and sealed; attested by witnesses, in the absence of 
 any statute regulation to the contrary, properly acknowledged before 
 a competent officer; and recorded within the time and in the office pre- 
 scribed by the State within executed. 
 
 The maker of a deed, is the grantor; the party to whom it is delivered 
 the grantee. If the grantor have a wife, she must, in the absence of a 
 statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge the deed; otherwise, after 
 the husband's death, she may claim the use of one-third, during her 
 life. 
 
 By a general warranty deed the grantor covenants to insure the lands 
 against all persons whatsoever; by a special warranty deed he warrants 
 only against himself and those claiming under him. In deeds made by 
 executors, administrators or guardians there is generally no warranty 
 A quit-claim deed releases all the interest which the grantor has in the 
 land, whatever it may be. 
 
 A deed of trust is given to a person called a trustee, to hold in fee 
 simple, or otherwise, for the use of some other person who is entitled to 
 the proceeds, profits or use. 
 
 A deed may be made void by alterations made in it after its execu- 
 tion; by the disagreement of the parties whose concurrence is necessary; 
 or by the judgment of a competent tribunal. 
 
 Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made before signing, should be 
 mentioned in a note, and witnessed in proper form. After the acknowl- 
 edgement of a deed the parties have no right to make the slightest alter- 
 ation. An alteration of a deed after execution, if made in favor of the 
 grantee, vitiates the deed. If altered before delivery, such alteration de- 
 stroys the deed as to the party altering it. 
 
 Abstracts of titles are brief accounts of all the deeds upon which 
 titles rest, and judgments and instruments affecting such titles. 
 
 The evidences of title are usually conveyances, wills, orders or de- 
 crees of courts, judgments, judicial sales, sales by officers appointed by 
 law, acts of the Legislature and of Congress. 
 
 DON'T accept a deed unless all the following conditions are complied 
 with: 1. It must be signed, sealed and witnessed. 2. Interlineations 
 must be mentioned in the certificate of acknowledgement. 3. All the 
 partners must join in a deed from a partnership. 4. A deed from a cor- 
 poration should bear the corporate seal and be signed by officers desig- 
 nated in the resolution of the directors authorizing it. 5. A deed from 
 a married woman should be joined in by the husband. 6. A deed from 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 261 
 
 an executor should recite his power of sale. 7. The consideration must 
 be expressed. 
 
 DON'T deed property to your wife direct. A deed to your wife does 
 not cut off obligations contracted previously. 
 
 DON'T pay consideration money on a conveyance of real estate until 
 the record has been searched to the moment of passing title, and unless 
 you know of your own knowledge that no judgments, mortgages or tax 
 liens are outstanding against the property. 
 
 DON'T delay in having a deed or mortgage recorded. 
 
 DON'T attempt to give a better title than you have yourself. 
 
 MORTGAGES. 
 
 A mortgage is a conveyance of property, either real or personal, to 
 secure payment of a debt. When the debt is paid the mortgage becomes 
 void and of no value. In real estate mortgages the person giving the 
 mortgage retains possession of the property, receives all the debts and 
 other profits, and pays all taxes and other expenses. The instrument 
 must be acknowledged, like a deed, before a proper public officer, and re- 
 corded in the office of the county clerk or recorder, or whatever officer's 
 duty it is to record such instruments. All mortgages must contain a 
 redemption clause, and must be signed and sealed. The time when the 
 debt becomes due, to secure which the mortgage is given, must be plainly 
 set forth and the property conveyed must be clearly described, located 
 and scheduled. 
 
 Some mortgages contain a clause permitting the sale of the property 
 without decree of court when a default is made in the payment either of 
 the principal sum or the interest. 
 
 A foreclosure is a statement that the property is forfeited and must 
 be sold. 
 
 When a mortgage is assigned to another person, it must be for a val- 
 uable consideration; and the note or notes which it was given to secure 
 must be given at the same time. 
 
 If the mortgaged property, when foreclosed and brought to sale, 
 brings more money than is needed to satisfy the debt, interest and costs, 
 the surplus must be paid to the mortgagor. 
 
 Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or personal property may be 
 either 
 
 1. By an entry upon the margin of the record thereof, signed by the 
 mortgagee or his attorney, assignee or personal representative, acknowl- 
 edging the satisfaction of the mortgage, in the presence of the recording 
 officer; or 
 
 2. By a receipt endorsed upon the mortgage, signed by the mortgagee, 
 his agent or attorney, which receipt may be entered upon the margin of 
 the record; or 
 
 3. It may be discharged upon the record thereof whenever there is 
 presented to the proper officer an instrument acknowledging the satis- 
 faction of such mortgage, executed by the mortgagee, his duly author- 
 ized attorney in fact, assignee or personal representative, and acknowl- 
 edged in the same manner as other instruments affecting real estate. 
 
 Chattel mortgages are mortgages on personal property. Most of 
 the rules applicable to mortgages on real estate apply also to those on 
 personal property, though in some States there are laws regulating per- 
 sonal mortgages. Any instrument will answer the purpose of a chattel 
 
262 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TION. 
 
 mortgage which would answer as a bill of sale, with a clause attached 
 providing for the avoidance of the mortgage when the debt is paid. 
 
 A chattel mortgage will not cover property subsequently acquired 
 by the mortgagor. Mortgages of personal property should contain a 
 clause providing for the equity of redemption. A mortgagee may sell 
 or transfer his mortgage to another party for a consideration, but such 
 property cannot be seized or sold until the expiration of the period for 
 which the mortgage was given. Mortgages given with intent to defraud 
 creditors are void. 
 
 DON'T lose any time in having a mortgage properly recorded. 
 
 DON'T pay installments on chattel mortgages unless the same are en- 
 dorsed thereon. 
 
 DON'T lose sight of the fact that a chattel mortgage is a conditional 
 bill of sale. 
 
 DON'T accept a chattel mortgage the term whereof is for more than 
 a year. 
 
 DON'T neglect to have a chattel mortgage signed, sealed and wit- 
 nessed, and don't fail to see to it that the schedule contains every article 
 embraced under it. 
 
 DON'T fail to see to it that goods or chattels mortgaged to you are 
 properly insured. 
 
 DON'T suppose that a chattel mortgage is valid when the debt to be 
 secured by it is not. 
 
 DON'T give a chattel mortgage payable on demand unless you art 
 prepared to forfeit the chattels at any moment. 
 
 DON'T think that the destruction by fire or otherwise of the chattels 
 mortgaged wipes out the debt. 
 
 DON'T forget that foreclosure in the case of a chattel mortgage is 
 unnecessary except to cut off the claims of other creditors. 
 
 ASSIGNMENTS. 
 
 An assignment is a transfer of property made in writing. In effect it 
 is passing to another person all of one's title or interest in any sort of 
 real or personal property, rights, actions or estates. However, some 
 things are not assignable; an officer's pay or commission, a judge's sal- 
 ary, fishing claims, Government bounties, or claims arising out of frauds 
 or torts. Personal trusts cannot be assigned, as a guardianship or the 
 right of a master in his apprentice. 
 
 Unlike many other legal devices the holder of an assignment is not 
 bound to show that a valuable consideration was given. The owner of 
 a cause of action may give it away if he pleases, and in the positive ab- 
 sence of evidence to the contrary the court will presume that the assign- 
 ment was for a sufficient consideration. 
 
 Proof will be called for only when it appears that the assignment 
 was a mere sham or fraudulent. No formality is required by law in an 
 assignment. Any instrument between the contracting parties which 
 goes to show their intention to pass the property from one to another 
 will be sufficient. It may be proved, for instance, by the payee of a 
 note, that he indorsed (or delivered without indorsement) the note to 
 the assignee, and this is sufficient evidence of assignment. 
 
 In every assignment of an instrument, even not negotiable, the assig- 
 nee impliedly warrants the validity of the instrument and the obligation 
 of the third party to pay it. He warrants that there is no legal defense 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 263 
 
 against its collection arising out of his connection with the parties; that 
 all parties were legally able to contract, and that the amount is unpaid. 
 
 An assignment carries with it all the collateral securities and guar- 
 antees of the original debt, even though they are not mentioned in the 
 instrument. 
 
 Where property is assigned for the benefit of creditors, its actual 
 transfer to the assignee must be made immediately. When an assign- 
 ment is made under the common law, the assignor may prefer certain 
 creditors; but in a state where this sort of an assignment is governed by 
 statute, no preference can be shown. An assignment for the benefit of 
 creditors covers all of the assignor's property, wherever or whatever it 
 it may be, that is not exempt from execution. 
 
 When insured property is sold the insurance policy should be as- 
 signed. This can only be done with the consent of the insurer, and that 
 consent must be at once obtained. 
 
 Correct schedules of the property assigned should accompany and be 
 attached to every assignment. 
 
 INNS, HOTELS AND BOARDING-HOUSES. 
 
 An inn, or hotel, is a place of entertainment for travelers. If an 
 innkeeper opens his house for travelers, it is an implied engagement to 
 entertain all persons who travel that way, and upon this universal assump- 
 tion an action will lie against him for damages if he, without good rea- 
 son, refuses to admit a traveler. 
 
 Innkeepers are responsible for the safe custody of the goods of their 
 guests, and can limit their liability only by an express agreement or 
 special contract with their guests; but if goods are lost through negligence 
 of the owner himself the innkeeper's liability ceases. An innkeeper 
 may retain the goods of his guest until the amount of the guest's bill has 
 been paid. 
 
 A boarding-house is not an inn, nor is a coffee-house or eating-room. 
 A boarding-house keeper has no lien on the goods of a boarder except by 
 special agreement, nor is he responsible for their safe custody. He is 
 liable, however, for loss caused by the negligence of his servants. An 
 innkeeper is liable for loss without such negligence. 
 
 BONDS. 
 
 A written instrument admitting an obligation on the part of the 
 maker to pay a certain sum of money to another specified person at a 
 fixed time, for a valuable consideration, is called a bond. The obligor 
 is the one giving the bond; the beneficiary is called the obligee. This 
 definition applies to all bonds, but generally these instruments are given 
 to guarantee the performance or non-performance of certain acts by the 
 obligor, which being done or left undone, as the case may be, the bond 
 becomes void, but if the conditions are broken it remains in full force. 
 As a rule, the bond is made out for a sum twice the amount of any debt 
 which is apt to be incurred by the obligor under its conditions, the state- 
 ment being set forth that the sum named is the penalty, as liquidated or 
 settled damages, in the event of the failure of the obligor to carry out the 
 conditions. 
 
 An act of Providence, whereby the accomplishment of a bond is ren- 
 dered impossible, relieves the obligor of all liability. 
 
 A bond for the payment of money differs from a promissory note 
 only in having a seal. 
 
264 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 BILLS OF SALE. 
 
 A bill of sale is -a formal written conveyance of personal property. 
 If the property is delivered when sold, or if part of the purchase money 
 is paid, a written instrument is not necessary to make the conveyance, 
 but it is convenient evidence of the transfer of title. But, to protect the 
 interests of the purchaser against the creditors of the seller, the bill is 
 not sufficient of itself; there should also be a delivery of the property. 
 If an actual and continued change of possession does not accompany the 
 sale it is void as against the creditors of the seller and subsequent pur- 
 chasers and mortgagees in good faith, unless the buyer can show that 
 his purchase was made in good faith, without intent to defraud, and that 
 there was some good reason for leaving the property in the hands of the 
 seller. 
 
 CORPORATIONS. 
 
 Several persons joining together for the accomplishment of any 
 business or social purpose can legally organize themselves into a corpo- 
 ration, a form of partnership which combines the resources of all, and 
 yet gives a limited pecuniary liability, amounting only to the amount 
 of stock owned by each stockholder. In the States the legislature of 
 each Commonwealth enjoys the power of regulating the corporations, 
 and in the Territories this power is, of course, vested in the General 
 Government. The actual cost of organization amounts to something 
 less than $10, most of which is in fees to the Secretary of State. When 
 the stock has been subscribed, a meeting is called and each shareholder 
 casts a vote for every share which he owns or holds a proxy for, for each 
 person who is to be elected director, or he may give one director as 
 many votes as the number of shares he is voting, multiplied by the num- 
 ber of directors to be elected, amounts to, or distribute his votes as he 
 chooses. Thus, if he owns ten shares of stock and there are six direct- 
 ors to be elected, he has sixty votes, which he can give, either ten for 
 each director, or twenty for each of three, or sixty for one, or in any 
 other way that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not be more than 
 sixty votes. These directors meet as soon after the election as possible 
 and choose a president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer, where- 
 upon the corporation is ready for business. 
 
 The law in all the States on the subject of incorporating companies 
 is very similar, and the necessary forms are to be obtained usually from 
 the Secretary of State. 
 
 LAW OF FINDING. 
 
 The general rule is that the finder has a clear title against every one 
 but the owner. The proprietor of a hotel or a shop has no right to de- 
 mand property of others found on his premises. Such proprietor may 
 make regulations in regard to lost property which will bind their em- 
 ployes, but they cannot bind the public. The finder has been held to 
 stand in the place of the owner, so that he was permitted to prevail in an 
 action against a person who found an article which the plaintiff had 
 originally found, but subsequently lost. The police have no special 
 rights in regard to articles lost, unless those rights are conferred by 
 statute. Receivers of articles found are trustees for the owner or finder. 
 They have no power to keep an article against the finder, any more 
 than the finder has to retain an article against the owner. 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPL E. 265 
 
 WILIvS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 
 
 Every description of property, whether real or personal, may be 
 given by will. In the case of persons dying owing debts, however, the 
 law gives to the executors sufficient of the personal property of the 
 deceased to pay off all existing indebtedness, irrespective of the terms 
 of the will; and where the personal property is not sufficient for this 
 purpose, real property may be so appropriated. 
 
 Property may be bequeathed by will to all persons, including mar- 
 ried women, infants, lunatics, idiots, etc. 
 
 Wills may be made by any person not disqualified by age or mental 
 incapacity. Generally speaking, a person must have attained the age of 
 twenty-one years before he or she can make a valid will of lands, and 
 the same age in many States is required for a will of solely personal 
 property. 
 
 In New York males of eighteen and females of sixteen are compe- 
 tent to bequeath personal property. ' ' Sound and disposing mind and 
 memory' ' are always essential to the validity of any will. For this rea- 
 son idiots, lunatics, intoxicated persons (during intoxication) and per- 
 sons of unsound or weak minds are incompetent to make wills. A will 
 procured by fraud is also invalid, although the testator be fully compe- 
 tent to make a valid will. All wills must be in writing, except those 
 made by soldiers in active service during war and by sailors while at sea. 
 Such persons may make a verbal or nuncupative will, under certain 
 restrictions as to witnesses, etc. No particular form of words is required. 
 
 A valid will must be subscribed or signed by the testator or some 
 one for him, in his presence and at his request. The signature must be 
 affixed in the presence of each of the witnesses. In case the will be 
 signed by some one for him, the testator must acknowledge the signature 
 to be his own in presence of the witnesses. The testator must declare to 
 each of the subscribing witnesses that the instrument is his "last will 
 and testament." This is of the utmost importance, and is called the 
 "publication." There must be at least two (three are required in some 
 of the States) subscribing witnesses, who must act as such at the testa- 
 tor's request, or at the request of some one in his presence. The sub- 
 scribing witnesses must not be beneficially interested in the provisions 
 of the will. These witnesses must all sign the will in the presence of 
 the testator, and (in New York and some of the other States) in the 
 presence of each other. 
 
 A codicil is an appendix annexed to the will after its execution, 
 whereby the testator .makes some change in, or addition to, his former 
 disposition, and must be signed, published and attested in the same 
 manner as the original will. 
 
 The revocation of a will may be express or implied express, by the 
 execution of a new and later will, or by the intentional destruction of 
 the old one, or by a formal written revocation, signed and witnessed in 
 the same manner as the will itself. An implied revocation is wrought 
 by the subsequent marriage of the testator and the birth of children, or 
 by either. 
 
 DON'T leave anything uncertain in a will, and don't neglect to de- 
 clare it to be your last will and testament. 
 
 DON'T make a will without two (better three) witnesses, none of 
 whom must be interested in it. See that each witness writes his full 
 name and address. 
 
266 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 DON'T make a new will unless you destroy or revoke the old one, 
 and don't add a codicil unless it is executed in the same way as the orig- 
 inal will. 
 
 DON'T neglect to make a new will if you mortgage or sell property 
 devised or bequeathed in a prior one. 
 
 DON'T make a will which does not provide for children that may be 
 born. 
 
 DON'T will property to a corporation whose charter does not permit 
 it to take by devise or bequest. 
 
 DON'T fail to say "bequeath" for personal and "devise" for real 
 property. 
 
 THE RIGHT OF DOWER. 
 
 Dower is one-third part of the husband's estate, and in general can- 
 not be destroyed by the mere act of the husband. Hence, in the sale of 
 real estate by the husband, his wife must, with the husband, sign the 
 conveyance to make the title complete to the purchaser. In the absence 
 of such signature the widow can claim full dower rights after the hus- 
 band's death. Creditors, also, seize the property subject to such dowery 
 rights. 
 
 The husband in his will sometimes gives his wife property in lieu of 
 dowery. In this case she may, after his death, elect to take either such 
 property or her dower, but she cannot take both. While the husband 
 lives the wife's right of dower is only inchoate; it cannot be enforced. 
 Should he sell the land to a stranger, she has no right of action or rem- 
 edy until his death. 
 
 In all cases the law of the State in which the land is situated governs 
 it, and, as in the case of heirship, full information must be sought for in 
 statute which is applicable. 
 
 MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. 
 
 Marriage may be entered into by any two persons, with the following 
 exceptions: Idiots, lunatics, persons of unsound mind, persons related 
 by blood or affinity within certain degrees prohibited by law, infants 
 under the age of consent, which varies in the different States, and all 
 persons already married and not legally divorced. 
 
 The violation of the marriage vow is cause for absolute divorce in all the States 
 and Territories except South Carolina and New Mexico, which have no divorce laws. 
 
 Physical inability is a cause in all the States except California, Connecticut, Dakota, 
 Iowa, I,ouisiana, New Mexico, New York, South Carolina, Texas and Vermont. In 
 most of these States it renders marriage voidable. 
 
 Willful desertion, one year, in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Dakota, Florida, 
 Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, Utah, Wisconsin, Washington 
 and Wyoming. 
 
 Willful desertion, two years, in Alabama, Arizona, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michi- 
 gan, Mississippi, Nebraska, Pennsylvania and Tennessee. 
 
 Willful desertion, three years, in Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maine, Mary- 
 land, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon, Texas, 
 Vermont and West Virginia. 
 
 Willful desertion, five years, in Virginia and Rhode Island, though the court may 
 in the latter State decree a divorce for a shorter period. 
 
 Habitual drunkenness, in all the States and Territories except Maryland, New Jer- 
 sey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont, Vir- 
 ginia and West Virginia. 
 
 " Imprisonment for felony," or " conviction of felony," in all the States and Terri- 
 tories (with limitations) except Dakota, Florida, Maine, Maryland, New Jersey, New 
 Mexico, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina and Utah. 
 
 Fraud and fraudulent contract, in Arizona, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Kansas, 
 Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Washington. 
 
PLAIN LA W FOR PLAIN PEOPLE. 267 
 
 "Cruel and abusive treatment," "intolerable cruelty," "extreme cruelty," "repeated 
 cruelty," or "inhuman treatment," in all the States and Territories except New Jersey, 
 New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia. 
 
 Failure by the husband to provide: One year in California, Colorado, Dakota, Ne- 
 vada and Wyoming; two years in Indiana and Idaho; no time specified in Arizona, 
 Idaho, Massachusetts, Michigan, Maine, Nebraska, Rhode Island, Vermont and Wis- 
 consin; willful neglect for three years, in Delaware. 
 
 Absence without being heard from- Three years in New Hampshire; seven years 
 in Connecticut and Vermont, separation five years, in Kentucky; voluntary separation 
 five years, in Wisconsin; when reasonably presumed dead by the court, in Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 "Ungovernable temper," in Kentucky; "habitual indulgence in violent and 
 ungovernable temper," in Florida; "cruel treatment, outrages or excesses as to ren- 
 der their living together insupportable," in Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missouri, 
 Tennessee and Texas; "indignities as render life burdensome," in Missouri, Oregon, 
 Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington and Wyoming. 
 
 In Georgia an absolute divorce is granted only after the concurrent verdict of two 
 juries at different terms of the court. In New York absolute divorce is granted for but 
 one cause, adultery. 
 
 All of the causes above enumerated are for absolute or full divorce, 
 and collusion and connivance are especially barred, and also condona- 
 tion of violation of the marriage vow. 
 
 The courts of every State, and particularly of New York, are very 
 jealous of their jurisdiction and generally refuse to recognize as valid a 
 divorce against one of the citizens of the State by the court of another 
 State, unless both parties to the suit were subject at the same time to 
 the jurisdiction of the court granting the divorce. 
 
 PREVIOUS RESIDENCE; REQUIRED. Dakota, ninety days; California, 
 Indiana, Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas and Wyoming, 
 six months; Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
 sas, Kentucky, Maine, Mississippi, Minnesota, Michigan, Missouri, 
 Montana, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Vermont 
 (both parties as husband and wife), West Virginia, Washington and Wis- 
 consin, one year; Florida, Maryland, North Carolina, Rhode Island and 
 Tennessee, two years; Connecticut and Massachusetts (if, when married, 
 both parties were residents, otherwise five years), three years. 
 
 REMARRIAGE There are no restrictions upon remarriage by di- 
 vorced persons in Connecticut, Kentucky, Illinois and Minnesota. De- 
 fendant must wait two years and obtain permission from the court in 
 Massachusetts. The decree of the court 'may restrain the guilty party 
 from remarrying in Virginia. Parties cannot remarry until after two 
 years, except by permission of the court, in Maine. In New York the 
 plaintiff may remarry, but the defendant cannot do so during the plaint- 
 iffs lifetime, unless the decree be modified or proof that five years have 
 elapsed, and that complainant has married again and defendant's con- 
 duct has been uniformly good. Any violation of this is punished as 
 bigamy, even though the other party has been married. In Delaware, 
 Pennsylvania and Tennessee no wife or husband divorced for violation 
 of the marriage vow can marry the particeps criminis during the life of 
 the former husband or wife, nor in Louisiana at any time; such marri- 
 age in Louisiana renders the person divorced guilty of bigamy. 
 
 RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 Any and all property which a woman owns at her marriage, together 
 with the rents, issues and profits thereof, and the property that comes to 
 her by descent, devise, bequest, gift or grant, or which she acquires by 
 her trade, business, labor, or services performed on her separate account, 
 shall, notwithstanding her marriage, remain her sole and separate prop- 
 
268 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 erty, and may be used, collected and invested by her in her own name, 
 and shall not be subject to the interference or control of her husband, or 
 be liable for his debts, unless for such debts as may have been contracted 
 for the support of herself or children by her as his agent. 
 
 A married woman may likewise bargain, sell, assign, transfer and 
 convey such property, and enter into contracts regarding the same on her 
 separate trade, labor or business with the like effect as if she were un- 
 married. Her husband, however, is not liable for such contracts, and 
 they do not render him or his property in any way liable therefor. She 
 may also sue and be sued in all matters having relation to her sole and 
 separate property in the same manner as if she were sole. 
 
 In the following cases a married woman's contract may be enforced 
 against her and her separate estate: 1. When the contract is created in 
 or respecting the carrying on of the trade or business of the wife. 2. 
 When it relates to or is made for the benefit of her sole or separate estate. 
 3. When the intention to charge the separate estate is expressed in the 
 contract creating the liability. 
 
 When a husband receives a principle sum of money belonging to his 
 wife, the law presumes he receives it for her use, and he must account for 
 it, or expend it on her account by her authority or direction, or that she 
 gave it to him as a gift. 
 
 If he receives interest or income and spends it with her knowledge 
 and without objection, a gift will be presumed from acquiescence. 
 
 Money received by a husband from his wife and expended by him, 
 under her direction, on his land, in improving the home of the family, 
 is a gift, and cannot be recovered by the wife, or reclaimed, or an account 
 demanded. 
 
 An appropriation by a wife, herself, of her separate property to the 
 use and benefit of her husband, in the absence of an agreement to repay, 
 or any circumstance from which such an agreement can be inferred, will 
 not create the relation of debtor and creditor, nor render the husband 
 liable to account. 
 
 A wife who causelessly deserts her husband is not entitled to the aid 
 of a court of equity in getting possession of such chattels as she has con- 
 tributed to the furnishing and adornment of her husband's house. Her 
 legal title remains, and she could convey her interest to a third party by 
 sale, and said party would have a good title, unless her husband should 
 prove a gift. 
 
 Wife's property is not liable to a lien of a sub-contractor for materials 
 furnished to the husband for the erection of a building thereon, where it 
 is not shown that the wife was notified of the intention to furnish the 
 materials, or a settlement made with the contractor and given to the wife, 
 her agent or trustee. 
 
 The common law of the United States has some curious provisions 
 regarding the rights of married women, though in all the States there are 
 statutory provisions essentially modifying this law. As it now stands 
 the husband is responsible for necessaries supplied to the wife even 
 should he not fail to supply them himself,and is held liable if he turn her 
 from his house, or otherwise separate himself from her without good 
 cause. He is not held liable if the wife deserts him, or if he turns her 
 away for good cause. If she leaves him through good cause, then he is 
 liable. If a man lives with a woman as his wile, and so represents her, 
 even though this representation is made to one who knows she is not, he 
 is liable the same way as if she were his wife. 
 
POLITICS AND STATECRAFT. 
 
 A politician, Proteus-like, must alter 
 His face and habit; and like water, seem 
 Of the same color that the vessel is 
 That doth contain it, varying his form 
 With the chameleon, at each object's change. 
 
 MASON. 
 
 DEFINITIONS AND DETAILS. 
 
 The Abolition party was born in 1829. 
 
 Poll tax was known in England, A.D. 1380. 
 
 The London Reform Club was established in 1836. 
 
 A political lampoon was formerly termed a pasquinade. 
 
 A close corporation is that which fills its own vacancies. 
 
 The first French National Assembly was convened in 1789. 
 
 There are 670 members in the British House of Commons. 
 
 "Pairing oft" was first practiced in this country in 1839. 
 
 Alderman was a Saxon office and simply means elder-man. 
 
 The first journals of Congress date from September, 1774. 
 
 The English local option law is termed the Permissive Bill. 
 
 In Germany the Reichsrath is the council of the whole Empire. 
 
 It was Abe Lincoln who termed the freedmen "wards of the nation.'* 
 
 Stephen A. Douglas was the Little Giant of our political history. 
 
 The name "Old Hickory" was given to Andrew Jackson in 1813. 
 
 The Indian Territory was set apart in 1832; Oklahoma subtracted 
 1889. 
 
 The familiar letters "O. K." were a party cry in the campaign of 
 1828. 
 
 The parliamentary motion of closure is "that the question be now 
 put." 
 
 R. B. Hayes said: "He serves his party best who serves the country 
 best." 
 
 Sheriff is derived from shire-reeve, the chief magistrate of a shire or 
 county. 
 
 In 1796 Mr. C. C. Pinskey said "millions for defence but not one cent 
 for tribute." 
 
 The straight-out-Democrats were a party that arose in 1872, led by 
 Charles O'Connor. 
 
270 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 In Norway persons who have not been vaccinated are not allowed to 
 vote at any election. 
 
 In the days of Louis XV France was styled "an absolute monarchy 
 tempered by songs." 
 
 It was Tennyson, who pictured for us "the parliament of man, the 
 federation of the world. " 
 
 Cortes is the name given in Spain and Portugal to the assembly of 
 representatives of the nation. 
 
 "Me, too," was a nickname given to Senator T. C. Platt, N. Y., as 
 being the mere echo of Conkling. 
 
 McClellan's army nickname was Little Mac. It became national 
 in the presidential struggle of 1864. 
 
 French chauvinism and British jingoism have been mildly imitated 
 here as "the brilliant foreign policy." 
 
 A phrase much used among peace-lovers after the civil war was: To 
 shake hands across the bloody chasm. 
 
 Opportunists is a term in French politics for those who would delay 
 action until a favorable chance arrives. 
 
 It was Mr. Cleveland who originated the terms "offensive parti- 
 sanship" and "innocuous desuetude." 
 
 One of Lincoln's pleas for re-election, in 1864, was that "it was not 
 best to swap horses in crossing a stream." 
 
 "I would rather be right than be president" was said by Henry 
 Clay, in 1850, to Mr. Preston of Kentucky. 
 
 This very happy phrase, "the cohesive power of public plunder," is 
 but a misquotation from one of Calhoun's speeches. 
 
 The phrase "all men are born free and equal" is not in the Declara- 
 tion of Independence but in the Massachusetts constitution. 
 
 The phrase "blocks of five" was alleged to have been first used by 
 W. W. Dudley in the Cleveland-Harrison campaign of 1888. 
 
 Particularists is a term applied in Germany to those who wish to 
 preserve the distinct independence of the several German states. 
 
 Democracy is government of the people by themselves; more 
 broadly the people who desire to exercise sovereignty either directly or 
 indirectly. 
 
 Coalition is politically applied to the union of two parties, or, as gen- 
 erally happens, portions of parties, who agree to sink their differences 
 and act in common. 
 
 The "Stalwarts" arose out of the Republican Convention of 1880, 
 led by Roscoe Conkling and others who stood firmly (stalwartly) for a 
 third term for Grant. 
 
 The oft-quoted Bulwer-Clayton Treaty, concluded between England 
 and America, July 4, 1850, provided that neither should have exclusive 
 control over the proposed Central American Ship Canal which passes 
 through Nicaraguan territory. 
 
 Cumulative Vote is the system introduced into England in 1870 by 
 which each person has as many votes as there are candidates, and the 
 voter may give all the votes to one or distribute them as he thinks fit. 
 It is only recognized at school board elections. 
 
POLITICS AND STA TECRAFT. 271 
 
 A demagogue is a politician who gains influence by flattering the 
 prejudices or working on the ignorance of the people. Originally one 
 who led the people in politics. 
 
 The French Tiers Etat or "Le Tiers" was the third order of the state, 
 the other two being the noblesse and the clergy. The three orders com- 
 bined form the Etats Generaux. 
 
 The old original "palladium" was a wooden image of Pallas, said to 
 have fallen from heaven, and to have been religiously guarded in Troy, 
 as a pledge of the safety of the city. 
 
 Secret service moneys, in the widest sense of the term, include all 
 funds placed at the disposal of ministers of state, to be expended at their 
 discretion, without giving an account. 
 
 Caesarism is the absolute rule of man over man, with the recognition 
 of no law divine or human beyond that of the ruler's will. Caesar must 
 be summus pontifex as well as imperator. 
 
 Annexation is the adding or joining to a State of territory which was 
 previously independent or in possession of another power. It is gener- 
 ally, though not always, the result of war. 
 
 A committee is a portion generally consisting of not less than three 
 members selected from a more numerous body, to whom some special 
 act to be performed, or investigation to be made, is committed. 
 
 Ukase or Oukaz is a term applied in Russia to all the orders or edicts, 
 legislative or administrative, emanating from the czar directly or from 
 the senate. The term is not extended to the order of ministers. 
 
 International arbitration is an effort to substitute arbitration for war 
 in international disputes. The International Arbitration and Peace 
 Association was founded for this end (October, 1873), at Brussels. 
 
 The term ironclad oath was applied to an oath of office prescribed 
 by Congress after the close of the civil war as a safeguard against future 
 disloyalty on the part of citizens of the reconstructed Southern States. 
 
 Universal suffrage was adopted in France in 1791, in Germany in 1871, 
 and in Spain in 1890, but in Great Britain, and most European countries, 
 the suffrage is limited by a household or other qualification. Universal 
 suffrage was one of the six points of the charter. 
 
 Comity of Nations is the international courtesy by which effect is 
 given to the laws of one state within the territory and against the citizens 
 of another state. The surrender of W M. Tweed, by the Spanish gov- 
 ernment to our own, when he was trying to escape with his plunder, is 
 an instance of its operation. 
 
 Civil Service is a term comprising all officers of the Government who 
 do not belong to the military or naval services and are engaged in the 
 administration of the civil affairs of the State, such as the collection of 
 the revenue, the administration of law and justice, the performance of 
 the executive duties of the goverment, and the representation of the 
 country abroad. 
 
 The blue book of the City of New York shows that there are 6,724 
 persons paid by the city for their services. Of these 2,722, including the 
 mayor, aldermen, heads of city departments and teachers and other em- 
 ployees of the board of education are exempt from civil service rules, and 
 4,002 are included under the rules, of whom 2,760 are appointed only 
 after competitive examination. 
 
272 MANUAL. OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Among strange political terms the "Barnburners" were democrats 
 who withdrew from their party in 1846. They opposed the formation of 
 all corporations because they were afraid the United States Bank would 
 be re-established. The name refers to the story of the man who burnt 
 his barn to get rid of the rats. 
 
 The ' ' colonial system' ' is a theory long acted on by European nations, 
 that their settlements abroad were to be treated as proprietary domains, 
 exploited for the benefit of the mother-country, which did everything it 
 could to import their produce as cheaply as possible, and encourage them 
 to a large consumption of home manufactures. 
 
 Entente Cordiale(Fr. y "cordial understanding") is a term that origi- 
 nated, according to Littre\ in the French chamber of deputies in 1840- 
 41, and which from having been first used especially to denote the friendly 
 relations and disposition existing between France and Great Britain has 
 come to be used in regard to the amicable relations of other countries. 
 
 Voting in France is twofold: (1.) Scrutin d'Arrondissement, or the 
 single ballot system, whereby each arrondissement (district of a depart- 
 ment) returns its own member for Parliament; (2) Scrutin de I/iste, or 
 the multiple ballot system, whereby all the candidates offer themselves 
 for the department, and are put upon the same list, each elector having 
 as many votes as there are seats for the department. 
 
 Conservative as a term for one of the two great parties in English 
 politics, was first used in an article in the Quarterly for January 1830, 
 and was by Macaulay in the Edinburgh for 1832 referred to as a "new 
 cant word." Nevertheless it began to supersede Tory about the time of 
 the Reform Bill controversies. In this country it is applied to the De- 
 mocracy because of their jealous care for personal and local rights. 
 
 Closure, originating in the French cldture, is a parliamentary method 
 introduced into the English House of Commons in 1882, by which power 
 is given to the speaker or the chairman of committees, to close a debate 
 when it seems to him that the subject has been discussed, and he is 
 authorized to do so by a motion duly supported. The equivalent of 
 closure obtains in American usage through the "previous question." 
 
 The Hartford Convention was an assemblage of delegates from the 
 New England States, at Hartford, Conn., December 15, 1814. It sat 
 twenty days with closed doors, and as it was supposed to be of a treason- 
 able character, it was watched by a military officer of the Government. 
 The convention, at rising, proposed certain amendments to the Constitu- 
 tion; but though no treasonable act was committed, and no treasonable 
 intention proved, the Federalist party never recovered from the odium 
 of its opposition to the Government, and "Hartford Convention Federal- 
 ists' ' was long a term of reproach. 
 
 Non-intercourse Act was passed by Congress February 27, 1809, sus- 
 pending all trade between the United States and either France or Eng- 
 land. The offence of England was its claim of the right of search, which 
 compelled American vessels to surrender any British subjects who formed 
 part of their crew. The offence of France was the Continental system. 
 Napoleon, having removed all obstructions to American trade, Congress 
 renewed intercourse with France November 2, 1810; but the breaking out 
 of the second American war with Great Britain in May, 1812, continued 
 the non-intercourse till after the battle of Waterloo, when friendly rela- 
 tions were restored. 
 
POLITICS AND STA TECRAFT. 273 
 
 The term cabal is employed to denote a small, intriguing, factious 
 party, united for political or personal ends. It had been previously used 
 to denote a secret committee or cabinet, when, during 1667-73, it was 
 especially applied to Charles II's infamous ministry, consisting of five 
 members, whose initials, by a strange coincidence, made up the word 
 CABAI, viz., Clifford, Ashley (Shaftesbury), Buckingham, Arlington and 
 I/auderdale. 
 
 A caucus is a private meeting of politicians to agree upon candidates 
 for an ensuing election, or to fix the business to be laid before a general 
 meeting of their party. The term originated in the United States, where 
 the caucus has become a fixed fact, the "ticket" for federal, state, and 
 municipal offices, being always decided upon by the party leaders. Of 
 late years the system has been introduced into England, but is chiefly 
 used by the Radicals. 
 
 The Know-nothings, or "Natives" (1853), were a political society in 
 the United States of America who declared that the right of citizenship 
 should be restricted to "natives," or those born of American parents in 
 America. They were opposed to Catholicism, as inconsistent with the 
 spirit of republicanism. When asked any question respecting their so- 
 ciety, their only reply was, "I know nothing." They split on the slave 
 question and died out as a distinct party. 
 
 The casting vote is the vote by which the chairman or president of a 
 meeting is generally empowered to cast the balance on the one side or 
 the other, where the other votes are equally divided. As the position is 
 a delicate one, it is usual for the presiding officer to vote in such a way as 
 to give the body an opportunity to reconsider its decision. Where the 
 merits of the matter cannot be avoided, the casting vote may be accord- 
 ing to the conscience of him who casts it. 
 
 There were six Secretaries of State who afterward became Presidents, 
 namely, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Van Buren, 
 and Buchanan. Monroe was Secretary of War for a short time after he 
 had served in the State Department, and General Grant was Secretary of 
 War ad interim. There have been no Secretaries of the Treasury, the 
 Navy, or the Interior, nor any Postmasters or Attorney Generals who 
 have become President. Jeff Davis was Secretary of War under President 
 Pierce. 
 
 Not for mere pastime are the so-called Blue-books, the name popu- 
 larly applied to the reports and other papers printed by the English 
 parliament, because they are usually stitched up in blue paper wrap- 
 pers. Some departments, however, issue their proceedings in drab, and 
 some in white covers. The official books of other governments corre- 
 sponding to these blue-books are designated by the color of their covers. 
 The principal are: France, yellow; Germany and Portugal, white; Italy, 
 green; and Spain, red. 
 
 The Reichstag is the diet of the German empire. Since the estab- 
 lishment of the empire under the king of Prussia the legislative council 
 has consisted of one representative to every one hundred thousand inhabi- 
 tants. As the entire population is about forty-seven millions, this will 
 give four hundred and seventy members to the legislative assembly. The 
 delegates of the confederated governments form the " Bundesrath," and 
 whatever passes the two houses and is signed by the king-emperor be- 
 comes binding on all the twenty-six states. 
 U. I. 18 
 
274 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The cabinet is a council formed of the chief ministers of state, who 
 formulate and carry out a policy. The cabinet was known in England 
 as early as 1690. In the United States the members of the cabinet are the 
 heads of departments, who act in an advisory relation to the President. 
 They are the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Sec- 
 retary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, 
 the Secretary of Agriculture, the Attorney General, and the Postmaster 
 General. The salary of a cabinet officer is $8,000. 
 
 The two legislative houses of Norway combined are called the Stor- 
 thing or Storting. It is elected once in three years, and for business 
 purposes divides itself into two chambers the Lagthing and the Odels- 
 thing (the legislative house and the "house of commons"). All bills 
 originate in the Odelsthing, and are sent up to the Lagthing for approval 
 or disapproval. If assented to they are submitted to the king. If the 
 king dissents, they are returned to the Storthing (or combined house), 
 and whatever passes the Storthing thrice becomes law, whether the king 
 approves it or not. 
 
 A tariff is a table of duties charged on the imports or exports of a 
 country. The word is said to be derived from the Moorish port of Tar- 
 ifa, where duties were levied on African commerce. In Great Britain 
 the tariff imposes no export duties, and applies only to import duties 
 levied for purposes of revenue. In the United States, also, the term is 
 applied exclusively to import duties, which are fixed by Congress, and 
 levied for purposes of protection. The McKinley tariff, placing a high 
 duty upon all foreign imported goods, with the view of protecting native 
 manufactures of the United States, came into operation October, 1890. 
 Protective tariffs are in operation in most of the continental countries 
 Canada, and Australia. 
 
 The Cincinnati Association is a society or order founded in the 
 United States (1783) by the officers of the War of Independence, "to 
 perpetuate their friendship, and to raise a fund for relieving the widows 
 and orphans of those fallen during the war." It derived its name from 
 the appellation given to those who, with Washington at their head, had 
 left their rural occupations (like Lucius Quintus, Cincinnatus, 458 B.C.), to 
 fight for their country. The badge of the society is a bald eagle, having 
 on its breast a figure of the Roman Dictator receiving the military en- 
 signs from the senators. It is suspended by a dark blue ribbon, emble- 
 matic of the union of France and America. Motto: Omnia relinquit 
 servare rempublicam. In several states the order still exists, and holds 
 triennial meetings of its delegates. 
 
 The term "Whig" in United States history denotes those who in 
 the colonial and revolutionary periods were opposed to the British rule; 
 and also it is the name adopted in 1834 by the survivors of the old Na- 
 tional Republican party, after its overwhelming defeat by Jackson in 
 1832. Jackson's bold action in dismissing members of his cabinet, and 
 his relentless war upon the United States Bank, made him in their eyes 
 a tyrant little less hateful than George III, and the old name of Whig 
 was chosen as expressive of their revolt against one-man power. Webster, 
 Clay, and other National Republicans and old Federalists readily ac- 
 cepted the name, under which they were defeated in 1836, and in 1840 
 won their first great victory in the return of President Harrison. 
 The party died in 1852, slain by the hands of its own dissatisfied mem- 
 bers. 
 
POLITICS AND STA TECRAFT. 275 
 
 The Ku-Klux Klan (1868-1871) was a secret society of ex-Confederate 
 soldiers. "Ku-Klux" is meant to represent the click in cocking a rifle. 
 The "Klan" was an offset of the "Loyal League," and its ostensible ob- 
 ject was to "repress crime and preserve law in the disturbed Southern 
 States." In 1871 Congress, resolved to put down the association, sus- 
 pended the Habeas Corpus Act (under what is generally called "The Ku- 
 Klux Law") in nine counties of South Carolina. This law and the em- 
 ployment of the military brought the "Klan" to an end. 
 
 The legislative assembly of France is divided into Right and Left. 
 The Right includes the Legitimists, the Orleanists, and the Imperialists. 
 The Left includes the Republicans and the Radicals. The Legitimists 
 are those who favored the fortunes of the older branch of the Bourbon 
 family, represented till 1883 by the Comte de Chambord, who was called 
 by them "Henri V." The Orleanists favored the Louis Philippe branch 
 of the Bourbon family. On the death of the Comte de Chambord, in 
 1883, the Legitimists and the Orleanists became united. The Imperial- 
 ists favor the family of Napoleon. The Legitimists used to constitute 
 the "Extreme Right," the Orleanists the "Right Center." The Radicals 
 sit in the "Extreme Left," and the Republicans in the "Left Center." 
 
 WHAT IS TAMMANY? 
 
 Tammany, Tamendy, or Tammenund was an Indian chief of the 
 Delaware nation who lived about the middle of the seventeenth century. 
 He was a great friend of the whites, and was famous in tradition for so 
 many other virtues that in the latter days of the Revolution he was face- 
 tiously adopted as the patron saint of the new republic. A society called 
 the Tammany Society was founded in New York city, May 12, 1789, 
 originally for benevolent purposes, but it ultimately developed into a 
 mere political engine, becoming the principal instrument of the mana- 
 gers of the Democratic party in New York City. The number of the 
 general committee arose to over 1,400, delegates ultimately being sent 
 from each district and precinct; and finally a central " committee on or- 
 ganization" was chosen from this unwieldy body, whose chairman was 
 "boss" of the hall. The most notorious of these " bosses" was William 
 M. Tweed, whose gigantic frauds, and those of the "ring" of which he 
 was the chief, were finally exposed in 1871; Tweed was convicted, and 
 died in gaol while suits were pending against him for the recovery by 
 the city of $6,000,000. This catastrophe sadly crippled the power of 
 Tammany, but its influence in politics was by no means killed even then, 
 and it has since, with its leaning towards a protective tariff, proved a con- 
 stant source of insecurity and danger to the Democratic party at large. 
 Its influence was thrown into the scale against Hancock, successfully, 
 in 1880, and against Cleveland, unsuccessfully, in 1884; and the organi- 
 zation is still strong enough to carry its candidate for the mayoralty, even 
 against a combination of opposing forces. 
 
 WHEN ARE YOU TWENTY-ONE? 
 
 The question sometimes arises whether a man is entitled to vote at 
 an election held on the day preceding the twenty-first anniversary of his 
 birth. Blackstone, in his "Commentaries," book 1, page 463, says: 
 " Full age in male or female is 21 years, which age is completed on the 
 day preceding the anniversary of a person's birth, who, till that time, is 
 
276 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 an infant, and so styled in law." The late Chief Justice Sharswood, in 
 his edition of Blackstone's " Commentaries," quotes Christian's note on 
 the above as follows: "If he is born on the 16th dy of February, 1608, 
 he is of age to do any legal act on the morning of the 15th of February, 
 1629, though he may not have lived twenty-one years by nearly 48 hours. 
 The reason assigned is that in law there is no fraction of a day; and if 
 the birth were on the last second of one day and the act on the first sec- 
 ond of the preceding day twenty-one years after, then twenty-one years 
 would be complete; and in the law it is the same whether a thing is done 
 upon one moment of the day or another." The same high authority 
 (Sharswood) adds in a note of his own: " A person is of full age the day 
 before the twenty-first anniversary of his birthday." 
 
 ABOUT STATE ELECTION. 
 
 State elections are held in the various States as follows: Alabama 
 and Kentucky, first Monday in August; Arkansas, first Monday in Sep- 
 tember; Georgia, first Wednesday in October; Louisiana, the Tuesday 
 after the third Monday in April; Maine, second Monday in September; 
 Oregon, first Monday in June; Rhode Island, first Wednesday in April; 
 Vermont, first Tuesday in September. All others occur on the Tuesday 
 after the first Monday in November. Presidential elections are held on 
 the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. 
 
 THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 
 
 In the New England colonies the practice of secret voting was in 
 vogue from the very first, and it has now been adopted throughout the 
 United States. It is prevalent also in the self-governing English colonies 
 in Canada and Australia, and in most, if not all, the countries of Europe 
 which have adopted parliamentary institutions in France, Germany, 
 Italy, etc. While it may with substantial justice be maintained that 
 open voting is theoretically the best at elections of every kind, on the 
 ground that the suffrage being a public trust, it should be openly and 
 manfully exercised with the full sense of responsibility, secret voting is 
 now generally regarded as practically the most satisfactory method. 
 Though it is not a perfect safeguard against bribery and intimidation, it 
 has proved to be very effective. Since its adoption elections have pro- 
 ceeded with greater quietness, order and with comparatively little cor- 
 ruption. 
 
 The peculiar system of the secret ballot known as the Australian 
 system took its name from its being practiced first .in New South Wales, 
 a prominent Australian colony. Its distinguishing feature is that the 
 names of all candidates are printed on one ticket, and that the voter 
 must cross out the names of all those he does not wish to vote for. 
 
 Many of our States have adopted this system of voting, with slight 
 modifications, varying with the different States. Most of them, how- 
 ever, have adopted what is styled the single or "blanket" ballot. All 
 the names in nomination are printed on one sheet, the voter's choice to 
 be indicated by marking. There are two methods used of grouping the 
 names of the candidates. The Australian plan arranges the titles of the 
 offices alphabetically, the names of the candidates and usually their 
 party connection being attached. 
 
 The other form groups all names and offices by parties. It is illus- 
 trated by the following diagram of a ballot: 
 
POLITICS AND STATECRAFT. 277 
 
 Democratic. Republican. Prohibition. People's. 
 
 o o o o 
 
 For Governor. For Governor. For Governor. For Governor. 
 D John B. Altgeld. D Joseph W. Fifer. D R. R. Sink. D N. M. Barnett. 
 The voter of a straight ticket marks a cross in the circle at the head 
 of his ticket. The voter who scatters marks the squares opposite the 
 the names of all the candidates on the tickets. 
 
 THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION. 
 
 The President and Vice- President of the United States are chosen by 
 officials termed ' ' Electors ' ' in each State, who are, under existing State 
 laws, chosen by the qualified voters thereof by ballot, on the first Tues- 
 day after the first Monday in November in every fourth year preceding 
 the year in which the Presidential term expires. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States prescribes that each State shall 
 ' ' appoint ' ' in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number 
 of electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to 
 which the State may be entitled in Congress; but no Senator or Representa- 
 tive or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States 
 shall be an elector. The Constitution requires that the day when elect- 
 ors are chosen shall be the same throughout the United States. At the 
 beginning of our Government most of the electors were chosen by the 
 Legislatures of their respective States, the people having no direct par- 
 ticipation in their choice; and one State, South Carolina, continued that 
 practice down to the breaking out of the Civil War. But in all the States 
 now the Presidential electors are, under the direction of State laws, 
 chosen by the people. 
 
 The manner in which the chosen electors meet and ballot fora Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President of the United States, is provided for in Article 
 XII of the Constitution. The same article prescribes the mode in which 
 the Congress shall count the ballots of the electors, and announce the 
 result. 
 
 The procedure of the two houses, in case the returns of the election 
 of electors from any State are disputed, is provided in the "Electoral 
 Count ' ' act, passed by the Forty-ninth Congress. 
 
 The Constitution defines who is eligible for President of the United 
 States, as follows: 
 
 No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
 States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution shall be eligible to 
 the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office 
 who shall not have attained to the age of 35 years. 
 
 The qualifications for Vice-President are the same. 
 
 The "Electoral Count" act directs that the Presidential electors 
 shall meet and give their votes on the second Monday in January next 
 following their election. It fixes the time when Congress shall be in 
 session to count the ballots as the second Wednesday in February suc- 
 ceeding the meeting of the electors. 
 
 The Presidential succession is fixed by chapter 4 of the acts of the 
 Forty-ninth Congress, first session. In case of the removal, death, resig- 
 naion or inability of both the President or Vice-President, then the Sec- 
 retary of State shall act as President until the disability of the President 
 or Vice-President is removed or a President is elected. If there be no 
 Secretary of State, then the Secretary of the Treasury will act ; and 
 
278 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 the remainder of succession is: The Secretary of War, Attorney-General, 
 Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Interior. 
 The acting President must, upon taking office, convene Congress, if not 
 at the time in session, in extraordinary session, giving twenty days' 
 notice. 
 
 HOW TO BECOME A CITIZEN. 
 
 The right to vote comes from the State, and is a State gift. Natura- 
 lization is a Federal right, and is a gift of the Union, not of any one 
 State. In nearly one half the Union aliens who have declared intentions 
 vote and have the right to vote equally with naturalized or native-born 
 citizens. In the other half only actual citizens may vote. The Federal 
 naturalization laws apply to the whole Union alike, and provide that no 
 alien male may be naturalized until after five years' residence. Even 
 after five years' residence and due naturalization he is not entitled to 
 vote unless the laws of the State confer the privilege upon him, and he 
 may vote in one State (Minnesota) four months after landing, if he has 
 immediately declared his intention, under United States law, to become 
 a citizen. 
 
 The conditions under and the manner in which an alien may be ad- 
 mitted to become a citizen of the United States are prescribed by Sections 
 2165-74 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INTENTION. The alien must declare upon oath before a Circuit 
 or District Court of the United States, or a District or Supreme Court of the Territories, 
 or a court of record of any of the States having common law jurisdiction, and a seal and 
 clerk, two years at least prior to his admission, that it is, bonafide, his intention to 
 become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity 
 to any foreign prince or State, and particularly to the one of which he may be at the 
 time a citizen or subject. 
 
 OATH ON APPLICATION FOR ADMIISSON. He must, at the time of his application 
 to be admitted, declare on oath, before some one of the courts above specified, "that he 
 will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely and entirely 
 renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to every foreign prince, potentate, 
 State or sovereignty, and particularly, by name, to the prince, potentate, State or sov- 
 ereignty of which he was before a citizen or subject, "which proceedings must be recorded 
 by the clerk of the court. 
 
 CONDITIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP. If it shall appear to the satisfaction of thecourt to 
 which the alien has applied that he has resided continuously within the United States 
 for at least five years, and within the State or 'i erritory where such court is at the time 
 held one year at least; and that during that time "he has behaved as a man of good 
 moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and 
 well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same, ".he will be admitted to 
 citizenship. 
 
 TITLES OF NOBILITY. If the applicant has borne any hereditary title or order of 
 nobility, he must make an express renunciation of the same at the time of his ap- 
 plication. 
 
 SOLDIERS. Any alien of the age of twenty-one years and upwards, who has been in 
 the armies of the United States and has been honorably discharged therefrom, may be- 
 come a citizen on his petition, without any previous declaration of intention, provided 
 that he has resided in the United States at least one year previous to his application, 
 and is of good moral character. 
 
 MINORS. Any alien under the age of twenty-one years who has resided in the 
 United States three years next preceding his arriving at that age, and who has con- 
 tinued to reside therein to the time he may make application to be admitted a citizen 
 thereof, may, after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, and after he has resided 
 five years within the United States, including the three years of his minority, be ad- 
 mitted a citizen: but he must make a declaration on oath and prove to the satisfaction 
 of the court that for two year* next preceding it has been his bonafide intention to be- 
 come a citizen. 
 
 CHILDREN OF NATURALIZED CITIZENS. The children of persons who have been 
 duly naturalized, being under the age of sixteen years at the time of the naturalization 
 of their parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be considered as citizens thereof. 
 
POLITICS AND STA TE CRAFT. 279 
 
 CITIZENS' CHILDREN WHO ARE BORN ABROAD. The children of persons who now 
 are or have been citizens of the United States are, though born out of the limits and ju- 
 risdiction of the United States, considered as citizens thereof. 
 
 PROTECTION ABROAD TO NATURALIZED CITIZENS. Section 2000 of the Revised 
 Statutes of the United States declares that "all naturalized citizens of the United States, 
 while in foreign countries are entitled to and shall receive from this Government the 
 same protection of persons and property which is accorded to native-born citizens." 
 
 Codifyi 
 8. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW CONDENSED. 
 The following will be found useful as a guide to parliamentarians: 
 
 LISTS OF MOTIONS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR PURPOSE 
 AND EFFECT. 
 
 \Letters refer to rules below.'} 
 
 ing or amending. 
 To amend or to substitute, or to divide the question ....... K 
 
 To refer to committee. 
 
 7. To commit (or recommit) ................................... ., D 
 
 Deferring action. 
 
 6. To postpone to a fixed time .............................. C 
 
 4. To fay on the table .......................................... AEG 
 
 Suppressing or extending debate. 
 
 5. For the previous question .................................. A E M 
 
 To limit, or close, debate ................................... A M 
 
 To extend limits of debate ................................. A 
 
 Suppressing the question. 
 
 Objection to consideration of question ...................... A H M N 
 
 9. To postpone indefinitely .................................. D E 
 
 4. To lay upon the table .................. ........... A E G 
 
 To bring up a question the second time. 
 
 T ~ o-,^.. j debatable question ..... ................. D E F I 
 
 To reconslder 1 undebatable question ..................... A E F I 
 
 Concerning Orders. Rules, etc. 
 
 3. For the orders of the day.... ............................. A E H N 
 
 To make subject a special order ............................ M 
 
 To amend the rules ....................... ................. M 
 
 To suspend the rules ....................................... A E F M 
 
 To make up a question out of its proper order .............. A E 
 
 To take from the table .................................. ----- A E G 
 
 Questions touching priority of business ..................... A 
 
 Questions of privilege. 
 
 Asking leave to continue speaking after indecorum ........ A 
 
 Appeal from chair's decision touching indecorum .......... A E H I, 
 
 Appeal from chair's decision generally .................... E H L 
 
 Question upon reading of papers ........................... A E 
 
 Withdrawal of a motion .................................... A E 
 
 Closing a meeting. 
 
 2. To adjourn (in committees, to rise) , or to take a recess, j A T? w 
 without limitation ............. , ...................... \ 
 
 1. To fix the time,to which to adjourn ...................... B 
 
 ORDER OF PRECEDENCE. The motions above numbered 1 to 9 take precedence over 
 all others in the order given, and any one of them, except to amend or substitute, is in 
 order while a motion of a lower rank is pending. 
 
 RULE A. Undebatable, but remarks may be tacitly allowed. 
 
 RULE B. Undebatable if another question is before the assembly. 
 
 RULBC. Limited debate allowed on propriety of postponement only. 
 
 RULB D. Opens the main question to debate. Motions not so marked do not allow 
 of reference to main question, 
 
 RULB E. Cannot be amended. Motion to adjourn can be amended when there is no 
 other business before the house. 
 
 RULE F. Canno* be reconsidered. 
 
 RULE G. An affirmative vote cannot be reconsidered. 
 
 RULB H. In order when another has the floor. 
 
 RULE I. A motion to reconsider may be moved and entered when another has the 
 floor, but the business then before the house may not be set aside. This motion can 
 only be entertained when made by one who voted originally with the prevailing side. 
 
280 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 When called up it take" precedence of all others which may come up, excepting only 
 motions relating to adjournment 
 
 Rule K. A motion to amend an amendment cannot be amended. 
 
 RULE I,. When an appeal from the chair's decision results in a tie vote, the chair is 
 sustained. 
 
 RULE M. Requires a two-thirds vote unless special rules have been enacted, 
 
 RULE N. Does not require to be seconded. 
 
 GENERAL, RUL.ES. 
 
 No motion is open for discussion until it has been stated by the chair. 
 
 The maker of a motion cannot modify it or withdraw it after it has been stated by 
 the chair, except by general consent. 
 
 Only one reconsideration of a question is permitted. 
 
 A motion to adjourn, to lay on the table, or to take from the table, cannot be re- 
 newed unless some other motion has been made in the interval. 
 
 On motion to strike out the words, "Shall the words stand part of the motion?" un- 
 less a majority sustain the words, they are struck out. 
 
 On motion for previous question, the form to be observed is, "Shall the main ques- 
 tion be now put?" This, if carried, ends debate. 
 
 On an appeal from the chair's decision, "Shall the decision be sustained as the rul- 
 ing of the house?" the chair is generally sustained. 
 
 On motion for orders of the day, "Will the house now proceed to the orders of 
 the day?" This, if carried, supersedes intervening motions. 
 
 When an objection is raised to considering questions, "Shall the question be con- 
 sidered?" objections maybe made by any member before debate has commenced, but 
 not subsequently. 
 
 WOMAN SUFFRAGE. 
 
 The following is a statement of the Woman Suffrage movement, cor- 
 rected to January 1, 1893. Thirty-two States and Territories - a majority 
 of the Union have given women some form of suffrage. 
 
 WYOMING. Women have voted on the same terms with men since 
 1870. The convention in 1889, to form a State Constitution, unanimously 
 inserted a provision securing them suffrage. This Constitution was rati- 
 fied by the voters at a special election by about three-fourths majority. 
 Congress admitted the State July 10, 1890. 
 
 WASHINGTON. Women voted in the Territory for five years, till ex- 
 cluded by a decision of the Territorial Supreme Court, which court was 
 not elected by the people nor responsible to them. In adopting a State 
 Constitution, the question of allowing women to vote was submitted 
 separately to vote of the men. It was not carried. Many women claim 
 that they were illegally excluded, and are seeking to regain suffrage. 
 
 KANSAS. Women have suffrage in all municipal elections. About 
 60,000 voted last year. 
 
 UTAH. Women voted in this Territory until excluded by the Ed- 
 munds law. They have organized in large numbers to demand the re- 
 peal of this law. The State Constitution of 1884 gave suffrage to women. 
 
 School suffrage exists, on various terms, in Arizona, Colorado, Dela- 
 ware, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michi- 
 gan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
 North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, 
 Washington and Wisconsin. Women can vote for trustees of the State 
 University in Illinois, and for county superintendents in Minnesota. 
 
 MONTANA. The State Constitution guarantees women the power to 
 vote on local taxation. 
 
 NEW YORK. Women can vote at waterworks elections, and on 
 questions of local improvements; also for Assembly District School 
 Commissioners in the rural districts once in three years. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Women vote on local improvements, by signing or 
 refusing to sign petitions. 
 
POLITICS AND STATECRAFT. 281 
 
 NEW JERSEY. Women can vote at elections for sewers and other im- 
 provements. 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. Delaware has municipal woman suffrage in 
 Wilmington and many other places. Louisiana admits women to vote 
 on the question of running railroads through parishes. Tennessee on in- 
 corporation of cities and annexation thereto. Mississippi on fence ques- 
 tions under the stock law. Arkansas and Missouri by signing or refusing 
 petitions on liquor license. Kentucky, widows whose children attend 
 school vote. Texas women in many counties vote by signing or refusing 
 to sign petitions for school officers. 
 
 PARTIES THAT ELECTED PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Au, PARTIES, 2 Washington, Monroe. 
 
 FEDERAL, 2 John Adams, John Q. Adams. 
 
 OLD REPUBLICANS, 2 Jefferson, Madison. 
 
 DEMOCRATS, 6 Jackson, Van Buren, Polk, Pierce, Buchanan, 
 Cleveland. 
 
 WHIGS, 4 Harrison, Tyler, Taylor, Fillmore. 
 
 NEW REPUBLICANS, 7 Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, 
 Arthur, Harrison. 
 
 THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW. 
 
 The constitution of the United States of America having recognized 
 slavery, or "service," as it was termed, provided that persons held to 
 service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, and escaping into 
 anotner, should be delivered up, on claim of the party to whom such 
 service or labor might be due. An act passed by congress in 1793, pro- 
 viding for the reclamation of fugitives, was superseded by a more string- 
 ent act in 1850, containing many obnoxious provisions; a larger fee, for 
 instance, was paid to the judicial officer when the person arrested was 
 adjudged to be a slave than when he was declared free; and all citizens 
 were required, when called upon, to render the officers personal assist- 
 ance in the performance of their duties. Any assistance rendered to a 
 fugitive, or obstruction offered to his arrest was penal, and many persons 
 were remanded under the act; but the increased hostility to slavery 
 which it engendered actually led to assistance being given in a larger 
 number of escapes than ever before, mainly through the organization 
 known as the " underground railroad." The act was repealed after the 
 outbreak of the civil war; and, since slavery has been abolished, the con- 
 stitutional provision has lost all importance. 
 
 CONGRESS AND ITS DUTIES. 
 
 The American Congress is divided into the Senate and the House of 
 Representatives, a division which was made -because our Government 
 was founded upon the model of England, whose Parliament consists of 
 a House of Peers and a House of Commons. The Senate is supposed to 
 play the same part in American legislation which the House of Peers 
 does in Britain. It is a sort of governor in the machinery of the body 
 politic which exerts a conservative and prudent influence on law-mak- 
 ing. The Senate originally, although that meaning has been largely 
 neglected, meant the conclave of the sovereign States of the Union, a 
 council which was to look more closely after the general and external 
 
282 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 affairs of the confederacy, while the House of Representatives was to 
 represent the people of the whole Union. This meaning, it has been 
 said above, has been largely lost in the course of time, but the fiction 
 remains, and the division of the powers of Government between the two 
 bodies illustrates the purpose which the fathers of the Government had 
 in the original separation into two Houses. 
 
 THE SENATE. The Senate consists of two Senators from each State 
 of the Federal Union. These Senators are chosen by the Legislatures of 
 the respective States and hold office for six years. There was a strong 
 effort made at the time of the drafting of the Constitution to extend the 
 term for life, but this was believed to savor too much of aristocracy, and 
 after long debate six years was agreed upon as a compromise measure. 
 The pay of Senators is $5,000 per year. The Senate is presided over by 
 the Vice-President, and when he has for any cause vacated his office a 
 President pro tempore of the Senate is elected. There are now (1893) 
 eighty-six Senators. * All impeachments are tried by the Senate, and 
 when the President of the United States is on trial the Chief Justice of 
 the Supreme Court must preside. The Senate must approve of treat- 
 ies made with foreign governments by the President before they can be- 
 come binding, and the consent of the Senate is necessary to the appoint- 
 ments to all the great offices of the State made by the President. The 
 Senate is the only permanent body in the United States Government, 
 the elections being always so ordered that two-thirds of the Senators 
 hold over. 
 
 THE HOUSE. In the early days of the Federal Union the only legis- 
 lative body was the Continental Congress, which exercised both the 
 executive and legislative functions of government, and which occasion- 
 ally performed judicial duties also. The old Congress piloted the nation 
 through the Revolutionary war, but, although effective for its original 
 purpose, it was not able for the work which fell upon its shoulders under 
 the articles of confederation. The articles themselves were unsuited to 
 the land, and in a little while it became evident that the United States 
 experiment would end in disaster and disappointment unless something 
 was done to give it shape and direction. 
 
 The man that had led the Continental Army to glory and freedom 
 through the Revolution again came forward and preserved by his wise 
 statesmanship the Republic which his military genius had founded. At 
 the call of George Washington the American Constitution was born, and 
 the keystone of the Constitution is the House of Representatives. This 
 body is the brain of the nation; on its floor all the momentous issues of 
 the Republic have been settled; no higher office can a citizen win than 
 a seat in the council of the Nation, none greater in the influence which 
 it wields, not for America alone, but for the future of the human race. 
 
 The number of Representatives is decided by the census; which is 
 taken every ten years. As soon as this is done Congress decides upon 
 the number of Representatives for the ensuing decade. The number 
 ince the establishment of the Constitution has been as follows: 
 
 17891793.. 65 
 
 1793-1803 105 
 
 18031813 149 
 
 18131823.. ....189 
 
 1823-1833 213 
 
 18331843 240 
 
 These Congressmen are paid $5,000 a year, with certain additions in 
 the shape of mileage, stationery, etc. , etc. The qualifications of a Rep- 
 resentative are fully explained in the Constitution, 
 
 18431853 223 
 
 1853-1863 237 
 
 18631873 243 
 
 18731883 293 
 
 1883-1893... .. 325 
 
MUSIC AND THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 The beings of the mind are not of clay, 
 
 Essentially immortal, they create 
 And multiply .in us a brighter ray, 
 
 And more belov'd existence. 
 
 BYRON. 
 
 STRAY HINTS ON ART AND ARTISTS. 
 
 Byron had no ear for music. 
 
 Pope preferred a street organ to Handel's Messiah. 
 
 The piano was unknown before the eighteenth century. 
 
 "Art lies in concealing art," is a phrase credited to Ovid. 
 
 " It was in Greece that sculpture first became an ideal art." 
 
 Rococo now applies to whatever is fantastic in decorative art. 
 
 It was Schelling who described architecture as "frozen music." 
 
 Emanuel Bach is said to have been the first writer for the pianoforte. 
 
 The name "Painter of Nature" was given to the French poet Bel- 
 lean. 
 
 The harp is mentioned in Genesis (iv. 21), and is still in use and 
 favor. 
 
 Sir W. Scott was wholly ignorant of pictures and quite indifferent 
 to music. 
 
 In melodrama, strictly defined, music is always introduced into the 
 dialogue. 
 
 Of late the term "fine arts" has become limited to painting and 
 sculpture. 
 
 The art of cameo cutting reached its highest perfection in Greece 
 and Rome. 
 
 The English artist Hogarth said that "genius is nothing but labor 
 and diligence." 
 
 Giovanni Cimabue of Florence (1240-1300) is called the Father of 
 Modern Painters. 
 
 Goethe has said that "the first and last thing required of genius is 
 the love of truth." 
 
 Stradivarius, who did so much to perfect the violin, lived in the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 Frescoes are of very great antiquity and have been found in Egypt, 
 at Pompeii and elsewhere. 
 
 283 
 
284 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 When beauty and grace are combined with utility and strength, 
 architecture becomes a fine art. 
 
 Opus is a title given to each separate production of a composer. 
 They are numbered in succession. 
 
 "Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, " not "beast" is 
 the true quotation from Congreve. 
 
 Centuries before our Longfellow, Chaucer had written: "the lyfe so 
 short, the crafte so long to lerne." . 
 
 It was Raphael who did most ' ' to define the true limits and the true 
 capabilities of purely decorative art." 
 
 The patron saint of "artists and smiths" is St. Eloi (588-659), master 
 of the mint in the reign of Clotaire II. 
 
 The finest specimens of Peruvian masonry extant are to be found in 
 the ruins of Cuzco, an old capital of the state. 
 
 The place where the chorus stood in the Greek theatre has given us 
 a word that now refers to the musicians orchestra. 
 
 The nimbus or halo painted around the heads of holy personages, 
 is claimed to have been derived from later Greek art. 
 
 Renaissance is the name specifically given to the revival of the clas- 
 sic style of art in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 
 
 As a portrait painter Van Dyok is second only to Titian. His "Chil- 
 dren of Charles I," in the Dresden gallery, is well known. 
 
 The general term " gem sculpture" refers to designs worked upon 
 precious stones, as cameos, or cut into the surface as intaglios. 
 
 Michelangelo was a giant in sculpture, painting and architecture. 
 All his work is marked by "a mysterious and awful grandeur." 
 
 Egypt reached the zenith of her political greatness and her archi- 
 tecture its highest development between 1600 B.C. and 1300 B.C. 
 
 Greek paintings were executed in distemper with glue, milk, or white 
 of eggs, and on wood, clay, plaster, stone, parchment and canvas. 
 
 For richness of coloring, beauty of form, the portrayal of the sensu- 
 ous and the painting of the human face, few have surpassed Titian. 
 
 Flamboyant was a style of Gothic architecture (1500-1600) in which 
 the tracery of windows, panels, etc., had a wave or flame-like form. 
 
 The "Statuesque" school of French artists was that founded by Da- 
 vid (1748-1825), who was himself called the Painter of the Revolution. 
 
 The cathedral of St. Mark's at Venice, with its many rich mosaics, 
 is considered by some one of the most remarkable buildings in the 
 world. 
 
 The Laocoon, a masterpiece of the Rhodian school [323-146 B.C.], 
 "is said to express physical pain and passion better than other existing 
 groups." 
 
 The Temple of Karnac, an imposing ruin, is a striking example of 
 the grandeur, the grace and the magnitude of many of the Egyptian 
 temples. 
 
 Corot, Millet and Bougereau are among the best of the modern 
 French school, which to-day is enjoying a position it never before 
 attained. 
 
MUSIC AND THE FINE ARTS, 285 
 
 The grand decorations of the Sistine Chapel ceiling were the work 
 of five years, and form a characteristic masterpiece of Michel Angelo. 
 
 In the twenty-first verse of the fourth chapter of Genesis we read 
 that Jubal was "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ." 
 
 The clavichord is an obsolete musical instrument of the same type 
 as the harpsichord and spinet. A claviharp is a harp struck with keys 
 like a piano. 
 
 There are five orders of architecture: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Cor- 
 inthian and Composite, of which the Tuscan and Composite are Roman 
 and the other three Greek. 
 
 Though in its earliest days Christianity in its asceticism was hostile 
 to art, still we find many of the highest forms of mediaeval art and 
 architecture in the Church. 
 
 The finest ancient marble was that from Paros, called Parian; the 
 next best were from Mount Pentelicus and Hymettus, near Athens. The 
 finest modern marble is from Carrara. 
 
 Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Chopin, Meyer- 
 beer and Mendelssohn, who are still without peers in the music of Ger- 
 many, all lived and died within a century. 
 
 The oldest existing statue is one of wood, admirably modeled, col- 1 
 ored, and with eyes of crystal. It is of a man named Ra-em-ke, an 
 Egyptian, and dating from about B. c. 4000. 
 
 The early representations of Christ in painting were purposely de- 
 void of all attraction; in the eighth century Adrian I. decreed that Christ 
 should be represented as beautiful as possible. 
 
 The mosaics in the Church of St. Mark, in Venice, are the finest in 
 the world. They cover 40,000 square feet of the upper walls, ceilings, 
 and cupolas, and are all laid on a gold ground. 
 
 In these great works of the Italian painters it must be borne in 
 mind that the masters furnished the cartoons, while the details were 
 painted by pupils, many of whom in turn became masters. 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn raised the Dutch school to its highest develop- 
 ment in realistic art. Perfect command of light and shade, picturesque 
 effect and truth to nature marks all the work of Rembrandt. 
 
 "The Girl I Left Behind Me" has been played and sung in England 
 since 1760. Its original name was "Brighton Camp." It is an Irish 
 air, but who composed either the words or the music is now unknown. 
 
 The Caryatides were figures of Greek women used in architecture to 
 support entablatures. They were first used by Praxiteles to perpetuate 
 the disgrace of Carya, who sided with the Persians in the battle of Ther- 
 mopylae. 
 
 The opposite art term to relief is intaglio, and means the repre- 
 sentation of a subject by hollowing it out in a gem or other substance, so 
 that an impression taken from the engraving presents the appearance of 
 a bas-relief. 
 
 The candelabrum is properly a candlestick, but is regularly used 
 also for a lamp-stand. Often from three to ten feet high, it may be of great 
 variety of form and may be made of marble, bronze, and the precious 
 metals. The bronze candelabra of the Renaissance are also notable art 
 objects. 
 
286 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Byzantine architecture was the style which was developed by the 
 Byzantine artists from Christian symbolism. Its main features were the 
 circle, dome, and round arch, and its chief symbols, the lily, cross, ves- 
 ica and nimbus. 
 
 In the Vatican at Rome there is a marble statue with natural eye- 
 lashes, the only one with this peculiarity in the world. It represents 
 Ariadne sleeping on the Island of Naxos at the moment when she was 
 deserted by Theseus. 
 
 The camera obscura (lit. "a dark chamber"), early described by 
 Giambattista della Porta in his "Magia Naturalis," received a new inter- 
 est in the hands of Daguerre, when it became the principal instrument 
 used in photography. 
 
 The concertina is a musical instrument invented in 1829 by Wheat- 
 stone, the electrician, the sounds of which are produced by free vibrating 
 reeds of metal, as in the accordion. The scale of the concertina is very 
 complete and extensive. 
 
 In St. John's College, Oxford, is preserved a portrait of Charles I, 
 in which the engraver's lines, as they seem to be, are really microscopic 
 writing, the face alone containing all the book of Psalms, with the 
 creeds and several forms of prayers. 
 
 Though Hogarth, the father of the English school of painting, was 
 successful as a portrait painter, it was those famous series of satires on 
 the follies of people in general and of Londoners in particular that 
 placed him among the "immortals." 
 
 The Greeks employed music, no doubt simple in form, in their 
 dramas. The chorus sang, or rather "intoned poetry," between scenes, 
 and was a very important adjunct of the play, as it was often the only 
 means of showing the action of the plot. 
 
 Alto, in music, is properly the same as counter tenor, the male voice 
 of the highest pitch (now principally falsetto), and not the lowest female 
 voice, which is properly contralto, though in printed music the second 
 part in a quartet is always entitled alto. 
 
 People love pictures. That is apparent to every thoughtful man 
 who visits an art gallery. It may be true that comparatively few under- 
 stand all that the artists have said, but it is equally true that, in general, 
 the people derive delight from the works of art. 
 
 Dillettante in its original sense is synonymous with an amateur, or 
 lover of the fine arts. It is often used as a term of reproach, to signify 
 an amateur whose taste lies in the direction of what is trivial and vulgar, 
 or of a critic or connoisseur whose knowledge is mere affectation and 
 pretence. 
 
 The Cyclopean walls was a name given to masonry built of large 
 irregular stones, closely fitting, but unhewn and uncemented. They 
 were attributed to Strabo's Cyclopes, who were probably mythical, and 
 many of them still exist in Greece (as at Mycenae and Tiryus), Italy and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Artists say that the next great school will appear in America and 
 rule the artistic world with a more imperial power than the French school 
 exercises today. When one reflects that the art of a nation is but the 
 expression of the inner feeling of its people he is constrained to accept 
 the prophecy as true. 
 
MUSIC AND THE FINE ARTS. 287 
 
 Madonna, an Italian word meaning " My L/ady," is used as the gen- 
 eric title for works of art, generally paintings, representing the Virgin, 
 or the Virgin with the Infant Christ. Legend credits St. L/uke with 
 having painted the first Madonna, a portrait put on the canvas from life, 
 and with having carved the image of the Virgin in the Santa Casa at 
 Loreto. 
 
 Serenade (Ital. serenata) was originally music performed in a calm 
 night; hence an entertainment of music given by a lover to his mistress 
 under her window especially in Spain and Italy. A piece of music 
 characterized by the soft repose which is supposed to be in harmony with 
 the stillness of night is sometimes called a serenade, more usually a 
 nocturne. 
 
 Tableaux vivants, or living pictures, are representations of works of 
 painting and sculpture, or of scenes from history or fiction, by living 
 persons. They are said to have been invented by Madame de Genlis, 
 when she had charge of the education of the children of the Duke of 
 Orleans. They were long common in theatres, as they are now in pri- 
 vate circles. 
 
 In the fine arts a cartoon is a design on strong paper of the full 
 size of a work to be afterwards executed in fresco, oil color, or tapestry; 
 and prepared in order that the artist may adjust the drawing and compo- 
 sition of his subject where alterations can be readily effected. The de- 
 sign when completed is transferred, by tracing or pouncing, to the sur- 
 face finally to be worked on. 
 
 We apply the term Moorish, or Moresque, to the special form of 
 Saracenic architecture developed by the Moors in Spain. Its character- 
 istics were the horseshoe arch, the slender column, minarets, mosques, 
 lattice-work, and gorgeous coloring. The principle examples are the 
 mosque of Cordova (eighth century), and the palace of the Alhambra at 
 Granada (fourteenth century). 
 
 Castanets is the name of a musical instrument of percussion in the 
 form of two hollow shells of ivory or hard wood, which are bound 
 together by a band fastened on the thumb, and struck by the fingers to 
 produce a trilling sound in keeping with the rhythm of the music. The 
 castanets were introduced into Spain by the Moors, and are much used 
 as an accompaniment to dances and guitars. 
 
 The term bird's-eye view is applied generally to modes of perspective 
 in which the eye is supposed to look down upon the objects from a con- 
 siderable height. In sketching or drawing a locality for military or 
 economical purposes, this kind of perspective is always used. The great 
 difficulty is to represent at the same time the relative heights of moun- 
 tains and steepness of acclivities. But the more usual kind of bird's-eye 
 view differs from the common perspective picture only in the greater 
 height of the horizontal line. 
 
 Soprano (Ital.) is the highest species of voice. Its average range ex- 
 tends from C below the treble stave to A above it; but the greatest variety 
 in compass and quality is found. The highest compass on record is that of 
 Agujari, which on the testimony of Mozart reached to C in altissimo (three 
 octaves). Music for this voice is now written with the G or treble clef; 
 but in German full scores the old soprano clef, C on the first line, is still 
 used. The mezzo-soprano has a somewhat lower range, usually from A 
 beneath the treble stave to F on the fifth line. 
 
288 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Foreshortening is a term in painting or drawing, applied to signify 
 that a figure, or a portion of a figure, which is intended to be viewed by 
 the spectator directly or nearly in front, is so represented as to convey the 
 notion of its being projected forward; and, though by mere comparative 
 measurement occupying a much smaller space on the surface, yet to give 
 the same idea of length or size as if it had been projected laterally. 
 
 Genre-painting is a term in art which originally indicated simply 
 any class or kind of painting, and was always accompanied by a distinct- 
 ive adjective or epithet, as genre historique, "historical painting," or 
 genre du pay sage, "landscape painting." The term genre is now limited 
 to scenes from familiar or rustic life and to all figure pictures which from 
 the homeliness of their subjects do not attain to the dignity of historical 
 art. 
 
 Improvisatori is an Italian term, designating poets who without pre- 
 vious preparation compose on a given theme, and who sometimes sing 
 and accompany their voice with a musical instrument. The talent of 
 improvisation is found in races in which the imagination is more than 
 usually alert, as among the ancient Greeks, the Arabs, and in many tribes 
 of negroes. In modern Europe it has been almost entirely confined to 
 Italy. 
 
 Great schools can spring only from a profound popular delight in 
 expressions of beauty and truth. Art is not primarily didactic not 
 essentially religious or theoretical but, rather, ethical, and delight is a 
 moral quality. Thus the measure of a nation's advancement in regard 
 to its ethical conceptions is an accurate measure of its love of art and 
 of its capability to achieve great things in color, in marble and in 
 architecture. 
 
 Perhaps it is too much to ask that the people read all that artists 
 write. Granted that they do not, there still remains the fact that their 
 hearts delight in expressions of truth, which their minds as yet do not 
 grasp. And from such popular delight in things of intrinsic nobility 
 came that sincerity which made it possible for Ghiberti, the Florentine, 
 to fashion "The Gates of Paradise." And from the spirit of the people 
 the great American school of art is to spring. 
 
 The term pre-Raphaelite has been applied to a body of artists, poets, 
 and literary men who combined together (1850) to advocate, by precept 
 and example, a return to nature in art. Their subsequent success and 
 influence was largely owing to the support they received from the pen 
 of John Ruskin. The name was adopted because they looked upon Ra- 
 phael as "the first traitor to religious art, " since he idealized his crea- 
 tions past recognition, and was the founder of what they deemed the 
 "illusory" style. 
 
 The word caricature is used to express either a pictorial or a de- 
 scriptive representation, in which, while a general likeness is retained, 
 peculiarities are exaggerated so as to make the person or thing ridicu- 
 lous. Although sometimes applied to literary descriptions, the word 
 caricature, when used alone, is generally understood to relate to de- 
 sign. Caricature being a natural expression of natural feelings, must be 
 as old as man himself, and possibly the eccentric markings found on 
 rocks and in caves are not entirely due to bad drawing, but were in- 
 tended in certain cases to ridicule the artist's enemies. Examples of cari- 
 cature have been found in the art of the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the 
 Romans. 
 
MUSIC AND THE FINE ARTS. 289 
 
 The Facade (Fr.) is the exterior front or face of a building. This 
 term, although frequently restricted to classic architecture, may be ap- 
 plied to the front elevation of a building in any style. It is, however, 
 generally used with reference to buildings of some magnitude and pre- 
 tension; thus, we speak of the front of a house, and the facade of a pal- 
 ace. The back elevation of an important building is called the rear 
 faade, and a side elevation the lateral facade. The sides of a court, or 
 cortile are also called facades, and are distinguished as north, south, etc., 
 faades. 
 
 Relief, as distinguished from "sculpture in the round," is one of the 
 oldest forms of mural decoration, and in many cases is a subordinate de- 
 partment of architectural art rather than a branch of sculpture proper. 
 It is low relief (bas-relief, basso-rilievo), middle (mezzo-rilievo), and high 
 relief (alto-rilievo) according as the carved figures project very little, in 
 a moderate degree, or in a very considerable degree from the background. 
 The ancient Egyptians practiced a peculiar kind of low relief and in- 
 taglio combined. The wall-sculptures of Assyria and Babylonia are mostly 
 in very low relief. 
 
 Dissolving views are pictures painted upon glass, and made to appear 
 of great size and with great distinctness upon a wall by means of a magic 
 lantern with strong lenses and an intense oxyhydrogen light, and then 
 by removal of the glass from the focus, and gradual increase of its dis- 
 tanceapparently dissolved into a haze, through which a second picture 
 is made to appear by means of a second slide, at first with a feeble, and 
 afterwards with a strong light. Subjects are chosen to which such an 
 optical illusion is adapted, such as representations of the same object or 
 landscape at different periods. 
 
 The art of painting manuscripts with miniatures and ornaments 
 termed "illumination," is one of the most remote antiquity. The Egyp- 
 ian papyri containing portions of the Ritual or "Book of the Dead" are 
 ornamented with veritable drawings and colored pictures. Except these 
 papyri, no other manuscripts of antiquity were, strictly speaking, illu- 
 minated; such Greek and Roman manuscripts of the first century as have 
 reached the present day being written only. It was in the middle ages, 
 and in the hands of ecclesiastical scholars or copyists, that the art of illum- 
 ination touched its highest development. 
 
 The Elgin Marbles are a celebrated collection of ancient sculptures, 
 brought from Greece by the seventh Earl of Elgin, then ambassador to 
 the Porte, and acquired from him by the nation for the British Museum 
 in 1816 at the sum of $175,000. Early in the century he obtained a fir- 
 man to examine, measure, and remove certain stones with inscriptions 
 from the Acropolis of Athens, then a Turkish fortress. His agents, on 
 the strength of this firman, removed the so-called Elgin Marbles, packed 
 before Elgin's recall in 1803, but not finally conveyed to England till 
 1812. They are said to have cost the ambassador upwards of $370,000. 
 
 THE LARGEST STATUE ON RECORD. 
 
 "Liberty," Bartholdi's statue, presented to the United States by the 
 French people in 1885, is the largest statue ever built. Its conception is 
 due to the great French sculptor whose name it bears. It is said to be a 
 likeness of his mother. Eight years were consumed in the construction 
 of this gigantic brazen image. Its weight is 440,000 pounds, of which 
 U. I. 19 
 
290 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 146,000 pounds are copper, the remainder iron and steel. The chief part 
 of the iron and steel was used in constructing the skeleton frame work 
 for the inside. The mammoth electric light held in the hand of the 
 giantess is 305 feet above tide- water. The height of the figure is 152^ 
 feet; the pedestal 91 feet, and the foundation 52 feet and 10 inches. Forty 
 persons can find standing-room within the mighty head, which is 14^ 
 feet in diameter. A six-foot man, standing on the lower lip, could hardly 
 reach the eyes. The index finger is 8 feet in length and the nose 3% 
 feet. The Colossus of Rhodes was a pigmy compared with this latter 
 day wonder. 
 
 SOME MARVELOUS PAINTINGS. 
 
 The following brief notes on a few wonderful creations of the brush 
 will be perused with general interest: 
 
 Quentin Matsys, the Dutch painter, painted a bee so well that the 
 artist Mandyn thought it a real bee and proceeded to brush it away with 
 his handkerchief. 
 
 Parrhasios painted a curtain so admirably that even Zeuxis, the 
 artist, mistook it for real drapery. 
 
 Zeuxis, a Grecian painter, painted some grapes so well that birds 
 came and pecked at them, thinking them real grapes. 
 
 Apelles painted Alexander's horse Bucephalus so true to life that 
 some mares came up to the canvas neighing, under the supposition that 
 it was a real animal. 
 
 Velasquez painted a Spanish admiral so true to life that when King 
 Felipe IV entered the studio, he mistook the painting for the man, and 
 began reproving the supposed officer for neglecting his duty, in wasting 
 his time in the studio, when he ought to have been with his fleet. 
 
 Apelles, being at a loss to paint the foam of Alexander's horse, 
 dashed his brush at the picture in a fit of annoyance, and did by accident 
 what his skill had failed to do. 
 
 The same tale is told of Protogenes, who dashed his brush at a pict- 
 ure, and thus produced " the foam of a dog's mouth," which he had long 
 been trying in vain to represent. 
 
 STORY OF THE "ART DIVINE." 
 
 The cradle of the divine art was Egypt. The Hebrews took with 
 them to Palestine the songs they had learned there, and many of the 
 hymns of the early Christian Church were necessarily old Temple melo- 
 dies. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan (374), and after him Pope Gregory 
 the Great (590), were the fathers of music in the Western Church. Har- 
 monies were introduced in the ninth century; the present musical nota- 
 tion was invented by Guido Aretino (d. 1055); counterpoint was perfected 
 by the Belgian Josquin Despres (d. 1521) and the Italian Palestrina 
 (1555); and Italian opera was founded in 1600. The influence of the 
 Italian school spread all over Europe; but in the sixteenth century Eng- 
 land had a national school of her own, comprising such names as Tallis, 
 Farrant, and Orlando Gibbons. Among the great composers of the seven- 
 teenth century were Monteverde in Italy, Lully in France, and Purcell in 
 England. In the eighteenth century music made enormous advances, 
 especially in Germany. Church music attained to its highest develop- 
 ment under Bach, the oratorio under Handel (16851759), the opera under 
 Mozart and Gluck, and orchestral music under Haydn and Beethoven 
 
MUSIC AND THE FINE ARTS. 291 
 
 (1770-1827). The nineteenth century has been illustrated by such names 
 as Mendelssohn, Weber, Meyerbeer, Auber, Schubert, Spohr, Schumann, 
 Chopin, Rossini, Bellini, Verdi; and in England, Sterndale, Bennett and 
 Macfarren. Of the later German school the chief exponents have been 
 Wagner (1813-83) and Liszt (d. 1886). Other leading composers are 
 Gounod, in France; Boito, in Italy; Rubinstein and Brahms, in Germany; 
 Dvorak, in Bohemia, Grieg, in Scandinavia, and Sullivan, Mackenzie, 
 Stanford and Cowen, in England. 
 
 THE PORTLAND VASE. 
 
 The Portland Vase was a celebrated ancient Roman glass vase or 
 cinerary urn found during the pontificate of Urban VIII. (1623-44) in a 
 marble sarcophagus (of Alexander Severus, it is thought, and his mother 
 Mammaea) in the Monte del Grano, near Rome. It was at first deposited 
 in the Barberini Palace at Rome, and hence it is sometimes called the 
 Barberini Vase. It was bought in 1770 by Sir William Hamilton, and in 
 1787 by the Portland family, who in 1810 deposited it in the British 
 Museum, where it is now shown in the "Gold Room." The ground of 
 the Portland Vase is of dark blue glass, and the figure subjects which 
 adorn it are cut in cameo style in an outer layer of opaque white glass. 
 In the official British Museum Guide (1890) it is stated that the compo- 
 sition is supposed to represent on the obverse Thetis consenting to be the 
 bride of Peleus, in the presence of Poseidon and Eros; on the reverse, 
 Peleus and Thetis on Mount Pelion. On the bottom of the vase is a bust 
 of Paris. The vase was broken to pieces by a lunatic in 1845, but the 
 fragments were very skillfully united again. The Portland Vase is ten 
 inches high, and is the finest specimen of an ancient cameo cut-glass vase 
 known. There are only two others of similar character which approach 
 it in beauty viz. an amphora in the Naples Museum and the Auldjo 
 Vase. But fragments of the same kind of glass exist with work upon 
 them quite as fine. In the end of the eighteenth century Josiah Wedg- 
 wood, the famous potter made fifty copies in fine earthenware of the 
 Portland Vase, which were originally sold at twenty-five guineas each. 
 One of these now fetches $1,000. 
 
 THE IMPRESSIONISTS. 
 
 Impressionism made its first public appearance in the Salon of 1867. 
 Founded, it is claimed, by Edouard Manet, its aim is to rid art of the 
 trammels of tradition and to look at nature and to portray her in a 
 fresh and original manner. Therefore conventionalities in lighting, 
 grouping, etc., are carefully avoided, while personal and immediate 
 "impressions" of nature must be rendered with absolute truth. In the 
 words of one of their ablest exponents, they hold that the eye of the 
 painter ' 'should abstract itself from memory, seeing only that which it 
 looks upon, and that as for the first time, and the hand should become 
 an impersonal abstraction, guided only by the will, oblivious of all prev- 
 ious cunning. ' ' In the works of most of the impressionists little selection 
 of subject or care for beauty of color, form, or expression is visible; and 
 their art, touching as it would seem by an instinctive preference on some 
 of the most unlovely aspects of the nineteenth century existence, dealing 
 with the life of the jockey and the ballet-girl, and portraying the worst 
 atrocities of modern costume, has frequently fallen into dire depths of 
 
292 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ugliness and vulgarity. Certain points of resemblance to the aims and 
 methods of the impressionists are to be found in the works of such able 
 painters as J. M. Whistler and J. S. Sargent, and still more distinctly in 
 those of several of the younger Paris-trained English painters who have 
 exhibited in the Suffolk Street Gallery and in the Nineteenth Century 
 Art Club. 
 
