^«^»*«^»W^«,_2i4^j^. '"i'^C OUTLINES AND W. C. LITTLE, ALBANY— BENNET K BRIGHT, UTICA— HOVT, PORTER S. CO. ROCH^ ESTER— MACK & ANDRUS, ITHACA— HOOAN & THOMPSON, PHILADELPBIA— CUSHING & SONS, BALTIMORE— S. BABCOCK Si. CO. AND J. J. MC'C.».RTER, CHARLgSTON— AND LUKB L00MI9, PITT9BURU. 1835. ADVERTISEMENT. The present, is an improved edition of Robbins' Ancient and Modern History. A new and more extended article on the United States, has been substituted for the one contained in former editions, in the tenth Peri- od of Modern History ; and an addition of several pages has been made to the article ' Learning and the Arts,' under the head of General Views, in the same part of the work. These are from the pen of the Author, under whose supervision an extensive and well digested series of Questions has been prepared, which will be found at the end of the volume. Several pa. ges of neatly executed outline, and other engravings, have also been added, illustrating besides other parts, the mythology of ancient nations; anumber of these are from original designs, executed expressly for this work. The increasing demand for this History, and the high commendations bestowed upon it by many teachers of distinguished reputation, have in. duced the publisher to make these important and extensive improvements. But notwithstanding their extent, (more than seventy pages having been added — increasing the volume to more than seven hundred pages,) the price of the work has not been enhanced ; and it is believed to be the cheapest elementary work on History, now in use. From these considerations, as well as from the commendations referred to, and the high character it has already attained, the publisher feels as- sured that the work will recommend itself to the attention, and patronage of teachers, who have not already adopted it in their schools. Those who are not familiar with the work, will allow the publisher to invite their attention to the peculiarity of the general plan of the Author, — the division of the political history into periods, and the exact matching of the history of each nation in these periods, successively, so as to form a continuous whole— to the brief but interesting Biographical sketches at the end of each period, of eminent men who flourished during it — and to the various instructive articles arranged under the title of ' General Views,' which close the two grand divisions. Several of these are very copious, and interesting; and the very successful effort of the author, in blending throughout the work what would otherwise be a barren detail of facts, with incidents and anec- dotes, the want of which so often renders the study of History dry and uninteresting, cannot fail of attracting especial observation. OUTLINES OP ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, ON A NEW PLAN. EMBRACING BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS, AND GENERAL VIEWS OF THC GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION. MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY, OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS, ACCOMPANIED BY A SERIES OF QUESTIONS, AND ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS. TWO VOLUMES IN ONE. VOL. I. ANCIZNT niSTOR?. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY EDWARD HOPKINS. SOLD BV WILLIAM D. TICKNOR, BOSTON— J. H. BUTLER, NORTHA; ?T0N— A. 8. BECKWITH & CO., PROVIDENCE— H. HOWE &. CO., A. II. MALTBY, AND S. BABCOCK, NEW-HAVEN— N. &. J. WHITE, LEAVITT, LORD, & CO. AND ROE LOCKWOOD, NEW-YORK— O. BTEKLB AND W. C. LITTLE, ALBANY— BENNET & BRIGHT, UTICA— HOYT, PORTER & CO. ROCH ESTER— MACK & ANDRUS, ITHACA— HOOAN & THOMPSON, PHILADELPHIA— CUSHING & SONS, BALTIMORE— S. BABCOCK &. CO. AND J. J. Mc'CARTBR, CHARLSSTON— AND LUKK Looms, PiTTasuRQ. 1835. Elntered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, By Edward Hopkins, In the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut PREFACE. The increasing interest which of late years has been felt in regard to educa* tion, among all classes of the community, has given rise to new, and it is be- lieved In many instances, improved methods of advancing this great object- Books have been written with a special view of imparting instruction to youthful minds, as well as of directing the inquiries and gratifying the curiosity of riper understandings. In these works, so far as they have been elementary, the principle of comparison and classification has extensively prevailed ; par- ticular attention has been paid to the selection and arrangement of topics ; things differing in kind have begn kept separate as much as possible ; and, in general, there has been a marked cfibrt to obsene the methods of science, and the laws by which the mind is usually governed in the acquisition of know- ledge. In this way, ideas correctly arranged, and happily associated, have been communicated to learners and readers, on the various subjects presented to their consideration.* " Ancient History," to which the reader is here introduced, " may be treated either ethnographically, that is, according to the different nations and states, or synchronically, that is, according to certain general periods of time. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages ; both may, however, to a certain extent, be united." This is a remark of Heeren,t and the last was the arrangement which he adopted in his admirable History of the States of Antiquity, as well as in that which bears the title of the Political System of Europe. In the present volume, the subject has been treated under an ar rangement somewhat similar, both methods being combined, as far as could be done vrith convenience. The synchronical method, however, predominates, and that almost necessarily, in consequence of the very distinct eras wliich have been observed in the work. If, therefore, the general reader should ex- perience any inconvenience, or diminution of interest, from the temporary su»- • pension of the history of any sir.rle nation, he still can pursue the account V of such nation in continuity, provided he will take it up in the successive 'I periods, and omit, at the same time, the history of other nations. But it is ^ l)clieved, that the interest arising from the liistory of individual states, is very ^ little less on this plan, than on the ethnographical, and even that, should it be v^ lonsiderably less, the clearer and more comprehensive views thence derived, J would be an ample indemnification for the loss. m But it is time that the plan of the present work should be more particularly S explained. It is briefly as follows. In the first place, political liistory, or the V 'As subservient to the improvcmenw above alluded to, we must acknowlodse tlie agency of numerous contrivances by means of majjs, charts, eneravinss, and copious statistical tables, "fc^ and also of a distinction of type between what is more and what is less essential in the subject V^ matter of a treatise. Several of tlicse contrivances, as well a.s of the more ceneral improvements^ have been extended to historical productions, a-s btxiks designed for education ; and especially great help has been derived from the last named particular — the use of diflerent sizes of type. This auxiliary was susgested bv the success which attended the Rev. David Blair's celebrated works for education, by whom it has been extensively employed. Accordingly, early use of it was made in this country, in a series of historical productions, of which the present was one, announced as developed on the plan of that gentleman, with the avowal, however, tliat they were wholly original, and with the reasons of the common name whid) they bore. These reasons have now ceased to operate in regard to the present work, t Professor of History in Gotiingen. •^ '^Xri. Wi./^ *"■"? 4 PREFACE. history of states, is given, and the subject is divided into ten penods, each being distinguished by some characteristic trait. The periods are then carried on separately. The important facts of each are stated in large type, and explanations, observations, anecdotes, adventures, and interesting par- ticulars, illustrative of the events, manners, feelings, and opinions of the age, added in the smaller type. The matter in the smaller type is properly an expansion of that in the larger, or carries on the history merely by tracing its minuter features. At the close of the period, the lives of the illustricus persons who flourished during the same, are introduced, inasmuch as they oMistitute, in some instances, a portion of the world's polittcal history. Having in this way gone through the ten periods, then the reader, undei th3 General Vif.avs, is instructcxi in the geography, politics, religion, milita- ry and. naval affairs, arts, literature, manners, &c. of ancient nations. By this means he is brought into a close and intimate acquaintance with those communities whose political history he has read, and can picture to himself their manner of living, thinking, feeling, and actuig. This latter part of the book includes nearly such a subdivision of the general history of the human race, as Heeren calls " the history of culture, or of humanity, which investi- gates the history of men as men, without further reference to political rela- tions." A portion, however, of the first part of the work, particularly the biographical details, would be included, perhaps, in the professor's definition of the history of cultvire. A plan of this kind, it is thought, if faithfully executed, must render his- tory clear and intelligible ; give vividness and interest to its various topics ; enable the student to surmount the difliculties arising from dates ; present a general view of the subject that may be easily comprehended and permanent- ly established in the memory; and thus lay a strong and lasting foundation fbr a knowledge of history. The subject is so arranged, that the whole body of ancient history may be reviewed in its progress, embracing under one con- tinuous aspect, the principal nations of the earth. And also, as already men- tioned, the history of any particular nation may be taken up, and contempla- ted by itself. The student or reader ha\ing once mast^^rcd tliis outUne, (if the plan have been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes, and to the importance of the subject,) will be qualified to enter upon the perusal of more extended and elaborate works of ancient history. Having the grand features of the subject distinctly arranged in his mind, he will readily class whatever additional facts he may obtain. He may thus accumu- J.ite knowledge without danger of confusion, and increase his power of recol- lection by multiphed associations. Though the work here presented to the public is especially designed for the purposes of education, it also contemplates the benefit of those individuals tc v/hom the topics of history are not unknown, by refreshing their memory with scenes and incidents, "from which they have before cxijcrienccd pleasure. It is hoped, moreover, that the work has been constructed with such a regard lo truth and moral consistency, as to be auxiliary to tllit purity of manners, icfinement of taste, and love of knowledge, of which every family ought to be ilie cherished abode. CONTENTS. Introduction. Benefits to be expected from history, Sources of history, .... General Division, Ten periods, . . • . . Antediluvian World, Distinguished Glioracters, Period L Period IL Deluge, History of Assyria, China, Egypt, Distinguislicd Characters, Period nL History of the Hebrews, , Canaanites, , Greece, . Egypt, continued, China, cwntiniied, Distinguished Characters, History of tlie Israelites, Canif.inites, continued, Phoenicians, Greece, continued, Egypt, continued, Lydia, Italy, Distinguished Cliaracters, Hietory of the Israelites, continued, Greece, continued, Macedon, Assy rill, continued, Egypt, continued, Plireiiiciuns, continued, Cartilage, Italy, continued, Distinguished Characters, History of tlie Romans, Greece, continued, IsiMclites, continued, Jews, . Nineveli, Babylon, Modes, Persia, l^ydians, continued, Egypt, coiitiinHxI, Distinguished (yharucterft, Period IV. Period V. Period VL CONTENTS. Period VII. HisU>ry of Greece, continued, Romans, cnntinued, Egypt, continued, Persia, continued, Macfiinn, continued, ]>isl.ingnisheQ Cluiracters, History of Greece, continued, Rome, continiitd, Sicily, Syriii, Jews, continued, Ey the other. On an occasion of presenting an offering unto God, Cain, who was a husbandman, l^rought of the fiuit of the ground ; Abel, who was a shepherd, brought of the firstlings of his 4004—2348 b. c. 15 flock. The ofTerers, being dissimilar in character, and their ofiferings having a dissimilar significancy, Avcre not alike ac- cepted of Jehovah. Cain and his ollcring were rejected. This circiunstaacc excited the indignation of Cain, who, taking his opportunity when they were alone in the field, rose up against his brother and slew him. On account of liis crime, Cain was forthwith punished by Jehovah. He was called to a solemn leckoning, and, hear ing with anguish liis doom pronounced, " a fugitive and a vagabond shall thou be in the eartli," he went out from the presence of the liord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of Eden. He, however, built a city, at length, and his family and de- Bcendants became famous as inventors of useful and ingenious arts, though it does not appear that any of them were pious, and enjoyed the divine favour. § The murder of Abel occfirred, it is generally supposed, but a short tune before llie bh'th of Seth, or about 130 years after the cre- ation. As Adam and Eve, in the mean time, must have had other children, the human family was no doubt considerably multiplied during 130 years. Hence the events that are I'ecorded by Moses, in connexion with the murrlfvof Abel, are easily accounted for, with- out supposing more than one lumian pair, from whom all the mhav bitants then on the earth were descended. After the death of Abel, Adam and Eve had many other children, the eldest of the sons was named Seth, and his descendants, from their piety, were styled "the children of God," in oppo-sition to the descendants of Cain, who were styled "the children of men.'' Tiiese at lengtli mingled together, and thus prepared the way for the imivcrsal wickedness that afterwards prevailed. G. After a short account of Cain and his family, the sa- cred historian informs us respecting " the generations of Adam;" and recording the births of Enos, Cainan, Mahalaleel, and Jared, he presents us with a brief but interesthig history of Enoch. Being eminently pious, he is said to have walked with God, for the space of 300 years, and at the expiration of that time, to have l^een taken up to iieaveii, without pass- ing through the scene of death. The sacred genealogy is carried on to the time of Noah and his sons, and the date of the life of each one of the pa- triarchs is minutely given. § As Adam lived 930 years, he must have beheld a numerous pos- terity, and been conversant with many who survived till near the lime of the deluge. Doubtless he must have been greatly affected, !6 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD I. in view of the wickedness which so soon began to spread over the earth, and which he had been the instrument of introducing. The place of his sepulchre is not mentioned in scripture ; yet va- rious conjectures (and they are mere conjectures) have been formed on the subject. St. Jerome stations his remains in the cave of Mach- pelah ; and the generality of the primitive fathers suppose him to have been buried on IMount Calvary, in the very spot whereon Christ, (he second Adam, shed his blood for mankind. Tlie descendants of Seth, at first continuing pure and uncorrupted, at length, by intermarriages v.ith the family of Cain, became, M-itli the rest of mankind, exceedingly degenerate. From these inter- marriages sprang the giants of those times, men of extraordinary strength and stature, and, perhaps, of more extraordinary wick- edness. These became '• men of renown," heroes, conquerors, and chieftains. 7. The Deity, justly provoked by the enormous degeneracy of his creatures, determined to destroy, Ijy a universal deluge, the race of man, together with the whole animal creation, ex- cept a very small remnant who were to restock the earth af- ter that catastrophe. One himdred and twenty years, however, did he merci fully afford to the children of men, as a space for repentance, during which time, Noah, " a preacher of righteousness," endeavoured to reclaim them from their wickedness, and warn- ed them of then- doo)u. His zeal and labours seem to have produced no effect. The earth became at length filled with violence. From the tremendous sentence which God had pronounced Koah and his family were excepted, he having "foimd grac.e in the eyes of the Lord." Connected with the intimation which Noah had received concerning tlie appi'oaching deluge^ were several particular instructions, relative to his deliver- ance. This was to be accomplished l)y means of a large vessel called the ark, which he built during the intervening period; agreeably to the divme directions. § The ark was built of gopher word, which some suppose to be the cypress tree. Its form was thiit of an oblong square, with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the middle. It consisted of three stories, each of v/hicli, excluding the thick- ness of the floors, might be eighteen feet high, aud was divided into separate apartments. It was pitched within and without, to Keep it tight, and lighted from the upper part. It was, probably, well supplied with air ; and, though it had neither sails nor rudder it was well contrived for lying steadily on the surface of the water 4004—2348 b. c \^ Willi this means of safety, Noah awaited the destruction which uas fast coming upon the world. Distingni-sked characters in Period I. 1. Adam, the first of the human race. 2. Eve, the first woman. 3. Cain, llie earhest born of mankmd, and fii'st murderer. 4. .Tubal, tlie first musician. 5. Tubal-cain, the earhest instructer in the mechanic arts- G. Enoch, translated to heaven on account of his piety. 7. Methuselalt, the oldest man that has ever hved, being 969 years old when he died. ^ 1. Adam was created by the Almighty from the dust of the earth, on the Cth day of the creation. His Maker, it is said in Scripture, " breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became a living soul." He Avas thus endued with an immortal principle, and being placed in a probationary state, not only his own cha- racter, but the character of his posterity, was to be affected by his conduct. As he came from the hands of his Maker, he was pure, holy, and happy ; and he liad every mt)tive to persuade him to continued rec- titude of conduct. His outward circumstances also were favourable for this end. He v^as placed in a delightful garden, tlie easy tillage of which constituted his employment. God imposed upon him but one test of obedience, and that was abstinence in regard to eating the fruit of a certain tree in the garden. Persuaded by Eve, who, having been tempted by Satan, had pre- viously transgressed, he partook of the forbidden food, and thus death entered into the world, and " all our wo." His conduct in- volved the greatest impiety, and the consequences have been dread- ful in time, and will be so throughout eternity, in regard to multi- tudes of his offspring, who have imitated him in his disobedience, and repented not. It is highly probable that he, together with the woman, embraced an offered Saviour, hnmediately made known, both having repented of their sin. He lived many j'ears afterwards, having begot sons and daughters, and died at the advanced age of 930 jears. For fur- ther particulars, see Genesis, 2d, 3d, and 4th cliapters. 2. Eve was created " an help meet" for Adam, liaving been formed, by the Creator, from one of the ribs of Adam, AvhicJi was taken from him in a deep sleep. Thus she became "• bone of his bones, and flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife. She proved to be first " in the transgression." Satan, a fallen spi- rit, assuming the form of a serpent, and, tlirough the organs of that animal, exerting the powers of speech, accosted her when alone, and interrogated her respecting the forbidden tree. Taking her by sur- prise, and sectning her attention and good will, he at length persuaded wer to disobey the express command of God. B2 18 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD t. She partook of tlie fruit; "and gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat." This event, in regard to tlie first human pair, is supposed to have taken place very soon, if not immediately after they were placed in the garden. Eve, as a particular punishment to be inflicted upon her, was doomed in sorrow to bring forth children, and to be subject to her husband. 3. Cain rendered himself famous by his wickedness. In an unpro- voked manner he murdered his brother Abel, and thus was the first who committed a crime which has ever been considered as the most atrocious that man commits. God directly punished him by an awful malediction ; and b^ causing him to become a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth. Going out " from the presence of tVe Lord," he dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of Eden. He at length built a city, and called it Enoch, after the name of his son. Nothing is recorded of the time and manner of his death. He was most probably a person of great energy and enterprise, as has often been the fact with the wicked ones of the earth. 4. .Tubal is spoken of in Scripture as "the father of all siich as handle the harp and organ," as his brother Jabal is mentioned as ' the father of such as dwell in tents." From all accounts, both sa cred and profane, music must have been early knov/n among man kind, and its perlbrmers must have been among the earliest civilizer.s of the world. 5. Tubal-Cain is called " an in?tructer of every artificer in brass and iron." Probably he was so called from his having discovered the art of working in these metals ; the most useful of the mechanic arts, and lying at the foundation of all of them. 6. Enoch lived 65 years before he begat Methuselah. He "walk- ed with God after he begat Methuselah 300 years, and begat sons anci daughters. And all the days of Enoch were 365 years. And Enoch walked with God, and he was not, for God took him." Such is the simple and sublime record of scripture respecting a good man. It i,s an infinitely more precious memorial than the splendid marble monument, or the ever-during pyramid. 7. Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable for any thing except his age. He must have lived to the very jca.r of the flood. The circumstance of the longevity of the antediluvians, was ex- tremely favourable to the communication of knowledge, by tradition. PERIOD II. The Period of the Confusion of Languages, extending from the Deluge^ 234S years B. C. to the calling of Abrahafn, 1921 years 13. C. § It may be observed here, that this period, in profane history, and even two or three others succeeding it, are what is termed fabuious. The events recorded are to be admitted with a great degree of cau- 234S— 1921 i. c. 19 linii, except so for as Scripture incidentally throws its light upon them. And it is well known, also, that there is a portion of the early history of almost every nation, which is but little entitled to credit. We sh;ill adduce the common accounts, and when neces- sary, shall endeavour to distinguish between the probable and impro- bable events. Section 1. At the appointed time, God brought the wa- ters of the flood upon all tlie earth. For this purpose, he broke up the fountains of the great deep, and opened the win- dows of heaven. Diuing forty days and forty niglits, with- out intermission, the waters were thus poured upon the surface of the globe. As the ark was completed, Noah, being 600 years old, went into it, together with his wife, his three sons, a.nd their wives, taking with him all kinds of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs, and by sevens, agreeably to the divine direction. According to the antedihinan computation. Noah remained in tlie ark one year and ten days ; and on coming oitt, he built an altar, and offered a sacriflce to tlic Lord, who blessed Noah and his sons. They settled in the vicinity of mount Ararat, in Armenia. § The waters increased gradually during the space of five months, when they rose to the elevation of 27 feet above the sununits of the highest mountains. Men, beasts, birds, and reptiles, thus being de- prived of the means of safety, all perished. The purpose of God being effected, he caused a wind to pass over the earth, in consequence of which the Avaters began to subside. The ark rested on the mountains of Ararat, on the 17th day of the 7th month, or the 6th of May. The waters continuing several months afterwards, it was not until the 27th of tlie 2d montli, or the 18th of December, that the inmates of the ark came forth in pursuance of the divine com mand. 2. The truth of the Bible respecting the deluge, is strikingly confirmed by the general voice of mankind, and by the pliy- sical structure and appearance of the earth's surlace. § The Chaldeans, Egyptians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Greeks, and other natior.s, all had some traditions respecting the deluge. Not to mention any that have been yet published, the author of this outline would state a fact once delivered to him by an intelligent adventurer, his countryman. Residing some time among the natives of the North West Coast of America, he fell into conversation with one of them around tlie fire of his wigwam, on various topics. Among other things, the Indian inquired of him, whether his people knew any thing concerning a great flood that hdd once taken place. 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. PERIOD II. The stranger resident affecting surprise, with a view to learn what notion the natives iiad on the subject, asked his inquii ,t, how long ago it happened. The Indian immediately scooping up a handful of ashes that lay before him, promptly replied, "as many moons as there are aslies here." In agreement with the universal voice of tradition, the surface of tlie earth, in various respects, indicates the occurrence of such a ca- tastrophe. Its broken state, the disposition of its strata, and the re- mains of marine productions on the tops of the highest mountains, are no doubtful evidence on this subject. 3. After the deliverance of Noah and liis family from the flood, God established a gracious covenant with him, which is recorded at length in the 9th chapter of Genesis. Among other things, he made a grant of flesh as food for mankind, and he engaged no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confirmation of which he set his bow in the cloud. ^ 4. Not long after this period, Noah, who had engaged in the pursuits of husbandry, having been intoxicated by the juice of the grape, was discovered in this disgraceful situa- tion by his youngest son Ham, who, with indecent levity, in- formed his brethren of the ciicumstance. The latter, however, treated their father with the highest degree of filial decorum. This conduct procured for them the blessing of Noah, while that of Ham subjected him, in his son Canaan, to a dreadful curse. § Noah, we are informed by the sacred historian, lived 3.'50 years aftei the deluge, so that his entire age was 950 years. The Orientals havo a tradition that he was buried in Mesopotamia, where they show his sepulchre, in a castle near Dair Abunah, or the " monastery of our father." 5. The three sons of Noah were, of course, the first foun ders of nations. They peopled the several quarters of the globe, Shem, the east and south of Asia ; Ham, Syria, Ara- bia, and Africa ; Japheth, the north and west of Asia, and also Europe. § From the immediate descendants of Shem were derived the Ela- mites or Persians^ the Assyrians, and the Lydians. By Joktan, the fourth in descent from Siiem, llie uttermost parts of tlie east were E copied, and perhaps America also, where, it is said, some traces of is name yet remain. Joktan had 13 sons, and scripture says that the dwt^lling of Jok- tan's posterity " was from Mesha, as thou goest up to Sephar, a mount iu the East." From the sons of Ham, who is supposed to be the Chronos of the Greeks, were descended the Ethiopians, the Babylonians, the Egyp- 2348—1921 B. c. 21 tinns, the Coidiians, ilie Pliilisiincs, the Lybians, the Canaanites, the .Sidonians, and the PhcRiiieians. From tlie sons of Japheth wore descended the Cimbri, the Gauls, the Germans, the Scj-thians, the Tartars, the Medes, the lonians, t!ie Iberians, the Muscovites, and the Thracians. From their sons \^ ere derived other particular tribes, whose names need not here be rehearsed. 0. During 101 years after the flood, i. e. till the year 2247 B. C. all the descendants of Noah spoke but one language The occasion of a diversity of tongues in the world, and of the origin of distinct communities, was the following. At tlte time above referred to, the human family, in jour- neying from the vicinity of mount Ararat, arrived at length at a plain in the land of Sliinar. On this spot they began to erect a city and a tower, whose top might aspire to heaven, for the purpose of avoiding the dispersion of their households, and of acquiring a name. Such a purpose, and perhaps others still worse, being of- fensive to tlie DeitV; he confoinided their language, and thus tlic workmen, not being able to understand one another, de- sisted fi-om their vmdertaking. The consequence was the dispersion of mankind into different nations. The name given to the city was Babel, wliich signifies confusion. 5 In erecting the tower thej' made use of brick instead of stone, and the want of mortar was supphedby slime, or bitumen, of which the region afforded an abundance. The identical materials of this fa- bric have been supposed, at different times, to have been discovered ; but this is uncertain. 7. Mankind having become separated into different com- munities or nations, their history must thenceforth be given accordingly. We shall commence with the Assj^rian nation, and briefly trace the outline of its history, as also the liistory of other sovereignties that existed during this period, ASSYRIA. 8. As.sYRTA, considered as afterwards including Babylonia, is the oldest of nations, and foundetl on the spot where the tower of Babel was erected. We may date tlie commence- ment of this empire not many years after tlie dispersion took place, or about 2229 years B. C Its founder was Asliur. the son of Shem, who built Nineveh, its capital. It continued alone about 120 years, and then being united to Babylonia, became a mighty empire. 22 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD II. § In the order of lime, there were two empires of tlie Assyrians. Tlie first is liere spoken of, which lasted till the year 767 B. C. It is supposed by some that Babylon, which was built by Nimrod^ the grandson of Ham, the Belus of profane history, was, from the beginning, the capital of Assyria. But we rather follow those autho- rities that suppose Babylonia and Assyria to have been originally two distinct kingdoms, both founded about the same time, the former by Nimrod, the latter by Ashur. The Babylonians became, at length, tributary ; and Ninus, king of Assyria, having deposed Nabouius, united the uvo states into one. 4.fter his death, Semiramis, his widow, transferred the seat of govern- aient from Nineveh to Babylon. 9. Under Semiramis tlie Assyrian empire Vv'as greatly en- larged. She assumed the government dining the nonage of Ninias, son of her husband, Ninus. She signahzed her name by enlarging and embellishing Babylon, and by her nume- rous military exploits. ^ It is said, that, in completing Babylon, she employed the labours of 2,000,000 men. Thiswoman, after having enlarged her dominions, conquered a great part of Ethiopia, and invaded India, though with- out success, was murdered, as is supposed, at the instigation of Ninias. 10. Ninias, her successor, was a very insignificant sove reign ; and the history of his successors, for more than 30 ge • Derations, is unknown. They must have been an indolent and elTeminate race. § Ninias, unlike his predecessors, being whollj^ intent on his plea sures, kept himself secluded in his palace, and seldom appeared before his people. But, to retain them in their duty, he kept a cer- tain number of regular troops, whom he renewed every year, com- manded by an officer on whose fidelity he could depend. This method he seems to have adopted, that the officers might have no time to gain the affections of the soldiers, or to form conspiracies against him. Not only are his successors imknown, as to their conduct or ex- ploits, but even their names, till the time of Sardanapalus, the last of them, (who will be noticed in the proper place,) are a matter of con- troversy among historians. During this unrecorded period of the Assyrian history, Sesostris, king of Egypt, if his name may be here anticipated, who carried on his conquests into the East, must have overrun Assyria ; but, as his power wa-; nf>1 supported by his successors, the Assyrians must have soon regained their former state. CHINA 11. China, it is not to be doubted, is among the most ancient empires of the world. Its records extend to more than 2200 years B. C. A.ccording to the most current opi. 2348—1921 B. c. 2S nion, it was founded by one of the colonies formed at the dispersion of Noah's posterity, under the conduct of Yao, who took for his colleague Chun, afterwards his successor. Otlier accounts state Fo-hi to have been the founder of this monarchy, and many writers consider Fo-hi to have been Noah b'.mself Tlie Chinese pretend a much higher antiquity than is here assigned to them, but their pretensions are merely the effect of national vanity. § Tlie sovereigns of China, from Chun to the present time, are di- vided into 22 dynasties, tlie first of which, that of Hia, began 2207 years B. C. Four, and a part of the fifth, of these dynasties, preceded the Cliristian era. The first dynasty was founded by Yu, surnamcd Ta, or the Great, whom Chun aricjj ted in preference to his own children. It lasted 441 years, under 17 emperors. Yu-ta was a great proficient in agi'iculture, astronomy, and the kindred studies. On the subject of the first, lie wrote an excellent treatise. He died much regretted, after a reign of 17 years. Kya, the last monarch of this dynasty, \vas greatly detested by his subjects. He was driven from the throne, and died after an igno- minious exile of three years. EGYPT. 12. Egypt claims, and certainly possesses, a high anti- (jtiity. Its early annals, however, are so obscure, that scarcely any thing can be ascertained respecting its first kings, after Menes.* Menes is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Egyptian empire, and is supposed to be the same as Misraim, mentioned in scriptin'e among Ham's sons, 2188 years B. C. His children divided the land ; whence arose four kingdoms, which subsisted separately during several centuries, and were successively united under one yoke. These four kingdoms are known by the names of Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanais. The people had attained to considerable civilization, but a period of barbarism soon after- j ♦ Some late writcra, adopting' the Samaritan text of the Bible, which places tlic deluge several hundred years beyond the common era, compute the reign of Menc3 at about 2800 years B. C. Witli this they cause the other events ol the early period of the world to correspond. We mention tiiis circumstance, because the computation which is thus made may possibly be correct, and it eeems to derive some little confirmation from tlie liisfory of the Egyptians, both a3 touched upon in the Bible, and as gathered from their hieroglyphic recordB. Still, however, we incline to the common accounts. 24 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD II. wards succeeded, supposed about 20S4 years B. C, under the shepherd kings,* which lasted more than two centuries. i 111 the time of Menes, the greatest part of the coiintry was a mo- rass, till he diverted the course of the Nile, and founded the city ot Memphis within the ancient bed of that river. He instructed the Egyptians in theology, introduced domestic luxury, and instituted magnificent feasts. It was under Tiraaus, one of his successors, that the government was subverted and the country subdued by a multitude of ignoble persons, wlio came from the East, and treated in the most inhuman manner the ancient inhabitants. These invaders were called Hycsos, or shepherd kings, and, ac- cording to Manetlio, held all Lower Egypt 259 years. In the kingdom of Thebes, a king by the name of Athothes I. is said to have reigned at a very early period. He was the same as was worshipped under the name of Mercury. After h's death his tvi^o sons divided the kingdom ; but nothing is known of their successor.? for a long period. In the kingdom of Thin, Yeuephes is said to have built some pyramids, and to have had his reign distinguished by a great famine, a? that also of one of his successors was distinguished by a dreadful plague. In the kingdom of Mem.phis, Tosorthros reigned, not long aftef Menes. From the knowledge he liad of physic, he is styled Escula- pius. He is said to have invented the arts of building and writing. Of the last kingdom of Egypt, during this period, there seem to be no records, or none worth naming. Indeed, in regard to those of the others that have come down to us, there is extreme uncer- tainty. Distinguished characters in Period II. 1. Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled. 2. Ashur, who built Nineveh. 3. Nimrod, a warrior, and supposed to be the first king. 4. Menes, first king of Egypt, and civilizer of the East. 5. Ninus, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a large portion of Asia. 6. Semiramis, a female conqueror, and able sovereign. \ 1. Noah is by some considered the Chronos of the Greeks, and is properly the second father of mankind. Little needs to be said of him, besides what has already appeared. His eminent piety pro- cured for liim and his family an honourable exemption from the aw- fully destructive effects of the deluge. i ♦ These kiiig-g, who were detested by the Eg-yptians, held the government ■when Abraham visited it; but were expelled bef'uic the time of Joseph. Thia circumstance explains the remarkable fact, that Abraham, a shepherd, was very kindly entertained in Eg-ypt ; while, in a subsequent ag-e, Joseph's bre- thren, because they were shepherds, were held in abhorrence by the inhabi- tants. We have here a pleasing confirmation of the truth of tnc scriptural carrative. 2348—1921 B. c. 25 Having built the ark aorreeably to the divine direction, he entered it ot the age of 000 years, taking with him seven members of his family, togetlier with tiie animals that were intended to restock the earth. [Jnder the special care of God, lie, and tlie various inmates of the arli, survived the desolations of a world, and leaving the ark in safety, at a little more t'.iaii the expiration of a year, he built an altar, and offered sacrifice unto the Lord. Noah lived 350 years after the flood, was engaged in tiie tillage of the earth, and saw his descendants increasing around hiiu. For an important incident in liislife, which has already been mentioned, we refer to Gen. ix. 20—28. 2. Ashur was one of the sons of Shem, and supj^osed to be the founder of the Assyrians. Scarcely any thing is recorded of him. The scripture asserts that he went out of the land of Shinar, and builded Nineveli, and tlie city of Rehoboth, and Calah. 3. Nimrod '' seems at first to have exceedingly distinguished himself by inmting, which was then not so much a diversion, as a useful method of preventing the hurtful increase of wild beasts. This em- ployment required great courage and address, and thus alTorded a field for aml)ition to aspire after pre-eminence, and gradually attached a number of valiant men to one leader." " From such a beginning, Nimrod began to claim authority, and enforce sul)jection ; and, in fact, is the first king we read of in au- thentic history; and afterwards he took occasion towage w^ar, to extend his conquests, and to enlarge his acquisitions by violence and blood. Thus, casting oflf the fear of God, and acting in defiance of the divine prohibhion of shedding human blood, he rendered himself notorious, and his name became a proverb."' "The beginning of his kingdom," says scripture, '"was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." 4. Menes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshippea as a god after death. He appears to have been deservedly popular, by his ai)ilities and wisdom. He built the town of IMemphis, as is generally supposed. If he was the same as JMisraim, mentioned in scripture, as some assert, he was one of tlie sons of Ham. He is said to have reigned 62 years over Upper Egypt, and 35 over Lower Egypt. .5. Ninus was a son of Belus. He was very warlike, and extended his conquests from Egypt to the extremities of India and Bac triana. He became enamoured of Semiramis, the wife of one of his officers, and married her, after her husband had destroyed himself, through fear of his powerful rival, or from jealousy. He reigned 52 years, and at his death, left his kingdom to the care of his wife, Se- miramis. 6. Semiramis possessed exquisite beauty, and an heroic soul. It was on these accounts that the Assyrian monarch fell in love \vith her. In ner infancy, it is fabulously said, she was exposed in a desert, but her life was preserved by doves one whole year. She was at length found by one of the shepherds of Ninus, and brought up by him as one of his own children. c tS ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. Slie was so tenderly beloved by her husband, Menones, that he could not survive his expected loss of her, and the knowledge that ehe was demanded by his sovereign. After the death of Ninus, whom she had married, assuming the reins of government in her hands, she immortalized her name by enriching Babylon with new works and embellisliments. Of these, the principal were the walls of the city, the quays and the bridge; the lake, banks, and canals, made for draining the river ; the palace, the hanging gardens, and the temple of Belus She also enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a large part ol Ethiopia. Her greatest and last expedition was directed against ludia. She advanced towards the river Indus, and having prepared boats, attempted to pass it with her army. The passage was for a long tmie disputed, but, after a bloody battle, she put her enemies to flight. Upon this she advanced directly into the country, leaving 60,000 men to guard tlie bridge of boats built over the river. As soon as the Indian king thought her far enough advanced, he faced about ; a second engagcunent ensued, more bloody than the first, 'i'lie Assyrians were routed, and Seiuiramis, after being twice wounded, was obliged to fly, and return to her country with scarcely one third of her arm)^ Some tnue after, discovering that her son was plotting against her, site vohmtarily abdicated tlie throne, put the government into his hands, and withdrew from public life. She lived 62 years, of which she reigned 42. Her cliaracter, in respect to those qualities that adorn a woman, seems not to have been highly esteemed. PERIOD III. The Period of Egyptian. Bondage, extending from the calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. to the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C. HEBREWS. Section 1. The Hebrews or Israelites, commonly called the People of God, are derived from Abraham, the ninth in lineal descent from Shem. His calling of God is a re- markable event in history, and was designed for purposes al together religious. This took place 1921 years B. C. The nation of which he was the founder, though neithei powerful nor refined, is one of the most interesting that evei existed. Their history instructs us in a way different from that of all others, because it brings directly into view the Di- vine dealings with them. 921—1491 B. c. 27 Abiahain's family increased very slowly at first ; but Ja- cob, Ins graiulr^oM, left a numerous oDspring. Twelve song became the heads of as inany separate tribes in the nation. § Abraham, acc(;rdiiig to the Lord's conimand, left tlie land of the Chaldees, his native countrj^, and dwelt with his father Terah, in Haran. By tlie same command, after Terah's death, he went into the land of Canaan, whicli God promised to his posterity. They were at length to be included within the boundaries of thai country. Tlie divine design in thus setting apart one family from the restoi mankind, was to preserve the true religion in the world, and to pre- pare the way for the great work of redemption by Jesus Christ. The earth had now begun to be overrun with idolatry. Abraliam having acquired a name by iiis wealth and piety, and having passed through various trials, died at an advanced age, leaving behind him several sons, of wliom only Isaac was the child of pro- mise. Ishmael, by the maid of Abraham's wife, became the proge- nitor of a distinct tribe or nation. Two sons were tlie progeny of Isaac, viz. Esau and Jacob, the former of whom sold his birthright to Jacob, who also by artifice obtained his fatlier's blessing. In the line of Jacob, whose name was afterwards changed to Israel, were the Israelites descended. His twelve sons gave the names to the several tribes of which the nation was composed. Esau Avas the father of the Edomites, or Idumeans. 2. Jacob clojed an eventful life, 1689 years B. C, in mak- ing a proplietic declaration of the future state of his descend- ants, and the period of the coming of the Messiah. He had previously been l)rought out of Canaan, into Egypt, by meana of liis son Joseph, whom his brethren, through envy and ma- lice, sold into that country. The dilferent occurrences by which Joseph became minis- ter to the king of Egypt, speak the immediate interposition of 13ivine Providence, which was preparing for the accom- plisliment of the promises made to the |)alriarch Abraham. The history of Joseph, as recorded in Scripture, is unparalleled in beauty and interest. Some of the principal incidents are the fol- lowing. Joseph, who was much loved by liis father and hated by his bre- thren, upon a certain occasion which Avas presented, fell into tlie Sjowerof the latter, who sought to slay him. This horrid design, luwever, being providentially prevented, they availed themselves oJ the opportunity of selling him to some Ishmaelite slave merchants, who carried liim into Egypt, wliere he was bought by Potiphar, an officer of the court. Here, at length, lie was wrongfully thrown into prison, by a false accusation of Potiphar's wife ; but, being proved to be an interpreter ti8 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. of dreams, he was introduced to the notice of Pharaoh, who, on a cer lain occasion, wanted his services in this capacity. His success in interpreting tlie king's dreams, and his subsequent conduct, procured for him the highest distinciien ; and he became the administrator of the government. During the Aimine, v\'^hich he predicted, and which reached the land of Canaan, all his brethren, ex- cept Benjamin, came to liim to buy corn. Joseph knew them, although tliey did not know him ; and by an innocent contrivance, having brought them into Egypt tlie second time, with their brother Benjamin, he declared to tliem that he was Joseph whom they had persecuted and sold. Their surprise, mortification, and terror, were at first overwhelming ; but their distressing apprehensions were at length alleviated by his assurances of pardon and kindness j and inviting his father and fa- mily into Egypt, he allotted them a portion of the territory. Here they grew and multiplied exceedingly. 3. Joseph coutiiuied to mle over Egypt, after the death of Jacob. His own decease, which occmied 1635 years B. C left the Tsraehtes without a protector. In less than 40 years from tliis event, they fotind a cruel tyrant and oppressor in another king, who knew not Joseph. This king, whose name \vas Plmraoh,* seeing the He- brews to be too numerous and mighty, resolved to enfeeble them ; and, therefore, condemned them to slavery, and or- dered his people to cast every new-bom son among them into the river. The object in vie\v \vas defeated : for the people increased m an unexampled manner. God was with tliem, and, in the wonderful preservation of Moses, and his education in the court of Pharaoh, was preparing for them a deliverer from their cruel bondage. § For the particulars of this persecution of God's people, we refer to tlie beginning of the book of Exodus. CANAANITES. Section 4. The Canaanites were an ancient people. The country which they inhabited was called the land of Canaan, the name of Ham's youngest son, who settled it im- mediately after the dispersion at Babel. He divided it among his eleven sons. The general denomination of Canaanitea included seven nations, which are frequently mentioned in scripture. § The Canaanitcs seem to have laboured, in a particular manner, under the evil influence of the curse denounced against their proge- ♦ A name common to the kings of Egypt. 1921—1491 B. c. 29 ntor*; bclngf doomrn, in the end, to subjeetion, expulsion, or extirpa- tion, and being subilivided into so many bttle kingdoms. The beginning of their iustory is extremely dark. They are sup- posed, however, upon the increase of their families, to have possess- ed themselves of tlie Arabian side of Egypt, and there to have erected a kingdom coeval witli that of Misraim. But they seem at length to liave been expelled from that region. 5. The first, MUthciitic account of this people apphes to the inhabitants of the vale of Siddim, who. 1912 years B. C, were invaded by (. hedorlaoiuer. king of Elain, and obhged to pay an annual tiibute. When they afterwards revolted, they were piniislied v.itli great severity. F"'ifteen years after this, a most terrific judgment was in- flicted on the inhabitants of Siddin^, in consequence of their gross wickedness. Four cities in this delightful vale, Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim, were at once destroyed by fne from heaven. The whole tract of country in their vicinity became a sea, called the Dead Sea. § The 18th and IGth chapters of Genesis contain an account of this catastrophe, and of its causes ; to these we refer the reader. At the present time, from the accounts of travellers, it appears that tlie sea and adjacent region are marked by several peculiarities wor- thy of notice. In a journal of one of our American missionaries in Palestine, of recent date, we find the following account. " The water looks remarkably clear and pure ; but, on taking it into my mouth, I found it nauseous and bitter, I think beyond any thing I ever tasted. '' It has been said, that these waters are so heavy, that the most impetuous winds can scarcely ruffle their surface. Nothing could be more entirely without foundation. The waves ran so high, that I found dilHculty in filling some bottles with water. My clothes were wet by the waves, and, as they dried, I found them covered with salt." Quantities of bitumen are gathered in the vicinity, which, in ap- I)earance, resembles pitch, but may be distinguished from it by its sulphureous smell and taste. Pebbles are also found here which burn when held in a blaze, producing a very disagreeable scent, but they lose nothing of their size. 6. Dming this period, nothing more of much importance is recorded concerning the Canaanites. The compact of tlie Hittites with Abraham, respecting the cave of Machpelah, the selhng of a piece of ground to Jacob, by Hamor. king of Sliechem, {tnd the massacre of his subjects by some of the sons of Jacob, on account of an insult which the patriarch's family liad received, are the only events transmitted to us. 30 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. GREECE. 7. The Greeks are an ancient people, whose origin ia clouded with fable. All that we know, during the piesent or preceding period, of the descendants of Japhet, who peopled Europe, is comprised in the history of this nation. We date the commencement of the Greeks, as a commu- nity, from the founding of Argos by Inachus, who arrived in Greece, from Phaniicia, 1856 years B. C. Sicyon is by some thought to have been founded before ; but we incHne to the opinion that Egialtes, a son of Inachus, was the founder of Sicyon. § As much has been written concerning the fabulous times in the history of Greece, we will here present a very brief account of that portion of its history. These fables, however, are supposed to be founded on facts, and the greater part of the deities worshipped by the Greeks, were princes by whom their progenitors had been go- verned. Uranus, afterwards worshipped as the heavens, appears to have been one of tlie earliest of their princes. He married his sister Ti- thea, and migrated from Asia into Greece, where he founded a king- dom. He had many children, called Titans, who rebelled against their father and dethroned him. Saturn, or Chronos, succeeded his father Uranus, whom, with the help of his brethren, he dethroned ; and dreading lest he should be treated in tlie same manner by his own children, he ordered them to be shut up, or put to death, immediately after their birth ; but Jupi- ter was concealed by his mother, and sent to Crete, where he was educated. Jupiter began to reign in Thcssaly, after having dethroned Saturn. The Titans, jealous of him, declared war against him, but were van- quished, and expelled Greece. He soon divided his dominions with his two brothers, Pluto and Neptune. The countries whicli lie reserved to himself, he governed with great wisdom ; he had )iis palace, and held his court, on Mount Olympus, ' whence tlie poets gave this name to heaven, when Jupiter was wor- shipped as a god. 8. The ancient inhabitants of Greece were extremely rude and savage, scarcely one degree superior to brutes. They lived on lierbs and roots, and lay either in the open fields, or, at best, sheltered themselves in dens, clefts, and hol- low trees. An improvement of their condition occasionally took place ; out Greece, for some ages, was in a contmual slate of fluctu- fttion. They were uiiac(|nainted with letters till the time of Cadmus, who is hereafter to be mentioned. Cecrops embarking for Greere. P. 31. Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. P. 60. 1921— 1491 B. c. ai §The general names by wliicli the natives of Greece were known to old historians, were Graioi, Ilelieiiists, Achsei, Pelasgri. But the most ancient iKiine of ail ap[)lied to thin country, is generally admitted to be tliat of loura, which tiio Greel<.s derive from Ion ; but Josephus derives it from Javan, son of Japheth. 9. Tlie i^everal states, except Argos and Sicyon, which at length constituted Greece, Imd, at this time, no separate ex- istence. Tliey sprang np afterwards, during the latter part of the present period, as there will now be occasion to men- tion. In Argos, the descendants of Inacluis. having retained pos- session of the tlirone for more than 300 years, were deposed, 1511 years B. C, by Danaus, an Egyptian fugitive, who be- came the founder of a second dynasty, denominated BeUdee, from his father, liehis. § At a much lal^r period, Perseus, a sovereign of Argos, having built Mycenee, transferred tiie kingdom tliilher. It was at length conquer ed by the Ilcraclida^, and united to liaceda^mon. It nuty be liere noticed, tliat only two of the Grecian states, viz. Lacedamion and Messenia, appear to have been foimded by native Greeks ; tlu^ rest were established by tlte various brandies of the Celtic family of Uranus, with the exception of Athens, which owed its origin to an Egyptian. Prior to these establishments, and even long after them, almost every village had its petty tyrant, who bore the title of king. A name has occasionally escaped oblivion. Laws we do not find among Uiem, before the times of the Athenian archons. Until that period, all depended on the will of the sovereigns ; onlj in perplexed cases, they consulted some oracle, of which the two most celebrated, were that of Jupiter at Dodona, and that of Apollo at Delphi. 10. Cccrops, a native of Egypt, is iniiversally allowed to have founded Athens, 1556 years B. C. At this time lie arrived in Attica, with a colony of his countrymen, and built twelve small villages or cities, of wiiicli Athens was one. He gave laws to the wild inhabitants, whom ]ie divided into twelve tribes, and instituted marriage among them. Tire first altar in Greece was raised by him to Jujiiter. § The history of Greece is carried on for a lime in this event Athens became the most illustrious of the Grecian states. The province of Attica having been destroyed by the deluge of Ogyges, remained desolate for more than two centuries, previous to the time of Cecrops. Athens, from its founder, first received the name of Cecropia, but afterwards tliat of Athena?, in lionourof Minerva, its tutelary deity. The Arundelian marbles, which were brought from Greece by tho S2 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD HI. Earl of Arundel, and are now kept in England, begin their chrono- logy with the founding of Athens, but place that event 26 years earlier, viz. 1582 B. C. 11. TJie successor of Cecrops was Cranaus. In his time happened the famous deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly. The third king of Athens was Amphictyon, who founded the cele- brated Ainpliictyonic council.* § The deluge of Deucalion owed much of its importance to the imaginations of the poets. It was probably only a partial inun- dation. In the reign of Amphictyon, a famine occurred, during which Ericthonius, said to be the son of Vulcan, arrived from Egypt with a supply of corn, and taught the natives the art of Agri- culture, for which he was raised to the throne in the room of Am- phictyon. 12. Corinth, another of the Grecian states, was founded 1520 years B. C, but did not receive the nahie of Corinth till it was rebuilt, 1410 years B. C. It originally formed a part of the kingdom of Sicyon, and was afterwards included in that of Argos, till Sysyphus, some time in the following period, seized it for his possession. 13. Thebes, a state of Greece also, was founded by Cad- mus. The city, though begun by him, was finished by Amphion and Zethus. He introduced letters into Greece, 1519 years B. C. Thebes he built a few yeais afterwards. § Cadmus is supposed to have been of Phoenician extraction. To him are ascribed 16 letters of the Greek alphabet. He thus essen- iially contributed to the literary distinction which Greece afterwards attained. 14. Lacedffimon, or Sparta, another distinguished state of Greece, was founded by Lelex, 1516 years B. C, but received its name from Lacedtiemon, its fourth king. The govern- ment continued in the family of Lelex till the return of the Heraclidae to the Peloponnesus, an event to be noticed in the coming period. § Sparta was called after the name of the wife of Lacedremon, the great grand-daughter of Lelex. Sparta properly belongs to the metropolis — Lacedccmon to the kingdom at large. The Pelopon- nesus, in which Lacedaemon was situated, was the southern part of Greece. EGYPT. 15. The events in Egyptian history, during the present epoch, refer chiefly to Nitocris and Sesostris, the one a fe- ♦ See General Views. 1921—1491 B. c. 33 male, the oilier a male sovereign. Nitocris began to reign over Egypt, ir»78 years B. C, at Memphis. She afterwards united some other sovereignties to her dominions. The period when Sesostris began to reign cannot be easily fixed ; some place it before that of Nitocris, but others place it after her reign. The names of a few other kmgs appear, but httle is kno\\T) concerning their reigns. The successor of Sesostris is said to have been Pheron. and some think that Rameses-Tubaete was the king whose dreams Joseph interpreted. Nitocris siiccocded her brother, an Ethiopian, wlio was murdered by the Egyptians, and meditating revenge for his nntimely fate, put many of her subjects to death privately, and afterwards con- trived a building imder ground whither she dehided the chief ob- jects of her vengeance to a feast, and, in the midst of their mirth, overwhehned them with destruction, by turning a river upon them through a secret passage. Slie then ehided tlie rage of tlie popu- lace by taking refuge in a place well fortified with ashes. Iler person is said to have been extremely beautiful, but her disposition was cruel. Sesostris was tire most distinguished of all the Egyptian kings, and almost the only conqueror among them. Historians relate that his father was warned by Vulcan, in a dream, concerning the future conquests of his son, and that, in consequence of this dream, lie got together all the males born in Egypt on the same day with the prince, and had them luu'sed and brought up with him, upon the presumption that, being tlie companions of his youth, they would prove the most devoted warriors and faithful counsellors. Sesostris forming the design of conquering the world, set out with an army of 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 27,000 armed chariots. His conquests were extensive, and he returned hoiue laden with the spoils of various subjugated nations, and followed by a surprising n\miber of captives. He rendered his power highly advantageous to his subjects, by enriching their country with useful works, and mag- nificent edifices. His behaviour, however, was grossly insolent to the kings and chiefs of the conquered nations, who waited upon him to present their tribute. He is said to have caused those princes, four abreast, to be harnessed to his car, instead of horses, tliat they might dravir him to the temple. In his old age he lost his sight, and then was so weak and wicked as to lay violent hands on Inmself. CHINA. 16. Tlie second dynasty of the Chinese emperors con> menced during this period, 1766 years B. C. It lasted 656 years, under 30 emperors. Like the first dynasty, it was ter- Biinated by the vices of the last of them. 34 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. 5 Ching-tang was the founder of this dynasty. He is said to have had the most excellent qualities. His modesty was almost unparal- leled : he was the only person in the empire who thought he was unfit for so important a trust. He was often on the point of resign- ing his crown, but his nobles would not consent to it. Tayvre, one of his successors, being once terrified by a prodigy, which made him apprehensive of a revolution, received the following impressive lesson from his minister. " Virtue has the power of tri- umphing over presages. If you govern your subjects with equity, you will be beyond the reach of misfortune." V^xthing, another prince of this dynasty, after having for three years implored heaven to bless him with such virtues as were suitable to his station, is said to have seen, in a dream, a man represented by heaven to be his prime minister, whose features he well recollected when he awoke. Causing the man to be sought for, such a person was found in the condition of an obscure mason, working in a village, whence he was brought to court. Being questioned on a variety of points concern- ing government, he returned answers marked with so much wisdom as excited the highest surprise. The king, addressing him in a very proper manner, immedi- ately appointed him his prime minister, and received the great- est benefit from his pnident and skilful administration of govemr ment. Distinguished characters in Period III. 1 . Abraham, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew na- tion. 2. Melchisedec, king of Salem, and " priest of the Most High God." 3. Sesostris, an Egyptian hero and conqueror. 4. Joseph, the chief ruler of Egypt under Pharaoh. .5. Cecrops, the founder of Athens. 6. Cadmus, a Phoenician, who built Thebes, and introduced letters into Greece. 1. Abraham was the son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. He was 75 years of age when his father died. After this event he was commanded by God to enter upon the land of Canaan, which God promised to give unto his posterity. In the year following, a fa- mine in the land of Canaan forced Abraham with his family to go into Egypt. In the same year, Abraham, with his nephew Lot, returned unto Canaan. They however parted at length, because the land was in- sufficient for both of their flocks. Lot went to Sodom— Abraham removed to Hebron. God blessed Abraham, and the promise of a posterity was confirmed to him again and again. In the 100th year of his age, Isaac, his son, was born to him, after his expectation had been long delayed. Passing through various 1921—1491 B. c. 35 scenes of life, lie v/as at length called to the severe trial of offering up his son Isaac at the command of the Deity. All his lofty hopes were reposed in that son, yet he hesitated not to execute the divine behest. Just at the moment, however, in which he stretched forth his hand, to take the life of his son, God interposed, and satisfied with Abra- ham's uitentjon, accepted that in room of the deed, rescuing Isaac and commending the faith of the patriarch. Abraham died at the age of 175 years. 2. Little is known of Melchisedec. When Abraham was retnrn- mg from the destruction of Chedorlaomer and his confederates, Melchisedec met and blessed him. The scriptural account is the following: "And Melchisedec, king of Salem, bnnight forth bread and wine ; and lie was the priest of the Most High God. And he blessed him, and said, Blessed be Abram of the Most High God, pos- sessor of heaven and earth. And he (Abraham) gave him tithes of all." The apostle says, in his epistle to the Hebrews, " Now consider how great this man Avas, unto wiiom even the patriarch Abraham gave the tentli of the spoils." 3. Sesoslris was a king of Egypt. His age is so remote from every authentic record, that many ha ve supposed that the actions and con- quests ascribed to tliis monarch are wholly uncertain and fabulous. The amount of what has come down respecting him, as has al- ready appeared in part, is the following. When he ascended the throne, he became ambitious of military fame, and accordingly, at the head of a numerous army, he proceeded to make the conquest of the world. He subdued the most of Asia, and even invaded Europe, bringing the Thracians into subjection ; and, that the fame of his conquests might long survive him, he placed columns in the subjugated provinces; and, many ages after, this pompous inscription was read in several parts of Asia: "Sesostris, the king of kings, has conquered this terri- tory by his arms." At his return home, the monarch employed his time in encouraging the fine arts, improving the revenues of his kingdom, erecting tem- ples, building cities, and digging canals. He committed suicide when he had become old and infirm, after reigning 44 years. His era was 1722 years B. C. 4. Joseph is celebrated in sacred history, and no one's life was more eventful in itself, or has been described with greater felicity than his has been, in scripture. It is unnecessary to say over again M'hat has been said respecting this eminent person, espe- cially since the reference to scripture is so easy, and the reader who once begins the story of Joseph, can seldom feel disposed to leave it until it be finished. The triumph of innocence, and the suc- cess of piety, in this instance, show the care of God over good men, and may well lead them to put their confidence more and more in him. 5. Cecrops was a native of Egypt. He led a colony to At- 56 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV tica, and reigned over part of the covmtry. He married the daughter of a Grecian prince, and was deemed the first founder of Athens. He tauglit his subjects to cuUivate the ohve, and was the first who raised an altar to Jupiter, in Greece, and offered him sa- crifices. After a reign of 50 years, spent in regulating his newly formed kingdom, and in polishing the minds of his subjects, Cecrops died, and was succeeded by Crauaus, a native of the country. 6. Cadmus was a Phcnician. He laid the foundation of Thebes. This fact is very much invested with fable, which needs not to be de- tailed. If Thebes, according to some, sprang up at the sound of Amphion's lyre, i. e. by encouraging the workmen, still Cadmus built a citadel which he called Cadmea, and thus formed the com mencement of a city. Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of letters into Greece, though some maintain that the same alphabet was in ex- istence among the native inlial)itants. This alphabet consisted only of 16 letters, to which 8 were afterwards added. The wor- ship of several of the Egyptian and Phcenician deities was also iutroduced by Cadmus. His era is reckoned to be 1519 years B. C. PERIOD IV. The Period of the Trojan War, extejidmg from the de ■ parture of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C to the dedication of ^oloino7i^s temple, 1004 years B. C. ISRAELITES. Section 1. The history of the Israelites at this era assumes a very marked character. Oppressed by the Egyp- tian monarch, they cried unto God for deUverance, and a di- vine deUverancc they experienced. Moses, selected as the instrument of saving his countrymen, was in due time called to his work ; and, after a series of ini- racles, which he |)erformed by the divine assistance, he led the people out from before Pharaoh, into the borders of the pro- mised land. The consequence to many of the Egyptians was their de- struction ; for Pharaoh and his army pursuing the Israelites tlirough the Red Sea, were overwhelmed with its waters. After wandering in the wilderness 40 years, and frequently rebelling against God, the Israelites weie conducted by the hand of Moses in sight of Canaan, when he died, without en- leiing it himself, 1447 years B. C 149^—1004 E. c. 37 § The story of Moses, and of his agency m dehvering the Israelites, IS very inlcre^iting and instructive ; but we have no room for its pai- ticulars. We will, however, mention some incidents, subsequent to the retreat of the Israelites from Egypt. The Irsraelites were no sooner delivered from the Egyptians, than they murmured against Moses, on account of the w_ant of food ; to satii^fy them, God sent first a great quantity of quails, and the next morning manua, which fell regularly every day, except on sabbath days, during the 40 years they remained in the wilderness. Again the people murmured for water, and Moses, by the Lord'3 command, made a supply to issue from a rock. At this junc- ture, the Amalekites attacked Israel, and were defeated by Jo- shua. The people soon after arriving at Mount Sinai, God gave them his law. During, however, the absence of Moses in the mount, they fell into idolatry, in consequence of which 3000 of them were put to death. In the course of the second year after the retreat from Egypt, Moses numbered the children of Israel from 20 years old and up- wards, and there were found 603,550 men able to go to war, besides the Levites. About this time, 12 men were sent to spy the land of Canaan, who, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, reported unfavourably vvhich caused the people to murmur. Upon tliis offence, God con- demned all those who v/ere twenty years old and upwards when they came out of Egj^pt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and Caleb. As a punishment for their murmurs, the Israelites began to trave. in the wilderness 1489 years B. C. At this time Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, revolting against Moses, VN^ere swallou-ed by the earth, with r50 of their associates. In 1452 years B. C, the Israelites began their conquests, by the defeat of the kings of the Amorites, Bashan, Moab, &c. At the age of 120 years Moses died on Mount Nebo, in the land of Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land. 2. The successor of Moses was Joshua, who conducted tne people into the promised land, having, by the divme command, mostly destroyed the wicked nations that inha- bited it. After this event, the Israelites, with some intermission, were directed by leaders, called Judges, for the space of 356 years. They paid a high respect to these ofTicers, and also to the priests, but they acknowledged no other king than God. As the people at length became weary with this state of thmgs, and desired a Icing, so as to be like the nations around them, a king was, in the divine displeasure, granted to them. § Joshua having led the Israelites to the banks of the Jordan, whose waters divided to aflbrd them a passage, conducted them safely over D 3S ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV. it. He conquered 31 cities in the course of six years. He died 1420 years B. C. The people were perpetually inclined to forsake the worship of Jehovah, and to pollute themselves with the abomuiations of the hea- then. For this they were repeatedly brought into bondage, and con- sequent distress. Their Judges were the instruments of delivering them on these occasions. One occasion wi\s as follows. The Israelites, being brought into the power of the Midianites, after se^^en years of suffering, they cried unto the Lord, who sent an angel to Gideon to announce to him that he was chosen to deliver Israel from their oppressors. By divine direction, Gideon retained of 32.000 men whom he had collected, only 300 men, and Avith them, each carrying a lamp con- cealed in an eartlien vessel, to be broken at a proper opportunity, he so terrified the Midianites, that they fled in confusion, and turned their swords against one another. Samson also, on another occasion, delivered his countrymen by a series of extraordinary efforts of strength and courage which we cannot particularly recount. It may be only mentioned, that, at the conclusion of his course, having been betrayed by his wife, and deprived of his strength — upon its return, he pulled do\^ai, by a sin- gle exertion of his muscular energy, the temple of Dagon on the heads of his enemies, the Philistines, with whom he perished in the general ruin. Samuel, the last and most eminent of these leaders, and a prophet also, rendered signal service to his countrj-mcn, especially by the moral influence which he exercised over them. When old, however, he took for his assistants in the governmeyt, his two sons, whose mismanagement occasioned murmurs among the people, and a de- sire to have a king. 3. Saul, the son of Kisb, was the first king of Israel. Hav- ing been privately anointed by Samuel, he was afterAvards publicly proclaimed, 1079 j^ears B. C. His reign was prospe- rous at first, but at length was characterized by crime and ill success. He perished miserabl)^ He was succeeded by David, who, thougli he erred in seve- ral instances, was a man of distinguished talents, braver)', and piety ; he raised his people to the highest pitch of national prosperity and happiness. The A\i£e and ricli Solomon was his son and successor. He laid the foundation of a magnifi- cent temple, 1011 years B. C. § Saul, having spent an unhappy life, and being at war with the Phi- listines, had his army routed, and three of his sons slain, and he him- self, having received a wound, and fearing to fall info the hands of Lis enemies, took a sword and fell upon it. David had been previously anointed king, but he at first reigned only over the tribe of Judah. But after the death of Ishbosheth. a 1491—1004 B. c. 39 son of Saul, who had assumed the government of the tribes, he reign- ed over the whole of Israel, He spent a very active and perilous life, and among tlie conquests he made were the Philistines, tlie IMoabites, the Ammonites, and the Syrians. He liad at length some domestic troubles, and was in danger from an insurrection of his subjects, bat he lived to see his enemies destroyed, and he left a rich and flourishmg realm to his S(m. CANAANITES. 4. The history of the Caxaanites, and some of the neigh- bouring nations or tribes, is involved in that of the Jews dur- ing this period. They were mostly subdued by Joshua, but seemed to revive at diiirerent times, to the great annoyance of the Israelites. From the time of Solomon, they can scarcely be said to have had a national existence. The remnants of them, except the Canaanites, properly so called, who after- waids went inider the appellation of Phoenicians, were swal- lowed up in the great monarchies that successively existed in Asia. PHGGNICIANS. 5. The Phqjicicians are known m history principally as a navigating and commercial people, among whom the arts were early cultivated. Their country was divided into seve- ral small kingdoms ; but the most considerable of their sove reigntics were the cities of Sidon and Tyre. We know no- thing of tlie kings of Sidon till the present and succeeding pe- riods. Hiram was king of Tyre, and contemporaneous with David and Solomon. § Sidon, according to Josephus, was built by Sidon, the eldest son of Canaan. Tyre was founded by the posterity of Sidon. Herodotus gives to the older Tyre a great antiquity. The new city, reared op- posite to the ancient, on an island, is said, by Josephus, to have been built in the year B. C. 1255. The Phcpuicians are regarded as the earliest navigators, merchants, and workmen, of the world. We learn from ancient I'ccords, that they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Medi- terranean, but e\en over the ocean, as far as England, whence they exported tin. The early kings are not known, except those who had some com- merce with the Jews. To Hiram, Icing of Tyre, both David and So- lomon applied when proposing to build a tem{)le to the Lord. He helped them by furnishing, not only precious materials, but also a great number of workmen. After a glorious reign, Baleazar, his son, eucceeded him. 40 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. GREECE. 6. The history of Greece during this period is pursued first in a few details, respecting some of its dilferent sovereigii- ties. The kings akeady named, who had governed Athens, had raised it to a considerable degree of civilization. But the king who laid the principal foundation of Athenian greatness, was Theseus. He united the 12 cities of Attica into one confede- racy. § Theseus is said to have founded a more perfect equahty among the citizens, in consequence of which, the state rather resembled a repfibUc than a monarch}^ Owing to the inconstancy of the people, he was banished from the country, notwithstanding his many virtues. 7. Codrus, the last Athenian king, devoted himself to the good of his subjects. With him royalty was abolished, since the people thought no man Vv^orthy of succeeding him. This change occurred towards the close of the present period, viz. 1069 years B. C. § Codrus being engaged in a war with the Heraclida, was told by ■;he oracle that the army would be victorious whose chief should perish. He, therefore, with a chosen band, threw himself into the nottest of the battle, and turned the fortune of the day in favour of his countrymen, at the expense of his own life. A dispute for the succession arose between two of his sons, and be- fore they could accommodate their difference, the Athenians abolish- ed royalty altogether, but placed Medon, one of the claimants, at the head of the state, with the title of Archon. This office was for life during more than 3 centuries; afterwards it was reduced to 10 years, and finaUy to one year. 8. Corinth, having been seized by Sysyphus, was governed in his family 250 years. The last king of this race was de- posed l)y the Heraclidae, 1099 years B. C. 9. The first great enteiprise of the Greeks was the Argo- nautic expedition, 1263 years B. C. It was led by Jason, and is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad- venture. Its destination was to Colchis, the modern Mingre- lia, in Asia Minor. § According to some, the object Avas to open the commerce of the Euxine sea, and to secure some establishment on its coast. Ac- cording to others, Jason wished to avenge the death of his kins- man Phryxus, and to recover his treasures, which had been seized by the king of Colchis. Hence, in the language of fiction or figure, it was the " Golden Fleece" that was the object to be rC' covered. 1491—1004 B. c. 41 Tliis expedition was thought to be of so much importance, that all the lieroes of the age were anxious to engage in it. Among the 54 reno«nied captains who were in the single sliip of Argo alone, in which Jason embarked, were Hercules, Tiiescus, Castor and Pollux, Pirithous, Laertes, Peleus, Oileus, «S:c. In the course of their voyage, they attempted to land for refresh- ment in a pan of Phrygia, but were prevented by Laomedon, king of Troy, for ^v•hich they took ample revenge on their return, by pil- laging that city. On their arrival in Colchis, Medea, the daughter of the king, fell in love with Jason, and, through her assistance, the Argonauts ef- fected the object of their vo}''age. On their arrival in Greece, Her- cules celebrated or instituted the Olympic Games. 10. A dispute for the divided sovereignty of Thebes, be- tween the brotliers Eteocles and Polynices, gave rise to a war that was terminated by single combat, in which both were killed. This is called the war of the seven captains, and oc- ciured 1225 years B. C. The sons of the commanders slain in this war renewed the quarrel of their fathers, about ten years afterwards. This is called the war of the Epigonoi, a subject celebrated by Homer in a poem now lost. 11. But the most celebrated event of this period, in the an- nals of Greece, is the Trojan war. It commenced 1193 years B. C, and terminated in ten years. Troy was taken and burnt to the ground. This war was undertaken by the princes of Greece to avenge the wrongs sustained by IVIene- laus,king of Laceda^mon, whose wife, Helen, had been seduced away by Paris, a Trojan prince. The details of this war are derived from Homer ; but he is reasonably supposed to have related facts, for the inost part. § Troy, the capital of Phrygia JMinor, was founded 1546 years B. C. by Scamander, who led thither a colony from Crete. Troas, the fifth in succession from Scamander, either built a new city, or en- larged the old one, and named it after himself, Troy. The Trojans were a brave and warlike people. The numlier of the Grecian warriors is supposed to have been about 100,000. Nearly all Asia I\Iinor was leagued with Priam, king of Troy. The Greeks, on landing at Troas, were warmly op- posed, and they spent the first 8 or 9 years in reducing such cities and islands as favoured the cause of Troy. At length the siege of that capital began, and the most heroic deeds were performed on both sides. At this juncture, the camp of the Greeks was visited by a pes- tilence, and a (iuarrel ensued between Agamemnon and Achilles, the Grecian leaders. The death of Patroclus, slain by Hector, impelled Achilles to D2 43 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV. return into the Grecian camp. Hector Avas killed by Achilles, and Achilles fell by the hand of Paris, who was himself slain by an arrow At last the Greeks gained possession of the city by stratagem, and utterly destroyed it. No vestige of its I'uins now remains. Such of the Trojans as survived sought new settlements in distant regions. Antenor established himself in Italy, where he founded the nation of the Heneti. ^Eneas settled also in Italy, where he founded the kingdom of Alba. 12. The war of the HeracUdee, among the Gi-eeks, began about 80 years after the destruction of Troy. Hercules, the son of Amphitryon, sovereign of MyceuEe, was banished from Ills country, with all his family, while the crown was pos sessed by an usurper. After a period of a century, his de- scendants, called Heraclidee, returned to Peloponnesus, and subduing all their enemies, took possession of the states of My- cense, Argos, and Lacedsemon. This return of the Heraclidae is an event often spoken of in history. 13. A long period of civil war succeeded, and Greece, di- vided among a number of petty tyrants, became a prey to op- pression or anarchy. The difficulties of the times drove.many of the Greeks from lionie, who founded important colonies, as we shall hereafter learn. EGYPT. 14. Concerning the Egyptians, during this period, very little is known with certainty. Apophis is thought to have been the Pharaoh who, together with his army, was drowned m the Red Sea. Amosis, Amenophis II., and one or two others, were warriors and conquerors. § A few things may be subjoined respecting some of the Egyptian kings during this period. Mceris caused the celebrated lake, called by his name, to be dug, to receive the waters of the Nile, when the inundation was too abundant, and to water the country when it proved deficient. Hermes Trismegistes is celebrated for his philosophical writings. He added 5 days to the year, which before consisted only of 360. Amosis abolished the practice of human sacrifices, and conquered Heliopolis, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt. Actisanes, king of Ethiopia, united Egypt and Ethiopia under his government. lie bore his prosperity with great prudence, and behaved himself in a most affectionate manner towards his new subjects. Having caused a general search to be made after the Egyptian robbers who infested the country, he commanded their noses to be cut oR] and then banished tliem to the remotest part of the desert, 1491— 1004 E c. 4^ i)Cl\vcen Syria and Eg\-]:)t, where he built them a town, which, from the mutilation of its inhabitants, Avas called RliinocoJura. A Memphile of ignoble extraction was exalted to the throne. The priests cliaracterised him as a magician, and pretended tliat he could assume whatever form he pleased. His Egyptian name was Cetes, wliich the Greeks rendered Proteus. It was during his reign, that Paris and Helen were driven on the coasts of Egypt, in their passage to Troy, but when the Egyp- tian monarcli understood the shameful breach of hospitality which the young stranger had conmiitted, he ordered him to quit his do- minions. LYDU. 15. The liistory of the kings of Lydia is very obscure. They were divided into three dynasties. 1. The Atydae. 2. The Herachda3. 3. Tiie Mermnadee. The history of Atydae is altogether fabulous. Argon was the first of the He- raclid;p, and Candaules tlie last. Argon reigned about 1223 years B. C. The Lydians are celebrated as merchants and trafiickers. § Lydia is supposed to have been founded by Lud, son of Sheni. It was, however, called Lydia, from Lydus, one of its kings. It was previously called Maeonia, from Mebou, also one of its kings. It was conquered at length by the descendants of Hercules. Lydia Proper was, strictly speaking, at first only that part of Maeonia which was seated on the ^gean Sea ; but when the Greeks or lonians settled there, the ancient inhabitants were driven to the interior. The invaders named the sea coasts where they settled Ionia, after the country whence they had emigrated, or rather, whence they had been driven by the Heraclida ; while the Lydians gave their name to the new countries in which they settled. Long before the invasion of the lonians, the natives of Lydia were devoted to commerce. The earliest instance on record of a gold and silver coinage is found in their history. They were also the first people who exhibited public sports. ITALY. 10. Italy appears to have been inhabited at a remote era. So early as 12S9 years B. C. we read of a king named Janus, who, having arrived from Thessaly, planted a colony on the river Tiber. Four sovereigns succeeded him in La- tium ; during the reign of the last of whom, viz. Latinus, arrived iEiieas, the Trojan prince, in Italy. ^Eneas married Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, and succeeded him in the sovereignty. After ^Eneas there was a succession of kings to the tune of Numitor, the grandfather of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome. 44 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV The history of these kings is, however, ver}^ obscure and confused, and very httle dependence can be placed upon it. Of the numerous petty kingdoms of which Italy was com- posed, those of Etruria and Latium alone deserve attention. The Etruscans are thought to have been a very polished peo- ple. The inhabitants of Latium were the immediate ances- tors of the Romans. A considerable part of Italy was doubt- less peopled by the Greeks. § Italy, afterwards the seat of the Roman power, was peopled at an early era, though we cannot determine the particular point oi time, with certainty as to the country at large. The colony on the Tiber, as we have seen, Avas settled nearly 13 centuries before Christ. There is every reason to believe that a part of Italy was inhabited by a refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman name was known. The Etruscans are justly considered as such a nation ; a fact which is indicated by the monuments in the fine arts which they have left, and some of which exist to this day. Their alphabet, re- sembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them to have been of eastern origin. Though many of the inhabitants of Italy originated from Greece and the east, yet a portion of them, it is believed, must have origi- nated from the Celtic or Gomerian tribes of the north, who entered Italy from that quarter.* The story of Latinns and ^Eneas is briefly as follows. At the time of the arrival of the latter in Italy, Latinus was engaged in a war with the Rutuli ; and, on hearing of this arrival, he 'mmedi- ately marched towards the strangers, expecting to find an unprinci pled banditti. But iEneas, though commanding a body of hardy veterans, held out the olive of peace. Latinus listened to his melancholy tale, and pitying the misfortunes of the Trojan exiles, assigned them a portion of land, on condition of their joining against the Rutuli. iEneas eagerly embraced the offer, and performed such essential service in the cause of the Latins, that this monarch bestowed on him his only daughter, Lavinia, in marriage, with the right of sue cession to the crown. Distinguished characters in Period IV. 1. Moses, the first Hebrew lawgiver and leader. 2. Joshua, a conqueror of Canaan, and pious mihtary chieftain. 3. Orpheus, the father of poetry. 4. Musaius, a Greek poet. 5. Samson, a judge of Israel, and endowed with extraor dinaxy strength. * See Edin. Rev. No. 80. Art. V. 1491—1004 B. c. 45 6. Saiiconiathon, a Phoenician, one of the eailiest writers of history. 7. David, a king of Israel, a warrior and poet. § 1. Moses, when an infant, having been exposed on the brhik of the river Nih^, in an ark of bulrushes, the daughter of I'liaraoh found the ark, saved the child, and liad him educated as her own son. At forty years of age, having renounced the honours of Pharaoh's court, he endeavoured to join his oppressed countrymen, but they would not receive him. After this, circumstances induced him to flee to the land of IMidian, where he married, and enjoyed a retirement of 40 years. At the end of this period, God appeared to him in the mount of Iloreb, and ordered liim to return to Egypt, with a commission to Pharaoh, respecting liis release of the Israelites from bondage. He accomplished this object only after the inliiction of ten severe and awful plagues upon that monarch and his people. At length God saw fit, through Moses, to destroy Pharaoh and the flower of his military force in the Red Sea. From this period, Moses w^as employed in receiving the moral law from mount Sinai, in prescribing the form of the ceremonial worship of the Hebrews, in regulating their civil polity, in con- ducting their military operations, and in leading them through the wilderness of Sinai, in which they were doomed to wander during 40 years. At the age of 120 he died on mount Nebo, in tlie land of Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land. This occurred 1451 years B. C. Moses was a man of eminent piety and wisdom. 2. Joshua was the successor of Moses, and led the Israelites into the promised land, over the river Jordan, whose waters divided to afford them a passaje. The first city which he conquered was Jeri- cho ; this was followed by the speedy reduction of 30 others. Having divided the land of Canaan among the ten tribes, Joshua died, aged 110, 1426 years B. C. 3. Orpheus was the son of (Eager, or, as some say, of Apollo, by Calliope. The fictions of poetry have put into his hands a lyre, whose entrancing sounds stayed the courses of rivers, moved moun- tains, and subdued the ferocity of wild beasts. Doubtless the effects of his song, though not of such a nature, were considerable, in that rude and early age, on the minds of untutored barbarians. By the power of his music, as fiction reports, he regained his wife, Eurydice, from the infernal regions, but lost her again bi con- sequence of failing to comply with a certain condition, on which she was restored. The condition was, that he should not look be- hind to see Iter tiU he had come to the extremest borders of liell. Contrary to promise he did this, through the impatience of love, or by reason of fortretfiilness, and she vanished from before his eyes. Orpheus, according to story, was one of the Argonauts ; of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical a'^count. This, however, is doubted ; and the poems that pass und^r his name, are, with rea- 46 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. son, ascribed to other and later writers. Tliere is little cause to doubt that such a person as Orpheus existed, and that he was a great poet and musician. The period assigned for him is 1284 years B. C. 4. Musaeus is supposed to have been a son or disciple of Linus or Orpheus, and to have lived about 1253 years before the christian era. None of his poems remain. A Musaeus, who flourished in the 4th century, according to the judgment of most critics, wrote "The loves of Leander and Hero." 5. Samson was the son of Manoah, of the tribe of Dan. As he was raised up to avenge the Israelites of their oppressors, he was endow- ed with extraordinary strength. On one occasion, he slew 1000 Phi- listines with the jaw-bone of an ass. At various other times, he se- verely molested and distressed them. At length he was, through stratagem, betrayed by Delilah, and de- prived of his strength. It, however, soon returned; and he pulled down the temple of Dagon on the heads of his enemies, the Philistines, with whom he perished in the general ruin. Some parts of his cha- racter are very far from deserving imitation. His various exploits and follies are recorded, .Tudges xiv. xv. xvi. 6. Sanconiatlion was born at Berytus, or, according to others, at Tyre. He flourished about 1040 years B. C. He wrote, in the lan- guage of his country, a history, in 9 books, in which he amply treat- ed of the theology and antiquities of Phoenicia and the neighbouring places. This history was translated into Greek by Philo, a native of Byb- lus, who lived in the reign of the emperor Adrian, Some few frag- ments of this Greek translation are extant. Some, however, suppose them to be spurious, while others maintain their autlienticity. 7. David was the son of Jesse, and anointed king of Israel, while keeping his father's flocks, by Samuel, the prophet. He was a valiant, prosperous, and warlike prince, and raised himself and people to great eminence and renown. His name began to be known and celebrated, from the time that he slew Goliath, the giant. His military operations were planned with wisdom, and executed with vigour. He was distinguished as a sacred poet and writer of psalms; no one in this department has ever equalled him. Tiiese inspired pro- ductions are marked by loftiness, vigour, and felicity of expression —abounding in the sublimest strains of dfvotion, and conveying the most important trutlis and instructions to the mind. This pious prince was left to fall into scandalous sins, in a few in- stances, parlicularly in the seduction of Bathsheba, and the murder of Uriah, her husband ; but he bitterly repented of them, and was restored to the divine favour. He died, 1015 years B. C, after a reign of 40 years. 1004—752 B. c. 47 PERIOD V. The Period of Homer, extending from the dedication of Solo- mon's temple, 1004 years B. C, to the founding of Rome, 752 years 13. C ISRAELITES. Section 1. From the accession of Solomon to the throne of the Israelites, a period of profound peace and prosperity was enjoyed by that people throughout liis reign. The most important undertaking of tliis monarch, Avas the build- ing and dedication of the temple of the Lord at .Terusalem. Tliis magnificent structure Avas completed in seven yeare. The dedication was performed by the king, with the most solemn religious rites, in presence of all the elders of Israel, and the heads of the various tribes. This prince exceeded in wisdom all who went before him ; but, in his old age, he took many wives and concubines out of the idolatrous nations around him, who corrupted his heart. The Lord therefore declared, by the prophet Abijah, that he would divide the kingdom after his death, and give ten tribes to Jeroljoam ; which accordingly took place. § The temple at Jerusalem was a most sumptuous and costly edifice. The value of the materials, and the perfection of the workmanship, rank it among the most celebrated structures of antiquity. It was not very large, being little more than 90 feet in length, 30 in breadth, find 45 in height ; but was finely proportioned, and, together with a grand porch, Vv-as splendidly ornamented. Towards the close of his reign, as a punisliment of his effeminacy and idolatry, the Lord stirred up certain adversaries against liim ; and, thouijh the principal evil threatened against Israel, was not to occur during his day, yet he had the mortification of knowing that it would be inflicted under the administration of his son ; and that his own conduct would be the procuring cause. We cannot help believing that he repented of his awful defection from duty, though nothing in the Bible is recorded concerning this point ; and all ought to be profited by the memorials which he has left of his wisdom, and general piety. 2. Rehoboain, the son of Solomon, began to reign over the IsraeUtes 975 years B. C. Having refused to lighten the yoke his father had imposed on his subjects, ten tribes revolt- ed, and followed Jerolioam, an entei-prising domestic of the king. The tribes of Judali and Benjamin alone remained 48 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. faithful to Rehoboam. From this time Judah and Israel aie separate kingdoms. 3. The kingdom of the Ten Tribes, or the Israelites, dur • ing tliis period, was governed by a succession of vicious and idolatrous monarchs ; and wars and feuds, treachery and mur- der, mark their history in a shocking manner. Jeroboam was their first king. § A few incidents in tlie lives of these kings may be noticed. Jeroboam, to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem to saeri fice, made two golden calves, which the people worshipped ; for which conduct, God declared that his whole house should be cut off, Zimri, the fourth after Jeroboam, enjoyed the crown only seven days. The city Tirzah, in which he was besieged by Orari, being taken, he burnt himself to death in his palace. Ahab, tlie sixth after Jeroboam, was the most impious king- who reigned over Israel. He married Jezebel, a daugliter of a king of the Sidoniaas, who excited him to commit all manner of wickedness. Among other things, he wantonly murdered Naboth, for refusing to give up his vineyard to Ahab. Jehu, a captain under Jehoram, was anointed king by the prophet Elisha ; and, though a wicked man, was the instrument of executing the Lord's vengeance upon his impious contemporaries. He kiUed Jehoram, and the 70 sons of Ahab ; and after liaving slain all the priests of Baal, he destroyed the miages, and the house of their god. Jehoash was successful as a warrior. He defeated Benhadad, king of Syria, in three battles. In a war against Amaziah, king of Judah, he took him prisoner, broke down the wall of Jerusalem, and plundered the temple and the king's palace. Pekah, the last king during this period, madp war against Judah, with Rezin, king of Syria. Under his reign, part of tlie ten tribes were carried captive to Assyria, by Tiglath Pileser. 4. Several of the kings of Judah. during the present peri- od, were pious men, and adhered to the worship of God. Others of them imitated the profligate kings of Israel. The people whom they governed, and who have survived to the present time, are called Jews, in distinction from Israehtes, the name once applied .to the whole twelve tribes. § We will notice some of the transactions of their reigns. During the reign of Rehoboam, Sesac, king of Egypt, took Jerusalem, and carried off the treasures of the temple, and of the palace. Jehoshaphat carefully enforced the worship of God. The Mo- abites and Ammonites declared war against him ; but the Lord threw them into confusion in such a manner, that they destroyed ona another. Aliaziah, directed by the councils of Athaliah, his mother, acted wickedly. He went, witlr the vicious Jehoram, king of Israel, to war against Hazael, king of Syria. Wlrcn Jehu destroyed the 1004—752 B. c. 40 house of Ahab, he sought Ahaziah, who was hid in Samaria, and slew liim. Joash reigned with justice as long as Jehoiada, the high priest, lived. After his death, haviiig fallen into idolatry, Zechariah, the son oF Jehoiada, reproved him for this sin, and was stoned by the king's order. God then raised against him the king of Syria, Avho plun- dered Jerusalem. His own servants also conspired against him, and stew him in his bed. Uzziah made successful wars against the Philistines and Arabians^ IiUflxicatcd with prosperity, he went into the temple to burn incense upon the altar, and the Lord struck him with leprosy for his pre- sumption. Jotham, a pious prince, fought and orercame the Ammonites, and rendered them tributary. GREECE. 5. Greece, at the commencement of the present period, was in an unsettled state. By the emigration of many of Its inhabitants, colonies had been formed, particularly in Lesser Asia. Afterwards colonies were sent to Italy and Sicily. These, owing to the freedom of their governments, soon ri- valled their parent states ; a circumstance wdiich induced the latter to put an end to despotism, and to adopt popular consti- tntions. In this \vork of reformation, Lycurgus, the legislator of Sparta, was distinguished. 6. It may be mentioned, in connexion wnth this subject and j^reviously to an account of the reformation of Sparta, that the poems of Homer were introduced from Asia into Greece by Lycurgus. He met w'th them in his travels in that region, carefully preseived them, and brought them home on his return, 886 years B. C Their effect on the na- tional spirit and literature of the Greeks, was at length highly propitious. § Homer flourished about 900 years B. C. He was a poor blind man, and used to travel from place to place, singing his verses. But Ids genius was trauscendant. All succeeding ages have bowea to it ; and his poems have been taken as the model of all epic pro- ductions of any note written since his day. The present form of his poems is sup|)Osed not to have been the ancient form. They were probably produced in separate pieces and ballads; and were united into continuous poems, it is said, by cer- tain learned men, mider the direction of Pisistratus, king of Athens. The era of Grecian splendour was several centuries after the time of Homer ; but by the preservation of Ids poems, the prsgress of the tireeks in arts and literature was elTectually secured. 7. Lycurgus, by his peculiar institutions, raised Sparta 50 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. from a weak and distracted state, to superiority in arms ovet the other repubhcs of Greece. Sparta became tiuly republican in its government, though the form of royalty was retained. Its kings were merely the first citizens in the state, and ac- knowledged the superior authority of the Ephori and the people, to whom they were accountable. Their privileges, however, sufficiently distinguished them from the mass of the citizens. With many things in his institutions that were commend- able, there was much that was pernicious. His sole object seems to have been, to render the Spartans fit only for war. The chronological date of the commencement of this refor- mation, is 8S4 years B. C. § After the return of the Herachdae, Sparta was divided between the two sons of Aristodeiniis, Eurysthenes and Procles, who reigned jointly. The oc<^'asioa of this was, that Aristodemus having been killed while his childrpii were infants, their mother was unable to leW wliicli of them was the first born, since they were twins. The Spartans consequently agreed that they should be joint kings. This double monarchy continued in the one line under 30 kings, and in the other line under 27 kings, during a period of about 880 years. Polydcctes and Lycurgus were the sons of one of these icings. Upon the death of his brother, the crown devolved on Ly- curgus ; but his sister-in-law being with cliild, he resigned it. She however intimated to Lycurgus that if he would marry her, the child should be destroyed immediately upon its birth. Lycur- gus, with a view to save it, desired that she would send it to him, and he woidd dispose of it. Accordingly, the boy, as soon as he was born, was sent to his uncle. Lycurgus was at supper with a large party when the royal infant arrived, but he instantly took it into his arms, and holding it to the view of the company, exclaimed, " Spartans 1 beiiold your king." The [)eople were delighted, and the boy was called Charilaus. Lycurgus, witli a view to suppress the calumnies published against him by the faction of the queen, determined upon a voluntary exile. In his travels, he made it an object to acquire knowledge, and espe- cially to ascertain the best means of government. It was during this journey that he discovered the poems of Homer, as above men- tioned. Upon his recall to Sparta, he found things in so bad a condition, that he set about a reformation of the manners of the people. He be- gan his labom-s by instituting a senate to make laws, and see that they were executed ; this senate was composed of 30 members, the kings being of the mnnber He next made an equal division of the lands, so that all the Spar- tans shared it fairly between them. When he endeavoured to do the same with the furniture, clothes, &c. he found the rich very averse to 1921—1491 B. c. 51 his proposals. He therefore took another course. He substituted iron for gold and silver, as tlie medium of exchange. As this iron money was of no account among the neighbouring countries, the Spartans could no longer indulge in luxury, by pur- chasing foreign costly articles. The necessary arts of life he allowed to be practised only by slaves. He then connnandcd that all persons, even the kings themselves, sliould eat at public tables, and that these tables should be served only with plain food. This regulation, more than any otlier, offended the ricli citizens. They ro.se in a body and assaulted Lycurgus; and one of them, pursuing liim to a sanctuary, struck out his eye with a stick. Lycurgus no otherwise punished this offender, tlian by making him his page and attendant. In time, these dinners, at which they served up a kind of soup, called black broth, came to be much re- lished, and very pleasant discourse often enlivened them. An admirable part of the ceremony at these public meals was the follo\\ing. When the company were assembled, the oldest man present, pointing to the door, said, " Not one word spoken here, goes out there." Tliis wise rule produced mutual confidence, and prevent- ed all scandal and misrepresentation. The children were taught in large public schools, and were made brave and hardy. All the people were accustomed to speak in short piihy sentences, so that this style of speaking is even now called af- ter them, laconic ; Laconia being one of the names of Lacedaemon. When Lycurgus had firmly establislied his new laws, he ensured their observance by the following contrivance. He left Sparta, after liaving made the people swear, that they would abide by his laws, imtil he should retu -ri. As he intended not to return at all, this was to swear that they would keep his laws forever. lAXurgus died in a foreign land. By some it is assented, that he starved liimself to deatli. His laws continued in force 500 years, during which time the Spartans became a powerful and conquering people. The institutions of this legislator were impaired by many blemishes. Tlie maimers of the Lacedaemonian women were suffered to be shamefully loose. The youth Mere tauglit to subdue the feelings of lumianity. The slaves were treated with the greatest barbarity. Even tlieft was a part of Spartan education. The object of this was to prepare tlieir minds for the stratagems of | war. Detection exposed tliem to punishment. Plutarch tells us of a boy, who liad stolen a fox and hidden it under his coat, and who rather chose to let the animid tear out his bowels, than to discover the theft. Sect. 8. The first of tlic Olympiads, an era by which the events in Grecian liistory are reckoned, occtTrred 776 vears B. C. The Olympic games were first instituted about 1 450 years B. C, but having fallen into disuse, were restored 62 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. at difierent times, and from the period above mentioned, form a certain epoch in history. § The natursx)f these games will be described under the " Gene- ral Views," at the close of this work. MACEDON. Sect. 9. Macedon, a kingdom in Greece, and sometimes considered distinct from it in its history, was founded by Ca- ranus, an Arrive and descendant of Hercules, about 795 years B. C. The government continued in liis line 647 years, i. e. till the death of Alexander ^Egus, the posthumous; son of Alexander the Great. § The history of Macedon under its first kings is obscure, and pre- sents only some wars with the Illyrians, Thracians, and other neigh- bouring nations. It became, as we shall hereafter learn, very power- ful, and under Philip overturned the liberties of the other states of Greece. ASSYRIA. Sect. 10. After a chasm of 800 years in the history of the first kingdom of Assyria, we find a few particulars re- specting one or tw^o of its last sovereigns. Fid, who is men- tioned in scripture, subdued Israel in the reign of Menahem, wdio became his tributar}^ This Pul is supposed to be the king of Nineveh, who, with his people, repented at the preach- ing of Jonah. If this be the fact, he flourished about 80C years B. C* § The object of Jonah's preaching was to denounce the divine judgements against this people on account of their wickedness. The prophet after great reluctance to obey the command of God, and a signal chastisement for his disobedience, repaired at length to Nine- veh, and executed his commission. The Ninevites took the alarm, and humbled themselves before Jehovah, in consequence of which tliey were delivered at that time from destruction. The Assyrian empire, of which Nineveh was the ."apital, ended, however, soon afterwards, as we shall now learn. Sect. 11. iSat^danapalus was the last and the most vicious of the Assyrian monarchs. In his reign a conspiracy broke out, by which the kingdom was destroyed, 7f)7 years B. C Three monarchies rose from its ruins, viz. Nineveh, wdiich ♦ Wc have here followed Uahcr, and not the autliors of tlic Universal Hia- Uiry. Usher, as we think, more consistently, supposes I'ul to be the father al Sardanapalua. 1004—752 B. c. 53 preserved the name of Assi/rla, Babylon, and the kingdom of the Medcs. § Sardaiiapalus was tlie most effeminate of mankind. Ho never left his palace, but spent all his time with his women and his eunuchs. He imitated them in dress and pamtin^, and spun with them at the distaff. Being besieged in his city, by Arbaces, governor of the Medes, he at length set tire to his palace, and consumed himself, with his wo- men, euiuichs. and treasures. EGYPT. Sect. 12. Egypt conlinned to be governed by a race of kings, concerning whom the connnon accounts seem not to be very satisfactory. TJie most considerable or the best known of them were Shishak, Rhamses, Amenophis IV. and Thuo- ris. Shishak is mentioned in scripture, and he is by some authors considered the same as Sesostris. But we are dispo- sed to consider Sesostris as much more ancient, and have ac- cordingly spoken of him in a former period. § Concerning ShisJial; it appears that he built many temples and cities, dug canals, and among other conquests, took Jerusalem and spoilt the temple. Rhamses possessed a very avaricious disposition. Diodorus in- forms us, that he was never at any expense either for the honour of the gods, or the welfare of his people ; but that his sole delight was in the augmentation of his private treasure, which, at his decease, amoimted to no less than 400,000 talents. Amrnopliis IV. is tliought to be the same with Memnon, whose famous statue was said to utter asoimd at the rising of the sun. The monument in which he was buried, is much celebrated for its niag- nificeuce. He acquired great renown by his expedition against the Baclriaus. Thuoria lost the Egyptian possessions in the East; and after his death, Egypt, reduced within its natural boundaries, was divided among several little kingdoms for about A\ years. PHCENICIANS. Sect. 13. The Pitcenicians, during this period, were go- verned by the successors of Hiram, of whom the first was Bcdeazar, his son ; and the se\'entli from him was Pygma- lion, the brother of tlie celebrated Dido. The cruelties of Pygmalion obliged her to lice to Africa, where she founded a mighty sovereignty, as will now be mentioned. CARTHAGE. Sect. 14. According to the most probable accounts, it was 869 years B. C. when Dido arrived at Africa. The history bi ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. of theCARTHAGiNiANS is dated from this event. She fixedher habitation at the bottom of a gulf, on a peninsula, near the spot where Tunis now stands. From this, Carthage arose, a city which afterwards became famous for its wealth and power, and from its connexion with the Roman wars. The early history of the people, who were called after the name of theii* principal city, is but little known. Its later history is involved in that of Rome. It is probable Dido might have found a few inhabitants in this place, whom its local advantages had induced to settle there ; but to her and her attendants, Carthage is doubtless mdebted for a regular foundation. The colony had the same language, and national charac- ter, and nearly the same laws, with the parent state. In the I '.eight of its splendour, it possessed a population of 700,000 inhabitants, and had under its dominion 300 small cities, bor- dering on the Mediterranean sea. § Pygmalion, wishing to posses.s himself of the immense riches of Sichseus, the husband of Dido, took an opportunity, while they were engaged in a chase, to run liim tlu-ough tlie body with a spear. The suspicion of his sister Avas awakened ; but, concealing her design, .she requested Pygmalion to furnish her with men and ships, to con- vey her effects to a small city between Tyre and Sidon, that she might live there with her brother i3arca. The king granted her request ; but Dido liad no sooner embarked her property on board, than her brother and others, who favoured her real design, set sail for Cyprus, whence they carried off a great mimber of young women, and tlien steered their course to Africa. The Tyrian monarch, thus defeated in his schemes, was about to send a fleet after the fugitives ; but the tears of his mother, and the threatening predictions of the oracle, pre-vented his intended revenge. ITALY. Sect. 15. In Italy, at the time of Numitor, about 77.5 B. C, there was a turn in events deserving our notice. Amu- lius, the brother of Numitor, being ambitious of the throne, usurped the government, and connected this act with the murder of the .king's only son, and with compelling Rhea Sylvia, his only daughter, to become a vestal. He thus meant to prevent any from becoming claimants to the throne. The event, however, frustrated the hopes of Amulius ; for from Sylvia sprung Remus and Romulus, twin brothers, who, at length overcoming Amulius, replaced their grandfather Niuiiitor, on the tluone. 1004—753 3. c. 55 § Amulius, hear,ng of the birth of Renins and Romiilns, .so contrary to his expectations, ordered the mother to be buried ahve, the pun- ishment of incontinent vestals, and the cliildrcn to be thrown into the river 'I'iber. The latter sentence was executed, but the f(n-mer was prevented by the intercession of a daughter of Amulius. The infants, though put into the Tiber, were saved, since the bas- ket in which they were covered, floated on the surface. It was borne to the foot of the Aventine mount, and there stranded. According to some accounts, a she-wolf suckled them, which is incredible. According to otlier accounts, the woman who preserved and nursed tliem, was called Ijitpa, and as Lupa is the Latin word for she-wolf, tliis circumstance caused the mistake. The two brothers became shepherds, were fond of hunting wild beasts, and at length turned their arms against the robbers that in- fested the country. Having been informed of their high birth, they collected their friends, and fought against Amulius, their uncle, and killed him. Numitor, after an exile of 42 j'ears, was then called to the throne again, and was happj^ to owe his restoration to tlie bravery of his grandsons. Such were the youths who were destined by Provi- dence to lay the foundation of a city, which became the mistress of the world. Distinguished cJtaracters in Period V. 1. Solomon, endowed wnth extraordinary wisdom, 2. Homer, the greatest of the Grecian poets. 3. Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet. 4. Lyciirgus, a reformer of the Spartan repubUc. and wise legislator. 5. Dido, a Tyrian princess, who founded Carthage. 6. Isaiah, tlie greatest of the prophetical writers. § 1. Solomon was the son of David by Bathsheha. He succeeded David in the kingdom of Israel. He was tlie wisest of mankind. In early life he appeared to be exemplary in piety, but was afterwards guilty of great defection from the strictness of religion. It is be- lieved, however, tliat he did not die an apostate. The temple whit^h he erected at Jerusalem in honour of the God of Israel, has also ren- dered his name immortal. He wrote the books of Proverlis, and Ecclesiastes, and the Canti- cles, all inspired by the Spirit of God. He died 975 years B. C. aged 58 years, and having reigned 40 years. 2. Homer was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but the earliest whose works have survived the devastations of time. On these accounts he is styled the father of poetry, and indeed, so far as we can know with certainty, he is the most ancient of all profane classical w^-iters. The place of his nativity is unknown. Seven illustrious cities contended for the honour of having given him birth. His parentage 56 ANCIENT HISTORi' PERIOD V. and the circumstances of his life are also unknown, except in regarc* to the latter, it was agreed that he was a wanderivg poet, and that he was hlind. His greatest poems, (and they are among the greatest of uninspi- red books,) are tlie Iliad and Odyssey. Other works have been as- cribed to liim, but without having been sufficiently substantiated. His poetry is characterized by sublimity, fire, sweetness, elegance, and universal knowledge. The poems of Homer are the compositions of a man, who travel- led and examined, with the most critical accuracy. Avhatever he met in his way. jModern travellers are astonished to see the different scenes which his pen described, almost 3000 years ago, still appearing the same ; and the sailor who steers his course along the J^gean, beholds all the promontories and rocks which presented themselves to Nestor and IMenelaus, when they returned victorious from the Trojan war. The first appearance of Homer's poems in Greece, was about 200 years after the supposed time of the bard. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, was the first who arranged the Iliad and Odyssey in the form in which they now appear to us. The Arundelian marbles fix the period in which he flourished, at 907 years B. C. 3. Hesiod is generally considered as having been a contemporary of Homer. He was born at Ascra in Bosotia. His greatest production was a poem on AgricuUw^e, Avhich contains refined moral reflections, mingled with instructions for cultivating fields. His Theogony^ another poem, gives a faithful account of the gods of antiquity. Hesiod is admired for elegance and sweetness. Cicero highly commends him, and the Greeks were so partial to his moral poetical instructions, that they required their children to learn them all by heart. 