 THE GREAT MASTERS AND GREAT SCHOOLS. 
 The chief schools of painting are the Florentine, founded on the 
 Byzantine school, its principal painters being Cimabue( 1240-1 300), Giotto 
 (1276-1336), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1520), Michael Angelo Buonarotti 
 (1474-1564), Carlo Dolci (1616-86); the Flemish]. Van Eyck (1366-1441), 
 Quentin Matsys (1460-1529), Breughel (1565-1625), P. P. Rubens (1577- 
 1640), Vandyck (1599-1641), Snyders (1579-1657), Hobbima (1611-70), Ten- 
 niers, jun., (1610-94), Rosa Bonheur (1822), the Umdrian, its chief expon- 
 ent being P. Perugino (1446-1524); the Venitian Giorgione (1477-1511), 
 Sebastian del Piomno (1485-1547), Titian (1477-1576), Paul Veronese (1532- 
 88), Tintoretto (1512-94); the Roman Raphael (1483-1520), Paolo Peru- 
 gino (1446-1524), Giulio Romano (1492-1546), Canaletti (1697-1768); the 
 German Hans Holbein (1495-1543), Sir Peter Lely (1617-80), Sir Godfrey 
 Kneller (1648-1723), P. von Cornelius (1787-1867), F. Overbeck( 1789-1869), 
 W. Kaulbach (1805-74); the LombardianCorreggio (1494-1534), Perme- 
 giano (1503-40), Annibal Caracci (1568-1609), Guido (1575-1642), thetfolo- 
 gnese-Vomemcho (1581-1641), Guercino (1590-1666); the Dutch Both 
 (1600-50), Paul Potter (1625-54), A. Cuyp (1606-72), A. Van der Velde 
 (1635-72), Rembrandt (1606-74), G. Douw (1630-80), Mieris (1635-81), Ruys- 
 dael (1636-81), I. Van Ostade (1621-49), A. Van Ostade (1610-85), Berghem 
 (1624-85), Wouvermans (1620-88), W. Van der Velde (1633-1707), Huysum 
 (1682-1749), and more recently L. Alma Tadema (1836), Schotel, Scholf- 
 hart, Van Os, Van Stry, Ommeganck, Josef Israels, Mesdag, Mans and 
 others; the English Walter Dobson (1610-46), Sir J. Thornhill (1676-1732), 
 William Hogarth (1697-1764), J. Mortimer (1739-79), R. Wilson (1714-82), 
 Gainsborough (1727-88), Sir J. Reynolds (1723-92), Romney (1734-1802), 
 George Morland (1763-1804), Barry (1741-1806), Opie (1761-1807), Benja- 
 min West (1738-1820), H. Raeburn (1786-1823), J. Ward (1779-1859), Fuseli 
 (1741-1825), J. Constable (1776-1837), D. Wilkie (1785-1841), Haydon (1786- 
 1846), Collins (1788-1847), Etty (1787-1849), Turner (1775-1851), Mulready 
 (1786-1863), Sir C. L. Eastlake (1793-1865), T. Creswick (1811-69), Maclise 
 (1811-70), Sir G. Hayter (1792-1871), Sir E. Landseer (1802-73), E. M. 
 Ward (1816-79), R. Redgrave (1804), W. P. Frith (1819), J. Faed (1820), 
 T Faed (1826), H. S. Marks (1829), J. E. Millais (1829), Sir F. Leighton 
 (1830), Vicat Cole (1833), G. D Leslie (1835), E. J. Poynter (1836), E. 
 Armitage (1817), Edwin Long (1839-91), P. H. Calderon (1833), T. S. 
 Cooper (1803), F. Holl (1845), F. Goodhall (1822), Birket Foster (1812), 
 Sir John Gilbert (1817), H. Herkomer (1849), J. C. Horsley (1817), W. Q. 
 Orchardson (1835), W. W. Ouless, (1848) G. F. Watts (1820), Marcus 
 Stone (1840), John Pettie (1839), E. J. Gregory (1850), J. Mac Whirter 
 (1839), C. Val Prinsep (1836), J. S. Lucas (1849), B. W. Leader (1831). 
 Among English painters the Pre-Raphaelite movement, which com- 
 menced in 1849, as a protest against conventionalism in idea as well as 
 execution in art, numbered among its principal exponents J. E. Millais, 
 Holman Hunt (1827), G. D. Rossetti (1828-82), F. Madox Brown (1821), 
 McNeil Whistler (1834), and E. Burne-Jones (1833); the French Jean 
 Cousin (1501-89), LeSeur (1617-55), N. Pousin (1594-1665), Claude Lorraine 
 
MUSIC AND THE FINE ARTS. 293 
 
 (1600-82), Le Brun (1619-90), Watteau (1684-1721), C. J. Vernet (1714-89), 
 David (1748-1825), A. C. H. Vernet (1758-1836), J. E. H. Vernet (1789- 
 1863), De la Croix (1798-1863), Gericault (1774-1829), J. D. A. Ingres (1781- 
 1867), Scheffer (1795-1858), Paul Delaroche (1797-1856), Decamps (1803- 
 66), Corot (1796-1875), Millet (1815-75), Regnault (1843-71), B. Lepage (1848- 
 84), Meissonier (1815-91), Gerome (1824), Bougereau (1835), Constant 
 (1845), Gustave Dore* (1833-83); the Spanish Velasquez (1599-1660), Mu- 
 rillo (1618-85); the Neapolitan Salvator Rosa (1615-73), and the Ameri- 
 tfm-Malbone (1777-1807), Copley (1738-1815), C. W. Peale (1741-1827), 
 Gilbert C. Stuart (1756-1828), J. Trumbull (1756-1843), W. Allston (1779- 
 1843), Thomas Cole (1801-48), Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860), W. M. Hunt 
 (1824-79), W. Page (1811-85), D. Huntingdon (1816), S. R. Gifford 
 (1823-80), Eastman Johnson (1824), Elihu Vedder (1836), Bierstadt (1830). 
 Russian art, dormant since the Byzantine period, has during the last 
 forty years produced Swedomsky Verestchagin (1842) and Kramskoe. 
 Scandinavian art has been represented in modern times by Uhde and 
 Edelfeldt. 
 
 THE SYMBOLISM OF COLORS. 
 
 White was the emblem of light, religious purity, innocence, faith, 
 joy and life. In the judge, it indicates integrity; in the sick, humility; 
 in the woman, chastity. 
 
 Red, the ruby, signifies fire, divine love, heat of the creative power, 
 and royalty. White and red roses express love and wisdom. The red 
 color of the blood has its origin in the action of the heart, which corre- 
 sponds to, or symbolizes, love. In a bad sense red corresponds to the 
 infernal love of evil, hatred, etc. 
 
 Blue, or the sapphire, expresses heaven, the firmament, truth from a 
 celestial origin, constancy and fidelity. 
 
 Yellow, or gold, is the symbol of the sun, of the goodness of God, of 
 marriage and faithfulness. In a bad sense yellow signifies inconstancy, 
 jealousy and deceit. 
 
 Green, the emerald, is the color of the spring of hope, particularly of 
 the hope of immortality and of victory, as the color of the laurel and palm. 
 
 Violet, the amethyst, signifies love and truth, or passion and suffering. 
 Purple and scarlet signify things good and true from a celestial origin. 
 
 Black corresponds to despair, darkness, earthliness, mourning, nega- 
 tion, wickedness and death. 
 
 THE ORGAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 Until the middle of the nineteenth century little interest was taken 
 in organ-building in America. The erection of the great organ in the 
 Music hall, Boston, by a German builder, Walcker, of Wiirtemberg, 
 gave the first impetus to public interest in the matter. There are now 
 several good organ-makers, and one of them, Roosevelt, has invented 
 "the automatic adjustable combination," which enables the player to 
 place any required combination of stops under immediate control, and 
 to alter such combinations as frequently as desired. By his construction 
 of the wind-chest, also, each pipe has its own valve, actuated by com- 
 pressed air. Among the largest organs in America are the organ of the 
 Catholic cathedral, Montreal, of the cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston, 
 which possesses eighty-three stops; the Music Hall, Cincinnati, with 
 ninety-six stops and four manuals, and the Tremont Temple, Boston r 
 with sixty-five stops. 
 
294 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 MEANINGS OF MUSICAL TERMS. 
 
 ACf ELLERANDO, or ACCEL. Quicken the 
 time gradually. 
 
 ADAGIO. Very slow. 
 
 AD LIBITUM, or AD LIB. At will. 
 
 AFFETTUOSO. Affecting, with pathos. 
 
 AGITATO. Agitated. 
 
 AL FINE. To the end. 
 
 ALLEGRETTO. Somewhat cheerful, but 
 not so quick as A llegro. 
 
 ALLEGRO. Quick. 
 
 AL SEGNO. To the sign, signifying that 
 the performer must go back to the sign, 
 :S:, and play from that mark to the 
 word Fine. 
 
 AMOROSO. Lovingly. 
 
 ANDANTE. Somewhat slow. 
 
 ANDANTINO. Not quite so slow as An- 
 dante. 
 
 ANIMATO. In an animated style. 
 
 A POCO A POCO. Little by little. 
 
 ARIA. An air or song. 
 
 ASSAI. Very, extremely. 
 
 A TEMPO. In the regular time. 
 
 Bis. Twice (repeat;. 
 
 BRILLANTE. Brilliant. 
 
 CALANDO. Diminishing gradually in tone 
 and speed. 
 
 CANTABILE. In a graceful, singing style. 
 
 CON MOTO. In agitated style; with spirit. 
 
 CON SPIRITO. With quickness and spirit. 
 
 CODA. A few bars added to terminate a 
 composition. 
 
 COLLA VOCE. With the voice or melody. 
 
 CON BRIO. With brilliancy. 
 
 CON EXPRESSIONE. With expression. 
 
 CRESCENDO, or CRES. Gradually increase 
 the volume of tone. 
 
 DA CAPO, or D. C. Repeat from the be- 
 ginning to the word Fine. 
 
 DECRESCENDO, or DECRES. Gradually di- 
 minish the volume of tone. 
 
 DELICATO. Delicately. 
 
 DEL SEGNO. See Segno. 
 
 DIMINUENDO, or DIM. Same as Decres- 
 cendo. 
 
 DOLCE, or DOL. In a sweet, smooth style. 
 
 DOLOROSO. In a mournful, pathetic style. 
 
 E. And. 
 
 \ With expression. 
 
 FINE. The end. 
 
 FORTE, or F. Loud. 
 
 FORTISSIMO, or FF. Very loud. 
 
 FORZANDO, or Fz. Signifies that the note 
 is to be given peculiar emphasis or force. 
 
 FORZA. Force. 
 
 Fuoco. With fire. 
 
 GRAVE. Extremely slow. 
 
 GRAZIOSO. In a graceful, elegant style. 
 
 IMPROMPTU. An extemporaneous produc- 
 tion. 
 
 L. H. Left hand. 
 
 LARGHETTO. Slow and solemn, but less 
 so than Largo. 
 
 LARGO. Very slow and solemn. 
 
 LEGERAMENTE. Lightly, gaily. 
 
 LENTANDO. Slower by degrees. 
 
 LEGATO. In a smooth and connected man- 
 ner. 
 
 LENTO. In a slow time. 
 
 Loco. Place, play as written, 
 
 MAESTOSO. Majestic and dignified. 
 
 MARTELLATO. Struck with force. 
 
 MENO. Less. 
 
 MEZZO, or M. Neither loud nor soft me 
 dium. 
 
 MEZZO FORTE, or MF. Rather loud. 
 
 MEZZO PIANO, or MP. Rather soft. 
 
 MOD ERATO. Moderate. 
 
 MOLTO. Very. 
 
 Mosso. Movement. 
 
 *MOTO, or CON MOTO. With agitation and 
 earnestness. 
 
 MORENDO. Dying away. 
 
 NON TROPPO. Not too much. 
 
 OBLIGATO. Cannot be omitted. 
 
 OTTAVA, or SVA. An octave higher. 
 
 PATETICO. Pathetically. 
 
 PASTORALE. A soft and rural movement. 
 
 PIANO, or P. Soft. 
 
 PIANISSIMO, or PP. Very soft. 
 
 Piu. Very. 
 
 Poco. A little, somewhat. 
 
 POMPOSO. Pompous, grand. 
 
 PRESTO. Very quick. 
 
 PRESTISSIMO. As quick as possible. 
 
 QUASI. As if. 
 
 RALLENTANDO, or RALL. A gradual dimi- 
 nution of tone and retarding of move- 
 ment. 
 
 RELIGIOSO. In a solemn style. 
 
 RITARDANDO, or RiTAR., or RIT. Gradu- 
 ally slower. 
 
 RINFORZANDO, or RF. With additional 
 force. 
 
 RITENUTO. Hold back the time at once. 
 
 SCHERZANDO. Playfully. 
 
 SEGUE. Continue as before. 
 
 SERIA. Seriously. 
 
 SEMPRE. Throughout always. 
 
 SEMPLICE. In a simple, unaffected style. 
 
 SEGNO, or :S:. Sign; as, A I Segno, to the 
 sign; Dal Segno, repeat from the sign to 
 the word Fine. 
 
 SENZA. Without. 
 
 SFORZANDO. Emphasized. 
 
 SINCOPATO. Forced out of time. 
 
 SMORZANDO. Smoothed, decreased. 
 
 SOAVE. Soft and delicate. 
 
 SOTTO VOCE. In an undertone. 
 
 SOSTENUTO. In a smooth, connected style. 
 
 SPIRITO, or CON SPIRITO. With spirit. 
 
 STACCATO. Detached, short. 
 
 TEMPO. In time. 
 
 TEMPO DI MARCIA. In marching time. 
 
 TEMPO DI VALSE. In waltz time. 
 
 TEMPO PRIMO. In the original time. 
 
 TRILLANDO. Shaking on a succession of 
 notes. 
 
 TRANQUILLO. Tranquilly. 
 
 TUTTO FORZA. As loud as possible. 
 
 VELOCE. With velocity. 
 
 ViGOROSO. Boldly, vigorously. 
 
 VIVACE. With extreme briskness and 
 animation. 
 
 Vivo. Animated, lively. 
 
 VOLTI SUBITO. Turn over the pages 
 quickly. 
 
 ZELOSO. With zeal. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTORY. 
 
 Here is the moral of all human tales; 
 'Tis but the same rehearsal of the past, 
 First freedom, and then glory when that fails, 
 Wealth, vice, corruption barbarism at last, 
 And history, with all her volumes vast, 
 Hath but one page. 
 
 BYRON. 
 
 INFLUENCES FOR GOOD OR EVIL. 
 
 The word Khedive signifies lord. 
 
 Quebec is termed the Gibraltar of America. 
 
 Bismarck was called the ' ' Boot of Prussia. ' ' 
 
 The life of Napoleon III. was attempted six times. 
 
 Potsdam has been called the Versailles of Prussia. 
 
 Byron terms the era of Napoleon I. the age of bronze. 
 
 El Almirante, without any proper name, refers to Columbus. 
 
 Washington first called New York State "the seat of empire." 
 
 The Greek Herodotus, 450 B. c., is called the Father of History. 
 
 James I. of England was termed the Wisest Fool in Christendom. 
 
 The ' third house' ' of a legislature is a term applied to the lobby. 
 
 Machiavelli is spoken of by the Florentines simply as "II segretario." 
 
 The so-called Paradise of Europe is the valley of the Arno, in Tuscany. 
 
 Pandours were the fierce, irregular troops of Austria some fifty years 
 ago. 
 
 Knight service in feudal times was held to amount to forty days per 
 year. 
 
 The Rubicon was a small stream that divided cis-alpine Gaul from 
 Italy. 
 
 In recent European history the term fourth estate applies to the 
 press. 
 
 The younger squirearchy of Prussia are what constitute the"Yunker" 
 party. 
 
 To Patrick Henry we owe the phrase, ' 'give me liberty or give me 
 death." 
 
 The term "nation of shopkeepers" was applied to England by Na- 
 poleon. 
 
 Orange is a petty principality in Avignon, owned by the Nassau 
 family. 
 
296 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Mehemed Ali, pacha of Egypt (1760-1841), was the "Napoleon of 
 the East." 
 
 Khaled, Mahommed's lieutenant, was called by Orientals the "Sword 
 of God." 
 
 Emancipation of slaves took place in all Britain's colonies on August 
 28, 1833. 
 
 Shah is but an abbreviation of the larger title Shah-in-Shah, King 
 of Kings. 
 
 ' 'Well-beloved" was a title given to a most licentious king, I/ouis XV. 
 of France. 
 
 Dibdin's famous sea songs were written to promote loyalty in the 
 British navy. 
 
 There are ten republics in South America and two in North Europe 
 has only two. 
 
 The French King Clovis (481-511) was the first entitled Eldest Son 
 of the Church. 
 
 Mossbacks is defined as a sobriquet for the remnants of the ante- 
 bellum Democracy. 
 
 Jayhawkers was a name for guerillas or bushrangers during the Kan- 
 sas troubles of 1856. 
 
 Frederick I., emperor of Germany (1121-1152), was the one called 
 Barbarossa (Red-beard). 
 
 It was the first Napoleon who said ' 'there is but one step from the 
 sublime to the ridiculous. ' ' 
 
 The States of the Church are often referred to, since 1077 A. D., as 
 the Patrimony of St. Peter. 
 
 Monsieur de Paris was a name given to the public executioner dur- 
 ing the French Revolution. 
 
 "There is a higher law than the Constitution" is a phrase from one 
 ofW. H. Seward's speeches. 
 
 Black Watch was a name given to the forty-second regiment (High- 
 landers) of British infantry. 
 
 The Sailor King was a name applied to William IV. of England. He 
 had served long in the navy. 
 
 The Kings of Muscovy, Sweden, Denmark, Poland and Hungary all 
 became Christians in 990 A. D. 
 
 In Germany the term "reptile bureaucracy" applies to certain journal- 
 ists in receipt of government pay. 
 
 Great universities date from: Paris, 1109; Oxford, 1150; Cambridge, 
 1209; Glasgow, 1450; Dublin, 1591. 
 
 Mrs. O'Leary's cow is the famous animal that is believed to have 
 started the great Chicago fire of 1871. 
 
 A yellow flag denotes quarantine; a black flag indicates a pirate; a 
 red flag, defiance; a white flag, truce. 
 
 The "Terror" applied to the period in French history (1793-1794) 
 just prior to the death of Robespierre. 
 
 It is 440 years since the Christian church of Santa Sophia became 
 the chief Mahommedan mosque of the Turks. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTORY. 297 
 
 Panslavism means the union of all the Slavic nations into one: Rus- 
 sia, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, Bulgaria, etc. 
 
 The " Iron" crown of Lombardy, now held by Humbert of Italy, is 
 in reality a splendidly bejewelled golden crown. 
 
 There is no Emperor of Germany; the true title is either German 
 Emperor or "Emperor of the German Kingdoms." 
 
 "The Primrose League" of England was founded in 1883, in memory 
 of Earl Beaconsfield. It has now 1,000,000 members. 
 
 The Covenanters were Scotchmen who bound themselves together 
 in 1638 and took up arms to resist the introduction of the Episcopalian 
 liturgy into the Scottish Church. 
 
 Court Jesters were persons who were kept in the households of princes 
 and lesser dignitaries to furnish amusement by their real or affected 
 folly, and hence commonly called Court Fools. 
 
 Condottieri are bands of mercenaries, ready to serve under any 
 leader. They were common in Europe during the middle ages and took 
 a considerable part in the endless feuds of the Italian states. 
 
 The Chambre Ardente was an extraordinary French tribunal which 
 frequently sentenced to death "by fire." It was used to investigate 
 poisoning cases after the execution of the Marchioness of Brinvilliers. 
 
 The round table is the subject of one of the legends in connection 
 with King Arthur, who, it is said, dined at a circular table capable of 
 seating 150 of his bravest followers, termed Knights of the Round Table. 
 
 Vinegar will not split rocks, so Hannibal could not thus have made 
 his way through the Alps. Nor will it dissolve pearls, so that the story 
 of Cleopatra drinking pearls melted in vinegar must have been a fiction. 
 
 The original Electors of Germany, who chose the Kaiser, were the 
 king of Bohemia, duke of Saxony, margrave of Brandenburg, count 
 palatine of the Rhine, and the archbishops of Mayence, Treves and Co- 
 logne. 
 
 Dacoits are robbers of Northern India and Burmah, who make raids 
 in armed bands. They gave great trouble to the occupying force in the 
 annexation of Burmah, but have practically been exterminated by the 
 British army. 
 
 The Dannebrog is the oldflag of the Danes, and also the name of an 
 order of knighthood said to have been instituted in 1219. The jewel is a 
 copy of the flag: a white enameled gold cross, suspended by a white ribbon 
 edged with red. 
 
 Jacobins were the members of a political club which exercised a 
 great influence during the French Revolution. It was originally called 
 the Club Breton, and was formed at Versailles, when the States-general 
 assembled there in 1789. 
 
 Formerly, in England, branding was a method of punishment, but 
 was abolished (1829) in the reign of George IV. It was performed with 
 a red-hot iron on the face, hand or other part of the body. Branding in 
 the British Army abolished, 1879. 
 
 In Roman history there were two famous coalitions of three men 
 each, called triumvirates, formed for ruling the state: (1) Between Julius 
 Caesar, Pompey and Crassus (50 B.C.); (2) between Octavius Caesar, 
 Mark Antony and Lepidus (43 B.C.) 
 
298 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Italian city, Venice, is often called the "Bride of the Sea," 
 from the ancient ceremony of the doge marrying the city to the Adri- 
 atic by throwing a ring into it, pronouncing these words, "We wed 
 thee, O sea, in token of perpetual dominion." 
 
 It is not generally known that the four kings of a pack of cards are 
 Charlemagne (the Franco-German king}, David (the Jewish king], Alex- 
 ander (the Macedonian king}, and Caesar (the Roman king}. These four 
 kings are representatives of the four great monarchies. 
 
 The Young England Party was a party formed during the corn-law 
 agitation of 1842-46. It consisted of young Tory aristocrats, prominent 
 among whom was I/ord John Manners, who advocated a return to a 
 modified feudalism. Disraeli lent the party his support. 
 
 The Confederation of the Rhine, formed July 12, 1806, was a fed- 
 eration of the Germanic States, formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, whose 
 disastrous Russian campaign (1812) caused the dissolution of the Con- 
 federation, the Germanic Confederation taking its place. 
 
 The Decemvirs were men who drew up a code of Roman laws, and 
 who, in 451 B.C., had the whole government of Rome in their hands. 
 They were successful in their administration till the incident of Appius 
 Claudius and Virginia led to the appointment of consuls. 
 
 The triple expression, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (Liberte, Egal- 
 ite, Fraternite), as the motto of the French Republic, dates from the time 
 of the first revolution. Equality, it should be noted, merely means 
 equality before the law and the absence of class privileges. 
 
 An Africander is a descendant of European parents born in South 
 Africa. An association called the Africander- Bond was formed in Cape 
 Colony after the Transvaal war, the object of which was the consolida- 
 tion and extension of the Dutch population in South Africa. 
 
 The Young Ireland Party was an Irish patriotic party which came 
 to the front in 1848, shortly after O'ConnelPs death. They had resort to 
 physical force, and several of their leaders, including Smith O'Brien, 
 John Mitchell and Thomas Francis Meagher, were transported. 
 
 Concordat is a term sometimes applied to secular treaties, but gener- 
 ally employed to denote an agreement made between the pope, as the 
 head of the Roman Catholic Church, and a secular government, on mat- 
 ters which concern the interests of its Roman Catholic subjects. 
 
 The Vendean rising in La Vendee, a maritime department of France, 
 on the Atlantic, in favor of the Bourbons (1793), was eventually sup- 
 pressed by General Hoche (1796). Georges Cadoudal, the last Vendean 
 chief, was executed (1804) for his share in a plot against the life of Napo- 
 leon, when first consul. 
 
 Sicilian Vespers is the designation of the massacre of the French 
 which began at Palermo, at vespers, on Easter Monday, March 30, 1282. 
 The insurrection spread to the rest of the island, and ended in the over- 
 throw of the government of Charles of Anjou and the establishment of 
 the dynasty of Aragon. 
 
 Of deep historic significance were the Bulgarian Atrocities, a title 
 given to an insurrection which in 1876 broke out in Bulgaria and was 
 repressed with horrible cruelties, raising a wave of indignation through- 
 out Europe. Mr. Gladstone published an article, " Horrors in Bulgaria," 
 in September of that year. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTORY. 299 
 
 The Illuminati was a name given to several societies or sects, but par- 
 ticularly to the Order of the Illuminati, a secret society founded by 
 Adam Weishaupt at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, 1776. It was deistic and repub- 
 lican in principle, and spread very widely throughout Europe. Sup- 
 pressed in Bavaria, 1784. 
 
 The oft-denounced French instrument, called by historians the lettre 
 de cachet, was a sealed letter, in virtue of which the obnoxious person 
 named therein might be arrested and sent either to prison or into exile, 
 without trial or even being informed of the nature of his offence. This 
 infamous tyranny was abolished by the revolution. 
 
 The Council of Ten was a secret tribunal of the Republic of Venice, 
 armed with unlimited powers (1310) in watching over the safety of the 
 state. It punished at discretion all secret enemies of the Republic. At 
 first it was prorogued annually, but in 1325 it was made perpetual, and 
 continued as long as the Venetian Republic endured. 
 
 The Continental System was the name given to Napoleon's plan for 
 shutting England out from all connection with the continent of Europe. 
 This system began with Napoleon's famous "Berlin Decree" of November 
 21, 1806, which declared the British Islands in a state of blockade, and 
 prohibited all commerce and correspondence with them. 
 
 A representation of the half-moon with the horns turned upwards, 
 called a crescent, is often used as an emblem of progress and success. 
 It was the emblem of the Greek before it became that of the Turkish 
 rule; but it was not adopted by the Turks from the Greeks, as is often 
 said. It had been used by them hundreds of years before in Central Asia. 
 
 What is termed historically the "Boston Tea-party" (December 16, 
 1773) consisted of those citizens of Boston who, disguised as Indians, 
 boarded the three English ships which had just come into the harbor, 
 and threw into the sea several hundred chests of tea, by way of protest 
 against English taxation of America without a representation in parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Iconoclasts (Gr. eikon, "an image," and klazo, "I break"), was the 
 name used to designate those in the Church from the eighth century 
 downwards, who have been opposed to the use of sacred images (i. e. of 
 statues, pictures, and other sensible representations of sacred objects), or 
 at least to the paying of religious honor or reverence to such representa- 
 tions. The iconoclast movement had its commencement in the Eastern 
 Church. 
 
 Anti-semites,the modern opponents of the Jews in Russia, Roumania, 
 Hungary and Germany. In these countries the Jews are found in great 
 numbers, and their constantly increasing wealth and influence excite 
 popular jealousy and alarm. Brutal outrages were inflicted upon the 
 Jews in Russia and Hungary in 1881-4, and anti-semitic leagues were 
 formed in 1881 to restrict the liberty of Jews in Germany and other 
 countries. 
 
 Abdication is the resignation of any office, political or otherwise. 
 It implies the surrender of powers previously conferred or inherited, and 
 is generally the result of a desire on the part of the person abdicating 
 for retirement from public to private life. The use of the word is con- 
 fined to the surrender of dignities and emoluments of importance, and 
 is thus distinguished from the term ' ' resignation' ' as applied to the petty 
 offices of life. 
 
300 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Tribunes of the people were first appointed at Rome on the succes- 
 sion of the plebs to Mons Sacer (494 B. c.). The number, at first two, was 
 ultimately increased to ten. Their peculiar function was to look after the 
 interests of the plebs as opposed to those of the patricians. In the course 
 of time the tribunes of the people became the most important officers in 
 the state. 
 
 The carte blanche was a "blank paper" authenticated with an author- 
 itative signature, and intrusted to some one to be filled up as he may 
 think best. Thus in 1649 Charles II. tried to save his father's life by 
 sending from the Hague to the Parliament a signed carte blanche to 
 be filled up with any terms which they would accept as the price of 
 his safety. 
 
 The "cap of liberty" worn in the Roman states by manumitted 
 slaves, was made of red cloth. Those who wore it were called "pileati," 
 i.e. wearers of the "pileus." In revolutionary e*meutes at Rome the 
 pileus was sometimes hoisted on a spear. After the murder of Caesar, 
 Brutus and his rebels adopted the red cap as a token of their republican 
 sentiments. 
 
 The national badge of France since 1789 has been the tricolor. It 
 consists of the Bourbon white cockade, and the blue and red cockade of 
 fhe city of Paris combined. It was Lafayette who devised this symboli- 
 cal union of king and people, and when he presented it to the nation, 
 "Gentlemen," said he, "I bring you a cockade that shall make the tour 
 of the world." 
 
 The famous retreat of the ten thousand occurred B. c. 401-399. It was 
 conducted by Xenophon, the historian, who had joined the expedition 
 of Cyrus. In the battle of Cunaxa Cyrus lost his life, and the Greeks were 
 left without a leader. Xenophon volunteered to lead them back to Greece 
 and has left a historical narrative of this famous retreat, called ' 'Xeno- 
 phon' s Anabasis." 
 
 All youthful readers know about the buccaneers, a name given to 
 the celebrated associations of piratical adventurers, who, from the com- 
 mencement of the second quarter of the sixteenth century to the end of 
 the. seventeenth, maintained themselves in the Caribbean seas, at first 
 by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, latterly by less justifiable and 
 indiscriminate piracy. 
 
 The Montagnards were a party in the first French Revolution under 
 the leadership of Robespierre. They occupied in the Convention the 
 most elevated seats called La Montague, in opposition to the Plaine, or 
 the lowest seats occupied by the moderate party called the Girondins. 
 The Mountain party overthrew the Girondists on May 31, 1793, but was 
 in turn overthrown "le 9 Thermidor, An //," when Robespierre met with 
 his downfall (1794). Both the Mountain and the Plain were left of the 
 speaker. 
 
 Thugs is the name for a religious fraternity in India, which, profess- 
 edly in honor of the goddess Kali, the wife of Siva, was addicted to the 
 committal of murders, and lived upon the plunder obtained from its 
 victims. Banding together in gangs, they assumed the appearance of 
 ordinary traders, and insinuating themselves into the confidence of un- 
 suspecting fellow-travelers, killed them by strangling. They were bound 
 together by bloody oaths, and carried on systematic assassination on a 
 large scale. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTOR Y. 301 
 
 Blood-money was the money paid by press-gangs to anyone who in- 
 formed them of a man who had deserted from the naval service, or who 
 was instrumental in giving up a deserter to the press-gang. The deserter 
 ought to have been a sailor, but in a "hot-press" landsmen were often 
 kidnapped. "Blood-money" now means money paid to a person for in- 
 forming against a felon. 
 
 The flag of the prophet, or "Sanjak-Sheriff," is the sacred banner of 
 the Mahommedans. Originally the white turban of the Koreish, capt- 
 ured by Mahommed. Subsequently a green flag was substituted, being 
 the curtain which hung before the door of Ayesha, one of the prophet's 
 wives. It is preserved most carefully in a chapel of the seraglio, and 
 watched over by several emirs. 
 
 The Hanseatic League was a trades-union to protect merchandise 
 from pirates and the pillage of nobles. It began with the three towns of 
 Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck, but ultimately contained eighty -five 
 trading towns. The league was divided into four colleges, viz. Liibeck, 
 Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzig. Of these Liibeck was the chief, and 
 presided in all the conferences. 
 
 The Calvinists of the Cevennes, after the Revocation Bdict, 
 took up arms under their leaders Cavalier and Roland, and defeated 
 the French troops sent against them by Louis XIV. again and again. 
 At last the Duke of Berwick extirpated them and desolated the whole 
 province of the Cevennes in 1705. They were called Camisards from 
 the camise or smock which they wore. 
 
 The carmagnole was a revolutionary dress worn in France, especially 
 during the reign of terror. It consisted of a blouse, a red cap, and a 
 tricolored girdle. The term is applied also to a street dance, in which 
 men, women and children promiscuously took hold of hands, danced in 
 a ring, ran butting down the street, broke into small parties, and danced 
 vehemently like Bedlamites, till ready to drop. 
 
 The Vikings were the piratical Northmen who infested the coasts of 
 the British Islands and of France in the eighth, ninth and tenth centu- 
 ries. This word is quite unconnected with "king," being derived from 
 the Scandinavian vik, "a bay" (the same which appears in the names 
 Lerwick, Berwick, etc.), and this class of marauders were so called 
 because their ships put off from the bays and fiords. 
 
 Breaking on the wheel is a mode of capital punishment formerly in 
 use in various European countries. In France it was abolished at the 
 Revolution (1789), but it is said to have been inflicted in Prussia so late 
 as 1841. The victim was placed upon a wheel, his arms and legs ex- 
 tended along the spokes, and, as the wheel was turned rapidly round, 
 his limbs were broken by the executioner with a hammer or iron bar. 
 The French word rou ( " a rake' ' ) is derived from this form of capital 
 punishment. 
 
 The salic law was the code of the Salian Franks, introduced into 
 France (Gaul) by the Franks. It contained four hundred articles, chiefly 
 concerning debt, theft, murder, and battery, the penalty in every case 
 being a fine. The most famous article of the code is Title Ixii. 6, accord- 
 ing to which only males could succeed to the Salic land or lod, i.e. to the 
 lands given for military service. In 1316, at the death of Louis le Hutin, 
 the law was extended to the crown, and continued to be observed to the 
 end of the monarchy. 
 
302 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 A comparatively new term is "boycotting," the system of combining 
 to hold no relations, social or commercial, with a neighbor, in order to 
 punish him for differences in political opinion a kind of social excom- 
 munication. It was first formulated by Mr. Parnell, the Irish leader, at 
 Bnnis, on 19th September, 1880, and derived its name from one of the 
 first victims, Captain Boycott, a Mayo factor and farmer. 
 
 The Guelfs were dukes of Bavaria, who contended with the house of 
 Hohenstauffen for pre-eminence. From a mere German feud the con- 
 tention advanced to a long and bitter struggle between the civil and 
 spiritual powers. The Guelfs were the pope's party, and labored to set 
 the pope above the crowned princes. The Ghibellines were the im- 
 perial or civil party, and tried to set the kaiser above the pope. 
 
 Daimios, the old territorial nobles of Japan, who, before the revolu- 
 tion of 1871, enjoyed almost absolute power within their own domains, 
 paying little more than nominal allegiance to the mikado. At the restor- 
 ation of the mikado, however, they were obliged to surrender their castles 
 and muster-rolls to the government, who took away their privileges and 
 relieved them of the duty of paying allowances to their retainers. 
 
 The ceremony of wedding the Adriatic to the doge of Venice was 
 instituted in 1174 by pope Alexander III., who gave the doge a gold ring 
 from his own finger in token of the victory achieved by the Venetian 
 fleet at Istria over Frederick Barbarossa. The pope, in giving the ring, 
 desired the doge to throw a similar one into the sea every year on Ascen- 
 sion-Day in commemoration of this event. The doge's brigantine was 
 called Bucentaur. 
 
 The praetorian guard was originally the cohorts of the praetor, then 
 the imperial guard. They received higher pay than other soldiers, and 
 enjoyal several important privileges. There were originally nine prae- 
 torian cohorts; Vitellius increased the number to sixteen, Septimus Sev- 
 erus further increased the number. For many years they acted as dic- 
 tators, and their insolence, want of discipline, avidity and insubordina- 
 tion became proverbial. 
 
 The spirit or pugnacity of the British nation is well expressed by the 
 term British Lion, as opposed to John Bull, which symbolizes the sub- 
 stantiality, obstinacy, and solidity of the British nation, with all its pre- 
 judices and national peculiarities. To rouse John Bull is to tread on his 
 corns, to rouse the British Lion is to blow the war-trumpet in his ears. 
 The British Lion also means the most popular celebrity of the British 
 nation for the time being. 
 
 The "carbonari" were secret societies which flourished both in Italy 
 and France at the beginning of this century. The aim of the societies was 
 the overthrow of the despotic and reactionary governments then exist- 
 ing. Originating in Italy, while under the rule of the Bonapartes, they 
 took their name from the trade of charcoal burning pursued in that part 
 of Italy. There were four grades with mystic rites of initiation. The 
 system lived till about 1848. 
 
 The Templars were a famous military order, which, like the Hospit- 
 allers and the Teutonic Knights, owed its origin to the Crusades. In the 
 year 1119 two comrades of Godfrey de Bouillon, Hugues de Payen and 
 Geoffroi de Saint-Adhe'mar, bound themselves and seven other French 
 knights to guard pilgrims to the holy places from the attacks of the 
 Saracens, taking before the patriarch of Jerusalem solemn vows of chast- 
 ity, poverty, and obedience. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTOR Y. 303 
 
 The well known decoration of the Legion of Honor belongs to an 
 order of merit instituted by Napoleon in 1802 as a recompense for military 
 and civil services. It was ostensibly founded for the protection of re- 
 publican principles and the laws of equality, every social grade being 
 equally eligible. The constitution and incidents of the order have been 
 repeatedly changed by the successive executive powers of France during 
 the course of the nineteenth century. 
 
 The Great Fire or "The Great Fire of London " occurred in 1666, 
 the year after the Plague, which it put an end to. It broke out at a bake 
 house near London Bridge. Only six persons perished in the fire; though 
 six hundred streets, thirteen hundred houses, eighty churches, St. Paul's 
 Cathedral, the Custom-house, Guildhall, and four stone bridges were 
 destroyed. The people, to the number of two hundred thousand, camped 
 out in the fields of Islington and Highgate. 
 
 Fermiers generaux was the name given in France, before the Revo- 
 lution of 1789, to a privileged association who "farmed" the public rev- 
 enues. It was a shocking jobbery, the fermiers being selected either by 
 the minister of finance (who made his selection for a money consideration) 
 or by the king's mistresses. The number was forty but rose to sixty a 
 little before the revolution. These farmers paid the king a fixed sum and 
 made what profit they could out of the taxpayers. 
 
 Sans-culottes was a name of contempt given to the democrats in the 
 French Revolution ; as much as to say, they were only the tag-rags or 
 rag-a-muffins of society. Subsequently they gloried in the name and even 
 affected negligence of dress, going about in a blouse, red cap, and wooden 
 shoes. The red nightcap adorned with a tricolored cockade was called 
 the "bonnet roug"." Blouse=blooze. The Sans-culottes had a host of 
 songs and a dance (called the Carmagnole) of their own. 
 
 It was in 1879, under the auspices of the late Mr. Parnell, that the 
 Irish national movement called the "Land League" was set on foot, with 
 the stated object of purchasing the land of Ireland for the Irish people. 
 Large sums of money were subscribed for its equipment, chiefly in 
 America, but it was suppressed in 1881, on the allegation of outrages com- 
 mitted against landlords. It was succeeded by the National League, still 
 existing, and to both may be largely credited the present standing of the 
 Home Rule agitation. 
 
 The seat occupied by the French monarch at the sessions of parlia- 
 ment was called the bed of justice, and historically signified a solemn 
 session, at which the king attended to overrule the acts of parliament or 
 to enforce upon it acts that it had rejected. This was instituted upon 
 the theory of the old constitution that the authority of parliament, being 
 vested in the crown, was merely delegated, and that with the presence 
 of the king the delegated power ceased. The last bed of justice was 
 held by Louis XVI. at Versailles in 1787. 
 
 The Chartists were a body of the English people who, on the pas- 
 sage of the Reform Bill (1832), demanded the People's Charter, the 
 points of which were: (1) Universal Suffrage; (2) Vote by Ballot; (3) 
 Annual Parliaments; (4) Payment of Members; (5) Abolition of Property 
 Qualification; (6) Equal Electoral Districts. Great demonstrations and 
 damage done in 1838-9. After demonstration and presentation of peti- 
 tion April 10, 1848, the movement subsided, although the government 
 had meanwhile dealt severely with some of the leaders. 
 
304 MANUAL OP USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 According to the legend, "Thundering Legion" was the popular 
 name given to the twelfth legion of the Roman arm}" after the defeat of 
 the Quadi (174 A.D.). The legion being shut up in a defile and reduced 
 to great straits for want of water, the Christian soldiers united in prayer; 
 and, in answer to their prayers, not only was rain sent, which enabled 
 the Romans to quench their thirst, but the rain was followed by a fierce 
 storm of hail, with thunder and lightning, which threw the enemy into 
 disorder and enabled the Romans to gain a complete victory. 
 
 Jacobites (from the Lat. Jacobus, "James") was the name given after 
 the Revolution of 1688 to the adherents of the exiled Stuarts James II., 
 (1633-1701) and his son and two grandsons, James Francis Edward, the 
 Chevalier de St. George (1688-1766), Charles Edward (1720-88), and 
 Henry Benedict, Cardinal York (1725-1807). Those adherents were 
 recruited from the Catholics, the Nonjurors, the High Churchmen and 
 Tories generally, discontented and place-seeking Whigs, the Episco- 
 palians and Highlanders of Scotland and the great body of the Irish 
 people. 
 
 The Independents or Puritans in the reign of Charles I, were called 
 "Roundheads." The royalists were nicknamed "The Cavaliers." The 
 former wore their hair short, and dressed with great simplicity; the latter 
 wore their hair flowing over their shoulders, and dressed showily and 
 expensively. The two came into collision about the expulsion of the 
 bishops from the House of Lords. The Roundheads insisted on their 
 expulsion, and the severance of the clergy from all secular and state of- 
 fices. It was in this brawl that the two parties gave each other the nick- 
 names of Roundheads and Cavaliers. 
 
 The Doomsday Book, or ' ' Domesday Book' ' (1085-1086), was a sta- 
 tistical survey of that part of England which was under the sway of 
 William the Conqueror. So called, probably, because it was of authority 
 in all dooms, i.e., judgments in disputed questions which afterwards 
 arose on matters contained therein. It was anciently known as the 
 "Liber de Wintonia" (Book of Winchester), because at one time it was 
 preserved in the royal treasury of that city under three locks and keys. 
 It was printed and published in 1783 in two folio volumes. In 1816 two 
 supplementary volumes were published. 
 
 The " a ira " ( "It will go on ! ")was a popular song which arose in the 
 fever of the French Revolution. It receives its name from its refrain: 
 Ah ! ?a ira, $a ira, $a ira ! 
 Les aristocrates a la lanterne I 
 
 Like the Marseillaise, the Carmagnole and the Chant du Depart it 
 became a French national song, and was styled the Carillon National. 
 The words, which are worthless rubbish enough, were due to a street 
 singer named Ladre ; the melody to Becourt, a stage-drummer. The song 
 was prohibited by the Directory in 1797. 
 
 In England there were anciently two ordeals one of water and the 
 other of fire. The water ordeal was for the laity, and the fire ordeal for 
 the nobility. If a noble was accused of a crime, he or his deputy was 
 tried by ordeal thus: He had either to hold in his hand a piece of red- 
 hot iron, or had to walk blindfold and barefoot over nine red-hot plough- 
 shares laid lengthwise at unequal distances. If he passed the ordeal 
 unhurt, he was declared innocent; if not, he was accounted guilty. This 
 method of punishment arose from the notion that "God would defend 
 the right," even by miracle, if needs be. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTORY. 305 
 
 Guillotine, the instrument of decapitation introduced during the 
 French Revolution by the Convention, and named after its supposed in- 
 ventor, Joseph Ignace Guillotin, a physician, who, however, was only 
 the person who first proposed its adoption. It was erected and first em- 
 ployed to execute a highwayman on the Place de Greve, Paris, 25th 
 April, 1792. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on the inside, 
 and connected at the top by a cross-beam. In these grooves a sharp iron 
 blade, having its edge cut obliquely, descends by its own weight on the 
 neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. 
 
 Conspicuous among diplomatic assemblies was the Berlin Congress 
 (1878), consisting of the representatives of die six great powers and 
 Turkey, who met to discuss the Eastern question arising out of the 
 Treaty of San Stefano previously made between Russia and Turkey. The 
 Berlin Congress resulted in the signing of the Berlin Treaty. Representa- 
 tives of the various countries besides the resident ambassadors: England, 
 Lord Beaconsfield and the Marquis of Salisbury; Germany, Fiirst Bismarck 
 (president); Austria, Count Andrassy; France, M. Waddington; Russia, 
 Prince Gortschakoff; Italy, Count Corti; Turkey, Caratheodori Pasha. 
 
 The "Triple Alliance" is the name by which various treaties are 
 known: (1) A treaty concluded in 1668 at the Hague between England, 
 Holland, and Sweden, having for its object the protection of the Span- 
 ish Netherlands and the checking of the conquests of L,ouis XIV (2) 
 An alliance concluded in 1717 between Britain, Prance, and Holland 
 against Spain. (3) Between Britain, Russia, and Austria in 1795. (4) 
 Between Germany, Austria, and Italy, formed and confirmed between 
 1883 and 1887. This superseded the "alliance of the three emperors" 
 (Dreikaiserbund] between William I. of Germany, Francis Joseph of 
 Austria, and Alexander II. of Russia, 1872-84. 
 
 Among the Persians, the usual mode of punishment is the bastinado, 
 from which men of the highest rank are not exempt. It is inflicted 
 with very great severity, frequently so as to render the sufferer almost a 
 cripple for life. The victim is thrown upon his face, each foot is passed 
 through a loop of strong cord attached to a pole, which is raised horizon- 
 tally by men, who, twisting it around, tighten the ropes and render the 
 feet immovable. Two executioners then strike the soles alternately with 
 switches of the pomegranate tree, well steeped in water to render them 
 supple. A store of these switches is generally ready for use in the pond 
 which adjoins the courtyards of the houses of the great. The punish- 
 ment frequently lasts an hour, or until the unfortunate victim faints from 
 pain. 
 
 The Iron Crown of Lombardy is not an iron crown, but a magnificent 
 gold diadem, containing a narrow iron band about three-eighths of an 
 inch broad, and one-tenth of an inch in thickness. This band was made 
 out of a nail given to Constantine by his mother, and said to be one of 
 the nails used in the crucifixion. The outer circlet of the crown is of 
 beaten gold, set with large rubies, emeralds and sapphires, and the iron 
 band is within this circlet. The first Lombard king crowned with it was 
 Agilulph, at Milan, in 591. Charlemagne was crowned with it in 774; 
 Friederich III., in 1452; Karl V., in 1530; and Napoleon I., May 23, 1805, 
 crowned himself with it as " King of Italy" in Milan Cathedral. It was 
 given up to Victor Emmanuel on the conclusion of peace with Austria in 
 1866. The motto on the crown is " God has given it me; beware who 
 touches it." 
 
 U. I. 20 
 
306 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Filibuster is a corrupt spelling of the French flibustier, Called in 
 English a buccaneer. Filibusters were piratical seamen, resolved to 
 force their way into the New World, jealously guarded by the Spanish. 
 The most famous were Morgan (a Welshman), who took Panama in 
 1670; Pierre Legrande, of Dieppe, who, with twenty-eight men, took the 
 ship of a Spanish admiral; Nau 1'Olonnais, Michael le Basque, who made 
 themselves masters of Vera Cruz in 1683; and Monbars the Exterminator, 
 who, in 1683, took Vera Cruz. After the accession of William III. the 
 French flibustiers and the English buccaneers were in deadly antagonism; 
 but after the Treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, the piratical expeditions were 
 put an end to. 
 
 The dancing mania is a form of epidemic disorder allied to hysteria, 
 and evidently the result of imitative emotions, acting upon susceptible 
 subjects, under the influence of a craving for sympathy or notoriety. 
 There is little doubt that imposture entered to a considerable extent into 
 all the epidemic forms of the dancing mania, which indeed were usually 
 attended and followed by consequences that showed but too clearly the 
 presence of impure motives; but there is also evidence that in many 
 cases the convulsive movements were really beyond the control of the 
 will, whatever may have been the original character of the motives that 
 prompted them. Epidemics of this sort were common in Germany dur- 
 ing the middle ages. 
 
 The Magna Charta was the great charter or document, founded 
 mainly upon earlier Saxon charters, which the English barons compelled 
 King John to sign at Runnymede ( June 15, 1215). The most important 
 provisions are: (1) no scutage or aid shall be raised, except in the case 
 of the king's captivity, the knighting of his eldest son, or the marriage 
 of his eldest daughter, except by the general council of the kingdom ; 
 (2) no freeman shall be imprisoned or disseised, outlawed or proceeded 
 against other than by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of 
 the land: (3) that right or justice shall not be sold, delayed or denied to 
 any; (4) that the civil court shall be stationary, and not follow the king's 
 person. Other provisions were directed against the abuse of the power 
 of the king as lord paramount, the tyrrany of the forest laws, and griev- 
 ances connected with feudal tenure. The Charter of Forests was granted 
 at the same time. Both documents have been confirmed by Act of Par- 
 liament thirty -two times. 
 
 We give the name of autocracy (Gr., "sole mastery," "ruling by one's 
 self") to that form of government in which the sovereign unites in him- 
 self the legislative and the executive powers of the state, and thus rules 
 uncontrolled. Such a sovereign is therefore called an autocrat. Nearly 
 all eastern governments are of this form. Among European rulers, the 
 emperor of Russia alone bears the title of Autocrat, the name indicating 
 his freedom from constitutional restraint of every kind. Such is the 
 theory or principle of an autocracy, but it should be remembered that 
 even the most rigorous autocrat must in practice have regard to the feel- 
 ings and opinions of those about him. There are real though not formal 
 checks. In autocratic states, palace or court revolutions are not infre- 
 quent. This has been a marked feature of Russian history, especially in 
 the eighteenth century. These revolutions often result in the deposition 
 and assassination of the sovereign. In point of fact, the peculiar feature 
 of an autocracy is the absence of regular and constitutional limits; it is a 
 strong form of ' 'personal rule. ' ' 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTORY. 307 
 
 The Girondins, in English "The Girondists," were the pure republi- 
 can party in the National Assembly and National Convention of the first 
 French Revolution. So called because it consisted mainly of the depu- 
 ties of the Gironde. This party was distinguished for its oratory, and 
 for a time dominated the assembly; but, horrified at the September 
 massacres, they condemned the Reign of Terror, and tried to bring in 
 more moderate measures. This drew upon them the hatred of the dema- 
 gogues, and on May 31, 1793, some twenty-nine of the Girondists were 
 arrested at the instigation of Robespierre, and on October 31 twenty of 
 them were guillotined, amongst whom were Brissot, Gensonne, Vergniaud, 
 Ducos and Sillery. Valaz stabbed himself while he stood in the dock. 
 
 The Diamond Necklace was presented through Madame de Lamotte 
 by Cardinal de la Rohan, as he supposed, to Marie Antoinette. It was a 
 swindling transaction of the Countess de Lamotte. The Cardinal de 
 Rohan, a profligate churchman, entertained a love passion for the queen, 
 and the Countess de Lamotte induced him to purchase for $425,000, a dia- 
 mond necklace, made for Madame Dubarry, and present it to the queen. 
 The cardinal handed the necklace to the countess, and when the time of 
 payment arrived Boehmer, the jeweler, sent his bill into the queen, 
 Marie Antoinette denied all knowledge of the matter, and in the trial 
 which ensued it was proved that the countess had sold the necklace to an 
 English jeweler and kept the money. The trial lasted nine months, and 
 created immense scandal. 
 
 The Falk I/aws, 1873, were so called from Dr. Falk, who insisted on 
 the compulsory education of the clergy of Prussia. The laws are four in 
 number: (1) The first was directed against the abuse of ecclesiastical dis- 
 cipline for political purposes, such as "boycotting," excommunication, 
 and anathemas; (2) the next regulated the effect of secession from the 
 Church on the obligation to meet certain taxes; (3) the third law was 
 directed at the evasions by Roman Catholics of state education incum- 
 bent on all Germans; and (4) abolished the legality of papal tribunals, 
 recognizing the judgments of the German ecclesiastical courts as the only 
 authority on Church matters. In 1874 these four laws were supplemented 
 by others to ensure more perfect obedience. Dr. Adalbert Falk was ap- 
 pointed by Prince Bismarck "Minister of Public Worship," 22 January, 
 1872. In 1872 Prince Bismarck carried through the Prussian Houses a bill 
 to transfer the control of primary education from the Church to the State 
 authorities. 
 
 Peine Forte et Dure, the "strong and sore torture, " is a species of tor- 
 ture formerly applied by the law of England to those who, on being 
 arraigned for felony, refused to plead, and stood mute, or who were guilty 
 of equivalent contumacy. In the reign of Henry IV. it had become the 
 practice to load the offender with iron weights, and thus press him to death; 
 and till nearly the middle of the eighteenth century pressing to death 
 in this horrible manner was the regular and lawful mode of punishing 
 persons who stood mute on their arraignment for felony. As late as 1741 
 a person is said to have been pressed to death at the Cambridge assizes, 
 the tying of his thumbs having been first tried without effect. A statute 
 of 1772 virtually abolished the peine forte et dure, by enacting that any 
 person who shall stand mute when arraigned for felony or piracy shall be 
 convicted, and have the same judgment and execution awarded against 
 him as if he had been convicted by verdict or confession. A later statute 
 ( 1828 ) made standing mute equal to a plea of "not guilty." 
 
308 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The phrase "freedom of the city" is thus explained. In olden 
 times each trade in a European city formed a close corporation, and no 
 person could carry on business without belonging to the particular guild 
 or association of those in the same trade. As a rule, a man, to become a 
 member of a guild, had to serve seven years as an apprentice, several 
 years as a journeyman and finally he was admitted to the craft, became a 
 master and gained the freedom of his trade. As a special honor, the 
 mayor of the town, with the heads of the guild, would confer the freedom 
 of the city upon a distinguished guest. It was purely an honor. The 
 guild system never was established here as abroad ; but as the conferring 
 of the freedom of the city was the highest honor which a city, as a city, 
 could bestow, we have retained the custom of giving that freedom from 
 time to time. 
 
 The great result of the Berlin Congress was the Treaty of Berlin 
 (signed July 12, ratified August 3, 1878). Its principal articles consti- 
 tituted the autonomous principality of Bulgaria and the new province of 
 Eastern Roumelia; ceded certain parts of Armenia to Persia and Russia; 
 secured the independence of Servia, Roumania and Montenegro; trans- 
 ferred Herzegovina and Bosnia to Austrian administration and occupa- 
 tion; retrocession to Russia of Bessarabia, Batoum (made a free port), 
 Kars and Ardahan; Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey, which 
 undertook certain legal and religious reforms in Crete and its other de- 
 pendencies. Greece also obtained an accesson of territory. The treaties 
 of London and of Paris, when not modified by this treaty, to be main- 
 tained. England, by a separate agreement previously made with Turkey, 
 obtained the administration of Cyprus. 
 
 The Star-chamber, a tribunal which met in the old council chamber 
 of the palace of Westminster, and is said to have got its name from the 
 roof of that apartment being decorated with gilt stars, or because in it 
 "starres" or Jewish bonds had been kept. It is supposed to have origin- 
 ated in early times out of the exercise of jurisdiction by the king's coun- 
 cil, whose powers in this respect had greatly declined when in 1487 
 Henry VII., anxious to repress the indolence and illegal exertions of 
 powerful landowners, revived and remodelled them, or, according to 
 some investigators, instituted what was practically an entirely new tri- 
 bunal. The statute conferred on the Chancellor, the Treasurer and the 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal, with the assistance of a bishop and a temporal 
 Lord of the Council, Chief justices, or two other justices in their absence, 
 a jurisdiction to punish, without a jury, the misdemeanors of sheriffs 
 and juries, as well as riots and unlawful assemblies. Henry VIII. added 
 to the other members of the court the President of the Council, and ulti- 
 mately all the privy-councillors. 
 
 The rack, an instrument of torture, used for extracting confessions 
 from actual or suspected criminals, consisted of an oblong frame of wood, 
 with a windlass arrangement at each end, to which the sufferer was 
 bound by cords attached to his arms and legs. The unfortunate being was 
 then stretched or pulled till he made confession, or till his limbs were 
 dislocated. The rack was known to the Romans in Cicero's time, and in the 
 first and second centuries A.D. was applied to the early Christians. Accord- 
 ing to Coke, it was introduced into England by the Duke of Exeter, 
 Constable of the Tower in 1447, whence it came to be called the ' ' Duke 
 of Exeter's daughter." Its use first became common in the time of Henry 
 VIII., but could only take place by warrant of council, or under the sign- 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTORY. 309 
 
 manual. Under Elizabeth it was in almost constant use. In 1628, on the 
 murder by Felton of the Duke of Buckingham, it being proposed by 
 Charles I. to put the assassin to the rack, in order that he might discover 
 his accomplices, the judges resisted the proceedings as contrary to the 
 law of England. In various countries of Europe the rack has been much 
 used both by the civil authorities in cases of traitors and conspirators, 
 and by the Inquisition to extort a recantation of heresy. It is no longer 
 in use in any part of the civilized world. 
 
 The commune is the unit or lowest division in the administration of 
 France, corresponding in the rural districts to our township, and in towns 
 to a municipality. The rising of the Commune at Paris in 1871, and 
 which should not be confounded with communism, was a revolutionary 
 assertion of the autonomy of Paris, that is, of the right of self-govern- 
 ment through its commune or municipality. The theory of the rising 
 was that every commune should have a real autonomy, the central govern- 
 ment being merely a federation of communes. The movement was based 
 on discontent at Paris, where the people found themselves in possession 
 of arms after the siege by the Germans. The rising began on the 18th 
 March, 1871, and was only suppressed ten weeks later after long, bloody 
 fighting between the forces of the Commune and a large army of the cen- 
 tral government; 6,500 Communists having fallen during 20-30th May, 
 and 38,578 been taking prisoners. 
 
 Wat Tyler's insurrection occurred November 5, 1380. A peasant's 
 revolt, immediately due to the imposition of a poll-tax on all persons 
 above fifteen. Almost the whole of the peasantry of the southern and 
 eastern counties of England rose in arms, murdering and plundering, 
 under the leadership of Wat Tyler, said to have been a soldier in the 
 French wars. On June 12, 1381, they gathered on Blackheath. On June 
 14, Richard II., then a lad of fifteen, met the Essex contingent at Mile 
 End, and, promising the abolition of villenage, induced them to return 
 home. On June 15, he met the Kentish men at Smithfield, and in the 
 parley Wat Tyler was killed by William Walworth, mayor of London, 
 and others. The peasants were about to avenge his death, when Rich- 
 ard, with great presence of mind, rode forward alone, and induced them 
 to follow him to Islington, when, a body of troops coming to the king's 
 aid, and Richard being profuse of promises, they dispersed. 
 
 THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 ITS CHIEF LEADER?: 
 Comte de Mirabeau, 1789-1791. 
 Daiiton, from the death of Mirabeau to 1793. 
 Robespierre, from June, 1793, to July 27, 1794. 
 
 Next to these three were St. Just, Couthon, Marat, Carrier, Hebert, Santerre, Ca- 
 mille Desmoulins, Roland and his wife, Brissot, Barnave, Seyes, Barras, Tallien, etc. 
 
 ITS GREAT DAYS: 
 
 1789. June 17. The Tiers Etat constituted itself into the -'National Assembly"; June 
 20, the day of ih&Jeu de Paume, when the Assembly took an oath not to separate 
 till it had given France a constitution ; July 14, Storming of the Bastille : October 
 5, 6, the King and National Assembly transferred from Versailles to Paris. This 
 closed the ancient regime of the court. 
 
 1791. June 20, 21. Flight and capture of the king, queen, and royal family. 
 
 1792. June 20, attack on the Tuileries by Santerre; August 10, attack on the Tuileries 
 and downfall of the monarchy; September 2, 3, 4, massacre of the state prisoners. 
 
 1793. January 21, Louis XVI guillotined: May 31, commencement of the Reign of 
 Terror ; June 2, the Girondists proscribed; October 16, Marie Antoinette guillo- 
 tined; October 31, the Girondists guillotined. 
 
 1794. April 5, downfall of Danton; July 27, downfall of Robespierre. 
 
310 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 MODES OF EXECUTING CRIMINALS. 
 
 COUNTRY. MODE. PUBLICITY. 
 
 Austria , Gallosvs Public. 
 
 Bavaria Guillotine Private. 
 
 Belgium . .. Guillotine Public. 
 
 Brunswick Ax Private. 
 
 China * Sword or cord Public. 
 
 Denmark Guillotine Public. 
 
 Ecuador Musket Public. 
 
 France Guillotine Public. 
 
 Great Britain Gallows Private. 
 
 Hanover Guillotine Private. 
 
 Netherlands Gallows Public. 
 
 Oldenberg Musket Public. 
 
 Portugal Gallows Public. 
 
 Prussia . Sword Private. 
 
 Russia Musket, gallows, or sword Public. 
 
 Saxony Guillotine Private. 
 
 Spain Garrote Public. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Fifteen cantons Sword Public. 
 
 Two cantons Guillotine Public. 
 
 Two cantons Guillotine Private. 
 
 United States (other than New j Mostly 
 
 York) Gallows | Private. 
 
 New York Electricity Private. 
 
 MONARCHS WHO RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. 
 The following are the names of European monarchs who have 
 abdicated : 
 
 Amadeus I. (duke of Aosta) Spain 1873 
 
 Charles IV. of Spain (forced) 1808 
 
 Charles V. of Spain and Germany 1556 
 
 Charles X. of France (forced) 1830 
 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced) 1849 
 
 Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia 1802 
 
 Christina of Sweden 1654 
 
 Diocletian and Maximian 305, 308 
 
 Felipe V. of Spain 1724 
 
 Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced) 1860 
 
 James II. of England (forced) 1689 
 
 L,ouis Bonaparte of Holland 1810 
 
 lyouis Philippe of France (forced) 1848 
 
 Ludwig of Bavaria (forced) 1848 
 
 Matilda (Lady of England) 1154 
 
 Milan of Servia 1889 
 
 Napoleon I. of France (forced) 1814 
 
 Napoleon III. of France (forced) 1870 
 
 Otho of Greece (forced) 1863 
 
 Pedro II. of Brazil (forced) 1889 
 
 Poniatowski of Poland (forced) , 1795 
 
 Richard II. of England (forced) 1399 
 
 Stanislaus I,eszczinski (forced) 1735 
 
 Victor Amadeus of Sardinia 1730 
 
 Victor Emmanuel 1819 
 
 Several were dethroned without even the mocking show of abdication, like Edward 
 II. of England (1327); Henry VI. of England (1471); etc. 
 
 FATHERS OF THEIR COUNTRY. 
 
 Cicero was called Father of his Country by the Roman senate (B.C. 
 106-43). Julius Caesar was so called after quelling the insurrection in 
 Spain (B.C. 100-43). Augustus Caesar was called Pater atque Princeps 
 (B.C. 63, 31-14). Cosmo de Medici (1389-1464). George Washington, 
 defender and paternal counsellor of the American States (1732-1799). 
 Andrea Dorea is so called on the base of his statue in Genoa (1468-1560X 
 Andronicus Palaeologus II. assumed the title (1260-1332). See also 
 Chron. iv. 14. 
 
SIDE-LIGHTS ON HISTOR K 311 
 
 HISTORY IN RHYME. 
 he following are given as helpful mnemonic verses: 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 First stands the lofty Washington, 
 
 That noble, great immortal one. 
 
 The elder Adams next we see, 
 
 And Jefferson comes number three. 
 
 The Fourth is Madison, you know, 
 
 The fifth one on the list, Monroe. 
 
 The sixth an Adams comes again, 
 
 And Jackson seventh in the train, 
 
 Van Buren eighth upon the line, 
 
 And Harrison counts number nine. 
 
 The tenth is Tyler, in his turn, 
 
 And Polk the eleventh as we learn. 
 
 The twelfth is Taylor that appears, 
 
 The thirteenth Fillmore fills his years. 
 
 Then Pierce comes fourteenth into view, 
 
 Buchanan is the fifteenth due. 
 
 Now Lincoln comes two terms to fill, 
 
 But God o'errules the people's will, 
 
 And Johnson fills the appointed time, 
 
 Cut short by an assassin's crime. 
 
 Next Grant assumes the lofty seat, 
 
 The man who never knew defeat. 
 
 Two terms to him; then Hayes succeeds, 
 
 And quietly the nation leads. 
 
 Garfield comes next, the people's choice; 
 
 But soon ascends a mourning voice 
 
 From every hamlet in the land. 
 
 A brutal wretch with murderous hand 
 
 Strikes low the country's chosen chief, 
 
 And anxious millions, plunged in grief, 
 
 Implore in vain Almighty aid, 
 
 That death's rude hand might yet be stayed. 
 
 Kind Arthur's term was then begun, 
 
 Which made the number twenty-one. 
 
 Stout Cleveland next the honors won 
 
 And then the second Harrison, 
 
 Until the nation's voice again 
 
 Called Cleveland as its man of men; 
 
 The twenty-fourth in order he 
 
 All champions brave of Liberty. 
 
 Sovereigns of England since the Norman conquest: 
 Two Williams, Henry, Stephen, Henry, Dick, 
 John, Hal, three Neds, Richard and three Hals quick, 
 Two Edwards, Richard, two Harrys and a Ned, 
 Mary, Bess, James and Charles who lost his head, 
 Charles, James, Will, Ann, four Georges and a Bill, 
 And Queen Victoria who is reigning still. 
 
 THE CHAMP DE MARS. 
 
 The Champ de Mars, or "Field of March," was a grand general as- 
 sembly of Frank warriors, held from time to time in Gaul from the fifth 
 century till the time of Charles le Chauve (877), when all trace of them 
 disappears. The objects of these conventions were twofold: (1) that of 
 military reviews, in which the freemen came to pay homage to their 
 chief and bring their annual gifts; and (2) consultative deliberations upon 
 what expeditions should be made, what should be done for the defence 
 of the nation and what laws should be passed for the better government 
 of the state. From 755 these assemblies were held in May. Napoleon I. 
 announced a gathering to be held in the great plain, called the Champ de 
 Mars of Paris, on May 26; but it was not held till June 1, 1815. The 
 object was to proclaim L 1 Acte additionel aux constitutions de V Empire. 
 
312 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ORIGIN OF SOME 'ISMS. 
 
 SOCIALISM was primarily a system for the regulation of labor by 
 co-operation without competition. Louis Blanc was the father of the 
 system, and his "Organisation du Travail" was published in 1840. In 
 this book he denounces the plan of "individualism," and advocates 
 "solidarity," in which each workman is to be paid according to his 
 need a bachelor two francs a day, a married man two and one-half and 
 a man with a family three francs. In 1848 national workshops were 
 tried in Paris on the Louis Blanc principle. Government was the em- 
 ployer of labor, and private enterprise was abolished as far as possible. 
 It was soon found that the national workshops were overcrowded, work 
 was ill-done, idle hands multiplied, and profitless work had to be 
 invented to keep the men out of mischief. Some 1,500 tailors were set 
 to work in the Hotel Clichy at two francs a day, but the scheme was a 
 total failure. 
 
 Plato's "Republic" is an ideal communism. Minos and Lycurgus 
 were communists. The early Christians had "all things in common," 
 but the notion of government being the sole employer of labor, and 
 paying each, not according to the work done, but according to indi- 
 vidual necessity, was left to the device of Louis Blanc. 
 
 Bellamy's novel entitled "Looking Backward" is based somewhat 
 on the same idea. 
 
 COMMUNISM is a scheme for associating men and women together 
 without recourse to the laws of social and political economy usually 
 resorted to. The representatives of communism are Robert Owen, St. 
 Simon, Fourier, Proudhon and Enfantin. 
 
 (1) Owen published his scheme in 1813, and tried it in 1825 at 
 Orbiston, in Lanarkshire. This scheme failed, and in 1843 he opened 
 his "Harmony Hall" in Hampshire, but this also was a failure. 
 
 (2) St. Simon established a corporate society at Menilmontant, but 
 Louis Philippe charged it with immorality and irreligion. The leaders 
 were imprisoned and the commune dissolved. 
 
 (3) Fourier established his "phalanstery" at Rambouillet, but it 
 proved a total failure. 
 
 (4) Proudhon is noted for his axiom, "La proprie'te, c'est le vol," 
 1848, and for his Banque du Peuple, 1849, which had for its object the 
 suppression of capital. It was closed by authority, and Proudhon fled 
 to Geneva. 
 
 (5) Enfantin, a partisan of St. Simon, advocated the abolition of 
 marriage ties, and was prosecuted on the grounds of public decency. 
 
 FOURIERISM was the social system devised by Charles Fourier. He 
 would divide men into groups of 400 families, and these groups into 
 series, and these series into phalanxes. A single group he would place 
 under one immense roof, and there should be supplied every appliance 
 of industry and art. No army would be required, no wars could ever 
 break out, as all the world would be one great family. 
 
 SIMONIANISM was the school of the Industrialists, founded in 1825 
 by St. Simon for the amelioration of the working classes, perverted after 
 his death into a communistic society, advocating the aristocracy of toil, 
 the perfect equality of man, community of property and the abolition of 
 inheritance and marriage. Abolished by law in 1833. 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 
 
 Figures mystical and awful . . . 
 Songs of war and songs of hunting, 
 Songs of medicine and of magic, 
 All were written in these figures, 
 For each figure had its meaning, 
 Each its separate song recorded. 
 
 LONGFELLOW. 
 
 SUNDRY ODD PICKINGS. 
 
 Noah had three sons. 
 
 Job had three friends. 
 
 lightning is three-forked. 
 
 The " Glorious Fourth " means July 4, 1776. 
 
 Hesiod said the half is more than the whole. 
 
 Jonah remained for three days in the whale's belly. 
 
 The Prince of Wales' crest consists of three feathers. 
 
 There were three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. 
 
 Barbarossa changes position in his sleep every seven years. 
 
 Charlemagne starts in his chair from sleep every seven years. 
 
 Olaf Redbeard, of Sweden, uncloses his eyes every seven years. 
 
 Three companions of Daniel were thrown into the fiery furnace. 
 
 Five is conspicuous in man five fingers, five senses, five members. 
 
 Ogier the Dane stamps his iron mace on the floor every seven years. 
 
 The Five Kings of France was a term applied to the Directorate, 
 1795. 
 
 The " City of Forty Times Forty Churches " is a name bestowed on 
 Moscow. 
 
 Seven becomes sacred as it is composed of two good numbers, three 
 and four. 
 
 In France, Belgium, Holland and Italy the national standards have 
 three colors. 
 
 The melancholy Jacques' disquisition on " the seven ages of man " 
 is well known. 
 
 The twenty -first verse of the seventh chapter of Ezra contains all the 
 letters of the alphabet except "j," which originally was the consonantal 
 form of "i." 
 
 313 
 
314 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 "Barry Cornwall, Poet," is an anagrammatic pseudonym for Bryan 
 Waller Proctor. 
 
 For three days Daniel remained in the lions' den because he prayed 
 three times a day. 
 
 Some scientists assert that there is a complete change in the human 
 body every seven years. 
 
 The saying " six thrice or three dice," sprang from the fact that aces 
 were called dice, and didn't count. 
 
 There were seven great wonders of the world in classic times. They 
 are described elsewhere in this volume. 
 
 Six has for its symbol two equilateral triangles placed base to base, 
 representative of equilibrium and peace. 
 
 Placentius, a sixteenth century Dominican, wrote a Latin poem of 
 253 stanzas, every word of which begins with P. 
 
 "Get nymph; quiz sad brows; fix luck," containing all the letters 
 of the alphabet, is capital advice to a young man. 
 
 The alphabet is inexhaustible in its possibilities. Some one calcu- 
 lates 620,448,401,733,239,439,369,000 transpositions. 
 
 In Alchemy the Sun is gold, the Moon silver, Mars iron, Mercury 
 quicksilver, Saturn lead, Jupiter tin and Venus copper. 
 
 An Englishman, wishing to revile America, has been noted as speak- 
 ing, "The 'ideous Hamerican 'abit of habusing haitch." 
 
 "The 'orn of the 'unter is 'card on the 'ill " is a cockney version of 
 the line from Mrs. Crawford's " Kathleen Mavourneen." 
 
 Seven sciences composed the Trivium and Quadrivium, viz., gram- 
 mar, rhetoric, arid logic, music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy: 
 
 Note the three in "fish, flesh and fowl;" "morning, noon and 
 night;" "water, snow and ice;" "heaven, earth and hell;" "red, 
 white and blue." 
 
 Among the Chinese, heaven is odd, earth is even; heaven is round, 
 earth is square. The numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, belong to yang (" heaven "); 
 but 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, belong toytn ("earth "). 
 
 The Nine Worthy Women were: (1) Minerva, (2) Semiramis, (3) 
 Tomyris, (4) Jael, (5) Deborah, (6) Judith, (7) Britomart, (8) Elizabeth or 
 Isabella of Aragon, (9) Johanna of Naples. 
 
 Jericho fell on the seventh day. To accomplish this seven priests 
 with seven trumpets march around the city once a day, and on the 
 seventh day seven times and the walls fell. 
 
 " Ha helephant heasily heats hat 'is hease 
 Hunder humbrageous humbrella trees." 
 MOORE. 
 
 The seventy years' captivity of the Jews in Babylon, which lasted 
 seventy years, began B.C. 584 and ended B.C. 515. They were carried 
 into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar and released by Cyrus. This is also 
 called "The Babylonish Captivity." 
 
 Ancient Rome, built on seven hills, surrounded by Servius Tullius 
 with a line of fortifications, was called the seven-hilled city. The seven 
 hills are the Pallatmus, the Capitolinus, the Quirinalis, the Cselius, the 
 A^entmus, the Viminalis, and Esquilmus. 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 315 
 
 Seven times Christ spoke on the Cross: (1) "Father, forgive them, 
 for they know not what they do;" (2) "To-day shalt thou be with Me in 
 paradise;" (3) "Woman, behold thy son!" (4) "My God, My God, why 
 hast Thou forsaken Me?" (5) "I thirst ;" (6) "It is finished!" (7) 
 " Father, into Thy hands I commend My spirit." 
 
 The ten numerations are cabalistic doctrine. Three are called the 
 superior, and seven the inferior numerations. The three superior are 
 the supreme diadem, wisdom and understanding. These existed from 
 all eternity. The seven inferior numerations are mercy, severity or 
 might, beauty, victory, glory, stability and sovereignty. 
 
 4 'TheThree R's reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic' 'is the title of a toast 
 given at a dinner in honor of the Board of Education by Sir Wm. Curtis, 
 Bart., Ivord Mayor of London, in 1795. In consequence of this toast the 
 Lord Mayor has been handed down to posterity as an ignoramus, though 
 those present recognized the jest clothed in the elisions. 
 
 One solution of Daniel's seventy weeks is to suppose it to begin with 
 the decree of Darius given to Ezra B.C. 491, and the seventy weeks to mean 
 seventy times seven years (i.e. four hundred and ninety), which would 
 bring us to the birth of Christ, "when a finish was made to transgres- 
 sion, and an end put to sins by the reconciliation of the Messiah, the 
 prince." 
 
 Our word alphabet is composed of the first two letters of the Greek 
 alphabet, Alpha and 'Beta. These were adopted from the Phoenician 
 Aleph and Beth, which mean respectively "ox" and "house" referring 
 no doubt to the shape of the letters which show us the connection 
 between the alphabet as we know it and the ancient cuneiform and 
 hieroglyphic writing of Babylonia and Egypt. 
 
 Card-players who are continually bewailing their ill-luck of always 
 receiving the same poor cards, will, perhaps, be reassured by knowing 
 that the fifty-two cards, with thirteen to each of the four players, can be 
 distributed in 53,644,737,756,488,792,839,237,440,000 different ways, so 
 that there would still be a good stock of combinations to draw from, 
 even if a man from Adam's time had devoted himself to no other occu- 
 pation than that of playing at cards. 
 
 One gallon of water weighs ten pounds, so the number of gallons in 
 the Pacific is over 200,000,000,000,000, an amount which would take more 
 than 1,000,000 years to pass over the falls of Niagara. Yet, put into a 
 sphere, the whole of the Pacific would only measure 726 miles across. 
 The Atlantic could be contained bodily in the Pacific nearly three times. 
 The number of cubic feet is 11,700,000,000,000,000,000, a number that 
 would be ticked off by 1,000, 000 clocks in 370, 000 years. 
 
 Abracadabra is a magical word or formula ABRACADABRA 
 constructed out of the letters of the alphabet, ABRACADABR 
 and supposed to be highly efficacious for the cure ABRACADAB 
 of agues and fevers. The letters were written so ABRACADA 
 as to form a triangle, capable of being read many A B R A c A D 
 
 ways on a square piece of paper, which was folded A B R A c A 
 
 or stitched into the form of a cross; worn as an A B R A c 
 
 amulet in the bosom for nine days, and ultimately A B R A 
 
 thrown backward before sunrise into a stream A B R 
 
 running eastward. The adjoining is one way of A B 
 
 arranging this mystic word. A 
 
316 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Writing is of two kinds ideographic, in which signs represent 
 ideas; and phonetic, in which signs represent sounds. Ideographic 
 writing, which preceded phonetic writing, is illustrated by the picture- 
 writing of the ancient Mexicans, and by the Chinese system of writing, 
 which is strictly ideographic. The Phoenician and other Semitic nations 
 derived their knowledge of writing from the Egyptians. The art was 
 introduced from Phoenicia into Greece, and from Greece into Italy, 
 whence it spread with the spread of Christianity. 
 
 The Jewish Sanhedrim, or national council, was constituted of a 
 president called Nasi, a deputy, sub-deputy and seventy ordinary mem- 
 bers. Their place of meeting was called The Pavement. The seventy 
 sat in the form of a crescent, thirty-five on each side of the throne. In 
 A.D. 32 the seventy were sent forth by Jesus to spread His mission. They 
 were to go two by two, without purse, scrip or change of shoes, but were 
 endowed with the power of working miracles. Seventy elders were 
 appointed to assist Moses in the wilderness (Num. xi. 16, 17). 
 
 Seven Wise Men is the collective designation of a number of Greek 
 sages, whose moral and social experience, according to the ancients, was 
 embodied in certain brief aphorisms. Their names, as usually given, 
 and their characteristic aphorisms are as follows : Solon of Athens 
 " Nothing in excess ; " Thales of Miletus "Suretyship brings ruin ; " 
 Pittacusof Mitylene "Know thine opportunity;" Bias of Priene, in Caria 
 "Too many workers spoil the work." Chilon of Sparta "Know thy- 
 self ; " Cleobulus, tyrant of Lindus, in Rhodes "Moderation is the chief 
 good ; " and Periander, tyrant of Corinth "Forethought in all things." 
 
 Here is another of the curious ones : Multiply a number composed 
 of the nine digits, 123,456,789, by 45, and the product is 5,555,555,505. 
 Reverse the figures in the multiplier 54, and the product is 6,666,666,606. 
 Reverse the multiplicand to 987,654,321), and multiply by 45, and the 
 product is 44,444,444,445. Reverse the multiplier to 54, and the pro- 
 duct is 53,333,333,334. The first and last figures are the multiplier. 
 Use half the multiplier or 27, and the product is 26,666,666,667. The 
 first and last figures are the multiplier. Reverse the figures of the mul- 
 tiplier to 72, and the product is 71,111,111,112, the first and last being the 
 multiplier. 
 
 FRANCE'S FATAL THREE. 
 
 The fatal number to Rome has been six; and three has proved sin- 
 gularly fatal to France. 
 
 I. Take the kings. The third of any name has been uniformly either 
 worthless or unlucky: Childebert III., Clotaire III., Clovis III., Pago- 
 bert III., and Thierry III., were rois faineants. 
 
 Childeric III , the last king of France of the first race, was confined 
 in a cloister that Pepin le Bref might reign in his stead. 
 
 Pepin le Bref was the third Pepin: (1) Pepin de Landen; (2) Pepin 
 d'Heristal, his grandson, and (3) Pepin le Bref, grandson of Pepin d'He- 
 ristal, who was succeeded by the Carlovignian dynasty. 
 
 Charles III. , le Simple, was wholly under the thumb of favorites, and 
 after a most inglorious reign was poisoned by the Comte de Vermandois. 
 
 Henri III., le Mignon, ' 'weaker than woman and worse than harlot' ' 
 was assassinated by Jacques Cle'ment. 
 
 Louis III., joint king with Carloman, reigned about a year and was 
 killed by an accident at the age of twenty -two. 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 317 
 
 Philippe III., le Hardi, was singularly unfortunate, and singularly 
 misnamed "The Bold." This tool of Labrosse went on a crusade, and 
 brought home the dead bodies of five near relatives: his father, his wife, 
 his son, his brother, and his brother-in-law. The "Sicilian Vespers" 
 occurred in his reign. He died of an epidemic at Perpignan. 
 
 Napoleon III. lost his imperial crown at Sedan, and died in exile at 
 Chiselhurst, in Kent. 
 
 II. The succession of three brothers has always proved fatal. 
 
 The Capetian dynasty terminated with the succession of three 
 brothers: Louis X., Philippe V., and Charles IV. (sons of Philippe le Bel). 
 
 The Valois line came to an end by the succession of three brothers: 
 Francois II., Charles IX., and Henri III. (sons of Henri II.). 
 
 The Bourbon dynasty terminated with the succession of three 
 brothers: Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. (sons of Louis the 
 Dauphin). 
 
 III. The monarchy of France was brought to an end by the third of 
 these triplets. 
 
 The empire of France consisted of Napoleon I. , Napoleon II. , and 
 Napoleon III. 
 
 DATES OF THE SECOND EMPIRE. 
 
 1. 1869, the last year of Napoleon's glory; the next year was that o* 
 his downfall. As a matter of curiosity, it may be observed that if the 
 day of his birth, or the day of the empress' birth, or the date of the capit- 
 ulation of Paris be added to that of the coronation of Napoleon III. , the 
 result always points to 1869. Thus he was crowned in 1852; he was born 
 in 1808; the empress Eugenie was born 1826; the capitulation of Paris was 
 1871. Whence: 
 
 1852 1852 1852 coronation. 
 
 M 1 ) 1 ) 
 
 Q I Q I 
 
 birth of Napoleon. > birth of Bugenie. 2v capitulation of Paris. 
 6) 1 ) 
 
 1869 1869 1869 
 
 2. 1870, the year of his downfall. By adding the numerical values of 
 the birthdate either of Napoleon or Eugenie to the date of the marriage, 
 we get their fatal year of 1870. Thus, Napoleon was born 1808; Eugenie, 
 1826; married, 1853. 
 
 1853 1853 year of marriage. 
 
 1 ) 1 ) 
 
 birth of Napoleon. birth of EugSnie. 
 
 __8) _6) 
 
 1870 1870 
 
 3. Empereur. The votes for the president to the emperor were 7,119,- 
 791; those against him were 1,119,000. If, now, the numbers 711979r/l I 19 
 be written on a piece of paper, and held up to the light, the reverse side 
 will show the word empereur. (The dash is the dividing mark, and 
 forms the long stroke of the "p.") 
 
 THE APOCALYPTIC NUMBER. 
 
 The mystical number 666, spoken of in the Book of Revelation (xiii. 
 18) is called the apocalyptic number. Among the Greeks and Hebrews 
 the letters of the alphabet were used to denote numbers. Hence such 
 
318 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 letters must be taken as will, when used as numbers, make up 666 (either 
 in the Greek or Hebrew alphabet) as the letters of the name in question. 
 The best solution of the riddle is "Neron Kesar," the Hebrew form of the 
 Latin "Nero Caesar. " The vowels e and a are not expressed in the ancient 
 Hebrew writing. The number represented by NeRON KeSaR would be 
 666, thus: 
 
 N R O N K S R 
 50 -|_ 200 + 6 + 50 -f 100 + 60 -f- 200 = 666. 
 
 Other interpretations were adopted in early times, as Antichrist and 
 Lateinos, the latter being supposed to refer to the Roman empire, and 
 even in more recent times being explained by Protestant controversialists 
 of greater zeal than discretion, as a prophetic allusion to papal Rome. 
 
 THE FIVE WITS. 
 
 An old and curious standard of mentality is that which credits man- 
 kind with having "five wits:" common wit, imagination, fantasy, estima- 
 tion, and memory. 
 
 1. Common wit is that inward sense which judges what the five 
 senses simply discern : thus the eye sees, the nose smells, the ear hears, 
 and so on, but it is "common wit" that informs the brain and passes 
 judgment on the goodness or badness of these external matters. 
 
 2. Imagination works on the mind, causing it to realize what has 
 been presented to it. 
 
 3. Fantasy energizes the mind to act in accordance with the judg- 
 ment thus pronounced. 
 
 4. Estimation decides on all matters pertaining to time, space, 
 locality, relation, and so on. 
 
 5. Memory enables the mind to retain the recollection of what has 
 been imparted. 
 
 THE SACRED NUMBER. 
 
 Seven was frequently used as a mystical and symbolical number in 
 the Bible, as g well as among the principal nations of antiquity, the Per- 
 sians, Indian's, Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. The origin is doubtless 
 astronomical, or rather astrological viz. the observation of the seven 
 planets and the phases of the moon, changing every seventh day. As 
 instances of this number in the Old Testament, we find the Creation 
 completed within seven days, whereof the seventh was a day of rest kept 
 sacred. Every seventh year was sabbatical, and the seven times seventh 
 year ushered in the jubilee year. The three Regalim, or Pilgrim fes- 
 tivals (Passover, Festival of Weeks, and Tabernacles), lasted seven days; 
 and between the first and second of these feasts were counted seven 
 weeks. The first day of the seventh month was a " Holy Convocation." 
 The L/evitical purifications lasted seven days, and the same space of time 
 was allotted to the celebration of weddings and the mourning for the dead. 
 In innumerable instances in the Old Testament and later Jewish writings 
 the number is used as a kind of round number. In the Apocalypse we 
 have the churches, candlesticks, seals, stars, trumpets, spirits, all to the 
 number of seven, and the seven horns and seven eyes of the Lamb. The 
 same number appears again either divided into half (3)4 years, Rev. xiii. 
 5; xi. 3, xii. 6, etc.), or multiplied .by ten seventy Israelites go to 
 Egypt, the exile lasts seventy years, there are seventy elders, and at a 
 later period there are supposed to be seventy languages and seventy 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 319 
 
 nations upon earth. To go. back to the earlier documents, we find in a 
 similar way the dove sent out the second time seven days after her first 
 mission, Pharaoh's dream shows him twice seven kine, twice seven ears 
 of corn, etc. 
 
 The Seven Churches of Rev. i.-iii. are Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, 
 Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea. The Seven Deadly Sins 
 are pride, covetousness, lust, anger, gluttony, envy and sloth. The 
 Seven Principal virtues are faith, hope, charity, prudence, temperance, 
 chastity and fortitude. The Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost are wisdom, 
 understanding, counsel, ghostly strength or fortitude, knowledge, godli. 
 ness and the fear of the Lord. 
 
 Among the Greeks the seven was sacred to Apollo and to Dionysus, 
 who, according to Orphic legends, was torn into seven pieces; and it 
 was particularly sacred in Eubcea, where the number was found to per- 
 vade, as it were, almost every sacred, private or domestic relation. On 
 the many ancient speculations which connected the number seven with 
 the human body and the phases of its gradual development and forma- 
 tion, its critical periods of sicknesses partly still extant as supersti- 
 tious notions we cannot here dwell. The Pythagoreans made much 
 of this number, giving it the name of Athene, Hermes, Hephais- 
 tos, Heracles, the Virgin unbegotten and unbegetting (i.e. not to be 
 obtained by multiplication), Dionysus, Rex, etc. Many usages show 
 the importance attached to this number in the eyes not only of ancient 
 but even of our own times, and it is hardly necessary to add that the same 
 recurrence is found in the folklore of every race. 
 
 Hippocrates (B.C. 460-357) divided the life of man into seven ages, a 
 division adopted by Shakspeare. 
 
 The Egyptian rjriests enjoined rest on the seventh day, because it 
 was held to be a dies infaustus. In Egyptian astronomy there were 
 seven planets, and hence seven days in the week, each day ruled by its 
 own special planet. The people of 'Peru had also a seven-day week. 
 
 The Persians and Mexicans have a tradition of a flood from which 
 seven persons saved themselves in a cave, and by whom the world was 
 subsequently repeopled. 
 
 The Seven Champions of Christendom are St. George for England, 
 St. Andrew for Scotland, St. Patrick for Ireland, St. David for Wales, 
 St. Denis for France, St. James for Spain, St. Anthony for Italy. 
 
 LESSONS OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 A popular magazine writer professes to have discovered that our 
 lives would surely be happy, as well as useful and meritorious, if we 
 were always careful to avoid: 
 
 The incessant round of idle pleasures, which make life so M. T. 
 
 That undisciplined spirit, which carries everything to X. S. 
 
 Fixing our hearts upon aught that can know D. K. 
 
 Looking upon the possessions of others with N. V. 
 
 Exulting over a fallen N. M. E. 
 
 Shirking all the difficult duties of our state, and fulfilling only those 
 that are E. Z. 
 
 A haughty, repellant manner, which may be alphabetically de- 
 scribed as I. C. 
 
 Encumbering our souls with faults which we shall, either here or 
 hereafter, be required to X. P. VIII. 
 
320 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 That pride which leads us to refuse a w.ork in which we are not sure 
 we shall X. L. 
 
 That porcupine susceptibility which is irritated at O. 
 
 Discussing topics that cause the strings of social life to G. R. 
 
 Thinking that acquaintances have no good qualities, because at 
 first sight we don't C. N. E. 
 
 Being gloomy sometimes as though life were an L. B. G. 
 
 If our readers cannot make out all these maxims we confess we can- 
 not C. Y. 
 
 A FEW CURIOUS ANAGRAMS. 
 
 The anagram is a word or words formed by the transposition of the 
 letters of a sentence or word: e.g., live becomes the Anagram evil. 
 Anagrams were in use among the ancient Greeks, Romans, etc. , and 
 many that have been recorded are curiously suggestive. Following are 
 a few of the historic anagrams: 
 
 CHARLES JAMES STUART, (James I.) Claims Arthur' s Seat. 
 
 DAME ELEANOR DAVIES (prophetess in the reign of Charles I.) Never so mad a 
 la die. 
 
 HORATIO NELSON. Honor est a Nilo. 
 
 MARIE TOUCHET (mistress of Charles IX ). Je charme tout (made by Henri IV.) 
 
 Pilate's question, QUID EST VERITAS? Est vir qui adest. 
 
 SIR ROGER CHARLES DOUGHTY TICHBORNE, BARONET. You horrid butcher, 
 Orion biggest rascal here. 
 
 DOUGLAS JERROLD: Sure, a droll dog. 
 
 THOMAS MOORE: Homo amor est. 
 
 EDGAR ALLAN POE: A long peal, read. 
 
 JOHN RUSKIN: No ink rush. 
 
 UNITED STATES: In te Deus stat. 
 
 JAMES WATT: Wait, steam. 
 
 WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE: A man to wield great wills. 
 
 WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: / ask me has Will a peer. 
 
 THREE FOR A FINISH. 
 
 The line of kings in England never exceeds three reigns without in- 
 terruption or catastrophe. 
 
 WILLIAM L, II., HENRY I. -A usurper, Stephen. 
 
 HENRY II., RICHARD I. A usurper, John. 
 
 HENRY III., EDWARD I. Edward II. murdered. 
 
 EDWARD III. Richard II. deposed. 
 
 HENRY IV., V., VI. Line of Lancaster changed. 
 
 EDWARD IV., V., RICHARD III. Dynasty changed. 
 
 HENRY VII., VIII., EDWARD VI. Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 MARY, ELIZABETH. Dynasty changed. 
 
 JAMES I. Charles I. beheaded. 
 
 CHARLES II. James II. dethroned. 
 
 WILLIAM III., ANNE. Dynasty changed. . 
 
 GEORGE L, II., III. Regency. 
 
 GEORGE IV., WILLIAM IV., VICTORIA. Indirect successions. 
 
 Except in one case, that of John, England has never had a great- 
 grandchild as sovereign in direct descent. 
 
 SEVEN SLEEPERS. 
 
 The Seven Sleepers were the heroes of a celebrated legend, which is 
 first related in the West by Gregory of Tours in the close of the sixth 
 century, but the date of which is assigned to the third century, and at 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 321 
 
 the persecution of the Christians under Decius. According to the story, 
 during the flight of the Christians from the persecution, seven Christians 
 of Ephesus took refuge in a cave near the city, where they were discov- 
 ered by their pursuers, who walled up the entrance in order to starve 
 them to death. They fell instead into a preternatural sleep, in which 
 they lay for nearly two hundred years. This is supposed to have taken 
 place in 250 or 251; and it was not till the reign of Theodosius II. (447) 
 that they awoke. They imagined that their sleep had been but of a 
 single night; and one of the seven went secretly into the city to purchase 
 provisions, and he was amazed to see the cross erected on the churches 
 and other buildings. Offering a coin of Decius in a baker's shop he was 
 arrested, his startling story not being believed until he guided the citi- 
 zens to the cavern where he had left his comrades. The emperor heard 
 from their lips enough to convince him of the life beyond the grave of 
 the dead, whereupon they sank again to sleep till the resurrection. Greg- 
 ory explains that his story is of Syrian origin it is widely current in 
 the East, and was adopted by Mahommed, who even admits their dog 
 Kitmer also into Paradise. The Roman Catholic Church holds their fest- 
 ival on June 27. 
 
 "I." 
 
 I am not in youth, nor in manhood or age, 
 
 But in infancy ever am known, 
 I'm a stranger alike to the fool and the sage, 
 And though I'm distinguished on history's page, 
 
 I always am greatest alone. 
 
 I'm not in the earth, nor the sun, nor the moon; 
 
 You may search all the sky, I'm not there: 
 In the morning and evening, though not in the noon, 
 You may plainly perceive me, for, like a balloon, 
 
 I am always suspended in air. 
 
 Though disease may possess me, and sickness, and pain, 
 
 I am never in norrow or gloom, 
 Though in wit and in wisdom I equally reign, 
 I am the heart of all sin, and have long lived in vain, 
 
 Yet I ne'er shall be found in the tomb. 
 
 SOME "LUCKY" AND "UNLUCKY" NUMBERS. 
 
 Harold's day was October 14. It was his birthday, and also the day 
 of his death. William the Conqueror was born on the same day, and, 
 on October 14, 1066, won England by conquest. 
 
 October 7, Rienzi's foes yielded to his power. 
 
 7 months Rienzi reigned as tribune. 
 
 7 years he was absent in exile. 
 
 7 weeks of return saw him without an enemy (October 7). 
 
 7 was the number of the crowns the Roman convents and Roman 
 council awarded him. 
 
 It is said that it is unlucky for thirteen persons to sit down to din- 
 ner at the same table, because one of the number will die before the 
 year is out. This silly superstition is based on the "Last Supper," when 
 Christ and His twelve disciples sat at meat together. Jesus, of course, 
 was crucified, and Judas Iscariot hanged himself. 
 
 The 3rd September was considered by Oliver Cromwell to be his red- 
 letter day. On 3rd September, 1650, he won the battle of Dunbar; on 
 U. I. -21 
 
322 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 3rd September, 1651, he won the battle of Worcester; and on 3rd 
 tember, 1658, he died. It is not, however, true that he was born on 3rd 
 September, as many affirm, for his birthday was 25th April, 1599. 
 
 In British dynasties two has been an unlucky number; thus: Eth- 
 elred II. was forced to abdicate; Harold II. was slain at Hastings; Will- 
 iam II. was shot in the New Forest; Henry II. had to fight for his 
 crown, which was usurped by Stephen; Edward II. was murdered at 
 Berkeley Castle; Richard II. was deposed; Charles II. was driven into 
 exile; James II. was obliged to abdicate; George II. was worsted at 
 Fontenoy and Lawfeld, was disgraced by General Braddock and Admiral 
 Byng, and was troubled by Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. 
 
 ' 'Five, ' ' says Pythagoras, ' 'has peculiar force in expiations. It is every- 
 thing. It'stops the power of poisons, and is redoubted by evil spirits. 
 Unity, or the monad, is Deity, or the first cause of all things the good 
 principle. Two, or the dyad, is the symbol of diversity the evil prin- 
 ciple. Three, or the triad, contains the mystery of mysteries, for every- 
 thing is composed of three substances. It represents God, the soul of 
 the world, and the spirit of man. Five is 2 -{- 3, or the combination of 
 the first of the equals and the first of the unequals; hence also the com- 
 bination of the good and evil powers of nature." 
 
 The number fourteen plays a very conspicuous part in French his- 
 tory, especially in the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIV. For ex- 
 ample: 
 
 14th May, 1029, the first Henri was consecrated, and 14th May, 1610, the last Henri 
 was assassinated. 
 
 14 letters compose the name of Henri di Bourbon, the 14th king of France and 
 
 14th December, 1553 (14 centuries, 14 decades and 14 years from the birth of Christ), 
 Henri IV. was born, and 1553 added together = 14. 
 
 14th May, 1554, Henri II. ordered the enlargement of the Rue de la Ferronnerie. 
 This order was carried out, and 4 times 14 years later Henri IV. was assassinated there. 
 
 14th May, 1552, was the birth of Margaret de Valois, first wife of Henri IV. 
 
 14th May, 1588, the Parisians revolted against Henri III., under the leadership of 
 Henri de Guise. 
 
 14th March, 1590, Henri IV. gained the battle of Ivry. 
 
 14th May, 1590, Henri IV. was repulsed from the faubourgs of Paris. 
 
 14th November, 1590, "The Sixteen" took oath to die rather than serve the Huguenot 
 king, Henri IV. 
 
 14th November, 1592, the Paris parlement registered the papal bull which excluded 
 Henri IV. from reigning. 
 
 14th December, 1599, the duke of Savoy was reconciled to Henri IV. 
 
 14th September, 1606, the dauphin (Louis XIII.), son of Henri IV., was baptized. 
 
 The second of the month was Louis Napoleon's day. It was also 
 one of the days of his uncle, the other being the fifteenth. 
 
 The coup d'ttat was December 2; he was made emperor December 2, 
 1852; the Franco-Prussian war opened at Saarbriick, August 2, 1870; he 
 surrendered his sword to William of Prussia September 2, 1870. 
 
 Napoleon I. was crowned December 2, 1804; and the victory of Aus- 
 terlitz was December 2, 1805. 
 
 THE VOWELS. 
 
 We are little airy creatures, 
 All of different voice and features; 
 One of us in glass is set, 
 One of us you'll find in jet, 
 T'other you may see in tin, 
 And the fourth a box within, 
 If the fifth you should pursue, 
 It can never fly from you. 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 323 
 
 MASTERPIECES OF ALLITERATION. 
 
 The frequent recurrence of words beginning with the same letters is 
 called alliteration. A good example of its use is to be found in that 
 famous couplet of Churchill's: 
 
 Who often, but without success, had prayed 
 For apt alliteration's artful aid. 
 
 The Siege of Belgrade, claimed for Alaric A. Watts, is probably the 
 best-known alliterative poem in the English language: 
 
 An Austrian army, awfully arrayed, 
 
 Boldly by battery, besieged Belgrade. 
 
 Cossack commanders, cannonading come, 
 
 Dealing destruction's devastating doom; 
 
 Every endeavor, engineers essay 
 
 For fame, for fortune, forming furious fray. 
 
 Gaunt gunners grapple, giving gashes good 
 
 Heaves high his head heroic hardihood. 
 
 Ibraham, Islam, Ismael, imps in ill, 
 
 Jostle John Jarovlitz, Jem, Joe, Jack, Jill: 
 
 Kick kindling Kutusoff, king's kinsman kill; 
 
 lyabor low levels loftiest longest lines; 
 
 Men march 'mid moles, 'mid mounds, 'mid murderous mines. 
 
 Now nightfall's nigh, now needful nature nods. 
 
 Opposed, opposing, overcoming odds. 
 
 Poor peasants, partly purchased, partly pressed, 
 
 Quite quaking, "Quarter! Quarter! " quickly quest. 
 
 Reason returns, recalls redundant rage, 
 
 Saves sinking soldiers, softens signiors sage. 
 
 Truce, Turkey, truce! truce, treacherous Tartar train! 
 
 Unwise, unjust, unmerciful Ukraine! 
 
 Vanish, vile vengeance! vanish, victory vain! 
 
 Wisdom wails war wails warring words. What were 
 
 Xerxes, Xantipp, Ximens, Xavier? 
 
 Yet yassy's youth, ye yield your youthful yest. 
 
 Zealously, zanies, zealously zeal's zest. 
 
 Tusser has a poem on " Thriftiness, " twelve lines in length, and in 
 rhyme, every word of which begins with t (died 1580). Leon Placentius, 
 a dominican, wrote a poem in Latin hexameters, called Pugna Porcorum, 
 253 stanzas long, every word of which begins with p (died 1548). 
 Here's another antique specimen : 
 
 The thrifty that teacheth the thriving to thrive, 
 
 Teach timely to traverse, the thing that thou "trive, 
 
 Transferring thy toiling, to timeliness taught, 
 
 This teacheth thee temp' ranee, to temper thy thought. 
 
 Take Trusty (to trust to) that thinkest to thee. 
 
 That trustily thriftiness, trowleth to thee. 
 
 Then temper thy travell, to tarry the tide; 
 
 This teacheth thee thriftiness, twenty times tryed. 
 
 Take thankful thy talent, thank thankfully those 
 
 That thriftily teacheth [? teach thee] thy time to transpose. 
 
 Troth twice to be teached, teach twenty times ten, 
 
 This trade that thou takest, take thrift to thee then. 
 
 EASY SUMS IN ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Take 15. Multiply that by itself, then multiply the product by it- 
 self and proceed until you have thus multiplied 15 products in turn. It 
 has been said that it will take twenty-five years to solve this problem. 
 
 "If a goose weighs ten pounds and half its own weight, what is the 
 weight of the goose ?' ' 
 
 "A snail climbing up a post twenty feet high ascends five feet every 
 day and slips down four feet every night; how long will the snail take 
 to reach the top of the post?' ' 
 
324 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 'A wise man having a window one yard high and one yard wide, 
 requiring more light, enlarged his window to twice its former size; yet 
 the window was still only one yard high and one yard wide. How was 
 this done?" 
 
 All the products of nine in the multiplication come to nine. Try it. 
 
 "Take any row of figures, and reversing their order, make a sub- 
 traction" of the latter from the former, "add up the digits of the re- 
 mainder and the result will be nine." 
 
 HONORS TO FORTY. 
 
 The number forty is very prominent in Bible and Church history: 
 
 1. It rained forty days and forty nights in the Flood. Gen. vii. 12. 
 
 2. Moses twice fasted for forty days and forty nights. Exod. xxiv. 18, etc. 
 
 3. The spies sent to Canaan were forty days in searching the land. Num. xiii. 35. 
 
 4. The Israelites wandered forty years in the wilderness. Ps. xcv. 10. 
 
 5. Goliath defied the armies of Saul for forty days. 1 Sam. xvii. 16. 
 
 6. Elijah fasted forty days. 1 Kings xix. 8. 
 
 7. Ezekiel bore the iniquities of the house of Jacob forty days, a day for a year. 
 
 8. Jonah cried to the Ninevites,"Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown." 
 Jonah iii. 4. 
 
 9. Jesus fasted and was tempted forty days in the wilderness. Matt. iv. 2. 
 
 10. Jesus tarried on earth forty days after his resurrection. Acts i. 3. 
 
 11. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus forty years after the Ascension. 
 
 12. According to Church tradition, Jesus was forty hours in the tomb. 
 
 13. The I^enten Fast continues for forty days, from Ash Wednesday to Easter 
 Sunday 
 
 And there are others. 
 
 "H." 
 
 'Twas whispered in heaven, 'twas muttered in hell, 
 
 And echo caught faintly the sound as it fell ; 
 
 Ou the confines of earth 'twas permitted to rest, 
 
 And the depths of the ocean its presence confessed; 
 
 'Twill be found in the sphere when 'tis riven asunder, 
 
 Be seen in the lightning, and heard in the thunder. 
 
 'Twas allotted to man with his earliest breath, 
 
 It assists at his birth and attends him in death, 
 
 Presides o'er his happiness, honor, and health, 
 
 Is the prop of his house and the end of his wealth, 
 
 In the heaps of the miser 'tis hoarded with care, 
 
 But is sure to be lost in his prodigal heir. 
 
 It begins every hope, every wish it must bound, 
 
 It prays with the hermit, with monarchs is crowned; 
 
 Without it the soldier, the sailor, may roam, 
 
 But woe to the wretch who expels it from home. 
 
 In the whisper of conscience 'tis pure to be found, 
 
 Nor e'en in the whirlwind of passion is drowned; 
 
 'Twill soften the heart, but, though deaf to the ear, 
 
 It will make it acutely and instantly hear; 
 
 But'in short, let it rest like a delicate flower. 
 
 Oh, breathe on it softly, it dies in an hour. 
 
 CURIOUS MISNOMERS. 
 
 Arabic figures were not invented by the Arabs, but by the early schol- 
 ars of India. 
 
 Cleopatra's needles were not erected by that Queen, neither do they 
 commemorate any event in her history. They were set up by Rameses 
 the Great. 
 
 The Jerusalem artichoke has no connection whatever with the holy 
 city of the Jews. It is a species of sunflower, and gets its name from 
 girasole, one of the scientific names of that genus of plants. 
 
MYSTIC LETTERS AND NUMBERS. 325 
 
 The word ' ' pen ' ' means a feather and is from the L,atin penna, a 
 wing. Surely the expression "a steel pen" could be improved upon. 
 
 Galvanized iron is not galvanized at all, but is coated with zinc by 
 being plunged into a bath of that metal and muriatic acid. 
 
 Pompey's pillar at Alexandria was neither erected by Pompey nor 
 to his memory. 
 
 Common table salt is not a salt and has long since been excluded 
 from the class of bodies denominated ' 'salts. ' ' 
 
 Rice paper is not made from either rice or straw, but from a pithy 
 plant called tungtsua, found in China, Corea and Japan. 
 
 Brazil grass neither comes from nor grows in Brazil. It is strips 
 from a species of Cuban palm. 
 
 DESTINY OF THE STUARTS. 
 
 James III. was killed in flight near Bannockburn, 1488. 
 
 Mary Stuart was beheaded 1588 (New Style). 
 
 James II. of England was dethroned 1688. 
 
 Charles Edward died 1788. 
 
 *#* James Stuart, the "Old Pretender," was born 1688, the very 
 year that his father abdicated. 
 
 James Stuart, the famous architect, died 1788. 
 
 (Some affirm that Robert II., the first Stuart king, died 1388, the 
 year of the great battle of Otterburn; but the death of this king is more 
 usually fixed in the spring of 1390.) 
 
 THE LETTER M. 
 
 M is said to represent the human face without the two eyes. By 
 adding these, we get O m p, the Latin homo, " man." Dante, speaking 
 effaces gaunt with starvation, says: 
 
 Who reads the name 
 For man upon his forehead, there the M 
 Had traced most plainly. 
 
 This letter has been very curiously coupled with Napoleon I., and it 
 is interesting to note its relation to Napoleon III. : 
 
 MACMAHON, duke of Magenta, his most distinguished marshal, and, after a few 
 months, succeeded him as ruler of France (1873-1879). 
 
 MALAKOFF (Duke oj), next to MacMahon his most distinguished marshal. 
 
 MARIA of Portugal was the lady his friends wanted him to marry, but he refused to 
 do so. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN and Mexico, his evil stars (1864-1867). 
 
 MENSCHIKOFF was the Russian general defeated at the battle of the Alma (Septem- 
 ber 20, 1854). 
 
 MICHAUD, MTGNET, MICHELET and MERIMEE were distinguished historians in the 
 reign of Napoleon III. 
 
 MOI.TKE was his destiny. 
 
 MONTHOLON was one of his companions in the escapade at Boulogne, and was con- 
 demned to imprisonment for twenty years. 
 
 MONTIJO (Countess of), his wife. Her name is Marie Eugenie, and his son was born 
 in March; so was the son of Napoleon I. 
 
 MORNY, his greatest friend. 
 
 MAGENTA, a victory won by him (June 4, 1859). 
 
 MALAKOFF. Taking the Malakoff tower and the Mamelon-vert were the great ex- 
 ploits of the Crimean war (September 8, 1855). 
 
 MAMELON-VERT. (See above.) 
 
 MANTUA. He turned back before the walls of Mantua after the battle of the Mincio. 
 
 MARENGO. Here he planned his first battle of the Italian campaign, but it was not 
 fought till after those of Montebello and Magenta 
 
 MAKIGNANO. He drove the Austrians out of this place. 
 
 METZ. the " maiden fortress," was one of the most important sieges and losses to him 
 in the Franco-Prussian war. 
 
326 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 MILAN. He made his entrance into Milan, and drove the Austrians out of Marignano. 
 MINCIO (The battle of the), called also Solferino, a great victory. Having won this, he 
 
 turned back at the walls of Mantua (June 24, 1859). 
 MONTEBELLO, a victory won by him (June, 1859). 
 
 *** The Mitrailleuse was to win him Prussia, but it lost him France. 
 MARCH. In this month his son was born; he was deposed by the National Assembly, 
 
 and was set at liberty by the Prussians. The treaty of Paris was March 30, 1856. 
 
 Savoy and Nice were annexed in March, 1860. 
 MAY. In this month he made his escape from Ham. The great French Exhibition 
 
 was opened in May, 1855. 
 
 By far his best publication is his " Manual of Artillery." 
 
 TRY IT AND THEN EXPLAIN. 
 
 Take any printed book and open its pages at random, and select a 
 word within the first ten lines, and within the tenth word from the end 
 of the line. Mark the word. Now double the number of the page, and 
 multiply the sum by 5. 
 
 Then add 20. 
 
 Then add the number of the line you have selected. 
 
 Then add 5. 
 
 Multiply the sum by 10. 
 
 Add the number of the word in the line. From this sum subtract 
 250, and the remainder will indicate in the unit column the number of 
 the word ; in the ten column the number of the line, and the remaining 
 figures the number of the page. 
 
 THREE TIMES THREE. 
 
 A wonder is said to last three times three days. The scourge used 
 for criminals is a "cat o' nine tails." Possession is nine points of the 
 law, being equal to (1) money to make good a claim, (2) patience to carry 
 a suit through, (3) a good cause, (4) a good lawyer, (5) a good 'counsel, 
 (6) good witnesses, (7) a good jury, (8) a good judge, (9) good luck. 
 Leases used to be granted for 999 years. Ordeals by fire consisted of 
 three times three red-hot ploughshares. 
 
 There are three times three crowns recognized in heraldry, and three 
 times three marks of cadency. 
 
 We show honor by a three times three in drinking a health. 
 
 The worthies are three Jews, three pagans and three Christians: 
 viz.: Joshua, David and Judas Maccabaeus; Hector, Alexander, and 
 Julius Caesar; Arthur, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 
 It is by nines that Eastern presents are given, when the Orientals 
 would extend their magnificence to the highest degree. 
 
 The Etruscans of old believed in the omnipotence of nine gods, viz. : 
 Juno, Minerva and Tinia (the three chief). The other six were Vulcan, 
 Mars, Saturn, Hercules, Summanus and Vedius. Thus: 
 
 I^ars Porsena of Clusium, 
 
 By the nine gods he swore 
 That the great house of Tarquin 
 
 Should suffer wrong no more. 
 By the nine gods he swore it, 
 
 And named a trysting day. . . . 
 
 To summon his array. 
 
 MACAULAY, Lays of Ancient Ronte. 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 
 
 Why then doth flesh, a bubble-glass of breath, 
 Hunt after honor and advancement vain, 
 
 And rear a trophy for devouring death, 
 
 With so great labor and long-lasting pain- 
 As if life's days forever should remain? 
 
 SPENSER. 
 
 NAMES THAT ARE NOTED. 
 
 Cathay was the ancient name for China. 
 
 Twickenham is famous as the home of Pope. 
 
 The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican was built in 1473. 
 
 Andrew Jackson rode to his inauguration on horseback. 
 
 London wall defines the old boundary of Roman London. 
 
 The tide in the Bay of Fundy often rises as high as seventy feet. 
 
 The largest cavern in the world is the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes, alone, is left of the great American poets. 
 
 Leland Stanford will be famous for the noble university he founded. 
 
 J. C. Flood, the California millionaire, kept a saloon in San Fran- 
 cisco. 
 
 P. T. Barnum earned a salary as bartender in Niblo's Theatre, New 
 York. 
 
 Miller (Hugh) taught himself geology while working as a mason 
 (1802-1856). 
 
 The most extensive park is Deer Park in Denmark. It contains 
 4,200 acres. 
 
 Jay Gould canvassed Delaware County, New York, selling maps at 
 $1.50 apiece. 
 
 Chicago is little more than fifty years old, and is the eighteenth city 
 of the world. 
 
 Fleet Street, London, was once a swift-flowing stream now converted 
 into a sewer. 
 
 The deepest rock salt bore in the world is near Berlin, Prussia ; it is 
 4, 185 feet deep. 
 
 The Italian for "beautiful view," is belvedere, and is applied to a 
 part of the Vatican in Rome, which gives its name to the famous statue 
 of Apollo. 
 
 327 
 
328 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 Bunyan wrote his " Pilgrim's Progress" while confined in Bedford 
 jail (1628-1688). 
 
 Cobbett learned grammar in the waste time of his service as a common 
 soldier (1762-1835). 
 
 Alfred the Great founded Oxford University and Charlemagne the 
 University of Paris. 
 
 Bloomfield composed "The Farmer's Boy" in the intervals of shoe- 
 making (1766-1823). 
 
 Whitelaw Reid did work as correspondent of a Cincinnati newspaper 
 for five dollars a week. 
 
 George W. Childs, of Philadelphia, was an errand boy for a book- 
 seller at six dollars a month. 
 
 The largest park in the United States is Fairmount, at Philadelphia, 
 and contains 2,740 acres. 
 
 Adam Forepaugh was a butcher in Philadelphia when he decided to 
 go into the show business. 
 
 It was in Kiev that Christianity was first planted in Russia. Here 
 is the cathedral of St. Sophia. 
 
 The original inhabitants of Wales were the Cymri, from whom the 
 country was named Cambria. 
 
 With different environment the same spirit governed those typical 
 Americans, Curtis and Whittier. 
 
 The deepest coal mine in the world is near Tournai, Belgium ; it is 
 3,542 feet in perpendicular depth. 
 
 The deepest hole ever bored into the earth is the artesian well at 
 Potsdam, which is 5,500 feet deep. 
 
 Ferguson taught himself astronomy while tending sheep in the serv- 
 ice of a Scotch farmer (1710-1776). 
 
 Btty utilized indefatigably every spare moment he could pick up 
 when a journeyman printer (1787-1849). 
 
 Andrew Carnegie, the iron master, did his first work in a Pittsburg 
 telegraph office at three dollars a week. 
 
 The deepest coal mines in England are the Dunkirk collieries of 
 Lancashire, which are 2,824 feet in depth. 
 
 The "Man With the Iron Mask" did not wear a mask of iron. It 
 was of black velvet, secured by steel springs. 
 
 The highest inhabited place in the world is the custom-house of 
 Ancomarca in Peru, 16,000 feet above the sea. 
 
 The foremost American critic of today Edmund Clarence Stedman 
 is a banker, who makes literary work his pastime. 
 
 The highest natural bridge in the world is at Rockbridge, Virginia, 
 being two hundred feet high to the bottom of the arch. 
 
 The largest empire in the world is that of Great Britain, being 8, 557,- 
 658 square miles, and more than a sixth part of the globe. 
 
 Golden Lane, St. Luke's, London, received its name from the large 
 number of goldsmiths who at one time lived in that vicinity. 
 
 Baumann's cavern in the Harz Mountains consists of six principal 
 and many smaller compartments full of beautiful stalactites. 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 329 
 
 The "Weeping Philosopher" was Heraclitus of Ephesus; while 
 Democritus of Abdera was called the "Laughing Philosopher." 
 
 The longest tunnel in the world is St. Gothard, on the line of the 
 railroad between Lucerne and Milan, being 9j^ miles in length. 
 
 The daughter of the Duke of Kent and wife of the Black Prince on 
 account of her great beauty was called "The Fair Maid of Kent." 
 
 The most remarkable echo known is that in the castle of Simonetta, 
 two miles from Milan. It repeats the echo of a pistol sixty times. 
 
 Franklin, while working as a journeyman printer, produced his 
 ' 'Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain" (1706-1790). 
 
 The loftiest active volcano is Popocatapetl. It is 17,784 feet high, 
 and has a crater three miles in circumference and one thousand feet deep. 
 
 Carey, the missionary and Oriental translator, learned the rudiments 
 of Eastern languages while employed in making and mending shoes 
 (1761-1834). 
 
 The Bridge of Sighs at Venice has no romance worthy the name. 
 Most of the unfortunates who cross it are petty thieves who are sent to 
 the workhouse. 
 
 Thunderstorms are more frequent in Java than in any other part of 
 the world, there being an average of ninety-seven days in each year upon 
 which they occur. 
 
 Chiswick is the home of William Morris, poet and aesthete, and is 
 famous for its market-gardens and as the seat of the gardens of the Hor- 
 ticultural Society. 
 
 The electric railway has penetrated even the fastnesses of the Tyro- 
 lese mountains, a road twenty -seven miles long being projected between 
 Riva and Pinzolo. 
 
 In Bengal, India, there are three harvests reaped every year, peas 
 and oil seeds in April, the early rice crop in September and the great rice 
 crop in December. 
 
 The maelstrom is not a whirlpool which sucks ships down into the 
 depths of the ocean. It is an eddy which in fair weather can be crossed 
 in safety by any vessel. 
 
 The city of Amsterdam, Holland, is built upon piles driven into 
 the ground. It is intersected by numerous canals, crossed by nearly 
 three hundred bridges. 
 
 The deepest perpendicular mining shaft in the world is located at 
 Prizilram, Bohemia. It is a lead mine ; it was begun in 1832. In Jan- 
 uary, 1880, it was 3,280 feet deep. 
 
 Isabella of France, wife of Edward II. of England, murdered her 
 husband by thrusting a red hot iron into his bowels, and so earned the 
 title, "The She- Wolf of France. " 
 
 Donnybrook, a former village and parish, now mostly embraced in 
 the borough of Dublin, was at one time celebrated for a fair notorious 
 for fighting, which was abolished in 1855. 
 
 The first circumnavigator was Magellan, a Portuguese, who sailed 
 round the world in three years and twenty-nine days, starting in 1519. 
 Amongst others were Sir Francis Drake (1577), Cook (1708), Carteret 
 (1766,) and Belcher (1836). 
 
330 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The deepest silver mine in the United States is the Yellow Jacket, 
 one of the great Comstock system at Virginia City, Nev. The lower 
 levels are 2,700 feet below the hoisting works. 
 
 John Adams was eight years older than Jefferson. Jefferson was 
 eight years older than Madison. Madison was eight years older than 
 Monroe. Monroe was eight years older than J. Q. Adams. 
 
 Hong Kong, formerly a little barren island at the mouth of the Can- 
 ton river, in China, was given to the English and is now covered with 
 the warehouses, gardens and residences of wealthy merchants. 
 
 The deepest coal shaft in the United States is located at Pottsville, 
 Pa. In 1890 it had reached a depth of 1,576 feet. From this great 
 depth four hundred cars, holding four tons each, are hoisted daily. 
 
 There is an unknown quantity of silver in the bay of Rio de Janeiro, 
 Brazil; a silver mine, in fact, of comparatively speaking unlimited dimen- 
 sions, and every ship that drops anchor there cuts into the bed of ore. 
 
 Gretna Green is a village in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, and the place 
 where, for nearly a century, runaway couples were made man and wife. 
 These irregular marriages were discountenanced by law in the year 1856. 
 
 Charing Cross was originally a London suburb, where was erected 
 the last of the crosses in memory of Eleanor, Queen of Edward I. The 
 cross was destroyed in 1647 but a new one was placed on the spot in 1865. 
 
 The Bridge of Sighs is the Bridge in Venice which connects the pal- 
 ace of the doge with the State prison, and was so called because over it 
 prisoners were conveyed from the judgment hall to the place of execu- 
 tion. 
 
 The Maelstrom is a whirlpool, or more correctly current, between the 
 islands of Mosken and Moskenas, two of the Lofoden Isles, which is dan- 
 gerous when wind and tide are contrary. Its sound is heard for several 
 miles. 
 
 A remarkable rock formation is located on a high peak of mountain 
 about five miles from Agua Caliente, in Arizona. The rock, which 
 measures 300 feet high, is shaped like a barrel and can be seen for miles 
 distant. 
 
 The famous chief Black Hawk, of the Sac and Fox Indians, was 
 born in 1767. He joined the British in 1812, and opposing the removal 
 west of his tribe, fought against the United States in 1831-32. He died 
 in 1838. 
 
 Clement (Joseph) son of a poor weaver, was brought up as a thatcher, 
 but, by utilizing his waste moments in self-education and work of skill, 
 raised himself to a position of great note, giving employment to thirty 
 workmen (1779-1844). 
 
 The Champ de Mars is an open space in Paris, surrounded by arti- 
 ficial embankments. The Franks held their annual assemblies here in 
 the month of March, Mars. Here a constitution was sworn to before 
 Napoleon I., May 1, 1805, and other noted gatherings were held on the 
 spot. 
 
 The cinque ports were the five great English ports on the coast of 
 Kent and Sussex lying opposite to France Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, 
 Romney and Hastings. They were of high importance in Anglo-Saxon 
 times and were made a separate jurisdiction, for insular defence, by 
 William I. 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 331 
 
 The city of Ghent, Belgium, stands on 26 islands, connected with 
 each other by 80 bridges. The city of Venice is built on 80 islands, con- 
 nected by nearly 400 bridges. In Venice canals serve for streets and 
 gondolas for carriages. 
 
 "Vaticanus Mons" is a hill at Rome, chiefly noted for its magnifi- 
 cent palace of the popes, the Vatican, with its superb gardens, its mu- 
 seums, celebrated library, and basilica of St. Peter. The palace was 
 constructed in 498, but has been often enlarged. 
 
 How Anglesey obtained its name is quaintly told by the "chronicler" : 
 Edwin King of Northumberland, "warred with them that dwelt in the 
 Isle of Mona, and they became his servants, and the island was no longer 
 called Mona, but Anglesey, the isle of the English." 
 
 Thomas Chatterton, "the marvelous boy," was a literary impostor. 
 He began in 1768 to produce poems which he pretended to be from the 
 pen of Thomas Rowley, a monk of the fifteenth century. Chatterton 
 was born at Bristol, and committed suicide (1752-1771). 
 
 Chillon is a celebrated castle of Switzerland, at the eastern end of 
 the Lake of Geneva. It stands on an isolated rock, and long served as a 
 state prison. Here for six years (1530-36) Bonnivard endured the captiv- 
 ity immortalized by Byron's "Prisoner of Chillon" (1821). 
 
 Calaveras Grove in California is noted for its immense trees. Of 
 92 redwood trees there are 10 over 30 feet in diameter, and 82 have a 
 diameter of from 15 to 30 feet. Their ages are estimated at from 1000 
 to 3500 years. Their height ranges from 150 to 237 feet. 
 
 A famous old ruin is Blarney Castle, near Cork, Ireland, in the wall of 
 which is a stone, difficult of access, that is said to endow the one kissing 
 it with the power of cajolery. In general Blarney is a colloquial term 
 applied to any smooth and excessively complimentary talk. 
 
 Haroun-al-Raschid, the caliph of the Abbasside race, was contem- 
 porary with Charlemagne, and, like him, a patron of literature and the 
 arts. The court of this caliph was most splendid, and under him the 
 caliphate attained its greatest degree of prosperity (765-809). 
 
 There is a point near the famous Stony cave, in the Catskill moun- 
 tains, where ice may be found on any day in the year. This locality is 
 locally known as the Notch, and is walled in on all sides by steep moun- 
 tains, some of which are more than three thousand feet high. 
 
 In Hawaii, one of the Sandwich islands, there is a spot called the 
 Rock of Refuge. If a criminal reaches this rock before capture he is safe 
 so long as he remains there. Usually his family supply him with food 
 until he is able to make his escape, but he is never allowed to return to 
 his own tribe. 
 
 The "Iron Chancellor" was the name applied to Prince Otto von 
 Bismarck, of Prussia (1813), Chancellor of the North German Confedera- 
 tion, July 14, 1867. He retired from public life in 1890. He was also 
 known as "The Man of Blood and Iron," from an expression in one of 
 his speeches. 
 
 Mount Vernon, memorable as the residence and the burial-place 
 of George Washington, is on the right bank of the Potomac, in Vir- 
 ginia, fifteen miles below Washington. In 1856 the mansion and 
 surrounding property were saved from the auctioneer's hammer and 
 secured as a national possession. 
 
332 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The island of St. Helena, where Napoleon was held a prisoner, has 
 an area of forty-seven square miles. Its population is more than 4,000, 
 but 200 emigrants leave it annually. The whale fisheries there are under 
 American management and amount to about $90,000 a year. 
 
 The Lunatic oil spring of Wheeler Canyon, Cal., at the time of a 
 new moon begins to flow oil. When the moon is at its full the spring 
 yields three barrels of oil a day. The quantity decreases with the waning 
 of the moon, and ceases when the moon's last quarter is past. 
 
 Among the noted pseudonyms of history Cid Campeador is the name, 
 or rather names, by which the most renewed Spanish warrior of the 
 eleventh century is best known. He was a Castilian noble, whose real 
 name was Rodrigo, and was ancester of the royal house of Castile. 
 
 Covent Garden, originally the garden of the Abbot of Westminster, 
 is a spacious square in London, celebrated for a great market held within 
 it of fruit, vegetables and flowers. The square was formed about 1631 
 and is famous from its connection with the modern history of London. 
 
 The covered passage-way which connects the palace of the doge in 
 Venice with the State prisons has been called "the Bridge of Sighs," 
 because the condemned passed over it from the judgment hall to the 
 place of execution. Hood has a poem called " The Bridge of Sighs." 
 
 Delft, one of the most ancient towns of South Holland, is situated 
 on the Schie, eight miles NW. of Rotterdam by rail, and is intersected by 
 numerous canals. Delft was noted from the sixteenth to the eighteenth 
 century for its delft-ware, but has now entirely lost its high reputation 
 for this manufacture. 
 
 Threadneedle street, in the city of London, got its name from the 
 Merchant Tailors' Company, whose present hall is built on an estate 
 acquired by them as early as 1331. It leads from Bishopsgate street to 
 the Bank of Kngland, which hence is often called the "Old Lady in 
 Threadneedle Street." 
 
 Abydos is a town of Asia Minor, situated on the Hellespont. Tradi- 
 tion places here the story of Hero and Leander; history tells that this 
 was where Xerxes led his vast army over the Hellespont on a bridge of 
 boats; and Byron here swam the Hellespont and rendered it ever famous 
 by his "Bride of Abydos." 
 
 D'Aguesseau, the great French chancellor, observing that Mme. 
 D'Aguesseau always delayed ten or twelve minutes before she came down 
 to dinner, began and completed a learned book of three volumes (large 
 quarto) solely during these "waste minutes." This work went through 
 several editions (1668-1751). 
 
 The Straits of Babelmandeb, the passage from the Persian Gulf into 
 the Red Sea, are called the Gate of Tears by the Arabs. The channel is 
 only about twenty miles wide, is rocky and very dangerous for passage 
 in rough weather. It received its melancholy name from the number of 
 shipwrecks that occurred there. 
 
 Spanish Main (i.e., main-land), a name given to the north coast of 
 South America, from the Orinoco to Darien, and to the shores of the 
 former Central American provinces of Spain contiguous to the Caribbean 
 Sea. The name, however, is often popularly applied to the Caribbean 
 Sea itself, and in this sense occurs frequently in connection with the 
 buccaneers, 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 333 
 
 The convivial Toby Fillpot was a thirsty old soul, who ' 'among jolly 
 topers bore off the bell." It chanced as in dog-days he sat boosing in 
 his arbor, that he died "full as big as a Dorchester butt." His body 
 turned to clay, and out of the clay a brown jug was made, sacred to 
 friendship, mirth, and mild ale. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden (1697-1710) was known as the "brilliant 
 madman." He compelled the Danes to make peace, dethroned the 
 king of Poland and waged war with Russia for a time with success; but, 
 being defeated by Czar Peter the Great at Pultowa, Sweden fell from her 
 high estate as a first-class power. 
 
 The Falls of Niagara eat back the cliff at the rate of about one foot 
 a year. In this way a deep cleft has been cut right back from Queens- 
 town, for a distance of seven miles, to the place where the falls now are. 
 At this rate it has taken more than thirty-five thousand years for that 
 channel of seven miles to be made. 
 
 The most extensive mines in the world are those of Freyburg, 
 Saxony. They were begun in the twelfth century, and in 1835 the gall- 
 eries, taken collectively, had reached the unprecedented length of 123 
 miles. A new gallery, begun in 1838, had reached a length of eight 
 miles at the time of the census of 1878. 
 
 The Vendotne Column in Paris was erected by Napoleon I. (1806), 
 in the Place Vendome, to commemorate his successful campaign- in 
 Germany; pulled down by the Communists (1871), but restored by the 
 National Assembly (1874). It is one hundred and thirty-two feet high, 
 with a statue of Napoleon I. at the top. 
 
 The Alhambra is a palace and fortress of the Moors, founded about 
 1253 by Mohammed I. Celebrated as the palace of the kings of Granada, 
 its two courts, that of the Myrtles and that of the Lions, are beautiful 
 examples of Arabian art in Spain. The Alhambra was surrendered to 
 the Christians by the Moors about 1491. 
 
 In 1818, Captain John Cleves Symmes propounded the theory that 
 the earth is a hollow sphere, habitable within, and open at the poles for 
 the admission of light, containing within six or seven concentric hollow 
 spheres, also open at the poles. This theory in ridicule has always been 
 spoken of as Symmes' or Symmes' s Hole. 
 
 Burritt (Elihu; made himself acquainted with ten languages while 
 plying his trade as a village blacksmith (Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Spanish, 
 Bohemian, Polish, Danish, Persian, Turkish and Ethiopic). His father 
 was a village cobbler, and Elihu had only six months' education, and 
 that at the school of his brother (1811-1879). 
 
 The Crystal Palace on Sydenham Hill, London, is composed of the 
 greater part of the buildings used for the Great Exhibition of 1851. It 
 was opened by the Queen, June 10, 1854. There is another crystal 
 palace in New York City which was erected on Reservoir Square, July 14, 
 1853, as a universal industrial exhibition. This was destroyed by fire 
 October 5, 1858. 
 
 The famous French stronghold, the Bastille, was originally built by 
 Charles V. as a chateau, in 1369. The high wall around it was subse- 
 quently erected by Philippe-Auguste. Louis XI. first used it as a State 
 prison, and it was eventually demolished by the people during the Revo- 
 lution, July 14, 1789. The "Man in the Iron Mask" was imprisoned 
 there, and died in 1703. 
 
334 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Rubicon is a river of Italy, flowing into the Adriatic, which 
 formed the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy proper. The pas- 
 sage of this river by Julius Caesar was necessarily the signal for civil war, 
 the issue of which could not be foreseen, as Roman generals were forbid- 
 den to cross this river at the head of an army. 
 
 The Smithsonian Institution is the name of a celebrated Institution in 
 Washington, D. C., founded (1846) for the encouragement of scientific 
 research and the diffusion of scientific knowledge, under the will of 
 James Smithson (natural son of the third Duke of Northumberland), 
 who bequeathed over $500,000 for this purpose. 
 
 The highest summit of the Harz mountains in Prussian Saxony is 
 called the Brocken. It occupies an important place in the folklore of 
 North Germany. Here annually assemble the witches on Walpurgis 
 night to hold their revels on its summit. It is also interesting for the 
 phenomenon known as the "Spectre of the Brocken." 
 
 Corso is an Italian word used to express not only the racing of rider- 
 less horses, but also the slow driving in procession of handsome equip- 
 ages through the principal streets of a town, such as almost always takes 
 place in Italy on festivals. Hence the name has been applied to many 
 such Italian thoroughfares, notably the Corso in Rome. 
 
 The population of Chicago in 1830, was 70; 1840, 4,853; 1845, 12,088; 
 1850, 29,963; 1855, 60,227; 1860, 112,172; 1865, 178,900; 1870, 298,977; 1872, 
 364,377; 1880,503,185; 1884 (estimated), 675,000; 1885 (estimated), 727,- 
 000; 1886 (estimated), 750,000; 1887 (estimated), 760,000; 1889 (estimated), 
 1,000,000; 1890, 1,099,133; 1892 (school census), 1,438,010. 
 
 The Ghetto is the Jews' quarter in Italian cities, to which they used 
 to be strictly confined. The ghetto of Rome, instituted in 1556 by Pope 
 Paul IV., was removed in 1885 and following years, its demolition hav- 
 ing been rendered necessary by the new Tiber embankment. The term 
 is also employed to indicate the Jews' quarters in any city. 
 
 Croesus, the last king of Lydia, succeeded his father, Alyattes, in 
 560 B.C. He made the Greeks of Asia Minor his tributaries, and ex- 
 tended his kingdom eastward from the ^Egean to the Halys. From his 
 conquests, his mines and the golden sand of the Pactolus he accumu- 
 lated so much treasure that his wealth has become a proverb. 
 
 Temple Bar is the name of a London gateway which formerly stood 
 at the junction of Fleet street and the Strand. It was rebuilt by Sir 
 Christopher Wren in 1672-73; was removed, having become an obstruc- 
 tion in 1878-79, and was re-erected at Theobald's Park, near Chestnut, in 
 1888. The memorial which marks the site was erected in 1880. 
 
 The fair of Nijni-Novgorod is the greatest in the world, the value of 
 
 foods sold being as follows: 1841, $35.000,000; 1857, $60,000,000; 1876, 
 140,000,000; the attendance in the last named year including 150,000 
 merchants from all parts of the world. In that of Leipsic the annual 
 average of sales is $20,000,000, comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, of 
 which two-fifths is books. 
 
 Kara George Petrovitsch, known as Black George, of Servia, was a 
 Servian peasant who, in 1804, revolted against the Porte. Having de- 
 feated several armies sent against him, in 1807 he took Belgrade, and 
 formed a military government in Servia. In 1811, Turkey acknowledged 
 him " hospodar of Servia," but, in 1814, the Turks recovered the country, 
 Black George fled to Austria, was imprisoned, and died. 
 
FAMOUS PE&SONS AND PLACES. 335 
 
 Caledonia is the name given by the Romans to that part of Scotland 
 lying between the Forth and the Clyde; so called from the tribe of Cale- 
 donii. The name disappears in the fourth century, and the people of 
 Scotland began to be called Picts (to the east) and Scots (to the west). 
 In more modern times Caledonia is a poetical name for Scotland. 
 
 Delphi was an ancient northern Greek town, celebrated for the 
 oracles pronounced by the Pythian priestess in the temple of Apollo. 
 The oracle was known as early as 900 B. c. , and the temple became the 
 repository of immense treasures. It was plundered by the Phocians and 
 Nero, the latter taking away three hundred costly statues in 67 A. D. 
 
 Alsatia is a cant name applied to the precinct of Whitefriars, which, 
 until 1697, enjoyed the privilege of a debtors' sanctuary, and hence was 
 crowded with swindlers and bullies. The name is first met with in 1623, 
 and we have Shadwell's comedy, "The Squire of Alsatia" (1688), Scott's 
 authority for some of the finest scenes in the " Fortunes of Nigel." 
 
 Jack Cade was the ringleader of the insurrection that broke out in 
 Kent, 1450. He was an Irishman, and called himself Mortimer, claim- 
 ing to be a natural son of the Duke of York. He marched to London 
 at the head of twenty thousand armed men, who encamped at Black- 
 heath, June 1, 1450. Being slain by Alexander Iden, July 11, his head 
 was stuck on London Bridge. 
 
 The name "Ironsides," was popularly applied to the regiment of a 
 thousand horse, which Cromwell raised mainly in the eastern counties 
 for service against King Charles I. early in the great Civil War. The 
 name, already given for his bravery to an English king, Edmund, was 
 first attached to Cromwell himself, but passed easily to the men at whose 
 head he first appeared at Edgehill. 
 
 Karl Friedrich Hieronymus, Baron von Miinchhausen, was a mem- 
 ber of an ancient, noble family of Hanover, whose name has become 
 proverbial as the narrator of false and ridiculously exaggerated exploits 
 and adventures. He was born May 11, 1720, at Bodenwerder, in Han- 
 over, served as a cavalry officer in Russian campaigns against the Turks, 
 and died at his birthplace, February 22, 1797. 
 
 Dismal Swamp, measuring thirty miles from north to south by ten 
 in breadth, lies chiefly in Virginia, but partly in North Carolina. In 
 the center is Lake Drummond, about six miles broad; elsewhere its 
 dense growth of cypress and cedar has been greatly thinned, and part of 
 the region has been reclaimed. The tract is intersected by a canal con- 
 necting Chesapeake Bay and Albemarle Sound. 
 
 Alloway, Burns' birthplace, and the scene of his "Tarn o' Shanter," 
 lies on the right bank of the " bonny Doon," two miles south of the town 
 of Ayr. The "auld clay biggin," in which the poet was born on 23d 
 January, 1759, was in 1880 converted into a Burns Museum. The 
 " haunted kirk " still stands, a roofless ruin, near the "Auld Brig; " and 
 hard by is the Burns Monument erected in 1820. 
 
 The subject of the famous song "Annie Laurie" was the eldest of 
 the three daughters of Sir Robert Laurie, of Maxwelton. In 1709 she 
 married James Fergusson, of Craigdarroch, and was the mother of 
 Alexander Fergusson, the hero of Burn's song, "The Whistle." The 
 song of " Annie Laurie " was written by William Douglas, of Finland, 
 in the stewardry of Kirkcudbright, hero of the song "Willie was a 
 Wanton 
 
336 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 In Java the "Valley of the Upas Tree" is sometimes called the 
 " Valley of Death," and its deadly influence was formerly ascribed to 
 the malignant properties of a peculiar vegetable production of the island, 
 called the "upas tree," which especially flourishes in this locality. 
 Recent travelers, however, declare that accounts of the fatality attending 
 a passage of this famous valley have been greatly exaggerated. 
 
 Crispinos and Crispianus were two brothers, born at Rome, from 
 which place they traveled to Soissons, in France (about A.D. 303), to 
 propagate the gospel, and worked as shoemakers, that they might not 
 be chargeable to any one. The governor of the town ordered them to 
 be beheaded the very year of their arrival, and they were made the tute- 
 lary saints of the "gentle craft." St. Crispin's Day is October 25. 
 
 The nine worthies is the title given to the following eminent men: 
 Jews: Joshua (1426 B.C.), David (1015 B.C.), Judas Maccabaeus (161 B.C.); 
 Heathens: Hector of Troy (1184 B.C.), Alexander the Great (323 B.C.), 
 Julius Caesar (44 B.C.); Christians: King Arthur of Britain (542 A.D.), 
 Charlemagne of France (814 A.D.),. Godfrey of Bouillon (1100 A.D.). In 
 some lists Gideon and Samson are introduced, and in others Hercules 
 and Pompey. 
 
 San Marino, in Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, is the oldest 
 Republic in the world. It is, next to Monaco, the smallest State in 
 Europe. The exact date of the establishment of this Republic is not 
 known, but according to tradition it was in the fourth century, by 
 Marinus, a Dalmatian hermit, and has ever since remained independent. 
 It is mountainous and contains four or five villages. The word "liberty" 
 is inscribed on its capitol. 
 
 The Tuileries is the name of a garden and palace in Paris, built on 
 the site of an ancient fabrique de tuiles. It was composed of three great 
 pavilions, called Le pavilion de Marsan (north), the pavilion de Fldre 
 (south), and the pavilion de VHorloge (center). It was joined to the 
 Louvre by Napoleon III. (1851-6). The land was bought by Francois I. 
 in 1564, and the original palace was made for Catherine de Medicis after 
 the design of Philibert Delorme. 
 
 Since 1811 Ajaccio has been the capital of Corsica. It has a fine ca- 
 thedral, completed in 1585, and a spacious harbor, protected by a citadel; 
 but its special interest is as the birthplace of Napoleon. There is a statue 
 of him as First Consul (1850), and a monument of the emperor on horse- 
 back, surrounded by his four brothers (1865). The house of the Bona- 
 partes, the "Casa Bonaparte" is now national property. The chief em- 
 ployments are the anchovy and pearl fisheries, and the trade in wine and 
 olive-oil, which the neighborhood produces in abundance, and of good 
 quality. Of late years Ajaccio has become a winter resort for consump- 
 tive patients. 
 
 The familiar name Bedlam is a corruption of Bethlehem, formerly a 
 hospital founded by Simon Fitz-Mary in Bishopsgate Street Without, Lon- 
 don, in 1246, as "a privy of canons, with brethren and sisters." When 
 the religious houses were suppressed by Henry VIII. the corporation 
 converted it into a lunatic asylum for six lunatics, but in 1641, the funds 
 being insufficient, partly convalescent patients were turned out to beg, 
 and wore a badge. These were the ' Bedlam Beggars," generally called 
 "Tom-o' -Bedlams." In 1675 the old building was taken down and a 
 new one was erected in Moorfields. In 1814 this building was also 
 pulled down, and a new hospital built in St. George's Fields. 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES, 337 
 
 Bramah ( Joseph), a peasant's son, occupied his spare time when a 
 mere boy in making musical instruments, aided by the village black- 
 smith. At the age of sixteen he hurt his ankle while plowing, and em- 
 ployed his time while confined to the house in carving and making wood- 
 wares. In another forced leisure from a severe fall he employed his 
 time in contriving and making useful inventions, which ultimately led 
 him to fame and fortune (1749-1814). 
 
 Among the noted club-rooms of the eighteenth century was Almack's. 
 It was a suite of assembly rooms, built in 1765 in King street, St. James', 
 London, by a tavern-keeper named M'Call, who inverted the two sylla- 
 bles of his name, Mac-call, into Allmack, or Almack. The rooms 
 became famous for fashionable balls under the management of a com- 
 mitee of ladies of the highest rank. The rooms are now called Willis' 
 Rooms from a proprietor named Willis. 
 
 Saint Veronica was, according to the legend, one of the women who 
 met our Lord on His way to Calvary. She offered Him her veil to wipe 
 the sweat from His brow, when, wondrous to tell, the Divine features 
 were miraculously imprinted upon the cloth and remained as a perma- 
 nent picture of the face of our Lord. This miraculous picture is reported 
 to have been preserved in Rome from about the year 700, and was 
 exhibited in St. Peter's on December 8, 1854. 
 
 Half legendary, half historic is the name of Vortigern, the British 
 prince who is reported by Bede, Nennius, and Geoffrey of Monmouth to 
 have invited the Saxons into Britain to help him against the Picts, and 
 to have married Rowena, daughter of Hengist. His allies soon became, 
 according to the legend, enemies even more dangerous than the Picts, 
 and soon destroyed the British princes. Samuel Ireland fathered his 
 historical play of " Vortigern " on Shakspeare. 
 
 Among odd titles for towns is that of Westward Ho, on the coast of 
 North Devon, 2> miles west of Biddeford, which owes not merely its 
 name but its existence to Charles Kingsley's Elizabethan romance (1855), 
 which attracted swarms of visitors to North Devon. For their accommo- 
 dation this pretty cluster of villas and lodging houses, with its church, 
 hotel, club-house, and college, has sprung up since 1867. The bathing 
 facilities are excellent, and it is a great resort of golfers. 
 
 Prester John is the name applied by mediaeval credulity for two 
 hundred years to the supposed Christian sovereign of a vast but ill- 
 defined empire in central Asia. The idea of a powerful Christian poten- 
 tate in the far Bast, at once priest and king, was universal in Europe 
 from about the middle of the twelfth to the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century, when it was transferred to Ethiopia and finally found a fancied 
 historical justification in identification with the Christian king of 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 Windermere, or Winandermere, the largest lake in England, called 
 from its beauty "Queen of the Lakes," is partly in the county of Lan- 
 caster, and partly divides that county from Westmoreland. It is nearly 
 eleven miles long and about one mile in extreme breadth. About a mile 
 from Waterhead, at the north extremity of the lake, is the town of Am- 
 bleside, a mile and a half north-west of which is Rydal, the residence of 
 the poet Wordsworth; in the vicinity of Waterhead is Dove's Nest, the 
 cottage at one time occupied by Mrs. Hemans; farther down the East 
 shore is Elleray, famous as the residence of "Christopher North;" and 
 half-way down the lake, on the eastern shore, is Bowness. 
 - T Q? 
 
338 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Before the Reformation the clergy used to walk in procession every 
 year on Corpus Christi day to St. Paul's Cathedral. They mustered at 
 the upper end of Cheapside, and there commenced chanting the Pater- 
 noster ', which continued through "Pater-noster Row"; at the end of the 
 Row they said Amen, and the spot was called "Amen Corner." They 
 then began the A ve Maria, turning down "Ave Maria Lane." After 
 crossing Ludgate, they chanted the Credo in "Creed Lane" (which no 
 longer exists). 
 
 The Tarpeian rock was so called from Tarpeia, daughter of Spurius 
 Tarpeius governor of the citadel on the Saturnian Hill of Rome. The 
 story is that the Sabines bargained with the Roman maid to open the 
 gates to them, for the ' 'ornaments on their arms. ' ' As they passed through 
 the gates, they threw on her their shields, saying, "These are the orna- 
 ments we bear on our arms." She was crushed to death, and buried on 
 the Tarpeian Hill. Bver after, traitors were put to death by being hurled 
 headlong from the hill-top. 
 
 An ancient and popular English gathering was the Bartholomew 
 fair held 24 August (old style). Henry I., in 1133, granted the charter of 
 this fair to Rayer or Rahere, a monk. Like all other fairs, it was con- 
 nected with the church, and miracle plays, mysteries and moralities were 
 performed. In 1445 four persons were appointed by the Court of Alder- 
 men as keepers of the fair. In 1661 the fair lasted fourteen days. In 
 1691 the fair was limited to three days. In 1840 the fair was removed to 
 Islington; and in 1855 it was discontinued. 
 
 La Belle Alliance is the name of a farm some thirteen miles from 
 Brussels; ever memorable for being the position occupied by the centre 
 of the French infantry in the battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815). Napo- 
 leon himself was in the vicinity of this farm, but Wellington was at 
 Mont St. Jean, two miles further north. Between these two spots was 
 La Haye Sainte, where were posted the French tirailleurs. The Prussians 
 call the battle of Waterloo the "Battle of la Belle Alliance" and the 
 French call it the "Battle of Mont Saint-Jean. 
 
 Will's Coffee House was a noted resort in the reign of Charles II. 
 near Covent Garden at the western corner of Bow street. It was the great 
 emporium of libels and scandals, but was one of the best in London, and 
 had acquired the sobriquet of "the Wit's Coffee-house." Here the fre- 
 quenters heard the talk of the town about the poets, authors, and other 
 celebrities, and here was the "Observator" and all the Tory and Whig 
 journals of the day; and here would be found Matthew Prior, John Dry- 
 den, Betterton the tragedian and other celebrities. 
 
 Thirty miles from the City of Kumamoto, Japan, is the volcano Aso 
 San, which has the largest crater in the world. It is more than thirty 
 miles in circumference, and peopled by twenty thousand inhabitants. 
 Think of walking for miles among fertile farms and prosperous villages, 
 peering into schoolhouse windows and sacred shrines well within the 
 shell of an old-time crater, whose walls rise eight hundred feet all about 
 you. It gives one a queer feeling. Hot springs abound everywhere. In 
 one place brick-red hot water is utilized to turn a rice mill. The inner 
 crater is nearly half a mile in diameter, and a steady column of roaring 
 steam pours out of it. The last serious eruption was in 1884, when immense 
 quantities of black ashes and dust were ejected and carried by the wind 
 as far as Kumamoto, where for three days it was so dark that artificial 
 light had to be used. 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 339 
 
 The first proposer of secession in the United States Congress was 
 Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts, in 1811, who said that, if Louisiana 
 were admitted into the Union, ' ' it will be the right of all and the duty 
 of some [of the States] definitely to prepare for a separation amicably 
 if they can, violently if they must." Mr. Poindexter, of Mississippi, 
 called him to order, as did the Speaker of the House; but on appeal the 
 Speaker's decision was reversed and Mr. Quincy sustained by a vote of 
 fifty -three ayes to fifty-six noes on the point of order. 
 
 St. James's Palace is a large, inelegant brick structure, fronting 
 towards Pall Mall. Originally a hospital dedicated to St. James, it was 
 reconstructed and made a manor by Henry VIII. , who also annexed to 
 it a park. Here Queen Mary died (1558); Charles I. slept here the night 
 before his execution ; and here Charles II. , the Old Pretender, and George 
 IV. were born. When Whitehall was burned in 1697, St. James be- 
 came the regular L/ondon residence of the British sovereigns, and it con- 
 tinued to be so till Queen Victoria's time. The Court of St. James is 
 a frequent designation of the British Court. St. James Park lies south- 
 ward from the Palace, and extends over fifty-eight acres. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci was a naval astronomer, from whom America ac- 
 cidentally received its name. He was born at Florence, March 9, 1451, 
 and was at the head of a large Florentine firm in Seville in 1496. He 
 fitted out Columbus' third fleet, and in 1499 himself sailed for the New 
 World with Ojeda, and explored the coast of Venezuela. The accident 
 which fastened his name on two continents may be traced to an inac- 
 curate account of his travels published at St. Die" in I/orraine in 1507, in 
 which he is represented to have reached the mainland in 1497 which 
 would have been before either Cabot or Columbus and in which the 
 suggestion is made that he should give his name to the world he had 
 discovered. 
 
 The first historical notices of Niagara Falls are given in Lescarbot's 
 record of the second voyage of Jacques Cartier in the year 1535. On the 
 maps published to illustrate Champlain's discoveries (date of maps either 
 1613 or 1614) the falls are indicated by a cross, but no description of 
 the wonderful cataract is given, and the best geographical authorities 
 living to-day doubt if the explorer mentioned ever saw the falls, Brinson's 
 work to the contrary notwithstanding. Father Hennepin is believed to 
 have written the first description of the falls that ever was penned by one 
 who had personally visited the spot. The editor of "Notes for the 
 Curious," owns a map, dated 1657, which does not figure either the great 
 lakes or the falls. 
 
 A dungeon or dark cell in a prison is usually called the ' ' black 
 hole. ' ' The name is associated with the cruel confinement of a party of 
 English in the military prison of Fort William, since called the " Black 
 Hole of Calcutta," on the night of the 19th June, 1756. The garrison 
 of the fort connected with the English factory at Calcutta having been 
 captured by Suraja Dowlah (Siraj-ud-Daula), the nawab of Bengal, he 
 caused the whole of the prisoners taken, one hundred and forty-six in 
 number, to be confined in an apartment eighteen feet square. This cell 
 had only two small windows, and these were obstructed by a veranda. 
 The crush of the unhappy sufferers was dreadful; and after a night of 
 excruciating agony from pressure, heat, thirst and want of air, there 
 were in the morning only twenty-three survivors, the ghastliest forms 
 ever seen on earth. 
 
340 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Samuel William Henry Ireland was a literary impostor. He pub- 
 lished in folio, 1795, "Miscellaneous Papers and Instruments under the 
 hand and seal of William Shakspeare, including the tragedy of ' King 
 Lear,' and a small fragment of ' Hamlet,' from the original," price about 
 $25. On April 2, 1796, he produced the play of " Vortigern and Rowena" 
 from the pen of Shakspeare. It was actually represented, and drew a 
 most crowded house. Dr. Parr, Dr. Valpy, James Boswell, Herbert 
 Croft, and Pye, the poet-laureate, signed a document certifying their 
 conviction that Ireland's productions were genuine; but Malone exposed 
 the imposition of the tragedy, and Ireland publicly confessed that all his 
 publications, from beginning to end, were impositions. 
 
 One of the most picturesque and remarkable bodies of water in the 
 world is Henry's Lake, in Idaho. It is situated on the dome of the con- 
 tinent in a depression in the Rocky Mountains called Targee's Pass. It 
 has an area of forty square miles, and all around it rise snow-capped 
 peaks, some of them being the highest of the continent's backbone. In 
 the lake is a floating island about 300 feet in diameter. It has for its 
 basis a mat of roots so dense that it supports large trees and a heavy 
 growth of underbrush. These roots are covered with several feet of rich 
 soil. The surface is solid enough to support the weight of a horse any- 
 where, and there are places where a house could be built. The wind 
 blows the island about the lake, and it seldom remains twenty-four hours 
 in the same place. 
 
 Amadis of Gaul was the love-child of King Perion and the Princess 
 Blizena. He is the hero of a famous prose romance of chivalry, the first 
 four books of which are attributed to Lobeira, of Portugal (died 1403). 
 These books were translated into Spanish in 1460 by Montalvo, who added 
 the fifth book. The five were rendered into French by Herberay, who in- 
 creased the series to twenty-four books. Lastly, Gilbert Saunier added 
 seven more volumes, and called the entire series Le Roman des Romans. 
 Whether Amadis was French or British is disputed. Some maintain that 
 " Gaul" means Wales, not France; that Elizena was Princess of Brittany 
 (Bretagne), and that Perion was king of Gaul ( Wales], not Gaul (France}. 
 Amadis de Gaul was a tall man, of a fair complexion, his aspect some- 
 thing between mild and austere, and had a handsome black beard. He 
 was a person of very few words, was not easily provoked, and was soon 
 appeased. 
 
 The famous leaning tower of Pisa is a campanile, or bell tower. It 
 was begun in 1174 by the two famous architects Bonano of Pisa and 
 William Innspruck. The tower, which is cylindrical in form, is 179 feet 
 high and fifty feet in diameter, made entirely of white marble. It has 
 eight stories, each with an outside gallery projecting several feet from the 
 building, and each decorated with columns and arcades. In the center 
 of the tower a flight of 320 steps passes up to the summit. It is called 
 the leaning tower from the fact that it inclines some thirty feet from 
 the perpendicular, and it is not generally known that this inclination, 
 which gives the tower such a remarkable appearance, was not inten- 
 tional. At the time it was about half done the error in measurement 
 was perceived, and it was guarded against by the use of extra braces in 
 the further construction of the building and an adaption of the stone in 
 the highest portion. There are seven bells on the top of the tower, the 
 largest of which weighs twelve thousand pounds, and these are so placed 
 as to counteract, as far as possible, the leaning of the tower itself. 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 341 
 
 Timbuctoo (native Tumbutu, Arab. Tinbukhtu}, is a famous city of 
 the Soudan, on the southern edge of the Sahara. It lies about eight 
 miles north of the main stream of the Joliba or Upper Niger. It stands 
 only a few feet above the level of the river, is about three miles in cir- 
 cumference, and at present without walls, though in former times it 
 covered a much greater area, and was defended by walls. The houses 
 are mainly one-story mud-hovels, but one of the three chief mosques is 
 a large and imposing building, dating from 1325. The place stands on 
 an important trade route between the interior and the west and south; 
 and its importance has increased through the gradual extension of French 
 influence hither. It was the theme of one of Tennyson's early poems. 
 
 The "Man in the Iron Mask" is the title given to a state prisoner 
 who went by the name of L'Estang. In 1662 he was confined in the 
 Chateau Pignerol. In 1686 he was removed to the He Saint Marguerite, 
 and in 1698 to the Bastille, where he died in 1703. He was a state pris- 
 oner above 40 years. He was buried under the name of Marchiali. Vol- 
 taire says he was a twin brother of Louis XIV. ; some think he was the 
 Comte de Vermandois, a natural son of Louis XIV. and Mdlle. de la Val- 
 liere, who was thus punished for boxing the ears of the dauphin; others 
 think he was the Duke of Beaufort, who disappeared in 1669 at the siege 
 of Candia; or the Duke of Monmouth, nephew of James II. ; or the Count 
 Girolamo Matthioli, minister of the Duke of Mantua, who overreached 
 Louis in a treaty for the purchase of Casal; or John of Gonzaque, Mat- 
 thioli's secretary; or an adulterous son of Anne of Austria (the king's 
 mother) either by the Duke of Buckingham or the Cardinal Mazarin. 
 
 THE TRUTH ABOUT ASPASIA. 
 
 One of the most remarkable women of antiquity, Aspasia, was born at 
 Miletus. The circumstance that in Athens marriage with foreign women 
 was illegal, has originated the erroneous notion that Aspasia was a court- 
 esan. She certainly broke the restraint which confined Athenian matrons 
 to the seclusion of their own homes, for after her union with Pericles, 
 who had parted from his first wife by mutual consent, her house became 
 the rendezvous of all the learned and distinguished people in Athens. 
 Socrates often visited her. Her beauty, varied accomplishments, and 
 political insight were extraordinarily great. From the comic writers and 
 others she received much injustice. Hermippus, the comic poet, took 
 advantage of the temporary irritation of the Athenians against Pericles, 
 to accuse Aspasia of impiety; but the eloquence of the great statesman 
 procured her acquittal. Her influence over Pericles must have been 
 singularly great, and was often caricatured Aristophanes ascribing to 
 her both the Samian and the Peloponnesian wars, the latter on account 
 of the robbery of a favorite maid of hers. Plutarch vindicates her against 
 such accusations. Her son by Pericles was allowed to assume his father's 
 name. After the death of Pericles (429 B.C.) Aspasia formed a union 
 with Lysicles, a wealthy cattle-dealer, who, through her influence, be- 
 came an eminent man in Athens. 
 
 THE STORY OF ACADIE. 
 
 Longfellow in his "Evangeline" has immortalized the sufferings of the 
 French peasantry of Acadie or Acadia. This was the name given by the 
 French settlers to Nova Scotia on its first settlement in 1604. The English 
 claimed the colony by right of discovery as having been discovered by 
 
342 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 the Cabots; the exclusive possession of the fisheries proved a further bone 
 of contention. In 1667 it was ceded to France, but the English colonists 
 never recognized the cession, and harassed the French settlers. In 1713 
 France gave up all claim to the colony: the Acadians mostly remained 
 though they had liberty to leave within two years, and were exempted 
 from bearing arms against their brethren. A French settlement was 
 formed on Cape Breton, and received the name of Louisbourg, whilst as 
 a result of French intrigues with the Indians, the latter harassed the Eng- 
 lish. The majority of the Acadians would not take the oath of allegiance 
 nor would they refrain from abetting underhand hostilities against the 
 English. "The French government" says Parkman, "began by making 
 the Acadians its tools, and ended by making them its victims." Accord- 
 ingly, in 1755 it was determined at a consultation of the governor and his 
 council to remove them; and to the number of about 18,000, they were 
 dispossessed of their property and dispersed among the other British pro- 
 vinces. This wholesale expatriation, often severely condemned, was not 
 resorted to until every milder resource had been tried. A simple, yet very 
 ignorant peasantry, living apart from the rest of the world, they were 
 ruled by the priest, who taught them to stand fast for the church and 
 King Louis, and to resist heresy and King George. 
 
 THE ENGLISH CLAIMANT. 
 
 In 1867 an Englishman in London declared he was Sir Roger Charles 
 Tichborne, and claimed the estates and income of $120,000 a year. The 
 Dowager accepted him, but his claim was resisted on behalf of Sir Henry 
 Tichborne, then a minor, and the trial of the claim began May 11, 1871, 
 and on the 6th March, 1872, the "claimant" was declared non-suited. 
 The Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, who spoke twenty-six days, 
 appeared for the defence, and Dr. Kenealy for the claimant. The claim- 
 ant was prosecuted as Thomas Castro alias Arthur Orton, for perjury, 
 and found guilty February 28, 1874, and sentenced to fourteen years' 
 penal servitude. The judges refused a new trial, and the House of 
 Lords confirmed the sentence on appeal, March 11, 1881. This was the 
 longest trial on record in England. 
 
 NOTES ON MAMMOTH CAVE. 
 
 The Mammoth Cave is in Edmonson County, near Green River, 
 about seventy-five miles from Louisville. It was discovered in 1809 by 
 a hunter named Hutchins, while in pursuit of a wounded bear. Its en- 
 trance is reached by passing down a wild, rocky ravine through a dense 
 forest. The cave extends some nine miles. To visit the portions already 
 traversed, it is said, requires 150 to 200 miles of travel. The cave con- 
 tains a succession of wonderful avenues, chambers, domes, abysses, grot- 
 toes, lakes, rivers, cataracts, and other marvels, which are too well 
 known to need more than a reference. One chamber the Star is 
 about 500 feet long, 70 feet wide, 70 feet high, the ceiling of which is 
 composed of black gypsum, and is studded with innumerable white 
 points, that by a dim light resemble stars, hence the name of the cham- 
 ber. There are avenues one and a half, and even two miles in length, 
 some of which are incrusted with beautiful formations, and present 
 the appearance of enchanted palace halls. There is a natural tunnel 
 about three quarters of a mile long, 100 feet wide, covered with a ceil- 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 
 
 343 
 
 ing of smooth rock 45 feet high. There is a chamber having an area of 
 from four to five acres, and there are domes 200 and 300 feet high. Echo 
 River is some three-fourths of a mile in length, 200 feet in width at some 
 points, and from 10 to 30 in depth, and runs beneath an arched ceiling 
 of smooth rock about 15 feet high; while the Styx, another river, is 450 
 feet long, from 15 to 40 feet wide, and from 30 to 40 feet deep, and is 
 spanned by a natural bridge. Lake Lethe has about the sarne length and 
 width as the river Styx, varies in depth from 3 to 40 feet, lies beneath 
 a ceiling some 90 feet above its surface, and sometimes rises to a height 
 of 60 teet. There is also a Dead Sea, quite a somber body of water. 
 There are several interesting caves in the neighborhood, one three miles 
 long, and three each about a mile in length. 
 
 CRADLES AND GRAVES. 
 
 I. Where our Presidents were born: 
 
 Virginia, 5 Washington, Jefferson, Madi- 
 son, Monroe, Tyler. 
 
 Massachusetts, 2 John Adams, John 
 Quincy Adams. 
 
 Tennessee, 3 Jackson, Polk, Johnson. 
 
 Ohio, 3 Harrison, Hayes, Garfield. 
 
 II. Where they were interred: 
 
 Washington, at Mt. Vernon, Va. 
 John Adams, at Quincy, Mass. 
 Jefferson, at Monticello, Va. 
 Madison, at Montpelier, Va. 
 Monroe, at Richmond, Va. 
 John Quincy Adams, at Quincy, Mass. 
 Jackson, at " The Hermitage," Ky. 
 Van Buren, at Kinderhook, N. Y. 
 Harrison, at North Bend, O. 
 Polk, at Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 New York, 4 Van Buren, Fillmore, Ar- 
 thur, Cleveland. 
 Illinois, 2 Lincoln, Grant. 
 Louisiana, 1 Taylor. 
 New Hampshire, 1 Pierce. 
 Pennsylvania, 1 Buchanan. 
 
 Taylor, at Louisville, Ky. 
 Fillmore, at Buffalo, N. Y. 
 Pierce, at Concord, N. H. 
 Buchanan, at Lancaster, Pa. 
 Lincoln, at Springfield, 111. 
 
 3hnson, at Greenville, Tenn. 
 rant, at Riverside, N. Y. 
 Hayes, at Fremont, O. 
 Garfield, at Cleveland, O. 
 Arthur, at Albany, N. Y. 
 
 FAMOUS ANCIENT CITIES. 
 
 Nineveh was 15 miles long, 8 wide and 40 miles round, with a wall 
 100 feet high, and thick enough for 3 chariots abreast. Babylon was 50 
 miles within the walls, which were 87 feet thick and 350 high, with 100 
 brazen gates. The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was 420 feet to the 
 support of the roof. It was 100 years in building. The largest of the 
 pyramids is 461 feet high, and 653 feet on the sides; its base covers 11 
 acres. The stones are about thirty feet in length, and the layers are 380. 
 It employed 330,000 men in building. The labyrinth, in Egypt, contains 
 300 chambers and 250 halls. Thebes, in Egypt, presents ruins 27 miles 
 round. Athens was 25 miles round, and contained 350,000 citizens and 
 400,000 slaves. The Temple of Delphos was so rich in donations that it 
 was plundered of $500,000, and Nero carried away 200 statues. The 
 walls of Rome were 13 miles round. 
 
 THE FATHER OF THE CENOBITES. 
 
 St. Antony, surnamed the Great, or Anthony of Thebes, the father 
 pfmonachism, was born about the year 251 A.D., atKoma, near Heraklea, 
 in Upper Egypt. His parents were both wealthy and pious, and be- 
 stowed upon him a religious education. Having sold his possessions, and 
 distributed the proceeds among the poor, he withdrew into the wilder- 
 
344 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORM A TION. 
 
 ness, where he disciplined himself in all these austerities which have 
 hallowed his memory in the Catholic Church and made him the model 
 of monastic life. When thirty years of age, he penetrated farther into the 
 desert, and took up his abode in an old ruin on the top of a hill, where 
 he spent twenty years in the most rigorous seclusion; but, in 305 he was 
 persuaded to leave his retreat by the prayers of numerous anchorites, who 
 wished to live under his direction. He now founded a mastery, at first 
 only a group *of separate and scattered cells near Memphis and Arsinoe; 
 but which nevertheless, may be considered the origin of cenobite life. 
 After a visit to Alexandria in 311, he returned to his lonely ruin. In 355 
 the venerable hermit, then over a hundred years old, made a journey to 
 Alexandria to dispute with the Arians; but feeling his end approaching, 
 he retired to his desert home, where he died, 356 A. D. Athanasius wrote 
 his life. 
 
 GIANTS AND DWARFS. 
 The most noted giants of ancient and modern times are as follows: 
 
 NAME. PLACE. HEIGHT, FEET. PERIOD. 
 
 Goliath Palestine 11.0 B. C. 1063. 
 
 Galbara Rome 9.9 Claudius Caesar. 
 
 John Middleton England 9.3 A. D. 1578. 
 
 Frederick's Swede .. Sweden 8.4 
 
 Cujanus Finland 7.9 
 
 Gilly Tyrol 8.1 
 
 Patrick Cotter Cork 8.7 1806. 
 
 Chang Gow Pekin 7.8 1880. 
 
 Many of the great men of history have been rather small in stature. 
 Napoleon was only about 5 ft. 4 in., Wellington was 5 ft. 7 in. One of 
 the greatest of Ameiican statesmen, Alexander H. Stephens, never ex- 
 ceeded 115 pounds in weight, and in his old age his weight was less than 
 100 pounds. 
 
 The more notable human mites are named below: 
 
 NAME. HEIGHT, INCHZS. DATE OF BIRTH. PLACE OF BIRTH. 
 
 Count Borowlaski 39 1739 Warsaw. 
 
 Tom Thumb (Chas. S. Stratton) .... 31 1837 New York. 
 
 Mrs Tom Thumb 32 1842 New York. 
 
 Che-Mah 25 1838 China. 
 
 I^ucia Zarate 20 1863 Mexico. 
 
 General Mite 21 1864 New York. 
 
 THE COLOSSEUM. 
 
 The Flavian amphitheater at Rome, known as the Colosseum from 
 its colossal size, was begun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus 80 A.D., 
 ten years after the destruction of Jerusalem. It was the largest struct- 
 ure of the kind, and is fortunately also the best preserved. It covers 
 about five acres of ground, and was capable of seating over eighty thou- 
 sand spectators. Its greatest length is six hundred and twelve feet, and 
 its greatest breadth five hundred and fifteen, the corresponding figures 
 for the Albert Hall in London being two hundred and seventy and two 
 hundred and forty. On the occasion of its dedication by Titus, five 
 thousand wild beasts were slain in the arena, the games lasting nearly a 
 hundred days. The exterior is about one hundred and sixty feet in 
 height, and consists of three rows of columns, Doric, Ionic, and Cor- 
 inthian, and, above all, a row of Corinthian pilasters. Between the 
 columns there are arches, which form open galleries throughout the 
 whole building; and between each alternate pilasters of the upper tier 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 345 
 
 there is a window. Besides the podium, there were three tiers or stories 
 of seats, corresponding to the external stories. The first of these is sup- 
 posed to have contained twenty -four rows of seats; and the second, six- 
 teen. These were separated by a lofty wall from the third story, which 
 contained the populace. The podium was a gallery surrounding the 
 arena, in which the emperor, the senators, and vestal virgins had their 
 seats. The building was covered by a temporary awning or wooden 
 roof, the velarium. The open space in the center of the amphitheater 
 was called arena, the Latin word for sand, because it was covered with 
 sand or sawdust during the performances. 
 
 EXHIBIT OF LOCAL NAMES. 
 
 There are more than twenty-seven hundred counties in the United 
 States. Of these, ten per cent, are named after presidents, and thirty- 
 five per cent, after Americans who have not been presidents (1890). 
 
 1. Counties, etc., named from presidents: 
 
 Twenty-seven counties named Washington, besides cities and towns innumer- 
 able; 43 Jefferson; 21 Jackson; 17 Lincoln, Madison, and Monroe; 12 Polk; 10 Grant; 9 
 Adams and Harrison; 4 Garfield, Pierce, and Van Buren. 
 
 2. Counties, etc. , named from Americans who have not been presi- 
 dents: 
 
 Boone, Calhoun, Clay, Hancock, Putnam, Randolph, Scott, Webster and many 
 more. 
 
 3. The following names are extravagant enough to hinder any place 
 from rising into a bishopric. Only fancy a dignified clergyman signing 
 himself "Yours faithfully, John ," followed by one of the follow- 
 ing names: 
 
 Alkaliburg, Bleeder's Gulch. Bloody Bend, Boanerges Ferry, Breeches Fork, 
 Bludgeonsville, Bugville, Butter's Sell, Buried Pipe, Cairoville, Clean Deck, Daughter's 
 Loss, Euchreville, Eurekapolis, Eurekaville (!), Fighting Cocks, Good Thunder, Hell 
 and Nails Crossing, Hezekiahville, Hide and Seek, Jack Pot, Joker, Murderville, Nettle 
 Carrier, Numaville, Peddlecake, Poker Flat, Pottawattomieville, Plumpville, Roaring 
 Fox, Sharper's Creek, Skeletonville Agency, Soaker's Ranche, Spottedville, Starvation, 
 Stuck-up-Canon, Thief's End, Tombstone, Ubet, Villa Realville, Yellow Medicine, Yuba 
 Dam. etc. 
 
 WASHINGTON AND EDUCATION. 
 
 A fact long lost sight of is that George Washington himself, the 
 "Father of his Country" was also among the first of its great benefac- 
 tors to the cause of higher education. Quite recently attention has been 
 directed to the following clause in his last will and testament: 
 
 "It has always been a source of serious regret with me to see the 
 youth of the United States sent to foreign countries for the purpose of 
 education, often before their minds were formed, or they had imbibed 
 any adequate ideas of the happiness of their own. My mind has not 
 been able to contemplate any plan more likely to affect the measure than 
 the establishment of a university in a central part of the United States, 
 to which the youths of fortune and talent from all parts thereof may be 
 sent for the completion of education, and where they may be enabled to 
 free themselves in a proper degree from those local prejudices and habit- 
 ual jealousies, which, when carried to excess, are never-failing sources 
 of disquietude to the public mind and pregnant of mischievous conse- 
 quences to this country. Under these impressions: 
 
 "Item I give and bequeath, in perpetuity, the fifty shares which I 
 hold in the Potomac Company, toward the endowment of a university; 
 
346 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 and, until such seminary is established, and the funds arising on these 
 shares shall be required for its support, my further will and desire is 
 that the profit accruing therefrom shall, whenever the dividends are 
 made, be laid out in purchasing stock in the Bank of Columbia, or some 
 other bank, at the discretion of my executors, or by the Treasurer of 
 the United States for the time being, until a sum adequate to the ac- 
 complishment of the object is obtained; of which I have not the smallest 
 doubt before many years pass away, even if no aid or encouragement is 
 given by the legislative authority, or from any other source. ' ' 
 
 This noble bequest has been absorbed, it appears, into Uncle Sam's 
 capacious treasury, and at five per cent compound interest would now 
 amount to about five million dollars. It is therefore entirely fitting that 
 our Senators should be urging, after a lapse of ninety-three years, its 
 employment in pursuance of the testator's will on behalf of the youth of 
 his well-beloved country. 
 
 THE WORLD'S SEVEN WONDERS. 
 
 The seven wonders of the world are: The Pyramids, the Colossus of 
 Rhodes, Diana's Temple at Ephesus, the Pharos of Alexandria, the 
 Hanging Gardens at Babylon, the Statue of the Olympian Jove, and the 
 Mausoleum by Artemisia at Halicarnassus. The Pyramids are numer- 
 ous, and space forbids anything like even a list of them. The great piles 
 were constructed of blocks of red or synetic granite, and of a hard calcareous 
 stone. These blocks were of extraordinary dimensions, and their trans- 
 portation to the sites of the pyramids and their adjustment in their 
 places, indicate a surprising degree of mechanical skill. The Great 
 Pyramid covers an area of between twelve and thirteen acres. The 
 masonry consisted originally of 89,028,000 cubic feet, and still amounts 
 to about 82,111,000 feet. The present vertical height is 450 feet, against 
 479 feet originally; and the present length of the sides is 746 feet, against 
 764 feet originally. The total weight of the stone is estimated at 6,316,- 
 000,000 tons. The city of Rhodes was besieged by Demetrius Poliorl 
 cetest King of Macedon, but, aided by Ptolemy Soter, King of Egypt, 
 the enemy was repulsed. To express their gratiude to their allies and to 
 their tutelary deity, they erected a brazen statue to Apollo. It was 105 
 feet high, and hollow, with a winding staircase that ascended to the 
 head. After standing fifty -six years, it was overthrown by an earthquake, 
 224 years before Christ, and lay nine centuries on the ground, and then 
 was sold to a Jew by the Saracens, who had captured Rhodes, about the 
 middle of the seventh century. It is said to have required nine hundred 
 camels to remove the metal, and from this statement it has been calcu- 
 lated its weight was 720,000 pounds. The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, 
 was built at the common charge of all the Asiatic states. The chief 
 architect was Chersiphon, and Pliny says that 220 years were employed 
 in completing the temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet 
 long, 225 feet broadband was supported by 125 columns of Parian marble 
 (sixty feet high, each weighing 150 tons), furnished by as many kings. 
 It was set on fire on the night of Alexander's birth by an obscure person 
 named Erostratus, who confessed on the rack that the sole motive which 
 prompted him was the desire to transmit his name to future ages. The 
 temple was again built, and once more burned by the Goths in their 
 naval invasion, A.D. 256. The colossal statue of Jupiter in the temple of 
 Olympia, at EHs, was by Phidias. It was in gold and ivory, and sat 
 enthroned in the temple for 800 years, and was finally destroyed by fire 
 
FAMOUS PERSONS AND PLACES. 347 
 
 about A.D. 475. From the best information, it is believed that the Mau- 
 soleum at Halicarnassus was a rectangular building surrounded by an 
 Ionic portico of thirty-six columns, and surmounted by a pyramid, rising 
 in twenty- four steps, upon the summit of which was a colossal marble 
 quadriga with a statue of Mausolus. The magnificent structure was 
 erected by Artemisia, who was the sister, wife, and successor of Mausolus. 
 
 THE WORLD'S NOBLEST PARK. 
 
 The Yellowstone National Park extends sixty-five miles north and 
 south and fifty-five miles east and west, comprising 3,575 square miles, and 
 is 6,000 feet or more above sea level. Yellowstone lake, twenty miles 
 by fifteen, has an altitude of 7,788 feet. The mountain ranges which 
 hem in the valleys on every side rise to the height of 10,000 to 12,000 
 feet, and are always covered with snow. This great park contains the 
 most strking of all the mountains, gorges, falls, rivers, and lakes in the 
 whole Yellowstone region. The springs on Gardiner's River cover an 
 area of about one square mile, and three or four square miles thereabout 
 are occupied by the remains of springs which have ceased to flow. The 
 natural basins into which these springs flow are from four to six feet in 
 diameter and from one to four feet in depth. The principal ones are 
 located upon terraces midway up the sides of the mountain. The banks 
 of the Yellowstone river abound with ravines and canons, which are 
 carved out of the heart of the mountains through the hardest rocks. The 
 most remarkable of these is the canon of Tower Creek and Column 
 Mountain. The latter, which extends along the eastern bank of the river 
 for upward of two miles, is said to resemble the Giant's Causeway. The 
 canon of Tower Creek is about ten miles in length, and is so deep and 
 gloomy that it is called "The Devil's Den." Where Tower Creek ends 
 the Grand Canon begins. It is twenty miles in length, impassable 
 throughout, and inaccessible at the water's edge, except at a few points. 
 Its rugged edges are from 200 to 500 yards apart, and its depth is so pro- 
 found that no sound ever reaches the ear from the bottom. The Grand 
 Canon contains a great multitude of hot springs of sulphur, sulphate of 
 copper, alum, etc. In the number and magnitude of its hot springs and 
 geysers, the Yellowstone Park surpasses all the rest of the world. There 
 are probably fifty geysers that throw a column of water to the height of 
 from 50 to 200 feet, and it is stated that there are not fewer than 5,000 
 springs; there are two kinds, those depositing lime and those depositing 
 silica. The temperature of the calcareous springs is from 160 to 170 
 degress, while that of the others rises to 200 or more. The principal col- 
 lections are the upper and lower geyser basins of the Madison river and 
 the calcareous springs on Gardiner's River. The great falls are marvels 
 to which adventurous travelers have gone only to return and report that 
 they are parts of the wonders of this new American wonderland. 
 
 MARVELS OF OLD EGYPT. 
 
 PYRAMIDS The great pyramid of Gizeh is the largest structure 
 of any kind ever erected by the hand of man. Its original dimen- 
 sions at the base were 764 feet square, and its perpendicular height in 
 the highest point is 488 feet; it covers four acres, one rood and twenty - 
 two perches of ground, and has been estimated by an eminent English 
 architect to have cost not less than ^"30,000,000, which in United States 
 currency would be about $145,200,000. Internal evidences prove that 
 
348 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 the great pyramid was begun about the year 2170 B.C., about the time of 
 the birth of Abraham. It is estimated that about 5,000,000 tons of hewn 
 stones were used in its construction. 
 
 SPHINX. The word sphinx is from the Greek and means the stran- 
 gler, and was applied to a fabled creature of the Egyptians, which had 
 the body of a lion, the head of a man or an animal, and two wings at- 
 tached to its sides. In the Egyptian hieroglyphs the sphinx symbol- 
 ized wisdom and power united. It has been supposed that the fact 
 that the overflow of the Nile occurred when the sun was in the con- 
 stellations Leo and Virgo gave the idea of the combinations of form in 
 the sphinx, but this idea seems quite unfounded. In Egypt the reigning 
 monarch was usually represented in the form of a sphinx. The most re- 
 markable sphinx is that near the pyramids at Gizeh. It is sculptured 
 from the rock, masonry having been added in several places to complete 
 the form. It is 172^ feet long by 53 feet high, but only the head of this 
 remarkable sculpture can now be seen, the rest of the form having been 
 concealed by the heaped-up sands of the desert. 
 
 OBELISKS. The oldest of all the obelisks is the beautiful one of rosy 
 granite which stands alone among the green fields upon the banks of 
 the Nile, not far from Cairo. It is the gravestone of a great ancient city 
 which has vanished and left only this relic behind. The city was the 
 Bethshemesh of the Scriptures, the famous On, which is memorable to 
 all Bible readers as the residence of the priest of Potipherah, whose 
 daughter, Assenath, Joseph married. The Greeks called it Heliopolis. 
 
 CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE. The two obelisks known as Cleopatra's 
 Needles were set up at the entrance of the Temple of the Sun, in Heliop- 
 olis, Egypt; by Thothmes III., about 1831 B.C. We have no means of 
 knowing when they were built, or by whom, except from the inscrip- 
 tions on them, which indicate the above time. The material of which 
 they were cut is granite, brought from Syene, near the first cataract of 
 the Nile. Two centuries after their erection Rameses II. had the stones 
 nearly covered with carving setting out of his own greatness and achieve- 
 ments. Twenty-three years before Christ, Augustus Caesar moved the 
 obelisks from Heliopolis to Alexandria and set them up in the Caesarium, 
 a palace, which now stands, a mere mass of ruins, near the station of 
 the railroad to Cairo. In 1819 one of these obelisks was presented by 
 the Egyptian Government to England, but as no one knew how to move 
 them, it was not taken to London until 1878. Subsequently the other 
 obelisk was presented to the United States. 
 
 The work of moving this great Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria 
 to New York was managed by Commander H. H. Gorringe, of the 
 United States Navy. The officer reached Alexandria October 16, 1879, 
 and at once began to work with one hundred Arabs, who completed the 
 excavation of the obelisk's pedestal by removing 1,730 cubic yards of 
 earth in about twenty days. The machinery for lowering the monolith 
 was then attached, and the block was laid in a horizontal position. 
 Within the foundation and steps of the pedestal were found stones and 
 implements engraved with emblematic designs, and some delay was 
 caused in order that these might be taken up very carefully to be placed 
 in exactly the same position in the pedestal when re-erected in New 
 York. The obelisk was removed to the wharf and upon the steamer 
 waiting for it, by means of cannon-balls rolling in metal grooves. The 
 shaft, pedestal, and steps of the obelisk were removed separately, the 
 entire mass weighing 1,470 tons. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 
 
 ' Tis pleasant, through the loopholes of retreat, 
 To peep at such a world ; to see the stir 
 Of the great Babel, and not feel the crowd: 
 To hear the roar she sends through all her gates, 
 At a safe distance, where the dying sound 
 Falls a soft murmur on th' uninjur'd ear. 
 
 CoorER. 
 
 A MYRIAD QUESTIONS ANSWERED. 
 
 Lincoln was assassinated April 14, 1865. 
 
 Rome was founded by Romulus, 752 B.C. 
 
 Gold was discovered in California in 1848. 
 
 Chinese history begins from the year 3000 B.C. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola founded the order of Jesuits, 1541. 
 
 First authentic use of organs, 755; in England, 951. 
 
 The German Empire was reestablished January 18, 1871. 
 
 Egyptian pottery is the oldest known; dates from 2,000 B. c. 
 
 First photographs produced in England, 1802; perfected, 1841. 
 
 First life insurance, in London, 1772; in America, Philadelphia, 1812. 
 
 Electric light was invented by Lodyguin and Kossloff, at London, 
 1874. 
 
 War was declared with Great Britain, June 19, 1812; peace, February 
 18, 1815. 
 
 First public schools in America were established in the New England 
 States about 1642. 
 
 Postage stamps first came into use in England in the year 1840; in 
 the United States, in 1847. 
 
 The highest range of mountains is the Himalayas, the mean eleva- 
 tion being from 16,000 to 18,000 feet. 
 
 The largest inland sea is the Caspian, between Europe and Asia, 
 being 700 miles long and 270 miles wide. 
 
 Alma Mater (bounteous mother), is a familiar term applied by univer- 
 sity men to their own particular university. 
 
 The Sombrero (Spanish, from Sombra, "shade"), is a broad-brimmed 
 felt hat, originally Spanish, but common throughout North and South 
 America. 
 
 349 
 
350 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 An oak grows 2 ft. 10 > in. in 3 years. An elm in 3 years grows 8 ft 
 3 in. ; a beach, 1 ft. 8 in. ; a poplar, 6 ft. ; a willow, 9 ft. 3 in. 
 
 The largest desert is Sahara, in Northern Africa. Its length is 3,000 
 miles and breadth 900 miles; having an area of 2,000,000 square miles. 
 
 The largest suspension bridge is the Brooklyn. The length of the 
 main span is 1,595 feet 6 inches. The entire length of the bridge is 
 5,989 feet. 
 
 Bowstring, the string of a bow, is a name specifically used for an old 
 Turkish mode of execution, the offender being strangled by means of a 
 bowstring. 
 
 The sweetest singer is the nightingale; then come the linnet, the 
 lark, sky-lark and wood-lark. The mocking bird has the greatest powers 
 of imitation. 
 
 Creches are nurseries to which mothers can send their children 
 whilst they go to work. They were started first in France, 1844, and in 
 England, 1863. 
 
 An ornament or knot of ribbon or rosette of leather, worn either as 
 a military or naval decoration, or as the badge of a political party, is 
 called a Cockade. 
 
 The nine great public schools of England are Eton, Harrow, Rugby, 
 Winchester, Westminster, Shrewsbury, Charterhouse, St. Paul's and 
 Merchant Taylors'. 
 
 Cross-buns are small cakes especially prepared for Good Friday, and 
 in many towns of England cried about the streets on the morning of 
 that day as "hot cross-buns." 
 
 Cricket is supposed to have been played in England in the fourteenth 
 century. The first English team visited Australia, 1861, and the first 
 Australian team visited England, 1878. 
 
 The term crofter is commonly used in Scotland to designate a small 
 tenant of land who derives a substantial portion of his livelihood from 
 cultivation or the raising of live-stock. 
 
 A poison used by some of the South American Indians for putting 
 on the points of their arrows, is called curari. Animals killed with it 
 may be eaten, however, without injury. 
 
 Dead reckoning is the method of reckoning a ship's position by cal- 
 culating by the log how far she has run, making allowance for drift, 
 leeway, etc., without an observation of the stars. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Jutland were called Cimbri. They made 
 serious incursions into Italy, but were utterly routed by the Romans, 101 
 B. c. , and were afterwards merged in the Saxons. 
 
 A canton is a division of territory, constituting a separate govern- 
 ment or state, as in Switzerland; or, as in France, a collection of com- 
 munes, forming a subdivision of an arrondissement. 
 
 It is claimed that crows, eagles, ravens and swans live to be 100 
 years old; herons, 50; parrots, 60; pelicans and geese, 50; skylarks, 30;. 
 sparrow hawks, 40; peacocks, canaries and cranes, 24. 
 
 The term " Cockney" is a familiar name for a Londoner, the earlier 
 meaning of which was a foolish, effeminate person, or a spoilt child. 
 The original meaning is very obscure, and various accounts are given of 
 its origin. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 351 
 
 Cremation is a term signifying the reduction of the dead human 
 body to ashes by fire, which was a very early and widespread usage of 
 antiquity. There are nine crematories in the United States. 
 
 Almeh, Alme, or Alniai (Arabic dlim, "wise," "learned"), a class 
 of Egyptian singing girls in attendance at festivals, entertainments, or 
 funerals. The Ghawazee, or dancing girls, are of a lower order. 
 
 A splendid thing of fancy or hope, but wholly without any real 
 existence, is called a "castle of Spain." So Greek Kalends means 
 "never," because there were no such things as " Greek Kalends." 
 
 The camel is a caisson-like apparatus for rendering a vessel navig- 
 able in shoal water. It was invented by the Russian engineer De Witte 
 (1790-1854), and is often used between Kronstadt and St. Petersburgh. 
 
 Chalet is the French-Swiss name for the wooden hut of the Swiss 
 herdsmen on the mountains; but is also extended to Swiss dwelling- 
 houses generally, and to picturesque and ornate villas built in imitation 
 of them. 
 
 The origin of the game of billiards is uncertain. Some suppose that 
 it was invented by Henrique Devigne in 1571. Slate tables were intro- 
 duced in 1827. Shakspeare makes Cleopatra invite her companion to 
 billiards. 
 
 A dais is the raised platform at the upper end of ancient dining halls, 
 also the high table of the hall itself. The name is also applied to a seat 
 with a canopy or high wainscot back for the occupants sitting at the 
 high table. 
 
 It is a common Asiatic custom for the bridegroom to give chase to 
 the bride, either on foot, horseback, or in canoes. If the bridegroom 
 catches the fugitive, he claims her as his bride, otherwise the match is 
 broken off. 
 
 Rows of arches supported by columns, either having an open space of 
 greater or less width behind them, or in contact with masonry, are called 
 "Arcades." The arcade in Gothic corresponds to the colonnade in clas- 
 sical architecture. 
 
 Cuddy is a name first applied in Bast India trading ships to a cabin 
 under the poop, where the men messed and slept. The same name was 
 afterwards given to the only cabin in very small vessels, and sometimes 
 to the cooking-room. 
 