4. Lycurgvs flourished about 884 years B. C. He was regent of Sparta, until Charilaus, his nephew, had attained to mature 3'8ars. Then leaving Sparta, he travelled in Asia and Egypt, for the purpose of improving his mind, and observing the manners, customs, and po- litical institutions of different nations. Upon his return, he reformed the abuses of the state, banished lux- ury, and produced a system whicli gave rise to all the niagnanimity, fortitude, and intrepidity which distinguished the Lacedaemonians. Having established his laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter them until his return, he left his country, and, by a voluntary death, rendered that event impossible ; thus securing, as far as in his power, tlie perpetuity of his institutions. 5. Dido, also called Elisso, was a daughter of Belus, king of Tyre, and married her uncle Sichajus. Her husband having been murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, the disconsolate princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement. A storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and there she founded, or enlarged a city, that became much celebrated in the annals of history. Her beauty, as well as the fame of her entei-prise, gained her many admirers j and her subjects wished to compel her to marry 1004—752 B. c. 57 larbas, king of Mauritania, by whom they were Uireatened with war. Dido requested three montlis for consideration ; and, during that time, she erected a funeral pile, as if wishing, by a solemn sacrifice, to appease tlie manes of Sichseus, to whom she had vowed eternal fidelity. When her preparation was completed, she stabbed herself on the pile, in presence of her people, and by this desperate feat, obtained the name of Dido, valiant icoman. The poets have made yi'ncas and Dido contemporaneous, but this is only a fiction, allowed perhaps by the rules of their art. 6. Isaiah was th.e son of Amos, and of the lineage of David. He prophesied from 735 to 681 B. C. during the reigns of several kings of Judali. He is the greatest and the sublimest of the prophets. He reproved the sinners of his day with boldness, and exposed the many vices that prevailed in the nation. He is called the evangelical pro- phet, from his frequent allusion to, and prediction of Gospel times. He is said to have been cut in two with a wooden saw, by the cruel king Manasseh. PERIOD VI. 7V«e period of the Roman ki?igs, extending from the fou7uling of Ro?Jie, 752 years B. C.^tothe battle of Ma- rathon, 490 years B. C. ROMANS. Sect. 1. Romulus began the building of Rome 752 B. C. His brother Renins was indeed concerned in the projected un- dertaking, but a dispute arising between llie l)rolhers respect- ing the place where the city should stand, they had recourse to arms ; in consequence of which, Remus lost his hfe. Romukis. only 18 years of age, was thus left to pursue the enterprise alone. On the Palatine hill he fixed as the spot, and enclosing about a mile of territory in compass, with a wall, he filled it with 1000 houses, or rather huts. To this collection he gave the name of Rome ; and he peopled it with the tumultuous and vicious rabble, which he found in the neighbourhood. At first it was nearly destitute of laws ; but it soon became a well regidated community. § The liberty of building a city on those hills, where the two bro- thers had fed tlieir flocks, was granted to them by Numitor, the king. He assigned to them a certain territory, and permitted such of his subjects as chose, to resort thither in aid of the work. A division tiiking place, in regard to the particular spot where tlie city should stand, Numitor advised them to watch the flight of birds. 68 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VT. a ciislom common in that age, when any contested point was to be settled. They took their stations on different hills. Remus saw six vultures ; Romulus twice as many ; so that each one tiicught himself victorious — the one having the first omen, the other the most com- plete. A contest was the result ; and it is asserted that Remus was killed by the hand of his brother. Jumping contemptuously over the city wall, he was struck dead upon the spot by Romulus, who declared that no one should insult his rising walls with impunity. 2. Romulus, having been elected king, introduced order and discipline among his subjeUs, which gradually improved imder his successors. He adopted many important regidations respecting the go- vernment and policy of his newly acquired territory, the wis- dom of which has been sanctioned by time. As some of these, and other institutions that were afterwards added, are to be presented under the General Yicws in this work, they need not here be given. 3. Under tiie salutary regulations of Romidus, great numbers of men, from the small towns around Rome, Hock- ed to the city, and every day it increased in power and ex- tent. The most important event under the administration of Romulus, was the Rape of the Sabine virgins, by which the Romans were supplied with wives, and which caused the war that thence ensued between the Romans and Sabines. After conqtiering some of the neighbouring kings, Romu- lus was killed (it is supposed) by the Senators, having reigned 37 years, and was succeeded, at the expiration of one year, by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, the wisest and best of the Roman kings, 715 years B. C. § In the want of women, Romulus proposed intern)arriagcs with the Sabines, his neiglibours. His proposal, however, was rejected wiiii scorn. He then tried the effect of intrigue and force. Inviting the neiglibourmg tribes to witness some magnificent s[vpctacle in the city, he liad the pleasure of finding thattlie Sabines, with tlieir wives and daughters, Avere among the foremost to be present. At the proper time, the Roman youth i-ushed in among them with drawn swords, seized the youngest and most beautiful of the women, and carried them off by violence. The virgins, at fii-st olfended by the boldness of the intrusion, at length became reconciled to their lot, Tiie Sabines, as might be expected, resented the affront, and flew to arms. After si-'veral unfortmiate attempts at revenge, the Sabines, with Tatius, their king, at their head, entered tlie Roman territories, 25,000 men strong. HaAing by stratagem passed into the city, the^ 752—490 B. c. 59 conlJnued the war at pleasure. At length the Romans and Sabiiies prepared for a general engagement. In tlie midst of the fight, liovvever, the Sabine v/omen who had been carried off by the Romans, rushed in between the combatants. "If," cried they, "any must die, let it be us, wlio are the cause of your animosity ; since, if our parents or our husbands fall, we must, in either case, be miserable in surviving tliem." This movinji spectacle produced an effect. An accommodation ensued, it was agreed that Tatius and Romulus should reign jointly in Rome : that 100 Sabines should be admitted into the senate ; and that the privileges of Roman citizens, should be extended to such of the Sabines as chose to enjoy them. Tatius lived but five years after this ; and Romulus, taking advan- tage of this event, and elated by prosperity, invaded the liberty of his people. The senators opposed his encroachn)ents, and at length, it is .said, tore him to pieces in the senate house. When the throne was offered to Numa, he wished to decline it ; and il was not until his friends repeatedly urged him to accept it, that he gave up his own wishes to theirs, and for the good of his country consented to become king of Rome. He was a wise and virtuous man, and, before his elevation to tlic throne, lived contentedly in privacy. He proved excellent as a mo- narch, and reigned 43 years in profound peace, inspiring his subjects with the love of wisdom and virtue. He multiplied the national gods, built temples, and instituted dif- ferent classes of priests, and a great variety of religious ceremonies. The Fiaminos officiated each in the service of a peculiar deity; the Salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the Vestals cherished the sacred fire ; the Augurs and Aruspices divined future events from the flight of birds, and the entrails of victims. 4. The third king of Rome was Tullius Hostilius, who was tlected, and beg'an to reign, 672 B. C. His disposi tiori was v>-arlike. He subdued the Albans, Fidenates, a.nd other neighbouring states. The Sabines, now disunited from the Romans, became their most powerful enemy. Ttdlius reigned 33 years, and, according to some accounts, he wad killed by lightning. The most remarkable event during the reign of Tulhus, was the combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. In the war between the Romans and Albans, as their armies were about to engage, the Alban general proposed that the dispute .should be decided by single combat, and that the side whose champion was overcome, should submit to the conqueror. To this the Roman king acceded. It happened that there were three twin brothers in each army ; those of the Romans were called Horatii, those of the Albans, Cu- riatii J all remarkable for their prowess. To these the combat WiU 60 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VI. assigned. The armies were drawn up in due order, and the brothers took to their arms. The signal being given, the youths rushed forward to the encoun- ter. They were soon engaged hand to hand, each regardless of his own safety, seeking only the destruction of his opponent. The three Albans were severely woimded, and loud shouts ran along the Ra man army. In a few seconds, two of the Romans fell and expired. The acclamations were heard amid the Albans. The surviving Roman now saw that all depended on him ; it was an awful moment. But he did not despair ; he manfully roused his spirits to meet the exigence of the occasion. Knowing that force ulone could not avail, he had recourse to art. He drew back, as if flying from his enemies. Immediately were heard the hisses of the Romans. But Horatius had the felicity to witness what he wished. The wounded Curiatii, pursuing him at unequal distances, were divided. Turning upon the nearest pursuer, he laid him dead at his feet. The second brother advancing, soon shared the same fate. Only one now remained on each side. The hisses of the Romans were turned into cheerings. But what was their exultation when they saw the last of the Curiatii stretched lifeless on the ground I What followed, it is painful to relate. When Horatius reached Rome, he saw his sister bitterlj^ lamenting the death of the Curiatii, one of whom she was engaged to marry. In the dreadful moment of ungoverned rage, he killed her on the spot. Horatius was condemned to die for his crime, but making his ap- peal to the people, he was pardoned, though his laurels and his cha- racter were forever tarnished. 5. Rome was governed by four other kings, in succession, viz. Ancius Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus. Ancus inherited the virtues of his grandfather, Numa, and was, besides, a warrior; Tarquin enriched Rome with mag- nidcent works ; Servius ruled with pohtical wisdom ; but Tarquin the Proud pursued a course of systematic tyranny. Withhim ended the monarchical form of government at Rome, 509 years B. C. § Servius married his two daughters to the tvv'o sons of Tarquin, and then having established good government, was preparing to quit the throne and live in peace and retirement. But these intentions were frustrated. Tullia, one of his daughters, preferred her sister's husband to her own, and he was disposed to reciprocate so vile an attachment. To answer their base purposes, they both killed their respective partners. As one wickedness too surely paves the way for another, these flagi tious wretches next ])lotted the death of Servius. It will be read with horror, that not only did the cruel Tullia re- joice, when she heai'd that Tarquinius had murdered her father, but 752— 490 b c. 61 that when she rode forth in her chariot, to congratiiiate the base mur- derer, she would not permit her coacliman to indulge even his h\i- manity, who seeing the bleeding body of Servius lying in the street, was about to turn down another road, thinking, very rationally, that his mistress would be shocked to behold the mangled corpse of her old father. Tullia had expelled from her heart all natural feeling, and per- ceiving the hesiiation of the coachman, angrily bade the man drive on ; he did so, and the chariot-wheels of the daughter's car wcr stained with tlie blood of her gray-haired father. Tarquin, surnamed the proud, upon this event, was made king ; but though at first he ingratiated himself with the lower classes a! the people, j-et by his oppressive and tyrannical conduct, he at length became an object of universal detestation. His son Sextus having greatly indulged in detestable vices, became the occasion of his own and the king's ruin. This prince, and CoUatinus a noble Roman, and some officers, when with the army besieging Ardea, a small town not far from Rome, in the height of a debauch, were boasting what excellent wives each possessed. CoUatinus was cer*ain that his was the best ; hi their merriment, the young men mounted their horses, and set off for Rome, to discover whose wife was most properly employed iu the absence of her husband. The ladies were all found visiting and passing the time in amuse- ment and mirth, except Lucretia, the wife of CoUatinus. She was industriously spinning wool among her maidens at home. Sextus was so taken with the good sense and right behaviour of Lucretia, that lie fell in Io^■e with her, and wished her *o quit her husband, indulging at the same time the most unwarrantable designs. Lucretia, shocked at his vile proposals, and unable to survive her dishonour, killed herself for grief, which so distracted CoUatinus, that with Junius Brutus, and other friends, he raised an army, and drove Sextus and his infamous father from Rome. The people had suffer- ed so much under the tyranny of this king, that they resolved that he should never coine back, and that they would have no more kings. The cause of the interest which Brutus took in the death of Lu- cretia, was the following. His father and eldest brother had been slain by Tarquin. and unable to avenge their death, he pretended to be insane. The artifice saved his life ; he was called Brutus for his stupidity. When the infamous deed of the Tarquins was done, and the catastrophe which ensued wa.s known, he seized the occasion of revenge. Snatching the dagger from the wound of the bleeding Lucretia, he swore upon the reeking blade, immortal hatred to' the royal family. " Be witness, ye gods," he cried, " that from this moment I proclaim myself the avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause," &c. This energy of speech and action, in one who had been reputed a fool, astonished Rome, and every patriot's arm was nei-ved against Tarquin and his adherents — against Tarquin and royalty. F 62 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD TT. 6. From a monarchy, Rome now became a republic, Avith a gradual increase of the power of the people from time to time. At first the nobles had much the largest share in the government. The supreme authority was committed to two magistrates, chosen from the patrician order every year, who were named consuls. Their power was nearly or quite equal to that of the kings, only it was temporary. Brutus and Collatinus were the first consuls, who, with several of their successors, w^ere engaged in hostility with the Ijanished king. § Tarquiii, after his expulsion, took refuge in Etruria. where he enlisted two of the most powerful cities, Venii and Tarqninii; to es- pouse his cause. At Rome also he had adherents. A conspiracy having been formed to open the gates of the city to him, the republic was on the eve of ruin. It was however discovered in season, and the two sons of Brutus Having been concei'ued in it, he sternly ordered them to be beheaded m his presence. He put off the father, and acted only the consul — a dreadful necessity. Some time after, in a combat between the Romans and Tarquins, Brutus engaged with Aruns, son of Tarquin, and so fierce was the attack, that they both fell dead together. Brutus was honoured as the father of tlie republic. Tarquin now fled for aid to Porsenna, king of Clusium, who ad- vanced v/ith a large army to Rome, and had nearly entered it. The valour of one man saved ♦he city. Iloratius Codes, seeing the ene- my approach the bridge where he stood sentinel, and observing the retreat of the Romans, besought them to assist him. He told them to burn or break down the bridge behind him, whilst he went forward to keep back the enemy. He then remained alone fighting in the midst of his enemies, and when he heard the crash of the bridge and the shouts of the Romans, knowing that no way of entrance was left for the foe, he jumped into the river and swam over to his friends in safety. In the war with Porscima occurred another remarkable incident. ISIutius Scaivola, a noble j'oung Roman, upon leave obtained of the senate, disguised himself, and entered the tent of Porsenna. There he saw a man so richly drest that bethought he was the king, whom he contrived to kill, but it was only the king's secretary. While endeavouring to quit the camp, Mutius was seized and car- ried before Porsenna, wdio told him he would severely torture him if he did not betray the schemes of the Romans. Mutiusonly answered by putting his hand into one of the fires lighted near him, and hold- ing it steadily there. The king, seeing the courage and fortitude of this youth, leaped from his throne, and drawing the hand of Mutius from the flame, highly praised him, and dismissed him without farther harm. Peace was soon concluded upon this incident. 752—490 B. c. 63 7. The Latins, excited by Mamilius, Tarquin's son-in- law, declared war against the Romans, 501 years B. C. The common people, oppressed by the patrician order, had become disaffected, and refused to enlist into the service. In this crisis, the Romans resorted to the desperate measure of having a dictator, a magistrate with unlimited authority, for the pe- riod of six months. This was an efi'ectual resort in times of danger. A few years after, the people, supposing their grievances not sufficiently redressed, rose in general insurrection, when the senate consented to create five new magistrates, called tribunes, who were to be annually selected by the people. These were to be sacred ; their office w-as to defend the oppiessed, pardon olienders, arraign the enemies of the peo- ple, and, if necessary, stop the whole machine of government. They were afterwards increased to ten. The popular or de- mocratic constitution of Rome may be dated from this period, 400 years B. C. About this time, Coriolanus, a patrician and able warrior, being banished from Rome, for proposing the abolition of the tribunate, retired to the Volsci, among whom he raised an army, and advanced to besiege Rome. Attacking the city, lie would probably have conquered it, but he was turned from his purpose by the prayers and tears of his mother, wife, and children. § A few particulars respecting Coriolanus must here be related. Passing over the circumstances of his banishment, we find tlial upon his entrance into tlie territory of tlie Volsci, he met a most friendly reception from Tullus Aufidius, a mortal enemy to Rome. Having advised this prince to make war against the Romans, he niarcliod at the head of the Volsci, as general. The approach of ( 'oriolanus, at the head of so powerful an enemy, greatly alarmed the Romans, who sent him several ombassio^s to reconcile him to hip country, and to solicit his return, lie was deaf to all proposals ; and 1 hough each successive embassy was made more and more solemn and urgent, he bade them prepare for war. At Rome, all was now confusion and consternation. The republic was nearly given up for lost. Coriolanus had pitchea his camp at only a very short distance from the city. As a last resort, it was suggested, that possibly his wife or mother might effect what the senate and the ministers of religion could not. Accordingly his mother, Veturia, and his wife, Vergilia, with his children, and the principal matrons of the city, undertook the 1?"*! tmbussy. The meeting of Coriolanus and this train, was in the high- 64 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. est degree tender and affecting. In the sternness of his soul he had resolved to give tliem a denial ; but the authority of a mother, and the entreaties of a wife and of children, must be listened to. "My son," cried his mother, "hovi^ am I to consider this meeting / Do I embrace my son or my enemy ? Am I your mother or your oaptive 1 How have I lived to see this day — to see my son a banished man — and still more distressful, to see him the enemy of his coun- try ? how has he been able to turn his arms against the place that gave him life — how direct his rage against those walls that protect his wife, his children, and his gods 1 But it is to me only that my country owes her oppressor. Had I never been a mother, Rome had still been free." With these and similar woi-ds, and with the tears and entreaties of his wife and children, his stern and obstinate resolutions v/ere over- come. He was melted under them, and the feelings of a man rose superior to the honour of a soldier and the vengeance of a foe. The Volsci were marched from the neighbourhood of Rome, but the event fulfilled the sad prediction which he addressed to his mother, in re- ply — a prediction which only a Roman mother could hear — " O my mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son." The act of Coriolanus, of course, displeased the Volsci. He was summoned to appear before the people of Antium: but the clamours which his enemies raised M'^ere so prevalent, that he was murdered on the spot appointed for his trial. His body was honoured, never- theless, with a magnificent funeral by the Volsci, and the Roman ma- trons put on mourning for his loss. To show their sense of Veturia's merit and patriotism, the Romans dedicated a temple to Female Fortune. GREECE. 8. Greece, during this period, underwent several changes. After the institutions of Lycurgus had been a number of years in successful operation, those of Athens began to re- ceive attention from some of their wise men. The office ot archon had become decennial, at the beginning of this pe- riod. In 648 B. C, the archons were elected annually, were nine in number, and all had equal authority. Under these changes the people became miserable, and a reform was at- tempted, first by Draco, and 150 years afterwards by the illus- trious Solon, 594 years B. C. At the request of the citizens, they each furnishc^d, during- his archonship, a written code for the regulation of the state. § Draco was a wise and honest, but a very stern man. His laws were characterized by extreme severity. Very trifling offences were punished with death, " because," said Draco, " small crimes deserve death, and I have»no greater punishment for the greatest sins,"— a plan iJl adapted to the state of human society. 752—490 B. c. 65 Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece. He established excellent rules of Justice, order, and discipline. But, though possess- ed of extensive knowledge, he wanted a firm and intrepid mind ; and he rather acconnuodated his system to the habits and passions of his countrymen, tiian attempted to reform their manners. lie cancelled the bloody code of Draco, except the laws which re- lated to nuu-der ; and he abolished the debts of the poor by an act of insolvency. He divided the Athenians into four classes, of which the three first consisted of persons possessing property, and the fourth of those who were poor. All the offices of the state were committed to the care of the rich ; but those who possessed no property, were allowed to vote in the general assembly of the people, in whose hands he lodged the su- preme power. He instituted a senate, composed of 400 persons, (afterwards in- creased to 500 and 600,) who had cognisance of all appeals from the court of Areopagus, and with whom it was necessary that every measure should originate before it was discussed in the assembly of the people. In this way he sought to balance the weight of the po- pular interest. Solon committed the supreme administration of justice to the court of Areopagus. This court had fallen into disrepute, but So- lon, by confining its numbers to those who had been archons, great- ly raised the reputation of the body. " The following anecdote of Solon and Thespis is worthy of remem- brance. Thes[)is was an actor of plays. Solon having at one time attended those shows, which were then very rude, called Thespis, who had been acting various characters, and asked him if he was not ashamed to speak so many lies I Thespis replied, " It was all in jest." Solon, striking his staff on tlie ground, violently exclaimed, " If we encourage ourselves to speak falsely in jest, we shall run the chance of acquiring a habit of speak- ing falsely in serious matters." Such a sentiment is worthy of the wisdom of Solon. 9. Scarcely Imd Athens bej^uii to enjoy the benefit of tliese new rea^ulations, when Pisistratns, a rich and ambi- tious citizen, usurped the supreme power, (B. C. 560,) which act Solon w\i3 unable to prevent. He and his posterity exer- cised it during; 50 years. Hippias and Hipparchu'^, his sons, who succeeded him, en- joyed a peaceable crown for a time, but were at length de- tlnoned, and democracy was restored. § Pisistratus secured the favour of the people by the following ex- pedient. Wounding himself, he ran into the market place, and pro- claimed tliat his enemies had inflicted the injury. Solon, with con- tempt, said to him, " Son of Hippocrates, you act Ulysses badly ; he hurt himself to deceive his enemies ; you have done so to cheat your friends." F2 66 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. The populace, as is generally the case, being deaf to the voice of reason, Pisistratus became tyrant, or king of Athens. He secured the affections of the people by his splendour and munificence. He was eminent for his love of learning, and the fine arts. He adorned Athens with many magnificent buildings. The restoration of democracy was undertaken by Harmodius and Aristogiton, who were citizens in middle life. They succeeded eventually, though they both lost their lives in the attempt. Aristo- giton was previously tortured, having fallen into the hands of Hip- pias. By the aid of the Lacedaemonians the object was accomplish- ed, and Hippias, who at first escaped the fate of his brother, was at length dethroned. Passing into Asia, he solicited foreign aid to place him in the so- vereignty. Darius at this time meditated the conquest of Greece. Hippias took advantage of the views of an enemy against his native country, and Greece soon became involved in a war with Persia. 10. Under the institutions of Lycurgus tlie Spartans had become a race of warriors. Being in the neighlwurhood of Messenia, they were ahiiost constantly at war wdth that state. The first Messenian war began 743 years B. G. and lasted 19 years. There were two other periods of conten- tion between Sparta and Messenia, but the latter was final- ly subdued. The territory was seized and its inhabitants were enslaved. § During one of these wars, the Lacedaemonians, it is said, bound themselves by oath not to return home till they had conquered the Messenians. Despairing, however, of ever returning, they sent or- ders to the women of Sparta to recruit the population, by promiscu- ous intercourse with the youiig men, who being children when the war began, had not taken the oath. The offspring of this singular and improper order were denomina- ted Partheniae, or Sons of Virgins. ISRAELITES. 11. The kingdom of Israel, tovv'ards the beginning of the present }3eriod, (721 B. C.) was subverted by Salmana- '/ar king of Assyria, or Nineveh. The Israelites were car- ried captive to Assyria, whence they never returned. This event occurred during the reign of Hosea, their last king. § Hosea had reigned nine years, when Salmanazar made him tribu- lary. But Hosea having revolted, the Assyrian king besieged Sama- ria, the capital of the ten tribes, and after three years took and plun- dered it. Except a few, who remained in Canaan, the Israelites were disper- sed throughout Assyria, and lost their distinctive cliaracter. Those who remained in their native country became intermixed with stran- gers. The descendants of tliese mingled races were afterward.s known by the name of Samaritans. 752 — 490 B. c. 67 Thus, in a little more than two centuries after the separation of the ten tribes from those of Jiidah and Benjamin, were tliey destroyed as a nation, having, on account of their great sins, previously suffered an awful series of calamities. JEWS. 12. The kingdom of Judah from the commencement of this period enjoyed but a doubtful existence. It was invaded at dilierent times by the Babylonians, rendered tributary, and finally subdued. Nebuchadnezzar, within 115 years after the destruction of Samaria, took Jerusalem, and razed the city and its temple to its foundations. § During the latter part of the kingdom of Judah, the greater por tion of its kings were impious. Two or three of them, however, were eminently religious. Such were Hezekiah and Josiah. They were both of them reformers, and destroyed the altars of idolatry. The idolatry of Ahaz was punished by the captivity of 200,000 of liis subjects, thougli they were afterwards sent back upon the remon- strance of the prophet Obed. Manasseh, an impious and cruel prince, v/as carried to Babylon, bound with fetters. This affliction, becom- ing the means of his repentance, God heard his supplications, and brought him again into his kingdom. 13. Under Jehoiachin, who was carried captive to Baby Ion, together with his people, commenced the Seventy years (vaptivity of the Jews, 606 B. C. The king was after- wards released, but remained tributary to the king of Baby Ion. § In the reign of Zedekiah, the next but one in succession after Je- hoiachin, Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians, and entirely de- molished. Zedekiah, after seeing all his children slain, had his eyes put out, and was brought in fetters to Babylon. 14. The Jews having been in captivity to the Babylo- nians ju.-t 70 year.-', were permitted, by Cyrus, king of Persia, to return to their native land, 536 years B. C. This was accomplished under the direction of Zerubbabel and Joshua, tlieir leaders. They soon began the rebuilding of the temple, but their enemies prevented them from making any progress. Seve- ral years afterwards they commenced the work anew, and completed it in the space of foiu' 5'ears, 516 B. C Upon this event they celebrated the first passover. § The return of the Jews from their captivity happened the first year of Cyrus, who, as we shall soon learn, had conquered Babylon, and terminated the Babylonian empire. The influence of adversity ou many of the Jews, seems to have 68 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. been very favorable on this occasion. It brought them to repent- ance, and engaged them in the worship and ordinances of their re- ligion. The vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzar had brought with him from Jerusalem, were all restored by the Persian monarch. NINEVEH. 15. Of the three kingdoms into which the ancient Assy rian empire was divided upon the death of Sardanapalus, Nineveh or Assyria comes first in order. Its first king ia supposed to have been Tiglath Pileser, 747 B. C. A few of his successors, during this period, were Sahnanazar, Sen nacherib, Esarhaddon, Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar. Under tlie last of these kings the kingdom of Nineveh end ed. Babylon, its capital, was taken by Cyaxares 11. aided by Cyrus, and Belshazzar was killed, 538 years B. C. § Salmanazar was the sovereign mentioned above, in the history of the Israelites. He destroyed the kingdom of the Ten Tribes. Of Sennacherib it is recorded in his war with the Jews, that having written a letter to Hezekiah full of blasphemy against the God of Is- rael, God, in order to punish him, when he was just ready to take Je- rusalem, sent an angel, who in one night smote 185,000 men of his army. Covered with shame, he returned to his own country, and there his two eldest sons conspired against and killed him in the temple of Nisroch. About 108 years after this prince, Nebuchadnezzar began to reign over the kingdom of Nineveh. He signalized his reign by many con quests, partictdarly of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. His heart being elated with success, God, to punish him for his pride, reduced him to such a state of insanity, that, wandering in the forests, he lived upon grass, like a wild beast. He recovered twelve months before his death, and, by a solemn edict, published through- out the whole of his dominions the astonisliing things that God had wrought in him. Labynit, or the scripture Belshazzar, became peculiarly infamous by profanely using the holy vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had brought out of the spoils of the temple. He was at length besieged .by Cyaxares II. king of the Medes, in conjunction with Cyrus. During tlie siege he made a great entertainment for his whole court on a certain niglit; but their joy was greatly disturbed by a vision, and still more by the explanation which Daniel, the prophet, a Jew- ish captive, gave of it to the; king, that his kingdom was taken from him, and delivered to the Medes and Persians. That very nighl Babylon was taken and Belshazzar killed. BABYLON. 16. Babylon, the next kingdom in order of the second em- 752—490 B. c. 69 pire of Assyria, coiuinued separate not quite 70 years. Na- boimssur was its liist king. After a few successive reigns, and interregnums, it was subdued by Esarhaddon, one of the kings of Nineveh, and annexed to his dominions, (380 B. C § The famous ;>stronomical epocha at Babylon, called the era of Nabonassar, coniinenccd from the reign of this prince. V/e are un- acquainted with tlie history of his successors, only Mcrodach seems to be the same prince who sent ambassadors to Hezekiah, to congra- tulate him on the recovery of his health. MEDES. 17. The last in order of the kingdoms that constituted the second empire of Assyria was that of theMEDES. After the destruction of the first Assyrian empire, the Medes enjoy- ed for some time the hberty they had acquired by their va- lour. They formed a repubhc ; Ijut anarchy having prevailed, they elected a king after 37 years. Dejoces, the f.rst king, was elected 690 5^ears B. C. The fourth king after him, viz. Cyaxares II. or Darius the Mede, having with his nephew, Cyrus, conquered Baljylon, reigned over it two years in conjunction with Cyrus ; after which the kingdom of the Medes, and indeed the whole Assyrian em- pire, was united to that of Persia, 536 years B. C. § The Medes are supposed to be the descendants of Madai, the third son of Japhet, from whom they derived their name. They seem to have been independent tribes at first, and not to have been united under one monarcfiy till the time of Dejoces. They were governed by petty princes, and some are of opinion, that one of the four kings, who in the time of Abraham, invaded the southern coast of Canaan, reigned in Media. They were first brought into subjection to the Assyrian yoke by Ninus. Some time after they had shaken olT this 5'oke, they were govern- ed by kings of their own, who became absolute, and were controlled bj'' no law. Of Dejoces it is recorded, that he no sooner ascended tlie throne, than he endeavoured to civilize and polish his subjects. fie built the beautiful city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his empiie. He tlien contrived a code of laws for the good of the state, and cau- sed them to be strictly obeyed. In a war with Nebuchadnezzar I. his capital was plundered, and stripped of all its ornaments, and falling into the conqueror's hands, he was cruelly shot to death with arrows. Phraortes, his successor, was much more fortunate, and conquered almost all upper Asia. Cyaxares I. a brave prince, made war upon the kingdom of Ninev(!h, to avenge the wrongs inflicted by Nebu- chadnezzar, A battle ensued, in which the Nincvites or Assyrians 70 ANCIENT HISTORY- -PERIOD VI. "*ere defeated ; but a formidable army of the Scytliians having invaded Media, Cyaxares marched with all his forces against them. The Medes, however, were vanquished, and obliged to make an alliance with the Scythians, who settled in Media, where they re- mained for 28 years. Finding that they could not get rid of their troublesome guests by force, they elTected it by stratagem. The Scythians being invited to a general feast, which was given ia every family, each landlord made his guest drunk, and in that condition massacred him. After this event, Cyaxares entered into a war with the Lydians. This war continued five years. The battle fought in the fifth year, \vas remarkable on account of a total eclipse of li;e sun, which hap- pened during the engagement, and which was foretold by Thales, the philosopher. The Medes and Lydians, equally terrified, immediately retreated, and soon after concluded a peace. Two more princes succeeded, viz. Astyages and Cyaxares II. Astyages married his daughter to Cam- byses, king of Persia, of which marriage Cyrus was tlie issue. After the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the kingdoms of the Medes and Persians. PERSIA. 18. From tlie clays of Cyrus the Great, 536 years B. C the Persian empire holds a distinguislied place in ancient history. It was originally of small extent, and almost un- known ; but after being founded by Cyrus, it included all India, Assyria, Media, and Persia, and the parts adjoining to the Euxine and Caspian Seas. It is sometimes called the Medo-Persian empire. Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character, and he obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic action:^ and splendid achievements. Having undertalcen an expedi- tion against the Scythians, he was surprised and slain by means of an ambuscade from the enemy, 529 years B.C. He was succeeded b}'^ his son Cambyses, who is called in scripture Artaxerxes, and who added Egypt to his empire. Cambyses was succeeded by Darius, 522 years B. C, the son of Hystaspes, who by a stratagem ol^tained the sovereignty. § The first inhabitants of Persia were called Elamitcs, and descended from Elam the eldest son of Sliem. During, iiowevei', more than 10 centuries we liave little information relative to tlieir liistory. Che- dcrlaomer, the only king of Elam recorded in liistory, conquered the. king of Sodoiu, but was defeated by Abraliam. This incident i» mentioned in Scripture. Cyrus was born but one year after his uncle Cyaxares. The man- ners of the Persians were admirable in those days, great simplicity of dress, and food, and behaviour, universally prevailed, so that Cyrus 752—490 B. c. 71 wns plainly and wisely educated, as he was treated like other chil- dren of tjis own age. But he surpassed them all, not only in aptness to learn, but in courage and in address. Whea he wa.s yet a boy, his mother took him to visit his grAnd- father, but the pride and luxury of the court of Media quite surprised and disgusted him. Astyages was so charmed with the sensible con- versation and artless manners of the prince, that he loaded him with presents. Cyru?, however, gave them all away to the courtiers, ac- cording to their merits, or their services rendered to himself. Sacas, the cup-bearer, he neglected, because he did not let him visit Astyages when he pleased ; and when Astyages lamented his neglect of so good an ofuccr, " Oh," said the young prince, " there is not much merit in being a good cup-bearer ; I can do as well myself." He then took the cup, and handed it to his mother with great modesty and gracefulness. Astyages admired his skill, but lauglnngly observed, " the young waiter had forgotten one thing." " What have I forgotten 7" asked Cyrus. " To taste the wine before you handed it to me and your mo- ther." " I did not forget that, but I did not choose to swallow poison." " Poison !" exclaimed the king. " Yes, there must be poison in the cup, for they who drink of it sometimes grow giddy and sick, and fall down." " Then do you never drink in your country ?" inquired Astyages. " Yes, but we only drink to satisfy thirst, and then a lit- tle water suffices." Many similar anecdotes are recorded of this prince, which may be iearnt from larger histories. Having reduced all the nations from the iEgean sea to tlie Euphrates, he advanced towards Babylon, and at length entered it by stratagem. Having caused deep and large ditches to be dug all around it, he, on a certain night, when all the Babylonians were engaged in feasting and merriment, ordered the dams of the ditches to be thrown open, that the waters of the Euphra- tes might run into them. By this mean.s, the channel of the river, which ran through the city, was left dry, so that the troops entered it without opposition. Tlie guards were surprised and slain, together Avith the king and all his family. The kingdom of Babylon was thus destroyed for ever. Two years after this, Cyrus reigned over his vast empire alone during seven years, in the first of which he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews. Of Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, it is recorded that he conqttered Egypt, which remained under the Persian yoke 112 years. He made himself master of Pelusium. the key of Egypt, by the following stratagem. He placed in front of his army a great number of those animals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure them, made no opposition to the Persian army. After an impostor named Smerdis, who reigned 7 months, Darius, a descendant of Cyrus on the mother's side, ascended the throne. In his time it was tiiat the Jews were permitted to rebuild their tem- ple. After a war against the Scythians, he turned his arms, as we uhrjU soon spe. anainst the Greeks. 72 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. LYDIANS. 19. In the history of the Lydians, the last of its dynasties, was tliat of the Meimnadie. Gyges, one of the chief officers of Candaules the king, having murdered the latter, became possessed of his queen and throne, 718 years B. C. He was the fust of the Mermnadte race. The fourth prince after him was Croesus, so celebrated for his riches. His kingdom was conquered by Cyrus. § A circumstance worthy of record occurred in the contest between Cyrus and Croesus. After Croesus was taken prisoner, he was con- demned by the conqueror to be burnt alive. When the unhappy prince was led to the funeral pile, he exclaimed aloud three times, Solon ! Solon ! Solon ! Cyrus immediately demanded, why he pronounced that celebra- ted philosopher's name with so much vehemence in that extremity. Croesus answered, that the observation of Solon, "Tliat no mortal could be esteemed happy till the end of life," had forcibly recurred to his recollection. Cyrus was struck with the remark, and, as if in anticipation of his own tragical end, ordered the unhappy king to be taken from the pile, and treated him ever after with honour and respect. EGYPT. 20. Egypt, during the present period, was governed by the following kings — Sabbacon, Tharaca, Pharaoh-Necho, Psammenitus, and a few others. Under the last of these, 525 B. C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, king of Per sia, to which power it was subject more than a century. § Sabbacon, a king of Ethiopia, it seems, conquered Egypt. He killed Nechus, king of Sais ; burnt Bocchoris, another king, to death, and forced Anysis the blind to retire into the morasses. During his continuance in Egypt, he acquired a high reputation for wisdom and integrity. He finally relinquished the sceptre, and returned into Ethiopia, because he would not massacre the priests, agreeably to a suggestion said to have been imparted unto him by the tutelar god of Thebes. Tharaca, called in scripture Tirhakah, made war against Senna- cherib, king of Assyria. After him there was an anarchy of two years, and an aristocracy of twelve governors for fifteen years. Pharaoh-Necho waged war against the Assyrians and Jews, killed Josiah king of Judah, captured Jerusalem, imprisoned Jehoahaz, and appointed Jehoiachim king. Psammenitus reigned only six months before the invasion of Cam- byses, and the subjection of his kingdom. He was kindly treated at first by the conquerer, but thirsting for an opportunity to revenge himself, lie was condemned to drink bull's blood, and died wretch- edly. 752—490 B. c. 73 Distinguished Characters in Period VI. 1. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome. 2. Sappho, a Greek poetess, inventor of the Sapphic verse. 3. iEsop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist. 4. Solon, a legislator of Athens, and one of the wisest men of (jreece. 5. Thales, founder of the Ionic philosophy. 6. Cyrus, a wise and successful prince, who conquered most of the East. 7. Anacreon, a Greek poet, and father of the Anacreontic verse. 8. Pythagoras, a Grecian philosopher. § J. Romulus was a son of Rhea Sylvia, and grandson of Numitor, king of Allia, and born at, the same birth with Remus. His story has already been lold. As the founder of Rome his name \s immor- tal. Ills virtues were those of a military chieftain and adventurer ill a rude age. He is net undistinguished as a legislator, though his institutions had almost exclusively a warlike tendency. After a reign of 37 or 39 years, he was killed, as is supposed, by the senators. The fable, however, on this subject is, that as he was giving instructions to the senators, he disappeared from their sight — an eclipse of the sun, which happened at that time, being favourable to the rumor that he was taken up to heaven. The Romans paid liim divine honours under the name of Quirinus, and ranked him among the twelve great gods. 2. Sappho was born in the island of Lesbos, about 600 years B. C She is celebrated for her poetical talents and beauty. Her tender attachments were extremely violent, and the conduct into which they betrayed her must be reprobated by every virtuous mind. She con- ceived such a passion for Phaon, a youth of Mytilene, that upon his refusal to reciprocate it, she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leueas. She composed nine books in lyric vei'ses, besides epigrams, elegie^ &c. Of all these compositions nothing now remains but two frag- ments, one of which is preserved by Longinus ; though they were all extant in the age of Horace. Her poems were admired for their sublimity, sweetness, and elegance ; yet they were highly objection- able, it is .said, on account of their licentiousness. 3. ^Esop flourished about 580 years B. C. Those entertaining and mstructive fables which he composed, have acquired for him a higlv reputation, and he is generally supposed to have been the inventor of that kind of writing. He was originally a slave, and had several masters, but procured his liberty by the charms of his genius. Fall- ing into the hands of an Athenian philosopher, he was enfranchised. He travelled over the greatest part of Greece and Egypt, but re- sided much at the court of Croesus, kmg of Lydia, by whom he was sent to consult the oracle of Delphi. In this commission ^Esop b^ 74 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. haved himself with great severity, and sarcastically compared the Delphians to floatmcr sticks which appear large at a distance, but are nothing when brought near. The Delphians. offended with his caustic remarks, accused him of some act of sacrilege, and pretending to have proved it against him, threw him down from a rock. He is said to have been short and deformed in his person. 4. Solon was born at Salamis and educated at Athens. After de- voting the early oart of his life to philosophical and political studies, he travelled over the greatest portion of Greece ; but was distressed with the dissentions that prevailed among his countrymen. Having, hoAvever. been elected archon and legislator of Athens, he made a reform in every department of the government. He institu- ted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws flourished iti full vigour above 400 years. He died, as some report, in Cj'prus, at the court of king Philocyprus, in his 80th year, about 558 B. C. 5. Thales was born at Miletus, in Ionia. Like the rest of the an- cients, he travelled in quest of knowledge, and for some time resided m Crete, Phcenicia, and Egypt. Under the priests of Memphis he was taught geometry, astronomy, and philosophy, and enabled to measure with exactness, the height and extent of a pyramid, by its shadow. His discoveries in astronomy were great, and he was the first who calculated accurately a solar eclipse. Like Homer, he looked upon water as the principle of every thing. In founding the Ionic sect of pb*Jlosophy, which distinguished itself for deep and abstruse speculations, his name is memorable. He died in the 96th year of his age, about 548 years B. C. His compositions are lost. 6. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war against CrcEsus, king of Lj^dia, whom he conquered, B. C. 548. He invaded the kingdom of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, by drying the channels of the Euphrates, and marching his troops through the bed of this river, while the people were celebrating a grand festival. He afterwards marched against Tomyris, the queen of the Massa- getae, a Scythian nation, and was defeated in a bloody battle, B. C. 1530. The victorious queen, who had lost her son in the previous encounter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, exclaiming, '• Sa- tisfy thyself with blood, which thou hast so eagerly desired." According to Xcnophon, Cyrus possessed many excellent traits of character. 7. Anacreon had a delicate wit, but he was certainly too fond of pleasure and wine. All that he wrote is not extant ; though his odes remain, and their sweetness, gayety, and elegance have been admi- red in every age. With " flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces," they hhve a hurtful moral tendency. He lived to his 85th year, and after every excess of pleasure and debauchery, choked himself with a grape stone, and expired. His statue was placed in the citadel of Athens, representing him as aa 752—490 B. c. 7S old drunken man, singing, with every mark of dissipation and in- temperance. 8. Pythiagoras was bom at Samos. In his 18th year he obtained the prize for wrestling at the Olympic games. He afterwards tra- velled in Egypt, Chalda^a, and llie east, and at length, in his 40th year, he retired to Crotona, in Magna Graecia. Here his universal knowledge gained him friends, admirers, and disciples, and a reformation took place in the morals of the people. The world is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th pro- f)Osition of Euclid, respecting the square of the hypotheu'use. By lis ingenious discoveries in astronomy he traced the true solar sys- tem. The time and place of his deatta are unknown. PERIOD VII. Tlie Period of Grecian Glory ^ exteiiding from the Battle of Marathon, 490 years B. C. to the birth of Alexatider, 356 years B. C. GREECE. I. The Greeks, soon after the expulsion of Hippias, the king of Athens, became involved in a war with Persia. Un- der Darius, the Persians invaded Greece, 496 years B. C. His first fleet was wrecked ; but a second of 600 sail, con- taining 500,000 men, ravaged the Grecian islands, and an immense army poured down on Attica. Miltiades, at the head of the Greeks, met the Persian hosts, and defeated them on the plain of Marathon. The Persians lost 6300 men in that battle, while the Greeks lost but 190. The Grecian force did not exceed 10,000 men. The date of this engagement is 490 years B. C. and one of the most important in its consequences that history records. § Ambition and revenge in the breast of Darius, gave rise to his project of invading Greece. The Athenians had rendered assistance to the people of Ionia in attempting to throw off the Persian yoke, and had rav;iged Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Darius soon reducing the lonians to submission, turned his arms against the Greeks ; while the exile Hippias, basely seconded the plans of the Persian monarch. One expedition in a great measure failed ; and it was some time before another could be gathered and prepared to act, so that it was six years from the period in which the Persian invasion first com menced, to the battle of IMarathon. Previously to the descent on Attica, the Persians, under IMardonius, had attacked Thrace, Macedo- nia, and the neighbouring provinces. Marathon, where the Grecian and Persian forces met, was a small lowTi by the sea side. The Greeks were led by ten generals, each 76 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VII. of whom was to command for one day by turns, and Miltiades was to take his turn as the others, although lie was cliief general. Aristides, (one of the ten,) had sense enough to see the evil of such a plan, and generosity to give up his honours, for the benefit of his country. When it was his day to command he resigned it to Miltia- des, because, as he said, " Miltiades is the best general." The other generals saw the propriety of this conduct, and resigned to their commander in like manner. Miltiades, liowever, thought it his duty not to act till his proper day came round, but he probably made the necessary preparation. TTie armies engaged in a fierce and obstinate battle. Themistocles, a brave man, and the compeer of Aristides, fought nobly by his side. From the skill with which Miltiades had placed his troops, as much s^ from the valour of those troops, the battle of Marathon was won by the Greeks. A soldier covered with the blood of the enemy ran to Athens with the news, and had just strength enough left to say, " Rejoice ! the victory is ours !" and tlien fell down dead, from his fatigue and wounds. Not long after this service rendered to his country, Miltiades, who at first was loaded with honours, died in prison, where he was thrust by the Athenians, because he could not pay a fine which they order- ed him to pay. On a false pretence of treachery to his coimtry, this great general had been condemned to death, and afterwards the sen- tence of death was changed to the paying of a fine. Greece, particularly Alliens, abounded with great men about this time. A little tale or two concerning Themistocles may be interest- ing here. At a time when he was great in power, he laughingly said, that " his son was greater than any man in Greece.*' " How te that ?" said a friend. " Why," replied Themistocles, " tlie Athenians govern Greece, I command the Athenians, his mother commands me, and this boy commands liis mother." Themistocles was an able general, and saved his country in one instance or more. But he was not an amiable man. Ambition was his god. Plutarch relates that after the battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades gained so glorious a victory, Themistocles was observed to court solitude, and indulge in a profound melancholy. Upon inquiry made of him respecting the cause of his mental de- jection, he replied, that " tlie trophies of Miltiades would not permit him to sleep." Indeed all his feelings and conduct showed how completely ambition had gotten the mastery over him, and howmuch, consequently, he wished to be master of Athens and of Greece. Yet under the ungrateful treatment, which he afterwards received from his countrymen, he \\'ould not betray the land that gave him birth, tliough he had an opportunity of doing it. 2. On the death of Darius, Iiis son Xerxes prosecuted the war against Greece. Dining the early part of this war were fought the celebrated battles of Thermopyla' and Plata^a on land, and those of the straights of Salamis and Mycale on water. 490— 35G B. c. 77 The battles of Theimopylae and Sulamis took place 480 years B. C. ; and those of Plataea ar'^a Mycale, 479. Leoni- das, Themistocles, Aristides, Pausanias, and several others, distingiiislied tlioniselvcs in the defence of Greece, and ac- (juired lastinj^ renown by tlieir achievements. Xerxes brought over with him 2,000,000 of fighting men, besides vast numbers of women and domestics— =-the largest army and assemblage of persons recorded in history. This innnense force was eirectually resisted, during two days, at the pass of Thermopylae, by (3000 Greeks. Their valour, though it could not finally arrest the progress of the Persians, cost the latter the lives of 20,000 warriors. Athens vvas soon reached, which the Persians pillaged and burnt. The women and children, however, had been pre- viously conveyed to a place of safety, and tlie men betook themselves to their fleet. § Xerxes was a vain mortal. He ordered a passage to be cut through tlie liigli mountain of Athos, in Macedonia, and thus a canal was made for his ships. He is said to have written a letter to Mount Athos, in A\liich he " commanded it not to put stones in the way of his workmen, or he would cut it down and tlu-ow it into the sea," and he ordered tlie labourers to be chastised to make them work faster. When he saw, from a high hill, the plain covered with his soldiers, and the sea with his ships, he at first, in the pride of his heart, called himself the most favoured of mortals ; but when he reflected, that in a hundred years, not one of the many thousands whom he beheld would be alive, ho burst into tears at the instability of all human things. Almost all the small cities of Greece submitted to the Persian king when he sent to them, as vvas the custom, for earth and water; which was the same as to ask them, whether they would receive him as their conqueror. Sparta and Athens, with the small towns of Thespia and Plata;a, akmc refused to receive the heralds and to send the token of homage. Every thing gave way before the march of Xerxes, until he came to tiie pass of Tliermopyla;. On this spot Leonidas, one of the two reigning kings of Sparta, with his 6000 of bravo soldiers, awaited his coming. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, imperiously summoned him to give up liis arms. "Let him come and lake them," was the short answer of tliis true native of Laconia. The bravest of the Persian troops were ordered out against Leoni- das, but they were always driven back with disgrace. At last a wretch went and informed the king of a secret path, by which he could mount an eminence wliich overlooked the Grecian camp. The Persians gained this advantageous post during the darkness of 02 78 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. the night, and the next morning the Greeks discovered that they had been betrayed. Leonidas knew tliat it was in vain to expect his small army could conquer the endless forces of Xerxes ; he therefore sent away his allies, and kept with him only his 300 Lacedaemonians. He had been told by the oracle that either Sparta or her king must perish, and he longed to die for the good of his country. Xerxes marched his vast army against this heroic little band. Leo- nidas fell among tlie first, bravely fighting, and covered with wounds. Of the 300 heroes, only one escaped to bear to Sparta the news that her valiant warriors had died in her defence. Xerxes having arrived at Athens, found it desolate and deserted. He burnt down its citadel, and sent away its finest pictures and statues to Susa, the capital of Persia. The Athenians having man- ned their fleet, soon attacked that of the Persians, and put it to flight after a very short, but severe engagement. Themistocles command- ed on this occasion. The Persian king had seated himself on a high mountain, that he might see his Persians overcome the Greeks, but when he saw the issue of the battle, so contrary to his expectations, he hastened with a part of his army across the Hellespont. A second overthrow awaited his army by land ; for IVIardonius, his general, at the head of 300,000 Persians, was defeated with im- mense slaughter, at Plataea, by the combined army of Athenians and Lacedaemonians, amounting to a httle over 100,000 men, led by Pau- sanias and Aristides. On the same day with this battle, the Greeks engaged and destroy- ed the remains of the Persian fleet at Mycale. Thus gloriously to the Greeks, ended the celebrated expedition of Xerxes against Greece. 3. From the time of the battles of Plataea and Salamis, the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at an end. He left Greece suddenly, and his inglorious life was soon after terminated by assassination. The military glory of the Greeks was now at its height. They were for the most part united in oppo- sing the common enemy. Their danger was the cause of their union, aud their union was the cause of their prosperity. 4. About 10 years after the return of Xerxes into Asia with a part of his forces, Cimon, son of Miltiades, expelling the Persians from Thrace, destroyed the Persian fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, and landing his troops, sig- nally defeated their army the same da}^ Some years afterwards he destroyed a Persian fleet of 300 sail ; and landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph by de- feating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 years 13. C. Artaxerxes, who had succeeded his father Xerxes, soon sued for peace. The terms were higlily honourable to the Greeks. 490—356 B. c. 79 { The prosperity and military glory of the Greeks contimied 50 years ; after wliich, upon the return of the peace with Persia, the martial and llio patriotic spirit heijan visit)ly to decline in Athen^s. Still, as will soon ajipear, tlie following age, called the age of Pericles, was an era of t!ie higliest splendour, so far as literature, taste, and tlie fine arts were concerned. Cinion M'as as renowned as his father Milliades. lie was joined with Aristides at one time in the comniand of tlie Athenians; yet, notwithstanding tlie important services which they rendered to their country, they were both punished by the ostracism,* and scarcely with any pretext. Before Cimon was banished, besides the victories he gained for Athens, he had greatly improved the city; he planted groves and shady walks ; he erected fine places for exercise and public speak- ing. The celebrated tragic poets, iEschylus and Sophocles were wont to recite their pieces before him. Cimon was not less devoted to his ungrateful countrymen after his return from banishment. His victories procured the peace above mentioned. In it, he stipulated for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia. Of Aristides, who was called " the just," many interesting anec- dotes are recorded, but we have room for oidy two. Once when he was carrying a prosecution against his enemy, and sentence was about to be pronounced, before the accused had spoken, Aristides entreated that the man might be heard in his defence, and even helped him to make it. On another occasion, when he was judge, a trial came before him, in which one of the parties thouglit to irritate him against the other, by declaring tliat the other had said and done many injurious things against Aristides. " Do not talk about tliat," said Aristides, " tell me only what harm he has dorie to thee, it is thy cause I am judg- uig." 5. The authority in Athens became for a time divided be- tween Cimon and Pericle?. In a few years, however, Peri- cles stood at the head of the Athenian republic. His will had almost the force of law. He adorned Athens with the most magnificent structures, and rendered it the scat of learning, taste, and the fine arts. He laboured, however, under the re- proach of ha\'ing corrupted the manners of the people, by hi3 luxuries. Under his administration commenced the Lacedeemonian war, 431 years B. C, which lasted 28 years. He died three years after its commencement, and was succeeded in tlie government of Athens by Alcibiades, who ran a similar course, though with less integrity. Alcibiades repeatedly ex- •See " General Viewa." 80 ANCIENT HISTORX — PERIOD VII. perienced the ingratitude of his countrymen — a conduct which ne eagerly retahated. The Lacedtemonian war ended in the humiliation and submission of Athens. The Athenians agreed to demolish their port, to limit their fleet to 12 ships, and to undertake for the future, no enterprise in war, but under the command of the Spartans, 405 year B. C. I.ysander, the Spartan com- mander, signalized himself in this war. § Pericles was remarkable for the dignity of his manners, and the elegance of his speech. For 40 years he secured an unbounded au- thority. Athens, at this time, Avas considered as in its highest state of refinement and knowledge, and with Sparta, ranked as the first of the cities of Greece. When some persons complained that Pericles spent too much of the public money in beautifying the city, he M'ent into the assembly of the people, and asked, " whether, indeed, they thought him extrava- gant?" The people said, "yes." "Then place the expense at my charge instead of }'ours," answered Pericles, " only let the new build- ings be m.arked with my name instead of yours." The people were either so pleased with the spirit of his reply, or were po jealous of the fame which Pericles might acquire, that they cried out, " he might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasures." At a critical time in the Peloponnesian war, Pericles Avas taken off in consequence of the ravages of a terrible plague which then aflflicted Athens. That plague was one of the most malignant and fatal which history relates to us. Beginning in Ethiopia, it swept over several countries in its course, and finally rested in Athens. It surpassed the efforts of the medicaJ art to cure it. Few or no constitutions could withstand its attacks. The nature of the disease was such that it threw its victim into a sort of despair, so that he was disabled from seeking or applying relief. It was dangerous for friends to offer their assiotance to the diseas- ed ; and the situation of the Athenians was such, in consequence of being shut up by an invading army, that the malignity of the pesti- lence was greatly increased. They fell down dead upon one another as they passed along the streets, and the dead and the dying were mingled together in the utmost confusion. In this complication of distress, Pericles displayed a great soul. He was able to inspire courage into the drooping hearts of his coun trymen ; but after some fresh plans of conquest adopted during a mitigation of the pestilence, he was himself cut off by the plague, which had broken out anew. On his death bed his friends attempted to console him, by recount- ing his glorious deeds, particularly his military successes, and the montiments he erected to commemorate them. " Ah," exclaimed the dying statesman and hero, " you have forgotten the most valuabla part of my character, and now the most pleasant to my mind— tliat 490—356 B. c. SI none of my fellow-citizens have been compelled, through any act of mine, to put on a mourning robe." Tiie occasion of the Lacedaemonian war was as follows: — Corinth having been included in the last made treaty between Athens and Sparta, tlie Corinthians in waging war with the people of CorcyrSj an ancient colony of tlieir own, solicited the aid of Atlicns, as did also the people of Corcyra. 'Hie AthenLans took tlic part of the latter— a measure which ex- ceedingly displeased the Corintliians, and was considered as viola- ting their treaty witli Sparta. On tliis ground war was declared be- tween Atliens and Laced^emon, each being supported by its respec- tive allies. This war distracted and enfeebled Greece. Alcibiades, who bore a conspicuous part in it on the Athenian side, during the interval of a truce with Sparta, persuaded his coun- trymen to try the conquest of Sicily, and was sent as the general of the troops. When he was gone, his enemies raised an accusation against him, and tJic fickle people directed him immediately to re- turn. Alcibiades, fearing to return whilst tlie Athenians were so incens- ed against him, fled away secretl}'', and when he was told that for his disobedience, all his property was confiscated, and that he him- self was condemned to death, " I will show them that I am alive," he exclaimed. He first fled to Argos, and next to Sparta, where he gained all hearts by conforming to their plain dress and simple food. But the king of Sparta perceiving that Alcibiades aflfected to appear what he was not, was by no means backward to disapprove liim, which in- duced the Athenian to quit Sparta, and seek protection in Persia. Athens was now governed by a council of 400, and the tyranny of these was so great, that Alcibiades was sent for to assist in restoring the liberty of tlie people. The Spartans, with some vessels, were watching the cit\', to take advantage of the confusion tliat prevailed. Alcibiades, with tlie small fleet he had collected at Samos, attacked the Spartans, destroyed their ships, and soon after entered Athens in triumph. The Athenians being again displeased with Alcibiades, he left tlie city to avoid their displeasure. He at length retired to live in a small village in Phrygia, with a woman called Timandra. The Spartans persuaded the Persians to destroy him. Accordingly, a party of soldiers went to his house, and fearing his known courage, dared not to enter it, but set fire to the building. Alcibiades rushed out, and the barbarians from a distance (for they feared to approach him) killed him with darts and arrows. Timan- dra buried the corpse decently, and was the only mourner of thia once powerful man. The defeat of the Athenian fleet at .Egos Potamos, by Lysander, was the means of bringing the tedious Lacedaemonian war to a close. The taking and plundering of Athens were the consequence of it Having gained possession of the city, Lysander buint down the houses and demolished the walls. It was said that hi was so cruel u3 82 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. to add insult to misfortune, by ordering music to be played whilst tlie walls were destroyed. G. Ly Sander, after the redaction of Athens, abolished the popular form of government in that state, and saibstituted that of the thiity tyrants, which was absolute. Many of the dis- tinguished citizens tied from their country ; but T.'hrasybulus, aided by a body of patriots, expelled the usurpers, and once more re-established the government of the people, 403 years B. C. § The thirty tyrants were as many Lacedsemonian captains, to whom the government of tlie Atlienians Avas delegated by Lysander. They held their authority but tliree years. To Lysander, history ascribes the first great breach of his country's constitution, bj'' the introduction of gold into that republic. 7. The persecution and death of Socrates, the philosopher, took place about this time, (401 years B. C.) This transac- tion has thrown a dark stain on the Athenian character. He was destroyed contrary to every principle of reason and justice. § Socrates was the friend and tutor of Alcibiades. The sophists, whose manner of reasoning he turned into ridicule, represented him as an enemy to the religion of his country, because, without con- forming to the popular superstitions, he led the mind to a knowledge of the Deity, the Creator of the universe ; and to the belief of a fu- ture state of reAvards and punishments. Ife made a noble and manly defence, in all the consciousness of innocence ; but in vain. He was condemned to die by his inimical judges. One of his disciples lamenting before him that he sliould die innocent, " Would you have me die guilty ?" replied Socrates, with a smile. The juice of hemlock, or something resembling hemlock, a liqiior which was said to cause death, by its coldness, was administered to the philosopher. He continued calmly conversing witla his friends, to the last moment of his life. S. In the same year with the death of Socrates, occurred the celebrated retreat of 10,000 Greeks, under Xcnophon, from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine. This is considered the most remarkable retreat on record. It was accomplished in a few months, the soldiers traversing a hostile country of 1 (jOO miles in extent, amidst incredible hardships and dangers. They lost only 1500 men. § The Greeks came into the situation above mentioned, in conse- quence of assisting Cyrus, a younger brother of Artaxerxes Mnemon, \ in his attempt to dethrone the latter. Cyrus failed in the attempt, \ in a battle near Babylon, and lost his life. The Greeks, v.'ho amount- ed to 13,000 at first, were reduced to 10,000, and in this situation \ 490—356 B. c. 82 were under tlie necessity either of submitting to the enemy, or of making good their retreat. The latter they both chose and accomplished. The Greeks were led by Clearckus on this expedition, but he having trusted himself among the Persians, was basely delivered up to the king, by whosp order he was beheaded. In this exigency they elected Xenof)Vion, a young Athenian, as their commander, under whom they were to effect their retreat. They observed the greatest order and discipline ; and though in the midst of vindictive enemies, and with deserts, hills, mountains, rivers, and even the sea before them, they arrived with an inconsi derable loss, at the banks of the Euxine. Xenophon himself has written an admirable account of this retreat. Tlie Greek cities of Asia having taken a part in this enterprise of the Greeks, Sparta was engaged to defend her countrymen, and consequently was involved in a war with Persia. The disunion of the Grecian states, and especially the hostility of Athens against Sparta, rendered the war disastrous to the Spartans ; who, to avoid destruction, sued for peace, and obtained it, by the sacrifice of all her Asiatic colonies, 387 years B. C. 9. Among the Grecian states, Thebes became particularly distinguished during the latter part of the present period. It had been comparatively obscure before. The Thebans contending among themselves, the Spartans interfered in the contention, and seized on the Theban fortress. This mea- sure brought on a war between Sparta and Thebes. Athens at first united with Thebes, but at length Thebes stood alone against Sparta and the league of Greece. Pe- lopidas and Epaminondas were the Theban leaders, who greatly distinguished themselves in this war. The celebra- ted battles of Leuctra and Mantinea were gained by the The- bans over their enemies, the one 371 years B. C., and the other S years afterwards. In the latter engagement, the great Epaminondas was slain. The ravages of this contention among the Grecian states, may be said to have paved the way for their entire subjugation by a foreign pow-er. § The fortress at Thebes, which the Spartans had seized, was kept by the latter during four years, but the angry and deceived Thehans took their revenge. A party of them, headed by Pelopidas, putting on women's clothes over their armour, entered among the Lacedae- monians, at a feast given to them, and cut their principal otficers to pieces. Archias, the chief Spartan, had that very day received a letter from Athens to inform him of the whole plot, but he had very improperly thrown aside the letter without looking into it, saying, " business to- morrow." He was the first man killed, and thus lost his life for a 84 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. neglect of his duty, in suffering the pleasure he enjoyed in the com- panj'^ of his friends, to make him forget the interests of his country. Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas, who had acted with the lat- ter, was, upon the expulsion of the Spartans from the citadel, called from a quiet and private life to become the general of the Theban army. He was as much celebrated for his wisdom and virtue, as for his bravery. Of all the excellencies of his character, he gained the most respect for his strict regard to truth, as he was never known to be guilty of a falsehood. In the battle of Leuclra, the Theban army was much smaller than that of Sparta ; but the skill of their general^ in disposing the force to the best advantage, and the valour of the sol- diers and officers, more than made up for the difference in numbers. Besides, the Thebans were fighting for their liberty ; the Spartans only for conquest. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the Thebans prevailed. Pelopidas shared the danger and the glory of his friend ; yet when these valiant generals returned to Thebes, they were both called be- fore the tribunal of justice for the crime of keeping their command too long. Both were acquitted ; yet the enemies of Epaminondas caused him to be elected a city scavenger, on purpose to disgrace and vex him. But what might have been a disgrace to a mean person, was no disgrace to this noble Theban. He accepted the office, saying, "If the office will not give me honour, I will give honour to the office." Epaminondas fell in the battle of Mantinea, and in the moment of victory. A javelin had pierced his bosom, and becoming disabled, a fierce contest arose between his foes and friends for the possession of his person. The Thebans at length bore him from the field. Epa- minondas, though in extreme agony from his wound, thought only of his country ; and when informed that the Thebans had conquered, he said, " then all is well." He drew the weapon from his bosom, as no one around him had the fortitude to do it, it being miderstood, from the nature of the wound, he would expire as soon as it was extricated. The glory of Thebes rose with this man, and with him it expired. ROMANS. 10. In the history of Rome, during this period, we may observe an additional change in its constitution of govern- ment. It became, in effect, a democracy 471 years B. C. The supreme authority passed from the higher order, into the hands of the people. The popular character of the go- vernment had been theoretically established before, but it be- came now practically democratic. § This change Avas completed by Volero, a Roman tribune, who obtained a law for the election of magistrates, in the comitia held by the tribes. Before this time, the comitia, by centuries and by curiae, could not be called but in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consult- ing the auspices, and in those comitia the tribunes had been hitherto elected. In the comitia held by tribes these restrauits were miknown 490—356 B. c. 85 11. Soon aftcnvards, (450 B. C.) upon the invasion of the /Equi and Yolsci, the Romans liad lecaurse to the despotic measure of choosing a (hctator. Quinctius Cincinnatus was appointed. He was called from tlie plough to this office. After having rescued a Roman army from destruction, de- feated a powerful enemy, and rendered other signal servicea to his country, he hastened to resign his power at the end of 16 days, though he might have held it 6 months, the term for which dictators were appointed. § Cincinnatus was fixed upon as the wisest and bravest man be- longing to the commonwealth. lie cultivated a small form of four acres with his own hands. The deputies of the senate found him following his plough in one of his little fields. They begged him to put on his gown, and hear the message from the senate. Cinciiuiatus anxiously asked, "if all was well '?" and then desired his wife Racilia to fetch his gown from their cottage. After wiping offthednst and dirt with which he was covered, lie put on his robe and went to the deputies. They saluted him dictator, and bid him hasten to the city, which was in the greatest peril. A handsome barge had been sent to carry him over the river, for his farm lay on the opposite side of the Tiber. His three sons, with his friends, and several of the senators, were ready to receive him when he landed at Rome, and to carry him in a pompous procession to the house prepared for him. The very next morning he began to fortify the city, and marshal the soldiers for battle ; and he very soon gained a great victory, and made the officers of the enemy pass under the yoke. His administra- tion was entirely satisfactory to all parties, though the times were ex- tremely turbulent. He most probably saved Rome from destruction, by his wisdom and valour. He was chosen dictator on another emergency, many years after- wards, in his 80th year, and then also acted with vigour and wisdom. 12. In 451 years B. C. ten persons who were called the Decemviri, were elected to frame a code of laws, and were invested with ahsolute power for one year, during which all other magistrates were suspended. They afterwards caused their laws to be engraven on 12 tables, and placed in the most conspicuous part of tlie city. These laws were long preserved and acted upon, and are to this day respected in some parts of Europe. They how- ever manifested the stern spirit of the people, and like those of Draco, might be said to be written in blood. Nine crimes* * Parricide v/as very properly included as one of those crimes. But to the honour of the Romans it sliould be observed, tiirit this crime was not knowTi to becommittcd during- more than GOOyearsfrom the building of the city ]_,. Qg. tiufl was the ftrst parricide. U TO A.NCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VII. of very different complexions were punishable with death, one of which was nightly meetings. § The Romans had no code of laws until that which was formed and digested by the decemviri. The number of the laws was increased from time to lime by the senate and people. Each decemvir, by turn, presided for a day, and had the soverei.gn authority, with its insignia, the fasces. The nine others acted solely as judges in the determina- tion of law-suits, and the correction of abuses. Their government lasted only three years. Its dissolution was highly tragical. Appius Claudius, one of the ten, fell in love with the beautiful Virginia; she was engaged to marry Icilius, formerly a tri- bune of the people, and would not therefore listen to the proposals of Appius. He therefore, to get possession of the lovely virgin, procured a ba.se dependant to claim her as his slave. The claim was made to Appiuji himself, Avho pronounced an infamous decree, by which she was de- clared to be the property of this profligate minion of his own. Virginius, her father, who was falsely sworn to have stolen hei from the dependant of Appius, was at a distance with the army Intelligence, however, by means of IciJius, was conveyed to him re- specting the transactions in the city, and he returned with all imagi- nable speed. Finding, notwithstanding his true and simple tale that Virginia was his daughter, that he could not preserve her from the licentious decemvir, he now begged to give her his parting embrace. His re- CjUest was granted. He clasped his child in his arms, while she clung round his neck, and wet his cheeks with her tears. As Virginius was tenderly kissing her, before he raised his head, he suddenly plunged a dagger into her bosom, saying, " Oh ! my child, by this means only can I give thee freedom." He then held up the bloody instrument to the now pale and frighted Claudius, exclaim- ing, " By this innocent blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infer- nal gods." All was now horror and confusion. Icilius showed the dead body lo the people and roused their fury. Virginius hasted to the camp bearing with him the dagger reeking with his daughter's blood; and instantly the camp was in an uproar. The power of the decemviri and the senators could not still the tumult. Appius would have been torn to pieces at once, but he found the means of escape and vohmtary death. Public tranquillity was at length restored, by the consent of the senate to abolish the decemviri. The consuls were now restored, together with the tribunes of the peo- ple, 499 years B. C. 13. A law for the intermarriage of the patricians and pie beians at Rome was passed 445 years B. C. In the same year military tribunes were created. These were in lieu of the consuls : they were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians. The consuls, however, were soon restored. Coriolanus, meeting his mother, tvife, ^c. P. 64. Virginius threatening the Tribune. P- Sf' 490-^356 B. c. 87 In 437 years B. C. was established the office of censors, whose duty it was to make the census of the people every five years. § Tlie people, in their desire for still more power, endeavoured to break down the only two barriers that separated the patricians from tiiemsclves. Tliese were, one, the law which prevented their inter- marriage ; and the other, tlie constitutional limitation of all the highei offices to the patrician order. Tlie first point, after a long contest, was conceded— the other was partially evaded. The senate sought a palliative in the creation of the military tribunes above mentioned. This measure satisfied the people for a time. The new magistracy of the censors was highly important. In addition to making the census, it was incumbent on the censors to inspect the morals and regulate the duties of the citizens. It became, in after times, the function only of consular persons, and after them, of the emperors. 14. The dissentions between the different orders of the people, raged with violence ; but the senate, not long after their concession to the people, adopted for themselves a very wise expedient. This was to give a regular pay to the troops, an expense defrayed by a moderate tax on the citizens. From this period soldiers were to be obtained, and the senate had the army under its. control. Roman ambition now be- came systematic, and irresistible. 15. Veil, the rival of Rome, was besieged by the Romans, and after a siege of ten years, was taken by Camillus, 391 years B. C. Two years after, Falerii, the capital of the Fa- lisci, surrendered to the same general. The dominion of Rome, confined hitherto to a territory of a few miles, was now rapidly extend^-d. § The siege of Vcii was attended with much expense of blood and treasure to the Komans. They nearly despaired of taking it; but upon the appointment of Camillus dictator, things soon assumed a different aspect. lie secretly wrought a mine into the city, which opened into the midst of tlie capital. Then giving his men directions how to enter the bread), the city was instantly filled with his legions, to the utter confusion of the be- sieged. Tims, like a second Troy, was Veil taken after a ten years' siege, and Camillus, according to the manner of the Roman kings, enjoyed the honour of a triuniiiph. It is related, that during the attack of Falerii, a schoolmaster be- trayed into the Imuds of Camillus all his scholars, expecting to obtain a handsome reward for his treachery. The boys happened to be the sons of the principal Falisci, and the Roman general was given OO ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. to understand, that they would probably deliver up their city to re- cover their children. The noble Roman, shocked at this perfidious action, sent back the boys in safety to their parents, and giving each of them a rod, bade them whip the traitor into town. This generous behaviour of Camillus accomplished more than his arms could have done. The place instantly submitted, leaving to the Roman the conditions of the surrender, which were of course very mild. The brave Camillus, becoming at length an object of envy or jealousy with the people, he was obliged to quit Rome, and live at Ardea, a town in its neighborhood, butthe}^ had reason afterwards to be ashamed of their injustice. 16. Soon after the!?e successes, Rome experienced a terrible calamity. It was taken, devastated, and burnt by tlie Gauls, under Brennus, 385 years B. C. The capitol, however, was preserved. This the barbarians besieged, but they were soon expelled the city by Camillus. § The Gauls were a branch of the great Celtic nation, and inha- bited regions beyond the Alps. These they had penetrated at ditfer- eiA periods, and a portion of this people had already settled in small towns at the foot of the mountains. This people, it seems, on some occasion, had undertaken the siege of Clusium, a city of Etruria. The Clusians, who were not of a warlike character, immediately en treated the mediation of the Romans. The latter sent ambassadors to Brennus, but without success. These ambassadors then retired to Clusium, where they appeared at the head of the Clusians in a sally against the besiegers. Upon this, Brennus, in great displeasure, marched directly against Rome. In this condition, an army was drawn out to save the city ; but the numbers and impetuosity of the barbarians were such, that no ef- fectual resistance was made. Tlie greatest part of tlie citizens fled for protection to the neighbouring cities ; the young and brave men entered into the capitol, resolved to hold out to the last against the enemy ; and the aged senators assembled in the senate-house, deter mined patiently to await their fate. Soon after they entered the citj^, Brennus, and some of his soldiers, went into the senate-house. The venerable appearance of these no- ble old men rendered the Gauls afraid or unwilling to harm them. A soldier at last gently shaking the beard of Papyrius, the old Roman was so offended at tlie act, that he struck the man on his head with an ivory staff he had in his hand : this slight blow instantly aroused the fury of the barbarians ; they massacred tlie senators on the spot, and set fire to the city. In this season of distress, the Romans did not give up all for lost. The little band, shut up in the capitol, made every possible arrange- ment for defence. Tliey were assauUrd in vain. At tliis juncture, Camillus, forgetting all liis private wrongs, gathered an army, with which he entered Rome, and immediately put the barbarians to flight. 490—350 B. c. 89 A singular occurrence, showing the providence of God in the go- vernment of tlie world, attended the siege of Rome. The Capitol was at one time nearly taken by surprise : a number of Gauls having climbed up the steep rock on whicli it stood, were about to kill the sentinels and make tliemselves masters of the place, when some geese, kept near the spot, being awakened by tlie noise, began to flutter their wings, and cackle loudly, so as to arouse the soldiers. This little circumstance saved the capitol, and perhaps the Roman name from extinction. 17. The constitution of Rome was still farther altered about this time, 367 years B. C. The plebeians obtained the right of having one of the two constils chosen from among them. The mililaiy tribunes were abolished the next year. V^'om this period the Roman pov\^er began rapidly to rise. § The vanity and ambition of a young woman produced this change m the government of Rome. Fabius Ambustius, a patrician, had married two daughters, one to a plebeian, and the other to a patrician. The wife of tlie plebeian, envious of the honours of her sister, pined with discontent. Her father and brother, learning the cause of her unhappinesa. promised her the distinction which she desired. By their joint en- deavours, after much tumult and contest, they succeeded in obtain ing for the plebeians the right of admission into the consulate. Lu- cius Sextius was the first plebeian consul. The husband of the ple- beian lady, viz. Licinius Stolo, was the second. EGYPT. 18. The kingdom of Egypt, which had been conquered by Cambyses, king of Persia, was, tmder Darius Nothiis, a dis- tant successor, restored by Amyrtha^iis, 413 years B. C. It continued independent for 60 years, under eight kings. At the expiration of this term it was subjected again to the Persian yoke, by Artaxerxes Ochus. § No very interesting particulars occur in this portion of the Egyp- tian historj^ It is necessary only to observe, that it was by means of aid afforded to them by tlie Greeks, that the Egyptians, after they had revolted, under Amyrthajus, were enabled to withstand the Per- sian force which sought to reconquer them. It was under a king called Nectanebis that Egypt again lost her independence. PERSIA. 19. The history of the Persian empire, during this period, is mostly involved in that of the Greeks, with whom tlie for- mer was so frequently at war. Darius, Xerxes, and Arta- xerxes II. as we have seen, were, during most of their lives, engaged in this war. Concerning the rest of the Persism sovereigns, there is Uttle interesting to be communicated. H2 90 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD Vlf. § Artaxerxes I. we are told, killed his brother Darius, being de- ceived by Artabaniis, who imputed the murder of Xerxes to that prince: but upon being acquainted with the truth, he put Artabanua and all his family to death. During his reign the Egyptians at- tempted to shake off his yoke, but were soon obliged to submit. Xerxes II. was assassinated by his brother, Sogdianus, 45 days af- ter he ascended to the throne. Sogdianus, who assumed the govern- ment, enjoyed the fruits of his fratricide only six months and a half, when he was smothered in ashes, (a mode of torture invented on this occasion, and afterwards inflicted on great criminals,) by or- der of his brother Ochus, who took the name of Darius Nothus. Darius Nothus was a weak prince, in whose reign it was that the Egyptians recovered tlieir independence. Artaxerxes II. succeeded him, who was surnamed Mncmon, by the Greeks, on account of his prodigious memory. He killed his brother Cyrus, who had taken arms against him, in single battle. Tlie 10,000 Greeks who retreat- ed under Xenophon, served in the army of this Cyrus. Ochus succeeded him, who poisoned his brother, and murdered all the princes of the royal family. He invaded Egypt, plundered the temples, and killed the priests. But his chief minister, enraged at tlie ruin of his country, poisoned him. MACEDON. 20. The king-dom of Macedon, which was governed, dur- ing several hundred years, by the descendants of Caranus, was comparatively unknown till the time of Philip, who was also a descendant of Caranus. Philip soon gave it celebrity. Previously to the ])irth of his son Alexander, he had con ■ quered Thessaly, Peeonia, and lUyricum. He liad also gain* ed a victory over the Athenians, at Mythone, 360 years B. C. § Philip ascended the throne by popular choice, in violation of the natural right of tlie nearer heirs to the crown ; he secured his power by the success of his arms against the neighbouring nations. He was brave, artful, and accomplished, and by his intrigues gained over, at an early period of his career, many Greeks to favour his interests. Inhis war against theunited P?eonians, Illyrians, &c. hemetAvith sin- gularly good fortune. Parmenio, his general, Avas sent against the Illyrians, and he himself marched an army intoPffionia and Thrace, where he was signally successful. On his return, a messenger ar- rived with news of Parmenio's victory ; and soon after came another, informing him that his horses had been victorious at the Olympic games. This was a victory that he esteemed preferable to any other. Al- most at the same time came a third messenger, who acquainted him that his wife, Olympias, had brought fortli a son, at Pol la. Philip, terrified at so signal aluippiness, which the heathens generally con- sidered as a bad omen, exclaimed, " Great Jupiter, in return for so many blessings, send me a slight misfortune." 490—356 B. c. 91 Distinguished Characters in Period VII. 1. Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher. 2. Herodotus, a Greek, the father of profane history. 3. Pindar, the chief of the Grecian lyric poets. 4. Phidias, a Greek, the most famous sculptor of antiquity. 6. Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece. 6. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece. 7. Socrates, the greatest of heathen moralists. 8. Thucydides, an eminent Greek historian. 9. Hippocrates, the father of medicine. 10. Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philo eopher. § 1. Confucius was born in the kingdom of Lt\, which is now t)ie province of Chan Long, 551 years B. C. He was a man of great knowledge and extensive wisdom, was beloved on account of his vir- tues — rendered great service to his country by his moral maxims, and possessed much influence even with kings, as well as with his countrymen in general. He died in the 73d year of his age. 2. Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus. His history describes the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from tlie age of Cyrus to the battle of Mj^ale. This he publicly repeated at tiie Olympic games, when the names of the Muses were given to his nine books. This celebrated work, which has procured its author tlie title of father of history, is written in the Ionic dialect. Herodotus is among the historians, wluit Homer is among the poets. His style abounds with elegance, ease, and sweetness. He also wrote a history of As- syria and Arabia, but this is not extant. 3. Pindar was a native of Theljes. His compositions were courted by statesmen and princes, and his hymns were repeated in the tem- ples, at the celebration of the festivals. Some of his odes are extant, greatly admired for grandeur of expression, magnificence of style, boldness of mctay>hors, and harmony of numbers. Horace calls him inimitable ; and this eulogium is probably not undeserved. After his death, his statue was erected at Thebes, in the public place where the games were exhibited, and six centuries after- wards it was viewed with pleasure and admiration by the geogra- pher Pausanias. He died B. C. 435, at the age, as some say, of 86. 4. Phidias Avas an Athenian. He died B. C. 432. His statue of Jupiter Olympius passed for one of the wonders of the world. That of IMincrva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 39 feet in height, and was made of gold and ivory. 5. Euripides was born at Salamis. He was the rival of Sophocles. The jealousy between these great poets, was made the suliject of suc- cessful ridicule by the comic poet Aristophanes. It is said that he used to shut himself up in a gloomy cave, near Salamis, in which he composed some of his best tragedies. During the representation of one of his pieces, the audience, di». 92 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. pleased with some lines in the composition, desired the writer to strike them off. Euripides heard the reproof with indignation, and advancing forward on the stage, he told the spectators, that he came there to instruct them, and not to receive instruction. The ridicule and envy to which he was exposed in Athens induced him to retire to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he was entertained with the greatest munificence. He was here how- ever destined to meet a terrible end. It is said the hounds of the king attacking him, in one of his solitary walks, tore his body to pieces, 407 B. C. in the 78tli year of his age. As a poet hp is peculiarly happy in expressing the passions of love, especially the more tender and animated. He is also sublime, and the most common expressions have received a most perfect polish from his pen. His productions abound with moral reflections, and philo- sopliical aphorisms. The poet was such an enemy to the fair sex, that some have called him the woman hater. In spite of his antipathy he married twice ; but his connexions were so injudicious, that he was compelled to di- vorce both his wives. From this cause may have arisen his erro- neous conceptions of the female character. Of 75 tragedies, only 19 remain. 6. Sophocles was born about 497 B. C. He was distinguished not only as a poet, but as a statesman and general, and filled the office of archon with applause. Twenty times he obtained the prize of poetry from his competi- tors. Of one hundred and twenty tragedies which he wrote, seven only are extant, but these prove him to have carried the drama almost to perfection. Accused of insanity by his children, who wished to obtain his pos- sessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of Oedipus, at Co- lonos. Asking his judges whether tlie author of such a performance could be insane, he was at once acquitted, to the confusion of his un- grateful offspring. He died in his 91st year, through excess of joy, at hearing of his having obtained a poetical prize at the Olympic Games. 7. Socrates was a native of Athens. He followed the occupation of his father, who was a statuary, for some time ; and some have men- tioned the statues of the Graces, admired for their simplicity and ele- gance, as tlie work of liis own hands. He was called away from this meaner emplojnnent, for which, liowever, he never blushed, by a friend ; and philosophy soon became his study. He appeared like the rest of his countrymen in the field of battle, and he fought with boldness and intrepidity. But his character ap- pears more conspicuous as a philosopher and moralist, than as a warrior. He was fond of labour, bore injuries with patience, and acquired that serenity of mind and firmness of countenance which the most alarming dangers could never destroy, or the most sudden calamities alter. He was attended by a number of illustrious pupils, whom he in- structed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doctrines. He spokp 490—356 B.C. 93 with freedom on every subject, religious as well as civil. This inde- pendence of spirit, and that visible superiority of mind and genin^ over the rest of his countrymen, created many enemies to him, ana at length they condenmed him to death, on the false accusation oi corrupting tlie Athenian youtii, of making innovations in the religion of the Greeks, and of ridiculing the gods which the Athenians wc"*- shipped. lie drank the juice of the hemlock in the 70lh year of iiis age, and died 401 B. C. Socrates believed the divine origin of dreams and omens, and was a supporter of the doctrine of the inmiortality of the soul. From K'-s principles, enforced by his example, the celebrated sects of the Pia- tonists, Stoics, Peripatetics, &c. soon after rose. 8. Thuc3'dides was born at Athens. He early appeared in the Athenian armirs, but being unsuccessful in some expedition, he was banished Athens, in the 8th year of the Peloponnesian war. Pie then wrote his history of the important events of that war, to its 21st year. So deeply was Thucydides inspired by the muse of history, that he shed tears when he heard Herodotus repeat his history of the Persian wars, at the public festivals of Greece ; the character of his interesting work is well known. He is considered highly authentic and impartial, and stands unrivalled for the fire, conciseness, and energy of his narrative. Thucydides died at Athens, where he had been recalled from exile, in his 80th year, 391 B. C. 9. Hippocrates was born in the island of Cos, B. C. 406. He im- proved himself by reading in the tablets of the temples, the diseases, and means of recovery of individuals. He was skilful, and devoted hisAvhole time to medical applications ami professional duties. Some say he delivered Alliens from a dreadful plague. According to Galen, his opinions were respected as oracular. Hia memory is still venerated, and his writings, few of which remain, procured him the epithet of divine. He died in the 99lh year of his age, 3G1 B. (-., free from all disorder of the mind and body, and after death, received the highest honours. 10. Xenophon M-as an Athenian. He Avas bred in the school of Socrates, and accars B. C. to the destruc- tion of Cartilage, 146 years B. C. GREECE. Sect. 1. At the commencement of tliis period, the Greeks U'ere greatly embroiled in domestic dissensions, and were fast faihngfrom the enviable height to\Yliich their arms and na- tional spirit had formerly raised them. They Avere no longer the people they had been, and were prej^aring to receive the yoke of a master. Fi-om that time their history is connected with that of the Macedonian monarchy. An attempt of the Phocians to plunder the temple of Del- phos, excited the sacred war, in which almost all the states be- came involved. The assistance of PhiUp being solicited by the Thebans and Thessalians, he commenced hostilities by invading Pliocis, the key to Attica. The eloquence of De- mosthenes roused the Athenians to arms. But their struggle was unsuccessful. Philip met them at Cheroneea, gained a comj)lete victory, and Greece fell into the hands of the conqueror. This event is dated 338 years B. C. He however chose not to treat them as a conquered people. The separate governments retaiiied their independence, subject only, in their national acts, to the control of Philip. After his death they hoped to recover their liberty, but tliey only changed masters. § The sacrilege of the Phocians in robbing the temple of Dclphos, subjected them to a summons to appear before the Amplilct)^onic council, to answer for their crime. A fine being imposed, disputes arose, which could be settled only by arms. The war continued 10 years. The interference of Philip at this juncture was, as might hare been expected, fatal to the liberties of Greece. Ileconirivcd toliave tlie Phocians expelled from the Amphictyonic council, and to be him- self chosen ill their place. The elocpience of Demosthenes delayed for a time the fate of G.eece. He was ever stirring up the Athenians against Philip and satirizing that king. His speeches were called Philippics, since they v\'ere directed against Philip, and hence Philippics has been a term signifj-ing " spceclies against any person." Demosthenes, it is well known, had to contend against many n» 356—146 B. c. 95 tural impediments, in attaining the art of addressing a popular assem- bly. As a proof of his triumphant success, it is recorded, that iEschines, a rival orator, once repeated a speech of his own, and one of Demostlienes. His own was much applauded, but that of Demos- thenes applauded much more. " Ah !" said the generous ^Eschines, " how woidd you have applauded it, had you heard Demosthenes speak it." Soon after the battle of Cheronaea, Philip, calling a general coun- cil of the states was appointed commander in chief of the forces of Greece ; but on tlie eve of attempting the conquest of Persia, he was assassinated by Pausanias, a captain of his guards, from private re- sentment. The hopes inspired by his death proved abortive, as the Greeks soon came under the yoke of his successor. 2. Greece was entered by Alexander, son of Philip, 336 years B. C. He obliged the Athenians to submit, burnt Thebes, and was declared commander in chief of the Grecian forces, in the expedition against Persia, which he began the next year. § Alexander was 20 years old, when the death of Philip raised him to the throne. The celebrated Aristotle was his teacher, and under him, the youthful prince early desired to distinguish himself. He read much ; Homer's Iliad he especially studied. When very young, he managed the fiery war-horse Bucephalus, which no one else dared to mount. In honour of this steed, he af- terwards built a city which he called Bucephala. When he attended his father to battle, he manifested not only valour, but skill ; and once had the happiness to save his parent's life, when it was in great dan- ger from an enemy. At Corinth he saw Diogenes, named the Cynic, because he affect- ed gi-eat dislike to wealth and rank, and lived in a strange, rude man- ner. Alexander asked him whether he wanted any thing. " Yes," said Diogenes, " I want you to stand out of my sunshine, and not to take from me, what you cannot give me." Alexander admired this speech, and directly remarked, " W^ere I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." As if he had said, " Had I not all things as Alexander, I would desire to scorn all things as Dio- genes." Before his expedition into Asia, which will soon be mentioned, he was resolved to consult the oracle at Delphos ; but as he visited the temple on a day on which it was forbidden to ask the oracle, the priestess refused to go into the temple. Alexander, unaccustomed lo denial, seized her by the arm and drew her forwards. " Ah, my son, you are irresistible !" exclaimed the priestess. " These Avords," lie observed. " are a sufficient answer." The Grecian states had revolted after the death of Philip ; but Alexander, in a few successful battles, brought them into subjection. In an assembly of the deputies of the nation at Corinth, he commu- nicated to them his resolution of undertaking the conquest of Persia, agreeably to the designs of his father Philip. 96 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 3. Alexander, at the head of the Grecian forces, invaded Persia 335 years B. C. He was then not 22 years of age. He took with him only 35,000 men, and with this small force, he conquered not only Persia, but Syria, Egy}3t, India, and several othei- countries, and meditated the design of proceed- ing to tlie Eastein ocean, which, however, he was obliged to relinquish. He accomplished his immense undertaking within the short space of six years. On his return home, while he tar- ried at Babylon, he died suddenly in a fit of debauch, as some have maintained, in the 33d year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. Alexander was not destitute of some traits which we love in human beings ; but in a moral point of view, ho must be regarded as a mighty murderer, and enemy of hu- man happiness. § The first exploit of Alexander in this expedition, was the passage of the Granicus, which he effected notwithstanding the opposition of the Persians, who lost 20,000 men in the conflict. The fruit of this victory was tiie submission of all Asia Minor. The next encounter between the Macedonians or Greeks, and the Persians, was in 333 B. C, near the town of Issus, in which the lat- ter lost 100,CH)0 men ; and the motlier, wife, and children of Darius, the Persian monarch, fell into tlie hands of Alexander. After this victory he overrun all Syria, took Damascus, where he found the treasures of Darius, destroyed Tyre, entered Jerusalem, stormed Gaza, subjugated Egypt, and visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the Lybian desert, where he caused himself to be pro- claimed the son of that fictitious deity ; on his return he built the city of Alexandria. Returning from Egypt he foimd Darius with his forces concentra- ted on the eastern bank of the Tigris ; a battle ensued at Arbela, 331 years B. C, in which 300,000 Persians were slain, or as some, with greater probability, say, 40,000, and but 500 Macedonians. Darius be- took himself to flight, and was slain by Bessus, one of his lieutenants Babylon, Suza, and Persepolis, fell into the hands of the conqueror, who set fire to the last, at the instigation of the courtezan Thais. Having finished the conquest of Assyria, Persia, and Media, Alexander crossed the mountains of Caucasus, entered Hyrcania, and subdued all the nations south of the Oxus. He then, passing into Sogdiana, overtook the perfidious Bessus, and put him to death- While in Sogdiana, he killed the veteran Clitus, his friend, in a fit ol intoxication. In 328 B. C. he projected the conquest of India. Penetrating be- yond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porus, a king of that country. He still continued his course to tlie East ; but when he arrived at the banks of the Ganges, his soldiers, seeing no end to their toils, would 356—146 B. t. 97 go no farther. He returned to the Indus, and pursuing his course southward by that river, he arrived at the ocean, whence he des patched his fleet to the Persian Gulf. After his arrival at Babylon, he gave himself up to much intempe- rance, but was still projecting new conquests, when death suddenly put an end to his career. Alexander possessed some generosity of nature, but his vicious habits often overpowered it. Intoxication and the love of conquest render his name odious to a good man. One or two instances of amiable native feeling, will show what h might have been, could he have controlled his violent passions. He conducted himself very dutifully towards his mother, listened to her reproofs with mildness and patience, and when Antipater, whom he left to govern Macedonia in his absence, wrote a long letter com- plaining of Olympias, the king said, with a smile, " Antipater does not know that one tear shed by a mother, will obliterate ten such letters as this." WTien lie conquered Porus, who was seven and a half high, this sin- gularly tall man, as he was introduced to Alexander, was asked by him how he would be treated, "Like a king," replied Porus. Alexander was so much pleased with this answer, that he restored his kingdom to him, and ever afterwards treated him with kindness and respect. 4. The conquests and acquisitions of Alexander were divi- ded, soon after his death, among thirty-three of his principal officers. Four, however, of his generals, at length obtained the whole, 312 years B. C. having partitioned the empire among themselves. It then constituted four considerable monarchies. The names of these generals were Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus. Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, and Pales- tine, were assigned to Ptolemy ; Macedonia and Greece to Cassander ; Bithynia and Thrace to Lysimachus ; but the remaining territories in Asia, as far as the river Indus, w^iich were called the kingdom of Syria, to Seleucus. The most powerful of these divisions was that of Syria, under Seleucus and his descendants, and that of Egypt imder the Ptolemies. Only Ptolemy and Seleucus transmitted their empires to their children. § Alexander nominated no successor. He had a son, called Her- cules, by one of his wives, named Barsine. He also left a brother, Aridajus. Aridaeus, and another son of Alexander, born subsequent- ly to the conqueror's death, and called after his own name, were soon destroyed. Hercules and Barsine, and Cleopatra, the only sis- ter of Alexander, shared the same fate, not long afterwards. Thus his whole family became extinct. Of this deatruction, the contentions of his generals were the cause, and the cause of those contentions was the neglect of appointing a successor. The vanity of 98 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. human grandeur, in this instance, appears peculiarly striking. Of the wars and intrigues of these generals among themselves, we need give no account, as they are not interesting. Some subsequent events, relating to them or their sovereignties, will be mentioned in the proper place. 5. From the period of Alexander's death, the history of the Grecian states, to the time of their suljjugation by the Romans, presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. This people had lost theii' political distinction. The last effort made to revive the expiring spirit of liberty, was the formation of the Achaean league, which was a union of 12 of the smaller states, for this object. This took place 281 years B. C, but it effected little, § Immediately after Alexander's death, Demosthenes made one more effort to vindicate the national freedom, and to rouse his coun- trymen to shake of the j^oke of Macedon ; but it was too late. The pacific counsels of Phocion, suited far better the timid or languid spirit of the people. Antipater, who governed Greece a short time after Alexander's death, demanded tliat Demosthenes should be de- livered up to him. But Demosthenes prevented this by comnritting suicide. Phocion, though lie opposed Demosthenes, was one of the most em.:nent men of Greece. He recommended peace : inasmuch as he was honest himself, he did not suspect the cunning of the enemy of his country. After having been chosen general 45 times, and after having performed the greatest services for his country, he was con- demned to die by the ungrateful Athenians. When about to swallow the dose of hemlock, that was to poison him, he was asked what message he would send to his son. " Tell him," said this virtuous old man, " that I desire he will not remember the injustice of the Athenians." The government of the Achaean league was committed to Aratus, of Sicyon, with the title of Praetor, a young man of great ambition, who immediately conceived the idea of freeing the whole country from the Macedonian dominion. But this plan was defeated by the jealousy of the greater states. Sparta refused to follow the guidance of the PraBtnr of Achaia, and Aratus, forgetful at once of the interests of his country, thought of nothing but to wrpak his vengeance against Sparta. For this purpose he solicited the ixA even of the Macedonians themselves. 6. Macedonia and Greece were now preparing to follow the fate of all the nations within the grasp of Roman ambi- tion. Their period of conquest was ended ; that of their subjugation was at hand. The Romans, as we shall soon learn, had become the most powerful of the contemporary na- tions. 356—146 B. c. 99 An occasion was ofTeied for the interference of the Romans in the affairs of Macedonia and Greece — an occasion which w as eagerly embraced. Macedonia, with its last king, Per- seus, first fell, 167 years B. C. Twenty-one years afterwards, (ircece surrendered its independence to Rome, whose legions w ere led by the consul Mununius. This event was hastened by the dissensions which the Romans fomented between the difiercnt states of Greece. An insult, said to have been received by the deputies of Rome from tlie Achaans, furnished the pretext for an attack on Greece. From this time, Greece became a province of Rome, under the name of Achaia. § The occasion of the introduction of the Romans into Greece, was an invitation frojn tlie iEtolians, to assist them in repelling an attack by Macedonia. Nothing could have better suited the wishes of the Romans. Perseus, a successor of Alexander in the part of his em- pire which fell to Cassander, was then king. lie persuaded the Achaeans to join him in his preparations against Rome. After being sometimes the conqueror, and sometimes the conquered, he was at last vanquished by Paulus iEmilius, at Pydna, and himself and all his family taken prisoners. They were carried to Rome, and served to swell the train of the conqueror. Perseus starved himself to death, and INhicedonia became a province of Rome, The Romans had, in effect, conquered Greece, by their arts, before tliey made use of their arms. They had corrupted many of the principal Greeks; and, on the pretence above mentioned, they marched their legions against this once renowned people. Metellus, the con- sul, began the war, which Mummius completed. (Corinth, in which the Greeks made a last stand, was razed and burnt to the ground. Diaeus, who commanded the Greeks in this city, killed his wife, to prevent her from falling into the hands of the encmj', and then took poison, of which he died. Corinth was de- .stroyed the same year which witnessed the destruction of Carthage, 146 B. C, which latter event we have referred to the beginning of the next period,— having anticipated this item of the Grecian history. Some time previously to the subjugation of Greece, Philopoemen was selected to command the forces of the Achaean cities. lie was an admirable man ; but, in one instance, he stained his character by his conduct towards tlie 8partan>;, numbers of whom he cruelly b'jtchercd, when that city A\as taken l)y him. He was, however, called to sutler in his turn; for, at 70 years ol age, he was taken prisoner, when besieging Messena. The Messe- nians were so delighted to possess this illustrious man in bondage, that they dragged him in chains to the public theatre, for crowds to gaze upon him. At night, he was put into a dungeon, and the jailor carried to him a dose of poison. He calmly received the cup, and, having beard 100 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. that most of his friends had escaped by flight, he said, " tlaen I find we are not entirely unfortunate," and, drinking off the fatal draught, without one murmur, laid himself down and expired. About this same time, Sparta had a king called Nabis, who was notorious for his cruelty and avar-ce. Most of the wealthy citizens lie banished from Sparta, that he might seize their riches, and many he caused to be assassinated. He had received Argos from Philip, iu pledge for some money which he had lent that monarch. He there practised the most shocking cruelties. He had invented a machine, in the form of a statue, re ml)ling his wife, the breast, arms, and hands of which were full of pegs of iron, covered with magnificent garments. If any one refused to give him money, he was introduced to this machine, which, by means of cer- tffm springs, caught fast hold of hmi, and, that he might deliver himself from this exquisite torture, he readily granted whatever Na- bis desired. ROME. 7. Rome, at the commencement of this period, under cir- cumstances more favourable for conquest than it ever had been before, was not long- in subduing the petty nations within a moderate distance of its territory. The name of " Gauls" still inspired some terror, but the Romans soon began to despise theiTij after they had repressed one or two invasions. ■ 8. Having subdued all their neighbours, such as the Her- nici, the iEqui, the Yolci, &c. the Romans began to look for greater conquests. They soon found an occasion against the Samnites, a numerous and warhke people inhabiting the south of Italy, with whom they were engaged in war 71 years. This war commenced 343 years B. C. A war with the La- tins commenced three years afterwards. The Latins were soon subjvigated. § Tlie Samnites possessed that tract of country, which at this day constitutes a considerable part of the kingdom of Naples. They were a far more formidable enemy, both as to numbers and disci- pline, than the Romans had hitherto contended with. Two consuls were at first sent against them. The fortune of Rome attended one of them ; but th? other, Cornelius, was involved in difficulty. Having been surrounded by the Samnites, his army must have per- ished had not the tribune Decius, with 400 men, made a diversion iu his favour. Decius advanced to seize a hill in the midst of the enemy. This bold attempt cost the life of cvciy one of his soldiers. Decius alone escaped, but he preserved the army of the consul. In the war with the Latins, at this time a distinct nation, again Titus Manlius, who was consul, gave a most remarkable instance of well meant, but mistaken severity. He had ordered the Roman sol- diers not to quit their reinks, without permission, on pain of death. 