 The bungalow is a species of house usually occupied by Europeans 
 in the interior of India, and commonly provided for officers' quarters in 
 cantonments. Bungalows are properly of only one story, with a veranda, 
 and a pyramid roof, generally of thatch, although tiles are sometimes 
 substituted. 
 
 Cock-fighting was a sport common among both the Greeks and the 
 Romans, as to-day it is in India, the Malay countries, and Spanish 
 America. In England it flourished for fully six centuries, and, though 
 forbidden by law, is still practiced among the populace of British and 
 American cities. 
 
 Cribbage, a game at cards, probably of English origin, is played 
 with a pack of fifty- two cards; the scores accrue in consequence of cer- 
 tain combinations in play, hand, and crib (for an account of which see 
 any treatise on the game). The scores are marked on a cribbage board 
 pierced with holes. 
 
352 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The word canon literally means a "tube," a "cannon," and is the 
 name given in western North America to a deep gorge or river ravine, 
 between high precipitous cliffs. One of the best examples is the far- 
 famed Canon of the Colorado. 
 
 Round Robin is the designation of a protest in writing, having the 
 subscribers' names written in the form of a circle, so that no name ap- 
 pears first on the list. The custom is said to have originated amongst 
 the officers of the French army. 
 
 Black and white beans or stones were used in very ancient times by 
 the Greeks and Romans for voting at trials, the white acquitting and the 
 black condemning. From this arose the modern custom of casting 
 white and black balls at club and other elections. 
 
 The familiar term Blouse is the French name for a loose, sacklike 
 over-garment somewhat answering to the English smock-frock. France 
 is pre-eminently the country of blouses, ordinarily blue, worn not only 
 by the country -people, but by workmen in towns. 
 
 A term applied to an intense admiration of the First Napoleon and 
 his regime was Chauvinism. It is now applied to the political party in 
 France which has for its object the aggrandisement of the Republic. It 
 may be called an equivalent term to the English Jingoism. 
 
 In the social and economic sense of the word, co-operation generally 
 means the association of work-people for the management of their own 
 industrial interests, in store, workshop, or other undertaking, and the 
 equitable distribution of profits among those who earn them. 
 
 A curious punishment in vogue amongst the Chinese, Turks and 
 Persians, is that called the "Bastinado." The offender is thrown on his 
 face, his feet fastened to a long stick, by which they are held with the 
 soles upwards, and blows are then made on the soles with a cane. 
 
 Clubs are organizations of persons of similar professions, politics, or 
 tastes for the promotion of some object. Many clubs have played an 
 important part in history and some of those now existing in the great 
 cities have a well-defined influence on manners, politics, and progress. 
 
 In 1877 the newspaper Nationals of Paris had ten pigeons which 
 carried dispatches daily between Versailles and Paris in fifty to twenty 
 minutes. In November, 1882, some pigeons, in face of a strong wind, 
 made the distance of 160 miles from Canton Vaud to Paris in 6^ hours, 
 or 25 miles per hour. 
 
 Derby Day is the day on which the racing for the stakes instituted 
 by Lord Derby in 1780 takes place on Epsom Downs, England. It is 
 a great holiday for Londoners, and all classes are to be seen jostling 
 together. The procession of people returning in the evening is a great 
 sight, but, owing to the greater number traveling by rail, is less so than 
 formerly. It is generelly held on the Wednesday following Trinity 
 Sunday. 
 
 The total number of newspapers published in the world at present is 
 estimated at about 40,000, distributed as follows: United States, 15,000; 
 Germany, 5,500; Great Britain, 5,000. France, 4,092; Japan, 2,000; Italy, 
 1,400; Austria-Hungary, 1,200; Asia, exclusive of Japan, 1,000; Spain, 
 850; Russia, 800; Australia, 700; Greece, 600; Switzerland, 450; Hol- 
 land, 300; Belgium, 300; all others, 1,000. Of these about half are printed 
 in the English language. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WA YS. 353 
 
 A small money-gift to persons in an inferior condition on the day 
 after Chistmas, is termed a Christmas-Box, which is hence popularly 
 called Boxing-day. The term, and also the custom, are essentially 
 English, though the making of presents at this season and at the New 
 Year is of great antiquity. 
 
 Silver spoons whose handles ended in figures of the apostles, a common 
 baptismal present in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, were called 
 Apostle Spoons. The fashion has been revived in America in the cus- 
 tom of presenting "Souvenir" spoons on returning from a journey to a 
 place of uncommon interest. 
 
 Following are the society titles of wedding anniversaries: First, 
 cotton; second, paper; third, leather; fifth, wooden; seventh, woolen; 
 tenth, tin; twelfth, silk and fine linen; fifteenth, crystal; twentieth, 
 china; twenty-fifth, silver; thirtieth, pearl; fortieth, ruby; fiftieth, 
 golden; seventy-fifth, diamond. 
 
 Suttee was a usage long prevalent in India, in accordance with which 
 on the death of her husband the faithful widow burned herself on the 
 funeral pyre along with her husband's body, or, if he died at a distance, 
 was burned on a pyre of her own. The practice was in use in India as 
 early as the times of the Macedonian Greeks. 
 
 Charivari is the name given in the middle ages to an assemblage of 
 rag-a-muffins, armed with tin kettles, pans and fire shovels, who gathered, 
 in the dark, outside the house of an obnoxious person to torment him by 
 their hideous noise. The practice was denounced by the Council of 
 Trent but still lingers in France and elsewhere. 
 
 Hue and cry is a phrase derived from the old process of pursuit with 
 horn and voice, used in old English law to describe the pursuit of felons. 
 Whoever arrested the person pursued w r as protected; and it was the duty 
 of all persons to join in a hue and cry. The Hue and Cry, a police 
 gazette for advertising criminals, was established in 1710. 
 
 A corsair is a pirate or sea-robber, and especially any of those rovers 
 who in former times cruised from the Barbary ports, as Algiers, Tunis or 
 Tripoli, and became the terror of merchantmen in the Mediterranean 
 and the Atlantic Ocean, ravaging the coasts and seizing shipping as far 
 north as Cornwall, Baltimore in Cork, and even Iceland. 
 
 In Italy, where the term originated, and in the continental watering 
 places, the casino is a place where musical or dancing soirees are held, 
 containing a conversation-room, billiard-room, and rooms for other kinds 
 of amusement, as well' as small apartments where refreshments may be 
 had. In England a dancing saloon is sometimes termed a casino. 
 
 The invention of chess is attributed to Palamedes, about 680 B.C., 
 though also attributed to the Hindus. It is a game of skill played 
 with figures on a chequered board. It continues to be a favorite with 
 all civilized nations and chess-clubs have long been established in the 
 chief cities. An international chess congress was held at London in 
 1851. 
 
 Carol was originally a term for a dance, or for songs intermingled with 
 dance, came afterwards to signify festive songs, particularly such as were 
 sung at Christmas. In England the practice of singing Christmas carols 
 was widely spread as early as the fifteenth century, to which date belong 
 many of the carols printed in the collections of Ritson, Wright and 
 Sandys. 
 
 U. I. 23 
 
354 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Shillelagh is the cudgel carried by the conventional Irishman, with 
 which he is supposed to delight to play upon the heads of his friends on 
 occasion. The name is borrowed from the once famous oak-forest of 
 Shillelagh in the southwest corner of County Wicklow, which in Rufus' 
 day furnished " cobwebless beams " for the roof of Westminster Hall. 
 
 The bilge is that part of the bottom of a ship nearest to the keel, 
 and always more nearly horizontal than vertical. A ship usually rests 
 on the keel and one side of the bilge when aground. The name of bilge- 
 water is given to water which finds its way into the bilge or lowest part 
 of a ship, and which, when not drawn off by the pump, becomes dirty 
 and offensive. 
 
 A man walks 3 miles an hour; a slow river flows 3 miles an hour; 
 a fast river, 7 miles; a trotting horse, 7 miles; a moderate wind blows 7 
 miles; sailing vessels, 10 miles; steamboats, 18 miles; a running horse, 
 20 miles; a storm, 36 miles; a hurricane, 80 miles; sound, 743 miles; 
 a rifle ball, 1,000 miles; light, 192,000 miles a second: electricity, 288,000 
 miles a second. 
 
 The game at cards called Besique, is played with a double pack, in 
 which the objects are principally to promote in the hand certain combina- 
 tions which, when "declared," entitle the holder to score, and to win cer- 
 tain cards of a particular value. There are practically no restrictions in the 
 game; it is not necessary to follow suit; and two, three, or four players 
 may engage in it. 
 
 Salmagundi is a word of uncertain origin, unless it be derived from 
 the Countess Salmagondi, lady of honor to Marie de' Medici and the in- 
 ventor of the dish; for salmagundi is a dish of minced meat, seasoned 
 with pickled cabbage, eggs, anchovies, olive-oil, vinegar, pepper, and 
 similar ingredients. In an applied sense the words means a pot-pourri, 
 a medley, a miscellany. 
 
 The proletariate used to denote the lowest and poorest classes of the 
 community. It is derived, through the French, from the Latin prole- 
 tarii, the name given in the census of Servius Tullius to the lowest of 
 the centuries, who were so called to indicate that they were valuable to 
 the state only as rearers of offspring. The word has come much into use 
 in the literature of socialism. 
 
 The truck system is the system of paying wages in goods instead of 
 money. Owing to the numerous abuses arising from this system it was 
 abolished in Great Britain by the Act of 1831, which provided wages 
 should be paid in money. As the result of a commission which sat in 
 1870, the previous Act was amended by the Act of 1887. The same sys- 
 tem has prevailed to a large extent in the mining districts of the United 
 States, and still exists in a few places. 
 
 Seraglio is an Italian word meaning ' 'enclosure' ' (from sera, ' 'a bolt' '), 
 once used in English for any enclosure such as the Jews' Ghetto at Rome, 
 but now restricted to mean a harem or suite of women's apartment, ap- 
 parently from a confusion with the similar but totally distinct Persian 
 (and Turkish) word serai, "a king's court," "palace," also "a caravan- 
 serai. The Seraglio (eski serai, "old palace"), the ancient residence of 
 the sultan at Constantinople, stands in a beautiful situation, where Stam- 
 boul juts farthest into the Bosphorus, and encloses within its walls a va- 
 riety of mosques, gardens, and large edifices, the chief of which is the 
 Harem. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 355 
 
 A popular game of ball much played in Canada and recently intro- 
 duced into this country, is Lacrosse. It had its origin in a game of the 
 native Indians. Lacrosse is played by twenty-four persons equally 
 divided into two sides. The object of the game is similar to that of foot- 
 ball. The implements used are a ball and a curved stick (the crosse] with 
 a catgut net stretched at the end. 
 
 The cornwallis is a sort of mummers' procession once held in the 
 United States to commemorate the struggle for independence, typified 
 by the surrender at York Town in 1781. Prior to this Cornwallis made 
 himself formidable to the Americans in the battle of Brandywine, by the 
 reduction of Charleston, and his victories at Camden and Guilford. The 
 term and practice are alike now obsolete. 
 
 The term claque is the name given to an institution for securing the 
 success of a play or performance, by bestowing upon it preconcerted 
 applause, and thus giving the public, who are not in the secret, a false 
 notion of the impression it has made The claque is of great antiquity, 
 having been in use in the time of Nero, but now prevails chiefly in French 
 theatres. The paid applauders are called ' ' claqueurs. ' ' 
 
 The frugal Scottish dish, brose, is made by pouring boiling water, 
 milk, or the liquor in which meat has been boiled, on oatmeal, and mix- 
 ing the ingredients by immediate stirring. Butter may be added, and 
 sweet milk when the brose is made with water. It is kail-brose, wat*r- 
 brose or beef -brose, according to the liquid used. Athole-brose, a famous 
 Highland cordial, is a compound of honey and whisky. 
 
 The charade is a form of amusement which consists in dividing a 
 word of one or more syllables into its component syllables, or into its com- 
 ponent letters, predicating something of each; and then, having reunited 
 the whole, and predicated something of that also, the reader or listener 
 is asked to guess the word. The acted charade is a presentation of the 
 parts of the problem in dramatic form, usually as a parlor pastime. 
 
 Curfew was a bell rung in early days in England, and long previously 
 in other countries, the object of which was to warn the people to cover 
 up their fires and retire to rest. The time for ringing these bells was 
 sunset in summer, and about eight o'clock in winter; and certain 
 penalties were imposed upon those who did not attend to the signal. 
 The prevention of fires was the original purpose, but the name has passed 
 into literature as a synonym for nightfall. 
 
 The history of the Great Mogul Diamond runs back to B.C. 56, 
 but little is known of it till the fourteenth century, when it 
 was held by the rajah of Malwa. Later on it fell into the hands of the 
 sultans of Delhi, after their conquest of Malwa. Tavernier tells us he 
 saw it among the jewels of Aurengzebe, and says in the rough state it 
 weighed 793^ carats. The Shah Djihan sent it to Hortensio Borgio, a 
 Venetian lapidary, to be cut, when it was reduced to 186 carats. 
 
 The habit of eating human flesh as food, known as Cannibalism, or 
 Anthropophagy, is widely spread at the present moment among many 
 of the lower races, but has also not infrequently held its place even 
 among peoples at a comparatively high level of culture. There is per- 
 haps no quarter of the globe which has been free from what appears to 
 our eyes a practice essentially so degrading to human nature, but one 
 hardly so repellent to minds that hold no very exalted notions of the 
 inherent superiority of the human animal. 
 
356 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 A horse will travel 400 yards in 4^ minutes at a walk; 400 yards in 
 2 minutes at a trot; 400 yards in 1 minute at a gallop. He can carry 250 
 pounds 25 miles in 8 hours. An average draught horse can draw 1,600 
 pounds 23 miles on a level road, weight of carriage included. The aver- 
 age weight of a horse is 1,000 Ibs., and his strength is equal to 5 men. 
 A horse will live 25 days on water without solid food; 17 days without 
 eating or drinking; but only 5 days on solid food without drinking. 
 
 Australians of the colony of Victoria give the name of ' ' Black Thurs- 
 day" to Thursday, February 6, 1851, when the most terrible bush fire 
 known in the annals of the colony occurred. It raged over an immense 
 area. One writer in the newspapers of the time said that he rode at 
 headlong speed for fifty miles, with fire raging on each side of his route. 
 The heat was felt far out at sea, and many birds fell dead on the decks 
 of coasting vessels. The destruction of animal life and farming stock in 
 this conflagration was enormous. 
 
 Jeunesse Dore*e ("gilded youth"), a party name given to those 
 young men of Paris who, during the French Revolution, struggled to 
 bring about the reaction or counter-revolution after Robespierre's fall 
 (27th July, 1794). Other nicknames bestowed upon the same party were 
 Muscadins ("scented darlings") and Petits-Maitres ("elegants"). The 
 term jeunesse doree is still in use to designate young men about town, 
 who always go elegantly dressed, have the air of spending money, and 
 live a butterfly life of enjoyment and pleasure. 
 
 The first English sparrow was brought to the United States in 1850, 
 but it was not until 1870 that the species can be said to have firmly estab- 
 lished itself. Since then it has taken possession of the country. Its fecun- 
 dity is amazing. In the latitude of New York and southward it hatches, 
 as a rule, five or six broods in a season, with from four to six young in a 
 brood. Assuming the average annual product of a pair to be twenty-four 
 young, of which half are females and half males, and assuming further, 
 for the sake of computation, that all live, together with their offspring, 
 it will be seen that in ten years the progeny of a single pair would be 275,- 
 716,983,698. 
 
 The socialistic society called Brook Farm, had its locale in the vi- 
 cinity of Boston. Every member contributed to the general fund or paid 
 his quota in manual or other work. The idea was suggested by Mar- 
 garet Fuller, but the society was organized by the Rev. W. H. Channing. 
 The members boarded in common, dressed most economically, bought 
 at their own stores, and reduced the price of living to the lowest point. 
 The evening were spent in intellectual amusements or social gatherings. 
 The speculation was an utter failure, and after six years the "Farm" was 
 broken up. Emerson often visited the Farm, and Hawthorne lived there 
 for twelve months. 
 
 The township, or vill, the oldest proprietary and political unit of the 
 Germanic races was an organized self-acting group of families exercising 
 ownership over a definite area, the mark. The oldest English manors 
 are coterminous with townships; the parish, a later division than the 
 township, and originally purely ecclesiastical, is assumed to be equiva- 
 lent to the township if there is no evidence to the contrary. In the 
 United States the word is .variously used (1) of a subdivision of a county; 
 (2) the corporation composed of the inhabitants of such area; or some- 
 times (3) of municipal corporations only less fully organized and with 
 fewer powers than a city. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 357 
 
 The apartments in which Indian women are secluded, correspond- 
 ing to the harem in Arabic-speaking Moslem lands is called the zenana. 
 In India the Mahommedan women are much in the same position as the 
 women in the other less bigoted Mahommedan countries. Amongst 
 those of the Hindu faith the women of all castes are more or less secluded, 
 especially among the well-to-do. Till about 1860, when zenana missions 
 were organized in Bengal by Mr. Fordyce, Christian women were not 
 allowed to enter a Hindu zenana. Now thousands of Hindu ladies are 
 taught by British, American and native Christian women, some of whom 
 are completely trained medical missionaries. 
 
 Punishment by death was originally the form of punishment for all 
 felonies; it is now restricted to cases of murder. Several attempts have 
 been made in England to abolish it. Capital punishment has been abol- 
 ished in the following European countries: Belgium (1863), Switzerland 
 (1874), Roumania (1864), Holland (1879). In Sweden, Denmark, North 
 Germany, Austria, France, and Bavaria there exists unwillingness to 
 enforce capital punishment. In several States in the United States e g. , 
 Michigan, Wisconsin, Rhode Island, and Maine imprisonment for life 
 has been substituted for capital punishment. In New York electrocu- 
 tion has been adopted as a mode of punishment. 
 
 A favorite amusement of the ' ' good old times ' ' with a certain regi- 
 ment quartered at Kilkenny, was to tie two cats together by the tails, 
 swing them over a line, and watch their ferocious attacks upon each 
 other in their struggles to get free. It was determined to put down this 
 cruel "sport" ; and one day, just as two unfortunate cats were swung, 
 the alarm was given that the colonel was riding up post haste. An officer 
 present cut through their tails with his sword and liberated the cats, 
 which scampered off before the colonel arrived. Another story is that 
 two cats fought in a saw-pit so ferociously that each swallowed the other, 
 leaving only the tails behind to tell of the wonderful encounter. 
 
 In the early ages of society, almost everywhere, it was looked upon 
 as the duty of the next of kin as the avenger of blood to avenge the death 
 of a murdered relative; but among some primitive peoples, as the mod- 
 ern Bedouins, as among the ancient Anglo-Saxons, the right is annulled 
 by compensation. The Mosaic law did not set aside this universal in- 
 stitution of primitive society, but placed it under regulations, prohibit- 
 ing the commutation of the penalty of death for money, and appointing 
 cities of refuge for the involuntary manslayer. The wilful murderer was, 
 in all cases whatever, to be put to death without permission of compen- 
 sation. The nearest relative, whose duty it was to hunt down the 
 murderer, was called Gael, the "redeemer" or "avenger." 
 
 Many scholars contend that a great part of Europe must have been 
 brought into cultivation by means of village communities. A clan of 
 settlers took a tract of land, built their huts thereon, and laid out com- 
 mon fields, which they cultivated in common as one family. The land 
 was divided out every few years into family lots, but the whole continued 
 to be cultivated by the community subject to the established customs as 
 interpreted in the village council by the sense of the village elders. This 
 may yet be seen in the villages of Russia, and even in some parts of Eng- 
 land may still be traced the ancient boundaries of the great common 
 field, divided lengthwise into three strips (one fallow, the two others in 
 different kinds of crop), and again crosswise into lots held by the 
 villagers. 
 
358 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Ghee (Ghi) is a kind of clarified butter used in many parts of India, 
 and generally prepared from the milk of buffaloes. The fresh milk is 
 boiled for an hour or more; it is then allowed to cool, and a little cur<- 
 died milk, called dhye, is added to promote coagulation. The curdled 
 mass is churned for half an hour; some hot water is then added, and the 
 churning continued for another half hour, when the butter forms. When 
 the butter begins to become rancid, which is usually the case after a 
 few days, it is boiled till all the water contained in it is expelled, and a 
 little dhye and salt, or betel-leaf, is added; after which it is put into 
 closed pots to be kept for use. It is used to an enormous extent by the 
 natives of many parts of India, but is seldom relished by Europeans. 
 
 The vigilance societies include not only regulators and other extreme 
 exponents of lynch law, but also the illegal associations which spring up 
 from time to time in all parts of the country for the compulsory im- 
 provement of local morals, and the punishment of those who either re- 
 fuse or fail sufficiently to reform their lives. Such organizations as the 
 White Caps, at home in the eastern and central states, have for their pro- 
 fessed objects the suppression of vice and idleness; they send formal 
 warnings to those citizens whom they consider to be neglectful of their 
 homes, too partial to card playing, drinking, etc. ; and if this warning be 
 disregarded, inflict such punishment as whipping, destruction of prop- 
 erty, etc. The methods of the modern White Caps are the same as those 
 of the Ku-Klux Klan. 
 
 University extension has for its object the provision of "the means of 
 higher education for persons of all classes, and of both sexes engaged in 
 the regular occupations of life." This movement commenced with the 
 University of Cambridge in 1872, and was subsequently taken up by Ox- 
 ford University, the London Society for the extension of University 
 Teaching, Dublin University, Owens College, Manchester, the Scottish 
 Universities, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, and the Chau- 
 tauqua Home Reading Club in the United States. In 1890 Cambridge, 
 Oxford, and the London Society had two hundred and twenty-seven 
 centers, seventy-nine lectures, and 40,336 students attending lectures. 
 The lecture-study system was organized in the United States at the 
 University of Pennsylvania. Other institutions, notably the University 
 of Chicago and the University of Wisconsin have engaged in the work, 
 and many centers for lectures and study in history, science, art, and 
 literature have been formed. 
 
 The Koh-i-noor, i.e., "Mountain of Light," one of the largest dia- 
 monds in the world, came into the possession of Ala-u-din soon after 
 1300. It fell to Baber in 1526, and subsequently to Mahommed Shah, 
 great-grandson of Aurengzebe, who kept it hidden in his turban; but 
 when Nadir Shah took possession of Delhi, Mahommed had to give the 
 diamond to the conqueror. It passed in succession to Shah Shuja, and 
 when driven from Cabul he carried it to Lahore, when Runjeet Sing got 
 possession of it and had it set in a bracelet, 1813 After the annexation 
 of the Punjaub by the English the crown jewels of Lahore were confis- 
 cated, and the Koh-i-noor was presented to Queen Victoria by the East 
 India Company and delivered into her hands June 3, 1850. In 1889, in 
 a most insolent letter, Runjeet Sing demanded its restitution. Its weight 
 was 186^ carats. It was exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851, and 
 valued at 140, OOO/. By order of the Queen it was cut into a brilliant by 
 Herr Voorsanger, whereby the weight was reduced to 106 /^ carats. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 359 
 
 The "rule of the road" in the United States is "turn to the right," in 
 England it is the reverse. The rule holds in this country in the case 
 where two vehicles going in opposite diections meet. When one vehicle 
 overtakes another the foremost gives way to the left and the other passes 
 by on the "offside," and when a vehicle is crossing the direction of 
 another it keeps to the left and crosses in its rear. These two rules are 
 the same in this country and in England, and why the rule concerning 
 meeting vehicles should have been changed it is impossible to say. We 
 find this point of difference noted by all authorities, but no reason for it 
 is ever suggested. Probably, as it is easier to turn to the right than to 
 the left, it was adopted as the more preferable custom in some of the early 
 colonies, and in due time became embodied in local law, and thus was 
 handed down to later time. 
 
 The Molly Maguires was an Irish secret society which during the 
 ten years preceding 1877 terrorized the coal regions of Pennsylvania. 
 The name was imported from Ireland, where it had been adopted by a 
 branch of the Ribbonmen, whose outrages by night were perpetrated in 
 female disguise. The object of the organization in Pennsylvania ap- 
 pears to have been to secure for its members, as far as possible, the ex- 
 clusive political power in the eastern part of the State. Murders were 
 committed in the open day, though much more usually by night; and 
 the terror of the society was on all the coal country until, in 1876-77, a 
 number of the leaders were convicted and executed, mainly by the evi- 
 dence of a detective named McParlan, who had acted for three years as 
 secretary of the Shenandoah division. 
 
 Capacity of the largest public buildings in the world: Coliseum, 
 Rome, 87,000; St. Peter's, Rome, 54,000; Theatre of Pompey, Rome, 
 40,000; Cathedral, Milan, 37,000; St. Paul's, Rome, 32,000; St. Paul's, 
 London, 31,000; St. Petronia, Bologna, 26,000; Cathedral, Florence, 24,- 
 300; Cathedral, Antwerp, 24,000; St. John Lateran, Rome, 23,000; St. 
 Sophia's, Constantinople, 23,000; Notre Dame, Paris, 21,500; Theatre of 
 Marcellus, Rome, 20,000; Cathedral, Pisa, 13,000; St. Stephen's, Vienna, 
 12,400; St. Dominic's, Bologna, 12,000; St. Peters, Bologna, 11,400; Ca- 
 thedral, Vienna, 11,000; Gilmore's Garden, New York, 8,443; La Scala, 
 Milan, 8,000; Auditorium, Chicago, 7,000; Mormon Temple, Salt Lake 
 City, 8,000; St. Mark's, Venice, 7,500; Spurgeon's Tabernacle, London, 
 6,000; Bolshoi Theatre, St. Petersburg, 5,000; Tabernacle (Talmage's), 
 Brooklyn, 5,000; Music Hall, Cincinnati, 4,824. 
 
 The acclimated word boulevard is simply the name given in France 
 to a broad street or promenade planted with rows of trees. Originally it 
 was applied to the bulwark portion of a rampart, then to the promenade 
 laid out on a demolished fortification. The boulevards of Paris are the 
 most famous. The line from the Madeleine to the Bastille became a 
 walk in the days of Louis XIV. , and then a street. But many so-called 
 recent boulevards in Paris and elsewhere are simply new and handsome 
 streets, planted with trees, and have no relation to old fortifications at 
 all. Some parts of them present a very dazzling spectacle, and, as a 
 whole, they afford a striking exhibition of the life and character of the 
 French capital in all the different classes of society. The Boulevard de 
 la Madeleine, des Capucines, and Montmartre are the most notable. The 
 Thames Embankment is a boulevard in the usual sense of the term. In 
 the United States the term is applied to all streets on which no traffic 
 teams are permitted. 
 
360 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 In feudal times villeins were a species of serfs who cultivated the 
 portion of the manor reserved by the feudal lord for himself. They were 
 bound to the soil; they could not leave the manor, and their service was 
 compulsory; but they were allowed by the feudal lord to cultivate por- 
 tions of land for their own use. These lands, which they held ' ' at the 
 will of the lord, according to the custom of the manor "custom which 
 was in such case entered in the roll of the court-baron frequently passed 
 from father to son, until a prescriptive right in them was acquired; and 
 the villeins, whose sole title was an authenticated copy of these entries, 
 came in time to be called tenants by copy of court-roll, and their tenures 
 copyholds. Villeinage was never formally abolished in England, but it 
 ceased to exist in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Hari-kari is a term applied to the curious Japanese system of official 
 suicide, obsolete since 1868. The Japanese estimated the number of such 
 suicides at 500 per annum. All military men, and persons holding civil 
 offices under the government, were held bound, when they committed an 
 offence, to disembowel themselves. This they performed in a solemn 
 and dignified manner, in presence of officials and other witnesses, by 
 one or two gashes with a short sharp sword or dagger 9> inches long. 
 Personal honor having been saved by the self-inflicted wound, the execu- 
 tion was completed by a superior executioner, who gave the coup de 
 grdce by beheading the victim with one swinging blow from a long 
 sword. Japanese gentlemen were trained to regard the hari-kari as an 
 honorable expiation of crime or blotting out of disgrace. 
 
 The most dreadful earthquake on record is that which, November 1, 
 1775, destroyed the city of Lisbon, Portugal. The only warning the in- 
 habitants received was a noise like subterranean thunder, which, without 
 any considerable interval, was followed by a succession of shocks which 
 laid in ruins almost every building in the city, with a most incredible 
 slaughter of the inhabitants (60,000). The bed of the river Tagus was in 
 many places raised to the surface, and vessels on the river suddenly found 
 themselves aground. The waters of the river and the sea at first retreated 
 and then immediately rolled violently in upon the land, forming a wave 
 over forty feet in elevation. To complete the destruction a large quay, 
 upon which great numbers of the people had assembled for security, sud- 
 denly sank to such an unfathomable depth that not one body ever after- 
 wards appeared at the surface. 
 
 TITLES, OFFICES AND DIGNITIES. 
 The word police comes from polls, a city. 
 Knight in the original Saxon means " a boy." 
 Beg, not bey, is the title of a Turkish governor. 
 Oliver Cromwell's title was The Lord Protector. 
 In Scotland the mayor of a town is called provost. 
 Duke means a leader and was first a military title. 
 Lieutenant means literally " holding the place of." 
 Garter-King-at- Arms is the chief herald of England. 
 Lords of Appeal, in England, are made peers for life. 
 " The grand old gardener " is a poet's title for Adam. 
 The Order of the Garter is Britain's highest knighthood. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 361 
 
 Earl means an elder. Its continental equivalent is Count. 
 A marquis was originally the governor of a frontier province. 
 Lictors were the servants who attended on Roman chief magistrates. 
 Mandarin is a Portuguese, not a native, title for Chinese high officials. 
 The Great Seal of England is the symbol of the Lord Chancellor's 
 office. 
 
 . Originally a sheik was an Arab chief ; now applied to Moslem dig- 
 nitaries. 
 
 The rank of admiral was first created in this country (1866) to honor 
 Farragut. 
 
 Masters in Chancery were originally the assistants to the Lord 
 Chancellor. 
 
 The King-Maker was a title given to Richard Nevil, Earl of Warwick 
 (1420-1471). 
 
 Prince Rupert (1619-1682) was called the Mad Cavalier because of 
 his reckless daring. 
 
 Lords Spiritual is the title of the bishops who have seats in the 
 British House of Lords. 
 
 Incas was the name given by the ancient Peruvians to their kings 
 and princes of the blood. 
 
 The Master of the Rolls is a British Judge of Chancery who keeps 
 the records of that court. 
 
 His small stature and original army rank caused Napoleon to be 
 called The Little Corporal. 
 
 Robert of Normandy, father of William the Conqueror, well earned 
 the title of Robert the Devil. 
 
 The Duke of Marlborough (1650-1722) was dubbed Corporal John by 
 the soldiers who served under him. 
 
 Sahib, an Arabic word signifying "lord" is the title of courtesy be- 
 stowed by Hind -Is upon Europeans. 
 
 The Iron Duke and Marshal Forward were both popular titles of the 
 Duke of Wellington, the victor of Waterloo. 
 
 Peers of the House of Lords are generally designated Lords Tem- 
 poral in contradistinction to the Lords Spiritual. 
 
 The title applied to the younger princes of the royal houses of Spain 
 and Portugal is Infante. A princess is styled Infanta. 
 
 Titles of courtesy are those titles allowed to the relatives of British 
 peers by social usage, but to which they have no legal right. 
 
 An officer appointed by a king or nobleman, or by a corporation, to 
 perform domestic and ceremonial duties, is called a Chamberlain. 
 
 Overbury says: The man who has nothing to boast of but his illus- 
 trious ancestry is like a potato the best part of him is under ground. 
 
 The Order of the Bath was constituted by Henry IV. in 1399. It 
 comprises Knights Grand Cross, Knights Commanders and Companions. 
 
 A commoner is anyone in England under the rank of nobility; also 
 a member of the House of Commons. At some of the great schools and 
 at Oxford, a class of students eating at the common table are likewise 
 termed commoners. 
 
362 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Archduke and archduchess are titles now borne by all the sons and 
 daughters of an emperor of Austria, and by their descendants through 
 the male line. 
 
 The grade of titles in Great Britain stands in the following order 
 from the highest: A prince, duke, marquis, earl, viscount, baron, 
 baronet, knight. 
 
 Scholarship, a benefaction, generally of the annual proceeds of a be- 
 quest permanently invested, paid for the maintenance of a student at a 
 university or at a school. 
 
 A charge d'affaires is a fourth-class diplomatic agent, accredited not to 
 the sovereign, but to the department for foreign affairs; he also holds his 
 credentials only from the minister. 
 
 Defender of the Faith was the title first given to Henry VIII. by 
 pope Leo X., for a volume against Luther, in defense of the seven sacra- 
 ments. The original volume is in the Vatican. 
 
 Advocatus Diaboli is one appointed to advance every conceivable 
 reason why a person whose name is submitted for canonization should 
 not be admitted into the calendar of the saints. 
 
 The East Indian term Begum is a title of honor equivalent to "prin- 
 cess," conferred on the mothers, sisters or wives of native rulers. The 
 Begum of Oudh is well known in Indian history. 
 
 The name Darbyites is often applied to the Plymouth brethren from 
 their principal founder, John Nelson Darby (1800-82), of whose collected 
 writings thirty- two volumes have appeared (1867-83). 
 
 The old name for Christmas, Yule, is still used in Scotland and the 
 north of England, and retained in the term "yule-log." It was origin- 
 ally, in England and Scandinavia, the festival of the winter solstice. 
 
 The Imperial Order of the Crown of India was instituted January 1, 
 1878. The Queen, the Princess of Wales, the princesses of the blood 
 royal, and distinguished ladies, British and Indian, constitute the order. 
 
 Chouans were bands of royalist Breton peasants organized during the 
 French Revolution, 1792, by three brothers, named Cottereau. The 
 bands got their name from Chat-huant, screech owl, whose cry was their 
 signal. They were suppressed in 1830. 
 
 The familiar term "boss" is a modified form of the Dutch baas, 
 master, and used in the United States for an employer of labor, or a local 
 political chief; and in Britain is a slang w T ord, or is employed humor- 
 ously. To "boss" is to play the master. 
 
 The commandant is the officer, of whatever rank, in command of a 
 fortress or military post of any kind. The title is also given to an officer 
 commanding a larger body of troops than is proper to his rank, as cap- 
 tain-commandant, lieutenant-commandant. 
 
 The cardinal is the highest dignitary in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 next to the popes, who are selected from the cardinals. The cardinals are 
 divided into three classes, six bishops, fifty priests and fourteen deacons, 
 never more than seventy who constitute the Sacred College. 
 
 A Chatelaine is the wife of the chatelain or commander of a feudal 
 castle. A chaine chdtelaine or simply ch&telaine, a chain such as a lady 
 chatelaine might wear, is a chain depending from the waist, to which 
 are attached keys, scissors, and other appliances of housewifery. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS, 363 
 
 Crest is a heraldic figure or ornament, which in its original use sur- 
 mounted the helmet. Though often popularly regarded as the most 
 important part of the heraldic insignia of a family, it is, in the eyes of 
 heralds, merely an accessory, without which the bearing is complete. 
 
 Ambassadors in early days received no salary, the honor of serving 
 a monarch being deemed more than a compensation for their services. 
 Nor did they ever tender pay for their lodging at a foreign couit, but in- 
 stead expected to receive at their departure presents of considerable value. 
 
 Chevalier was a honorary title given, especially in the eighteenth 
 century, to younger sons of French noble families. Their indolence 
 and impecuniosity not seldom led them into devious ways, so that the 
 term chevalier d' Industrie became a synonym for highwayman or swin- 
 dler. 
 
 A Spanish order instituted (1170) by Ferdinand II., to stop the in- 
 roads of the Moors, was that of San Yago, or St. James. Proof of noble 
 descent through four generations was required from the knights. The 
 political power of the order ceased in 1522, and it has since been solely 
 an order of nobility. 
 
 The title of Count is of considerable antiquity. We find it used in 
 mediaeval and modern Europe. Earl is in one view supposed to be anal- 
 ogous to it, the Latin equivalent of each being the same, and the wife 
 of an earl being a countess. In French the title is comte, Italian, conte, 
 and in Spanish, conde. 
 
 Envoy is a diplomatic minister of the second order i.e. inferior in 
 rank to an ambassador. Like the latter, he receives his credentials im- 
 mediately from the sovereign, though he represents not his prince's per- 
 sonal dignity, but only his affairs. The envoy is thus superior in rank 
 to the Charge" d' Affaires. 
 
 In the United States navy, commanders have a rank next below that 
 of captain, and next above that of a lieutenant-commander, and rank 
 with lieutenant-colonels in the army. The commander in the British 
 navy is an officer next under a captain in rank, and serves either as 
 second in command in a large ship, or in independent command of a 
 smaller vessel. 
 
 Sovereign, in politics, is the person or body of persons in whom the 
 supreme executive and legislative power of a state is vested. In limited 
 monarchies sovereignty is in a qualified sense ascribed to the king, who 
 though the supreme magistrate, is not the sole legislator. A state in 
 which the legislative authority is not trammeled by any foreign power 
 is called a sovereign state. 
 
 The King of France: So the monarchs of France were called till 
 October, 1789, when the National Assembly ordained that Louis XVI. 
 should not be styled "King of France," but "King of the French." 
 The royal title was abolished in France in 1792, but was restored in 1814. 
 When Louis Philippe was invited in 1830 to take on himself the govern- 
 ment, he was styled "King of the French." 
 
 The Mufti is a "doctor of the law" in the Mussulman religion. He 
 interprets both the text and ideas of the Koran. The Grand Mufti, 
 called the "Sheik-ul-Islam, " resides at Constantinople, and is head of 
 the lawyers and priests or ulemas. His ordinances, called fetfas, must 
 be blindly obeyed. It is the Grand Mufti who girds on the sultan's 
 sword at his coronation. Every town has its mufti. 
 
364 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 Khedive, a title granted in 1867 by the Sultan to his tributary the 
 Viceroy of Egypt, and since then used by the latter as his official title. 
 The word (pronounced as a dissyllable) is derived from Persian khidiv, 
 and means "sovereign." It is therefore a more dignified title than the 
 former one of vali, "viceroy." 
 
 Commander-in-chief is the highest staff appointment in the British 
 
 ' army. After the death of the Duke of Wellington in 1852, this title, 
 
 which had been borne by him for many years, was allowed to lapse. It 
 
 was recently again bestowed on the Duke of Cambridge, in honor of his 
 
 fifty years' service in the army. 
 
 Admiral is the title of the highest rank of naval officers. The office 
 
 originated with the Arabs in Spain and Sicily, and was adopted with the 
 
 name by the Genoese, French and the English under Edward III. as 
 
 4 ' amyrel of the se. ' ' Admirals are generally of three classes admirals, 
 
 vice-admirals and rear-admirals. 
 
 In India, and especially in Bengal, the Zemindar is the landed pro- 
 prietor, who pays the government land-revenue, as opposed to the "ryot," 
 the actual cultivator of the soil. Under the Mogul government the 
 zemindar was originally merely a government official, charged with the 
 collection of the land revenue, and with no rights in the land. These he 
 acquired under the Permanent Settlement of Lord Cornwallis. 
 
 Sizar, the name of an order of students at Cambridge and Dublin 
 universities, so called from the allowance of victuals (size] made to them 
 from the college buttery. Duties of a somewhat menial kind, such as 
 waiting upon the fellows at table, were originally required of the sizars, 
 but these have long since gone into disuse. At Oxford there was form- 
 erly a somewhat similar order of students denominated Servitors. 
 
 Dauphin was the title of the eldest son of the French king, and origin- 
 ally that of the sovereign lords of the province of Dauphine, who bore a 
 dolphin as their crest. The last of these, the childless Humbert III., 
 in 1343 bequeathed his possessions to Charles of Valois, grandson of 
 Philippe VI. of France, on condition that the eldest soft of the king of 
 France should bear the title of Dauphin of Vienne, and govern the 
 province. 
 
 Czar (more properly Tsar, Tzar, or Zar), the title of the emperors of 
 Russia. The word occurs early in Old Slavonic, equivalent to king or 
 kaiser, and is connected with the Latin Cczsar, continued in the Roman 
 empire as a title of honor long after the imperial house itself had become 
 extinct. In the Slavonic Bible the word basileus is rendered by czar; Caesar 
 (kaisar] by Cesar. In the Russian chronicles also the Byzantine emper- 
 ors are styled czars, as are also the khans of the Mongols who ruled 
 over Russia. 
 
 The grandees of Spain " grandes de Espafia de primera clase" are 
 in some sort peers of the kingdom who enjoy certain privileges at 
 court, though they are not, nor have ever been, legislators by right of 
 birth. They are supposed to be by courtesy cousins of royalty, and they 
 can always enter the palace and claim an audience of the sovereign at 
 any time, while the greatest of Spanish untitled statesmen and generals 
 must ask for and obtain an audience before they can enter the royal 
 ante-chambers. Only the field marshals, the prelates, and the knights 
 of the Golden Fleece enjoy the same footing as the grandees of the first 
 class. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WA YS. 365 
 
 Sheikh (Arab., "elder," "aged person"), a title applied to the chief- 
 tain of an Arab tribe, to the principal preacher in a Mahommedan 
 mosque, to the head of a religious order, and to a learned man or a 
 reputed saint of Islam. The Sheikh ul-Islam at Constantinople is the 
 head of the Mahommedan church; he is possessed of very great influ- 
 ence and power. Sheikh al-Jebel (Old Man of the Mountain) was the 
 name of the chief of the Assassins. 
 
 Shah (Persian, "king," "monarch," "prince"), the general title of 
 the supreme ruler in Persia, Afghanistan and other countries of southern 
 and central Asia. The sovereign, however, may, and outside of Persia 
 frequently does, decline the title, assuming in its place that of Khan, an 
 inferior and more common appellation. The same title can also be 
 assumed by the shah's sons, and upon all the princes of the blood the 
 cognomen Shah-zada ("king's son") is bestowed. 
 
 Originally the word consul was applied to the two chief magistrates 
 of the Roman republic. Later it was used of the chief magistrates of 
 France after the Revolution when Bonaparte was First Consul. Now it 
 is applied to that officer whom the government maintains in a foreign 
 country for the protection of its trade and vindication of the rights of 
 its merchants, and to whom the further duty is assigned of keeping the 
 home governmeut informed of all facts bearing on the commercial in- 
 terests of the country. 
 
 The calif is the successor of Mahommed the prophet, both in tem- 
 poral and spiritual power. At first there was but one calif, whose em- 
 pire was called the califate, which for three centuries exceeded the 
 Roman empire in extent; but in 970 there were three califates, viz. one 
 at Bagdad, one at Cairo, and one at Cordeva. In 1031 the califate of Cor- 
 deva ceased. In 1158 the calif of Bagdad fled to Egypt before the sword 
 of the Monguls. In 1517 the Turks conquered Egypt, and the sultan 
 thus became the one and only calif. 
 
 In England the higher nobility consists of the five temporal ranks 
 of the peerage duke, marquis, earl, viscount and baron who have seats 
 in the House of Lords. The dignity was originally territorial. It is 
 hereditary; but by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876 (amended 1887), 
 a certain number of life peers have been created, styled Lords of Appeal 
 in Ordinary. In England only the head of a noble family is noble; on 
 the Continent all the members of a noble family are noble. Baronets, 
 who belong to the lower nobility, were first created by James I. (1611). 
 
 General: (1) The term is applied in the army to the rank next be- 
 low field-marshal. There are three grades in the British service viz., 
 General, Lieutenant-General, and Major-General. (2) In the United 
 States the rank of general, a higher rank than had before existed, was 
 created by act of congress in 1866, and conferred on General Grant. It 
 was subsequently conferred on Sherman and on Sheridan. The highest 
 rank held by Washington was that of lieutenant-general, which is also 
 usually that of the general-in-chief of the army. There is, of course, but 
 one lieutenant-general; and bylaw there can be but three major-genej-als 
 and six brigadier-generals. The general's yearly pay is $13,500; the 
 lieutenant-general's is $11,000; the major-general's, $7,500; the brigadier- 
 general's, $5,000. In the militia of some of the states there are major- 
 generals and brigadier-generals, and the title of general as a form of ad- 
 dress is in the United States often given indiscriminately to those hold- 
 ing these ranks. 
 
366 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Sheriff, or shereef, designates a descendant of Mahommed through 
 his daughter Fatima and AH. The title is inherited both from the pater- 
 nal and the maternal side, and thus the number of members of this 
 aristocracy is very large among the Moslems. The men have the privi- 
 lege of wearing green turbans, the women green veils, green being the 
 prophet's color. Many of these sheriffs founded dynasties in Africa; 
 the line which rules in Morocco boasts of this proud designation. 
 
 Promotion of officers by selection to a higher rank irrespective of 
 there being any vacancies in its established numbers, is termed Brevet. 
 A general promotion by Congress (July 6, 1812), authorized the President 
 to confer brevet rank on officers of the army distinguished for valor, or of 
 ten years' service in any one grade. Restricted by Act of Congress 
 (April 16, 1818). On incorporation of Volunteers (March, 1863), it was 
 decided that officers of the army of higher rank who had served with the 
 Volunteers, might receive Volunteer brevet rank. In July, 1870, officers 
 holding brevet commission were forbidden to wear any uniform except 
 that of their actual rank, or to use any other title in official communi- 
 cations. 
 
 PREVIOUS WORLD'S FAIRS. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 WHERE HELD. 
 
 ACRES BLDGS. 
 
 EXHIBITORS. 
 
 ADMISSIONS. 
 
 DAYS OPEN. 
 
 1851 
 
 
 21 
 
 17000 
 
 6 039 195 
 
 144 
 
 1855 
 
 Paris 
 
 24 y z 
 
 22000 
 
 5,162 330 
 
 200 
 
 1862 
 1867 
 
 London 
 Paris 
 
 23>/ 2 
 37 
 
 29,000 
 52,000 
 
 6,211,103 
 10,200,000 
 
 171 
 217 
 
 1873 
 
 1876 
 1878 
 
 Vienna 
 Philadelphia... . 
 Paris . ... 
 
 40 
 60 
 60 
 
 42,000 
 60,000 
 52000 
 
 7,254,687 
 9,910,996 
 13,000000 
 
 186 
 159 
 494 
 
 1889 
 
 Paris 
 
 nx 
 
 60,000 
 
 32.354,1)1 
 
 183 
 
 REMARKABLE MODERN PLAGUES. 
 
 DATE. 
 
 PLACE. 
 
 DEATHS. 
 
 WEEKS. 
 
 DEATHS PER 
 
 WEEK. 
 
 1656 
 
 Naples 
 
 380000 
 
 28 
 
 10 400 
 
 
 1665 
 
 
 68 800 
 
 33 
 
 2 100 
 
 
 1720 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 39 100 
 
 36 
 
 1 100 
 
 
 1771 
 
 
 87 800 
 
 32 
 
 2 700 
 
 
 1778 
 
 
 170000 
 
 18 
 
 9 500 
 
 
 1798 
 
 Cairo 
 
 88000 
 
 25 
 
 3 500 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 144 000 
 
 13 
 
 11 100 
 
 
 1834 
 
 Cairo 
 
 57,000 
 
 18 
 
 3 200 
 
 
 1835 
 
 Alexandria . . . 
 
 14 900 
 
 17 
 
 900 
 
 
 1871 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 26,300 
 
 11 
 
 2,400 
 
 
 GREAT FAMINES OF HISTORY. 
 
 Walford mentions 160 famines since the eleventh century, namely, 
 England, 57; Ireland 34; Scotland, 12; France, 10; Germany, 11; Italy, 
 etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been: 
 
 NO. OF VICTIMS. 
 
 48,000 
 1,029,000 
 1,450,000 
 
 Deaths from hunger and want were recorded as follows in 1879, ac- 
 cording to Mulhall: Ireland, 3,789; England, 312; London, 101; France, 
 260. The proportion per 1,000 deaths was, respectively, 37.6, .6, 1.2, .3. 
 
 COUNTRY. DATE. 
 
 France 1770 
 
 Ireland 1847 
 
 India 1866 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 
 RULERS OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 367 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 Ruler. 
 
 1 
 
 Acceded. 
 
 
 
 
 12 March, 1889 
 1880 
 12 Oct., 1892 
 2 Dec., 1848 
 1857 
 10 Dec., 1865 
 12 Nov., 1885 
 15 Aug., 1888 
 23 Nov., 1891 
 7 July, 1887 
 19 Nov., 1891 
 12 Jan., 1875 
 7 Aug., 1886 
 8 May., 1890 
 15 Nov., 1863 
 1 Sept., 1886 
 30 June, 1892 
 7 Jan., 1892 
 3 Dec., 1887 
 
 15 June, 1888 
 
 13 June, 1886 
 29 Oct., 1873 
 6 Oct., 1891 
 5 Sept., 1856 
 13 March, 1892 
 22 May, 1871 
 21 Oct., 1885 
 15 April, 1883 
 6 Sept., 1860 
 27 Feb., 1853 
 29 Aug., 1893 
 15 May, 1845 
 20 June, 1837 
 30 (18) Mr. 1863 
 1892 
 
 Afghanistan. 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Abdur Rahman Khan, A mir 
 Dr lyiiis Saenz Pena President .... 
 
 1845 
 J830 
 
 
 
 Baluchistan 
 
 Mir Khodadal, Khan 
 
 
 Leopold II King 
 
 1835 
 
 
 Seid Abdul Ahad, A mir 
 Don An ice to Arce, President 
 
 Bolivia 
 Brazil (United States of) . 
 Bulgaria 
 Chile 
 
 General Floriano Peixoto President .... 
 
 1861 
 1847 
 1871 
 
 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, Prince 
 Admiral Jorge Montt, President 
 
 China . . 
 
 Kuang Hsu Emperor 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Rafael Nunez, President 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Jos<5 J. Rodriguez, President . . 
 
 isis 
 
 i874 
 1837 
 
 1859 
 
 1848 
 1828 
 1848 
 1826 
 1868 
 1831 
 1837 
 1851 
 18'9 
 1827 
 1844 
 1831 
 1819 
 1845 
 
 
 Christian IX King 
 
 Dominican Republic 
 Ecuador 
 
 General Ulises Heureaux, President . 
 Don Condero President. 
 
 E crypt 
 
 Abbas Pasha Khedive 
 
 France 
 Germany 
 
 Marie Francois Sadi Carnot, President 
 William II , Emperor. ... | 
 
 Prussia 
 
 William II., King., j 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Otto King (Prince Luitpold, Regent 
 
 Saxony 
 Wurtemburg 
 
 Albert, King 
 William II., King , 
 
 Baden 
 
 Frederick, Grand Duke . 
 
 Hesse 
 Anhalt 
 Brunswick 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz . . 
 Oldenburg 
 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 
 Waldeck-Pyrmont 
 Great Britain, Ireland, etc. 
 Greece 
 
 Louis V., Grand Duke 
 Frederick, Duke 
 
 Prince Albrecht Regent 
 
 Frederick Francis III., Grand Duke: 
 Frederick William, Grand Duke 
 Peter Grand Duke 
 
 Ernest Albert, Duke 
 
 George Victor, Prince.. 
 
 Victoria Queen etc 
 
 George, King 
 Gen. Jos6 Maria Reina Barrios, President 
 Interregnum .. . 
 
 Hawaii 
 Hayti . . 
 
 General L. M. F. Hyppolyte, President . . . 
 General Leiva President 
 
 
 17 Oct., 1889 
 1 Dec 1891 
 
 Honduras . .- 
 
 Italy 
 
 Humbert King 
 
 1844 
 1852 
 
 1817 
 1861 
 
 isii 
 
 1831 
 
 1874 
 1880 
 
 9 Jan., 1878 
 13 Feb., 1866 
 7 Jan., 1892 
 23 Nov., 1890 
 13 July, 1883 
 1 Dec., 1884 
 14 Aug., 1860 
 25 Sept., 1873 
 
 1881 
 23 Nov., 1890 
 1 March, 1891 
 4 June, 1888 
 18 Dec., 1888 
 25 Sept., 1890 
 10 Sept., 1848 
 10 Aug., 1890 
 19 Oct., 1889 
 26 March, 1881 
 13 (1) Mr., 1881 
 11 Sept., 1890 
 11 June, 1868 
 6 March, 1889 
 1 Oct., 1868 
 17 May, 1886 
 IS Sept., 1872 
 17 Dec.. 1891 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mutsu Hito, Emperor (or Mikado) 
 J. J. Cheesman, President 
 Adolphus Grand Duke 
 
 ifcia.:::::::..:. ::.:".: 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 
 Mexico 
 Montenegro . . 
 Morocco 
 
 General Porfirio Diaz, President 
 Nicholas Prince 
 
 Muleyel Hassan, Sultan 
 Prithivi Beer Bikram Shum Shere Jung 
 Bahadur Maharaja 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Wilhelmina (a minor) Queen 
 
 Nicaragua . .... 
 
 Dr. Robert Sacasa, President 
 Seyyid Feysal bin Turkee Sullan 
 
 Oman 
 
 Orange Free State 
 
 Dr F W Reitz President 
 
 
 Paraguay 
 Persia 
 
 Juan G. Gonzalez, President 
 Nasir-ed-Din Shah ... .... 
 
 i829 
 1836 
 1863 
 1839 
 1845 
 
 i829 
 1876 
 1853 
 
 1886 
 1829 
 
 Peru 
 
 Col. Remjio Morales Bermudez, President. 
 Dom Carlos, King 
 Charles, King 
 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia ... . . 
 
 Alexander III Emperor . .... 
 
 
 General Carlos Ezeta. President 
 SirChas. Johnson Brooke, G.C.M G., Raja 
 Alexander ( Obrenovitch ) , King 
 Phrabat Somdet Phra Yiihua, King 
 Alfonso XIII (a minor) King 
 
 Sarawak 
 
 Servia 
 
 Siam 
 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 Switzerland. . . . 
 
 Oscar II., King 
 
 Walter Hauser, President.. . . 
 
368 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 RULERS OF ALL NATIONS. Concluded. 
 
 . COUNTRY. 
 
 Ruler. 
 
 ri 
 % 
 
 
 
 Acceded. 
 
 Transvaal (S.A. Republic) 
 Tripoli 
 
 S J P Paul Kriiger, President 
 
 1821 
 
 1817 
 
 1842 
 1837 
 
 April, 1883 
 Nov., 1881 
 28 Oct., 1882 
 31 Aug., 1876 
 4 March, 1893 
 1 March, 1890 
 10 Oct., 1892 
 13 Feb., 1890 
 
 Ahmed Rassim Pasha, Governor-General. 
 Sidi Ali Pasha, Bey 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Turkey 
 United States (America). 
 Uruguay 
 Venezuela 
 Zanzibar 
 
 Abdul Hamid II Sultan .... 
 
 Grover Cleveland, President 
 Dr Julio Herrera y Obes President 
 
 General Crespo, Provisional President 
 Seyyid Ali Sultan 
 
 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE CONTINENTS. 
 
 The following table shows the area, population, and density of popu- 
 lation in each of the divisions of the earth: 
 
 
 Area: square miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Population per square mile. 
 
 Europe 
 
 3 797 410 
 
 357851,580 
 
 94 
 
 Asia 
 
 17 039 066 
 
 825 954 000 
 
 48 
 
 Africa 
 
 11,518,104 
 
 168,499,017 
 
 14 
 
 Australasia 
 
 3458029 
 
 5684 600 
 
 1-6 
 
 North America 
 South America . ... 
 
 7,952,386 
 6844 602 
 
 88,386,084 
 33 342 700 
 
 11 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polar islands 
 
 50,609,597 
 1 689 834 
 
 1,479,717,981 
 11 170 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 52,299,431 
 
 1,479,729,151 
 
 28 
 
 SALARIES OF THE CROWNED HEADS. 
 
 Austria-Hungary, Emperor of, $3,875,000. 
 
 Bavaria, King of, $1,412,000. 
 
 Belgium, King of, $660,000. 
 
 Denmark, King of, $^27,775; and Crown 
 
 Prince, $33,330. 
 Greece King of, $260,000, including $20,OOC 
 
 a year each from Great Britain, France 
 
 and Russia. 
 Netherlands, King of, $250,000, also a large 
 
 revenue from domains, and $62,500 for 
 
 royal family, courts, and palaces. 
 Italy, King of, $2,858,000, of which $180,000 
 
 for family. 
 
 Norway and Sweden, King of $575,525. 
 Portugal, King of, $634,440. 
 
 Prussia, King of, $3,852,770; also a vast 
 amount of private property, castles, for- 
 ests, and estates, out oi which the court 
 expenditure and royal family are paid. 
 
 Roumania, King of, $237,000. 
 
 Russia, Czar of, has private estates of more 
 than 1,000,000 square miles of cultivated 
 land and forests, besides gold and other 
 mines in Siberia. The annual income 
 has been estimated at about $12,000,000. 
 
 Saxony, King of, $735,000. 
 
 Servia, King of, $240,000. 
 
 Spain, King of, $1,400,000, besides $600,000 
 for family. 
 
 Wurtemberg, King of, $449,050. 
 
 CROSSING THE LINE. 
 
 The first authentic account of the ordeal observed on board ship 
 dates 1702. One sailor represents Neptune and another his wife 
 Amphitrite; another hiis barber and the rest his suite. All dress in the 
 most grotesque raiment they can obtain. A tarred topsail is formed 
 into a bath, and a throne is provided for Neptune and his wife. Those 
 midshipmen who have never crossed the line are then brought forth, 
 while the men pour over them buckets of water, or play the fire hose 
 into their faces. Their faces being tarred are scraped by the barber, and 
 the victims are then soused into the bath provided. Here they are left to 
 struggle out and make their escape as they best can. This horse-play is 
 now almost entirely, and in most cases wholly abolished. 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 
 
 369 
 
 STATISTICS OF ALL THE CHIEF COUNTRIES. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 British Empire 
 
 327,645,000 
 
 9,043,577 
 
 London. 
 
 China , 
 
 303,241,969 
 
 4,468,750 
 
 Peking. 
 
 
 108 787 244 
 
 8 457 289 
 
 St Petersburg 
 
 France and Colonies 
 
 65 894 242 
 
 1 167 239 
 
 Paris. 
 
 France . . . 
 
 38218903 
 
 204 177 
 
 
 
 27 675 339 
 
 963062 
 
 
 United States 
 
 62622250 
 
 3602990 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 46 855 704 
 
 211 108 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Prussia 
 
 28313833 
 
 134,467 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 5416 180 
 
 29291 
 
 Munich. 
 
 
 3 129 168 
 
 5789 
 
 Dresden 
 
 
 1 994 849 
 
 7 531 
 
 Stuttgart 
 
 Baden . . . T. . 
 
 1 600839 
 
 5803 
 
 Karlsruhe 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine 
 
 1 563 145 
 
 5 602 
 
 
 Hesse 
 
 956 170 
 
 2 965 
 
 
 
 575 140 
 
 5 137 
 
 Schwerin 
 
 
 518 712 
 
 'l58 
 
 
 
 372 580 
 
 1 425 
 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 341 250 
 
 2479 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Saxe- Weimar . . . 
 
 313 668 
 
 1 387 
 
 Weimar 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 247603 
 
 906 
 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen 
 
 214,697 
 
 953 
 
 Meiningen 
 
 Saxe-Coburg Gotha 
 
 198 717 
 
 760 
 
 Gotha 
 
 
 166392 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 161,129 
 
 511 
 
 Altenburg. 
 
 
 123250 
 
 472 
 
 Detmold 
 
 
 112 118 
 
 319 
 
 Gera 
 
 
 98 371 
 
 1 131 
 
 Neu Strelitz 
 
 Schwarzburg Rud 
 
 83939 
 
 363 
 
 Rudolstadt 
 
 
 73 623 
 
 333 
 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 67 658 
 
 115 
 
 
 Waldeck 
 
 56 565 
 
 433 
 
 Arolsen 
 
 
 53787 
 
 122 
 
 Greiz 
 
 Schaumburg Lippe 
 
 37,204 
 
 131 
 
 Buckeburg. 
 
 Austro-Hungarian Empire 
 
 41,827,700 
 39607234 
 
 201,591 
 147 669 
 
 Vienna. 
 Tokio 
 
 
 33042238 
 
 778 187 
 
 
 Turkish Empire . 
 
 32000000 
 
 1 731 280 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Italy 
 
 29,99 785 
 
 110 665 
 
 
 Spain and Colonies 
 
 24,873,621 
 
 361 953 
 
 Madrid. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 3219000 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 
 
 11 520041 
 
 751 700 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Corea 
 
 10,519,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 Seul. 
 
 Congo State 
 
 8000000 
 
 802000 
 
 
 
 7653600 
 
 636000 
 
 Teheran 
 
 Portugal and Colonies 
 
 7 249 050 
 
 240,691 
 
 Lisbon. 
 
 Egypt * 
 
 6806381 
 
 494000 
 
 Cairo 
 
 
 6 774 409 
 
 298 974 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 Morocco , 
 
 6,5(0,000 
 
 314,000 
 
 Fez. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 6 030 043 
 
 11 373 
 
 Brussels 
 
 
 6000000 
 
 106300 
 
 Hue 
 
 Siam 
 
 5,700,000 
 
 280,550 
 
 Bangkok. 
 
 Roumania * 
 
 5,376000 
 
 46314 
 
 Bucharest. 
 
 
 4200000 
 
 1 095 013 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 
 4000000 
 
 331 420 
 
 Bogota 
 
 Afghanistan 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 279,000 
 
 Cabul. 
 
 Madagascar . 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 230000 
 
 Antananarivo. 
 
 
 3000000 
 
 129000 
 
 
 
 2970000 
 
 405040 
 
 
 
 2,933,334 
 
 15,981 
 
 Berue. 
 
 Chili 
 
 2,665,926 
 
 256,860 
 
 Santiago 
 
 
 2,300000 
 
 472000 
 
 La Paz 
 
 
 2 187208 
 
 24977 
 
 Athens 
 
 
 2,172205 
 
 14,789 
 
 Copen hagen . 
 
 
 2,121 988 
 
 566 159 
 
 Caracas 
 
 Servia 
 
 2096 043 
 
 18757 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Bulgaria *.... 
 
 2,007,919 
 
 24,700 
 
 Sofia. 
 
 TJ. I. -24 
 
370 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 STATISTICS OF ALL THE CHIEF COUNTRIES. Concluded. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Nepaul ... . 
 
 2000 000 
 
 56800 
 
 Khatmandu 
 
 Cochin-China 
 
 1 642 182 
 
 22 958 
 
 Saigon 
 
 Oman 
 
 1,600000 
 
 81 000 
 
 Muscat. 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 1,427 116 
 
 46 774 
 
 New Guatemala 
 
 
 1 146,000 
 
 144 000 
 
 Quito 
 
 Liberia 
 
 1,150000 
 
 14 000 
 
 Monrovia 
 
 Transvaal . . . 
 
 800000 
 
 110 193 
 
 Pretoria 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 700000 
 
 72 112 
 
 Montevideo. 
 
 Khiva ... 
 
 700000 
 
 82 320 
 
 Khiva 
 
 
 651 130 
 
 7 228 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 550000 
 
 29 830 
 
 Porte au Prince 
 
 
 476000 
 
 145 000 
 
 
 Honduras 
 
 431,917 
 
 42 658 
 
 Teguciga Ipa. 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 400000 
 
 51 660 
 
 Managua 
 
 Dominican Republic 
 
 350,000 
 
 20,596 
 
 San Domingo. 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 245 380 
 
 3 486 
 
 Cetigno 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 213,785 
 
 19,985 
 
 San Jos6. 
 
 Orange Free State 
 
 133518 
 
 41 484 
 
 Bloemfontein 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 86,647 
 
 6,587 
 
 Honolulu. 
 
 * Also enumerated with Turkish Empire, t Also enumerated with Colonies of France. 
 
 ALL THE FAMOUS DIAMONDS. 
 Following is an accurate list of the largest diamonds in the world: 
 
 CARATS (UNCUT). CUT. 
 
 410 
 
 112 
 
 88 1 /, 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Braganza King of Portugal. 
 
 Rajah of Mattan. (Borneo.) 
 
 Star of the South 
 
 Orloff. Czar of Russia. 
 
 Florentine Empress of Austria. 
 
 King of Portugal. 
 
 Pitt King of Prussia 
 
 Koh-i-noor Queen of England. 
 
 Shah Czar of Russia. 
 
 Pigott Messrs. Rundell and Bridge. 
 
 Nassac I/ord Westminster. 
 
 Blue 
 
 Sancy Czar of Russia. 
 
 Dudley Earl of Dudley. 
 
 Pacha of Egypt Khedive of Egypt. 
 
 THE SWEATING SYSTEM. 
 
 As the result of an informal census taken in England in 1884 by 
 the Amalgamated Society of Tailors, it was discovered that fifteen thou- 
 sand tailors, out of a total of twenty thousand were employed under the 
 sweating system. A report by Mr. John Burnett, the labor correspondent 
 of the Board, to the Board of Trade, on the subject of sweating in the East 
 of London, was issued in 1887, and in 1888, on the motion of Lord Dunra- 
 ven, a committee of the House of Lords was appointed to inquire into the 
 sweating system of the East of London. The scope of the committee was 
 on its report the same year, enlarged to take evidence on the sweating 
 system in the United Kingdom generally. The committee was reap- 
 pointed in 1889, and took evidence respecting the sweating system in 
 numerous trades, and also in respect of government contracts. A report 
 was presented in the House of Lords in 1890, establishing the fact that the 
 sweating system prevailed in many trades, and that among its causes were 
 the inefficiency of many of the workpeople, early marriages and the ex- 
 cessive supply of unskilled labor. Recommendations for parliamentary 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WAYS. 
 
 371 
 
 interference were made, especially in respect of the improvement of the 
 sanitary condition of many factories, workshops, and domestic workshops 
 where work of a sweating character was performed. Additional inspec- 
 tors with enlarged powers were also declared requisite. Of late attention 
 has been called to the same practices in the large cities in our own coun- 
 try. A congressional committee has been investigating the matter with 
 a view to legislation. 
 
 CASTE AMONG THE HINDOOS. 
 
 Caste is a term applied to the division into social classes in India- 
 To each of these classes certain pursuits are limited by the Laws of Manu, 
 B.C. 960. 1. The Brahmans or sacerdotal class, which "issued from the 
 mouth of Brahma." 
 
 2. The Chuttree or military class, which "sprang from the arm of 
 Brahma. ' ' 
 
 3. The Bais or mercantile class, which "sprang from the thigh of 
 Brahma." 
 
 4. The Sudras or servile class, which ' 'sprang from the foot of 
 Brahma." 
 
 The Pariahs and Chandalas are nobodies, or worse, for it is pollu- 
 tion to be touched by such "scum of the earth." 
 
 HEIGHTS OF NOTED EDIFICES. 
 
 FEET. 
 
 Eiffel Tower, Paris 989 
 
 Washington Monument 555 
 
 Pyramid, Cheops, Egypt 543 
 
 Cathedral, Cologne 51 1 
 
 " Antwerp 476 
 
 Strasburg 474 
 
 Tower, Utrecht 464 
 
 Steeple, St. Stephen's, Vienna 460 
 
 Pyramid, Khafras, Egypt 456 
 
 St. Martin's Church, Bavaria 456 
 
 Chimney, Port Dundas, Glasgow 454 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome 448 
 
 Notre Dame, Amiens 422 
 
 Salisbury Spire, England 406 
 
 Cathedral, Florence 380 
 
 Cremona 372 
 
 " Freiburg 367 
 
 St. Paul's, London 365 
 
 Cathedral, Seville 360 
 
 Pyramid, Sakkarah, Egypt 356 
 
 Cathedral, Milan 355 
 
 Notre Dame, Munich 348 
 
 Invalides, Paris 347 
 
 Parliament House, London 340 
 
 Cathedral, Magdeburg 337 
 
 St. Patrick's, New York. 328 
 
 St. Mark's, Venice 328 
 
 FEET. 
 
 Cathedral, Bologna 321 
 
 Norwich, England 309 
 
 Chichester, England 300 
 
 " Lincoln, England 300 
 
 Capitol, Washington 300 
 
 St. James' Cathedral, Toronto 316 
 
 Trinity Church, New York 283 
 
 Cathedral, Mexico 280 
 
 Montreal 280 
 
 Com panile Tower, Florence 276 
 
 Column, Delhi 260 
 
 Cathedral, Dantzic 250 
 
 Porcelain Tower, Nankin 248 
 
 Custom House, St. Louis 240 
 
 Canterbury Tower, England 235 
 
 Notre Dame, Paris 232 
 
 Chicago Board of Trade 230 
 
 St. Patrick's, Dublin 226 
 
 Cathedral, Glasgow 225 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument 220 
 
 Notre Dame, Montreal 220 
 
 Cathedral, Lima 220 
 
 Rheims 220 
 
 Garden City, L.I 219 
 
 St. Peter and Paul, Philadelphia 210 
 
 Washington Monument, Baltimore. .. .210 
 Vendome Column, Paris 153 
 
 LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. 
 
 Around many flowers a consistent and well understood symbolism 
 has gathered, but the Orientals have developed this into a perfect vehicle 
 for communicating sentimental and amatory expressions of all degrees 
 of warmth. In this manner a cluster of flowers can be made to express 
 any sentiment, if care is taken in the selection. 
 
 If a flower is offered reversed, its original signification is contradicted 
 and the opposite implied. 
 
372 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 A rosebud divested of its thorns, but retaining its leaves, conveys the 
 sentiment "I fear no longer; I hope. ' ' Stripped of leaves and thorns, it 
 signifies "There is nothing to hope or fear." 
 
 A full blown rose, placed over two buds, signifies "Secrecy." 
 
 "Yes" is implied by touching the flower given to the lips; "No," by 
 pinching off a petal and casting it away. 
 
 "I am" is expressed by a laurel leaf twined around the bouquet; "I 
 have," by an ivy leaf folded together; "I offer you," by a leaf of Virginia 
 creeper. 
 
 COMBINATIONS AND SYMBOLS. 
 
 Mignonette, 
 Colored Daisy, 
 
 ( Your qualities sur- 
 -( pass your charms 
 
 Lily of the Valley, 
 Ferns, 
 
 Yellow Rose, 
 Broken Straw. 
 Ivy, 
 
 Scarlet Geranium, 
 Passion Flower, 
 Purple Hyacinth, 
 Arbor Vitse. 
 
 of beauty. 
 Your unconscious 
 sweetness has 
 fascinated me. 
 Your jealousy has 
 broken our 
 friendship. 
 I trust you will 
 find consolation 
 through faith in 
 your sorrow ; be 
 assured of my 
 unchanging 
 friendship. 
 
 Arbor Vltse. Unchanging friendship. 
 
 Camelia, White. Loveliness. 
 
 Candy-Tuft. Indifference 
 
 Carnation, White. Disdain. 
 
 China Aster. Variety. 
 
 Clover, Four-Leaf. Be mine. 
 
 Clover, White. Think of me. 
 
 Clover, Red. Industry. 
 
 Columbine. Folly. 
 
 Daisy. Innocence. 
 
 Daisy, Colored. Beauty. 
 
 Dead Leaves. Sadness. 
 
 Deadly Nightshade. Falsehood. 
 
 Fern . Fascination . 
 
 Forget-me-not. Forget-me-not. 
 
 Fuchsia, Scarlet. Taste. 
 
 Geranium, Horseshoe. Stupidity. 
 
 Geranium, Scarlet. Consolation. 
 
 Geranium, Rose. Preference. 
 
 Golden-rod. Be cautious. 
 
 Heliotrope. Devotion. 
 
 Hyacinth, White. Loveliness. 
 
 Hyacinth, Purple. Sorrow. 
 
 Ivy. Friendship. 
 
 Lily, Day. Coquetry. 
 
 Lily, White. Sweetness. 
 
 Lily, Yellow. Gayety. 
 
 Moss Rosebud, 
 Myrtle, 
 Columbine, 
 Day Lily, 
 Broken Straw, 
 Witch Hazel, 
 Colored Daisy, 
 
 White Pink, 
 Canary Grass, 
 Laurel, 
 Golden Rod, 
 Monkshead. 
 Sweet Pea, 
 Forget-me-not. 
 
 ol 
 
 spell of your 
 ity. 
 
 j A confession 
 I of love. 
 
 (Your folly and 
 coquetry have 
 broken 
 thes 
 I beau _ 
 Your talent and 
 perseverance 
 will win you 
 glory. 
 Be cautious : 
 danger is near; 
 I depart soon : 
 forget me not. 
 
 Lily, Water. Purity of heart; elegance. 
 
 Lily of the Valley. Unconscious sweet- 
 ness. 
 
 Mignonette. Your qualities surpass your 
 charms. 
 
 Monkshead. Danger is nenr. 
 
 Myrtle. Love. 
 
 Oak. Hospitality. 
 
 Orange Blossoms. Chastity. 
 
 Pansy. Thoughts. 
 
 Passion Flower. Faith. 
 
 Primrose. Inconstancy. 
 
 Rose. Love. 
 
 Rose, Damask. Beauty ever new. 
 
 Rose, Yellow. Jealousy. 
 
 Rose, White. I am worthy of you. 
 
 Rosebud, Moss. Confession of love. 
 
 Smilax. Constancy. 
 
 Straw. Agreement. 
 
 Straw, Broken. Broken agreement. 
 
 Sweat Pea. Depart. 
 
 Tuberose. Dangerous pleasures. 
 
 Thistle. Sternness. 
 
 Verbena. Pray for me. 
 
 White Jasmine. Amiability. 
 
 Witch Hazel. A spell. 
 
 END OF THK WORLD. 
 
 This ought to have occurred, according to Nicolas de Cusa, in 1704. 
 He demonstrates it thus: The Deluge happened in the thirty-fourth 
 jubilee of fifty years from the Creation (A.M. 1700), and therefore the end 
 of the world should properly occur on the thirty-fourth jubilee of the 
 Christian era, or A.D. 1704. The four grace years are added to com- 
 pensate for the blunder of chronologists respecting the first year of 
 grace. 
 
 The most popular dates of modern times for the end of the world, or 
 what is practically the same thing, the Millennium, are the following: 
 
THE WORLD AND ITS WA VS. 373 
 
 1757, Swedenborg; 1836, Johann Albrecht Bengel, Erkldrte Offenbarung; 
 1843, William Miller, of America; 1866, Dr. John Gumming; 1881, Mother 
 Shipton. 
 
 It was very generally believed in France, Germany, etc., that the end 
 of the world would happen in the thousandth year after Christ; and 
 therefore much of the land was left uncultivated, and a general famine 
 ensued. Luckily it was not agreed whether the thousand years should 
 date from the birth or the death of Christ, or the desolation would have 
 been much greater. Many charters begin with these words, As the 
 world is now drawing to its close. Kings and nobles gave up their state: 
 Robert of France, son of Hugh Capet, entered the monastery of St. 
 Denis; and at Limoges, princes, nobles, and knights proclaimed ' ' God's 
 Truce," and solemnly bound themselves to abstain from feuds, to keep 
 the peace towards each other, and to help the oppressed. 
 
 Another hypothesis is this: As one day with God equals a thousand 
 years (Psalm xc. 4) and God labored in creation six days, therefore the 
 world is to labor 6,000 years, and then to rest. According to this theory, 
 the end of the world ought to occur A.M. 6000, or A.D. 1996 (supposing 
 the world to have been created 4,004 years before the birth of Christ). 
 This hypothesis, which is widely accepted, is quite safe for another cent- 
 ury at least. 
 
 GREAT FLOODS AND INUNDATIONS. 
 
 Following is a list of the greatest floods of which modern history 
 makes mention: 
 
 6S4 A.D. Japan; 780 sq. m. of Isle of Shikoku covered by sea. 
 
 968. Persian Gulf; many cities destroyed, and new islands formed by irruption of 
 sea. 
 
 1098 or 1100. East of Kent inundated; Goodwin Sands formed. 
 
 1161 or 1165. Sicily; irruption of sea; thousands drowned. 
 
 1173. Holland; Zuider Zee much enlarged. 
 
 1219. Nordland, Norway; lake burst; 36,000 people perished. 
 
 1228. Friesland; invasion of sea; 100.000 people drowned. 
 
 1396. Holland; islands of Texel, Vlieland, and Wieringen separated from main- 
 land, and Marsdiep, the channel between Texel and North Holland, formed. 
 
 1421 or 1446. Holland; 72 villages inundated, of which 20 permanently ; about 100,000 
 persons drowned. Biebosch formed east of Dordrecht, and this town separated from 
 mainland. 
 
 1521. Holland; 103,000 lives by an inundation. 
 
 1570. Holland; storm drove in the sea, destroying numerous villages and 20,000 
 people in Friesland. 
 
 1617. Catalonia, Spain; 15,000 perished in floods. 
 
 1612. China, at Kaifong; 300,000 drowned. 
 
 1*546. Holland and Friesland in undated; loss of life 110,000. 
 
 1745. Peru; Callao destroyed by irruption of sea caused by earthquakes. 
 
 1767. England; irruption of sea on east coast. 
 
 1782. Formosa; west side of island submerged, and Taiwan destroyed. 
 
 1787-88. India, in Northwestern Provinces and Punjab; 15,000 lives lost by floods. 
 
 1791. Cuba; floods from excessive rain; 3,000 drowned. 
 
 1811. Hungary; 24 villages swept away by overflow of Danube. 
 
 1813. Austria, Hungary, Poland and Prussian Silesia; floods caused by rains; 4,000 
 perished in Poland, 6,000 in Silesia. 
 
 1834. St. Petersburg and Cronstadt, 10,000 lives lost from overflow of Neva. 
 
 1825. Denmark; sei broke through from North Sea to Limfjord, making northern 
 Jutland an island; one-third of Friesland submerged by rising of sea and 
 rivers. 
 
 1851. Northern China; Yellow River burst its banks, and made a new outlet into 
 Gulf of Pechili. 
 
 1856. South of France; floods did damage to extent of $35,600,000. 
 
 1888. Peru; Arica and Iquique nearly destroyed by earthquake waves. 
 
 1874. United States ; Mill River valley (Massachusetts) inundated by bursting of a 
 dam; 144 drowned. Also floods in western Pennsylvania; 220 drowned, 
 
374 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 1876. China; floods in northern provinces; in Bengal 200,090 persons perished from 
 
 inundation of a tidal wave. 
 18S3. Java and Sumatra; west coast of former and east coast of latter submerged 
 
 by volcanic wave, new islands formed in Sunda Straits, whilst part of Kra- 
 
 katoa disappeared. 
 1887. China; floods in Ho-nan, caused by the Hoang-ho bursting its southern bank; 
 
 millions of lives lost. 
 1889. Johnstown (Pennsylvania), United States; 10,000 lives lost from bursting of a 
 
 reservoir 
 
 HISTORIC FIRES. 
 
 London, September 2-6, 1666. Eighty-nine churches, many public 
 buildings and 13,200 houses destroyed; 400 streets laid waste; 200,000 
 persons homeless. The ruins covered 436 acres. 
 
 New York, December 16, 1835. 600 buildings; loss, $20,000,000. 
 September 6, 1839. $10,000,000 worth of property. 
 
 Pittsburgh, April 10, 1845. 1,000 buildings; loss, $6,000,000. 
 
 Philadelphia, July 9, 1850. 350 buildings; loss, $1,500,000; 25 per- 
 sons killed; 9 drowned; 120 wounded. 
 
 San Francisco, May 3-5, 1851. 2,500 buildings; loss, $3,500,000; 
 many lives lost. June 22, 1851. 500 buildings; loss, $3,000,000. 
 
 Santiago (Spain), December 8, 1863. A fire in the church of the 
 Campania, beginning amid combustible ornaments; 2,000 persons killed, 
 mostly women. 
 
 Charleston, S. C., February 17, 1865. Almost totally destroyed, with 
 large quantities of naval and military stores. 
 
 Richmond, Va., April 2 and 3, 1865. In great part destroyed by fire 
 at time of Confederate evacuation. 
 
 Portland, Me., July 4, 1866. Almost entirely destroyed; loss, $15,- 
 000,000. 
 
 Chicago, October 8 and 9, 1871. 3> square miles laid waste; 17,450 
 buildings destroyed; 200 persons killed; 98, 500 made homeless. July 14, 
 1874. Another great fire; loss, $4,000,000. 
 
 Great forest fires in Michigan and Wisconsin, October 8-14, 1871 
 2, 000 lives lost. 
 
 Boston, November 9-11, 1872. 800 buildings; loss, $73,000,000. 15 
 killed. 
 
 Fall River, Mass., September 19, 1874. Great factory fires; 60 per- 
 sons killed. 
 
 Brooklyn Theater burned Decembers, 1876. 300 lives lost. 
 
 Seattle and Spokane, Wash., 1889. About $10, 000, 000 each. 
 
 ALL WHO EVER LIVED. 
 
 According to a recent writer, it is impossible to give any close figures 
 on the number of persons who have lived on this earth. It is generally 
 considered that one person in every thirteen dies each year. At this 
 rate the population would be renewed every thirteen years. Assuming 
 that the population of the world is 1,000,000,000 and that it has been 
 1,000,000,000 at any time during the last 6,000 years, we find that the 
 population has been renewed about 461 times; that is, that 462,000,000,000 
 have lived on this earth since its creation. This, of course, is vastly in 
 excess of the real number, for the world, so far as we can tell, is more 
 thickly populated now than ever before. Probably if we were to cut 
 those figures in two we should still be above the actual number, with a 
 total of 231,000,000,000 persons. 
 
RACES AND TRIBES OF MEN. 
 
 The human race, 
 
 Of every tongue, of every place, 
 
 Caucasian, Coptic or Malay, 
 All that inhaoit this great earth, 
 Whatever be their rank or worth, 
 Are kindred and allied by birth, 
 
 And made of the same clay. 
 
 IvONGFELLOW. 
 
 FEATURES, TYPES AND STUDIES. 
 Ethnology treats of races. 
 Medicine studies individuals. 
 Ethnography is the description of peoples. 
 Philology inquires into the language of man. 
 The Guanches were the aborigines of the Canary Islands. 
 Sociology investigates the principles of human development. 
 Anthropology studies man as a whole and in his relations to other 
 animals. 
 
 Blumenbach divided man into five races Mongolian, Malay, Ameri- 
 can, Ethiopian and Caucasian. 
 
 The most influential of the people of Hungary are the Magyars. In 
 language they are closely related to the Finns. 
 
 The Bible tells us that the differences in language of men began with 
 the confusion of tongues at the tower of Babel. 
 
 The Calumet is the pipe of peace smoked by the North American 
 Indians, both in their councils and on the conclusion of a peace. 
 
 Craniology or the study of the skull has proved a valuable though not 
 entirely trustworthy aid in the investigation of racial differences. 
 
 Cyclopaean works are ancient structures of huge, unhewn and un- 
 cemented blocks of stone. Examples in Sicily, Peru and Ireland. 
 
 The three types of man differ much in temperament. The Ethi- 
 opian is sensuous, unintellectual, cheerful and even boisterous, but fitful. 
 
 The I/esghians are a Tartar race of the Eastern Caucasus, and form 
 the majority of the people of Daghestan. They are Mahommedan in 
 religion. 
 
 The Cimbri were the ancient inhabitants of Jutland, of disputed 
 nationality. They made serious incursions into Italy, but were utterly 
 routed by the Romans, 101 B. c., and were afterwards merged in the 
 Saxons. 
 
 375 
 
376 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION, 
 
 Borough-English was an ancient custom by which the youngest son 
 inherits property instead of the eldest son. It is mentioned as early 
 as 834. 
 
 The Huns were a fierce tribe of Asiatics. They invaded Hungary 
 (376) and expelled the Goths, but were thoroughly beaten (451) at Chalons 
 by Aetius. 
 
 In India there are separate classes of society called castes. They are 
 the Brahmins, the military class, the commercial class, and the servile 
 class or pariahs. 
 
 The study of man's speech is a study of man himself. His words 
 originated in his wants and works and indicate to us his occupation and 
 to some extent his character. 
 
 Anthropophagi is another name for cannibals. It is said that the 
 Caribs were cannibals before the Spanish conquest, and that the term 
 cannibal arose from that fact. 
 
 Cuvier and Talu, scientists, have combined the first three in Blumen- 
 bach's classification and consider the fundamental types of man as three 
 Ethiopic, Mongolic and Caucasic. 
 
 The original inhabitants of Borneo were called Dyaks. They were 
 great pirates and practiced head-hunting, but modern civilization has 
 nearly demolished those practices. 
 
 The full-blooded South African negro is remarkable for his extraord- 
 inary length of arm, the Aymara Indian of Peru for the surprising short- 
 ness of the corresponding member. 
 
 I^and held by the community in Anglo-Saxon times was called Folc- 
 land. It could be let for a term to individuals, but reverted to the com- 
 munity on the expiration of that term. 
 
 Avebury stones are supposed to be the remains of Druidical structures 
 at Avebury, in Wiltshire, and are the largest in England. They are up- 
 right stones of about seventeen feet in height. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of the Crimea were called Cimmerians. In 
 the "Odyssey" the Cimmerii were people living beyond the ocean in 
 thickest gloom ; hence " Cimmerian darkness." 
 
 Shamanism was the heathen religion of the Turanian races of Siberia. 
 Its characteristic is a belief in magic, the shaman, or wizard-priest, being 
 closely akin to the medicine-man of the Red Indians. 
 
 Coolies are Indian and Chinese laborers who emigrate to foreign 
 lands. The American and European residents in the treaty ports of China 
 apply the same term to the native laborers in their employ. 
 
 The system in Anglo-Saxon times by which communities were divided 
 into tithings of ten houses, the holders of which were responsible for 
 faults or crimes committed by any of them, was called " fraud pledge." 
 
 The Wends, a branch of the western Slavs, were in the sixth century a 
 powerful race, extending from the Elbe to the Vistula, but they are now 
 confined to the district known as Lusatia, partly in Prussia and partly in 
 Saxony. 
 
 The Goorkhas are a tribe of mountaineers in Nepaul, India. Though 
 small in stature, they are possessed of indomitable courage and bravery, 
 having signally distinguished themselves in the campaign undertaken by 
 the British in India. 
 
RACES AND TRIBES OF MEN. 377 
 
 The period during which stone implements, unpolished, were used 
 by early man is called the Palaeolithic Age. Contemporaneous with the 
 Palaeolithic Age were many mammals now extinct, as the cave bear, the 
 woolly rhinoceros, etc. 
 
 The Celts were an ancient Aryan race formerly inhabiting Gaul. The 
 name has been applied to the primitive races of Ireland, Scotland and 
 Wales, but neither Greeks nor Romans regarded the British Isles as be- 
 longing to the Celtic world. 
 
 The Belgae were German and Celtic tribes inhabiting the tract of 
 country extending from the Atlantic to the Rhine, and from the Marne to 
 the Seine. They were very valiant, and some of them were found in Kent 
 and Sussex by Caesar on his invasion of Britain. 
 
 The countries relatively richest in horses and horned stock are 
 Argentine and Uruguay; Austria has the most sheep; Servia the greatest 
 relative number of pigs to population. The poorest in horses is Italy; 
 in cattle, Portugal; in sheep, Belgium; in hogs, Greece. 
 
 The people known as lake-dwellers gave rise to the term "I/acustrian 
 Period," an extremely remote age when human habitations, for the sake 
 of security, were built in the midst of lakes. Remains of such habitations 
 exist in certain lakes of Switzerland, Scotland, Ireland, etc. 
 
 Brochs are prehistoric structures in Scotland resembling low circular 
 roofless towers, with walls of great thickness of unhewn stones and. 
 enclosed by a narrow passage, chiefly in Orkney, Shetland, etc. The 
 brochs of Mousa is a typical and the best preserved example. 
 
 The Mahrattas are a native Indian race which founded an empire in 
 Central and Western India, 1674. After 1795, Scindia, Holkar and Berar 
 became independent ; the confederacy of Mahratta states came to an end 
 in 1818, and all the chiefs became dependants of the British Crown. 
 
 In the Spanish province of Gerona a fairly pure type of the dwarf 
 race of Morocco and the Atlas has been traced. These people average 
 about 3^ feet in height, and are otherwise characterized by a yellow skin, 
 broad, square faces, Mongolian eyes and red hair of a woolly texture. 
 
 A people now frequently heard of are the Bechuanas, a powerful and 
 warlike race of the Kaffir stock, inhabiting a large tract of South Africa, 
 north of Cape Colony. They are engaged in agriculture and the rearing 
 of cattle. The greater part of the territory is under British influence. 
 
 By the law of Gavelkind the land of the father was, at his decease, 
 divided among the sons; if there were no sons, it was divided among the 
 daughters. After the Norman Conquest Gavelkind gave place to the 
 feudal law of primogeniture, and was only observed in Kent and Wales. 
 
 A Scotch or Gaelic tribe formed of members of one family and their 
 descendants is called a clan. It is supposed to have arisen in Scotland 
 about 1008. The chiefs exercised jurisdiction as the fathers of the clans, 
 but their legal and heritable jurisdiction was abolished in 1747, after the 
 rebellion. 
 
 The Romans used frequently to be at war with the Volsci, an ancient 
 people of Latium. Their chief city was Coriole, from which Caius Mar- 
 tius, who defeated them, obtained his name of Coriolanus (about 490 B. c.). 
 They were again utterly defeated (389 B. c.) by M. Furius Camillus, the 
 conqueror of Veii, and finally (c. 338 B. c.) were incorporated with the Ro- 
 man people. 
 
378 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Scythians were a nomad race of Asia known to the ancient writers. 
 The name bore two significations, meaning (1) the Scythians proper or 
 Scolots, (2) all the nomad tribes (Sacae, Sarmatians, Massagetae, Scplots) 
 who dwelt in the steppes from what is now Hungary to the mountains of 
 Turkestan. 
 
 The name Moors was first applied to the inhabitants of Mauritania ; 
 afterwards to the inhabitants of the whole of Africa north of the Sahara 
 and west of Tripoli. Now it is given to the people of Morocco, but it is 
 sometimes loosely used as synonymous with Arab, Saracen, or even Ma- 
 hommedan. 
 
 The Basques are descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied Spain 
 before the Celts. They occupy the provinces of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and 
 Alava in Spain, and the departments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, 
 Ariege, and Upper Garonne, and retain their ancient language, manners, 
 and customs. 
 
 The Fire Ordeal was an ancient form of trial for persons of high rank 
 in England and Germany, in which the accused had to walk barefoot over 
 nine red hot ploughshares, or over red-hot cinders, or to carry a red-hot 
 iron in his hand for a certain distance. If he escaped unhurt he was con- 
 sidered innocent. 
 
 Shire is the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of the Norman county. The 
 Earl was originally the head of the shire, but his duties were gradually 
 carried out by the Shire-reeve, as the king's representative in the shire, 
 who levied the various dues, fines, etc., in the king's name, and acted as 
 his legal representative. 
 
 In the fourth century B. c. the Goths were found inhabiting the coasts 
 of the Baltic, and later the shores of the Black Sea, and north of the 
 Lower Danube. Defeated and killed the Roman emperor, Decius (251). 
 Claudius (269) defeated the Goths with great slaughter. Dacia ceded to 
 the Goths (272) by Aurelian. 
 
 According to the Bible the Midianites were the descendants of 
 Midian, son of Abraham by Keturah, inhabiting the country between the 
 Red Sea and the plains of Moab. They were powerful at one time, but, 
 with their allies the Amalekites, were completely routed by Gideon, and 
 are seldom heard of afterwards. 
 
 The Chaldeans or Akkadians are a non-Semitic race who came orig- 
 inally from the mountain country of Elam, and were formerly the domi- 
 nant people of Babylonia. One of the four great cities of Shinar was 
 Accad. The Babylonians were indebted to the Sumero- Akkadians for 
 their cuneiform writing, religion, and mythology. 
 
 The ancient sea-rovers of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway and 
 Sweden), or Northmen, called themselves Vikings (sea-kings). Their 
 ravages extended from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries, and they 
 formed permanent settlements in England, Ireland, Northern France, and 
 Southern Italy. In France the name was contracted into Normans. 
 
 Closely related to the Sabines were the Samnites, who were long for- 
 midable rivals of the Romans, and were only subdued after three san- 
 guinary wars, waged with little interruption from 343 B.C. to 290 B.C. The 
 Samnites took a prominent part in the social war (90 B. c.), and espoused 
 the cause of Marius against Sulla, by whom they were almost extirpated 
 (82 B. c.). 
 
RACES AND TRIBES OF MEN. 379 
 
 Fire worship was established by Zoroaster amongst the Persians, who 
 worshipped the sun, and held that the sacred fires of their temples and 
 the sun were the especial places of the divine habitation. Fire worship 
 is also practised by the Parsees. Among the early Hindus the sun was 
 worshipped under the simulacrum of the god Agni and represented in 
 the Vedas as the god of Fire Worship. 
 
 In the third century the Saxons, a Teutonic race, made numerous 
 settlements on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany, thence called the 
 "Saxon Shore." In the fifth century they laid the foundations of the 
 Saxon kingdoms in England. Those who remained in Germany, some- 
 times called old Saxons, spread south and east over Saxony. They were 
 finally subdued by Charlemagne in 803. 
 
 Cromlech is a modern term formerly applied by archaeologists to a 
 class of tnegalithic monuments, consisting of one flat stone supported on 
 two or more upright stones, and forming a kind of open chamber with a 
 roof. It is now generally recognized, however, that these are merely the 
 denuded or uncovered chambers of cairns or barrows, for which another 
 modern term, ' 'dolmen, ' ' is now generally substituted. 
 
 The Varangians were the Norse vikings, who in the ninth century laid 
 the foundations of the Russian Empire. Many of them entered the serv- 
 ice of the Byzantine emperors, and in the days of the Comneni the Var- 
 angians regularly formed the imperial bodyguard at Constantinople. 
 The Varangians at Constantinople were largely recruited by Anglo-Saxons 
 and Danes from England after the Norman Conquest. 
 
 The Hottentots are an African native race occupying the country 
 north from the Cape Colony to Mossamedes, stretching westward to the 
 Atlantic, and bounded on the East by the Kalahari desert. Formerly a 
 numerous nation, the Hottentots have been greatly diminished by the 
 oppression of the Boers, and the race is now nearly extinct. The Hot- 
 tentots include the Griquas, Bushmen, Korannas, Namaquas, and 
 Damaras. 
 
 The Pygmie, a fabled race of dwarfs, mentioned by Homer (II. iii. 3 N 
 and Pliny. They were said to have inhabited the shores of the Nile. A 
 race of pygmies, the Wambutti, was discovered by Mr. H. M. Stanley 
 during his recent expedition in "Darkest Africa." He tells us how the 
 "dwarfs with poisoned arrows, securely hidden behind buttress or in 
 some dark recess," disputed his march with relentless vigilance and vin- 
 dictiveness. 
 
 The Sabines were an important tribe of ancient Italy, allied to the 
 Latins, Samnites, etc. Famous in Roman history as the people whose 
 daughters were treacherously seized by the Romans at the Consualia, or 
 games in honor of the God Census. A treaty of peace was concluded 
 with the Sabines (750 B. c.). After frequent wars, the Sabines were finally 
 defeated (449 B. c.) by M. Horatius, and were incorporated with Rome in 
 the third century B. c. 
 
 The Hivites were a Canaanitish people specially associated with the 
 Amorites, dwelling in the time of Joshua (Josh, ix.) near the center of 
 Palestine and near Mount Hermon and Mount Lebanon, the latter being 
 regarded as the country of the Amorites in the Egyptian texts and Tel-el- 
 Amarna tablets. The Hivites are first mentioned in Scripture in Gen. x, 
 17; they were subjected to tribute by Solomon, after whose reign then- 
 name no longer appears. 
 
380 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Animism is a term which explains all natural phenomena by the 
 medium of spiritual agency. The Greek, Roman, and other ancient 
 nations of antiquity, worshipped natural phenomena in a concrete form as 
 divinities. Compare Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, Sanskrit Dyu, Greek 
 Zeus, the sky, etc. The term animism was first applied by Dr. E. B. 
 Tylor, to express the general theory of spiritual beings. 
 
 Albinos, called also Leucoethiopes, or white negroes, and by the 
 Dutch and Germans Kakerlaken, were at one time considered a distinct 
 race, but closer observation has shown that the same phenomenon occurs 
 in individuals of all races, and that the peculiar white appearance arises 
 from an irregularity of the skin. The iris of the eye is red in the Albino. 
 Albinoism occurs also in other mammalia, birds and insects. 
 
 The Teutones were a German tribe, mentioned by Roman writers as in- 
 habiting the northwest part of Germany north of the Elbe. In conjunc- 
 tion with the Cimbri, they invaded Gaul (103 B. c.), destroying three 
 Roman armies, and then proceeded to invade Italy ; but the Teutones 
 were defeated and almost annihilated by Marius at Aquae Sextiae (102 B. 
 C.), and the Cimbri at Campus Raudius, near Verullae (101 B. c.) . 
 
 The Druids were ancient priests and legislators of the Britons, Ger- 
 mans and Gauls. They reverenced the oak and the mistletoe growing 
 upon it. They believed in the immortality and transmigration of the soul, 
 and were acquainted with astronomy, philosophy, and physic. They ex- 
 ercised great power over the people, and resisted the landing of Caesar in 
 Britain. They were exterminated by Suetonius Paulinus, A. D. 61 . 
 
 In the vicinity of Palenque, a Mexican village, are the grandest and 
 most extensive ruins in the American continent, dating from before the 
 Spanish conquest. The chief structure is a huge pile called the palace, 
 two hundred and twenty eight feet long, one hundred and eighty feet 
 wide, and twenty-five feet high, with numerous sculptures and hiero- 
 glyphics, raised on a grand basement, square on the plan, and rising by 
 huge steps to the summit. 
 
 The Aztecs were the early inhabitants of Mexico, who became highly 
 civilized and adopted a monarchical form of government in 1352. Then 
 most celebrated king was Montezuma-Illumicamina, who erected several 
 magnificent buildings, the remains of which are still to be seen. They 
 believed in a Supreme Being, whom they never represented by sculpture 
 or painting, as they believed him to be invisible. The Aztecs were con- 
 quered by the Spaniards under Cortez, 1521. 
 
 The Ethiopic type of man is a worshipper of nature and believes in 
 fetichism and witchcraft. The Mongolic type believes in dreams and 
 visions and is a spirit worshipper, while the Caucasic type has creeds 
 based on revelation and a priesthood with the idea of mediation promi- 
 nent. The Mongolian is sluggish, somewhat morose and taciturn with 
 little of the initiative but much endurance. The Caucasian has a high 
 imagination, is active and enterprising, speculative yet practical. 
 
 rhe word Boers (Dutch, "agriculturists," "farmers") is the name ar>, 
 plied to the Dutch Colonists of South Africa who are engaged in agricult- 
 ure and the care of cattle. Their first settlement was at the Cape of Good 
 Hope about the sixteenth century. The Boers are the republican land- 
 holders of South Africa; by no means scrupulous and humane in their 
 dealings with the natives, but remarkable for courage, love of freedom, 
 sobriety and industry. They are good horsemen and splendid marksmen. 
 
RACES AND TRIBES OF MEN. 381 
 
 The Bedouins are that class of Arabs who lead a nomadic life. Liv- 
 ing in the desert of Arabia they have evolved characteristics as robbers 
 and herdsmen, intimately connected with their mode of life. Keen of 
 physical sense, with active imagination, yet destitute of solid knowledge, 
 the Bedouin unites independence and love of liberty, with a violent pas- 
 sion, an infamous love of plunder and an entire disregard of the rights of 
 property. They are professedly Mahommedan. Bigamy is rare, polyg- 
 amy scarcely known. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Samaria were a mixed people, composed 
 of the remnant of Ephraim and Manasseh, and of Assyrian colonists in- 
 troduced after the captivity of the Ten Tribes (721 B.C.). In the New 
 Testament "The Samaritans" is used as the name of a religious com- 
 munity opposed to the Jews. They accepted only the Pentateuch, and 
 maintained that the sanctuary of the divine choice was not Mount Zion, 
 but Mount Gerizim (Shechem), where they had a temple destroyed by 
 John Hyrcanus (128 B.C.). A few of the race and religion still exist. 
 
 The Albic word "cairn 5 ' or "earn," signifying a protuberance, a h^ap, 
 is applied among archaeologists to the artificial heaps of unhewn stones 
 found in England, Wales, Scotland and Brittany. Both burnt and un- 
 burnt remains have been found in these cairns, indicating that they were 
 used as family sepulchres. They vary in shape and size. One of the 
 largest is the great chambered cairn of New Grange, near Droghede, with 
 a diameter of three hundred and fifteen feet and a height of twenty feet. 
 Its main chamber is about thirteen feet in diameter with side recesses of 
 smaller size. The site of the cairn is surrounded by a circle of standing 
 stones. 
 
 The Visigoths, or Western Goths, were the descendants of that branch 
 of the Gothic race established by Aurelian in Dacia (270). The descend- 
 ants of the other branch of the race, which remained in Southern Russia, 
 were called Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths). On the death of Theodosius, the 
 Visigoths, under Alaric, overran Greece (396) and Italy (400). After Al- 
 aric's death (410) they established a kingdom at Toulouse (418) which 
 eventually comprised the whole of Gaul south of the Loire and west of the 
 Rhone, as well as Provence and the greater part of Spain. With the de- 
 feat (and death) of Alaric II. by Clovis, on the field of Vougle (or Vouille 
 or Voclad) near Poitiers (507 j, the kingdom of Toulouse came to an end, 
 and the Visigoths abandoned to the conqueror all their territories north 
 of the Pyrenees, with the exception of a small tract of country in Gaul, 
 including the cities of Carcassone, Narbonne, and Nimes. 
 
 The Hittites were one of the most important tribes in the south of 
 Canaan. They are mentioned in Gen. x. as the descendants of Heth, a 
 son of Canaan. In the age of Abraham the Hittites inhabited Hebron 
 and its neighborhood (Gen. xxiii.). The primitive seat of the Hittites 
 was probably the Taurus mountains of Asia Minor, from whence, as indi- 
 cated by the cuneiform records of Tel-el-Amarna, in the latter part of the 
 eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, they invaded Syria, and later, in the reign 
 of Rameses II., were settled at Kadesh, ultimately spreading to the south 
 of Palestine. In race the Hittites were probably Turanian, and in their 
 language allied to the Alarodian family. The peculiar hieroglyphic 
 writings found on Hittite monuments in Syria, Asia Minor, etc., are be- 
 ginning to be deciphered. In common with the Hyksos the deity of the 
 Hittites was Seti, the Egyptian Typhon, and the local goddess of Kadesh, 
 Anata, the Canaanitish goddess of war. 
 
382 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 According to Greek tradition the Amazons were communities of wo- 
 men, who dwelt in Asia and Scythia, the most famous inhabiting Pontus. 
 They are said to have built Ephesus. Of their queens, one, Hypolyta, 
 was conquered by Hercules ; another, Penthesilea, was killed by Achilles, 
 when aiding the Trojans ; a third, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great. 
 The name Amazon is derived from the Greek amazos, i.e., without a 
 breast, from the removal of the right bosom to facilitate the use of the 
 javelin and bow. The bodyguard of the King of Dahomey consists of 
 women called Amazons. 
 
 The Walloons are the inhabitants of the south-eastern division of 
 Belgium, their country comprising the provinces of Hainault, Namur, 
 Liege, and Luxemburg, with part of Brabant. The Walloons are Roman- 
 ized Gauls, lineal representatives of the ancient Belgse, distinguished 
 from their Flemish (Teutonic) neighbors by their Romance language, their 
 stronger physique, and their darker complexion. The Walloon language, 
 however, a strongly marked dialect of Northern France (the Langued'Oil), 
 is now merely a provincial patois, French being the written standard and 
 official language of the whole kingdom. 
 
 The Vandals were one of the Teutonic peoples who overthrew the 
 Roman Empire. They were first heard of as occupying Brandenburg and 
 Pomerania. In 406 they crossed the Rhine and entered Gaul, and in 409 
 they crossed the Pyrenees and entered Spain, where they waged twenty 
 years of bloody warfare with the imperial armies and with their fellow- 
 barbarians, the Goths and Suevi. Under Genseric they invaded (429) and 
 conquered Roman Africa, Carthage being taken in 439. Genseric formed 
 a powerful fleet and took and plundered Rome (455). Ultimately (533-6) 
 the Vandal kingdom in Africa was overthrown by Belisarius, the general 
 of Justinian. 
 
 The Montenegrins belong to the Servian branch of the Slavs, who 
 inhabit Montenegro, an independent principality on the eastern side of 
 the Adriatic, between Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Bosnia, and Albania. In 
 the fourteenth century Montenegro was a principality subject to the Serv- 
 ian empire, but when the Servian power was broken by the Turks at the 
 battle of Kossovo (1389), it became the asylum of all who disd lined to sub- 
 mit to the Turkish yoke; and since then the main business of the Monte- 
 negrins has been to fight the Turks. They joined Servia (1876) and Russia 
 (1877-78) against the hereditary foe, with the result that they acquired an 
 accession of territory in 1878 (Antivari, etc.), and again in 1880 (Dulcignp). 
 There was temporary fighting between the Turks and the Montenegrins 
 at Cetinje (July 3-4, 1886). 
 
 The wearing of beards dates from an early period, the Assyrians being 
 thus depicted in their sculptures. The Egyptians were shaven, or wore 
 their beards cut square. By the Levitical law the Jews were forbidden to 
 shave their beards. The Persians, the Greeks (until the time of Alexan- 
 der the Great), and the Romans, were bearded; among the last named 
 shaving was introduced about 296 B. c. In England beards were not in 
 fashion from the Conquest to the thirteenth century, and at the time of 
 Charles II. the beards were out of use. In 1851 the custom of wearing the 
 beard was revived. Peter the Great caused all the Russians to shave. In 
 France modern shaving is said to have come into force during the reigns 
 of Louis XIII. and XIV. In the East the beard is regarded as a mark of 
 dignity, and an insult offered to the beard is highly resented. 
 
RACES AND TRIBES OF MEN. 383 
 
 Of dwarf races of men, the most notable are the Bushmen, four feet 
 seven inches high; the Akkas in Central Africa, about four feet ten inches 
 high, with whom Emin's men identified the hordes of forest dwarfs 
 ("a venomous, cowardly, and thievish race, and very expert with their 
 arrows") by whom Stanley's march in 1888 was so harrassed; the Obongos, 
 on the Gaboon, and the still smaller Batwas, four feet three inches; a 
 tribe called M'Kabba, near Lake Ngami, reported as only four feet one 
 inch; also the Andaman Islanders (under five feet), the Aetasin the Phil- 
 ippines, the Malayan Samangs, the Javan Kalangs. The Lapps, Ainos, 
 Fuegians, and Veddahs are somewhat taller. 
 
 The Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, were a race of Asiatic origin, possi- 
 bly of Mongoloid type, whose nationality is a matter of dispute. Accom- 
 panied by a horde of Semites they invaded and occupied the northern part 
 of Egypt about sixteen hundred years before Christ, overthrowing the Mid- 
 dle Empire, and holding possession of the country for six hundred and 
 sixty-nine years. Ahmes, the founder of the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, 
 conquered the Hyksos, the more important part of whom were driven from 
 Egypt. It was held, as stated by Eusebius a view supported by manv 
 of the best Egyptologists that Joseph ruled Egypt during the sway of the 
 Hyksos dynasty. Important discoveries of the Hyksos dynasty have re- 
 cently been made by M. Naville, atBubastis, among these being mutilated 
 twin statues of the Hykso King Apepi, probably contemporaneous with 
 Joseph. 
 
 ABOUT THE SARACENS. 
 
 The term Saracens is of doubtful origin. At first it was applied by 
 the Greeks and Romans to the nomad Arabs, who harassed the frontier 
 of the empire from Egypt to the Euphrates; but afterwards, during the 
 middle ages, to the Moslems in general, the Saracens having been the 
 earliest and most enthusiastic converts of Islam. In the seventh century 
 the Saracens conquered Arabia, North Africa, and part of Asia; and in the 
 eighth century they conquered Spain (711), but their progress in France 
 was stopped by their defeat by Charles Martel, at Tours (732). The great 
 caliphate of Bagdad, founded in 764, fell before the assaults of the Tartars 
 in 1277; the great caliphate of Cordova, founded in 756, endured till 1031, 
 when it was broken up into smaller governments, the last of which, the 
 kingdom of Granada, fell before Ferdinand of Spain in 1492. Like the 
 Normans, the Saracens w ere a people of great enterprise and rare adapta- 
 bility, and quickly surpassed their teachers in all the arts which embellish 
 life. 
 
 OUR NATION'S PREDECESSORS. 
 
 Mound Builders is the name given to a vanished race by whose labor 
 the remarkable earth mounds found in the United States were raised. 
 These mounds exist in extraordinary numbers over all the country be- 
 tween the Alleghany and Rocky Mount? ins, but chiefly in Ohio, Illinois, 
 Indiana, and Missouri; they are abundant in all the Gulf States, and even 
 farther south, and they extend at least as far north as the great lakes. 
 Their usual height is from six to thirty feet, with a diameter of forty to 
 one hundred feet. The majority are simply conical burial mounds, mostly 
 rising from fifteen to twenty-five feet, though one in West Virginia is sev- 
 enty feet high and over three hundred feet in diameter at the base. But 
 very many others of these mounds are defensive, and others again have a 
 
384 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 religious origin. The fortifications, usually earthworks raised on heights 
 near some water course, embrace walls, trenches, watch-towers, and are 
 too skill fully constructed to have been temporary defences; many archaeol- 
 ogists believe that there was a connected line of defensive works from 
 New York to Ohio. In the Mississippi Valley, where the largest mounds 
 are, these forts disappear; and it is supposed that the principal enemies of 
 the Mound Builders had their home in the east perhaps in the Allegha- 
 nies. Some of the Ohio fortresses enclose over one hundred acres, the 
 walls of earth, winding in and out, in each case being several miles long. 
 
 THE GREAT HUMAN FAMILY. 
 
 The three primary divisions of man, as indicated by Latham, are V 4ie 
 Indo-European, the Mongolian and the African. 
 
 I. THE INDO-EUROPEAN OR CAUCASIC race originally extended from India across 
 Europe, and increasing ever in civilization and intellectual power from age to age, 
 has become the dominant one in the world, extending its influence to every part of 
 the earth, supplanting many inferior races, and repeopling wide areas, as in America 
 and Australia. 
 
 The Caucasic race comprises two principal branches the Aryan and the Semitic. 
 A third branch, according to M. de Quatrefages, includes the Caucasians proper, 
 Euscarians (Basques), and others. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants of Europe belong to the Aryan Family; they are arranged 
 in the following groups : 
 
 1. The Keltic, in the N. W., comprising the Welsh, Gaels, Erse, Manx, and 
 Armoricans. 
 
 2. The Italic, chiefly in the S. W. and S., comprising the Italian and other Ro- 
 mance nations French, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanesch, and Roumanians. 
 
 3. The Thraco-Hellenic, in the S. E-, Greeks and Albanians. 
 
 4. The Teutonic, in the N. N. W. and center, comprising the Germans, Scandi- 
 navians, Danes, Icelanders, Dutch, Flemings, English. 
 
 5. The Lithuanian, S. E. of the Baltic. 
 
 6. The Slavonic, in the E., comprising the Russians, Poles, Tsekhs, Serbs, Croats, 
 Bulgarians, etc. 
 
 The Indo-European or Caucasic race in Asia comprises the Hindus, Baluchis, 
 Afghans, Iranians (Persia), Galchas (Zarafshan), and the Semitic tribes of Armenia, 
 Syria, Arabia, etc. 
 
 II. THE MONGOLIAN is divisible into three branches, according to geographical 
 position, which again form numerous smaller families. 
 
 1. The Asiatic, comprising the Mongolians of the Chinese Empire, India, and 
 Indo-China; the Kalmucks, adjoining the Turks, who extend from Southern Europe 
 far into Central Asia; the Magyars of Hungary; the Yakuts and Samoeids (or Samo- 
 yedes) of Siberia; with the Lapps, Finns, and various tribes of East Europe. 
 
 2. The Oceanic Mongolians are composed of two classes. I. The black-skinned 
 found in New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, and the islands between New Zealand 
 and New Caledonia. II. The yellow, olive or brown race, occupying New Zealand, 
 the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Moluccas, Philippines, Madagascar, etc. 
 
 3. The American Mongolians comprise a large number of tribes, the chief of 
 which in North America are the Athabaskans, Algonkins, Sioux, Paducas, and 
 Mexicans. In South America, the Quichuas, Chilians and Patagonians extend along 
 the west coast. The Caribs, Maypures, Brazilians, Moxos, andChiquitos occupy the 
 north, east and center of the continent. The Eskimos form a connecting link be- 
 tween the Asiatic and American branches of this family. 
 
 III. THE AFRICAN, forming the third great division of the human race, is exhib- 
 ited in its purest form by the natives of Western Africa. The Negroes occupy the 
 whole central portion of the country from Cape Verde on the west to Khartoom on 
 the east, and south to the Congo. South of the Negroes are the Bantus (including the 
 Kafirs), inhabiting the greater part of Africa between the 4th parallel of N. lat. and 
 the Cape. In the S. W. are the Hottentots. Certain dwarfish tribes are found in dif- 
 ferent parts of the continent, as the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert, the Obongo ol 
 the Ogowe basin, and others. The Fulas and Nubas occupy parts of the Soudan ; the 
 former, in the N. W. , extend from the Senegal and Niger towards Lake Tchad ; the 
 latter are found iu Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, etc. The Gallas, Copts, Somali, of the 
 Sahara, Egy.pt, and East Africa; the Abyssinians ; and the Berbers, Kabyles, Tuareks 
 and other tribes of North Africa, belong to the Hamitic race, which is closely allied 
 to the Semitic race. The latter is represented by the Arabs of the N. coast, and of the 
 Arabian Peninsula, and by the Tigres and other tribes of Abyssinia. 
 
RACES AND TRIBES OF MEN. 385 
 
 THE GYPSY TRIBES. 
 
 The word Gypsy is a corruption of Egyptian, but is best understood 
 as applied to a mysterious vagabond race, scattered over the whole of 
 Europe and parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Whence they originally 
 came is not definitely known, but India seems to have been the cradle of 
 the tribe. For centuries past they have drifted about over Europe in 
 small bands, having no permanent homes; living by begging, fortune 
 telling, and various tricks. The first notice of them which occurs in Eu- 
 ropean literature is embodied in a free paraphrase, in German, of the 
 Book of Genesis, written by an Austrian monk about 1122. On August 
 17, 1427, a band of them, coming from Bohemia, made their appearance 
 before Paris, which, however, they were not allowed to enter, but were 
 lodged at La Chapelle Saint Denis. Other hordes succeeded these in the 
 following years, spreading in rapid succession over all parts of Germany, 
 over Spain, England, Russia, Scandinavia, and, indeed, over the remotest 
 parts of Europe. The account which they most frequently gave of them- 
 selves was, that they originally came from "Little Egypt," that the King 
 of Hungary had compelled about 4,000 of them to be baptized, had slain 
 the remainder, and had condemned the baptized to seven years' wander- 
 ing. In France, Germany, Scotland, and other countries the most strin- 
 gent laws were formerly enforced against them and they were slain by 
 thousands. The jargon spoken by the Gypsies is styled Romany and 
 contains many Sanscrit words and corrupted Hebraisms. 
 
 THE SCATTERED NATION. 
 
 The Hebrew race is distributed over the Eastern continent as follows: 
 
 In Europe there are 5,400,000; in France, 63,000; Germany, 562000, 
 of which Alsace- Loraine contains 39,000; Austro- Hungary, 1,544,000; 
 Italy, 40,000; Netherlands, 82,000; Roumania, 265,000; Russia, 2,552,000; 
 Turkey, 105,000, and in other countries 35,000, Belgium containing the 
 smallest number, only 3,000. 
 
 In Asia there are 319,000; Asiatic Turkey, 47,000, in Palestine there 
 being 25,000; Asiatic Russia, 47,000; Persia, 18,000; Middle Asia, 14,000; 
 India, 19,000, and China, 1,000. 
 
 Africa contains 350,000; Egypt, 8,000; Tunis, 55,000; Algiers, 35,000; 
 Morocco, 60,000; Tripoli, 6,000, and Abyssinia, 200,000. 
 
 The entire number of Hebrews in the world is nearly 6,300,000. 
 
 UNITY OF THE RACE. 
 
 Geology has revealed to us the existence in prehistoric times of ani- 
 mals allied to those which now exist, but with great variation in organi- 
 zation, and differing very considerably in size. Among the fossils are 
 the skeletons of creatures far exceeding in size any now living, and, on the 
 other hand, bones of a small animal scarcely larger than a dog of one of 
 the breeds of medium size, which geologists assert was the progenitor of 
 the modern horse. But so far as science has been able to discover the 
 human being has ever been of the same average dimensions. Indi- 
 viduals of all races vary in height; the average bulk of the inhabitants of 
 tropical climates is generally less than that of the people who dwell in 
 the regions of temperate climate; and stunted men and women occupy 
 the colder parts of the earth; but so it has been apparently in all ages. 
 The skeletons found in old barrows, representatives of the men of the 
 U. I 25 
 
386 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 prehistoric period, the bones found imbedded in strata of great antiquity, 
 are of about the same dimensions as those of the men of to-day. No 
 necessity of existence has lengthened the arms or neck, changed toes 
 into thumbs, or added a finger to the hand. The general type of all men 
 in all regions, from the equator to the poles, is that they are two-handed, 
 walk erect, have the power of speech more or less developed, and that 
 between even those of lowest organization and the most intelligent of 
 quadrupeds there is a very marked distinction. Human idiots there are, 
 as there are human monstrosities of form; but they are exceptions which 
 prove the permanence of the typical characteristics. While, however, 
 the general agreement in organization appears to be ineradicable, 
 there are certain external differences, in complexion, hair, facial 
 contour, and other minor matters, which seem to indicate separate groups 
 or families of the human race, and have suggested the theories advo- 
 cated by some ethnologists of distinct centres of creation, in opposition 
 to the more generally accepted belief in the derivation of all human 
 beings from the same stock. In discussing this question, we may fairly 
 take into consideration that, in the respect of the means by which the 
 human race might have spread over the earth, we are not encountered by 
 the difficulties which present themselves when we are examining the 
 history of the movements of other members of animated nature. The 
 will to travel, inspired by many motives, is added to the power to travel, 
 given by natural adaptability to endure atmospheric and other varia- 
 tions, and by the exercise of the reasoning power; and in cases of acci- 
 dental drifting to unknown islands or continental coasts, there is a 
 power to make the best of adverse conditions. It is quite possible that 
 the intelligent and active descendants of a small family located in south- 
 western Asia should in the course of thousands of years have made their 
 way east and west, north and south, making at intervals settlements 
 which became centres of new dispersions. From Asia to Western Europe 
 was a comparatively easy journey, allowing many centuries for its accom- 
 plishment. Africa could be peopled not only by passing across the neck 
 of land which divides it from Asia, but by settlements on the coast made 
 by adventurous mariners, or by parties drifted to the shores. The straits 
 which separate north-eastern Asia from northwestern America could be 
 crossed by canoes, visiting the chain of islands on their w r ay. We know 
 that adventurous Northmen of Europe reached the North American 
 coast from Greenland centuries before Columbus crossed the Atlantic; 
 and the Chinese have traditions of discoveries and settlements on the 
 western coast of North America, nearly as far south as California. Long 
 residence in hot climates affects the color of the skin, and it becomes 
 hereditary. The necessity of constant physical exertion to maintain ex- 
 istence, and the absence of intellectual training, develop the muscles and 
 bony framework, and induce a dwindling of the brain. The facial angle 
 becomes more acute, the jaw-bone more prominent and the figure more 
 lithe and active. In very hot climates less animal food can be eaten, 
 even by recent settlers, and in the course of ages is dispensed with alto- 
 gether sometimes from religious considerations, as among the natives 
 of the Indian peninsula and other parts of Asia and the resulting differ- 
 ence of physique is very noticeable. Other causes, such as the effects of 
 the chemical constituents of the atmosphere and of water, it may be 
 the effects of terrestrial magnetism, are in continual operation, and the 
 results, aided by hereditary transmission, produce the differences which 
 mark what are popularly called the races of mankind. 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 The surest road to health, say what they will, 
 Is never to suppose we shall be ill: 
 Most of those evils we poor mortals know 
 From doctors and imagination flow. 
 
 CHURCHILL. 
 
 MEDLEY OF FACTS AND COUNSELS. 
 
 Don't sleep in a draught. 
 
 Don't go to bed with cold feet. 
 
 Don't stand over hot-air registers. 
 
 A bag of hot sand relieves neuralgia. 
 
 Warm borax water removes dandruff. 
 
 Salt should be eaten with nuts to aid digestion. 
 
 Don't eat what you do not need, just to save it. 
 
 Don't sit in a damp or chilly room without a fire. 
 
 Don't try to get cool too quickly after exercising. 
 
 Homoeopathy began in the United States in 1825. 
 
 Don't sleep in a room without ventilation of some kind. 
 
 Medicine was introduced into Rome from Greece 200 B.C. 
 
 Hippocrates, 450 B.C., is styled the "Father of Medicine." 
 
 It rests you, in sewing, to change your position frequently. 
 
 There was a foundling hospital at Milan, Italy, as early as 787. 
 
 Don't try to get along without flannel underclothing in winter. 
 
 Oxygen, the life element, was discovered by Dr. Priestly in 1774. 
 
 If an artery is severed, tie a small cord or handkerchief above it. 
 
 Don't stuff a cold lest you should be next obliged to starve a fever. 
 
 A little soda water will relieve sick headache caused by indigestion. 
 
 Well-ventilated bedrooms prevent morning headaches and lassitude. 
 
 Sprains and bruises call for an application of the tincture of arnica. 
 
 Tickling in the throat is best relieved by a gargling of salt and water. 
 
 Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, made his 
 earlier studies in Italy, where the science of anatomy had but lately 
 been revived. 
 
388 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 For bilious colic, soda and ginger in hot water. It may be taken 
 freely. 
 
 A cupful of strong coffee will remove the odor of onions from the 
 breath. 
 
 A popular proverb says that ' 'a man is either a physician or a fool 
 at forty." 
 
 Pains in the side are most promptly relieved by the application of 
 mustard. 
 
 A cupful of hot water drank before meals will relieve nausea and 
 dyspepsia. 
 
 For cold in the head, nothing is better than powdered borax, sniffed 
 up the nostrils. 
 
 One in a faint should be laid flat on his back, then loosen his clothes 
 and let him alone. 
 
 There were 48,930 blind people in the United States in 1880, and 
 33,880 deaf mutes. 
 
 There is & personal as well as a public hygiene your business is to 
 care for the former. 
 
 It is stated that but sixteen of the 134 scholars attending Amherst 
 College use tobacco. 
 
 It was Galen, 150 A.D., who first applied experimental methods to 
 Jthe study of disease. 
 
 It is agreed on all hands that nicotine, the active principle of tobacco, 
 is a powerful poison. 
 
 Consumptive night-sweats may be arrested by sponging the body 
 nightly in salt water. 
 
 In 1874 all London houses were compelled for the first time to be 
 connected with sewers. 
 
 A fever patient can be made cool and comfortable by frequent spong- 
 ing off with soda water. 
 
 To beat the whites of eggs quickly add a pinch of salt. Salt cools, 
 and cold eggs froth rapidly. 
 
 Whooping-cough paroxysms are relieved by breathing the fumes of 
 turpentine and carbolic acid. 
 
 Nervous spasms are usually relieved by a little salt taken into the 
 mouth and allowed to dissolve. 
 
 A drink of hot, strong lemonade before going to bed will often break 
 up a cold and cure a sore throat. 
 
 Broken limbs should be placed in natural positions, and the patient 
 kept quiet until the surgeon arrives. 
 
 Diphtheria is a specific poison and sometimes kills without any 
 formation of the diphtheritic membrane. 
 
 It was Swift who asserted that "the best doctors in the world are 
 Dr Diet, Dr. Quiet and Dr. Merryman." 
 
 More cases of consumption appear among needlemakers and file- 
 makers than any other classes of laborers. 
 
 The scorpion is a total abstainer. If a drop of whisky be placed on 
 one's back it will immediately sting itself to death. 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 389 
 
 Hemorrhages of the lungs or stomach are promptly checked by 
 small doses of salt. The patient should be kept as quiet as possible. 
 
 Sleeplessness caused by too much blood in the head may be over- 
 come by applying a cloth wet with cold water to the back of the neck. 
 
 In Bacon's works we read: "A man's own observation, what he finds 
 good of and what he finds hurt of, is the best physic to preserve health." 
 
 Wind colic is promptly relieved by peppermint essence, taken in a 
 little warm water. For small children it may be sweetened. Paregoric 
 is also good. 
 
 Sickness of the stomach is most promptly relieved by drinking a 
 teacupful of hot soda and water. If it brings the offending matter up, 
 all the better. 
 
 Men of marked ability in any line have usually one deep, perpen- 
 dicular wrinkle in the middle of the forehead, with one or two parallel to 
 it on each side. 
 
 Japanese doctors never present bills to their patients. They await 
 the patient's inclination to pay, and then thankfully accept whatever 
 sum is offered. 
 
 For stomach cramps, ginger ale or a teaspoonful of the tincture of 
 ginger in a half glass of water, in which a half teaspoonful of soda has 
 been dissolved. 
 
 The Roman houses aod palaces were so imperfectly lighted that in 
 many living rooms the inmates were forced to depend on lamps by day 
 as well as by night. 
 
 Assuming the working age to be from twenty to thirty years, and 
 counting only male workers, 440 persons in this country live on the 
 labor of every 100 workers. 
 
 Naltknehoff, of Geneva, says there are 311,000 blind persons in 
 Europe, mostly from fevers, and that 75 per cent would have kept their 
 sight had they been properly treated. 
 
 The marriage rate of Germany rose 10 per cent in the year follow- 
 ing the Franco-Prussian war. The same phenomenon was observed after 
 the French war which ended in 1815. 
 
 Absinthe is an alcoholic solution highly flavored with wormwood. 
 It is much drunk in France, particularly in Paris. Its abuse is produc- 
 tive of much evil to the nervous system. 
 
 Tracheotomy is the operation of making an opening into the wind- 
 ipe. It was performed upon the late German emperor, Frederick, who 
 ied of cancer of the larynx, June 15, 1888. 
 
 A man will die for want of air in five minutes; for want of sleep in 
 ten days; for want of water, in a week; for want of food, at varying in- 
 tervals, dependent on various circumstances. 
 
 The human hair is absolutely the most profitable crop that grows. 
 Five tons of it are annually imported by the merchants of London. The 
 Parisians harvest upward of 200,000 Ibs., equal in value to $400,000 per 
 annum. 
 
 American life average for professions (Boston): Storekeepers, 41.8 
 years; teamsters, 43.6 years; laborers, 44.6 years; seamen, 46.1 years; 
 mechanics, 47. 3 years; merchants, 48.4 years; lawyers, 52.6 years; farmers, 
 64.2 years. 
 
 I 
 
390 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The best time to bathe is just before going to bed, as any danger of 
 taking cold is thus avoided; and the complexion is improved by keep- 
 ing warm for several hours after leaving the bath. 
 
 The flavor of cod-liver oil may be changed to the delightful one of 
 fresh oyster, if the patient will drink a large glass of water poured from 
 a vessel in which nails have been allowed to rust. 
 
 In 1684, four men were taken alive out of a mine in England, after 
 twenty-four days without food. In 1880 Dr. Tanner, in New York, lived 
 on water for forty days, losing thirty -six pounds in weight. 
 
 During the last Paraguayan war it was noticed that the men who 
 had been without salt for three months, and who had been wounded, 
 however slight, died of their wounds because they would not heal. 
 
 A hospital for quarantine or for infectious diseases is called a laza- 
 retto. This word is not derived from Lazarus, the Bible beggar, but 
 from the isle of St. Lazarus, in Venice, where such an hospital was first 
 built in 1484. 
 
 Calisthenics, or callisthenics (Gr. kalos, "beautiful," and sthenos, 
 "strength"), is a name for exercises for promoting gracefulness and 
 strength, and comprises the more gentle forms of gymnastics, especially 
 adapted to girls. 
 
 The natural rate of the pulse varies at different ages. The beats per 
 minute are as follows: At birth, 130-140; 1 year, 115-130; 2 years, 100-115; 
 3 years, 95-105; 4 to 7 years, 85-95; 7 to 14 years, 80-90; 14 to 21 years, 
 75-85; 21 to 60 years, 70-75, and old age, 75-85. 
 
 Appendicitis, the medical term for inflammation of a small intes- 
 tinal appendix, the use of which no one has been able to discover, has 
 become so common that physicians are advocating its removal from all 
 infants as a preventive measure, like vaccination. 
 
 Spirits are said to be "proof" when they contain fifty-seven per cent 
 of alcohol. The maximum amount of alcohol, says Parkes, that a man 
 can take daily without injury to his health is that contained in 2 oz. 
 brandy, } pt. of sherry, ft pt. of claret, or 1 pt. of beer. 
 
 One should be cautious about entering a sick room in a state of per- 
 spiration, as the moment you become cool your pores absorb. Do not 
 approach contagious diseases with an empty stomach, nor sit between 
 the sick and the fire, because the heat attracts the vapor. 
 
 Influenza (Ital., "influence;" called in French la grippe), one of the 
 class of diseases to which the term zymotic is now applied, has long 
 been recognized by medical writers. The popular application of the 
 name to any severe cold in the head is not sanctioned by medical author- 
 ity. 
 
 Sal Volatile, a well-known remedy for faintness, consists essentially 
 of a solution of carbonate of ammonia in alcohol. It contains in addi- 
 tion free ammonia and the volatile oils of lemon and nutmeg. As it is a 
 strongly caustic liquid, it should never be taken unless well diluted with 
 water. 
 
 Ot every 1,000 clergymen between the ages of 45 and 65, it is found 
 that only 15.93 die annually. But of every 1,000 doctors between the ages 
 of 45 and 65 no fewer than 28.02 die every year. This is to say, the mor- 
 tality of medical men is almost double that of clergymen, and the rate is 
 increasing. 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 391 
 
 Small rose pimples are a sign of chicken pox; diffuse redness and 
 swelling, of erysipelas; small red dots like flea bites, of measles; bright 
 diffuse scarlet, of scarlet fever; small red pimples changing to pustules, 
 of smallpox; rose colored spots, scattered, of typhoid fever. 
 
 After the age of fifty the brain loses an ounce every ten years. 
 Cuvier's weighed 64, Byron's 79, and Cromwell's 90 ounces, but the last 
 was diseased. Post-mortem examinations in France give an average of 
 55 to 60 ounces for the brains of the worst class of criminals. 
 
 Most fatal of historic plagues was the " Black Death," a name given 
 to a form of typhus in which the body turns black and rapidly putrifies. 
 An outbreak occurred in 1348, which desolated the world from China to 
 Ireland. In Europe alone 2,500,000 died and in London 100,000 died. 
 
 In the cholera visitation of 1866, the proportion of deaths per 10,000 
 inhabitants in the principal cities of Europe was as follows: London, 18; 
 Dublin, 41; Vienna, 51; Marseilles, 64; Paris, 66; Berlin, 83; Naples, 89; 
 St. Petersburg, 98; Madrid, 102; Brussels, 184; Palermo, 107; Constanti- 
 nople, 738. 
 
 Coagulation is the amorphous solidification of a liquid, or part of a 
 liquid, as when the casein of milk is solidified by rennet in making 
 cheese, or the white of an egg by boiling. The process varies in various 
 substances. Albumen, or the white of an egg, coagulates at a tempera- 
 ture of 160. 
 
 Hair which is lightest in color is also lightest in weight. Light or 
 blonde hair is generally the most luxuriant, and it has been calculated 
 that the average number of hairs of this color on an average person's 
 head is 140,000; while the number of brown hairs is 110,000, and black 
 only 103,000. 
 
 Homoeopathy (homoion, "like;" pathos, "disease") is a medical doc- 
 trine, which teaches that diseases should be treated or cured by drugs 
 capable of producing similar symptoms of disordered health to those 
 presented by them; or, as it is commonly phrased, "like cures like" 
 similia similibus curantur. 
 
 It is estimated that the number of insane persons in the United States 
 is 168,900. Causes of Insanity. Hereditary, 24 per cent.; drink, 14 per 
 cent.; business, 12 per cent.; loss of friends, 11 per cent.; sickness, 10 per 
 cent. ; various, 29 per cent. This result is the medium average arrived at 
 by Mulhall on comparing the returns for the United States, England, 
 France and Denmark: 
 
 Among the most valuable of medicinal agents are blisters, which when 
 applied to the skin* raise the cuticle into vesicles filled with serous fluid. 
 They have for their object the establishing of a counter-irritation or di- 
 version of inflammatory action from apartin which it cannot be reached 
 by remedies, or from some organ where it may do permanent mischief, 
 to some more superficial part of the body 
 
 The measurement of that part of the skull which holds the brain is 
 stated in cubic inches thus: Anglo-Saxon, 105; German, 105; Negro, 96; 
 Ancient Egyptian, 93; Hottentot, 58; Australian native, 58. In all races 
 the male brain is about ten per cent heavier than the female. The 
 highest class of apes has only 16 ounces of brain. A man's brain, it is 
 estimated, consists of 300,000,000 nerve cells, of which over 3,000 are dis- 
 integrated and destroyed every minute. 
 
392 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Color-blindness is a term introduced by Sir David Brewster to de- 
 nominate a defect of vision owing to which some persons are unable to 
 distinguish certain colors correctly. It is also called Daltonism, from 
 Dalton the chemist, who suffered from the defect, and who gave the first 
 detailed description of it in 1794. 
 
 Snoring isn't confined to sleep. Persons with some forms of nasal 
 catarrh snore continually. But a healthy man snores, as a rule, only 
 when asleep, because then he does not control himself. He gets into 
 some position, with his mouth open, and inhales through his mouth. If 
 the mouth were shut he wouldn't snore. 
 
 Travelers in arctic regions say that the physical effects of cold there 
 are about as follows: Fifteen degrees above, unpleasantly warm; zero, 
 mild; 10 degrees below, bracing; 20 degrees below, sharp, but not 
 severely cold; 30 degrees below, very cold; 40 degreees below, intensely 
 cold; 50 degrees below, a struggle for life. 
 
 Curling is a sport on the ice common in Scotland and Canada, where 
 it is played by all classes of people. Frozen-over lakes and rivers answer 
 for the purpose, but under the auspices of curling clubs, artificial shallow 
 ponds are maintained for the sake of this popular sport; and the bon- 
 spiel*, or set matches, are contested with great spirit. 
 
 The average duration of human life is about 33 years. One quarter 
 of the people on the earth die before age 6, one-half before age 16, and 
 only about one person of each 100 born lives to age 65. The deaths are 
 calculated at 67 per minute, 97,790 per day, and 35,639,835 per year; the 
 births at 70 per minute, 100,800 per day, and 36,792,000 per year. 
 
 The percentage of illegitimate births for various countries, as stated 
 by Mulhall, is as follows: Austria, 12.9; Denmark, 11.2; Sweden, 10.2; 
 Scotland, 8.9; Norway, 8.05; Germany, 8.04; France, 7.02; Belgium, 7.0; 
 United States, 7.0; Italy, 6.8; Spain and Portugal, 5.5; Canada, 5.0; 
 Switzerland, 4.6; Holland, 3.5; Russia, 3.1; Ireland, 2.3; Greece, 1.6. 
 
 Highly arched eyebrows are said to denote vivacity and brilliancy; 
 level brows, strength of intellect; regularly curved eyebrows express 
 cheerfulness, square ones deep thought; irregular, fickleness, versatility, 
 excitability; raised at the inner corner, melancholy; joined over the nose, 
 an unsettled mind. Thick and bushy eyebrows denote physical strength. 
 
 The periods of gestation are 11 months for the horse and ass; camel, 
 12 months; elephant, 2 years; lion, 5 months; cow, 9 months; buffalo, 
 12 months; sheep, 5 months; dog, 9 weeks; cat, 8 weeks; sow, 16 weeks; 
 the wolf 90 to 95 days. The goose sits 30 days; swans, 42; hens, 21; 
 ducks, 30; peahens and turkeys, 28; canaries, 14; pigeons, 14; parrots, 40. 
 
 The stethoscope is an instrument used by medical men in perform- 
 ing an auscultation. It is a hollow cylinder of light wood or gutta- 
 percha, the funnel-shaped end of which is placed upon the thorax, 
 abdomen, or other part of the body of the patient, and the other end, to 
 which is attached a circular ivory 'plate, to the ear of the practitioner. 
 It was invented by Laennec, of Paris, in 1816. 
 
 Coma, derived from the Greek, is a term used in medicine to signify 
 a state of more or less profound insensibility allied to sleep, but differing 
 from natural sleep in its character as well as in the circumstances under 
 which it occurs. In coma the patient lies on his back, and is either 
 simply insensible to external impressions, or has a confused and dull per- 
 ception of them, with restlessness and low delirium. 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 393 
 
 There are 3,000,000 opium smokers in China. A paper read before 
 <he New York Medical Society by Dr. F. N. Hammond presents some 
 important facts. In 1840 about 20,000 pounds of opium were consumed 
 in the United States; in 1880, 543,450 pounds. In 1868 there were about 
 90,000 habitual opium eaters in the country, now they number over 500,- 
 000. More women than men are addicted to the use of the drug. 
 
 The elephant lives 100 years and upward; rhinoceros, 20; camel, 100; 
 lion, 25 to 70; tiger, leopard, jaguar, hyena, 25; beaver, 50; deer, wolf, 
 20; fox, 14 to 16; monkey, 16 to 18; hare, 8; squirrel, rabbit, 7; swine, 
 25; horse, 30; ass, 30; sheep, 10; cow, 20; ox, 30; swans, parrots, ravens, 
 200, eagle, 100; geese, 80; hens and pigeons, 10 to 16; hawks, 36 to 40; 
 cranes, 24; blackbird, 10; codfish, 15; eel, 10; crocodile, 100; tortoise, 
 100 to 200; whale, 1,000 (estimated). 
 
 If the condensed breath collected on the cool window panes of a room 
 where a number of persons have been assembled be burned, a smell as of 
 singed hair will show the presence of organic matter, and if the con- 
 densed breath be allowed to remain on the windows for a few days, it 
 will be found, on examination by the microscope, that it is alive with 
 animaculae. It is the inhalation of air containing such putrescent 
 matter which causes half of the sick headaches, which might be avoided 
 by a circulation of fresh air. 
 
 Hunger or appetite is generally used to indicate the natural desire 
 for food experienced in health. Its causes are two: (1) A condition of 
 the stomach not yet accurately understood, relieved by taking food; (2) 
 A condition of the system, not relieved till the products of digestion begin 
 to be absorbed into the blood. These are usually present together, but 
 either may act without the other. The stomach condition is that in which 
 the organ is in the most favorable state for digestion, and tends to recur at 
 the habitual meal hours; but often passes off if eating be long deferred, 
 though the need and craving of the system for food remains. Hence the 
 importance of taking food at regular hours. 
 
 Seidlitz powders (are so named from the village of Seidlitz or Sed- 
 litz in northern Bohemia, where there is a spring of natural aperient 
 mineral water with similar constituents) and are composed of 120 
 grains of tartrate of soda and potash, and 40 grains of bicar- 
 bonate of soda reduced to powder, mixed and enclosed in a blue 
 paper, and thirty-eight grains of powdered tartaric acid in a white paper. 
 The contents of the blue paper are dissolved in from half a tumbler to a 
 tumbler of water, and those of the white paper are then stirred in. The 
 mixture should be taken while the effervescence from the liberation of 
 the carbonic acid is still going on. These powders act as an agreeable 
 and mild cooling aperient. 
 
 The nutritive fluid of the tissues, as well as the great carrying 
 agent of the body, is the blood. As such its functions are of a three-fold 
 nature: (1) it conveys the food material to all the tissues of the body. (2) 
 removes thence the waste products; and (3) its red corpuscles are the 
 great carriers of oxygen, without which the act of respiration could not 
 be carried on. The blood going to the tissues (arterial blood) is of a 
 bright red color, due to the presence of a large excess of oxygen obtained 
 in the lungs; whereas the blood returning from the tissues back to the 
 heart and lungs (venous blood) is of a dark purple color, its oxygen hav- 
 ing been removed from it in the tissues, and a large quantity of carbonic 
 acid having been added to it. 
 
394 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 There were 2,180 lepers in Norway in 1883. The number in Spain 
 and Italy is considerable In the Sandwich Islands the disease is so prev- 
 alent that the island of Molokai is set apart for lepers, who are under 
 the direction of a French Jesuit priest. The death of Father Damien, in 
 1889, called attention to the noblest instance of self-sacrifice recorded in 
 the nineteenth century. His place is now filled by a younger member 
 of his order, who voluntarily sacrifices his health and life to aid the out- 
 casts. In the Seychelles Islands leprosy is also common. 
 
 The limits of vision vary with elevation, conditions of the atmos- 
 phere, intensity of illumination and other modifying elements in differ- 
 ent cases. On a clear day an object one foot above a level plain may be 
 seen at a distance of 1.31 miles; one 10 feet high, 4.15 miles; one 20 feet 
 high, 5.86 miles; one 100 feet high, 13.1 miles; one a mile high, as the 
 top of a mountain, 95.23 miles. This allows 7 inches; or, to be exact, 
 6.99 inches, for the curvature of the earth, and assumes that the size and 
 illumination of the object are sufficient to produce an image. 
 
 Stammering, or stuttering, is an infirmity of speech, the result of 
 failure in co-ordinate action of certain muscles and their appropriate 
 nerves. It is analogous to some kinds of lameness; to cramp or spasm, 
 or partial paralysis of the arms, wrists, hands, and fingers, occasionally 
 suffered by violinists, pianists, and swordsmen; to the scrivener's palsy, 
 or writer's cramp, of men who write much. For speech like writing, 
 fencing, fingering a musical instrument, and walking is a muscular 
 act involving the co-ordinate action of many nerves and muscles. The 
 words stammering and stuttering practically denote the same infirmity. 
 
 In the small pox epidemic of 1881, in England, the returns showed 
 4,478 deaths per million inhabitants 98 vaccinated to 4, 380 unvaccinated 
 or in the proportion of 44 to 1. In the epidemic at Leipsic in 1871, thedeath 
 rate was 12,700 per million, 70 per cent of whom were unvaccinated. In 
 Boston the proportion was 15 to 50, and in Philadelphia 17 to 64. During 
 theFranco-German war the Germans lost only 263 men from this disease, 
 the French 23,499, the former having been revaccinated in barracks. In 
 the war in Paraguay, the Brazilians lost 43,000 men from malignant or 
 black small-pox, that is 35 per cent, of their army, nine cases in ten 
 proving fatal. 
 
 Longevity is the term used for great length of life attained by indi- 
 viduals, many remarkable instances of which are on record. Among 
 those on record in England may be mentioned Thomas Parr (died 1635) 
 aged 153; Cardinal de Solis (d. 1785), aged 110; Charles Macklin, the 
 actor (d. 1797) aged 107; Anthony Beresford (d. 1874) aged 101; Mrs. Bags- 
 ter, wife of the well-known publisher, Samuel Bagster (d. 1887) aged 100; 
 Sir Moses Montefiore (d. 1889), aged 100. The expectation of life taking 
 the averages as giveri by several assurance offices, is as follows: Aged ten 
 expectation 48'36 years longer life; twenty, 41 '49; thirty, 34'43; forty, 
 27-28; fifty, 20'18; sixty, 13'77; seventy, 8'54; eighty, 4'78; ninety, 211. 
 The average duration of life is longer for women than men. 
 
 Epizootics (Gr. eft, "upon," and zoon, "an animal") are diseases of 
 animals, which manifest a common character, and prevail at the same 
 time over considerable tracts of country. A curious circumstance in con- 
 nection with them is that they usually follow the same line of route as 
 the diseases of the human race; and, as a rule, when there has been a 
 great epidemic, it has been followed or accompanied by an equally de- 
 structive pestilence among animals. The cause of epizootics is not 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 395 
 
 altogether clear, but there can be little doubt that insufficient food and 
 overcrowding have great influence. Being apt to take on a low type of 
 fever, they are better treated by supporting than by reducing remedies. 
 Influenza in horses, and pleuro-pneumonia and vesicular epizootic in 
 cattle, are examples. 
 
 Ah! what avail the largest gifts of Heaven, 
 When drooping health and spirits go amiss? 
 How tasteless then whatever can be given ! 
 Health is the vital principle of bliss, 
 And exercise of health. 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 WEIGHT AND STATURE OF MAN. 
 
 AGE. 
 
 MALES. 
 
 FEMALES. 
 
 Feet. Lbs. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 I,bs. 
 
 Years 
 
 1.64 
 2.60 
 3.04 
 3.44 
 4.00 
 4.36. 
 4.72 
 5.07 
 5.36 
 5.44 
 5.49 
 5.52 
 5.52 
 5.49 
 5.38 
 5.32 
 5.29 
 5.29 
 
 7.06 
 25.01 
 31.38 
 38.80 
 49.95 
 59.77 
 75.81 
 96.40 
 116.56 
 127.59 
 132.46 
 140.38 
 140.42 
 139.96 
 136.07 
 131.27 
 127.54 
 127.54 
 
 1.62 
 2.56 
 300 
 3.38 
 3.92 
 4.26 
 4.60 
 4.92 
 5.10 
 5.13 
 5.16 
 5.18 
 5.18 
 5.04 
 4.97 
 4.97 
 4.94 
 4.94 
 
 6.42 
 23.53 
 28.67 
 35.29 
 47.10 
 56.57 
 72.65 
 89.04 
 104.34 
 112.55 
 115.30 
 119.82 
 121.81 
 123.86 
 119.76 
 113.60 
 108.80 
 108.81 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 g 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 18 . . 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 . 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 .. . 
 
 Mean weight 
 
 103.66 
 
 93.73 
 
 The average weight of a male infant at birth, it will be seen, is a little over 7 Ibs. 
 of a female infant, a little less than G%. 
 
 COMPOSITION AND DIGESTION OF FOODS. 
 
 FAT, WATER AND MUSCL.E PROPERTIES. 
 
 100 PARTS. WATER. 
 
 Cucumbers 97.0 
 
 Turnips 94.4 
 
 Cabbage 90.0 
 
 Milk, cows' 86.0 
 
 Apples 84.0 
 
 Eggs, yolk of 79.0 
 
 Potatoes 75.2 
 
 Veal 68.5 
 
 Eggs, white of 53.0 
 
 I,amb 50.5 
 
 Beef 50.0 
 
 Chicken 46.0 
 
 MUSCLE. 
 1.5 
 1 i 
 
 FAT. 
 1.0 
 
 4 
 
 100 PARTS. 
 Mutton 
 Pork 
 
 WATER. 
 
 44.0 
 385 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 Beans 
 
 14.8 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 Buckwheat . 
 
 .. 142 
 
 5.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 Barley 
 
 ...14.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 Corn 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 22.5 
 
 Peas 
 
 14.0 
 
 10 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 Wheat 
 
 140 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 136 
 
 11.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 Rice 
 
 135 
 
 15.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 Cheese 
 
 10.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 Butter... 
 
 
 MUSCLE. FAT. 
 12.5 40.0 
 
 10.0 50.0 
 24.0 
 8.6 
 15.0 
 12.0 
 23.4 
 14.6 
 
 66.4 
 795 
 19.0 
 100.0 
 
 57.7 
 75.4 
 68.8 
 73.0 
 60.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 6.5 
 
 65.0 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF NUTRITION. 
 
 Raw cucumbers. 2; raw melons, 3; boiled turnips, 4^; milk, 7 : cabbage, 7%; currants, 
 10; whipped eggs, 13 1 beets, 14; apples, 16; peaches, 20; boiled codfish, 21; broiled veni- 
 son, 22; potatoes, 22^; fried veal, 24; roast pork, 24; roast poultry. 26; raw beef, 26; raw 
 grapes, 27; raw plums, 29; broiled mutton, 30; oatmeal porridge, 75; rye bread, 79; boiled 
 beans, 87, boiled rice 88; barley bread, 88: wheat bread, 90; baked corn bread, 9i; boiled 
 barley, 92; butter, 93; boiled peas, 93; raw oils, 94. 
 
396 
 
 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 PERIODS OF DIGESTION. 
 Length of time required for digestion of various foods. 
 
 HOURS. 
 
 Rice 
 
 Eggs, raw 
 
 Apples 
 
 Trout, boiled 
 
 Venisoo, broiled 
 
 Sago, boiled 
 
 Milk " 2 
 
 Bread, stale 2 
 
 Milk, raw 2 
 
 Turkey, boiled 2 
 
 Goose, roast 2 
 
 Lamb, broiled 2 
 
 Potatoes 2 
 
 Beans, boiled 2 
 
 Parsnips, boiled 2 
 
 Oysters, raw 2 
 
 Eggs, boiled 3 
 
 MIN. 
 
 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 35 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 25 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 55 
 
 
 
 HOURS. 
 
 Mutton, boiled 3 
 
 Beef, roast H 
 
 Bread, fresh 3 
 
 Carrots, boiled 3 
 
 Turnips, " 
 
 Potatoes " 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Oysters, stewed 
 
 Eggs, hard 
 
 Pork, boiled , 
 
 Fowl, roast 4 
 
 Beef, fried 4 
 
 Cabbage 4 
 
 Wildfowl 4 
 
 Pork, roast 5 
 
 Veal, roast 5 
 
 MIN. 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 15 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 30 
 15 
 30 
 
 BLEEDING AT THE NOSE. 
 
 Roll up a piece of paper and press it under the upper lip. In obsti- 
 nate cases, blow a little gum arabic up the nostril through a quill, which 
 will immediately stop the discharge; powdered alum, dissolved in water, 
 is also good. Pressure by the finger over the small artery near the ala 
 (wing) of the nose, on the side where the blood is flowing, is said to 
 arrest the hemorrhage immediately. Sometimes by wringing a cloth 
 out of very hot water, and laying it on the back of the neck, gives relief. 
 Napkins wrung out of cold water must be laid across the forehead and 
 nose, the hands dipped in cold water, and a bottle of hot water applied 
 to the feet. 
 
 NEURALGIA. 
 
 Pain may have its seat along the course of any nerve. It receives 
 different names corresponding to the seat of pain. Thus we hear of 
 facial neuralgia, inter-costal neuralgia, occipital neuralgia, sciatica, or 
 neuralgia of the sciatic nerve, gastralgia, or neuralgia of the stomach, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 The pain of neuralgia varies in different cases and at different times 
 from a slight dull ache to the most excruciating torture. The nerve 
 which is the seat of pain, in many instances at least, is in a state of in- 
 flammation. It is usually tender, as shown by examination, at points 
 where pressure can be made upon the nerve, and following an attack 
 there is usually a certain soreness and tenderness over the seat of the 
 pain. 
 
 Treatment. It is impossible in this article to give the space which 
 the subject demands. The treatment embraces a large number of reme- 
 dies and many methods of procedure. That which has effected a perma- 
 nent cure in one case may have no effect in another. In some cases the 
 pain is so persistent as to tax the physician to the utmost, who finds a 
 remedy after having almost exhausted the pharmacopoeia. 
 
 Some form of opium will always afford temporary relief if taken in 
 sufficient doses, and it is one of the most valuable curative remedies in 
 many cases The patient is apt to be in poor flesh. In such a case, if a 
 permanent cure is to be anticipated, the general health must be im- 
 proved, and the body weight greatly increased. A method has, of late 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 397 
 
 years, been very successfully employed in sanitariums, where the patient 
 is required to take the necessary amount of rest in bed, to take a large 
 amount of the most nourishing food, at intervals of only a few hours, 
 and accompanied with baths, massage and suitable tonic treatment. By 
 this means the body weight is greatly increased, the general health 
 built up, and this is almost always followed by entire and permanent 
 relief from pain. 
 
 THE DREADED CONSUMPTION. 
 
 Of the total number of deaths the percentage traceable to consump- 
 tion in the several States and Territories is as follows: Alabama, 9.6; 
 Arizona, 6.1; Arkansas, 6.4; California, 15.6; Colorado, 8.2; Connecticut, 
 15.1; Dakota, 8.8; Delaware, 16.1; District of Columbia, 18.9; Florida, 
 8.3; Georgia, 7.9; Idaho, 6.8; Illinois, 10.3; Indiana, 12.6; Iowa, 9.9; 
 Kansas, 7.3; Kentucky, 15.7; Louisiana, 10.4; Maine, 19.2; Maryland, 
 14.0; Massachusetts, 15.7; Michigan, 13.2; Minnesota, 9.3; Mississippi, 
 8.8; Missouri, 9.8; Montana, 5.6; Nebraska, 8.8; Nevada, 6.3; New 
 Hampshire, 5.6; New Jersey, 8.9; New Mexico, 2.4; New York, 8.1; 
 North Carolina, 9.5; Ohio, 13.8; Oregon, 12.1; Pennsylvania, 12.6; Rhode 
 Island, 14.6; South Carolina, 9.8; Tennessee, 14.5; Texas, 6.5; Utah, 
 2.8; Vermont, 16.1; Virginia, 12.2; Washington, 13.2; West Virgina, 
 13.0; Wisconsin, 10.4; Wyoming, 2.6; Average, 12.0. 
 
 INSOMNIA. 
 
 Insomnia, or sleeplessness, is a symptom common to many nervous 
 diseases, and one which requires prompt attention, as without sleep 
 little good can be accomplished in other directions by treatment. The 
 treatment must depend very much upon the age, occupation and other 
 circumstances of the patient. If in a child, out-door play at games re- 
 quiring exercise sufficient to produce fatigue should be encouraged. 
 
 In men and women worried by business or domestic cares, disap- 
 pointments or anxieties, the case is much more serious. If possible, they 
 should, for a time, leave home and business, when they will often leave 
 their worries also behind them. Mental labor should be abandoned en- 
 tirely, and physical labor or sports requiring little thought, of a kind 
 most comformable to the tastes of the patient, and affording the most 
 pleasant diversion, should be chosen and followed to the point of fatigue. 
 A generous diet of the most nutritious food should be taken, and a com- 
 fortable spring-bed, in a well ventilated, cheerful room, should be pro- 
 vided. One of the bromides, with tonics, may be prescribed, together 
 with meat and milk. In severe cases the hydrate of choral, in from 
 fifteen to thirty-grain doses, may be given at bed-time. 
 
 COLDS AND HOARSENESS. 
 
 Borax has proved a most effective remedy in certain forms of colds. 
 In sudden hoarseness or loss of voice in public speakers or singers, from 
 colds, relief for an hour or so may be obtained by slowly dissolving, and 
 partially swallowing, a lump of borax the size of a garden pea, or about 
 three or four grains held in tne mouth for ten or fifteen minutes before 
 speaking or singing. This produces a profuse secretion of saliva, or 
 "watering" of the mouth and throat, just as wetting brings back the 
 missing notes to a flute when it is too dry. 
 
398 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 A flannel dipped in boiling water, and sprinkled with turpentine, 
 laid on the chest as quickly as possible, will relieve the most severe cold 
 or hoarseness. 
 
 Another simple, pleasant remedy is furnished by beating up the 
 white of one egg, adding to it the juice of one lemon, and sweetening 
 with white sugar to taste. Take a teaspoonful from time to time. It 
 has been known to effectually cure the ailment. 
 
 Or, bake a lemon or sour orange twenty minutes in a moderate oven. 
 When done, open at one end and take out the inside. Sweeten with 
 sugar or molasses. This is an excellent remedy for hoarseness. 
 
 An old time and good way to relieve a cold is to go to bed, and stay 
 there, drinking nothing, not even water, for twenty-four hours, and eat- 
 ing as little as possible. Or, go to bed; put your feet in hot mustard and 
 water; put a bran or oatmeal poultice on the chest; take ten grains of 
 Dover's powder, and an hour afterwards a pint of hot gruel; in the 
 morning, rub the body all over with a coarse towel, and take a dose of 
 aperient medicine. 
 
 Violet, pennyroyal, or boneset tea, is excellent to promote perspira- 
 tion in case of sudden chill. Care should be taken next day not to get 
 chilled by exposure to fresh out-door air. 
 
 ASTHMA. 
 
 Asthma is caused by a spasm of the muscular fibers of the small 
 bronchial tubes, which obstruct the outward flow of air from the lungs; 
 hence the great distress for want of breath, and the loud wheezing sounds. 
 The disease is of nervous origin, and is sometimes hereditary. It is gen- 
 erally worse at night. 
 
 Treatment. There are many remedies which for a time relieve the 
 bad symptoms, and a change of climate is almost always attended by re- 
 lief. An attack may be brought on by any irritating smoke, or vapor 
 or dust contained in the breathing air. The emanation from a feather 
 pillow is sufficient in some persons to produce a paroxysm. The writer 
 has found the following prescription of use in a greater number of cases 
 than any other. It usually cuts short the attack within a few hours: 
 
 Iodide of potassium 90 grains. 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia 60 grains. 
 
 Syrup of orange peel 1 ounce. 
 
 Simple syrup 1 ounce. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 Take a teaspoonful every two to four hours until relieved. 
 
 CORYZA. 
 
 Coryza, or cold in the head, is an acute inflammation of the lining 
 membrane of the nose. The eyes in this disease are also frequently in- 
 flamed and red and the tears flow over the face. The symptoms begin with 
 an itching or tingling sensation in the nose, which is followed by sneezing. 
 A slight fever accompanies these symptoms, and not unfrequently there 
 is more or less headache. 
 
 Treatment. Twenty or twenty-five drops of laudanum should be 
 taken at bed- time, the first evening after the symptoms are noticed. Not 
 unfrequently this will effect a cure. If not, another dose may be taken 
 the following evening, and this repeated the next. If the cold is severe 
 the laudanum should be taken night and morning until relieved. It is 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. &J9 
 
 also well to take four grains of quinine night and morning. Instead of 
 laudanum, one-sixth of a grain of morphine, or a full dose of Dover's 
 powder, will serve the purpose equally well. Treated in the beginning, 
 nothing is surer than a perfect cure in from twenty-four to forty-eight 
 hours, but if not effectually treated, it is apt to extend to the larynx and 
 become a severe bronchitis, or eventuate in a chronic, low-grade inflam- 
 mation of the nasal membrane, called catarrh. 
 
 CATARRH. 
 
 Catarrh is a name that properly applies to all inflammations 01 any 
 part of the mucous membrane, such as catarrh of the stomach or of the 
 bladder, but by common usage, unless qualified by another word, has 
 come to mean a chronic inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane. 
 It is a very troublesome disease, and is often very difficult to treat. 
 Patients are frequently seen who have suffered from the disease for years. 
 The inflammation is apt to extend through the eustachian tube to the 
 ears, and sometimes with not only the effect to impair the hearing, but 
 to quite destroy it. The odor is, in bad cases, most penetrating, render- 
 ing the patient very offensive to his associates. 
 
 Treatment. In the beginning the most effective treatment is that 
 recommended for coryza. Later, tonics should be given. Quinine in 
 two-grain doses, three times a day; laudanum in small doses and iodide 
 of potassium in five-grain doses three times a day. In the beginning 
 powders and solutions snuffed up the nose usually do harm, and it is a 
 question whether they ever do good in any stage. The most effective 
 treatment for a chronic case is, perhaps, a change of climate. Some 
 excellent cures have been known to result from a residence in Northern 
 Wisconsin, or in the region of Lake Superior. 
 
 BRONCHITIS. 
 
 Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the trachea 
 and bronchial tubes. It may be either acute or chronic. If acute, there 
 will be a slight fever and considerable cough. The treatment should be 
 the same as that advised for coryza. 
 
 Chronic Bronchitis usually eventuates from an acute attack. The 
 disease may be of years' standing. Those cases of death of elderly people 
 from exhaustion, attended by cough and expectoration, and accredited 
 to consumption, may usually be put down as bronchitis. Consumption 
 rarely attacks persons after 40 or 45 years of age. 
 
 Treatment should consist partly in good living and warm dressing. 
 Any of the bitter tonics, with iron, may be taken, together with some 
 form of opium to relieve the cough. Iodide of potassium in five-grain 
 doses, with two grains of carbonate of ammonia, taken after meals, will 
 be found very useful. 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER. 
 
 Typhoid Fever is a disease caused by bad sewerage, the odor from 
 old privy vaults, or drinking water contaminated with human excre- 
 ment, especially from typhoid-fever patients. It is a low grade of fever, 
 which attacks a person but once. It comes on so gradually that it is 
 hard to say when the disease began. It generally runs its course in spite 
 of treatment. Treatment may save a case from a fatal termination, or 
 
400 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 reduce its duration to the minimum, which is three weeks. At first the 
 patient complains of fatigue, loss of appetite, mental dullness and lack of 
 interest in his work. There may be diarrhoea. Pulse ranges from 90 
 to 110 per minute; temperature from 100 to 104 degrees. The skin is 
 dry and of a bronze hue. There may be bleeding from the nose. The 
 tongue will have a brown coat, which, if the patient is not given an 
 abundance of water, will become very dry. The lips and teeth collect 
 a dark brown or blackish, gum-like matter, called sordies. In the sec- 
 ond week the patient may become more or less delirious, and, if not 
 closely watched, may get out of bed, in consequence of delusions. It is 
 a common thing for the patient to imagine himself away from home. 
 Little red spots, like fleabites, may make their appearance upon the 
 abdomen. If there has been diarrhoea, the abdomen may become dis- 
 tended with gas. Hemorrhage from the bowels may take place. During 
 the third week any or all of these symptoms may become aggravated. 
 
 If the patient does well at the end of the third week, he will begin 
 to improve, the tongue will clean, the skin become moist or wet with 
 perspiration, and the mind perhaps become clear. He has not asked 
 for anything, but now he may express a desire for food or drink. 
 
 The treatment for this disease, in a mild case, is simply good hy- 
 gienic surroundings and care. On account of the low mental condition, 
 he may not be conscious of his wants. Hence he may never call for 
 water or food. 
 
 He should have milk and other nutritious food in such quantities as 
 he can digest, at short but regular intervals. 
 
 The bowels will need attention. If there be diarrhoea, some mild 
 astringents may be given, as fluid extract of logwood. If the bowels are 
 distended by gas, spirits of turpentine may be given. If constipation 
 ensue, some mild laxative, as castor-oil, syrup or tincture of rhubarb, 
 or an enema of tepid water, will relieve the symptoms. The tempera- 
 ture and circulation can be controlled, as laid down under the head of 
 fevers in general. 
 
 In bad cases any or all of the symptoms may be aggravated, and will 
 need special attention. 
 
 Young persons are more likely to recover than persons advanced 
 in life. They are also more liable to contract the disease. 
 
 LEAD COLIC. 
 
 Lead colic is caused by the poison from lead. The lead may be 
 taken into the system by many different ways, without the knowledge of 
 the patient. Persons manufacturing paints or working in shot factories 
 or other places where lead is used may be poisoned. Painters are very 
 liable to lead poisoning. Persons have been poisoned by sleeping in a 
 newly painted room, or by using certain face washes and hair dyes which 
 contain lead, or by drinking water which has stood in lead pipes, or beer 
 or cider which has been for some time in contact with a lead faucet, and 
 by many accidental or intentional adulterations of food. Lead poisoning 
 is manifested by various affections of the nervous system, such as 
 paralysis, as of the extensor muscles of the hand, and neuralgias, of 
 which colic, or neuralgia of the intestines, is one. 
 
 The bowels are usually constipated. The pain is sometimes dull 
 and heavy, and sometimes sharp and cutting. It usually comes on very 
 gradually, beginning with slight pain, and grows worse until it may be- 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 401 
 
 2ome very severe. There is seldom entire relief from pain, but there are 
 periods of great increase, when the paroxysms are excruciating. If not 
 relieved by treatment, the pain is likely to continue for days, and per- 
 haps for weeks, and attacks will frequently occur. Persons do not die 
 from lead colic, although they may from other effects of lead poisoning. 
 A blue line along the gums next the teeth is usually present in these 
 cases. 
 
 Treatment should first be given as in ordinary colic. When the 
 pain is relieved and the bowels moved, the following prescription should 
 be taken, which will produce a permanent cure: 
 
 Iodide of potassium 1 ounce. 
 
 Distilled water, ad 1 ounce. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 Dose: As directed. 
 
 The above is a saturated solution. Begin with five drops in a wine 
 glass of water three times a day after meals, and increase one drop each 
 day until the patient is taking twenty-five to thirty drops three times a 
 day. 
 
 RHEUMATISM. 
 
 Rheumatism is a constitutional disease, characterized by certain 
 local manifestations. These manifestations are due to inflammation, 
 acute or chronic, of the synovial membrane lining the joints, of certain 
 serous membranes, particularly those of the heart, and of fibrous tissue 
 elsewhere in the body. Rheumatism is classified as acute articular rheu- 
 matism and chronic rheumatism. 
 
 In acute articular rheumatism the lining membranes of the 
 joints are inflamed. In the course of the disease certain complications 
 involving internal organs are liable to arise. The parts more likely to 
 become affected are the serous membranes, the endocardium and peri- 
 cardium lining and surrounding the heart. 
 
 The attack usually begins suddenly. Sometimes there is a slight 
 amount of fever for a day or two preceding the joint affection; some- 
 times the pain and tenderness of the joints precede the fever, but usually 
 these symptoms appear together. The disease may attack any joint of 
 the body, and is indeed very seldom confined to one or two. The af- 
 fected joints are swollen, red and extremely tender. Pain is not so great 
 except when attempting to move, or when disturbed or jarred. The 
 slightest movement causes the most excruciating pain. Swelling is most 
 apparent when the knees, ankles or wrists are the joints involved. The 
 swelling is usually in proportion to the severity of the inflammation. One 
 joint after another generally becomes involved. 'Sometimes upon attack- 
 ing a new joint all tenderness and swelling disappear from the joints 
 first involved. The fever ranges in this disease between 102 and 108 de- 
 grees. Profuse sweating is a common symptom. 
 
 The disease very rarely proves fatal. When it does it is due to the 
 extension of the inflammation to the heart, and the development of 
 pericarditis. Even then the number of deaths during the acute attack is 
 very small, but in the fact that the heart is so frequently attacked lies the 
 danger of the disease, for, as explained under the head of diseases of the 
 heart, the great majority of valvular diseases of the heart are due to 
 endocarditis developed during an attack of acute rheumatism. Usually, 
 however, the lesion of the valves causes no inconvenience until a number 
 U. I.-26 
 
402 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 of years afterward. The heart is more likely to become involved the 
 more intense the disease. Other organs, such as the pleura, the perito- 
 neum and the membranes enveloping the brain, have been known tb 
 suffer inflammation during the attack, but it is extremely rare. The 
 head is usually free from pain. The duration of the attack varies from 
 ten days to five or six weeks. There are sometimes relapses. One who 
 has once suffered from acute rheumatism is more liable to subsequent 
 attacks. 
 
 Treatment: Nothwithstanding the popularity of salicylic acid, or 
 the salicylate of soda, in the treatment of rheumatism during the last 
 few years, we believe that as much or more may be accomplished by 
 the use of what has been known as the alkaline treatment. The alkali, 
 either bicarbonate of potassa or soda, should be given in full doses, every 
 three or four hours. Lemon juice may be added to the dose and taken 
 while effervescing. As soon as the urine is rendered alkaline (which may 
 be told by testing with litmus paper, which turns to blue if dipped into 
 an alkaline fluid), the dose should be greatly diminished, and taken there- 
 after only once or twice a day. Tonics are useful. Quinine in two-grain 
 doses may be given. Tincture of aconite applied to the swollen joints 
 often affords relief. Chloroform liniment or soap liniment is used for 
 this purpose. The salicylate of soda is much employed perhaps at this 
 time more than any other remedy. 
 
 Chronic rheumatism differs from the acute variety in the degree 
 of severity of the symptoms, and in their duration. In mild cases the 
 patients are able to go about their work, but suffer more or less pain in the 
 affected joints. In other cases, more severe, the patient is confined to 
 his bed, and frequently, with those about their avocations, there is more 
 or less deformity of the joints. 
 
 Treatment: The alkalies may be used in small doses; also the 
 salicylate of soda. Iodide of potassium is sometimes very useful, and in 
 malarious districts quinine is to be employed. 
 
 The local applications to the joints here are of more importance than 
 in the acute Variety. Tincture of aconite, tincture of iodine and chloro- 
 form liniment are very useful. 
 
 MALARIAL FEVER. AGUE. 
 
 Intermittent fever is one form of malarial fever. It has cold, hot and 
 sweating stages, with a normal interval following. The patient may go 
 through these stages every day, every other day, or every third day. This 
 disease is caused by decaying vegetable matter. It prevails in new coun- 
 tries, river bottoms, districts which overflow, or in the neighborhood of 
 canals or mill-ponds. It may prevail in houses with bad cellars, or 
 where the sills and floors are in a state of decay. It does not make its 
 appearance while the land is under water, but when the water recedes 
 and exposes the half rotten vegetable matter to the sun. Some physi- 
 cians suppose this disease to be caused by a microscopic vegetable germ 
 which enters the system, contaminating the blood. 
 
 Intermittent fever is not self-protecting nor self-limiting. Some per- 
 sons are never free from it while they reside in a malarial district. It 
 runs an indefinite course if not checked by remedial agents. If not 
 treated, the blood of the patient becomes impoverished, the lips pale, the 
 skin sallow, the muscles weak and the body emaciated. The spleen be- 
 comes large, vulgarly called an ague cake. Some persons may become 
 acclimated, improve, and finally get well without medicine, but the ma- 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 403 
 
 jority would go from bad to worse and die, or become so weak as to have 
 no physical endurance or resistance, and would finally succumb to some 
 other disease which they, in the depraved state of the system, are not 
 able to withstand. The system may become so surcharged with the poi- 
 son as to cause death from the severity of the chill before reaction or the 
 fever stage comes on. This is what is called a "congestive chill." Every 
 chill is in reality a congestive chill that is, during the chill some internal 
 organ is congested, or contains an abnormal amount of blood; hence the 
 variety of symptoms during this stage. One may have difficulty of breath- 
 ing because of congestion of the lungs; another may have pain in the 
 head; another, in the stomach or heart. 
 
 Instead of the cold, hot and sweating stages, the patient may have 
 severe periodical pains along the course of a nerve. This constitutes one 
 form of neuralgia. At another time, or another patient, instead of suffer- 
 ing from either chills or neuralgia, may have a periodical diarrhoea, or 
 there may be hemorrhage from some part of the mucous membrane. 
 
 Treatment. The night-air contains the malarial poison in greater 
 abundance than that of the day, so that if persons must live in a malarial 
 region, they can lessen the liability to contract disease by being in the 
 house before sunset, and remaining there until after sunrise in the morn- 
 ing. An attack may be induced in some persons by eating anything which 
 is difficult to digest. It becomes those who are susceptible to the influence 
 of this virus to look well to their food. 
 
 Some preparation of Peruvian bark enters into almost every formula 
 for the cure of intermittent fever. Sulphate of cinchona is the cheapest, 
 but it is more likely to disturb the stomach. Cinchonidia is cheaper than 
 quinine, and is like it in appearance. It is not as likely to disturb the 
 stomach as the sulphate of cinchona, but more so than quinine. Quinine 
 is more used because it is less irritating to the stomach, though it is of a 
 higher price. Quinine is the king in this realm of remedies. If the in- 
 terval between the paroxysms is short, we must give larger doses, and 
 closer together. When the paroxysms are farther apart, . we can give 
 smaller doses three or four grains every two hours. We believe we shall 
 have better effect from small doses close together than by giving doses of 
 five or ten grains, four or five hours apart. We need, in ordinary cases, 
 to administer from twenty to thirty grains between the paroxysms. The 
 taste of quinine can be disguised by putting it in cold coffee or tea. A 
 few doses of bromo-hydric acid will prevent the disagreeable effects and 
 the ringing in the ears produced by quinine. 
 
 Occasionally we meet with persons who cannot take quinine. We 
 can use salicine in the same doses as quinine, or a little larger doses even. 
 
 Arsenic is used in chronic forms of the disease and may be used where 
 quinine cannot be employed. 
 
 Nux vomica or strychnine may be used in combination with other 
 remedies. 
 
 TYPHUS FEVER. 
 
 Typhus fever is a disease arising from the crowding of human beings 
 into a small space, as in emigrant ships, in prisons and in the poorer 
 quarters of large cities. Typhoid fever is produced from human effete 
 matter thrown off from the bowels. Typhus is liable to become epidemic 
 after famine or excessive privation of any kind. When once originated, 
 it is contagious in densely populated districts; thence it may spread to 
 cleaner and more healthy parts of the city. 
 
404 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The attack is more sudden and its duration shorter, and the temper- 
 ature and pulse somewhat higher than in typhoid. The eruption on the 
 skin is somewhat like measles. Gangrenous spots are liable to appear, 
 and may assume a very serious aspect. The tongue becomes contracted, 
 dry and black; the bowels are constipated; no appetite; delirium is 
 present, and is followed by coma, in which condition the patient may 
 sink and die, or gradually pass into a more natural sleep, from which he 
 may wake convalescent. 
 
 Treatment similar to typhoid. Personal cleanliness; perfect ventila- 
 tion; good, easily-digested food; milk in its various forms; an abundance 
 of cold water. The circulation and temperature are to be controlled a? 
 directed in fevers in general. 
 
 HOW TO CATCH COLD. 
 
 A great many cannot see why it is they do not take cold when ex- 
 posed to cold winds and rain. The fact is, and ought to be more gener- 
 ally understood, that nearly every cold is contracted indoors, and is not 
 directly due to the cold outside, but to the heat inside. A man will go 
 to bed at night feeling as well as usual, and get up in the morning with 
 a royal cold. He goes peeking around in search of cracks and keyholes 
 and tiny drafts. Weather-strips are procured, and the house made as 
 tight as a fruit can. In a few days more the whole family has colds. 
 
 Let a man go home, tired or exhausted, eat a full supper of starchy 
 and vegetable food, occupy his mind intently for a while, go to bed in a 
 warm, close room, and if he doesn't have a cold in the morning it will be 
 a wonder. A drink of whisky or a glass or two of beer before supper will 
 facilitate matters very much. 
 
 People swallow more colds down their throats than they inhale or 
 receive from contact with the air, no matter how cold or chilly it may 
 be. Plain, light suppers are good to go to bed on, and are far more con- 
 ducive to refreshing sleep than a glass of beer or a dose of chloral. In 
 the estimation of a great many this statement is rank heresy, but 
 in the light of science, common sense and experience, it is gospel 
 truth. 
 
 Pure air is strictly essential to maintain perfect health. If a person 
 is accustomed to sleeping with the windows open there is but little dan- 
 ger of taking cold winter or summer. Persons who shut up the windows 
 to keep out the "night air," make a mistake, for at night the only air 
 we breath is "night air," and we need good air while asleep as much or 
 even more than at any other time of day. Ventilation can be accomp- 
 lished by simply opening the window an inch at the bottom and also at 
 the top, thus letting the pure air in, the bad air going outward at the 
 top. Close, foul air poisons the blood, brings on disease which often 
 results in death; this poisoning of the blood is only prevented by pure 
 air, which enters the lungs, becomes charged with waste particles, then 
 thrown out, and which are poisonous if taken back again. It is esti- 
 mated that a grown person corrupts one gallon of pure air every minute , 
 or twenty-five barrels full in a single night, in breathing alone. 
 
 CURB OF FELONS. 
 
 Take common rock salt, as used for salting down pork or beef, 
 dry in an oven, then pound it fine and mix with spirits of turpentine in 
 equal parts; put it in a rag and wrap it around the parts affected; as it 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 405 
 
 gets dry put on more, and in twenty-four hours you are cured. The felon 
 will be dead. 
 
 Or purchase the herb of stramonium at the druggist's; steep it and 
 bind it on the felon; as soon as cold, put on new, warm herbs. It will 
 soon kill it, in a few hours at least. 
 
 Or saturate a bit of grated wild turnip, the size of a bean, with spirits 
 of turpentine, and apply it to the affected part. It relieves the pain at 
 once; in twelve hours there will be a hole to the bone, and the felon de- 
 stroyed; then apply healing salve, and the finger is well. 
 
 Another way to cure a felon: Fill a tumbler with equal parts of fine 
 salt and ice; mix well. Sink the finger in the center, allow it to remain 
 until it is nearly frozen and numb; then withdraw it, and when sensation 
 is restored, renew the operation four or five times, when it will be found 
 the disease is destroyed. This must be done before pus is formed. 
 
 A simple remedy for felons, relieving pain at once, no poulticing, no 
 cutting, no "holes to the bone," no necessity for healing salve, but sim- 
 ple oil of cedar applied a few times at the commencement of the felon, 
 and the work is done. 
 
 PREVENTION qF CHOLERA. 
 
 Much may undoubtedly be done to prevent this dreaded disease by 
 attention to cleanliness, and by disinfectants, and none of these things 
 should be omitted. 
 
 There is, however, in nearly all cases, a premonitory diarrhoea, and 
 if this be effectually treated there is little danger of the full development 
 of the disease. Prudent and intelligent people who give prompt atten- 
 tion to any occurrence of diarrhoea during the prevalence of the disease 
 rarely have cholera. 
 
 If the diarrhoea occurs in a young child, full doses of paregoric 
 should be given every time the bowels move. If more than eight years 
 old, full doses of laudanum should be given, together with acetate of lead 
 and bismuth. For an adult, twenty-five to forty drops of laudanum, or, 
 instead, one-sixth to one-quarter grain of morphine after every move- 
 ment of the bowels. Small doses of red pepper, in addition to the 
 opiates, are useful. The above treatment, taken in time, will prevent 
 the further development of the disease in almost every case. 
 
 The treatment of cholera, when fully developed, does not differ during 
 the first stages from that recommended during the premonitory diar- 
 rhoea, except that the opiates should be given in larger doses. After 
 collapse has taken place there is little that can be done with any hope of 
 success. Sometimes active treatment in this stage does harm; it rarely 
 does good. The body should be kept warm by the application of dry 
 heat. The nutrition should be kept up, and brandy and water may be 
 given frequently in small quantities. 
 
 A FAMOUS CHOLERA MIXTURE. 
 
 More than forty-years ago, when it was found that prevention for the 
 Asiatic cholera was easier than cure, the learned doctors of both hemis- 
 pheres drew up a prescription, which was published (for working people) 
 in The New York Sun, and took the name of "The Sun Cholera Mix- 
 ture." It was found to be the best remedy for loosenesss of the bowels 
 ever yet devised. It is to be commended for several reasons. It is not to be 
 mixed with liquor, and therefore will not be used as an alcoholic bever- 
 
406 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 age. Its ingredients are well known among all the common people, and 
 it will have no prejudice to combat; each of the materials is in equal pro- 
 portions to the others, and it may therefore be compounded without pro- 
 fessional skill; and as the dose is so very small, it may be carried in a 
 tiny phial in the waistcoat pocket, and be always at hand! It is: 
 
 Take equal parts of tincture of cayenne, tincture of opium, tincture 
 of rhubarb, essence of peppermint, and spirits of camphor. Mix well. 
 Dose fifteen to thirty drops in a wine glass of water, according to age and 
 violence of the attack. Repeat every fifteen or twenty minutes until 
 relief is obtained. No one who takes it in time will ever have the chol- 
 era. Bven when no cholera is anticipated, it is a valuable remedy for 
 ordinary summer complaints, and should always be kept in readiness. 
 
 REMEDIES FOR CROUP. 
 
 Croup, it is said, can be cured in one minute, and the remedy is 
 simply alum and sugar. Take a knife or grater, and shave off in small 
 particles about a teaspoonful of alum; then mix it with twice its amount 
 of sugar, to make it palatable, and administer it as quickly as possible. 
 Almost instantaneous relief will follow. Turpentine is said to be an ex- 
 cellent remedy for croup. Saturate a piece of flannel, and apply it to 
 the chest and throat, and take inwardly three or four drops on a lump of 
 sugar. 
 
 Another remedy: Give a teaspoonful of ipecacuanha wine every few 
 minutes, until free vomiting is excited. 
 
 Another recipe said to be most reliable: Take two ounces of the 
 wine of ipecac, hive syrup four ounces, tincture of bloodroot two ounces. 
 Mix it well. ' 
 
 Dose, for a child one year old, five to ten drops; two years, eight to 
 twelve drops; three years, twelve to fifteen drops; four years old, fifteen 
 to twenty drops; five years old, twenty to twenty-five drops, and older 
 children in proportion to age. Repeat as often as shall be necessary to 
 procure relief. If it is thought best to produce vomiting, repeat the dose 
 every ten or fifteen minutes for a few doses. 
 
 VALUE OF HOT WATER. 
 
 One of the simplest and most effectual means of relieving pain is by 
 the use of hot water, externally and internally, the temperature varying 
 according to the feelings of the patient. For bruises, sprains, and similar 
 accidental hurts, it should be applied immediately, as hot as can be borne, 
 by means of a cloth dipped in the water and laid on the wounded part, 
 or by immersion, if convenient, and the treatment kept up until relief is 
 obtained. If applied at once, the use of hot water will generally prevent, 
 nearly, if not entirely, the bruised flesh from turning black. For pains 
 resulting from indigestion, and known as wind colic, etc., a cupful of hot 
 water, taken in sips, will often relieve at once. When that is insufficient, 
 a flannel folded in several thicknesses, large enough to fully cover the 
 painful place, should be wrung out of hot water and laid over the seat of 
 the pain. It should be as hot as the skin can bear without injury, and 
 be renewed every ten minutes or oftener, if it feels cool, until the pain is 
 gone. The remedy is simple, efficient, harmless and within the reach of 
 every one; and should be more generally used than it is. If used along 
 with common sense, it might save many a doctor's bill, and many a 
 course of drug treatment as well. 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 407 
 
 THE CURE OF EARACHE. 
 
 Take a bit of cotton batting, put on it a pinch of black pepper, 
 gather it up and tie it, dip it in sweet oil, and insert it in the ear; put a 
 flannel bandage over the head to keep it warm; it often gives immediate 
 relief 
 
 Tobacco smoke, puffed into the ear, has oftentimes been effectual. 
 
 Another remedy: Take equal parts of tincture of opium and glycer- 
 ine. Mix, and from a warm teaspoon drop two or three drops into the 
 ear, and stop the ear tight with cotton, and repeat every hour or two. It 
 matter should form in the ear, make a suds with castile soap and warm 
 water about 100 F., or a little more than milk warm, and have some 
 person inject it into the ear while you hold that side of the head the low- 
 est. If it does not heal in due time, inject a little carbolic acid and 
 water in the proportion of one drachm of the acid to one pint of warm 
 water each time after using the suds 
 
 NOTES ON FOOD PRODUCTS. 
 
 RELATIVE VALUE OF FOOD (BEEF PAR). 
 
 Oysters, 22; milk, 24; lobsters, 50; cream, 56; codfish, 68; eggs, 72; turbot, 84; mutton, 
 87; venison, 89; veal, 92; fowl, 94; herring, 100; beef, 100; duck, 104; salmon, 108; pork, 
 116; butter, 124; cheese, 155. 
 
 PBRCENTAGE OF CARBON IN FOOD. 
 
 Cabbage, 3: beer, 4; carrots, 5; milk 7; parsnips, 8; fish, 9; potatoes, 12; eggs, 16; 
 beef, 27; bread, 27; cheese, 36; peas, 36; rice, 38; corn, 38; biscuit, 4/J; oatmeal, 42 ; sugar, 
 42; flour, 46; bacon, 54; cocoa, 69; butter, 79. 
 
 FOOT-TONS OF ENERGY PER OUNCE OP FOOD. 
 
 Cabbage, 16; carrots, 20; milk, 24: ale, 30; potatoes, 38; porter, 41; beef, 55; egg, 
 57; ham, 65; bread. 83; egg (yolk). 127; sugar, 130; rice. 145; flour, 147; arrowroot, 151; 
 oatmeal, 152; cheese, 168; butter, 281. 
 
 LOSS OF MEAT IN COOKING. 
 
 100 Ibs. raw beef = 67 Ibs. roast | 100 Ibs. raw fowl = 80 roast 
 
 100 " " =74 " boiled | 100 " " =87 boiled 
 
 400 " raw mutton =75 " roast j 100 " raw fish . =94 boiled 
 
 THE PERCENTAGE OF STARCH. 
 
 In common grains is as follows, according to Prof. Yeomans: Rice flour, 84 to 85; 
 Indian meal. 77 to 80; oatmeal, 70 to 80; wheat flour, 39 to 77 ; barley flour, 67 to 70; rye 
 flour, - F to 61; buckwheat. 52; peas and beans. 42 to 43; potatoes, (75 per cent water), 
 13 to 15. 
 
 THE DEGREES OF SUGAR. 
 
 In various fruits are: Peach, 1.6; raspberry, 4.0: strawberry, 5.7. currant, P.I; goose- 
 berry, 7.2; apple, 7.9; mulberry, 9.2; pear, 9.4; cherry, 10.8; grape, 14.9. 
 
 EASY OF DIGESTION. Arrowroot, asparagus, cauliflower, baked apples, oranges, 
 grapes, strawberries, peaches. 
 
 MODERATELY DIGESTIBLE. Apples, raspberries, bread, puddings, rhubarb, choco- 
 late, coffee, porter. 
 
 HARD TO DIGEST. Nuts, pears, plums, cherries, cucumbers, onions, carrots, 
 parsnips. 
 
 WONDERS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 The skin contains more than two million openings, which are the 
 outlets of an equal number of sweat-glands. The human skeleton con- 
 sists of more than two hundred distinct bones. An amount of blood 
 equal to the whole quantity in the body passes through the heart once 
 every minute. The full capacity of the lungs is about three hundred 
 and twenty cubic inches. About two-thirds of a pint of air is inhaled 
 and exhaled at each breath in ordinary respiration. The stomach daily 
 produces nine pounds of gastric juice for digestion of food; its capacity 
 is about five pints. There are more than five hundred separate muscles 
 in the body, -with an equa 1 * number of nerves and blood-vessels. The 
 
408 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION, 
 
 weight of the heart is from eight to twelve ounces. It beats one hundred 
 thousand times in twenty-four hours. Each perspiratory duct is one- 
 fourth of an inch in length, of the whole about nine miles. The average 
 man takes five and one-half pounds of food and drink each day, which 
 amounts to one ton of solid and liquid nourishment annually. A man 
 breathes eighteen times a minute, and three thousand cubic feet, or 
 about three hundred and seventy-five hogsheads of air every hour of his 
 existence. 
 