356—146 B. c. 101 A son of the consul happened, witli Jiis detachment, to meet a troop of Latins, headed by Melius. Melius scoffingly addressed the Romans, and at last dared their young connnander to fight him. Tlie son, Ibrgetl'ul of the orders of his father, or regardless of them, in his indignation, sprang forward to the encounter, and soon conquered tlie Latin. Then gathering to- gether tlie arms of the fallen foe, he ran to his father's tent, and throwing tlicin ;it his feet, told his storj'. But tragical was the issue. The consul turned from him, and or daring tlie troops to be assembled, tlius addressed him in their prO' sence. "Titus Manlius ! you this day dared to disobey the command oJ 3'our consul, and the orders of your father ; you have thus done aiv injury to discipline and military government, and must, by your death, expiate your fault. Your courage has endeared you to me, but I must be just; and if yo\i have a drop of my blood in your veins you will not refuse to die, when justice demands it. Go, lictor, and tia him to the stake." The astonished young man showed his noble spirit to the last, and ns cahnly knelt down beneath the axe, as he had bravely wielded his sword against the enemies of his country. The whole Roman armies mourned his early death. How unnatural were even the virtues of the Romans, in many histances ! 9. Tlie war with the Samnites continued with occasional suspensions, but was destined to end only with their ruin. The Romans were generally successful in their battles, though, in one instance, a Roman army experienced a signal mortification, in being obliged to pass under the yoke. The Tarentincp, having become the allies of the Samnites, shared tlicir fate. The Samnites were completely subdued, 272 years B. C, although, in the mean time, the Romans had on hand a war with some other states, as will be soon men- tioned. § During the war with the Samnites, their general, Pontius, de- coyed the Romans into a defile, in whicli they were wholly in the power of their enemies. Rejecting tlie advice of his father, which was either to ])ut tliem all to death, or liouourably to free them, ho chose a middle course, and determined to disgrace them. For that purpose, he obliged the Roman soldiers, with their officers leading the way, to pass half naked under the yoke— a sort of gal- lows made of three spears, two beiinr fixed firmly in the ground, and one laid across on the top of the others. This was considered an in- eufiferable disgrace. The Romans keenly felt the indignity, and not having tlieir power in the least crippled by this means, only became the more impatient to subdue tlieir rivals. They had soon an op])ortunity of inflicthig upon the Samnites a similar odium, and of obliging them at length to eue for peace. 12 102 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. 10. The Romans had a short contention with the Tus- cans, 312 B. C. During two successive years, they were de- feated, — in the last by Fabius. But the most important war, about this time, was tliat in which they were engaged with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The aid of this celebrated general had been sought by the Tarentines. as allies with the Samnites, in their united con- test with Rome. He landed in Italy with 30.000 men, and a train of elephants, and commenced an attack on the Romans. After various turns of fortune, he was at last totally defeat- ed, with the loss of 20,000 men, and returned with haste to his dominions. From this time, the hostile states, left to bear alone the weight of the Roman powder, were no longer for- midable, and all Italy submitted to Rome, about 270 years B. C. § Pyrrhus was born to be a warrior ; but warriors make themselves miserable. When he was preparing to comply with the invitations of the Tarentines, Cineas, a wise and good man, asked him what were his intentions and expectations ? " To conquer Rome," said Pyrrhus. " And what will you do next., my lord ?" " Next, I will conquer Italy." " And what after that ?" " We will subdue Carthage, Macedonia, all Africa, and Greece." " And when we have conquered all we can, what shall we do ?" "Do ! then we will sit down, and spend our time in comfort." " Ah ! my lord !" said the reasonable Cineas, " what prevents our being in peace and comfort now ?" Having arrived in Italy, he speedily conquered the Romans under their consul Lsevinius. This victory was thought to have been gain- ed by the effect produced by the elephants of Pyrrhus's army, the Roman horses taking fright at the sight of these huge animals. Pyr- rhus was surprised at the valiant and skilful conduct of the Romans, for, at that time, all people, except those of one's own nation, were considered barbarians, rude and unknowing. After the first battle, observing the noble and stern countenances of his enemies, as they lay dead on tlie field, Pyrrhus, awed into re- spect, cried out, in the true spirit of military ambition, " O with what ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, and had they me for their king !" He gained a second victory, but after that he found himself losing ground daily, and was glad to leave Italy before he was entirely conquered. The people of Sicily had sent to him for assistance ; thither he went. In Sicily, he also experienced a change of fortune, at first prospe- rous, and then adverse. So that he once more returned to Italy, being almost driven from Syracuse by the Carthaginians. The Romans 356—146 B. c. 103 fell before him again ; but at last, they terribly defeated him, and he was obliged to return with haste to his own couiitry. An anecdote, illustrating the generosity of the Romans and of Pyr- rhus, and sliewing that tliis was the age of Roman virtue, is worth re- cording. One of the pliysicians of Pyrrhus told the Romans, that he w^ould poison his nnrster, if they would give liim a large reward. Fabricius, tlie Roman general, was shoclced at this treachery, and di- rectly informed Pyrrhus of it, sending away the pliysician with scorn; "for," said the general, "we should be honourable even to our enemies." Pyrrhus would not be outdone in generosity, and ex- pressed his gratitude by sending to Rome all his prisoners without ransom, and by desiring to negotiate a peace. 11. The diil'ereut states of Italy had now lost, their inde- pendence ; but after their conquest, they did not all bear the same reloition to Rome. Thek privileges were unequal, va- rying according to the dilTerent terms granted to the con- quered, and afterwards modified according to their fidelity to the parent state. Some were entirely subjected to the Ro- man laws ; others were allowed to live under the original in- stitutions ; and some were tributary, and others allies. The success of the war with Pyrrhus, gave the Romans reputation abroad. They now seemed to themselves to be equal to any enterprise. They had long been jealous of the growing power of Carthage, and easily found a pretext for declaring war against tliat republic. It was alleged that Carthage had rendered assistance to the enemies of Rome. Thus commenced what is commonly called the first Punic War, 264 years B. C. It lasted 23 years. The Romans were in general victorious, though they were once, under Re- gulus, severely beaten before the gates of Carthage. Their first attempts in naval warfare were made during this conten- tion. Tliey were highly successful in them, although the Car- thaginians had been long celebrated for their enterprise and courage on the ocean. The Romans Avon several naval battles, and took the strongest of the Sicilian towns, Sicily being the principal scene of the war. The i/l success of the Carthaginians, re- duced them to the necessity of making peace on very humili- atmg terms. They were requiied to quit Sicily, retiun all the prisoners they had taken, and pay 3,200 talents of silver. § The Mamcrtines, who inhabited a small section of the island of Sicily, had put themselves under the protcctionof Rome, with a view to ward off impending ruin, with which the Carthaginians threatened ihem, as allies of Hiero, king of Syracuse. The Romans, too prou J 104 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. to dignify the Mamertines with the name of alhes, instead of pro- fessing to assist them, boldly declared war against Carthage, alleging as a reason, the assistance not long before rendered by Carthage to the southern parts of Italy, against the Romans. Such was the frivolous pretext for this sanguinary war. It was the object, both of Carthage and Rome respectively, to reduce Sicily en- tirely to its sway. Tlie Carthaginians had already possessed them- selves of a considerable part of it. The Syracusans at first having confederated with the Carthaginians, at length turned against them. Agrigentum was taken from the Carthaginians, after a long siege; end a fleet of the Romans, the first they ever possessed, and which they had equipped in a few weeks, defeated that of Carthage, in a most signal manner. A second naval engagement soon followed, at- tended with like success, the Carthaginians, imder Hanno and Hamil car, losing 60 ships of war. These victories so much encouraged the Romans, that they boldly crossed the IMediterranean sea, and landing in Africa, took the small town of Clypea. Regulus, the leader, Avas ordered to remain there, and continue, as pro-consul, to command the troops ; but he earnestly requested to return home, as he had a small estate of seven acrea which required his care. A person was directed to perform this service, and then Regulus, satisfied that his wife and children woidd have food, willingly devo- ted himself to his public duties. The Carthaginians had procured forces from Sparta under Xantippus, and thus supported, defeated the Romans, and took Regulus prisoner. Regulus having been kept in prison several years, was then sent to Rome to propose peace, and an exchange of prisoners. He was first obliged to take an oath that he would return to Carthage, if he did not succeed in his proposals. AVhen this noble Roman made his ap. pearance among his countrymen, they were all touched by his mis- fortunes, and were willing to purchase his freedom, by granting the request of his enemies. But he would not allow his country to suflfer for his sake, and, though he knew that torture and death awaited him at Carthage, he besought the Romans to send him back, and to refuse the Carthagi- nians their prisoners. The senate, with the utmost pain, consented to this disinterested advice; and, in spite of the tears of liis wife, tlie embraces of his children, and the entreaties of his friends, Regulus returned to Carthage. The sequel may be easily conjectured. As soon as the Carthagi- nians saw him come back with a denial, they put him to every kind of suffering they could invent— to the most barbarous tortures, all of which he bore with patient silence. He died as heroically as he had lived. After various successes on both sides, the Romans gained two na- val battles, and thus so etfectually crippled the strength of the Car- thaginians on their own element, tliat they sought a peace by great sacrifices. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman province, though Syracuse maintained her independent government. 356—146 B. c. 105 12. A peace of twenty-lliree years' continuance subsisted between Rome and Carthage, during wliich time the Ro- mans had two short contentions — first with the Illyrians, and next with the Gauls. Over both of tliese nations the Roman arms tiiumplied. The temple of Janus, which was never shut (luring' a time of war, was now shut for the second time, since tbe foimtl.iiion of the city, 235 B. C. The Romans, at this eia, becan to cultivate the arts of peace, and to acquire a taste for literature. § The war with die Illyrians was owing to depredations committed by them, on the t'-ading subjects cf Kome. Redress being reuised, the consuls mart-lied against tlieiii, and most of the Illyrian towns were obliged to surrender. The war with the Gauls was occasioned by the irruption of these barbarians upon Italy. The Romans oppo- sed them, will; such success, that they lost two kings, and in one bat- tle alone 40,000 men killed and 10,0G0 taken prisoners. 13. The [ oace between the Romans and Carthaginians was rather a matter of policy than of inclination. The Carthagi- nians particularly had improved the time in preparing for re- venge. They began the aggression in the second Punic war, by laying siege to Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance with Rome. Their leader in this war was the celebrated Han- nibal, son of Haniilcar, under whom the first Punic war was principally con.ductecl. The son inherited the fiither's enmity lo the Romans, and was greatly superior to him in talents. ; The war commenced 218 years B. C, and lasted 17 years. It was at first highly favourable to the Carthaginians, and Rome was thrown into imminent danger, and great distress, by the victories of Hannibal, who had carried the war into Italy. But the Roman fortune began at length to prevail, and Hannibal avos recalled to save Carthage itself, inas- much as Sci})io the Roman general, who triumphed in Spain, had passed over into Africa, and spread terror to the gates of ('arthage. Hannibal and Scipio met at Zama ; the battle of that place decided the fate of the war, and the Carthaginians sued for peace, which they obtained only by abandoning Spain, Sicily, and all the islands — by surrendering all their prisoners, and nearly the whole of their lieet, by paying 10,000 talents, and by engaging to undertake no war without the consent of Rome. § Of Hannibal it is recorded. t>i"» ^'-'-en onlv nine years of «" ' 106 ANCICrJT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. the instance of his father, he took a solemn oath at the ahar, decla ring himself the eternal enemy of the Romans ; and never had they so terrible a foe. Like most other great soldiers, he was capable of bearing fatigue and hardship, heat and cold, good and bad fortune in the extreme, with entire equanimity, and williout shrinking. He was simple in dress, rigid in self-government — he ate, drank and slept only so much as to support his iDody,_Rnd give him strength to perform the intentions of his great mind. If, h.owcver, we are to believe the accounts of his enemies, he was not without striking moral defects — being cruel, negligent of his truth and honour, and a scorner of the religion of his country. Hannibal crossing the sea from Africa to Euroj , and taking Sa- guntum, in Spain marched through Spain, and over the Pyrennean hills into Gaul, along the coast of that country, and over the lofty Alps crowned with snow, to Italy — a land journey of 1000 miles. Such an exploit had never been done before. The difficulties of the way would have disheartened any other man. In addition to this he passed through various barbarous tribes, with most of whom he was obliged to fight for a passage ; the Gauls among the rest attempting to oppose his progress. He arrived in Italy with only 20,000 foot and 6000 horse. "NVlien he began this wonderful enterprise he was only 26 years old. Several Roman generals of approved talent and valour opposed him ; yet he w^as on the point of making himself master of proud Rome. In the first engagement near the Ticinus, the Romans were defeated, and they lost two other important battles at the Trebia and the lake Thrasymenus. Advancing to Canna;, the Carthaginians were opposed by the whole force of Rome ; but in vain. Their fine army under their consuls was totally routed. Varro gave orders for the battle against the wish of his colleague Paulus iEmilius ; but the encounter once begun, ^milius fought with the utmost skill and bravery, and died covered with woimds. Just before his death he was found sitting on a stone, faint and streaming with blood. Tlie soldier who discovered him, besought him to mount his horse, and put himself under his protection. " No,"' said iEmilius with gratitude, " I will not clog you with my sinking frame ; go hasten to Rome, and tell the senate of this day's disaster, and bid them fortify the city, for the enemy is approaching it. I will die with my slaughtered soldiers, that I may neitlier suffer the in- dignation of Rome myself, nor be called upon to give testimony against my colleague, to prove my own innocence." It is an opinion generally entertained, though by no means certain, that if Hannibal had marched directly to Rome, after tlie battle of Canna;, tlie fate of the republic would have been inevitable. But this lie did not see fit to attempt. The tide of success now began to turn against liim. Wintering his troops in the luxurious city of Cap- ua, they lost much of their virtue. The Romans concentrated all their strength, even the slaves, arm- ed in the common cause j and victory once more attended the staa 356—146 B. c. 107 dards of Rome. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus. The forces of the king of Macedon, who had joined the Carthaginians, were also defeated at this juncture. ^^'Tlile Fabius, who was now opposed to Hannibal, conducted the war prosperously, by always avoiding a general engagement, the younger Scipio acconipHshed the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was sent into Italy after a long delay, to tlie assistance of his brother Hannibal, but was defeated by the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, having triumplied in Spain, passed over into Africa, where liis path was marked witli terror and victory. This policy he had himself suggested to tlie Roman senate, as the only probable means of driving the Cartliaginians from Italy. According to his expecta- tions, when Carthage perceived the danger to Avhich itself was ex- posed, Hannibal was recalled to protect his native land. He had been • absent 16 years. Scipio was an antagonist worthy of Hannibal. When he was very young, he saved the life of his father in a battle ; and after the fatal o\'ertlirow at Canniis mind. By unwearied eflTorts, and by overcoming the greatest obstacles, such as weakness of the lungs, difficulty of pronunciatit m, and un- couth habits of body, he became the greatest orator in the world. That he might devote himself the more closely to his studies, he con- 116 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. fined himself to a retired cave, and shaved half of his head, so thai he could not decently appear in public. His abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head of the go- vernment, and in this capacity he roused and animated his country- men against the ambitious designs of Philip. He also opposed Alex- ander, and made every effort to save his country. When the gene- rals of Alexander approached Athens, he fled for safety to the temple of Neptune, and there took poison to prevent himself from falling into their hands, in his GOth year, B. C. 322. 5. Aristotle possessed one of the keenest and most inventive ori- ginal intellects ever known. His writings treat of almost every branch of knowledge in his time ; — moral and natural philosophy, metaphy- sics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, and politics, all occupied his pen. His eloquence also was I'emarkable. He was moderate in his meals, slept little, and was indefatigably industrious. That he might noi oversleep himself, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always with one hand out of the bed, holding in it a ball of brass, which, by its falling into a basin of the same metal, awaked him. Though educated in the school of Plato, he differed from his mas- ter', and at length formed a new school. He taught in the Lyceum. He had a deformed countenance, but his genius was an ample compensa- tion for all his personal defects. As he expired, he is said to have ut- tered the following sentiment. " I entered this world in impurity, I have lived in anxiety, I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes, pity me I" If he lived in scepticism, as is affinned, he hardly died in it. His death occurred in his 63d year. 6. Euclid was a mathematician of Alexandria. He flourished about 300 years B, C. He distinguished himself by his writings on music and geometry, but particularly by 15 books on the elements of mathe- matics, which consist of problems and theorems, with demonstrations. His elements have gone through innumerable editions. He was greatly respected by antiquity, and his school, which he established at Alexandria, became the most famous in the world, for mathe- matics. 7. Theocritus flourished at Syracuse in Sicily, 282 years B. C. He distinguished himself by his poetical compositions, of which 30 Idy- lia, and some epigrams, are extant, written in the Doric dialect, and admired for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. He excelled in pastorals. He clothes his peasants with all the rusti- city of nature, though sometimes speaking on exalted subjects. It is said he wrote some invectives against Hiero, king of Syracuse, who ordered him to be strangled. 8. Zeno was a native of Cyprus. In early life he followed commer- cial pursuits ; but having been shipwrecked, to divert his melancholy, lie took up a book to read. The book was written by Xenophon, and so captivated was he, that from this time he devoted himself to plii- losophy. Becoming perfect in every branch of knowledge, he at length opened a school in Athens, and delivered his instructions in a porch, ia Greek called stoa. He was austere in his manners, but his life was 146— 80 B. c. 117 an example of moderation and sobriety. He taught philosopiiy 48 years, and died in his 98th year, B. C. 204. A stranger lo diseases and indisposition, virtue was his chief good. 9. Archimedes was born at Syracuse. At the siege, by Marcellus, he constructed machines which sunk some of the Roman sliips, and others he set on (u-e with burning glasses. These ghisses are supposed to have been reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their eflcct at the distance of a bow shot. He was killed at the taking of tiie place, 208 B. C. by a soldier, who was ignorant of his character, and while the philosopher was enga- ged in his studies. Some of his works are extant. PERIOD IX. The pei'iod of the civil icar between Marius and S'l/lla, extending fro7n the destruction of Carthage, 146 years B. C. to tJte first campaign of Julius Casar, 80 years B. a ROME. Sect. 1. This period, as well as that which follows, pro- perly begins with the affairs of the Romans — a people, already possessing vast power and resources, and destined to become in a short time, the conquerors of the whole civilized portion of the human family. Following the course of their victories, we next light upon their final conquest and destruction of Carthage, the most formidable rival Rome ever possessed. That city fell under tiie hands of the conquerors 146 years B. C. The war, of which this was the result, had commenced four years before. The Romans were the aggressors, having invaded Africa at a favourable juncture, when the Carthaginians were engaged in a war with another power. Carthage fell, notwithstanding the desperate eObrts of its inhabitants, and was converted into a pile of rains, with the extinction of the Carthaginian name. § Wlien the indications of Roman liostility appeared, the Cartha- ginians, who had sulfered so severely in the last war, recoiled at the idea of anoth.er contest with the conquering Romans. They therefore sent a deputation to Rome to settle the matter pacifically, if possible. The Senate gave no decisive answer. A second deputation followed, but it sought in vain to avert tlie threatened evil. The demands made upon the Carthaginians were in the highest degree disgraceful to Rome. They were commanded lis ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. to promise implicit obedience, and to send 300 hostages as a seci i.y for tlieir future good conduct. The promise was given, ana the Carthaginians yielded up their children, as the required hostages. Tliey were liext ordered to give up all their arms ; this order was also obeyed: and to consummate their degradation and the cruelty of the Romanes, they were required to quit their beloved city, and allow it to be levelled to the ground. The Carthaginians, as might have been expected, were fired with indignation, and resolved unani- mously that if they could not saA-e their capital, they would perish With it. Despoiled, however, of their arms, they could at first effect but little, although they exerted every nerve, in raeeiing the foe. Their women cut off their long fine hair to be twisted into cords for bows; they brought out all their gold and silver vessels to be converted into arms, for these were the only metals they had left. The Romans were astonished at the resistance thcj^ experienced ; many times were they repulsed from the walls, and many were the soldiers slain in the various attacks. Indeed, it is tliought by some, that Carthage would not finally have been taken, had not one of her own officers basely gone over to the enemy. The affairs of the Carthaginians declined from that time. Scipio J]]milianus cut off their supplies of food, and blocked up the haven. The persevering citizens cut out a new passage into the sea. He next attacked and cut to pieces the army they had station- ed without the walls, killing 70,000 men, and taking 10,000 prison- ers. After this he broke through the walls, and entered the city, pulling or burning down houses and temples, and public buildings, with indiscriminate fury. Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, delivered himself and citadel to the conquerors ; but his wife and children, with numbers of the citizens, set fire to the temples, and rushing into llum, perished in the flames. So completely was this once beautiful city destroyed, that the place on which it stood cannot be discovered ; it was burning 17 days, and was 24 miles in circumference. All the cities which befriended Carthage, shared her fate ; and the Romans gave away the lands to their friends. 2. Soon after the ruin of Carthage, viz. 137 years B. G. the Numantines, a people of Spain, overcame the Romans in battle : but three years after this defeat, Numanlin, tlie finest and largest city in Spain, was taken by the Ilomans, and he inhabitants, to escape falUng irto the hands of these cruel conquerors, set fire to their city, and all of them perished in the llames. Thus Spain became a province of Rome 134 3'eais B, C. § Previously to the defeat of the Romans by the Numantines, there had been a war between tlie Romans and Spain, which lasted 9 years. Fabius, who was sent to manage this war, gained a victory over ouo 146— so B. c 119 o*" the leaders of the Spanish forces, who was obliged to retire into Lusitania. The reverse wliich theRomans met with in the contest with Numan- tia, was highly dif^graceful to thcni. Tliirty thousand of their num- ber were conquered by 4000 Nuniantines. The consul, Manciiuis, was recalled, and Scipio was sent into Spain, who restored the discipline of the troops. He soon defeated tlie Nuniantines, Avho, being reduced to the last extremity, perished as above described. 3. Rome at this time, (133 B. C.) was beginninir to be greatly disturbed by internal dissensions. Attains, king of Pergamns, having, by his last will, made the Romans his heirs, Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the people, proposed that the money should be divided among the poor. This caused a great disturbance, during which Gracchus was kUled. About twelve years afterwards, Caius Gracchus, brother to Tiberius, having opposed the senate, and become popular and powerful, exposed himself to the resentment of the nobles, who marked him out for destiiiction. In consequence of some riots, tlie consul Opimius pursued him so closely, that to avoid falling into his hands, he accomplished his own death, by the assistance of a servant. § The Gracchi were sons of Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Afri- canus, the conqueror of Hannibal. She was left a widow with tAvelve children. Tlie following circumstance places her character in a very favourable light. A lady once came to visit her, who prided herself much on her jewels, and after shewing them to Cornelia, asked to see hers in return. Cornelia waited till her sons came home from school, and then prcsf ntiiig them to her guest, said, " Behold, madam, these are my jewels.-' The interference of Tiberius, her elder son, in behalf of the poor, had given great offence to the rich. At a public meeting he chanced to put his hand to his head, and those who wished his downfall im- mediately said that he was desirous of a crown, and in the uproar that ensued, he lost his life. At his death, the populace placed his younger brother at their head. Caius Gracchus was only 21 at this time, and had lived a life of great retirement, yet he did much good, and caused many useful acts to be passed. He was temperate and simple in his food, and of an active and industrious disposition. His love and respect for his mother were remarkable. At her request he withdrew a law he much desired to have passed : and so much was lie esteemed, that a statue was erected to the memory of his mother, with this inscription, Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi," a tribute honourable to both parent and children. The tumults attending the attempts of the Gracchi to remove the corruptions of the higher orders at their expense, were a prelude to 120 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IX. Jhose civil disorders, which now rapidly followed to the end oi the commonwealth. 4. The Romans, though corrupt at home, still displayed their valour abroad. Besides some small states which tliey had acquired on the north and east, they defeated Jugurtha, king of Numidia, about this time. The war with him com- menced 111 years B. C, and was finished under Marius 108 B. C. The consequence to Jugurtha was the loss of his king- dom and life. After an engagement in which 90,000 of the Numidian army were slain, he was betrayed and made prisoner, and the senate finally condemned him to be starved to death in a dungeon. Jugurtha's own conduct occasioned his calamity, though the senate of Rome acted with singular cruelty. In this war Metellus the consul was leader at first, but Marius found means to supplant him, and to succeed in command. § Jugurtha, who was grandson of the famous Massinissa, that sided against Hannibal, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia, by destroying his cousins, the sons of the late king. He succeeded in murdering the elder brother ; and the younger, applying for aid to Rome, failed of success, since Jugurtha bribed the senate, who de- creed to him the sovereignty of half the kingdom. He then made war upon his cousin, and finally put him also to death. The displeasure of the Roman people being excited by this conduct, the senate were constrained to summon him to Rome, to answer for his perfidy. He accordingly went thitlter, and pleading his own cause in person, he again, by bribery, secured the favomr of /.he senate. A repetition of his base conduct in reference to his cousin, drew upon him, however, the vengeance of the Romans. Metellus was sent against him ; and in tlie space of two years, Jugurtha was over- thrown in several battles, so that he was forced to negociate a peace. The negociation, however, was soon laid aside. Metellus had very much broken the strength of the Numidian king, before Marius succeeded to the command. Having by his arts ODtained the consulship, Marius enjoyed the reputation of putting an end to the war. This man was the glory and the scourge of Rome. He was born of poor parents, and inured from infancy to penury and toil. His manners were as rude as his countenance was forbid- ding. He was thus prepared, however, to become a great general. His stature was extraordinary, his strength incomparable, and his bravery undaunted. When he entered the country of Jugurtha, he quickly made himself master of the cities that yet remained to the latter. Bocchus, king of Mauritania, at first assisted this prince, but fear- ing at length for his own crown, and understand inf^ ihni the Rmnanc 146—80 B. c. 121 would be satisfied with the delivery of Jngiirtha into their hands, he resorted to this treacherous measure, and the Numidian, dragged in chains to Rome, (;\'i)crlenced the fate above recorded. 5. After a short war with the Teutoiies and Cimbri, of whom several huiuUed tliousands were slain under Marius, the Romans fell into a contention with the allied states of Italy. This was called the Social War, and was entered into on the part of the states, with a view to obtain the rights (/ citizenrihip, 9i years B. C, This war ended in an allowance of those rights, to such of the allies as shoidd return to their allegiance. It cost the lives of 300,000 of the flower of Italy, and was conducted by the ablest generals, on both sides. 6. Following this was the commencement of the Mithridatic War, 89 years B. C. Sylla, who had distinguished himself in the social war, was appointed to the command of the expe- dition against Mithridates, to the great disappointment of Ma- rius. This measure was the foundation of those dreadful dissensions by which Rome became soon distracted. Within the space of three years, Sylla g-reatly humbled the power of Mithridates, and at the expiration of that time re- turned to Rome, burning with revenge against his enemies, — Marhis and his accomplices. § Mithridates was a powerful and warlike monarch, whose dominion at this time extended over Ca])padocia, Bitliynia, Thrace, Macedon, and all Greece. Me was able to bring 250,000 infantrj^ into the field, and 50,000 horse. He had also a vast number of armed chariots, and in liis port 400 ships of war. The Romans desired to attack him, and they wanted no other pre tence, than his having invaded some of those states that were under the protection of Rome. Sylla entered with spn-it on the war, and soon had an oppotuiiity to acquire glory by his arms. This general who now bcg;ui to take the lead in the commonwealth, belonged to one of tiie most illustrious families in Rome. His person was elegant, his air noble, his manners easy and apparently sincere ; he loved pleasure, but glory still more ; and fond of popularity, he de- sired to please all the world. He rose by degrees into office, and soon eclipsed every other commander. On this account he received the present appointment, in opposition to the claims of Marias. In the course of the war, wliich had now commenced in earnest, Mithridates having caused 150,000 Roiuans, who were in his domin- ions, to be slain in cold blood, next sent his general Archelaus to op- pose Sylla. Archelaus, however, was defeated near Athens, with the loss of an incredible number of his forces. Another battle followed, by which the Roman general recovered all tiie countries that had been usurped by Mithridates ; so that both 122 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. {)arties desired a cessation of arms, Mitliridates on account of his osses, and Sylla on account of his designs against Marius. 7. Before much prog-ress was made in the Mithridatic war, the contention between Marius and Sylla had begun, 88 years B. C. Sylla having been recalled from Asia, refused to obey the mandate of the senate, and found his anny well disposed to support him. They required their leader to march them to Rome. He accordingly led them on, and they entered the city sword in hand. Marius and his partisans, after some resistance, fled fi'om the city, and Sylla ruled for a time in triumph. He soon returned, however, into Asia, to finish the war he had undertaken. In the mean time, the party of Marius recovered strength, and he returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of Cinna, his zealous partizan, laid siege to Rome. The city he compelled to absolute submission. After putting to death all whom they considered their ene- mies, they assumed the consulship. But Marius, in a fit of debauch, died a few days after ; and Ciima at no great inter • val followed, having been privately assassinated. § After Sylla had entered Rome in arms, his object, with the exeep)-- tion of a few vindictive measures, seemed to be to give peace to the city, and it was not until he had effected this object, as he supposed, that he departed upon his expediton against Mithridates. By confining his efforts solely against Marius, he had, however, overlooked a for- midable rising opponent in Cornelius Cinna. This man, who was of noble extraction, ambitious, bold, and enter prising, had sufficient influence to raise an army with a view to con- tend against the supporters of Sylla. Just at this juncture, Marius, having escaped a thousand perils during his absence, returned, with his son, to the gates of Rome. An army of veterans and slaves, the latter of whom he had promised liberty, flocked to his standard, and burning with revenge, he entered Rome, having previously received the submission of the senate. Tragical occurrences followed ; for senators of the first rank were butchered in the streets, and every personal enemy which Marius or Cinna had, that could be found, was put to death. In a month Mari- us died, having satisfied his two prevailing passions of ambition and revenge ; and while Cinna was preparing to meet Sylla in arms, he perished in a mutiny of his own soldiers, by an unknown hand. 8. Sylla soon returned to Italy, victorious over his foreign enemy, and joined by Cethegus, Pompey, and other leaders, gave battle to those Romans who had been opposed to him, and entirely defeated them. Rome now for the first time re- ceived a native master. A most dreadful massacre and pro* 146—80 B. c. 123 scription followed, in which Sylla designed to exterminate every enemy he hud in Italy. § The army opposed to Sylla M'as headed by young Marius, son of Caius, and although it was more numerous than that of Sylla, it was less united and disciplined. Several misfortunes, however, happen- in.'? to the forces of Mariu.'j, they soon yielded. A large body of the Samnites, who, at this time, were in the interest of Marius, had carri(-d the war to the gate of Rome. They were on the point of success, when Sylla met them, and a most obstinate contest ensued. Sylla found himself victorious. On the field of battle 50,000 of the vanquished and the victors lay promiscuously in death. Sylla now became undisputed master of his country, and entered Rome at the head of his army. But he entered it to accomplish the purposes of the direst revenge. A long list of senators, and Roman knights, together with an unnum bered multitude of the citizens, he caused to be put to death. This work of destruction he extended throughout the principal towns of Italy. He permitted his soldiers to revenge their private injuries, and thus almost indiscriminate massacres took place. 0. Such violence, however, could be supported only by an increase of power. Accordingly Sylla invested himself with the Dictatorship, thus designing to give an air of justice to his monstrous oppressions. This dictatorship commenced 82 years B. C, and lasted not quite three years. Rome was now be- ginning to settle into a despotism, having passed through all the forms of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. From this time, though nominally a republic for a number of years, it never freed itself from the yoke of despotism. Sylla, as perpetual dictator, was Avithout a rival in authority, and absolute master of the government. Every thing was done as he exacted. The least opposition aroused his ven- geance. The peo})le saw nothing before them but the pros- pect of hopeless slavery, for, while they were amused with the show of their former government, Sylla took care that none but his own creatures should be elected to any office. It was at this crisis, however, that, contrary to all expecta- tion, Sylla laid dovv'n the dictatorship. The step was unac- countable, and the reasons of it have ever remained hidden from mankind. § He retired in safety. Of all that great multitude Avhich he had so often insult(!d and terrified, none were found hardy enough to reproach or accuse him, except one young man who pursued hiiu, with bitter invectives, to his own door. Sylla, without re])lying to so low an adversary, turning to those who followed, observed, " That this fellow's insolence would, for the 124 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IX. future, prevent any man's laying do^vn an office of such supreme authority." Retiring into the country, in order to enjoy the pleasures of tran- quillity and social happiness, if such a wretch could enjoy either, he did not long survive his abdication, dying of a most filthy disease — a loathsome and mortifying object to human ambition. A little before his death he made his own epitaph, the tenor of which was, " that no man had ever exceeded him in doing good to his friends, or injuries to his enemies." SYRIA. LO. The affairs of Syria, under the Seleucidee, or succes Bors of Seleucus, to the end of this period, were in a very uii- prosperous state. A succession of massacres and usurpations took place, till the time of Tigranes, king of Armenia, whom the Syrians invited to reign over them, 85 years B. C. Indeed Syria existed in independence but a few years after the pre- sent period, having been made a province of Rome soon after the commencement of the next succeeding period, viz. 64 years B. C. § The following are the names of some of the Seleucidae of the pre- sent era. The first was Demetrius Nicator, or the conqueror, who reigned five years, but was then confined to his palace for a long time. He aftertVards recovered his dominions, and reigned four years. After him Tryphon usurped the sceptre, and reigned four years. He was at length killed by his own soldiers. Antiochus Sidetes, the second son of Demetrius Soter, next ascend- ed the throne of his ancestors. He made war against Jerusalem, and obliged it to capitulate, but he granted the Jews a peace upon reason- able conditions. In attempting to recover all the provinces that belonged to the Sy- rian empire, of which Parthia was one, he made war against Phraates, king of Parthia, but being obliged to separate his troops and put them into winter quarters, the inhabitants of the country resolved on their destruction, and massacred them all in one day. Including at- tendants, they amounted to 400,000 persons. After this prince were Seleucus V. Antiochus Gryphus, who reign- ed 29 years, Antiochus IX. who was slain by a son of Gryphus; and one or two others whose names need not be mentioned. The Syrians having suffered so long, and so severely, under the turbulent princes of the race of Seleucus, resolved to exclude them from the throne. This they accomplished by sending an embassy to Tigranes, and inviting him to accept of the sovereignty. Tigranes complied with their request, and swayed the Syrian sceptre 18 years in perfect peace. Engaging afterwards in a war with the Romans, Lucullus the consul defeated him, and took the city of Tigranocerta, 69 years B. C. 146—80 B. c. l2o After this, Antioclnis Asiaticus, a son of one of tlie former kings of Syriii, was acknowiedjxed asking by Lucullus, and reigned peace- ably for tlie space of four years ; but at the expiration of that time he was driven from the throne by Porapey, and Syria was reduced to a Roman province. JEWS. 1 1 . Pursuing the history of the Jews under the Maccabees It appears!, that the brothers of Judas Maccabteus availed theniseh'es of their advantages with perseverance and suc- cess. By their exertions they estabhshed the independence cf their coiuitry, and changed its repubhcan government to a vi- gorous monarchy. John Hyrcanus, son of Sunon Maccabeeus, uniting in his person tiie oiBces of high priest and generahssimo of the army, subdued the enemies of his country, ceased to pay ho- mage to the kings of Syria, firmly established his govern- ment, and is celebrated for his many valuable qualities, 135 B. C. He reigned 28 years. His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings ; and the high-priesthood remained in his family, though not in the person of the monarch. His descendants are distin- guished in the history of the Jewish nation, by the appella- tion of the Asmoiiean dynasty, which continued about 126 years, "^riie independence of Judea was, however, drawing near to its close, an event which will be noticed in the suc- ceeding period. § Concerning Ilrycanus it may be further recorded, that he seized on several of the defenceless cities of Syria, and thus accomplished a complete deliverance of his nation from the oppression of Syria. He also made some conquests, both in Arabia and Phoenicia, turned his victorious arms against the Samaritans, and subdued Idumea. At the time of his death he had raised his nation to a considerable de- gree of wealth, prosperity, and happiness. Of Aristobulus, one of the sons that reigned after Hyrcanus, it is recorded that he caused his brother Antigonns to be killed on suspi- cion of disloyalty ; that his mother claiming a right to the sove- reignty by virtue of Hyrcanus' will, was barbarously starved to death, — and that her other sons were kept in close confinement. This tyrannical persecutor a.'jsumed tlie royal diadem, which had not been worn by any of his predecessors, and effected the conquest of Iturea. His successes, however, were soon interrupted by sick- ness ; and the deep remorse he felt on account of the treatment of his mother, produced a vomiiing of blood, which speedily closed hv* wicked life and reign. 1.8 126 ANCIENT HISTORY— , PERIOD IX. EGYPT. 12. Egypt, during- this period, continued under the rule of the Ptolemsean dynasty. Tlie nation increased in mag- nificence and consequence during the reigns of the Ptolemies. Their reigns, however, were disturbed by many plots and in- surrections, which arose between the different states over which the princes had dominion. These states Avere so numerous, as at one time to include 33,333 well peopled cities. § Of the first Ptolemy in this period, viz. Physcon, we remark, that he was so called on account of his corpulency ; but the name which he assumed was EA'ergetes, or the Benefactor. This was changed by his subjects into Kakergetes, or the Evil Doer, for he was the most cruel, Visicked, and despicable of the Ptolemies who swayed the Egyp- tian sceptre. He murdered the child of his wife Cleopatra in his mother's arms. He caused all persons to be put to death who had lamented the fate of the young prince, and gave free permission to the foreVjners who composed his guard, to plunder and massacre the inhabitants of Alexandria. That wealthy city was accordingly stript of its inhabi- tants, and repeopled by strangers whom he had invited thither. These, and many other enormities, rank him among the most bru- tal of mankind. Ptolemy Lathyrus shcceeded Physcon. His mother, Cleopatra, however, contrived to dethrone him, and to place his bro- tlier Alexander on the throne. The latter retained the title of king 18 years. After his death, Lathyrus re-assumed the government. To Lathyrus a most inhuman action is attributed, in liis war with the Jews, on a certain occasion. Having taken up his quarters after a victorious battle, in the neighbouring villages of Judea, he caused all the female and infant inhabitants to be murdered, and their muti- lated limbs to be put into boiling caldrons, as if he designed to make a repast for his army. He wished to inspire the Jews with terror by representing their enemies as cannibals. PARTHIA. 13. Parlhia continued, during this period, to be governed by the Arsacidae, or descendants of Arsaces. This empire, which was greatly extended at one time, and which under Mithridates I. enjoyed the height of its grandeur, was soon afterwards consideralily aliridged. The principal sovereigns during this peroid, were Phraates II. Artabanus II. and Mi- diridates 11. § Phraates H. when preparmg to mvade Syria at a certain time, found liini.-elf under the necessity of fighting the Scythians, whom he had called to his assistance against Antiochus, and to whom he refused to pay the promised sum, on account of their not arriving before the defeat of the Syrians, 146—80 B. c. 127 III order to strengthen liis army he enlisted all the Greek merce- naries, wiio, following Antiuchus, were prisoners ; but these Greeks having been treated with cruelty during their captivity, resolved to have revenge ; and in the first engagement deserted to the Scythians, and in conjunction with them attacked the Parthians, cut their army to pieces, killed the king, and ravaged their country. In tliis battle the Chinese also assisted the Scj'thians, which is their first appear- ance abroad, which history records. They had previously been con- fined to their own country in their wars and transactions. Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 1 . Polybius, a learned historian, a\;!io wrote the history of the Greeks and Romans. 2. ApoUodorus, a Greek grammarian. 3. Lucilius, an early Roman poet. 4. Marins, a celebrated Roman general and consul. 5. Sylla, an able general, eminent for his success and cm elty in war. 6. John Hyrcanus, a liberator of the Jews, and father of the Asmonean dynasty. § 1. Polybius was a native of Arcadia, in Greece. He was initiated in tlie duties, and made acquainted with the qualifications of a states- 7nan, by his father, the instructer of Philopoeuien. He fought against the Romans in the war of Perseus, but was taken and brought pri- soner to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger Scipio. Polj'bius acquired an intimacy with the powerful Romans, and was prv;sent at tlie taking of Carthage and Numantia. After the death of Scipio, he retired to Megalopolis, where he died in his 82d year, about 124 years B. C. He wrote a universal history in Greek, divi- ded into 40 books, wliieh began with the first Punic war, and finished with tlie conquest of Macedonia, by Paulus. The greatest part of this valuable history is lost. Five books, and numerous fragments, remain. It is highly authentic aiiil accurate. 2. ApoUodorus flourished about 115 years B. C. He wrote a his- tory of Athens, besides other works. But of all his compositions no- thing is extant, except his Bibliotheca, a valuable work, divided into three books. 3. Lucilius was a Roman knight, born at Aurunca,and distinguished by his virtuous and inoffensive character. He is considered as the first great satirical writer among the Romans, and indeed as the founder of satire. He Avas superior to his poetical predecessors at Rome ; he wrote with great roughness and inelegance, but with much facility, and he gained many admirers. Blackwell says, that he was " a writer of such keennes of temper and flowing wit, as fitted him to strike out a new road. iie\'er trod by poet before." Some, however, admired him beyond his real merits. Of 30 satires which he wrote, nothing but a few verses remains. He died at Naples m the 46th year of his age. 128 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 4. Marius was born of obscure and illiterate parents, but became one of the most powerful and cruel tyrants, that Rome ever beheld during her consular government. He became seven times consuL He destroyed the Ambrones, Teutones, and Cimbri, who were pre- paring to invade Italy, and raised a civil war, to oppose the power ol Sylla, as has been narrated in this History. He died B. C. 86, after he had filled all Rome with blood. Among the instances which are mentioned of his firmness, this may be recorded. A swelling in the leg obliged him to apply to a physician, who urged the necessity of cutting it off. Marius gave it, and saw the operation performed without a distortion of the face, and without a groan. The physician asked the other, and Marius gave it with equal composure. 5. Sylla was the inveterate enemy of Marius, between wh*m, as we have seen, the most bloody wars were waged. He was descended from a noble family, but was poor in early life. He afterwards be- came immensely rich. He first entered the army under Marius, as quajstor, in Numidia. He afterwards had the administration of the Mithridatic war. In his wars with Blarius, Sylla acted the tyrant to a terrible ex- tent, and t\ie streets of Rome he filled with devastation and blood. As perpetual dictator, he exercised the most absolute authority ; but at length abdicated and died at Puteoli of a most loathsome disease, in his 60th year, 78 B. C. Mankind have never understood the cause of his abdication. He and Marius both sought in their last sickness to drown the stings of conscience by continual intoxication. 6. John Hyrcanus was prince and high-priest of the Jews, after his father. He restored his nation to independence, from the power of Antiochus, king of Syria, and died 106 years B. C. He was illus- trious by his virtues, as well as by being the father of a race of princes. He was succeeded on the throne of Judea by a son of the same name. PERIOD X. TTie period of RomunLiteratnre^ extending from the first campaign of Julius Cccsar, SQ years B. C to the nativitt/ of Jesus Christy or the commencement of the Christian era. ROME. Sect. I. Rome, at the commencement of this period, had greatly extended its dominions, and was fast becoming a uni* versal empire. Abroad the Romans triumphed — but at home their affairs -were in a melancholy and distracted state. The form of public liberty remained, but the reality had principally* departed. The civil dissensions of Marius and Sylla had pro* trated many of their most valuable mstitutions. 80 B. c. 129 IJefore these dissensions were brought to a close, a man be- gan to appear on the stage, who was destined to destroy the last remnant of the Hberties of his country. This man was .lulius Ca'sar. In his lirst military enterprise, 80 years B. C, in the siege of IMytilene, under Thermus, the ])ra;tor of Asia, Ins bravery and talents were rewarded with a civic crown. Soon after this he returned to Rome to prosecute his studies, and for a time refused all interference in the feuds which were then prevailing. Before he had finished his studies, however, he raised troops to repress the incursions of Mithridates, and was successful in saving or rescuing several of the eastern provinces from liis grasp. § From this time liis ambitious views were too apparent, and in seek- ing office and popularity, he was but too successful. Ho had escaped with difficulty the proscriptions of Sylla, who was persuaded to let him live, though tliat tyrant dreaded Caesar's aljililies. Caesar was descended from one of the first families in Rome, and Iiad married a daujxhter of Cinna. His powerful name and connex- ions he strengthened, by arts of tlie most consummate policy and ad- dress. His ])owcis of mind were of the highest order, and he excelled in whatever branch of pursuit he engaged. He was in person slender, tall, and delicate, and was reputed to be the handsomest man in Rome. He had a habit of running his finger under the nicely adjusted cxiris of his head, when he appeared in pub- lic assemblies : this led Cicero to remark, " that one would hardly imagine that under such a fine exterior, there was hatching the de- .struction of the liberties of Rome."' Of his feats in war, and the important part lie acted in the common' wealth, we shall have occasion to speak, in following the order of events. 2. After tlie death of Sylla, contention broke out anew; for the terror of his power had created a short interval of a dreadful repose. Catulus and Lepidus settled their difficulties only by arms — and the War of Sertorious,and the Servile AVar ensued. These, liowever, were safely terminated after a few years. The war of Sertorius commenced 77 years B. C. The Servile War commenced 73 years B. C. § Lepidus, who was consul, wishing to anmd all the acts of Sylla, was opposed by his colleague Catulus. To carry his jjoint he found It necessary to use force, and accordingly he raised an army in his government of Gaul, with which he approached, in hostile array, to- wards Rome. Catulus, to whom Pompey and his forces were joined, met him at t he Milvian Bridge, two miles from Rome, and gave him battle. Le- 130 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. pidus was entirely defeated, and escaping into Sardinia, soon died of grief. His party, liowever, did not expire witii hiai. A more dangerous enemy still remained in Spain. This was Ser- torius, a veteran soldier, who had been bred inider Marius, his equal m courage — his superior in virtue. Banished from Rome by Sylla, he had found a refuge in Spain, whither all, who fled from Sylla's cruelty, resorted to him. Having gained the affections of its warlike inhabitants, he resisted, during eight years, the Roman power. Metellus, and afterwards Pompey, were sent to bring liim to sub- mission, but he often came off victorious, and was even threatening to invade Italy, when he was suddenly destroyed by the treachery of one of his lieutenants. The revolted provinces of Spain quickly submitted to Pompey. The Servile War took its rise from a few gladiators, who broke from their fencing-school at Capua, and having drawn a number of slaves after them, overthrew the force that was sent against them, and from this success, their number soon increased to an army of 40,000 men. With this strength, and headed by Spartacus, their general, they sustained a vigorous war of three years in the very heart of Italy, and even talked of attacking Rome ; but Crassus, havi'.ig assembled all the forces in the neighbourhood of the capital, destroyed the greatest part of them, and among them Spartacus, fighting bravely to the last. 3. The War whicli had been carried on against Mithrida- tes, and which Sylla had suspended by means of a peace, was renewed about this time, 72 years B. C. This was one of the most important wars which the Romans ever waged. Mithridates defeated the successor of Sylla, and contracting an alliance Avith Tigranes, king of Armenia, began to be quite formidable to the power of Rome. LucuUus, however, an experienced general, was sent against him, and defeated him in several engagements, with immense loss. Tigranes also felt the weight of the Roman arm ; and both, doubtless, would have been obliged soon to pue for peace, had not LucuHus, by means of intrigue, been deposed from liis command, and Glabrio appointed in his stead. After this, Mithridates met with success again, till Pompey was appointed to take the command against this powerful enemy of Rome. Under the auspices of this great general, the Roman arms were completely victorious, and the wai terminated about G3 years B. C, wnth the death of Mithri- dates. § Mithridates was the undaunted enemy of Rome during 25 years. His resources in wealth and soldiers were great, and his bravery and lalciits were equal to his resources. The Roman general with whom 80 B. c. 131 he had finally to contend, was an antagonist worthy of him, in every respect. Pompey had already become a favourite hero of the Ro- man people. He had generally boon successful in his military enterprises, and in the commission wiiich he had recently received of managing the war against the pirates of the Mediterranean, he had shewn equal intrepidity and skill. Pleased witli his success, the people had en- trusted to him tlie sole management of the Mithridatic war, with an almost unlimited authority. His power would have rendered him extremely dangerous to the liberties of his country, had he been an enemy to those liberties. But though highly ambitious, he was desirous rather of glory tlian of do- minion. He wislied to be the first man in the state, and for this rea- son entered into a contest with Crassus for the favour of the people, as he afterwards fought against Csesar, in behalf of the republic. In the Mithridatic war he manifested his qualities as a general. He first proposed terms of accommodation to Mithridates. But these were refused ; and the king, collecting an army from the wrecks of his former power, was about to carry the war into Armenia. In this project, however, he was disappointed, and was obliged to flee. Pompey, nevertheless, overtook him before he had time to pass the Euphrates. It was then night, but being compelled to engage, it is said the moon, shining from behind the Roman army, lengthened their shadows so mucli, that the archers of Mithridates shot their ar- rows at these, mistaking the shadow for the substance. He was overthrown with great loss ; but he broke through the Ro- man army with a few hundred horse, and escaped. Here, after wan- dering through the forests several days, leading his horse, and sub- sisting on fruits which were found in his way, he met with a few thousand of his troops that had survived the engagement, who con- ducted him to one of his magazines, containing the treasures deposi- ted to support the war. After this he sought aid from several princes ; but though he failed in this attempt, and though he was betrayed by his unnatural son, he still aimed at great designs, and even in the heart of Asia, he pro- jected the invasion of the Roman empire. Upon being apprized of his intentions, a mutiny ensued, which was promoted by his son. Being obliged to take refuge in his palace, he sent to his son for leave to depart, with olT(;rs of the remnant of his kingdom to him. The monster, however, denied this request, and sternly conveyed a message to the old man, intimating that death was now all that he could expect. This instance of filial ingratitude aggravated all his other calami- ties ; and he sought fur his wives, children, and himself, a voluntary death. They all readily consented to die with their monarch, rather than to undergo the horrors of a Roman captivity. 4. After defeating Mithridates, Pompey made very nume- rous and extensive conquests, setting up and deposing kings at his pleasure. He at lengtli marched against Jerusalem, 132 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. and after besieging it tliree months, took it — 12,000 of ita defenders having lost their hves. He then returned to Rome, enjoying the most splendid triumph that ever entered its gates, 61 years B, C. § Darius, king of Media, and Antiochus, king of Syria, were compel- led to submit to tlie clemency of Pompey, while Phraates, king of Parthia, was obliged to retire, and send to entreat peace. From thence, extending his conquest over the Thurseans and Arabians, he ''educed all Syria and Pontus into Roman provinces. In his conquest of Jerusalem after gratifying his curiosity with the holy things of the place, he restored Hyrcanus to the priesthood and government, and took Aristobulus with him to grace his triumph. This triumph lasted two days. In it were exposed the names of 15 conquered kingdoms, 800 cities taken, 29 cities repeopled, and 1000 castles brought to acknowledge the empire of Rome. The treasures that were brought home amounted to near 20,000,000 of our money {$ ;) and the trophies and other splendours of the pro- cession, were sucli, that the spectators seemed lost in the magnificent profusion. The glory, rather than the real prosperity of Rome, was increased by these victories. While Pompey and the Roman arms were triumphant abroad, the city was near its ruin, by means of a conspiracy in its very bosom. 5. Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, at this time, (B. C. 64) plotted the downfall of his country. His object was to rise on its ruins to wealth and power ; and accordingly asso- ciating with him a number of ambitious, profligate characters like himself, he hoped to throw Rome and all Italy into a state of tumult and insurrection, and to destroy the lives of the most distinguished of the citizens. But the vigilance of Cicero, who was consul, frustrated this horrible project. Taking the necessary precautions, he secured the conspirators that were in Rome, and ordered them to exe cution, according to law. Catiline, who had fled, soon raised an army, and coming to battle with the forces of the republic, he was overthrown, and himself and his whole army were given to the sword. Cicero, by his abilities, patriotism, and zeal for the public good, w^as raised to the most enviable height of glory and re- nown. 6. Pompey, after his triumphal entrance into Rome, sought to be the first man in the republic. His contention was more particularly with Crassus, who, on account of his wealth, possessed an influence at this time next to that of Pompey. 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 133 Ceesar, who was also aspiring after the same distinction, sought to accomplish his object by uniting these rivals. This union he brought to pass, and thus he avoided making himself an enemy to either of them, and enjoyed the favour of both. From a regard to tiicir mutual friend, Pompey and (.'rassus agreed to a partition of power with Caesar, and thu.^ was formed the First Triumvirate, B. C. 59. Cffisar was chosen consul. He increased his popularity, by a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened his interest with Pompey, by giving him his daughter in marriage. The coalition between Pompe}^, Crassus, and (^'aesar, constituted a power distinct from the senate or the peo- ple, and yet dependent on both. It was exceedingly detri- mental to the pulilic liberties. 7. Having divided the empire between them, these three individuals prepared for their respective destinations. Ceesar. however, previousl}^ to his departure, had the address to pro- cure the banishment of Cicero from Rome, and thus removed one of the greatest obstacles to his career of ambition. He ac- complished this object by means of his partizans, particu- larly Clodius, the tribune, 58 years B. C. The pretext for this base act, was the illegality of certain measures pursued in the suppression of Catiline's conspiracy. Through the interest of Pompey, liowever, Cicero was at length recalled from exile, Avith distinguished honour. ^ Cicero continued to be the watchful guardian of the few remaining liberties of his country. He was the greatest man of the Romans, if not of all antiquity. His virtues were as conspicuous as his talents. He appeared, liowever, to have one foible, and that was vanity. He desired to unite in his character incompatible qualities ; and to be thought not only the greatest orator, but the greatest jester iu Rome. In his zeal for the public good, Caesar Ijad reason to fear him. To procure his banishment from the city, he favoured the designs of Clodius, who was Cicero's inveterate enemy, and in this he was joined by Pompey. Clodius, as tribune, caused a law to be passed, importing that any who had condemned a Roman citizen unheard, should himself be banished. This was designed to have a bearing on Cicero, in regard to his proceedings against Catiline. Being impeached on this law, Cicero was banished 400 miles from Italy, his houses were ordered to be demolished, and his goods set \ip for sale. In vain did he protest against the iniquitous sentence ; the people had ungratefully forgotten their benefactor, and sixteen montiis did he spend in solitude and grief. He bore his exile wiili Uie greatest impatience. m 134 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. Pompey, who had concurred in the banishment of Cicero, at length saw his mistake in the growing reputation and power of his rival, Caesar. To prop his own sinldng fortunes, he needed the aid of Cicero, and interceding in his favour, procured his recall to Rome, 57 B. C. 8. Caesar, who had the government of Transalpine Gaul and Illyria, nobly sustained the mihtaiy glory of his country, ill the wars which he waged on its account. In Gaul. Ger- many, and Britain, he spread the terror of his arms. His landing on the British isles, and his success in subduing the savage and hardy natives, is a memorable event in history. His invasion of Britain took place 55 years B. C; and hi.s subjugation of a considerable part of the country was eflocted at two different times, in the course of one year, 54 B. C. But the urgency of affairs at home, delayed the progress of his arms in Britain. § Cffisar, in the first year of his government, subdued the Helvetii, ■who had left their own country, and attempted to settle tiiemselves in tlie more inviting regions of the Roman provinces. Two hundred thousand of their number perished. The Germans, with Ariovistu.s at their head, were next cut off. The Belgoe, Nervii, the Celtic Gauls, the Suevi, and other warlike nations, were all successively brouglit under suljjection. At length, urged by the desire of conquest, he invaded Britain. But upon approaching the shores, he found them covered with men to oppose his landing, and it was not without a severe struggle, that the natives were put to flight. Having obtained other advantages over them, and bound them to obedience, he passed over to the conti- nent during winter quarters, meditating a return in the spring. The absence of the conqueror inspired the Britons, naturally fond of liberty, with a resolution to renounce the Roman power. But in a second expedition, Cfesar so intimidated them with repeated victo- ries, that they no longer resisted hi the plains, but fled to the forests. Here, however, they were unsafe, and soon yielded to the necessity of suing for a peace. In the course of nine years this ambitious general and waster of hum^u life conquered, together with Britain, all that country which exteuQS from the INIediterranean to the German sea. It is said that he took 800 cities ; subdued 300 different states ; overcame 3,000,000 men, I,0OO,0(X) of whom fell on the field of battle, and the remainder made prisoners of war. Notwithstanding the plaudits of the world, how little glory was there in all this I 9. The death of Crassus, which occurred in an expedition against the Parthians, 53 years B. C, put an end to the Triumvirate. After this event, Ceesar and Pompey, whose union was far from being sincere, began each to entertain the idea of supreme, undivided dominion. . Both were extremely so B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 135 powerful ; but Cccsar had superior talents, and an invincible army devoted to his interests. The main body of the people were also in favour of Caesar who had won them by his libe- rahty. The strength of Pompcy lay in the favour of the consuls, and the good wishes of the Roman senate ; and several legions were also at his coiinnand. In attitudes so imposing, and with resources so vast, it is not surprising that, in tliose dege- nerate times, each should be encouraged to expect the posses- sion of supreme power. The contest for superiority was not long a contest of plans and feelings merely — it soon became a contest of blows. The result of this terrible civil war was disastrous in the extreme to Pompey and the republic. At Pharsalia, in Tliessaly, Caesar and Pompey met in battle, in which Pompey was en- tirely defeated, with the loss of 15,000 men killed, and 24,000 taken prisoners, 48 yems B. C. Being soon after in the power of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, to whom he had fled for protec- tion, he Avas basely murdered. § Near the expiration of the term of his government, Ceesar applied to the senate to be continued in his authority. This apphcation the senate refused. Cnesur then deterrauied to appeal to arms for what he clioso to consider as his right. Having, by the sanction of an oath, engaged the services of his army in his favour, he began to draw towards the confines of Italy, and passing the Alps with his third legion, stopped at Ravenna, from whence he wrote a letter to the consuls, declaring that lie was ready to resign all command, if Pom- pej'' would show equal submission. But the senate being devoted to Pompey, was determined to de- prive Cfesar of his command, and consequently passed a decree, by which he was to be considered an enemy to the commonwealth, if he did not disband liis army within a limited time. Caesar, nothing at all intimidated or deterred from his project, marched his army to the Rubicon, a small river which formed the boundary between Italy and Gaul. This boundary the Roman.s considered as sacred, and not to be passed with impunity, since they had solemnly devoted to tlie infernal gods, and branded with sacri- lege and parricide, any person who should presume to pass it, with an a;iny, a legion, or even a single cohort. At this spot, he f(>r a moment hesitated, as if profoundly impressed with the fearful consequences which must result from the step he was about to take. Ilis misgivinjjs, however, subsiding, he said to one of his generals, " the die is cast," and putting spurs to his horse, he plunged in, and with liis soldiers soon gained the opposite shore. Terror and indignation seized the citizens of Rome, as the news of this transaction reached their eai-s. Pompey was not ii4 sufficient 136 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. force to meet the enemy, and accordingly quitted tlie city, and led his soldiers to Capua, where he had two legions. From that place he passed over at length into Macedonia, followed by the consuls, and a large body of the senators. At the same time, he caused levies to be raised over both Italy and Greece. In two months, Caesar having made himself master of all Italy, entered Rome in triumph, to the great joy of most of the people, lie secured to himself the supreme authority and the public treasures , and having made profession of respect for the citizens and liberties of Rome, and adjusted the concerns of the city, he left it in a few days, and set out to take the field against his enemies. The lieutenants of Pompey havitig possession of Spain, Cassar marched directly thither, leading his army again over the lofty Alps. In the course of 40 days he subdued the whole coinitry, and return- ed victorious to Rome, where, during his absence, he had been nomi- nated dictator. He was soon after chosen consul also. His dictator- ship he relinquished at the expiration of eleven days. In the meantime, Pompey's preparations were such as became the crisis which was approaching. He had received from the sovereigns of the East very considerable supplies, as well as the assurances of their friendship. He was master of nine Italian legions, and liad a fleet of 500 large ships, under the conduct of an experienced commander. The nobles and most distinguished citizens of Rome, flocked daily around his standard ; and he had at one time above 200 senators in his camp, among whom were the great names of Cicero and Cato. Pompey's party glorying in their numbers and strength, were confi- dent of success. Caesar, with a courage bordering on rashness, nnmediately sought his rival, and desired to bring him to an engagement. Near Dyrra- chium the opposing armies were so situated that it became necessary to fight. The result was by no means decisive, though it was favoura- ble on the whole to Pompey, who afterwards led his troops to Phar- salia. Previously to this encounter, a circumstance took place, displaying th-e lofty spirit of Cajsar. For the purpose of liastening the arrival of a reinforcement, he conceived the design of passing over to Brun- dusium in the night, by embarking in a fishcrman-s boat at the mouth of the river Apsus. This he accordingly did witli great secrecy, having disguised himself in the habit of a slave. When they had rowed off a considerable way, the wind suddenly changed against them — the sea began to rise in billows, and the storm increased to an alarming degree. The fisherman, who had rowed all night with extreme labour, was often inclined to put back, but was dissuaded by his passenger. At length, however, he conceived liimself unable to proceed, and yet he was too distant from land to hope for making good his return. In this moment of despair he was about 1o give up the oar, and commit himself to the mercy of the waves, when Cpesar discovering himself, commanded him to row boldly — " Fear nothing," cried he, " you carry Caesar and his fortune." The fisherman was encouraged 80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 137 to proceed, but the wind finally forced them to make for land, and return. Soon after the affair at Dyrrachium, the hostile armies found them- selves on the plains of Pharsalia. Ca3sar invited and provoked a battle, by all the arts in his power. Pompey had secured an advan- tageous situation, unA it was by the artifice of decamping and indu- cing the enemy to follow him, that Caesar drew him from it. When Ca?sar perceived the effect of his stratagem, with joy in his countenance he informed his soldiers that the hour was come which, was to crown their glory, and terminate their fatigues. His forces, however, were much exceeded bj^ those of Pompey, who led an army of 45,000 footmen, and 7000 horse, while the troops of Caesar did not number more tJian 23,000 men, only 1000 of whom were cavalry. But they were better disciplined than those of Pompey. Awful was the moment of meeting. The armies were both Roman, mingled indeed witli foreigners, and the first in the world — the leaders were consummately brave, and the interest at stake was the dominion of Rome. Every heart was fired and every arm nerved. The generals both addressed their armies previously to the engagement, and urged them to sustain the reputation of their ancient bravery. The battle commenced on the part of Caesar. But the cavalry of Pompey were too numerous for tlieir adversaries. Caesar's men were forced to retire. Their general had foreseen this result, and had made the requisite disposition of his forces. Six cohorts in reserve, who had been ordered to discharge their javelins at the faces of Pompey's cavalry, were, at this crisis, brought up to the engagement. The sin- gle circumstance of the manner of their fighting determined the fate of the battle. Pompey's cavalry, who consisted of the younger part of the Roman nobility, valued themselves upon their beauty, and dreaded a scar in the liice, more than a wound in the body. They were therefore frightened from the field by the unusual mode of at- tack, and thus the day was lost to Pompey and the republic. The loss of Ca?sar was inconsideralile, 200 men only being slain. His cleTiiency towards his vanquished enemies deserves to be noticed. Most of the prisoners he incorporated with the rest of his army, and to the senators, and Roman knights, who fell into !his hands, he gave liberty to retire wliithcrsoevcr they pleased. The letters which Pom- pey had received from several persons v/ho wished to be thought neu- tral, Caesar committed to the flames without reading them, as Pom- pey had done upon a former occasion. Caesar followed up his victory witli the greatest energy, and after Pompey's flight in.«tantly pursued him. He did not however over- take him alive. Pompey had hvvn destined to suffer the extremity ot misery. His foil was from the sunmiit of power to the most abject dependence, and it was as sudden as it was terrible. Escaping from the field of battle, and wandering along the beautiful vale of Tempe, in the greatest agony of mind, he finally found the means of sailing to Lesbos, where he had left his wife Cornelia. ' Their meeting was tender and distressing to the last degree. The news of her reverse of fortune had caused Cornelia to faint, and for M2 138 ANCIENT HISTORY- — PERIOD X* a considerable time life appeared to be extinguished. At length re- covering herself, she ran quite through the city to the sea-side. Pom- pey received her without speaking a word, and for some time sup- ported her in his arms, with silent anguish. When words found their way, the tenderest expressions of affection and grief were mu- tually uttered. But it became necessary to flee, and sailing to the coast of Egypt, they sought the protection of Ptolemy, whose father had formerly found in Pompey a benefactor. The mmisters of the king wishing to court the favour of Csisar, basely proposed to receive and then murder their guest, as he approached the shore. This diabolical coun- sel prevailing, Achillas, and Septimius, the latter by birth a Roman, were appointed to carry it into execution. Accordingly, in the very sight of Cornelia, as Pompey arose to go ashore, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm, Septimius stab- bed him in the back ; when the warrior, perceiving what would be his fate, silently resigned himself to it, at the same time muffling his face with his robe. The freed man of Pompey, after the people had retired, found the means of burning the body of his master, from which the head had been separated, and over the tomb the following inscription was afterwards placed : " He whose merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a grave." Caesar soon reached Egypt ; but the head of Pompey, wdiich was immediately presented to liim, and from which he turned his face in horror, informed him, that he had now nothing to fear from a man who had so lately contended with him for the em- pire of the world. 10. War was Caesar's element. He found an occasion of gratifying his ruling passion in Egypt. In a contest between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra, he interposed in behalf of the latter, and at length brought Egypt under the Roman voke, 48 B. C In two years after, he subdued Pharnaces, king of Pontus. § Cleopatra, thougli sister to Ptolemy, was nevertheless married to him, and both jointly held the throne. The ambition of Cleopatra prompted her to aspire after undivided authority. Tlie charms of her person were unequalled, and conquering even the conqueror of the world, they engaged him in a war which was alike ea.sy and de- sirable. After the reduction of Egypt, Cajsar, forgetful of the re- etpect due to his character, abandoned himself to pleasure in the com- pany of Cleopatra. From such a course, however, he soon broke off, for hearing of the revolt of Pharnaces, son of Mithridatcs, who had seized upon Chal- cis and Armenia, he bent his way tlnther. In the battle of Zela, he signally chastised the offending monarch. "I came, I saw, I conquer- ed!-' is the expressive language in which Ids report was conveyed to the Roman senate. 11. Leaving" the scene of conquest in the East, Cecsar has- 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 139 iPiicJ to Rome, wliere his presence was greatly needed. An- tony, who acted as liis deputy, had created disturbances which ( 'cesar only coukl ijuell. Italy was divided, and the party of Pompey was yet extremely formidable. Caesar, however, soon restored tranquillity to Rome. But at this tiuie the two sons of Pompey, with Cato and Scipio, were in arms in Africa, assisted by Juba, king of Mau- ritania; thither Ca\-ar hastened, and at Thepsus, meeting them in battle, overthrew Jiem with little or no loss on his side. Scipio, in attemjiting to escape into Spain, fell among the enemy, and was slain. Cato, confining himself in Utica, at first thought of resisting the victorious Caesar, but finding hia followers irresolute, he deUberately put an end to his own life. This event finishing the war in Africa, Caesar returned in triumph to Rome, 45 years B. C. By an vuiparalleled display of magnificence and by unbounded liberality, he courted and obtained the favour of the great body of the people, xilmost every honour and title was conferred npon him. He was styled fiither of his country, was created perpetual dictator, received the title of emperor, and his person was declared pacred. § The story of Cato is deeply tragical. This extraordinary man dis- laycd at once the /irmiiess and tlie depravity of his nature. Wlieii le found it in vain to attempt to animate liis soldiers against Crcsar. lie resolved to die. After supping clieerfull}', lie came into his bed- chamber, where \\c laid lumself down, and witli deep attention, read Fome time Plato's Dialogue on the immortality of the soid. Perceiving soon tliat his sword had been removed from the head of his bed, he made inquiries respecting it of his domestics; but while he was like to obt.iiu no satisfaction from them, his son, wlio had caused it to be taken away, entered with tears, and besought him, in the most humble and alTectionate manner, to change his resolution j but receiving a stcn-n reprimand, he desisted from his persuasions. His sword being ;* length handed to him, his tranquillity returned, and he cried out, " Wow am I master of myself." He then took up the book again, which he read twice over, and fell into a profound Bleep. Upon waking, he made some inquiry of one of his freedmen, respecting his friends, and then shutting himself up in the room alone, he stabbed himself; but the wound not being immediately mor- tal, with a most ferocious resolution, he tore out his own bowels, and died as he had lived, a stoic. By this deed he has blackened his cha- racter, to all futuriiy. • 12. The state of affairs in Spain called Caesar again into that country, 45 years B. C. Two of the sons of Pompey were in arms, and it was not without severe fighting thaJ E 140 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. Caesar subdued the remnant of his enemies in Spain. He re turned to Rome to receive new demonstrations of t)ie ahnosl slavish homage of its citizens. Finding himself in peace, he turned his attention more than ever to the improvement of the empire. He aflected great moderation in the enjoyment of his power, though he was evi- dently eager of its acquisition. He however turned it to a good account. He made no discriminations between his friends and foes : he was liberal alike to both. He adorned the city with magnificent buildings, undertook to level several mountains in Italy, and to drain the Pontine marshes, impro- ved the navigation of the Tiber, reformed the calendar, and meditated distant conquests. 13. His brilliant course, however, was destined shortly to end. He was suspected of aiming at royalty ; and though many of the people felt greatly obliged l^y his clemency and munificence, yet they detested the name of king. This cir- cumstance urged 6U of the senators, who were actuated by the love of liberty, though some of them seem to have been impelled also by private resentment, to league together Avith a view to deprive him of his life. This they accomplished in the senate house on the ides (15th) of March, in the 56th year of his age, 44 B. C. § Caesar enjoyed all the power of a monarch ; and though he might, in the first instance, have ambitiously sought it, yet it was conferred or allowed by the free consent of the people. But the name of king was not to be endured. The particular occasion of envy or alarm among the friends of libcrtj^, was the neglect, on the part of Coesar, of rising from liis seat, when tlie senate was conferring upon him some special honours. From that time it began to he rumoured that he was about to take the title of king. Whether such was his purpose cannot now be de- termined, tliough it cannot be well conceived why lie should desire that einpty honour, when he possessed the reality. The conspiracy which was formed against him, was headed by Brutus and Cassius, the one his friend— the other his enemy. Brutus owed his life to the clemency of Caesar, whom the latter spared at the battle of Phar- salia ; and he was not destitute of a strong personal attachment to the dictator. The conspiracy which had been formed, happened in some way or other to be known by two or three individuals ; but the means ta- ken to apprize Cvorld, save Mark Antony. 17. Antony having summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to answer for her disaffection to tlie Roman cause, was caught in the toils of love by the artifices of the beautiful cjueen. In his infatuation he forgot ambition and empire, in devotion to the object of his guilty passion. Octavius saw in this mad- ness the presage of his ruin. On Cleopatra, her lover had lavished the provinces of tlie empire, for which he was declared a public enemy, and as for her sake he had divorced Octavia, the sister of Octavius, the 144 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. latter embraced the opportunity, which he had eagerly de- sired, of declaring war against him. An immense armament, principally naval, (the land for- ces being merely spectators,) came to an engagement near Actium, on the coast of Epirus, 31 years B. C. The conflict was decisive. Cleopatra, who attended Antony, deserted him with her galleys, in the midst of the engagement. Such was his infatuation, that he immediately followed her, leaving his fleet, which after a contest of some hours, yielded to tlie squadron of Octavius. The conqueror pursued the fugitives to Egypt ; and the infamous Cleopatra proffered terms to Octavius, including the surrender of her kingdom and the abandonment of Antony. After an mv uccessful attempt at resistance, Antony antici- pated his doom by falling on his sword. Cleopatra also soon after saw fit to fiiistrate the design of Octavius, which was to carry her in chains to Rome as an ornament to his triumph, by seeking a voluntary death. Octavius was now left without a rival, with the government of Rome in his hands. Egypt, which had existed a kingdom from immemorial ages, from this time became a province of Rome, 30 years B. C. § The story of Cleopatra will be briefly told under the history of Egypt for this period. Antony, her lover, had few superiors in war, and he was the idol of his army. He was, however, profligate in the extreme, and his infatuated conduct in relation to the Egyptian queen, while it showed the native strength and tenderness of his pas- sions, has imprinted an indelible stain on his character as a hero. His weakness in this respect was the cause of his ruin, and prevented the acquisition of universal empire, which he might perhaps have otherwise obtained. In the struggle between Antony and Octavius, the strength of the East and o-f the West were arrayed against each other. Antony's force composed a body of 100,000 foot, and 12,000 horse ; while his fleet amounted to 500 ships of war. The army of Octavius mustered but 80,000 foot, but equalled his adversary in the number of his cavalry ; while his fleet was only half as large as Antony's ; but the shipa were better built and better manned. The fortune of tlie day in llie battle of Actium, was determined by the flight of Cleopatra with 60 galleys. Yet with this diminution of the fleet, and with the abandonment of it l,>y Antony himself, it fought with the utmost oljstinacy for several hours, till partly by the con- duct of Agrippa, and partly by the promises of Octavius, it submitted to the conqueror. The land forces of Antony soon followed the ex- ample of the navy, anl yielded to Octavius without striking a blow. 80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 145 18. The Roman empire had now become the largest which the world luid ever seen : and Octavius, now named Augustus, holding the principal offices of the state, was, in effect, the absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the Ro man people. During a long administration he almost effaced the memory of his former cruelties, and seemed to consult only the good of his subjects. His reign constituted the era of Roman taste and genius, under the auspices of Meca?nas, his chief minister, who was tlie most eminent patron of letters recorded in histor3^ Seventeen years Ijefore the close of his life and reign, ac- according to the true computation, (not the vulgar era,) our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was born in Judea — an event more important than any other that ever took place in our world. § AugusUis pursued a pacific course, and restored order to the state During the period of his administration of the government, the tem- ple of Janus, which was shut only at the prevalence of general peace, was closed for the first time since the commencement of the second Punic war, and only the third tiniefromlhebuildingofRome. Itwas precisely at this happy and singular crisis of human affairs, that the liirih of our blessed Saviour happened. The administration of Augustus was however fatal to liberty ; though that circumstance itself tended to general tranquillity', since the corruption of manners required the most absolute restraint. By masterly strokes of policy, he united all intenists and reconciled all differences. He disguised his new des[)otism. under names familiar and allowed by that constitution which he had destroyed. lie claimed to himself the title of emperor, to preserve authority over the army ; he caused himself to lie created tribune, to manage the people ; and prince of the senate, to govern that body. After he liad fixed himself in the government, he long hesitated whether he should restore to Rome its liberty, or retain his present situation. The examples, and the differing fortunes of Sylla and Caesar, were before him, and operated on his hopes and fears. Disclosing his feelings to Agrippa, who had assisted him in gaining the empire, and to Meca^nas, liis principal minister and adviser, the former suggested the wisdom of his resigning it — the latter dissuaded him from taking such a step. The opinion of Meca?nas, as it was on the whole more agreeable to Augustus, was followed, and perhaps mankind have little reason to regret it, considering what was the awful corruption of the times. Through the counsels of this great minister, Augustus fostered learning and the arts to the highest degree, and specimens of human intellect then appeared, which have rarely been equalled among man- kind. Genius enjoyed all the rewards and all the consideration that it could claim. M 146 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. The authority which Augustus usurped, he, from pohcy, accepted only for ahmited period, sometimes for ten, and sometimes for only five years ; but at the expiration of the term, it was regularly be- stowed upon him again. His situation, which was above all equality, generated virtues to which, in all probability, he was naturally a stranger. He sometimes condescended to plead before the proper tribunals, for those he de- sired to protect, for he suffered the laws to have their proper course. One of his veteran soldiers entreated liis protection in a law-suit, Augustus, taking little notice of his request, desired him apply to an advocate. "Ah!" replied the soldier, "it was not by proxy that I served yoii at the battle of Actium." This reply p'eased Augustus so much, that he pleaded his cause in person, and gained it for him. He was so aftable, that he returned the salutations of the meanest person. One day a person presented him with a petition, but with so much awe, that Augustus was displeased v/ith his meanness, " What ! friend," cried he, " you seem as if you were offering some- thing to an elephant, and not to a rnan : — be bolder." A part of his long reign of more than 40 years belongs to modern history, but we may here speak of it as entire. During the whole of it he cultivated the arts of peace. The wars which were carried on in the distant provinces aimed rather at enforcing submission, than Ht extending dominion. He was however successful in almost all of them. The defeat of his general. Varus, in Germany, was the most serious disaster which he experienced. The choicest troops of the empire constituted the army of Varus, and they were entirely cut off in the forests of that country. In his domestic life, Augustus was less happy and fortunate, than as master of the Roman people. His wife, Livia, was an imperious woman, and controlled him at her pleasure. Her son, Tiberius, who at length succeeded to the empire, possessed a suspicious and obsti- nate temper, and gave him samuch uneasiness, that he banished him for five years at a distance from Rome. But his daughter, Julia, by his former Avife, afflicted him more than all the rest, through her ex- cessive lewdnes? The very court where her father presided, was not exem.pt from ncr debaucheries. Augustus lost a favourite son, who, it is supposed, v/as taken off by poison, lest he should supplant Tiberius. The emperor was often heard to exclaim, " How happy should I have been had I never had a wife or children !" He died during an absence from Rome, at Nola, of adysentery, in the76th year of his age, after reigning 41 years, 14 A. C. 19. Little is to be said, separately, of the history of other nations during this period, as ihey were mostly swallowed up in the Roman empire. We can notice only two or three, and these are very mnch blended with the Roman history, being included in the number of the Roman provinces before the end of the present period. First, Judea comes under review. 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 147 JUDEA. The Jews at this time were ruled by the sacerdotal and royal family of the Maccabees, under the title of the As- nionean dynasty, but they were in the last stages of their independent existence. When Pompey came to Jerusalem to settle the affairs of Judea, he restored Hyrcanus with the title of Prince of the Jews, and conferred the government of the countr}^ on Antipater, an Tdiimean proselyte, G3 years B. C. § 111 the civil wars between C2esar and Pompey, the former sent Aristobulus, whom Pompey had carried captive to Rome, into Judea, to engage the Jews in his (Caesar's) cause, but he was poisoned by his enemies. At the same tnne Pompey ordered his son Alexander to be beiieaded. 20. After one other revolution in the person of Hyrcanus, tl'.e famil}^ of the Herodians was seated on the throne of Ju- dea. Herod, called the Great, son of Antipater, w^as declared king of that country, by a decree of the Roman senate, 37 years B. C His reign was splendid, but distinguished by a singular degree of prolligacy. § Sometime after his estabhsliment on the throne, Herod, in order to please Mariamne, the daughter of Hyrcanus, whom he had married, appointed her brother, Aristobulus, High Priest ; but perceiving that lie was much beloved by the Jews, he caused him to be drowned while bathing. After the battle of Actium he went to Rhodes to meet Augustus, who confirmed his title of king of Judea. Upon his return he condemned to death his wife, Mariamne, and her mother, Alexandra. From this hour his life was a continual scene of misery and fero- city. At the instigation of his third son, he sentenced to death Aris- tobulus and Alexander, his children by IMariamne, and the next year Antipater himself experienced the same fate. His last moments also were stained with the l)lood of the children of Bethlehem and the neighbourhood, whom he ordered to be slain, in the hope that the infant Jesus Christ would fall among them. EGYPT. 21. The fiimily of the Lagidic, continued to rule Egypt. Alexander H. was on the throne at the commencement of tliis period. Cleopatra was the last sovereign. The intermediate sovereigns were Ptolemy Auleles, Berenice, and Ptolemy Dionysius, who reigned for a time jointly with Cleopatra. With the death of this queen ended the family of the La- gidiie, after having ruled in Egypt about 294 years. Egypt was now reduced to a Roman province, and governed by a PraHor sent thither from Rome, 30 years B. C, 148 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. ^ Ptolemy Dionyshis was 13 years old at the time of his fatlier's death, by whose will he was nominated to the succession, on condi- tion of his marrying his sister Cleopatra, then 17 years of age. The Romans were appointed guardians of these children. Cleopatra married her brother, and they reigned jointly, till, dissatisfied with the Roman ministry, she retired to Syria and Palestine, where she raised an army, and advanced under the waUs of Pelusium, to give battle to the ministers of her husband. At this moment, as we have before learned, Pompey,variqui.shed at Pharsalia, took refuge in Alexandria, and was assassinated by order of Ptolemy. Julius Caesar, pursuing his rival, arrived soon after- wards, and endeavoured to compromise the differences between the king and the queen. For a short time they were reconciled ; but Ptoleni)', renewing the Avar not long afterwards, was defeated and drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra then married her youngest brother, a boy of eleven years of age, and already affianced to his sister Arsinoe. Him, liowever, she soon poisoned, 43 B. C. ; and assumed the sole government. After the arrival of Mark Antony in Egypt, and his captivatiou by Cleo- patra, her character became still more remarkable for corrui> tion. The beauties of her person were incomparable ; and in polite learning, in brilliancy of wit, and m tunefulness of voice in lier con- versation, she was as irresistible as in her personal charms. These qualities, joined to an extreme profligacy of manners, rendered her one of the most dangerous foes to virtue that ever lived. When summoned to present lierself before Antony for the first time, her appearance was so splendid and fascinating, that the Ro- man warrior rather adored than judged her. Every decoration was employed to heighten the most consummate loveliness of features, and gracefulness of motion. Holding Antony in the chains of a base passion, she ruled him at her pleasure. The profusion of riches displayed at her feasts was astonishing. Antony holding the wealth of })lundered provinces, with his utmost •efforts could not equal tlie queen in the sumptuousness of her enter- taimnents. It was at one of these feasts that the incident mentioned by Pliny occurred. Cleopatra, having laid a considerable wager that she could expend more than 50,000/. upon one repast, caused one of the pearls that she wore in her ears, which was valued at the above named sum, to be dissolved in an acid, and tlien swallowed it. Slie was then preparing to melt the otlier in a similar manner, but some one liad the address to divert her from her design. After the bat'lc of Actium, Octavius used every effort to secure the person of tlie queen, .-lud to eff('ct the death of Antony, by her means. lie promised her his protection and friendsliip if she Avould kill him. This she peremptorily refused to do, but consented to deliver his person and the kingdom of Egypt into tlie enemy's hand. Antony, who had before meanly sought his life of Octavius, open- ing his eyes to his danger, and to the perfidy of Cleopatra, at first made some faint and ineffectual attempt at resistance, and then in liis 80. B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 149 fin-y attempted to a\cnge himself of tlie queen. She, however, ehuied liis purpose l)y taking flisht to a monument, which she liad erected for her safety, and gave out a report that she had killed her • self. Upon this news, Antony forgot his resentment — his former affec- tion rushed into his heart, and his cup of calamity was full. He resolved to follow her example, and die a Roman death. At the mo- nunt he had Mien upon his sword, the news of the queen's death was conlradictcd, and Antony, weltering in his blood, and stil breathing, consented to be carried to see the queen. After being pulled up to the top of the monumert where Cleopa- tra was, by means of ropes let down and fastened t.* him, a scene of anguish and aftcctiou was presented whicli can scticely be conceived. Suffice it to say, he died in her arms, bedewed ^^ith her tear.s, and almost stifled with her caresses. The queen, though at length taken by Octavius, and apparently secured by the strict guard v/hich he placed over her, found an op- portunity of poisoning herself by means of an asp, which she applied to her arm, the sting of which instantly threw her into a fatal lethargy. In such a miserable end were these victims of guilt involved. PARTHIA. 22. Under tlie Arsacida^, Parthi a continued to enjoy some ronsequence dining this period. Its principal sovereigns were Pliraates III. Orodes I. and Pluaates IV. § Orodes I. was no sooner on the throne, than he was attacked by Crassus, the Roman consul, to whom Syria was allotted in the par- tition of the provinces of the empire between him, Ca>sar, and Pom- pey, 53 B. C. The Parthia:i armies were commanded by S\irena, a general of extraordinary wisdom and valour. Crassus being led by the king of Edessa into a barren country, his army was completely defeated, and himself taken and killed. Orodes, jealous of Surcna's glory, caused him to be put to death soon after, and entrusted the command of his army to Pacorus, his own Kon, who made great conquests in several countries, but who was soon after defeated and killed by Ventidias, the Roman general. Orodes, overwhelmed with grief, became insane ; but having recovered in so nu; degree, he associated his eldest son Pliraates his partner in Ihe throne. The infamous wretch first attempted to jioison his father, but that only curing him of the dropsy, he stifled the old man in bed, and murdered all his brothers. AVhen Augustus came into Asia, he obliged Pliraates to restore the ensigns taken from Crassus, and after- M'ards from Antony, and to deliver four of his sons as hostages. Divine Providence punished him in a remarkable manner, as he was killed by a conspiracy of his concubine and his own son, 13 A. C. Disluiffuishcd CJiaracters in Period X. 1. Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet. N2 150 ANCIENt HISTORY PERIOD X. 2. Julius Caesar, a successful warrior and elegant writer. 3. Cicero, the prince of Roman orators and philosophers. 4. Catullus, a Roman epigrammatic poet. 5. Sallust, the first philosophical Roman historian. 6. Varro, the most learned of the Romans. 7. Cornelius Nepos, an eminent Roman historian. 8. Virgil, the prince of Roman poets. 9. Horace, the greatest of the Roman l3"ric poets, § 1. Lucretius was early sent to Athens, where he studied philo- sophy. He embraced the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem of the Nature of Things, he is the advocate of atheism and impiety, and earnestly endeavours to establish the mortality of the soul. His mas- terly genius and unaffected elegance are, however, every where con- spicuous. He wrote Latin better than any man ever did before him, and had he lived in the polished age of Augustus, he would have been no mean rival of Virgil. He wrote his poem while he laboured under a delirium, occasioned by a philtre, administered by means of the jea- lousy of his wife or mistress. He died, some say he destroyed him self, in liis 44th year, about 54 B. C. 2. Julius CcEsar was the son of Caius Cfesar, who was descended from Julius, the son of iEneas ; in his 16th year he lost his father; and Sylla, aware of his ambition, endeavoured to remove him ; his friends, however, interceded, and obtained his life ; but Sylla warned them to be upon their guard against that loose-girt boy, alluding to Caesar's manner of wearing his tunic, or coat, loosely girded ; " for in him," said he, " are many Mariuses." He procured many friends by his eloquence, and obtained the office of high priest; after passing through different dignities, he was sent governor into Spain ; and, upon his return, being elected consul, he entered into an agreement with Pompey and Crassus, that nothing should be done in the state without their joint conciu-rcnce. After his consulsliip, he had the province of Gaul assigned him ; which, with wonderful conduct and bravery, he subdued in 10 y^ars, carrying the terror of his arms also into Germany and Britain, till then unknown to the Romans. Pompey now became jealous of his power, and induced the senate to order him to lay down his conunand ; upon which, he crossed the river Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and led his army to- \vards Rome, Pompey and all the friends of liberty fleeing before him. Having subdued Italy in sixty days, Caesar entered Rome, and seized upon the money in tlie public treasury : he then went to Sjiain, where he conquered the partisans of Pompey under Petreius, Afranius, and Varro; and, at his return, was created dictator, and soon after consul. Leaving Rome, and going in search of Pompey, the two hostile generals engaged on the plains of Pliarsalia ; the army of Caesar amounted only to 23,000 men, while that of Pompey 80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 151 ninounted to 45,000 ; but the superior generalship of the former pre- vailed, and lie was victorious. Making a generous use of his victory, he followed Pompey into Egyj)t, wiiere he heard of his nuirder, and making the country tri- butary to his power, lie hastened to suppress the remainder of Pom- pcy's party in Africa and Spain. Triumphing over all his enemies^ he was created perpetual dictator, received the names of imperator and father of his country, and governed the people with justice. His engrossing all the powers of the state, and ruling with absolute au- thority, created general disgust ; a conspiracy was therefore formed against him, by more than sixty senators, the chief of whom were Brutus and Cassius. He was stabbed in the senate house, on the 15tli of March, B. C. 44, in the 56th year of his age ; he at first attempt- ed to make some resistance, but seeing Brutus, his intimate friend, among the conspirators, he submitted to his fate, and covered with 23 wounds, fell at the foot of Pompey's statue. Caesar is perhaps the most distinguished character in history. His talents in war and literature were equally great. Amidst his military enterprises he found time to be the author of many works, none of ■u'hich remain except seven books of commentaries, or memoirs of his wars; these are much admired for their elegance, as well as correct- ness of stj-le. He spoke in public with the same spirit with which lie fought, and had he devoted himself to the bar, would doubtless have rivalled Cicero. 3. Marcus Tullius Cicero was the father of Latin eloquence, and the greatest orator that Rome ever produced. He was the son of a Koman knight, and having displayed promising abilities, his fiither procured for him tlie most celebrated masters of his time. He served one campaign under Sylla, and returning to Rome, appeared as a pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius, and his superior eloquence, soon raised him to notice. Hav.ing passed through the lower honours of the state, he was made consul in his 43d year. Catiline, a profligate noble, with many dissolute and desperate Romans, conspired against their country ; but all their projects were baflled by his extreme vigilance ; Catiline was defeated in the field ; and Cicero, at Rome, punished the rest of the conspirators with death. He received the thanks of the people, and was styled the father of his country and the second founder of Rome ; but his refusal to agree to the arbitrary measures of Caesar and Pompey, caused him lobe exiled ; he did not bear his banishment with fortitude ; and was overjoyed when, after 16 month's absence, he was restored witli ho- nour to his country. After much hesitation, he espoused the cause of Pompey against Caesar ; and when the latter was victorious at Phar- salia, Cicero was reconciled to him, and treated with great humani- ty ; but as a true repul)lican, he approved of Caesar's murder, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, who wished to succeed in power. Octavius, afterwards called Augustus Caesar, Antony, and Lepidiis, having formed a third triumvirate, agreed on a proscription of Uieir l55i ANCIENT HISTORY—PERIOD X. enemies ; Octavius struggled two days to preserve Cicero from the rengeance of Antony, but at last gave him up ; in his attempt to ascape, he was overtaken by a party of soldiers, who cut off his head and right hand, and brought them to Antony ; this happened B. C. 43, in the 64th year of his age. He is to be admired, not only as a great statesman, but as an ora- tor, a man of genius, and a scholar, in which united character, he stands unriwalled ; his conduct was not always that of a patriot, and he is frequently accused of timidity. 4. Catullus was a poet of Verona, whose compositions are the off- spring of a luxuriant imagination. He directed liis satire against Caesar, whose only revenge was to invite the poet, and hospitably en- tertain him at his table. Catullus was the first Roman v/ho imitated with success the Greek writers, and introduced their numbers among llie Latins. Though the pages of the poet are occasionally disfigm-cd with in- delicate expressions, the whole is written wifli great purity of style. He died in the 48th year of his age, B. C. 40. 5. Sallust was educated at Rome, and made himself known as a magistrate, in the office of qufestor and consul. He was a man of depraved and licentious manners. He married Terentia, the divorced wife of Cicero, and hence the immortal hatred between the historian and orator. Of his Roman history little remains ; but his narrative of the Ca tilinarian conspiracy, and tlie wars of Jugurtha, are extant. His descriptions, harangues, &c. are animated and correct, and the aiuhor is greatly commended for the vigour of his sentences. He died in his 51st year, 35 B. C. 6. Varro wrote 300 volumes, which are all lost, except a treatise, De Re Rustica, and another De Lingua Latina. The latter he wrote in his 80th year, and dedicated to Cicero. In the civil wars, he was taken by Caesar and proscribed, but escaped. His erudition and ex- lent of information were matter of wonder to Cicero and St. Augus- tine. He di(!d in his 88th year, B. C. 28. 7. Cornelius Nepos enjoyed the patronage of Augustus. He was the intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus. He possessed a most deli cate taste and lively disposition. He composed several works, but bis lives of illustrious Greeks are all tliat remain. He has ever been ad- mired for the clearness and precision of his style, and the delicacy of his expressions. He died 25 j'ears B. C. 8. Virgil was born at Andes, a village near Mantua, about 70 years B. C. Having lost his farms in the distribution of lands to the sol- diers of Augustus, after the battle of Philippi, he repaired to Rome, where he obtained an order for the restitution of his property through tlie interest of Meciderable nngle with each other, and this alteration is concluded to have taken place at the time of the deluge. Besides, the va- riety of the seasons is never mentioned in scripture, till after the tlood. § On this supposition an ingenious, but fanciful French writer,* htis accounted lor the production of the deluge itself. He imagines, that in consequence of this cliange, whatever miglit be its cause, the vast masses of ice which had collected for ages in the cold regions of the globe, being acted upon more immediately by the heat of the sun, suddenly melted, and overflowed the earth. 3. Population and Longevity. Nothing can be deter- mined with certainty respecting the extent of population. Some imagine that it was very great, far exceeding what it is at present. This is inferred from the surprising length of men's lives, and from the muiierous generations that were then con- temporary. But from various circiniistances, the probability is. that it was much smaller, and that mankind were not widely diffused over the earth. § If any thing on this subject may be ascertained or fairly conjec- tured, from the discoveries of geology, the opinion of Cuvicr, a great adept in that science, is probably correct, viz. that previously to the last considerable convulsion of our globe, the human race inhabited only some narrow districts. It is well known that while shells, fos- sils, and the bones of animals, have been found in the earth's surface, in great abundance, thus exhibiting the ruins of the deluge, few or no human remains have been discovered, under such circumstances. If these latter exist, they must be in some circumscribed parts of the earth, such as Asia or Africa, where the labours of the geologist have not been so particularly bestowed, or they may lie buried under some mass of waters. Of course the population of the antediluvian world must have been mostly confined to those quarters of the globe, or to one of them. The longevity of the antediluvians was remarkable. The contrast, ui this respect, of that age of the world and the present times is so great, as to liave given rise to many conjectures assigning the cause or causes of their longevity. We need not interest ourselves in these conjectures, as nothing can be known with certainty, except it may be remarked, tltat the air immediately after tlie flood was most likely nnich contaminated and rendered unwholesome. How far this circumstance should have afiectcd the pristine con- stitution of the human body, thus shortening the life of man in suc- cessive ages, down to the present common standard, is left to the cu- ♦ St Pierre. 156 GENERAL VIEWS. rious to inquire. If there were no physical causes of this change, God could have effected it without them. It is his own record that tlie life of man was abridged. 4. Religion. In regard to the religious rites of the prime- val race of men, it can only be affirmed, tliat they offered sa- crifices, both of animals and of the fruits of the earth. The Sabbath, we know, was instituted inmiediaiely after the crea tion, and it is not likely that its observance was ever wholly discontinued. § The descendants of Seth, the son of Adam, were for some tmio distinguished by their worship of God and observation of religious rites, while those of Cain were notorious for their irreligion and pro fligacy. These lived separately till intercourses by marriage Avere formed between them ; and then the pure reHgion and morals of the descendants of Seth were corrupted, and the whole world became alienated from God. 5. Arts and Sciences. These must have been cultivated in a degree, and in some of their branches might have been more than we are aware. If we consider that human life was several hundred years in extent, there was space for vast improvements in those arts and sciences that weie once disco vered. It is much to be doubted, however, w^iether many of tiiem were known. The last generation of Cain's line found out the art of working metal ; and music seems to have been invented about the same time. A knowledge of agriculture, architecture, and perhaps of astronomy, was possessed. § Some suppose that man, in the infancy of the world, was aided by inspiration ; but even if left to the ordinary operation of his faculties, he might have been no stranger to knowledge and mental improve- ment. Still, from the difficulty of originating knowledge, and from the vices of the antediluvians — their probable devotion to gross sen- sual pleasures, they seem not to have been as extensively acquainted with the more intellectual objects of human pursuit, as their descend- ants were a few ages after the flood. We have some accounts, though not from an authentic source, of discoveries made in astronomy by the posterity of Seth. These dis- coveries, it is said, were engraved on two pillars, the one of brick, and the other of stone. The latter, it is affirmed, existed after the deluge, and remained entire in the time of Josephus, that is, nearly a century after Christ. If this were a fact, it is singular that no other memorial of their intellect should have appeared. It is here given, however, as it is found on historic record. 6. Government. On the topic of government, there is hardly a foundation for conjecture. The most probable, is Uie patriarchal form of government ; that ^ the government ANTEDILLVIAN WORLD. 167 which was held by the heads of separate families. A num- ber of ihe^e mi^ht perhaps combine, and place them- e 'Ives iiader the direction of some common ancestor. This is the most natural form of government, and indeed no men- lion is made in the Bible of kingly authority until after the deluge. § Still, as some suppose, this form of government might have been set aside by tyranny and oppression ; and the change would proba- bly take place, much sooner among the descendants cf Cain, than those of Setli. It is thought that alter the union of the families of Cain and Seth, all mankind constituted but one nation, divided into several disorderly associations, and living in « ^tate of anarchy, which C'«"cumstances would have hastened the progress of wickedness. 