 GYMNASTICS AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The principal methods of developing the physical man now pre- 
 scribed by trainers are exercise with dumbbells, the bar bell and the 
 chest weight. The rings and horizontal and parallel bars are also used, 
 but not nearly to the extent that they formerly were. The movement 
 has been all in the direction of the simplification of apparatus; in fact, 
 one well-known teacher of the Boston Gymnasium, when asked his 
 opinion, said: ' 'Four bare walls and a floor, with a well -posted instructor, 
 is all that is really required for a gymnasium." 
 
 Probably the most important as well as the simplest appliance foi 
 gymnasium work is the wooden dumbbell, which has displaced the pon- 
 derous iron bell of former days. Its weight is from three-quarters of a 
 pound to a pound and a half, and with one in each hand a variety of 
 motions can be gone through, which are of immense benefit in building 
 up or toning down every muscle and all vital parts of the body. 
 
 The first object of an instructor in taking a beginner in hand is to 
 increase the circulation. This is done by exercising the extremities, the 
 first movement being one of the hands, after which come the wrists, 
 then the arms, and next the head and feet. As the circulation is in- 
 creased, the necessity for a larger supply of oxygen, technically called 
 "oxygen-hunger," is created, which is only satisfied by breathing exer- 
 cises, which develop the lungs. After the circulation is in a satisfactory 
 condition, the dumbbell instructor turns his attention to exercising the 
 great muscles of the body, beginning with those of the back, strength- 
 ening which holds the body erect, thus increasing the chest capacity, 
 invigorating the digestive organs, and in fact all the vital functions. 
 By the use of very light weights an equal and and symmetrical develop- 
 ment of all part of the body is obtained, and then there are no sudden 
 demands on the heart and lungs. 
 
 After the dumbbell comes exercise with the round, or bar bell. This 
 is like the dumbbell, with the exception that the bar connecting the 
 balls is four or five feet, instead of a few inches in length. Bar bells 
 weigh from one to two pounds each, and are found most useful in build- 
 ing up the respiratory and digestive systems, their especial province 
 being the strengthening of the erector muscles and increasing the flex- 
 ibility of the chest. 
 
 Of all fixed apparatus in use the pulley weight stands easily first in 
 importance. These weights are available for a greater variety of objects 
 than any other gymnastic appliance, and can be used either for general 
 exercise or for strengthening such muscles as most require it. With 
 them a greater localization is possible than with the dumbbell, and for 
 this reason they are recommended as a kind of supplement to the latter. 
 As chest developers and correctors of round shoulders they are most ef- 
 fective. As the name implies, they are simply weights attached to ropes, 
 which pass over pulleys, and are provided with handles. The common 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 409 
 
 pulley is placed at about the height of the shoulder of an average man, 
 but recently those which can be adjusted to any desired height have been 
 very generally introduced. 
 
 When more special localization is desired than can be obtained by 
 means of the ordinary apparatus, what is known as the double-action 
 chest weight is used. This differs from the ordinary kind in being pro- 
 vided with several pulleys, so that the strain may come at different 
 angles. Double-action weights may be divided into three classes high, 
 low and side pulleys each with its particular use. 
 
 The highest of all, known as the giant pulleys, are made especially 
 for .developing the muscles of the back and chest, and by stretching or 
 elongating movements to increase the interior capacity of the chest. If 
 the front of the chest is full and the back or side chest deficient, the 
 pupil is set to work on the giant pulley. To build up the side-walls he 
 stands with the back to the pulley-box and the left heel resting against 
 it; the handle is grasped in the right hand if the right side of the chest 
 is lacking in development, and then drawn straight down by the side; a 
 step forward with the right foot, as long as possible, is taken, the line 
 brought as far to the front and near the floor as can be done, and then 
 the arm, held stiff, allowed to be drawn slowly up by the weight. To 
 exercise the left side the same process is gone through with, the handle 
 grasped in the left hand. Another kind of giant pulley is that which 
 allows the operator to stand directly under it, and is used for increasing 
 the lateral diameter of the chest. The handles are drawn straight down 
 by the sides, the arms are then spread and drawn back by the weights. 
 Generally speaking, high pulleys are most used for correcting high, 
 round shoulders; low pulleys for low, round shoulders; side pulleys for 
 individual high or low shoulders, and giant pulleys for the develop- 
 ment of the walls of the chest and to correct spinal curvature. 
 
 The traveling rings, a line of iron rings covered with rubber and 
 attached to long ropes fastened to the ceiling some ten feet apart, are also 
 valuable in developing the muscles of the back, arms and sides. The 
 first ring is grasped in one hand and a spring taken from an elevated plat- 
 form. The momentum carries the gymnast to the next ring, which is seized 
 with the free hand, and so the entire length of the line is traversed. 
 The parallel bars, low and high, the flying rings, the horizontal bar, 
 and the trapeze all have their uses, but of late years they have been rel- 
 egated to a position of distinct inferiority to that now occupied by the 
 dumbbells and pulley-weights. 
 
 SECRETS OF GOOD HEALTH. 
 
 Pure atmospheric air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and a very 
 small proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air once breathed has lost the 
 chief part of its oxygen, and acquired a proportionate increase of 
 carbonic acid gas. Therefore, health requires that we breathe the same 
 air once only. 
 
 The solid part of our bodies is continually wasting, and requires to 
 be repaired by fresh substances. Therefore, food which is to repair the 
 loss should be taken with due regard to the exercise and waste of the 
 body. 
 
 The fluid parts of our bodies also wastes constantly; there is but 
 one fluid in animals, which is water. Therefore, water only is necessary, 
 and no artifice can produce a better drink. 
 
 The fluid of our bodies is to the solid in proportion as nine to one. 
 
410 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Therefore, a like proportion should prevail in the total amount of food 
 taken. 
 
 Light exercises an important influence upon the growth and vigor 
 of animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings should freely admit 
 the solar rays. 
 
 Decomposing animal and vegetable substances yield various noxious 
 gases which enter the lungs and corrupt the blood. Therefore, all im- 
 purities should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution be 
 observed to secure a pure atmosphere. 
 
 Warmth is essential to all the bodily functions. Therefore, an equal 
 bodily temperature should be maintained by exercise, by clothing or 
 by fire. 
 
 Exercise warms, invigorates and purifies the body; clothing pre- 
 serves the warmth the body generates; fire imparts warmth externally. 
 Therefore, to obtain and preserve warmth, exercise and clothing are pref- 
 erable to fire. 
 
 Mental and bodily exercise are equally essential to the general 
 health and happiness. Therefore, labor and study should succeed each 
 other 
 
 Man will live most healthfully upon simple solids and fluids, of 
 which a sufficient but temperate quantity should be taken. Therefore, 
 an excessive use in strong drinks, tobacco, snuff, opium and all mere in- 
 dulgences, should be avoided. 
 
 Sudden alternations of heat and cold are dangerous (especially to 
 the young and the aged). Therefore, clothing in quality and quantity 
 should be adapted to the alternations of night and day and of the sea- 
 sons; and drinking cold water when the body is hot, and hot tea and 
 soups when cold, are productive of many evils. 
 
 SUNDRY HEALTH HINTS. 
 
 To EASE SWOLLEN FEET. Policemen, mail carriers, and others whose 
 occupation keeps them on their feet a great deal, often are troubled with 
 chafed, sore and blistered feet, especially in extreme hot weather, no 
 matter how comfortably their shoes may fit. A powder is used in the 
 German army for sifting into the shoes and stockings of the foot soldiers, 
 called "Fusstreupulver," and consists of three parts salicylic acid, ten 
 parts starch and eighty-seven parts pulverized soapstone. 
 
 RULES FOR FAT PEOPLE AND FOR LEAN. To increase the weight: 
 Eat to the extent of satisfying a natural appetite, of fat meats, butter, 
 cream, milk, cocoa, chocolate, bread, potatoes, peas, parsnips, carrots, 
 beets, farinaceous foods, as Indian corn, rice, tapioca, sago, corn starch, 
 pastry, custards, oatmeal, sugar, sweet wines, and ale. Avoid acids. 
 Exercise as little as possible, and sleep all you can. 
 
 To reduce the weight: Eat to the extent of satisfying a natural appe- 
 tite, of lean meat, poultry, game, eggs, milk moderately, green vegetables, 
 turnips, succulent fruits, tea or coffee. Drink lime juice, lemonade and 
 acid drinks. Avoid fat, butter, cream, sugar, pastry. 
 
 WHEN QUININE WILL BREAK UP A COLD. It is surprising, says a 
 family physician, how certainly a cold may be broken up by a timely 
 dose of quinine. When first symptons make their appearance, when a 
 little languor, slight hoarseness and ominous tightening of the nasal mem- 
 branes follow exposure to draughts or sudden chill by wet, five grains of 
 this useful alkaloid are sufficient in many cases to end the trouble. But 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 411 
 
 it must be done promptly. If the golden moment passes, nothing suffices 
 to stop the weary sneezing, handkerchief using, red nose and woe-begone 
 looking periods that certainly follow. 
 
 A MISTAKEN IDEA. The old adage, "Feed a cold and starve a fever," 
 is characterized by the Journal of Health as very silly advice. If any- 
 thing, the reverse would be nearer right. When a person has a severe 
 cold it is best for him to eat very lightly, especially during the first few 
 days of the attack. 
 
 BATHING. There has been a great deal written about bathing. The 
 surface of the skin is punctured with millions of little holes called pores. 
 The duty of these pores is to carry the waste matter off. For instance, 
 perspiration. Now, if these pores are stopped up they are of no use, 
 and the body has to find some other way to get rid of its impurities. 
 Then the liver has more than it can do. Then we take a liver pill 
 when we ought to clean out the pores instead. The housewife is very 
 particular to ke~p her sieve in good order; after she has strained a sub- 
 stance through it she washes it out carefully with water, because water 
 is the best thing known. That is the reason water is used to bathe 
 in. But the skin is a little different from a sieve, because it is will- 
 ing to help along the process itself. All it needs is a little encourage- 
 ment and it will accomplish wonders. What the skin wants is rub- 
 bing. If you should quietly sit down in a tub of water and as quietly 
 get up and dry off without rubbing, your skin wouldn't be much bene- 
 fited. 
 
 The water would make it a little soft, especially if it was warm. But 
 rubbing is the great thing. Stand where the sunlight strikes a part of 
 your body, then take a dry brush and rub it, and you will notice that 
 countless little flakes of cuticle fly off. Every time one of these flakes 
 is removed from the skin your body breathes a sigh of relief. An eminent 
 German authority contends that too much bathing is a bad thing. There 
 is much truth in this. Soap and water are good things to soften up the 
 skin, but rubbing is what the skin wants. Every morning or every 
 evening, or when it is most convenient, wash the body all over with 
 water and a little ammonia, or anything which tends to make the water 
 soft; then rub dry with a towel, and after that go over the body from top 
 to toe with a dry 'brush. Try this for two or three weeks, and your skin 
 will be like velvet. 
 
 TEA AND COFFEE. Tea is a nerve stimulant, pure and simple, act- 
 ing like alcohol in this respect, without any value that the latter may 
 possess as a retarder of waste. It has a special influence upon those 
 nerve centers that supply will power, exalting their sensibility beyond 
 normal activity, and may even produce hysterical symptoms, if carried 
 far enough. Its active principle, theine, is an exceedingly powerful 
 drug, chiefly employed by nerve specialists as a pain destroyer, possess- 
 ing the singular quality of working toward the surface. That is to say, 
 when a dose is administered hypodermically for sciatica, for example, 
 the narcotic influence proceeds outward from the point of injection, in- 
 stead of inward toward the centers, as does that of morphia, atropia, etc. 
 Tea is totally devoid of nutritive value, and the habit of drinking it to 
 excess, which so many American women indulge in, particularly in the 
 country, is to be deplored as a cause of our American nervousness. 
 
 Coffee, on the contrary, is a nerve food. Like other concentrated 
 foods of its class, it operates as a stimulant also, but upon a different set 
 of nerves from tea. Taken strong in the morning, it often produces diz- 
 
412 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 ziness and that peculiar visual symptom of overstimulus which is called 
 muscce volitantes dancing flies. But this is an improper way to take it, 
 and rightly used it is perhaps the most valuable liquid addition to the 
 morning meal. Its active principle, caffeine, differs in all physiological 
 respects from theine, while it is chemically very closely allied, and its 
 limited consumption makes it impotent for harm. 
 
 To STRAIGHTEN ROUND SHOULDERS. A stooping figure and a halt- 
 ing gait, accompanied by the unavoidable weakness of lungs incidental 
 to a narrow chest, may be entirely cured by a very simple and easily- 
 performed exercise of raising one's self upon the toes leisurely in a per- 
 pendicular position several times daily. To take this exercise properly 
 one must take a perfectly upright position, with the heels together and 
 the toes at an angle of forty-five degrees. Then drop the arms lifelessly 
 by the sides, animating and raising the chest to its full capacity muscu- 
 larly, the chin well drawn in, and the crown of the head feeling as if at- 
 tached to a string suspended from the ceiling above. Slowly rise upon 
 the balls of both feet to the greatest possible height, thereby exercising 
 all the muscles of the legs and body; come again into standing position 
 without swaying the body backward out of the perfect line. Repeat this 
 same exercise, first on one foot, then on the other. It is wonderful what 
 a straightening-out power this exercise has upon round shoulders and 
 crooked backs, and one will be surprised to note how soon the lungs 
 begin to show the effect of such expansive development. 
 
 CARE OF THE EYES. In consequence of the increase of affections 
 of the eye, a specialist has recently formulated the following rules to be 
 observed in the care of the eyes for school work: A comfortable temp- 
 erature, dry and warm feet, good ventilation; clothing at the neck and 
 other parts of the body loose; posture erect, and never read lying down 
 or stooping. Little study before breakfast or directly after a heavy meal; 
 none at all at twilight or late at night; use great caution about studying 
 after recovery from fevers; have light abundant, but not dazzling, not 
 allowing the sun to shine on desks or on objects in front of the scholars, 
 and letting the light come from the left hand or left and rear; hold book 
 at right angles to the line of sight or nearly so; give eyes frequent rest 
 by looking up. The distance of the book from the eye should be about 
 fifteen inches. The usual indication of strain is redness of the rim of the 
 eyelid, betokening a congested state of the inner surface, which may be 
 accompanied with some pain. When the eye tires easily rest is not the 
 proper remedy, but the use of glasses of sufficient power to aid in accom- 
 modating the eye to vision. 
 
 How AND WHEN TO DRINK WATER. According to Doctor Leuf, 
 when water is taken into the full or partly full stomach, it does not 
 mingle with the food, as we are taught, but passes along quickly between 
 the food and lesser curvative toward the pylorus, through which it passes 
 into the intestines. The secretion of mucus by the lining membrane is 
 constant, and during the night a considerable amount accumulates 
 in the stomach; some of its liquid portion is absorbed, and that 
 which remains is thick and tenacious. If food is taken into the 
 stomach when in this condition, it becomes coated with this mucus, and 
 the secretion of the gastric juice and its action are delayed. These facts 
 show the value of a goblet of water before breakfast. This washes out 
 the tenacious mucus, and stimulates the gastric glands to secretion. In 
 old and feeble persons water should not be taken cold, but it may be 
 with great advantage taken warm or hot. This removal of the accumu- 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 413 
 
 lated mucus from the stomach is probably one of the reasons why taking 
 soup at the beginning of a meal has been found so beneficial. 
 
 THE HUMAN PULSE. 
 
 The phenomenon known as the arterial pulse or arterial pulsation is 
 due to the distension of the arteries consequent upon the intermittent 
 injection of blood into their trunks, and the subsequent contraction 
 which results from the elasticity of their walls. It is perceptible to the 
 touch in all excepting very minute arteries, and, in exposed positions, is 
 visible to the eye. The pulse is usually examined at the radial artery at 
 the wrist, the advantages of that position being that the artery is very 
 superficial, and that it is easily compressed against the bone. It is usual 
 and convenient, though not quite accurate, to include under the term 
 the conditions observed between the beats, as well as those produced by 
 them. The condition of the pulse depends mainly on two factors, each 
 of which may vary independently of the other: first, the contraction of 
 the. heart, which propels the stream of blood along the artery; and sec- 
 ond, the resistance in the small arteries and capillaries, which controls 
 the rate at which it leaves the artery. The first determines the frequency 
 and rhythm of the pulse and the force of the beats; but the tension of the 
 artery between them and their apparent duration depend mainly upon 
 the peripheral resistance. "Feeling the pulse," therefore, gives impor- 
 tant information besides the rate of the heart's action, and implies much 
 more than the mere counting of pulsations. Dr. Broadbent says, ' 'A 
 complete account of the pulse should specify (1) the frequency i.e. the 
 number of beats per minute, with a note of any irregularity or intermis- 
 sion or instability of the rhythm; (2) the size of the vessel; (3) the degree 
 of distension of the artery between the beats; (4) the character of the pul- 
 sation - whether its access is sudden or gradual, its duration short or long, 
 its subsidence abrupt or slow, note being taken of dicrotism when pres- 
 ent; (5) the force or strength of both the constant and variable pressure 
 within the artery, as measured by its compressibility; (6) the state of the 
 arterial walls." 
 
 The frequency of the pulse varies with age, from 130 to 140 per 
 minute at birth to 70 to 75 in adult males, and with sex, being six or 
 eight beats more in adult females. In some individuals it deviates con- 
 siderably from this standard, and may even be habitually below forty or 
 above ninety without any signs of disease. It is increased by exertion or 
 excitement, by food or stimulants, diminished in a lying posture or dur- 
 ing sleep. In disease (acute hydrocephalus, for example) the pulse may 
 reach 15 ) or even 200 beats; or, on the other hand (as in apoplexy and in 
 certain organic affections of the heart), it may be as slow as between 
 thirty and twenty. 
 
 The normal regular rhythm of the pulse may be interfered with either 
 by the occasional dropping of a beat (intermission), or by variations in 
 the force of successive beats, and in the length of the intervals separating 
 them (irregularity).' These varieties often occur in the same person, but 
 they may exist independently of each other. Irregularity of the pulse is 
 natural to some persons; in others it is the mere result of debility; but it 
 may be caused by the most serious disorders, as by disease of the brain, 
 or by organic disease of the heart. 
 
 The other qualities of the pulse are much more difficult to recognize 
 though of no less importance. The degree of tension or resistance to 
 
414 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 compression by the fingers varies greatly: in a soft or "low tension" 
 pulse the artery may be almost imperceptible between the beats; in a 
 hard or* 'high tension' ' pulse it may be almost incompressible. An unduly 
 soft pulse is usually an indication of debility; an unduly hard one is 
 most often characteristic of disease of the kidneys and gout. But the 
 tension, like the frequency of the pulse, undergoes considerable variations 
 in health from temporary causes, and may in certain individuals be 
 habitually above or below the average without actual disease. 
 
 The force of the beats is a measure of the vigor and efficiency of 
 the heart's action. A strong pulse is correctly regarded as a sign of a 
 vigorous state of the system; it may, however, arise from hypertrophy of 
 the left ventricle of the heart, and remain as a persistent symptom even 
 when the general powers are failing. As strength of the pulse usually 
 indicates vigor, so weakness of the pulse indicates debility. Various ex- 
 pressive adjectives have been attached to special conditions of the pulse, 
 into the consideration of which our space will not permit us to enter. 
 Thus, we read of the jerking pulse, the hobbling pulse, the corded pulse, 
 the wiry pulse, the thrilling pulse, the rebounding pulse, etc. The f 4 ull 
 significance of changes of the pulse in disease can only be appreciated by 
 considering them in connection with the other signs and symptoms of 
 the case. 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EATING. 
 
 Food consists of substances taken into the stomach for the purpose 
 of digestion, or of conversion into blood. Food is rendered necessary 
 by the waste of the system. Food is the primary source of nervous and 
 muscular power. Food which supplies calorific power is termed heat- 
 forming, respiratory, carbonaceous, or fuel food, and consists of starchy, 
 saccharine, or oleaginous bodies which contain a preponderance of car- 
 bon, or of carbon and hydrogen. Food which supplies dynamical, me- 
 chanical and mental power, is termed histogenetic (tissue forming), nitro- 
 genous, azotized, proteinous or albuminous; and consists of substances 
 which are comparatively rich in nitrogen, as milk, eggs, flesh, cheese, 
 peas, beans and other bodies containing fibrin, albumen, caseine or 
 gluten. A small portion of the respiratory food also probably contrib- 
 utes to the formation of the tissues; and likewise a portion of histogenetic 
 or albuminous food to the development of the animal heat. The student 
 and the hard-laboring professional man require even more tissue-forming 
 food than the ordinary physical laborer. A due supply of animal food 
 is necessary to the development of a high civilization; that is to the de- 
 velopment of races who are capable of sustained muscular and mental 
 iabor. Alcohol, either strong or dilute, cannot possess any histogenetic 
 power from its deficiency of nitrogen; and, as far as the results of mod- 
 ern experiments can show, is neither oxidized nor burnt in the system, 
 and therefore is probably neither a heat-former nor a flesh-former. It is 
 consequently deficient in true food power, or, in other words, can neither 
 nourish the body nor develop heat. A due mixture of heat-forming and 
 flesh-forming food is most beneficial, economizing both food and digest- 
 ive (vital or nervous) power. An excess of animal food is much more in- 
 jurious than a corresponding excess of vegetable food. Cooking renders 
 food more savory, wholesome and digestible, and destroys the parasitic 
 animals which might otherwise excite serious if not fatal disease; it saves 
 food, and enables the same amount of digestive (vital) power to do more 
 effective work, and diminishes the quantity which would otherwise pass 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 415 
 
 away undigested. Any system of instruction in cooking which does not 
 include some knowledge of the chemistry and physiology of food must be 
 defective. 
 
 WHAT IS FOOD ? 
 
 How is it converted into blood ? How does the blood circulate ? And 
 how is the body nourished and kept in health ? Are questions of the 
 greatest importance in their relation to public health and morality, and 
 should be generally taught in our schools. The following may 
 be taken as correct as to the qualities of human food mentioned, and 
 their characteristics when introduced into the stomach. Beef: When 
 it is the flesh of a bullock of middle age, it affords good and strong 
 nourishment, and is peculiarly well adapted to those who labor, or take 
 much exercise. It will often sit easy upon stomachs that can digest no 
 other kind of food; and its fat is almost as easily digested as that of veal. 
 Veal is a proper food for persons recovering from indisposition, and may 
 even be given to febrile patients in a very weak state, but it affords less 
 nourishment than the flesh of the same animal in a state of maturity. 
 The fat of it is lighter than that of any other animal, and shows the least 
 disposition to putrescency. Veal is a very suitable food in costive habits; 
 but of all meats it is least calculated for removing acidity from the 
 stomach. Mutton, from the age of four to six years, and fed on dry 
 pasture, is an excellent meat. It is of a middle kind between the firm- 
 ness of beef and the tenderness of veal. The lean part of mutton, how- 
 ever, is the most nourishing and conducive to health, the fat being hard 
 of digestion. The head of the sheep, especially when divested of the 
 skin, is very tender; and the feet, on account of the jelly they contain, 
 are highly nutritive. Lamb is not so nourishing as mutton; but it is light 
 and extremely suitable to delicate stomachs. House lamb, though much 
 esteemed by many, possesses the bad qualities common to the flesh of 
 all animals reared in an unnatural manner. Pork affords rich and sub- 
 stantial nourishment; and its juices are wholesome when properly fed, 
 and when the animal enjoys pure air and exercise. But the flesh of 
 hogs reared in towns is both hard of digestion and unwholesome. Pork 
 is particularly improper for those who are liable to any foulness of the skin. 
 
 DOES AUX>HOI, HEI,P? 
 
 It is almost proverbial, that a dram is good for promoting the digest- 
 ion; but this is an erroneous notion, for though a dram may give a 
 momentary stimulus to the coats of the stomach, it tends to harden the 
 flesh, and of course to make it more indigestible. Smoked hams are a 
 strong meat, and rather fit for a relish than a diet. It is the quality of 
 all salted meats that the fibers become rigid; and therefore more difficult 
 of digestion; and when to this is added smoking, the heat of the chimney 
 occasions the salt to concentrate, and the fat between the muscles some- 
 times to become rancid. Bacon is also of an indigestible quality, and is 
 apt to turn rancid on weak stomachs; but for those in health it is an ex- 
 cellent food, especially when used with fowl or veal, and even eaten 
 with peas, cabbage or cauliflowers. Goat's flesh is hard and indigestible, 
 but that of kids is tender as well as delicious, and affords good nourish- 
 ment. Venison, or the flesh of deer, and that of hares, is of a nourish- 
 ing quality, but it is liable to the inconvenience, that, though much dis- 
 posed to putrescency ofitself, it must be kept for a little time before it 
 becomes tender. The blood of animals is used as an aliment by the 
 poorer people, but they could not long subsist upon it unless mixed 
 
416 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 with oatmeal, etc., for it is not very soluble, alone, by the digestive 
 powers of the human stomach, and therefore cannot prove nourishing. 
 
 MIIyK. 
 
 Milk is of very different consistence in different animals; but that of 
 cows being the kind used in diet, is at present the object of our atten- 
 tion. Milk, where it agrees with the stomach, affords excellent nourish- 
 ment for those who are weak and cannot digest other aliments. It does 
 not readily become putrid, but it is apt to become sour on the stomach, 
 and thence to produce flatulence, heart-burn or gripes, and in some con- 
 stitutions a looseness. The best milk is from a cow at three or four years 
 of age, about two months after producing a calf. It is lighter, but more 
 watery than the milk of sheep and goats; .while, on the other hand, it is more 
 thick and heavy than the milk of asses and mares, which are next in 
 consistence to human milk. On account of the acid which is generated 
 after digestion, milk coagulates in all stomachs; but the caseous or 
 cheesy part is again dissolved by the digestive juices, and rendered fit 
 for the purpose of nutrition. It is improper to eat acid substances with 
 milk, as these would tend to prevent the due digestion of it. Cream is 
 very nourishing, but, on account of its fatness, is difficult to be digested 
 in weak stomachs. Violent exercise, after eating it, will, in a little 
 while, convert it into butter. 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 Some writers inveigh against the use of butter as universally per- 
 nicious; but they might with equal reason condemn all vegetable oils, 
 which form a considerable part of diet in the southern climates, and 
 Beem to have been beneficially intended by nature for that purpose. But- 
 ter, like every other oily substance, has doubtless a relaxing quality, 
 and if retained long in the stomach is liable to become rancid; but, if 
 eaten in moderation, it will not produce those effects. It is, however, 
 improper in bilious constitutions. The worst consequence produced by 
 butter, when eaten with bread, is that it obstructs the discharge of saliva 
 in the act of mastication or chewing, by wh.ich means the food is not so 
 easily digested. To obviate this effect, it would be a commendable 
 practice at breakfast, first to eat some dry bread, and chew it well, till 
 the salivary glands were exhausted, and afterwards to eat it with butter. 
 By these means such a quantity of saliva might be carried into the stom- 
 ach as would be sufficient for the purpose of digestion. Cheese is like- 
 wise reprobated by many as extremely unwholesome. It is doubtless 
 not easy of digestion; and when eaten in a great quantity, may overload 
 the stomach; but if eaten sparingly, its tenacity may be dissolved by the 
 digestive juices, and it may yield a wholesome, though not very nour- 
 ishing, chyle. Toasted cheese is agreeable to most palates, but it is 
 rendered more indigestible by that process. 
 
 GAME, ETC. 
 
 The flesh of birds differs in quality according to the food on which 
 they live. Such as feed upon grain and berries, afford, in general, good 
 nourishment; if we except geese and ducks, which are hard of digestion, 
 especially the former. A young hen or chicken is a tender, delicate food, 
 and extremely well adapted w r here the digestive powers are weak. But 
 of all tame fowls, the capon is the most nutritious. Turkeys, as well as 
 guinea or India fowls, afford a substantial nutriment, but are not so easy 
 of digestion as the common domestic fowls. In* all birds those parts are 
 the most firm which are most exercised; in the small birds, therefore, the 
 wings, and in the larger kinds the legs are commonly the most difficult of 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 417 
 
 digestion. The flesh of wild birds, in general, though more easily 
 digested, is less nourishing than that of quadrupeds, as being more dry 
 on account of their almost constant exercise. Those birds are not whole- 
 some which subsist upon worms, insects and fishes. 
 
 KGGS. 
 
 The eggs of birds are a simple and wholesome aliment. Those of the 
 turkey are superior in all the qualifications of food. The white of eggs 
 is dissolved in a warm temperature, but by much heat is rendered tough 
 and hard. The yolk contains much oil, and is highly nourishing, but 
 has a strong tendency to putrefaction; on which account, eggs are im- 
 proper for people of weak stomachs, especially when they are not 
 quite fresh. Eggs boiled hard or fried are difficult of digestion, and are 
 rendered still more indigestible by the addition of butter. All eggs re- 
 quire a sufficient quantity of salt, to promote their solution in the 
 stomach . 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Fish, though some of them be light and easy of digestion, afford less 
 nourishment than vegetables, or the flesh of quadrupeds, and are, of all 
 the animal tribes, the most disposed to putrefaction. Salt water fish are, 
 in general, the best; but when salted, though less disposed to putres- 
 cency, they become difficult of digestion. Whitings and flounders 
 are the most easily digested. Acid sauces, and pickles, by resisting 
 putrefaction, are a proper addition to fish, both as they retard putres- 
 cency, and correct the relaxing tendency of butter, so generally used 
 with this kind of aliment. Oysters and cockles are eaten both raw 
 and dressed; but in the former state they are preferable, because heat dis- 
 sipates considerably their nutritious parts as well as the salt water, which 
 promotes their digestion in the stomach; if not eaten very sparingly, 
 they generally prove laxative. Muscles and periwinkles are far inferior 
 to oysters, both in point of digestion and nutriment. Sea muscles are 
 by some supposed to be of a poisonous nature; but though this opinion 
 is not much countenanced by experience, the safest way is to eat them 
 with vinegar, or some other vegetable acid. 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 At the head of the vegetable class stands bread, that article of diet 
 which from general use, has received the name of the staff of life. Wheat is 
 the grain chiefly used for the purpose in this country, and is among the 
 most nutritive of all the farinaceous kinds, as it contains a great deal of 
 starch. Bread is very properly eaten with animal food, to correct the 
 disposition to putrescency; but is most expedient with such articles of 
 diet as contain much nourishment in a small bulk, because it then serves 
 to give the stomach a proper degree of expansion. But as it produces a 
 slimy chyle, and disposes to costiveness, it ought not to be eaten in a 
 large quantity. To render bread easy of digestion, it ought to be well 
 fermented and baked, and it never should be used till it has stood twenty- 
 four hours after being taken out of the oven, otherwise it is apt to occa- 
 sion various complaints in those who have weak stomachs; such as flatu- 
 lence, heartburn, watchfulness, and the like. The custom of eating 
 butter with bread, hot from the oven, is compatible only with very 
 strong digestive powers. Pastry, especially when hot, has all the disad- 
 vantages of hot bread and butter, and even buttered toast, though the 
 bread be stale, is scarcely inferior in its effects on a weak stomach. Dry 
 toast, with butter, is by far the wholesomest breakfast. Brown wheaten 
 bread, in which there is a good deal of rye, though not so nourishing as 
 U. I 27 
 
418 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 that made of fine flour, is both palatable and wholesome, but apt to be- 
 come sour on weak stomachs. 
 
 OATS, BARLEY AND RICE. 
 
 Oats, when deprived of the husk, and particularly barley, when prop- 
 erly prepared, are each of them softening, and afford wholesome and 
 cooling nourishment. Rice likewise contains a nutritious mucilage, and 
 is less used than it deserves, both on account of its wholesomeness and 
 economical utility. The notion of its being hurtful to the sight is a vul- 
 gar error. In some constitutions it tends to induce costiveness; but this 
 seems to be owing chiefly to flatulence, and may be corrected by the ad- 
 dition of some spice, such as caraways, aniseed, and the like. 
 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Potatoes are an agreeable and wholesome food, and yield nearly as 
 much nourishment as any of the roots used in diet. The farinaceous or 
 mealy kind is in general the most easy of digestion, and they are much 
 improved by being roasted or baked. They ought always to be eaten 
 with meat, and never without salt. The salt should be boiled with them. 
 Green peas and beans, boiled in their fresh state, are both agreeable to 
 the taste and wholesome, being neither so flatulent, nor so difficult of 
 digestion, as in their ripe state; in which they resemble the other legu- 
 minous vegetables. French beans possess much the same qualities; but 
 yield a more watery juice, and have a greater disposition to produce 
 flatulence. They ought to be eaten with some spice. Salads, being eaten 
 raw, require good digestive powers, especially those of the cooling kind, 
 and the addition of oil and vinagar, though qualified with mustard, 
 hardly renders the free use of them consistent with a weak stomach. 
 Spinach affords a soft lubricating aliment, but contains little nourish- 
 ment. In weak stomachs it is apt to produce acidity, and frequently a 
 looseness. To obviate these effects, it ought always to be well beaten, 
 and but little butter mixed with it. Asparagus is a nourishing article in 
 diet, and promotes the secretion of urine; but in common with the veg- 
 etable class, disposes a little to flatulence. Artichokes resemble aspar- 
 agus in their qualities, but seem to be more nutritive, and less diuretic. 
 Cabbages are some of the most conspicuous plants in the garden. They 
 do not afford much nourishment, but are an agreeable addition to animal 
 food, and not quiet so flatulent as the common greens. They are like- 
 wise diuretic, and somewhat laxative. Cabbage has a stronger tendency 
 to putrefaction than most other vegetable substances; and, during its 
 putrefying state, sends forth an offensive smell, much resembling that of 
 putrefying animal bodies. So far, however, from promoting a putred dis- 
 position in the human body, it is, on the contrary, a wholesome aliment 
 in the true putrid scurvy. Turnips are a nutritious article of vegetable 
 food, but not very easy of digestion, and are flatulent. This effect is in a 
 good measure obviated by pressing the water out of them before they are 
 eaten. Carrots contain a similar quantity of nutritious juice, but are 
 among the most flatulent of vegetable productions. Parsnips are more 
 nourishing and lesss flatulent than carrots, which they also exceed in the 
 sweetness of their mucilage. By boiling them in two different waters, 
 they are rendered less flatulent, but their other qualities are thereby 
 diminished in proportion. Parsley is of a stimulating and aromatic 
 nature, well calculated to make agreeable sauces. It is also a gentle 
 diuretic, but preferable in all its qualities when boiled. Celery affords a 
 root both wholesome and fragrant, but is difficult of digestion in its raw 
 state. It gives an agreeable taste to soups, as well as renders them 
 
HEALTH, HYGIENE AND PHYSIOLOGY. 419 
 
 diuretic. Onions, garlic and shallots are all of a stimulating nature, by 
 which they assist digestion, dissolve slimy humors, and expel flatulency. 
 They are, however, most suitable to persons of a cold and phlegmatic 
 constitution. Radishes of all kinds, particularly the horse radish, agree 
 with the three preceding articles in powerfully dissolving slimy humors. 
 They excite the discharge of air lodged in the intestines. 
 
 FRUIT. 
 
 Apples are a wholesome vegetable aliment and in many cases me- 
 dicinal, particularly in diseases of the breast and complaints arising 
 from phlegm. But, in general, they agree best with the stomach when 
 eaten either roasted or boiled. The more aromatic kinds of apples 
 are the fittest for eating raw. Pears resemble much in their effects the 
 sweet kinds of apples, but have more of a laxative quality, and a greater 
 tendency to flatulence. Cherries are in general a wholesome fruit, when 
 they agree with the stomach, and they are beneficial in many diseases, 
 especially those of the putrid kind. Plums are nourishing and have be- 
 sides an attenuating as well as a laxative quality, but are apt to produce 
 flatulence. If eaten fresh, and before they are ripe, especially in large 
 quantities, they occasion colics, and other complaints of the bowels. 
 Peaches are not of a very nourishing quality, but they abound in juice, 
 and are serviceable in bilious complaints. Apricots are more pulpy than 
 peaches, but are apt to ferment, and produce acidities in weak stomachs. 
 Where they do not disagree they are cooling, and tend likewise to cor- 
 rect a disposition to putrescency. Gooseberries and currants, when ripe, 
 are similar in their qualities to cherries, and when used in a green state, 
 they are agreeably co'oling. Strawberries are an agreeable, cooling ali- 
 ment, and are accounted good in cases of gravel. Cucumbers are cool- 
 ing and agreeable to the palate in hot weather; but to prevent them 
 from proving hurtful to the stomach, the juice ought to be squeezed out 
 after they are sliced, and vinegar, pepper, and salt afterward added. 
 TEA, COFFEE, ETC. 
 
 Tea by some is condemned in terms the most vehement and un- 
 qualified, while others have either asserted its innocence, or gone so far 
 as to ascribe to it salubrious, and even extraordinary virtues. The truth 
 seems to lie between those two extremes; there is, however, an essential 
 difference in the effects of green tea and of black, or of bohea; the former 
 of which is much more apt to affect the nerves of the stomach than the 
 latter, more especially when drank without cream, and likewise without 
 bread and butter. That, taken in a large quantity, or at a later hour 
 than usual, tea often produces watchfulness, is a point that cannot be 
 denied; but if used in moderation, and accompanied with the additions 
 just now mentioned, it does not sensibly discover any hurtful effects, 
 but greatly relieves an oppression of the stomach, and abates a pain of the 
 head. It ought always to be made of a moderate degree of strength : for if 
 too weak it certainly relaxes the stomach. As it has an astringent taste, 
 which seems not very consistent with a relaxing power, there is ground 
 for ascribing this effect not so much to the herb itself as to the hot water, 
 which not being impregnated with a sufficient quantity of tea, to correct 
 its own emollient tendency, produces a relaxation, unjustly imputed to 
 some noxious quality of the plant. But tea, like every other commodity, 
 is liable to damage, and when this happens, it may produce effects not 
 necessarily connected with its original qualities. It is allowed that cof- 
 fee promotes digestion, and exhilarates the animal spirits; besides which, 
 various other qualities are ascribed to it, such as dispelling flatulency, 
 
420 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 removing dizziness of the head, attenuating viscid humors, increasing 
 the circulation of the blood, and consequently perspiration; but if drank 
 too strong, it affects the nerves, occasions watchfulness, and tremor of 
 the hands; though in some phlegmatic constitutions it is apt to produce 
 sleep. Turkey coffee is greatly preferable in flavor to that of the West 
 Indies. Drank, only in the quantity of one dish, after dinner, to pro- 
 mote digestion, it answers best without either sugar or milk; but if taken 
 at other times, it should have both; or in place of the latter, rather cream, 
 which not only improves the beverage, but tends to mitigate the effect 
 of coffee upon the nerves. Chocolate is a nutritive and wholesome com- 
 position, if taken in a small quantity and not repeated too often; but is 
 generally hurtful to the stomach of those with whom a vegetable diet 
 disagrees. By the addition of vanilla and other ingredients, it is made 
 too heating, and so much affects particular constitutions as to excite ner- 
 vous systems, especially complaints of the head. 
 
 THE VITAL FLUID. 
 
 The plasma of the blood is replenished in its nutritive constituents 
 by the food taken at frequent intervals. Water is necessary to render 
 the blood sufficiently fluid, and to hold the other constituents in solu- 
 tion. The presence of certain chemical substances is also essential. Lime, 
 iron, and certain other minerals, must also find a place. Besides these 
 conditions, certain constituents manufactured in the body itself, as livei 
 sugar and the corpuscles in normal quantity, are necessary to health. 
 Water is niore essential than food, and oxygen more than water. One 
 deprived of food dies from impoverishment of the blood; if deprived 
 of water death takes place much sooner, but if deprived of oxygen, 
 death ensues within five to eight minutes. About a ton and a half 
 in the shape of food and drink is added to the blood of an ordinary 
 man during the year. As there is the same amount of waste, a ton and 
 a half of material, therefore, must be carried out of the body through the 
 blood during the same time. Some of the products of oxidation, as urea 
 and carbonic acid gas, are very poisonous to the nervous system. Certain 
 organs, as the kidneys, skin and lungs, are designed especially to remove 
 these poisons from the current of the blood, and carry them out of the 
 body. If, through disease of these organs, they fail to perform their 
 functions, the blood becomes highly charged with the poison, and, unless 
 speedily relieved, death is the result. If the lungs fail to eliminate the 
 carbonic acid, death results within a few minutes. If the kidneys fail to 
 remove the urea, death must follow in a short time. The same is true if 
 the skin fails in its office. 
 
 From the above it may readily be seen that the disorders of the blood 
 are many. There may be too much blood, when the condition is called 
 plethora; or too little, when it is called ancemia; or it may contain too 
 much water, or too little; or too many red corpuscles or too few; or the 
 plasma maybe deficient in tissue-building constituents; or the blood may 
 be poisoned by the retention of carbonic acid and urea. 
 
 Treatment. A considerable quantity and wide variety of food should 
 be taken regularly. A sufficient amount of water and fluids should also 
 be taken. Frequent baths and a reasonable amount of exercise are ad- 
 vised. The sleeping-room should be well ventilated, and plenty of fresh 
 air supplied. Where the blood disease is due to disease of some particu- 
 lar organ, the latter requires primary attention. 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 
 
 Far reaching as the earth's remotest span, 
 
 Widespread as ocean foam, 
 One thought is sacred in the breast of man, 
 
 It is the thought of home; 
 That little word his human fate shall bind 
 
 With destines above, 
 For there the home of his immortal soul 
 
 Is in God's wider love. 
 
 ANONYMOUS. 
 
 CRYSTALS THAT FORM GENTLEMEN. 
 
 Never betray a confidence. 
 
 Do not give a present in hopes of a return. 
 
 Do not fail to return a friend's call in due time. 
 
 A compliment that is palpably insincere is no compliment at all. 
 
 Avoid awkwardness of attitude as well as awkwardness of speech. 
 
 Never question a child or a servant about the private affairs of others. 
 
 Gentlemen precede a lady in going up stairs, but follow her in going 
 down. 
 
 The man or woman who engrosses the conversation is unpardonably 
 selfish. 
 
 All irritability and gloom must be thrown off when we enter 
 society. 
 
 Never fail to extend every kindly courtesy to an elderly person or an 
 invalid. 
 
 When offered a seat in the street car, accept the same with audible 
 thanks. 
 
 Never look at the superscription on a letter that you may be requested 
 to mail. 
 
 Do not be quick to answer questions, in general company, that are 
 put to others. 
 
 In walking with a lady through a crowd, precede her, in order to 
 clear the way. 
 
 Never indicate an object by pointing at it. Move the head or wave 
 the whole hand. 
 
 In walking on a public promenade, if you meet the same friends and 
 acquaintances a number of times, it is only necessary to salute them once 
 in passing. 
 
 421 
 
422 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 When entrusted with a commission, do not fail to perform it. It is 
 rude to "forget" 
 
 Avoid all exhibition of excitement, anger or impatience when an 
 accident happens. 
 
 On entering a room filled with people, do not fail to bow slightly to 
 the general company. 
 
 It is rude to examine the cards in a card-basket unless you have an 
 invitation to that effect. 
 
 Do not borrow money and neglect to pay. If you do, you will soon 
 find that your credit is bad. 
 
 Avoid any familiarity with a new acquaintance. You never know 
 when you may give offence. 
 
 If you accept favors and hospitalities, do not fail to return the same 
 when the opportunity offers. 
 
 In conversation the face must be pleasant, wearing something that 
 almost approaches to a smile. 
 
 Never allude to a present which you have given; do not even appear 
 to see it if you are where it is. 
 
 Never fail to answer an invitation, either personally or by letter, 
 within a week after its receipt. 
 
 No man or woman is well bred who is continually lolling, gesticu- 
 lating or fidgeting in company. 
 
 When writing to ask a favor or to obtain information, do not fail to 
 enclose postage stamp for reply. 
 
 If you cannot avoid passing between two persons who are talking, 
 never fail to apologize for doing so. 
 
 You should not lend an article that you have borrowed without first 
 obtaining permission from the owner. 
 
 Never play practical jokes. The results are frequently so serious as 
 to entail life-long regret on the joker. 
 
 Never ridicule the lame, the halt or the blind. You never know 
 when misfortune may be your own lot. 
 
 Do not appear to notice any defect, scar or peculiarity of any one. It 
 is the height of rudeness to speak of them. 
 
 Remember, when you are prone to give in charity to the sick or the 
 needy, that " he who gives quickly gives double." 
 
 Never speak of absent persons by their Christian names or their sur- 
 names; always refer to them as Mr. or Mrs. . 
 
 Always tell the truth. Veracity is the very foundation of character. 
 Without it a man is a useless and unstable structure. 
 
 Gentlemen, when with ladies, are expected to defray all such expenses 
 as car fares, entrance fee to theater, refreshments, etc. 
 
 It is very awkward for one lady to rise and give another lady a seat 
 in a street car, unless the lady standing be very old, or evidently ill and 
 weak. 
 
 When an apology is offered, accept it, and do so with a good grace, 
 not in a manner that implies you do not intend changing your opinion 
 of the offence, 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 423 
 
 In conversing with a person, do not repeat the name frequently, as it 
 implies one of two extremes, that of familiarity or haughtiness. 
 
 A good bit of advice is the saying, " Think twice before you speak 
 once," as thus only can you learn to always speak to the point. 
 
 Never enter a room noisily. Never enter the private bed-room of a 
 friend without knocking. Never fail to close the door after you, and do 
 not slam it. 
 
 Never seal a letter that is to be given to a friend for delivery. It 
 looks as though you doubted his or her honor in refraining from examin- 
 ing the contents. 
 
 Never correct any slight inaccuracy in statement or fact. It is better 
 to let it pass than to subject another to the mortification of being cor- 
 rected in company. 
 
 Always adopt a pleasant mode of address. Whether you are speak- 
 ing to inferiors or to your equals, it will alike give them a kindly and 
 happy impression of you. 
 
 Do not quickly follow up a present by a return. It looks too much 
 like payment. Never, however, fail to make an immediate acknowl- 
 edgment of the receipt of a gift. 
 
 Never presume to attract the attention of an acquaintance by a touch, 
 unless you are extremely intimate. Recognition by a simple nod or spoken 
 word is all that can be allowed. 
 
 The most contemptible meanness in the world is that of opening a 
 private letter addressed to another. No one with the slightest self-res- 
 pect would be guilty of such an act. 
 
 I/ong hair and a scrawling signature do not constitute a genius. Be 
 careful, then, how you draw upon yourself the ridicule of being a shallow 
 pretender by adopting either or both. 
 
 Sneezing, coughing and clearing the throat must be done quietly 
 when it cannot possibly be avoided; but sniffing and expectorating must 
 never be indulged in in decent society. 
 
 Do not make promises that you have no intention of fulfilling. A 
 person who is ever ready with promises, which he fails to execute, is 
 soon known as a very unreliable party. 
 
 It is extremely rude to look over the shoulder of one who is reading 
 or writing. It is also rude to persist in reading aloud passages from your 
 own book or paper to one who is also reading. 
 
 If you are talking to a person of title, do not keep repeating the 
 title. You can express all the deference you desire in voice and manner; 
 it is unnecessary and snobbish to put it in words. 
 
 Temper has much more to do with good breeding than is generally 
 supposed. The French are allowed to be the most polite people in the 
 world, when they are really only the most amiable. 
 
 People must remember that they must give as well as take in this 
 life, and that they must not hesitate to go to a little trouble in those 
 small observances which it is so pleasant to accept. 
 
 Neither a gentleman nor a lady will boast of the conquests he or she 
 has made. Such a course would have the effect of exciting the most 
 profound contempt for the boasters in the breasts of all who heard 
 them, 
 
424 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Punctuality is a most admirable quality. The man or woman who 
 possesses it is a blessing to his or her friends. The one who lacks it 
 is wanting in one of the first requisites of good-breeding. 
 
 The young of both sexes would find it an inestimable advantage 
 through life to cultivate from the outset a clear intonation, a well-chosen 
 phraseology, a logical habit of thought, and a correct accent. 
 
 A rich person should be careful how he gives to the poor, lest he 
 hurt their pride, while a poor person can only give to those of greater 
 wealth something that has cost only affection, time or talent. 
 
 We should not neglect very young people in our homes. If we wish 
 our children to have polished manners, and to express themselves well, 
 we must lead them to enter into the conversation that is going on. 
 
 When walking with a lady, it is etiquette to give her the wall, but if 
 she have your arm it is quite unnecessary to be changing at every corner 
 you come to. After one or two changes the habit becomes ridiculous. 
 
 The art of giving and receiving presents is not always an intuition. 
 A generous person may unwittingly wound where he intends to please, 
 while a really grateful person may, by want of tact, appear to deprecate 
 the liberality of his friends. 
 
 If a person of greater age than yourself desire you to step into a car- 
 riage or through a door first, it is more polite to bow and obey than to 
 decline. Compliance with, and deference to the wishes of others, is 
 always the finest breeding. 
 
 If you present a book to a friend, do not write the name in it unless 
 it be requested. By doing so you are taking for granted that your present 
 will be accepted, and also that a specimen of your penmanship will give 
 additional value to the gift. 
 
 Learn to make small sacrifices with a good grace; to accept small 
 disappointments in a patient spirit. A little more of self-control, a little 
 more allowance for the weaknesses of others, will oftentimes change the 
 entire spirit of a household. 
 
 A well-educated person proclaims himself by his simple and terse 
 language. Good and clear Saxon is much to be preferred to high- 
 sounding phrases and long words; it is only the half-educated who 
 imagine such a style is elegant. 
 
 In entering an exhibition or public room where ladies are present, 
 gentlemen should always lift their hats. In France a gentleman lifts his 
 hat on entering a public omnibus, but that is not necessary according to 
 the American code of etiquette. 
 
 Married people are sometimes guilty of the vulgar habit of speaking 
 of each other by the initial letter of their first name, or the wife of her 
 husband as "Jones," omitting the "Mr." This denotes very ill breeding, 
 and should be strenuously avoided. 
 
 We are not to be polite merely because we wish to please, but be- 
 cause we wish to consider the feelings and spare the time of others be- 
 cause we wish to carry into daily practice the spirit of the precept, "Do 
 unto others as you would have others do unto you." 
 
 To yawn in the presence of others, to put your feet on a chair, to 
 stand with your back to the fire, to take the most comfortable seat in the 
 room, to do anything in fact that displays selfishness and a lack of re- 
 spect for those about you, is unequivocally vulgar and ill-bred. 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 425 
 
 Never employ " extravagance in conversation." Always employ 
 the word that will express your precise meaning and no more. It is 
 absurd to say it is " immensely jolly," or "disgustingly mean." Such 
 expressions show neither wit nor wisdom, but merest flippancy 
 
 It is a duty to always look pleased. It is likewise a duty to appear 
 interested in a story that you may have heard a dozen times before, to 
 smile on the most inveterate proser ; in short, to make such minor 
 sacrifices of sincerity as one's good manners and good feelings may 
 dictate. 
 
 It is in bad taste to undervalue a gift which you have yourself offered. 
 If it is valueless, it is not good enough to give to your friend; and if you 
 say you do not want it yourself, or that you would only throw it away 
 if they did not take it, you are insulting the person whom you mean to 
 benefit. 
 
 When in general conversation you cannot agree with the proposition 
 advanced, it is best to observe silence, unless particularly asked for your 
 opinion, in which case you will give it modestly, but decidedly. Never 
 be betrayed into too much warmth in argument; if others remain uncon- 
 vinced, drop the subject. 
 
 Never indulge in egotism in the drawing-room. The person who 
 makes his family, his wealth, his affairs or his hobby the topic of conversa- 
 tion is not only a bore but a violator of good taste. We do not meet in 
 society to display ourselves, but to give and take as much rational enter- 
 tainment as our own accomplishments and those of others will afford. 
 
 A gift should always be valuable for something besides its price. It 
 may have been brought by the giver from some famous place; it may have 
 a valuable association with genius, or it may be unique in its workman- 
 ship. An author may offer his book or an artist his sketch, and any one 
 may offer flowers, which are always a delicate and unexceptional gift. 
 
 Boasting is one of the most ill-bred habits a person can indulge in. 
 Travelling is so universal a custom now that to mention the fact that you 
 have been to Europe is to state nothing exceptional. Anybody with 
 wealth, health and leisure can travel; but it is only those of real intelli- 
 gence that derive any benefit from the art treasures of the Old World. 
 
 Never refuse a gift unless you have a very good reason for so doing. 
 However poor the gift, you should show your appreciation of the kind- 
 ness of heart which prompted it. All such deprecatory phrases as "I 
 fear I rob you," or " I am really ashamed to take it," etc., are in bad 
 taste, as they seem to imply that you think the giver cannot afford it. 
 
 Always look at the person who is conversing with you, and listen 
 respectfully. In answering try to express your thoughts in the best 
 manner. A loose manner of expression injures ourselves much more 
 than our hearers, since it is a habit which, once acquired, is not easily 
 thrown off, and when we wish to express ourselves well it is not easy to 
 do so. 
 
 A good memory for names and faces, and a self-possessed manner, 
 are necessary to every one who would make a good impression in society. 
 Nothing is more delicately flattering to another than to find you can 
 readily call his or her name, after a very slight acquaintance. The most 
 popular of great men have gained their popularity principally through 
 the possession of this faculty. 
 
426 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 No lady of good breeding will sit sideways on her chair, or with her 
 feet crossed or stretched apart, or hold her chin in her hands, or twirl 
 her watch chain, while she is talking; nor does a well-bred gentleman 
 sit astride of his chair, or bite his nails, or nurse his leg. A man is 
 always allowed more freedom than a woman, but both should be graceful 
 and decorous in their deportment. 
 
 Shyness is very ungraceful, and a positive injury to any one afflicted 
 with it. It is only allowable in very young people. A person who 
 blushes, stammers and fidgets in the presence of strangers will not create 
 a very good impression upon their minds as to his personal worth and 
 educational advantages. Shyness may be overcome by determined mix- 
 ing in society. Nothing else will have an effect upon it. 
 
 A foreigner should always be addressed by his full name; as Monsieur 
 de Montmorenci, never as Monsieur only. In speaking of him, give him 
 his title, if he have one. For example, in speaking to a nobleman you 
 would say, Monsieur le Marquis; in speaking of him in his absence, you 
 would say, Monsieur le Marquis de Montmorenci. Converse with a 
 foreigner in his own language. If you are not sufficiently at home in the 
 language to do so, apologize to him, and beg permission to speak 
 English. 
 
 No one can be polite who does not cultivate a "good memory." 
 There is a class of absent-minded people who are to be dreaded on account 
 of the mischief they are sure to create with their unlucky tongues. They 
 always recall unlucky topics, speak of the dead as though they were liv- 
 ing, talk of people in their hearing, and do a hundred and one things 
 which, in slang parlance, is "treading on somebody's toes." Careless- 
 ness can be carried to such a pitch as to almost amount to a crime. Cul- 
 tivate a good memory, therefore, if you wish to say pleasant things and 
 to avoid disagreeable ones. 
 
 USES OF AMMONIA. 
 
 All housekeepers should keep a bottle of liquid ammonia, as it is 
 the most powerful and useful agent for cleaning silks, stuffs and hats, in 
 fact, cleans everything it touches. A few drops of ammonia in water 
 will take off grease from dishes, pans, etc , does not injure the hands as 
 much as the use of soda and strong chemical soaps. A spoonful in a 
 quart of warm water for cleaning paint, makes it look like new, and so 
 with everything that needs cleaning. 
 
 Spots on towels and hosiery will disappear with little trouble if a 
 little ammonia is put into enough water to soak the articles, and they 
 are left in it an hour or two before washing; and if a cupful is put into 
 the water in which clothes are soaked the night before washing, the 
 ease with which the articles can be washed, and their great whiteness 
 and clearness when dried, will be very gratifying. Remembering the 
 small sum paid for three quarts ammonia of common strength, one can 
 easily see that no bleaching preparation can be more cheaply obtained. 
 
 No articles in kitchen use are so likely to be neglected . and abused 
 as the dish-cloths and dish-towels; and in washing these, ammonia, if 
 properly used, is a greater comfort than anywhere else. Put a teaspoon- 
 ful into the water in which these clothes are, or should be washed every 
 day ; rub soap on the towels. Put them in the water, let them stand 
 half an hour or so; then rub them out thoroughly, rinse faithfully, and dry 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 427 
 
 out-doors in clear air and sun, and dish-cloths and towels need never 
 look grey and dingy a perpetual discomfort to all housekeepers. 
 
 A dark carpet often looks dusty soon after it has been swept, and 
 you know it does not need sweeping again; so wet a cloth or a sponge, 
 wring it almost dry, and wipe off the dust. A few drops of ammonia in 
 the water will brighten the colors. 
 
 For cleaning hair-brushes it is excellent; put a tablespoonful into 
 the water, having it only tepid, and dip up and down until clean; then 
 dry with the brushes down, and they will be like new ones. 
 
 When employed in washing anything that is not especially soiled, 
 use the waste water afterward for the house plants that are taken down 
 from their usual position and immersed in the tub of water. Ammonia 
 is a fertilizer, and helps to keep healthy the plants it nourishes. In 
 every way, in fact, ammonia is the housekeeper's friend. 
 
 Ammonia is not only useful for cleaning, but as a household medicine 
 Half a teaspoonful taken in half a tumbler of water is far better for faint- 
 ness than alcoholic stimulants. In the Temperance Hospital, in London, 
 it is used with the best results. It was used freely by Lieutenant Greely's 
 Arctic party for keeping up circulation. It is a relief in nervousness, 
 headache, and heart disturbances. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF STOVES. 
 
 If the fire in a stove has plenty of fresh coals on top not yet burned 
 through it will need only a little shaking to start it up; but if the fire 
 looks dying and the coals look white, don't shake it. When it has 
 drawn till it is red again, if there is much ash and little fire, put coals on 
 very carefully, A mere handful of fire can be coaxed back to life by 
 adding another handful or so of new coals on the red spot, and giving 
 plenty of draught, but don't shake a dying fire, or you lose it. This 
 management is often necessary after a warm spell, when the stove has 
 been kept dormant for days, though I hope you will not be so unfortunate 
 as to have a fire to coax up on a cold winter morning. They should be 
 arranged over night, so that all that is required is to open the draughts 
 in order to have a cheery glow in a few minutes. 
 
 TO DESTROY INSECTS AND VERMIN. 
 
 Dissolve two pounds of alum in three or four quarts of water. Let 
 it remain over night, till all the alum is dissolved. Then, with a brush, 
 apply, boiling hot, to every joint or crevice in the closet or shelves where 
 croton bugs, ants, cockroaches, etc., intrude; also to the joints and crevices 
 of bedsteads, as bed bugs dislike it as much as croton bugs, roaches or 
 ants. Brush all the cracks in the floor and mopboards. Keep it boiling 
 hot while using. 
 
 To keep woolens and furs from moths, be sure that none are in the 
 articles when they are put away; then take a piece of strong brown 
 paper, with not a hole through which even a pin can enter. Put the article 
 in it, with several lumps of gum camphor between the folds. Place this 
 in a close box or trunk. Cover every joint with paper. A piece of cot- 
 ton cloth, if thick and firm, will answer. Wherever a knitting-needle 
 can pass, the parent moth can enter. 
 
 Place pieces of camphor, cedar- wood, Russia leather, tobacco leaves, 
 whole cloves, or anything strongly aromatic, in the drawers or boxes 
 where furs and other things to be preserved from moths are kept, and 
 
428 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 they will never be harmed. Mice never get into drawers or trunks where 
 gum camphor is placed. 
 
 Another Recipe. Mix half a pint of alcohol, the same quantity of 
 turpentine, and two ounces of camphor. Keep in a stone bottle, and shake 
 well before using. The clothes or furs are to be wrapped in linen, and 
 crumbled-up pieces of blotting paper dipped in the liquid to be placed 
 in the box with them, so that it smells strong. This requires renewing 
 but once a year. 
 
 TO REMOVE INK FROM CARPETS. 
 
 When freshly spilled, ink can be removed from carpets by wetting 
 in milk. Take cotton batting and soak up all of the ink that it will 
 receive, being careful not to let it spread. Then take fresh cotton, wet 
 in milk, and sop it up carefully. Repeat this operation, changing cot- 
 ton and milk each time. After most of the ink has been taken up in 
 this way, with fresh cotton and clean, rub the spot. Continue till all 
 disappears; then wash the spot in clean warm water and a little soap; 
 rinse in clear water and rub till nearly dry. If the ink is dried in, we 
 know of no way that will not take the color from the carpet as well as 
 the ink, unless the ink is on a white spot. In that case, salts of lemon, 
 or soft soap, starch and lemon juice will remove the ink as easily as if on 
 cotton. 
 
 INCOMBUSTIBLE DRESSES. 
 
 By putting an ounce of alum or sal amoniac in the last water in 
 which muslin or cottons are rinsed, or a similar quantity in the starch 
 in which they are stiffened, they will be rendered almost uninflammable; 
 or, at least, will with difficulty take the fire, and if they do, will burn 
 without flame. It is astonishing that this simple precaution is so rarely 
 adopted. Remember this and save the lives of your children. 
 
 HOW TO FRESHEN UP FURS. 
 
 Furs when taken out in the fall are often found to have a mussed, 
 crushed-out appearance. They can be made to look like new, by follow- 
 ing these simple directions. Wet the fur with a hair-brush, brushing up 
 the wrong way of the fur. Leave it to dry in the air for about half an 
 hour, and then give it a good beating on the right side with a rattan. 
 After beating it, comb it with a coarse comb, combing up the right way 
 of the fur. 
 
 TO WASH FEATHERS. 
 
 Wash in warm soap-suds and rinse in water a very little blued; if 
 the feather is white, then let the wind dry it. When the curl has come 
 out by washing the feather or getting it damp, place a hot flat-iron so 
 that you can hold the feather just above it while curling. Take a bone or 
 silver knife, and draw the fibres of the feather between the thumb and 
 the dull edge of the knife, taking not more than three fibers at a 
 time, beginning at the point of the feather and curling one-half the 
 other way. The hot iron makes the curl more durable. After a little 
 practice one can make them look as well as new feathers. Or they can 
 be curled by holding them over the stove or range, not near enough to 
 burn; withdraw and shake out; then hold them over again, until they 
 curl, When swansdown becomes soiled, it can be washed and look as 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 429 
 
 well as new. Tack strips on a piece of muslin and wash in warm water 
 with white soap, then rinse and hang in the wind to dry. Rip from the 
 muslin, and rub carefully between the fingers to soften the leather. 
 
 THE ART OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 The art of expressing one's thoughts in clear, simple, elegant English 
 is one of the first to be attained by those who would mix in good society. 
 You must talk, and talk fairly well, if you would not altogether fail of 
 producing some kind of impression upon society. To have something 
 good to say, and to say it in the best possible manner, is to ensure success 
 and admiration. The first thing necessary for the attainment of this 
 valuable accomplishment is a good education. An acquaintance with 
 the current literature of the day is absolutely essential to a good talker. 
 A perfect familiarity with the English language, its grammer, pronun- 
 ciation, etc., is indispensable. Those who have to contend with a lack 
 of early advantages in this respect can supply the deficiency by private 
 study, and close observance wherever good English is spoken. Above 
 all should they avoid associating with those who express themselves in- 
 correctly and vulgarly. 
 
 Nothing is so infectious as a bad accent or incorrect form of speech. 
 
 All affectations of foreign accent, mannerisms, exaggerations and 
 slang are detestable. 
 
 Equally to be avoided are inaccuracies of expression, hesitation, and 
 undue use of French, or other foreign words, and anything approaching 
 to flippancy, coarseness, triviality or prevarication. 
 
 The voice should never be loud, no gesticulation should accompany 
 the speech, and the features should be under strict control. Nothing is 
 more ill-bred than a half-opened mouth, a vacant stare, a wandering eye 
 or a smile ready to break into a laugh at any moment. Absolute sup- 
 pression of emotion, whether of anger, laughter, mortification or disap- 
 pointment, is one of the most certain marks of good-breeding. 
 
 Next to unexceptionable grammar, correct elocution and a frank, 
 easy bearing, it is necessary to be genial. If you cannot be animated, 
 sympathetic and cheerful, do not go into society. Dull and stupid people 
 are but so many clogs to the machinery of social life. 
 
 The matter of conversation is as important as the manner. Tact and 
 good feeling will, in people of sound sense, indicate the shoals and quick- 
 sands to be avoided in conversation, but for safety's sake it will be best 
 to enumerate a few of them : 
 
 Complimentary speeches should be avoided, unless, indeed, so deli- 
 cately put as to be scarcely discernible. Flattery is suggestive of snob- 
 bery, particularly if it be paid to people of great wealth and high posi- 
 tion. It induces disgust on the part of the receiver, and insincerity on 
 that of the giver. 
 
 The habit of "fishing" for compliments is notably vulgar, and it is 
 one in which a certain class of vain young people are very apt to in- 
 dulge, especially among themselves in private. It indicates vanity in 
 the angler and begets contempt on the part of the one who from in- 
 terested motives nibbles gently at the bait. 
 
 All "slang" is vulgar. This fact cannot be too forcibly impressed 
 upon the minds of the young people of this day, as the alarming prev- 
 alence of slangy conversational phrases is enough to cause our decor- 
 ous forefathers and mothers to rise in their graves. 
 
430 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Many of the daughters of our most wealthy and influential citi- 
 zens have an idea that their position will excuse or gloss the vulgarity 
 of a "cant" phrase now and then. Nothing was ever more erroneous. 
 No position, however high, can excuse the vulgarity of this practice, 
 and it is a grand mistake also to imagine slang to be a substitute for 
 wit. We refer particularly to this habit among young ladies, as it is 
 more reprehensible in them than in the opposite sex, although it in- 
 dicates bad breeding on their part as well. 
 
 Scandal should be avoided above all things. It is a sin against 
 morality as well as good taste. 
 
 Punning is a most objectionable habit in society. An -inveterate 
 punster is an intolerable bore, and unless a pun amounts to a positive 
 witticism it should never be propounded in company. 
 
 Long arguments should be avoided in general company. They 
 become tiresome to the hearers. Always endeavor to change the sub- 
 ject after it has continued a reasonable length of time. 
 
 Religion and politics are two subjects to be avoided in general conver- 
 sation. People usually have strong prejudices on both these points, and 
 it is a rule of good breeding to respect the prejudices of those about you. 
 
 Never interrupt the speech of another. This is an unpardonable sin 
 against good breeding. 
 
 A good listener is more to be desired than a good conversalionalist. 
 In order to be a good listener you must appear to be interested, answer 
 appropriately, briefly and to the point, and give your companion gene- 
 rally the impression that you are in perfect sympathy with, and highly 
 entertained by what he is saying. 
 
 Avoid pedantic displays of learning. 
 
 All topics specially interesting to gentlemen, such as the farm and 
 business matters generally, should be excluded in general society. 
 
 The expression of immature opinions is always in bad taste. Persons, 
 young or old, should not attempt to criticise books or art unless posi- 
 tively certain that their knowledge of the subject is sufficient to justify 
 the criticism. 
 
 Be very careful of introducing long-winded anecdote into the con- 
 versation. Nothing is more awkward than to find an array of bored 
 faces when one is not more than half through a long story. 
 
 Repartee should be indulged in only moderately. Otherwise it may 
 degenerate into flippancy, a habit much to be condemned in a certain 
 class of young persons who think themselves unusually clever, or as our 
 American word goes, "smart." 
 
 In using titles, such as "General," "Doctor," etc., you must always 
 append the surname if you are a stranger or any other than a most inti- 
 mate friend. For example, you should say, "What did you observe, 
 Doctor Gray?" not, "What did you observe, Doctor?" Names should be 
 used as little as possible, and never familiarly. Few solecisms give 
 greater offense than a liberty taken with a name. 
 
 In addressing a person of title in England, "My Lord" and "My 
 Lady" are seldom used except by servants. The Prince of Wales may be 
 addressed as "Sir," and the Queen as -'Madame." A Frenchman, how- 
 ever, whatever his rank, is addressed as "Monsieur," and a French- 
 woman, whether duchess or dressmaker, as "Madame." It would be as 
 ill-bred to omit to say Monsieur, Mein Herr, and Signer, in France, Ger- 
 many and Italy, respectively, as it would to say, Sir, Ma'am and Miss, 
 as the servants do in this country. 
 
HEAR TH AND HOME. 431 
 
 The great secret of talking well is to adapt your conversation to your 
 company as skillfully as may be. 
 
 People take more interest in their own affairs than in anything else 
 which you can name. A wise host or hostess will then lead a mother to 
 talk of her children, an author of his book, an artist of his picture, etc. 
 Having furnished the topic, you have but to listen, and acquire a reputa- 
 tion for being amiable, agreeable, intelligent and well-bred. 
 
 If you would not be unpopular, do not always be witty, no matter 
 what your natural abilities may be in that line. People do not like to be 
 always outshone. 
 
 Do not too officiously supply a word or phrase if a speaker hesitate 
 for a moment; he will think of the one he wants or supply another in 
 good time. 
 
 Never correct a fault in pronunciation or in facts, in company or in 
 private, if you wish to retain a friend. 
 
 Avoid such colloquialisms as "says I," "you know," and other sense- 
 less repetitions that might be mentioned. Never speak of a person as 
 "a party," nor refer to absent persons as "he" or "she." Give the name 
 of the lady or gentleman referred to. 
 
 In telling a joke, do not laugh yourself before the point is reached. 
 If the joke be original, do not laugh at all. 
 
 In tete-a-tete conversation it is ill-bred to drop the voice to a whisper. 
 
 Egotism is always in bad taste. Allow others the privilege of pro- 
 claiming your merits. 
 
 Never speak of personal or private matters in general company. 
 
 Avoid as much as possible beginning a conversation with stale com- 
 monplaces, such as, "It is a fine day," "The weather is charming," etc. 
 
 Do not speak slightingly of the city or neighborhood in which you 
 may be visiting. By offending the prejudices of those about you, you 
 render yourself extremely disagreeable. 
 
 Avoid all excitability and dogmatism in conversation. Nothing is 
 more annoying than to converse with an arrogant, loud-speaking per- 
 son. 
 
 Always yield the point in conversation if you find the argument is 
 likely to become violent. 
 
 Avoid lavishing praise on the members of your own family. It is 
 almost as bad as praising yourself. 
 
 It is exceedingly bad taste to parade the fact that you have travelled 
 in foreign countries, or that you are acquainted with distinguished or 
 wealthy people, that you have been to college or that your family is 
 distinguished for gentility and blue blood. 
 
 In speaking of husband or wife, do not use the surname alone. To 
 say "I was telling Brown," is extremely vulgar. Always prefix the Mr. 
 
 Always endeavor to contribute your quota to the general conversa- 
 tion. It is as much your duty to entertain as to be entertained. Bash- 
 fulness is as much to be avoided as too much assurance. 
 
 Never ask questions of a personal nature, such as what a certain ar- 
 ticle cost, or why so-and-so did not go to the opera. They are decidedly 
 impertinent. 
 
 Look at the person with whom you are conversing, but do not stare. 
 
 Avoid loud laughter in society. 
 
 If you carry on the thread of a conversation after the entrance of a 
 visitor, you should always recapitulate what has been said before his or 
 her arrival. 
 
432 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Remember that "an excellent thing in woman is a voice low but 
 sweet," and cultivate a distinct but subdued tone. 
 
 Emerson says: ' 'You cannot have one well-bred man without a whole 
 society of such." Elsewhere he says: "It makes no difference, in look- 
 ing back five years, how we have dieted or dressed; but it counts much 
 whether we have had good companions in that time almost as much as 
 what we have been doing. ' ' 
 
 THE HOUSEHOLD AND TOILET. 
 
 TOOTHACHE CURE. Compound tincture benzoin is said to be one of 
 the most certain and speedy cures for toothache; pour a few drops on 
 cotton, and press at once into the diseased cavity, when the pain will 
 almost inctantly cease. 
 
 TOOTHACHE TINCTURE. Mix tannin, 1 scruple; mastic, 3 grains; 
 ether, 2 drams. Apply on cotton wool, to the tooth, previously dried. 
 
 CHARCOAL TOOTH PASTE. Chlorate of potash, l / 2 dram; mint water, 
 1 ounce. Dissolve and add powdered charcoal, 2 ounces; honey, 1 
 ounce. 
 
 EXCELLENT MOUTH WASH. Powdered white Castile soap, 2 drams; 
 alcohol, 3 ounces; honey, 1 ounce; essence or extract jasmine, 2 drams. 
 Dissolve the soap in alcohol and add honey and extract. 
 
 REMOVING TARTAR FROM THE TEETH. This preparation is used 
 by dentists. Pure muriatic acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 ounce; honey, 2 
 ounces; mix thoroughly. Take a toothbrush, and wet it freely with 
 this preparation, and briskly rub the black teeth, and in a moment's 
 time they will be perfectly white; then immediataly wash out the mouth 
 well with water, that the acid may not act on the enamel of the teeth. 
 This should be done only occasionally. 
 
 BAD BREATH. Bad breath from catarrh, foul stomach or bad teeth, 
 may be temporarily relieved by diluting a little bromo chloralum with 
 eight or ten parts of water, and using it as a gargle, and swallowing a 
 few drops before going out. A pint of bromo chloralum costs fifty cents, 
 but a small vial will last a long time. 
 
 GOOD TOOTH POWDER. Procure, at a druggist's, half an ounce of 
 powdered orris root, half an ounce of prepared chalk finely pulverized, 
 and two or three small lumps of Dutch pink. Let them all be mixed in 
 a mortar, and pounded together. The Dutch pink is to impart a pale 
 reddish color. Keep it in a close box. 
 
 ANOTHER TOOTH POWDER. Mix together, in a mortar, half an 
 ounce of red Peruvian bark, finely powdered; a quarter of an ounce of 
 powdered myrrh; and a quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk. 
 
 A SAFE DEPILATORY. Take a strong solution of sulphuret of 
 barium, and add enough finely powdered starch to make a paste. Apply 
 to the roots of the hair, and allow it to remain on a few minutes, then 
 scrape off with the back edge of a knife blade, and rub with sweet oil. 
 
 QUICK -DEPILATORY FOR REMOVING HAIR. Best slack lime, 6 
 ounces; orpiment, fine powder, 1 ounce. Mix with a covered sieve and 
 preserve in a dry place in closely stoppered bottles. In using mix the 
 powder with enough water to form a paste, and apply to the hair to be 
 removed. In about five minutes, or as soon as its caustic action is felt 
 on the skin, remove, as in shaving, with an ivory or bone paper knife, 
 wash with cold water freely, and apply cold cream. 
 
 TRICOPHEROUS FOR THE HAIR. Castor oil, alcohol, each 1 pint; 
 tincture cantharides, 1 ounce; oil bergamot, y 2 ounce; alkanet coloring, 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 433 
 
 to color as wished. Mix and let it stand forty-eight hours, with occa- 
 sional shaking, and then filter. 
 
 LIQUID SHAMPOO. Take bay rum, 2^ pints; water, j pint; glycer- 
 ine, 1 ounce; tincture cantharides, 2 drams; carbonate of ammonia, 2 
 drams; borax, % ounce; or take of New England rum, \ l / 2 pints; bay rum, 
 Ipint; water, y z pint; glycerine, 1 ounce; tincture cantharides, 2 drams; 
 ammon. carbonate, 2 drams; borax, % ounce; the salts to be dissolved in 
 water, and the other ingredients to be added gradually. 
 
 CLEANING HAIR BRUSHES. Put teaspoonful or dessertspoonful of 
 aqua ammonia into a basin half full of water, comb the loose hairs out of 
 the brush, then agitate the water briskly with the brush, and rinse it 
 well with clear water. 
 
 HAIR INVIGORATOR. Bay rum, 2 pints; alcohol, 1 pint; castor oil, 
 1 ounce; carbonate ammonia, half an ounce,- tincture of cantharides, 1 
 ounce. Mix them well. This compound will promote the growth of 
 the hair and prevent it from falling out. 
 
 FOR DANDRUFF. Take glycerine, 4 ounces; tincture of canthar- 
 ides, 5 ounces; bay rum, 4 ounces; water,. 2 ounces. Mix, and apply 
 once a day, and rub well down the scalp. 
 
 RAZOR-STROP PASTE. Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and 
 apply a little flour of emery evenly over the surface. 
 
 SHAVING COMPOUND. Half a pound of plain white soap, dissolved 
 in a small quantity of alcohol, as little as can be used; add a tablespoon- 
 ful of pulverized borax. Shave the soap and put it in a small tin basin 
 or cup; place it on the fire in a dish of boiling water; when melted, add 
 the alcohol, and remove from the fire; stir in oil of bergamot sufficientto 
 perfume it. 
 
 CURE FOR PRICKLY HEAT. Mix a large portion of wheat bran 
 with either cold or lukewarm water, and use it as a bath twice or thrice 
 a day. Children who are covered with prickly heat in warm weather 
 will be thus effectually relieved from that tormenting eruption. As soon 
 as it begins to appear on the neck, face, or arms, commence using the 
 bran water on these parts repeatedly through the day, and it may prob- 
 ably spread no farther. If it does, the bran water bath will certainly 
 cure it, if persisted in 
 
 To REMOVE CORNS FROM BETWEEN THE TOES. These corns are 
 generally more painful than any others, and are frequently so situated as 
 to be almost inaccessible to usual remedies Wetting them several 
 times a day with hartshorn will in most cases cure them. Try it. 
 
 SUPERIOR COLOGNE WATER. Oil of lavender, 2 drams; oil of 
 rosemary, 1 dram and a half; orange, lemon and bergamot, 1 dram 
 each of the oil; also 2 drams of the essence of musk, attar of rose 10 
 drops, and a pint of proof spirit. Shake all together thoroughly three 
 times a day fora week. 
 
 INEXHAUSTIBLE SMELLING SALTS. Sal tartar, 3 drams; mur- 
 iate ammonia, granulated, 6 drams; oil neroli, 5 minims; oil lavender 
 flowers, 5 minims; oil rose, 3 minims; spirits ammonia, 15 minims. Put 
 into the pungent a small piece of sponge filling about one-fourth the 
 space, and pour on it a due proportion of the oils, then put in the mixed 
 salts until the bottle is three-fourths full, and pour on the spirits of am- 
 monia in proper proportion and close the bottle. 
 
 VOLATILE SALTS FOR PUNGENTS. Liquor ammon., fort., 1 pint, oil 
 lavender flowers, 1 dram, oil rosemary, fine, 1 dram, oil bergamot, ^ 
 dram, oil peppermint, 10 minims. Mix thoroughly and fill pungents or 
 U. I. 28 
 
434 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 keep in well stoppered bottle. Another formula is, sesqui-carbonate of 
 ammonia, small pieces, 10 ounces; concentrated liq. ammonia, 5 ounces. 
 Put the sesqui-carb. in a wide mouth jar with air-tight stopper, perfume 
 the liquor ammonia to suit and pour over the carbonate, close tightly the 
 lid and place in a cool place, stir with a stiff spatula every other day for 
 a week, and then keep it closed for two weeks, or until it becomes hard, 
 when it is ready for use. 
 
 PASTS FOR PAPERING BOXES. Boil water and stir in batter of 
 wheat or rye flour. Let it boil one minute, take off and strain through 
 a colander. Add, while boiling, a little glue or powdered alum. Do 
 plenty of stirring while the paste is cooking, and make of consistency 
 that will spread nicely. 
 
 AROMATIC SPIRIT OF VINEGAR. Acetic acid, No. 8, pure, 8 ounces; 
 camphor, ^ ounce. Dissolve and add oil lemon, oil lavender flowers, 
 each 2 drams; oil cassia, oil cloves, y 2 dram each. Thoroughly mix 
 and keep in well stoppered bottle. 
 
 ROSE-WATER. Preferable to the distilled for a perfume, or for 
 culinary purposes: Attar of rose, 12 drops; rub it up with a half 
 ounce of white sugar and 2 drams carbonate magnesia, then add 
 gradually 1 quart of water and 2 ounces of proof spirit, and filter 
 through paper. 
 
 BAY RUM. French proof spirit, 1 gallon; extract bay, 6 ounces. 
 Mix and color with caramel; needs no filtering. 
 
 FINE LAVENDER WATER. Mix together, in a clean bottle, a pint of 
 inodorous spirit of wine, an ounce of oil of lavender, a teaspoonful of oil 
 of bergamot, and a tablespoonful of oil of ambergris. 
 
 THE VIRTUES OF TURPENTINE. After a housekeeper fully realizes 
 the worth of turpentine in the household, she is never willing to be with- 
 out a supply of it. It gives quick relief to burns, it is an excellent appli- 
 cation for corns, it is good for rheumatism and sore throats, and it is 
 the quickest remedy for convulsions or fits. Then it is a sure prevent- 
 ive against moths; by just dropping a trifle in the bottom of drawers, 
 chests and cupboards, it will keep the garments from injury during 
 the summer. It will keep ants and bugs from closets and store-rooms 
 by putting a few drops in the corners and upon the shelves; it is sure 
 destruction to bedbugs, and will effectually drive them away from their 
 haunts if thoroughly applied to all -the joints of the bedstead in the 
 spring cleaning time, and injures neither furniture nor clothing. A 
 spoonful of it added to a pail of warm water is excellent for cleaning 
 paint. A little in suds washing days lightens laundry labor. 
 
 PASTE FOR SCRAP BOOKS. Take half a teaspoonful of starch, same 
 of flour, pour on a little boiling water, let it stand a minute, add more 
 water, stir and cook it until it is thick enough to starch a shirt bosom. 
 It spreads smooth, sticks well and will not mold nor discolor paper. 
 Starch alone will make a very good paste. 
 
 A STRONG PASTE. A paste that will neither decay nor become 
 moldy. Mix good clean flour with cold water into a thick paste well 
 blended together, then add boiling water, stirring well up until it is of a 
 consistency that can be easily and smoothly spread with a brush; add to 
 this a spoonful or two of brown sugar, a little corrosive sublimate, and 
 about half a dozen drops of oil of lavender, and you will have a paste 
 that will hold with wonderful tenacity. 
 
 A BRIUJANT PASTE. A brilliant and adhesive paste, adapted to 
 fancy articles, may be made by dissolving caseine precipitated from milk 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 435 
 
 by acetic acid and washed with pure water in a saturated solution of 
 borax. 
 
 A SUGAR PASTE. In order to prevent the gum from cracking, to 
 10 parts by weight of gum arabic and 3 parts of sugar, add water until 
 the desired consistency is obtained. If a very strong paste is required, 
 add a quantity of flour equal in weight to the gum, without boiling the 
 mixture. The paste improves in strength .when it begins to ferment. 
 
 TIN Box CEMENT. To fix labels to tin boxes either of the following 
 will answer: 1. Soften good glue in water, then boil it in strong vinegar, 
 and thicken the liquid while boiling with fine wheat flour, so that a 
 paste results. 2. Starch paste, with which a little Venice turpentine has 
 been incorporated while warm. 
 
 PAPER AND LEATHER PASTE. Cover 4 parts, by weight, of glue, 
 with 15 parts of cold water, and allow it to soak for several hours, 
 then warm moderately till the solution is perfectly clear, and dilute with 
 60 parts of boiling water, intimately stirred in. Next prepare a solution 
 of 30 parts of starch in 200 parts of cold water, so as to form a thin homo- 
 geneous liquid, free from lumps, and pour the boiling glue solution into 
 it with thorough stirring, and at the same time keepthe mass boiling. 
 
 COMMERCIAI, MUCILAGE. The best quality of mucilage in the mar- 
 ket is made by dissolving clear glue in equal volumes of water and strong 
 vinegar, and adding one-fourth of an equal volume of alcohol and a 
 small quantity of a solution of alum in water. Some of the cheaper prep- 
 arations offered for sale are merely boiled starch or flour, mixed with 
 nitric acid to prevent their gelatinizing. 
 
 ACID-PROOF PASTE. A paste formed by mixing powdered glass with 
 a concentrated solution of silicate of soda makes an excellent acid-proof 
 cement. 
 
 PASTE To FASTEN CLOTH To WOOD. Take a plump pound of wheat 
 flour, one tablespoonful of powdered resin, one tablespoonful of finely 
 powdered alum, and rub the mixture in a suitable vessel, with water, 
 to a uniform, smooth paste; transfer this to a small kettle over a fire, 
 and stir until the paste is perfectly homogeneous without lumps. As soon 
 as the mass has become so stiff that the stirrer remains upright in it, 
 transfer it to another vessel and cover it up so that no skin may form 
 on its surface. 
 
 This paste is applied in a very thin layer to the surface of the table; 
 the cloth, or leather, is then laid and pressed upon it, and smoothed 
 with a roller. The ends are cut off after drying. If leather is to be fast- 
 ened on, this must first be, moistened with water. The paste is then ap- 
 plied, and the leather rubbed smooth with a cloth. 
 
 PASTE FOR PRINTING OFFICE. Take 2 gallons of cold water and 
 1 quart of wheat flour, rub out all the lumps, then add one-fourth 
 pound of finely pulverized alum and boil the mixture for 10 minutes, 
 or until a thick consistency is reached. Now add 1 quart of hot water 
 and boil again until the paste becomes a pale brown color, and thick. 
 The paste should be well stirred during both processes of cooking. Paste 
 thus made will keep sweet for two weeks and prove very adhesive. 
 
 To TAKE SMOKE STAINS FROM WALLS. An easy and sure way to 
 remove smoke stains from common plain ceilings is to mix wood ashes 
 with the whitewash just before applying, A pint of ashes to a small 
 pail of whitewash is sufficient, but a little more or less will do no harm. 
 
 To REMOVE STAINS FROM BROADCLOTH. Take an ounce of pipe- 
 clay, which has been ground fine, mix it with twelve drops of alcohol 
 
436 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 and the same quantity of spirits of turpentine. Whenever you wisn. to 
 remove any stains from cloth, moisten a little of this mixture with alco- 
 hol and rub it on the spots. Let it remain till dry, then rub it off with a 
 woolen cloth, and the spots will disappear. 
 
 To REMOVE RED STAINS OF FRUIT FROM LINEN. Moisten the cloth 
 and hold it over a piece of sulphur, then wash thoroughly, or else the 
 spots may reappear. 
 
 To REMOVE Oil, STAINS. Take 3 ounces of spirits of turpen- 
 tine, and 1 ounce of essence of lemon, mix well, and apply it as you 
 would any other scouring drops. It will take out all the grease. 
 
 IRON STAINS may be removed by the salt of lemons. Many stains 
 may be removed by dipping the linen in sour buttermilk, and then 
 drying it in a hot sun; wash it in cold water, repeat this three or four 
 times. 
 
 To REMOVE Oil, STAINS FROM WOOD. Mix together fuller's earth 
 and soap lees, and rub it into the boards. Let it dry and then scour it 
 off with some strong soft soap and sand, or use lees to scour it with. It 
 should be put on hot, which may easily be done by heating the lees. 
 
 To REMOVE TEA STAINS. Mix thoroughly soft soap and salt say 
 a tablespoonful of salt to a teacupful of soap, rub on the spots and spread 
 the cloth on the grass where the sun will shine on it. Let it lie two or 
 three days, then wash. If the spots are wet occasionally while lying on 
 the grass, it will hasten the bleaching. 
 
 To REMOVE STAINS FROM MUSUN. If you have stained your mus- 
 lin or gingham dress, or your white pants with berries, before wetting 
 with anything else, pour boiling water through the stains and they will 
 disappear. Before fruit juice dries it can often be removed by cold water, 
 using a sponge and towel if necessary. 
 
 To REMOVE ACID STAINS. Stains caused by acids may be removed 
 by tying some pearlash up in the stained part; scrape some soap in cold, 
 soft water, and boil the linen until the stain is gone. 
 
 To DISINFECT SINKS AND DRAINS. Copperas dissolved in water, 
 one- fourth of a pound to a gallon, and poured into a sink and water 
 drain. occasionally, will keep such places sweet and wholesome. A little 
 chloride of lime, say half a pound to a gallon of water, will have the 
 same effect, and either of these costs but a trifle. 
 
 A preparation may be made at home which will answer about as 
 well as the chloride of lime. Dissolve a bushel of salt in a barrel of 
 water, and with the salt water slack a barrel of lime, which should be 
 made wet enough to form a thin paste or wash. 
 
 To DISINFECT A CEW,AR. A damp, musty cellar may be sweetened 
 by sprinkling upon the floor pulverized copperas, chloride of lime, or 
 even common lime. The most effective means we have ever used to dis- 
 infect decaying vegetable matter is chloride of lime in solution. One 
 pound may be dissolved in two gallons of water. Plaster of Paris has 
 also been found an excellent absorbent of noxious odors. If used one 
 part with three parts of charcoal, it will be found still better. 
 
 How TO THAW OUT A WATER PIPE. Water pipes usually freeze up 
 when exposed, for inside the walls, where they cannot be reached, they 
 are or should be packed to prevent freezing. To thaw out a frozen pipe 
 bundle a newspaper into a torch, light it, and pass it along the pipe 
 slowly. The ice will yield to this much quicker than to hot water or 
 wrappings of hot cloths, as is the common practice. 
 
 To PREVENT Mowx A small quantity of carbolic acid added to 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 437 
 
 paste, mucilage and ink, will prevent mold. An ounce of the acid to a 
 gallon of whitewash will keep cellars and dairies from the disagreeable 
 odor which often taints milk and meat kept in such places. 
 
 ECONOMICAL FIRE KINDLER. One may be made by dipping corn 
 cobs into a mixture of melted resin and tar, and drying. 
 
 How To KEEP EGGS FRESH. The great secret in keeping eggs con- 
 sists in entirely excluding the air from the interior. The lining next to 
 the shell is, in its natural state, impervious to air, and the albumen 
 is calculated to sustain it, but dampness and heat will cause decay, and, 
 if the egg is allowed to lie in one position, especially upon one side, the 
 yolk sinks through the albumen and settles upon the lining, and, not 
 possessing proper qualities for preserving the skin in a healthy condi- 
 tion, it dries, and air penetrates, and begins the work of destruction. 
 Where eggs are set upon their small ends, the yolk is much less liable to 
 reach the lining of the shell. Where eggs are packed in a barrel, keg or 
 bucket, it is a good plan to turn the whole quantity on to a different 
 side once in a while 
 
 INDELIBLE INK. An indelible ink that cannot be erased, even with 
 acids, can be obtained from the following recipe: To good gall ink add 
 a strong solution of Prussian blue dissolved in distilled water. This will 
 form a writing fluid which cannot be erased without destruction of the 
 paper. The ink will write greenish blue, but afterward will turn black. 
 
 To GET A BROKEN CORK OUT OF A BOTTLE. If in drawing a 
 cork, it breaks, and the lower part falls down into the liquid, tie a long 
 loop in a bit of twine, or small cord, and put it in, holding the bottle so 
 as to bring the piece of cork near to the lower part of the neck. Catch 
 it in the loop, so as to hold it stationary. You can easily extract it with 
 a corkscrew. 
 
 A WASH FOR CLEANING SILVER. Mix together half an ounce of 
 fine salt, half an ounce of powdered alum, and half an ounce of cream 
 of tartar. Put them into a large white-ware pitcher, and pour on two 
 quarts of water, and stir them frequently, till entirely dissolved. Then 
 transfer the mixture to clean bottles, and cork them closely. Before 
 using it, shake the bottles well. Pour some of the liquid into a bowl, 
 and wash the silver all over with it, using an old, soft, fine linen cloth. 
 Let it stand about ten minutes, and then rub it dry, with a buckskin. It 
 will make the silver like new. 
 
 To REMOVE THE ODOR FROM A VIAL. The odor of its last con- 
 tents may be removed from a vial by filling it with cold water, and let- 
 ting it stand in any airy place uncorked for three days, changing the 
 water every day. 
 
 To L/OOSEN A GLASS STOPPER. The manner in which apotheca- 
 ries loosen glass stoppers when there is difficulty in getting them out, is 
 to press the thumb of the right hand very hard against the lower part of 
 the stopper, and then give the stopper a twist the other way, with the 
 thumb and forefinger of the left hand, keeping the bottle stiff in a steady 
 position. 
 
 To MAKE SHOES OR BOOTS WATER-PROOF. Melt together, in a 
 pipkin, equal quantities of beeswax and mutton suet. While liquid rub 
 it over the leather, including the soles 
 
 To SOFTEN BOOTS AND SHOES. Kerosene will soften boots and shoes 
 which have been hardened by water, and render them as pliable as new. 
 
 To REMOVE STAINS, SPOTS, AND MILDEW FROM FURNITURE. 
 Take half a pint of ninety-eight per cent, alcohol, a quarter of an ounce 
 
438 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 each of pulverized resin and gum shellac, add half a pint of linseed oil, 
 shake well and apply with a brush or sponge. Sweet oil will remove 
 finger marks from varnished furniture, and kerosene from oiled furniture. 
 
 To FRESHEN GILT FRAMES. Gilt frames may be revived by care- 
 fully dusting them, and then washing with one ounce of soda beaten up 
 with the whites of three eggs. Scraped patches should be touched up 
 with gold paint. Castile soap and water, with proper care, may be used 
 to clean oil paintings. Other methods should not be employed without 
 some skill. 
 
 To FILL CRACKS IN PIASTER. Use vinegar instead of water to mix 
 your plaster of Pads. The resultant mass will be like putty, and will 
 not "set'' for twenty or thirty minutes, whereas if you use water the 
 plaster will become hard almost immediately, before you have time to 
 use it. Push it into the cracks and smooth it off nicely with a tableknife 
 
 To TOUGHEN LAMP CHIMNEYS AND GLASSWARE. Immerse the 
 article in a pot filled with cold water, to which some common salt has 
 been added. Boil the water well, thn cool slowly. Glass treated in 
 this way will resist any sudden change of temperature. 
 
 To REMOVE PAINT FROM WINDOW-GLASS. Rub it well with hot, 
 sharp vinegar. 
 
 To CLEAN STOVEPIPE. A piece of zinc put on the live coals in the 
 stove will clean out the stovepipe. 
 
 To BRIGHTEN CARPETS. Carpets, after the dust has been beaten 
 out, may be brightened by scattering upon them cornmeal mixed with 
 salt and then sweeping it off. Mix salt and meal in equal proportions. 
 Carpets should be thoroughly beaten on the wrong side first and then on 
 the right side, after which spots may be removed by the use of ox-gall 
 or ammonia and water. 
 
 KEROSENE STAINS IN CARPETS may be removed by sprinkling 
 buckwheat flour over the spot. If one sprinkling is not enough, repeat. 
 
 To KEEP FLOWERS FRESH exclude them from the air. To do this 
 wet them thoroughly, put them in a damp box, and cover with wet raw 
 cotton, or wet newspaper, then place in a cool spot. To preserve 
 bouquets, put a little saltpetre in the water you use for your bouquets, 
 and the flowers will live for a fortnight. 
 
 To PRESERVE BROOMS. Dip them for a minute or two in a kettle 
 of boiling suds once a week and they will last much longer, making them 
 tough and pliable. A carpet wears much longer swept with a broom 
 cared for in this manner. 
 
 To CLEAN BRASSWARE. Mix 1 ounce of oxalic acid, 6 ounces 
 of rotten stone, all in powder, 1 ounce of sweet oil, and sufficient 
 water to make a paste. Apply a small proportion and rub dry with a 
 flannel or leather. The liquid dip most generally used consists of nitric 
 and sulphuric acids, but this is more corrosive. 
 
 POLISH OR ENAMEL FOR SHIRT BOSOMS is made by melting together 
 1 ounce of white wax and 2 ounces of spermaceti; heat gently and turn 
 into a very shallow pan; when cold cut or break in pieces. When mak- 
 ing boiled starch the usual way, enough for a dozen bosoms, add to it a 
 piece of the polish the size of a hazel nut. 
 
 To KEEP OUT MOSQUITOES. If a bottle of the oil of pennyroyal is 
 left uncorked in a room at night, not a mosquito, nor any other blood- 
 sucker, will be found there in the morning. 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF RATS. The following recipe for the destruction 
 originated with Dr. Ure, and is highly recommended as the best-known 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 439 
 
 means of getting rid of these most obnoxious and destructive vermin. 
 Melt hog's lard in a bottle plunged in water, heated to about 150 de- 
 grees of Fahrenheit, mix with it half an ounce of phosphorus for every 
 pound of lard, then add a pint of proof spirit, or whisky, cork the bottle 
 firmly after its contents have been heated to 150 degrees, taking it at the 
 same time out of the water, and agitate smartly until the phosphorus 
 becomes uniformly diffused, forming a milky- looking liquid. This 
 liquid, being cooled, will afford a white compound of phosphorus and 
 lard, from which the spirit spontaneously separates, and may be poured 
 off to be used again for the same purpose, but not for drinking, for none 
 of it enters into the combination, but it merely serves to comminute the 
 phosphorus, and diffuse it in very small particles through the lard. This 
 compound, on being warmed very gently, may be poured out into a 
 mixture of wheat flour and sugar, incorporated therewith, and then 
 flavored with oil of rhodium, or not, at pleasure. The flavor may be 
 varied with oil of aniseed, etc. This dough being made into pellets, is 
 to be laid into rat holes. By its luminousness in the dark, it attracts 
 their notice, and, being agreeable to their palates and noses, it is readily 
 eaten, and proves certainly fatal. 
 
 To Km, COCKROACHES. A teacupful of well -bruised plaster of 
 Paris, mixed with double the quantity of oatmeal, to which a little sugar 
 may be added, although this last-named ingredient is not essential. 
 Strew it on the floor or into the chinks where they frequent. 
 
 EARWIGS are very destructive insects, their favorite food being the 
 petals of roses, pinks, dahlias and other flowers. They may be caught by 
 driving stakes into the ground, and placing on each an inverted flower- 
 pot, for the earwigs will climb up and take refuge under the pot, when 
 they may be taken out and killed. Clean bowls of tobacco pipes, placed 
 in like manner on the tops of smaller sticks, are very good traps, or very 
 deep holes may be made in the ground with a crowbar, into which they 
 will fall, and may be destroyed by boiling water. 
 
 To DESTROY ANTS. Drop some quicklime on the mouth of their nest, 
 and wash it in with boiling water, or dissolve some camphor in spirits 
 of wine, then mix with water, and pour into their haunts, or tobacco 
 water, which has been found effectual. They are averse to strong scents. 
 Camphor, or a sponge saturated with creosote, will prevent their infest- 
 ing a cupboard. To prevent their climbing up trees, place a ring of tar 
 about the trunk, or a circle of rag moistened occasionally with creo- 
 sote. 
 
 To PREVENT MOTHS. In the month of April or May, beat your fur 
 garments well with a small cane or elastic stick, then wrap them up in 
 linen without pressing them too hard, and put betwixt the folds some 
 camphor in small lumps; then put your furs in this state in boxes well 
 closed. When the furs are wanted for use, beat them well as before, and 
 expose them for twenty-four hours to the air, which will .take away the 
 smell of the camphor. If the fur has long hair, as bear or fox, add to 
 the camphor an equal quantity of black pepper in powder. 
 
 To GET RID OF MOTHS. 1. Procure shavings of cedar wood, and 
 inclose in muslin bags, which can be distributed freely among the 
 clothes. 
 
 2. Procure shavings of camphor wood, and inclose in bags. 
 
 3. Sprinkle pimento (allspice) berries among the clothes. 
 
 4. Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant. 
 
 5. To destroy the eggs, when deposited in woolen cloths, etc., use a 
 
440 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 solution of acetate of potash in spirits of rosemary, fifteen grains to the 
 pint. 
 
 BED BUGS. Spirits of naphtha rubbed with a small painter's brush 
 into every part of the bedstead is a certain way of getting rid of bugs. 
 The mattress and binding of the bed should be examined, and the same 
 process attended to, as they generally harbor more in these parts than 
 in the bedstead. Ten cents' worth of naphtha is sufficient for one bed. 
 
 BUG POISON. Proof spirit, 1 pint; camphor, 2 ounces; oil of 
 turpentine, 4 ounces; corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce. Mix. A corre- 
 spondent says, ' ' I have been for a long time troubled with bugs, and 
 never could get rid of them by any clean and expeditious method until 
 a friend told me to suspend a small bag of camphor to the bed, just in 
 the center, overhead. I did so, and the enemy was most effectually re- 
 pulsed and has not made his appearance since- not even for a reconnois- 
 sance!" This is a simple method of getting rid of these pests, and is 
 worth a trial to see if it be effectual in other cases. 
 
 MIXTURE FOR DESTROYING FLIES. Infusion of quassia, 1 pint; 
 brown sugar, 4 ounces; ground pepper, 2 ounces. To be well mixed 
 together, and put in small, shallow dishes when required. 
 
 To DESTROY FiyiES in a room, take half a teaspoonful of black pepper 
 in powder, one teaspoonful of brown sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of 
 cream, mix them well together, and place them in the room on a plate, 
 where the flies are troublesome, and they will soon disappear. 
 
 How To DESTROY INSECTS. The Bureau of Entomology, Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Washington, sends out the following, for use as in- 
 secticides on or about plants, etc. : London purple To twenty pounds 
 flour from one-quarter to one-half pound is added and well mixed. This 
 is applied with a sifter or blower. With forty gallons of water one- 
 quarter to one-half pound is mixed for spraying. Paris green With 
 twenty pounds of flour from three-quarters to one pound is mixed and 
 applied by sifting or by a blower. The same amount of the insecticide 
 to forty gallons of water is used as a spray. Bisulphate of Carbon For 
 use in the ground a quantity is poured or injected among the roots that 
 are being infected. Against insects damaging stored grain or museum 
 material a small quantity is used in an air-tight vessel. Carbolic acid 
 A solution of 1 part in 100 of water is used against parasites on domestic 
 animals and their barns and sheds; also on the surface of plants and 
 among the roots in the ground. Hellebore The powder is sifted on alone 
 or mixed one part to twenty of flour. With one gallon of water one- 
 quarter pound is mixed for spraying. Kerosene-Milk Emulsion To 
 one part milk add two parts kerosene, and churn by force-pump or other 
 agitator. The butter-like emulsion is diluted ad libitum with water. An 
 easier method is to simply mix 1 part kerosene with 8 of milk. Soap 
 Emulsion In one gallon hot water one-half pound whale oil soap is dis- 
 solved. This, instead of milk, is mixed to an emulsion with kerosene in 
 the same manner and proportion as above. Pyrethrum, Persian Insect 
 powder Is blown or sifted on dry, also applied in water one gallon to 
 a tablespoonful of the powder, well stirred and then sprayed. Tobacco 
 Decoction This is made as strong as possible as a wash or spray to kill 
 insect pests on animals and plants. 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 441 
 
 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 
 
 PRICELESS GENERAL RULES. If an artery is cut, red blood spurts. 
 Compress it above the wound. If a vein is cut, dark blood flows Com- 
 press it below and above. 
 
 If choked, go upon all fours and cough. 
 
 For slight burns, dip the part in cold water; if the skin is destroyed, 
 cover with varnish or linseed oil. 
 
 For apoplexy, raise the head and body; for fainting, lay the person 
 flat. 
 
 Send for a physician when a serious accident of any kind occurs, but 
 treat' as directed until he arrives. 
 
 SCALDS AND BURNS. The following facts cannot be too firmly im- 
 pressed on the mind of the reader, that in either of these accidents the 
 first, best and often the only remedies required, are sheets of wadding, 
 fine wool, or carded cotton, and in the default of these, violet powder, 
 flour, magnesia, or chalk. The object for which these several articles are 
 employed is the same in each instance; namely, to exclude the air from 
 the injured part; for if the. air can be effectually shut out from the raw 
 surface, and care is taken not to expose the tender part till the new cuti- 
 cle is formed, the cure may be safely left to nature. The moment a per- 
 son is called to a case of scald or burn, he should cover the part with a 
 sheet, or a portion of a sheet, of wadding, taking care not to break any 
 blister that may have formed, or stay to remove any burnt clothes that 
 may adhere to the surface, but as quickly as possible envelop every part 
 of the injury from all access of the air, laying one or two more pieces of 
 wadding on the first, so as effectually to guard the burn or scald from the 
 irritation of the atmosphere; and if the article used is wool or cotton, the 
 same precaution, of adding more material where the surface is thinly 
 covered, must be adopted; a light bandage finally securing all in their 
 places. Any of the popular remedies recommended below may be em- 
 ployed when neither wool, cotton nor wadding are to be procured, it 
 being always remembered that that article which will best exclude the 
 air from a burn or scald is the best, quickest, and least painful mode of 
 treatment. And in this respect nothing has surpassed cotton loose or 
 attached to paper as in wadding. 
 
 If the skin is much injured in burns, spread some linen pretty 
 thickly with chalk ointment, and lay over the part, and give the patient 
 some brandy and water if much exhausted; then send fora medical man. 
 If not much injured, and very painful, use the same ointment, or apply 
 carded cotton dipped in lime water and linseed oil. If you please, you 
 may lay cloths dipped in either over the parts, or cold lotions. Treat 
 scalds in same manner, or cover with scraped raw potato; but the chalk 
 ointment is the best. In the absence of all these, cover the injured part 
 with treacle, and dust over it plenty of flour. 
 
 BODY IN FLAMES. I^ay the person down on the floor of the room, 
 and throw the table cloth, rug, or other large cloth over him, and roll 
 him on the floor. 
 
 DIRT IN THE EYE. Place your forefinger upon the cheek-bone, 
 having the patient before you; then slightly bend the finger; this will 
 draw down the lower lid of the eye, and you will probably be able to 
 remove the dirt; but if this will not enable you to get at it, repeat this 
 operation while you have a netting-needle or bodkin placed over the eye- 
 lid; this will turn it inside out, and enable you to remove the sand or 
 
442 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 eyelash, etc., with the corner of a fine silk handkerchief. As soon as the 
 substance is removed, bathe the eye with cold water, and exclude the 
 light for a day. If the inflammation is severe, let the patient use a refrig- 
 erant lotion. 
 
 LIME IN THE EYE. Syringe it well with warm vinegar and water 
 in the proportion of one ounce of vinegar to eight ounces of water; ex- 
 clude light. 
 
 IRON OR STEEL SPICUI,^ IN THE EYE. These occur while turning 
 iron or steel in a lathe, and are best remedied by doubling back the 
 upper or lower eyelid, according to the situation of the substance, and 
 with the flat edge of a silver probe, taking up the metallic particle, using 
 a lotion made by dissolving six grains of sugar of lead and the same of 
 white vitriol, in six ounces of water, and bathing the eye three times a 
 day till the inflammation subsides. Another plan is Drop a solution of 
 sulphate of copper (from one to three grains of the salt to one ounce of 
 water) into the eye, or keep the eye open in a wineglassful of the solu- 
 tion. Bathe with cold lotion, and exclude light to keep down inflam- 
 mation. 
 
 DISLOCATED. THUMB. This is frequently produced by a fall. Make 
 a clove hitch, by passing two loops of cord over the thumb, placing a 
 piece of rag under the cord to prevent it cutting the thumb; then pull in 
 the same line as the thumb. Afterwards apply a cold lotion. 
 
 CUTS AND WOUNDS. Clean cut wounds, whether deep or superficial, 
 and likely to heal by the first intention, should always be washed or 
 cleaned, and at once evenly and smoothly closed by bringing both edges 
 close together, and securing them in that position by adhesive plaster. 
 Cut thin strips of sticking plaster, and bring the parts together; or if 
 large and deep, cut two broad pieces, so as to look like the teeth of a 
 comb, and place one on each side of the wound, which must be cleaned 
 previously. These pieces must be arranged so that they shall interlace 
 one another; then, by laying hold of the pieces on the right side with 
 one hand, and those on the other side with the other hand, and pulling 
 them from one another, the edges of the wound are brought together 
 without any difficulty. 
 
 Ordinary cuts are dressed by thin strips, applied by pressing down 
 the plaster on one side of the woun J, and keeping it there and pulling 
 in the opposite direction; then suddenly depressing the hand when the 
 edges of the wound are brought together. 
 
 CONTUSIONS are best healed by laying a piece of folded lint, well 
 wetted with extract of lead, or boracic acid, on the part, and, if there is 
 much pain, placing a hot bran poultice over the dressing, repeating both 
 if necessary, every two hours. When the injuries are very severe, lay 
 a cloth over the part, and suspend a basin over it filled with cold lotion. 
 Put a piece of cotton into the basin, so that it shall allow the lotion to 
 drop on the cloth, and thus keep it always wet. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE, when caused by an artery being divided or torn, may 
 be known by the blood issuing out of the wound in leaps or jerks, and 
 being of bright scarlet color. If a vein is injured, the blood is darker 
 and flows continuously. To arrest the latter, apply pressure by means 
 of a compress and bandage. To arrest arterial bleeding, get a piece of 
 wood (part of a broom handle will do), and tie a piece of tape to one end 
 of it; then tie a piece of tape loosely over the arm, and pass the other end 
 of the wood under it; twist the stick round and round until the tape 
 compresses the arm sufficiently to arrest the bleeding, and then confine 
 
HEAR TH AND HOME. 443 
 
 the other end by tying the string around the arm. A compress made by 
 enfolding a penny piece in several folds of lint or linen should, however, 
 be first placed under the tape and over the artery. If the bleeding is 
 very obstinate, and it occurs in the arm, place a cork underneath the 
 string, on the inside of the fleshy part, where the artery may be felt 
 beating by any one; if in the leg, place a cork in the direction of a line 
 drawn from the inner part of the knee towards the outer part of the groin. 
 It is an excellent thing to accustom yourself to find out the position of 
 these arteries, or, indeed, any that are superficial, and to explain to 
 every person in your house where they are, and how to stop bleeding. 
 If a stick cannot be got, take a handkerchief, make a cord bandage of 
 it, and tie a knot in the middle; the knot acts as a compress, and should 
 be placed over the artery, while the two ends are to be tied around the 
 thumb. Observe always to place the ligature between the wound and 
 the heart. Putting your finger into a bleeding wound, and making pres- 
 sure until a surgeon arrives, will generally stop violent bleeding. 
 
 BREEDING FROM THE NOSE, from whatever cause, may generally be 
 stopped by putting a plug of lint into the nostrils; if this does not do, 
 apply a cold lotion to the forehead; raise the head, and place over it both 
 arms, so that it will rest on the hands; dip the lint plug, slightly moist- 
 ened, into some powdered gum arabic, and plug the nostrils again; or 
 dip the plug into equal parts of powdered gum arabic and alum and 
 plug the nose. Or the plug may be dipped in Friar's balsam, or tinc- 
 ture of kino. Heat should be applied to the feet; and, in obstinate cases, 
 the sudden shock of a cold key, or cold water poured down the spine, 
 will often instantly stop the bleeding. If the bowels are confined, take 
 a purgative. Injections of alum solution from a small syringe into the 
 nose will often stop hemorrhage. 
 
 VIOLENT SHOCKS will sometimes stun a person, and he will remain un- 
 conscious. Untie strings, collars, etc. ; loosen anything that is tight, and 
 interferes with the breathing; raise the head; see if there is bleeding from 
 any part; apply smelling-salts to the nose, and hot bottles to the feet. 
 
 IN CONCUSSION, the surface of the body is cold and pale, and the 
 pulse weak and small, the breathing slow and gentle, and the pupil of 
 the eye generally contracted or small. You can get an answer by speak- 
 ing loud, so as to arouse the patient. Give a little brandy and water, 
 keep the place quiet, apply warmth, and do not raise the head too high. 
 If you tickle the feet the patient feels it. 
 
 IN COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN from any cause, such as apoplexy, 
 or a piece of fractured bone pressing it, there is loss of sensation. If 
 you tickle the feet of the injured person he does not feel it. You cannot 
 arouse him so as to get an answer. The pulse is slow and labored; the 
 breathing deep, labored, and snorting; the pupil enlarged. Raise the 
 head, loosen strings or tight things, and send for a surgeon. If one can- 
 not be got at once, apply mustard poultices to the feet and thighs, leeches 
 to the temples, and hot water to the feet. 
 
 CHOKING. When a person has a fish bone in the throat, insert the 
 forefinger, press upon the root of the tongue, so as to induce vomiting; 
 if this does not do^ let him swallow a large piece of potato or soft bread; 
 and if these fail, give a mustard emetic. 
 
 FAINTING, HYSTERICS, ETC. Loosen the garments, bathe the temp- 
 les with water, or eau-de-Cologne; open the window, admit plenty of 
 fresh air, dash cold water on the face, apply hot bricks to the feet, and 
 avoid bustle and excessive sympathy. 
 
444 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 DROWNING. Attend to the following essential rules'. 1. Lose no 
 time. 2. Handle the body gently. 3. Carry the body face downwards, 
 with the heacf gently raised, and never hold it up by the feet. 4. Send 
 for medical assistance immediately, and in the meantime act as follows: 
 5. Strip the body; rub it dry, then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it 
 in a warm bed in a warm room. 6. Cleanse away the froth and mucus 
 from the nose and mouth. 7. Apply warm bricks, bottles, bags of sand, 
 etc., to the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. 8. 
 Rub the surface of the body with the hands inclosed in warm, dry 
 worsted socks. 9. If possible, put the body into a warm bath. 10. To 
 restore breathing, put the pipe of a common bellows into one nostril, 
 carefully closing the other, and the mouth; at the same time drawing 
 downwards, and pushing gently backwards, the upper part of the wind- 
 pipe, to allow a more free admission of air; blow the bellows gently, in 
 order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be raised a little; then set the 
 mouth and nostrils free, and press gently on the chest; repeat this until 
 signs of life appear. The body should be covered the moment it is placed 
 on the table, except the face, and all the rubbing carried on under the 
 sheet or blanket. When they can be obtained, a number of tiles or 
 bricks should be made tolerably hot in the fire, laid in a row on the 
 table, covered with a blanket, and the body placed in such a manner 
 on them that their heat may enter the spine. When the patient revives, 
 apply smelling-salts to the nose, give warm wine or brandy and water. 
 Cautions: 1. Never rub the body with salt or spirits. 2. Never roll the 
 body on casks. 3. Continue the remedies for twelve hours without ceas- 
 ing. 
 
 HANGING. Loosen the cord, or whatever it may be by which the 
 person has been suspended. Open the temporal artery or jugular vein, 
 or bleed from the arm; employ electricity, if at hand, and proceed as for 
 drowning, taking the additional precaution to apply eight or ten leeches 
 to the temples. 
 
 APPARENT DEATH FROM DRUNKENNESS Raise the head; loosen 
 the clothes, maintain warmth of surface, and give a mustard emetic as 
 soon as the person can swallow. 
 
 APOPLEXY AND FITS GENERALITY. Raise the head; loosen all tight 
 clothes, strings, etc. ; apply cold lotions to the head, which should be 
 shaved; apply leeches to the temples, bleed and send for a surgeon. 
 
 SUFFOCATION FROM Noxious GASES, ETC. Remove to the fresh 
 air; dash cold vinegar and water in the face, neck and breast; keep up 
 the warmth of the body; if necessary, apply mustard poultices to the 
 soles of the feet and to the spine, and try artificial respirations as in 
 drowning, with electricity. 
 
 LIGHTNING AND SUNSTROKE. Treat the same as apoplexy 
 
 ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS. 
 
 Always send immediately for a medical men. Save all fluids vomited, 
 and articles of food, cups, glasses, etc. , used by the patient before taken 
 ill, and lock them up. This precaution frequently leads to the detection 
 of crime. 
 
 As a rule, give emetics after poisons that cause sleepiness and- ravings: 
 chalk, milk, eggs, butter, and warm water, or oil, after poisons that 
 cause vomiting and pain in the stomach and bowels, with purging; and 
 when there is no inflammation about the throat, tickle it with a feather 
 to excite vomiting. 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 445 
 
 Vomiting may be caused by giving warm water, with a teaspoonful 
 of mustard to the tumblerful, well stirred up. Sulphate of zinc (with 
 vitriol) may be used in place of the mustard, or powdered alum. Powder 
 of ipecacuanha, a teaspoonful rubbed up with molasses, may be em- 
 ployed for children. Tartar emetic should never be given, as it is ex- 
 cessively depressing, and uncontrollable in its effects. The stomach pump 
 can only be used by skillful hands, and even then with caution. 
 
 In opium and other narcotic^, after vomiting has occurred, cold water should be 
 dashed over the face and head. The patient must be kept awake, walked about be- 
 tween two strong persons, made to grasp the handles of a galvanic battery, dosed with 
 strong coffee, and vigorously slapped. Belladonna is an antidote for opium and for 
 morphia, etc., its active principle; and, on the other hand, the latter counteract the 
 effects of belladonna. But a knowledge of medicines is necessary for dealing with 
 these articles. 
 
 In the case of strychnia, after emetics have been freely and successfully given, the 
 patient should be allowed to breathe the vapor of sulphuric ether, poured on a hand- 
 erchief and held to the face, in such quantities as to keep down the tendency to con- 
 vulsions. Bromide of potassium, twenty grains to a dose, dissolved in syrup, may be 
 given every hour. 
 
 Alcoholic poisoning should be combated by emetics, of which the sulphate of zinc, 
 given as above directed, is the best. After that, strong coffee internally, and stimula- 
 tion by heat externally, should be used. 
 
 Acids are sometimes swallowed by mistake. Alkalies, lime water, magnesia, or 
 common chalk mixed with water, may be freely given, and afterward mucilaginous 
 .rinks, such as thick gum water or flaxseed tea. 
 
 Alkalies are less frequently taken in injurious strength or quantity, but sometimes 
 children swallow lye by mistake. Common vinegar may be given freely, and then 
 castor or sweet oil in full doses a tablespoonful at a time, repeated every half hour or 
 two. 
 
 Nitrate of silver when swallowed is neutraitzed by common table salt freely given 
 in solution in water. 
 
 HOW TO CARVE AT TABLE. 
 
 We propose to give here a few rules upon the practice of carving, 
 which may be of benefit to the tyro, and help him to acquire that ease 
 and dexterity which is so conducive to peace and comfort around the 
 family board: 
 
 In carving a sirloin of beef, the upper cuts should be made length- 
 wise of the beef, while the under cuts are crosswise the under cuts being 
 also much thicker than the upper cuts. As there is much difference of 
 opinion as to which is the choicest piece, it is best for the carver to ask 
 his guests which cut they prefer. 
 
 Rib roasts, rolled, and a round of beef are always cut in very thin 
 horizontal slices across the whole surface of the meat. It is essential, 
 though, that these slices be quite thin. 
 
 The leg, the loin, the shoulder and the saddle are the four pieces of 
 mutton usually brought to the table to be carved. First, as to the leg: 
 This must be placed on the table with the knuckle to the left hand. Then 
 cut into the side farthest from you toward the bone, helping thin slices 
 from the right and thick slices toward the knuckle. Always divide the 
 little bunch of fat near the thick end among your guests, as it is a great 
 delicacy. 
 
 A saddle of mutton is often ordered for a small dinner party. It is 
 cut in very thin slices, close to the back -bone, and then downward. 
 
 Place a "shoulder" with the knuckle toward the right hand, the 
 blade bone toward the left. Place your fork firmly in the middle of the 
 edge farthest from you, and cut dexterously from the edge to the bone. 
 This causes the meat to fly open, when you can cut slices on each side of 
 the opening, until there is no more to cut, when the meat should be 
 
446 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 turned over and slices cut from the under side. Another method of 
 carving this joint is to cut slices lengthwise from the end to the knuckle. 
 
 The loin of mutton, which is a piece intended specially for family 
 use, should be carved either through the joints or may be cut lengthwise 
 in a parallel line with the joints. 
 
 A fillet of veal is, in shape and appearance, very similar to a round 
 of beef, and is carved in the same way by cutting horizontal slices over 
 the whole surface of the meat. The slices, however, should not be nearly 
 so thin as beef. A fillet of veal is cut from the leg, the bone is removed 
 by the butcher, and the pocket thus made is filled with dressing, which 
 is taken out and helped with a spoon by the carver. 
 
 A breast of veal may be either roasted or stewed. If used as a roast- 
 ing piece, you will have the butcher make an opening or hole in it for 
 the reception of the dressing. In carving it, the ribs may be separated 
 from the brisket, and sent round. 
 
 A fore-quarter of lamb consists of shoulder, breast and ribs. The 
 knife must be first placed upon the shoulder, drawn through horizontally, 
 and the joint removed and placed upon another dish. The ribs can then 
 be separated, and the breast sliced and sent around. 
 
 A calf's head, which is by some considered a delicacy, must be cut 
 down the center in thin slices on each side. A small piece of the palate, 
 of the sweet-bread, and of the meat around the eye, must be put on 
 each plate and sent round. 
 
 In carving a haunch of venison, make a cut across close to knuckle, 
 after which cut slices by making straight incisions lengthwise. 
 
 There are three methods allowed in carving a ham: The most com- 
 mon one probably is to cut it like a leg of mutton,beginning in the mid- 
 dle, and cutting either way. You may, however, begin at the knuckle, 
 cutting slices in a slanting direction, or you may begin at the thick end. 
 The slices must always be as thin and delicate as possible, and are the 
 usual accompaniment to fowl or veal. 
 
 Tongue must always be cut in thin, regular slices. Make the first 
 a short distance from the tip, where a slice of some size may be attained. 
 The tip is considered quite a tid-bit by some people. 
 
 In carving a chicken, first cut off the wings. This is easily done by 
 learning where to strike the joint. Then slice the breast, and cut off 
 the merry-thought and side bones. The breast should always be helped 
 first, then the wings the liver wing being the better of the two. It is 
 better to always reserve a small slice of the white meat to be served with 
 the dark. 
 
 Pigeon, snipe and quail are cut in half, and a piece sent to each 
 guest. When the birds are small, you send a whole one. 
 
 Goose and turkey are helped by cutting slices off the breast, and 
 then the wings and legs are removed. The breast is considered the best 
 meat, and after that the wings. 
 
 Boiled rabbit is carved thus: First cut off the legs; then take out 
 the shoulders with a sharp-pointed knife, then break the back into three 
 or four pieces at the joint. . The back is the choice help, especially the 
 piece in the center. The shoulder is next in order after the back, and 
 the leg comes last. The kidney is a delicate bit. 
 
 For cutting fish a regular silver fish-slice is provided. Salmon and 
 all fish of that order are cut in slices down the middle of the upper side, 
 and then in slices across on the under side. A piece of each should be 
 helped to all. 
 
HEAR TH AND HOME. 447 
 
 Mackerel divides among four people. Pass fish-knife between the 
 upper and under half from head to tail, then halve each side, and help 
 to a quarter. 
 
 Cut cod crosswise like salmon, then downward, and send a small 
 piece round on each plate as well. 
 
 Large flat fish, as turbot, flounders, John Dorey, etc., are first cut 
 down the middle from head to tail, then across to the fin, in slices. The 
 fin, being considered a delicacy by some, should be helped, too. 
 
 Small fish, like smelts, whiting, etc., are sent whole to each guest. 
 
 CONDUCT AT TABLE. 
 
 Seat yourself in an upright position not too close to nor yet too 
 far from the table. 
 
 Take your napkin, partially unfold it and lay it across your lap. It 
 is not the correct thing to fasten it to your button-hole or spread it over 
 your breast. 
 
 Do not trifle with your knife or fork, or drum on the table, or fidget 
 in any way, while waiting to be served. 
 
 Keep your hands quietly in your lap, your mind composed and pleas- 
 antly fixed upon the conversation. Let all your movements be easy and 
 deliberate. Undue haste indicates a nervous lack of ease. 
 
 Should grace be said, you will give the most reverent attention in 
 respectful silence during the ceremony. 
 
 Exhibit no impatience to be served. During the intervals between 
 the courses is your opportunity for displaying your conversational abilities 
 to those sitting near you. Pleasant chat and witty remarks compose the 
 best possible sauce to a good dinner. 
 
 Eat slowly; it will contribute to your good health as well as your 
 good manners. Thorough mastication of your food is necessary to di- 
 gestion. An ordinary meal should occupy from thirty minutes to an 
 hour. 
 
 You may not desire the soup, which is usually the first course, but 
 you should not refuse to take it. You can eat as much or as little as you 
 please, but you would look awkward sitting with nothing before you 
 while the others are eating. 
 
 When eating soup, take it from the side of the spoon, and avoid mak- 
 ing any noise in so doing. 
 
 Should you be asked by the host what part of the fowl you prefer, 
 always have a choice, and mention promptly which you prefer. Nothing 
 is more annoying than to have to serve two or three people who have no 
 preferences and will take "anything." 
 
 Never place waste matter on the table-cloth. The side of your plate 
 or side-dishes that have contained sauces or vegetables, will answer as a 
 receptacle for bones, potato skins, etc. 
 
 You will use your fork to convey all your food to your mouth, except 
 it may be certain sauces that would be more conveniently eaten with a 
 spoon. For instance, you should not attempt to eat peas with a fork. If 
 you are not provided with a spoon, ask for one. 
 
 The knife is used only for cutting meat and other articles of food, for 
 spreading butter upon the bread, etc. 
 
 Here is the summary of blunders to avoid: 
 
 Do not eat fast. 
 
 Do not make noise with mouth or throat. 
 
448 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 Do not fill the mouth too full. 
 
 Do not open the mouth in masticating 
 
 Do not leave the table with food in your mouth. 
 
 Be careful to avoid soiling the cloth. 
 
 Never carry anything like food with you from the table. 
 
 Never apologize to the waiters for making them trouble; it is their 
 business to serve you. It is proper, however, to treat them with courtesy, 
 and say "No, I thank you," or "If you please" in answer to their in- 
 quiries. 
 
 Do not introduce disgusting or unpleasant topics of conversation. 
 
 Do not pick your teeth or put your finger in your mouth at the table. 
 
 Do not come to table in your shirt sleeves, or with soiled hands or 
 tousled hair. 
 
 Do not cut your bread; break it. 
 
 Do not refuse to take the last piece of bread or cake; it looks as though 
 you imagined there might be no more. 
 
 Do not express a preference for any part of a dish unless asked to do 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON'S RULES OF CONDUCT. 
 
 Let your discourse with men of business be short and comprehen- 
 sive. 
 
 In visiting the sick do not presently play the physician. 
 
 In the presence of others sing not to yourself with a humming noise, 
 nor drum with your fingers or feet. 
 
 Read no letters, books or papers in company. 
 
 Come not near the book or writings of any one so as to read them, 
 unless desired. 
 
 Let your countenance be pleasant, but in serious matters somewhat 
 grave. 
 
 Show not yourself glad at the misfortune of another, even though 
 he were your enemy. 
 
 Strive not with your superiors in argument, but always submit your 
 judgment to others with modesty. 
 
 When a man does all he can, though it succeeds not well, blame not 
 him that did it. 
 
 Mock not, nor jest at anything of importance; break no jests that are 
 sharp-biting, and if you deliver anything witty and pleasant, abstain from 
 laughing thereat yourself. 
 
 Use no reproachful language against any one, neither curse nor 
 revile. 
 
 Associate yourself with men of good quality, if you esteem your own 
 reputation. 
 
 Be not immodest in urging your friend to discover a secret. 
 
 Speak not of doleful things in time of mirth, nor at the table. 
 
 Break not a jest where none takes pleasure in mirth. 
 
 Laugh not loud, nor at all without occasion. 
 
 Treat with men at fit times about business. 
 
 Whisper not in the company of others. 
 
 Make no comparisons, and if any of the company be commended 
 for any brave act, commend not another for the same. 
 
 Be not curious to know the affairs of others, neither approach to 
 those that speak in private. 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 449 
 
 Undertake not what you cannot perform, but be careful to keep your 
 promise. 
 
 Be not tedious in discourse. 
 
 Speak not evil of the absent, for it is unjust. 
 
 Let your recreations be manful, npt sinful. 
 
 CARE OF THE PERSON. 
 
 Cleanliness is the outward sign of inward purity. Cleanliness is 
 health, and health is beauty. 
 
 The first business of the dressing-room is the bath, and this should 
 be a complete bath, and not simply a hasty washing of the face. It is 
 not to be supposed that a lady washes to become clean, but simply to 
 remain clean. A bathing of the entire body at least once a day is essen- 
 tial to health. It is not necessary to have a bath tub for this purpose, 
 but merely an ordinary basin of tepid water, with soap, sponge and 
 clean towels. 
 
 The whole body may be quickly sponged off, or the sponge may be 
 dispensed with, and the hands alone used to convey the water to the 
 body, after which dry the body thoroughly with a soft towel, and then 
 use a coarse Turkish towel vigorously until the skin is red from the fric- 
 tion. In lieu of the coarse towel, a liberal use of the flesh-brush may be 
 made, but either one or both must be regularly used, as nothing tends 
 to keep the complexion in good condition so much as the daily use of 
 the flesh-brush. 
 
 Persons living in cities where Turkish baths are established will find 
 a bath of this kind once a week very beneficial to their health. Oftener 
 than this the baths would be apt to have an enervating effect. But an 
 occasional Turkish bath is the most effectual cleanser in the world. 
 
 Early rising contributes not only to the preservation of health, but the 
 proper condition of the mental faculties. Too much sleep induces minor 
 ailments both of the body and mind. Fresh air, moderate exercise and 
 good ventilation, together with the daily bath, are the great health- 
 preservers. 
 
 THE TEETH. Scrupulous care is necessary to the preservation of the 
 teeth. The teeth should be carefully brushed, not only every night and 
 morning, but after every meal. 
 
 The best and only needful tooth powder is a simple preparation of 
 chalk. The numerous dentifrices advertised are most of them worthless, 
 and many of them positively injurious. 
 
 A good tooth-brush, not too stiff, is necessary. Very hot and very 
 cold things, and a great deal of sweets are injurious to the teeth. 
 
 Upon the first indication of decay, a good dentist should be consulted; 
 cheap dentistry is bad economy. 
 
 THE BREATH. It goes without saying that a sweet breath is one of 
 the essentials of happiness, and should therefore be carefully looked to. 
 The principal causes of a bad breath are a disordered stomach, decaying 
 teeth and catarrhal affections. In the latter case a good specialist should 
 be consulted. When it arises from digestive difficulty, the diet should 
 be changed to one better suited to the system. 
 
 The eating of anything that will give an unpleasant odor to the breath 
 is to be avoided. 
 
 THE NAiivS. Much care and attention is given to the nails by those 
 who are particular in matters of the toilet. Of late years the care of the 
 U. I. 29 
 
450 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 nails has been elevated to a profession, and persons calling themselves 
 "manicures" make it their business to dress the nails of ladies of 
 fashion. 
 
 It is sufficient, however, if you keep the nails carefully and evenly 
 trimmed great care, however, being required to preserve the correct 
 shape, and keep all superfluous skin entirely removed. Plenty of warm 
 water, Windsor soap and a nail brush are all that is required to keep the 
 hands in good condition. 
 
 THE HAIR. The hair should be regularly brushed, morning and 
 evening, with a clean Hair brush. It is important that the brushing be 
 frequent; it is also important that the brush be quite clean. 
 
 The brush should be washed every day with hot water and soda, in 
 order to preserve a glossy appearance to the hair. Occasionally the hair 
 may be cleaned with a mixture of glycerine and lime juice. Pomades and 
 oil should be carefully avoided. 
 
 Never attempt to change the color of your hair by means of dyes and 
 fluids. Your own hair, as nature colored it, is apt to be the only shade 
 that will correspond with your eyes, eyebrows and complexion. Practices 
 of this kind are much to be condemned. They indicate a senseless de- 
 sire for fashion, and an equally unladylike desire to attract attention. 
 The use of hair dyes, false hair, etc., is almost as much to be condemned 
 as painted cheeks and penciled brows. 
 
 THE COMPLEXION. As to the art of obtaining a good complexion, 
 all the recipes in the world can have but little effect compared with the 
 effects of early rising, regular habits, careful diet and absolute cleanli- 
 ness. The various lotions recommended by Madame and others 
 
 of her ilk, the milk bath, pearl powders and washes of every kind, would 
 never be needed if ladies were always careful to take plenty of exercise 
 in the open air, wear broad brimmed hats in the sun, and veils in 
 the wind. 
 
 The face should never be washed when heated from exercise. Wipe 
 the perspiration from the skin, and wait until it is sufficiently cool 
 before you bathe even in warm water. Rain water is the best for 
 bathing purposes. If an eruption break out on the skin, consult a 
 physician. 
 
 ETIQUETTE OF THE STREET. 
 
 A lady will bow first if she meets a gentleman acquaintance on the 
 street. 
 
 A lady will not stop on the street to converse with a gentleman. If 
 he wishes to chat with her he will turn and walk by her side until he 
 has finished his conversation, then raise his hat and leave her. 
 
 It is not etiquette for a lady to take the arm of a gentleman on the 
 street in the day time, unless he be a lover or a husband, and even then 
 it is seldom done in America. 
 
 In England it is permissible for a lady to accept the arm of even an 
 ordinary acquaintance on the street. In foreign cities it is not comme 
 ilfaut for ladies to appear on the street at all without a gentleman. 
 
 A gentleman escorting two ladies may offer each an arm, but a lady 
 should never under any circumstances walk between two gentlemen hold- 
 ing an arm of each. 
 
 On meeting friends or acquaintances on the street or in public places, 
 you should be careful not .to call their names so loudly as to attract the 
 attention of those around. 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 451 
 
 Never call across the street, and never carry on a conversation in a pub- 
 lic vehicle unless you are seated side by side. 
 
 Gentlemen should never stare at ladies on the street. 
 
 In walking with a lady a gentleman should take charge of any 
 small parcel, book, etc., with which she may be burdened. 
 
 Never recognize a gentleman unless you are perfectly sure of his 
 identity. Nothing is more awkward than a mistake of this kind. 
 
 A well-bred man must entertain no respect for the brim of his hat. 
 True politeness demands that the hat be removed entirely from the head. 
 Merely to nod or to touch the brim of your hat is a lack of courtesy. The 
 body should not be bent at all in bowing. 
 
 A gentleman will always give a lady the inside of the walk on the 
 street. 
 
 Ladies should avoid walking rapidly on the street, as it is un- 
 graceful. 
 
 A gentleman walking with a lady should accommodate his step to 
 hers. It looks exceedingly awkward to see a gentleman two or three 
 paces ahead of a lady with whom he is supposed to be walking. 
 
 Staring at people, expectorating, looking back on the street, calling 
 in a loud voice, laughing, etc., are very bad manners on the street. 
 
 A gentleman attending a lady will hold the door open for her to 
 pass. He will also perform the same service for any lady passing in or 
 out unattended. 
 
 A gentleman may assist a lady from an omnibus, or over a bad cross- 
 ing, without the formality of an introduction. Having performed the 
 service, he will bow and retire. 
 
 No gentleman will smoke when standing or walking with a lady 
 on the street. 
 
 A quiet and unobtrusive demeanor upon the street is the sign of a 
 true lady, who goes about her own affairs in a business-like way, and has 
 always a pleasant nod and smile for friends and acquaintances. 
 
 HINTS ON TRAVELING. 
 
 Consider what route you intend taking when you are contemplating 
 a journey, and decide definitely upon it. Go to the ticket office of the 
 road and procure a time-table, where you will find the hour for leaving, 
 together with names of stations on the road, etc. 
 
 When you intend taking a sleeping-berth, secure your ticket for 
 same a day or two before you intend starting, so as to obtain a desirable 
 location. A lower berth in the center of the car is always the most com- 
 fortable, as you escape the jar of the wheels and drafts from the opening 
 door. 
 
 Take as little baggage as possible, and see that your trunks are 
 strong and securely fastened. A good, stout leather strap is a safeguard 
 against bursting locks. 
 
 In checking your baggage, look to the checks yourself, to make 
 sure the numbers correspond. Having once received your check, you 
 need not concern yourself further about your baggage. The company 
 is responsible for its safe delivery 
 
 It is a wise precaution to have your name and address carefully 
 written upon any small article of baggage, such as satchel, umbrella, 
 duster, etc. , so that in case you leave them in the car the railway em- 
 ployes may know where to send them. 
 
452 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 An overcoat 01 package lying upon a seat is an indication that the 
 seat is taken and the owner has only left temporarily. It would there- 
 fore be rude in you to remove the articles and occupy the seat. 
 
 It is only courteous for a gentleman, seeing a lady looking for a seat, 
 to offer the one beside him, as she scarcely likes to seat herself beside 
 him without such invitation, although she will, of course, if there are no 
 entirely vacant seats, do so in preference to standing. 
 
 A courteous gentleman will also relinquish his place to two ladies, 
 or a gentleman and lady who are .together, and seek other accommoda- 
 tions. Such a sacrifice always receives its reward in grateful admiration 
 of his character. 
 
 I/adies traveling alone, when addressed in a courteous manner by 
 gentlemen, should reply politely to the remark; and in long journeys 
 it is even allowable to enter into conversation without the formality of 
 an introduction. But a true lady will always know how to keep the con- 
 versation from bordering on familiarity, and by a quiet dignity and sudden 
 hauteur will effectually check any attempt at presumption on the part 
 of her strange acquaintance. 
 
 Always consult the comfort of others when traveling. You should 
 not open either door or window in a railway coach without first ascer- 
 taining if it will be agreeable to those near enough to be affected by it. 
 Ladies, in particular, should remember that they have not chartered the 
 whole coach, but only paid for a small fraction of it, and be careful not 
 to monopolize the dressing room for two or three hours at a stretch, 
 while half a dozen or more are waiting outside to arrange their toilets. 
 
 Genteel travelers will always carry their own toilet articles, and not 
 depend on the public brush and comb. 
 
 A lady will avoid over-dressing in traveling. Silks and velvets, laces 
 and jewelry are terribly out of place on a railroad train. The appoint- 
 ments of the traveler may be as elegant as you please, but they should 
 be distinguished by exceeding plainness and quietness of tone. Some 
 ladies have an idea that any old thing is good enough to travel in, and 
 so look exceedingly shabby on the train. 
 
 SUCCESS AND ITS SECRETS 
 
 While it is impossible, in a world made up of widely differing indi- 
 viduals, to formulate a set of rules by which each could be shown the 
 surest and swiftest way to secure success in life, still it is possible to call 
 attention to certain qualities of mind and character whose possession has 
 come to be universally looked upon as essential to those who may aspire 
 to struggle into the front rank of the world's workers. As a matter of 
 fact, it would be as difficult to define the common expression ' ' success 
 in life" as it would be to lay down a royal road which leads to it. Given 
 a hundred definitions, from as many men, each treating the subject from 
 his own standpoint, and no two of them would be found alike; and the 
 opinion of each of these, as time passed along with its inevitable ups 
 and downs, would be found to vary considerably. Flushed with recent 
 success, the speculator to-day would see in the possession of millions and 
 in the control of vast interests the only proper goal for a man of his great 
 genius; tamed a few days later by unexpected reverses, and he sees in 
 some conservative enterprise the fittest sphere of his future usefulness. 
 Perhaps, then, without attempting the impossible, in a definition of suc- 
 cess in life which will fit all who are seeking it, it will do to look upon it 
 as the accomplishment of the laudable life-purpose of a man of natural 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 453 
 
 or cultivated parts, who has found an object in life worth living and 
 working for, and has worked honestly and perseveringly to attain it. 
 As a rule, the larger the endowment of those faculties which go to build 
 up success in life, the higher the aim which accompanies them; but it 
 must not be forgotten that man is the most cultivable of all God's creat- 
 ures, and that by careful and intelligent study of the qualities which 
 have enabled others to shine, one may acquire them and employ them in 
 building up similar accomplishments. This being so, it does not lie in 
 the power of the young man who feels that he possesses only a moderate 
 share of intelligence, force and ability, to decide, on this account, that 
 he is not called upon to make fight for one of the front places in the life 
 of this generation. The most brilliant lives have often been those of men 
 of ordinary gifts, who, exerting to the utmost such power as has been 
 given them, have accomplished more than hundreds of men who were 
 much more bountifully supplied with mental qualifications. If any man 
 look among the circle of his acquaintances he will be surprised to see 
 how few have made the voyage of life successfully, and sorrow cannot 
 but arise when he considers the impotent conclusions to which young 
 men of brilliant parts frequently come. Every day witnesses the tri- 
 umph of patient and studious mediocrity, and men of great intellect are 
 constantly being forced to acknowledge, with surprise, the success of 
 persons whose abilities, in comparison with their own, have been deemed 
 inconsiderable. These men know precisely the scope of their faculties, 
 and never wander beyond them. They wait patiently for opportunities 
 which are of the kind they can improve, and they never let one pass un- 
 improved. Being unnoticed, they excite so much the less opposition, 
 and at last they surprise the world by the attainment of an object which 
 others deemed as far away from their ambition as it seemed beyond their 
 reach. 
 
 HOW TO AVOID FAILURE. 
 
 It is a common thing, with both the brilliant and the mediocre, when 
 the reward of their exertions and the result of their plans seem unsatis- 
 factory, to blame the ever-ready scapegoat, bad luck, as the cause of the 
 untoward outcome. One of the most healthful and profitable exercises 
 which a young man who has just experienced failure of any kind 
 can perform, will be to analyze the whole transaction with merci- 
 less candor, finding out just what proportion of the disaster is due 
 to his own fault and what is due to fortuitous circumstances, and 
 then make a cold-blooded comparison. If this was more generally done 
 than it is, there would be far fewer believers in, or rather blamers of, luck 
 as a business marplot than are at present to be found. To come down to 
 the facts in the case, without going so far as to dispute the existence of 
 such a thing as chance, in almost all cases of failure the cause is to be 
 found in the man, and the reason it is not found there is because that is 
 the last place in which the man hunts for it. "Untoward accidents," 
 "fate," "destiny," "ill fortune, " "evil star," "chance," "luck, " or some 
 other synonym of the scapegoat, suggests itself to the victim of ill-success 
 and he consoles himself with charging upon it his failure. He has the 
 poets on his side, too. Does not Shakspeare say: 
 
 "There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 
 Rough-hew them how we will." 
 
 And Byron: 
 
 "Men are the sport of circumstances, when 
 The circumstances seem the sport of men." 
 
454 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 And after all has been said, it were better, perhaps, that the young 
 business man place some little, very little, credence in luck's existence, 
 just enough in fact, to cause him to so organize upon solid and substantial 
 foundation each of his enterprises, and to so honestly and perseveringly 
 conduct them, that the smallest possible loop-hole will be left for ill-luck 
 to make its appearance. 
 
 CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION. 
 
 Is seldom an easy matter. In some few cases, a young man feels the 
 possession of such an unmistakable bias to some peculiar profession that 
 neither he nor his friends, have any hesitancy in deciding upon his 
 future. It most cases, however there is no particular preference, and a 
 wise decision is not reached before many considerations have been care- 
 fully weighed. In far too many cases wrong considerations are given 
 attention, and a decision is reached whose ultimate result is a life failure 
 which, had the profession been selected with greater wisdom, would not 
 have happened. A socially ambitious father and mother check their 
 young son's honest ambition to become a mechanic, send him to college 
 and make a briefless barrister out of the material which could have been 
 moulded into an honest and efficient artisan. Many a boy whose soul 
 yearned for the higher walks of intellectual culture, to share in which he 
 had been endowed, has been doomed by injudicious parents, who des- 
 pised colleges, to dull life at a dry -goods counter or counting-room desk. 
 Parents are not by any means infallible judges upon this point, and every 
 young man about to start out in search of success in life should study 
 himself carefully in order to discover his aptitudes. The natural bent may 
 be hard to find, but the discovery will well repay the search. Historical 
 biography teems with the lives of men whose peculiar aptitude was early 
 displayed to the advantage of themselves and the world. Napoleon, a 
 school boy at Brienne, led the mimic armies of his youthful associates; 
 Nelson had conceived the idea of future greatness as a sailor before he 
 entered the navy; Pascal contributed to the mathematical literature of 
 his age before he was seventeen; Pope acknowledged that 
 "While yet a child and still a fool of fame, 
 I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came;" 
 
 Dryden illustrated the growth of natural aptitude when he wrote: 
 
 "What the child admired 
 The youth endeavored, and the man acquired;" 
 
 Michael Angelo stayed away from school to draw pictures; Murillo 
 covered his text-books with them; West, at seven, plundered the cat's 
 tail of hair with which to make pencils; Calhoun, a student, held his 
 own in debate with the college president and so on, until the examples 
 of the theory of natural aptitude become too numerous for recapitulation. 
 Taking for granted that one has discovered, or believes that he has 
 discovered his bent, he must beware of the danger which lies in fickleness 
 of purpose, which may, shortly after the weariness of work begins to be 
 felt, lead him to suppose that he has chosen unwisely, and that some 
 other field of usefulness would be more suitable to his temper and parts. 
 It is the practical repetition of the old story of the traveler in the express 
 train sighing for the quiet pleasure of the farmer, whose broad fields are 
 flying past, while the farmer looks longingly at the train as it passes by, 
 and dreams of the enjoyable excitements of a life of endless bustle, stir 
 and energy. Whatever the calling, there will be toil and trial for its 
 follower, and these come from him rather than from the occupation, 
 which might be changed a dozen times in the vain hope of escaping from 
 
HEAR TH AND HOME. 455 
 
 Item. Having deliberately selected a profession, stick to it. The longer 
 yc.u remain in it, the more expert you become and the easier becomes 
 the work and the larger the pay. It is only the early days which bring 
 weariness and pain. These conquered by perseverance, the rest is easy, 
 and the success in conquering the first pleadings of the siren fickleness 
 of purpose, who is of closer kin to laziness than one might think, lays 
 the corner-stone of success in life. 
 
 EXCELSIOR! 
 
 Having chosen his occupation, the young man of proper ambition 
 will not be long in selecting for himself an honorable position in it, to 
 be filled as soon as he has shown himself worthy and able. What men 
 have accomplished shows that hardly any ambitious longing can be con- 
 sidered as unwise on the part of those who are willing to undertake all 
 work and suffer all want in the struggle. 
 
 The extremest poverty has been no obstacle in the way of men de- 
 voted to the duty of self-culture. Professor Alexander Murray, the lin- 
 guist, learned to write by scribbling his letters on an old wool-card with 
 the end of a burnt heather-stem. The only book which his father, who 
 was a poor shepherd, possessed, was a penny Shorter Catechism; but, 
 that being thought too valuable for common use, was carefully preserved 
 in a cupboard for the* Sunday catechizings. Professor Moore, when a 
 young man, being too poor to purchase Newton's "Principia," borrowed 
 the book, and copied the whole of it with his own hand. Many poor 
 students, while laboring daily for their living, have only been able to 
 snatch an atom of knowledge here and there at intervals, as birds do their 
 food in wintertime when the fields are covered with snow. They have 
 struggled on, and faith and hope have come to them. A well known 
 author and publisher, William Chambers, of Edinburgh, speaking before 
 an assemblage of young men in that city, thus briefly described to them 
 his humble beginnings for their encouragement: "I stand before you," 
 he said, "a self-educated man. My education is that which is supplied 
 at the humble parish-schools of Scotland; and it was only when I went 
 to Edinburgh, a poor boy, that I devoted my evenings, after the labors of 
 the day, to the cultivation of that intellect which the Almighty has given 
 me. From seven or eight in the morning till nine or ten at night was I 
 at my business as a bookseller's apprentice, and it was only during hours 
 after these, stolen from sleep, that I could devote myself to study. I did 
 not read novels; my attention was devoted to physical science and other 
 useful matters. I also taught myself French. I look back to those times 
 with great pleasure, and am almost sorry I have not to go through the 
 same experience again; for I reaped more pleasure when I had not a six- 
 pence in my pocket, studying in a garret in Edinburgh, than I now find 
 when sitting amid all the elegancies and comforts of a parlor." 
 
 William Cobbett learned English grammar when he was a private 
 soldier on the pay of sixpence a day. 
 
 These are men who have selected an aim in life and have attained it 
 through sticking to it. Concentration of purpose carried them through. 
 The "Admirable Crichtons" are scarce geniuses, and no young man need 
 be ashamed, in these days of special accomplishment, of having decided 
 to follow a single pursuit in life to become a man of one idea provided 
 it is a good one. Almost all the great men in war, literature, science, 
 diplomacy, business, the professions, have been men of "one idea," not 
 because they were incapable of harboring more than one, but because, 
 having selected some one object as worthy of attainment, they 
 
V* 
 
 456 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 gave themselves up to it solely. It was often long of coming, but it came 
 at last. Adam Smith gave ten years to his "Wealth of Nations;" Edward 
 Gibbon, twenty to the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Bishop 
 Butler, twenty to his famous "Analogy;" Kant, fifty years to his meta- 
 physical researches; Dr. Johnson, seven years to his Dictionary. These 
 men sought one prize and gained it. As many years have been spent by 
 thousands of men of equal ability, who sought each a number of prizes 
 and gained none. 
 
 A SOUND BODY 
 
 Is another of the essentials of success in life which are largely attainable 
 by those who lack their possession. Mental as well as physical accom- 
 plishment depends largely upon the condition of the worker's digestion; 
 and the thorough aeration of his blood. This can only be obtained with 
 healthy exercise, which can only be taken by those whose muscles and 
 nerves and wind are in good condition. "Walk twelve miles before 
 speaking and yon'll never break down," says Sydney Smith to an Eng- 
 lish parliamentary debater. A strong intellect cannot well work with a 
 weak body as its case. Energy without talent will accomplish more 
 than talent without energy. The sharp edge of the woodman's axe avails 
 nothing until the sinewy arm throws it, stroke upon stroke, against the 
 monarchs of the forest. Take the great men of the century, and it will 
 be seen that they combined intellectual force with physical vigor. In 
 England, Brougham, Lyndhurst, Peel, Bright, Gladstone, Palmerston; 
 in America, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Lincoln 
 all these were men capable of strong muscular exertion and of standing 
 a prolonged physical as well as mental strain. It is told of Lord 
 Brougham that he once worked six days on a stretch without sleep, 
 slept from Saturday night to Monday morning, and began work again 
 thoroughly refreshed. These men are the conservers as well as the pos- 
 sessors of physical force, and the young man who seeks to retain the 
 " sound mind in a sound body " will remember that it is not so much in 
 the cultivation of additional body strength as in the economy of what he 
 already possesses that the art of physical culture is best applied. The 
 idea used to be that muscularity and rowdyism were natural associates, 
 but people found out that it is possible for a young man to be a good 
 rower, or boxer even, and still be a worthy Christian and admirable 
 member of society, and even that it was difficult for him to be these un- 
 less with the employment of manly exercises he brought his physical 
 condition up to the healthy standard. This is merely a recurrence to 
 the old belief of the Greeks, who reverence the muscular body as one of 
 the noble parts of man, and made gymnastics and calisthenics a regular 
 school exercise. Without good health and a sound body, moderate suc- 
 cess in life may be painfully possible; with it a place in the front rank 
 may be attained with far greater ease that? otherwise. 
 
 f SEI.F-REI/IANCE.) "- 
 
 Among all the mental qualifications which help on to success in 
 life, there is none which is of more importance than self- reliance. If you 
 want a thing well done, do it yourself, says the old saw, and hence comes 
 it that those who rely most upon themselves for the accomplishment of 
 any aim are the ones who do the best work. "Heaven helps those who 
 help themselves," is a well tried maxim, embodying in small compass the 
 results of vast business experience. The spirit of self-help is the root of all 
 genuine growth in the individual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, 
 it constitutes the true source of national vigor and strength. Help from 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 457 
 
 without is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invariably 
 invigorates. Whatever is done for men or classes, to a certain extent 
 takes away the stimulus and necessity of doing for themselves; and 
 where men are subjected to over-guidance and over-government, the 
 inevitable tendency is to render them comparatively helpless. 
 
 It is energetic individualism which produces the most powerful 
 effect upon the life and actions of others, and really constitutes the best 
 practical education. The determination to be one's own helper is the 
 secret of this individual development and strength. No greater misfor- 
 tune could befall an ambitious and able young man than a legacy. A 
 story is told of a critic who, after reviewing the promising work of a 
 young artist, praised it, but added: "It is a pity that he can never make 
 a great painter." "And why not? " rejoined his companion. "Because 
 he has ten thousand pounds a year," was the sententious response. 
 When John C. Calhoun was ridiculed by his fellow-students at Yale for 
 his intense application to study, he raised a louder laugh against him- 
 self by replying, "I am forced to make the most of my time that I may 
 acquit myself creditably when in Congress," and then, when the laugh 
 was over, adding, "I assure you, if I were not satisfied of my ability to 
 reach Congress in three years, I would at once leave college. ' ' Here 
 was self-reliance and self-help. Calhoun knew the difficulties that lay 
 between him and the goal of his ambition, and, while the other students 
 were laughing at him, he was helping himself to overcome them. ' 'The 
 man who dares to think for himself and act independently, does a service 
 to his race," says one of the brightest modern thinkers, and daily ex- 
 perience shows that it is energetic individualism which produces the 
 most powerful effects upon the life and action of others, and really con- 
 stitutes the best practical education. Schools, academies and colleges 
 give but the merest beginnings of culture in comparison with it. Far 
 more influential is the life-education daily given in our homes, in the 
 streets, behind counters, in workshops, at the loom and the plow, in 
 counting-houses and manufactories, and in the busy haunts of men. 
 This is that finishing instruction as. members of society which Schiller 
 designated "the education 9f the human race," consisting in action, 
 conduct, self-culture, self-control all that tends to discipline a man 
 truly, and fit him for the proper performance of the duties and business 
 of life a kind of education not to be learned from books, or acquired 
 by any amount of mere literary training. With his usual weight of 
 words, Bacon observes that "studies teach not their own use; but that is 
 a wisdom without them, and above them won by observation" a remark 
 that holds true of actual life as well as of the cultivation of the intellect 
 itself. For all experience serves to illustrate and enforce the lesson 
 that a man perfects himself by work more than by reading that it is 
 life rather than literature, action rather than study, and character rather 
 than biography, which tend perpetually to renovate mankind. 
 
 ATTENTION TO DETAII, 
 
 Is a matter which constitutes much more than half of the battle in many 
 spheres of usefulness, and, the more intellectual the task, the greater the 
 necessity, very frequently, of careful and constant devotion to the little 
 things which help to form it. Sedulous attention and painstaking in- 
 dustry always mark the true worker. The greatest men are not those 
 who "despise the day of small things," but those who improve them the 
 most carefully. Michael Angelo was one day explaining to a visitor at 
 his studio what he had been doing at a statue since his previous visit. "I 
 
458 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 have retouched this part polished that - softened this feature brought 
 out that muscle given some expression to this lip, and more energy to 
 that limb." "But these are trifles," remarked the visitor. "It may be 
 so," replied the sculptor, "but recollect that trifles make perfection, and 
 perfection is no trifle." So it was said of Nicholas Poussin, the painter, 
 that the rule of his conduct was, that ' 'whatever was worth doing at all 
 was worth doing well;" and when asked, late in life, by his friend Vig- 
 neul de Marville, by what means he had gained so high' a reputation 
 among the painters of Italy, Poussin emphatically answered, "Because 
 I have neglected nothing." On the first publication of Wellington's 
 dispatches, one of his friends said to him, on reading the records of his 
 Indian campaigns: "It seems to me, Duke, that your chief business in 
 India was to procure rice and bullocks." "And so it was," replied 
 Wellington, "for, if I had rice and bullocks, Ihadmen; andiflhadmen 
 I knew I could beat the enemy." All men who have accomplished suc- 
 cess in life have been conspicuous for minute attention to detail as well 
 as for general scope and vigor. The great Napoleon was a wonderful 
 example of this. His correspondence shows him arranging for supplies 
 of saddles, directing where cattle could be purchased, advising the pro- 
 curement of shoes for the infantry, and making suggestions as to various 
 minor details, and complaining because of discovered carelessness in the 
 reports upon matters of detail supplied by others. Lord Brougham, 
 alluding to this quality, said: "The captain who conveyed Napoleon to 
 Elba expressed to me his astonishment at his precise and, as it were, 
 familiar knowledge of all the minute details connected with the ship." 
 
 In the face of these examples, no one should come to the conclusion 
 that details are beneath one's notice, or that one is less brilliant in the 
 great things of life because he pays attention to the little things. Of 
 General Thomas it is said that he was careful in all the details of a battle, 
 but, once in the fight, was as "furious and impetuous as Jackson." At- 
 tention to details makes a business man, or any other kind of man, "sure 
 that he is right," and then, of course, it only remains for him to "go 
 ahead." 
 
 > . <Y DECISION OF CHARACTER 
 
 Is one of the greatest of God's gifts to man, and, as every man has the 
 germ of this quality, it can be cultivated to great advantage. It out- 
 strips even talent and genius in the race for success in life. Thousands 
 and thousands of brilliant men have failed for the want of courage, faith 
 and decision, perishing in the sight of less gifted, but more adventur- 
 ous competitors. As Sidney Smith says: "We must not stand shivering 
 on the brink and thinking of the cold and the danger, but jump in and 
 scramble through as well as we can." 
 The old poem says: 
 
 "He either fears his fate too much, 
 
 Or his deserts are small, 
 That dares not put it to the touch, 
 To gain or lose it all." 
 
 Decision of character enables one to do the right thing at the right 
 time. Every one knows that 
 
 "There is a tide in the affairs of men 
 Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;" 
 
 but not every one has the ability to tell the time of flood, and many, 
 after telling it, have lost its advantages through lack of nerve to em- 
 bark upon it before the ebb came, and the opportunity was lost. In the 
 
HEARTH AND HOME. 459 
 
 smoke and din of battle, it was the genius of Napoleon, which enabled 
 him to see where one or two bold and rapid movements would secure 
 the advantage; but it was his decision of character which enabled him 
 to profit to the full by the discovery. To be decisive on important oc- 
 casions, one must keep cool. The Duke of Wellington's calmness never 
 forsook him, even in the most trying emergencies. At sea, one terrible 
 night, the captain of the vessel rushed to the Duke, who was preparing 
 for bed, and announced that the vessel would soon sink. "Then I shall 
 not take off my boots," the imperturbable hero of Waterloo responded as 
 he paused in his preparations for sleep. There is need for this coolness 
 of manner and decision of action in all lines of business. The surgeon, 
 brought face to face with a sudden complication in the case beneath his 
 knife; the lawyer, surprised by the springing of the trap which his wily 
 opponent had prepared for him; the merchant, apprised of a turn in his 
 enterprises that threatens immediate disaster all are called upon to 
 exercise this quality, and in thousands of cases the dullest man in a 
 company has obtained the prize simply because he grasped it while 
 others were revolving in their minds what they had better do in order 
 to secure it. 
 
 NEVER DESPAIR. 
 
 Columbus was the son of a weaver, and a weaver himself. Oliver 
 Cromwell was the son of a brewer. Howard an apprentice to a grocer. 
 Benjamin Franklin, a journeyman printer. Claude Lorraine was bred 
 up a pastry cook. Moliere was the son of a tapestry maker. Cervantes 
 served as a common soldier. Homer was a beggar. Demosthenes was 
 the son of a cutler. Terence was a slave. Daniel De Foe was a hosier, 
 and the son of a butcher. Whitefield, son of an inn-keeper. Sir Clou- 
 desley Shovel, rear-admiral of England, was an apprentice to a shoe- 
 maker, and afterwards a cabin boy. Bishop Prideaux worked in the 
 kitchen at Exeter College, Oxford. Cardinal Woolsey was the son of a 
 butcher. Ferguson was a shepherd. William Hogarth was but an ap- 
 prentice to an engraver of pewter pots. Dr. Mountain was the son of a 
 beggar. Virgil, son of a porter. Horace, of a shop-keeper. 
 
 TALENT AND FACT. 
 
 To excel others is a proof of talent; to know when to conceal su- 
 periority is the fruit of tact. Further comparisons of these qualities 
 have been thus set forth by a recent English writer: 
 
 Talent is something, but tact everything. Talent is power tact is 
 skill; talent is weight tact is momentum; talent knows what to do 
 tact knows how to do it; talent makes a man respectable tact will make 
 a man respected; talent is wealth tact is ready money. For all practi- 
 cal purposes of life, tact carries it against talent ten to one. Talent 
 makes the world wonder that it gets on no faster tact excites astonish- 
 ment that it gets on so fast; and the secret is that it has no weight to 
 carry; it makes no false steps it hits the right nail on the head it loses 
 no time it takes all hints and by keeping its eye on the weather-cock, 
 is ready to take advantage of every wind that blows. It has the air of 
 commonplace, aud all the force and powers of genius. It can change 
 sides with hey-presto movement and be at all points of the compass, 
 while talent is ponderously and learnedly shifting a single point. Tal- 
 ent calculates clearly, reasons logically, makes out a case as clear as day- 
 light, utters its oracles with all the weight of justice and reason. Tact 
 refutes without contradicting, puzzles the profound with profundity, and 
 without wit outwits the wise. Setting them together on a race for popu- 
 
460 MANUAL OF USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 larity, pen in hand, and tact will distance talent by half the course. 
 Talent brings to market that which is wanted; tact produces that which 
 is wished for. Talent instructs; tact enlightens. Talent leads where no 
 man follows; tact follows where humor leads. Talent is pleased that it 
 ought to have succeeded; tact is delighted that it has succeeded. Talent 
 toils for a posterity that will never repay it; tact throws away no pains, 
 but catches the drift of the passing hour. Talent builds for eternity, 
 tact on short lease, and gets good interest. Talent is certainly a very 
 fine thing to talk about, a very good thing to be proud of, a very glori- 
 ous eminence to look down from; but tact is useful, portable, applicable, 
 always marketable; it is the talent of talents, the availableness of re- 
 sources, the applicability of power, the eye of discrimination, the right 
 hand of intellect. 
 
 PARTING COUNSElyS. 
 
 Keep good company or none. Never be idle. If your hands cannot 
 be usefully employed, attend to the cultivation of your mind. Always 
 speak the truth. Make few promises. Live up to your engagements. 
 Keep your own secrets, if you have any. When you speak to a person 
 look him in the face. Good company and good conversation are the 
 very sinews of virtue. Good character is above all things else. Your 
 character cannot be essentially injured except by your own acts. If one 
 speak evil of you, let your life be such that none will believe him. 
 Drink no kind of intoxicating liquors. Always live, misfortune excepted, 
 within your income. When you retire to bed, think over what you have 
 been doing during the day. Make no haste to be rich if you would 
 prosper. Small and steady gains give competency with tranquility of 
 mind. Never play at an}- kind of game of chance. Avoid temptation 
 through fear that you may not be able to withstand it. Never run into 
 debt, unless you see a way to get out again. Never borrow if you can 
 possibly avoid it. Never speak evil of any one. Be just before you are 
 generous. Keep yourself innocent if you would be happy. Save when 
 you are young to spend when you are old. Never think that which you 
 do for religion is time or money mispent. Read some portion of your 
 Bible every day. Often think of death, and your accountability to God, 
 your creator, 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 A BBOT of Westminster, 332. 
 J\ Abbreviations, List of, 105-107. 
 Abdicated Monarchs, 310. 
 Abdication, Denned, 299. 
 Abolition Party, 269. 
 Abracadabra, 315. 
 Abydos, 332. 
 
 Abyssinia, Facts on, 367, 369. 
 Abyssinian War, 200. 
 Achates, 134. 
 Acheron, 134. 
 Achilles, 134. 
 Acadie, Story of, 341. 
 Acre, What is an, 180. 
 Acrostic, Definition, 53. 
 Actium, Battle of, 199. 
 Adams, Pres- John, 26. 
 Adams, Pres. John Q., 26. 
 Adeler, Max, 120. 
 Adjectives, Misuse of, 57. 
 Admirals, Grades of, 364. 
 Adonis, 134. 
 
 Advertisements, The First, 139. 
 Advocatus Diaboli, The, 362. 
 ^Eneid, Story of, 115. 
 ^Eolus, The god, 134, 
 yErolites, Remarkable, 245. 
 Afghanistan, Facts on, 367, 369. 
 Africa, 368. 
 Africanders, 298. 
 Agamemnon, 134. 
 Agapemone, 209. 
 Age of Bronze, 295. 
 Agency, Laws of, 250, 
 Agents, Liability of, 249. 
 Ages, Historic, 49. 
 Agreements, Law of, 251. 
 Air Gun, Invention of, 164. 
 Air Pump, Invention of, 164. 
 Ajaccio, 336. 
 Ajax, 134. 
 
 Alabama Question, 15, 17. 
 Aladdin, Plot of, 112. 
 Alastor, Definition, no. 
 Albany, City of, 26. 
 Albinos, The, 380. 
 Albion, 134. 
 Alceste, 134. 
 
 Alcohol, In Liquors, 144; Name of, 145. 
 Alfred the Great, 328. 
 Alhambra, 333. 
 Ali Baba, Story of, 113. 
 Alien and Sedition Laws, 14. 
 Alien Land Holders, 30. 
 Alleghany, City of, 267. 
 Allegory, Explained, 55. 
 Alliteration, Gems of, 323. 
 Alloway, 335. 
 Almack's Club, 337. 
 Alma Mater, 349. 
 " Almighty Dollar," 165. 
 Alpaca, Description, 141. 
 
 Alphabet, Derivation of, 315; Origin of the, 
 
 55 ; The Runic, 54. 
 Alsatia, 335. 
 Altar, the First, 205. 
 Alto in Music, 286. 
 Alum, Dry, 244. 
 Amadis of Gaul, 340. 
 Amalekites, 378. 
 Ambassadors, Rank of, 363. 
 Amber, 145. 
 Ambergris, 143. 
 Amen Corner, 338. 
 America, Discovery of, n, 12; First things 
 
 in, ii, 12; Prehistoric, 380. 
 Americanisms, 54. 
 Amerigo Vespucci, 339. 
 Amethyst, 133. 
 Ammonia, Uses of, 426. 
 Amphion, 134. 
 Amphitrite, 134. 
 Amsterdam, City of, 329. 
 Amulets, 127. 
 Anagram, Definition and Specimens, 55; 
 
 Some Curious, 320. 
 Anastatic Printing, 164. 
 Ancho, 127. 
 
 Anchor, Invention of, 164. 
 Ancient Mariner, The, 112. 
 Ancomarca, Custom House of, 328. 
 Andromache, 134. 
 Andromeda, 134. 
 Anemometer, Invention of, 164. 
 Angelus Bell, 207. 
 Anglesey, How Named, 331. 
 Animals, Migration of, 233. 
 Animism, 380. 
 Annexation, 271. 
 Annie Laurie, 335. 
 Anniversaries, Wedding, 353. 
 Anstey, F., 120. 
 Antarctic, Meaning of, 232. 
 Anthracite Coal, 142. 
 Anthropology, 375. 
 Anthropophagi, The, 376. 
 Anthropophagy, 355. 
 Antichrist, 207. 
 Antietam, The River, 191 
 Antigone, 134. 
 Anti- Renters, 17. 
 Anti-Semites, 299. 
 
 Antonyms, Twelve Thousand, 73-97. 
 Ants, To Destroy, 439. 
 Anvil, The Largest, 153. 
 Apache War, 27. 
 Aphelion, What is, 225. 
 Aphorisms, 53. 
 Aphrodite, Her name, 126. 
 Apis, 134. 
 
 Apocalyptic Number, 317. 
 Apocrypha, Bible, 214. 
 Apollo, The god, 134. 
 Apophthegms, 53. 
 
 461 
 
4 62 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Apoplexy and Fits, 444. 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight, 182. 
 
 Apotheosis, 125. 
 
 Apostle Spoons, 353. 
 
 Apostles, Fate of the, 218. 
 
 Appian Way, 156. 
 
 Aqua Fortis, 244. 
 
 Aqua Regia, 244. 
 
 Arabian Nights, The, 112. 
 
 Arachne, 134. 
 
 Arbor Day, 42. 
 
 Arbor Vitse, 372. 
 
 Arcades, 351. 
 
 Archduke and Archduchess, 362. 
 
 Architecture, As Fine Art, 284; Byzantine, 
 
 286 ; Orders of, 285 ; Saracenic, 287. 
 Arctic, Described, 232. 
 Area Center of the United States, 19. 
 Area of Circles, 184. 
 Arethusa, 134. 
 Argentina, 367, 369. 
 Argus, The Hundred- Eyed, 134. 
 Ariadne, 134. 
 Arion, 134. 
 Arithmetic, Curious Problems in, 315, 316,323, 
 
 326. 
 
 Armies, In Civil War, 35. 
 Armistice, An, 191. 
 Army, Generals of the U. S., 27. 
 Army, The Salvation, 219. 
 Army Worm, 227. 
 Aroostook War, 27. 
 Arrack, What is, 146. 
 Art, Caricature in, 288 ; Cartoons in, 285 ; 
 
 Realism in, 285 ; Realistic, 285 ; Love of, 
 
 286. 
 
 Art Divine, The, 290. 
 Artesian Wells, 247, 328. 
 Arthur, Pres. C. A., 26. 
 Artisans, Hints for, 160. 
 Asia, Continent of, 368. 
 Astor, The China, 372. 
 Atalanta, 134. 
 Atheism, 205. 
 Athens, Maid of, 113. 
 Atlanta, City of, 26. 
 Atlantic Cable, n. 
 Atmosphere, 228. 
 Attorneyship, Laws of, 256. 
 Auctioneers, Ways of, 142. 
 Auctions, Theory of, 148. 
 Aurora, The goddess, 134. 
 Aurora Borealis, 243. 
 Australasia, 368. 
 Australian Ballot, 276. 
 Austria- Hungary, 367, 369. 
 Austrian Serfdom, 33. 
 Autocrat, Defined, 306. 
 Autumn, 43. 
 Avebury Stones, 376. 
 Ave Maria Lane, 338. 
 Avoirdupois Weight, 182. 
 Aztecs, The, 380. 
 
 ABEL, Tower of, 375. 
 
 Babelmandeb, Straits of, 332. 
 
 bylon, Hanging Gardens of, 346. 
 Babylonian Captivity, 314 
 Babylonians, 378. 
 Bacchus, The Pagan, 134. 
 Bacchus and the Goat, 126. 
 Balaklava, Charge of, 196. 
 
 Balloon, The First, 225. 
 
 Balloons, Famous, 164. 
 
 Baltimore, City of, 26. 
 
 Banking, Capital in, 167; Our System of, 175. 
 
 Bank-Notes, 166. 
 
 Bankrupts, The Term, 168; Laws Concerning, 
 
 Banks, National, 165-176; Of England, 168. 
 
 Barbarossa, 296. 
 
 Barberini Vase, 291. 
 
 Barmecides' Feast, no. 
 
 Barn- Burners, 17, 272. 
 
 Barnum, P. T., 327. 
 
 Barometers, 164, 225. 
 
 Barrels, Measure of, 186. 
 
 Barry Cornwall, 314. 
 
 Barry, The Artist, 292. 
 
 Barter, History of, 143. 
 
 Bartholomew Fair, 338. 
 
 Bashi-Bazouks, 195. 
 
 Basques, Race of, 378. 
 
 Bastille, The French, 333. 
 
 Bastinado, The, 305, 350. 
 
 Bathing, 390, 411. 
 
 Bathos, 56. 
 
 Battalions, Military, 189. 
 
 Battles, Seven Days', 192; Of Lissa, 193; 
 Wager of, 196; Losses in, 197; Of the 
 Civil War, 197. 
 
 Baumann's Cavern, 328. 
 
 Bay of Fundy, 327. 
 
 Bay Rum, 434. 
 
 Beans, Black and White, 352. 
 
 Beauty and the Beast, 114. 
 
 Bed Bugs, 440. 
 
 Bed of Justice, 303. 
 
 Bede, Cuthbert, 120. 
 
 Bedlam, 336. 
 
 Bedouins, 381. 
 
 Beelzebub, Title of, 211. 
 
 Befana, 128. 
 
 Beguines, Order of, 216. 
 
 Begum, Title of, 362. 
 
 " Bel and the Dragon," in. 
 
 Belgae, The, 377. 
 
 Belgium, Facts on, 367, 369. 
 
 Belial, 207. 
 
 Bell, Currer, 120. 
 
 Bell, On Shipboard, 45. 
 
 Bellerophon, 134. 
 
 Bellona, The goddess, 134. 
 
 Bellows, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Bells, The Largest, 154; The Angelus, 207. 
 
 Beluchistan, 367, 359. 
 
 "Belvedere, The, 327. . 
 
 Berenice, 134. 
 
 Berlin Congress, The, 305. 
 
 Berlin, Treaty of, 305, 308. 
 
 Berserker, The Hero, 128. 
 
 Besique, Game of, 354. 
 
 Bessemer Steel, Invention of, 153. 
 
 Bey, Title of, 360. 
 
 Bezants, 178. 
 
 Bible, 53; Apocrypha of, 214; Bishops', 206; 
 Breeches, 208; Coverdale's, 207; Five 
 Kings, 218; Gutenberg, 213 ; Meaning of, 
 109 ; Newton on the, 206 ; Peculiarities of, 
 213 ; Societies, 217 ; Some Costly, 109 ; The 
 Douay, 211 ; The Eddas, 218; The Koran, 
 218; The Treacle, 206; The Vedas, 218; 
 The Zendevesta, 218; Try Pitikes, 218. 
 
 Biblioklept, no. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Bibliomancy, 112. 
 
 Bibliomania, 115. 
 
 Bickerstaff, Isaac, 120. 
 
 Bierstadt, The Artist, 293. 
 
 Bilge, Ship's, 354. 
 
 Billiards, Origin of, 351. 
 
 Billings, Josh, 120. 
 
 Bills of Sale, 264. 
 
 Bi-metallism, 167. 
 
 Binnacle, Ship's, 226. 
 
 Biographers, Prince of, 109. 
 
 Biography, in. 
 
 Biology, 231. 
 
 Bird Lime, 144. 
 
 Bird's Eye Views, 287. 
 
 Birds, Flight of ,226 ; Ages of,3So ; Singing of ,350 
 
 Births, Illegitimate, 392. 
 
 Bismarck, Prince, 331. 
 
 Bison, The American, 14. 
 
 Bitumen, 143. 
 
 " Black Art," The Term, 126. 
 
 Black Boards, To Make, 162. 
 
 Black Death, The, 391. 
 
 Black, George, 334. 
 
 Black Hawk, The Indian, 330; War of, 27. 
 
 Black Hole, 339. 
 
 Black Letter, 112. 
 
 Black Thursday, 356. 
 
 Black Watch, The, 296. 
 
 Blank Verse, 113. 
 
 Blarney Castle, 331. 
 
 Blasting, Described, 156. 
 
 Blenheim, Battle of, 199. 
 
 Blind Persons, 388 ; Numbers of 389. 
 
 Blisters, Use of, 391. 
 
 Blizzards, 235. 
 
 Block House, The Term, 190. 
 
 Block-system, The, 144. 
 
 Blood, The, 393, Functions of, 393. 
 
 Blood Money, 301. 
 
 Bloodstone, The, 133. 
 
 Blouses, 352. 
 
 Blowpipes, 231. 
 
 Bluebeard, Story of, 117. 
 
 Blue Books, The, 273. 
 
 Blue Stockings, 112. 
 
 Blue Vitriol, 244. 
 
 Blunders, Milton's, 109; Of Novelists, no. 
 
 Boarding, Naval Term, 192. 
 
 Boarding-House Laws, 263. 
 
 Boasting, Habit of, 425. 
 
 Bocaccio, Costly Edition of, 109. 
 
 Bodleian Library, 125. 
 
 Body, In Flames, 441 ; A Sound, 456. 
 
 Boers, The, 380. 
 
 Bog Oak Ornaments, 155. 
 
 Bogus, Definition of, 168. 
 
 Boiling Point, 238. 
 
 Bokhara, Facts on, 367, 369. 
 
 Bolas, 194. 
 
 Bolivia, Republic of, 367, 369. 
 
 Bombardments, Heavy, 195. 
 
 Bonds, Law of, 263. 
 
 Bonheur, Rosa, 292. 
 
 Bonnet Rouge, 303. 
 
 Bonny Doon, 335. 
 
 Bonzes, The, 208. 
 
 Books, Canonical, 206 ; Chap no; Costliest, 
 
 122 ; The Earliest, 109 ; The First, 122 ; 
 
 Honors Among, 122; Invention of, 109; 
 
 The Largest, 122; The Sibylline, 127; 
 
 Sizes of, 185. 
 
 Bookseller's Terms, 185. 
 
 Boom, The Term, 167. 
 
 Boomerang, The, 193. 
 
 Boot of Prussia, The, 295. 
 
 Booty, Definition of, 190. 
 
 Border States, 13. 
 
 Boreas, 134. 
 
 Borough, English, 376. 
 
 Boss, The Term, 362. 
 
 Boston, City of, 26. 
 
 Boston Tea Party, 299. 
 
 Bottle Charts, 232. 
 
 Bottles, Corking, 437. 
 
 Boulders and Cliffs, 234. 
 
 Boulevards, 359. 
 
 Bow and Arrows, 195. 
 
 Bowie- Knives, 153. 
 
 Bowstring, The, 350. 
 
 Boxing-Day, 353. 
 
 Boycotting, 302. 
 
 Braganza Diamond, 370. 
 
 Braidism, Defined, 236. 
 
 Brain, Compression of, 443 ; Weight of, 391. 
 
 Bramah, Joseph, 337. 
 
 Branding, 297. 
 
 Brassware, Cleaning, 438. 
 
 Bravest of the Brave, The, 189. 
 
 Brazil, U. States of, 367, 367. 
 
 Brazil Grass, 325. 
 
 Breath, Bad, 432. 
 
 Breeding, Good, 424. 
 
 Breitman Hans, 120. 
 
 Breviary and Missal, 214. 
 
 Brevet, Rank by, 366. 
 
 Briareus, 134. 
 
 Bricks, Color of, 143 ; Use of Burnt, 152. 
 
 Bride of Abydos, 332. 
 
 Bride of the Sea, 298. 
 
 Bridges, Noted, 159; Highest Natural, 328; Of 
 
 Sighs, 329, 332. 
 Britain, Invasion of, 189. 
 British Lion, The, 302. 
 British Museum Library, 122. 
 Broadcloth, To Clean, 394, 435. 
 Broadside, A Naval, 192. 
 Brochs, 377. 
 Brocken, The, 334. 
 Broken Limbs, 388. 
 Broker and Brokerage, 175; Curbstone, 175: 
 
 Bull and Bear, 56. 
 Bronchitis, 399. 
 Brook Farm, 356. 
 Brooklyn, City of, 26. 
 Brooms, To Preserve, 438. 
 Broque, Definition of, 55. 
 Brose, Scottish Dish, 355. 
 Brown, F. Madox, 292. 
 Brownie, The, 130. 
 Buccaneers, The, 300, 306. 
 Bucentaur, The Galley, 129, 302. 
 Bucephalus, Story of, 126. 
 Buchanan, Pres. James, 26. 
 Bucktails, The, 17. 
 Buddhists, Who they are, 208. 
 Budget, Explained, 166. 
 
 Buffalo, Population of, 26 ; True Name of, 14. 
 Bug Poison, 440. 
 Buildings, Public, 359; The Largest, 359; 
 
 Prehistoric, 377. 
 Bul-bul, The Turkish, no. 
 Bulgaria, Kingdom of, 367. 
 Bulgarian Atrocities, 195, 298. 
 
464 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Bull, John, 302. 
 
 Bulls and Bears, 56, 175. 
 
 Bulls, Papal, 211. 
 
 Bui wer- Clay ton Treaty, 270. 
 
 Bungalows, 351. 
 
 Bunkum, The Term, 56. 
 
 Buonarotti, M. Angelo, 292. 
 
 Buoyancy, The Term, 233. 
 
 Burns, Remedy for, 441. 
 
 Burns, Robert, Monument to, 335 J Birthplace 
 
 of, 335. 
 
 Burnt Brick, First Use of, 152. 
 Burritt, Elihu, 333. 
 Busiris, 134. 
 
 By- Products of Coal, 148. 
 Byzantine School, The, 292. 
 Byzantines, 178. 
 
 SABAL, Political, 273. 
 Cabbala, The, 212. 
 binets, Government, 274. 
 Cable, The Atlantic, n. 
 Cade, Jack, 335. 
 Cadmus, 56, 135. 
 Caduceus, 135. 
 Caesarism, Rule of, 271. 
 
 , 
 
 " Ca ira," The, 304. 
 Cairn, The " ' ' ' 
 
 ic Celtic, 381. 
 
 Caissons, Engineering, 155, 156. 
 
 Calends, The, 44. 
 
 Calaveras Grove, 331. 
 
 Calderon, P. H., 292. 
 
 Caledonia, 335. 
 
 Calendars, Adjustment of, 51 ; French Repub- 
 lican, 46 ; Historical, 47. 
 
 Calif, Title of, 365. 
 
 Calisthenics, 390. 
 
 Calomel, 244. 
 
 Calumet, The, 375 
 
 Calvinists, 301. 
 
 Calypso, 135. 
 
 Cambridge, City of, 26. 
 
 Camel, The Engineering, 164, 351. 
 
 Camelia, The, 372. 
 
 Camels, Strength of, 228. 
 
 Camden, City of, 26. 
 
 Cameos, 283. 
 
 Camera -Lucida, 164. 
 
 Camera -Obscura, Described, 286: Invention 
 of, 164. 
 
 Camisards, The, 301. 
 
 Camp Followers, 194. 
 
 Camp Meetings, 210. 
 
 Canaletti, The Artist, 293. 
 
 Candelabra, 285. 
 
 Candytuft The, 372. 
 
 Candlemas, Feast of, 216. 
 
 Cannibalism, 355. 
 
 Cannon, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Canonical Books, 206. 
 
 Canonization, 207. 
 
 Canons, Ecclesiastical, 352. 
 
 Canton, The Municipal, 350. 
 
 Capacity, Measures of, 186. 
 
 Cap-a-pie, The Term, 190. 
 
 Capital, Our National, 15. 
 
 Capital Letters, 65. 
 
 Capitals of States, 19. 
 
 Cap of Liberty, 300. 
 
 Caps, Percussion, 189. 
 
 Caracci, Annibale, 292. 
 
 Carat, What is a, 178. 
 
 Carbonari, The, 302. 
 
 Card- Playing, 289. 
 
 Cardinal, Rank of, 335. 
 
 Cardinals, College of, 218. 
 
 Carey, William, Rev., 329. 
 
 Caricature, 288. 
 
 Carillon National, The, 304. 
 
 Carmagnole, The, 301, 303, 304. 
 
 Carnation, White, 372. 
 
 Carmen Sylva, 120. 
 
 Carnegie, Andrew, 328. 
 
 Carol, The Poetic, 353. 
 
 Carpet Baggers, 14. 
 
 Carpets, To Cleanse, 428. 
 
 Carpets, Stains in, 438. 
 
 Carte Blanche, 300. 
 
 Cartel, What is a, 190. 
 
 Cartesian Doctrines, 207. 
 
 Cartoons, 285, 287. 
 
 Cartouch, Military, 192. 
 
 Caryatides, Architectural, 285. 
 
 Casa Bonaparte, 336. 
 
 Casino, The Term, 353. 
 
 Casks, Measure of, 186. 
 
 Cassandra, 135. 
 
 Castanets, 287. 
 
 Caste, In India, 371, 376. 
 
 Castles in Spain, 351. 
 
 Casting Vote, 273. 
 
 Castor and Pollux, 135. 
 
 Casus Belli, 192. 
 
 Catamaran, 154. 
 
 Catarrh, Treatment of, 399. 
 
 Cathay, 327. 
 
 Cattle, Weight of, 186 ; Distribution of, 377. 
 
 Caucus, Political, 273. 
 
 Caustic Potassa, 244. 
 
 Cavaliers, 304. 
 
 Caveats, 29. 
 
 Caves, Famous, 12, 16. 
 
 Caviare, 141, 
 
 Celts, Race of, 377. 
 
 Cement, For Rubber Boots, 160: For Tin 
 
 Boxes, 435, For Sundry Uses, 436, 437. 
 Cenobites, Father of the, 343. 
 Centaurs, The 135. 
 Center of Population, 19. 
 Cerberus, 135. 
 Ceres, The goddess, 135. 
 Chairs, Sedan, 157. 
 Chaldeans, The, 378. 
 Chalets, Swiss, 351. 
 Chalk, 244. 
 
 Chamberlain, Office of, 361. 
 Chambers of Commerce, 142. 
 Chambre Ardente, 297. 
 Champ de Mars, The, 311, 330. 
 Chancery, Masters in, 361. 
 Changelings, Fairy, 126. 
 Chant du Depart, 304. 
 Chap Books, Described, no. 
 Chapels, Origin of, 207. 
 Chapter, What is a, 207. 
 Character, Decision of, 458. 
 Charades, 355. 
 Charge d'affaires, 362. 
 Charing Cross, 330. 
 Charivari, 353. 
 Charles XII., 333. 
 Charlemagne University, 328. 
 Charon's Ferry, 135. 
 Chartists, The, 303. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 46$ 
 
 Charybdis and Scylla, 135. 
 
 Chassepot Gun, 190, 
 
 Chatelaine, 362. 
 
 Chat-huant, 362. 
 
 Chatterton, Thomas, 331. 
 
 Chauvinism, 352. 
 
 Chemical Affinity, 227. 
 
 Chemicals, Names of, 244. 
 
 Cheops, Pyramid of, 158. 
 
 Cherokee Indians, 32. 
 
 Cherokee War, 27. 
 
 Chess, Game of, 353. 
 
 Chest, Military, 190. 
 
 Chevalier, The Title, 363. 
 
 Chicago, 139; Industries in, 140; Age of, 327; 
 
 Great Fire of, 296 ; Population of, 334. 
 Chickasaw Indians, 32. 
 Chicopee Works, 154. 
 Childs, George W., 328. 
 Chile, Republic of, 367, 369. 
 Chillon, Castle of, 331. 
 Chimera, 135. 
 Chimneys, Lamp, 438. 
 China, History of, 349; Opium Smokers in, 
 
 393; Printing in, 152; Religions in, 208 ; 
 
 Statistics, 369, 381; Taouism in, 209; The 
 
 Great Wall of, 151. 
 Chinese History, 349. 
 Chiswick, 329. 
 Chloroform, 244. 
 Choctaw Indians, 32. 
 Choke -Damp, 228. 
 Choking, 443. 
 Chouans, 362. 
 