7. Co7imiercc. The intercourse of the antediluvians might liave been easy, because they probably lived contiguous to each other. Yet it is evident that they had no idea of navigation, for had vessels been in use, some families might have escaped the disasters of the flood, besides that of Noah. § It is likely that there was not that necessity for commerce, as there has been since. For this opinion, reasons might be given, but tha •subject is not sufficiently important . Ass7jria, {including Babylonia.) 8. Extent and Cities. Assyria generally comprehended the territory lying between Armenia, Babylon, Mesopotamia, and Media. The Assyrian dominion, at times, extended over many parts of Asia; its capital was Nineveh, on the Tigris, built by Ashur. The coimtry is now called Gurdistan. § Nineveh was built on a very spacious plain. It was 15 miles in length, 9 broad, and 47 in circumference, according to Diodorus Siculus and Strabo. On the walls, Avhich were 100 feet high, three chariots could pass together ; they were defended hy 1500 towers, each 200 feet liigh. From the numlx^r of infants which it contained, as mentioned in the book of Jonah, it is computed that the inhabitants amounted to more thr.n 600,000 at that time. . Its situation is indicated, as some suppose, by vestiges on the Tigris, opposite Mosul, retaining the name of Nino. Babylonia, which was afterwards united to Assyria, was made up principally of Mesopotamia, the modern Diarbec. Its capita], Babylon, at length the capital of the whole empire, was bisected by the Euphrates, from N. to S., and formed a square, whose sides subtended the four cardinal points. The city stood on a large plain. Its walls were in thickness 8? feet, in height 350 feet, and in compass 60 mile-s. These were drawn about the city in an exact square. 158 GENERAL VIEWS. § As a more particular description of Babylon, it may be stated, that on each side of this great square were 25 gates of solid brass. Be- tween every two of these gates were three towers ; four others were at the corners ; and three more between those on the corners and the gate on either side. The other parts of the city, some of whicli we will describe, cor- responded with the magnitude of the walls. The strerts, bridge, quays, the lake, ditches, canals, palaces, and hanging gardens, and above all, the temple of Belus, were so many wonders. From the 25 gatea ran as many streets, in straight lines, so that the wliole number of streets was 50, crossing each otlier at right angles. There were also four half streets, round the four sides of the city, next the walls, each of them 200 feet wide ; the rest being about 150 feet. The whole city was thus cut into 676 squares, each of which was two and a quarter miles in circumference. Round these squares, on every side towards the street, stood stately houses three or four stories high, witli large spaces between them, and the areas within the squares filled up with yards, gardens, and pleasure grounds. The celebrated hanging gardens were composed of several large terraces, one above the other. The ascent from terrace to terrace was by stairs ten feet wide, and the whole pile was sustained by vast arches, strengthened by a massy wall of great thickness. On the tops of the arches were first laid prodigiously large flat stones. Over these was a layer of reeds mixed with bitumen, upon which were two tiers of bricks, closely cemented together with plaster. Tlie whole wa.s covered with thick sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden. This mould was so deep that the largest trees might take root in it, and covered with these and other plants, and every variety of flowers; nothing could be conceived more grand and picturesque. The temple of Belus, at its foundation, consisted of a square, each side of which was a furlong in length ; it consisted of eight towers, built one above another, decreasing gradually to the top, and was a furlong in height. 9. Government and Laws. The government both of Assyria and Bab^ionia was strictly despotic, and its sceptre hereditary. The \vhole centered in tiie person of the king ; all decrees issued from his mouth ; he even afTccted the power, and claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity. § The great conquerors of the East always courted retirement, as being too glorious to be beheld by vulgar eyes. Thus they contrived to keep in subjection a number of nations of different languages and manners, to a person who must have been a stranger to almost all of them. They adminstered their government by officers of various de- scriptions, civil and military. Of the three classes of cfficers, the first had the charge of the vir- gins, and were expected to judge of all matters relating to the connu- bial state ; the second took cognizance of theft ; and the third of all other crimes. The laws (if the empire were in general vague and uncer- ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 159 tain, depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign ; but one was fixed and irrevocable, which obhged all, especially the poorer sort of people, to marry. § Their punishments were unfixed and arbitrary, according to the disposition of ihe sovereign. We read of beheading, cutting to pieces, turning the criminal's house into a dunghill, and burning in a fiery furnace. 10. Religion. The Chaldeans, properly so called, were both the priests and the literati of the country. They were devoted to tlie business of religion, and pretended to skill in the prediction of future events. They dealt in charms, incan- tations, and explanations of dreams, and of the extraordinary phenomena of nature. They built temjiles to the stars, as be- ing the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by wor- shipping them, they expected to obtain the good will of the deity. From this they descended, by a natural process, to the worship of objects on earth, as the representatives, or favour- ites of the stars, or of the deity, through them. Thus idola- try arose not long after the flood, among the earliest of nations - — the people left on the plains of Shinar, subsequently to the dispersion at Babel. § It is evident tliat this was the origin of image worship, since the names of the principal gods of the heathen in general, are those of the sun, moon, and five primary planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and Venus. The norrid custom of sacrificing human victims to conci- liate their gods, was first practised by the Babylonians, and from them it was communicated to the superstitious of the sur- rounding nations. § There are traces of their ancient cruelty to be discerned in the worship and rites of the Assyrian goddess "of Hierapolis, to whom parents, without remorse, sacrificed their children, by throwing them down a precipice in her temple. 11. Omionis. The principal and most singidar of their customs, was the manner in which they disposed of their women in man iage. No man had any power over his own daughters, l^ut as soon as they were marriageable, they were put up to auction ; and the price obtained for the more beau- tiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely. § The consequence of this practice was, that all their young women were disposed of in marriage — the beautiful for their charms, the homely for their wealth. Another singular custom was their festival called Sacca, 160 GENERAL VIEWS. During this festival, which lasted five days, the servants com' manded their masters, one of them being, for the time, con- stituted chief over the house, and wearing a kind of royal garment, called Zogana. § They had other extraordinary customs, but some of these are too mdecent to be named. In general, they were the most sensual and abandoned people on the face of the earth. 12. Learning. The Babylonians were famed for learning, particularly the Chaldeans, who were their j^riests, philoso- phers, astronomers, soothsayers, &c. As in many other coun- tries after them, they were divided into several sects, distin- guished by their peculiar characteristics. They were the first who cultivated astronomy, discovered the exact motions of the planets, and pretended to understand the uifluence these had over things below, and from that to be able to foretel future events. The latter was embodied into a kind of science, called astrology. § From this origin of astrology, fortune telling, and similar arts, we perceive at once their opposition to religion and rectitude. The learning of the Chaldeans was not acquired after the manner of the Greeks, but by tradition from father to son. The only busi- ness of the learned was to apply themselves to the instructions they received. They never departed from early principles, and hence made no great advances in the sciences. 13. The Arts. The Babylonians, properly so called, ap- pUed themselves to tlie useful arts. Their immense buildings, which could not have been erected without much skill in ge- ometry, prove that they must have been good mathematicians and mechanics. They never attained to any superior excellence in painting and statuary. Music and poetry were probably but little at- tended to ; and in physic they had no regular science. § They exposed tlieir sick in the streets, to be cured by any who, passing by them, saw fit to prescribe for their diseases. The Babylonians were great architects, ingenious in casting metals and in their manufactures— particularly in their manufactures of embroideries, magnificent carpets, and fine linen. So superb Avere some of their articles of dress, that we read, in the Roman history, of Cato selling a Babylonian mantle, which had been left him by inhe- ritance, as being what he was ashamed to wear. And it is said that at Rome more than 6000/. had been paid for a suit of Babylonian hangings. China. 14. Geography. China, in ancient times, included nearly the same territory that it does at present, so far as we can now CHINA. 161 ascertain^ The Greelcs and Romans, through whom most of our acfjuaintance with antiquity is derived, had no imme- diate Jviiowledge of that country ; only they mention Serica, and another nation of northern Sina?, as constituting its west- erly provinces. As, however, the Chinese are not at all given to foreign conquests, and liave for many centuries remained the same people in their government and institutions, we may conclude that the ancient territory was the same, or nearly the same, as tlieir modern. It is not our design to state its boundaries or extent, except to say, that it constituted a considerable portion of eastern Asia, and was separated from Tartary, on the north, by its prodigious stone wall of 1500 miles in length. § But few general views of this country in other respects can be here given, since we have been presented, in this work, with only a small portion of its civil history ; and since from the unchangeable character of the people, these views will answer for an interesthig article in modern history. 15. Government. The original plan ci the Chinese go- vernment was patriarchal. Obedience to the father of each family was enforced in the most rigorous manner, and the emperor was considered as the father of the whole. Every fa- ther was absolute in his own family, and might inflict any punishment short of death ; and every mandarin of a district had the power of life and death over all its members, though the emperor's approbation was requisite to the execution of a capital sentence. § Since the invasion of the Tartars, as we shall hereafter learn, the government is called an absolute monarchy, tliough its great funda- mental principles from the beginning have been preserved. 10. Relis^ion. The ancient Chinese adored a supreme be- ing, under the name of Changti, or Tien; they also wor- shipped subaltern spirits, supposed to preside over kingdoms, provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Their worship was by prayer and thanksgiving, without any mixture of idola- trous })ractices. § There are now different sects, whose characteristics belong to the details of modern history. 17. The i^ciences and Arts. The Chinese understood some of the sciences, but seemed to make no progress in them from age to age. Of mathematics, astronomy, and physics, they appear to have been quite ignorant for so civilized a peo- 02 162 GENERAL VIEWS. pie. The knowledg^e of medicine was very limited among them, In the arts, at an early age, they attained to a certain point of advancement, which they never exceeded. It is affirmed that they manufactured glass 200 years before the Christian era ; that they knew gunpowder from time immemorial , and that they invented piinting in the time of Julius Caesar; but these and other inventions were in a very imperfect state, and have remained so to this day. In agriculture, however, and a few other arts, they seem, from a very early period, to have been highly distinguished. § On the whole, coiisiderincr their ancient state, and knowing fho agreement of their present state with it, no people whatever appear to have been so singular and mysterious, and possessed of such a mixture of wisdom and imbecility. Egypt. § A little before the Cliristian era, Egypt was one of the most dis- tinguished countries of the ancient world, and enjoyed, from the ear- liest times, a large share of relebrlt)', on account of its learning and its magnificent public works. In commercial importance, at the time first spoken of, it was much superior to contemporary nations. IS. Situation., Name, and Division. Egypt was an ex- tensive country, bounded on the east by Arabia and the Red Sea, and by Lylna on the w est, and was properly a long val- ley, following the course of the Nile from S. to N. The ancient name was Mitzraim, and is now retained in that of Mesr, under the Turks. Egypt was divided into three principal parts, distinguished by the appellations of the Upper Egypt, or Thebais ; the Mid- dle Egypt, or Heptanomis ; and the Lower Egypt, which in- cludes the Delta. 19. Cities. There were many cities in this country, whosa niins attest their almost unparalleled magnificence. Among these were Thebes, Memphis, Arsinoe, Heliopolis, and Alex- andria, besides many oth(!rs. § Thebes was situated in Upper Egypt, on both sides of the Nile. It was called by the Greeks, Diospolis, and was one of the most il- lustrious cities in the world. It is distinguislicd in lionier liy the epi- thet of Ilecatompylos, or having a 100 gales. In the time of its splen- dour, it could send into the field, by each of its gates, 200 chariots, and 2000 fighting men. Its extent is said to have been 52 miles ; and so great was its wealth, that after it had been plundered by the Persians, 30O talents of gold and 2300 of silver, were found among the remains of the pillage. EGYPT. 1C3 Tlic ruins of this astonishing city occupy a circumference of 27 miles on cillier side of the Nile, and contain several villages, the chief of which is Luxor. Habon, on the western side, contains many stu- pendous monuaicnts. Thebes was severely treated by Cambyses, by Ptolemy Philopater, and under Augustus, for its rebellion. In the adjacent mouiuains arc hewn sepulchres of the ancient kings. A remarkable feature of these ruins is their size. Every thing i? colossal. The smallest pillars of the temples are between 7 and 8 feet in diameter, and some of the largest are 11. Obelisks, Sphinxes, and other momunents of huge dimensions, in different poshions, as- tonish the modern traveller, as he gazes on these wonders of human power and art. Memphis, supposed to have been founded by Menes, the first Egyp- tian king, was for several ages the metropolis of the whole kingdom. It contained manj^ beautiful temples, the most splendid of which is said to have been that of the god Apis. This city stood on the western bankof the Nile, 15 miles south of the Delta. Strabo saw its palaces in ruins. Vestiges of it were appai'ent in the fifteenth century, b\it are no longer in being. The Nile may have co- vered them. Alexandria was reckoned next to Rome for the grandeur of it? buildings, and richness of its materials. It stood on the western side of the Delta, and was built by Alexander the Great, 332 B. C. It was the capital of Eower Egypt, and the metropolis under the Ptolemies. The ancients assert that it was built in the form of a Macedonian cloak, and occupied about 15 miles. The royal palace constituted a fifth part of the city. Alexandria rose to the first rank in the ancient world, as the great mart for exchange between the east and west. Its commercial ad- vantages continued for a number of ages. It was further distinguished by scliools for philosophy, physic, theology, astronomy, and genera' learning. 20. Monuments and Works of Art. Many of these are magnificent Leyond conception, and show to what a high state of improvetiient the inhabitants, at a remote period, had car- ried the arts. Tliey still excite the admiiation of every tra- veller. Besides the cities that have been named, the most celebra- ted of these works of ancient grandeur, are Lake Moeris, the Labyrinth the Catacombs, or Mummy Pits, and the Pyra- mids. § The lake Moeris has been affirmed to be the most wonderful of all the works of the kings of Egypt, the pyramids not excepted. The ancients described it as measuring 3G00 stadia in circumference; but modern travellers assure us that its breadth docs not exceed half a league ; that it is about a day's journey in lensth, and that its circum- ference is about 12 or 15 leagues, which will be found sufficientlj' 164 GENERAL VIEWS. prodigious, wlien we consider that it was performed by human la- bour. This lake, in the deepest part, has fifty fathoms of water, and is fed from the Nile, by means of a channel cut for that purpose. It was built by a king of the name of Moeris, whose object was to cor- rect the irregularity of supply in the waters of the river, receiving its superabundance, or making up its deficiency. The Labyrinth was an enormous structure of marble, built partly under the ground. It was designed as a pantheon of all the Egyptian deities, and as a place for the assembly of the magistracy of the whole nation. It contained no less than 3000 chambers, 1500 of which were subterraneous, and set apart for the sepulchre of the kings who built the labyrinth, or for the abodes of the sacred crocodiles. These were never shewn to strangers ; but Herodotus informs us that he viewed every room in the upper part, in which he found suf- ficient to fill him with astonishment. Innumerable exits by difl'erent passages, and infinite returns, afforded him a thousand occasions of wonder. The highest decorations in polished columns and exquisite sculptures, were every where seen. The Catacombs were subterraneous galleries of prodigious extent, appropriated to the reception of the dead. These sepulchres of the ancient kings are hewn in free-stone rock, and apparently formed upon one general plan, though diflfering in the construction of their respective parts. These contain the orenerations that are gone. Some of the embalmed bodies are perfectly preserved, though they have been dead 3000 years. The Pyramids were deservedly classed by the ancients among the wonders of the world. There are said to be twenty of them in differ- ent parts of the country ; but there are three superior to the rest in size and magnificence. These are on the western side of the Nile, in the neighbourhood of the ancient Memphis. The largest of them is 481 feet in height, measured perpendicularly, and the area of its basis comprehends eleven English acres of ground. This is a size which would exceed all belief, had it not been actually and repeatedly measured by modern travellers. It has steps entirely round it, made with polished stones, so large that the breadth and depth of every step is one single stone. The smallest stone is 30 feel in length. The number of steps amounts to 208. These works are proved, by modern researches, to have been royal sepulchres, but their foundation is lost in antiquity. Tliey are sup- posed, however, to have been erected between one and two thousand years B. C. It is asserted by Pliny and Diodorus, that no less than 360,000 men were employed in erecting the largest pyramid. It is said also tiiat twenty years were spent in the work. 21. Government and Laws. The Egyptians were among the earliest nations, if not the very earhcst. who had regular estal)hshccl governments nnd civil regulations. Their govcrnnient was a despotic, hereditary nionarcliy, yet so mo- dified by prescribed usages, as to promote the puljhc v^elfare. EGYPT. 165 § Their monaichs were restricted to a certain mode of living, and even tlieir time seems to liave been portioned out, and set apart for particidar employments, by the sacred Egyptian books. They were confined to exactness, not only in public transactions, but in their private life. They could neither batlie, take the air, nor converse witii their queens but at certain times. Tlie choice of their provisions was not left to themselves, but their tables were furnished with the most simple food, (generally veal or goose,) and their allowance of wine was extremely moderate. These restraints were entirely acceptable to the Egyptian monarchs, and during the period in winch they prevailed, the country greatly flourished, and was filled with works of incomparable magnificence In the administration of public affairs, each nome, or pro- vince, had its respective governor, who ordered all things with- in his jurisdiction. The lands were divided into three parts, of which one was allotted to the maintenance of the priests, and to religious uses ; the second was appropriated to the king, for defraying the charges of his wars, &c ; and the third part was designed for the soldiers. The husband- men, taking the lands at an easy rent from the king, priests, and soldiers, devoted the whole of their attention to agricul- ture ; and the son continually succeeded the father in his oc- cupation. They thus became the most famous for tillage of any in the world. 22. Mythology. The boasted laws of the Egyptians sink m our estimation, from the influence which a knowledge of Llieir base idolatry and superstitions produces in the reflecting mind. They had a vast number of gods of different ranks, but their two principal ones were Osiris and Isis, supposed to have been the sun and moon. From Egypt the stream of idolatry flowed over the nations. § The idolatry of this people was so gross, that exclusive of the v/orship tliey paid their pretended gods, they actually bestowed di- vine lionours on animals, insects, birds, and even vegetables, as leeks and onions. Tlieir sacred animals were, during their lives, kept in consecrated enclosures; fed with most delicate ibod, washed and anointed with frequency, and their burial, after death, attended with the heaviest expense. We are credibly informed that in the reign of Ptolemy, the Apis dying of old age at Memphis, his keeper ex- pended in his funeral, about 13,000Z. above all his substance. 23. Education. In the education of their children, the Kgy[)tians exercised great care, and the children aa ere brought up with the strictest frugality. The priest instructed them in ozithmetic, geometry, and other branches of useful literature ; 166 GENERAL VIEWS. aiid their fathers, or nearest relations, taught them as early as possible, their paternal art or profession. 24. Domestic Habits, Manners, and Customs. The wsual drink of the people was the water of the Nile, which was very palatable and fattening. They used ajpo a superior l>everage made of barley, so that we are possibly indebted to them for the first invention of beer. Cleanhness was a particu- lar characteristic of this people, who scoured their drinking vessels every day. § As great singularities among them, we may notice the inconsistent employments of the men and women ; the former being engaged in spinning and domestic concerns, while the latter were employed in trade and business; the kneading of dough Avith their feet; the tem- pering of mortar with their hands; and the promiscuous residence of men and beasts in the same apartment At their principal feasts, it was a very singular custom to bring in the coffin of a friend after supper, with the image of a dead man carved in wood and painted, which was carried to all the company with this strange admonition : " Look upon this, and be merry; for such as this now appears, thou shalt be, when thou art dead." 25. Literature and Arts. Egypt was the parent of learning and philosophy. According to the scriptures, Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. Geometry is generally believed to have been found out in Egypt, in con- sequence of the measurement of those lands that were annu- ally overflowed by the Nile. The science, however, was most probably but little extended by them. § Arithmetic, astronomy, and a kind of algebra, were also cultivated in Egypt ; and it is certain this nation first adjusted the length of the year to the annual revolution of the sun, by adding to their twelve months of thirty da}^s each, five additional days and six hours. Medi- cine and the art of embalming were early cultivated among them, particularly the latter. They were very famous also in magic. In architecture, painting, sculpture, «S:c. they must have made great proficiency, as is evident from the astonishing works of art which yet remain. 26. Trade. Egypt early engaged in commerce, as its 6-ituation was peculiarly favourable for that object. We read in scripture that the Midianites and Ishmaelites traded thither, BO early as the time of Jacob. It is certain also that Solomon estiiblished a very considerable trade in those parts. 27. Language. The Egyptian language is one of the most ancient in the w orld, and probably an original tongue. It is, in some measure, preserved in the Coptic, even to this time, though that language is but little understood. HEBREWS. 16T THE HEBREWS. 28. Country. The country in which this ancient and di- vinely favoured people lived was Palestine. It extended from Coelo-Syria, to Arabia Petrea ; on the west it had the Medi- terranean, and on the east Arabia Deserta. Its territory was very limited. The country of the Hebrews is also called by several other names, as the Land of Canaan, the Holy Land, Judea, &c. ; and the people themselves were variously called, as the People of God, Israelites, Jews ; the last more commonly in the latter period of their history. Upon the entrance of the Israelites into Palestine, it was divided into twelve different portions, whicli were assigned to the twelve several tribes into which they were separated. 29. Remains of ancieitt Woi'ks. Among these are Ja- cob's Well ; the Pools of Solomon, Gihon, and Bethesda ; and the Sepulchral Monuments. § Jacob's well is highly venerated by Christian travellers on ac- count of its antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid rock, about 3.5 yards in depth, and three in diameter, and is at present covered with a stone vault. The Pools of Solomon, supposed to have been made by order of that monarch, appear to have been a work of immense cost and labour. They are three in a row, and disposed in such a manner, that the water of the uppermost may fall into the second, and of the second into the third. They are of equal breadth, viz. about 90 paces ; their length varies, the longest being 220. They are all walled and plas- tered, and contain a large quantity of water. The Pools of Gihon and Bethesda are similar vvorks, and may be ranked among the most stately ruins. The Sepulchral Monuments are scattered all over the country. The most magnificent pieces of antiquity of this kind are the royal sepulchres witliout the walls of Jerusalem. They are all hewn out of the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious and elaborate apartments. 30. Cities. Of these there were not many that were large. Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country, and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and indeed no place on the globe has been more celebrated, taking into view its sacred associations. Hebron, Gaza, and Ascalon. were also noted. Jerusalem was built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zion ; it formed the southern part of the city. On the east of the second, or lower city, was mount Moriah, on which stood the magnificent temple of Icing Solomon. 168 GENERAL VIEWS, § Jerusalem, when enlarged by David, Solomon, and other kings, became a most renowiied city, and as such is mentioned by the Greek historian, Herodotus, under the name of Cadytis. The city with its temple was destroyed by the Chaldeans, about 600 years B. C. The second temple, which had begun to decay, was rebuilt by Herod tlio Great. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, was A. D. 70. Under Adri- an, a new city, altogether Roman, and called JEYia, was built, but there was an alteration of its site. Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not comprised within the new city. It subsists at present, but in a deplorable condition, inhabited by a motley group of Turks, Jews, and Christians. Hebron was a place of high antiquity, and the sepulchre of Abra- ham and his family. In the time of the crusades, it bore the name of St. Abraham : and the Arabs, who ahvays respect their primitive names, call it Cabr-Ibrahim, or the Tomb of Abraham. Gaza and Ascalon, on the coast, preserve tlieir names, as also others. Gaza was remarkably strong, and surrounded with walls and towers, after the Philistine manner. It was taken by Caleb, but soon after regained by the ancient inhabitants, who kept possession ot it to the time of Samson. It passed into various hands, till finally il was pillaged by Alexander, and a second time destroyed by the Mao- cabees. Ascalon was also a maritime tOAvn of great strength, but was soon reduced, after the death of Joshua, by the tribe of Judah. It was once adorned with several magnificent edifices ; but it is now dwindled into an inconsiderable village. 31. Religion. Tlie history of the rehgion of this people, which was called Judaism, is the history of tme rehgion in the ancient world. It is now eclipsed by the radiance of the Gospel, which has come into its room, abrogated what waa ritual in it, and confirmed its great general principles and truths. § Religion flourished variously among the people, according to the piety or irreligion of their priests, leading men, or sovereigns. In ge- neral, though they had a succession of Avise and holy prophets, the nation, as such, was peculiarly obstinate and rebellious, and continu- ally inclined to forsake the worship of God, and to fall into the idola- trous practices of its heathen neighbours. On this account repeated and severe judgments were sent among them. Tliey were visited, at various times, with all the ministers of divine vengeance — they were conquered, pillaged, and carried into captivity, and soon after the Christian era, ceased to exist indepen- dently, and were scattered among all nations. They are now known, particularly the tribes of Judah and Benja- min, wherever they are dispersed, as the descendants of Abraham, preserving still their national name and peculiarities. Concerning the other ten tribes we have no certain knowledge of their separate HEBREWS. 169 existence, at this day. Propliecy has been remarkably fulfilled in the case of this peopie. The gi'eat general truths of religion were revealed to this people, and to them alone of all the nations of the earth. The iDeing, perfections, and government of God, the moral law, prescribing the duties man owes to God, to his fellow men. and to himself, the awards of eternity, with a thousand par ticidar precepts of a spiritual kind, were exphcitly declared to this nation. The peculiarities of their ritual worship rendered them also a most favoured community. By these they were de- eigned to be preserved a people distinct from all the rest of the world, to be kept from idolatry, and to be prepared for the great salvation, which was to he accomplished not only for tliem, but for all nations, in " the fulness of the time." § The peculiar rites of Judaism were admirably adapted to honour their Creator, and to render themselves completely happy. Its sacri- fices were at once calculated to convince them of their sins, and to shadow forth the vicarious sacrifice of the Son of God. 32. Government. The government of this people wap pro- perly a Theocracy, as being under the immediate direction of God. In this they were distinguished from all other nations. He was considered as the sole dictator of every important transaction, and supreme monarch of the Israelites. 33. Manners and Customs. The most interesting of these related to the rite of circumcision, to their diet, diver- sions, high places, mourning for the dead, and bmials. § The rite of circumcision has distinguished them as a people, from the beginning. It was always accompanied with great feasting, and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child was named in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and wine were distributed. Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been extremely plain. Bread, water, and vinegar, were in common use. Honey was es- teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was reckoned ex cellent for food. Their diversions seem to have consisted chiefly in social repasts, music, and dancing. The two latter partook of a religious character. Games were never introduced into tlicir commonwealth. Their high places were of two sorts; those where they burned in- cense and offered sacrifices to the true God ; and those where they committed various abominable idolatries. Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, heaping dirt or ashes upon their 170 GENERAL VIEWS. heads, wearing sackcloth next their skin, and lying upon the bare groinid. As to their burials, it is known that they denied sepulture to none but such as were guihy of suicide, and not even to these, but till after sunset. From the pains which the patriarchs took to provide a place of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is evident they con- sidered it a heavy calamity, to be denied a burial, and a favour to be interred among their ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their own lands, and, where practicable, cut into a rock. 34. Learning. The Israelites excelled in the knowledge of theology, and they had places of public mstruction called the schools of the prophets. Tiiey seem to have had but Utile knowledge of astronomy. Their language was the Hebrew, the genius of w^hich is pure, primitive, and natural ; and it is highly probable that they had the art of writing very early. The materials on which they wrote were tables of stone ; but mention is made also of rolls, w^iich were doubtless more in use. These rolls are supposed to have been made of skin, or some other pliable substance. \ 35. Arts. The arts in which the Israelites made the greatest proficiency were those of war, husbandry, poetry, and music. § Their situation made them a warlike people, surrounded as they were by enemies. Their arms of offence were broad crooked swords, javelins, slings, bows and arrows, and two-edged swords. Their arms of defence were shields, helmets, coats of mail, breast plates, and targets. Their attention was much confined to their lands and domestic avocations, and few trades or manufactures vvere carried on among them before the reign of Solomon, except such as were absolutely ne- cessary. After Solomon's time, pride and luxmy increased with great rapidity. Tiie causes of a change from great economy and simplicity, to their opposites, were laid indeed in the reign of David. Poetry is said to be the only fine art in which they were peculiarly excellent ; and in that they are inimitable. Their inspired produc- tions, in poetry, if not in prose, as to native energy and felicity, are unrivalled. 36. Commerce. With respect to commerce, it appears tlial they received rich stuffs, linen, gold, (fcc. from Tyre, in ex- change for their corn, balm, and other excellent commodi- ties ; but they were totally ignorant of navigation. Solomon employed foreign sailors in the ships which lie sent to foreigu countries. Canaanites. § The country of the Canaanites has been already described, as it GREECE. 171 was the same with that of the Hebrews, who, some time after they left Egypt, drove out the ancient inhabitants of the Land of Canaaiu 37. Customs; Manners, Arts, and Sciences. Tii these, aa well as in language, they may be supposed to have ditlered widely from each other, accordiug to their different situations. It is easy to discern the dillbrent classes of merchants, artifi- cers, soldiers, shepherds, and husbandmen. § Those who resided on the sea-coasts were merchants, in which capacity tliey will be considered wlien spoken of as Plioenicians Those who resided in fix'cd abodes and walled places, cultivated the land. Shepherds and soldiers led a more wandering life. As to war, they were by no means deficient in courage, craft, or policy. 38. Religion. Their religion seems to have been undefiled to the days of Aliraham, when Melchisedek among them was a priest of the jMost High God ; but after this period they must have degenerated apace. They compelled their chil- dren to pass through fire to Moloch, and their wickedness be- came extreme. Greece. 39. Appearance and Face of the Country. This country, rendered illustrious by the intellectual elevation of its inhabi- tants, was a res^ion of enchanting beauty. Its mountains and valleys, lakes and rivers, sufficiently diversified the sur- face, while their grandeur or their softness imparted an inef- fable chann to every prospect. It enjoyed a delightful cli- tnatc and exuberant soil. § The classical reader need not to be reminded, that among a thousand other spots endeared to association, were Pindus and Par- nassus, the seats of the muses ; Athens, filled with the monuments of art and genius ; woody Arcadia, sacred to Pan, and the haunt of shep- herds ; and Thcssaly with its fields of pleasure, where " The smooth Pencus from its glassy flood Reficcts purpureal Tempe's pleasant scene." 40. tSitifation, Extent, and Division. Greece occupied a large peninsula between the south of Italy and Asia Minor, about 400 miles long and 150 broad. It had Epirus and Macedonia on the north, the Mediterranean on the south, and the Ionian and vEgean seas washed, the one its western, and the other its erstern borders. § In subseffucnt times, Epirus and Macedonia were considered aa parts of Greece, and then the northern boundary was constituted by Elyricum, Moesia, and Thrace. Greece consisted of two principal divisions — Greece, pro- perly so called, and Peloponnesus. 172 GENERAL VIEWS. § Greece proper included the following States ; 1. Attica. 2. Bceo- tia. 3. Acarnania. 4. iEtolia. 5. Locris. 6. Doris. 7. Phocis. 8. Thes- sal>. 9. Epirus. 10. Macedonia. Peloponaesiis included the following states; 1. Achaia. 2. Elis. 3. Arcadia. 4. Messenia. 5. Laconia. 6. Argolis. Connected with Greece were many islands in the seas wliich surrounded it, the principal of which singly, or in clus- ters, were Euboea, Lemnos, the Cyclades, Crete, Cythera, Za- cynthus, Cephalonia, Corcyra, Tenedos, Lesbos, &cio, Samos, and Patmos. 41. Names. Greece was called Hellas by the natives, and its inhabitants Hellenes. From their different tribes they were denominated by the poets, Achivi, Danai, Argivi, Pelasgi, lones, Dores, and ^Eoles. 42. Interesting Localities. Almost every considerable place in Greece is marked by some circumstance in its natu- ral features, or by some achievem.ent or event in its history, w^hich connects it in the minds of scholars with the most de- lightful associations. Several of these localities may be grouped together, as below. § Peloponnesus took its name from Pelop», who reigned there. Mycenae \vas the city of Agamemnon. At Nemea. aames were insti- tuted in honour of Hercules, for killing the Neaieun lion. In Epidau- rus, ^sculapius was worshipped. Lerna gave name to the Le'nasan Hydra, a monster destroyed by Hercules. Amyclaj abounded in trees, and was honoureii with a splendid temple of Apollo. Helos was a place which the Spartans took, redu- cing the inhabitants to slavery, and hence all their slaves were called Helotes. Near TaBnarus, the most southern point of Europe, was a cave through which Hercules is fabled to have dragged Cerberus from the infernal regions. On the mountain Taygetus, the Spartan women celebrated the orgies of Bacchus. Elis, was famous for its horses. At Olympia, the Olympic games were celebrated in honour of Jupiter— they date from B. C. 776, and form the epoch of Grecian chronology. Corinth was famous for its brass, a mixture of copper with some small quantity of gold and silver. Arcadia was the country of musicians and shepherds, and sacred to Pan, the rural deity. Mercury was born on mount Cyllenc. Her- cules destroyed the harpies of the river and lake Stymplialus. At the Isthmus, games were celebrated in honour of Neptune. Eleusis was famous for the celebration of the mysteries of Ceres, in which secrecy was enjoined to the votaries, and the breach of it punished witli deatli. In Attica were mount Hymettus, celebrated for its honey, and mount PciUelicus, for its quarries of marl)le. The Boeo- tians were reckoned characteristically dull, though there were some pplciidid exceptions. GREECE. 173 ChcBfortea was the birth-place of Phitarch, and remarkable for the defeat of the allied stales of Greece, by Philip, which ruined that ce- lebrated nation. Not far from this, was the cave of Trophonius, where oracles were delivered, and wliich rendered such as entered it me- lancholy for the rest of ihcir lives. Thcspia was sacred to the IMuses. Tanagra was infamous for its cock-fighting exhibitions. At Deiium stood a temple of Apollo; and the moimtain of Helicon, and the fountain Aganippe, were consecrated to tlie Nine. Phocis, the Greeks conjectured, was not only the centre of Greece but of the whole earth. Delplii was rendered illustrious for the tern pie and oracle of Apollo, whose responses were alwa)'s delivered by a priestess. Parnassus, and the foimlain of Castalia at its foot, were the haunts of the Muses. Anticyra was famous for the production ol hellebore, once reputed a specific in maniacal cases. Narix was the native place of Ajax. Thermopylae was a famous pass, justly reckoned the key of Greece, and is immortalized from the self-devotion of Leonidas. Where narrowest, there was room only for a single carriage, a ridge of impassable mountains being on the west, and the sea on the east, with d?ep and dangerous morasses. The J^^tolians constituted the best cavalry in Greece. Naupactus was so called from the number of ships built there, but its site is now overflowed by the sea. Acarnania was famous for its horses. On the promontory Lcucate, "Avas the rock from which disappointed lover? sought either death or a cure, by leaping into the sea. Through the lake of Acherusia ran the river Acheron, and into the latter flows the Cocytus, both of which, on account of their mviddi- nesp, were feigned by the poets to be rivers of hell. In the interior ot Eplrus, was the most ancient oracle of Greece, the grove, or vocal oaks of Dodona, sacred to Jupiter. Chaonia received its name from Chaon, the companion of llelenus, the son of Priam, who was inadvertently killed in hunting. Pindus was holy to Apollo and tlie Nine. The Acroceraunian mountains were so called from their tops being struck willi tlnmder. The vale of Tempo was reckoned the most delicious spot on earth, five miles in length, but in general very narrow. It had mount Olym- pus at the north, and Ossa at the south. These motmtains, with Peli- on, according to story, were piled one upon another, ly tlie giants in their v/ar with the gods, to scale heaven. The celebrated spear of Achilles, v/liich none but himself coidd wield, was cut down on Peli- on ; Thcssaly was renowned for excelleut horses. Larissa was the city of Achilles, lleraclea was so called from Her- cules, Avho is said to have consumed himself in a burning pile, on the top of (Eta, near this place. Othrys was the abode of ilie Centam's. On the banks of Amphrysus, A])oIlo used to feed the flocks of Admc- tus. Pierus, towards the confines of ?,Iacedonia, was sacred to the Muses. 'J'he women of Thcssaly are said to have possessed remark- able skill in magic. Athos was a mountain through which Xerxes caused a canal to be rut for the passage of his army. Several towns stood upon it whose inhabitants were remarkable for their longevity. Stagira was the P2 1.74 GENERAL VIEWS. birth place of Aristotle, whence he is called the Stagirite. ApoUonia was a place where learning was much cultivated. Strymon was the river along the banks of which Orpheus is imagined to have lament- ed his lost Eurydice. In the island Corcyra were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous, which produced fruit twice a year. Ithaca was the residence of Ulys- ses. Cicero compares it to a nest in a rock. The Slropliades were a cluster of islands fabled to be infested by harpies. The inhabitants of ^gina were famed for being the first people that coined money. Delos was the birtli place of Apollo and Diana. It was said to be a floating island. Paros was the birth place of Phidias and Praxi- teles, and celebrated, moreover, for the finest marble. Naxos was fruit- ful in vines, and therefore sacred to Bacchus. Crete was celebrated for its hundred cities, and for the laws of Minos established there. The Cretans were celebrated archers. Rliodes was famous for its brazen colossus, or image of the sun, about 105 feet high. The metal which composed it loaded 900 camels Patmos was the island to which the apostle John was banished, and v/here he wrote the book of revelation. Scio was famous for its wine and earthen wares. Lemnos was sacred to Vulcan. In the forum of its principal town was tlie statue of an ox, made by Myron, the back of which, at the winter solstice, was overshadowed by mount Athos, though 80 miles distant. 43. Cities. Of these there were several, the capitals of the tUffereiit states of which Greece was composed, as Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Tliebes, Ar^os, and others. But of these, Athens and Sparta were by far the most renowned. Athens, the capital of Attica, was so called from Athenae, one of the names of the goddess Minerva, the protectress of the city. It was called by the ancients, for its glory in the arts and sciences, the learned city, the eye of Greece, the school of the world. It was situated in a large plain, about five miles from the sea, having in the midst of it, a motmt. In its most flourish- ing state, according to Dio Chrysostom, it was 2.5 miles in cir- cumference. It was divided into the upper city or citadel, and the lower city. Both contained 440,000 inhabitants, the fax greater part of whom were slaves. § The citadel was built on the rocky mount already mentioned. It '.vas called the Acropolis, or the upper city. Wlien from tlie increase of its inhabitants, the lower grounds were occupied by buildings, those constituted the lower city. Tlic upper city was 16 miles in circumference, and was surround- ed by a strong wall, beautified by 9 gates, to one of which, called the ^rand entrance, the Athenians ascended by steps, covered with white marble. UREECE- 175 Tlie lower city contained all the buildings that surrounded the ci- tadel, and was encompassed with strong walls. In the ciLodel were several magnificent edifices, the chief of which were the temple of Neptune, and the beautiful temple of IMinerva, called Parthenon. These still continue. The lat- ter is justly es^teemcd one of the noblest remains of antiqi'ity. It is 229 feet long-, 101 broad, and 69 high. In the lower city, the most magnificent structure of Athens, and scarcely paralleled in the ancient world, was the temple of Jupiter Olympus. It was supported on marble columns, and was half a mile in circuit. In both portions of Athens there were many other splendid structures, and monuments without number, some of the proudest efforts of art and genius that the world ever beheld. § Athens had three harbours on the Saronic gulf, whiclnvere joined to tlie city b}' two walls, called the long walls. The length of one of those was five miles, that of the other nearly the same. There were several Gymnasia, or places of exercise, in and near Athens, the principal of which were the Academy, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarges. A Gymnasium was a large edifice designed to accommodate many thousands of people together, with places for the exercises of the youtli, and with apartments for philosophers, rhetoricians, &c. to de- liver their lectures. A garden and sacred grove were attached to this edifice. Sparta, called also liaccda-mon, was built upon the banks of the river Eurotas, and at the foot of mount Taygetus. It was the capital of the province of Laconia. It was of a circu- lar form, and about 6 miles in circumference. The houses were not built close together, but divided into different villa- ges, according to the ancient manner of the Greeks. It was destitute of walls, till it fell under the dominion of tyiants, after the time of Alexander. The bravery of its citizens was its defence. § Spartawas divided into different villages, according to the ancient manner of the Greeks. Of lliese villages there Avere five, built round an eminence at diflVrrnt distances, each of which was occupied by one of the five tribes of Sparta. The prevailing manners were hostile to external splendour, and therefore the lioiisrs of tlie Spartans were destitute of ornaments. The great Square, or forinn, however, in which several streets terminated, was embellished willi temples and statues. It also contained the pub- lic edifices, in which the assemblies of the various bodies of magistrates were held. Sparta was also adorned with a large number of monumentSj in 176 GENERAL VIEWS. honour of the gods and ancient heroes. Religious respect was shown to the memory of Hercules, Tyndarus, Castor, Pollux, Leoniilas, «Scc. In the environs of the city were courses for horse and foot raises, and places of exercises for youth shaded by beautiful plane trees. Indeed, Sparta was surrounded, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive and plane trees, gardens, and summer houses. Corinth, the capital of Achaia, was seated on the Istlimus, which separates Peloponnesus from Attica. It lay between two seas, and had two ports, one on each coast. Its citadel stood on the peak of a hill called Acrocorinthus. This city was one of the best peopled and most wealthy in G reece. It was destroyed by Muinmins, the Roman general, during the Achaean league. Corinth was partly reliiiilt by Julius Caesar. § The neat order of the pillars which are used at this day, in the decoration of all fine buildings, took from this city the name of Co- rinthian pillars. Its citizens made high pretensions to politeness, philosophy, and learning. Corinth enjoyed its liberty, and immense traffic, till B. C. 146, when it was taken and burned by the Romans. It was then deemed the strongest city in the world, and was a distinguished seat of opulence and the fine arts. Since that period it has been often burned, plun- dered, and subjugated, till of late, under the tyranny of the Turks, it was so decayed, that the population did not exceed 1500 souls, one half Mahometans, and the otlier half Christians. Thebes, the capital of BcEotia, was situated on the river Ismenus. It had seven gates, with walls about seven miles in circumference. It was demolished by Alexander, and re- built by Cassander. Under Epaminondas, the Thebans be- came masters of Greece ; but in Strabo's time (15 or 20 years A. C.) Thebes was only an inconsiderable village. § In the dreadful period of its demolition by Alexander, 6000 of it? inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold for slaves. Tlie house in which the great lyric poet Pindar was born and educated, was ordered to be spared, and all the rest to be destroyed. 41. Government. In general the government of Greece partook of a republican character, though it varied at different periods, and was in lixct different in the several states. In some of them it exhibited the features of monarchy or aristocracy. They frequently entered into leagues and confederacies with each other, and in this respect bore some faint rcsembiance to the present government of the United States of America. But on this article we are under the necessity of speaking of the respective states of Greece, chiefly Athens and Sparta, who were, in general, so superior to the rest. GREECE. 177 Government of Athens. § The government of Athens was at first monarchical, but after the death of Codrus, it became in a degree democratic. Classes of the inhabitants. The Athenians were divided into three classes, citizens or fieemen, foreigners or sojourners, and slaves. Citizens were the privileged class, who held ex- clusively the offices of government. The privileges of citizen • ship were obtained with difficulty, and deemed of great value They were conferred only by an assembly of the people, except where they were inherited by those whose parents were citizens. § The citizens of Athens were divided into ten tribes; but they were not hmited to the city, a part of them residing in the small boroughs of Attica. These tribes were named after certain ancient heroes ; each tribe was again subdivided into three parts, and each of these into 30 families. Sojourners were persons who came from a foreign country, and settled with their families in Attica. They were per mitted to exercise trades in the city, and were protected by the government, but had no vote in the assembly, nor could they be raised to any office. § In some -instances, when they had rendered important services, they were adopted into the class of citizens. Slaves or servants were distinguished into two sorts. The first consisted of free born citizens who, through poverty, were forced to serve for wages. These could either change their masters or release themselves when able to procure a subsist- ence. The second sort were wholly at the disposal of their masters, and in general placed beyond the hope of procuring tlieir own freedom, or leaving it as a legacy to their childj'en. § Sometimes slaves obtained their freedom by fighting for the re- public, or purchased it by means of their savings. Magistrates. The Athenian magistrates were divided into three sorts, distinguished by the different methods of their election. Those were, 1. the Chirotoneti, chosen by the people in a lawful assembly, in which they voted by holding up their hands. 2. The Cleroti, first approved l)y the people, and then dravvni by lot. 3. The Ereti, extraordinary officers appointed by particular tribes, to take care of any business. § The poorer citizens were eligible to office ; yet it was seldom that any but the most distinguished persons, were actually appointed as magistrates. The candidates were required to give an account of their past life in the public forum. Magistrates, while in oflice, were liable to be tried on an accusation of neglect of duty ; and after their term of ofl!ice had expired, they 178 GENERAL VIEWS. were obliged to render an account of their conduct. During thirty days, any man who chose might bring a complaint of mal-adminis- tration. The usual governinent of Athens was carried on by the Archons, the Senate of 500, and assemblies of tlie people. The Archons held the supreme executive power. They were elected annually, and by the second metliod above named, viz. l>y lot. They wore garlands of myrtle, were pro- tected from violence and insult, and were exempted from certain taxes. § The archons were nine in number. The first was called archon, by way of eminence. He decided on causes between married persons, also concerning wills, divorces, and legacies. He was the general guardian of orphans. Some other important concerns were assigned to him. The second archon was styled Basileus, and wore a crown. The third archon was called Polemarch. The six remaining archons were named Thesmothetaj. Their respective duties need not be de- scribed. Suffice it to say, that the concern of the arclions, as such, was the execution of laws and the general sui)erintcndence of the republic. Subordinate magistrates regulated minor details in the police. The Senate of five hundred Avas elected annually by lot, from the diderent tribes. The business of this body was to consider all proposals intended to come before the people, and to see tbat nothing improper should be submitted. § The power of this senate was considerable. Tliey debated aA measures of public interest and welfare, examined ihe acounts of magistrates, took care of the fleet, and could punish for offences not prohibited by any law. Assemblies of the people were convened for tlie pinpose of consulting on what was most beneficial to the commonwealth. The right of attending them was enjoyed by all the freemen of Athens. Strangers, slaves, women, and persons who had received an infamous punishment, were excluded. They were lield four times every 35 days, and also in cases of pecu- liar emergency. § The smallest number of which an assembly could legally consist was 6000 citizens. The assemblies decided respecting peace or war; received ambassadors; confirmed or abrogated laws; nommated to almost every important office, &c. Here was the field in whicli the good or the bad influence of the orators of Athens was exerted ; in wliich tlu ir talents were elicited, and their fame acquired ; in wliich Pericles "thundered," iEschincs charmed, and Demosthenes ruled the hearts of men. There were also other bodies of men occasionally concerned GREECE. 179 in the government of Athens, as various courts, particularly that celebrated one called Areopa2:ns. The name of this court was taken from the place where it was hold, viz. Mars' Hill. It was in the greatest repute throughout Greece for the wisdom and justice of its proceedings. It took cognizance of crimes, abuses, and innovations either in religion or government, it inspected the laws and public manners. 'J'he strictest projjriety of conduct was required of the members Expulsion followed any act of gross immorality. To laugh during the sitting of the court, was thought a very blameable levity. There was an absurd peculiarity in the government of Athens, which should not be omitted. It was ostracism, a kind of popular judgment so call from ostrakon, a shell, or tile, on which votes were written. § The following was the process in this condemnation. The people being assembled, each citizen writing on a shell the name of the individual most obnoxious to him without the allegation of a crmie, carried it to a certain part of the market place fixed for this pur])0se. and deposited it there. These shells were numbered in gross by the archons. If they did riot amount to 6000, the ostracism was void. If they amounted to this number, the archons, laying every name by itself, pronounced liim, whose name was written by the major part, banished for ten years, with leave to enjoy his estate. Hence it was that so many eminent citizens suffered from the ingratitude or the spleen of the Atlienians. Government of Sparta. Classes of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of Sparta consisted of citizens and slaves, or Helots. The citizens were divided into two classes, the Homoii, and the Ilypomiones. The privileges of these varied ; the former were ehgible to office ; the latter consisting of the poorer citizens, the freed- men and their sons, were allowed only to vote at the elections. The slaves, or Helots, were much more numerous than the citizens. Their services were similar to those of servants in general, though less severe than those of servants elsewhere m Greece. Kings. The republic of Sparta had two magistrates, called kings, but they differed from those of most other nations. They formed a check upon each other, and their power otherwise was very limited. § Every montli they took an oath that they would rule according to the laws; one of thom command(!d the army, while the otlier usually remaujcd at homo to administer the laws. As first citizens of the state, they presidetl in the senate, but their peculiar prerogative waa to superintend the religion of the stale. 180 GENERAL VIEWS. - Senate. This body consisted, together with the two kings, of twenty-eight members, who were above sixty years of age, and elected to the office for Ufe, and on account of their virtue. Their duty was to consider all questions respecting peace or war, and other important affairs of the republic. Ephori. The Ephori were five magistrates, elected annu- ally by the citizens, to inspect the education of the youth, and the administration of justice. Assemblies. The public assemblies were held to decide on matters laid before them by the Senate. There were two of these bodies ; one was called the general assembly, attended l)y all the freemen of Laconia ; the other, the lesser assembly, composed of the Spartans alone, who exceeded thirty years of age. It is to be noticed, that tlie kings, as well as the other magistrates^ ronstituted a portion of these bodies. Government of the other States of Greece. Like Athens and Sparta, the government of the other sovereignties of Greece was, for the most part, repubhcaa. In some of them there was a preponderance of aristocracy, in others of democracy. Thebes was more nearly a monarchy. § Many of the sovereigns of Thebes were celebrated for their mis- fortunes, such as Laius, CEdipus, Polynices, «S;c. Pertaining to the government of the Greeks, as a confede- rated body, was the Amphictyonic Council. This was an as- sembly composed, at first, of a few states in the northern parta of Greece, but afterwards of twelve states, the object of which was the decision of all diderences between cities, and to try Buch offences as openly violated the laws of nations. § The number of deputies usually sent to this council wfis two from each state. It met twice a year. The vernal assembly was held al Delphi, and the autumnal at Tliermopylae. 45. Military Affairs. The armies of the different states of Greece consisted, for the most part, of citizens, whom the laws of their country obliged at a certain age to appear in arms, at the summons of tbe magistrate. \ § The main body of the Grecian armies was composed of infantry. The rest rode in chariots, upon horseback, or upon elephants. The Greek arms were at first made of brass, and the boots, and some other parts, of tin. Iron became afterwards the chief material. The defensive arms were a helmet, a breast GREECE. 181 plale, and a plate for the back, greaves to defend the leg's, guards for the hands, a sort of belt which covered a part of the body in front, and a shield. The offensive arms were the spear, or pike, the sw^ord, the pole axe, a club of wood or iron, the bow and arrow, darts or javelins, and slings. § The Greeks, however brave in the- field, were very inefficient in undertaking the siege of walled towns. Their armies were generally the militia of the country, called out to temporary service. The severest punishments were inflicted by the Lacedaemonians on deserters, or cowards, who fled from battle. They forfeited all the privileges and honours of citizens ; it was a disgrace to intermarry with them ; they might be beaten by any who met them, without the liberty of self-defence ; and they wore some distinguishing dress as a mark of infamy. Archilochus, the poet, was banished Sparta for writing an epigram, in which he jestingly related the loss of his shield. 46. Naval Affairs. The Greek ships consisted chiefly of three sorts : ships of war, those of burthen, and those of pas- sage. § Ships of passage were used as transports ; ships of burthen served as tenders, and were usually of a roimd form ; ships of war contained the men and the w^eapons by which the naval engagement was car- ried on, and were distinguished by the several orders or banks of oars which they possessed. These were not fixed in a vertical line over each other, but back of each other, ascending gradually in the form of stairs. 47. Religion. The Greeks, who w^rc heathens, wor- shipped great numbers of gods and demi-gods, whom they divided into three classes : — celestial, marine, and infernal. They were all subject to Jupiter, who was considered the fiither of gods and men. The above classes are according to their degrees of dignity. § The gods of Greece arc described by the poets according to tradi- tion, and with such embellishments as poetic genius could invent. As the Greeks had no sacred books, these fictions, sanctioned also by the priests and legislators, were the only authority for the popular belief. The account we here give of the mythology of the Greeks is to be regarded as a description only of their principal deities, and under the forms in which the poets, sculptors, and painters, represented them. If this article should appear to be somewhat particular, compared with the others respecting Greece, it is because the mythology of this country is the same nearly Avith that of the whole ancient world, and is necessary to be known in reading the Grecian and Roman classics. The celestial deities were Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury 182 GENERAL VIEWS. Bacchus, Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. Jupiter was the son of Saturn and Cybele; and born at the same birth with Juno, on mount Ida in Crete. He deposed his father, and divided the world between himself and his l)rethren, Neptune and Pluto. Neptune had the jurisdiction of the sea, and Pluto that of the infernal regions. The sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to himself One of his great exploits was the conquest of the Titans, or giants, who heaped mountains upon mountains to scale heaven. Jupiter was guilty of indulging the basest lusts, although he is generally re- presented as the father of men and gods, as shaking heaven with his nod, and governing all things, except the Fates, by his power as su- preme. His altars were never defiled with human sacrifices. He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated on a throne, with a sceptre in one hand, and thunderbolts in the other, and at his feet an eagle with expanded wings. Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and born in the island of Delos He presided over music, medicine, poetry, divination, the fine art;;, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, he was banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly, in which employment he remained nine years. His adventures on earth are represented as extraordinary. Among others he flayed Marsyas alive for contending with him in music ; he caused Midas to receive a pair of ass's ears for preferring Pan's mu- sic to his ; he turned into a voilet the beautiful boy Hyacinthus, whom he accidentally killed with a quoit j and his mistress Daphne he me- tamorphosed into a laurel. " He is represented as a tall, beardless youth, with rays round his head ; sometimes he holds a lyre in his hand, sometimes he has a bow, with a quiver of arrows at his back. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god of war, ai>d patron of all that is bloody, cruel, and furious. The horse, the wolf, the magpie, and the vulture, were offered to him. He had his temples in all nations, as well as among the Greeks and Romans. Diu'ing the Trojan war Mars was wounded by Diomedes, and hastily retreating to heaven, complained to Jupiter, that Minerva had direct- ed the weapon of his antagonist. He is represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot, drawn by two horses, called Flight and Terror ; his sister Bellona, was his charioteer. Discord goes before him in a tattered garment with a torch, and Anger and Clamour follow. Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Maia, was the messenger of the gods, the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves?, and dishonest persons. His exploits abundantly support this charac- ter. Mercury was doubtless some enlightened person in a remote age, wlio, on account of his actions or services was worshipped after his death. His Greek name, Hermes, signifies to interpret or explain, and he appears to have taught men the arts of civilization. Bacchus. Vulcan. Juno. Venus. Diana. GREECE. 183 He is represented as a naked youth, standing on tiptoe, having a ^vinged cap on liis head, and winged sandals on his feet ; in one hand he held a rod, and in tlie other a purse. Bacchus was tlie son of Jupiter and Semele, and the god of wine. His festivals were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed themselves in skins, and ran alx.nit the hills and country shouting, and accompanying their siiouts with drums, fifes, and flutes. Tliese solemnities were attended with disgusting scenes of drunkenness and debauchery. The fir, yew, and fig tree, the ivy and vine, were sacred to him. Bacchus is depicted as a corpulent and ruddy youth, crowned with ivy and vine leaves; liolding in his hand a small javelin bound with vine leaves ; his chariot is drawn by lions. Vulcan, the god of fire, and ])atron of those who wrought in the metallic arts, was the son of .lupiter and Juno. He was kicked out of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his mother from a chain by which she was suspeud'^d. He continued to descend nine days and nights, and lighted on the island of Lemnos, but was crip- pled ever after. Vulcan was the artificer of heaven ; he forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, also the arms of gods and demi-gods. Though deformed, squalid, and sooty, he is made the husband of Venus and father of Cupid. Vulcan is represented as working at a forge. One hand raising a hammer ready to strike, the other holding a thunderbolt with pin- cers on an anvil. An eagle waits to carry it to Jupiter when finished. Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and wife of Jupiter. She was born at Argos, or as some report, in Samos. In her cliaracter she was haughty, jealous, and inexorable, though the ancients held her in great veneration, inasmuch as she presided over power, empire, and riches, and was the special protectress of mar- riage and child birth. She was lofty, graceful, and magnificent in her face, figure, and motion, and of all the pagan divinities her worship was the most so- lemn and general. She is represented seated on a throne, or in a chariot drawn by peacocks, with a diadem or fillet adorned witli jewels on her head, and a golden sceptre in her hand. Iris, displaying the rich colours of the rainbow, is her usual attendant. Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, sprang completely armed from the liead of Jupiter. She was the most accomplished of all the god- desses, and the only divinity that seemed equal to Jupiter. She was a henificent goddess, and instructed in shipbuilding, navigation, spin- ning, and weaving. Her worship was universally established, but Athens claimed lier ])articular attention. Slie is represented as a majestic female, of commanding aspect, armed with a helmet, breastplate, shield, and spear. By her side, or on her crest, is an owl, the bird wliich is sacred to her. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter of Jupi- 184 GENERAL VIEWS. (er and Dione, or as some say, she sprung from the froth of the sea. She was licentious in a high degree, and her worship was celebrated with the most disgraceful ceremonies. The most beautiful of her temples were those of Paphos, Cnidus, Cythera, and Idalia. The island of Cyprus was her favourite residence. She is represented as a beautiful woman, elegantly attired, and girt about the waist with a cestus, or girdle, that had the power of inspi- ring love. Diana was the queen of the woods and the goddess of hunting. She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and had for her attendants 80 nymphs, all of whom abjured the rites of marriage. Among plants, the poppy and dittany were sacred to her. She is represented as a tall, majestic woman, lightly clad, with a crescent on her forehead, a bow in her hand, a quiver on her shoul- ders, her legs bare, and buskins on her feet. Ceres the goddess of corn and harvest, was the daughter of Sa- turn and Cybele, and the first who taught to cultivate the earth. She was a beneficent goddess, but led a licentious life. To her honour the Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated. She is represented as a majestic and beautiful woman, crowned with ears of corn ; in one hand she held poppies and ears of corn, and in the other a lighted torch. Vesta was the goddess of fire, and guardian of houses and hearths. She ever remained a virgin, and received the first oblations in sacri- fice. She was represented in a long, flowing robe, a veil on her head, a lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other. The marine deities were Neptune, and liis wife Amphi- trite, Oceanus and his wife Thetys, Triton, Proteus, Nereus, and his sister and consort Doris, &c. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was second in rank among the gods, and reigned over the sea. Conspiring against Jupiter, he was defeated, banished from heaven, and for one year made subject to Laomedon, king of Troy, where he assisted to build the walls of that city. Neptune is represented seated in a chariot made of a shell and drawn by dolphins and sea horses, surrounded by tritons, nymphs, and sea monsters. On his head he wears a crown, and in his hand holds a trident, or sceptre, with three prongs. Oceanus, a sea god, was the son of Ccclum and Vesta. He was called the father, not only of rivers, but of animals. He and his wife Thetys arc said to have had 3000 sons. Triton, also a sea god, was the son of Neptune and Amphitrite ; he was his father's companion and trumpeter. Half of him resembles a man ; the other part is like a fish ; his two feet are like the fore feet of a horse; his tail is cleft and crooked like a half moon ; and his hair resembles wild parsley. Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of fifty daugh- ters by his wife Doris, who were called Nereids, Ceres. Vesta. Neptune. Oceanus. Triton. Pluto. Furies. Charon. Fates. Cupid. Graces. GREECE. IgS Proteus, fhe son of Oceanus, a god of the sea, could foretell future events, and change himself into any shape. Tlie infernal deities were Pluto and liis consort Proserpine, Plutus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, Mi- nos, iEacus, and Rliadanianthus. § Pluto, who exercised dominion over hell, M-as the brother of Ju- piter. Tlie goddesses all refusing to marry him on account of his de- formity and gloomy disposition, he seized Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, carried hei to his residence, married, and made her queen of hell. No tcanples were raised to his honour. He is represented seated on a throne of sulphur, from beneath which flow the rivers Lethe, Phlegellion, Cocytus, and Acheron. His countenance is stern ; on his head is a radiated crown ; in one hand a sceptre with two teeth, called a bident, and in the other, two keys _ Plutus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches. He was lame, blind, mjudicious, and timorous. Charon was the ferryman of hell, an old man with \vhite hair a long beard and garments, deformed with filth, in speech morose and ill-tempered. Every ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. ' None could enter Charon's boat without a regular burial ; without this, they wandered a hundred years, amidst the mud and slime of the shore. By him departed souls were ferried over the four rivers ot hell, and carried to Pluto's palace. The Furies were three in number, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Mcgara. They liave the faces of women, their looks are full of terror, they hold lighted torches in tlieir hands, and snakes lasli their necks and shoulders. Their office is to observe and punish the crimes of bad men, and torment tlie consciences of secret offenders. • Tlie Fates were tliree daughters of Jupiter by Themis. Their names were Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. They decided on the fortunes of mankind. Clotho drew the thread of life, Lachesis turned the w^heel, and Atropos cut it with lier scissors. Minos, iEacus, and Rhadnmanthus, were the three judges of the souls of the dead. They assigned various punishments to the wick- ed, adapted to tlieir crimes; to the good they gave a place in the de- lightful realms of Elysium. There were many other divinities of various characters and descriptions : as, Cupid, tlie god of love; the Muses, who pre- sided over poetry, music, dancing, and the hberal arts ; tlie Graces, &c. § Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged boy, with a bow and arrows, and often with a bandage over his eyts. Sometimes he is bestriding tlie back of a lion, playing on a lyre ; sometimes he appears mounted on a dolphin ; at otliers,'^breakina the winged thunderboh of Jove, or amusing himself with cliildish diver- sions. The Muses were the daughters of Jupiter by Mnemosyne. They were nine in number viz. Q2 186 GENERAL VIEWS. 1st. Calliope, who presides over eloquence and heroic or epic poo- try, such as Homer's Iliad. 2d. Clio, who presides over history. 3d. Erato, the muse ol elegiac or lyric poetry. 4th. Euterpe, presiding over music. 5th. Melpomene, the inventress and muse of tragedy. 6th. Polyhymnia, tlie muse of singing and rhetoric. 7th. Terpsichore, who presides over dancing. 8th. Thalia, the muse of pastoral or comic poetry. 9th. Urania, who presides over hymns and sacred subjects, and is the muse of astronomy. The Graces were the daughters of Bacchus and Venus, and three in number. They were supposed to give to beauty its attractions, and to render even homeliness pleasing. They are usually represented as young and blooming virgins, fightly clad, and holding each other by the hand, to show the mutual affection that subsisted between them. Besides these, there were rural deities, as Pan, Sylvanus, Priapus, Aristseus, Termhius, and others. There were also the Sirens, Gorgons, Harpies, Dryads, Naiads, Nereids, Tri- tons, Lares, Penates, Fauns, Satyrs, Pales, and a vast number of Nymphs. § Pan was the principal among the inferior deities, and was the god of hunters, shepherds, and country people generally. Sylvanus was next to Pan, and presided over woods. Priapus pre- sided over gardens. Aristseus invented the art of extracting oil from olives, and found the use of honey. Terminus was considered as watching over the boundaries of lands. The Sirens were three fabulous persons, who were said to have the faces of women, and the lower parts of their bodies like fish. They had such melodious voices, that mariners were often allured by them to their own destruction. The Gorgons, three sisters, had the power of transforming those into stones who looked at them. Tne Harpies are said to have beenwingedmonsters which had the face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. The Dryads were nymphs who presided over the woods. The Naiads were nymphs of springs and fo\uitains. The Nereids were nymphs of the sea, and daughters of Nereus and Doris. The Tritons were sea gods, wilh their upper parts like a man, and their lower parts resembling a fish. The Lares and Penates v/cre inferior deities who presided over houses and families. The Fauns and Satyrs w^ere rural demi-gods, the one attending on Pan, and the other on Bacchus. Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures. The Nymphs were celestial and terrestrial j the former guided the Calliope. Clio. Erato. Euterpe. Melpomene. Polyhymnia. Terpsichore. Urania. Thalia. GREECE. 187 heavenly bodies, the latter presided over the woods. They are repre- sented as beautiful creatures, inhabiting every forest and glen. The worship of these divinities was conducted by priests dressed in costly habits, who offered sacrifices of animals, fruits, perfumes, &c. These sacrifices were sometimes ap- companied by prayers, music, dancing, &c. Human victims Avere occasionally sacrificed. § The Greeks derived their religion principally from Egj'pt ; but by degrees the legitiators, poets, and priests, extended it, till the multitude of gods was almost innumerable. Thirty thousand ob- jects of worship have been enumerated among them. These deities were supposed frequently to mingle in the affairs of men, and are re • presented as being stained with almost every vice. Temples were erected, festivals instituted, games celebrated, and sacrifiees offered, with more or less pomp to all these gods, as also to tlie souls of departed heroes. The religion of the common people consisted chiefly in the exter- nal honours paid to their gods, and an attendance upon sacrifices and ceremonies, thougli these were performed with great reverence. With respect to a future state of existence, the philosophers seem to have been in doubt. The poets inculcated a belief in Tartarus, or Hell, and Elysium, or Paradise. Women were not encouraged with any hope of immortality. Of Hell they have drawn a picture in the most gloomy and horrific colours, where men who have been remarkable for wickedness are tortured with a variety of miseries adapted to their crimes. The prospect of Elysium is described by Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, and others, as beautiful and inviting in the highest degree. In that delight ftil region, there is no inclement weather, but soft Avinds blow from the ocean to refresh the inhabitants, who live without care or anxiety ; there reigns perpetual sunshine and serenity of sky ; and the f rtile earth produces thrice in a year delicious fruits for their sustenance. With the religion of the Greeks were connected their tem- ples, oracles, games, &c. The principal temples of tlie Greeks were those of Diana, at Ephesus, of Apollo, in the city of Miletus, of Ceres and Pro- serpine, at Eleusis, and that of Olympian Jove, at Athens. These were all bitilt of marble, and adorned with the finest ornaments. The most celebrated Grecian temple, however, was that of Apollo at Dclphos, which was revered and resort- ed to by all the siurounding nations, § Statues of the gods, to whom these structures were dedicated, were erected in or near the centre of the building, and enclosed by a 188 GENERAL VIEWS. railing. Sacrifices of various kinds were made before these statues the ceremonies of which were generally conducted by the priests. Temples among the heathen most probably owe their origni to the superstitious reverence paid by the ancients to the memory of their deceased friends and benefactors. As most of their gods were eminent men, who were consecrated after death ; so the first heathen temples, we naturally infer, were stately monuments erected in ho- nour of the dead. Oracles were consulted by the Greeks on all important oc- casions, and their determinations were held sacred and invio- lable. There were certain temples, in which future events were made known to those who devoutly sought to know the will of superior powers. Certain priests or priestesses commu- nicated this supposed will. § Well have they been called lying oracles, in comparison with the clear predictions of the prophets of Jehovali in the scriptures The most celebrated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and De los, the oracle of Jupiter, at Dodona, and that of Trophonius. The public and solemn games in Greece were the Olym- pic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian — four in number. The contests at these games were running, leaping, throwing the quoit, boxing, and Nvresthng. Horse races and chariot races were also in repute. Besides these, there were contests in wliich musicians, poets, artists, and philosopliers, engaged for victory. These occasions drew together people from all parts of Greece, and even strangers from foreign countries. The ut- most emulation obtained to secure the prizes, which were wreaths of various evergreens ; and the highest honours and respect were shown towards the victors. Their praises were universally celebrated. The effect of these games on the national spirit was remarkable. § The Olympic Games were instituted by Hercules in honour of Jupiter Olympius, 1222 years B. C, and renewed after a long period, first by Lycurgus, 884 B. C, and next by Coroebus, 776 B. C. The last period is the era of the first Olympiad. An Olympiad was the space (which was four years,) intervening between one celebration and another— the Greek method of computing time. The victors were crowned with olive. The Pythian Games were celebrated every fifth year, in the second year of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honour of Apollo. The vic- tors were crowned with laurel. The exercises were nearly the same as at the Olympic. The Nemean Games, which were mstituted by Hercules, were ce- lebrated every third year at the town of Nemea, with the usual ex ercises. The victors were crowned with parsley. GREECE. 189 The Isthmian Gamos were celebrated near tlie Isthmus of Corinth, whence Ihey derived tlu'ir name. Tlicir occurrence was every third, and afterwards every fifth year. The victors were crowned witli gar- hinds of pine leaves. 48. Literature. In literature, Greece was the glory of the whole eartli. No nation, ancient or modern, has ever surpassed tlte Greeks in literary taste and genius. Since their tmie, great advances have indeed been made in the sci- ences, strictly so called, and in some branches of polite learn- ing ; yet in cliastc and beautiful composition, in hveliness of fancy, in sweetness of periods, in the various forms of intel- lectual effort under the names of poetry, oratory, and history, they are still uinivalled, in mere human productions. § The Greeks derived a part of their learning from Egypt and PiKBnicia, but tliey originated much of it, and liere consists then pe- culiar gkrry. The praise of invention belongs to them, and even of perfection in some departments. Cadmus taught them the alphabet 1519 years B. C. It then con- tained but 16 letters, and the motliod of writing was from left to right, and from right to left alternately. This circumstance essenti- ally contributed to the rapid advances made by the Greeks in civili- zation and knowledge. Poetry, in Greece, was extremely ancient. It was cultivated even before the introduction of letters. In the various forma under which it is usually arranged, there are specimens of surpassing excellence, and names that can never be forgotten. § In epic poetry, we find the sublime Homer, and the moral Ilesi- od. In lyric poetry, shine the gay Anacreon, the sweet Sappho, and the fanciful and daring Pindar. In the drama we meet the names of the wild ^Eschylus, the pa- thetic Euripides, the pure and grand Sophocles, and the delicate Me- nander. In pastoral poetry, we read of the easy Bion and the ele- gant Moschus ; and every classical scholar knows, that Theocritus is only another name for simplicity and nature. Oratory was greatly cultivated among the Greeks, parti- cularly in Athens, whose institutions were rather more free than was elsewhere the case in Greece. It became an object of attention soon after the Persian invasion, about 480 years B. C It was cultivated with singidar success— was bold and vehement at first, but afterAvards more refined and elegant. § Here Pericles awed, by the majesty of his expressions ; Thucy- dides, who was an orator, as well as a historian, arrested the thoughts of others, by the force of his own. Here Isocrates soothed the ear by harmony of periods, and Demosthenes flaslied conviction and im- pelled to action, by the united energy of liis gesture, voice, and ar- guments. 190 GENERAL VIEWS. History, after those earlier ages in which poetry was the vehicle of recorded events, was cultivated with an interest and success demanded by its importance. The Greeks possessed several most disting-uished historians. § Such were Herodotus, who was characterized by a simple and elegant style and engaging manner ; Thucydides, whose reflections were profound, and fidelity unequalled ; Xenophon, who combined simplicity of style with sagacity of observation. Philosophy among the Greeks, was divided into various schools or sects. The professors of philosophy arose from the early Rhapsodists — men who recited the poems of Homer and others at the public games, commenting at tlie same time upon them, and who, having established schools, were digni- fied by the name of sophists, or teachers of wisdom. The Grecian philosophy, was, however, merely speculative, and seldom based upon facts. § The principal sects of philosophy in Greece were the Ionic, the most ancient, founded by Thales ; the Italian, by Pythagoras ; the Socratic, by Socrates; the Cynic, by Antisthenes; the Academic, by Plato ; the Peripatetic, by Aristotle ; the Sceptical, by Pyrrho ; the Stoic, by Zeno ; the Epicurean, by Epicurus. These sects were distinguished by certain peculiarities of doctrine, as for instance, the Italian taught the transmigration of souls ; the Socratic insisted on the excellence of virtue; the Cynic condemned all knowledge, society, and the arts of life ; the Academic dealt ia ideal forms, and mystical theogony ; the Peripatetic exhibited the model of a perfect logic; the Sceptical inculcated universal doubt; the Stoic decried all weakness, and made insensibility a virtue ; and the Epicurean pointed to pleasure as the supreme good. The Peripatetic sect, or the school of Aristotle, has exerted the greatest influence over the human mind. It reigned in the schools through 1600 years. The principle of all things was a subject of special research by the philosophers of Greece. It may be curious to know their opinions on this topic. Anaximenes, taught that this principle consisted of - - Water. Thales, - - Water. Anaxagoras, Infinite air. Archelaus, Matter and Spirit. Ileraclitus, _ . - - Fire. Democritus, .._ Atoms. Pythagoras, - - - - Unity. pliito, -_._--- God, Idea, and matter. Aristotle, ----- Matter, Form, and Privation. Zeno,- - God and Matter, (the only things without beginning.) Epicurus, Matter and empty Space. The seven wise men of Greece, who are found in the ranks of phi GREECE. 191 io?ophy, were Tliales, of Miletus; Solon, of Athens ; Bias, of Priene; Chilo, of Laceda?mon ; Cleobulus, of Lindos ; Pittacus, of Mitylene ; and Periander, of Corinth. 49. The arts. Greece, in the age of Pericles, about 430 B. C, abounded in architects, sculptors, and painters. It was then in the zenith of its glory in literatnre, as well as the arts. Indeed this was tiie taste of the public mind, until after the death of Alexander. Even to this day, Greece, particularly Athens, is the instructress of the world in those monuments of its arts and genius that yet remain. In the useful and necessary arts of life, the Greeks never made any great improvement. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, were left for other nations to perfect. But in the fine arts, appropriately so called, Greece was superior to all ancient nations, and probably not excelled by any modern. Indeed, we may say that the Greeks carried architecture, sculpture, and painting, to perfection. § This people invented that system of architecture, which is univer- sally considered the most finished and perfect. The Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the Ionic, and the (.^orinthian. The Doric possessed a masculine grandeur, and sublime plainness. The Ionic was marked with gracefulness and elegance. The Corinthian affected the highest mag- nificence and ornament, by uniting the characteristics of all the orders. In sculpture, ihe Greeks excelled no less than in architecture. Specimens of their art in this respect are perfect models. The Dying Gladiator, the Venus, and the Laocoon, of the Greek sculptors, have an imperishable fiune. In painting, though very few specimens have descended down to us, they are supposed also greatly to have excelled. The works of Zeuxis, Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogens, and Timanthes, which have perished, were highly extolled by ithe writers of antiquity. In music, the Greeks appear to have been less conspicuous than several modern nations. 50. Private and domestic LAfe. The dress of the Greeks, as well as of otlier ancient nations, differed much from that of most modern nations. The men wore an inner garment called tunic, over which they threw a mantle ; theu" shoes, or sandals, were fastened under the soles of their feet with thongs or ropes. The women, particularly in Athens, wore a white tunic, which was closely Ijound w ith a broad sash, and descended in waving folds down to the heels ; also a shorter robe, confined round the waist with a ribbon, bordered at the bottom with 192 GENERAL VIEWS. Stripes of various colours ; over this they sometimes put on a robe, which was worn gathered up hke a scarf. In the earlier ages of Greece, its inhabitants used no cover- ing on their heads ; but in after times tliey wore hats, that v/ere tied under the chin. Women, however, always had their heads covered. § The Athenians wore in their hair golden grasshoppers, as em- blems of the antiquity of their nation, intimating that they were sprung from the earth. In Sparta, the kings, magistrates, and citizens, were but little distin- guished by external appearance. The military costume was of a red colour. The Greeks, in general, set a high value on scarlet colour, and a etill greater on purple. The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number : Breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the next meal at mid-day ; then came tlie afternoon repast ; and lastly the supper, which was the principal meal, as it was taken aftei the business of the day. 5 At Sparta they ate together at public tables, and the chief part of their food consisted of black broth. In the earliest ages, convivial entertainments were generally acl9 of public devotion, but afterwards we find them in use in private iife< There were also political feasts, in which a whole city, tribe, oi other subdivision, met together. Water and wine were used for drinking. Perfumed wines were introduced at the tables of the rich. Every thing capable of sustain- ing life was used as food. The Greeks generally were very fond offish. Hot baths were very numerous, and bathing in them, and anoint- ing the body, with a change of clean clothes, were usual in preparing for a feast. When guests were invited, men and women were never invited together. Seats, on which persons sat upright, were employed ; but, as luxury prevailed, couches were introduced, on which the guests reclined while feasting. The marriages among the Greeks were lawful only as the consent of parents or other relatives could be obtained. This institution was greatly encouro ged in all parts of Greece. Want of esteem, and sometimes the infliction of punishment, attended the failure of entering into the connubial state. § Polygamy was allowed only after times of great calamity, such as war or pestilence. Socrates married a second Avife on this account. Violations of the marriage contract, though the punishment was se- vere, were often committed. The Grecian women seldom or never appeared in strange company, but were confined to the remote parts of the house, into which no male PHOSNICIANS. 193 visitants were admitted. When they went abroad, they wore veils to conceal their faced. It was disreputable, however, to appear much abroad. In some parts of Greece, parents might expose their children, in certain cases. Cliiklren were required to maintain their parents in old age ; but by the laws of Solon, if a person did not bring up his children to some useful employment, they were to be exempted from such an obligation. The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many ce remonies, showing that they considered the duties belonging to the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, it was the most awful of all imprecations, to wish that a person might die without the honours of a funeral. Phoenicians. 51. Country. Phcenicia was little more than a naiTow slip of ground situated between mount Libanus and the sea. It had Syria on the north and east, Judea on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. 52. Cities and Remains. Sidon was the capital, and a maritime town of considerable extent, and provided with au excellent harbour. It was distinguished by a high degree of opiUence and refinement. Tyrus, called the daughter of Sidon, was built upon an island south of Sidon, and 25 miles distant. It was ornament- ed with many magnificent buildings. § Sidon is often mentioned by Homer, but Tyrus never. Tyrus Was joined by Alexander to the main land, and time has consolidated liis work. The walls of Tyre were 150 feet high, with a proportionate breadth. Old TjTC, on the continent, was destroyed by the Assyrians. It was new Tyre that Alexander took after a siege of seven months. A few fishermen's huts are among its ruins. Other principal, cities were Aradus, Tripoli, Byblus, Sarepta, and Berytus. Some vestiges of the splendour of this ancient land are still in existence. The ruins of Sidon exhibit many fine columns and other fragments of marble. § A double column of granite, consisting of one entire block, 80 feet long, has been noticed among the ruins of Tyre. 53. Navigation and Colonies. The Phoenicians, con- fined between the sea and movmtains, acquired power and aggrandizement by navigation. Their navigators were fa- mous for their skill and intrepidity. They engrossed the commerce of the western hemispliere. 194 GENERAL VIEWS. They formed establishments on both sides of the Mediter- ranean, and even on those of the western ocean. In the time of Abraham, they were known to be a commercial and enter- prising people. § Carthage, Utica, Gades, &c. were colonies founded by the inha- bitants of Tyre. 54. Sciences, Arts, and Manufactures. From the earliest periods, the Phoenicians were addicted to philosophy. The sciences of arithmetic and astronomy were invented or im- proved by them, and they are known to hnve introduced let- ters into Greece. § Before the time of the Trojan war, Moschiis, a Sidonian, ex- plained the doctrine of Atoms. In latter ages, we read of some emi- nent philosophers ; among them was Boethius, Antipater, Diodatus, and Apollonius. In manufactures they were skilled. Glass, purple, and fine linen, were products of their own invention. In architecture they were so versed, that Solomon sought their aid in erecting his magnificent temple. 55. Religion. As the Phoenicians were so nearly connect- ed with tlie immediate descendants of Noah, they were pro- bably instructed in the worship of the true God ; but they be- came at length inunersed in idolatry and superstition. The principal objects of their mistaken adcration were Beelsmen, or the sun, Baal, Astarte, the " queen of heaven," Hercules, Adonis, and the Patfeci, certain small statues, Avhich being venerated as the tutelar gods of sea-faring men. were always carried about in the prows of their vessels. One of these idolatrous objects Milton describes in mellifluous verse. " With these in troop Came Ashtoreth, whom the Phoenicians call'd Astarte, queen of heaven, with crescent horns ; To whose bright image, nightly by the moon Sidonian virgins paid their vows and songs." Lydians. 56. Qountry. The country of the Lydians had Mysia on file north, and Caria on the south. It constituted an inte- resting portion of Asia Minor. § The inhabitants on the coast, who were lonians divided into twelve small states, gave their name to a dialect of the Greek lan- guage — Ionic. 57. Cities. The principal cities were Ephesus, illustrious in classic and in christian antiquity ; Sardis, the ancient me- ROMANS. 195 tropolis ; Philadelphia, in which were celebrated the common feasts of all i^sia ; and a few others. § Ephesus was fanioiis for the temple of Diana, one of tlie seven wonders of the Avorld, completed 220 years after its foundation. This temple was 425 iVet in length, and 200 in breadth. The roof was sup- ported b)- 127 colunms 60 fcft high, placed there by so many kings. The rich offerings brought into it were immense. This temple was burnt on the night that Alexander was born. Erostratus perpetrated fliis villany merely to eternize his name. It rose, however, from its ruins, with augmented splendom-. Ephesus was famous also as the place where a flourishing christian church was planted by the apostle Paul ; and it now stands a monu- ment of the fulfilment of our Saviour's threatenmg: " Thy candle- stick shall be removed out of his place." The city is now a mass of ruins. The whole contains only 40 or 50 Turkish families, who live in cottages of dirt. Not a single family here exists to invoke the name of Jesus. Says Gibbon, " The deso- lation is complete. Tlie temple of Diana, or the church of Mary, will equally elude the search of the curious traveller." 58. Cliaracter. The Lydians, under Croesus, and some of his predecessors, were a very warlike people ; but after the introduction of the Persian luxuries, they became indolent, vo- luptuous, and cfl'eniinate. 59. Customs. They are said to be the first people that in- troduced the coinage of gold and silver to facilitate trade ; the first that sold by retail ; that kept taverns and eating houses ; and invented public games, which were therefore called ludi by the Romans. Romans. GO. Country — its name., situation, and division. The country of this renowned people, from their having ruled over a great f)art of the civilized world, becomes an interesting ob- ject to the scliolar or reader. They inhabited that part of Europe which is now called Italy, and their beginning was at Rome, its capital. From the latter they were denominated Romans. § Italy had other names, as Hcsperia, Ausonia, CEnotria, and Sa- turnia. It had the Alps on the north, the Tyrrhene sea on the west, the Adriatic on the east, and the Grecian sea on the south. The whole territory was divided into Cisalpine Gaul, Italy Proper, and Magna Grax-ia. ^ Its principal districts were Cisalpine Gaul, Etruria, Umbria, Pi- 196 GENERAL VIEWS. cenum, Latium, Campania, Samnium, the Hirpini, Apulia, Calabri^^ Lucania, and the Brutii. 61. Interesti)ig localities of Italy. Italy as well as Greece furnishes many recollections of this kind, that are so pleasing to the student of antiquity. § Andes, near Mantua, was the birth-place of Virgil, Comumthatof the younger Pliny, Verona of Catullus, and Patavium of Livy. Ra- venna was the residence of the emperors of the west when driven from Rome. The river Po is famous for the death of Phaeton, who, as the poets mention, was thrown down into it by the thunder-bolts of Jupiter. Padusa, one of the mouths of the Po, was said to abound in swans. Rubicon was a mountain torrent, Avhich it was forbidden to pass with an armed force, under dreadful imprecations. Tlie inhabitants of Etruria were famous for their skill in augury, early civilization, and resolution, and were conquered by the Romans, only after much bloodshed. Circeii was the residence of the fabled enchantress Circe. Tusculum was the villa of Cicero. Capua was celebrated for its wealth, volup- tuousness, and soft climate. Near the promontory of Cumee was the residence of the Sibyl. At Nola, east of Naples, bells were fii-st in- vented. The eruption of Vesuvius, A. C. 79, overwhelmed the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae,and destroyed the life of Pliny. The city of Arpi was founded by Diomedes. Venusia was the birth-place of Horace. The coimtry of Apulia was celebrated for its wool. Brundusium was the port for passing from Italy to Greece. Rudiae was the birth-place of Ennius. Tarentum was founded by the Lacedesmonians. Paestum in Lucania was famous for its roses. On the coast was Metapontum, the school of Pythagoras. Thurium was also called Sybaris, from the effeminacy of its inhabitants. Petilia was built by Philoctetes, after the Trojan war. Sicily was famous in antiquity for the birth of Ceres, the rape of Proserpine, the giant Enceladus, mount ^Etna, and the Cyclops, with the whirlpool Charybdis, opposite to Scylla on the Italian coast, ob- jects of terror to mariners. Sicily was the storehouse of Italy. Mount Eryx was celebrated for its temple of Venus. The plains of Enna, where Proserpine was carried away by Pluto, abounded in honey. Lipara was famous for its fruits : its raisins are still in high repute. Vulcan had forges here. Sardinia was called by the Greeks, Ichnu- fla, from its resemblance to the print of a foot. It was famous for wormwood and bitter herbs, and its air was unwholesome. Corsica was celebrated for its box and yew trees. TJrciniiun, founded by a son of Ajax, is now Ajaccio, and celebrated in modern times as the birth-place of Napoleon Buonaparte. 62. Capital of Italy^ and tSeat of the Roman Empire. The great city of Italy and the Romans was Rome. Her© R( MANS. 197 was the beginning of this celebrated people. The city was small and mean at fust, but in the course of ages became magnificent be)'ond conception. The city was built on seven hills, Mount Palatmus, Capi- tolhius, Gluirilinu.s. Viminalis, Esquilinus, Coelius, and Aven- tinus. The Palatine hill was the residence of the kings and emperors. On mount Capitohnus, were the Capitol and Tarpeian rock. STlie seven hills on which Rome was built are not very distinctlj' marked, particularly now that the rubbish of so many ruined buildings has, in the course of more than 2500 years, filled up the spaces be- tween them. In any place the ground is about 20 feet deep above the old pavement. The summit of the Capitoline hill is only about 120 feet above the level of the Tiber. In the times of the republic were built the most magnificent aque- ducts, which conveyed water from a vast distance for the service of the city, and some of which supply modern Rome; whilst the vast ruins of others excite wonder and astonishment. The Circus INIaxi- inns was of an oval shape, and afforded accommodation for 150,000 people to see the chariot races and other games. The ruins of the theatres of Pompey and INIarcellus still remain. The Coliseum, built by Vespasian and Titus, for shows of gladiators and wild beasts, was capable of containing 100,000 people, and its magnificent rcniuias are still the most remarkable object at Rome, The Pantheon or Temple of all the gods, was built by Agrippa, in the time of Augustus, and its solid construction promises it a dura- tion for many centuries yet to come. The columns of Trajan and Antoninus excite th^ admiration of all beholders. Baths of immense number and extent were made chiefly in the times of the emperors, and the ruins of those of Titus, and Ca- racalla, still rem-iin. The vast tomb of Adrian is now the castle of St. Angelo. The catacombs are very extensive, but it is uncertain for what purpose they were used. Several vast tombs still remain, one of which was used as a fortress in the middle ages. The triumphal arches of Severus, Titus, and Constantine, still adorn the ancient Fonim. The extent of the walls is stated by Phny to have been 13 miles 200 paces. A somewhat larger space was enclosed by Aurelian. Tho modern city encloses also within the walls, the Vatican hill. More than three fourths of the space within the walls are now covered with vineyards, and the modern city is built chiefly in the ancient Campus Martins. Every where are seen magnificent ruins. Egyp- tian obelisks, Mocks of oriental granite, ancient and modern buildings, which still render Rome the most interesting city of the whole earth. The principal public place in the city was the Forum. — This was a large open space of oblong shape, where the people held their as- semblies, justice was administered, and public concerns were trans- acted. It was surrounded in its whole extent with arched porticoes. B2 198 GENERAL VIEWS. \vhich included spacious halls, where courts of justice sat and decided the affairs of individuals. The Campus Martins was a large plain without the city, along the river Tiber, where tlie athletic exercises and sports of the Roman youth were practised. It was adorned with many noble structures, and monuments commemorating the deeds of their ancestors. 63. Political Stale. Tlie political state, or government among the Romans, varied very much during the successive periods of their existence. At first it was a monarchy : next it became a republic with a preponderance of aristrocratic power, w hich gradually gave w^ay to the influence of the people. A state almost of anarchy followed, which soon settled down into a despotism. That portion of history which we call ancient, includes and ends with the commencement of Roman des- potism under Augustus. The kings of Rome were not absolute or hereditary, but limited and elective. They could neither enact laws, nor make w^ar or peace, without the concurrence of the senate and people. § They wore a golden crown, and carried an ivory sceptre. They .«!at in a curule cliair, which Avas made or adorned with ivory, and they were attended with twelve lictors, carrying fasces, which were bundles of rods with an axe placed in the middle. They convened the senate, assembled the people, conducted the army, and ap- pointed the qurestors or treasurers of the public money. The Roman people were divided into four classes. 1. The Senate or Patrician order. 2. The Ecjuestrian order or knights. 3. The Plebeians or mass of the people. 4. The Slaves. The Senate was composed of 100 old men, and afterwards of 200 or more, who were the council of the king. By them most of the business of the state was transacted. They were called Patres, that is, Fathers. The Patrician lamilies were descended from these fathers. They constituted not an he- reditary nobiUty, but were accounted noble, because the mem- bers had filled high oflfices. § For some centuries, the senate consisted of 300 members, and in the time of Julius Cnesar, of 900. Augustus reduced the number to 000. They were first chosen by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and last by the censors. Tliey were distinguished by a particidar dress, and had separate seats at the public spectacles. In their ofiicial character, this body was usually assembled three times a month, but was frequently called together on other days for special business. A senatus consultum was a decree passed by a major jty of the senate, and approved by the tribunes of tlie people. The Knights were not originally a separate order, but coa- ROMANS. 199 sistcd of siicli citizens as could maintain a horse for the Avars. They seem to have become a separate order at some period under the kingS; but afterwards the knights were chosen by the censors, and presented with a horse and a gold ring, at the public expei\^e. §The knights formed the public revenues. Every year on the 15th July, they went in procession from the Temple of Honour or of Mars, without the city, to tlie capitol, on horseback, bearing wreaths of olive in their hands. A certain proi erty (3,229 pounds) was required as a qualification to be made a knight. The Plebeians, or mass of the people, were the remainder of the Roman citizens after the Patricians and Equites or knights. They were called Plebs or Populus. Those who lived in the country were Plebs rustica, and were considered the most respectable. The Plebs urbana consisted chiefly of mechanics, or poorer citizens who followed no trade, and partly maintained themselves from the largesses of corn, (fcc, distri- buted among them. § The whole body of the people was at first divided into tribes three in number, and each tribe was subdivided in ten curisc or wards. Other divisions Avere afterwards made. To the three tribes, Servuis TuUius added a fourth. Augustus afterwards divided Rome into 14 wards. Besides his addition of a fourth tribe, Servius made a division of the people into six classes, and each class into several centuries or portions of citizens, so called, because they were required to furnish, support and equip 100 men in Avar. These six classes were formed according to their property ; the first composed of the richest citizens, and the 6th, whicli Avas the most numerous, of the poorest. The centuries amounted to 193. The slaves constituted a large portion of the poptilation of Rome. Their lives Avere at the disposal of their masters. They were not oidy employed in domestic services, but in various trades and manufactures. They Avcre sometimcf? highly educated, and instructed in the liberal arts and profes- sions, as that of physic. § They Avere considered as mere property, and publicly sold in a market-place — often chained by the leg. If capitally convicted, their punishment Avas crucifixion. During the Saturnalia, or Feast of Saturn, slaA'es Avere alloAved great freedom, and masters at that time AA'ould Avait upon them at table ; the same license Avas i^ermitted on the Ides of August. Slaves might be set free by various forms of law. Slaves thus emancipated had the names of Liberti and Libertini. Their children were not equally honourable Avith other citizens ; but their grand- 200 GENERAL VIEWS. cliildren were reckoned Ingenui, or in every respect on an equality witli them. With a view to connect together the different orders, it waa provided by Roniukis, that each plebeian should choose a pa- trician to be h-is patron, whose chent the plebeian was called. § The patron was to protect his client, to give him his advice and forward his interest. The chent was to be ready to assist his patron on all occasions. In elections, the clients exerted themselves on be- half of their patrons. The Romans had usually three names, the Preenomen, Nomen, and Cognomen, as in Piiblius Cornelius Scipio. § Publins is the name of the individual, to distinguish him from another of the same family, as Cains Lucius, &c. Cornelius shows that he was of a certain family, the gens Cornelia ; and Scipio, that he was of a division of the family, the Scipios being one out of many, into which the whole stock of the gens Cornelia was divided. The Roman citizens were not merely the inhabitants of Rome and its environs, but the freedom of the city was granted to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to foreign cities and tov\'ns in the empire, whose inhabitants, by this means, en- joyed the same rights as the Romans. The power of the people in Rome was expressed in their public assemblies. The name given to these assemblies, in their transactions, was Comitia. The Comitia were summoned by some magistrate, to pass laws, to elect magistrates, to de- cide conceining peace and war, and to try persons guilty of certain heinous offences. § There were three kinds of Comitia, the Curiata, the Centurlata, and the Tributa. The Comitia Curiata consisted of an assembly of the resident Roman citizens, who were divided into thirty curiae, a majority of which decided all matters of importance that were laid before them. The Comitia Centuriata were the principal assembly of the peo- ple. They elected Consuls, Preetors, Censors, and sometimes a Pro- consul, also the Decemviri, the military Tribunes, and a priest call- ed Rex Sacrorum. They gave their votes, divided into the centuries of their classes, according to the census. The place of their meet- ing was the Campus Martins, and all Roman citizens, though residing in the country, as well as city, had a right to act, in their several centuries. The Comitia Tributa were an assembly of tlie people in which they voted, as they were separated into tribes, according to their wards. At these comitia were created subordinate magistrates, fis iEdiles, Tribunes of the people, Quasstors, &C. The laws, called Plebiscita, were passed at these assemblies. Persons who souglit olFices and preferment were called candldati, ROMANS. 201 from a white garment which they wore. They canvassed the people and solicited their votes. After the time of Augustus, the comitia fall into disuse. The for- malities were observed, but these were soon after dropped, and the annual magistrates were either chosen by the senate or nominated by the emperors. Tlie Roman magistrates were elective, and divided into ordinary, extraordinary, and provincial. The ordinary magis- trates, who were stated, and always in the republic, were the consuls, censors, tribunes, aediles, and quaestors. The extra- ordinary, who were temporary magistrates, were the dictator, the deceinvirs, the military tribunes, and the interrex. The provincial magistrates, who were appointed to the government of the provinces, were at first praitors, afterwards pro-consuls and pro-pra.'tors, to whom were joined quaestors and lieu- tenants. § Consuls, after the banishment of the kings, were put in the room of the latter, to perform the duties of royalty. They were two in number, and hel ' tlieir office for one year. At first they had nearly the same badges of authority, except the crown. The eligible age to be made consul was forty-three, but extraordinary circumstances might justify an earlier age. The Tribunes of the people were officers whose duty it was to guard and protect the plebeians in their rights, when the patricians became oppressive. Their power was contracted at first, but at length became very great. Unprincipled men in this office often converted the public assemblies into scenes of violence and blood. The censors were appointed to take an account of the number and fortunes of the people. Their power at first was limited, but after- wards, became so great, that it w'as deemed the most honourable office in the state. There were two censors elected every five years, and they continued in office only one year and a half. The Praetors, whose rank was next to that of the consuls, and whose place when vacant they supplied, were appointed to adminis- ter justice and convoke assemblies of the senate and people. They also presided at certain public games. There was at first but one praetor, but afterwards several. The Pro-consuls and Pro-praetors usually governed the provinces of the empire. To them were joined quaestors and lifniteaants. They had the highest rank within their province. Tiie power of the pro- consuls and pro-praitors was much the same, the former being sent to the larger provinces. The iEdiles were so named from their having a particular care of the aedes or buildings, as the temples, baths, aqueducts, theatres, &c. They were distinguished into C'urule and Plebeian aediles. The curule aediles superintended the ])ublic games, and occupied a more honourable place in the senate than the plebeian aediles, who w^ere assistants to the tribunes. 202 GENERAL VIEWS The Quaestors were appointed for the manageme'it of the public revenues. At first they were two in numlier, but afterwards, as the empire extended, they amounted to many. Two of them, the city quaestors, remained at Rome, and tlie rest, who were military and proviunial quaestors, accompanied tlie army and provided for the payment of the soldiers, or attended the consuls or praetors into their provinces, and regulated the tribute. The Dictators were magistrates, with absolute power, appointed on extraordinary occasions, or in cases of imminent danger. The terra of their office was six months. Their power w.is supreme in peace and war. They could raise and disband armies, and decide matters, without consulting the senate and people. The consuls submitted to their commands. As a check to their power, they were liable to be called to an account for the abuse of it, after it was resigned. The Decemviri were ten men appointed, on particular occasions, to collect and promulgate laws, &c. They were chosen for one year, but had interest s-.ifficient to be reappointed for another. They pro- posed the laws (.•; the twelve tables. The Military Tribunes had consular power in public affairs; they mediated between the patricians and plebeians, at a time when they could not agree in the election of consuls. An interrex was appointed to hold the elections at Rome, when the consuls or dictatoro were absent. 64. Religion,. The gods of the Romans were nearly the saiiie as those of Greece. The priests of their rehgion did not form a distinct order of the state ; but were selected from the most honourable citizens for that oflice. They were of two kinds — those that were common to all the gods ; and those that were appointed to some one divinity in particular. Of the former, the principal were the pontifices, the au- gures, the haru;- pices, the quindecem-viri, and septem-viri. These were all subordinate to the pontifex maximus, or high priest. ■5 The pontifices were judges in sacred things, and prescribed what was to be done in cases where there was no law. The pontifex maxi- mus was the supreme arbiter. The pontifices were 15 in number. Tl-.e augures, who were the same in number, were expected to pre- dict future events, and to determine whether any action would be fortunate or not. They divined in various ways.— among others by the flight, cliirping, or feeding of birds. They had great authori- ty in the state, as notliing important in peace or war could be deter- iniiied Avithout them. The haruspices were required to inspect the beasts offered In sacri- fice, and by them to obtain omens with respect to the future. The quindecem-viri were 15 officers who kei)t the sibylline books, in which was written tlie future history of Rome. I'hese were said to have been procured from a woman of extraordinary appeajrance io ROMANS. 203 the time of Tarquin the Proud, and were kept in a stone chest nndc the Capitol. The quindeceni-viri consulted these books in times of great calamity, to provide what should be done, and thus the popular fear was assuaged. The septem-viri were seven priests who presided at sacred feasts, games, or processions. As an iiistauce of tlie kind of priests that were appropria- ted to particular deities, we may mention the Vestal Virgins. These were consecrated to the worship of Vesta. § The Vestal Virgins guarded perpetually the sacred fire of Vesta. They were obliged to observe strict chastity on pain of death. For ten years they learned the sacred rites, for ten years they performed them, and other ten years they spent in teaching others ; and after that they might marry, if they could. 65. MUitarij Affairs. The Romans weie a nation of soldiers, and all their institutions had a tendency towards the encouragement of a military spirit. It was l)y discipline, skill, and valour, that they conquered the world. It was the duty of every citizen to be a soldier, should hia country call for his services, from the age of 17 to 46. Those afiected by disease, or exercising public functions, were exempted. For 350 years from the building of R»ome, no pay was allowed to those who served in the arm3^ § No man could be appointed to any honourable magistracy, with- out having been ten years in the army. After Latium and the states of Italy were subdued or admitted into alliance, troops were raised among them in the same manner as at Rome. About the time of Marius, a very great change took place in the mode of enlisting and supporting the armies. The infantry after that time, consisted of the poorer citizens, and mercenary soldiers from every part of Italy. The cavalry no longer consisted of Roman knights, but of horsemen, raised in Italy and in the provinces, serving for hire. The Roman legion was a correct display of military ar- rangement and discipline. Each legion, when full, contained 6000 men di\ ided into 10 cohorts or battalions, with other Bubdivisions. Each legion had a wing of 300 liorse attached. It is to be noticed, however, that the numbers of the legion varied at different periods, from 3000 to 10,000 and 11,000. The dependence of the Romans was on the strength of their infantry. § Tlieir defensive arms consisted of a helmet, a shield four feet long and two broad, a coat of mail, and greaves for the thighs. Their weapons of assault were two long javelins or pila, and a sword. 204 GENERAL VIEWS. The pilum was a long heavy spear, and a terrible weapon in the hand of a Roman. No defensive armour or covering could resist itg force, when propelled so as to reach its object. Its length was about six feet, and its head consisted of a triangular point of steel 18 inches long. The distance from which it was commonly thrown, varied from ten to six yards. When the pila were discharged, the Roman soldiers rushed upon the enemy with their swords. The Roman sword was a short two-edged blade of fine temper, adapted to the purpose of striking or thrusting. The latter was deem- ed the most efficacious. The legions were usually drawn up in three lines. The first was called hastati, and consisted chiefly of young men. The second line was called principes, consisting of men of middle age ; and the third line triarii, consisting of veterans of tried valour. Besides these heavy armed legionaries, there were light-armed troops, who were chiefly employed in using slings, bows and arrows, and throwing light javelins. They advanced before the rest of the army, and annoyed the enemy as much as possible. When the army approached the enemy, the light-armed troops discharged their arrows and slings, and as they drew nearer, threw their darts rapidly, and retreated through intervals between the ranks, or by the flanks, and rallied in the rear. The hastati thea threw their long javelins, and commenced an attack with their swords. WTien repulsed or fatigued, they retired leisurely into the ranks ol the principes, or behind them, if necessary. The triarii were a body in reserve. If unable to drive back the enemy, a retreat was all that could be hoped for. In besieging a town, the method of the Romans, and in- deed of all ancient nation.s, differed much from that of ent. These accordingly were made commanding objects of pursuit with the Roman youth. Eloquence was taught as a science at public schools. From the care which the Romans bestowed upon the education of ROMANS. 209 their youth, both male and female, arose the large number of great men and eniin(?nt women wliich Rome has produced, and the vir- tues* witli wliicli tiiey were adorned, during the brilliant era of the republic. Happj', could their liistory be closed at that epoch ; but the tide of luxury at'icrwards swept away the most valuable of their in- stitutions. 70. Literature. Previously to their imercouise witli Greece, the Romans, though a sensible and energetic, were a rude and illiterate people. Their language for a long tim was in a very imperfect state. The very i^v; fragments of sentences which have come down to us from an early peiiod,_ such as are found in the " Fratres Arvales," and " Leges Re- giie," show a great dilference between the language tlien in use, and that which was employed during the age of Au- gustus. After successive improvements, the Romans became re- nowned in literature during the last named period. The mas- ter-pieces of Greece, kindled the fire of emulation. Roman literature, in the Augustan era, was inferior to that of the Greeks, only because it was necessarily less original and more imitative than theirs. In some respects the Romans improved upon their models. Poetry, histor}^, oratory, philosophy, and the various kinds of fine writing, were cultivated with great success. § The dawning of Roman literature appeared in the writings of Livius Andronicus, Plantirs, Ennius, Ca;cilius, and Terence. Tliesc writers improved and polished the language, partly by original com- positions, and partly by translations from the Greek. Poetry among the Romans, as with most other nations, appears to have been the earliest intellectual eflbrt. Of this we have an instance in the Fescennine verses, mentioned by liivy, which are ;iupposed to have been a rude poetical dia- logue. This doubtless proved to be the germ of the stage. Other species of poetry naturally followed. § The names that adorned the Roman drama were Livius Andro- nicus ; Ennius, wiio more especially improved it ; Plautus, who wrote with strengUi and spirit ; Cajcilius, who is reckoned the best of the Roman dramatists ; Terence, who excels in simplicity and pu- rity ; Accius, and Pacuvius, who though rough in style shewed strength of genius. All these except the two last were comic wri- ters. The lyric poetry of the Romans owns the names of Catullus, the earliest in this kind of poetry ; and Horace, the greatest among the Romans, if not of antiquity, though he is highly to be censured on account of his occasional iudeiicacy. 132 210 m.Nr.iiAr, Vikw«. Ill clcpinc poolry, Propcrtins, niid 'ribiillns poiirod tlioir londorand «'I»i|.^nnl flrniiis, iinil Ovid iitlcrcd the lnii<:;ii!iL;(' of nnliirn mid paHsion. The Ivv'ii Inst cspcciidly olTcml uii llu' bcdic of iiiDiids. Of siiliric pnclry, l.iicilliiis is snid to hr the inventor : Iforncc nlso oxeelled in tins species of poetic composition. Sonw; otlii-r iianios lunont^ tlie Konians, in(; dislni^nislied iis siiln'ists, imt tlicy belong to H siilisetpient eni. In dnluelie poetry, I.iicretins is a t^reiit name; imd of ei^ic poetry Viryil IS prmce amoni; tlie Komiins. Homer amitn;,' tlie (Jreeks, and Virt;d anion;.^ tlie Homims, have come(h)\vn tons with almost ccpial renown. History \vii« ciihivated hy llieKoiH.iiis with miiili succcpH, |vnliciiliiily diiiiiif; llio AugiiHlan njje. § Tlie most eminent of their historians wen; Salhist, who exrelh'd in the |)hiloso|)|iy of lustory ; ("n'sar, w lio wrote with |)nri1y and siiii- plieity ; l>nt especially l,iv\-, whose jiid/Miient, ])eis|)iciiity, copious- 1H<9!I, and eliH|iience, place juiii at the head ol Ikomaii historical wri- ten?. Ointnry was u IbvonriU^ study nt. I'onie, ;i.^ it led to the liighent lioiKHirsof llic stivte. The iimsi distiiii;iiishcd sctm- toiH nie Hiiid to hiivo oxorciscd their l,'ileiils in puhhc spoalc- ijig', ill Ixdiidfor iho poor luid o|)|)ressed. The chjiraclerislics ol Kiuiiaii elo(pieiiee wen; seriousness, copitmsue.ss, and ma- jesty. § ,T. (~?ii'sar, Ilortensins, and parliciilarly Cicero, di^tinmiished lliem- Belves as pnhiie speaker.s. Of Ca'sar il is said that " lie spoke with tlie same force with wliicli lie foimlit." Iloilcnsius was eclipsed only by Cicero. And Cicero is the rival of Demosthenes in fame. iMiiloso|iliy iimde its (irsi appearance at Woine, in (he in- (riv.d helwceii the war with Perseus, and (hi; third l?unic. war. Il was derived rmiii (ireiviv The various isyiHteins of the (heck philosophy, had their respective part i.-Jaiis at Uoino. § A few IiMrned Acluraiis, bamshcd from their comilry, and arrivinir «l llalv, ticuerally received, as this comporicil with the national ctiaracler. Anion); (lie lioiiian sto- icM, were Scipio, l,;vlius, inul iheyouuLicr (^a(o. 'I'he philosophy of Aristotle was little known in i{oiiii' till the time of Cicero. Cralippus and 'ryranuiou then taujViit his system with great repu(a(ioii. The Old ami New Acadcmv had each its advocates luid discijiles Marcus llnitiis, mid Terentius VaiTO, were oruameiits of the fornicr- Of till) New Academy, Cicero iiiusl be ouusidcrcd as llic i>riucipnl KOMi\NS. 211 pupporler, though his design seems to have been rather to ilhisfrate the (ircek pliilf)S(iphy in general. He was the greatest of theKonian pliilosoplic Ts, if not on the wliole the greatest man of all antiiiiiity. Witii the indoduction of hixurj^, the philosophy of Epicnrns be- came fasliionable. The poet Horace was a devotee to this system, as also Lucrctins, and many others, who very liberally indulged their appetites, and tanght otiiers to indulge them. Pliysics, or luituial pliilosopliy, seems to have been little cultivated by the Romans or by the Greeks before tiieni. ^'arro is the only name conspicuous in this department, in the annals of antiquity. In some instances, splendid libraries were attached to the {galleries of some afllucnt ])atricians, who patronized learning. These libraries were open to the inspection of the learned and curious, and contributed greatly to the advancement of know- ledge at I?omc. § Among these, the library of Lucullus was remarkable, not only for the number and variety of the books, and specimens of art, but for the liberal use to whicli it was devoted. 71, Arts. The Romans are not to be compared with the Greeks, as to native taste and inventive genius, as the fine arts are concerned. They admired and imitated the master- [)ieces of Greece. But in execution, for the most part, they fell Kliort of their models. By help derived from Grecian genius, ihey have, however, left many wonderful specimens in the arts, particularly in architcctiue. § Tlieir conquest of Greece secured to them as spoils the noble productions of Greece in painting and statuary. With these the wealthy Roman citizens adorned the city, its temples, and porticoes, and their own private dwellings. The names of few Koman artists occur. Vitruvius wrote the only hook on architecture that is now extant. He shews that lie was a master of his ])rofession. In great and magnificent works, Rome haa jnanifested her unbounded wealth and luxiu-y. Jn the mechanic arts some inventions occur, and a degree of perfection was attained among the Romans of ancient his- tory. These however have been greatly extended and im proved in more recent ages; and many comforts which Ave enjoy, derived from a knowledge of mechanism, were un- known to tliis people. § Such conveniences as glass windows and chimneys in houses, not to mention many others, the Romans did not possess : though their ingenuity su[)|)lied the want, in part, by various expedients. 72. Dniin'slic Life ami Alnnncrs. The houses and furni- lure of the early Romans were entirely plain in their con- 212 GENERAL VIEWS. slmction. When luxury commenced in Rome, this plainness was laid aside, and the decorations of art were assumed in a degree. At this latter period, and before luxury reached its utmost bounds, each house contained one spacious hall, in which the family assembled, and which served all the pur- poses of society. § Towards the close of the repiibUc, however, various apartments were constructed for the reception and entertainment of company, and in the time of the emperors, their embeUishment was carried to the highest point of perfection. The eating rooms were remarkable for their grandeur. The tables were originally made of ordinary wood, square, and on four feet ; but the form was afterwards changed to circular, or oval, supported on a single carved pedestal, and they were richly inlaid with ivory, gold, or silver, sometimes with the addition of precious stones. We read of a single table formed of a kind of wood, called citron wood, with which we are unacquainted, that cost upwards of eight thousand pounds sterling. A canopy was suspended over the table, to guard it, as it is said, from dirt of the ceiling. This, however it may have added to the decoration of the apartments, does not convey a very favourable idea of the cleanliness of the Romans. Originally, the Roman villa was nothing r.iore tlian a farm-house of a very humble description ; but at length the word lost its original signification, and was used to denote the abode of luxury and opu- lence. We have fortunately a complete and beautiful description of one, and that his own, in the works of Pliny the younger. They were very numerous about Rome, and very magnificent. The meals of the earlier Romans were very simple and frugal. The articles of food, and the furniture of tlie table, were coarse. But afterwards they became costly and luxuri- ous to the highest degree. The epicurism of the later Romans was enormous. At first they sat npright on benches, but at last adopted the habit of reposing on couches. Their principal meal was their supper, taken a little before four o'clock, P. M. Their breakfast was not a regular meal ; it was taken by each one separately and without order ; and their dinner was a very slight repast. Their supper was their last regular meal, lliough it was sometimes followed by a collation, called com- missatio. §The diet of the earlier Romans consisted of milk and vegetables, with a coarse kind of pudding which served in the room of bread. They rarely indulged in meat, and wine was almost unknown to them. Thoy banished epicures from among them. The change which took place in the latter days of the republic, ROMANS. 213 and in the beginning of the empire, was very striking. Notwithstand- ing sumptuary bnA s, epicurism advanced willi great rapidity, till finally it reached such a height, that viands were esteemed only m proportion to their cost. Thus, Maltese cranes, peacocks, and rare singing birds, although hardly eatable, were esteemed great delicacies, and their tongues and brains still greater ; oysters from the coast of Britain were more prized than their own, though the former would never have been eaten fresh ; and we are told of a singular sur-muUet, which had reached a size somewhat larger than common, having been sold for a sum equivalent to fifty guineas. The Romans used wine of the most costly kinds at their feasts. The age of it was often very great. We read of some that was 200 years old. The Grecian wines wei-e in greater estimation than even llie Italian. They used also mead, metheglin, and other fermented liijuors. Such was their depravity, they contrived that even water sliould contribute to inebriate them. Gluttony was indulged to such a disgusting excess, that emetics were used to enable the stomach, already gorged with a full meal, to bear a further load. This doubtless was not a universal practice, neither, however, was it confined to a few individual instances. The services of the tables were at first only of earthen-ware, or wood. The use of plate was then almost unknown. At a later peri- od plate became so general, that it was as common, as it had been previously rare, and in the time of the emperors, it was frequently of gold. The couches on which they lay down at supper were somewhat similar to the modern sofa. The ladies at first did not adopt this practice, and the indulgence was never extended to young people of either sex. Each couch could accommodate three or four, but seldom five persons, who laid in a reclining postm'e, on the left arm, having the shoulders elevated with cushions, and the limbs extended be- hind whoever was next ; so that the liead of tlie one was opposite to the breast of the other, and in serving themselves, they made use only of the right hand. I'here were m;uiy olhei' singular customs observed at their suppers, which we have not time to enumerate. Daily Bathino; was practised by the Roman people, both m warm and cold water. Vast quantities of water were brought to Rome, for this and other purposes, by means of a(iiieducts. These atiueducts were magnificent works, as also the baths both public and private which were erected. § The use of linen, which was unknown to the Romans, has ren- dered this practice for a long time obsolete in Italy ; but in the times of whicli we speak, it was ne(;essary for the purposes of cleanliness as well as luxury. The remains of some of the baths, are the most astonishing works of Roman grandeur and magnificence. Bathing commenced witli warm and ended with cold water. On 214 GENERAL VIEWS. leaving the bath the people were anointed with scented oils, and went immediately to supper. The Dress of the Romans consisted chiefly of the toga and the tunica. The toga or gown worn by the citizens only, was loose and flowing, and covered the whole body : it was made of wool, had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful folds, with a view to improve the appearance of the wearer. The toga virilis, or manly gown, was assumed by young men at the age of seventeen. The tunica or tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came down a httle below the knees before, and to the middle of the leg behind, and was fastened about the waist by a girdle, which also served as a purse. § Women wore a tunic as well as the men, but witli this difference, at first, that it reached down to the feet of the women, and had sleeves. Afterwards the men wore the tunic in the same manner. Hats and Caps, though known, were worn only on journeys or at the public games. In the city they usually went bare headed, or co- vered themselves with the corner of the toga. Ladies of distinction had many waiting maids, who were appro- priated to particular services ; and the duties of the toilet, though not perhaps so well understood as in modern times, were as assiduously attended to. Jewels, bracelets, rings, and various expensive ornaments, were worn in great profusion. The convenience of pins was not known, nor were glass mirrors, though there were substitutes for them. Pure woven silk and linen were little known and used till the time of the emperors, and not at all known during nearly the Avhole peri- od of the republic. Marriage was an institution higlily countenanced among the Romans. Severe laws were at times enacted to restrain cehbacy, though neve'r with much eflect. Fathers of large families were particularly respected. Marriages with foreign- ers were strictly forbidden. The vahdity of the transaction depended on the legal age of the parties, and the consent of parents. § Boys were considered marriageable at fourteen ; girls at twelve. A marriage was never solemnized witliout consulting the auspices, and offering sacrifices to the gods ; particularly to Juno ; and the ani- mals immolated on the occasion, were deprived of their gall, in allu- sion to the absence of every thing bitter and malignant in the pro- posed union. Tlie mode of marriage and tlie jnultitude of ceremo- nies attending it cannot here be described. Marriage, among tlie Romans, was not indissoluble. A husband might repudiate bis wife; for several reasons, besides that of having violated her conjugal faith. But to the honour of the Romans, more ROMANS. 215 than four cerUuries elapsed without any suit among tliem for divorce, or complaint of adultery. Afterwards divorces became very frequent, and for the most frivolous causes. Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the power of life and death over tlicir children. Exposure of infants was at lirst some- what frequent, but at length nearly ceased. The adoption of children by married persons who were childless was very common, on ac- count of the i)rivileges connected with having children, whether by issue or adoption. The funeral rites of the Romans were solemn and impres- sive. During tlie greater part of the commonwealth, the dead body was buried. Towards the close, the practice of burning the dead was generally introduced, till it became universal. After the introduction of Christianity into the empire, it fell into disuse. § It was a received opinion among the ancients, that the manes of the deceased were propitiated by blood. It was on this account their custom to slaughter, on the tomb of the deceased, those animals to which, while he was living, he was most attached ; and in the more barbarous ages, men were the victims of this horrid superstition. " Arms, trappings, horses, by the hearse were led In long array — the achievements oflhe dead. Then piniun'd, with their hands behind, appear The unhappy captives, marching in the rear, Appointed ollerings in the victor's name, To sprinkle with their blood, the funeral flame." Dryden's Virgil. Many of the Roman sepulchres still exist in the gardens of their villas or by the public roads, (for inhumation was not allowed with- in the walls,) with their various monumental inscriptions. 722 Foreign Commerce. The foreign commerce of the Romans appears very unimportant, compared with the exten- pive mercantile transactions of oiu" own times. Their trade, if we except the corn received on accotmt of government from Sicily and the Levant, consisted of little else, than articles of mere luxury. Their purchases were made in bullion, as they had no exportal)le mantifactures of their own. This circum- stance necessarily restricted their commercial dealings. § They traded, it is true, not only to the ports of the Mediterrane- an, but to the East Indies, and occasionally even to England ; but the interests of commerce were little understood, and less a[)preciated. Traffic was dishonourable, and they who engaged in it were held in contempt. The consequence was, that it was relinquished to slaves and freemen, who teldom possessed the means to conduct it on an extensive scale. Their merchant ships were large, if they reached the burthen of fifty tons. 216 GENERAL VIEWS. Syria. 73. Situation and Cities. Syria lay on the east coast of the Mecliteiranean below Cilicia. The coast was called Phoenicia, and below it was Palestine. On the south it had Arabia and the Euphrates. Its towns and noticeable places were Antioch, Daphne, Seleucia, Damascus, Heliopolis. and Palmyra, or Tadmor. Antiocli at one time, was inferior only to Rome and Alexandria in greatness and population. It is now almost depopulated, though its strong Avails on both sides of the Orontes, remain. Daphne was a place consecrated to luxury, and enchanting from its cool fountains and shady groves of laurel, cypress, &c. Milton compares the garden of Eden to it — — " Nor that sweet grove "Of Daphne by Orontes." — Seleucia was on the sea near the mouth of the Orontes. — The bard again speaks of " The roj'al towers Of great Seleucia, built by Grecian kings." Damascus was the capital of the Phoenicia of Libanus. Its fertile and irriguous valley has ever been famous among the orientals. Heliopolis, under the name of Baalbeck, has the remains of a mag- nificent temple dedicated to the sun. The Avhole edifice, and parti- cularly the roof, glittered with gold. Palmyra gave the name of Palmyrene to a vast plain, which was united to the desert of Arabia. The bibJe and Joseiihus inform us it was founded by Solomon. It maintained a great commerce between two divisions of the ancient hemisphere. The remains of lofty edi- fices manifest its former magnificence, and attract the curious and astonished traveller. 74. Character of the ancient Syrians. The ancient Syrians were miserable idolaters. An instance of their worship is thus described by the poet before named. ' Tammuz came next behind, Whose annual wound in Lebanon allur'd The Syrian damsels to lament his fate. In am'rous ditties all a summer's day : While smooth Adonis from his native rock Ran purple to the sea, sui)posed with blood Of Tammuz yearly wounded." They were also somewhat of an efTeminate race, and re ■ markable for hidinir themselves from the sun, in caves, on the decease of their relatives. 75. Language. The Syrian language became a distinct tongue, so early as the time of Jacob. It was spoken not only in Syria, but also in Mesopotamia, Chaldeea, and Assy- PERSIA. 217 rla. After the Babylonish captivity, it was introduced into Palestine. § The Syriac is an easy and elegant, though not a very copious tongue. It abounds in many Greek words. Carthage. 7G. Extent. Carthage has been briefly described in tlie body of this work. It may only be stated here that with its ports, it comprehended an enclosure of 23 miles. It had a cita del named Byrsa, on an eminence. § Its military prowess was at its height, under Hamilcar and Hanni- bal. The city was destroyed by the second Scipio, B. C. 147. It then burned incessantly during 17 days. It was rebuilt by Roman colonies. Its decay may be traced from the seventh century, when It fell into the hands of the Saracens. 77. Government and Character of the People. The Carthaginians were governed as a republic, and had two persons yearly chosen among them with regal authority. They were very superstitious as a people, and generally offered human victims to their gods. They also bore the character of being faithless and treacherous, and the proverb, Punic faith, is well known. Paj'thia. 78. Situation, cf*c. Parthia had Hyrcania on the north ; Aria on the east ; Carmania on the south ; and Media on the west. It was a healthy country, but sterile. The people were governed l)y an absolute monarch. § The ancient Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who being expelled from their native land, took up their abode in this part of 'Asia. They were a strong and warlike people, and accustomed from their infancy to the exercises of horsemanship and archery. The peculiar custom of discharging their arrows while they were retiring full speed, has been greatly celebrated by the ancients. Their flight was more formida'ole than their attack. They totally neglected agriculture, trade and navigation, and their morals were dreadfully depraved. Their religious principles were much the same as those of the Persians. Their sovereigns affected to be gods. Persia. 79. Ext 672 1 and Situation. Ancient Persia extended about 2800 miles in length from the Hellespont to the mouth of the river Indus ; and about 2000 miles in breadth, from Pontus to the mouth of the Arabian gulf 80. Govei-nment. The government of Persia was an ab- T 218 GENERAL VIEWS. solute monarchy. The crown was hereditary, and generally bestowed on the eldest of the deceased king's legitimate chil- dren. § The kings of Persia received almost divine honours from their 6 objects. No one could approach the seat of majesty without pros- trating himself, or remain in the presence, without holding his hands within his sleeves. Death was the consequence of violating this ceremony. Herodotus mentions that Xerxes being once in great danger by sea, many of his attendants sti-ove who should first leap overboard to lighten the vessel, and sacrifice themselves for the preservation of their prince. The royal palace at Persepolis was extremely magnificent. Tlie roofs and sides of the apartments were entirely covered with ivory, silver, gold, or amber. The throne was of fine gold and adorned with precious stones. The royal bed was also of gold, and two cof- fers were placed by it, both containing 8,000 talents. The Persian monarchs, for the most part, lived only to gratify their sensual appetites. All the delicacies and rarities of the world were sought for tlieir table. Cicero informs us, that the revenues of whole provinces were lavished on the attire of their favorite concubines, one city being compelled to supply them with ornaments for their hair, another for their necks, &c. 81. Education. The Persians are said to have paid more particular regard to the education of their children, than any other nation. A son was nevei' admitted into the pre- sence of his father, till he had arrived at the age of five years, lest, if he should die before that period, his parents might be too heavily afflicted by his loss. § At the age of five, learned masters taught the children of the better families, in learning and moral virtues, taking with them the utmost pains, and bestowing upon them the greatest care. 82. Punis/wieiits. The punishments in general were se- vere, as cutting off the right hand, decapitation, pressing to death between two large stones, &.c. § The most severe punishment known in Persia, was the inhuinan one of fastening the culprit between two boats, in such a manner that he was unable to move, though his head, hands and feet were left imcovered. His face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to torment him, while the worms that bred in his excrements devoured his bowels ; and the executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp iron instrument into his eyes, to receive nourirfluuent for the express purpose of prolonging his excruciating agonies. One victim is r&> corded to have lived 17 days under this complication of torments. 83. Military Art. The Persians were all trained to mili- tary exercise, but more particularly to the use of the bow. MYTHOLOGY. 211^ Tliey never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem in- dependent of their own valour. § When they designed to make war upon any nation, they had tlie singular custom of sending heralds to demand of them earth and water, thereby commanding them to acknowledge the king of Persia, as sovereign lord of their country. 84. Rclig-ion. Their religion was in a degree idolatrous, though less so than that of the nations around them. They professed to worship the one all-wise and omnipotent God though they held fire to he holy, and the purest symbol of the divine nature. In connexion with this, they had a super- stitious regard of the sun. They honoured also other elements, as the earth, the air, and water. § The Persians are supposed to have been originally instructed in the worship of the true God by llieir progenitor Elam, but soon to have fallen into the heresy of Zabiisni. Fi'om this they are thought to have been recovered, and to have afterwards engaged in superstitious acts of reverence to the celestial bodies. In ancient times, they were destitute of temples, but erected altars for the preservation of their sacred fires, on the tops of mountains. At length Zoroaster persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over each, a pyreum or fire-temple. This Zoroaster is sup- posed by some to have been a native of Persia, and a restorer of the religion of the Masi. MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 1. All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were heathens and idolaters. Their system of religion was called Polytheism, as acknowledging a plurality of gods. They worshipped divinities by various representations, called idols. Forsaking the service of the only living and true God, as made known at first by traditionary, and afterwards by wa"itten revelation, they paid that homage which is due to him, to those that are by nature no God. 2. Besides angels, as presiding over paiticular kingdoms, — the heavenly bodies, men, beasts, birds, fishcvS, virtues, vices, diseases, and evil demons, were esteemed deities, and had tem- ples built for their worship. Among the Egyptians, tlie principal deities were Osiris and Isis, supposed to be tlie sun and moon. The people however liestowed divine honours on animals, birds, insects, and even vegetables, as Iceka and onions. The poet Juvenal intimates that their religious exercises were not greatly esteemed l)y the Romans. In fact, they exceeded all tlie other ancients m tliese absurdities, and were extremely de- based by their vile superstitions. 220 GENERAL VIEWS. The Babylonians and Arabians adored the heavenly bodies. They supposed that the angels resided in the stars, and governed the world under the supreme deity. Among the later Babylonians, Belus be- came their Jupiter, to whom a magnificent temple was erected in Babylon. The Canaanites and Syrians worshipped Baal, Tammuz, Magog, and Astarte. Moloch was the Saturn of the Phcpnicians and Car- thaginians. To him, human victims, particularly children, were im- molated. Baal-peor was the idol of the IMoabites — his rights were detestable and cruel. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistines ; his figure was compounded of a man and a fish. In the mythology of the Scythians, the god of war was their favourite divinitj^, and to him were consecrated groves of oaks of extraordinary size. Horses were sacrificed, and every hundredth man taken in battle. In the mythology of the Celts, the Druids had the direction of theo- logical concerns. Their rites were performed in groves, and they paid superstitious reverence to the misletoe. Human victims were often offered; colossal images of wicker-work, filled with human criminals, were consumed by fire. The Persians in their religion rejected, for the most part, the com- plicated popular system of polytheism. They believed in one su- preme God who formed and governed all things. They, however, preserved the sacred fire, as it was called, which was kindled by con secrated sun-beams. Their rites at first were plain and simple, and their priests were called magi. These tenets of their primitive reli- gion gradually degenerated into Zabiism, or the adoration of celestial bodies. The mythology of the ancient Hindoos resembles, in some of its features, that of the Egyptians, Persians, and Scythians. It is a strange mixture of a few truths with many Avild fables. It divides the world into ten parts, setting over each a guardian spirit. The deity Brahma is made the creating power, Vishnu is the preserver and pervader, and Narayda, the mover on the waters. 3. The multitude of gods as an object of faith, is preposter- ous and wicked ; but the elegant forms and agreeable fictions that mythology furnishes, are admirably adapted to the pur- poses of poetry, statuary, and painting. The imagination revels in a region fairy and enchanting. § The theology of Pagan antiquity, according to Scscvola and Var- ro, was of three sorts. The first of these may well he called fabulous, as treating of the theology and genealogy of their deities, in Avhich they relate sucli things as are infinitely unworthy of tlie divinity, ascribing to them, thefts, murders, adulteries, and all manner of crimes. This kind of theology is condemned by the Aviser sort of heathens as trifling and scandalous. The writers of this sort of theology were Sanchoniathon the Phoenician; and Orpheus, Hesiud, Pherecydes, &c., amojig the Greeks. MYTHOLOGY. 221 Tlie second kind called physic or natural, was studied and taught by tlie pliilosopluTS, who rejecting tlie multiplicity of gods introduced by the poets, brought their tlieology to a more natural and rational form. Tiiey siijtposed that there was but one supreme God, which thej'' connnonly make to be the sun, at least an emblem of him ; but at too great a distance to mind the affairs of the world, and therefore devised certain demons, which tliey considered as mediators between the supreme God and man. The speculations of the philosophers related to the doctrines of these demons, to tlieir nature, tlieir office, and regard to men. Writers o. tliis class were Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics. The third kind of tlieology called politic or civil, was instituted by legislators, statesmen, and politicians. Tlie first among the Romans was Nmna Pompilius. This part of the Pagan system chiefly re- spected their gods, temples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship, and was properly their idolatrj', the care of which belonged to the priests. The wiiole was enjoined on the common people, to keep them in obedience to tlie civil state. 4. In liie fictions of niytliology, particularly those of Greece and Rome, many things are allegorical and mystical, the true sense of which, though not accommodated to the vul- gar apprehension, the refmccl and liberal may explain. This suggests one use to be derived from the study of the Pagan sys- tems of religion. We learn tlie religious views of antiquity. Another use of it is, tiiat tlie classic authors cannot be read WMth advantage without a knowledge of mythology ; and the classic authors, it is not to be doubted, are the best models of fine writing extant, and are necessary to improve the taste. Connected with this also is the fact, that a know ledge of mythology can alone enable us to understand and be- come acquainted with anti(iue statues, medals, paintings, &c. § The gods of ancient paganism were some mundane, and others supermundane. The mundane are tliose who were supposed to fab- ricate the world, and the supermundane are those who produce essences, intellects, and souls. Hence they are distinguished into three orders. Of the mundane gods likewise, some are tlie causes of the existence of tlie world ; others animate it ; others again harmo- nize it, thus composed of different natures; and lastly, others guard and preserve it when harmoniously arranged. Since also these orders are four, and each consists of tilings first, middle, and last, it is necessary tliat the governors of these should be twelve. Hence Jupiter, Neptune and Vulcan fabricate the world. Ce- res, Juno and Diana animate it; Mercury, Venus and Apollo harmo- nize it ; and lastly, Vesta, Minerva and Mars preside over it with a puardian power. But the truth of this may be seen in statues as in enigmas. For Apollo in marble holds in his liands a lyre j Minerva is invested wiUi 222 GENERAL VIEWS. arms; and Venus is naked, since harmony produces beauty and beauty is not concealed in subjects of sensible perception. As these gods primarily possess the world, it is necessary to con- sider the other mundane gods as subsisting in them, as Bacchus in Jupiter, ^Esculapius in Apollo, and the Graces in Venus. We may also behold the spheres with which they are connected, viz. Vesta with the earth, Neptune with water, Juno with air, and Vulcan with fire. But Apollo and Diana are assumed for the sun and moon; the sphere of Saturn is attributed to Ceres ; ether to Minerva; and heaven IS common to them all. The above are a few instances of the real sense of the fictions of mythology. Many of the philosophers in these fictions concealed their better knowledge, often conveying lessons of wisdom under the veil of allegory. The geiuiine Pagan creed, as given by a heathen philosopher, Maximus Tyrius, is the following : " There is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him. This the Greek says, and the barbarian says, the inhabitant of the continent, and he that dwells near the sea ; and if you even proceed to the utmost shores of the ocean, there too there are gods, rising very near to some, and setting very near to others." By the rising and setting gods he means the stars, which according to the Pagan theology, are divine animals, oo-operating with the first cause in the government of the world. 5. A survey of the lieathen mythology presents httle to view but absurdity, and the various forms in which human corruption is exhibited. The people at large, whatever the philosophers understood by these " phantasms and monsters," received them as literal truths, till it became dangerous to shake the faith of communities, or disturlj the public religion. § In this state of tilings continued the gentile world, until the light of the gospel was sent among them. Those were times of ignorance. The people were unacquainted with the true God and the worship of him — with the Messiah and salvation by him. The moral world at present is gloriously illuminated. The Bible has scattered the dark shades of spiritual and intellectual night. We behold " one God and one Mediator between God and men," seated uijon the throne of the universe ; possessed of boundless wisdom, power, purity, goodness ; tlie Creator, tlie Preserver, the Ruler, and the Redeemer of his creatures ; ever present in all parts of his crea- tion, ever providing for its general happiness. DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 223 Discoveries, Inventions, and Improvements of Early Ages. Sect. 1. The little that can be gathered concerning the state of society, and the progress in inventions and improve- ments before the flood, has already been exhibited. In the account of individual nations, something also has been said concerning their intellectual culture and useful works of ait. A few particulars may be added on these topics, with a view to illustrate more fully the advancement of society in the states of antit[uity. Special reference v. ill here be had to mecha- nic inventions, respecting which, less has been said hitherto, than on the subject of the fine arts and general literature. .Sufficient evidence exists, that mankind at a remote period of an- tiquity, must have made considerable progress in the arts of Hfe. The circumstances under which Egypt is presented to us by Moses, in the book of Genesis, indicate that its inliabitants were at that time a cuhivated people. No doubt, the progress of invention in their very favourable situation was quite rapid. From them, even the Israelites, at the early period in which Moses wrote, must have learned much in respect to the useful arts. The same was tlie case with the Ba- bylonians, Phoenicians, and other nations. Still, though some arts liave been lost during the lapse of ages, antiquity cannot compare witli modern times in the necessaries, comforts, and luxuries of life. 2. At first, necessity, and afterwards convenience, urged the cultivation of the arts. The useful arts are the product of necessity. The higher branches of knowledge are the fruit of comparative ease and leisure. Among, the earliest arts, is the construction of huts, and of weapons, adapted to war and hunting. Astronomy is among the earliest of the sciences, and is said to have originated with the Chaldeans, probably, through the influence of superstition. The occupation of the Chaldeans, many of whom were shepherds, watching their flocks by night, w'as favourable for the observation of the heavenly bodies. Geometry was found out by the Egyptians. They were led to the cultivation of this science, by having occasion to measure the lands annually disturbed by the overflowing of the Nile. Medicine was among the early sciences. The simplest means of cure answer for rude nations. JMore complex means are required for cultivated nations, who have more complex diseases. 224 ANCIENT HISTORY. Agriculture is not practised till the tribes of men become stationary, and hold property in the soil. The acquirement, protection, and recognition of property, generally, is the first step from a savage towards a civilized life. The first property consisted of sheep, goats, and oxen ; and the care of these was the earliest and simplest occupation of husbandmen. In this stage of husbandry, all the country was open and com- mon to any occupier ; but as soon as any man could call a spot his own, and could secure to his family the produce of it, its cultivation w^ould be a great object. Hence, arose the art and science of agriculture, properly so called. § Agriculture flourished less in Greece than in Rome. The Romans were remarkably versed in the knowledge of this useful branch of human pursuit. Their greatest citizens and warriors were, by turns, cultivators of the soil. The Israelites before them, and the Egyp- tians also, were devoted to this employment. The moderns, however, it is believed, have made the greatest proficiency in agriculture, as they have in most of the sciences and practical arts of life. This is the natural effect of time, of prolonged study, and multiplied experi- ments. In many of the fine arts, the ancients are still our masters. Architecture was an elegant art, in which antiquity excelled. Tlie necessary and useful were all that was first sought in buildings. Luxury aimed at ornament. Hence, arose the five beautiful orders of architecture, viz. the Tuscan, the Do ric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite. The Greekb perfected this art. 3. But we may properly notice a few of the minuter divi- sions of ancient art and contrivance. Among these were the following : Enibalnibig. — The ancients had an imperfect knowledge of the mode of preserving those bodies that were subject to decay. They relied principally on brine, honey, or a covering of wax ; but each of these was defective, and far inferior to that by spiiitsof wine, which combines the advantage of pre- venting putrefaction, with that of perfect transparency. The more scientific modern process, employed in anatomical prepa- rations, was wholly imknown. The Egyptians, however, were fomoug for embalming dead bodies. § The method of preventing corruption by means of brine, was the most ancient, as it was the most apparent, and the easiest of execution. It has been supposed to have originated in Persia, and Dion Cassius says, that when Pharnaces sent tiin body of his father, Mithridates, to Pompey, he had it placed in briue j but it seems pro DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, (fec. 225 bable, thai in the East, nitre was more frequently employed for this purpose than common salt. The custom of preserving dead bodies in honey, was also employ- ed at a very early period. The remains of several Spartans, who died in foreign countries, were thus prepared for transmission to their native home. The body of Alexander the Great, is also said, by some authors, to have been thus deposited, although we are told by others, that it was embalmed in the manner of the Egyptians. In the East, dead bodies were sometimes covered over with wax, and tliis practice, which was early introduced into Europe, gave riee to that of wrapping the remains of persons of distinction in waxed cloths, which has continued down even to the present day. The Egyptian method of embalming, consisted in first extracting the brain through the nostrils, and injecting some viscous unguent in their stead ; then opening the belly, and taking out the intestines, the cavity being washed with palm wine, impregnated with spices, and filled with myrrh and other aromatics ; this done, the body was laid in nitre during seventy days, at the end of which, it was taken out, cleansed, and swathed in fine linen, which was gummed, and ornamented with various painted hieroglyphics, expressive of the de- ceased's character and rank. This was done only for persons of the highest distinction. Less expensive methods were used for others. Roads and Street Pavements. — The public accommoda- tions of the most splendid capitals of antiquity, were few in comparison with those of modern large towns. The streets of ancient Rome were only partially paved, during its most brilliant era, and are described by authors of that period as being filled with dirt. A few other cities are supposed to liave been paved, but this is a matter of doubt. Though the Greeks and Romans were indifferent to their streets, yet they paid particular attention to their great public roads. These, in some instances, were magnificent works. 'J' ravelling, however, was not generally rapid in those times. § There was no part (»f the Roman policy which so effectually pro- moted the good of mankind, or which has transmitted such exalted ideas of the imperial grandeur, as the number and magnificence of the roads. Though constructed principally for military purposes, they were of vast utility to the districts which they traversed, and proved the most efficacious means of promoting the comfort and civilization of the conquered people. Occasionally, there were in- stances of extraordinary celerity in travelling. We are informed by Pliny, that 'I'iberius travelled two hundred miles in a day and night, on being despatched by Augustus to console his sick brother, Germanicus. But the ordinary rate of travelling, even on their ex- celleni roads, was slow in comparison of wdiat it is at present. Cicero speaks of a messenger coming from Home, to his government of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, in forty-seven days : hcu tarn longe! as the orator exclaims, on finding himself so far removed from the 226 ANCIENT HISTORY. scene of his glory and exertions. To convey letters from Rome to the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, required, according to Pollio, forty days. Mode of convey'uig Intelligence. — The oldest method of communicating tlie news, with which we are acquainted, was by means of public criers. Another mode was to post up a written advertisement against a column in some public place. § Public criers among the Greeks and Romans were under the su- perintendence of the police, and were generally employed by indi- viduals, in the same manner as they still are in the country towns ol England. The mode of posting was resorted to by the Roman government, to promulgate its edicts, and even, it is supposed, for imparting more trivial information of general import. Historians appear to have collected materials from them ; nor is it improbable, that copies were taken by individuals and dispersed about the city, or sent to their friends in the provinces. Glass. — The origin of the art of making glass, like that of many other valuable inventions, is probably due to chance. It is said to have been discovered in Syria. From ancient au- thors, it is supposed not to have been made in Rome, before the reign of Tiberius. § Pliny mentions that glass was first accidentally discovered by some travellers while dressing their food by the ri\er Belus, in Syria. Being obliged to make a fire on the ground, where there was a great quantity of the herb kali, that plant burning to ashes, its salts incor- porated with the sand, and thus became vitrified. The accident be- coming known, the inhabitants of the neighbouring city of Sidon, availed themselves of it, and soon brought the art into use. It seems to be a corroboration of this account, that tlie most ancient glass- houses, with wliich we are acquainted, were erected in Tyre. Pre- viously to the time of Tiberius, the Romans imported glass from the East, and vessels of glass were among their most costly pieces of household furniUire. Mirrors. — There is reason to believe, that artificial mirrors were made almost as soon as the ingenuity of man was ex- erted on mechanical objects, and as every solid body capable of receiving a fine polish, would suit tbis purpose, we find, tliat the oldest mirrors mentioned in histor}-, were of metal. Silver, however, afterwards came into use, and the greatest number of ancient mirrors was made of that metal, as it is the most fit of tlie unmixed metals for this purpose. Inferior mir- rors were also made, some of a mixture of co]>pcr and tin, and bset ; some of obsidian stone, and others of other substances. Glass minors were most probably unknown to the ancients. § Metal mirrors are spoken of in the Bible, under the term looking- gla-ss, as incorrectly translated. DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 227 At Rome, as the satirists declare, no young woman was withoul a silver mirror. Tlie date of the invention of glass mirrors is somewhat a matter of dispute. From Pliny, it is thought, that they were attempted in the glass-house? of Tyre, but it does not appear that the experiments he speaks of, wliatever they were, met with success ; and moreover, it is certain, that tliough glass was used by tlie Komans, their mir- rors were alludt d to among articles of plate. Linen. — Linen, it is supposed, was fn?t manufactured in Egypt. It is certain, that it was first obtained, and Europe was for a long lime supplied, from that country ; and that the invention was very ancient appears from the fact, that mum- mies are generally found swathed in linen. The Greeks, however, were unacquainted with it, and it was not until the second century of the Christian era, that it was first intro- duced into Rome. Before that period, the tunic or under gar- ment of the Romans was made of wool. Woollen. — The oiigin of the arts of spinning and weaving is lost in the obsciuity of fable. The Egy{)tians ascribe the invention to their Isis, and the Hindoos trace it to the remo- test period of their fabulous history ; but this applies only to cotton and flax ; for in those countries wool is not produced. Yarro says, that the sheep was introduced into Greece by Her- cules, and it is probable, that the first attempts to manufac- ture wool in Europe, were made by the Atlienians. The chief seat of the Roman manufacture was at Padua, whose workmen are to this day highly celebrated. § Sheep came originally from Africa, but in that country, the ani- mal bears hair instead of wool ; and it is only in colder countries that its covering gradually acquires a woolly texture. It was long, most probably, before sheep became domesticated in the northern countries, whose inhabitants, living in immense woods, were con- tented, for ages, with their fine furs. It was only till a late period of ancient history, that the people of the north of Europe employed artificial means of clothing. Among botli the Greeks and Romans, spinning was the chief em- ployment of the women. In weaving, the machinery, though perhaps rude in its construction, was, in principle, siiuilur lo that still in use. The process of fulling and preparing the dotli, ^('ems to have re- sembled the modern practice in every essential point, except that of shearing tlie nap, witli which tlie ancients do not appear to have been acquainted. Di/eing. — Few arts can lay claim to greater antiquity than that of dyeing, and still fewer attained, in ancient times, so great a degree of perfection. It certainly preceded paint- 228 ANCIENT HISTORY. ing, and appears to have been known in the earliest ages of the Jews, Babylonians, and Egyptians, who selected and ap- plied colours for stuffs, cotton, linen, and silk, with the greatest judgment and dexterity. These were extracted from the ani- mal, vegetable, and mineral kingdom ; and without confining themselves to cloth or silk, they dyed equally well, leather, ivory, tortoise-shell, the hair of animals, wood, earth, wax, and even imparted a permanent colour to marble. Steel. — The invention of steel is of very great antiquity. Although we do not find any distinct mention of it in the Old Testament, still, it is clear, that it was known to the Greeks, in the time of Homer, and received from them several names, the most common of which was stomoma. Chalybs, was also a name given to steel, from the Chalybes, a people inhabiting the southern shore of the Euxme, between Cholcis and Paph- lagonia, a country which was renowned for its works of iron and steel. § The steel of the ancients was capable 0/ being hammered, and was not near so brittle as the hardest with which we are acquainted. These, and many other inventions and discoveries, which cannot here be described, characterized ancient times ; but modern ages have added greatly to the number, and improved many of those which were before known. OUTLINES OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, ON A NEW PLAN, EMBRACING BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS, AND GENERAL VIEWS OF THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION. MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY, OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS, ACCOMPANIED BY A SERIES OF Q.UESTIONS, AND ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRA VINOS. TWO VOLUMES IN ONE. VOL. IL KIOHEHN HISTOn'Sr. H A 11 T F O II D : PUBLISHED BY EDAVARD HOPKINS. SOLD BY WILLIAM D. TICKNOR, BOSTON' — J. I!. BUTLER, NORTHAMPTON A. S. BECKWITH & CO., PROVIDENCE — II. HOWE & CO., A. II. MALTBY, AND S. BABCOCK, NEW-I1AVE\— .\. & J. WHITE; LEAVITT, LORD & CO., AND ROE LOCKWOOD, NEW-YORK— O. STEH.E AND W. C. LITTLE, ALBA \ Y— BENNETT & BRIGHT, UTICA HOYT PORTER & CO., ROCHESTER MACK & ANDRUS, ITHACA HOGAN & THOMPSON, PH I LADE LP 1 1 1 A CUSHING & SO ^ S, BALTI- MORE— S. BABCOCK & CO. AND J. J. Mc'CARTER, CHARLESTON— AND LUKE LOOMIS, PITTSBURG. 1835. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, By Edward Hopkins, In the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut. PREFACE. Modern History presents so wide and varied a field, that a volume of the ordinary size is scarcely adequate to the purpose, of pointing out all even of the more striking objects which such a field contains. Indeed, comparatively little can be hoped to be achieved in a very condensed narrative of the events of modern ages, on the common plan. It would be apt to become a barren outline, or dry abstract, with little to interest or instruct the mind of the reader, and this, almost from the necessity of the case. The conciseness whicli is studied would preclude all minute relation, and with that the chief charm of history. The character of many publications of this class, otherwise very valuable, has suffered from such a cause. By the use of two sizes of type, this inconvenience is remedied in a degree, if there be sufficient skill in the e Romances, . ....•••• Pilgrimages, . : : : : ^ : _ . • • Manners and Character of the Gothic or ScandinaTiDn nntinim . . Learning and Arts, ........ Discoveries and Inventions, ....... Incidents and Curious Purt'culars, ...... Present state of several Nations in Agriculture^ Road% ConTcyaooefB, IntereonrBe, E>lucation, Trade, Manufactures, &c ..... Christian Church, ...•.•• 360 363 376 377 378 381 394 400 404 413 MODERN HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Sec. 1. Writers who have divided History into Ancient and Modern, are not agreed as to the most convenient sepa- rating Hne between them. Some liave taken the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans as the dividing period ; and others the establishment of the New Empire of the West^ under Charlemagne. We however agree with a third, and jjrobably a more numerous class, who adopt the commencement of the Christian Era as the line of separa- tion. In this there is an evident propriety. 2. It is the epoch from which civilized nations reckon time, both backwards to the beginning of creation, and forwards to the end of the world. Add to this, the event (the birth of Christ) that forms this era, is the most important of events. It has had a commanding influence upon all subsequent his- tory. It has altered the aspect of all human affairs, and it will alter them more and more, as Christianity becomes ex- tended. Tiie state of the civilized world was also singular. A change had taken place in the establishment of a mighty despotism, which was destined to oppress the nations, through many successive generations. § The period from which we commence Modern History, cannot be contemplated with too deep an interest. It was a remarkable era in Divine Providence. "The fullness of the time was come" — the ancient order of things was drawing to a close, and new scenes in the moral world, were henceforth to (je presented to the view of mar. kind. It is therefore associated with our most solemn thoughts of the dispensations of the Supreme Being towards his creatures. It is the period whence we dale the commencement of the spiritual re- novation of the world. The state of the world, in a political point of view, also deserves consideration. The principal nations were reduced under one head. Wars and dissentions, of long continuance and infinite ferocity, ha- nng terminated in one most formidable power, the whole earth en- joyed an unheard of calm. Mankind, for a short time, tasted the sweets of peace, though in servitude. One man was master of 8 MODERN HISTORY. the lives and fortunes of all the rest, and therefore even the spirit ol conquest could scarcely desire more. 3. The authenticity and the abundance of the materials of modern history, will be hailed with peculiar satisfaction by the inquirer after truth. A considerable portion of ancient history is plunged into darkness and uncertainty, from a va- riety of causes. And the scantiness, in some instances, of the materials from which it is drawn, is often perplexing But both the ecclesiastical and civil records of modern histo- •y, illustrate, with desirable fullness, the state of the times. Jt must be owned, however, that the rage of the barbarians who subverted the Roman Empire, has deprived us of some means of information which we should otherwise have pos- sessed. But it is wonderful, after all, that so many monu- ments of the earlier periods of modern history, have come down to us. § Tlie causes that have operated to render some portions of an- cient history obscure, are such as the lapse of numerous ages; a se- ries of great revolutions, in consequence of which the memory of • many events was lost ; the fury of barbarians, by which numerous monuments of early times have been destroyed ; and more than all the rest, the designed or accidental destruction of libraries. Some noble collections of books perished before the Christian era, particularly the celebrated library of Alexandria. This library was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 284 years B. C, and con- sisted of a vast collection of records, histories, poems, and other works. The number of volumes w^as reckoned at 400.000, and they might have been as many as were in all the world beside. Before the art of printing, books were comparatively scarce ; and of some, there might have been no other copies than those contained in this library. It perished in the flames of Alexandria, when Julius Caesar took that city. In later ages, large libraries have been destroyed, particularly the same library at Alexandria after it was revived, and collections had been made during several centuries. In the latter instance 700,000 volumes perished. But books by this time had been mucli more multiplied, and though numerous destructions took place, many have survived the wrecks of ages. GENERAL DIVISION. Modern History may be divided into ten periods. They have each their peculiar characteristic, by which they may be always re- membered, and by which distinct views of the subject are designed to be imparted to the mind. Period I, will extend from the Nativity of Jesus Clirist, INTRODUCTION. 9 to the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. 0. This is the period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians. Period II, will extend from the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. C, to the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C. This is the period of the Nor- thern Invasions. Period III, will extend from the Extinction of the Wes- tern Empire, 476 years A. C, to the Flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. This is the period of the Justinian Code, and the Wars of Belisarius. Period IV, will extend from the Flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C, to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 years A. C. This is the period of the Establishment of the Saracen Dominion. Period V, will extend from the Crowning of Charle- magne at Rome, 800 years A. C, to the First Crusade, x J95 years A. C. This is the period of the New Western Em,- pire. Period VI, will extend from the First Crusade, 1095 years A. C, to the Founding of the Turkish Empire. 1299 years A. C. This is the period of the Crusades. Period VII, will extend from the Founding of the Tur- kish Empire, 1299 years A. C, to the Taking of Constanti- nople, 1453 years A. C. This is the period of the Papal iSchis?7i. Period VIII, will extend from the Taking of Constan- tinople, 1453 years A. C, to the Edict of Nantes, (Nantzf) 1598 years A. C. This is the period of the Peformation. Period IX, will extend from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 years A. C, to the Death of Charles XII, of Sweden, 1718 years A. C. This is the period of the English Com,mon- iDealth. Period X, will extend from the Death of Charles XII, of Sweden, 1718 years A. C, to the final Restoration of the Bourbons, 1815 years A. C. This is the period of the Ame- rican and French Revolutions. 10 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. PERIOD I. The period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians, extend ing from the Nativity of Jesits Christ, to the Reign of Constantine the Great, 306 A. C. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. The great event with which this period properly commences, is the Birth of Jesus Christ. It belongs to the Roman History, only from the fact that Judea, the coun- try of Our Saviour, was held in subjection to Rome. It is strictly an event of the Jewish History, and is hereafter to be more fully noticed under that head. Here it maybe mentioned only, that the Birtliof Jesus oc- curred, according to the common reckoning, in the 31 st year of the reign of Augustus, 752 years after the building of Rome, and in the 195th Olympiad, under the consulship of Cains Ju- lius Caesar. It is the general opinion of the learned, how- ever, that our Saviour was born four years earlier than this date, viz. in the 27th of Augustus, and that the common reckoning or era is a mistake. According to this opinion, Jesus, in the year 1, A. C, (the vulgar date) was really four years old. § It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the temple of Janus, at Rome, which was always open in time of war, and shut only du- ring peace, was shut at the period of our Saviour's birth, and that, for the third instance only, during the space of more than 700 years. 2. Rome had been an empire in the more proper sense of the word, from the beginning of the reign of Augustus. At the time of the nativity of Christ, the empire was at the me- ridian of its splendour, or perhaps a little past it. Most of the nations had bowed to the Roman yoke ; and luxury and the arts poured in upon the queen of cities. It had been for some years the most powerful dominion of the ancient world, and continued thus to be for several suc- ceeding centuries. The times, however, were degenerate, and the real strength of the Roman empire, if it had not be- gun to diminish at this epoch, was certainly not greater than during the last days of the repubhc. A few nations after- wards were added to its sway, but these rather weakened than augmented the power of Rome. The wide extent of its do- ROMAN EMPIRE. H minions, we shall hereafter see, was one of the causes of its decline and downfall. But the pomp and glory of so great a monarchy, continu- ed long- after the seeds of weakness and decay were sown. Distant nations admired and dreaded the splendid spectacle. Ambassadors from every region daily arrived at Rome, to do ho- mage to her greatness, or to seek her friendship and assistance. 3. Augustus, who first established a despotism over the Roman people, died 14 years after the 1)1 rth of Christ. The events which took place between the birth of Christ and the death of Augustus, pertaining to the Romans, were neither many nor important. During this interval, Augustus adopted Tiberius, and fi- nally associated him in the empire. Archelaus, king of Ju- dea, was deposed, and that country became strictl}^ a Roman province. Germanicus, grandson of Augustus, successfully commanded in Pannonia, and Q,. Varus was signally defeat- ed by the Germans, with the loss of three Roman legions. 4. Luxury and the arts having enervated the Roman peo- ple, and the former civil wars and the consequent calamities having paved the way for a different order of things, in the quiet establishment of despotism under Augustus, their fate from this time was fixed. He found no difficulty in riveting thek chains, and for long ages, a series of despots, most of them monsters of vice and cruelty, ruled with a rod of iron, this once liberty-loving people, and mistress of nations. § Amidst the refinements and elegancies of modern times, con- nected with our ideas of the progressive improvement of society, we are perhaps inclined to overlook and undervalue the ages of antiqui- ty. Many seem to forget what scenes of brightness and grandeur have illumined the nations before us, and how mournfully those scenes arc departed. The pensive, contemplative mind, however, does justice to such a subject ; and no instance of human greatness of old, strikes such a 'nind more forcibly, than that of the proud empire of Rome, under tier Cffisars. The memorial is both pleasant and mournful to the soul. The mixture of misery with its splendour, renders it, if any thing, more touching and impressive. 5. Tiberius, who liad been named in the will of Augus- tus as his successor, immediately assumed the government, 14 years A. C. He was the son of Augustus's wife, Livia, ay a former husband, and had distinguished himself in war. During the first eight or nine years of his reign, he put on 12 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. the appearance of justice and moderation, practising the most consummate dissimulation. His vicious and tyrannical dispo'^i- tion was indulged during this time in a very covert manner ; but afterwards it was openly manifested, and carried to a most ter- rible extreme. His cruelties and debaucheries were enormous. The first objects of his suspicions were Agrippa Posthu- mus, a grandson of Augustus, whom he ordered to be execu- ted in compliance with the pretended will of that emperor ; and the accomplished Germanicus, his nephew and distin- guished general, whom he caused to be secretly poisoned. The Roman people indulged in unbounded sorrow, upon the death of Germanicus. Afterwards, when he gave a loose to his passions, the best blood in Rome flowed. By means of Sejanus, a Roman knight whom he took into his confidence, and who exceeded even Tiberius in dissimulation, he exercised the most shock- ing cruelties towards his subjects. Sejanus first fell a victim to his crimes, in attempting to assume the government him self; and a few years after Tiberius was strangled or poison ed by one of his oflficers. § From the 12th year of his reign, Tiberius was persuaded by Se janus to abandon Rome, and to retire to the island of Caprea, as » more convenient place for the indulgence of his indolence and de- baucheries. His gloomy and cruel disposition also followed him there, and by means of this base minion, he perpetrated all manner of crimes. At this time he was 67 years old, and the unpleasantness of his person comported with the deformity of his mind. He was quite bald in front ; his face was disgustingly ulcerated, and covered over with plasters ; his body was bent forward, while its unnatural tallness and leanness increased its ugliness. He now gave himselj' up to every excess. He spent whole nights in eating and drinking, and he ap- pointed two of his table companions to the first posts of the empire, for no other merit, than that of having sat up with him two days and two nights, without interruption. These he called his friends of all hours. His libidinous indulgences were still more detestable, and the most eminent women of Rome were obliged to sacrifice to him their virtue and honour. His jealousy, which fastened on persons of the highest distinction, induced him to condemn them to death on the slightest pretences. Indeed to such an extent were legalized murders carried, that he be- gan to grow weary of particular executions, and therefore gave or- ders that all the accused should be put to death together, without further examination. The whole city of Rome was filled vdth slaughter and mourning. The place of execution was a horrible scene ; ROMAN EMPIRE. '13 dead bodies putrifying lay heaped on each other, while even the friends of the wretched convicts were denied the satisfaction of weeping. In putting to death sixteen out of twenty senators wlioni he had chosen for liis council, he uttered a sentiment never to be forgot- ten in the records of human cruelty. " Let them hale me, so long as they obey me." This monster often satisfied his eyes, with the tortures of the wretches who were put to death before him ; and in the days of Suetonius, the rock was still shown from which he or- dered such as displeased him to be thrown headlong. He died in the .seventy-eighth year of liis age, and twenty-third of his reign. 37 A. C. G. At this time the Romans were arrived at the highest pitcli of cfleniiiiacy and vice. The wealtli of ahnost every nation in the empire, liavinij long circulated through the city, brought with it the luxuries peculiar to each country. Rome was one vast mass of pollution, and sensuality. It was thought a refinement upon pleasure to make it unnatu- ral. Abating their genius, there never was a more detesta- ble people, than the Romans at this epoch, and indeed, du- ring the continuance of the empire. Cruelty and lust were essential ingredients in the Roman character. § It was a burst of joj', says Chateaubriand, which Tiberius was unable to repress, on finding the Roman people and senate sunk below even the baseness of his own heart. Again, according to this writer, death formed an essential part of tiie festivities of the Romans. It was introduced as a contrast, and for the purpose of giving a zest to the pleasures of hfe. Gladiators, courtezans, and musicians, were procured to enliven entertainments. A Roman on quitting a iiaunt of infamous pleasure, went to enjoy the spectacle of a wild beast devouring human victims, and quaffing their blood. 7. Cahgula had been adopted by Tiberius foi' his heir and successor in the empire. He was the son of Germanicus, and grand-nephew of Tiberius, and so called from Caliga. a short buslcin wliich he wore, in imitation of tlie common sentiiiels. He commenced his reign immediately on the death of Tiljerius, 37 years A. C. and at liis accession, was \ popidar from the virtues of his father. He connnenccd his reign with a show of clemency and * moderation. He restored some of the forms of the republic • which his predecessor had entirely disregarded, and he abol- ' iahed arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But t)a*anni- cal by nature, in less than eight months he acted out liis real disposition, in cruelties, extortions, and impieties, which ' surpassed even those of Tiberius. 2 14 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. Joining absurdity and extravagance to vice, he became supremely contemptible, as well as detestable. Indeed, his follies and absurdities were peculiar to himself, so that accord- ing to an idea of Seneca, he was one of those productions oi nature, in which there was the greatest possible combination of vice and power. He died by assassination, in the fourth year of his reign and 29th of his age. A. C. 41. § Among the cruelties of this imperial monster, were his murder of Gemellus his kinsman, of Sileniis his father-in-law, of Grecinus a senator of noted integrity, who refused to witness falsely against Silenus ; afterwards, his killing many of the senate, and then citing them to appear as if they had killed themselves ; indeed, the sacri- fice of crowds of victims to his avarice, or suspicion. He condemned many persons of the highest quality to dig in the mines, and to repair the high-ways, for ridicuhng his profusion He cast great numbers of old and infirm men, and poor decrepid housekeepers, to wild beasts, in order to free the state from such un- serviceable citizens. He frequently had men racked before him while he sat at table, ironically pitying their misfortunes, and blam- ing their executioner. And as the height of insane cruelty, he once expressed the wish " that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might dispatch them at a single blow." His impieties, and the depravation of his appetites, made him still more a disgrace to human nature. He claimed divine honours, and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be offered to him- self, as a God. He caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter and some other gods to be struck off, and iiis own to be put in their places. He emploj'ed many inventions to imitate thunder, ana would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out in a sentence of Homer " Do you conquer me or I will conquer you." Scarcely any lady of quality in Rome escaped his depraved solicitations. He com- mitted incest with his three sisters, two of whom he prostituted to his vile companions, and then banished them, as adulteresses and conspiritors against his person. His follies and prodigality completed the infamy of his charac- ter. The luxuries of the former emperors were trifling, compared to his. He invented dishes of immense value, and had even jewels dissolved among his sauces. He sometimes had services of pure gold, instead of meat, presented before his guests ; observing, "that a man should be an economist or an empercu-." For his favorite horse Incitatus, he built a stable of marble, and a manger of ivory ; and appointed it a house, furniture, and a kitchen, in order to a respectful entertainment of its visitors. Some- times indeed, the emperor invited Incitatus to his ovv^n table ; and It is said tliat he would have appointed it to the consulship, had he r»ot been prevented by death. Tliese and a thousand other follies, particularly the building of a bridge three miles and a half across an arm of the sea in a ridicu- TIOTMAN EMPIRE. 15 }oiis mannc?r, and which the first storm annihilated, constituted such a drain upon tlie public resources, as became exceedingly oppressive, df a fortune of £18,000,000 sterling left by Tiberius, none remained in a space little beyond one year. He of course put in practice all kinds of rapine and extortion. Professor Heeren remarks, that " he was more pernicious to the state by his insane prodigality, than by his savage cruelty." Against such awretch, wenaturally look for treason and conspiracies. After several attempts, his death was at length accomplished by Cassius Cherea. tribune of the praetorian bands, who was an ardent lover of freedom. Leagued with a number of conspn^ators, he met the em- peror in a little vaulted gallery that led to one of his baths, and struck him to the ground, crying out, " tyrant, think upon this." He was inmied lately dispatched by the other conspirators, who rushed in and pierced him with thirty wounds. 8. A temporary confusion followed the death of Caligula, and ill this crisis of affairs, the senate attempted to restore the lepublic. But the spirit of Roman liberty had lied ; the populace, and in general the army, opposed the design. Claudius at this juncture, having been accidentally found in a lurking place, to which he had repaired through fear, some of the praetorian guards proclaimed him emperor, at the moment he expected nothing but death ; 41 A. C. Claudius was the uncle of Caligula, and grand son of Mark Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus. Claudius was a man below mediocrity in understanding and education ; and his capacity for business was even con- temptible. He became almost of course infamous for his vi- ces, and the dupe of his associates and even of his domestics. Many were the cruelties committed during his reign, though ihey seem to have been suggested principally l)y his wicked directors, among whom was the notorious Messalina, his wife. § The stupidity of Claudius was siicli, that he was alike indifferent, whatever was done, and often was he .so operated upon by his fears, that he would consent to any act however unjust. His own family on one pretence or another was almost exterminated, and great num- bers of otliers fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of IVIcssalina and her minions, who ruled him at will. Tiie historian, Suetonius, assures us, that there were no less than thirty-five Senators and above three hundred knights, executed in Ins reign. One enterprise of importance marked his reign, and that was his expedition into Britain, 43 A. C He imdertook to reduce the island, and after visiting it in person, left his gene- rals, Plautius ai>d Vespasian, to prosecute a war, which waa carried on for several years with various success. The Silure* 16' MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. or inhabitants of South Wales, under their king, Caractacus, (Caradoc,) made a spirited resistance, though without avail in the end. Their king wals led captive to Rome. Messahna advanced in boldaess as in profligacy, but her excesses became the occasion of her destruction. The em- peror was persuaded to j)ut lier to deai.h for her shameless in- lidehty to him. Afterwards he married Agrippina, the daugh- ter of his brother Germanicus, who had poisoned her former husband, and who at length poisoned him. Making every effort to secure the succession to tlie empire to her son Domitius Aenobar!)us. (culled Nero,) she prevail- ed on Claudius to adopi him, and then effecting tlie death of her husband, she opened the way to the throne for one, who was destined to exceed in wickedness, if that were possible, any that went before him. Claudius was put to deatli in the fifteenth year of his reign and sixty-thu'd of his age. § Among the illustrious sufferers iu the rcigu of Claudius, were Petus and his faithful Arria, whose story ought not lo he passed over. Cecina Petus associated in the revolt of Caniillu^, had endeavoured to escape into Dalmatia. Being apprehended, h ' was conveyed in a ship to Rome. Arria, who had been long the partner of his affee-» tions and misfortunes, entreated his keepers, to be taken in the same •/essel. " It is usual," said she, " to grant a man of his quality a few slaves to dress, and undress, and attend him ; but I will perform all these ofnces, and save you the trouble of a more numerous retinue." Her fidelity, however, could not prevail. She therelbre hired a fisher- .nan's bark, and thus kept company with the ship in which her hus- band was conveyed, through the voyage. They had an only son, equally beautiful and virtuous. This youth died at the time his father was confined to his bed, by a dangerous disorder. However, the affectionate Arria concealed her son's deatli, and in her visits to her husband, manifested her usual cheerfulness. Being asked how her son did, she replied that he was calm, and only left her husband's chamber to give vent to her tears. When Petus was condemned to die liy his own hands, Arria used every art to inspire him with resolution ; and at length finding him continue timid and wavering, she took thepoinard, and stabbing herself in his presence, presented it to him saying, " it gives me no pain, my Petus." 9. Rome at this era contained nearly seven millions inhabi- ta,nts, a number so prodigious that nothing but the best evi- dence could prevent our doubt of its accuracy. Corruption and luxury were excessive. The Roman miUtary spirit, ROMAN EMPIRE. I7 though nmoh relaxed, still continued to awe mankind, by the terror of its nn-ne. 10. Nero ClaiKlius, (the name he assumed,) the son of AgripjDina, succeeded to tlie empire (54 A. C.) under favora- ble circumstances, and like his predecessors, for a short time, promised to govern with moderation and justice. So well did he conceal his innate depravity, that scarcely any sus- pected that his viitues were feigned. The care of h's education had been entrusted to Seneca, the famous philosoplier, though he seemed not to have pro- fited under his instructer any otherwise than to become af- fected and pedantic. Wliile, however, he w^as controled by Seneca, and Burrhuss captain of the praetorian guards, a wor- thy and experienced oiTicer, Nero appeared just and humane ; but he could not long restrain the feelings of his base nature. At t!ie expiration of five years, he broke over all the bounds of decency and moderation, and pursued a course of conduct exceeding in puerility, levity, ferocity, and tyrarmy, what- ever had been done before him. He became one of the most odious characters recorded in histor}^. His flagitiousness was manifested in the murder of bis mother, his wife Octavia, his tutor Seneca, and Lucan the poet, and Burrbuss his bene- factor ; in extirpating many of the principal families of Rome on suspicion of treason ; in sotting the city on fire, charging the crime on the christians, and then punishing them with unheard of tortures; and in unnumbered other acts in which he outraged reason, and nature itself. His meanness and puerility almost surpass behef, and Rome contained not another so despicable a wretch in the char;icter of an actor, musician or gladiator. At length hav- ing become an object of perfect hatred and contempt, a re- bellion of his subjects headed i)y Vindcx, an illustrious Gaul, and Galba who commanded in Spain, crushed this imperial monster, in the thirtieth year of his age, after a reign of four- teen years, A. C. 69. Too cowardly to kill himself, he died by the hand of a slave, just as he was on the point of being taken, and delivered up to public justice. § The burning of Rome I.)y Nero was an act of mere wantonness. Some one Isappening to say in Iiis presence, that the world might be burnt when he was dead, "Nay," replied Nero, "let it be burnt while I am living." Accordingly, as most historians report, he set it On fire, and standing upon a hisjh tower, he indulged the pleasure ol - 2* 18 MODERN HISTORY.^ — PERIOD I. fancying it a representation of the burning c r Troy. The confla- gration continued nine days, and a great pan of tlie city was con- sumed. A conspiracy formed against him by Piso, but which was prema- turely discovered, opened a train of suspicions, that ahnost turned Rome into a field of blood. All who were implicated or suspected of being so, he executed without mercy. It was at this time that Seneca and Lucan suffered. No master was secure from the vengeance of his slaves, nor even parents from the baser attempts of their children. Not only throughotit Rome, but the whole surrounding country, bodies of sol- diers were seen in pursuit (^f tlie suspected and the guilty ; whole crowds of wretches loaded with chains, were led every day to the gates of the palace, to wait their sentence from the tyrant's own lips, who always presided at the tortures in person, attended by Tigelli- nus, one of the most abandoned men in Rome, but now his principal minister. " The principal leason why the despotism of Nero and his pre- decessors was so quietly borne by the nation, lay in the fact, that a great part of them \vere fed by the emperors. From the monthly distributio-n of corn of the times of the republic, there now sprang up the extraordinary coriQ-iaria (gifts in corn or money) and vi- cerationes (distributions of raw flesh.) The times of tyranny were generally the golden days of the rabble." During the reip:ii of Nero, the Britons, under their tjueen Boadicea revolted, and defeated the Romans with tlie loss of 70,000 men. The latter, however, avenged this loss at length by the slaughter of 80,000 Britons, which completely broke the British spirit and power. A war was also carried on against the Parthians, under the conduct of Coi])ulo, who obtained many victories over fhem. About this time also, ()7 A. C, the Jews, who had revolted under the tyranny of Florus the Roman governor, were massacred in great numbers. 11. Galba, who was associated with Vindex, in the in- surrection which issued in tiie destruction of Nero, succeeded the latter in the empire {)8 A. C. Yindex, at the comnumce- ment of his revolt, generously proclaimed Galba emperor, and after the death of Nero, both the senate and the legions? under his command, sanctioned this measure. Before his elevation mankind thought well of Galba. His descent was illustrious. His reputation as a commander tood high, and no stain was cast on his courage or virtue. Compared with his predecessors, he was certainly a respecta- ble emperor. In seeking to accomplish two important ob ROMAN EMPIRE 19 jects, viz.. the punishment of the enormous vices then preva- lent, and the replenishing of the treasury, he was unduly severe ; and as he was natuially parsimonious, he became an object of contempt and ridicule. § It was impolitic in Galba, to think of making the Roman people pass at once from the extreme of luxury to that of sobriety and economy. The state was too much corrupted to admit of such an immediate and total change. Tlie emperor's intentions, however, sliould have shielded him from reproach ; and had he not suffered his assistants to abuse his confidence, and had he been a little more e(|ual, moderate, and conciliatory in his administration, he would have been as well thought of when an emperor, as he was when a private person. It is mentioned as an instance of his severity, that upon some dis- respectful treatment of liim from a certain body of his subjects, he ordered a l)ody of horse attending him to ride in among them, and thus killed 7000 of them, and afterwards decimated tlie survivors. His parsimony is indicated by the follov/ing circumstances. He once groaned upon having an expensive soup served up for him at his table. To a steward for his fidelity he presented a plate of beans. And a famous player upon llie liute, named Canus, having greatly delighted him, he drew out liis purse and gave him five- pence, telling him it was private and not public money. His popu- larity sunk by such ill-timed parsimony. Through his love of money, some notorious villains purchased their safety. Galba reigned only seven months. He perished in the seventy-third year of his age, in conseqxience of the attempt of Otlio, one of his generals, to obtain the throne. Otho ex- pected to be adopted by Galba for his successor ; Ijut the emperor, discarding ail favouritism, sought the good of the empire by nominating tlie virtuous Pioo. Otho consequent- ly had recourse to arms, and thus accomplished the death both of Gal!)a and Piso. 12. Otlio was now raised to tite throne, having received from the senate the titles usually given to the emperors, 69 A. C. He began his reign with several signal acts of mercy and of justice. The character of this prince, an unusual oc- rurrence, was improved by advancement; in a private station he, was all that was detestable : but as an emperor he ap- [M.'arcd courageous, benevol(;nt, and humane. The good course, however, which he had marked out for himself, was soon terminated. He reigned only ninety-five? days. Vitellius, who had been proclaimed emperor l)y his army in Germany, gave Otho battle at a place near Mantua, 20 MODERN HISTORV. PERIOD I. where the army of the latter was defeated, and he in a fit of despair ended his life l)y his own hand, 69 A. G. § Otho was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. It has been observed that the last moments of Otlw's hfe were those of a philosopher. He comforted his soldiers who lamented his fortune, and he expressed his concern for their safety, when they earnestly solicited to pay him the last friendly offices before he stab- bed himself; and he observed that it was better for one man to die, than that all should be involved in ruin for his obstinacj'. No circumstance, however, can excuse the crime of suicide, a vice which was awfully prevalent among the Romans. 13. Vitellius, upon his success, assumed the goverumenl 69 A. C, hut he retained it only eight months. This wretch was not more given to cruelty, than to tlie infamous indul- gence of his appetites. Like Nero, he abandoned himself to every species of flagitiousness and excess. He perished justly. Vespasian, who at this time com- manded the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor by his legions. Entering Ital}^, a great part of the coimtry submiltted to his arms, and even ViteHius meanly capitu- lated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. 1^1118 act of cowardice rousmg the indignation of the people, he was compelled to oppose Vespasian by force, but without effect. One of the generals of the coiujueror took possession of Rome ; and Vitellius, falling into the hands of a party of the enemy, was ignominiously put to death. § Instances of the cruel di.-me, while two or more generals in the provinces abroad, disclaimed his autiiority. Upon the approach of Severus, he could raise no forces to meet him. He was nearly dis- tracted by the midtiplicity of counsels, and finally his perplexity and distress became extreme and overwhelming. Tlie senate, at this crisis, perceiving his timidity and irresolution,- i\?solved to abandon him, and to proclaim Severus. His death then) \Vas no longer problematical; and- though he persisted that he had' 32 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. a riglit to enjoy his purchase for the natural period of his hfe, as he had been guilty of no crime, all did not avail. The executioners, obliging him to stretch his neck forward according to custom, im- mediately struck off his head. 24. Septimiiis Sevems was now at the head of the Roman world, 193 A. C. He was an African by birth, and possessed a restless activity with an unbounded share of ambition. He was endowed with a hardihood and decision of character, which fitted him for any enterprise. His military talents were conspicuous, and the credit of the Roman arms w^as sustained dining his reign. In his administration of govern- ment he was generally wise and equitable, though highly despotic. In his expedition into England, he built a stone wall ex- tending from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, nearly on a parallel with that of Adrian. Severus died at York in England, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, 211 A. C. He left the empire to his two sons Caracalla and Geta, whose dispositions gave the em- peror the greatest inquietude. § The first act of Severus, even before he entered Rome, was to degrade the pra?torian soldiers, wliose irregularity had already be- come too conspicuous. These he stript of their title, and banished one hundred miles from the city. He soon after engaged ni a terri- ble conflict with Niger, his competitor in the East, wnom he finally conquered on the plains of Issus. Albinus also, his other competi- tor, wlio commanded in Britain, was soon after conquered in battle^ in one of the severest engagements recorded in the Roman history. It was fought in Gaul, and lasted from morning till night, without' any apparent advantage on cither side. It was decided at length by a body of reserve, in favour of Severus. His activity and love of conquest led him into the East, where he signalised his arms, and whence he returned in triumph to Rome. Having escaped a conspiracy formed by Plautian, to whom he had committed his domestic policy, he spent a considerable time in visit- ing the cities of Itah^ ; and finally in affording protection to all parts of his empire, he made an expedition into Britain. Tlie wall which he here built was eight feet broad and twelve feet high, planted with towers at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by pipes of brass in the wall, which conveyed intelligence from one garrison to another with incredible dispatch. Having given peace to the island, and secured it against tlie irrup- tions of "the Caledonians, he began to feci the effects of age and fatigue; but he was more broken down by the irreclaimable life of Caracalla. Calling for the urn in which his ashes Avere to be en- dosed, he moralized on his melancholy condition in the following ROMAN empire; 33* rfeiriark. " Little urn," said he, "thou shalt now contain what the \Vorld could not contain." It is recorded that he hastened his death by purposely loading his stomacli with food, in his weak state. 25. Caracalla and Geta were now established on the throne, 211 A. C. Their association in the empu-e created a mutual enmity, and indeed they were very unlike in native character. Caracalla was fierce and cruel to an extreme degree. Geta w^as mild and merciful. The former resolv- ing to reign alone, seized an opportunity to murder Geta in the arms of liis mother. During his reign of six years, he committed a continued series of atrocities. He was taken off by assassination, 217 A. C. Within this short period the empire was e\ery day declin- ing ; the soldiers were entirely masters of every election ; and both discipline in the army, and subordination in the ^ate, were almost destroyed. § The worst qualities of the worst emperors centered in this impe- rial wretch. He slew his friend Lsetius, his own wife Plautina, and" Papinian, the renowned civilian, for refusing to write in vindication of his cruelty — that upright man answering the emperor's request 6y observing, " that it was much easier to commit a parricide than' to defend it." He commanded all the governors to be slain, whom his brother had appointed, and destroyed not less than 2000 of his adherents. Upon a certain occasion, he ordered his soldiers to fall upon a crowd- ed audience in the theatre, only for discounienancing a charioteer, whom he happened to favour. As might be expected, he was harrassed with awful terrors. He feared the day of his death, and that day was fast approaching. One Martial, a centurion of the guards, was prevailed upon by a higher officer, Macrinus, to give the emperor his death-wound, on a con- venient occasion, which was readily seized, and thus the world was freed from a monster, who was not only infinitely unfit to govern an empire, but was unworthy to live. 26. Macrinus, who instigated Caracalla's death, was pro- claimed emperor, 217 A. C. Little is recorded respecting, him. He Avas a person of obscure birth, and was deemed severe by the soldiery, who had now become so licentious, that they could scarcely bear the gentlest corrections. liis attempts at discipline, together with the artifices of the grand- mother of Heliogabalus, alienated from him the alTections of the army, and he lost his life in the struggle to retain his power, after a reign of only fourteen montlis, 218 A. C. 37. Heliogabalus was, by the army, raised to tiie throne 34 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. when only fourteen years of age. The appointment of tho army, as usual, influenced the decisions of the senate and citizens of Rome. This emperor proved to be another mon- ster of wickedness of the same rank witli Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla. He lived to be only eighteen years of age, and yet lived long enough to hasten the fall of the empire, and to cover his name witii eternal infamy. He was mur- dered in the fourth year of his reign, 222 A. C. § Heliogabalus was a natural son of Caracalla, a beautiful youth, and loved by the army. Surrounded by flatterers, he .soon yielded himself to their directions. His short life was but a tissue of effe- minacy, lust, folly, and extravagance. Some parts of his conduct were too indecent here to be described. In four years he married six wives, and divorced them all. He even assumed the dress and circumstances of a woman, and marri- ed one of his officers. After thai he took for husband, one Hierocles, a slave, whom he suffered to beat him severely when guilty of any excess, all which he endured with great patience, saying, that it was the duty of a wife to submit to her husband. His prodigality and epicurism were boundless. His supper generally cost six thousand crowns, and often sixty thousand. He always dressed in cloth of gold and purple, enriched with pi-ecious stones, and never twice put on the same habit. Whenever he took horse, all the way between his apartment and the place of mount- ing, was covered with gold and silver dust strewn at his approach. His cruelties were equal to his licentiousness. He often invited the most common of the people to share in his feasts, and made them sit down on large bellows full of wind, which by sudden ex- haustion, threw the guests on the ground, and left them a prey to wild beasts. It is even said he endeavored to foretel the secrets of futurity, by inspecting the entrails of young men sacrificed ; and that he chose for this horrid i)urpose, the most beautiful youths throughout Italy. These are a few of the thousand excesses, follies, and atrocities of a mad and vicious boy, who, with the possession of unlimited rule, could do as he pleased. Being persuaded by his grandmother Maesa, he adopted Alexan- der his coiisin-german as his successor ; but indignant that the af- fections of his army were bestowed upon the latter, he meditated revenge. His soldiers, however, perceiving his intention, took an o])portunity to secure his person, and having dispatched him, treated his body with the greatest indignity, and consigned it at length to the Tyber. 28. Alexander Severus was declared emperor 222 A. C. He was a prince of a kind, beneficent, and energetic charac- ter, and highly accomplished in learning and the arts. Every way calculated to make his Gubjects happy, he was greatly ROMAN EMPIRE. 35 honoured and esteemed by them. He was conspicuous also for his military talents, and for the defeat of the Persians and others during his reign. He thus restored the empire to its former limits : but this exertion of its remaining strength, rather hastened than delayed its decline. He was cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers in the fourteenth year of his reign, and the twenty -ninth of his age, at the instigation of Maximinus, his successor, 235 A. C. § As a specimen of his virtuous character we may mention, that he ever loved good men, and severely reproved the lewd and infa- mous. His remark is in point, when he decided a contest between the clu-istians and a company of cooks and vinters, about a piece of ground, which the one claimed as a place of public worship, and the other for exercising their respective trades. " It is better that God be worshiped there in any manner, than that the place should be put .0 the uses of drunkenness or debauchery." At the age of sixteen, when he ascended the throne, he had all the premature wisdom of age. His judgment was solid, and his talents were various. He was an excellent mathematician, geometri- cian, and musician. His taste in painting, sculpture and poetry was admirable. The first part of his reign was spent in a reformation of the abu- ses of his predecessors ; particularly in restoring the senators to their rank and influence. His first expedition, in the tenth year of his reign, was against th" ^arthians and Persians, whom lie opposed with a powerful army. In one decisive engagement, he routed the Persians with great slaughter. About the same time, several of his generals obtained signal victories, over various nations then at war with the empire. His manner of living was like that of the meanest sentinel ; when- ever he dined or supped, he sat with his tent open, that all men might be witnesses of his abstemiousness. He was at one time instructed by the famous Origen in the principles of Cln'istianity ; though it dues not appear that he embraced that religion. 29. ^laximinus, wlio was accessary to tlie murder of Severus, ascended the throne upon this event. 23.5 A. C. He was the won of a Tlu-acian shepherd, and is represented by historians as a man of gigantic stature and Herculean strengtii. He was full eight feet in height, and perfectly symmetrical in form. He rose by degrees into power ; but though meritorious before his elevation, as a sovereign he was brutal and ferocious. He warred with the Germans, and wasted their country to the extent of four hundred and fifty miles, converting it al- most into a desert. His cruelties soon aroused the Roman people against him, and he was finally assassinated by his own soldiers in his tent, after a reign of three years, 238 A. C 36 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD I. During the period of his power, the two Gordians, father and son were proclaimed emperors, but these soon perislied The senate then proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus, who survived Maximinus. These measures were dictated by the anxiety which the Romans felt, to free themselves from that tyrant. § Maximinus is said to have delighted in acts of the greatest bar- barity, and no less than four hundred persons lost their lives, on the false suspicion of a conspiracy against his life. He caused to be re- moved from his sight or assassinated, many noble Romans, who, as he suspected, despised him, on account of liLs mean origin. Wlien he was apprised of the acts of the senate, appomting others to the supreme power, he raved and howled like a wild beast, and almost destroyed jiimself by beating his head against the walls of his palace. His fury, however, at length gave way to a spirit of revenge ; but his bloody machinations were soon stopped. His guards having been corrupted, murdered him while sleeping in his tent, as he was too formidable an object to be attacked while awake. Owing to his size, his strength was prodigious. He alone could draw a full loaded wagon. With a blow of his fist he could break the teeth in a horse's mouth, and with a kick of hs foot could break .its thigh. His voracity was proportioned to his size and strength. He generally ate forty pounds of flesh every dr-'-, and drank six gallons of wine. The Praetorian soldiers who were enemies to Pupienus and Balbinus, soon embraced an opportunity of despatching them • both, and accidentally meeting Gordian, grandson to one of the former Gordians, they proclaimed him emperor. The .senate and people had been too long controlled by the army, : on the subject of nominating the emperors, to withhold their consent in the present instance. 30. Gordian accordingly assumed the empire 238 years A. C. He was no more than sixteen years old at (his time, and was a prince of very considerable merit. The Gothg, and also the Persians, who had invaded the confines of the emjiire on different sides, were repulsed by his arms. Towards the latter part of his reign, Philip, an Arabian, was cliosen praetorian pra^fect, under whose administration the j)eople began to be discontented. This state of things Philip fostered, till the odium against the emperor so far increased, that the prefect ventured to order his execution, with a view to his own preferment, an object which he accomplish- ed. Gordian's reign was a period of nearly six years. § Gordian was a man so fond of learning, that he "had collected G2.000 books in his private library. ROMAN EMPIRE. 37 31. Philip having- acquired the empire 214 A. C, by the murder of his benefactor, reigned five years, and then was liim?elf assassinated, while marching against Decius. § Pliilip was an Arabian by birth, and received, in the manner of his death, a righteous retribution, on account of his own nefarious conduct in gaining the sceptre. 32. Decius, whom Philip had appointed to command a revolted army, had been proclaimed before the emperor's death. Upon that event he began to assume the functions of government 249 A. C. His activity and wisdom would have stayed the progress of decay in the empire, if any human means could effect that object. But the tendency to this state of things was irretrievable and fatal. The profligacy and luxury of the times, the disputes be- tween the Pagans and Christians, and the beginning irrup- tions of the barbarous nations from without, were enfeebling the empire beyond remedy. Decius reigned but two years and six months, having been cut off, in a war with the Goths, by the treachery of Gallus, his general. 33. Gallus, raised to the tlirone 2.51 A. C, by that part of the army which survived a defeat he had himself occasioned, reigned but two years and four months. He was a vicious sovereign, and during his reign the empire suffered incalcula- ble misery. He perished in a civil war, in which Aemilianus. his general, opposed him, and was victorious. § It was in the time of Galhis, that a dreadful pestilence spread over the earth, threatening almost to depopulate it. 34. Valerian, a commander of one of the armies of the em- pire, succeeded to the throne 254 A. C, contrary to the ex- j:>ectations of Aemilianus. In a war with the Persians, having been taken prisoner, he suffered unheard of hardships and in- sult, and at length was put to death in the most cruel manner. § Sapor, the Persian king, happened to secure the person of Vale- rian. We are told that he always used the emperor as a footstool for mounting his horse, and that he often observed, "such an attitude was the best statue that could be erected in honour of his victory." The manner of Valerian's death is almost too liorrid to be men- tioned. His eyes were first plucked out, and afterwards he was flay- ed alive, when his skin was dyed red, and exposed in a temple. He was seven years a prisoner. 85. Gallienus. son of Valerian, was chosen emperor 260 4 38 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD T. A. C. He promised to avenge the insults and death of his father ; but after his elevation, he thought only of his own base pleasures, while the empire Avas attacked without, and distracted within. Thirty pretenders Avere at one time con- tending for the dominion of the state. Gallienus suffered a violent death. 36. Upon the death of Gallienus, Flavius Claudius was invested with the purple, 268 A. C, agreeably to the wishes of the army, and the whole Roman people. He was an ac- tive, wise, and good prince ; but unhappily his reign was short, being less than two years. He died a natural death, which was more frequently the lot of the virtuous, than of the profligate emperors. § Clandius opposed with success the Goths, Heriih, &c. who had invaded the empire on the north, in one instance destroying an army of 300,000 men ; and he hkewise overthrew the Germans, who had reared tlie standard of revoU. His energy stayed, for a short time, tl)e decUne of the empire. 37. The army made choice of Aurelian as emperor, 270 A. C. His parentage was obscure, but he was esteemed the most valiant commander of his age. After his elevation, his time was passed in repressing the irruptions of the barbarians, and particularly in carrying on a war with Zenobia, a prin- cess of Palmyra, commonly styled the Queen of the East, whom he conquered, and brought captive to Rome. With gi'eat courage and military talents, he was cruel. He fell in a conspiracy which was raised against him by some of his subjects. § His strength was said to be so great, that in one single engage- ment, he killed 40 of the enemy with his own hand, and above 900 at different times. The degeneracy of his people seemed almost to justify his severities, in punishing offenders ; but it is said that when he was about to sign certain edicts against the christians, who were an inoffensive people, he was deterred from the act, by a thunder-bolt, which fell so near his person, that his escape v/as thought to be mi- raculous. 38. Several months elapsed before a new emperor was elected. At length Tacitus was prevailed upon to take the reins of government, 275 A. C He was a man of great me- rit, but unfortunately, to the empire, he died of a fever after a reign of only six months, at the age of 75. 39. His successor was Probus, thougli a minority in the ROMAN EMPIRE. 39 army chose Florian, a brother of Tacitus. Florian enjoyed this distinction but two months ; for upon the estabUshment of Probus in the empire, he sought a vohmtary death. Probus possessed uncommon activity, courage, and integri- ty, and was constantly engaged in war with the barbarians, and in suppressing the numerous factions whicli arose in his dominions. Ollending his soldiers by obUging them to drain an extensive fen in Sirmium, his native place, he wa«3 slain in a conspiracy which thev had fonned asrainst him, 282 A. C. "^ § Probus was born of noble parentage, and was early distinguish- ed by his excellent qualities. He was frequently the first man that, in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's camp. His energy and virtue, great as they were, could scarcely present a sufficient barrier to the tide of calamities that rushed upon the em- pire. In a war. however, with the Germans in Gaul, lie slew 400,000 men ; and at various times repulsed many other enemies, particular- ly tlie Sarniatians, Goths and Blemii. The last were a people who had left the forests of Ethiopia, and possessed themselves of Arabia and Judea. Among those of his subjects who had rebelled against him, was Bonosus, who was remarkable as given to intoxication. The rebel being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Probus seeing him im- mediately after this event, pointed to his body, and with great hu- mour observed, '• There hangs, not a man, but a bottle." 40. Cams, prretorian prefect to the deceased emperor, was chosen by the army to succeed hun 2S2 A. C He associated with him in command, his two sons, Carinus and Numerion. Carus, and his son Numerian, Avere worthy of the empire, but Carinus was given to vice. Their reign, however, was only of two years' continuance. Carus was smitten by a flash of lightning, in his tent, and his sons were killed soon after — Numerian by an act of treachery, Carinus in a con- test with Diocletian, who had been chosen emperor. § Numerian was so affected by the death of his father, that through excess of weeping, he brought on a disorder in Ins eyes, in conse- quence of Avhich he was obliged to be carried in a close litter. In this situation he was luurdered by his ambitious father-in-law, Aper, who was soon cut off by the hand of Diocletian. 41. Diocletian began his reign in 2S4 A. C, and two years afterwards, associated with himself in the empire his general Maximian. Under their united auspices, the enemies of Rome were fieijuently repulsed. At the expiration of about 40 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. eight years from that time, they took two colleagues, Galerius and Constantiiis ; and bestowed upon each tlie title of Caesar. This state of things was novel. There was a four fold division of the government, with two emperors and two Cae- sars at its head, each having a nominal supremacy. Diocle- tian, however, was the master spirit that moved and controlled the whole. In this state, the government was administered a few years, when strange to relate the two emperors resigned their authority into the hands of the two Ceesars, and retired into private life 304 A. C. Diocletian seems to have been sincere in his abdication, as he contentedly spent eight oi' nine years in rural privacy, and in cultivating his garden. Maximian soon began to be dis- contented, and made several attemjjts, but in vain, to jesume his former powers. His intrigues in Britain, where Constan- tine and his son Constantine resided, cost him his life. Di- ocletian died about 312 A. C. Maximian jierished 310 A. C § Diocletian's parentage was mean. Accord iiig to some he was the son of a scrivener; and according to other.;, of a slave. When elected to the empire he was forty years old, and owed his exalta- tion entirely to his merit, having passed through the various grada- tions of office, witn sagacity, courage, and success. He chose Ga- lerius for his associate, giving him the title of Caisar, with a view to secure his aid in opposing Narses, the king of Persia and Parthia, who had invaded Mesopotamia. In tliis enterprise they met with sig- nal success. Other enemies they subdued, except tlie northern na- tions, who, though repulsed and slaugjrtered in incredible numbers, were ever ready to embrace fresh opportunities of renewing liostilities. Diocletian, after his abdicatit)n of the empire, retired to his native country, Dalmatia, where he built a magnificent palace for his ac- commodation, near tiie town of Salona. Here he led a secure and quiet life. When some of his friends attempted to persuade him to resume the empire, he replied, " that if they knew his present hap- piness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it." Maximian was a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, and was adopt- ed by Diocletian as emperor, on account of his courage and fidelity. He defeated many enemies of his country, though his arms in Britain were unsuccessful. He adopted Constantius as Caesar, with a view to oppose the claims of Carausius, a principal commander in Britain, who had proclaimed himself emperor. 42. When Diocletian and iMaximiaii resigned their |)'>wcr, Constantius and Galerius were universally acknowledged 304 A. C. Constantius governed the western parts of the empire. Galerius the eastern. They took in with them two partners, so that the empire was again under the guidance of JUDEA. 41 four persons, all inve?ted with supreme authority; each having his distinct department. Severus and Maximian were the persons who were created Caesars. Constantius was a worthy character, Galerius was the re- verse. Constantius died at York, in Britain, 306 A. C, leav- ing his son Constantine as his successor. Galerius died four years afterwards of an extraordinary incurable disease. He had instigated Diocletian to persecute the christians. § The western parts of the empire, or the dominion of Constantius, consisted of Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany. The eastern parts, or the do- minion of Galerius, consisted of Illyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma- cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the lesser Asia, together with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all other oriental countries. An anecdote of the following kind is related of Constantius : — when he was persuaded to displace all the christian officers of his household ; though lie would not suffer the christians to be injured, he sent away in disgrace the few that complied, alleging, "tliat those who were not true to their God, would never be faithful to Iheir prince." 43. From the commencement to the close of the present period, persecutions of (he christians more or less prevailed in the empire. At times, this unotfending class of the Ro- man subjects suilered in an extreme degree, from the edicts of the emperors. Historians have usually reckoned ten ge- neral persecutions of the christians. The names of the em- perors, under whom tbese persecutions v.ere experienced, were the following : — Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Antoninus, Severus, IVIaximiiius, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and Dio- cletian. Most of these emperors persecuted the christians from xTialignity, and for the gratification of their cruel dispositions. Others did it, (though their conduct was indefensible,) from ignorance or prejudice, aided l)y the spirit of the age, and the common corruption of om- nature. § As this period is named from the persecutions which tiie pro- fessors of Christianity endured under the Roman emperors, it might seem proper here, to enter into some details on this subject. But a few of these will be included in an article on ecclesiastical history, to be embodied in the present volume. JUDEA. 44. Judea, already under the sway of Rome, became a province of the empire G A. C. upon the banishment of Ar- 4* 42 ' MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. chelaus, eldest son of Herod tlie Great. It was at the com- mencement of this period, that the birth of our blessed Saviour Jesus Clnist, as before noticed m the Roman history, took place. Herod, in addition to all his other crimes shed the blood of the children of Bethlehem, in the hope that the in- fant Jesus would foil among- them. He died miserably, soon after this transaction. (j In the reign of Herod, the sceptre, agreeably to ancient prophecy, having departed from Judah, by the control which the Romans had. over the government, Jesus CJn'ist was born in the year of the world 4000. This has already been explained. We use, however, the vulgar era (4004) and assign the subsequent events according to that calculation. The mistake supposed to be made by the ancient chro- nologors has been too far sanctioned by Time, to benov/ remedied. His birth, which was announced by angels to the shepherds of Bethlehem, and which brought the eastern magi to worship him, exceedingly troubled Herod and the principal Jews, who became apprehensive of new wars and commotions. After finding out the place of his nativity, (viz. Bethlehem,) Herod determined on his death, by destroying all the children of tliat place and of its vicinity, " from two years old and under." The providence of God, however, had removed the lioly child be- yond his reach, inasmuch as his parents had fled with him, in the mean time, into Egypt. Herod's death soon occurring, they return- ed from Egypt, and dwelt in Nazareth, a city of Galilee. It IS not our design to detail events here, which more properly be- long to ecclesiastical history. We would only say, that after a labo- rious and useful life, in the third year of his ministry, and in the thirty-third of his age, Jesus Clirist expiated human transgression, by his death on the cross. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, the Roman gf)ve.rnor, upon a false accusation brought against him by his own countiymen, the Jews. This glorious personage, who was " God manifest in the flesh," rame into the world to save his people from their sins. In his hu- man nature lie was lineally descended from David, though the fami- ly at liie period of his birlh. had become obscure and reduced to poverty. 'I'he effects of his appearance in tlie world were from the beginning, decisive. The holy system which he taught, considering the hostility of man to truth and piety, was ditTused with great rapi- dity, under the ministry of the apostles. Reformation- of moral character was its aim, object and result. Its effects have ever been great, and such they will be to the end of time. The civil afiiiirs of the Jews, from the commencement of this era to the destruction of Jerusalem Ijy Titus Vespasian, are too unimportant to be particularly described. A brief summary of them follows. § Archelaus, under whom Judea became in form a Roman pro- JUDEA. 43 vince, possessed only a totrarcliy, or the fourth part of the kingdom of Jewry. The rest of llic country was divided into three more te- trarehics, whicli were those of Gahlee and Pctra^a possessed hy Herod Antipatas ; that of Ilura;a possessed by Pliilip, another son of Herod ; and that of Abilene possessed by Eysanias, who beins afterwards banished into Gaul, had his province go\'erned b}- Pontius Pilate. The successor of Archehuis was Herofl II. named Antipas, who married his brother Piiilip's wife. This was the incestuous marriage on account of which John the Baptist reproved Herod, as mentioned in the New Testament. It was in the time of this Herod that our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, occurred. Herod 11. was succeeded by his son Herod the Great. Caligula, the emperor of Rome, at that time invested him with the tetrarchy of his uncle Philip, and conferred on him the title of king. The other tetrarchies fell to his possession shortly afterwards. It Avas this Herod who caused the apostle .fames to be martyred, the apostle Peter to be imprisoned, and was himself smitten by an angel and devoured by worms. His son Agrippa Minor, succeeded, and was the last king of Jew- ry. It was before him, that the apostle Paul pleaded in defence of die gospel. 45. Durino; the reign of AgTip[)a Minor, Jerusalem was rtttacked by Titus (Vespasian) 70 A. D. The cause of this attack originated in the commotions and insurrections of the Jews, which were frequent aliout this time. This miserable people had sufl'ered greatly, from tlie injustice and extortion practised u\)on them by the agents of the Roman govern- ment, and they consequently rose in rebellion. A signal A'engeance fell upon their heads. Jerusalem was' beseiged, and one million of people are said to have perished on the occasion. To such distress were the Jews reduced by famine, that mothers murdered their children for food. The people suflTered greatly in other parts of Judea ; and though numbers remained in their native land, vast multitudes were dispersed over the face of the earth, on which they have ever since been wanderers. The reader of the Bible will see in these events, a re- markable fulfilment of the predictions of the ancient prophets and of our Saviour ; and he will also learn the evil and dan- ger of despising divine admonitions, and abusing religious privileges. The Jews are to this day a witness of the tiTith of scripture. § Nero, who was emperor when the war with the Jews commenc- ed, entrusted the management of it to his general, Vespasian, who, accompanied by his son Titus, and a powerlul army, arrived in Sy- 44 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. ria, 67 A. C. Vespasian soon after being chosen emperor, left orderS witli his son Titus, to continue the war, while he himself set out for Rome. Titus prosecuted the enterprise with diligence, and besieging Jerusalem, he toolc it within a few months, after an obstinate resist- ance on the pai't of its inliabitants. Twice, during tlie siege, Titus offered them very favourable terms, but so infatuated were they, that they not only refused his offers, but insulted at length his messenger, Flavins Josephus, in the most wanton and virulent manner. After this conduct, there remained no more mercy for the Jews. Titus caused the hands of those who had voluntarily sought shelter in the Roman camp, to be cut off, and sent them back to the city, and others lie crucified in the sight of their countrymen. Famine, in the mean time, was performing its dreadful work within the walls. When Titus entered the city he gave it up to be plundered by the soldiers, and most of its inhabitants were put to the sword. In pursuance of this general order, the city was destroyed to its foundations, and even tlie ruins of the temple were demolished. Josephus says that the number of prisoners taken during the whole time of the war was ninery-seven thousand ; and the number killed in the city during tl\e same period, amounted, as before stated, to one million. The Jews, who remained in the country, now paid tribute to the Romans, and were entirely subject to their laws. 46. After this event .Terusalem was partially rebuilt, and itj 1 IS the inhabitants attempted again to re!>el,biit were speedily overcome. Adrian, the emperor, incensed at the conduct of this stubborn people, resolved to level their city with the earth, that is to say, those new buildings. erected by the Jews, and to sow salt in the ground, on which the place had stood Thus was fulfilled a propliecy of our Saviour, who fore- told, that neither in the city nor in the temple, should one stone be left upon another. This therefore may be called the final destruction of Jerusalem, which took place 47 years after that of Titus. Adrian, however, soon built the city over anew, and called it Aelia Capitolina. It was a short lived change, for when the empress Helena, the mother of (Jonstantine the Great, visited the city, she found it in a forlorn and ruinous state. PARTHIA. 47. ThePARTniAN empire at the beginning of this period, continued under the sway of the first branch of the Arsaci- dse. Phraates IV. then possessed the throne. Three sove- reigns succeeded him, when after short reigns, the second branch of the x\rsacidai commenced. «- PERSIA. 45 Verones I. was the hist of the three sovereigns of the first branch. He had been dispatchctl from Rome, where he was a hostage, to reign over the Parthiaiis, who liad hivited him to be their king ; but affecting the Roman dress and manners he incurred the dislike of liis people, and was driven from the throne, to make room for Artabanus, of the royal family of Media. 48. The second braiicli of the ArsacidcE commenced 18 years A. C. under Artabanus III. It lasted nearly two hundred years under thirteen sovereigns. The Romans oc- casionally defeated the Parthians and made them tributary, but could never keep them long under the yoke. To the his- tory of the Parthian kings, we attach very little importance. The empire was at length restored to the Persians after they had been subject to the prhices of Parti lia for the space of four hundred and seventy-five years. § Artabanus V, the last of this branch, having refused to give his daughter in marriage to the emperor Caracalla, the Romans entered Parlhia and destroyed many cities ; but Macrinus, the successor of Caracalla, after a hard fought battle, concluded a peace with the Parthians. Artabanus was killed in battle by Artaxares, a Persian, who, revolting from the Parthians, restored the empire to Persia. The subsecjuent details belong to the Persian history. PERSIA. 49. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians during foiu' hundred and seventy-five years, from the time that they passed from under the Macedonian yoke, Artax- ares, an ignoble but courageous Persian, excited a revolt among his countrymen, which terminated in the restoration of the Persian empire. 223 A. C. Artaxares having accomplished his design, and ascended tlie throne, assumed the pompous title of king of knigs, and asserted his right to all the provhices of the ancient empire, which were now under the authority of the Romans. War therefore ensued between these two powers, and the Per- sians were terribly defeated in a single battle by Alexander Severus. They soon however regained the ground they had lost. Artaxares was followed by a series of princes, the most conspicuous of whom during this period was Sapores I. who was his immediate successor. The dynasty which Artaxares founded, is known in history under the name of Sassanidte, iVoin Sassan, his father. 46 MODERN HISTORY.- — PERIOD I. § Of Sapores, it is recorded that he conquered several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, from the Romans, whicli liowever were recov- ered by tlie yomigest Gordian ; that in 258 he captured Antioch, penetrating into Cappadocia, and besieging Ca?sara, which being taken through treachery, ahiiost all the inhabitants were slain, and the city reduced to ashes. The next year tlie emperor Valerian having advanced into the east, was taken prisoner, and treated M'ith the greatest cruelty, as has already been described. Sapores, after considerable reverse of fortune, having become odious to his subjects for his cruelties, was assassinated by the Satraps. Hormisdas II. was the last prince of this period. He enjoyed a peaceful reign. After his death, the lords of the country' seized his son and conlined him in a tower, because he threatened to cause tiiem all to be flayed alive, for not rising in token of obedience to him at a royal banquet, on a day when he returned from hunting. The queen being pregnant, the magi, by placing the crown upon her own person, affected to crown the prince, who, they persuaded themselves, would be born of her. CHINA. 50. In the history of China, the fifth dynasty which com- menced about 200 years before the christian era, terminated during the present period, viz. in tlie year 221 A. C. It is called the dynasty of Han, and lasted four hundred and twenty-four years, under twenty-five emperors The head of this dynasty was Lien-pang, a soldier, who, overcoming" the last emperor, and ascending the throne, took the name of Kao-Tsou. § Kao-Tsou reigned with clemency and moderation. In his reign, paper, ink, and hair pencils, still used in Ciiina instead of pen's, were invented. He was one of the few emperors wlio governed for themselves. Under the rest, the euiuichs obtained great authority. Vuti, one of the princes of tlii.s family, was a great encourager ol learning, and ordered tlie morality of Confucius to be taught in the public schools. He fell under the power of a strong delusion, in endeavouring to discover a liquor which would make him immor- tal. The sixth dynasty began 221 A. C. ; and ended 265 A. C. It is called the dynasty of Heoti-Han, and lasted forty- lour years. China at this time was divided into three empires, under three branches of the dynasty of Ifan. The various parts terminated at difTerent periods, although the whole be- came reunited at length unrler the seventh dynasty in 265. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 47 Distinguished Characters in Period I. 1. Livy, the prince of Roman historians. 2. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet. 3. Tibuliusj a famous elegiac poet of Rome. 4. Strabo, a celebrated geographer and historian. 5. Seneca, a Roman moralist and philosopher. 6. Lucan, a Roman epic poet. 7. Pliny, (the elder) the earliest writer on natural history whose works are extant. 8. Q,uintilian, an eminent Roman advocate and rhetori- cian. 9. Tacitus, an eminent philosophic historian. 10. Plutarch, the principal l)iographer of antiquity. 11. Juvenal, an eminent satirical poet. 12. M.Antoninus, a Roman emperor and philosophical wri- ter. 13. Tertullian, ) , i r^i • *• •. i i 14 O "o- > learned Ghristian writers, commonly cal- 1 -." ^, '^ . ' ( led fathers. 15. Cyprian, ) § 1. Livy was a native of Padua, but passed the greatest part of his life at Naples and Rome, particularly at the court of Augustus. Of his life not much is known, yet his fame was so universally spread, even in his life time, tnat an inhabitant of Gades, now Cadiz, travel- led all the way to Rome, merely to see the man whose writings had given him so much pleasure. Livy died at Padua in his sixty-se- venth year, A. C. 17. This writer is principally known by his history of the Roman em- pire. It originally consisted of 140 books, of which only 35 are ex- tant. In this work he is alwajs great— clear, spirited, bold, and masterly in description. The high rank wliich he holds among his- torians will probably never be disputed. He often copied from his contemporaries and predecessors, and especially from Polybius. 2. Ovid was born at Sulmo, on the 20th ol" March, about 43 years B. C. His father intended him for tlu; bar; but though his pro- gress in the study of eloquence was great, yet nothing could divert him from paying his court to the muses. Kvorj^ thing he wrote was expressed in poetical munbors. His name soon became known, and the great genius(;s of the age honoured him with their notice, and some of them with their correspondence. Augustus also patronized him with the utmost liberality. The days of his prosperity were not many. For some cause, which is not ascertained, thcemperor banished him to a place named Tomos on the Euxinc Sea. Here he spent the remainder of his life, and he spent it in unmanly repining and impatience. He offered the most abject flattery to Augustus, but both he and his successor 48 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. Tiberius were inexorable. Ovid died in the 7th or 8th year of his banishment. The poems which he left behind him have, the most of them, sur- vi^-ed to the present time. They are characterized by sweetness and elegance, though often debased by indelicacy of expression. Ovid every where paints nature with the hand of a master. His Fasti, a part of which is lost, are thought to be the best written of all his poems. It is known that the poems of Ovid were favourites with the great English bard, John Milton. 3. TibuUus was a Roman Knight. He at first engaged in the toils of war ; but dissatisfied with such a life, he afterwards gave himself up to literary ease, and to the pleasures of an enervating Ita- lian climate. His favorite study was the writing of love verses. In these elegant trifles he shewed himself an accomplished poet. Four books of elegies are all that remain of his compositions. They are so beautiful in language, and so pure in sentiment, that Tibullus is deservedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 4. Strabo was a native of Amasia, and died 25 years A.. C. His geographical work, divided into 17 books, is the only coiuposition of his remaining. This is justly considered an elegant, classical, and learned work. It is written in Greek, and contains an account of the most celebrated places and countries of the world. Strabo tra- velled through most of the regions he has described, in quest of ac- ciu'ate information. Among his books which have been lost, are historical commentaries. 5. Seneca (Lucius Annasus) was born at Cordova, in Spain. He became early distinguished for uncommon abilities, and acquired at the bar, the reputation of an eloquent pleader ; but he relinquished this road to fame, and became a candidate for public employments. He obtained the office of quaestor, but by a shameful indiscretion, having incurred the displeasure of Caligula, he was banished to the island of Corsica. In five years he was recalled by the empress Agrippina, to superintend the education ol' lier son Nero, which of- fice he discharged with honor. Nero becoming impatient of the restraint, which his preceptor im- posed upon liis vicious inclinations, pretended tliat Seneca had con- spired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to Seneca to acquaint him that he must die ; permitting him to choose the manner of his death. The philosoplier received the mandate with cheerful- ness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened. The blood however flowed slowly — poison and the warm bath were tlierefore resorted to : but being without efiect, he was at last smotli- ercd in the vapour of a stove. His death took place in his seventy- second year, 65 A. C. 6. Lucan was a native of Corduba, and nephew of Seneca. He early went to Rome, where his rising talents procured liim the favour of Nero. He had the imprudence, however, to enter into a poetical contest with his imperial patron, and obtaining an easy victory, a? might have been expected, he ever afterwards was an object of the emperor's hatred. The insults to which the poet was continually DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 49 Exposed, provoked his resentment to sucli a degree, that he joined Piso in his conspiracy against that monster. The discovery of the plot, of course, consigned him to death. He died a young man, be- ing only in his 26th year. Of his works, his Pharfalia only remains. This poem celebrates the wars of Ca;sar and Pompey, and is nnfinislied. It has been va- riously estimated. The moral grandeur of its sentiments has been generally acknowledged, L)ut some think him more of an orator than a poet. 7. Pliny (the elder) was born at Verona, of a noble family. He was distinguished in civil life, as well in scientific pursuits. To hi.s public duties he attended througli the day, but the night he devoted to study. He lost no time by idleness or dissipation. Every mo- ment tliat could be spared from business was occupied in the cultiva- tion of iiis mind. He turned his attention more particularly to Nature. His work on Natural History, comprised in 37 books, is full of erudition. It takes in a wide range of topics, and is written in an interesting and sprightly manner, although the style possesses not the graces of the Augnstan age. He wrote one hundred and sixty volumes of remarks and annotations on the various authors whom he had read, l)ut these have not reached us. His love of knowledge cost him his life. An eruption of Vesu- vius happening at the time when he lay at Misenum, where he com- manded a tleet, he was induced to approach the mountain, for the purpose of making his observations on tlie interesting phenomenon. While thus occupied, he was overtaken by the buniing lava which poured from the volcano, and sutTocated and scorched, he soon per- ished. This memorable event happened in the 79th year of the Chris- tian era. 8. Quintilian was a native of Spain. After twenty years labo- rious employment in teacliing rlietoric, and in pleading at the bar at Rome, he retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and industry. Here he dedicated his time to the study of literature, and to com- position. His success as an author, and the favours of the emperor Domitian, afforded him a high delight. But no situation is perfect- ly happy — tlie death of his wife and two sons, filled him with almost inconsolal)lc grief. He died 95 A. C. His Institutions, in 12 books, is the most perfect system of ora- tory extant. In this work, he delineates that which goes to consti- inle a perfect orator, together witli all the preparation necessary. Tliis work remained undiscovered until the fifteenth century. 9. Tacitus was the son of a Roman knight, and born in the reign <»f Nero. His genius and talents procured him tlie favour of several emperors in succession, and he was raised at last to tlie consular dignity. He was not destitute of distinction as an orator, but he is eiiiefiy known to mankind as an historian. A peculiar friendship existed between him and Piiu}', tliough the one was sternly partial i to a republican government, and the other was a great admirer of imperial power. The compositions of Tacitus were contained in thirty books, of 5 50 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. which there now remain only twenty-one. Of these, his Annals in- clude sixteen, and his History of the Roman Emperors five. Taci- tus has many excellencies of style. Its most striking characteristic, perhaps, is conciseness. He has great force and depth of thought, and is candid and impartial in his statements. In his biographical sketches, he displays an uncommon knowledge of human nature. The History of the Reign of Tiberius, is his masterpiece. Some have complained of him as being obscure. 10. Plutarch was a native of Cha^ronea. He died at an advanced age, in his native place, about the 140th year A. C. Having travel- led in quest of knowledge tln-ough Egypt and Greece, he retired to Rome, where he opened a school, with great reputation. Trajan, who admired his abilities, honoured him with the office of consul, and with the government of Illyricum. After the death of his imperial patron, he removed from Rome to Chaeronea ; in which delightful retirement, he composed the great- est part of his works. His Lives of Illustrious Men, is the most esteemed of his productions. Hisp'recision and fidelity are remark- able. In his style, he is energetic and animated ; though distin- guished neither for purity nor elegance. Sometimes he is too cir- cumstantial ; yet, on the whole, he has been pronounced to be the most entertaining and instructive of all tlie writers of ancient history. il. Juvenal was born at Aquimnu, in Italy, and died in the reign of Trajan, 128 A. C, at an advanced age. He came early io Rome, where he applied himself at first to declamation, and afterwards to the writing of satires. Sixteen of tliese pieces are extant. In them, he is an animated, .severe, and bold reprover of vice, and displays also much humour. He, however, defeats his object, in a great measure, by the gross- ness and indecency of his manner. His correctness in delineation is the result of experience and age. He has been called, with some reason perhaps, the last of the Roman poets. 12. M. Antoninus, whose history has been given before, was born at Rome, in the 12lFt year of the christian era, and died on an ex- pedition against the Marcomanni, in the nineteenth year of his reign. He was a prince of great talents and virtue. His death was regret- ted by mankind as a public loss, and tlie greatest honour was paid to his memory. According to the superstition of the times, he was ranked among the gods, and in almost every house his statue was found. His book of Meditations has been mucli admired by scholars and philosopliers. 13. 'J'ertnllian lived at Carthage, and flom-ished in tlie reigns of Severus and (^aracalla. He was originally a pagan, but afterwards embraced Christianity, and became one of its ablest defenders. His writings evince that he possessed a lively imagination, fervid elo- quence, strenglli of reasoning, and a considerable acquaintance with style. His Apology for the Christians, and liis Prescriptions, are the best esteemed of liis innn(;rous works. The historian Gibbon, calls him the "stern" Tertullian. ROMAN EMPIRE. 51 14. Origen was born at Alexandria, about tlie year 185, and died in 254, having been presbyter of that city. He wrote in Greek. He was mucli celebrated for his parts and learning. He was endowed with imaffected humility and modesty, and was extremely rigid in following the christian rules. In the sixty-ninth year of his age, he suficred martyrdom. His works are many, and include a number of homilies, commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and different trea- tises, besides his Hcxa{)la. This last work first gave the hint for the compilation of our polyglot Bibles. Mosheim calls him the lu- minary of the christian world, during the age in which he lived ; but observes, that he failed in justness of judgment, and was given to the Platonic philosophy. 15. Cyprian was a native and a bishop of Carthage. He was born about the beginning of the third century, of heathen parents, but became a convert to Christianity, and was a principal father of the church. To be more devoted to purity and study, he is said to have ab;'.ndoned his wife ; and, as a proof of his charity, he dis- tributed his goods to the poor. He wrote eighty-one letters, besides several treatises, and rendered his works valuable, by the informa- lion he conveys respecting the discipline of the ancient church. He was beheaded as a martyr, at Carthage, September 14, 258 A. C. Moshiem speaks of him as possessing the most eminent abili- ties and flowing eloquence, i)ut rather too attentive to the ornaments jf rhetoric. PERIOD II. TJie period of the Norlhcni Invasions, exteridhig.froni the Reign of Constantine the Great, 300 years A. C. to the Extinciion. of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. The empire of Rome, as has ah'cady appeared, had been for several years imder the sway of a number of masters, on all of whom tiie burden of government c(nuilly devolved. At the time when Constantine was pro- claimed in Britain 306 A. C. upon the death of his father Constaiitius, tlie two Caesars, Severus and Maximin, had already l)een proclaimed 305 A. C. — Maxcntius, son ofMax- unian, had about the same time, 300 A. C, declared himself. The next year Licinias was created emperor by Galerius, >vho had never willingly owned Constantine. These were Constantino's conipetitors, and in the course of a few years lie hved to see them either destroyed in various ways, or overcome in battle, and himself remaining the sole master of the Roman world. 52^ MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD II. Constantine has been styled the first christian eiriperor. Whatever may have been his real character, as far as religion is concerned, it is certain that he stopped the persecutions of the christians — that he publicly favoured Christianity — defend- ed it against its enemies, and tolerated the profession of it in the empire. Indeed, under his auspices it became tlie religion of the state, and that great change in the Roman govern- ment took place, which, from a persecuting, made it a protect- ing power. For the inliuence whicii Ciu-istianity exerted over tiie public conduct of this emperor, a cause has beeji as- signed, possessing a miraculous character, viz. : his seeing a pillar of light in the heavens in the form of a cross, bearing the inscription — " By this conquer." Whether this were a real sight, or a mere insaginatiou, it is asserted in the records of the times, as an undoubted fact ; and if it were such, we may readily account for the part which Constantine acted, even should we b(; forced to doubt the integrity of his religious principles. § The first exploits of Constantine were directed -atjainst the Franks,, who had then overrun Gaul. It was in 311 or 312, Vv'hen he was marching against IMaxentius, and reflecting on tho mutabiUty of the world, and the opinions whicli then divided the attention of man- kind, that he saw the piihir of light mentioned above. Tliis was in the latter part of the day, and on the following night, Jesus Christ is said to have appeared to him vi'ith the same sign. In consequence of these appearances, the emperor caused a roj'ai standard to be made, hearing a figure similar to that he had seen, and commanded that it should be Carried before him in his wars. Soon espousing tlie cause of Christianity, he entered Italy, and ad- vancing towards the gates of Rome, he attacked and defeated Max- entius, who. in attemining an escape, was drowned in tlie Tiber. The next day Constantine was received into the city as a deliverer. In 314, a war was kindled between Constantine and Licinius, but it soon ended in a peace. Nine years afterwards, hostilities broke out again, when Licinius after two defeats was obliged to abdicate, leaving the government to Constantine alone. 2. The administration of Constantine varied very much, in the dillerent periods of his life. It was far more com- mendable at the beginning, than it at length became. His natural tem|)er was severe and cruel, and the latter pan ot his reign was marked by several acts of intolerant zeal, and sanguinary rigour. In protecting and countenancing the Christian religion he deserves our approliation, although it must be acknowledsred that hcbroufj-htit into too close an al- Conversion of Constantine. P. 52. St. Bernard preaching to the Crusaders. P. 134. ROMAN EMPIRE. 6^ liance wi'.ii (lie civil power, to consist with its higliest pros- perity. § The cliaraclc ■ f Constantine has been the subject of extravagant eulogy, or violent censure, according as friends or foes have been concerned in drawing it. We shall do well perhaps to strike the balance between the different representations — the prejudices of the cotemporary pagans against it we should little regard, nor should we think too much of the panegyric which was resorted to for its vindication, by the professed Christians of his day. It was a highly mixed character which he possessed. This emperor was the author of an essential change in tlie Roman affairs, in another respect besides that of religion. In transferring the seat of tlic empire from Rome to Constantino- ple, he airected its condition during the remainder of its ex- istence. This step accelerated the destruction of the decay- ing fabric. His motives in this project cannot be accurately determined — whether they had reference to ideas of poHcy and advantage, or purely to resentment on account of affronts received at Rome Whatever they were, his own reputation and the pul)Iic interests were injured. The eiliict of this measure, though not immediately felt, was at length fatal. After the government was apportioned among the emperor's sons, there was such a division of the forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who fought with superior numbers, and had been hitherto re- pidsed, now began to prevail and to encroach on the pro- vinces. In an expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at Nicomedia, in the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third of his age. § The new seat of empire is said to have been pointed out in the following manner-— Constantine had made choice of a situation at Chalcedon, in Asia Minor ; hut it seems, in laying out the ground- plot, an eagle caught up the line and flew with it over to Byzantium, a city wliicli lay upon the opposite side of the IJosphorus. Here, therefore, it was deemed expedient to fix the seat of empire; and Constantine, after having built a capitol, an amphitheatre, many cliurchesand other pu!)lic works, and many magnificent edi- fices, and after having dedicated the city to the God of martyrs, re- paired thither, with liis wliole court. From this period to the reigns of Ilonorius and Arcadius. when the empire was divided into two distinct sovereignties^ the histories of Rome and Constantinople are necessarilv blended. 5* 54 MODERN HISTORY.^ — lERIOD I. 3. The Roman world had long been cDmposv- lof discord ant parts, and the work of corruption and dissolation was ai this time making a rapid progress. The immense mass was kept together for a period longer, only by the vigorous exer- tion of despotism. The fabric naturally tottered to its fall, when the Pagan principles of religion, which constituted an essential part of its foundation, were removed. The arm of power then supplied the props that npheld it, and this, more emphatically than was ever the case Ijefore. § The Roman armies at this era, were debased by the intermixture of Scj^thians, Goths, Germans, and other barbarous tribes ; and Con- stantine, from a timid pohcy of guarding against mutinies of the troops, reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5000 and upwards, to 1000 or 1500. 4. Before his death, Conslaiitine had settled the empire on five princes — his three sons and two nephews. His sons were Constantine II., Constans, and ( 'onstantius II. The nephews, who were Cccsars, were named Dalmatius, and Annibalianus. Their sovereignty ccmmmenced 337 A. C. Immediately upon the accesssion of these princes, Con- stantius contrived to destroy the two Caesars, with five others of his cousins and two of his uncles. Soon after this. Con- stantine entered into a contention with Constans, and was killed ; and Constans in a few years perished in atten)pting to quell a revolt among his subjects. Constantius, therefore, remained in the })ossession of the whole empire. He reigned twenty-four yeciis in misfortune and dishonour. § Domestic broils, and insurrections of the troops,had left the west- ern frontiers of tlie empire exposed to the barbarians. The Franks, Saxons, A) emanni, and .Sarmatians had devastated the fine countries on the Rhine, and tlie Persians had kept up a succession of wars in the eastern provinces. At first Constantius obliged the Persians to retire ; but he was afterwards overcome in nine signal battles. His cousin Juhan. he created Ca3sar, but afterwards regarding liin^ with jealous}'^, and hearing that he was proclaimed emperor. Con- stantius marched against him. but died on the road. He had reach- ed his 45th year. In pcu-son he was diminutive, but capable of exertion when occasion required ; he was tempcrate,but extremely uxorious ; and in a word, inherited the defects without the abilities of his father. He was much engaged in theological controversy, but his religious principles or character cannot inspire us with any great respect. 5. Julian, commonly called the apostate, on account of his relapsing into paganism from a Christian education, was ROMAN EMPIRE. 05 acknowledged by the senate, 361 A. C. His army had pre- viously proclaimed him emperor, much against his will ; but the insult he received from Constantius, who exacted submis- sion to himself as the supreme head, determined him to assert his claims by force of arms. After due preparation and vigorous efforts, he was happily released from this necessity, by the death of Constantius. Julian had already restored the glory of the Roman arms by repres.-ing the invasions of tlie barbarians. He was noj without several noble traits, and was fitted by knowledge ana energy to govern a great people. His enmity against the holy religion of Jesus, was deservedly his greatest defect. To this lie added bigotry in favour of paganism, supersti- tion, and no small share of a foolish credulity. He was ad- dicted to the studies of magic and astrology. He immediately began the reformation of abuses of various kinds, but declared in favour of paganism, re-opened the tem- ples, and without directly persecuting, did much to injure (Jhristians and their cause. In 363, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem ; but certain miraculous appearances, it is said, prevented the execution of his design. During the ^arne year, in a war with the Persians, while pursuing a vic- torious course, and in a successful engagement, he received a mortal wound. He had reigned but three years, and lived thirty-one. § The ciianiiig and the niaUr e of Juhan, appeared, in treating the Christians with contcnipt. lie removed tliem, as visionaries, from all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of the laws to decide tho;ir difierences, because their religion forbade a contentions spirit; andthry were debarred the studies of literature and philosophy, as this would subject them to the perusal of pagan authors. Julian, like many others opposed to Christianity, employed wit and ridicule against this relifjion ; for he was an author as well as a warrior, it is said in ai)ology for him, that he used tliese weapon in self-defence — that he was first lampooned by the Christians. However tiiat may bo, religion is a subject too .sacred to be treated in tliat manner. One of his works against the Christians, was Mi- sophog-on, or beard hater. liis Caesars is the most famous of his compositions, being a satire upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caisar to Constantine. This philosophical fable, according to Gibbon, is "one of the most agreeable and instructive jiroductions of ancient wit.'' His last raonients were spent in conversation with a philosopher 5^ MODERN nrSTORT. PERIOD II. on the immortality of the soul — he expressed his expectation cf being united with heaven, and with the stars,* which was one of his astrological vagaries, and he breathed his last without indicating the least sorrow for his fate, or the suddenness of his death. His attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, was made with a view to furnish a specious argument against prophecy, and of course the truth of revelation. The prodigies on the occasion, which prevent- ed the completion of the wor]<, are attested by contemporary writers, such as Ammianus Marcel! inus, and Gregory Naziar.zen. This article of history lias been tlie subject of much dispute. But whether Xve allow or not that the prodigies, such as earthquakes and balls of fire, happened, to the annoyance of the workmen and to the destruc- tion of tlieir commenced work, it is evident that something prevented the work, for the temple was never rebuilt, and thus our Saviour's prophecy remains as yet unsuspected. " Jerusalem is to be trodden down of the Gentiles till the time of the Gentiles is fulfilled." 6. Oil tlie death of Julian, the race of Constantiiis Clorus became extinct, and the Roman world was without a bead, and without an heir. In tliis situation, the army finally fixed on Jovian, a Pannonian, and the emperor's first domestic, as his successor, 363 A. G. Jovian made peace with the Per- sians, by the cession of five provinces ; for on Julian's death tlie army was brought to the brink of destruction, and by such a sacrifice only could he save it and himself. This emperor applied himself to restore tranquillity to the Church. He displayed the banner of the cross, and reversed the edicts of Julian respecting Christianity. His reign, which continued only seven months, was mild and equitable. He died suddenly at the age of thirty-three years. 5 While Jovian was on his march to secnre the palace of Constan- tinople, his wife with an imperial train hastened to meet him, car- rying with her their infant son. The moment of embracing her husband seemed to be at hand : but the distressing news of his death which was immediately communicated to her, most cruelly disap- pointed her hopes. He had died the night before, as some report, by sutTocation from tlie vapour of charcoal. 7. Valentinian I., after a delay of a few days was elected emperor by the army. 364 A. C. One month after, he asso- ciated his brother Valens, in the empire, and gave him the eastern provinces. From this period, the division of the em- pire into Eastern and Western, became fixed and permanent. * This was in agreement with tlie doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato, which seems to exclude any personal or conscious immortality. ROMAN EMPIRE. ST The empire, however, was still considered as one body. On the East, the Persians were making inroads. The West was continually invaded by the northern barbarians. The latter were repelled by the emperor in many successful bat- des. He favoured the Christian religion, and his domestic administration was equitable and wise. His temper, howe- ver, was violent. He died on an expedition against the Ale- manni, 367 A. C. § It is said that the barbarians against whom he had last taken arms, had piovoin liis death, they shook off the yoke. They were finally destroyed by the Lombards. The Suevi were a warlike rmtion of Gei-mnny, inhabiting that part of it in which Berlin is now situated. They were great wanderers, and often changed their habitations. § In 40G. they entered Gaul witli the Alains and Vandals, wilii whom they passed into Spain, in a part of which '.hey established a monarchy. This was aftervv'ards destroyed by the Visogoths. '^rhe Burgundians first inhabited what now constitutes the )j the captives was the wife of Alaric, who was compelled to implore the clemency of the victor. The Goths, however, were but partially checked in con- sequence of this victory. Stilicho might, perhaps, have delayed for some time the fall of the empire, but iiis plans were frustrated by the machinations of his. ri- vals, and he fell a victim to the suspicions of the ungrateful emperor, 408 A. C. Alaric had long stood in a menacing attitude, and now prepared to complete his designs upon Italy. About this time, vast nmnbers U 62 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. of Gotlis pouring down upon Germany, forced the nations whom they dispossessed, to fall upon Italy. These joined their arms to those of Alaric, Avho made an attack on Rome. He met with success ; and this great city, which liad so long been the terror of the world, was sacked, plundered and partially burnt, 410 A. C, by the savage tribes of Germany and Scythia. The popu- lation of Rome, at this time, might amount to 1,200,000 men ; but the nobles were wholly sunk in luxury and effeminacy, and the populace had become exceedingly debased, by the manimiission of slaves or the influx of foreigners. They were nothing more than the shadow of their ancestors in bravery and spirit. Hence the suc- cess of the arms of the barbarian. The catastrophe which Rome experienced, was hastened also by famine. War had prevented the cultivation of the lands, and the ports being blocked up, the citizens were reduced to the greatest ex- tremities — human flesh Avas publicly sold. Treachery completed the work. The Salarian gate was opened at midnight, by some of the Romans themselves, and the enemy rushed in. The scene was dreadful ; for although the conqueror, in his magnanimity had given orders that none except the armed should be killed, great numbers of citizens were put to death, and larger numbers still, were reduced from aflluence to want and cap tivity. Though tlie city was pillaged and set on fire, it is thoughi that few, comparativ'ely, of its magnificent edifices were destroyed. Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, luit death suddenly put an end to his ambitious projects. He died after a short illness. Honorius, instead of improving this opportunity to recover his lost provinces, entered into a treaty with Ataulfus, Alaric's successor, gave hirn in mar- riage his sister, Placidia, and ceded to him a portion of Spain. By these and other acts, Honorius suflined the empire, by degrees, to pass from the dominion of the Romans. Ho- norius continued to reign till the year 422. 13. Valentinian HI. was crowned two years after the death of Honorius, 424 A. C. He w^as the son of Constnn- tius, a general of Honorius, and during seven months, an as- sociate with him in the government. In 439, the emperor /ost his dominions in Africa, by the revolt of Count Boniface, who delivered that part of the empire to the Yandals. § Aetius, a general of Valentinian, being jealous of Boniface, by means of his artifices drew the latter into a revolt, and was em- ployed on the part of the empire to punish him on this account. Boniface defeated the first army that was sent against him ; but dis- trusting his strength to cope singly with his enemies, he was in- duced to call in the assistance of Genseric, king of tlie Vandals. The hieasure. however, was ruinous to his cause. HUMAN EMPIRE. 63 The Vandal having thus obtained a footing in Africa, wi;ich he greatly desired, could not be prevailed on afterwards, by the offer of large ?ums of money, to retreat. Although the compact between the two generals was, that they should divide Africa between them, Genseric occupied the whole country, except three cities, and these ne soon took. Shutting up Boniface in Carthage, he compelled him, at the ex piralion of a year, to surrender; and the Roman general experienced Ihe mortification of beholding all Africa, which he had once saved, ravaged in the most wanton manner by the barbarians whose assist- ance he had invited. The kingdcm which Genseric thus establisli- ed, did not last quite a century. The other provinces of the empire were protected against the invasion of the barbarians, by Aetius. The Huns, at this time, had begun to make their ravages in the empire. Under Attila, their leader, in 445, they first overran Illyricum, Thrace, Dacia, and Ma;sia,and laid the Romans under tribute. Soon afterwards, with an army of 500,000 men, Attila in- vaded Gaul, and threatened the destruction of the em- pire. The forces of the Romans, under Aetius, met him in l)attle, on the plains of Chalons, and defeating him, with the loss of 160.000 men, checked his progress for a time. Not long after, however, he invaded Italy, and Valentin- ian being shut up in Rome, by the arms of the barbarian, was compelled to purchase a peace. Attila dying suddenly, in the midst of his successes, the empire of the West was saved from imiDediate destruction. § The march of the Huns was extremely desolating. To their leader, Attila, the victims of his ambition have given the expressive appellation of "Tiie Scourge of God." He first invaded the East, wliicii he ravaged at pleasure; its emperor, Theodosius, iieing dis- posed rather to conciliate his favour by a tribute, than to attempt his expulsion by force of arms. Disdaining so mean spirited an enemy, lie turned to the West ; where his appearance has already been described. His body was secreily buried, enclosed in three coflins, tlie first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. Tlie men wlio dug liis grave were put to death, lest they should re- veal llie place of his burial. Aetius, whose military talents had been so serviceable to the empire, soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the eunuch Heraciius, anrl Valentinian stabbed him witli his own hand. The next year the emperor himself was assassinated. 14. Maximus II. wlio had instigated the murder of Val- entinian, was proclaimed, 455 A. C. He married Eudoxia, 64 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II, the widow of his predecessor, to whom lie imprudently re- vealed his guilt in the assassination of the emperor. To re- venge this deed, she called in tlie assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Upon his arrival, Maximus fled, but he met the vengeance of his people, who stoned him to death on account of his cowardice. § Maximus was a Roman senator of the Ancian family, and was in- cited to the destruction of Valentinian, by the dishonour which the latter had cast upon his wife. However respectable Maximus was in private life, his abilities were inadequate to stay the fall of the em- pire, had he been longer contirmed. Eiidoxia had reason to repent of her imprudence. The call upon Genseric for aid, well comported with his private^ sinister aims. After he had landed in Italy, with an army of Moors and Vandals, he took Rome, delivered it up to pil- lage during several days, destroyed many of the monument? of ancient genius, and conveyed the empress and her two daughters back with him in triumph to Carthage. 15. From the death of Maximus, 455 A. G. there was a succession of eight empeiors, during twenty years ; at the expiration of which, as we shall soon learn, the empire ter- mmated. Little more than their names can be mentioned below. § Avitus was acknowledged in Gaul by his troops. Having crea- ted Ricimer, a Roman senator, general of his armies, the latter soop entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor; and Avitus, at first arrested and deposed, at last died while on the road to Italy, 457 A. C. Ricimer, though an able commander, was a savage and tur- bulent demagogue. Majoriaa was proclaimed after the deposition of Avitus. He made an unsuccessful attempt against the kingdom of t!ie Vandals in Africa. This emperor published several wise laws for the refor- mation of abuses, but the reputation which he acquired for wisdom and virtue, excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who deposed and slew him, 461 A. C. Severus HI. was created emperor by Ricimer, who governed un- der his name. Ricimer, after the expiration of four years, found it convenient to poison the nominal master of himself and the empire. Athemius was called to the empire by the united suffrages of the senate, the army, and the people, in 4C)7. To attach Ricimer to his interest, who was become extremely formidable, he gave him, his daughter in marriage. Ricimer, however, soon having a dif- ference with his father-in-law, besieged and pillaucd Rome. Du- ring this transaction the emperor was murdered. Olybrius, who was sent with an army by Leo, emperor of thp ROMAN EMPIRE. 66 East, to protect Athemius against Ricimer, was seduced by the lat- ter and proclaimed emperor, but died three months after, 472. Glycerus, an obscure soldier, favoured by a Burgundian prince, assumed the title of emperor at Ravenna; but Leo had conferred it on Julius Nepos, wlio look Glycerus prisoner, and caused him to be consecrated bishop of Salona, 473. Julius Nepos was proclaimed at Rome 474. The next year, Ores- tes, a Panuonian, wliom he sent into Gaul, revolted, and besieged the emperor in Ravenna. Nepos escape?ars 234 and 254. they made an irruption into Gaul, but were sig- nally overthrown by the Romans under Aureiian, then a military iribime. They finally obtained a footing in that country, about the year 284 A. C. Succeed ing this event, they had many conlontions with the Romans, in which they often conquered, and were, ofteiior, perhaps, defeated. By t!ie time, however, hi whicli the emperor (^onstans reigned, they were generally at peace with the Romans, and several of ih^m en- ENGLAND. 81 joyed places of distinction in the armies and at court. The petty sovereigns who preceded Clovis, were Pharamond, wlio made the last settlement of the Franks in Gaid, Clod io,Merov(rus, and Childeric I. Clovis made many conquests : first over the Romans in the battle of Soissons : ^hen over the king of Thnringia, wlio had inv.-xled his dominions ; afterwards over the Germans in the battle of Tolbiac ; and finally over the Visogoths under Alaric, when he subdued all the south of Gaul. In his contest witli the Germans, 496 A. C, he in- voked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess, ^vhom he had mar- ried three years before. In consequence of his victory, he became professedly a believer, and together witli three thousand of his sub- jects, was baptised on Christmas-day, the same year. About thirteen years afterwards, he cruelly murdered most of his relatives, which shewed how little influence Christianity had over him. Clovis made Paris the seat of his kingdom. He died, 511. Clovis was followed by a scries of obscure kings, through tlie remainder of this period. They need not, tlierefore, be mentiuned particularly. They were, in general, weak and wicked, and plunged the nation into deeper barbarism than i( was under during the Roman dominion. ENGLAND. 20. England, whose ancient name was Britain, had been abandoned by the Romans fifty years, when the Empire of the West was subverted. In the mean time, the inhabitants, who weve left defenceless, sulfered from the encroachments of their northern neighbours, the Picts and Scots, and in their distress, solicited several of the warlike tribes of the continent, for assist- ance. The Jutes first arrived for that purpose. These were soon followed by the Angles and Saxons, in 451, from the shores of the Baltic. The object was soon accomplished, for which the Britons had invited them into their country. Their enemy was repulsed ; but they found a more formidable ene- my in tlieir protectors themselves. The Saxons, procuring large reinforcements from German}', turned their arms against the Britons, and took possession of the country. It was not, however, without a long nnd severe sfruggle, of nearly one lumdred and fifty years, that this con- quest was achieved. The result was, the establishment of seven distinct states, or sovereignties, which were governed, more than two hundred years, by their respective kings. These states are usually called the Heptarchy. § The island of Britain, before it was known to the Romans, was inliabited by a very rude and uncivilized people. They were either 82 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. naked, or clothed only with the skins of beasts, having their bodies painted with various colom's. Hence is supposed to be the origin of the name, Britain, wliich is derived from a British word, brit, sig- nilying painted. The name England was given to the country, from the Angles, a tribe of those continental nations, who conquered it in tlie fiftli and sixth centuries. Tlie island was originally settled, in all probability, by a colony from Gaul, v/ho were called Celtes or Gaels, the remains of whom are chiefly in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, and in the north of Ireland. The period of their settlement is quite uncertain. The Phoenicians, indeed, traded very early with the inhabitants of Corn- wall, for copper and tin, but they were unacquainted with the inte- rior of the country. Tiie Romans have given us the earliest authen- tic information respecting it. This commences with the first inva- sion by Julius Crcsar, 55 B. C. Caesar began the dominion of the Romans in Britain ; but the island was subdued, only by degrees, under the Roman leaders who succeeded him. Forty-three years A. C, it was again invaded by the emperor Claudius, whose general, Ostorius, defeated ("aractacus, king of the Britons, took him jirisoner, and sent him to Rome, in 51. In the reign of Nero, 61 A. C, Suetonius defeated Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) slaying 80,OCO men in a single battle. Boadicea, however, had previously obtained several victories over the Romans, by her gallant conduct. She com- mitted suicide, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror. Agricola, who governed Britain in the reigns of Titus, Vespasian, and Domitian, formed a regular plan for suliduing the whole island, and rendering the acquisition advantageous to the conquerors. Foj this purpose he penetrated into Caledonia, (Scotland,) defeated the natives in various encoimters, and established a chain of forts be- tween the Friths of Clyde and Forth. Subdirng most of the island, he soon diffused among the Britons a knowledoe of the arts of peace. He introduced among them, laws and government ; taught them to value the conveniences of life, and reconciled them to the language and manners of their masters. To protect the southern inhabitants against the Scots, Adrian, in 121, built a wall in the north part of Britain, between the river Tyne, and tlie Frith of Solway. This was afterwards strengtlieiKnl with new fortifications, by Severus, in 208. From this period, till the abandonment of Britain by the Romans, in 426, the inhabitants enjoyed miinterrupted tranquillity. As has been already mentioned, the Romanized I?ritons, when left by their masters, were thrown into a defenceless state. Their long peace had somewhat enervated them, and they were unable to resist the attacks of their barbarous neighbours on fiie north. It was Vorti- gern, one of their kings, who invited the CJerman tribes to his pro- Tection. The latter gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to visit a country long known tf) them in their piratical voyages to its coasts. Ilengist and Ilorsa, two brothers, were t.lieir leaders on this DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 83 Dccasion, and with only IGOO warriors, in conjunclion with the Soutii Dritons, they conipeUed the Scots to retire to tlieir mountains. After the SaxcMis, from being tiie protectors, had become the con- querors of Britain, and founded tiie Heptarcliy, liistory records nothing that is very interesting respecting them, until tlie time of Egbert the Great, who became sole king of England, in 827. We may ttierefore pass over the English history, until that period, only remarking that the Saxons, wlio were partially acquainted with christianitj' before, were more fully converted to the faith, by the labours of the monk Augustin, in 597. Dlsling7iished Characters in Psriod Til 1. Procliis, a learned PLitonist antl unbeliever 2. Boetiiiiis, a Roman poet, and Platonic philospher. 3. Procopius, a Roman historian — sometimes denominated the last of the classic writers. 4. Cassiodorus, the hi-^torian of Ravenna, and tutor to Theodoric, the Gothic king. 5. Belisarius, an heroic and successful general of Jus- tinian. 6. Gild as, the most ancient British writer extant. 1. Proclus was born at Constantinople, in 410, and died in 485 A. C. He was a pliilospher among the later Platonists. In the chair of the academy, he taught pliilosophy with great reputation. Such was his industry, that frequently, in the same day, he pro- nounced five lessons, and composed seven hundred lines. " His sa- gacious mind," says Gibbon, " explored the deepest questions ol morals and metapliysics, and he ventured to urge eighteen argu- ments against the Christian doctrine of the creation of the world." This, as might have been expected, proved to be labour hi vain. 'J'he foundations of truth can bo overturned by no human sagacity, Iiowevcr great. 2. Boethius, who was distinguished both as a poetic and prose writer, was descended from one of the noblest families of Rome. In consequence of having remonstrated, with great spirit, against the tyranuy of Tlieodoric, he was beheaded in prison, by the command of that king, in 521. Boethius wrote many philosopliical works,, the greater part according to the manner of the logicians; but his ethic composition, concerning the "Consolation of Philosophy." is his chief performance, and has always been justly admired, both in re?peft to the matter and the style. Mr. Harris, in liis "Hermes," observes, tiiat, "with Boethius, tlie last remains of Ro- man dignity may be said to have sunk in the western world :" and Mosheim testifies, that he " shone with tlie brightest lustre, as a philosopher, an orator, a poei, and a divine; ami, both in elegance and subtilty of genius, had no ofjual in the sixth century.'* 3. Procopius belonged to Ca?sarea, in Palestine, and flourished in 534. He was secretary to Belisarius, whom he greatly celebrated 84 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. in his History of the Reisn of Justinian. This history is dividet into eiglit bool'Cs ; two of \\'hich give an account of the Persian war, two of the Vandals, and four of the Goths, to the year 553 : which was afterwards continued in five boolis, by Agalthias, till 559. The historian is thought to be too severe upon the emperor, though his performance, in other respects, has a high character. Some con- sider him as the last of the Roman classic authors. 4. Cassiodorus was a man of eminence, in many respects, and. called, by way of distinction, " the senator." He united the states- man and author in his character. He was born in Italy, about 463, and died at near one hundred years of age. His writings relate chiefly to history, theology, and criticism. He was inferior in abili- ties to Boethius, but still was very respectable. 5. Belisarias was truly a Roman in spirit, and the greatest gene- ral of his age. His life and exploits have been already told us, as particularly as this work will admit. In a degenerate and effemi- nate age, he put forth an energy, and acquired a fame in war, which wonld bear a comparison with the first leaders of the most favoured days of the republic. He was, however, as distinguished by his misfortunes as he was by his victories, owing to the ingratitude of Justinian; and he spent his last days, it is said, under the frown of his master, and, as some report, in actual want. 6. Gildas was a native of Vv^ales. He was surnaraed, The Wise. As the most ancient of the British writers, he deserves a notice here. His famous " Epistle," was written A. C. 560, and is a most severe censure of the depravity of the Britons at that time. He lias some things well calculated to invite the attention of the learned. PERIOD IV. TJie Period of the esiahlisJiment of the t^aracen Domi- nion ; extending from the flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. to the croiDnins^ of Charlemagne, at Rome, 800 years A. C. ARABS OR SARACENS. During this period, the darkness in Europe very much increased, and the times exhibited a melancholy contrast to the former splendid eras of Grecian and Roman refinement and literature. But while the human mind sunk in Europe, it rose in the East, under thf^ auspices of the Saracens, where it was for a short time displayed, not only in the energies of a warlike superstition, but, at length, in the cultivation of the arts and learning. The history of this people is connected with a remarkable change in the aspect of human affairs. Sec. 1. The Arabs, in all ages, have lived as wander- ers, in a stale of independence, and have never been sub- dued by any of the great conquerors of the world, though al- most always at war with then* neighbours. They derive ARABS OR SARACENS. 85 liieir origin from Ishmael, and, before the time of Mahomet, they professed a reUgion which was a mixture of idolatry and Judaism. The name Saracen, which was at length applied to most of the Arabian nations, is derived from a tribe that occupied the north-western part of the country. This people, before the time already referred to, had forsaken their deserts, and made themselves useful or formidable (according as their ser- vices were purchased or neglected) to the respective empires of Rome and Persia. Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569, gave birth to Mahomet, (or Mohommed.) their pretended prophet. In 609, when he was about 40 years old, he began to concert a system of mea- sures, the issue of which, was the establishment of a new re- ligion in the world, and of an empire, which, spreading over many countries, lasted more than six centuries. The reli- gion still remains. His impostures were not, at first, well received. The citi- zens of Mecca, even, opposed them. Forsaking his native city, where his life was in jeopardy, lie fled to Medina, at the epoch called by the Mahometans, the hegira, or flight, Avhich was in the year 622, and the 54th year of Mahomet's age. By the aid of his disciples at Medina, he returned to Mecca as a con(iueror, and making numerous proselytes, he soon became inaster of Arabia and Syria, was saluted king in 627, and, in the midst of his successes, died suddenly in 632. He left two branches of his family, who became powerful caliphs of Persia and Egypt. § As Mahomet will be spoken of again, as one of the distinguished characters of this period, it will be ininecessary to add many par- ticulars here, respecting either his life, or the religion of which he was the founder. Some historians are of the opinion, that he at- tempted only an inconsiderable change in the creed of his coun- trymen, and that the mighty revolution whieli followed his efforts, was, in respect to Arabia, almost wholly political. In his flight, tliis bold leader gained Medina with much difficulty, but being well received, he made it the place of his future residence. FJesidos those who tied with him, and shared his fate, he was soon followed and joined by many of the principal citizens of Meccii. Amongst his followers were Amrou, the future conqueror of Egypt ; Saad, who afterwards overran Persia; Obeidah, whose fortune it was to subdue Syria and Palestine ; and the very celebrated Kal^d Kben al Walid. 8 86 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. Though IMahomet met with some reverses at first, he was no sooner aided by such men as Amrou and Kaled, than he overthrew whatever opposed him. After the submission of Arabia to his arms, tlie Arabs and Greelcs were brouglit into contact ; and the former were prepared to encroach on tlie remnant of the Roman empire. Mahomet owed liis success, in part, to several moral causes, origi- nating in the state of society ; such as the corruption of the true re- ligion, the ignorance of mankind, and the prevailing licentiousness of the times — also to the nature of his doctrines, which, among other things, promising a sensual heaven, were suited to the depravity of the heart, and the taste of the voluptuous Asiatics ; and, not least of all, to powerful political revolutions. It happened the same year in which Mahomet left Mecca, that a destructive war, as already men- tioned, took place between the Eastern empire and Persia. Hera- clius, the emperor, in six campaigns, penetrated to the heart of the Persian dominions, almost destroying that power, and greatly weak- ening his own. Neither of them, therefore, were in a condition to resist the torrent of Arabian fanaticism. Such was the prospect of Mahometanism, when its author met his fate. The followers of this impostor, term their religion Islam, and themselves Musslemen, or Moslems, i. e. true believers. • The book containing their creed, which was produced by Mahomet, in successive portions, and which he pretended te derive from the angel Gabriel, is culled the Koran. Theij priests are called moolahs or imans. IMahomet propagated his religion by the sword, and taught, that to profess any other religion, was a just cause of hatred, and even of murder. 2. The successors of Mahomet, in the dominion which he established, are called Cahphs, a word which means suc- cessors, or ^dcars. The first caliph was Abu-beker, the fa- ther of one of the wives of Mahomet. It is said tha' the im- postor, on his death-bed, appointed AH, his son-in-law, as hii:' successor, but the influence of Abu-beker with the army was sucli, that he, by tliis means, secured the caliphate. Thus the foundation was laid for a mighty contention, and over the body of Mahomet arose that schism, which, at this distant period, weakens the power of Mahometanism, and may eventually terminate its very existence. The sects are two, and tlie ground of dispute is the right of succession t,o ?.Iahomet. Their names are Sheas or Shiites, and the Son- nites. The Sheas, who believe in Ali, as the true successor, are chiefly Persians. The Sonnites, who believe in Abu- beker, consist of the inhabitants of East Persia, Arabia, Tur- ARABS OR SARACENS. 87 key, &c. The Sonnites receive the Koran only, whereas the Sheas adopt the traditions also. In respect to conquest, Abu-beker pursued the course of Mahomet, and, with the aid of his general, Kaled, obtained an important victory over the emperor Heraclius, and en- larged the Saracen dominion. He died in the third year of his reign, having betjueathed the sceptre to Omar. § When llie sceptre was offered to Omar, he modestly observed, "that lie had no occasion for the place." " But the place has occa- sion for 3^011," replied Abu-beker. He died, praying that the God of Mahomet would ratify his choice. It was so far regarded by Ali, his rival, that the latter treated him with the respect due to a consti- tuted superior. Omar commenced his reign in 633. In one campaign he wrested from the Greek empire, Syria, Phojnicia, Mesopo- tamia, and Chaldea. In the next campaign, the whole em- pire of Persia was brought under the Mahometan yoke. Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, were at the same time con- quered by the generals of Omar. } Amrnu, one of his generals, by the order of Omar, destroyed the famous library at Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volume^. The order of Omar betrayed liie ignorance of a savage, and the illibera- lity of a fanatic. "If," said he to Amrou, " these writings agree with tlie Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Omar was finally assassinated. Othman succeeded Omar, in 645. He added Bactriana, and a part of Tartary, to tlie Saracen empire. Upon the death of Othman, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was elect- ed to the calipliate. His name is still revered in the east, and by none of the caliphs was he excelled, either in virtue or courage. After a sli irt but glorious reign of five years, he was assassinated by a Mahometan enthusiast, or reformer. He iuid removed the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Cuja, on the Euphrates. §Ali married Fatema, the daughter of Mahomet, hut Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, and daughter of Abu-beker, bore an immortal iiatred against the husljand and posterity of Fatema. In a battle \i^liich Ali fought with a superior number of rebels, who were ani- mated by tlie counsels of Ayesha, he was entirely victorious. Ayesha, it is said, had seventy men, who held the bridle of her camel, successively killed or wounded ; and the cage or litter in wliich she sat, was stuck throughout with javelins and darts. 3. Within less than half a century, the Saracens reared a 88 MODERN HISTORY, — PERIOD IV. powerful empire, and were formidable to all the nations around them. In 100 years, their dominion extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and other regions in the east, as also Egypt, North Africa, and Spain. Of the race of Omar, already mentioned, there were nine- teen cahphs who reigned in succession ; after which, began the dynasty of the Abassidee, descended from Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet. Almansor, second caliph of this race, built Bagdad, and made it the seat of the Saracen dominion, in 762 A. C. He introduced the culture of the arts and sci- ences among the Saracens. § It was during the reign of Almansor, that Abu Hanifa, the founder of the first of the four sects of the oonnites, died in prison af Bagdad. He had been confined tliere for refusing to be made a judge, declaring that he had rather be punished b}' men than by God. Being asked why he declined the office, he replied, " If I speak the truth, I am unfit ; but if I tell a lie, a li.ir is not fit to be a judge." It is said that he read over the Koran 7( iiO times, while he was in prison. Haroun al Raschid, a caliph who ascended tiie tluone in 785 A. C.j and was contemporary with Charlemagne, was a' famous prince, and celebrated patron of letters. His reign is regarded as the Augustan age of Saracen literature. Many of our proverbs and romances are to be referred to this period. Al Raschid was also a brave and victorious sovereign, and distinguished by equity and benevolence. He died in about 809 A. C. The sciences to whicli the Arabians chiefly devoted their attention, were medicine, geome'^-y, and astronomy. Poetry, and works of fiction, especially the One Thousand and One Nights, were the products of tliat period. Literature was cid- tivated also in Africa and Spain, under the auspices of 4he Saracens. § Soon after Al Raschid's accession to the Caliphate, he invaded and ravaged a part of the Greek empire, with an army of 135,000 men. Having taken the city of Heraclea, he reduced it to ashes; after which copquest he made himself master of several other places. He then attacked the Lsland of Cyprus, whose inhabitants suffered extremely from the invasion. The Greek emperor was so intimi- dated by this success, that he immediately made peace with the caliph, accompanied with a tribute. Several interesting anecdotes are related of this caliph, two of vVhich follow. Being once in Eg>pt, he saitl to his courtiers, EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 89 The king |:ience of which lie died three days after. The 100 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V, murder of his nephew affected Louis with such a degree of remorse, that he performed pubhc penance on account of the crime. The children of Louis greatly eml)ittered, and even short- ened his hfe. First quarreUing among themseh^es, they then attacked their father ; and as he was alternately subdued and restored, his spirits were at length broken, and he died after an inglorious and turbulent reign, 840 A. C. § Louis had a son by a second wife, named Charles, who, as will soon appear, became king of France upon the death of his father.— As a second partition of the empire was made, in order to give a share to this younger son, the other brothers were highly distiflfect- ed. This was one occasion of their contention. When Louis found his end approaching, lie set aside for Lothairc, a sword and a golden sceptre, the emblems of the empire he intend- ed for him, on condition, however, that he should abide by the parti- tion in favour of Charles. As he did not make any mention of his son, Louis of Bavaria, (Pepin had already deceased,) it was intimated to the old king, that as a christian, he ought n(^t to leave the world, without bestowing upon Louis his pardon, riie dying monarch shook his hoaiy locks, and pointing to them with emotion, replied, "I pardon him, but you may tell him, that it ^\ : s he who has brought down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 3. Charles, surnamcd the Bald, succeeded Louis the mild, in a part of his original dominions, 840 A. C. Soon after his accession, followed the terrible battle of Fontena)^, between the three brothers now left, viz. Lothaire, Louis and Charles, in which Cbarles and Louis were victorious. Lothaire, as the appointed emperor, had wislied to obtain the possession of all his father's territories, and refused to allow the partition in favour of Charles. But being overcome in the battle of Fon- tenay, he was obliged to relinquish his pretensions, and to accede to such a division of the empire, as his brothers now made among themselves. Lothaire, who preserved the title of emperor, had, assigned to him, Italy, and several of the southern provinces of France. Louis had the whole of Germany. France, including Neus- tria and A(juitain, fell to the lot of Ciiarles. Thus the line Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, was lost to the house of France, by the separation of Germany from that house. Instead of remaining hereditary, the crown be- came elective, ;iftcr it had passed, as it did finally, into the hands of tlie Germans. § The IniUle of Fonlenay was fought '.vifli the greatest obstinacy. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 101 Historians agree in stating that 100,000 men perished on that occa- sion. Lothaire fled to tiie Saxons, yet hxid lus plans in sucli a man- ner as to obtain from his brothers a portion of the empire. In the reign of Charles, France Avas plundered by the Normans, who had begmi their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne. But their progress wa^j then inconsiderable. In 843, however, they sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet en- tered tlie Loire, and laid waste the country in its vicinity ; the ma- rauders not only securing great quantities of spoil, but carrying men, women and children into captivity.. In 845, they entered the Seine again with a fleet, and advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, and the city was burnt. With another fleet they approached to Bor- deaux, and pillaged it. Charles, instead of repressing the incursions of these barbarians with his arms, purchased their forbearance with money. (1.) Lothaire, the emperor, died in 855. Before his death, he divided his dominions among his throe sons. Louis II. was the son who succeeded him with the title of emperor. He was a brave and virtuous sovereign, and died 875. (2.) Louis, to whom Germany was assigned, was a power- ful monarch, and rendered himself formidable to his neigh- bours. He died 876. Upon this event, Charles marched with a large army to seize his dominions, but he was soon defeated by his nephew Carloman, the son of Louis II., ha- ving been lirst crowned emperor by the Pope. (3.) Charles, on the death of Louis II., son of Lothaire, (875) assumed the eiTipire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John VIII., on condition of holding it as a vassal to the Holy See. This prince, after contending for the space of two years, with the possessors of the other portions of the empire, with various success, died of poison. 877 A. C. His reign must be pronounced, on the v.hole, to liave been a weak and inglorious one. He was the first of the French monarchs, wlioniade dig- nities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the Carlo\ingian kings, the grandees obtained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. They chose to reside on their territorial possessions, and refused to take any inter- est in the general concerns of the country. Intrenched in their castles and fortresses, they defied the power of tlw; go- vernment, while the country was disturbed and desolated by thf'ir feuds. The Empire of tlic AS'est being now efi^ec'aially disinem- 102 MOD£RN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. bered, tholigh there were afterwards temporary junctions of its different parts, we may properly resume our narrative of the several countries in their separate state. As the power which formed this empire emanated from France, it is natural to speak of this first. Indeed, we have been under the neces sity of noticing it already more than the rest. Germany, not having had a political existence before the era of Charlemagne, will be new on the list of nations. FRANCE. 4. Louis IT., the Stammerer, succeeded Charles, as king of France, 877 A. C. Nothing of importance occurred during his reign, which was a short one, of only nineteen months. His two sons, Louis III., and Carloman, became joint possessors of the throne upon his death. Their reign was short, but it was characterized by union, vigour, and a degree of success against their enemies, the Normans. They died, the one in 882, and the other in S84. § Their deaths were each accidental. Louis, in pursuhig a young female wlio fled from him, struck his head against the door, and was killed by the blow. Carloman, who survived him but a short time, in hiinting a wild boar, was wounded by a spear which one of his attendants launched against the animal. To save the attendant from the blame tliat might be attached to the act, Carloman report- ed that lie had been wounded by the wild boar. Though he lived several days, he persevered in keeping the cause of his death a secret. 5. Charles, surnamed the Fat, was chosen by the peers ot France to fill the vacant tluone, 885. He was brother and successor to Louis II., the German, and son of the Louis, to whom Germany was originally assigned. For a short time, France and Germany were again under the same sway. At the expiration of two years, howevei', Charles was deposed on account of his cowardice, and the imperial dignity was transferred to Germany. Tbe lioltiiity then elected Eudes, count of Paris, to fill the throne. 887, till Charles, a younger brother of Louis III., and Carloman, should attain to the age of manhood. Upon ihe death of Eudes, Charles, who was surnamed the Simple, was introduced to the soveieignty, 898, but he was deposed oy Robert, the brother of Eudes, in 922. Robert was suc- ceeded by Ralrho. or Rodolj)h, duke of Burgundy, the year after. FRANCE. 103 § Charles the Simple, died in prison, 929. He was a weak mo- narch, and despised by liis nobles. It is said, however, that in bat- tle, he killed the vaUant Robert with his own hand. lJp*in the death of Charles, Rodolph was in quiet possession of the throne. It was dnring the reign of Charles that the Normans invaded Neustria, which was ceded to them in 911. To Rollo, their chief, tlie king gave his daughter, Giselle, in marriage. From this people ihe country was called Normandy, and it is from this race of war- riors, that we shall trace the future conquerors of England. 6. Louis IV., the son of Charles the Simple, was called to the throne of France, in 936. He was surnamed Outremer, or Transmarine, on account of having been brought up in England. During his reign, and that of his successor, Lo- thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful lord of France, directed, for the most part, the government. The same situ- ation was held by his son, Hugh Capet, under Louis V., the successor of Lothaire. When Louis died, Hugh, like another Pepin, placed himself on the throne of France. § The corruption of these times, and the peculiar uncertainty and infelicity attending the condition of kings, are manifest, from the fact, that both Lothaire and Louis were poisoned by their queens. 7. Hugh Capet, the head of the third dynasty of kings in France, called the Capetian, began to reign in 987 A. C. He was crowned at Rheims, on the third of July. His administration was marked Avitli ability. He enacted several salutary laws and ordinances, and established his residence in Paris, which had been deserted by his predecessors during more than two hundred years. He delegated a portion of the supreme authority to his son Robert, near the beginning of his reign. § The true heir to the crown, was Charles of Lorrain, uncle to Louis V. Attempting to secure his rights l)y force, he was at last l)elrayed and conlined in prison, where he soon died. Hugh, either through modesty, or the fear of exciting the jea- lousy of his iiol)les, never assumed the insignia of royalty. He al- ways, even on great and solemn occasions, appeared in a plain dress and simple style. S. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded his father in 996. Marrying a cousin in the fourth degree, Rertha, who was the dani;!it(M- of the king of Rtn-gundy, his marriage was amiulled, himst'lf exconununicated, and his kingdom put under an interdict by the pope. This was the first instance of such an exercise of (ho papal authority in France. The distress and confusion that ensued, obliged Robert, much 104 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. against his inclinations, to dismiss Bertha, and to expiate his offence by a solemn penance. He soon after married Constantia of Toulouse, who proved to be a vexatious partner, and cruel queen. § The superstition of the times was seen in the affair of the Pope's interdict. The mass was no longer celebrated ; the sacrament re- fused to the sick ; and the dead left without bia-ial. There were no longer any regulations of police ; and, as all dreaded to approach an excommunicated person, the king was abandoned. He commanded, however, the services of two faithful domestics, who passed through the fire whatever he had touched, and threw to the dogs the refuse of the table. The king, in his second marriage, was extremely unhappy. Con- stantia continually tormented him. She caused the king's favourite, grand master of the palace, to be assassinated. She sowed discord between the sons of Robert. And her intolerance in religion was such, that she ordered thousands of a certain sect of heretics to be burned at the stake. It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that in the province of Lan- guedoc, where these cruelties were particularly exercised, the pro- testant faith has since constantly predominated over Catholicism. Robert is said to have been the first of the French kings who, accord- ing to the superstitions of the vulgar, received the supernatural gift of curing scrofulous affections, thence denominated the king's evil, by touching tlie sick, and pronouncing these words, " The king touches thee, and may God cure thee." 9. On the death of the king, his two sons, Henry and Ro- bert, both aspired to the tbrone. It belonged to Henry, but the infamous Constantia had contrived to create an interest in favour of Robert. After some bloodshed, Henry was invested with the sovereign authority, 1031 A. C. He was an ac- tive sovereign, who knew how to maintain, and even extend Ins dominion, but he was not always judicious in his en- terprises. § He subdued several of his rc'iellious nobles, defeated an armyot a younger brother who had claimed an inheritance in the monarchy, and espoused, for a time, the cause of William of Normandy, against the Norman grandees. He, however, soon attacked the latter — a rash step, whicli laid the foundation of long and disastrous wars. About the commencement of Henry's roign, a dreadful famine desolated not only France, but tlie rest of Europe. The dead were disinterred to serve as food for the living. The passengers were intercepted on the high ways, and carried into the woods to be devoured by the famishing peasantry. In one place, human flesh was publicly exposed for sale ; and in another, an innkeeper massa- cred the poor during the night, so as to furnish his table for gucua ITALV. 105 on the following day. The season was such that corn could not be raised, and the want of pasture occasioned the death of cattle. 10. Henry left tiie crown to his son Philip I., then seven years oltl, 1060 A. C, under the regency of Baldwin, count of Flanders. Philip was rather a spectator than an actor in tlie political events of his reign. He lived beyond the com- mencement of the first crusade, having swayed the sceptre during forty-eight years. His principal war ^vas with Wil- liam of Normandy, noAV become king of England. From this date commenced a long hostility between the English and French monarchies. ITALY. 11. In the division of the Western Empire among the sons of Louis tlie Debonaire, Italy, as we have seen, was assign- ed to Lothaire, with the title of emperor. His successor, as we have also seen, was Louis II., his son, who died in 875. The succeeding year, Charles the Bald, king of France, was proclaimed king of Italy by a diet at Pavia. But he retain- ed this sovereignty only two years, his death occurring in 877. Italy was afterwards ravaged by contending tyrants ; but in 964, Otho, the Great, reunited it to the dominions of the German empire. A series of wars, ho\vever, continued dur- ing at least two centuries, occasioned by the invasions of the Normans, and the claims of the emperors, till Italy was di- vided into several independent states. These wars are too unimportant and uninteresting to be noticed in this, or the following period. Italy, therefore, once the mistress of the world, must, for a time, be left out of the records of nations, except as her afiairs shall be incidentally noticed in the his- tory of Germany. Her independent sovereignties, formed at diflerent times, as Naples, the estates of the Church, Tusca ny, Parma, Lombardy, the Genoese, and the Venetian territo- ries, may, in some suljsequent period, be duly noticed. § A transaction, in which Otho II., the second German emperor after Italy was re-unitcd to tlic empire, was engaged, may be here re- lated. Several cities of Italy look occasion to throw off their alle- giance to the emperor. Otho, hearing rj" it, soon entered Italy with an army, and adopted the following most cruel method to punish the authors of the tumults. He invited the nolilcs of Rome to a grand entertainment in the Vatican palace and when the guests had placed themselves at the 106 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. table, he forbade them, under pain of death, to speak or move at what they should hear or see. Instantly they were surrounded by armed men, and while they sat trembling, the emperor composedly ordered the names of those concerned in the late disturbances to be read over, and the guilty to be put to death in the rnidst of the hall. After the bloody mandate was executed, he was all smiles and com- plaisance to the other guests, during the entertainment. It may be recorded here, that it was during the present period, the foundation of the temporal power of the popes was laid. In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeath- ed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregory tlie VII. From that time the popes possessed great power in the states of Europe. Although the (urij^ei'ors (German) asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, and claimed the absolute right of electing the pope ; yet it was with a con- stant resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general repugnance of the popes, w^hen once established. SPAIN. 12. The empire of Charlemagne, in Spain, comprised but a small part of that country. Indeed, all that the Christians, (including the native Spaniards and the French,) possessed, constituted only about a fourth of the kingdom, viz., Asturia, part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Cata- lonia and Navarre were sulidued by Charlemagne, but his successors seem to have taken no interest in the conquest ; it probably soon reverted back to the Christians of Spain. All the remainder of the Peninsula, including Poitugal, was oc- cupied by the Moors. Cordova, a luxurious and magnificent cily, was the Moorish capital. It was a great school for the sciences, and the resort of the learned from all parts of the world. In the tenth century, their dominions were divided among a num- ber of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at war with one another. Had the Christians availed themselves of this state of things, they might perhaps have then regained the whole kingdom ; but they were unhappily contending among themselves, and it was sometimes the case, that (he Christian princes formed alliances with the Moors against one ano- ther. § Taste and the sciences flourished in Cordova, and tlic south of Spain, when the rest of Europe had become involved in barbarism GERMANY. 107 and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of the eightli, to the middle of tlie tentli century. During that period, the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes, who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts and arms. It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effe- minate, that the natioa was divided into a nmnber of petty states, the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville. To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and Christians, the country abounded with independent lords, who were warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and tliat of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this descrip- tion of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Castile. Of the passion for knight eirantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some other place. The contentions among, the petty kingdoms of Spain need not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on tlie subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors, and the union of the whole country under one head, towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century. GERMANY. 13. Germany was known in ancient times, but it possess- ed no political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Pre- viously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and iluctuating in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be consider- ed the reviver, if not the founder of the German empire. As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already noticed so far down as the termination of the short reign, or rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. At that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con- sidered as having been effectuall}- separated from France; and of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he once held over the nations of the West. The emperor of Gfermany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as suc- cessor to the Emperors of Rome. § Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word g-er, brave, and man, signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it comprehended all the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from 108 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. thf Rhine to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro- bably the Celts. But our information respecting Germany is scanty till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some ages before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established them- selves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France, and the south of England ; driving the original inhabitants into the northern and western regions.* When Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of independent principalities ; but the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common li- berty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bra- \'ery, before they sunk under the power and policy of their in- vaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state of provincial subjection to the masters of the world ; and upon the decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the do- minion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his power, both military and civil, over the whole empire. 14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III, called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C. France was also under his sway at the same time, but he was soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest ex- tremities. 15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, and nephew of Charles III., was jiroclaimed emperor of Germany. In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, took Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son Louis HI., became his successor in 899, when only seven years oi age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from Charlemagne. § The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by di- visions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor died of grief. Frnm the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elect- ive, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and grandees had alwa^^s been asked. 16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during whicli time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the barbarous Hungarians § The German grandees, who assembled at Worms, first offered the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony ; but he declining it ♦ Webster's Elements, &c. GERMANY. 109 on account of his advaiurcd age, persuaded them to appiy the invi- tation to Conrad. The latter was of imperial descent by his mother, who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the affairs ol Germany were conducted with great prudence. 17. LJpoii the deatli of Conrad, the imperial dignity was bestowed on Henry I., surnanied the Fowler. This prince possessed great abilities, and introdnced order and good go- vernment among his people. He built and embellished cities, reduced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, and con- t|uered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavonians, Bohemians, &c. He added Lorrain to his dominions. § Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals whom, he subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to this religion. He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmucli as he had been consecrated by his own bishops. IS. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936. He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usur- pations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in 938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger II. and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the emperor of the llojiians. John afterwards revolted against him, but was soon deposed. Otho was the greatest prince of his time. After an active and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apo- plectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the cathedral church of Magdebourg, where his tomb may be still distinguislicd 1)y a Latin inscription. § Otho owed his ascendancj^ in Italy to llie disorders and crimes of the Papacy. Being invited into that country by the Pope and the Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeat- ed the lattei*, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by Pepin, Chai-lemagne, and Louis the Debonairc. § Tiie treachery of the Pope, (John XII.) obliged the emperor, in two or throe successive instances, to visit Italy to compose tlie di.s- ordors tliat took place. The last time, he executed exemplary ven- geance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling together the Laleran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the abso- lute right of the emperor to elect to the |)apac3^ to give the investi- ture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to ail vacant bishoprics. The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the fol- 10 110 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. lowing incident of Otho's life. Ludolphus, his son, liad engaged in an unnatural revolt, wliich produced some serious hostilities, and occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon ; but after some time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an op- portunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his feet, and implore Ins clemency. " Have pity," said he, " upon your misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. If you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will as- suredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his life shall be spent in the faithful discharge of filial duty." To this af- fecting appeal, Olho couid reply only by a flood of tears and a pa- ternal embrace ; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his adherents. 19. Otho 11., surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his father m 973, during whose reign, and that of several others, nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otho III., St. Henry, Conrad II., and Henry III. The}'^ occupied a period of about eighty-three years. 20. Henry IV., the Great, succeeded his father at the age of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to experience a large share of papal insolence and tyranny. After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., during which, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the emperor as often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of Pope Urban II., the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and Henry, rebelled against their father, and to such an extremity was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of excommunication, tliat he could scarcely obtain the means of subsiscence. His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the ex- piration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up himself freely to the indulgence of his passions. Misfortune, afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not tliorough- ly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that " the hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was ENGLi SD. Ill endowed with many excellent qualities — courage, clemency, liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation. § Tlie msoleiit treatment he received from the Pope, appears from the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife and infant, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness. On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour until he should have fasted three days, standing from morning to evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwith- standing the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he re- ceived an absolution. The liberality of Henry's disposition, was such, that he is said to have entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table, and even to have loilged them in his own apartment, that he might be at hand to minister to their necessities. ENGLAND. Saxon Kings. — Norman Family. 21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct i-overeignties during more than two centuries, became one entire kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Sax- ons, who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was called Wesscx and Sussex. The occasion which offered for the conquest and union of the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remain- ed of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain ; he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several states, as a sort of right ; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also, with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, were they united into one powerful kingdom. 22 The English, who were so iiappily united under Eg- bert, enjoyed tlieir prosperity but a short period. The pirati- cal Danes, or Normans, who had molested the EngUsh coasts for fifty years, now became still more troublesome. During tlie life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were repvilsed with much slaughter. The death of Egbert, and (he character of his successor, Ethelwolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encouraged the Danes to multiply theii- depredations. They were often 112 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. defeated, but could not be expelled. By his will, Ethehvolf divided England between his two eldest sons — Ethelbakl and Ethelbert. Alfred, afterwards so illustrious, was a young- er son. § It was Ethehvolf who, through faciUty of disposition, not only granted to the priesthood a perpetual right to tithes, but exempted it from all services and imposts. The reign of Ethelbald and Ethelbert was short, — com- mencing in 857, and ending in 866. To Ethelred, a third brother, the sceptre was bequeathed. He died bravely, in battle against the Danes, and then the immortal Alfred suc- ceeded, in 872. 23. This prince, who was only twenty-two years of age, when he ascended the tlu'one, found his kingdom in a most miserable condition. It was scourged and afflicted by an- archy, domestic barbarism, and foreign ai^grossion. By his efforts, however, he succeeded in raising it to an eminence and happiness, surpassing what might hn . e 1 leen expected at that peri.od. His talents, virtues, and cliuiacter, were of the highest order, and have justly endeared his name and memory to the bosom of every Englishman. The institu- tions which he founded are, to this day, the glory of the Bri- tish realm. He patronised learning and the arts — encouraged manu- factures and commerce — appropriated a seventh of his reve- nue to restore the ruined cities, castles, palaces, monasteries — founded or revived the university of Oxford — divided Eng- land into counties and hundreds — took a survey of the coun- try, and formed a code of laws, which, though now lost, is generally deemed the origin of the common law. §The wisdom of his civil institutions may be seen in his division of the country. This plan was resorted to with a view to restore the order which the violence and rapacity of the Danes had sub- verted. Besides a division into counties and hundreds, there were the smaller divisions of tithings. Ten householders formed a tith- ing, who were answerable for each other's conduct, and over whom a headborougli was appointed to preside. Every man was registered in some tithing, and none could change his habitation, without a certificate from th(!headborougb. In the decision of differences, tlie headborough, also called tith- ing-man, summoned his tithing to assist him. Tii affairs of great moment, or in controversies between the members (*f different tith- ings, the cause was brought before the court ot the hundred, which ENGLAND. 113 was assembled every four weeks. Here we may trace the origin of juries. Twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial justice, tried the cause in this court. The county court, which met twice a year, fuid consisted of the freeholders of the county, was superior to that of the hundred, from which it received appeals. Here disputes be- tween the inhabitants of different hundreds were settled. The ulti- mate appeal from these several courts, lay to the king in council. The leio^n of Alfred was signalized by his contest with the Danes. Within the space of one year, he defeated them in eight battles ; but a new irruption of their countrymen, forced him to solicit a peace, w^hich these pirates frequently inter- rupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture, Alfred w^as com- pelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part of the country. Here he continued, disguised in the habit of a peasant, for many months, until the disorders in the Da- nish army offered a fair opportunity for attacking them. This he embraced with great effect. Instead of cutting them off en- tirely, as he might have done, he incorporated many of them with his English subjects. It was after these exploits, that he turned his attention,' as already mentioned, to the internal improvements of his kingdom. He died in the full vigour of his age and faculties, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine years, and w^as justly sinnamed the Great. § Alfred having perceived the remissness of the enemy, from whose pursuit he had secreted himself, ventured at length to quit his retire- ment. With a few of his retainers, he had made some sudden and par- tial attacks on the Danes ; but before he attempted to assemble his subjects generally in arms, he was determined to explore the state of the enemy. His skill as a harper procured him admission into their camp. Having been introduced to Gulhrum, their prince, he played before him in hi»tent. Here he witnessed ttieir supineness. Encouraged by what he had seen, he sent private emissaries to the most considerable of his friends, and sunnnoned them to meet him with their r(!lainers, at a certain place. The English crowded around the standard of a monarch whom they so fondly loved, and before their ardour could cool, he led them victoriously against the enemies of their country. 24. Edward, surnamed the Elder, succeeded his father Al- fred, in 901. lie lived in a stormy jieriod, being continually molested by the Nortluuubriun Danes ; yet he was generally successful in his wars, and his administration of government uas honourable to his character. He reigned twenty-four years. ^ Elhelwald, a younger son of Alfred, inherited his father's passion 114 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. for letters, and lived a private life — a happy turn and destiny lor the son of a prince. 25. Athelstan, a natural son of Edward, succeeded him, 925. He was an able and popular sovereign, and opposed with success the Northumbrian Danes, Welsh, Scots, &,c. He encouraged navigation, by conferring the rank of thane, or gentleman, on every merchant who had made three voy- ages to the Mediterranean on his own account. His reign was of sixteen years continuance. § He effected the laudable design of translating the Scriptures into the Saxon tongue, wliich appears to have been the earliest version of that book into the language of Britain. 26. Edmund, a legitimate son of Edward, next ascended the throne, 941. He reigned about five years, having perish- ed by the hand of Leolf, a notorious robber. Edred, a brother of Edmund, became his successor, 046. In this prince, was the singular mixture of courage and su- perstition. His courage he manifested in reducing to obe- dience the North nmlnian Danes — his superstition, in becom- ing the dupe of the famous Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury. He abandoned his conscience to this deceiver. § Dunstan invented several marvellous legendsof his conflicts with tlie devil — pretended piety, but possessed an inordinate ambition — and was at List canonized as a saint. 27. Edwy, a nephew of Edred, now filled the throne of the Saxon kings of England, 955. By marrjang within the degrees of affinity prohibited by the canon law, he and his beautiful princess Elgiva, l)oth became objects of monkish per- secution. § Archbisiiop Odo, with a band of soldiers, seized Elgiva, burned her face with a hot iron, and forcibly carried her into Ireland. WTiea afterwards she attempted to return to the arms of her hus- band, she was secured by this detestable ecclesiastic, and Ijy his order so mutilated, that slie died in a few days in tlie sharpest torment. 28. Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, succeeded to the ihrone, 959. His reign lasted sixteen years. His private character was detestable, on accotint of his licentiousness ; but energy and success distinguisbed his public administrations. He promoted the inhuman and fanatical Dunstan to the arch- liishopric of Canterbury, and paying that prelate a forced ho- mage, he was able to carry into effect his vn rious plans of go- vernment. § Edgar obtained bis wife Elfrida, in the following manner. She ENGLAND. 115 was a daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, and the greatest beauty of the EngHsh court. Edgar designing to marry her if her charm's were found answerable to report, sent his favourite, Athelwold, to visit her, and bring him an account of her person. The courtier's fidelity was overcome by the beauty of Elfrida, and witli a view to secure her for himself, he gave an unfavoura- ble account to the king, at the same time intimating that she would on the whole be an advantageous match for himself, on account of her riches and birth. The king forwarded his favourite's views, and he obtained the hand of the fair damsel. The truth, however, soon came to the cars of the king, and inform- ing Athohvold that he would like to bo introduced to Elfrida, and the courtier bemg afraid to decline the honour, he had an opportu- nity, of witnessing with his own eyes, the lo\'cliness of her person. Athohvold, in the mean time, had been obliged, in the hope of saving his wife, to reveal the whole transaction to her, and besought her to disguise her beauty on the occasion. She, however, resenting the artifice by which she had lost a crown, purposely sought to captivate the king by a displa}'' of her person, and easily succeeded. Edgar soon alter embraced an opportimity in hunting, of stabbing Athelwold, and reaped the fruit of his crime in the possession of the enchanting fair one. 29. The reign of Edward, son of Edgar, l)y his first wife, was short and uninteresting. He perished by assassination, wliich was instigated by liis step-mother Elfrida, 978. Etheb-cd II., son of Edgar, by Elfrida, was placed on the throne at the age of eleven. His surname was Unready, the reproachful epithet of his weakness. His hatred of the Danes, wlio again molested England, was so great, that he ordered ci massacre of all those of that people wlto had been retained as mercenaries in his army. This barbarous mandate v/as strictly executed. • The Danes at home, however, resolved on vengeance, and accordingly under Sweyn, their king, they invaded and rava- ged the country. London was saved from destruction, only by the payment of a tribute. The weak Ethclred fleeing to Normandy, tiie English nobility were ashamed of theii- prince, and in despair of relief, offered the kingdom to Sweyn. The Dane, however, died soon afterwards, and Elhelred was restored ; but Canute, the son of Sweyn, asserted his claims to the crown by force of arms. He was opj)osed by Ednumd, son of Ethebed, with various success. In the mean time, Ethehed died, after a long and inglorious reign, and Edmund succeeded to the government. 1016. In 116 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD V. the war which he carried on with Canute, he was obhged, af. length, to divide his kingdom with the latter. But he sur- vived this treaty only a month, having been cut off by the treachery of his brother-in-law, Edric. § Edmund was surnamed Ironside, from his strength and valour j but though he put forth every effort, he could not save his realm. He left two children, who, however, never succeeded to the throne. Canute became sole monarch, upon the death of Edmund, in 1017, and proved to be tlie most powerfid sovereign of his time. He was surnamed the Great, and possessed eminent abilities. He was terrible in his resentments, but an impar- tial dispenser of justice. § In the distribution of justice, he made no distinction between the Danes and Englisli ; he restored the Saxon customs, and gradually incorporated the victors v/ith the vanquished. His mind was affected with religious considerations towards the close of life, and he became alarmed in view of the crimes he had committed, (for he had put many of his subjects to death without cause,) but his piety was of that superstitiQus kind, which displayed itself in building churches and endowing monasteries, the great virtues of those ages. 30. Of the three sons whom Canute left, two ruled in suc- cession over England, viz. — Harold, surnamed Harefoot, from his speed in running, who reigned only four years, and Ilar- dicanute, who reigned but a fev/ montlis. Upon the death of the latter, the English freed themselves from the Danish yoke, and restored the Saxon line in Ed- ward, a younger son of Ethelred, 1041. He was entitled tlie Confessor, and reigned twenty-five years without merit of any kind, unless it were his ability to conciliate the esteem of the monks. Having no children, and wishing to defeat the views of Harold, the son of tlie Earl of Godwin, an as- j)irant to the throne, he appointed his kinsman, William, Duke of Normandy, his successor. Edward was the last of the Saxon kings of England. § Edward united all the laws of England in one body, called the (Common Law. lie was the first king of England, who pretended to cure the king's evil by his touch, a practice which was continued till the Hanover succession. 31. On the death of Edward, Harold actually took posses- sion of the throne, but William determined to secure it as his rightful inheritance, ills prcjiarations were very formidable, and he was aided in this romantic age, by many sovereign ENGLAND. 117 princes, and a vast body of nobility from the different king- doms on tlie continent. With an army of 60,000 men, he set sail for the English coast. Harold, with nearly the same number of soldiers, met him, and was defeated and slain in the field of Hastings. The English army was nearly destroyed, while the Normans lost about 15.000 men. AVilliam, from this time styled the Conqueror, soon assumed the prerogatives of sovereignty, 1066 A. C. The princes of the Norman family ruled till the time of Henry II. William's administration of government was marked with ability, and in general, with success. In consequence of the discontent often manifested by his Englisli subjects, he began to treat them too much as a comjuered people, and tbe natural tyranny of his disposition increased by the commotions in which tins policy ij^volved him. Hence his measures \vere frequently arbitrary and cruel. He alienated the minds of the conquered, by conferring on his Norman followers, all the important places in the govern- ment ; by causing the Norman language to be the vehicle of the church service, and also of judicial proceedings ; by re- serving to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom, and by depopulating a tract ot country about thirty miles round, in order to form a forest. § He was tlie author of several other regulations of an inauspicious nature, some of which were greatly vexatious to the people, lie introduced the feudal system ; sul^slituted the murderous practice (>f simple combat for the trial by jury ; compelled the people to rake uplheir fires, and put out their lights at the sound of the curfew bell ; and he made it a greater crime to destroy an animal, than to murder a man. One useful act of his reign, was a sui-vey of all the lands and estates of the kingdom, with an estimate of their value, an enumeration of every class of inhabitants who lived on them, and other important specifications. This record is called the Doomsday- book, which is still in being. The children of William brought on him no small share of trouble. His eldest son Robert, attempted to wrest from him the sovereignty of jMaiiie, and his foreign subjects nssist- M the rebel. The king led against them an army of the Ensjlish, and during the batde was on the point of being kill- ed in a rencoimter with his son. Soon after, while waging a war with Philip I. of France, who had aided in the rebel- lion, he was accidentally killed by a fall from his horse, 10S7. 118 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. He reigned nearly twenty-one years over England, and be- queathed the sceptre to his second son William. William was eminent as a .^atesman and warrior, and was at times capable of generous em.otions ; but the prominent traits of his character were very unamiable. His pride, arri- bition, austerity, and cruelty, both inflicted sulTcrings on hia people, and robbed his own mind of peace. In his adminis- tration, though he was sometimes politic, he erred on the side of severity. § The person of William, was such as befitted a sovereign, espe- cially in a rude and warlike age. He was tall, majestic, and well proportioned. His strength was so great that scarcely any other person could bend his bow, or wield his arms. He was, however, near being overcome by the prowess of his son Robert, on a certain occasion. While contending with the forces of that rebel, he happened to engage with him in person. They were mutually unknown to each other, as they were concealed by their armour. Both being vigo- rous and resolute, a tierce combat ensued. Robert at length wound- ed and dismounted his father, nor did he discover who liis antago- nist was, till at that instant, in his cry for assistance, William's voice was recognized by his son. Struck with remorse and horror, the young prince threw himself at his father's feet, and implored forgiveness, at the same time assist- ing him to mount his own horse. William was implacable at first, but reflecting on his son's generosity, he soon became reconciled to him, and invited him into England. 32. William XL, suruamcd Rufus, from his red hair, ascend- ed the throne in 1087. He was destitute of the few virtues of his father, and inherited all his vices. Perfidy, tyranny, and cruelt}', were the chief ingredients of his character. Af- ter the defeat of one conspiracy at the beginning, his reigli was a series of despotic acts, which conferred neither peace nor honour on his country. After a reign of thirteen years, he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, with an ar- row, while hunting in the New Forest. § Tyrrel, from fear of the consequences, fled to France. The body of William, after several days, was found by the country people, and conveyed in a cart to A\ in Chester, wJiere it was interred. The person who carried the corpse; of the king to interment, was named Purkis, and it is remarkable, that some of his dccendants, are known, at this very dav, to reside near the same spot. The chief monuments that perpetuate the name of Rufus, are the Tow2r, Westminister Hall, and London Bridge. EASTERN EMPIRE. 119 EASTERN EMPIRE. 33. The Eastern, or GreekEmpire, during the present period, was ruled by thirty-nine emperors, most of them fol- lowing in succession, tliough in a few instances, two or more ruled at the same time, and jointly. None of them were very distinguished, though a very few were respectable sovereigns. In general they were a weak or vicious race, yet scarcely too de2^raded to be rulers of the degenerate Romans. A few names will appear below. This people, compared with what they had been, were low ; yet still they were on an equality, at least, with the first na- tions of Europe, at that time. Their degeneracy was rather in moral and intellectual qualities, than in external show and consequence. There remained among them much of ancient wealth and splendour. § In the 10th century, the provuices that still acknowledged the au- thority of tlie successors of Constanline, had been cast inlo a new form by the institution of the themes, or military governments. 