 Christ, Early Paintings of, 285. 
 Christian Era, 42. 
 Christian Feasts, Chief, 46. 
 Christianity, Art in, 285. 
 Christian Names, Meaning of, 66. 
 Christmas Day, 43. 
 Chronicles, 42. 
 Chronographs, 42. 
 Chronometer, The, 42. 
 Chronoscopes, 41, 164. 
 Chubb Lock, Invention of, 153 
 Churches, Crypts in, 206; Eldest Son of, 296; 
 
 Fathers of the, 207 ; The Oldest, 205. 
 Cid Campeador, 332. 
 Cigar- Ship, The First, 152. 
 Cipher, History of, 54. 
 Cimbre, The, (Cymri) 350, 375. 
 Cimmerians, The, 376. 
 Cincinnati Association, 274. 
 Cincinnati, City of 26. 
 Cinderella, Story of, 113. 
 Cinque-Cento, The, no. 
 Circe, 135. 
 
 Circus, Origin of, 128. 
 Cities, Nicknames of, 22 ; Our fifty chief, 26 ; 
 
 Famous Ancient, 343. 
 
 Civil Service, Guide to, 27 ; The Term, 271. 
 Civil War, Armies of, 35. 
 Claimant, The Tichborne, 342. 
 Claque, Theatrical, 355. 
 Clavichord, 285. 
 Claymore, Use of, 193. 
 Clearing House, 167. 
 Clement, Joseph, 330. 
 Clepsydra, The, 42. 
 Cleopatra's Needles, 324, 348. 
 Clergy, Secular, 209. 
 Cleveland, City of, 26, 
 
 U. I. 30 
 
 Cleveland, Pres. Grover, 26. 
 
 Cliffs and Boulders, 234. 
 
 Climates in the U. S., 18. 
 
 Clipper Ships, 141. 
 
 Clocks, Dials of our, 228 ; Electric, 164 ; First, 
 41; In Japan, 43; Invention of, 42, 164; 
 Twenty- four hour, 41. 
 
 Closure, Described, 269 J Origin of, 272. 
 
 Cloth, Waterproof, 161. 
 
 Cloth Mills, 144. 
 
 Clover, 372. 
 
 Clubs, History of, 352. 
 
 Club Breton, The, 297. 
 
 Clytemnestra, 135. 
 
 Coagulation, 391. 
 
 Coal, By- Products of, 148; Production of, 149: 
 Weight of, 184. 
 
 Coal Fields, American, 24; The World's, 149. 
 
 Coal Shaft, Deepest, 330. 
 
 Coalition, Defined, 270. 
 
 Coastguard, British, 143. 
 
 Cockade, Origin of, 350. 
 
 Cockatrice, The, 127. 
 
 Cock-Figfiting, 351. 
 
 Cockney, The Term, 350. 
 
 Cock Pit, The, 190, 191. 
 
 Cockroaches, To Kill, 439. 
 
 Codfish, Fecundity of, 227. 
 
 Cod Liver Oil, 390. 
 
 Coffee, Uses of, 411; As Food, 419; Consump- 
 tion of, 140. 
 
 Coffee House, Wills', 338. 
 
 Cog -Wheels, The First, 156. 
 
 Coinage, Story of our, 187. 
 Coins, Bezants, 178 ; Cromwellian, 177 J Den- 
 arius, 178 ; First Gold, 177 ; Japanese, 
 177; Picayune, 178; Rupee, 178; Value of 
 Foreign, 181. 
 Cold Feet, 387. 
 
 Colds, Care of, 387 ; To Break Up, 388, 297 ; 
 How to Catch, 404; Quinine for, 410 \ 
 Feeding of, 411. 
 Colic, Treatment, 388; Wind, 389; Lead, 
 
 400. 
 
 College of Cardinals, 218. 
 Cologne Water, 433. 
 Colombia, U. S. of, 367. 
 Colonial System, 271. 
 Colophon of Books, 54. 
 Colors, Harmony of, 162; Mixing of, 163; 
 
 Relations of, 162 ; Symbolism of, 293. 
 Color- Blindness, 392. 
 Colosseum, The, 344. 
 Colossus of Rhodes, 346. 
 Columbian College Library, 122. 
 Columbine, no. 
 Columbus, City of, 26. 
 Columbus, Discovery by, n. 
 Comets, 230. 
 Comity of Nations, 271. 
 Commandant, Military, 362. 
 Commander- in -Chief, 364. 
 Commercial Paper, 252. 
 Commercial Traveler, 141. 
 Commission Agents, 140. 
 Committee, Defined, 271. 
 Commoners, British, 361. 
 Commune, The, 309. 
 Communism, 312. 
 Como, 392. 
 
 Compass, The Mariner's, 226. 
 Composition, Hints on, 108. 
 
466 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Compound Interest, Wonders of, 174; Daily 
 
 Savings at, 174; Accumulation of, 174. 
 Comus, 135 
 
 Concertinas, Origin of, 286. 
 Concordat, Defined, 298. 
 Concussion, 443. 
 Condottieri, 297, 
 Confederation of Rhine, 298. 
 Conference, General, 209 ; International, 165. 
 Confucius, Name of, 126. 
 Congress, Duties of, 281; Journals of, 269; 
 
 Library of, 122. 
 Conservatives, 272. 
 Consistories, 207. 
 Constellations, The, 234. 
 Consul, Office of, 365. 
 Consumption, 388, 397. 
 Continental System, 299. 
 Continents, Area of, 368 ; Population of, 368. 
 Contraband of War, 194. 
 Contracts, Sunday 249. 
 Contracts and Agreements, 250. 
 Contusions, How Healed, 442. 
 
 Conversation, Guide to, 424 ; Extravagance in, 
 
 425 ; Art of, 429. 
 Convocation, 210. 
 Conway, Hugh, 120. 
 Coolies, 376. 
 Cooling off, 387. 
 Copernican System, 236. 
 Copperas, 244. % 
 
 Copperheads, 12. 
 Copyright, 119. 
 Corners, Financial, 175. 
 Corns, How to Cure, 433. 
 Cornucopia, The, 128. 
 Cornwall, Barry, 120. 
 Cornwallis, 355. 
 Corporal John, 361. 
 Corporations, Laws of, 264; What are 
 
 Close, 269. 
 
 Corpus Christi Day, 338. 
 Correct Pronunciation, 64. 
 Correct Speaking-, Rules for, 57, 63. 
 Corrosive Sublimate, 244. 
 Corsairs, 353. 
 Corso, 334. 
 
 Cortes, The Spanish, 270. 
 Corundum, 141. 
 Coryza, Treatment of, 398. 
 Cosmos, 229. 
 Cost Marks, 172. 
 Costa Rica, 367. 
 Cotton, Acreage of, 139; Production of, 140; 
 
 Spinning, 139. 
 
 Cotton Gin, Invention of, 164. 
 Coughing, Coughs, 423. 
 Council of Ten, 299. 
 Councils, The Great, 220. 
 Count, Title of, 363. 
 Counterfeiting, 177, 180. 
 Countersign, Use of, 190. 
 Countries, The Chief, 369 ; Statistics of, 369. 
 Country, Our, n, 407. 
 Couplet in Poetry, 112. 
 Coupons, Use of, 166. 
 Court Jesters, 297. 
 Courts Martial, 191. 
 Cousin, Jean, 292. 
 Covenanters, 297. 
 Covent Garden, 332. 
 Coventry, Legend of, 117. 
 
 Cradles and Graves, 343. 
 
 Craniology, 375. 
 
 Crayon, Geoffry, 120. 
 
 Creches, Use of, 350. 
 
 Creek Indians, 32; War of, 27. 
 
 Cremation, 351. 
 
 Crescent, The, 299. 
 
 Crests, Use of, 363. 
 
 Cribbage, Game of, 351. 
 
 Cricket, Described, 350. 
 
 Crime in United States, 20. 
 
 Criminals, Execution of, 310. 
 
 Crocus, 135. 
 
 Croesus, King, 135, 334. 
 
 Crofters, Scotch, 350. 
 
 Cross, First Use of, 205. 
 
 Cross Buns, 350. 
 
 Crossing the Line, 368. 
 
 Croton Aqueduct, 40. 
 
 Croup, Remedies for, 406. 
 
 Crown, The Iron, 297. 
 
 Crown of India, Order of, 362. 
 
 Crowned Heads, List of, 368; Salaries of, 
 
 368. 
 
 Crozier, 207. 
 Crystal Palace, 333. 
 Cubit, Measure of, 179. 
 Cuddy, Ship's, 351. 
 Cumulative Voting, 270. 
 Cuneiform Writing, 127. 
 Cupid, 135. 
 
 Curagpa, Product of, 143. 
 Curari Poison, 350. 
 Curbstone Brokers, 175. 
 Curfew, 355. 
 Curling, 392. 
 Currency, Our First, 165; Definition of, 168; 
 
 Different Kinds of, 165. 
 Curtis, 328. 
 Custom Duties, 141. 
 Custom House, Largest, 140. 
 Customs Union, 141. 
 
 Cuyp, The Artist, 292. 
 
 Cybele, 135. 
 
 Cycle, What is a, 43. 
 
 Cyclopean Walls, 286. 
 Cyclopean Works, 375. 
 Cyclops, The 135. 
 Cymri, The, 328. 
 Cynosure, Greek Term, 127. 
 Czar of Russia's Diamond, '370. 
 Czar, The Title, 364. 
 
 SACOITS, Tribe of, 297. 
 Daedalus, 135. 
 gon, Worship of, 126. 
 Daguerreotypes, 151. 
 Daily Savings, 172. 
 Daimios, Japanese, 302. 
 Dais, Defined, 351. 
 Daisy Flower, The, 372. 
 Daltonism, 392. 
 
 Damon, The Pythagorean, 130. 
 Danaides, The, 135. 
 Danbury News Man, 120. 
 Dancing Mania, The, 306. 
 Dandruff, Removal of, 387. 
 Danebrog, The, 297. 
 Daniel, 314. 
 Daphne, 135. 
 Darbyites, 362; 
 Darien Scheme, The, 169. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 467 
 
 Dates, American Historical, n ; To Remember, 
 
 41. 
 
 Dauphin, 364. 
 Da Vinci, Leonardo, 292. 
 Davy Jones, 126. 
 
 Days, Baptism of, 41 ; Skipped by the Sun, 45 ; 
 . Origin of, 49. 
 Dayton, City of, 26. 
 Dead Reckonings, 350. 
 Death from Alcohol, 444 
 " Death Ride," The, 196. 
 Debentures, 166. 
 Debts, States Without, 169; Various National, 
 
 171 ; Outlawed, 250 ; Laws Concerning, 249. 
 Decades, Our Growth by, 19. 
 Decamp, Artist, 292. 
 Decemvirs, The Roman, 298. 
 Decimal System, The, 179. 
 Decoration Day, 42. 
 Dedications of Books, 109. 
 Deeds, Property, 260. 
 Deer Park, 327. 
 Degree, Meanings of, 230. 
 Deity, Names of the, 219, 
 Dejanira, 135. 
 Delacroix, The Artist, 292. 
 Delaroche, Paul, 292. 
 Delft, 332. 
 Delphi, 135,335. 
 Deluge, The, 206. 
 Democracy, 270. 
 Democrats, Straight-out, 269. 
 Demagogues, 270. 
 Demurrage, 140. 
 Denarius, Coin, 178. 
 Denmark, 367, 369. 
 Denouement, in. 
 Denver, City of, 26. 
 Depilatory, Recipes for, 432. 
 Derby Day, 352. 
 Dervishes, 206. 
 Desert, Largest, 350. 
 Desert Dwellers, 215. 
 Detail, Attention to, 457. 
 Detroit, City of, 26. 
 Deucalion, 135. 
 Development, Physical, 408. 
 Dextrine, 229. 
 Dial, Invention of, 164. 
 Diamond Necklace, The, 307. 
 Diamonds, Cutting of, 155 ; Value of, 185 ; 
 
 Largest in the World, 358; All the 
 
 Famous, 370. 
 Diana, The goddess, 135. 
 Diary, 114. 
 Dictionaries, 56. 
 Dido, Queen, 135. 
 Dies Ira?, The Hymn, 208. 
 Digestion, Periods of, 396. 
 Dillettanti, 286. 
 Diomedes, 135. 
 Diphtheria, 388. 
 Disinfection, 436. 
 Dismal Swamp, 335. 
 Dissolving Views, 289. 
 Diving Bells, 164. 
 Divorce, Law of, 266. 
 Dobson, Walter, 292. 
 Dockyards, American, 198. 
 Doctors, The Best, 388 ; Japanese, 389. 
 Doctrines, Cartesian, 207. 
 Doge, Wedding of the, 302; Galley of the, 129. 
 
 Dollar, The Silver, 171. 
 Domesday Book, The, 304. 
 Dominican Republic, 367. 
 Donnybrook Fair, 329. 
 Dore, Gustave, 293. 
 Doughfaces, The, 17. 
 Drawing Rooms, Conduct in, 425. 
 Dresses, Incombustible, 428. 
 Drink, Cost in the U. S., 20. 
 Drowning, Revival from, 444. 
 Druids, 380. 
 
 Drummers, Commercial, 140. 
 Dryads, The, 135. 
 . Dudley Diamond, 370. 
 Duke, Title of, 360. 
 Dunkirk Colleries, 330. 
 Dyaks, Race of, 376. 
 Dwarfs, Famous, 344 ; Races of, 379, 383. 
 
 T7ARACHE, Cure of, 407. 
 
 j\ Earl, Title of, 361. 
 
 Early English, Books in, 109. 
 
 Earnings in U. S., 20. 
 
 Earth, Measure of, 185, 246; Curvature of, 226; 
 Weight of, 226 ; Minimum Age of, 229. 
 
 Earthquake of Lisbon, 360. 
 
 Earwigs, Denned, 439. 
 
 Eastlake, Sir C. L., 292. 
 
 Eating, Advice on, 387 ; Nuts for, 387 ; Philoso- 
 phy of, 414. 
 
 Echo, 135. 
 
 Ecuador, 367, 369. 
 
 Eddas, The, 132. 
 
 Edifices, Noted, 371 ; Heights of, 371. 
 
 Editions, Aldine, in. 
 
 Eggs, Beating, 388; As Food, 417; How to 
 Keep Fresh, 437. 
 
 Egotism in Society, 425. 
 
 Egypt, Marvels of, 347 ; Pottery of, 349 ; Danc- 
 ing Girls of, 351 ; Statistics of, 367; Ruler 
 of, 369. 
 
 Eiffel Tower, The, 155. 
 
 El Almirante, 295. 
 
 El Dorado, Origin of, 117. 
 
 Electra, 135. 
 
 Electricity, Speed of, 41; Terms in, 242; Last 
 Word on, 248. 
 
 Electric Light, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Electrotype, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Elephants, 227. 
 
 Elgin Marbles, 289. 
 
 Eliot, George, 120. 
 
 Elysium, 135, 138. 
 
 Emancipation of Serfs, 33. 
 
 Emancipation of Slaves, 296. 
 
 Emerald, The, 133. 
 
 Empire, The Largest, 328 ; The German, 349. 
 
 Empire State, The, 295. 
 
 Enceladus, 135. 
 
 i, Sleep ot, 135. 
 Engine, Invention of Steam, 155. 
 
 Endymion, Sleep of, 
 
 England, Great Seal of, 361. 
 Erglish Claimant, The, 342. 
 Engravings, How to Transfer, 162 ; Invention 
 
 of, 164. 
 
 Enoch Arden, Plot of, 112. 
 Entente Cordiale, 272. 
 Enunciation, Poor, 58. 
 Envelopes, First Use of, 139. 
 Envoy, Title of, 363. 
 Epigram, Explained, 53. 
 Ephesus, Temple of, 346. 
 
468 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Epsom Salts, 244. 
 
 Equilateral Triangles, 314. 
 
 Equinoctial Points, 237. 
 
 Equinoxes, What are, 237. 
 
 Erebus, 135. 
 
 Eric, the Red, 15. 
 
 Ericcson, Leif, n. 
 
 Errors of Speech, 71. 
 
 Eruptions, Various Skin, 391. 
 
 Ethiopian, The, 375. 
 
 Ethiop's Mineral, 244. 
 
 Ethnography, 375. 
 
 Ethnology, 375. 
 
 Ettrick Shepherd, 120. 
 
 Etty, William, 3 rS. 
 
 Eumenides, The, 135. 
 
 Euphrasia, 125. 
 
 Eureka ! Origin of, 234. 
 
 Europe, Extreme Heat in, 242 ; Chief Cities in, 
 
 357- 
 
 Euryalus, 135. 
 Eurydice, 135. 
 
 Evadne, 135. 
 
 Evolution, Theory of, 230. 
 
 Eye, Care of the, 412; Dirt in the, 441 ; Lime 
 in the, 442 ; Iron or Steel Spiculae in the, 
 
 Excalibur, The Sword, 116. 
 
 Excelsior ! 455. 
 
 Exchange, Origin of, 165; Bills of, 165; Eng- 
 
 lish, 165. 
 
 Explosives, The Latest, 204. 
 Express, First, 139. 
 
 EAQADE, In Building, 289. 
 Factors and Factorage, 175. 
 ed, Artist, 292. 
 
 " Faerie Queene," Spenser's, 109. 
 Failure, How Avoided, 453. 
 Fainting, 388,443. 
 Fair Maid of Kent, The, 329. 
 Fairmount Park, n. 
 Falk Laws, 307. 
 Fall River, City of, 26. 
 Famines, Great, 366. 
 Farmer's Boy, The, 326. 
 Farms, The Largest, 12 ; Laws of, 258. 
 Fates, The, 135. 
 Father of History, 295. 
 Father of Medicine, 387. 
 Father of Modern Painters, 283. 
 Fathers of the Church, 207. 
 Fathers of Their Country, 310. 
 Fathom, Measure, 179. 
 Fat People, 410. 
 Fauni, The, 135. 
 Feast, Barmecides', no. 
 Feathers, How to Wash, 428. 
 Felons, Treatment of, 404. 
 Fence, The Longest, 152. 
 Ferguson James, 328. 
 Fermiers Generaux, 303. 
 Fern, Fanny, 120. 
 Ferns, Symbolism of, 372. 
 Festivals, Christian, 46. 
 Fever, Cooling of a, 388; Malarial, Described, 
 
 402; Typhoid, Described and Treated, 
 
 399; Typhus, 403. 
 Fiery Cross, The, 115. 
 Fighting Men, Ratio of, 189. 
 Fig Sunday, 43. 
 Figures, Important, 19. 
 
 Filibusters, Who are, 306. 
 
 Fillmore, Pres. Millard, 26. 
 
 Finding, Law of, 264. 
 
 Fine Arts, 283. 
 
 Fire Arms, Invention of, 164 ; The First, 189. 
 
 Fire Engine, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Fire Kindler, Thrifty, 437. 
 
 Fire Ordeal, 378. 
 
 Fire-Proof Wood, 161. 
 
 Fires, Great Historic, 374; In United States, 
 
 20 ; Chicago, 296. 
 Fire Worship, 379. 
 
 Fishes, Facts Concerning, 243 ; As Food, 417. 
 Flag, The National, 12, 16. 
 Flagellants, Order of, 215. 
 Flamboyant, In Art, 284. 
 Flax, Production of, 141. 
 Flemish School, The, 292. 
 Flies, Killing of, 440. 
 Flood, J. C., 327. 
 Floods, Great, 373. 
 Flora, The goddess, 135. 
 Florentine Diamond, 370. 
 Florida War, 27. 
 Flowers, Nectar in, 230; To Keep Fresh, 438; 
 
 Language of, 371, 372. 
 Folcland, 376. 
 Folk-lore, 53; Indian, 132. 
 Food, Waste of in U. S., 20; Composition of, 
 
 395 j Digestion of, 395 ; Philosophy of, 
 
 Food Products of the World, 142, 407. 
 
 Foot, Measure of, 179. 
 
 Foreclosure, In Law, 261. 
 
 Foreign Phrases Interpreted, 97-105. 
 
 Foreigner, How to Address a, 426. 
 
 Forepaugh, Adam, 328. 
 
 Foreshortening, In Art, 312. 
 
 Forfeit of Lands, 31. 
 
 Forget -Me -Not, The, 372. 
 
 Fortuna, The goddess, 135. % 
 
 Forty, Honors to No., 324. 
 
 Forty Immortals, The, 121. 
 
 Foster, Birket, 292. 
 
 Fountain, The Hot Water, 154. 
 
 Fourier, Failure of, 312. 
 
 Fourierism, Defined, 312. 
 
 Fourth Estate, The, 295. 
 
 France, Cost of War in, 189 ; Five Kings of, 
 313; Legislative Assembly of, 275 ; "Fa- 
 tal Three" of, 316; The Kings of, 363; 
 National Badge of, 300; Ruler and Statis- 
 tics of, 367, 369; Voting in, 272. 
 
 Franco -German Wat, 202. 
 
 Franc-Tireurs, The French, 189. 
 
 Frankenstein, Character of, 114. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 329. 
 
 Fraud Pledge, 376. 
 
 Free Soil Movement, 15. 
 
 French Academy, Members of, 121. 
 
 French Empire, 317. 
 
 French Republic, Motto of, 298. 
 
 French Revolution, 309 ; Calendar of, 46 ; Great 
 Days of, 309 ; Leaders of the, 309. 
 
 Frescoes, Defined, 283. 
 
 Freyburg Mines, 333. 
 
 Freedom of a City, 308. 
 
 Free Thinkers, 206. 
 
 Freezing Point, 238. 
 
 Frith, W. P., 292. 
 
 Frozen Music, 283. 
 
 Fruit, as Food, 419. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 469 
 
 Fugitive Slave Law, 281. 
 
 Full Age, 275. 
 
 Fund, Sinking, 165. 
 
 Furies, The, 135. 
 
 Furniture, Polish for, 160; To Remove Stains 
 
 from, 437. 
 
 Furs, To Freshen, 428. 
 Fuschia, The, 372. 
 Fusing Point, 238. 
 
 ribe, The, 377. 
 VJT Gainsborough, Artist, 292. 
 Galatea, 136. 
 Galen, Dr., 388. 
 Galena, 244. 
 
 Galleon, Description of, 142. 
 Galvanized Iron, 325. 
 Game, As Food, 416. 
 Ganymede, 136. 
 Garden, Covent, 332. 
 Gardens, Hanging, 346. 
 Garfield, Pres. James A., 26. 
 Garnet, The, 133. 
 Garter, Order of, 360. 
 Garter- King- at -Arms, 360. 
 Gavelkind, Law of, 377. 
 Gehenna, Meaning of, 208. 
 Gems, Language of, 133. 
 Gem Sculpture, 284. 
 Gendarmes, 195. 
 Generals, Grades of, 365. 
 Generals of the Army, 27. 
 Generation. What is a, 41. 
 Geneva, Conference at, 15. 
 Genius, Definitions of, 283. 
 Genre Painting, 288. 
 Geranium, The, 372. 
 Gericault, Artist, 292. 
 German Kingdom, Emperor of, 297. 
 Germany, Marriage Rate of, 389; The Origi- 
 
 nal Electors of, 297 ; Ruler and Statistics 
 of, 397, 369. 
 Gerome, The Artist, 293. 
 Gesta Romanorum, 116. 
 Gestation, Periods of, 392. 
 Gettysburg, Battle of, 199. 
 Ghee, Defined, 358. 
 Ghent, The City of, 331. 
 Ghetto, The Roman, 334. 
 Giants and Dwarfs, 344. 
 Giaour, The, 117, 205. 
 Gibraltar of America, 295. 
 Gifts, Value of, 425 ; Refusal of, 425 ; Etiquette 
 
 of, 426. 
 
 Gil Bias, Story of, 114. 
 Gilbert, Sir John, 282. 
 Gilpin, Mishaps of John, 118. 
 Gilt Frames, To Clean, 438. 
 Glass, Soldering of, 158; Invention of, 164. 
 Glass Bells, Inverted, 151. 
 Glass Mirrors, First Use of, 151 ; Manufacture 
 
 of, 156. 
 
 Glass Cloth, How Made, 153. 
 Glass Stoppers, To Loosen, 437. 
 Glauber's Salt, 244. 
 Glorious Fourth, The, 313. 
 Glucose, 244. 
 Gnostics, The, 206. 
 Godiva, Lady, 117. 
 Gold, First Discovery of, 165, 349 ; Production 
 
 of, 171 ; Vatican Store of, 166. 
 Golden Lane, 328. 
 
 Golden Rod, 372. 
 Good Old Times, 357. 
 Goodhall, F., 292. 
 Goorkhas, Tribe of, 376. 
 
 Gordius, 136. 
 
 ~ ns, The, 136. 
 
 Gospel, The Christian, 214. 
 
 Gorgo 
 
 Gospel 
 
 Goths, The Nation of, 378. 
 
 Gould, Jay, 327. 
 
 Graal, The Holy, 211. 
 
 Graces, The Three , 136. 
 
 Grammarians, Prince of, 53. 
 
 Grand Rapids, City of, 244. 
 
 Grandees of Spain, 364. 
 
 "Grand Old Gardener," The, 360. 
 
 Grant, Pres. U. S., 26. 
 
 Grants of Land, 31. 
 
 Gravitation, Theory of, 230. 
 
 Great Britain, Titles of, 362 ; Ruler and Statis- 
 tics of, 367, 369. 
 
 Great Fire, The, 303. 
 
 Great Mogul Diamond, 355. 
 
 Great Seal, The, 361. 
 
 Great Wonders, Seven, 314. 
 
 Greece, Facts About, 367, 369. 
 
 Greek Paintings, 284. 
 
 Greenbacks, First, 170. 
 
 Greenwood, Grace, 120. 
 
 Grenades, Hand, 160. 
 
 Gretna Green, 330. 
 
 Griffin, The Fabulous, 129. 
 
 Grub Street, Interpreted, 112. 
 
 Guanahani, Isle of, n. 
 
 Guanchos, The, 375. 
 
 Guatemala, 367, 369. 
 
 Guelfs, The, 302. 
 
 Guerillas, 191. 
 
 Guide to Civil Service, 27. 
 
 Guide to Pronunciation, 69. 
 
 Guido, The Painter, 292. 
 
 Guillotine, The, 305. 
 
 Guinea, The Coin, 178. 
 
 Gun, The Armstrong, 191 ; The Chassepot, 
 190 ; The Needle, 190. 
 
 Gun Powder, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Gunter's Chain, 179. 
 
 Gymnastics, 408. 
 
 Gypsies, The, 126, 385. 
 
 MThe Letter, 324. 
 > Habitation, The Highest, 328. 
 des, 138, 210. 
 Haikwan Tael, The, 179. 
 Hair, Brushes for the, 432; Invigorators for, 
 
 432; Shampoo 0^432; The Human, 389; 
 
 Tricopherous for, 432 ; Weight of, 391. 
 Halo, In Art, 284. 
 Hamilton, Gail, 120. 
 Hanging, 444. 
 Hanging Gardens, 346. 
 Hanseatic League, 301. 
 Harbors, The Finest, 149. 
 Hari-kari, 360. 
 Harland, Marion, 120. 
 Harleian MSS., The, 116. 
 Haroun al-Raschid, 331. 
 Harp, The, 283. 
 Harpies, The, 136. 
 Harrison, Pres. W. H., 26. 
 Harrison, Pres. Benj., 26. 
 Hartford Convention, 272. 
 Harvard, Foundation of, no. 
 
470 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Hartshorn, Spirits of, 244. 
 
 Harvests, The, 45. 
 
 Harvey, Dr , 387. 
 
 Hastings, Battle of, 199. 
 
 Hawaii, 367. 
 
 Hayes, Pres. R. B., 26. 
 
 Hayti, Republic of, 367. 
 
 Headaches, Cure of, 387. 
 
 Health, Value of, 409; Secrets of, 409; Sundry 
 
 Hints on, 410. 
 Hebe, 136. 
 Hebrew Race, 383. 
 Hecatomb, Definition of, 131. 
 Hector, 136: 
 Hecuba, 136. 
 Helena, 136. 
 
 Heliography, Genesis of, 247. 
 Hellenists, 53. 
 Hemorrhages, 442 ; Of the Lungs and Stomach, 
 
 3 8 9- 
 
 Henry's Lake, 340. 
 Hercules, 136. 
 Heredity, 228. 
 Hermione, 136. 
 Heathens, Gods of the, 134. 
 Hesperides, The, 136. 
 Hesperus, 136. 
 Hetman, Rank of, 190. 
 Hierarchy, Catholic, 218. 
 High Seas, Meaning of, 144. 
 Hippodrome, What is a, 128. 
 Hindoos, The, 371. 
 History, Chinese, 349 ; Chinese Beginnings, 
 
 125; Great Famines of, 366; In Rhyme, 
 
 311; Myths of, 297; The Ages of, 49; 
 
 Great Colds in, 242. 
 Hittites, The, 381. 
 Hivites, The, 379. 
 Hoarseness, Cure for, 397. 
 Hogarth, Satires of, 286, 292. 
 Holbein, Hans, 292. 
 Holdings, Laws of, 258. 
 Holidays, In U. S., 50. 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 327. 
 Holy Alliance, The, 215. 
 Home, Hearth and, 421, 460. 
 Homestead Laws of U. S., 30. 
 Homeopathy, 387, 391. 
 Honduras, 367, 369. 
 Hong Kong, 330. 
 Horse, Drawing Strength of, 235 ; Capacity of, 
 
 356. 
 
 Horsely, J. C., 292. 
 Hospital, Foundling, 387. 
 Hospitallers, Order of, 212. 
 Hotels and Inns, Laws on, 263. 
 Hottentots, The, 379. 
 Hot Water, Value of, 406. 
 Howe Glass, The, 42. 
 House of Commons, 269. 
 Household and Toilet, 421, 460. 
 Houses, Roman, 389. 
 Hue and Cry, The Phrase, 353. 
 Human Body, Wonders of the, 407. 
 Human Family, The Great, 384 ; Worship of 
 
 the, 220 ; Grand Total of, 374. 
 Hunger, Cause of, 394. 
 Hunkers, The, 17 
 Huns, The, 376. 
 Huntingdon, D., 292. 
 Hunt, W. M., 292. 
 Hyacinth, 372. 
 
 Hyacinthus, 136. 
 Hydra, 136. 
 
 Hydraulics, Facts in, 246. 
 Hygiene, 388. 
 Hyksos, The, 383. 
 Hymen, 136. 
 Hyperion, 136. 
 Hypnotism, Power of, 236. 
 Hysterics, 443. 
 
 I The Letter, 321. 
 Ibis, The Sacred, 130. 
 ;arius, 136. 
 Ice, Strength of, 226. 
 Icelandic Explorers, 15. 
 Iconoclasts, Work of, 299. 
 Ides, What are the, 44. 
 Idris, The Welsh, 129. 
 Ignatius Loyola, 349. 
 Ignis Fatuus, The, 232. 
 Iliad, Summarized, 113. 
 Ill Breeding, 424. 
 Illiteracy in U. S., 20. 
 Illuminati, The, 299. 
 Illumination, 289. 
 Immigrants, Nationality of, 25. 
 Immigration to U. S., 24. 
 Imperial Order, The, 362. 
 Impressionists, The, 291. 
 Improvements, Laws of, 258. 
 Improvisatori, 288. 
 Incas, Meaning of, 361. 
 India, Overland Route to, 145; Harvests in, 
 
 329 ; Crown of, Order, 362. 
 Indian Mutiny, 200. 
 Indian Reservations, 32. 
 Indianapolis, City of, 26. 
 Indians, Numbers of, 32 ; The Aymara, 376 ; 
 
 Reservations for, 32. 
 Indian Territory, The, 269. 
 India Rubber, Source of, 145. 
 Indorsement, In Law, 165. 
 Industry, The Canning, 139. 
 Infallibility, Papal, 217. 
 Infante, The Spanish, 361. 
 Influenza, 390. 
 Ink, Indelible, 437. 
 Insanity, 391. 
 
 Insects, To Destroy, 427, 440. 
 Insomnia, 397. 
 
 Insurance, Life, 167, 349 ; Definition of, 168. 
 Intaglio, In Art, 285. 
 Interest, Short Rules of, 173; Wonders of 
 
 Compound, 174. 
 International Arbitration, 271. 
 Intoned Poetry, 286. 
 Inundations, Famous, 373. 
 Inventions, Synopsis of, 64. 
 lo, The goddess, 136. 
 Iphigenia, 136. 
 Ireland, The Forger, 340. 
 Iron Chancellor, The, 331. 
 Iron Crown, The, 305. 
 Iron Duke, The, 361. 
 Iron Pyrites, 244. 
 Ironclad Oath, The, 271. 
 Ironsides, 335. 
 Iris, 136. 
 
 Isabella of France, 329. 
 Ishmael, The Warrior, 189. 
 Isis, The Egyptian goddess, 127, 136. 
 Italy, 367, 369. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 471 
 
 Ivanhoe, Romance of, 124. 
 Ivy, 372. 
 Ixion, 136. 
 
 ACK The Giant Killer, 125. 
 Jackson, Andrew, 26, 327. 
 
 ackson Park, 36. 
 
 acobins, 297. 
 
 acobites, 304. 
 
 ames River, 16. 
 
 amestown, Va., u. 
 
 anissaries, 196. 
 
 anus, 136. 
 
 apan, Clocks in, 43; Coinage of, 177; Statis- 
 tics of, 367, 369. 
 
 ar, The Leyden, 225. 
 
 asmine, 372. 
 
 ason, 136. 
 
 ayhawkers, The, 296. 
 
 efferson, Pres. Thomas, 26. 
 
 erusalem Artichokes, 324. 
 
 esuits, Order of, 349. 
 
 eunesse Doree, 356. 
 
 eweler's Putty, 244. 
 
 ewish Sanhedrim, 316. 
 
 ingoism, 352. 
 
 ohnson, Pres. Andrew, 26. 
 
 ove, The Statue of, 346. 
 
 unius, Letters of, 114. 
 
 uno, The goddess, 136. 
 
 upiter and the Eagle, 125 ; And the Titans, 
 
 125 ; Rank of, 136. 
 Jupiter's Satellites, 230. 
 
 T7-AABA, The, 217. 
 
 J\. Kaleidoscope, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Kansas City, 26. 
 
 Kearsarge, The Steamer, 17. 
 
 Kerr, Orpheus C., 120. 
 
 Khedive, Title of, 295, 364. 
 
 King Maker, The, 361. 
 
 Kings, Five Converted, 296 ; Of England, 320 ; 
 
 Of France, 363. 
 
 King of Portugal's Diamond, 370. 
 Kite -Flying, 175. 
 Knickerbocker, D., 120. 
 Knight, Title of, 360. 
 Knight Service, 295. 
 Know Nothings, The, 17, 273. 
 Koh-i-noor, The, 358, 370. 
 Koran, The Mahommedan, 209. 
 Koumiss, Production of, 144. 
 Ku-Klux-Klan, The, 275. 
 Kulturkampf, The Term, 208.' 
 
 A BELLE Alliance, 338. 
 
 Lac or Lakh, The Term, 166. 
 j^n-uaisms, Defined, 55. 
 Lacrosse, Game of, 355. 
 Lacustrian Period, 377. 
 Lake Dwellers, 377. 
 Lakes, The Largest, 40; Henry's, 340; Queen 
 
 of the, 337 ; Windermere, 337. 
 Lake Superior, 40. 
 Lampoon and Pasquinade, 269. 
 Lame Duck, 175. 
 Lamp, The Davy, 230. 
 Land League, The, 303. 
 Landlord and Tenant Laws, 257. 
 Lands, Alien Holders of, 30 , Measurement of, 
 
 50; Pre-emption of, 17; Public, 31; Still 
 
 Vacant, 32; Title to U. S., 31. 
 
 Landseer, Sir E. , 292. 
 
 Landwehr, Meaning of, 193. 
 
 Languages, The Oriental, 53; Beginnings of, 
 53 ; Characteristics of, 54 ; The Chief, 57 ; 
 Differences of, 375; Number of, 53; Of 
 Gems, 133; Pliable, 68; Romance, 53; 
 Sanscrit, 55 ; Stock Broker's, 174; Volapuk, 
 54- 
 
 Laocoon, The, 136, 284. 
 
 Lares, 137. 
 
 Latin Union, 178. 
 
 Latitude and Longitude, 240. 
 
 Laughing Gas, 244. 
 
 Laureates, The Latest, no, 115. 
 
 La Vendee, Rising in, 298. 
 
 Lavender Water, 434. 
 
 Law, Definition of, 249; Business, 249; Lien, 
 259; On Many Subjects, 249-262. 
 
 Lazaretto, 390. 
 
 Lead, Black, 229 ; Compression of, 227. 
 
 Lead Pipes, Protection of, 161. 
 
 Lean People, 410. 
 
 Leather, Industry of, 140; Manufacture of, 
 141; Process of Coloring, 153; Tariff on, 
 140. 
 
 Legion of Honor, The, 303. 
 
 Leif Ericsson, n, 15. 
 
 Lepers, Number of, 394. 
 
 Leprechaun, The Irish, 125. 
 
 Lesghians, The, 375. 
 
 Lethe, River of, 137. 
 
 Letters, The Greek, 56; Of Junius, 114; Les- 
 sons of the, 319. 
 
 Letter-Writing, Art of, 63. 
 
 Letters of Credit, 167. 
 
 Lettre de Cachet, The, 299. 
 
 Lexington, Battle of, 189. 
 
 Liberia, Republic of, 367, 369. 
 
 Libraries, Bodleian, 122; British Museum, 
 122; Some Large, 122; The Alexandrian, 
 109; The Astor, 122; The National, 122. 
 
 Lictors, The, 361. 
 
 Life Average, 389. 
 
 Life Insurance, 167. 
 
 Lightning, Conductors for, 164, 240 ; Stroke of, 
 444; Why Zig Zag, 226. 
 
 Lightning Rods, First Use of, 151. 
 
 Lily of the Valley, 372. 
 
 Lime, 244. 
 
 Lincoln, Assassination of,349 ; Presidency of,26. 
 
 Liquors, Alcohol in, 144; Arrack, 146; Cura- 
 Qoa, 143 ; Koumiss, 144 ; Rum, 142. 
 
 Lists, Of Abbreviations, 105, 107; Christian 
 Names, 66, 68; Errors of Speech, 71; 
 Foreign Phrases, 97, 105 ; Foreign Quo- 
 tations, 97, 105; Great Inventions, 164; 
 Olympian Deities, 134 ; Twelve Thousand 
 Synonyms and Antonyms, 73, 97. 
 
 Litany, The Prayer, 210. 
 
 Literature, Specimens of Best, no; The Testi- 
 mony of, 224. 
 
 Lithography, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Little Corporal, The, 361. 
 
 Little Giant, The, 269. 
 
 Little Mac, 270. 
 
 Local Names, Curious, 345. 
 
 Locofocos, The, 17. 
 
 Locomotive, Invention of, 164; Largest, 158. 
 
 Logogram, Explained, 55. 
 
 Lombardian School, The, 292. 
 
 London, Fleet Street in, 327; The Great Fire 
 of, 303 ; Population of, 
 
472 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 London Wall, 327. 
 
 Long-bow, 189. 
 
 Longevity, 393. 
 
 Longitude and Latitude, 240. 
 
 Longitude and Time, 41, 42. 
 
 Looking Backward, 312. 
 
 Looking Glass, Manufacture of, 156. 
 
 Lord Protector, The, 360. 
 
 Lords of Appeal, 360. 
 
 Lords Spiritual, 361. 
 
 Lords Temporal, 361. 
 
 Lorelei, Story of, 113. 
 
 Lost Day, The, 45. 
 
 Louisville, City of, 26. 
 
 Lowell, City of, 26. 
 
 Lucky Numbers, 321. 
 
 Lucifer, 137. 
 
 Luna, The goddess, 137. 
 
 Lunar, Caustic, 244. 
 
 Lupercalia, Feasts of, 137. 
 
 Luray Cavern, 13. 
 
 Lusatia, 376. 
 
 Lutzen, Battle of, 199. 
 
 Luxemburg, 367. 
 
 Lyall, Edna, 120. 
 
 Lydians, The, 177. 
 
 Lynn, Mass., Industries of, 141. 
 
 Lyric, Title of, 113. 
 
 THE Letter, 325. 
 
 Macadamized Pavement, 152. 
 
 lac and O., 55. 
 Mace, The Official, 193. 
 Machiavelli, 295. 
 
 Machines, Invention of Calculating, 167 ; In- 
 fernal, 193. 
 
 Mad Cavalier, The, 360. 
 Madagascar, Isle of, 367. 
 Madison, Pres. James, 26. 
 Madonna, The, 287. 
 Madrigal, Meaning of, 112. 
 Maelstrom, The, 329, 330. 
 Magellan, Fernando, 329. 
 Magna Charta, 306. 
 Magyars, Race of, 375. 
 Mahrattas, Tribe of, 377. 
 Malbone, Artist, 292. 
 Mammoth Cave, 16, 40, 342. 
 Man, Weight of, 395 ; Stature of, 395. 
 Man in the Iron Mask, 328, 333, 341. 
 Man of Blood and Iron, The, 331. 
 Mandarin, Title of, 361. 
 Mansion, Largest, 157 ; Costliest, 157. 
 Maps, Geographical, 164. 
 Marabouts, The, 205. 
 Marathon, Battle of, 199. 
 Marble, Parian, 285 ; Elgin, 289. 
 Market Prices, 172. 
 Marks, Cost, 172. 
 Mars, God of War, 137. 
 Marseillaise, The, 304. 
 " Marshal Forward," 361. 
 Marquis, Title of, 361. 
 Marvelous Watch, The, 152. 
 Marriage, Laws of, 266. 
 Married Women, Rights of, 267. 
 Mason and Slidell, 14. 
 Matches, Invention of, 139, 164. 
 Matsys, Quentin, 292. 
 Mausoleum, 346. 
 Mayflower, Passengers of the, 15, 18, 
 
 Measures, Apothecaries, 182; Circular, 182; 
 Cloth, 182; Cubic, 182; Domestic, 181 ; 
 Dry, 182; Imperial, 182; Liquid or Wine, 
 182; Long, 182; Meaning of, 182; Metric, 
 182; Metric Tables, 183; Miscellaneous, 
 182; Of Capacity, 186; Of Casks or Bar- 
 rels, 186 ; Of Cisterns, 186 ; Of Grain, 186 ; 
 Of Land, 186 ; Of Time, 182 ; Square, 182 ; 
 Surveyor's, 182. 
 
 Medea, 137. 
 
 Medicine, First Practitioners of, 225; Intro- 
 duction of, 387. 
 
 Mehemed AH, 295. 
 
 Meissonier, 292. 
 
 Melodrama, Defined, 283. 
 
 Memnon's Statue, 126 ', History, 137. 
 
 Memorial Day, 42. 
 
 Memory, A Good, 426. 
 
 Memphis, City of, 27. 
 
 Menelaus, 137. 
 
 Mentor, 137. 
 
 listopheles, 211. 
 
 Mercator's Projection, 229. 
 
 Mercury, Production of, 140. 
 
 Mercury, The God, 137. 
 
 Meredith, Owen, 120. 
 
 Metals, Weights of, 181. 
 
 " Me, too," The Expression, 270. 
 
 Mexican War, 191. 
 
 Mexico, Idols of, 208 ; Ruler and Statistics of, 
 
 367, 369. 
 
 Miami Indians, 31. 
 Michael Angelo, 284. 
 Microscope, Invention of, 164. 
 Midas, 137. 
 
 Midianites, Tribe of, 378. 
 Mieris, The Artist, 292. 
 Mignonette, 372. 
 Mileage, Railway, 147. 
 Miles Standish, Courtship of, 116. 
 Milk as Food, 416. 
 Milky Way, The, 227. 
 Millais, J. E., 292. 
 Miller, Hugh, 327. 
 Miller, Joaquin, 120. 
 Millet, The Artist, 292. 
 Mills, Cloth, 144. 
 Mill-Stones, First, 139. 
 Milton, Blunders of, 109. 
 Milwaukee, City of, 26. 
 Mind Reading, 237. 
 Minerva, The goddess, 137. 
 Mines, Freyburg, 333. 
 Mining Shaft, The Deepest, 329. 
 Minneapolis, City of, 26. 
 Minnesingers, 113. 
 Minotaurs, 137. 
 Mint, Coining at the, 177. 
 Mirrors, First of Glass, 151. 
 Misnomers, Curious, 324. 
 Missal and Breviary, 214. 
 Mississippi Bubble, 170. 
 Mississippi Trade, Value of, 141. 
 Mnemosyne, The goddess, 137. 
 Mohammedanism, Creed of, 209; Purgatory 
 
 of, 208. 
 
 Moidore, The Coin, 177. 
 Mojaves, Tribe of, 211. 
 Mold, Prevention of, 436. 
 Molly Maguires, The, 359. 
 
 Momus, The god, 137. 
 Monaco, Republic of, 336. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 473 
 
 Monarchs Who Abdicated, 310. 
 
 Monastic Vows, 206. 
 
 Money, Circulation of, 167; Continental, 166; 
 Love of, 166 ; Meaning of, 165 ; Paper, 
 165; Pine Tree, 166; Secret Service, 271. 
 
 Monkshead, 372. 
 
 Monoliths, The Most Noted, 158. 
 
 Monotheism, 206. 
 
 Monroe, Pres James, 26. 
 
 Monsieur de Paris, -296. 
 
 Montagnards, The French, 300. 
 
 Montenegrins, Race of, 382. 
 
 Montenegro, 367, 369. 
 
 Montezuma, 380. 
 
 Months, Dutch Names for, 44 ; Names of the, 
 48; Roman Names for, 44; The World's 
 Harvest, 45. 
 
 Monument, The Highest, 153. 
 
 Moorish or Moresque, In Art, 287. 
 
 Moors, The Race of, 378. 
 
 Mormons, Society of, 221 ; Book of, 221. 
 
 Morocco, Empire of, 367, 369. 
 
 Morpheus, 137. 
 
 Morris, William, 329. 
 
 Mortality of Medical Men, 390. 
 
 Mortgages, Land, 261 ; Chattel, 261 ; Laws of, 
 262. 
 
 Mosaics, In Art, 285. 
 
 Mosquitoes, Remedy for, 438. 
 
 Moths, To Prevent, 439. 
 
 Mossbacks, 296. 
 
 Mound Builders, 382. 
 
 Mountain Peaks, Heights of, 243. 
 
 Mountains, Highest Ranges, 349. 
 
 Mount Stuart, 157. 
 
 Mount Vernon, 331. 
 
 Mount Washington, 432. 
 
 Mucilage, Commercial, 435. 
 
 Mufti, Rank of, 363. 
 
 Mulready, The Artist, 292. 
 
 Miinchhausen, Baron, 335. 
 
 Muriate of Lime, 244. 
 
 Murillo, The Artist, 292. 
 
 Muscadins, The, 356. 
 
 Mushroom, The Fairy's, 125. 
 
 Muses, The Nine, 137. 
 
 Music, Story of, 290; Terms Used in, 294; 
 Notes in, 151 ; Masters of, 285. 
 
 Musical Notes, First Use of, 151. 
 
 Musical Terms, Meaning of, 294. 
 
 Musicians, The Great Modern, 285. 
 
 Muskets, Flint Lock, 189. 
 
 Muta, 137. 
 
 Myrtle, 372. 
 
 Mythology, Of the Ancients, 134; Scandina- 
 vian, 125. 
 
 NAIADES, The, 137. 
 Names, Female, 67; Male, 66; Mean- 
 ings of Christian, 66 ; Of the States, 21. 
 Napoleon of the East, 296. 
 Napoleon III., 295. 
 
 Narcissus, 137. 
 Nashville, City of, 26. 
 
 Nasby, Petroleum V., 120. 
 Nation of Shopkeepers, The, 295. 
 Nation, The Scattered, 385. 
 National Assembly, The French, 269. 
 National Debts, 171. 
 National French Library, 122. 
 National Tricolors, 313. 
 Nationale of Paris, 352. 
 
 Natural Bridge, 40. 
 
 Nausea, Treatment for, 388. 
 
 Navies of the U. S., 13. 
 
 Navy Commanders, 363. 
 
 Nebular Hypothesis, 244. 
 
 Nectar of the gods, 129, 
 
 Needle Threader, Invention of, 152. 
 
 Negotiable Paper, 250, 252. 
 
 Nemesis, The Avenger, 137. 
 
 Nepaul, 367. 
 
 Neptune, The god, 137. 
 
 Nervous Spasms, 388. 
 
 Nestor, 137. 
 
 Netherlands, The, 367, 369. 
 
 Neuralgia, Cure for, 387, 396. 
 
 Neutrality, Armed, 190. 
 
 New England, Discovery of, 11, 15. 
 
 Newark, City of, 26. 
 
 Newspapers, First English, no; First in all 
 Lands, 123 ; In Russia, in ; Of India, in ; 
 Some Famous, 123 ; The Oldest, n ; Total 
 Number of, 352. 
 
 Newton, Birth of, 225. 
 
 New York City, 26, 271. 
 
 Ney, The Famous Marshal, 189. 
 
 Niagara, Horse Power of, 225. 
 
 Niagara Falls, 40, 333 339. 
 
 Nibelungen Lied, Plot of the, 131, 388. 
 
 Nicaragua, 367, 369. 
 
 Nicknames of States, etc., 22; Famous Na- 
 tional, 23. 
 
 Nicotine, Properties of, 388 ; Manufacture of, 
 140. 
 
 Nightingale, Turkish Name for, no 
 
 Night Sweats, To Cure, 388. 
 
 Nihilism, 206. 
 
 Nijni- Novgorod, Fair of, 143, 334. 
 
 Nimbus, In Art, 284. 
 
 Nine, Curiosities of Number, 326. 
 
 Nine Worthies, The, 336. 
 
 Nine Worthy Women, The, 314. 
 
 Niobe, The Tearful, 137. 
 
 Nitre, 244. 
 
 Nocturnal Animals, 233. 
 
 Nocturne, In Music, 287. 
 
 Nones, 44. 
 
 Non - importation Act, The, 145. 
 
 Non -intercourse Act, 272. 
 
 Norseman, Bible of the, 132. 
 
 Northmen, The, 132, 378. 
 
 Norway, Voters in, 270. 
 
 Norway and Sweden, 367, 369. 
 
 Nose, Bleeding from, 396, 443. 
 
 Notch, The, 331. 
 
 Notes, Circular or Bank, 166 ; Commercial, 252. 
 
 Nowhere, Sir T. More's, 115. 
 
 Nox, Old, 137. 
 
 Numbers, Lucky and Unlucky, 321. 
 
 Numismatics, Study of, 188. 
 
 Nutrition in Certain Foods, 395. 
 
 AK, Sacredness of the, 372 418. 
 
 Oats, as Food, 418. 
 'belisks, the Great, 158; The Oldest, 348. 
 Oberlin College, n. 
 Obscurity in Writing, 108. 
 Ocean Depths, Cold of the, 227 ; Growths in, 
 228 ; Life in, 235, The Greatest Measure 
 of, 229, 
 
 Oceanides, The, 137. 
 Oceanus, 137. 
 Occupation, Choice of, 454. 
 
474 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 O'Donoghue's White Horse, 126. 
 
 O'Dowd, Cornelius. 120. 
 
 OZdipus, 137. 
 
 Oil Spring, The Lunatic, 332. 
 
 Oil of Vitriol, 244. 
 
 Olaf Redbeard, 313. 
 
 " Old Hickory," 269. 
 
 Old Lady of Threadneedle Street, 332. 
 
 Old Slavonic, 364. 
 
 Olympiads, The, 44. 
 
 Olympic Games, 44. 
 
 Olympus, Location of, 125 ; Deities and Heroes 
 
 of, 134. 
 
 Omaha, City of, 26. 
 Oman, Sultanate of, 367, 369. 
 Omphale, 137. 
 
 One Million Dollars, Weight of, 166. 
 Onions, Odor of, 388. . 
 Onyx, The, 133. 
 Opal, The, 133. 
 Opium, 393. 
 
 Opportunists, The Term, 270. 
 Optic, Oliver, 120. 
 Orange Blossoms, 372. 
 Orange Free State, 367. 
 Orange, Principality of, 295. 
 O'Rell, Max, 120. 
 Orchestra, In Music, 284. 
 Ordeal, The Water, 304; The Fire, 304. 
 Order of the Bath, 361. 
 Orders, Sealed, 191. 
 Orestes, 130. 
 
 Organ, Invention of, 164. 
 Organs, First Use of, 349. 
 Orion, The Star, 125. 
 Orloff Diamond, 370. 
 Ornaments, Bog Oak, 155. 
 Orpheus, 137. 
 Orthodoxy, 206. 
 Ostrich Farming, 140. 
 Ostrogoths, Nation of the, 381. 
 Ouida, 1-20. 
 
 Oukaz, The Term, 271. 
 Ouless, W. W., 292. 
 Overbeck, F., 292. 
 Overland Route, The, 145. 
 Ovid, Sandys', 109. 
 Oxford University, 328. 
 Oxygen, Discovery of, 387. 
 
 PACHA, Title of, 360. 
 
 1 Pacha of Egypt Diamond, 370. 
 
 Pagan gods, The, 134. 
 
 Paganism, Gods and Heroes of, 134. 
 
 Pagan Priests, 135. 
 
 Paine, Thomas, Patriotism of, 13. 
 
 Pains, Side, 388. 
 
 Painter of Nature, The, 283. 
 
 Paintings, Marvelous, 290. 
 
 Paints, Luminous, 162 ; Mixing of, 162. 
 
 Pairing Off, 269. 
 
 Palaeolithic Age, The, 377. 
 
 Palladium, Meaning of, 137, 271. 
 
 Palm Sunday, 43. 
 
 Pan, The god, 137. 
 
 Pandours, The Fierce, 295. 
 
 Panics, Financial, 172. 
 
 Panslavism, Meaning of, 297. 
 
 Pansy, The, 372. 
 
 Paper, Invention of, 151 ; Rice, 325 ; Collars, 
 
 154; of Glass, 153. 
 Paradise of Europe, The, 295. 
 
 Paraguay, Figures oh, 367, 369. 
 
 Paraguayan War, The, 390. 
 
 Parian Marble, 285. 
 
 Paris, Son of Priam, 137. 
 
 Parks, Deer, 327; Fairmount, 328; The 
 
 Largest, 328; St. James', 339. 
 Parley, Peter, 120. 
 Parliamentary Law, Condensed, 279. 
 Parnassus, 137. 
 Parole, In Military Life, 194. 
 Parsees, Faith of, 205. 
 Particularists, The Term, 270. 
 Parties, Minor Political, 17. 
 Parting Counsels, 463. 
 Partnership, Liability of, 250; Laws of, 254; 
 
 A Famous Literary, no. 
 Passengers, The Mayflower's, 18. 
 Passion Flower, 372. 
 Passion Play, The, 205. 
 Paste, Razor Strop, 433 ; For Papering, Boxes, 
 
 434 ; Scrap Books, 434 ; Sugar, 435 ; Paper 
 
 and Leather, 435 ; For Sundry Uses, 435. 
 Patent Office, Work of the, 29. 
 Patterson, City of, 26. 
 Pavement, Macadamized, 152. 
 Pay, Soldiers', 191. 
 Peace Pipe, The, 192. 
 Peale, Rembrandt, 292. 
 Pearls, Where Found, 229 ; American, 229. 
 Peerage, Ranks of the, 365. 
 Pegasus, 137. 
 Peine Forte et Dure, 307. 
 Penates, 137. 
 
 Pendulum, Invention of, 42. 
 Penelope's Web, 125; Her History, 137. 
 Penny-Wise, 172. 
 Perigee, The 'Moon's, 225. 
 Perihelion, The, 225. 
 Permissive Bill, The, 269. 
 Perpetual Snow, 225. 
 Persecutions, The Ten, 206. 
 Perseus, 137. 
 
 Persons, Temperature of, 226 
 Persia, 367, 369. 
 Peru, Republic of, 367, 369. 
 Perugino, 292. 
 Perspiratory Glands, 232. 
 Peruvian Masonry, 284. 
 Peter Cooper, A Story of, 170. 
 Petits-Maitres, 356. 
 Petrovitsch, Kara George, 334. 
 Pettie, John, 292. 
 Phaeton, 137. 
 Phantom Ship, The, 118. 
 Pharos of Alexandria, The, 346. 
 Phenomena, Scientific, 228. 
 
 Philology, Science of, 53 ; Defined, 375. 
 
 aughi 
 Philosopher's Stone, The, 
 
 Phineas, 137. 
 Phoebus, The god, 138 
 
 Philippi, Battle of, 199. 
 
 lolo 
 
 lom 
 
 los 
 
 losopers tone, e, 233. 
 Philosophy, Inductive, 225 ; Meaning of, 225. 
 
 , 
 
 Philology, Scien 
 Philomela, 137. 
 Philosopher, Th 
 
 e Laughing, 329 
 
 Phonograph, Invention of, 151, 163. 
 
 Photographs, The First, 349. 
 
 Photography, Invention of, 164. 
 
 Phrases, The Foreign, 97-105; Political, 270; 
 
 Stock Market, 173. 
 Physical Training, 
 Piano, Polish for, 160. 
 Pianoforte, Invention of, 164, 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 475 
 
 Picayune, The Coin, 178. 
 
 Pierce, Pres. Franklin, 26. 
 
 Pigments, The Blue, 142. 
 
 Pigott Diamond, The, 370. 
 
 Pilgrim Fathers, 15, 18. 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress, The, 124, 328. 
 
 Pindar, Peter, 120. 
 
 Pipes, Protection of Lead, 161 ; Thawing Out 
 
 Water, 436. 
 
 Pins, First Used, 152; Sticking of, 155. 
 Pisa, Leaning Tower of, 340. 
 Pitch, Lake of, 142. 
 Pitt, Diamond, The, 370, 
 Plagues, Modern, 366. 
 Planets, Collision of, 228 ; Conjunction of, 234 ; 
 
 Symbolism of, 314. 
 Plants, Breathing of, 227. 
 Plaster, Repairing, 438. 
 Plato's Republic, 312. 
 Pleiades, The, 137. 
 Pluto and his Realm, 138. 
 Plymouth Company, The, 12. 
 Plymouth Rock, Landing at, 18. 
 Pneumatic Railway, 164. 
 Pocahontas, Story of, 16. 
 Poetry, Alliterative,323 ; Artof,no;Didactic,53, 
 
 109; The Father of, 109; History in, 311; 
 
 Lyric, 53, 112 ; Pastoral, no ; Wordsworth's 
 
 Definition of, no. 
 Poets -Laureate, The, 115. 
 Poison Stings, Antidotes for, 444. 
 Police, Derivation of, 360. 
 Polish for Furniture, 160; For Pianos, 160. 
 Political Parties, Minor, 17. 
 Polk, Pres. James K., 26. 
 Pomona, 138. 
 Pompey's Pillar, 325. 
 Popes, Nationality of the, 218. 
 Popocatepetl, 329. 
 Population, Increase of, 19; Center of in U. S., 
 
 19; of Fifty Cities, 26; of Chief Countries, 
 
 Porcelain, Soldering of, 158. 
 
 Ports, The Cinque, 330. 
 
 Portugal, Kingdom of, 367, 369. 
 
 Positivism, Explained, 236. 
 
 Postage Stamps, 139, 349. 
 
 Postal Information, Condensed, 150. 
 
 Potash, 244. 
 
 Potato Bug, The, 144. 
 
 Powder, For Fire-arms, 164. 
 
 Poynter, E. J., 292. 
 
 Practical Jokes, 422. 
 
 Praetorian Guard, The, 302. - 
 
 Predecessors, Our Nation's, 383. 
 
 Preemption of Land, 17. 
 
 Pre-Raphaelite, The Art Term, 288. 
 
 Presents, Of Accepting, 425; The Art of 
 
 Giving, 424 ; Etiquette of, 426. 
 Prester John, 337. 
 Presidential Election, 277 
 Presidents, Cradles and Graves of, 343 ; Creeds 
 
 of the, 221 ; Parties that Elected, 281 ; 
 
 Succession of U. S., 26. 
 Priam, 138. 
 
 Prickly Heat, Cure for, 433. 
 Priests, The Pagan, 125 ; The Greek, 205. 
 Primrose, The, 372.' 
 Primrose League, The, 297. 
 Prince of Wales, Crest of, 313. 
 Printing, Invention of, 152, 164. 
 Prisons, Andersonville, 190 
 
 Prizilram, 329. 
 
 Products, Food, 407. 
 
 Progress, Weapons of, 453. 
 
 Proletariate, The, 354. 
 
 Prometheus, 138. 
 
 Pronunciation, Correctness in, 69; Poor, 57; 
 
 Rules of, 70. 
 Property, Transfer of, 260; Assignments of, 
 
 262 ; Laws on Various Kinds, 261. 
 Proserpine, 138. 
 Proteus, 138. 
 Proudhon, Axiom of, 313. 
 Prout, Father, 120. 
 Provost, The Scotch, 360. 
 Psalm, An Omitted, 223. 
 Pseudonyms, Scholastic, 119; Literary, 341; 
 
 Political and Historical, 342. 
 Psyche, 137. 
 Psychology, 237. 
 Public Lands, 31, 32. 
 Public School, The First, 12, 349. 
 Puck, Who is, 125. 
 
 Pulse, Rate of the, 390; The Human, 413. 
 Pultowa, Battle of, 199. 
 Punctuality, Merit of, 424. 
 Punctuation, Correct, 64. 
 Punishment of Criminals, 357. 
 Purana, 129. 
 Pygmies, The, 379 ; The Wambutti, 379. See 
 
 also Dwarfs, 138. 
 Pyramid, The Great, 158. 
 Pyramus and Thisbe, 138. 
 Pythias, The Noble, 130. 
 Python, The, 138. 
 
 fvUEEN of Roads, The, 157. 
 W Queen of the Lakes, 337. 
 Quincy, Josiah, 339. 
 Quinine, Source of, 140. 
 Quotations, Foreign, 97, 105. 
 
 T) ABBITS of Australia. The, 227. 
 
 J\ Races, American, 375 ; The Bechuanas, 
 
 377 j The Caucasian, 375 ; The Dwarfs, 377, 
 
 379, 383 ; The Ethiopian, 375 ; The Five, 
 
 375 ; The Hyksos, 383; The Malay, 375; 
 
 The Mongolian, 375; The Pygmie, 379; 
 
 The Teutonic, 379 ; Unity of the, 385. 
 Rack, Indian, 146, 308. 
 Railroads, American, 23 ; Electric, 329 ; Horse, 
 
 139; Invention of, 164 J Pneumatic, 164 J 
 
 Wonders of, 23. 
 Railway, The Electric, 329. 
 Rainmaking, Ether in, 229. 
 Rats, How to Expel, 160. 
 Reading, Love for, 54 ; Copious, 109. 
 Real, The Coin, 179. 
 Red Head, 244. 
 
 Regiments, Organization of, 189. 
 Registers, Hot Air, 387. 
 Regnault, Artist, 293. 
 Reichsrath, The German, 273. 
 Reichstag, The German, 273. 
 Reid, Whitelaw, 328. 
 Reign of Terror, 189, 296. 
 Relief, In Art, 289. 
 Religion, As a Science, 223 ; The Chinese, 208 ; 
 
 What is a State, 222; Various Notes on, 
 
 205-224. 
 
 Rembrandt, The Painter, 285. 
 Remus of Rome, 138. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Renaissance in Art, 284. 
 
 Representatives, House of, 282. 
 
 Reptile Bureaucracy, The 296. 
 
 Republic, The Oldest, 336 ; The Smallest, 336. 
 
 Reservations for the Indians, 32. 
 
 Return Ball, Invention of, 152. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 292. 
 
 Revolution, The French, 189. 
 
 Rhetoric, Art of, 53 ; Definition of, 53. 
 
 Rheumatism, 401 ; Treatment of, 402. 
 
 Rice, As Food, 418. 
 
 Rifle Ball, Speed of the, 189. 
 
 Rigging, A Ship's, 157. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, Silver of, 330. 
 
 Rip Van Winkle, 132. 
 
 Rivers, The Great, 143 ; Basin of, 229. 
 
 River Systems, The Largest, 237. 
 
 Robert the Devil, 361. 
 
 Robin Goodfellow, who is, 125. 
 
 Robinson Crusoe, Condensed, 123,, 
 
 Rock, Curious Fc .mation of, 330. 
 
 Rock Bridge, 320. 
 
 Rock of Refuge, The 331. 
 
 Rock Salt, The Deepest, 327. 
 
 Rococo, In Art, 283. 
 
 Roller Skate, Invention of, 153. 
 
 Rolls, Master of the, 361. 
 
 Roman Republic, Magistrates of, 365. 
 
 Romans, The, 377. 
 
 Rome, The Founder of, 349. 
 
 Romulus and Remus, 138. 
 
 Rooms, Damp, 387. 
 
 Rose, Symbolism of the, 372. 
 
 Rosebud, Moss, 372. 
 
 Rossetti, D. G., 292. 
 
 Rose Water, 434. 
 
 Roumania, 367, 369. 
 
 Roundheads, The, 304. 
 
 Round Robin, 352. 
 
 Round Table, King Arthur's, 127, 297. 
 
 Round Towers, Irish, 128. 
 
 Route, The Overland, 145. 
 
 Rubens, Painter, 292. 
 
 Rubber Boots, 160. 
 
 Rubicon, The, 295, 334. 
 
 Ruby, The, 133. 
 
 Rule of the Road, 359. 
 
 Rulers of all Nations, 367. 
 
 Rules, to Calculate Interest, 173 ; For Measur- 
 ing Corn, 187; For Measuring Hay in 
 Mow, 187 ; Measuring Vegetables, 187. 
 
 Ruling Machine, 164. 
 
 Rum, How Made, 143. 
 
 Rupee, The Coin, 178. 
 
 Russia, Serfdom in, 33 ; Christianity of, 328 ; 
 Statistics of, 367, 369. 
 
 Russo-Turkish Wars, 201. 
 
 Rust of Iron, 244. 
 
 Ruysdael, Artist, 292. 
 
 QT. AUGUSTINE, Fla., n. 
 
 O St. Brendan, 12. 
 
 St. Crispin's Day, 336. 
 
 St. Elmo's Fire, 231. 
 
 St. Eloi, 284. 
 
 St, Gothard, 329. 
 
 St. Helena, Island of, 331. 
 
 St, James, Order of, 363. 
 
 St. James' Palace, 339. 
 
 St. James' Park, 339 
 
 St. Mark's Cathedral, 284. 
 
 St. Peter, Patrimony of, 296. 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome, 151, 155. 
 
 St. Simon, Imprisonment of, 312. 
 
 St. Sophia Cathedral, 328. 
 
 St. Swithin's Day, 43. 
 
 St. Valentine's Day, 44. 
 
 St. Veronica, 337. 
 
 Sabins, The, 379. 
 
 Sabretache, Use of, 191. 
 
 Sac Indians, 32. 
 
 Sacred Geese, The, 127. 
 
 Sacred Number, The, 318. 
 
 Sagas, The Norse, in, 132. 
 
 Sahib, Meaning of, 361. 
 
 Sailor King, The, 296. 
 
 Salaries of U. S. Officers, 28. 
 
 Salic Law, The, 301. 
 
 Salmagundi, 354. 
 
 Salmoniac, 244. * 
 
 Salt, Common Table, 325. 
 
 Saltpetre, 244. 
 
 Salts, Smelling, 433, Volatile, 433; of Tartar, 
 
 244. 
 
 Salvador, 367, 369. 
 Salvation Army, 219. 
 Samaritans, Tribes of, 381. 
 Samnites, The, 378. 
 Sancy Diamond, 137. 
 Sand, George, 120. 
 Sanjak- Sheriff, 301. 
 San Marino, 336. 
 San Salvador, n, 367, 369. 
 Sans -culottes, 303. 
 Santa Sophia, Mosque of, 296. 
 San Yago, The Order of, 363. 
 Sapphire, The, 133. 
 Sappho, Lyrics of, 109. 
 Saracens, Nation of, 383. 
 Saratoga, Battle, of, 199. 
 Sarawak, 367. 
 Sarcophagus, 157. 
 Satellites, The, 226, 230. 
 Saturn, 138. 
 Satyrs, The, 138. 
 Savings, Daily, 172. 
 Saws, American, 142. 
 Saxons, The Race of, 379. 
 Saxon Shore, The, 378. 
 Scheffer, Ary, 293. 
 Sea, The Caspian, 349. 
 Sea Rovers, The, 378. 
 Sea Songs, Dibdin's 296. 
 Secession, Ordinances of, 12: Earliest mention 
 
 f> 339- 
 
 Second Sight, Gift of, 133 
 Secretaries of State, 273. 
 Secret Service Money, 271. 
 Secularism, 209. 
 Security, Collateral, 165. 
 Sedan, Battle of, 199. 
 Sedan Chairs, 157. 
 Seidlitz Powders, 393. 
 Self -Reliance, 456. 
 Seminole Indians, 32,27. 
 Semiramis, Queen, 138. 
 Semmes, Admiral R., 17. 
 Senate, The U. S., 282. 
 Seneca Nation, 32. 
 Sentence, Of Excommunication, 210. 
 Septuagint, The, 210. 
 Seraglio, The Turkish, 354. 
 Serenade, Origin of, 287. 
 Serfdom, Austrian and Russian, 33. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 477 
 
 Servia, Kingdom of, 367, 369. 
 
 Seven Days, The Biblical, 313. 
 
 Seven Days' Battles, 192. 
 
 Seven Sayings on the Cross, 313. 
 
 Seven Sleepers, The, 320 
 
 Seven Wise Men, 316. 
 
 Seventy Years Captivity, The, 314. 
 
 Sewers, Connection of, 388. 
 
 Sewing, Position in, 387. 
 
 Sewing Machine, First Patent, 151, 164. 
 
 Shah Diamond The, 370. 
 
 Shah, The Title, 296 ; Meaning of, 365. 
 
 Shah-Zada, The, 365. 
 
 Shakers, Sect of, 212. 
 
 Shamanism, 376. 
 
 Shamrock, The, 205. 
 
 Shaving Compound, 433. 
 
 Sheik, Origin of, 361. 
 
 Sheikh, The Title, 365. 
 
 Sheikh al-Zebel, The Term, 363. 
 
 Shenandoah, The River, 194. 
 
 Sheriff, Denned, 269, 365. 
 
 She- Wolf of France, The, 329. 
 
 Shibboleth, The Term, 56. 
 
 Ships, Clipper, 141 ; The First Cigar, 152 ; The 
 Largest, 156; Rigging of, 157; Time on 
 Board, 45. 
 
 Ship's Bells, 45. 
 
 Shire, Meaning of, 378. 
 
 Shirt Bosoms, Polish for, 438. 
 
 Shocks Violent, 433. 
 
 Shoe Plates, 151. 
 
 Shoes,To Make Water- proof, 437 ; to Soften,437. 
 
 Shoulders, Remedy for Round, 412. 
 
 Shyness, How to Overcome, 426. 
 
 Siam, Kingdom of, 367, 369. 
 
 Sicilian Vespers, 298. 
 
 Sick Room, Caution in, 390. 
 
 Siege of Orleans, 199. 
 
 Siege of Sebastopol, 199. 
 
 Silenus, 138. 
 
 Silk Manufacture in U. S., 139; Production of, 
 141. 
 
 Silver, Production of, 171 ; The Standard, 171 ; 
 Wash for, 437. 
 
 Simonetta, The Castle of, 329. 
 
 Simon Fitz-Mary, 336. 
 
 Simonianism, 312. 
 
 Simoom Wind, The, 227. 
 
 Simplicity in Writing, 107. 
 
 Sirens, The, 138. 
 
 Sistine Chapel, Decorations of, 285. 
 
 Sistone Chapel, The, 327. 
 
 Sisyphus, 138. 
 
 Sizar, The Order of, 364. 
 
 Skates, Invention of, 153. 
 
 Slavery and Serfdom, 33. 
 
 Sleepers, The Famous, 132] The Seven, 132. 
 
 Sleeping in Draughts, 387. 
 
 Sleeplessness, 389. 
 
 Slick, Sam, 120. 
 
 Small Pox, Death by, 349. 
 
 Smilax, 372. 
 
 Smith, Capt. John, 16. 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, 334. 
 
 Sneezing,Superstition on, 125 ; Etiquette of,i26. 
 
 Snoring, 392. 
 
 Snow, Line of Perpetual, 225 ; White Appear- 
 ance of, 227. 
 
 Snow Plant, The, 226. 
 
 Soap, Manufacture of, 139. 
 
 Socialism, 312. 
 
 Societies, Bible, 217; Vigilance, 358. 
 
 Society, The Temple, 210. 
 
 Society of Friends or Quakers, 213. 
 
 Society of Jesus, 216. 
 
 Sociology, 375. 
 
 Soda, 244. 
 
 Solar System, 239. 
 
 Soldiers, Graves of, 42. 
 
 Solomon's Temple, 156. 
 
 Sombrero, The, 349. 
 
 Somnambulism, 232. 
 
 Somnus, 138. 
 
 Sonnets, Classification of, 54. 
 
 Sons of Belial, 207. 
 
 Sons of Liberty, 14. 
 
 Soprano, In Music, 287. 
 
 Sound Produced by Light, 231. 
 
 South Africa, Negroes of, 376. 
 
 South America, Republics in, 396. 
 
 South Sea, Paradise of, 207. 
 
 South Sea Bubble, 169. 
 
 South Sea Scheme, 170. 
 
 Sovereign, The Ruling, 363. 
 
 Spahi, The Military, 190. 
 
 Spain, Kingdom of, 367, 369. 
 
 Spanish Armada, Defeat of, 199. 
 
 Spanish Main, 332. 
 
 Span of Wire, Longest, 152. 
 
 Sparrow, The English, 356. 
 
 Speaking, Correct, 57-63. 
 
 Specific Gravities, Various, 259. 
 
 Spectacles, Invention of, 151. 
 
 Spectrum Analysis, 231. 
 
 Speech, Errors of, 71 ; Man's, 376. 
 
 Speed, Standard of, 354. 
 
 Sphinx, Described, 138, 348. 
 
 Spirits, Astral, 126. 
 
 Spirits, Proof, 392; Of Hartshorn, 244; Of 
 Salt, 244. 
 
 Sprains, 387. 
 
 Squire of Alsatia, The, 335. 
 
 Stained Glass Windows, 151. 
 
 Stains, of Berries, Ink, etj., 435, 436. 
 
 Stalwarts, The, 270. 
 
 Stammering, 394. 
 
 Standard Time, 44. 
 
 Stanford, Leland, 327. 
 
 Star Chamber, The, 308. 
 
 Star of the South, Diamond, 370. 
 
 Stars, Twinkling of, 236; The Falling, 245; 
 Superstitions on, 130. 
 
 Stars and Stripes, The, 12, 16. 
 
 State Election, 276. 
 
 States Names, Origin of, 21. 
 
 States, The Largest, 12; Capitals of, 19; Mot- 
 toes of, 21 ; Nicknames of, 22. 
 
 Statue, The Oldest Existing, 285 ; The Largest, 
 
 Steam Engines, Horse Power of, 242 ; Inven- 
 tion of, 155, 164; Largest, 158. 
 Steamers, First Atlantic, n ; Invention of, 164. 
 Steam Navigation, 146. 
 Steam Vessel, The First, 189. 
 Stedman, Edmund Clarence, 328. 
 Steel Pens, Invention of, 151. 
 Stentor and his Voice, 138. 
 Stethoscope, Use of, 392. 
 Stiver, The Coin, 177. 
 Stocking Frame, Invention of, 154. 
 Stock Jobbing, 167. 
 Stoics, The, 206, 231. 
 
478 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Stomach, Sickness of, 389, Cramps in, 389. 
 
 Stone Cutting Saw, 154. 
 
 Storting, The Scandinavian, 274. 
 
 Stove Pipes, To Clean, 438. 
 
 Stoves, Management of, 437. 
 
 Stradivarius, 383. 
 
 Stretton, Hesba, 120. 
 
 Strikes in U. S., 20. 
 
 Stucco, 244. 
 
 Sturm und Drang Period, The, 114. 
 
 Stuttering, 394. 
 
 Styles, Early in Art, 382. 
 
 Styx, The River, 138. 
 
 Success, Laws of, 452. 
 
 Suetonius Paulinus, 380. 
 
 Suez Canal, The, 145. 
 
 Suffocation from Gases, 414. 
 
 Sugar of Lead, 244. 
 
 Sun, Distance of, 41. 
 
 Sun Dial, The, 41. 
 
 Sun- Stroke, 444. 
 
 Superior Lake, 13. 
 
 Superstitions, The Obi, 115. 
 
 Suspension Bridge, The Largest, 350. 
 
 Sussex Co., Pa., How Named, 153. 
 
 Suttee, The Indian, 353. 
 
 Sweating System, The, 370. 
 
 Sweden and Norway, 367, 369. 
 
 Sweet Pea, 372. 
 
 Swedenborgians, The, 208. 
 
 Switzerland, 367, 369. 
 
 Swollen Feet, 410. 
 
 Sword " Excalibur," The, 116. 
 
 Sword of God, The, 296. 
 
 Sydenham Hill, 333. 
 
 Sylvanus, 138. 
 
 Synagogue, The Term, 212. 
 
 Symmes's Hole, 333. 
 
 Synonyms, Twelve Thousand, 73-97. 
 
 Syntax Dr.. 120. 
 
 TABERNACLE, The, 212. 
 1 Tableaux Vivants, 287. 
 
 Taboo, Derivation of, 54. 
 
 Tacita, The Goddess, 138. 
 
 Tael, The, 179. 
 
 Talent, The, 180. 
 
 Talent and Tact, 459. 
 
 Talisman, Virtues of, 127. 
 
 Talmud, The, 215. 
 
 Tammany, What is, 275. 
 
 Tantalus, 138. 
 
 Taouism, Chinese, 209. 
 
 Targee's Past, 340. 
 
 Targums, The, 211. 
 
 Tariff, Defined, 274. 
 
 Tartarus, 138. 
 
 Tarpeian Rock, The, 338. 
 
 Taurus, 138. 
 
 Taylor, Pres. Zachary, 26. 
 
 Tea, Uses of, 411 ; As Food, 419. 
 
 Teeth, Care of, 432. 
 
 Telegraph, First Electric, 151 ; Invention of, 
 164 ; The First, 12. 
 
 Telemachus, 138. 
 
 Telepathy, Account of, 235. 
 
 Telephone, Described, 153; Invention of, 151, 
 164. 
 
 Telescope, Invention of, 151, 164; The Refract- 
 ing, 225. 
 
 Temperatures, Very Cold, 242; In U. S., 18; 
 Summer, 241. 
 
 Templars, Order of, 302. 
 
 Temple, Solomon's, 156. 
 
 Temple Bar, 334. 
 
 Temple of Karnac, 284. 
 
 Temple Society, The, 210. 
 
 Tenant and Landlord, Laws of, 257! 
 
 Ten Numerations, The, 315. 
 
 Ten-Ton Freight Car, Capacity of, 180. 
 
 Territories, Capitals of, 19. 
 
 Testament, The New, 214. 
 
 Teutons, The, 380. 
 
 Texas, Area of, 12. 
 
 Thackeray's First Success, 109. 
 
 Thanksgiving Day, 42. 
 
 Theatres, The Finest, 152. 
 
 Theory of Auctions, 148. 
 
 Theosophy Explained, 214. 
 
 Thermometers, Comparison of, 241; De=crir> 
 
 tion of, 241 ; Invention of, 164. 
 Third House, The, 295 
 Thirteen States, The Original, n. 
 Thistle, The, 372. 
 Thought Reading, 237. 
 Three, Symbolism of, 313, 314. 
 Three R's, The, 315. 
 Thugs, Defined, 300. 
 Thule, The Ancient, 128. 
 Thumb, Dislocated, 442. 
 Thundering Legion, 304. 
 Thunder Storms, 329. 
 Tickling, 387. 
 Timbuctoo, 341. 
 
 Time, Measure of, 41 ; Economy of, 458. 
 Titans, The. 138. 
 Tin, Solid, 228. 
 Titcomb, Timothy, 120. 
 Titian, The Painter, 284. 
 Titles of Courtesy, 361. 
 Titles of U. S. Lands, 31. 
 Titmarsh, M. Angelo, 120. 
 Toadstool, The, 125. 
 Tobacco, Discovery of, 12, 388. 
 Toby Fillpot, 333. 
 Toilet Hints, 449 ; The Breath, 449 ; The Com 
 
 plexion, 449; The Hair, 449; The Nails 
 
 449; The Teeth, 449. 
 Tom -o'- Bedlams, 336. 
 Tom Thumb, Story of, 125. 
 Tonsure, The, 207. 
 Tontine, Definition of, 168. 
 Toothache, Cures for, 432. 
 Tooth Paste, Charcoal, 432. 
 Tooth Powders, Good, 432. 
 Topaz, The, 123. 
 Torpedo, Invention of the, 164. 
 Towers, Irish Round, 128 ; The Eiffel, 155. 
 Towns, Scriptural Names of, 209. 
 Township, Defined, 356. 
 Toy, A Winding, 151. 
 Tracheotomy, 389. 
 Trade Discounts, 173. 
 Trade Winds, 227. 
 Trafalgar, Battle of, 199. 
 Transpositions, Alphabetical, 314. 
 Transvaal, Republic of, 368. 
 Trappists, The, 214, 
 Traveling, Hints on, 451. 
 Treaty of Berlin, 305, 308. 
 Treaty of Peace, 191. 
 Trees, Height of, 350 ; How to Measure, 186 
 
 The Largest, 12; The Smallest, 226 
 Trent, Affairs of the, 14. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 479 
 
 Tribunes of the People, 300. 
 
 Triple Alliance, 305. 
 
 Tripoli, 368. 
 
 Triton, The Sea-god, 138. 
 
 Triumvirates, 297. 
 
 Troubadours, Character of, in. 
 
 Trouveres, Mission of the, in. 
 
 Troy, City of, 138. 
 
 Troy Weight, 182. 
 
 Truce of God, 190. 
 
 Truck System, The, 154. 
 
 Trumbull, Artist, 293. 
 
 Trusts and Combinations, 166. 
 
 Tuberose, 372. 
 
 Tuileries, The, 336. 
 
 Tunkers, The, 213. 
 
 Tunis, 368. 
 
 Tunnel, The Longest, 329. 
 
 Turkish Empire, 367, 369. 
 
 Turpentine, Virtues of, 434. 
 
 Turquoise, The, 133. 
 
 Twain, Mark, 120. 
 
 Twelve Thousand Synonyms and Antonyms, 
 
 73-97- 
 
 Twickenham, 327. 
 Tyler, Pres. John, 26. 
 Types of Man, 375, 376; Different, 380; The 
 
 Dwarf, 377 ; The Ethiopic, 380. 
 Typhoid Fever, 309. 
 
 T THLANS, The Military, 192. 
 
 U Umbrellas, The First, 151, 154. 
 
 Ultramontane, Meaning of, 209. 
 
 Ukase, The Term, 271. 
 
 Ulysses, 138. 
 
 Umbrian School, The, 292. 
 
 Uncle Remus, 120. 
 
 Uncle Sam, Origin of Term, 13. 
 
 Under- Clothing, 387. 
 
 Undine, Legend of, 127. f 
 
 Uniforms, Military, 191. 
 
 Union Arch, The, 154. 
 
 United States, Alien Land Holders in, 30; 
 Army Generals of, 27; Capitals of, 15; 
 Civil Service in, 27 ; Climates in, 18 ; Coal 
 Production of, 149; Crime in, 20; Drink 
 in, 20; Earnirgs of, 20; Exports and Im- 
 ports of, 139; Fires in, 20; First Sugar 
 Cane, 140; First Sugar Mill, 140; First 
 Things in, n; Food Waste in, 20; Gas, 
 Illuminating, in, 151 ; Growth of, 18 ; 
 Holidays in, 50; Homestead Law of, 30; 
 Illiteracy in, 20; Immigration to, 24; Im- 
 portant Figures on, 19; Leather Industry 
 in, 140; Liquor Bill of, 20; Official Salaries 
 of, 28 ; Oldest Church in, 205 ; Oldest City 
 in, n ; Opium Smokers in, 393; Paper 
 Making, 140; Patent Office in, 29; Pau- 
 perism in, 20; Presidents of, 16; Public 
 Debt ot, 34; Public Lands : n, 30, 31, 32; 
 Rebellion in. 35; Religious Bodies in, 
 222; Silk Manufacture in, 139; Slavery in, 
 33 ; Strikes in, 20 ; The Constitution of, i 
 39; The Deepest Coal Shaft in, 330; The I 
 Deepest Silver Mine of, 330; Wars of, 27 ; 
 Wealth of, 20. 
 
 Universal Suffrage, 271. 
 
 Universities, The Great, 296 ; Extension of, 
 358 ; The Charlemagne, 328 ; The Oxford, 
 328 ; The Dublin, 328. 
 
 Uruguay, Republic of, 367, 369. 
 
 Usury, Definition of, 169. 
 
 V 
 
 ALENTINE, 44. 
 
 Valley of Death, 336. 
 Valley of the Arno, 295. 
 Valley of the Upas Tree, 336. 
 Valmy, Battle of, 199. 
 Valzin, Manufacture of, 140. 
 Van Buren, Pres. Martin,26. 
 Vandals, The, 382. 
 Vandervede, Painter, 292. 
 Van Dyke, 284. 
 Van Eyck, 293. 
 Van Ostade, 292. 
 Vanity Fair, 124. 
 Varangians, The, 379. 
 
 Vase, The Barberine, 291 ; The Portland, 291. 
 Vatican, Palace of the, 286; Gold in the, 166. 
 Vaticanus, Mons, 331. 
 Veda, The, 21 1. ' 
 Vedas, 129. 
 
 Vegetables, As Food, 418. 
 Vellum, Definition of, 154. 
 Vendome Column, The, 333. 
 Venetian School, The, 292. 
 Venezuela, 368. 
 Ventilation in Bedrooms, 387. 
 Ventriloquism, What is, 246. 
 Venus, The Goddess, 138. 
 Veracity in Business, 422. 
 Verbena, The, 372. 
 Verdigris, 244. 
 Vermilion, 244. 
 Vermin, How to Destroy, 427. 
 Vernet, Horace, 292. 
 Versailles, Of Prussia, The, 295. 
 Verse, Blank, 113. 
 Vesta, 138. 
 
 Vials, To Cleanse, 437. 
 Vicar of Wakefield, The, 123. 
 Victoria Cross, The, 191. 
 Vigil, What is a, 213. 
 Vikings, The, 12, 301, 378, 379. 
 Vill, The, 356. 
 Villeins, 360. 
 Vinegar, Spirits of, 434. 
 Vinland, Account of, 15. 
 Virginia, First Settlers in, n, 16. 
 Vishnu, 129. 
 
 Visigoths, The Race of, 381. 
 Vision, Limits of, 394. 
 Vitriol, Blue, 244; Oil of , 244 ; Green, 244 ; 
 
 White, 244. 
 
 Vivandiere, The Military, 192. 
 Vivisection, 233. 
 Vogelweide Walter, 113. 
 Volapiik, Analysis of, 65. 
 Volatile Alkali, 244. 
 Volcano, The Loftiest, 329; The Asosan, 338; 
 
 Popocatapetl, 329. 
 Volsci, The, 337. 
 Vortigern, 337. 
 Vowels, The, 322. 
 Vulcan, The god, 138. 
 Vulcan's Mirror, 125. 
 Vulgate Bible, The 214. 
 
 TTTAHABEES, Tribe of, 216. 
 W Wakes, Origin of, 215. 
 Waldenses, The, 217. 
 Walhalla, The Scandinavian, 126. 
 Walkyria, The Scandinavian, 126. 
 Wall of China, The Great, 151, 152. 
 Walloons, The, 382. 
 
48o 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Wambutti, The, 379. 
 
 Wandering Jew, The, 118. 
 
 Ward, Artemus, 120. 
 
 Ward, The Painter, 292. 
 
 Warriors, The First, 189. 
 
 Wars, Cost of, 196; Cost of American, 198; 
 Cost of Recent, 198; Franco-German, 191, 
 202; Indian Mutiny, 200 j Length of 
 American, 198; Of 1812, 349; Of U. S., 
 27; Recent Desperate, 200 J Russo-Turk- 
 ish, 201; Uniforms in, 191 ; The Abyssin- 
 ian, 200; The American Civil, 200; The 
 Civil, 197; The Seven Weeks, 190; The 
 Mexican 191; Wars of the Roses, 193; 
 Zulu, 202. 
 
 War Vessels, The Fastest, 13. 
 
 Washington and Education, 345. 
 
 Washington, President George, 26. 
 
 Washington Monument, 40. 
 
 Watch Night, 213. 
 
 Watch on Shipboard, 243. 
 
 Watches, Invention of, 42, 164 ; Some Marvel 
 ous, 152. 
 
 Water, How to Drink, 412; To Test Pure, 
 160 ; Value of Hot, 406. 
 
 Waterfalls, Great, 240. 
 
 Waterloo, Battle of, 191, 199. 
 
 Waterproof, Cloth, 161. 
 
 Watershed, The, 229. 
 
 Waterspouts, Defined, 235. 
 
 Wat Tyler's Insurrection, 309. 
 
 Watling Island, n. 
 
 Wealth of United States, 20. 
 
 Weeping Philosopher, 329. 
 
 Weights, Apothecaries, 182 ; Avoirdupois, 182 ; 
 Domestic, 181; Metric, 182; Sundry 183; 
 Troy, 182. 
 
 Well-beloved King, The, 296. 
 
 Wends, The, 376. 
 
 Werewolf, The, 126. 
 
 West, Benjamin, 292. 
 
 Westward Ho ! 337. 
 
 Wetherell, Elizabeth,i2 O . 
 
 Whales, Age of, 228. 
 
 Whaling Ships, 139. 
 
 Wheat, Product of, 140. 
 
 Wheel, Breaking on the, 301. 
 
 Whig, The Term, 274. 
 
 Whirlwinds, 235. 
 
 Whiskey Insurrection, The, 13. 
 
 Whistler, McNeil, 292. 
 
 Whitecaps, 358. 
 
 White Lead, Invention of, 139; Production of, 
 141. 
 
 White Precipitate, 244. 
 
 White Vitriol, 244. 
 
 Whittier, The Poet, 328. 
 
 Whooping Cough, 388. 
 
 Wilderness, The, 193. 
 
 Wills, How to Make, 265. 
 
 Wilmot Proviso, The, 15. 
 
 Windermere, Lake, 337. 
 
 Window Glass, Paint on, 438. 
 
 Winds, The Chinook, 234; The Simoom, 227; 
 1 he Trade, 227. 
 
 Wire, Uses of, 152; Longest Span of, 152. 
 
 Wisest Fool in Christendom, 295. 
 
 Witchcraft, History of, 131, Latest Conviction 
 for, 131 ; Trial of, 125. 
 
 Witch Hazel, 372. 
 
 Wits, The Five, 318. 
 
 Woman Suffrage, 280. 
 
 Women, Married, 267. 
 
 Wonders, A Dozen American, 40. 
 
 Words, Longest English, 54; Misdivision of, 
 58 ', Poor Enunciation of, 58 \ Right 
 Pronunciation of, 58. 
 
 World, Amount of Money in the, 167 ; Around 
 the, 147; Chief Languages of, 57; Coal 
 Fields of, 149; End of the, 372; Finest 
 Harbors of, 149; Largest Bells in the, 154; 
 Money of, 180 ; National Debts of, 171 ; 
 Noted Bridges of the, 159; Population of, 
 374; Seven Bibles of, 218; Seven Wonders 
 of, 346 ; Summer Temperatures of, 241 ; 
 Armed Navies of, 189; Deepest Coal Mine 
 in, 328; Deepest Rock Salt in, 327; High- 
 est Monument in, 153 ; Largest Cavern in, 
 327; Largest Diamond in, 358; Merctanile 
 Navies of, 189; Noblest Part of, 347. 
 
 World's Fairs, The Great, 36, 366. 
 
 Worm, The Army, 227. 
 
 Worship of Dagon, The, 126. 
 
 Wounds, Remedies for, 442. 
 
 Wrinkles, 389. 
 
 Writers, Stray Hints for, 107. 
 
 Writing, In Cipher, 54; Cufic, 54; Two Kinds 
 of, 315- 
 
 XELLOW Jacket, The, 330. 
 Yosemite Valley, 40. 
 jng England Party, 298. 
 Young Ireland Party, 298. 
 Yule I/5g, The Term, 362. 
 Yunker Party, The, 295. 
 
 ^ADKIEL, The Pseudonym, 120. 
 
 j Zanzibar, 367. 
 
 Zemindar, The, 364. 
 
 Zenana, The, 357. 
 
 Zendavesta, The, 208. 
 
 Zephyrus, 138. 
 
 Zodiac, Signs of the, 238. 
 
 Zollverein, The, 141. 
 
 Zouaves, The, 195. 
 
 Zulu War, The, 202. 
 
V /7 
 
OF C 
 
!946