01 these, there were twenty-nine, viz. twelve in Europe, and seventeen in Asia; l)ut tlieir orijiin is obscure. The victories of a few of the em- perors had enlarged the boundaries of the Roman name ; but in \he eleventh century the prospect was darkened. The relics of Italy were swept away by the Norman adventurers, and the Turks had removed many of the Asiatic props of the empire. Still the spa- cious provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, were obedient to their sceptre, and they possessed Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, Avith the fifty islands of the ^gean Sea. The subjects of the Byzantine empire, were more dexterous than other nations, and in the support and restoration of the arts, their patient and peaceful temper, and refined taste, are highly to be com- mended. The first demand of the public revenue was the pomp and pleasure of the emperors. The coasts and islands of Asia and Europe, were covered witli their magnificent villas. Tiie great pa- lace, the centre of imperial residence, was decorated and enlarged by the wealth of successive sovereigns ; and the long series of apart- ments were adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, and precious stones. Of the numerous emperors of this period, whose reigns in general must have been short, the following only can be noticed. Basil I., who ascended in 867, was from an obscure family, but proved himself wortliy of his elevation. He defeated the Saracens in tlie east, and m Italy, but could not prevent thera from ravaging the Peloponnesus. An incident of this emperor's reign is the following. His son, Leo, had Deen imprisoned on a false accusation of an attempt to assa^- 120 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. siiiale the emperor. Frequent intercessions were made bji those who beheved in the son's innocence, to have him released, till the emperor in his impatience, forbade Leo's name to be mentioned in his houring. It happened, however, one day, that a parrot which had often heard a regret expressed for the unhappy prince, on a sudden broke out with, " Alas, pot)r Leo !" in the emperor's presence. Basil, struck with the sounds, was so moved that lie consented to his son's libera- tion. Nicephorus Phocas possessed the reputation both of a hero and saint. His saintship, however, was only a pretence. He proved his claim to heroism in his wars with the Saracens. He invaded Asia, and overran Mesopotamia. His vices, especially his avarice, render- ed him odious ta his subjects. He was assassinated by John Zime- sees, who succeeded him in the empire, and who afterwards met v.'ith the same fate. Basil n. marched against the kingdom of Bavaria, and finally de- stroyed it. On this occasion, it is related of him, that having taken a great number of prisoners, he divided them into companies of an hundred each, caused all their eyes to be put out, and ordered them to be conducted to their king by a man who had one eye left. This horrible spectacle so affected the king of Bulgaria, that he fainted away, and died two days afterwards. CHINA. 34. The thirteenth dynasty of the emperors of China tei- niinated during the present period, which inchided also live other dynasties. The number of emperors was thirty-three. Some of them were very wise men. In the reign of Tai- tsong, of the tliirteenth dynasty, Christianity was introduced into a small part of China. § Tai-tsong was one of the greatest of the Chinese princes. Ht was wise, frugal, and afflible. His ministers attempted to excite in him apprehensions from his too great familiarity with his subjects ; but he replied, " I consider myself in the empire as a father in his family. I carry all my people in my bosom, as if they were ray children. What then have I to fear ?" Chwang-tsong, of the fifteenth dynasty, from a general, stepped to tlie throne. As emperor, he preserved his martial habits, lived very frugally, and slept on the bare ground with a bell about his neck to prevent his sleeping too long. He was devout, and all his prayers were offered for the good of his subjects. Block printing was in- vented among the Chinese during his reign. SARACENS. 35. At the commencement of the present period, the Sa- racens were flourishing in science and the arts. Their mi- litary distinction was perhaps on the wane. Nearly forty SARACENS. 121 ,^yeais had elapsed since the seat of their empire was trans- ferred to Bagdad, and Arabia, in consequence, had lost much of its importance. Many of the chiefs of the interior provin- ces became independent, and withdrew themselves from the civil jurisdiction of the caliph. § It is supposed, that the Saracens, had thej'- acknowledged only one head, might have established and perpetuated an immense em- pire. But after the extension of their conquests, they were broken up into separate states. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had, at an early period, tlieir own sovereigns, who, though they paid a reli- gious respect to the caliph of Bagdad, awarded him no temporal submission. Divided among themselves, they were destined ere long to fall. 36. The principal military expedition of the African Sara- cens in this period, was the invasion of Sicily, and the project- ed con(iuest of Ital}*. They actually laid siege to Rome, which was strenuously defended by Pope Leo IV. They were en- tirely repulsed, having their ships dispersed by a storm, and their army cut to pieces, S4S. 37. The house of Abbas, which now enjoyed the caliphate, furnished twenty-two caliphs during this period. These reign- ed in succession, and Bagdad continued to be the seat of their power. In the year 1055, however, Bagdad was taken by the Turlcs, and the caliphs, from that time, instead of being tem- poral monarchs, became only the supreme pontiff's of the Ma- Irometan faith. At the time of the first crusade, in the beginning of the next period. Arabia was governed by a Turkish sultan, as were Persin. and the greater jwrtion of lesser Asia. § We can notice only one or two of the caliphs of Bagdad. Adad- odawla v»'as deemed a great prince. He was magnanimous, liberal, [trudent, and learned ; but he was also insatiably ambitious. A re- mark which he made when at the point of death, is a melancholy comment on human greatness. Willi a faiiltcring tongue, he cried, " Vvliat have all my riches and prosperity availed me ? My power and authority are now at an end." Mahmud (ta^ui, was a famous conqueror. He invaded and con- piercd a part of India. The following striking anecdote is related of him by historians. A poor inan, who had complained to him that one of his soldiers had driven himself and family out of his house in the night, was told to inform the prince if that occurrence should take place again. The poor man had occasion to inform the prince, who went to tlie house, and causing the lights to be extin ■ guished, cut the intruder in pieces. The prince then commanded The llambeaux to be lighted, and after closely inspecting the corpse, .11 123 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. offered thanks to God, and asked for some refreshment. This being afforded, he ate heartily of the mean fare. Being interrogated by his host respecting the reason of his con- duct, he replied, " Ever since your complaint, my mind has been harassed with the thought, that none but one of my own sons would commit such an act of audacity. I had resolved to show him rro lenity, and commanded the lights to be put out, that the sight of him might not affect me ; but on seeing that the criminal was not my son. I returned thanks to the Almighty." Distinguished Cltaractei^s in Period V. 1. Charlemagne, a piiccessful warrior and able sovereign 2. Photius, a learned Clnistian writer and philosopher. 3. Erigena, a Scotch philosopher and learned divine. 4. Alfred, a wise, learned, and virtuous prince. 5. Al Razi, an eminent Arabian scholar, and physician. 6. Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 7. Suidas, a Greek lexicographer. § 1. Charlemagne, of whom some account has already been given, was king of France, by succession, and emperor of the west, by conquest, in 800. He laid the foundation of the dynasty of the Western Fraidvs. Tliough his empire did not hold together, long after his death, his successors in the several states of which it had been composed, reigned several centuries, in tlic line of the Franks, Indeed, this was the case, till the house of Austria was founded. Charlemagne was in many respects an admirable sovereign. Ho excelled in war ; and although he was so illiterate that he could not spell his name, he was great in the cabinet, and patronised learning. He invhed into France, Jiterary and scientific men from Ital}'', and from the Britannic Isles. The latter, in those dark ages, preserved more of the light of learning, than any of the western kingdoms. His private character has been much eulogized, though it is ac- knowledged that he was sometimes rigid and cruel. He was simple in his manners and dress, and opposed to parade and luxury. Eco- nomy, industry, and plainness, characterised him in a domestic state. His daughters Were assiduously employed in spinning and house- wifery, and his sons were trained by himself in all manly exercises. Except when he held his general assemljlics, his dress, table and at- tendants were like those of a private person. He was a man of almost incredible activity. Instead of confiding in the reports of others, he personally saw that his orders wera ex- ecuted. The condition of his subjects was constantly in his view. In one place, he ordered the repairs of a highway; in another, the construction of a bridge ; and in another, he afforded the necessary aid to agriculture and commerce. Each of the provinces partook in its turn of his benefits. Charlemagne founded several seminaries of learning ; but the DrSTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 123 derkness of ihe times could scarcely be alleviated by all his eiforts. He suppressed mendicity, and established a fixed and invariable price for com- The meanest of his subjects were thus enabled to provide against their wants, and all complaints on this head were banished. After rearing a splendid empire, he departed this life at the age of seventy-one years. 2. Photius was patriarch of Constantinople in the ninth century, and the greatest man of the age in which he lived. He possessed the patriarchate only ten years, during which, he was exposed to a most turbulent opposition and cabal. He was at last deposed, and died in a monastery. He deserves a high rauik in point of erudi- tion. He was the author of a commentary on the ancient ^vrilers, a collection of the canons of the church, epistles, &c. These are yet valuable on several accounts. In commenting on the scriptures, although he followed reason, rather than authority, he is not on the whole a model fit to be taken. He explained with ability the cate- gories of Aristotle. He died in 886. 3. Erigena, John Scotus, was born at A\-r, in Scotland, according to some authorities, and was very learned, in a very barbarous age. He was employed by king Alfred to promote learning and the liberal arts. For this purpose he Mas appointed to preside at Oxford, over the studies of geometry and astronomy in particular. He spent three years in this siuiation ; but some disputes and disturbances arising at Oxford, he left that place and retired to a monastery at Malmsbury. Tliere he opened a school, but his harshness and se- verity to his scholars so provoked them, that they stabbed him with ihe iron bodkins they then wrote with, in such a manner, that he died, 8S3. Mosheim speaks of Erigena as an eminent philosopher and learned divine, and as manifesting uncommon sagacity and genius. He wrote a book on Predestination, and translated into Latin four pieces of Dionysius, the Areopagite, and was the author of some other works. 4. Alfred, so justly surnamed the Great, was bom in 849, as is supposed, at Wantage, in Berkshire. He succeeded to the crown on the deaiJi of his brother Ethelred in 871 ; but he had scarcely time to attend to the funeral of his brother, l»efore he was obliged to fight for his kingdom and life, with the piratical Danes. His mili- tary exploits, with several other things, have been above related. The particulars which may with propriety be added, are the following. Alfred was both a wise and a pious prince. His qualities were most happily blended together, so that no one encroached on ano- ther. He reconciled a most diligent attention to business, with the purest and warmest devotion — the severest justice with the most ex- emplary lenity — the brightest capacity and inclination for science with the most shining talents for action. He was equally a warrior and a legislator. He united with rich mental endowments, every personal grace and accomplishment. Tlie darkness and superstitions of the age, were too powerful for his efforts and mstituiions. He could not expel them to any great 124 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. extent. Yet he did considerable to elevate the character of his- countrymen, and he aimed at much more. In addition to the schools- and seminaries of learning which he founded, he afforded the attrac- tive influence of his own example. His time he usually divided into three equal portions — one was- employed in exercise or the refection of the body — another in tlit despatch of business — and a third in study and devotion. He con- veyed his instructions to the people in parables, stories, &c. couch- ed in poetry; as he considered these best adapted to their capa- city. He translated the Fables of Jilsop, the liistories of Orosius and Beda, and Boethius on the Consolation of Piiilosophy. In tb.ese various literary engageinents, he sought the good of his people, as well as his own personal, intellectual improvement. 5. Al Razi, a name not perhaps well known in European literature, was famous in the Arabian annals; and the Aral^ians at this era were the most enlightened of the nations. This person is said tO' have been extremely well versed in all kinds of ancient learning; though he excelled most in physic, and is styled the Phcenix of the age. He applied himself to the study of philosop'iy with such suc- cess, that he made a wonderful piogress in every branch <.C it, and composed a great number of books upon physical nnd philosophical subjects. He composed 12 books on alchemy, in which he asgerted the possibility of a transmutarion of metals, and was the first writer on the small-pox. He is said to have contracted webs in his eyes by tlie immoderate eating of beans ; and towards the close of his life, lost both of them by cataracts. He would not permit an occulist, v.^ho came to couch him, to perform the operation, because he could not tell of how many little coats the eye consisted ; saying at the same time, that he was not very desirous of recovering his sight, as he had already seen enough of the world to make him abhor it. He died about the year 935. 6. Avicenna, who is much celebrated among his countrymen, the Mahometans, was born i!i the year 980, and died in 1036. The num- ber of his books, including Jiis smaller tracts, is computed at near one hundred, the majority of which are either lost, or unknown in Europe. At the age of ten years, he had made great progress in classical literature. It is said that he read over Aristotle's metaphy- sics 40 times, got it by heart, but could not understand it. Acciden- tally meeting with a book wliich treated of the objects of metaphy- sics, he perceived what Aristotle meant, and out of joy at the disco- very, gave alms to the poor. 7. Suidas flourished between 975 and 1025. His native cor.ntry is not known. He is tlie author of a very useful Greek Lexicon The work contains much historical and geographical information. No particulars seem to have been recorded respecting his life, either by himself or by others. He is known only by his bonk. THE CRUSADES. 125 PERIOD VI. The period of I he Crvsades ; extending from the First Crusade^ 1095 years A. C, to the founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C. During this period, we have Rianifold proofs of tlie darkness of the limes, with a singular mixture of a spirit of adventure, and lofty daring. The age was peculiarly characterised by the crusades, the passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chivalry, and the production of romances. Barbarism and turbulence extensively prevailed, while the lights of science were few and dim. In England, however, there was the early dawn of literature. THE CRUSADES. Sect. 1. In giving an account of the Crusades, we include a portion of the history of the principal Einopean nations. For this rca?0Ti, less of the separate history of those nations will appear during this period, than would otherwise be introdu- ced. The Crusades were comnion to all Christendo)n, and all felt a deep interest in them. The other peculiarities of the times, as pilgrimages, chivalry, the feudal system, (fee. since they belonged to the established customs and institutions of Europe, will be unfolded in the General Views. In the Cru- sades, the political and military liistory of a great part of the world is carried on for a long time. 2. The Crusades were wars undertaken principally dining the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, by the Christian nations of Europe, on account of religion. They were termeil Cru- sades, from the cross which was the badge of the combatants. The object of these wars was the deliverance of Palestine, and particularly the tomb of Jesus Christ front the dominion of the Tiuks or Mahometans. The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in 1055, taken Bagdad, and thus overturned the empire of the caliphs, canteinto the possession of the coimtries which these caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of temporal monarchs, became sovereign jiontifis of the Mahome- tan faith. Palestine, and particularly Jerusalem, were of course imder the sway of the Turks, and the seat of their religion* 11* 126 MODERN HISTORY. — -PilllOD VI. Tn tliis situation of things, the resoi: of pi' ^rims to the tomb of our Saviour was attended with much difficulty and danger. While the Saracens held possession of the country, the pilgrims were permitted to have free access to the holy cit)^ : but its new masters, tlie Turks, were a more wild and ferocious people. They insulted and robbed those fanatical devotees — a circumstance, in such an age, of sufficient im- portance to arouse all Europe for the deliverance of Jerusalem from the infidels. The Roman pontiffs were the principal instigators of these desperate adventures. § In an age of religious enthusiasm, and in an unenlightened state of society, it is not surprising that Judea should have been an object of veneration, or superstitious regard to the Christian world. Here the great events recorded in the sacred scriptures transpired — the chosen ])eople of God subsisted Ihrougli many generations — unnum- bered miracles vv'cre performed — the IMosaic and Christian dispen- sations were set up — even God's own Son, the ?ilessiah, lived, suffer- ed, and died. Here prophets and apostles had preached, and writ- ten, and shed their blood in testimony of the truth, and every tenant- ed part, especially the Holy City, was marked by some divine inter- position or manifestation, most dear to the lover of piety. A country so hallowed, is capable, even now, of exciting tiie most delightful associations; and though we are in no danger of attempt- ing any thing like a crusade, yet nothing relating to such a land can be contemplated without deep emotion. AVhat sensations then must have been excited in a deeph* enthusiastic and superstitious age ' And much as we smile at their lolly, how easily can we account for t!ie ardour which was displayed b)^ imlettered minds and fanatical tempers, on the subject of the crusades ! Connected also, as was a pilgrimage to the holy land, with the idea of merit, and merit even sufficient to purchase salvation, nothing can be conceived more cal- culated to arouse every honourable and indignant feeling, than the obstructions in the way of such a devotion. It was a hardship not to 1)e endured, that the Christian disciple should be prevented from approaching and musing over, with a sort of adoration, tlie sepul- chre in which his blessed Redeemer was laid. 25Tljere were five* expeditions of the kind here spoken of, which, during nearly two centuries, drained from I^urope most of its Ufe-blood and treasures. All western Europe be- came involved in these destructive wars, but the French en lered upon them with more enthusiasm tlian any other na- tion. The first crusade was preached by Peter, commonly styled ♦ Some reckon a larger number. THE CRUSADES. 127 the hermit. After havmg sufficiently excited Christendom by his rude eloquence, he found vast multitudes ready to engage m the hazardous undertaking. The popes, however, had for some time contemplated the same design, and Urban II., the reigning pontiflj availed himself of this opportunity of executing his splendid project of arming the whole of Chris- tendom against the Mahometans, through the instrumentality of Peter. Two general councils were called and held on the subject, one at Placcntia and the other at Clermont, and were attended by many thousands. The pope himself harangued the multitude, and offered to all who would engage in the ser- vice, plenary indulgence, and full absolution of sins. Peter, Avho possessed none of the necessary qualities of a military leader, was placed at the head of this motley crowd of all ages, conditions, and character, amounting to eighty thousand men. They commenced their march towards the East, in the spring of 1096, and were soon followed by an addition of two hundred thousand persons of the same pro- miscuous description. They were any thing rather tlian a regularly appointed army, or efficient military force. Their progress was marked by outrages ; not more than one third of them reached the scene of action ; and those who did, were nearly all cut off in battle on the plain of Nice. § Peter the Hermit, was a native of Amiens, in Picardy, (France.) He seems to have been the (ir.st effectual mover of this mighty, and It may be properly added, mad project. His own pilgrimage to tlie (onib of our Saviour, had madcliini acquainted with the dangers and vexations to which pilgrims were exposed in Asia, and became the occasion or cause of the enterprise in which he embarked. Fired with a sense of his own wrongs, and tliose of liis fellow pilgrims, he sought the gratification of revenge, or at least, the means of l)reventing the recurrence of those evils, in future. For this purpose lie travelled from city to city, and from kingdom to kingdom, repre- senting with a rude but pathetic eloquence, the grievances of the j)ilgrims, and urging the necessity of making a common efTorl against the common enemy of Ciiristians and their religion. On this sub- ject he exhorted all whom lie met, and hesitated not to call on no- l)les as well as their vassals — the rich as well as the poor. His applications of this kind were aided by his personal appear- ance. He was a monk, and exhibited all the austerity of that cha- racter. He was an enthusiast, and displayed more than an enthu- siast's madness. He travelled liare headed, arid with naked arms and legs, having only a part of his body covered with a coarse gar- ment. He seemed wasted with fasting, and exhausted with anxiety 1"28 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI, and toil. He bore aloft in his hand a ponderous crucifix, to which he pointed with the most animated gestures ; nor did he restrain his prayers, whatever his situation might be, but poured his whole soul in loud and prolonged supplications in the streets and highways. The body of enthusiasts who crowded around him was immense^ Princes, noblemen, artisans, peasants, monks, and even women, ma- nifested equal anxiety to bend their steps to the East, and expel the infidel hordes from the consecrated land. To the vicious and aban- doned in character— to the ambitious and disorderly — to robbers, in- cendiaries, murderers, and other offenders, a fit opportunity was pre-* sented of procuring the pardon of their sins, and at the same time of indulging in unbounded lust and rapine. As Malmsbury curiously observes, "the report of the council of Clermont, wafted a cheering gale over the minds of Christians. Tliere was no nation so remote, no people so retired, as did not re- spond to the papal wishes. This ardent love not only inspired the continental provinces, but the most distant islands and savage coun- tries. The Welshman left his lumting ; the Scotch his fellowship \vith vermin ; tlie Dane his drinking party ; the Norwegian his raw fish." Robert of Normandy, after mentioning in general terms the contributions of men which France and England made to the holy war, thus singularly mixes other nations : " Of Normandy, of Denmavk, of Norway, of Bretagne, Of Wales, and of Ireland, of Gasi-.ony, and of Spain, Of Provenco, and of Saxony, and of Allemagne, Of Scotland, and of Greece, of Rome and Aquitain " At this time, " every wonderful event in the natural world was regarded as an indication of the divine will. Meteors and stars pointed at and fell on tlie road to Jerusalem. The skies were in- volved in perpetual storms, and the blaze and terror of anxious and disordered nature showed the terrific harmony of heaven with the sanguinary fury of earth. Man fully responded to the supposed calls of God. The moral fabric of Europe was convulsed ; the re- lations and charities of life were broken ;■ society appeared to be dissolved. Persons of every age, rank, and degree, assumed the cross. The prohibition of women from undertaking this journey was passed over in contemptuous silence. They separated them- selves from their iuisbands where men wanted faith, or resolved to follow them with their helpless infmts. Monks, not waiting for the permission of their superiors, threw aside their black mourning gowns, and issued from their cloisters full of the spirit of holy war- riors. Tliey who had devoted themselves to a solitary life, mistook tlie impulses of passion for divine revelations, and thought that hea-. ven had annulled their oaths of retirement. A stamp of virtue was fixed upon every one who embraced the cause; and many were urged to tlie semblance of religion, by shame, reproach, and iiishion. When families divided, nature and fanaticism contended for the mastery. A wife consented to the departure of her husband, on his vowing to return at tlie end of three years. Another in whom feai THE CRUSADES. 129' was stronger than hope, Avas lost in violence of grief. The husband wore the semblance of indifference, unmoved by the tears of his wife and the kisses of his children, though his heart reproached him for the sternness of his countenance. On the otlier hand, fathers led tlieir sons to the place of meeting — women blessed the moment of separation from their husbands, or if they lamented, it was from the cause tliey were not perniitted lo sliare the iionours and perils of tiie expedition. In some instances, tiie poor rustic shod his oxen like horses, and placed his whole family in a cart, where it \vas amusing to hear the children, on the aijproach to any large town or castle, inquiring if the object before tliem was Jerusalem." Such was the disordered rabble that attempted the conquest of Palestine, and such the circumstances under which the expedition commenced. Only a small part of the vast multitude ever reached Asia. From the beginning they were illy provided with necessaries, and therefore had recourse to acts of rapine. Their progress, so de- structive to the countries through which they passed, was frequently arrested by cullision with their inliabitants. The Jews of Germa- ny were the iirst sufferers ; but it was in Hungary and Bulgaria especially, that the outrages committed by the Crusaders were visit- ed upon their own heads. When they arrived at Constantinople, the emperor, Alexius Commenus, to whom they behaved themselves with the utmost insolence and folly, Avas not slow to rid himself of his troublesome guests. For this purpose he furnihsed them with every aid which they required, and lent his ships to transport them across the Bosphorus. 'l'l;ey thence pursued their march, but the Sultan Solyman meet- ing them on the plains of Nice, their numbers were too much redu- ced to offer him an}^ thing else than an easy victory. Of their bones, Solyman erected a pyramid near the citj'', as a monument of his own Ibrtune, and of their headlong counsels. 3. A new host, which was tlto most valuable part of this expedition, arrived in the mean time, at Constantinople, as a general rendezvous. The commanders were experienced generals and men of renown. Among tliem, were Godfrey of Bouillon, by some called commander in chief; Baldwin bis brotber: Robert, duke of Normandy; Hugh, count of A-'cr- mandois ; Raymond, count of Tboulouse ; Bohemond, prince of Tarentvnn ; and Tancrcd, his cousin. These and other warlike princes and captains, inspired by religious enthu- siasm, or military ardour, pledged tliemsclves to redeem the holy sepulchre from the inCidcls. The troops, when reviewed in the neighbourhood of Nice, amoimted to 100,000 horse, and 600,000 foot, including women and servants. Alexius, the eastern emperor, did not suffer them to remain long at Constantinople ; but after sccicing to obtain an as-- 130' MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. cendency over them as a supeiior ally, he had the address to, accelerate their departure. They at length met the Sara- cens, whom they overpowered by numbers. Having twice defeated the enemy, they took, after immense difficulty, losses, and delay, the cities of Nice, Edessa, and Antioch. § Constantinople, at the period when the crusaders met there, was the largest and most beautiful city of Europe. The most tTiat re- mained of ancient elegance in manners and in arts, was included in that emporium. It was the mart of the world, and the seat of em- pire. 1'hougli the Greeks were degenerate, yet such was the splen- dour of their capital. The hardy warriors of the north, beheld with amazement, these scenes of magnificence and wealth, whilst they despised the effemi- nate manners and unwarlike character of the people. On the other hand, the accomplished inhabitants of Constantinople, looked upon the northern warriors as barbarians. They speak of them as illit- erate, fierce, and savage, and as nearly resembling their ancestors, the Goths and Vandals, who overturned the Roman empire. They treated their guests sometimes with respect, but oflener with the most hateful duplicity. The gold and artifices of the emperor were employed not without effect — most of the leaders of the Croises taking the oath of fealty to him as their liege lord. He was not averse to the destruction of his enemy, the Turk ; but the numbers and bravery of the warriors of the north, filled his bosom with jealousy. On various pretences, many of them were cut off in his own territories, and they experi- enced several alternatives of peace and war in the country of the Greeks. The characters of the celebrated leaders of the Croises, on this oc- casion, may require a passing notice. Godfrey was endowed by na- ture with her choicest gifts. He possessed all the knowledge of the times; and the gentlest manners were united with the firmest spirit. He was capable of the grandest enterprises ; his deportment was moral, and his piety was fervent. To sum up his character, in arms he was a hero— in his closet a saint. The qualities of Baldwin were not so conspicuous. He was brave indeed, but he was ambitious; and his courage was stained with sel- fishness, cruelty, and injustice. Hugh, who was brother of the French king, called to his side the armed pilgrims from Flanders, and England, and a part of France. He was a brave and accom- plished cavalier, but undevout, and of a proud deportment. Robert, who was a son of William the Conqueror, entered upon the holy war with a furious and precipitate passion. He was eloquent and skilful, but imprudent, yielding, and voluptuous. Bohemond posessed neither religion nor probity ; yet to the eye of- the vulgar, he was one of the most devoted soldiers of Christ. He was intriguing, rapacious and versatile. Tancred was a comparat THE CRUSADES. 181 ' lively pure and brilliant spirit. He was bold and generous, and would have been humane to all mankind, had it not been for the spirit of the age. Raymond was inexorable in his hatred of the Musselmans ; pride, selfishness, and avarice tarnisiied his character. The soldier pilgrims all convened on the plains of Nice. "There the wild Crusaders form, There assembled Europe stands, Heaven they deem awakes the storm, Hell the paynims' blood demands." The details of the siege and capture of Nice, and the subsequent operations against Edessa and Antioch, cannot be narrated. Suffice it to say, that Nice fell by means of the policy of Alexius, who had joined the Franks or crusaders. While the latter, who had with much difficulty and loss, effected some breaches in the wall, were about to storm anew the repairs, the emperor snatched the victory from their grasp, by secretly proposing more favourable terms to the besieged, than could be expected from an enemy that would enter the city sword in hand. The soldiers clamoured; while the Latin generals, thinking of greater objects, dissembled their disgust, and endeavoured by fair persuasions to stifle tlie anger of their troops. Tlie conquest of Edessa, beyond the Euphrates, was achieved by a few ambitious and courageous soldiers, who had separated for a time from the main body of the Franks, under the command of Baldwin and Tancred. Before Antioch could be reached, some fighting was necessary, and the Cliristians triumphed — much fatigue was to be borne, and liere many of them sunk. The horr;)rs of the way, and the heat of a Phrvizi'iii summer, were fatal to multitudes. Five hundred perished in one day. 3Iothers, no longer able to afford sustenance to tlieir infants, exposed their breasts to the swords of- the soldiers. Manj" of the horses perished : the baggage was then placed on the backs of goats, liogs, and dogs. When the crusaders came to a country of streams, they threw themselves v/ithout caution into the first river that presented itself, and nature could not support the transition from want to satiety. The siege of Antioch was protracted, nor was this M'holly sur- prising, considering the state of defence in which the city was i)laced ; as well as on the other hand, the unskilful operations of the Croises, the famine in their camp, the numerous desertions from among them, and the relaxation of their morals. The Latin chiefs put forth prodigious efforts of valour; hut the city was finally taken • by stratae, which was in danger, not from the Saracens, but 140 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. from the Tartars. This fierce people were then pouring over tlie face of Asia. Louis spent three years in preparation, when he set out for Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and a powerful train of French knights, 1248 A. C. He had greatly encouraged the fainting hearts of the Christians in Palestine, by the men and troops he had sent thither before his own departure. The invasion of Egypt was his first object. Here, he lost one half of his army by sickness, was defeated in battle, and fell a prisoner into the hands of his enemy. After ransoming himself and his followers, he proceeded to the Holy Land, in which he continued a considerable time. On bis return, to France, he devoted himself, wisely, to the regular cares of government, during thirteen years, and would j)robably have long continued useful and happy, had not the mad spirit of crusading seized him again. In obedience to its dictates, he embarked on a crusade against the Moors in Africa. In this adventure, he and the greater part of his army perished, in consequence of a pestilence. Louis has been honoured with the title of saint. § History records, that on the subject of crusading, the mind ol Louis was influenced by the following circumstance. Agreeably to the temper of the times, he had vowed, whilst afflicted by a severe illness, that in case of recovery he would travel to the holy land. In the delirium of his fever he had beheld an engagement between the Christians and the Saracens ; the infidels were victorious, and ilie brave king of a valiant nation fancied himself called upon to avenge the defeat. The following incident indicated the king's zeal for a crusade. One night, during the Cliristnias festival, Louis caused magnificent crosses, fabricated by goldsmiths, to be sewn on the new dresses, which, as usual upon such occasions, had been bestowed upon the courtiers. The next day the cavaliers were surprised at the religious ornaments that had been affixed to their cloaks ; piety and loyalty combined to prevent them from renouncing the honours which had been thrust upon them, and the good king obtained the title of the liimter for pilgrims and fisher of men. Louis could have adopted the lines of a French rhymer of the tiiirteenth century. " Lo, now the fruitful hour at hand ! To thee the precious boon is given, For Paynims waste the holy fanil, And spoil the heritage of heaven. Shall we such faithless works hehold, With craven courage slack and cold 1 How else, hut to the Giver's praise, May we devote our wealth and tinys. THE CRUSADES. 141 The French, on landing in Egypt, captured Damietta ; but the rashness of the Count d'Artois was the means of checking them in the career of victory. Sad reverses soon ensued, and though Louis defended himself with the greatest bravery, he was obliged to yield to the enemy. Being taken prisoner with his army, he offered for his own ransom tlie city of Damietta, and for the de- liverance of his soldiers 500,000 livres. One fifth part of the latter was remitted through the generosity of the sultan. In Louis' second expedition against the infidels, he was joined by the English ; so that his force amounted to sixty thousand men. His fleet being driven into Sardinia, a change was made in the de- sign of the pilgrim hero, and an attack upon the Musselman Moors of Africa was fixed upon. Pestilence, however, prevented t!ie me- ditated blow, and the great stay of the crusades fell. The English portion of the forces, which had not reached Africa, when the death of Louis took place, made their way to Palestine, under the conduct of Prince Edward. Feats of arms were per- formed; but the Turks were fast overunning the lioly land, and with the capture of Acre, by that adventurous people, was connected tiie final loss of a country, on which the eyes of fanatical Europe had been fastened for more than two hundred years. 14. Amono- the causes of the dechne and cessation of the fanatical mihtary spirit of Europe, may be enumerated the following, viz. the decrease of the moral influence of the popes, and the increase of their tyranny, which the people were loth to bear — the avarice of the popes and priests, in conveiting to their Qwn purposes the funds which were raised to support tiie holy wars — tjie consequent unwillingness of the people to be taxed — the scandal which was cast on the crusades, when many of the soldiers of the cross were diverted from their re- ligious purj)ose, to promote the secular objects of the court of Rome — and most of all, the increasing conviction on the part of the people, that no lasting conquest of Palestine could be made by the sovereigns of Europe. These causes were too powerful even for the deep darkness and superstition of the age, ambition, love of military achievement, and desire of plunder. 15. Various opinions have been formed and maintained respecting the tendency and effects of the crusades. By some, they are thought to have benefitted Europe on the whole — by others, they are supposed to have been positively disatlvan- tageous. We incline to the latter opinion. They who look upon the crusades in a favourable light in resjject to their con sequences, nevertheless admit, that they were innncdiately 142 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI, distressing and pernicious. It is in the final result that they imagine the crusades to have been beneficial on the whole. In the final result, it has been maintained that they improved the poUtical condition, the manners and customs, the naviga- tion and commerce, the literature, and the religion of Europe, That there was a very gradua,l amelioiation of the wes- tern nations in the above particulars, is admitted. But this was a state of things, which it is natural to believe, time might have produced, aided as it was by other causes. In deed, from the nature of the convulsions which attended, or ra- ther constituted the crusades, it is certain that they must have tended to retmd the progress of society, learning, and religion, so far as they produced any effect. That they were not pro- ductive of any good, in any shape, it would be haz-ardous to assert. But providence can overrule the greatest evil, so that it shall be less evil than it would otherwise be ; and our point is made out, if the evil flowing from the crusades overbalan- ces the good, in quality or amount. Let any one who doubts this, reflect that the crusades were the oflspring of a dark and ignorant age — that they were kindled by the false fires of fanaticism and superstition, and moreover, were perverted, if so base a project could be perverted, by ambition, love of military renown, and a savage; desire of plunder. They agitated, convulsed, and distressed Fiinope, and every family in Europe, for two centuries. They drained that portion of the globe of men and money, to an in- supportable degree. IMie bones of two milHons of Europeans were entombed in Asia, or whitened her plains. The trea- sures that were expended aie past computation. Under the sacred name of religion, every crime and every folly was me- ditated and committed. The path of the fanatical warriors of the west was every where marked with blood. They were loo stupid and too superstitious to regard with complacency or with a desire of imitation, those superior modes of life and specimens of genius which they met with in their excursions Tiito the East. They even laid their sacrilegious hands on the monuments of ancient art, which chance or bravery [wt into their power, and in the rej)eated conflagrations of Constanti- nople, they rejoiced to see, in many instances, the destruction of those works, the remains of which the \Aorld has since been proud to own. FRANCE. 143 Tliey err, who count it glorious to subdue By conquest far and wide, to over-run Large countries, and in lield great battles wii;, Great cities by assaults : what do these worthies, But rob and spoil, burn, slaughter and enslave Peaceable nations. • ♦ ♦ ♦ " A view of the heroic ages of Christianity," says an interesting historian, "in regard to their grand and general results, is a useful and important, though a melancholy employment. The Crusades retarded the march of civilization, thickened the clouds of ignorance and superstition, and encouraged intolerance, cruelty and fierceness. Heligion lost its mildness and chafity ; and war its mitigating quali- ties of honour and courtesy. Such were the bitter fruits of the Ho- ly Wars. We can follow with sympathy, both the deluded fanatic, and the noble adventurer in arms, in their wanderings and marches through foreign regions, braving the most frightful dangers, patient in toil, invincible in military spirit. So visionary was the object, so apparently remote from sellish relations, that their fanaticism wears a character of generous virtue. The picture, however, becomes darkened, and nature recoils with horror from their cruelties, and with shame from their habitual folly and senselessness." FRANCE. 16. In 1108 the throne of France was ascended by Louis VI., siirnained the faf. son of Philip I. He carried on a war with Henr\' I. of England, Ijiit was not successful. The English defeated his army at the battle of Brennevdlle, 1119 A. C He was an accomplished and energetic sovereign. § In Louis' flight after the battle, an Englishman seized his horse's bridle, exclaiming, "the king is taken." "The king is never taken," said Louis, "not even in a game of chess," and then struck his ene- my dead at his feet. 17. Louis VII., the young, succeeded his father in 1137. The extent of his reign was 46 years. He quarrelled with the Pope about the nomination of an archliLihop, and had his kingdom put under an interdict. He was very unsuc- cessfully engaged in tiie holy wais,^ and in consequence of having divorced his queen, heiress of the great dutchy of Guienne, who soon married Henry Plantagenet, (afterwards Henry II. of England) he lost one fifth part of the French monarchy, including the provinces before held by the En- glish. § Louis was educated in an Abbej'', and the Abbeys at this period produced several distinguisiied men, among whom were Suger, his minister, a man of great political sagacity; St. Bernard, whose agen- 144 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. cy in the second criisade has already appeared ; and Abelard, whose story remains to be told. In conformity to the spirit of the age, and his own education, Louis made several pilgrimages, and among others visited the tomb of Tho- mas a Becket, at Canterbury. In one of these pilgrimages he died. His tomb, in the abbey of Barbeau, was opened in 1556, by Charles IX., and the body found in a high state of preservation. On the fin gers were several gold rings, which, h8f\'ing been taken off, were worn by Charles, together with a gold chain, v/hich was found in the tomb. 18. The son of Louis, Philip IL, surnamed Augustus^ ascended the throne in 1180. His reign was a long one also, being 43 years. Since the days of Charlemagne, France had seen no sovereign so ambitious and enterprising in war, as Philip. The most signal events of his reign, were his expulsion of the Jews from France ; his engagement in the third crusade, with Richard Coeur de Lion ; his invasion ol Normandy during Richard's absence ; his victory over Otho IV., emperor of Germany ; and the ofier of the crown of England to him for his son Louis, by the English barons § His engagement in the third crusade has already appeared. On the return of Richard to England, a disastrous war ensued between him and Philip, the English king determining to punish him for seizing Normandy. Richard, dying during the prosecution of this war, was succeeded by his brother .Tohn, whose pretensions to tlie crown of England were, however, disputed by his nephew, Arthur, aided by Philip. Arthur having been made prisoner, and put to death by his inliuman uncle, the latter was summoned by Philip, to appear in his quality as duke of Normandy, before a tribunal of his peers. On his refusal, Philip attacked and subdued several of the French provinces that were then held by the English, and united Normandy to the crown of France, 300 years after it had been detach- ed from it by the incapacity of Charles the simple. From the reign of Philip, may be dated the Inquisition, which was fiiat established in France, whence it found its way into Italy, Spain, and Portugal. 19. Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion, mounted the throne of his father in 1223, and died in 1226. He was a man of valour, and hence his surname. He took all the possessions of the English on the continent, as far as the Garonne. His character was that of a persecutor. § Louis prosecuted a barbarous crusade against certain sectaries in Languedoc and Gasconv, who presumed to attack the dogmas oi the Church of Rome. At the siege of Avignon, he was poi.soned by the count of Cliampaign. FRANCE. 145 20. Louis IX., styled Saint. Louis, became king at the age of twelve years, in 1226, under the regency of his mother. Louis possessed many excellent qualities — was pious, upright, and benevolent. His single fault was fanaticism ; tliough in every thing he did, the j)urity of his motive was conspicuous. He conlerred a considerable benefit on liis country, notwith- standing the errors into which his fanatical spirit led him. With Henry HI. of England, he waged a successful war. § An account has been given of the two crusades in which he was so unfortunately engaged, and in the last of which he perished. Henry III. demanded the provinces which, it seems, Louis' father had promised to restore. A tender was made of Poitou, and of the best part of Normandy ; but this did not satisfy Henry, who resolv- ed to try the issue of a battle, in wJiich he was defeated. 21. Phihp HI., surnamed the Bold, succeeded his father in 1270. His surname, it is thought, was not well deserved. He was the dupe of the artifices of his courtiers, and had no ])redominnnt trait, except a passion for amassing wealth. He brought back from Africa the miserable remains of his father's army. He died on his return from an expedition against Peter HL, of Arragon, who had usurped the kingdon\ of Sicily, and through whose instigation, eight thousand Frenchmen were massacred in that island. § Charles of Anjou, uncle of Philip, had lately become king of Sicily, and acted the tyrant towards its inhabitants. By a deed of cruelty towards a brother of the wife of Peter, he made the latter his enemy. Peter, in revenge, excited the Sicilians to revolt and murder. All the French of the island were, by a previous concert, butchered in cool blood, on tbe evening of EaSterda3^ Philip un- dertook to avenge this massacre, but the general failure of the ex- pedition, afflicted the French king so nuicli, that he fell into a de- cay, of which he died. 22. Philip IV., the Fair, ascended the throne of his an- cestors, in 12S5. He was remarkable for his personal beautj'^ and accomplishments. His disposition, however, was sin- gularly contrasted with his features and form. He was am- bitious, deceitful, perfidious and cruel. Refusing to obey the summons of the Roman pontili', Boniface VIII., to march against the Saracens, he was excommunicated, and his king- dom laid under an interdict. A severe contest ensued, the result of which was the humiliation of the Pope, and even- tually his d(;ath. * In 1314, Philip suppressed the order of the Knights Tenip- 13 J46 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI, lars, from a desire, it was thought, to obtain their immense wealth. ^ The haughty Boniface, in a bull, had declared, that " the Vicar of Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and kingdoms of the earth." Philip, in return for the indignity put upon him, de- nounced Boniface as an impostor, heretic, and simoniac, and declar- ed the see of Rome vacant. He contrived also, by means of a trusty- agent, to seize the person of the pope. The persons concerned in the transaction, caused his holiness to ride on a horse without sad- dle or bridle, with his face turned towards his tail. He was, how- ever, rescued at length ; but the loss of his immense treasures, while he was detained from his palace, threw him into a frenzy that killed him. ENGLAND. 23. Norman faraily, Planta genets. The throne of Eng- land, on the death of Rufus, was secured by his yoimger brother, Henry I., surnanied Beauclerc, or the Scholar, ] 100. The rightful heir was Robert, an older brother ; but as he was absent on a ciusade, Henry availed himself of so favouia- ble an opportunity to fill the vacant throne. T?obcrt, who was duke of Normandy, soon arrived in Eng- land to claim his right ; but he was prevailed upon to forego it, by the offer of a sum of money. Still, Henry was not satisfied, but ere long invaded Normandy ; and at last defeat- ed Robert, brought him prisoner to England, caused his eyes to be burned out, and confined him for life, in a castle in Wales. The injustice with which he had treated Robert, seems to have been visited upon him by the hand of Providence, in the calamities of his after life; particularly in the death of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy to England. Henry was one of the most accomplished of the Englisli sovereigns — brave, affable, and learned ; but his conduct in many instances, shewed that he was wanting in moderation. j)urity, and gratitude. § Henry married a Saxon princess, Matilda great jirand-daughter of Edmund Ironside, and thus tmited the Saxon and iS'orman olood. This circumstance endeared him to the English, and procured tiieir support. The story of the death of Henry's son, whose name was William, is briefly the following. The captain and seamen of the vessel in ENGLAND. 147 which he set sail for Eiiglan-J, becoming intoxicated, carelessly struck her upon a rock. She foundered immediately, but Wili-iam was saved by being put into a long-boat. He had already got near of the wreck, when hearing the cries of his natural sister, the countess of Perche, he ordered tlie seamen to row back, in hopes of saving her. But the numbers who then crowded in, soon sunk the boat ; and tlie prince with all his retinue perished. The effect of the news on Henry was melancholy indeed. He fainted away, and during the remainder of his life, was never known to smile. 24. Henry's cousin, Stephen, earl of Blois, was crowned king of England, 1135. His popularity enabled him to usurp the throne, when of right it belonged to the empress Matilda, or Maud, and her son Henry. § Matilda first married Henry V., emperor of Germany — afterwards Henry Plantugenet, earl of Anjou. By the latter she had several children, of whom Henry was the oldest. In behalf of Matilda, the earl of Gloucester, natural bro- tlier of the empress, took up arms against Stephen, defeated Jiim in the battle of Lincoln, and made him prisoner. But ■ihe fortune of war soon turned against Gloucester. He was defeated in the battle of Winchester, and taken prisoner, t)ut was exchanged for the king. Four years after this event, young prince Henry, son of Maud, invaded England ; but the great men on both sides, fearing tiie consequences of a battle, compelled the rival princes to a negociation. The succession was secured to Henry, after the death of Stephen. This event taking place the next year, Henry became king. Stephen was well calculated to be an efficient sovereign ; out he reigned under imfavourable circumstances, and his elevation brought suflering on himself and his people. Dur- ing his whole reign, England was rent with civil broils. § From the beginning, Stephen dreaded Robert, earl of Glouces- ter, a man of honour and abilities, and zealously attached to Maud. He took, indeed, the oath of fealty to Stephen ; but he took it with the reserve, that tiie king should never invade any of his rights or dignities. Tiiis was an example for others ; and many of the cler- gy and nobility, as the price of submission, required the right of fortifying their castles. England was soon filled witli fortresses, Knd tlie power of the aristocracy rose to a formidable height. 25. Henry II. succeeded to the throne in 1154. He was the first of the Pkintagenets who 1\iclded the sceptre, till the time of llexirv IV. In him was mingled the blood 14S MODERN HISTORY.- -PERIOD VI. of the Saxon kings of England, and of the Norman family He was the most powerful monarch of Christendom. His do minions were more extensive than those of any of his pre- decessors, as, in addition to England, he owned by inheritance and by marriage, nearly one half of France, and afterwards claimed Ireland by conquest. Happy in the affections of his people, he had the prospect of a prosperous reign ; but though England owed her first permanent improvements in arts, laws, government, and civil Uberty, to his measures, he was personally subjected to many calamities. A most serious misfortune, was his contention with Thomas a Bccket, archbishop of Canterbury. This arrogant ecclesiastic, a man of great talents and greater am- bition, availed himself of the authority of his station, to ex- alt the spiritual power above the crown ; and when the king undertook the reformation of the clergy, and to limit their prerogatives, he inet\\'ith the most determined opposition from Becket. In the course of the contention, flie ecclesiastic was killed. The horror excited in Henry's inind by this event, aided by the agitation into which England was thrown, led him to perform the most humiliating penance at the tomb of the saint. § Becket was first promoted by the king, to the dignity of clian- ceUor of England, to which station his talents and learning entitled him. Henry afterwards appointed him to fill tlie high place of me- tropolitan, falsely snpposing that from his gay and splendid turn, he would not be attached to ecclesiastical privileges. But no sooner was he in his new situation, than he affected personally the greatest aus- terity, and recited continually, prayers and pious lectures, maintain- ing his ancient pomp only in his retinue and attendants. In all tiiis, his determination to exalt the spiritual power, was visible to sagacious observers. That power was already too great. The ecclesiastics of that age had renounced all immediate subjection to the magistrate ; and as many of them were of low character, they committed the most de- testable crimes with impunity. They were charged even with the foulest murders. Tlie attempts of the king to put this order of men into a better state, resulted in what are called the (Constitutions of Clarendon. These were the decisions of a general council of the nobility and prelates at Clarendon, in which, the limits between the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, are distinctly marl^ed, and wliich, by the king's influence, were framed so as to favour his prerogatives. The clergy, generally, ptofessed to submit to thrsi; decisions, but Tieckei stood aloof: and though at Icnsth he took oiifli to observe Uiem, it was by no means in good faith. He repented of his tempo- ENGLAND. 149 'ar^' subjection, and endeavoured to influeijce the other bishops to loliow his steps. Henry, however, made him feel the royal power, by \hc confiscation of liis property on some pretence. This act, Becket resented, by excommunicating the Icing's chief ministers, and abrogating the constitutions of Clarendon. On some further instance uf his arrogance, the king was so veliemerUly agitated, that he ex- claimed, almost in reproaches, agijiinst his servants, whose " want of zeal." lie said, "left him exposed to the machinations of that un- grateful and imperious prelate." Four knights of his household, taking tliese passionate expressions to be a hint for the primate' death, instantly agreed among themselves, to avenge their prince's quarrel ; and pursuing Becket, found him, slenderly attended, in the qathedral of St. Benedict, arid there, before the altar, clove his head with many blows. Nothing could exceed the consternation of the king upon this event, and with a view to avert the resentment of the pope, he sub- mitted to the most humiliating treatment, even to the scourging of his naked body, by the monks. Endless were the panegyrics on the virtues of Becket ; and the miracles wrought by his relics, were more numerous, more ridicu- lous, and more impudently attested, than those which ever filled the legend of any confessor or martyr. He was canonized ; a jubilee W£is established for celebrating his merits ; and innumerable pilgrim- ages were made to his tomb. In one year, 100,000 pilgrims are said to have resorted thither. An important event in the reign of Henry, was the con- quest of Ireland. He seized the oppoitunity of making war on the island, when one of its petty chiefs, expelled by his sovereign, sought his protection. Henry's arms were success- ful, and the island was formally annexed to the English crown, in 1172. From that time, however, for some centuries, there was little intercourse between the kingdoms ; nor was the island ever considered as fully subdued, till the reign of Eli- zabeth, and of her successor, James I. § The Irish were an early civilized people, and among tlie first of the nations of the West, who emltraced the Christian religion. But by the frequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domestic com- motions, they were replunged into barbarism, for many ages. In the twelfth century, the kingdom was divided into five separate sove- reignties, but these were subdivided among a vast number of petty chiefs. Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheriffs in each, and introduced the laws of England into a part of it ; the rest of the kingdom being regulated by their ancient laws, till the reign of Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English laws were extended to the whole kingdom. Henry, much as he accomflished for the welfare of his 13* 150 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. realm, was seldom exempt from calamity for a long time to gether. His last years were particularly unhappy. Tlit, fault, however, was in. a great measure his own. His illicit passion for Rosamond, whose extraordinary beauty made her the theme of many a ballad and romance, excited the resentment of his queen Eleanora, through whoee means, three of his sons rebelled against him. Europe beheld with astonishment these sons, scarcely beyond the age of boy- hood, engaged in a series of efforts to wrest the sceptre from so potent a prince as Henry. They were, however, aided by the king of France. The contest began in Henry's French territories. He soon crushed his enemies there ; then return- ing to England, and obtaining a victory over the Scots, who had embraced the cause of the young princes, he immediate- ly restored tranquillity to the country. He was not suffered long to rest ; his unnatural sons, though leniently treated, re- volted again, joined by John, his fourth and favourite son, Henry, distracted with care, and overcome with the ingrati- tude of his children, died of a Ijroken heart, in the fifty- eighth year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his reign. § Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, died suddenly while en- gaged in tlieir rebellion. The force of parental affection, is remark- ably exemplified in Henry's death, and, to the honour of the king, deserves notice. When the son was seized with a fever, he was conscious of his approaching dissolution, and sent a message to his father, with a humble confession of his faults, and entreated the favour of a visit. The king was not very distant, but apprehensive that his sickness was feigned, durst not trust himself in his hands. But when he received intelligence of his death, he was overcome with grief; he fainted away, accused his own hard-heartedncss, and lamented th;it he had deprived his son of the opportunity of pour- ing out his soul in the bosom of an affectionate and reconciled father. His son Richard associated iiis youngest brother, John, in the last insurrection. Wiien the unhappy father heard this, already sinking in cares and sorrows, he broke out into expressions of the utmost despair ; cursed the day of iiis birth, and loaded his ungrateful chil- dren with maledictions which, he never v/(ni Id recall. Henry 1 L, was one of the ablest of the English kings. His reign was also highly beneficial to his subjects. He was en- dowed with a natvrml sensibility, which his long experience of the ingratitude of man never impaired. But his licentious- ness was too apparent, and his enmities too (kuable. His person was of a middle statvn-e, strong and well proportioned, his covuitenance engaging, and his elocution easy. ENGLAND; 15] 26. Richard I., the Lion-hearted, succeeded his father in 1189. He possessed a most heroic nature, and rivalled the heroes of Greece, in warUke enterprises. His disposition was open and generous, but at the same time, ambitious, haughty, and cruel. He spent most of liis reign in the niad project of the crusades, which have already been described, and particu- larly the part which was acted by this chivalric king. After an absence of nine year^, he reached England, but died within a few months, having first pardoned his traitorous brother John, and attempted to avenge the wrongs he had received from Philip of France. His foreign and distant wars exhaust- ed the resources of his country. 27. .John, smnamed Lackland, succeeded his brother upon the decease of the latter. His reign commenced in 1199, and continued to 1210 A. C. It was nmrked with the most dis- gusting tyianny and crime. § He received hi,s siirname from the loss of his territories in France, of whicli he was stripped by the French king. The latter supported the pretensions of Arthur, Joluii's nephew, whom John finally mur- dered. Early in his reign, he made the pope his enemy, by ap- propriating to his own purposes, some of the treasures of the church, and he met with the full extent of the papal ven- geance. At first obstinate, he was finally intimidated into submission. His kingdom was put under an interdict, him- self excommunicated, and after several personal concessions, he engaged to hold Jiis kingdom tributary to the Holy See. By this conduct he incurred the deep hatred and contempt of his people. § So greatly did the court of Rome triumph over him, that ,To!ui did homage to Pandulf, tlie pope's legate, in the most abject manner, and paid part of the tribute which he owed for his l<.ingdoni, while the legate, in the haughtiness of sacerdotal power, trampled on the money, as an earnest of the subjection of the kingdom. The subjects of John, treated with such indignity, and even sold, felt it neoesstay to vindicate their rights. The barons, nnder the command of Langton, the primate, assembled. Mid Itinding themselves by an oath, to a concert of measures, de- manded from the king a ratiikation of a charter of privileges, granted by Henry 1. The king was highly exasperated and refused the demand, till resort was had to the sword. Desert- ed by liis people, he was obliged most reluctantly to yield a 152 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. compliance. At Runnyrnede, wliere he met liis barons, he signed, on the 19th of June, 1215, that famous deed called Magna Charta, (the Great Charter.) which has had so pro- pitious an effect on the liberty of Englishmen. It secured important rights to all classes of Lis subjects, though some ot its stipulations, from the change of manners and institutions, appear at this day trivial or ridiculous. § The charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of which, two or three, the most huporlant, were— that no aids or subsidies should be allowed to be levied from the subjects, unless in a few special cases, without the consent of the great council — that no person shall be tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful witnesses— and that no person shall be tried or punished, but by the judgment ol his peers and the law of the land. John granted at the same time, the Charter of the Forest, which abolished the royal privilege of killing game over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawful proprietors their woods, which they were allowed to enclose for their own private purposes. The king, forced into these measures against his will, medi- tated a dreadful revenge against his barons, by the aid of fo- reign mercenaries, and began to lay his own realm waste with fire and sword. But, at a critical time, when Louis, the eldest son of Philip of France, had arrived in England, to assist the barons, with the expectation of receiving the crown liimself, John suddenly died. Louis was obliged to return to Prance, and the succession was settled on Henry, the son of John, a boy of nine years of age. § In the person of John, the English were scourged with a tyrant, more odious and capricious than any other of their sovereigns, be- fore or since. To tyranny, he a! his son. Being an excellent marksman, he accepted the alternative, and providentially cleft the apple without injuring the child. Geisler perceiving another arrow in his belt, asked him for what pni-pose that was intended. Tell heroically replied, " It was designed foi yon, if I had killed my son." Condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a dungeon for this an- swer, he was bound and thrown into a boat, that Geisler hiinsell might convey him across the lake of Altorf, to his castle. In the midst of the passage, a furious squall arose, and the cowardly go- vernor was so intimidated by the danger he was in, that he unbound Tell, who was a most skilful boatman, and entreated him to row him safely across the lake. Tell soon etfected his escape by swimmmg to the shore, and had an opportunity by the time Geisler arrived, to pierce the tyrant's heart with an arrow. This event paved the way Jbr the conspiracy which followed. 23. Eight emperors succeeded xilbert, during the remain- der of this period ; but a connected account of their reigns need not here he given. A few scattered pa'-;iculars may be found below. § In the reign of Henry VIII., Germany groaned under all the miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were depopti lated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought an asyium in other cormtries, while the poor perished without ])ity o! assistance ; wolves, and other beasts of prey, compelled by hunger, quitted their dens, and rushing into the villages, satiated iheniselve.". witli human blood ; cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains, swejn trees and houses before them with dreadful impetuosity; and the earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate It to its centre. While Louis V. held the imperial sceptre, a spirit of fanaticisai CHINA. 181 broke out in Alsaoo, and the lower class cf people assembled under me hiiiiiursof an innkeeper, who erected himself into a prophet, and neraiiaded his followers, that it was their indispensable duty to re- venge the death of Christ, by an extirpation of the Jews. In obe- dience to this doctrine, they massacred great multitudes of tliat un- happy nation. In one place tlie carnage was so great, that the Jews themselves augmented tlie horror of the scene ; for, being driven to despair, they butchered their own wives and children, and then murdered themselves, to elude the cruelty of their inhuman enemies. After some time, however, these frantic enthusiasts were driven out of the province ; their sanguinary leader perished by the hands of the executioner, and the survivmg Jews were permitted to live in peace. In 1350, Charles IV., issued the celebrated Golden Bull, containing a declaration of the fundamental laws of the empire. The edict was so called from a golden seal termed Bulla. The emperor Sigisnumd, became also king of Bohemia, in con- sequence of the death of his brother Winceslas. It was this empe- ror who betrayed the celebrated reformer, John IIuss, to the Elector Palatine, who caused him to be burnt alive. The next year, Jerome of Prague suffered the same fate. CHINA. 24. A part of the twentieth and twenty-fn-st dynasties of the empire of Chnia, is inckidcd in the present period. In the reign of Sliistu of the twentietli dynasty, the famous canal was dug, whicli is nine hundred miles in length. Un- der some of the princes of this dynasty, the religion of Fo was established in the empire. Shunti was the last of the Tartar race, who held the sceptre in China. The twenty -fast dynasty was that of Ming, fountied by Chu, who, ascending the throne, took the name of Fay-tsu. This dynasty, which commenced in 1368, lasted two hundred and eight3'-one years, under seventeen emperors. § Chu had been a servant in the monastery of the bonzes. Head- ing a numerous company of revolters, he reduced many considera- ble cities and provinces, and defeated ine imperial army in a battle. His successes were so great, that he assusned the title of emperor and fixed his court at Nankin. In a few montlis, however, he made himself master of Pekin, and erected that country into a sovereign- ty, which he gave to his fourtli son. He proved to be a prince of great wisdom and prnelration. It is relatcil of Cliing-lsu, one of the emperors of this dynasty, that when specimens of precious stones were brought to liim from a mine which had lately been discovered, he ordered it to be shut up, alleging, that it only harrassed his people with useless toil, as these stones could neither feed nor clothe them in limes of scarcitv. 16 lS2 modern HISTORV. period VII Distinguished Characters in Period VII. 1. Dante, and ) , • t. r , pp. .1 > classic Italian poets. 3. Boccace, an Italian, one of tiie restorers of learning 4. Wicklifle, an Faiglish theologian and reformer. 5. Froissart, an entertaining French chronicler. 6. Gower, and ) r .^ /.t^ i- i , ^ ^„ ' } lathers oi Jhnglisli poetry, i. Chaucer; ) » r j § 1. Dante, (Alighieri,) who died at the age of fifty-seven years, early displayed poetical talents ; but the ambition of being elevated among tlie ruling men of his native city, engaged him in continual discord and faction. He and his party were at length defeated, and with them he sought safety in banishment. While he was in tliis situation, he vented the bitterest reproaches against his enemies. The occasion of his death v/as, an atfront wliicli he received from the Venetians. The prince of Ravenna, (in which place he was in exile,) sent him to negociate with the Venetians, in order to avert a threatened war ; but the magistrates of Venice treated the embassa- dor with contempt, and refused to receive him within their walls. Tlie irritable heart of Dante was so affected by this affront, that he could not survive it, and he died on liis return to Ravenna. His literary worics owe tiieir origin to his misfortunes and re'- vengeful spirit. His great object seems to have been to pierce his enemies with the shafts of satire. The rancour of liis feeling, min- gled itself wiVa the sweetness and graces of poetry. His poems are characterized by spirit, fire, and sublimity. His triple poem, of Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell, displays wonderful powers of genius. 2. Petrarch (Francis) is deservedly celebrated as one of the re- storers of classical learning, and more, perhaps, than any other per- .son, as lijc father of modern poetri". He displayed all the powers of genius and poetical inspiration, not only in his own native lan- guage, but in Latin. His sonnets are esteemed the sweetest, most elegant, and most higlily finished verses, ever written in Italian ; and iiis songs possess uncommon beauty and grace. Petrarch had a most charming fancy. Some of the events of liis life are rather singular; particularly his inextinguishable passion for liis mistress Laura. He first saw this beautiful female in 1G27, after he had fixed his residenr(^ at Vaucluse, near Avignon, and he was smitten with all the i)angs oi love. But though the soft ])assion was expressed in the softest lan- guage of iioetry, the heart of the fair one was by no means moved. To divert the melancholy wliich ensued, he travelled through va- rious countries, and was at last persuaded to enter into the servire ol Pope John XXH. But, " amor vincit omnia," and Petrarch, abandon- ing the pleasures of curiosity and of greatness, fled to the shades of Vaucluse, to converse with his beloved Laura. He again de/o- led his hours to studious pursuits, and to the amatory effusions of DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 18 tiis muse. But though the idolized fair one heeded not his poetry, the world did ; and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at the same moment, invited him to come and receive the poetical crown. Rome pre- vailed, and in that famed scat of empire and of genius, the poet's brow was entwined with the resplendent honour. He was occasion- ally drawn from his favourite resilience, on public business; and it was during an absence in 1348, tliat he was informed of Laura's death, which affected him with the deepest gloom. The poet's purity in this affair, has been maintained by some, and denied by otiiers ; and some parts of his character certainly afford too much ground for the opinion of the latter. Petrarch was an ecclesiastic, thougli he never took priest's orders. He died at the age of seventy, 1374. 3. Boccace, (John,) born at Certaldo, in Tuscany, 1313, studied under Petrarch, who was his friend and patron. He lived abroad for a time, iuit afterwards returned to his native village, where he spent the remainder of his days, in literary pursuits. His constitu- tion was w^ealcened iiy his great application, and lie died of a sick- ness in the stomach, 1375. His works are both Latin and Italian. He possessed uncommon learning, and lie shiires with a few otliers the honour of contribut- ing to the revival of learning in Europe. " Decameron," a licen- tious, though witty, satirical, and elegantly written romance, is his most celebrated composition. His poetry is not equal to that of Petrarch, but his prose is unrivalled, for its simplicity, grace, and varied elegance. 4. Wickliffe, (John de) was professor of divinity, in the Universi- ty of Oxford, and deservedly considered as the forerunner of Lu- ther, iti the reformation. His elevation to the professorship of Ox- ford, exposed him to the jealousy of the monks, and he was soon dis- placed. He felt the indignity keenly, and it was not long before he boldly came out against the errors and encroachments of Rome The Romish clergy, with the pope at their head, took the alarm, and employed every effort to suppress the doctrines of Wickliffe. Most of liis doctrines were pronounced as heretical, by the several coun- cils that were called. He was seized as a heretic, by the emissaries of the Pope, and tried ; but the judges, although they enjoined him silence, pf-viiiited him to depart in safety, as they feared the nobility and people. These, in general, favoured Wickliffe. Not at all in- timidated, the reformer continued to preach his peculiar sentiments, and they became still more widely known. But the penal statutes were severe, and some who embraced the new heresy, were deliver- ed over to punishment. Wickliffe, in the mysterious providence of God, died at a time when nothing was wanting to emancipate the JiUglish nation from the tyranny of Rome, but the boldness, perseverance, and eloquence of a popular leader. Wickliffe's noble struggle proved almost abor- tive, and little was thought of it, till Luther arose to establish the ecoi'ie the seat of the Ottoman power, had they not been obliged to defend themselves against the Tartars. Mahomet II., after some delaV; con)menced the project which had long engaged the attention of the Turks. The indolent inhabitants of Constantinople, made but a feeble jireparation for defence, and all Europe was supine and in- tlilVerent. The city was assailed Ijoth by sea and land — the walls were battered down witli camion, and aU who opposed were massacred. The emperor was .slain, and tiie city soon surrendered. The Turks forl^ore to destroy the imperial edifices, and the chinches were converted into mosques. The exercise of their religion, however, was allowed to all the christian^, and they have, till lately, chosen their own patri- arch. Tlie Fiastern empire, from the building of its capital, had subsisted 1123 years. {' After the fall of Constantinople, Greece and Epirus were subdued ; and Italy might probably have shared a similar fate, but for the lleet of the Venetians, who opposed the arms of Mahomet with considerable success : but peace was soon conchided Ijetween the hostile powers. The death of Ma- homet the Great, occurred 1481. IG* 186 MODERN HISTORY —PERIOD Vlll. § Mahomet was a youth of only about twenty-one years, when he undertook the project of exthiguishing the empire of the East, The force with whicli lie invested Constantinople, was fully adequate to the object, being nearly three hundred thousand men ; while the wliole population of that city, did not amount to more than one hundred thousand. The Greeks, notwithstanding their degeneracy, displayed con- siderable bravery. Their all was at stake, and a small but faithful Dand adhered to Constantine, till they were nearly annihilated. Seeing his dearest friends fall by his side, and himself at last re- maining', surrounded only by enemies, he exclaimed in the bitterness of grief, " Has death then made such havoc, that not one Christian is left to take my life?" As he spoke, a Turk to whom his person was luiknown, for he had prudently laid aside the purple, strucV. him in the face; a second blow succeeded from another hand ; and he fell, in the forty-ninth year of his age, a glorious example of honourable resolution, in expiring with his defenders, rather than surviving them. Mahoinet liberally patronized the arts and sciences ; and fo compensate fo'^ tlie ir.igration of those learned Greeks, who, on the fall of the empire, spread themselves over the countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters to his capital from other kingdoms. The successors of this sovereign during the remainder of the present period, were Bajazet II., Selim I., Solyman I., Sehm II., Amurath III., and Mahomet III. § Bajazet II., prosecuted various wars against the Hungarians, Venetians, Persians, and Saracens, but having resigned the govern- ment to his son, who had revolted and was supported by the Janizaries, he was soon after poisoned by the order of the latter. His son and successor, Selim I., was a prosperous, but tyrannical prince ; who, in 1517, conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, and Gaza. Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded Selim in 1520; and v/as one of the most accomplislied, enterprising, successful, and warlike of the Turkish princes. He took Buda, and besieged Vien- na. From the latter place, however, he was obliged to retire with the loss of eigiity thousand men. Selim IL, his son, besieged and took Cyprus and Tunis; but his fleet was defeated at Lepanto, with the capture or destruction of almost all liis ships. Amurath Ilf. strangled his five brothers immediately upon his ac- cession. Tills prince extended his dominions by the addition ol Raab in Hungary, and of Tibris in Persia. In this reign, the Jani- zaries having lost their submission, and in great part, their discipline, began to kill their commanders, whenever they were dissatisfied with them. His son, Mahomet HI. was a monster of barbarity, having begun ITALIAN STATES. 187 his reign by strangling his nineteen brothers, and drowning ten of his fatlier's wives. He finally put to death his eldest son, a nrince of estimable qualities, on an unfounded suspicion of ambitious views. ITALIAN STATES. 2. We shall pursue the history of Italy, by giving an ac- count of only two or three of the States of which it was composed. The events in the Italian history are not politi- cally important at tliis era. It is chiefly in reference to the influence of Florence on the literature of the times, and the ecclesiastical influence of the Papal dominions, that these portions of Italy will be brought more particularly into view. Florence, under the ^ledici, enjoyed a high degree of splendour, during this period. It was an era, in the cultiva- tion of the sciences and elegant arts. The family of the Medici held sway in tliis country from the year 1428 (o 1569, when Cosmo de Medici the Great was entitled Grand Duke of Tuscany. Under the title of the Republic of Florence, which they governed, were included not only Tus- cany, of which Florence is the capital, but Modena, Mantua, and one or two other states. § Cosmo de Medici died in 1464. wiio, though the private subject of a repuliiic, liad more riches tlum any king in Europe, and laid out more money in works of taste, learning, and charity, than all the kings, princes, and states, of that or the subsequent age, the indi- viduals of his own family excepted. His religious foundations were unrivalled. His private buildings were equally sumptuous. No palace in Europe at that time exceeded his in Florence. He had be- sides many others. With all this public magnificence and expendi- ture, lie was in his private conversation, iuinible and unassuming; and in his person plain and modest. He was not celebrated for learning, though he was the greatest patron of learned men of his age. (>)smo was succeeded in the government by his son Peter, and he liy his sons Lorenzo and Giuliano. The latter was soon murdered, and Lorenzo died ajied no more liian fifty-four years, illustrious lik his predecessors, in every public and private virtue. Tlie trau(iuillity of the republic was much disturbed by wars with the Venetians and Genoese, fur many years. In the course of these conunntions, Florence assumed the popular government, but it was quickly reversed by the emperor Charles V., who, laying siege to the ciiy, forced it to capitulate, and restored the family of the Medici. Cosmo, the second of that name, now (Io37) succeeded to the ducal crown, which he wore with honour, during thirty-eight years. The encouragement he gave to the practice and study of all the fine arts, f88 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. proves him to have been one of the greatest patrons of hiiipan geni- us, since the clays of Augustus. The names of his sons were John and Garcia. The latter was of a furious, vindictive disposition, and quarrelling one day with his brother, stabbed him to the heart with a dagger. The father charged him with the murder, but the youth denying it, was introduced into the room where the body lay, which is said to have bled, (doubtless by chance,) at his approach. He then threw himself at his father's feet, and confessed biis guilt. The father, who had resolved on the part he was to act, solemnly desired his son to prepare for death, adding, that he ought to thinlv himself happy in losing a life he was unworthy to enjoy, by the hands of him who gave it. He then unsheathed the dagger with which the cardinal had been murdered, and plunged it into the bosom of his son. 3. That part of Italy which constitutes the dominions of his hohness, became the scene of much crime and conten- tion during this period. Both the temporal and spiritual pow- er of the popes, was now at its height. In 1498, the papacy was enjoyed b}^ Alexander VI., a monster of wickedness. Charles VIII. , of France,, had resolved on an expedition into Italy. The pope and the duke of Milan, who encouraged him in it, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest of the king of Naples, who was the object of attack on the part of Charles. The latter, however, now lirst besieged the pope in Rome, and forced him to submission, but at length devoutly kissed his feet. He then marched against Naples, while its timid prince, Alphonso, fled to Sicily, after absolving his subjects from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, but lost bis nev/ kingdom almost as soon as he had gahied it. A league was formed against Charles, be- tween the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arra- gon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on liis re- turn to France, the troops he had left to guard his conquests^ were all driven from Italy. § it has been remarked, that from the decisive effect of tliis con- federacy, the sovereigns of Europe derived a useful lesson of policy, and first adopted the idea of preserving a balance of power, by that tacit league, wliich is understood to be always subsisting, for the prevention of the co-ordinate agfjrandizement of any particular state. History relates with horror, the crimes of Alexander VI., and his son Ca;sar IJorgia : their murders, robberies, profanations, and in- cests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of llicir ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind. Their death seems to have been a sort of retribution for their crimes, so far as retribution is known on earth. FRANCE. 189 If an author, Guicciardinj, who was a mortal enemy to Alexan- der, may be believed, Borgia had sent a present of some flasks of poisoned wine to the cardinal of Corneto, in whose garden they pro- posed to snp, but ordered the servant to give none of it to any per- son. Alexander soon after coming into the garden, and calling for wine before supper, the servant gave him some from the poisoned flasks, tliiiiking the proliibition could not extend to the Pope, how- ever rare and valuable the wine might be ; and Borgia, in the mean time appearing, unconsciously drank of the same wine with his fatiier. They both immediately felt the symptoms of the poison, and Alexander died tlie next day; but Borgia, having drank his wine much diluted, survived with the loss of his skin and hair. He was afterwards stripped of all his possessions by Pope Julius 11., and at last perished in miserable obscurity in Spain. FRANCE. Branch of Valois. — Brandt of Orleanft. 4. Louis XL, began to reign in 14(3L He immediately removed all his late father's ministers, proceeded to luimble the nobles, and in almost every respect acted (lie tyrant towards his subjects. Indeed, his character is that of a most deceitful, profligate and crtiel prince ; he followed too nearly the odious Tiberius in his measures. He left, however, some good regu- lations for the encouragement of commerce, and for the ef- fectual administration of justice. Notwithstanding the otlious- ness of his character, he was the first of the French Ivings, on whom the title of His most Christian Majesty was conferred. § His severity occasioned a revolt of several of the first lords of the kingdom. The war which thence arose, they entitled " the war of the public good." His sanguinary disposition is evidenced bv the following fact. When he pronounced sentence of death on a certain nobleman, he ordered that his infant cliildren should lie placed beneath the scaffold, to be sprinkled by the blood which gushed from the body of their parent. This was an almost incredible instance of refined cruelty, and cold barbarity. Louis died a victim of superstitious terror and remorse of conscience. 5. Charles VIH., surnamed the Affable, at the age of thirteen years, sticceeded his father, under th-c regency of Anne of France, his sister, 1483. His marriage with Anne of Brittany, who was promised to Maxiniihan of Atistria, occasioned a short war witii the (iermaiis. His expecUtion into Italy, and \\\^. conquest and subsequent loss of Naples have already been noticed in the ItaHan history. He reign- ed about fifteen years. 100 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. § His surname is indicative of his disposition and manners biit he led a hfe of intemperance, and was early cnt off by tliis vice, in his twenty-eighth year. The direct line of Philip of Valois terminated with this monarch, as he left no issue. 6. Louis XII., who was duke of Oiieans, and great grand- son of Charles V., ascended the throne as the nearest heir, 1498. He was idohzed by the Frencli, and obtained and deserved the title of " The Father of his People," by his frugal poUcy, which eased them from taxes. Yet lie was am- bitious and imprudent in his military enterprises. He conquered the Milanese and Genoa, bvit in prosecuting his claim to Naples, though he obtained some advantage at first, he was unsuccessful in the end. He was duped by his associates, Ferdinand of >Spain, and {X)pe Alexander VI. The whole of Naples finally fell into the treacherous hands of Ferdinand ; nor did the French king long retain his other conquests in Italy, since they revolted from him on the first opportunity. Louis died suddenly, while preparing to recover, by arms, his lost Italian possessions. § In justifying himself for tlie pardon of his enemies, Louis made an observation worthy of royalty. " The king of France does not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." What this prince also said in vindication of his economy, will always be praised. " I had rather see my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my people weep on account of my expenses." It was an unhappiness, how- ever, that he procured, in part, his supplies of money by the sale oi offices, which was a very dangerous example. 7. Francis I., count of Angouleme, was called to the throne, 1515, Louis having died without male issue. He v/as a ne- phew of the late king, and began his reign at the age of twenty-one. His real power, and the high opinion which he entertained of his own greatness, led him, in 1519, into competition with the celebrated diaries V., who had just ascended the throne of Spain. Charles, as grandson of the emperor Maximilian, u|)on the death of the latter, preferred his claiin to the empire, but was opposed by Francis. Charles oblained the election, and these princes now became sworn enemies. Their mu- tual claims on each other's dominions, caused seas of blood to flow, in wars that lasted more than thirty-eight years. § Francis began hostilities by attacking Navarre. He first won and then lost that kingdom. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same lime wrested JMilan out of the hands o) the French, FRANCE. 191 Henry VIII., of England, whose friendship had been as.^iduoiiblj'' courted by botli parlies, was brought over for a time to tiic side of Charles. Just at this juncture, Francis, unfortunately, quarrelled with his oest general, the constable of Bourbon, who revenged himself by deserting to the emperor. The constable was invested with com- mand in the army of Charles, and thus greatly added to the supe- riority which was already apparent in the generals of the latter. The consequences were such as mi^iit have been expected. The French were defeated in the battle of liiagrassa. In this engagement, Bay- ard, the model of knights, [)crished. At his deati\, he replied to the marks of pity shown by the duke of Bourbon, with these words; " it is you who ought to be pitied, for fighting against your king, your coimtry, and your oatlis." A temporary success attended the Frencli arms in the capture of the capital of the Milanese ; but a sad reverse soon followed in the battle of Pavia. That batth; was fought on the 24th of February, 1525, and resembled in its catastrophe, those won by the English at Poictiers and Agincourt. Twenty-five thousand French were slain,, and Francis himself made prisoner. He had llie mortification to find himself the captive of that very man, the constable, whom he had treated witii the greatest hauteur. Europe being alarmed by the aggrandizement of Charles, a league of several states was formed against him, in favour of the captive mo- narch. In this league, England was included. The emperor was thus in a manner forced to liberate his prisoner, and he derived little benefit from his good fortune. The severity of the terms respecting his ransom was such, that the states general refused to fulfil them. On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, but the powerful Charles was not intimidated. liesolving on an in- vasion of his enemy's country, he inundated Provence with fifty thousand men. But the defensive operations of the French were very successful, and Charles returned sorrowfully into Italy, having lost tlie one half of his army, cut o.T by diseases and famine. In tlie interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten years, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and on the part of Francis, was treated with the utmost courtesy and liospitality. He had previously stipulated to grant the French king the investi- ture of Milan. But though he was every where received with the utmost pomp, and staid seven days in Paris, where he was loaded with e\-ery mark of friendship and confidence, lie left no autheiUic testimony^ of his promise. The seeds of a renewed contest were tluis sown, but though the French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, they derived from it little or no advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a de- cided superiority, and France must have been ruined had not the disorders of (Germany forced tlie emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi, with Francis, 1544. The latter purchased a peace with Henry Vill., who had once more changed sides, and favoured Charles. 192 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 8. Francis died in 1547. He lias the reputation of a great prince, and would have appeared greater, but for the manifest superiority of his illustrious rival. Notwithstanding the wai? in which France was engaged during the reign of this mo- narch, he left his kingdom in a flourishing and prosperous state. Literature and the arts made great progress in France under his auspices, and the French court acquired that polish and refinement in taste and manners, lor which it has since been so conspicuous throughout the world. § " The fine qualities of this prince," says Millet, " his open temper, beneficence, honour, generosit}^, and courage, have not been able to cover his faults, rashness in his enterprises, negligence in his affairs, fickleness in his conduct, prodigalit}^ in liis expenses, and excess in his pleasures. Whatever merit he was possessed of, he would have met with fewer encomiums, had he not caressed and favoured men of letters, by whose suffrages the reputation of sovereigns is fixed. He founded the royal college and printing house. At the same time that he encouraged the culture of the learned languages, he had the prudence to command that the public acts should be written in French. In the same manner, he gave life to tne fine arts, built Fontainbleau, and began the Louvre. In order to polish the man ners of the court, he drew to it the most respectable women and distinguished prelates." 9. Henry H. succeeded his father in 1547. This prince, though brave and polite, was the slave of pleasure, and the dupe of favourites. He continued the war in which his father had been engaged with Charles V., and that emperor's sor. Phihp II., of Spain. He obtained considerable advantage over Chailes at the siege of Metz, but was terribly defeated by Phi- lip, at St. duentin. The event most glorious to his reign, was the recovery of Calais from the English, in 1557. The duke of Guise captured the place in eight days, to the sur- prise of all Europe. The origin of those civil wars which distracted France during the three succeeding reigns, may be dated from this reign, or rather from that of Francis I., when the Huguenots, who were Calvinists, or Protestants, began to be persecuted. The sj)irit of persecution greatly increased during the reign of Henry. § The death of this monarch was owing to an accident M'hich befe] him at a tournament. Wishing to amuse the ladies with a lilt be tween himself and the count of Montgomery, wlio was esteemed the most dexterous justler of liis lime, he gaily entered the lists. In their rencounter both their lances were broken, and the count PRANCE. 193 thrown from his horse. In his fall, the broken trunk of the spear, still remaining in his hand, struck tlie king's right eye, and produced so violent a contusion as to terminate his life. 10. His son, Francis II., wa.s raised to the throne in 1559. He was tlic husband of jMary, queen of Scots, and died the Qext year, having reigiicd about seventeen months. The only important event in this reign, was the conspiracy of the Protestants against the king, and the Guises, who were five brothers, at tiie head of the Catholics. Two of these, the duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, were conspicu- ous in the government. This conspiracy was detected, and 1200 of those engaged in it, were put to death. § Tiie Protestants were wearied with the persecutions they had so long endured, and came to a resolution to devote their lives to the defence of their liberties. They were secretly abetted by the prince of Conde, brother to the king of Navarre. Tiie prince, Iiovvever. escaped punishment, having pleaded his cause before the king, in person. 11. Charles IX., a boy only ten years old, succeeded his brother, 1560, under the regency of Catharine de Medicis, who luid been the wife of Henry, and was notorious for her proliigacy and ambition. Tlie diflicultics between the Catho- lics and Protestants had arisen to a great height. Some ol" the first men of the French court, were included among the latter, j)articularly the prince of Conde and Admiral Cohgny. Their inlluence was too great to be resisted ; and after the conference held at Poissy, liljerty was granted to the Protes- tants to exercise their worship without the walls of the towns. The violation, soon after, of the edict granting this liberty, oc- casioned the sanguinary civil war, which for a long time lillcd France with misery and blood. § Tlie Protestant religion had spread groatly at court, as well as in the capital and tlic i)rovinces, even under Francis J. The perse- cution of the Protestants under Henry II., only increased their num- ber, and produced tliat exasperation of feeling, which ended in the conspiracy, already mentioned, under Francis II. The celoi)ratcd conference at Poissy, was attended by tlie young king, the queen mother, and the whole court. Theodore Beza, an illus- trious reformer, defended the Protestants, while the cardinal of Lor- raine, undertook the cause of the Catholics. Both parties, as is usual on such occasions, claimed the victory. It was, however, difficult any longer to refuse certain concessions to tiie Protestarits. Indeed, the queen motlier found it politic to grant them libcn-ty of worship, and to favour the prince of Cunile, i.-i order to counterbalance the power of the Guises. n 194 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. The Protestants, in the war which ensued, were headed by Admi- ral Cohgny, who was assisted by 10,000 Germans from the Palati- nate. The command of the Catholics was assumed by Guise and Montmorency, who were aided by Philip of Spain. The latter were always victorious, though the Protestants were too powerful to be despised ; and in tlie conditions of peace which they obtained, was included the toleration of their religion. Murders and assassina- tions aggravated the horrors of civil war. The duke of Guise fell by the hand of a religious enthusiast. And even the peace which was secured, was only a prelude to more awful scenes of atrocity and blood. It became now tlie policy of the government to caress the Protes- tants, in order to destroy them. They received extraordinary marks of favour ; even the prudence of Coligny was lulled asleep ; and on the occasion of the marriage of the king of Navarre with the sister of Charles, these persecuted people were allured to court. By the order of the government, a dreadful massacre of the Protestants then took place, the horrid plan having been all previously arranged. On the night of the twenty-third of August, it being St. Bartholo- mew's, there perished in Paris and France, 60,000, some reckon 100,000 Protestants. The duke of Guise (Henry, son of Francis) went in person to Coligny's gate, and caused that great man to be murdered. Tlie streets and houses in Paris floated in blood. The king barbarously fired upon his unhappy subjects, and afterwards beheld with pleasure Coligny's body insulted by the populace. To crown this horrid act, the king declared that every thing Avas done by his command ; the parliament ordered an annual procession to celebrate the deliverance of the kingdom ; a medal was struck ■with this legend, piety put the sword into the hands of justice , and at Rome and in Spain, the massacre was made a subject of public rejoicings. Calvinism was not at all crushed by this infernal plot, infernally executed. It only became more formidable through despair, and now both of the ]]ourbons, — tlie king of Navarre as well as the prince of Conde, were enlisted in the Protestant cause. It was found ne- cessary again to grant them liberty of conscience. Charles died soon after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, at the age of twenty- four years. 12. The successor of Charles IX., was Henry III., duke of Anjou, who had just been elected king of Poland, 1574. He was a weak and Avorthless prince, joining to the utmost depravity of manners, the external observances of tlie lowest superstition. He became the scorn of his subjects, and the dupe of the contending factions. It was in his reign, that the Catholics, incensed on account of the privilege's conferred on the Huguenots, formed the famous league for the purpose of extirpating them, having the duke of Guise at its head. § This league was nommally for the defence of the state and its ENGLAND. . 195 religion, but in reality, besides the extirpation of the Protestant faitli, it had in view the usurpation of all the powers of government. The king, with the weakest policy, united himself to tiiis league, and thus became the avowed enemy of a large portion of his subjects. But in carrying on his military operations against tiie Protestants, he found himself thwarted at every step, by the duke of Guise and tlie Cardinal of Lorraine. To dispel the fears which he entertained from tliese men, lie put them to death, by the hands of assassins. Af- ter a reign of fifteen years, the king himself was assassinated, 1589, by a fanatic monk. 1 3. Oil the death of Henry III., who died without children, the sceptre of France passed to the house of Bourbon, repre- sented at this time by Henry HI., of Navarre. As king of France, he is known by the name of Henry IV., afterwards surnamed the Great. As his reign extends into the next period, the following particulars only, will be mentioned at present. He had been educated in the reformed rehgion by his mother, who avowed herself its protector. At the age of sixteen, he had been de- clared head of the party of the Huguenots. When invited to Paris at the peace of 1572, to marry the sister of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew, but remained three years a prisoner. Although his first mihtary enterprises were unsuccessful, yet, when on the death of Charles, he again took the field against the army of the league, he defeated it in the battle of Coutras, 1587, and still more signally in that of Argues, 1589. After the death of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry, against the army of the League, then commanded by the duke of Mayenne, who iiad proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon, king, under the title of Charles X. As a protestant, however, he was environed with difficulties; a large portion of the people refused to submit to him; and influenced by the earnest entreaties of the duke of Sully, as well as by views of policy, he re- nounced protestantism, and became a catholic, 1594. In 1596, the duke of Mayenne submitted to Henry, and the whole kingdom acknowledged him as its sovereign. ENGLAND. Branch of York. House of Tudor. 14. Henry VI., had been on the throne of England since the year 1 42J ; but the wars which now commenced between 196 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. his house and that of York, rendered his situation most in- secure, and, at length, hurled him from his throne. Justice was on the side of Richard, duke of York, as he was a de- scendant from the second son of Edward III., while Henry was a descendant from Edward's third son. The whole nation took the side of one or the other, and each party was distin- guished by a particular symbol. That of the Lancastrians was the red rose, and that of the Yorkites the white rose. Hence, this contention was known by the name of the " quarrel of the two roses." Hostilities commenced in 1455, § The principal battles which were fought, previous to the acces- sion of Edward IV., were, that of St. Albans, in which Henry was defeated and taken prisoner, and Richard assumed the title of Pro- tector — that which was fought on Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, and which terminated in favour of Richard — that of Northampton, in which Henry was defeated and again taken prisoner, by the Earl of Warwick— and that of Wakefield, in which Henry's queen, Marga- ret of Anjou, gained a complete victory over Richard, who, together with his second son, was slain. Upon the death of tlie duke of York, the earl of Warwick, known by the name of King Maker, from tln' conspicuous part he bore in the contentions of the times, took coiamand of the forces belonging to that party. 15. Upon the death of Richard, the young duke of York, liis son and successor, entered London at the head of a nu- merous army, amidst the greetings of the citizens, and as- sumed the powers of government. He did not, however, fully consider himself as king, until he had obtained, (1461,) at Towton, a signal victory over the adherents of Henry, of whom 36,000 were killed. His title was that of Edward IV. After various turns of fortune, in which he was once deposed, and Henry re-instated on the throne, he finally triumphed over the Lancastrians, in the desperate battle of Tewkes- bury, in which Margaret, and her son, the Prince of Wales, were taken prisoners. Tlie latter was assassinated, and king Henry, who had been confined in the tower, was found dead a few days afterwards. Margaret, whose ambition had kindled the desolating war, was punished only with imprison- ment. She was afterwards ransomed by the king of France, and died in that country. § It is said that the young prince, when brought before the king, and asked in an insulting tone, by the latter, liowhf dared to invade nis domuiion, replied, with a spirit coiitrenial to lus high birth, that he came thither to claim his just inheritajice. The ungenerous Ed- The Princes smothered in the Tower. P. 197. !'rS'\,».''i^K ..^iA^^ Biirmng of Moscoiv. Bomparte and his suite in front of the Kremlin. P. -290. ENGLAND. 197 ward, indignant at his answer, and insensible to pity, struck him on the face with his gauntlet ; and the dukes of Clarence and Glouces- ter, witli others, taking the blow as a signal for further violence, hurried the prince into the next apartment, and there dispatched him witli their daggers. It is said also, and generally believed, that Richard, duke of Gloucester, killed king Henry with his own hands. When Edward was secured on the throne, his spirit sunk in indolence and pleasure. The energies of iiis reign seem to have terminated with the civil wars, unless we except liis acts of detestable tyranny. He put to death, on the most frivolous pretence, liis brother Clarence ; and preparing to gratify his subjects, by a war with France, he died sud- denly, in the forty-second year of his age, poisoned, as was sus|)ected, by his brother Richard, duke of Gloucester. § The only favour which tlie king granted his brother, Clarence, after his condemnation, was, to leave him the choice of his death. The duke ciiose to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey — a whimsical ciioice, which implies that he had an extraordinary predilection for tliat li((Uor. U). Edward V., a minor, succeeded his father, 1483, under the protection of his inicle, the duke of Gloticester. A few (la}s afterwards, the duke of Gloucester catised himself to be proclaimed, tmdcr the title of Richard III. The young king and liis brother having been removed to the tower by Rich- ard's order, under pretence of guarding them, disappeared about that time. The diabolical Richard, had inhumanly deprived them of life. § Richard possessed a fierce and savage nature, and in making his way to the tlirone, had recourse to the most perfidious and cruel acts. Endeavouring to gain the .■issi.stance of lord Hastings, and finding that nobleman inflexibly favourable to the children of Ed- ward, lie accused him of treason, and ordered him to be decapita- ted, witliout even the ap[)earance of legal forms. The mtu'der of tlie two young princes, was as deep a tragedy as any recorded in lOnglish history. Riclr.ird gave orders to Sir Ro- bert IJrakenbury, constable of tlie tower, to put his nephews to death ; but this gentleman, wlio had sentiments of honour, refused to stain his hands with the infamous deed. The tyrant then en- gaged Sir James Tyrrel, who, choosing three a.ssociates, like him- self, came in the night time to t!ie door of the chamber, where the princes were lodged, and sending in the assassins, he bade them ex- ecute their commission, wliile he himself staid without. They found the unofllcMiding young princes in bed, and fallen into a sweet and profound sleep. After suffocating them with the bolster and pillows, they showed their naked liodics to Tyrrel, who ordered 17* 198 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. them to be buried at the foot of the stairs, deep in the ground, undtT a heap of stones. These circumstances were all confessed by the bloody actors, in the following reign. In the reign of Charles II., the bones of two persons were found in the place indicated, M-"iich exactly corresponded, by their sizes, to Edward V., and his brother ; and being judged the undoubted remains of these unhappy prmces, were deposited in Westminster Abbey. 17. The earl of Riclimond, tlie only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, became the instrument, under divine Providence, of avenging the awful crimes of Richard. As- sisted by the French king, he landed in England, and revived the spirits of a part)^ almost extinguished in the kingdom. He gave battle to Richard, 1485, in the lieid of Bosworth, and entirely defeated the army of the usurper, who was slain while fighting with the most desperate courage. This l)attle terminated the terrible contest between the houses of York and Lancaster — a contest which lasted thirty years, and in which twelve sanguinary pitched battles were fought, and 100,000 brave men, including eighty princes of the blood, perished on the field, or by the hand of the executioner. § The person of Richard was as deformed as liis character wa^? de- testable. He was small of statm-e, huinp-backed, ugly m liis fea- tures, and had his left arm withered. This infirniity, which had attended him from his birth, lie pretended, on a certain occasion when he wished to confound lord Hastings, was the eHecl of Jane Shore's incantations, knowing that this nobleman had engaged in an intrigue with that lady. 18. The crown which Richard wore in the engagement that proved fatal to his life, was immediately placed on the head of the conqueror. The earl of Richmond assumed the title of Henry VII., Aug. 22, 1485. By marrying a daugh- ter of Edward IV., he united the rights of the two houses of York and Lancaster. He was a descendant from Edmund Tudor, and first king of the house of Tudor. Henry was a prudent and politic prince, but unhappily prejudiced against the adherents of the house of York. A degree of discontent was thus engendered, which tended tc jeopardise his government. The general tranquillity of his reign was, on this account, occasionally disturbed by plots and conspiracies — two of which were rather singular, con- sisting in attempts to counterfeit the persons of the heirs of York, and to enforce their claims to the crown. § The name of one of tlie«e impostors was Lambert Simnel. the ENGLAND. 199 son of a baker, who counterfeited the person of the earl of War- wick, son of the late duke of Clarence. The name of the other was Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, who personated the duke of York, who had been smothered in tlie tower. They were supported by men of distinction in the nation, and gave Henry great trouble, but were finally subdued and taken. Simnel was spared and made a scullion in the king's kitchen. Warbeck expia- ted his crime on the scaffold. The aversion of Henry to the house of York, shewed itself even m liis treatment of his wife. Though in the highest degree virtu- ous, amiable, and obsequious, she never met with a proper return of aflection, or even of complaisance, from her husband ; and the malignant ideas of faction, in his sullen mind, prevailed over all the sentiments of conjugal endearment. Heiuy was by nature a dcs|)ot ; and indeed tlie principles of despotism were congenial to all the sovereigns of the Tudor lace. Yet his sagacity led him generally to pacific counsels. Thougli he was by no means a po[)ular })rince, he was useful to the nation, having enacted many wise laws, piomoted industry, encoiu-aged connnerce, patronized the arts of civilized life, and curbed and softened the spirit of a proud and rude aristocracy. His polic}'^ gave a death blow to the Teudal system. The greatest stain in this prince's character was his avarice, whicli, m the latter part of his reign, prompt- ed to the most oppressive exactions. § He is said to have left at his death, in ready inoney, a sum equal to £10,()C)0,000 at present. 19. Henry VHl. sticceeded his father in the eighteenth year of his age, 1509. He came to the throne with llattcr- ing prospects, considered whether in respect to the improved and traiKjuil state of the kingdom, the alfection and high expectation of his people, or his own suj)posed good ijualities. § The succession was well established, the contending titles of York and Lancaster were fully united in him, the treasury was well filled, and peace and prosperity were imiversally enjoyed. The young prince's oerson was beautiful, his manners elegant, his dis- position frank, his mind higlily cultivated for the times, and his native talents commanding. The nation, however, was greatly disapjX)inted in its young prince. He soon shewed himself an unprincipled tyrant ; and both friends and foes felt, at times, the ellects of his caprice and cruelty. His ministers were talented men, but lie took |)]easure in abusing them. Only archbishop Cran- inor cuntinued to be an object of favour to the last. Cardinal 200 MODERN history; — PERIOD VIII. Wolsey, in whom he placed unbounded confidence for a time, was finally discarded. Wolsey, more than any one el^^e, by ministering to the pleasures and ambition of the king, shapefl his destiny and tiie fortunes of the people. § This celebrated man was the son of a butcher at Ipswich ; but having received a learned education, and being endowed witli an ex- cellent capacity, he was tal<.en into the service of the king, and by degrees rose into distinction, till he became the prime minister of his sovereign. Clergyman as he was, he countenanced tlie king in all his light sports, gaiety, and sensual indulgences, a quality in the companion, which contributed to the influence and elevation of the courtier. 20. In the early part of his reign, the counsels of Wolsey agreeing with the natural temper of Henry, prompted him to make war against Louis Xli. of France. He invaded the coLuitiy, and met witii success so far as he went, having gained the Battle of the Spurs ; (because the French on the occasion made more use of their spurs than their swords ;) but he failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking Tournay, returned to England. About the same time the Scots, who had made an incur sion into England, v/erc defeated by Henry's general, the earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, wheie James IV., and a great part of his nobility, were slain. Henry, however, did not follow up his advantage, but generously granted a peace to Scotland. Henry also took a part in the long and obstinate wars which were waged between Francis I. and Charles V., as before detailed. His foreign alliances cost him the expendi- ture of immense treasures to no purpose, as he was, by turns, the dupe of both parties. The most important events in Henry's reign, are connected with liis matrimonial alliances. Out of these, as a conse- quence, arose the ever-memorable Reformation in England. Henry w^as opposed by the pope in an affair so interesting to his passions, and therefore the pope was opposed by huu, and at length lost his influence in the kingdom. In this great religious change, it is evident Henry had no good in^ tentions, but sought the gratification of his own unliallowed appetites. He had previously declared liimself the champion of the Romish church, and even written a book ngainst ENGLAND. 201 Luther. Hence was conferred on him, by the pope, the title of " Defender of the Faith." § Henry was married to Catharine of Arragon, his brother's widow, but having fallen in love with the beautiful Anne Boleyn, he applied to the pope for a divorce. This, however, was denied him. But Henry was not to be frustrated in his intentions. The opinion of the universities was favourable to him, and Anne was soon crown- ed queen. The pope now was forced to pay the price of his conscientious- ness or obstinacy. His authority, from that time, was abolished in England ; the annualMribute was no longer paid to him ; the dissolu- tion of the monasteries was ordered ; and the clergy, as well as all others, were obliged to acknowledge the king as head of the church ; and the want of obedience, was punishable with banishment or death. On this account, Sir Thomas More, and the bisliop of Ro- chester, among others, perished by the hand of the executioner. Cardinal Wolsey also, was conceived to be in the way of the king's wishes on the subject of his marriage, and after being deprived of his immense power and possessions, was arrested for high treason. He, however, died of a broken heart soon afterwards, uttering in the anguish of his soul, the never to be forgotten words, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have forsaken me in my gray hairs." Anne Boleyn, in less than three years, was condemned and be- lieaded. After her, he married four wives in succession ; the first dying in child-birth ; the next having been divorced, because he foimd her not so beautiful as had been represented ; and the third having been executed for adultery. The fourth survived liim. Tiie tyrant died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, bequeathing his crown, first to Edward, then to Mary, and lastly to Elizabeth. 20i Edward VI., Henry's son, by Jane Seymour, ascended the throne in 1547, in his tenth year. At first, the earl of Hertford was regent; afterwards, the duke of Somerset, who was decidedly friendly to the reformation. Edward was a prince of great promise and many virtues; but, to the deep regret of the English nation, he died in the sixteenth year of his age. During his reign, the reformation made great progress, through the zeal of Cranmer ; yet a large body of the people adhered to popery. The triumphs of the new religion were not, however, effected without public disturbances, and some sanguinary executions took place on account of religion. A project was undertaken of uniting England and Scot- land, by a marriage between Edward and Mary Stuait, the young ijueen of the Scots. It, however, failed, and a battle 202 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. ensued, near Musselburgh, in which 10,000 of the Scots were slain. § So different in disposition was Edward from liis father, that it is said he always wept, wlien he signed an order for an execution against any of his subjects. Edward's benevolent turn oi'' mind is evidenced by his charitable endowments, as Bridewell, St. Thomas's Hospital, and several schools, which still exist and flourish. 21. Mary, Edward's sister, next ascended the throne, in 1553. History has assigned to her the unenviable title of " bloody," from the persecutions and martyrdoms suffered by the protestanis, in her reign. Her disposition was morose, tyrannical, and cruel, in the highest degree. Bent upon the restoration of the catholic religion, she hesitated at no iliea- sures, however unjust, which were calculated to effect the object. § To force and violence, she naturally resorted. Some of the most eminent reformers, as Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Ferrer, ajid Rogers, she consigned to the flames. In consequence, however, of these cruelties, a powerful prejudice was excited against the catholics. Their cause sunk, and that of the protestants rose ; and the reformation was, in reality, extended, by the means employed for its extinction. The beginning of Mary's reign, was stained with the blood of the celejjrated liady Jane Grey, grand daughter to a sister of Henry VHI. She more happily suppressed, soon after, an insurrection under Wyat. Her husband was Philip H., of Spain ; but, by the articles of marriage, she, or rather her parliament, has the merit of inaking provision for the independence and glory of the Eng- lish crown. It was agreed that the administration should Ije solely in the queen, and, on certain conditions, her issue should inherit the dominions of Philip. The loss of Calais, which the English possessed 210 years, together with the knowledge that she was hated, both by her husband and her subjects, caused her to die of grief and vexation of heart, in the forty-third year of her age. § .Tane Grey, whose fate was so tragical, was designed by Ed- ward to be his successor. Her title, however, was quite defective : aiul the law, assigning the crown to her, which Edward caused to be i>assed, was unconstituticinal. Lord Giiilford Dudley, sou of the duke of Northumberland, had lately married her; and lioth the fa- ther and son strongly solicited her to accept of the perilous bequest of Edward. She i-eluctantly consented, and, by their intrigues, was proclaimed queen. Her youth and innocence might have excused ENGLAND. 203 her ; but slie was soon arrested, and, togetlier with hot liusband, was condemned and executed. On the day of her execution, lier husband desired i)ermission to see her; but she refused her consent, informing him by message, tliat the tenderness of their parting would overcome the fortitude of both, and too much imbend their minds from a greater concern, She adverted also to other topics of a consolatory kind. Her hus- band was first brought to the block, before her eyes; but, undaun- ted at such a sijjht, she addressed the spectators, in a most affecting speech, and, with a serene countenance, immediately submi!tted her own neck to the fatal axe. Lady Jane Grey was an accomplished scliolar, a devout christian, and the fairest ornament of her sex. Aschem tells us, that she wrote in Latin, with great strength of sentiment; and we are informed by her contemporary, Sir Thomas Chaloner, that she was well versed in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian. Fuller adds, that she had "the innocency of childliood, the beanly of youth, the so- lidity of middle, the gravity of old age, and all at eighteen ; the birth of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, yet the death of a malefactor, for her parent's offences." 22. Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, on the death of her sister Mary, 1558. Tiiis was a joyful event to the Eng- hsli people. The prudence which, as a subject, she had dis- played during the sanguinary reign of her sister, gave pro- mise of excellence in the sovereign. § It required all tire sagacity and caution of Elizabeth, to elude the effects of the violent jealousy which the queen, her sister, enter- tained against her. When questioned respecting the real presence, the net for catching protestants, she replied : " Christ was the word that spake it, He took the bread and brake it, And what the word diti make it, Tliat I believe and take it." Tliat which was thus promised, was, in a great measure, fulfilled. By her wise counsels, the protestant religion was fostered; the church of England received its present form; and agriculture, commerce, arts, and literature, attained to an elevation unknown in Englarul before. Her intre[)id mind, and the measures of the government, so sagaciously and firmly pursued, rendered her the most respectetl and |)ower- ful sovereign in Europe. She colonized a large portion of North America, supported the infant republic of Holland against its tyrannical enemy, liumbled the pride of Spain, in the defeat of its boasted armada, and assisted Henry IV. in the recovery of his kingdom. She sought the true interests 204 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. and glory of her subjects, so far as concerned their temporal prosperity, or their external religious observances. Yet it must be acknowledged, that she compassed her objects, often, by very questionable means. She was stern, unyield- ing, unrelenting, despotic, in her maxims of government, and was guilty, at times, of the basest acts of cruelty and hypocrisy. Her treatment of her cousin, Mary, queen oi Scots, whom she caused to be beheaded, on the bare suspi- cion of a conspiracy, has loaded her memory with a degree of reproach, which the splendour of her reign, in other re- spects, can never obhterate. And her conduct towards her favourites, particularly the earl of Essex, is marked with sin- gular caprice, if not injustice. § The invincible Armada, so called, was a fleet which Spain fitted out for the invasion of England, on account of the interference of the latter power in the affairs of the Netherlands. It consisted of 150 ships of war, carrying 27,000 men, and 3000 cannon— the largest naval armament which Europe had ever seen. The English fleet of 108 ships, commanded by Howard, Drake, and others, met the ar- mada as it entered the English channel, attacked it in the night, and burnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. A storm which drove the remainder of the Spanish ships on the coast of Zealand, completed their discomfiture, and only fifty shattered vessels, wit]\ 6000 men, returned to Spain. The story of tlie beautiful and unfortunate Mary, will be briefly told in what follows. She was a daughter of James V., king of Scot- land, and great-grand-daughter of Henry VII. of England, and next heir to the English crown. She succeeded her father, eight days af- ter her birth. She was educated in France, as a catholic, and, in early life, married the Dauphin, afterwards Francis II. Influenced by her maternal uncles, the Guises, she consented to take the title ol queen of England — an injudicious measure, equally calculated to wound her own peace, and excite Elizabeth's resentment. After her return to Scotland, on the death of Francis, she gave her hand to her cousin Henry Stuart, (lord Darnley.) But the king, her husband, being excluded from any share in the government, by the advice (as he suspected) of Rizzio, an Italian musician, her secretary and favourite, he, by the assistance of some of the princ'- pal nobility, suddenly surprised tliem when at supper together, and effected the death of Rizzio, in the queen's presence. The next year, the king was blown up with gunpowder, in a pri- vate house, to which lie had retired witli a few friends. The earl of Bothwell, the new favourite of ftlary, is, not without reason, sup- po.sed to have been the contriver of this murder. He was, however, acquitted by the nobles of his and Mary's party ; and, in about two months after, the imprudent princess condescended to marry him. This shameful conduct, occasioned the revolt of the chief nobility; ENGLAND. 205 and her best subjects, by whom she was taken prisoner, compelled ner to resign tlie crown, and her son, James VI., was called to the sovereignty. The queen, soon after, escaped from prison, and raised an army to oppose the regent, Murray, who was determined on her destruction, and whom she had frecpiently condemned, and as fre- quently pardoned. She was, however, defeated, and fled to Eng- land, in 1568, where she exjjected, from the repeated declarations of Ehzabeth, protection and security. Elizabeth, secretly delighted to lind a liatcd rival in her power, proved unfaithful to her professions, and detained the unhappy fugitive a prisoner, for eighteen years. She first, however, under pretence of doing justice to Mary, had the cause of the latter en- quired into, at a conference at York. But though nothing w;i>5 proved against her, Elizabeth saw fit to detain her in close con- flnement. The Scottish queen, during her tedious and merciless (confinement, naturally desired, and her friends for her, a release. For a plot to effect tiiis object, devised by her friends, and detected, she was held responsible ; and though an independent sovereign, was tried by a foreign power. Presumed, only, to be guilty, she was condennicd, and soon alter barbarously beheaded, in Fotlieringay castle, in tlie fortj'-iiftli year of her age, and in the nineteenth of her captivity. Historians tell us, that when Mary was informed of the order fur her execution, she was surprised, but betrayed no symptoms of feiw. The inght before her execution, slie called in all her servants, and bade them a solemn farewell. Next morning she dressed herself in a rich habit of silk and velvet, and declared her resolution to die in the faith in which she had been educated. It Avas on the 8th ot Feb. 1587, v.licn she was brought to the block, and in tliat awful conjuncture, displayed a fortitude and decency, which woidd have honoured a matron of Rome; and to the moment of lier death, united the majesty of a queen with the meekness of a martyr. The bisliop of Lincoln, in a ])raycr on tiie occasion of her inn-ial. used the following words — '"it is a cliarilable saying of fatlier Luther, ' Many one liveth a Papist and dielh a Protestant:' only this I have been informed, that she took her death patiently, and recom- mended herself wholly to Jesus Christ." Mary, liesides her eminent beauty, which was celebrated tlirough- oui Europe, possessed the highest mental accomplishments. Slie read and luiderstood several languages, wrote poetry, and cultivated a knowledge of music. Her misfortunes were great; and thdugh many of them were brought upon her by her indiscretions, if nut crimes, the severity of her lot has culled forth general counnisera- tion. In the early part of Elizabeth's reign, the earl of Leicester was her principal favourite; but after his death, she became attached to the earl of Essex, as her minister ; and indeed there was, on the part of the queen, though quite advanced in life, much of the appearan 'e of a more tender passion. She seems, however, unalterably to have '.kept her resolution "to live and die a maiden queen." She was IS 20G MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. pleased Avith courtship, but kept aloof from matrimony. Essex ws.ii a young nobleman of singular accomplishments, talents, and spirit. The queen and Essex had many quarrels and I'econcili-ations. In one instance, in consequence of some affront which he offered her, she angrily gave him a box on the ear ; upon which Essex clapped his hand on his sword, swearing he would not bear such usage, were it from Henry VIII. ; and immediately withdrew from court. His indiscretion, liowever, was soon pardoned. He was at length teased by her capricious humour into a crime, which she could not pardon. He had severely reflected on her person, (for though nearly in her seventieth j^ear, she wished to be thought a beauty,) and connected this with some suspicious movements of a treasonable nature. He was soon arraigned, convicted, and brought to the block. From this period her mind began to be depressed. The cause doubtless was, the revival of her tenderness for Essex. While under sentence of death, he sent by the coimtess of Nottingham, to Eliza- beth, a ring which she had given him as a pledge of her afTection, and of the confidence he might feel, in whatever disgrace he might be, that the sight of it would secure her favourable interposition. The countess, at the instigation of her husband, the mortal enemy of Essex, neglected to deliver it ; and when on her beatli-l)ed, sent for the queen, to inform her of the fact. Elizabeth, bursting into a frantic passion, shook the dying countess in her bed, and exclaimed, '' God may pardon you, but I never can." From that moment the queen fell into the profoundest melancholy, refused both food and medicine, and t'nrowing herself on the floor, remained in that state several days and nights, till life became extinct. Essex, it appears, was much thought of in his day. We find in an ancient account of him, the following quaint and hyperbolic epitaph : "Here sleeps great Essex, dearling of mankindc, Faire honour's lampe, foule envie's prey, Artc's fame Nature's pride, Virtue's bulwarkc, lure of minde, AVisdome's flower, Valour's tower, Fortune's shame, England's sunnc, Belgia's light, France's star, Spaine's thunder, Lysbone's lightning, Ireland's clowde, the whole world's wonder." 23. Little needs be added respecting the character of Elizabeth. In her private Hfe, she was less commendable than in her public conduct. Slie possessed few (|uahties of the heart which we love to see in all, especially in woman. The rivalship of beauty, the desire of admiration, the jea- lousy of love, the meanness of insincerity, and the sallies of anger, sullied her character, and showed that she was still a woman, but without the amiability of her sex. The attri- butes of her intellect, however, merit the highest encomium, and her public conduct was that of a queen. We give her GERMANY. 207 full credit for vigour, firmness, penetration, and address — for heroism without rashness, for frugality without avarice, foi activity without the turbulence of ambition. Her proficiency m learning was great, and she possessed extraordinary talents for government. The security and defence of the EnglieU people, were never placed in abler hands. GERMANY. 24. At the commencement of the present period, Germany was under tlie sway of Frederick IV. He erected Austria into an Archduchy, and rendered his family the most power- ful hi Germany, by marrying his son Maximilian, to Mary, heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. He reigned fifty-three years. 25. Maxin^.ilian I., his son, succeeded him, 1493. He possessed mott of the qualities that signalize a great prince. He freed Germany from the disorders of the feudal system, and established peace among its separate sovereignties. § He was wanting in decision of mind, which seemed to be his only failing as a prince ; in conscnuence of which, some of his im- portant projects miscarried. His memory was so tenacious, that he never forgot the names of persons he had once seen, or heard men- tioned. 2(3. His grandson, Charles V., succeeded liim in the empire, 1519, having carried the election in preference to Francis I., of France. Some particulars respecting this distinguished prince, were given in the iiistory of that country. A few others will be added. § Charles was the oldest son of Philip, son of Maximilian, and of .lane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. He succeeded to the throne of Spain, in 1516. The first act of his administration, was to appoint an im- perial diet, with a view to check the progress of Luther's opinions, wiiich were represented as inimical to the peace of Germany. About this time, also, Germany was divided into ten circles. In 1521, connncnced the celebrated war between Charles and Francis, in wiiich Charles obtained manifest ad- vantage. In 1527, he took Rome, which was plundered by the Germans during nine months. A few years afterwards, Charles captured Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thousand Christian slaves. 208 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII, But the most extraordinary event pertaining to this sovef- reign, was the vohnitary rehnquishnient of his kingly and imperial authority. He resigned, first the Netherlands and the kingdom of Spain, to his son Philip, in 1556, and after- wards the empire, in favour of his brother Ferdinand. The remainder of his life he spent in a monastery. An occur- rence of this kind, is rare in the history of princes, who are generally more fond of authority, the longer they have en- joyed it. § Charles was the most powerful sovereign of Europe, his sway extending over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of Italy. He was generally successful in war, though (if such was his aim) universal empire was beyond his reach. He never could bring his dominions into a well connected body. His enemies were nume- rous and powerful, and gave him pei-petual annoyance. His care.s and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, and finding his health also decline, he detemiined to relinquish the burdens of government. Accordingly, he recalled his son Pliilip, on whom, at liis recent marriage with Mary, queen of England, he had bestowed the king- doms of Naples and Sicily, and also the duchy of Milan. Having assembled the states of the Low-Countries, at Brussels, he explained the reasons of his resignation, recapitulated the most important ac- tions of his life, and transferred the sovereign authority to Philip, with such unaffected magnanimity and paternal affection, that the whole audience melted into tears. A few weeks after this solemni- ty, Charles conferred all his royalties and signiories, botli in Europe and America, upon his son ; reserving nothing to himself, but a pen- sion of 100,000 crowns, to be deducted from the revenue of Spain. After making some ineffectual attempts to secure the German princes in the interests of Philip, Charles made a formal resignation of the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and immediately set out for Spain, with a chosen retinue. Previously to his arrival in that coun- try, a small building had been annexed to llie monastery of St. Just, consisting of six rooms, four of them in the form of friar's cells, with naked walls, and the other two hung with brown cloth, and furnish- ed in the most simple nianner. Thither Charles retired, with only twelve domestics ; and there, after a peaceful solitude of about two years, he resigned his breath, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 27. The successors of Charles in the empire, during tlie remainder of this period, were, after Ferdinand I., his son Maximilian II., and Rhodolph II. These princes generally made use of pacific expedients, in the disputes carried on be- tween the Protestants and the Catholics. § Ferdinand and Maxiniilivan, are said to have been most excellent princes. From the latter, no one ever heard a harsh expression. So economical were his arrangements, tliat to every act of his lifft « its appropriate hour was allotted. The empire flourished in a pecii GERMANY. 20" liar manii' r under liis administration. Rhodolpli, though at war Willi the 'i'urks, ahiiost the whole of his reign, was more occ-iipied ivith tournament^, and the study of mechanics, chemistry, and as- tronomy, than wii;i the affairs of state. lie frequently spent whole days atthe shops of clockmakers, turners, «Scc., so eager was his de- sire for that species of knowledge. 28. The refoniiatioii in relig-ion, l)y which the present pe- >iotl is so pecuharly distinguislicd, is the most important event in the history of Germany. It commenced in that conntry, whence it spread rapidly through several other European na- tions. It was connected with a new era in the rehgious his- tory of tlie world. By it, Papacy received a woimd, from which it can never recover. Tlie date of tliis event, is 1517. Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, was the first instrument employed i)y an overruling Providence, in accomphshing this great moral revolution. His attention was excited to the corru^ption and abuses of the Catholic religion, by the sale ot indulgcncics, at that time instituted throughout all the Chris- tian kingdoms of Europe. Leo X., in order to raise money lor the com|)letion of his magnificent buildings at Rome, had published general indulgences ; that is, remittances from the pains of purgatory : and the elector of Mentz, authorised the Dominicans to receive the money, and preach up the merits of such a contribution. But the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all sin^, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, gave great ofi'ence to many religions persons, and induced Luther, who was then a professor of divinity at Wittemberg, to expose the absurtlity of such odious traffic. His indignation was aroused ; and indeed, the enormity of these doings, opened his eyes to the ini(|uity of the whole system. His anathemas found many willing hearers, particularly in the electorate of Saxony, though Tetzel, the papal agent, \ igorously combattcd him. Luther, however, by degrees ac- (juired great popularity, and his influence brought other di- \ incs into the controversy. Persecution was now resorted to by the pope and his emissaries, but this only increased his /ceal and indignation as a preacher. Luther was soon cited by the pope, to appear at Rome, within sixty days. Prince Frederick, elector of Saxony, however, requested that the re- former might plead his cause in Germany ; and Luther re- paired, under the protection of a safe conduct, to the imperial IS* 210 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. diet, convoked by Charles at Augsburg, '.efore cn.idinal Caje tan ; but instead of making any recantaiion, he boldly avow- ed his resolution of defending his doctrines, though all the terrors of the church should be denounced against him. As the pope's legate, however, proceeded to menaces, Luther re- tired privately from Augsburg, having first complained, by ^etter, to the pope, of the harsh treatment he had received from Cajetan. Having arrived safely into Saxony, he found the mass there universally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents shut up. The spirit which had been thus kindled, spread next inio Switzerland, Avhere it produced the most important changes. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, soon embraced the Lutheran tenets ; and the protestants, as they were all called who embraced the reformed religion, multiplied in the Netherlands, France, and England, as well as in Germany The quarrel wliich Henry VHI., who was no protestant him self, had with the pope, was the means of advancing the re- formation in England, and of subverting the ancient iaith The cruel persecutions of which the papists were guilty, greatly aided the good cause, in the end. SPAIN. 29. Spain had, for several ages, been held by the Moors, or Mahometans. This people, however, had lost one province after another, till towards the close of the fifteenth century, only Granada remained subject to their authority. Upon the acces- sion of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1479, the crowns of Cas- tile and Arragon were happily united, and thus all the Chris- tian principalities in Spain, found themselves under one sceptre ; and, with the conquest of Granada, which the king and queen elTected in 1492, Spain became one entire monar- chy. Ferdinand and Isabella were, in effect, two sovereign princes, though professedly united in mairiage. The Moors suliered terribly in the siege of Granada, and with the loss of their dominions, were, for the most part, obliged to retire into Africa. § To Ferdinand and Isabella, the establishment of the terrible In- quisition, in Spain, is owing. Two thousand persons are said to have sutTered death under Torquemada, the first inquisitor general. This instance of intemperate and ferocious zeal, in the king and queen. SPAIN. 211 may well be set off against the several good qualities, which it is al- lowed, iliey possessed. Their reign was signalized by the discove- ries made by the gi-eat Columbus. 30. Jane, who Ijecanie deranged, succeeded her mothe. Isabella, in Castile, Avith her husband, Philip of Austria. On the death of her father, Jane being unlit to reign, her son Charles I., afterwards Charles V., was acknowledged sovereign of all Spain, 1510. His history has already been related. § During Charles's reign, Mexico was conquered by Fernando Cortez, in I5I9, and Peru by Pizarro in 1525. The Spanish do minions were thus greatly extended. 31. Philip IL, .succeeded his father upon the abdication of the latter, in 1550. In his time, the balance of power in Europe, was sustained by Spain, France, England and Ger- many, all, at this time, iiighly nourishing and respectable, either from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. Philip was an acute and able politician, though his policy [)artook somewhat of selfish cunning. He was sovereign of Spain, the two Sicilies, Milan, and the Netluulands. He had likewise, for a few years, the resources of England at ••ommand, b}' his marriage with Mary, the English queen, ilis power was great, but his ambition was greater; and fliough he met with occasional success, at the close of along and busy reign, he had accomplished but few of his nume- rous projects. § Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alli- ance with the king of France, to deprive the Spaniards of Milan and the Sicilies. Philip, witii tlic aid of the English, defeated the French' at St. Quiiitin, and hoped, from this signal victory, to force the allies into a peace. Another signal victory, however, was necessary., which Philip gained near Gravtliiics, the result of v.-hich was, that the French surrendered to Spain, no less than eighty-nine fortified towns, in the low countries, and in Italy. Philip was an intolerant bigot in religion, and it was owing to his cruel attempis to enforce a uniformity of religious opinion in the Niiherlands, tiiat the latter broke away from liis authority, as will be detailed below. HOLLAND, 32. Holland became a republic by the union of Utrecht, in 1.579. The states combined to defend their conmion liberties, on account of the tyranny of their sovereign, Philip II. Seven of the seventeen provinces, constituting the Neth- 212 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIJI. erlands, came into the measure. The remaining ten pro vinces had their charter renewed by Phihp, and did not be come independent until in the beginning of the eighteenth century. § Holland, is another appellation for the Seven United Provinces, so called, from its chief province being of that name. The remain- ing ten are known by the name of Flanders. The duchy of Bur- gundy, composed of some of these provinces, was originally equal to any power in Europe. The wliole of the Netherlands, except three states, were annexed to the German empire, by marriage, 1477. They were afterwards resigned to the king of Spain. In the early periods of their history, the Hollanders became sub- ject to the Franks, under whom, they were divided into small gov- ernments, the heads of which were despotic, in their own dominions. Holland and the Netherlands, were uaited to German}', under one of tlie grandsons of Charlemagne, but became independent in the tenth century. At length, in 1443, they Were subject to the dukes of Burgundy. The next transfer of tliese states, was to Germany, Charles V. l^eing heir to the house of Burgundy. They endured the rule Of Charles, but the tyraniiy of his son Philip n., was not to be borne. The ileformation had made a con- siderable progress in the Netherlands. Philip, with a view to repress it, established the Inquisition, projected certain innovations, which created alarm and tumult, and sent an army under the duke of Alva, fo enforce implicit submission. The consequence of tliese measures was, that many thousands of persons, and some of the highest dis- tinction, perished by tlie hands of the executioner. It is computed that 18,000 were the victims of the five years' administration of Alva. William, the prince of Orange, on whom the government of seve- ral of the provinces liad been conferred, and who was now, himself, under the sentence of the Inquisition, raised an army on this occa- sion, and undertook the deliverance of the states. Having reduced some of tiie most important garrisons, he was proclaimed Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand, in L570. The whole seventeen provinces had equally suffered from the tyranny of Philip ; but only seven of them could agree to form a confederated republic. The influence of jealousy and competition, prevented the imion of the wliole. By the treaty wliich was formed, it was agreed that they should defend their liberties, as one united republic; that they should jointly decide in the concerns of peace and war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain re- ligious freedom. Wilham Was elected Stadtlioldcr of the whole seven, a title which included the duties of a general, admiral, and magistrate. Tlie effusion: of blood, which had been great prior to this union, was not hereby mucli diminislied. The crown of Spain, strained every nerve to recover those provinces. Philip, venting his indig- nation, by a proscription of the prin«e of Orange, and offering '25,000 AMERICA. 213^ crowns for his head, compassed his revenge ; for this ilhistrious man was cut off by an assassin, 1584. By persevering courage, however, and assisted by quocu Elizabeth of England, and Henry IV. of France, the Hollanders, at length, completely established their inde pendence, and brought the Spanish monarch to acknowledge tliem as a free people. Maurice, the son of William, was elected Stadtholder, in the room of his father, and displayed the most consummate talents, as a states- man and warrior, having conducted the struggle to the issue already related. AMERICA. 33. The immense portion of the earth called America,. was unknown to Europe, Asia, and Africa, till the year 1492, when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in a voyage which he made from Spain, sailing west, for the purpose of finding a new continent, or at least of arriving at India, in this direction. He first met, not with the continent, but the islands in its vicinity. § The discovery of the new world, was one of the greatest and hap- piest results of genius, that mankind have ever witnessed. The im- portance of the discovery cannot be easily overrated. An event so unlooked for, so unthought of, expanded the views, afid waked up the energy of the human mind. It excited a spirit of enterprise, un- felt before. Its influence on commerce, and consequently wealth, was, from the beginning, great and decisive, by immensely increas- ing the articles of traffic. The mines of America furnished, also, a great abundance of tlic precious metals ; thus nniltiplyLng the amount of the circnlatina medium tliroughout the world. Colonization, and the arts of civilized life, have been advanced and extended, by means of this discovery ; the si)bere of human enjoyment enlarged, and especially the blessings of the true rehgion, comanmicated to greater numbers of mankind. America luis also given to the world a new and bright example, both of civil and religious freedom ; the effects of which, are destined to be felt through all time, and, perhaps, among all nations. Some evils have, indeed, been incident to the discovery, but they are exceedingly outweighed by its propitious results, and will continue to be so, judsing from the known principles of human nature, and from the dealings of divine providence. It has been believed by some, that America was not imknown to the ancienis. 'i'lie theory has gained advocates, from a few pas- sages in the works of some of the writers of antiquity, and also from coincidences intlie langiiages and customs of some of the nations of the old and new continent. Rut the theory has little ground for its support. Certainly, at the revival of letters in Europe, no traces of the knowledge of another continent existed ; and it was generally suppo- sed, that the Canaries formed the western boundaries of the world. To Columbus, an account of whom will appear in a biographical 214 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. sketch, about to follow, mankind are indebted for the correction of this error, and the discovery of a new continent. From a long and close application to the study of geography, this great man had ob- tained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, far beyond what was common to the age in which he lived. Another continent, he conceived necessarily existed, to complete the balance of this terra- queous globe; but he erroneously supposed it to be connected with, that of India. The truth of his speculations, he now ardently de- sired to prove, by experiment. In this, however, he met with great difficulty, and it was not until the expiration of several years, that his project was patronized by any prince or court in Europe. Queen. Isabella, of Spain, has immortalized her name, by rendering the first effectual assistance to Columbus, One great motive which influenced Columbus and his patroness, aside from the hope of ascertaining the existence of anew continent, was to find a passage to China and the East Indies, by sea : or rather, the latter, may have been the sole motive, connecting the supposed new regions with the east of Asia. It had been long an object of study, to find such a passage, and thus avoid the inconvenience and expense of transporting the merchandise of India, across tlie land, from the Red Sea, to Alexandria, in Egypt. The passage round the Cape of Good Hope, was not then known, and the shortest route Vas supposed, by Columbus, to be by the west. It is to be remem- bered, that the maps of that period, represented the oriental countries of Asia, as stretching vastly f;irther to the east, than has since been proved to be the fact. Columbus was fitted, in every point of view, for his mighty and perilous undertaking. Never was success more complete, or a great idea more happily realized. With inconsiderable means, and an ill-appointed flotilla of three small ves.sels, victualled for twelve months, and having on board ninety men, he commenced his unpromising adventure. Leav- mg Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, he sailed directly for the Canaries, whence, having refitted his frazy ships, he kept a due western course, over an unknown ocean, not without a compass, but without a chart. His compass, however, occasioned perplexity. The variation of the magnetic needle from due north, was first ob- served, when he had sailed about 200 leagues from the Canaries, and so terrified his men, that they were scarcely restrained from mutiny. All his address and talents were now put in requisition. The phenomenon of the needle seemed portentous to himself, but his ingenuity devised a solution of it, which silenced the complaints of his crew. After this, he pursued his voyage, yet not without the frequent manifestation of anxiety and impatience, on the part of his crew. Thirty days had transpired since they had left the Canaries, and no land appearing, both officers and men joined in a revolt. Columbus was forced partially to give way to their remonstrances, and pro- posed to return, after the expiration of three days, if they should find no land. Some indications of it had already begun to appear, AMERICA. 215 and, on the 11th of October, the joyful sight was descried, first by Columbus himself. God was immediately praised, and tlie sailors were now as ardent in tluar expressions of repentance and admira- tion, as they had been, before, insolent and ungovernable. 34. St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, was the island fust discovered. Cokunbus allerwards toiiclied at Cuba, and Hispaniola, (St. Domingo,) now Hayti. On the latter he left some of his men, to form a colony. His theory led him to call the regions he had discovered, by the name of ^Vest In- dies ; since he had reached India, or a portion of the globe which he supposed to be near it, by a western passage. Columbus returned to Spain in the following May, and soon set out, with a much larger expedition, on a second voyage. In this he was so happy as to add many other islands to those already found. In a third voyage, he discovered Trini- dad, and the continent at the mouth of the Oronoke, 1498. The fame of his discoveries, drew adventurers from all parts of Europe ; and, among others, Americus Vesputius, a Florentine, a man of science and genius, who, a few years afterwards, following the footsteps of Columbus, acquired the undeserved honoiu" of giving his name to the new world. In 1497, one year before the main 1-and of South America had been discovered by Columbus, .Tohn Cabot, a V'enetiau by birth, but at that time an iidiabitant of England, proceeded on a voyage of discovery, imder a commission from the British king, and foimd the continent of North America. Touching at various parts of the coast, he took possession of the country, in behalf of the crown of England. The Spaniards, after an interval of a few years, made settlements in the new world, and, impelled by a thirst of gold, connnitted horrible butcheries in several of the islands, nnd especially in Mexico and Peru, imder Cortez, Pizarro, and Alinagro. These brave adventurers, though base men, estal)lished the authority of Spain over countries which they depopulated by their avarice and cruelty. In the year 1500. the coast of Brazil was accidentally discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, in consequence of having been driven too far to the west, on a voyage roimd the Cape of Good Hope. Hence, the settlement and possession of that part of America, by the people of Portugal. § Columbus, as we have seen, entertained the idea that the re- gion he had discovered, was India, or apart of the continent ol' 216 MODERN HISTORY.-^PERIOD VIII. Asia. This notion was generally received, until 1513, when the Pa- cific Ocean being descried from the mountains of the isthmus of Darien, the illusion began to be dispelled. Fernando Cortez, M'as a successful, but execrable adventurer, Iv. was on the occasion of being sent, in 1519, by the governor of Cuba, upon an exjiedition to the main, that he first heard of the ex- istence of the rich and flourishing empire of IMexico. Stimulated by the loA'e of power and gain, he resolved to make the conquest of that country. He had at his command only 617 men, and a very few fire-arms, (thirteen muskets and ten small field pieces,) these having not yet come into general use. His other instruments of death, were cross-bows, swords, and spears. But it was the former description of weapons, few as they were, that gained for this handful of Spaniards, a conquest over a numerous people. They looked upon fire-arms as the weapons of the gods. Landing at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave op- position from the natives, into tlie heart of the country. On the ap proach of the Spaniards to the capital, the terror of. their name had paved the way for an easy conquest. T'he Mexican sovereign, Mon- tezuma, received the invaders with great hospitality and kindness. Indeed, he regarded them with \he reverence due to superior beings. An occasion, however, was not long wanting, on the part of Cortez, for puttins his bold and hazardous project into execution. Some difHculty between his soldiers and the natives, became the pretext for his seizure of Montezuma. Marching to tlie palace, with fifty men, he put the emperor in irons, and carried him off prisoner to his camp. This flagrant abuse of their hospitality, aroused the Mexicans, who fleeing to arms, expelled the Spaniards from the capital. Montezuma having, during the affray, offered to mediate between the Mexicans and tlieir enemies, was indignantly put t(. death by one of his own subjects. Gautirnozin, son of Montezuma Immediately succeeded him, and armed *he whole empire against the p8rfi;Iious Spaniards. Cortez. l)y a fortunate concurre'iico of events, having induced a nation of tlie Indians to revolt, and having obtained a reinforcement of Spaniards, commenced the siege of the city, and soon took it, to- gether with Gautimozin, and bec;ime master of the empire, in 1521. The emperor was treated by the Spaniards in a manner shocking to humanity. Refusing to discover the place v/here his treasures were hid, the miserable man was stretched naked, for some time, on burning coals. Soon after, on the discovery of a conspiracy against the Spaniards, he was executed on a gibbet, with all the princes of his blood. This was the last lilow to the power of the Mexican?:. IMie nefarious Cortez, and his few associates, enjoy the honour or the in- famy, in the way now narrated, of having brought this simple and unsuspecting people, under the yoke of Spain. "\\ !ii!e Cortez was employed in the reduction of Mexico, the Span iards were informed of a still more rich and extensive empire, in th<} south. This was Pern, at that time governed by the inca,or king, Ata ^bahpa. Francis Pizarro, in 1525, had sailed to and visited the coua AMERICA. 217 ry. He afterwards iiiulertook the conquest of it. in connection with Diego Ahn.igro, and Ferdinand Lucques, two iinprnicipled ad- venturers like iiiniself ; and for tiiis purpose, sailed in 1531, from Panama, with three small vessels and 300 men. Willi this inconsiderable force, he invaded the country, and marchnig to the residence of the inca, he seized his person by stra- tagem, having employed friendship and religion as the cover of his villany. In this defenceless condition, the king was obliged to sub- mit to the slaughter of his attendants, and to the exaction of an enormous quantity of gold and silver, as the price of his ransom. When, however, the treasure was committed into the hands of the Spaniard, with perfidious cruelty, he still retained the wretched monarch a prisoner, and finally, by a mock trial, condemned and executed him, as a usurper and idolator. The vast booty wliich fell into the possession of the victors, be- came soon an occasion of dispute among themselves. War only could settle it ; in the course of which, both Pizarro and Almagro perished. 'J'his contention lasted seventeen years, and Peru became the theatre of the most licentious rapine and cruelty. In the year 1548, the celebrated Las Casas, was sent from Spainj as viceroy. Under his administration, the country obtained repose, as a province of Spain; and, notwithstanding the temporary success of their new inca, IluancaCapac, who rose against the Spaniards, the whole Peruvian people were effectually broken down and subdued. The inhabitants of the American continent and its islands, were a race of men quite new to the Europeans. They were of a cop- per colour, and liad no beard. In some parts of the continent, as Mexico and Peru, they had made considerable progress towards civilization. They were not wanting, in a degree, as to polish, and even luxury. Architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the precious metals, were understood. Their persons were clothed, tlieir lands cultivated, and their state governed by fixed laws and regulations. In Peru there were some magnificent palaces and tem- ples. In other parts of the new world, man was a naked savage, the member of a wandering tribe, whose sole occupation was hunt- ing or war. The savages of the continent were characterized alike by their cruelty to their enemies, their contempt of death, and their generG.->ity towards their friends. The islanders were a milder race, of gentle manners, and less robust constitutions. The inliumaniiy with Miiicli the Spaniards treated these simple and unoffending people, is sliocking to every reader of sensibility. To convert them to the holy and benevolent religion of the Saviour the most violent means were employed, by men who were strano^ers to tlie spirit of that religion. The rack, the scourge, and the faggot were the principal engines used for their conversion. 'J'hcy were hunted down like wild beasts, or burnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses. Some of the islands were nearly depopulated. The conversion of the Indians, however,jvas less an object, than the desire of obtaining the precious metals which they possessed. So 19 21§ MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD VIII. powerful was the passion for gold, that the first adventurers endu- red every fatigue, and encountered every danger, in search of it ; and, by compelling the natives to dig in the mines, prematurely de- stroyed the lives of vast nudtitudes of this hapless race. It being the practice of the Europeans to take possession of the regions in America which they visited, by the pretended right of discovery, they seem to have made no account of the aboriginals, depriving them of liberty, or life, whenever occasion or passion demanded. The Spani^'h acquisitions in America, before the late revolution among them, belonged to the crown, and not to the state : they were the absolute property of the sovereign, and regulated solely by his will. The pope, agreeably to principles which governed men in a dark and superstitious age, granted to the monarclis of Spain, the countries discovered by their subjects, in America. They were go- verned by viceroys, who exercised supreme civil and militaiy au- thority over their provinces. Distinguished Characters in Period VIIL 1. Columbus, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of America. o' TVT "^i 'i i masters of painting among the moderns. 3. M. Angelo, ) r & ^^ 4. Erasmus, a Dutchman, eminent in philology and gene- ral literature. 5. Copernicus, a Prussian astronomer, and discoverer of the true system of the universe. 6. Luther, 7. Calvin, 8. Camoens, a distinguished Portuguese poet. 9. Buchanan, a Scotch historian and poet. 10. Montaigne, a celebrated French essayist. 1 1. Tasso, prince of Itahan poets, 12. Spenser, one of the greatest of the English poets. § Columbus (Christopher) was born 1442, at Genoa, son of a vvoolcomber. He was early inured to the labours of the sea, and acquired great experience in navigation. With the sciences imme- diately connected with his profession, he was acquainted, beyond most men of his age. Indeed, this great man was far in advance of The rest of the world, and anticipated the illumination of a distant futurity. For the splendid discovery Avhich he was destined to make, his temperament and his previous course of life, eminently fitted him. There was an enthusiasm in his character, a lofty ex- pectation, and a religions fervour of soul, which spurned ordinary difficulties, and raised him immensely above ordinary men. By his knowledge of maritime alfairs, as well as by reasoning, he became eminent theologians and reformers. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 219 persuaded that a continent must exist in tlie western ocean. To ascertain the trutli of his theory, was an object which soon engross- ed all his time and faculties. And, after much effort and many trials and disappointments, in regard to assistance, he was permitted to realize the grand idea he had so happily conceived. He made application to several courts, before he could obtain the requisite means and patronage, and it was only after much delay, tliat he was finally enabled to prosecute his discoveries under the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He sailed on the third of August, 1492, in three small ships, and returned to Spain in May the following year. In the mean lime he had discovered a new world, and had taken possession of a portion o*" it, in the name of his sovereign. This event filled Spain, and all Europe, with amaze- ment, and the greatest honours -vvere accorded to him in the coun- try, whose annals he has so signallj' adorned. He made three sub- sequent voyages tot'ic new world, in the second of which he reach- ed the continent; but powerful enemies had now risen up, jealous of his ascendency, who impugned his motives or decried his services, and so much influinice had they with the Spanish court, that Columbus, in his third voyage was sent back to Spain in irons. Though he suffered much in the latter part of life, he finally trium- {)hed over his enemies, and peacefully left the world, on the twentieth of May, 1506. The memory of Columbus will be cherished while the world stands; thcmgh in consequence of one of those untoward events that sometimj's occur, he has been deprived of the honour of giving his name to the hemisphere wiiich his genius brought to light. Signal must have been the satisl'action of his mind, notwithstand- ing the disasters through wliich he passed, in view of the transcen- dent benefits whicli Providence had made him the instrument of conferring on mankind. 2. Raphael (Sanzio) was born at Urbino, 1483. By studying the best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an architect, and was eiuployed in the building of St. Peter's, at Rome. He came to an untimely grave, in consequence of his addiction to licentious pleasures, dying at the age of thirty-seven years. By the general constMit of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of l)aiiUers. He excelled in beauty and grace. 3. Angelo Buonaroti (Michael) was not only a great painter, but- .sculptor, and arciiitect. He was even an elegant poet. In architec- ture be surpassed all the moderns, and he was the greatest designer that ever lived. He is said to have suckearly displays of his genius, raised so great a jealousy ainf)iig iiis youtiiful rivals, that one of tiiein struck him with such violence on the nose, that Ik; carried the mark to his grave. The most celcliraled of his paintincfs, is the Last .ludgment. His arcliiteotiu il abilities are best displayed on the church of Su 220 MODERN HISTORY; PERIOD VIII. Peter's, at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is that of grandeur and sublimity, united with the utmost simplicity and beauty. Sir Joshua Reynolds declared, that the last word which he wished to utter from tlie academic chair, was the name of Michael Angelo. Description can convey but a very imperfect image of " Buonaroti's car Midst epic glories flaming from afar." Only the sight can give one an idea of his peculiar excellence. He lived ninety years. 4. Erasmus (Desiderius) was the most learned man of the age in which he lived, and contributed by his example and writings, to the restoration of learning in Europe. He was somewhat of a wander- er, having occasionally resided in Italy, Switzerland, Holland, France, and England. With the last of these countries he was best pleased, and there he met with the greatest encouragement from Henry VH., Sir Thomas More, and all the learned Englishmen of those day.s. He was the most correct and elegant Latin writer among the mo- derns. Rotterdam, is to this day proud of having given birth to Erasmus. The house in which he was born is still marked out to the admiration of the traveller by a suitable inscription, and a beau- tiful copper statue was long since erected to his memory in an o])cn part of the city. In the great question of Protestantism and Popery, he was claim- ed on both sides, though neither party was pleased with him. Here is a dark spot on his character. He was evidently temporising, timid, and undecided. He lashed the vices and follies of the Pa- pists, while he seemed to be indifferent to the success, or jealous of the labours of the reformers. He died at Basil, July 12, 1536, aged sixty -nine. 5. Copernicus (Nicholas) \vas a native of Thorne hi Prussia. In nis twenty-third year he went to Italy in search of knowledge. After some years' absence, and having in the mean time acted as professor of mathematics at Rome, lie returned home. Here he began to apply his vast knowledge, to an examination of the different theories respecting the universe. The simplicity of the Pythagorean system pleased him best ; and after twenty years of profound inves- tigation, he removed from tlie macliine of the universe, the cycles and epicycles of former astronomers, and placed the sun in the cen- tre to illuminate and control the whole. This great discovery he kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting against himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. When at last he consent- ed, through the importunities of his friends, to have his work pub- lished, and a copy of it was brought to him, he was a few hours afterwards seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated his life, 24th May, 1543. in his seventieth year. 6. Lut.licr (Martin) was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. His parents designed him for a civilian, but by the foljnwing awful inci- dent, his views were directed to tlie church. As he was walking in the fields \vitli a fellow-student, they »\vcre struck by ligiitning DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 221 Lutticr to the ground, and his companion dead by his side. Hia mind was so miicli aff(;ctcd by the event, tliat without consulting nis friends, he formed and executed the resolution of retiring from the world. He entered into the order of Augustine hermits, at Krfinlh. From this place he removed to Wittemberg, being ap- pointed by the elector of Saxony, professor of tlieology and philo- sophy in the university just founded there by that prince. It was m his retirement at Erfurlh, that he providentially found a Latin Bible, the first he ever saw, and in penising it he \\'as astonished at the little knowledge of Scripture and Christianity, which the clergy then imparted to the people. After he had been al Wittemberg three years, he was sent to Rome to plead the cause of some converts of his order, who had quarrel- led with their vicar-general. While he was at the seat of the papal power, he became more than ever convinced of the ignorance and debauched lives of the dignitaries of the churcli. This probably gave him the first decided disgust to the Romish ecclesiastical go- vernment, especially as he had engaged in the monastic life, from motives of aeiuiiiie piet\^ Upon his return to Wittemberg, he was created D. D. at the request of the elector of Saxony, and continued to act as professer of divinity in the universit}'. Here he explained, with clearness and ease, the Psalms and the Epistle to the Romans, and supported iiis reputation by the most rigid morality, and the most exemplary conduct. The minds of his auditors being tluis prepared, a favourable occa- *-ion soon offered for carrying into execnlion his glorious plan of re- formation. The completion of St. Peter's church, at Rome, at this lime, required extraordinary sums, and pope Leo X. publislied, in 1517, general indulgences for the forgiveness of sin, to such as would contribute to the i)ious work. The Dominicans were intrust- ed with the selling of these indulgences in Germany; and in paying their nione}-, tlie friar Tetzcl informed the superstitious people, that they miglit release themselves, not only from past, but also future sins. Luther's holy indignation was roused by these vile practices, and he preached against them, with wonderful success. Persecution soon followed, and the reformer became tlie object of the papal ven- ueauce. Luther, however, was undismayed, and, in an astonishing -•cries of efforts, in which he was opposed by all the power and poncy of the papal world, he. achieved the object of his long clie- rished wishes. In 1521, liUther threw aside the monastic habit, and thf next year married a nun, who had escaped from a convent, and, thougn l.c was ridiculed and censured by his enemies, he confounded them all by his appeal to the Scriptures. By her, ho had three sons, whose descendants are still respected in Germany. Luther died in the place of his nativity, 18th February, 154G. Luther was singularly (jualified for the service he performed. He was a man of hig'.i endowments of mind, and great upriirhtness — a friend of true religion, libertv, and liu.nian happiness. His under- 222 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. standing was vast, and his knowledge unequalled, almost, iii the age in which he lived. Especially had he an admirable acquaintance with the Scriptures, which he expounded with equal eloquence and (;l{;arness. In courage, resolution, and decision, he was an example to all reformers. 7. Calvin, (John,) a coadjutor of Luther in the reformation, was born at Noj'on, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His early piety mark- ed him out for the church ; but though he assumed tlie functions of the ministry, he was too much disgusted with the superstitions of the Romish church, to remain in her communion. His knowledge of the Bible had opened his eyes to the abominations of the " man of sin." He now applied himself to the study of the laws, in which he made great progress ; at the same time, he extended his ac- quaintance with divinity. He soon entered most cordially into the reformation ; and his zeal and labour as a writer and disputant, very essentially aided the work. With difficulty, however, he escaped from the vengeance of the catholics; but his confidence in God was not to be shaken, and having taken his position, he felt that it was to be maintained. He spent most of his active life at Geneva, where he undertook the ministry, and filled the chair of the professor of divinity. He was, however, once expelled the place on account of refusing to administer the sacrament indiscriminately, and again experienced trouble in the affair of Servetus. Calvin, by his vast abilities, and by his clear views of re:irning, and a sublime imagination. Misfortune marked his course in life. In the service of his coun- try, he lost an eye. On his return from the Indies, whither he had gone to better his fortune, he was shipwrecked, and .saved his life with difliculty, by swimming witli his right arm, and holding up his poem, with his left. After he had published his poem, and dedicated it to the king, he was cruelly disappointed, as to patronage; and feeling all the mise- ries of indigence and neglect, he expired in the midst of his ungrate- ful countrymen. He lived fifty-two years. 0. Buchanan (George) was born in the shire of Lenox, in Scot- iDISTiNGUISHED CHARACTERS. 223 land, in 1506. lie early embraced, from conviction, the tenets of Lu- ther, and, as the consequence, suffered persecution from tlie catho- lics. He became tutor to James I. of England, and employed the last twelve or tliirteen years of his life, in wrhmg the history of his country. lie occasionally resided in England and France, but died in his native country, at Edinburgh, 1582. His history is written in a nervous, elegant, and perspicuous style, but is occasionally de- ficient in fidelity and accuracy. He has the reputation of an able scholar, whose mind was stored with all the fire, the elegance, and the graces of aiu-icnt literature, and who, in a barbarous age, revi- ved in his poetry, the beauty and grandeur of the Roman muses. 10. Montaigne was born of an ancient family at Perigord, in France, 1533. He was instructed to speak Latin first, as his mother tongue. Disdaining the drudgeries of law, for which he was intend- ed, he travelled, witli a view to make observations on men and man- ners. In tlie latter part of his life, he enjoyed learned ease and phi- losophical society. His essays liave been repeatedly published. They are able and amusing productions, though unsafe to be put in- to the hands of youth, on account of tlieir scepticism. Some per- sons have extravagantly praised them. 11. Tasso (Torquato) was born at Sorrento, in the kingdom of Naples, in l.'>44, and derives his celebrity from his " Jerusalem De- livered," an e[)ic poem of great merit. Like the works of Homer and Virgil, it has gained the palm of immortality. Tasso passed a life of varied and great sulTcring. Among oilier calamities, he was confined by the duke of Ferrara, wlio had been his patron, in an hospital, for a long time, under the pretence that he was insane. Tas- so had been guiltj' only of an imprudence. Unfortunately, he had fallen in love with the princess Kleonora, the duke's sister, and, on a certain occasion, he made bold to embrace her, in the midst of a crowded assembly. For this ofl^ence, the unfortunate lover was obliged to mourn his disappointment in a tedious solitude, rendered more tedious by a lingerinof disease, and occasional lunacy. He was at last relea-<(^d, and his merits as a poet began to be more known ; but just as he was on the point of receiving the laurel crown from the pope, he suddenly expired, and that which was to have been, on Iho next day, his coronation, proved to be the melancholy proces- sion of his funeral. He was fifty-one years of aire. 12. Spenser (Edmund) is deservedly regarded as little inferior, either in invention or in judgment, and true fire of the nuise, to any author, ancient or modern. But Mitli all his beauties, he was fanciful and chimerical, and without uniformity, so that his poem is truly fairy land. His sublimity, variety, and fertile imagination, are unfortunately to be set oft' against his oijsolete language, and heavy stanza. His Fairy Que(Mi, is his most celebrated poem. He was poet laureat to queen Elizabeth, and was employed some- what in public life. At one period, he was possessed of wealth ; but Desmond's revolt in Ireland, where his property lay, proved his ruin. He was plundered and robbed of his estate, one of his children was '224 niODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. burned in t'.ie conflagration of his house, and broken in heart and fortune, he came to London, where he died, in 1598. PERIOD IX. 77^6 'period of the English Commonwealth ; extending from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 ■f/eaj's A. C, to the death of Charles XII. of iSiveden, 1718 years A. C. FRANCE. House of Bonrhon. Sect. 1 . Henry IV., had now occupied the throne of France several years. He had changed his rehgion from pohtical considerations, but did an act of justice to the Calvinists, by vviiose aid he liad secured the sceptre, in granting the famous Edict of Nantes, by \viiicli lie tolerated them, as well as all his subjects, in the unfettered exercise of their religion. Henry's own great abilities and love of his subjects, aided by the talents and industry of his minister, the duke of Sully, enabled him to repair the desolations of a thirty years' civil war, and to place his kingdom in a state of iinancial pros- perity and general happiness. France never had a more popular sovereign. His talents, as a general and statesman, commanded respect, his person was prepossessing, his manners a model of good breeding, and his love of his subjects inspired a most enthusiastic at- tachment to him in return. His private and domestic life, was however very exceptionable, and infected, by the force of example, the manners of the court with no little disso- luteness. § A mistress of Henry, an artful, intriguing, ambitious woman, luid, by consummate management, obtained from him a promise of marriage. This promise, tlic king showed to Sully, ready signed, and the minister, transported with indignation, tore it in pieces. " I believe you arc mad," crictl Henry in a rage. " It is true I am mad," replied Sully, " and I wish I was the only mad man in France." >Vhen, after so keen an altercation, Sully thought himself irreco- verably disgraced, he received the brevet of grand master of the ordnance. Henry, who had lived tIn-o;igh fifty conspiracies, fell l)y the FRANCE. 225 hand of an assassin, named Ravillac, after a short reign of twenty years, too short for tlie glory of France, just as he was entering upon a splendid, but visionary project, of form- ing Europe into a Christian repubhc. ^^ Ravillac was a desperate Catholic bigot, who had long formed a design to murder his sovereign. Henry was ready to join his army in prosecuting his singular scheme, but was detained against his will, on account of tlie coronation of the queen. In the midst of ills impatience to depart, his mind was harrassed with sinister fore- bodings, and they were too truly realized by the event. Passing along a street in Paris, his coach became entangled, and his footmen quitting it for a moment, Ravillac, who liad followed him secretly for a long time, took advantage of the opportunity, and stabbed him in the midst of seven courtiers. The crime of Ravillac was expiated by the most horrid tortures. Henry's project was to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers, none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisitions, and should altogether form an association for the maintenance of a mutual balance, and the preservation of peace. There is little evi- dence, however, that he thought it practicable. He meant to effect it, if at all, by force, and it is certain that he strongly wished to set bounds to the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. The latter, therefore, may have been his only real design. 2. Louis Xlll.jin his ninth year, succeeded his father, 1610, under the regency of Mary of Medicis, his mother. During the early part of this prince's reign, France, which had arisen to splendour and prosperity, under Henry, evidently retro- graded. Mary's partiality for her Italian courtiers, disgusted the nobility, and weakness, faction, and disorder, began to be experienced. But when cardinal Richelieu succeeded to the ministry, after the duke of Luynes, affairs wore a much more favourable aspect. He had vast al)ilities, and propor- tionaljle influence, which he successfully exerted in subduing the turbulence of the nobility, diminishing the power of the Protestants, and restraining the encroachments of Austria. The principal events of the reign of Louis, were, the ar- rest of the prince of Conde, on account of his intrigues against the regent, and the subsequent temporary exile of the regent herself ; the revolt of the Protestants at Rochelle, ;i.nd the siege of that place, which lasted a year, and was nt- tend(!d with the loss of 15,000 lives ; the junction of Louis u ith the Protestant princes of Germany, against the empe- ror Ferdinand U., and the revolt of the duke of Orleans^ supported by the duke of Montmorency. 226 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. § The Protestants were accused of a design to form France into an independent republic, to be divided into eight circles, on the model of those in Germany. Certain it is, tliat alienated by per secution, they attempted to throw o.T their allegiance, and Rochelle was the bulwark and head quarters of their party. Richelieu, having become master of the court, the armies, and the fleets, car- ried into execution, the plan he had long meditated, that of waging war against the Protestants, whom lie was resolved to exterminate. He accordingly laid siege to Rochelle. On this occasion he acted as commander in chief; but chose to be accompanied by the king for fear his enemies should take advantage of his absence. The Protestants implored the aid of England, but were disappoint- ed by the tardy measures of the duke of Buckingham. The garri- son and inhabitants of Rochelle were resolved, however, to hold dut until the last extremity. For tv/elve months they endured the miseries of a siege, but were at length obliged to yield to the active genius of the cardinal. He triumphed over the Calvinists, and de- prived them of their most significant privileges. They never rv- covered from this blow. The union of Louis with the Protestant princes of German}-, 1026. owed its origin to the influence of Richelieu, in his anxiety to hum- ble the Austrian greatness. He forgot his hatred of Protestantism, for a time, and embarked most eagerly in the cause of the Protes- tant princes, who were alarmed at Ferdinand's avowed design of suppressing their religion, together with the liberties of tb.e {Ger- man empire. Richelieu's plans were attended tvith complete success, llie Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theological disputes, conspired for the diminution of Ferdinand's power; the court of England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes also took up arms, and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed like a torrent upon Germa- ny. In the course of events, the emperor was effectually humbla!, and a solid foundation was laid for the prosperity of the empire. The haught}' minister of Louis, amidst all the jiolitical intrigues and wars in which he was engaged, found leisure to patronize lite- rature and science, and thus to extend the glory of the Frencli n;i- tion, beyond the lionour acquired by feats of arms. The P'reuch Academy owes its institution to the genius of Richelieu. Louis died at the age of forty-three years. After lie had been married twenty-three years, he had two sons, Loris XIV., and Philij), duke of Orleans. During his reign, the king was a less prominent object of attention, than his minister, and is not known to have been characterised oy any particular talents or virtues. 3. Louis XIV., ill the fifth year of his age, ascoiuled the tlirone, in 1643, under the regency of Anne of Austria, his mother. The talents of this monarch, the vigour of his ad- ministration, the splendid events of his reign, his conquests and i-eversesj and the ilourisliing state of Hterature and the ar*s FRANCE. 227 under his patronage, have been themes of deep interest with historians. He is often styled the Great. The most conspicuous events of his reign, were his war with the Spaniards, which commenced a few days after his accession, under the duke of Enghein ; the civil commotions called la-Fronde, which grew out of Mazarine's ministry ; tiie contention with Holland, in 1672, in which he was op- posed by the Germair emperor and Spain, and in which Franche Comte was conquered and united to France ; the revocation of the edict of Nantes ; the league of Augsburg against France, by which v\'ar was waged against that coun- try, by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland, and, in con- sequence of which, Louis acquired peculiar glory ; and the war of the succession, in which he met with woful reverses, from the allied powers, under the duke of Marlborough, and prince Eugene. § In tlio early war with the Spaniards, the duke of Enghein gained the battle of Rocroi ; that of Fribonrtr in 1044; that of Nordlingen in 1645 ; and that of Bii:ikirk in 1646. The Spaniards were the aggressors, having taken an advantage of the king's minority, and the popular discontents. These discontents arose from the ministry of Cardinal 3Iazarine, the favourite of the regent, who was an Italian, and whose avarice was excessive. The burdens wliich he imposed on the people, and the consequent detestation in whicii he was held, terminated in the commotions of the fronde. Cardinal de Retz, had a principal agency in exciting this civd war. The parliament of Paris, and the chief r.obiiil3',took part with the rebels. The celebrated general, Turenne, also aided the rebels. A short pacification ensued, but the impru- dent violence of Mazarine, soon renewed the disorders. At length, the parliament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopu- lar minister. When, however, the king became of age, Mazarine re- .sumcd his station as minister, whifc de Retz and Orleans, the chief jjromoters of the rebellion were banished in their turn. On the death of Mazarine, in 1661, when Louis was twenty-two years of age, he took upon himself the entire control of affairs, and by the splpcdour of his projects, and the success with which many of them were crowned, established throughout the world, his reputa- tion ^s an able monarch. His war with Holland soon commenced, m which Turenne, and Conde, another great general gave signal proofs of the sagacity of Louis, in tlie leaders whom 'le had chosen to conduct his military operations. Although Spain and the empe- ror joined the Hollanders, yet Turenne defeated the I.nperialists m the pitclied battles of Ensheim, Mulhausen, and Turkhrim. Some- time before, Conde had signalizeu his arms against Franche Comte which he subjugated in the space of seventeen days. 228 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. Several powers now became jealous of the ascendency of France, and the prince of Orange, whose dominions had been so wanton ly attacked by the French king, had siitRcient influence with England, to obtain hs alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Louis, hoAvever, still continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen, in 1678, was much to the lionour of France. Franchc Comte was assured, as a part of the dominions of Louis, and Spain allowed his right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. In the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685, the French king manifested a complete dereliction both of wisdom and justice. The toleration which was granted to the Protestants by Henry IV., was taken av/ay, their worship suppressed, their churches demolished, their ministers exiled, and an absolute renunciation of their religion, was made the condition with all who chose to continue in their na- tive country. If they failed to comply with this requirement, death was the consequence, whenever they could be found. By this measure, the kingdom lost, according to some, 800,000 of her most in- dustrious and useful citizens, who cither perished, or driven into exile, carried the arts and manufactures of France, into various countries. The League of Augsburg, in 1686. was brought about by "William, prince of Orange, the sworn enemy of Louis. His attack on Hol- land had betrayed his ambition, and the splendour of his designs could not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbom-s. Victory however, attended his standard against all the forces of the leaguers. Though the valiant Turenne had perished in battle, the able Conde had retired, and Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen of any age, was no more, and their places could not be well supplied, yet the name of Louis was a host, ann the successors of those renowned men, were by no means contemptible. Luxemburg defeated the prince of Orange, in the battles of Slecnkirk and Norwinden , Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of one hundred thousand French, ravaged the Palatinate, and took mony of the most important towns on the Rhine. This was the brightest period of his reign. Disasters Avere soon to follow him. The extensive military enterprises of Louis, had been attended with enormous expenses. The pride of the monarch had been flattered by his victories, but no solid advantage had accrued to the nation. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering efforts of his enemies, obliged him to conclude the peace of Ryswick, m 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. That was the Avar of the succession. The nations engaged in it were England, Hol- land, and the empire, against France and Spain. The avoAved object on the part ot the former, Avas to put the house of Austria in pos- session of th.3 throne of Spain, on the expected death of Charles IJ., without issue. Louis har i passed his prime, and lost his greatest generals and ministers ; Avhile the armies of his enemies Avere commanded by the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of the united poAvers. The Avar Avas carried on Avith manifest advantage FRANCE. 2^9 • on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim, in which the English Marlborough began his victorious career, cost the French twenty thousand men. lie gained, besides, the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. One or two victories on the part of the French and Spanisli, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from aban- doning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even proposed very iuuniliating terms ; but as they were rejected, and the hard condition of dethroning his grirndson Philip, was insisted on, he made one more desperate etfort in battle, in which he was so far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. Tlie change in queen Anne's cabinet, gave fiicility to propositions for peace, in which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions. 4. Louis died, aged seventy-seven years, liaving reigned more than i-cvent3^-t.\vo, one of the longest reigns on the page of history, and ilkistrated by many splendid achieve- ments. His patronage of literature and the arts, constitutes, more than any ether which he possessed, his claim to the admiration of posterity. No species of merit was suffered to go unrewarded, and the finest models of composition in the French language, were produced in his reign. x\ll kinds of public works were extended and improved — the capital was enlarged and beautified, the splendid palace of Versailles erected, commerce and manufactures encouraged, and the fine canal of Languedoc constructed. iiouis was remarkable for his able administration of in- ternal affairs. His sagacity was peculiarly displayed in the selection of his generals and ministers. Besides those that have been already mentioned, was the famous Vauban, whose great genius Avas successfully employed in Ibrtifying towns. Colbert has been named. His skill in finances, has acquired him an immortal reputation. The latter was also a zealous patron of learning, thus seconding the designs of his royal master. At iiis suggestion, the celebrated astronomer, Cassini, quitted Italy, and placed himself under the protection of the king of France, who bestowed on him, and also on Huy- gens, a Dutch mathematician of equal cclebrit}^, a ver}' large pension. Louis was reckoned the handsomest man in his dominions, and was celebrated for his politeness and urbanity. His in- tellect was vigorous, but indifierently cultivated. It was the great fault of Mazarine, to whom the childhood of Louis was entrusted, that he neglected his education. He sought ffor the young monarch, no other accomplishments than tiiose .20 230 MODERN HISTORY. PER[OD IX. of dancing, fencing, and riding, so that when the latter was drawing on towards manhood, he scarcely knew how to pen an epistle. Tlie love of glory, was perhaps his ruhng passion, though he was influenced unduly by other passions, to the indelible infamy of his private life. How often is it, that an admired public pageant, lamentably fails in that which constitutes rea' worth of character. GREAT BRITAIN. House of Stuart. Coinmonu-ealth. Restoration of Monarchy. 5. The throne of England, (called towauls the close ol the present period. Great Britain.) was ascended by James I., 1C03, who was the sixth king of Scotland of that name, and son of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots. Thus the sceptre passed with entire tranquillity from the house of Tudor, to that of the Stuarts — an event which was in exact accordance with the law of succession, and with the express- ed wishes of Elizabeth, and which united the two crowns, and eventually made the two kingdoms one. , § .Tames I., was a great grandson of Henry VII. When Elizabeth was dying, upon being requested to make known her pleasure in regard to a successor, she replie'l " that she had held a royal scep- tre, and required no other than a royal successor" — which, she ex- plained to be one Avho was then actually a king, viz. " her nearest kinsman, the king of Scots." The history of Scotland, from the time of Wallace and Robert Eruce, to Mary, the mother of James, and rival of Elizabeth, is very summarily as follows : The son of Roliert, was David Bruce, who began to reign in 1329. During his minority, on account of the invasion of the kingdom by Edward Baliol, he was conveyed to France for security. He was a weak, but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverse* of for- tune. He was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, by Ed- ward III., and remained cfeven years in captivity. He was ran- somed by his subjects, and ended a turbulent reign, in 1370. He was succeeded by Robert II., his nephew, and the grandson of the great Robert I3ruce, whose reign of twenty years' continuance, was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and the English. Robert HI., then ascended the Scottish throne ; but his infirmities and weakness, obliged him to resign the government into the hands ( f his brother, the duke of Albany GREAT BRITAIN. 231 James I., a son of Robert, whom Albany had sought to murder, and whom the Enghsh had taken prisoner in his attempts to escape to France, next ascended the tlirone, 1424. He was a prince of great natural endowments, and profited by a captivity of eighteen years in England, adorning his mind with every valuable accomplish- ment. The kingdom had fallen into great disorders, during tlie regency of Albany ; but James, on his return, soon placed affairs on A favourable footing. He bent all his attention to the improvement and civilization of his people. In restraining the power of the nobles, however, as necessary to this end, he incurred their enmity, and was accordingly assassinated. James II., succeeded his father, 1437. He inherited a portion of his fatlier's talents, but possessing an impetuous temper, he pursued the plan of humbling the nobles, with excessive rigour. Ruling with absolute authority, he was uncommonly successful in attaining the objects he had in view, and greatly improved his kingdom. His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, affected to tread in the same steps. But he was impolitic in attaching him- self to mean favourites ; and quaiTeling with the barons, he was killed in an insurrection, 1488. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, succeeded to the tlirone. He was respected by his nobles, and beloved by his people. Invading England with a powerful army, he fell, v/ith al- most the whole of his nobility, in the rash and unfortunate battle of Flodden-Field, 1513. James V., his son and successor, was a great, but uncultivated prince. His reign was long and turbulent, the aristocracy attempt- ing to resume their power, and he being employed in defeating their projects. He died of a broken heart, in consequence of the infideli- ty of his troops, ill a war with the Englisli, 10,000 of the Scots having deliberately surrendered themselves to the enemy. He was succeeded by Mary, whose eventful life and tragical death, have been already narrated. 6. Tliough the succession of James T. was tranquil, a few events soon occurred, which tended to disturb his reign. One event was, a conspiracy planned to subvert the government, by seating on the tlnone Aral^ella Stuart, the king's near re- lative, descended, like himself, from Henry VII. § Sir Walter Raleigh, was taken as one of the principals in this plot; and tliough he was convicted on incompetent evidence, he was only reprieved, not pardoned, and lay many years a prisoner in the tower. A project of a much fouler kind followed. This was the gunpowder plot, which was ascribed to the catholics, who, disappointed in their expectations from James, were enraged beyond measure, and meditated the destruction of the royal family, lords and commons, at a meeting of parliament. 332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. § The plot was discovered, just as it was on the eve of execution' It was intended, on the part of the conspirators, to blow up the house in which the parliament should assemble, by means of gun- powder, which had been secreted in the cellar of the building. Twenty conspirators had sacredly kept this dreadful secret, nearly a year and a half; but the same bigotry which had given rise to the plot, was directed as an engine by Providence, to reveal it. A few days before the meeting of parliament, a catholic member of it, re- ceived, from an unknown hand, a letter, advising him not to attend the meeting, and intimating to him, obscurely, what was about to take place. This, on the part of the member, was considered merely as a. foolish attempt to frighten him. He, however, showing it to the king, the superior sagacity of the latter, led him to conceive, that al- lusion was made to danger from gunpowder. The following sen- tence in the letter, seems to have suggested the idea to the king, "Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them." Search was now detennined to be made in the vaults under tlie house of parliament. With the view, however, that they might de- tect not only the conspiracy, but the conspirators, they were quiet- till the night before the connnencement of the session. The plan oi the king succeeded. A man by the name of Guy Fawkes, was found at the door, who was immediately seized, the faggots, and powder, to the amount of tliirty-six barrels, discovered, and the very matches- to set fire to the train, were detected in his pocket. He gave up the names of his accomplices, eighty in number, who, with himself, were all put to death. 7. The puritans, ■wlio had already become conspicuous, having first appeared in the reign of Mary, indulged the ex- pectation at the accession of James, of meeting with special favour from the new monarch, because he had been educated a presbyterian. Their disappointment, but especially the re- straints and persecutions which they endured, forced num- bers of them to the new world, where they laid the founda- tions of a great nation. Domestic events, such as have been recorded, chiefly dis- tinguished the reign of James. He exerted, and wished to exert, no influence abroad. His disposition was altogether pacific. When, in the early part of his reign, he was sohcited to join in a league with Henry IV., the United Provinces, and the northern crowns, to repress the exorbitant power oi the house of Austria, he would have nothing to do with the scheme. The Stuarts, as well as Tudors, were strenuous advocates GREAT FRITAIN. 2SS forthennul prerogative, in the widest exercise. This was especially liie case with James. He was prejudiced against the Puritans, oii account, of tlieir notions of liberty, and took part with tlie estabti -bed church. It was a fiivourite maxim witli liim — •• No bishop, no king." But the minds of English- men were undergoing a change. Light had increased, and juster notions of the people's riglits began to obtain. The opposition of parliament to the ro^'al prerogative, was carried to a great height, and laid the foimdation of those fatal strug- gles which, in the next reign, subverted the monarchy. James died after a reign of twenty-two years over Eng- land, and of nearly his whole life over Scotland. The pri- vate character of this prince, is not free from reproach. His disposition, howevei", was mild ; and his reign, though not glorious, in the usual sense of tliat word, was yet, in many respects, happy and prosperous to his people. On them he bestowed the care of a parent. 5 James was ingenious and learned, and yet pedantic withal. Of flattery, he was excessively I'ond, and there were parasites to deal it out to iiini without measure. On a certain occasion, he publicly proposed the question, vvliether lie might nut take his subjects' mo- ney, when lie wanted it, without the formality" of parliaments. •' God forbid," replied the obsequious Neile, bishop of Uuiiiam, '• but that you should, for you are the very breath of our nostrils." James is said to have been pusillanimous in life, but he shewed himself cf)ura. the sa ine arbitrary principles with his father, without the prudence uf the latter. The refusal of the parliament, to grant adequate supplies, for enabling the king to carry on a war, first in support of his brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, and afterwards with France and Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution ol uling without their aid, and of levying money in the most illegal forms. § The manifestation of a tyrannical disposition, on the part of Charles, first soured the ininds of his parliament against him. Be- ing engaged to his allies, the king could not brook the denial of sup- plies, and accordingly dissolved the parliament, and issued warrants for borrowing money of the subject. A new parliament was found equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of the king, by the impeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles, however, avenged the insult, by imprisoning two members of the house of commons. A quarrel thus began, received continued additions from new causes of offence. The king, in his wars with France, sent troops to assist the French calvinists ; but, after an unsuccessful expedition under Buckingham, they were obliged to return to England. Rochelle was, in conse- quence, reduced to extremity, by which the protestant interest re- ceived an irrevocable blow in France. The biame of every public miscarriage was throw-n upon Buckingham, who sheltered himself under the royal protection, till he was assassinated by one Felton, just as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle. The death of this worthless favourite, however, did not deter Charles from his arbitrary proceedings, which the English patriots, in that enlightened age, justly considered as so many acts of tyran- ny. His impositions upon trade, without the voice of parliament, many of the merchants, and some members of the house of com- mons, refused to pay. A new parliament, which was now convoked, exhibited a spirit of determined reformation. A petition of right was passed by both houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their sanction, or enforcing loans from the subject ; annulled all taxes im- posed without consent of parliament, and abolished the exercise of martial law; and Cliarles was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives. The t^xes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued from one reign to another. On this ground, the king conceived he was warranted to levy them -without a new grant ; and a member of the house of commons refusing to pay them, was imprisoned. A com- motion being excited, parliament was dissolved. 9. About this time, a great number of Puritans, weary of the restraint they experienced in England, under the domineering spirit t)f Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, embarked for Ameri GREAT BRITAIN. 235 ca, where they spread the liberty of which they were deprived at home. But at length the enemies of that sect prevailed on the king to forbid these emigrations. This providentially proved a very unhappy affair for Charles, inasmuch as John Hampden, John Pym, and Ohver Cromwell, were prevented from going. § Ihimpdcn rendered liiraself illustrious, by his talents and virtue, and particularly by the firm stand he made against the illegal impo- sition called ship money. He refused to pay a small sum, that had been levied against him, and ventured to assert the liberty of En- glishmen, by risking a legal prosecution. All England was deeply interested in tiu; trial, and tliis was the favourable result which he realized, though tlie venal judge decided the cause against him. The people began to see their danger. At a lime when the public feeling was running strongly in favour of Puritanism, and a simpler form of worship, Laud, with a most intemperate and insulting zeal, was engaged in loading the church witii new ceremonies. 'J'hings might have gone on in this train for some tinin; but attempting likewise to introduce the liturgy of the ehurcti of England among the Scots, the most violent commotions were produced. A bond, termed the National Covenant, containing an oath of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in Scotland, by all ranks and conditions. To maintain this proceeding, the Scotch reformers took up arms, and soon marched into the heart of England. At the same time, a catliolie rebellion arose in Ireland, which the people imputed to the arts of the royalists; and to complete the misfor- tune of the king, the parliament, which had been necessarily convoked, proceeded to such extremities in its acts, that they were considered tantamoimt to a declaration of war against the king and his party. 10. Things had arrived at such a pass, that the sword was now to decide the contest. The two liouses of parliament took into their hands the force constituted b}'^ the militia of the country, and at the same time the king erected his stand- ard at Nottingham, 1642. Several battles were fought, du- ring three or four consecutive years, with various success; but at lengtli the royalists were overcome, and the king was thrown into the hands of his enemies. The cause of Cliarles was supported by a large proportion of tiie landed in- tei;est, all the friends of the established church, and all the adherents of the papacy ; that of the parliament, by the city of London, and most of the great towns, and all the dissen- ters from the establishment. Cavaliers was the term applied to the supporters of the king — Round Heads to those of the parliament. 2*J6 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. § The parliament, in order to carry on hostilities with the grpater prospect of success, had entered into a strict confederacy with the Scots, who were already in a menacing attitude. The new bond which they formed, was more specific in its objects than the former, and more determined in its spirit. It was called the " Solemn League and Covenant," and it brought an accession of 20,000 men to the forces of the parliament. Oliver Cromwell, an officer under Fairfax, general of the parlia- ment, in reality, directed all the measures of the army. This extra- ordinary man, as will presently appear, was destined to perform an extraordinary part in the transactions of this period. The two first battles, viz. those of Edgehill and Newbury, were favourable to the royalists ; but those of Marston Moor and Naseby, terminated in. their overthrow. Never Avere the morals and religion of an army more carefully watched, than those of the soldiers of Cromwell-. Previously to each battle, it was customary with them, individually, to spend some time in praj^er. When the king was taken bj'' a party of Cromwell's soldiers, af- ter having been delivered up by the Scots, among whom he had so\ight protection, he was conveyed first to Hurst castle, and then to Windsor, and at last to London. The parliament at this time, intiiienced by Cromwell, having declared it treason in a king to levy war against his parliament, a court, consisting of 133 men, were ap- pointed to try him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles de- clined the jurisdiction of the court, and refused to plead. He was nevertheless condemned to suffer death, and was beheaded the third day afterwards, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty- Iburth of his reign. On the morning of tlie fatal day, which was the 30th of January,^ J'649, Charles rose earlier tlian usual, and calling one of his attend- ants, bade him employ more than usual care in adjusting his dress. As he was preparing for the block, he observed, in reply to some exhortations addressed to hini by the l)ishop of London, " I go from- A corruptible to an an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can have place." He submitted to the stroke witii entire resigna^- tion. Charles had many virtues, and, in private life, was estimable and engaging, beyond most princes. As a sovereign, he had unfortu liately imbibed, in his education, the arbitrary principles wiiich dis- tiu'guished his ancestors ; but with the disadvantage of living in an age and country, in which a king could not be a tyrant with impu- nity. He deceived the parliament too often for them to trust him, and suffered himself to be guided by counsellors much inferior to him in knowledge and judgment, while he paid an unwise deference to the advice of liis queen, who was a bigoted pajiist. Granger says, " He would have made a much better figure in private life, than he did upon a tlirone." We may lament the fate pf Charles, as severe, and perhaps unne- cessary ; and nnist condemn several of the acts of the republicans,. as passionate and oppressive ; yet Providence seems to have overruled' GREAT BRITAIN. 237^ the events of the times, for the advancement of civil liberty, and for ihe general rood of mankind. Had Charles lived, England might have been still governed by despots, instead of limited monarchs. Charles was an author, botii in prose and verse. The Icon Basi- like, a work which appeared soon after the king's death, and excited much commiseration for his fate, has often been attribnted to him. The authorsliip of that work, however, remains a matter of dispute. If Charles wrote it, his talents, in composition, must have been much superior to those of most contemporary scholars. Hume considers it the best prose composition which, at tlie time of its publication, was to be found in the English language : and D'Israeli remarks, that, tlie political reflections it contains, will be found not unworthy of Tacitus. In a poem of his, entitled " ^Majesty in iNIisery," the following staitr zas will show his manner in poetry. " With my own power my majpsty they wound, In the king's name, tlic king himself 's uncrown'd ; So ilotJi the (Just destroy the diamond. Felons attain more privilege than I, They arc allow'd to answer ere they die ; 'Tis death to me to ask the reason why." 11. On tlie Vath of Charles I., monarchy in England was 'lissolved, and tlu house of lords was abolished as useless, by the commons. Ttje forms of all public business were chang- ed from the king's naiTie,^ tp that of the keepers of the liber- ties of England. Rehgion shared m the revolutions of the times. § Presbyterianism, which had succeeded episcopacy, now began to yield to the independent interest. Ca'omwell so managed, as to transfer to the army, tlie power which the parliament had not long before taken into their own hands^ Presbyterians had been mostly excluded from i)arliament, and that part of the house which re- mained, termed, in derision, the Rump, was composed of Indepen- dents, under Cromwell's influence. As is often the case, the milita;- ry power proved fatal to those Presbyterians who had employed k to effect their own purposes. 12. The confusions which overspread England, upon the dissolution of monarchy, could be settled only by the great influence, both civil and military, acquired by Oliver Crom- well, who was pcculiarl}' fitted for the age in which he lived, and for the part wliich he was destined to act. § The situation of Ireland and Scotlan-d, gave some inquietude to the new republic. The duke of Ormond, at tlie head of 16,000 men, had recovered many places in the former country, from the parliament ; while in Scotland, Charles II., had been proclaimed king on the condition of his strict observance of the covenant. Crom- vhigs, but by many whom the king had considered his best friends. Even his daughter Anne, inspired with protestant zeal, deserted him, and, with her husband, prince George of Denmark, joined the invader. Upon this, James, reasonably filled with distrust of his people, fled to France, where the palace of St. Germain was assigned him ; but as one remarks, " the convent of La Trappe would have been a much more suitable retreat." In France, he spent the remainder of his life. A convcjition-pailiament declared the king's flight an ab- dication, and settled the crown upon William and Mary. § The duke of Buckingham gave this character of the two royal brothers, Charles and James ; tliat " the elder could see things if he would, and the younger would see things if he could." Oil tlie access of James, an address of the quakers to him, is high- ly characteristic of that shrewd sect. "We come to condole the death of our friend Charles; and we are glad that thou art come to lie our ruler. We hear that thou art a dissenter from the church of Kngland, and so are we. We beg that thou woi Idst grant the same liberty that thou takest thyself, and so we wish thee well. Fare- well." 20. William and Mary now ascended the throne. This event constitutes what the British writers are pleased to call the glorious revolution of 1688. In the settlement which was then made of the crown, the sole administration remain- ed in the prince. The protestant succession was secured ; reli2:ious toleration granted, and presbyterianisni re-establish- ed in Scotland. A declaration of rights was also made, in which the chief subjects of dispute between the king and people, were finally determined. The powers of the royal prerogative were more narrowly circumscrilied, and more ex- actly defined, than in any former period of the English go- vermnent. § A revolution became indispensable, inasmuch as the principles of religious liberty were now generally established in Britain, and the princes of the house of Stuart, from their arbitrary notions, entertained a strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects. There was, however, a class, chiefly among the clergy, who held the doctrines of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings and ijishops. Numbers of these, looking upon James as theii* lawful bing, and refu-^ng to take the oath of allegiance to William, wero 244 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. deprived of their stations. Hence, they were styled " non-jurors, high-churchmen, and Jacobites." 21. William experienced a degree of trouble from Ireland, as that country still adhered to James. The latter, being assisted by Louis XIV., landed with some French forces in Ireland, where he was joined by a large army of Iiishmen. William, however, defeated them, in the memorable battle oi Boyne, and the coimtry submitted to the new king. During most of the reign of this prince, the nation was involved in many active wars. Their principal cause was the ambition of Louis XIV. These wars were carried on with vigour and success, though without any distinguished actions, unless it be the sea-fight of La Hogue. The peace of Ryswick, in 1 697, terminated hostilities, and it was ap- parent that the power of France was weakened. The prin- ciple on which William acted in hi^ foreign wars, was, the balance of power, of which he was an ardent advocate. § Louis, who used James to promote his own ialerest, was deter- mined, if possible, to restore him to the throne. With this object, he furnished him with a powerful fleet, an 1 the exiled prince re- paired to La Hogue^ whence he was i-eady to embark for England. The English admiral, Russel, pat to sea with all possible expedition, and being reinforced by the Dutch squadron, he sailed for the coast of France, with ninety ships of the line, besides frigates and fire-ships. On the 19th of May, 1692, the hostile fleets met off La Hogue ; and, after a bloody contest of ten hours, victory declared in favour of the English. The French, who had fifty-three ships of the line, lost a great part of their fleet, and could not be made to hazard another battle by sea. James returned in despair to St. Germaiiis, where he died, in 1701, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, having, some time before his death, laid aside all thoughts of worldly grandeur, and subjected himself to uncommon penance and mortification. His body, brains, and heart, like those of Richard I., were deposited in difTerent cemeteries. '22. After the death of James, notwithstanding the succes- sion of the crown bad been settled in the house of Hanover, his son was proclaimed king of England, at St. Germains, and treated as such at the court of Versailles. This act so exasperated the British nation, that both houses of parliament assured his majesty, that they would assist him to the ut- most of their power, against all his enemies, and the \\liole kingdom joined in a cry for war with France. While Wil- liam was making preparations for the approaching conllici, he was suddenly removed bv death, in the fifty -second yea; GREAT BRITAIN. 245 of his age, and fourteenth of his reign. His excellent consort, and partner in the throne, died seven years before him, of the (^mail pox. § In person, Willuim was small and slender. His complexion was brown, liis nose Roman, and his oye piercing. His genius was pene- trating, and his judgment sound ; but in lus mannei's he was distant, and better qualified to gain respect than love. During this reign, the system of borrowing money on remote lunds commenced, which laid the foundation of the present national debt. A standing army, too, was first sanctioned by parliament, in the time of tiiis prince, a measure only to be defended by the rela- tive situation of Europe. 23. The crown now, (1702,) devolved on Aime, the second daughter of James IT., who was married to George, prince of Denmark. Her reign is one of the most illustrious in British liistory. The arms of England were every where triumphant, nor were the achievements of its scholars less conspicuous. The great names of Newton, Locke, Addison, Swift, and others, have immortalized the times of the " Good Q,ueen Aime," as she has been familiarly called. Though not endowed with superior talents, she was respected for her virtues. The military and literary distinction of her reign, could not, in any great degree, be attributed to her personal conduct or councils. The principal events of her reign were, her war against France, carried on by the duke of Marlborough, the greatest general of the age, Avho gained the splendid victories of Blen- heim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, aiid Malplaquet, the constitution- al union between England and Scotland, in 1706, and the confusions occasioned l)y the high parly spirit which prevail- ed in the latter part of the (lueen's reign. § The war against France, continued from the commencement to Ihe last year but one of !ier reign. Germany and Holland were in alliance with England. Thecomnjander, on the |)artof the empire, who was associated witli IMarlboroiigh, was prince Eugene. In the famous battle of IJlenlieim, the French lo.st twenty thousand men. The duke, during the engagement, rode tin-ougli the hottest of the fire, but neitlier in this, nor in any other conflict, did he receive a wound. This victory saved the house of Austria from ruin. In the battle of Ramilies, six thousand of the enemy lost their lives, and seven thousand were captured; and this success was soon followed by the general conquest of tlie Netlierlands. In the course of a most successful war on tlie part of the allies, Louis was humbled to a de- giee, that obliged him to demand peace, which though at first refu- 21^'= 246 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. sed, took place in 1713, wlien the change m Anne's ministry, gave a facility to negociations for that object. In the treaty of peace which was signed a< Utrecht, Spain yielded to England all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, while France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, St. Christopher'?, and Newfoundland. Of Marlborough, it may be said, that he never laid siege to a town which he did not take, or fought a battle which he did not win. His understanding was as injurious to France as his arms. At St. James', he was a perfect courtier, the head of a party in parliament, and in foreign countries, one of the ablest negociators that any age has pro- duces. In the constitutional union of England and Scotland, it was stipu- lated, that the united kingdoms of Great Britian, should be represent ed by one and the same parliament, that Scotland should be repre sented by sixteen peei-s and forty-five commoners, and tliat all peers of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after English peers, of the like orders and degrees. The confusions occasioned by high party spirit, were aggravated after the occurrence of peace. The strife between the AVhigs and Tories, was never higher than at this time. After the peace, the mi- nisters, as leaders of the nation, no longer restrained by the tie of common danger, gave loose to their mutual animosity. The great duke of I^Iarlborough was sacrificed, in consequence of these dissentions ; though every honour had been accorded to him, and the most munificent benefactions bestowed upon him, (£500,000 having been voted at one time, to build the castle of Blenheim,) when his enemies came into the ministrj^, the queen was induced to dis- miss him from all his employments. The tories had now supplant- ed thewhigs in her favour, an event brought about by the preaching of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the tory principles of passive obedience, and who, on account of his trial, before the house of com- mons, excited a sympathy which he did not deserve. 24. Anne died in her fiftieth year, after a short reign of tweh^e years, in 1714. She became a victim to an apoplec- tic disorder, which was brouglit on, or hastened, by fatigue, and the agitation of lier mind, in attending a prolonged ca- binet council, in which, her ministers fell into violent alterca- tions with one anotlier. § Anne was of the middle size, majestic, and well proportioned ; her face was round, her features regular, her c:,tnplexion ruddy, and her hair a dark brown. GERMANY. 25. Soon after the commencement of this period, 1612, Matthias was at t!ie liead of the German empire. He GERMANY. 247 attempted to reconcile the protestants to the catholics, but without success. The revolt of the Bohemians brought on a civil war, which lasted thirty years, in the course of which, Ferdinand, cousin to the emperor, was invested with the kingdom of Bohemia ; and Hungary, also, was soon afterwards conceded. Matthias, overwhelmed with grief, died before the conclusion of the war. § An excellent rule of conduct for a prince, which the emperor de- livered to his successor, Avas the following: " If you wish your sub- jects to be happy under your government, do not let them feel the full force of your autiiorit}'." 26. t'erdinand 11. became emperor in 1G19. During his reign, the ambition of Austria appeared, in her attempts to extinguish the protestant religion, to abridge the liberties of the empire, and to render the imperial diadem hereditary in her own house. But these attempts, especially in regard to the lirst two objects, were frustrated by the agency of Gusta- vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who, at the liead of the Kvangelical Union, made ra|)id progress in Germany, till d'atb stopped his career, in 1632. Austria, however, has u-iially !u'ld the imperial sceptre, and has long had an as- cendancy in the empire. § Ferdinand has been styled by the papists, the Apostolical Empe- ror, on account of his hatred to thu protestants. He was an unfeel- mg bigot, and scourge of the empire. 27. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding, was elected king of the Romans, (so is the head of the Germanic body often called,) in 1037. The protestants in the empire, foimd the most active support during the former part of this reign, both from the Swedes and the French ; aiul the emperor being forced to conclude the peace of Westj)halia, 1G4S, these pow- eis dictated its terms. By this celebrated treaty, all disputes were settled between the contending princes of the empire, and the contending religions. § The Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and acquired Ponierania, Stettin, Wismar, &c., and their sovereign, the dignity of prince of the empire ; tlie Palatine family was restored to its chief possessions ; tlie king of France made landgrave of Alsace, and an eciual establishment of the three religions, viz. the Catholic, Lutlicran, and (Jaivinislic. Ferdinand was a de\oted Catholic. He experienced many cala- mities, but bore them witli magnanimity. 28. licopold I., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was elect- 248 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. ed emperor in 1657. His was a long reign, of nearly fifty years. Joseph I. succeeded him, 1705, and reigned till 171 1 Both of these emperors were engaged in the war of the Span- ish succession, which commenced in 1700, on account of the claim advanced by Leopold, to the crown of Spain. The house of Bourbon was his competitor. The war was car- ried on by Austria, (England and Holland being her allies,) with success. Joseph, after having conquered Naples and Sar- dinia, forced the pope to acknowledge the Archduke Charles, as king of Spain. But, at length, the Austrian claimant being elected emperoi", the Spanish crown was relinquished to the house of Bourbon, in tlie peace of 1713. In 1683; Vienna was besieged by an immense army of the Turks, but the place was reUeved by John Sol)ieski, king of Poland. Charles VI. was elected in 1711. His reign extends many years into the next period, but before the conclusion of the present, occurred his memorable war with the sultan Achmet III., in which he obtained many victories over the Turks, by his general, the renowned prince Eugene. SPxUN. 29. The successor of Philip II., on the throne of Spain, was his son, Philip III., 1598. From the commencement of this reign, Spain declined in power, and notwithstanding her great sources of wealth, the national finances were exceeding- ly embarrassed. He had lost the seven United Provinces, whose independence Avas solemnly acknowledged, 1609. A most ill judged measure of his reign, was the expulsion of all the Moors, from his kingdom, who were its most industri- ous inhabitants. This, added to the depopulation occasioned by her American colonies, rendered Spain a mass of weak ness. 30. Under PhiUp IV., who succeeded his father, in 1621, the national weakness and disorders increased, rather than diminished. Philip was implicitly ruled by his minister, Olivarez, a man of an indiscreet and insolent turn, who, while he encouraged the licentiousness of his sovereign, him- self wore the specious appearance of extraordinary piety. The reign of Philip was indeed one continvied series of miscarriages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil : the SPAIN. 249 French iijvaded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and Portugal, shaknig otf the yoke, recovered its independence. 31. The revolution of Portugal, was effected with unwont- ed ease and celerity. It took place, 1640, and Portugal, af- ter having been an appendage of the kingdom of Spain for sixty years, asserted the rights of self government. The people, disgusted with the administration of Ohvarez, were prepared for a change. The duke of Braganza, descended from the ancient kings of Portugal, having command of the army at this time, and instigated by the ambition of his dutchess, caused himself to be proclaimed king, at Lisbon. Tlie Spanish guards Avere attacked and overcome, and the principal adherents of tlie government, were put to death by the populace. The whole was accomplished in two or three hom^s. The example of the capital was followed by all the consideral)le towns, and soon after, by all the foreign settle- ments. The duke of Braganza took the title of John IV. § The events whieti occurred in the history of Portugal, previous- ly to the above revolution, are summarily as follows : Portugal was the ancient Lusitania, and was successively subject to the Suevi, the Goths, and the Moors. In the early part of the twelfth centtiry, Henry of Burgundy grandson to Robert I., of France, rendered assistance to Alphonso. in liis wars against the Moors, and having distinguished himself by great bravery, Alphonso bestowed on him his natural daughter ^'hcresa, in marriage, and also created him count of that part of Portugal, wliere Oporto was situated, from whicli place, formerly called Portus Calle, the whole country took its name. By the valour of Henry, the country regained its liberty, and he governed it with the title of count. His son. Alphonso Hcnriquez, having obtained a decisive victory over five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king, by the soldiers. Seve- ral princes succeeded him, whose reigns deserve no particular notice. On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1383, the states gave the crown to his natural brother, John I., surnamed the Bastard, who was equally politic and enterprising, and in whose reign, the Portuguese first projected discoveries in tlie western ocean. In the reign of his great grandson, .John II., who was a prince of profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made con- quests in tlie interior of Africa, and discovered, under Diaz, the Cape of Good Hope. That cape was doubled in 1497, for the first time, by Vasfo de Gama, who thence sailed for the East Indies. Eiiianuel, cousin of John, ascending the Portuguese t!u-one, in 1495, adopted tlie plan of iiis predecessors, and sent out a fleet. It was with this fleet, that Gama doubled the cape as above mentioned; oth'jrs of the king's vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501. 250 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discover]^ which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voy- age of Cokimbus, and tlie discovery of America Tney also estab- lished valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive empire in India. The reign of Emanuel, was the most glorious ir. the annals of Portugal. He was a great and wise prince, and ban • ished poverty and distress from his dominions. John III., the son of Emanuel, admitted the new founded order of the Jesuits, which has since been a powerful engine of despotism and superstition. He encouraged, if he did not establish, the Inqui- sition in Portugal. Sebastian, his grandson, fanatically led an army against the Moors, in Africa, where he and most of his army perished in battle. Sebas- tian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his imcle, cardinal Henry, in 1578, who, also dying without children, Philip II., king of Spain, obtained the crown, in right of his mother, 1580. After sixty years of subjection to Spain, the Portuguese, as already related, threw oil the Spanish yoke, and became independent, under the duke of Bra- ganza, the legal heir of the throne. 32. Charles II., succeeded his father, Philip IV., on the throne of Spain, in 1G65. In order to frustrate the schemes of the kings of England and France, and of the states of Holland, he left his dominions to Phihp, duke of Anjou, second son of Louis, dauphin of France. § This prince is said to have been debilitated, both in body and in mind, by certain drugs which his mother administered to him in his chocolate. To so unnatural an act, she was led, in consequence of his refusal to accept of her assistance as regent. Certain it is, that active before, he lost, in the course of a few weeks,'his wonted spirits ; and his future imbecility, proved highly detrimental to the interests of his Jcingdom. 33. The duke of Anjou, under the title of Philip V,, the first Spanish inonarch of the house of Bourbon, ascended the throne in 1700. In 1701, nearly all Europe united against France and Spain, and a useless and bloody war was carried on till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Gibraltar was lost to Spain, in the course of this war. TURKISH EMPIRE. 34. The most splendid period in the history of Turkey, was that which immediately preceded tlie present. The spirit of military enterprise was now considerably abated ; though the power of the empire continued undiminished, except ih TURKISH EMPIRE. 251 Its naval force. Tlie latter never wholly recovered from the effects of the fatal battle of Lepanto. The present period embraces the reigns of nine sultans, and a part of the reign of another. They were generally at war with the neighbouring powers ; Persia on the one side Venice, Himgary, and Austria, on the other. § During tlie former period, the wars of the Turks with the Vene- tians, liad been extremely frequent and bloody. That small, but enterprising and martial iepul)lic, liad, during one hundred and fifty years, restrained tlie Ottoman power, and prevented it, most proba- bly, from overspreading a great part of Europe. The spirit of hos- tility continued througli the present period, and broke out occasion- ally into fierce fightings. The Turks were for a long time superior to the Christian powers of Europe in military tactics, on account of having an order of men exclusively devoted to the profession of arms, and also on account of their frequent use of artillery. Achmet I., made war with Persia and Hungary, but with little success. During his reign, in 1611, Constantinople was afl3icted wiin a dreadful plague, of which more than 200,000 persons died. Othman II., invaded Poland, but was forced to inake peace after having lost 80,000 men. In 1622, he was strangled by me Janizaries, whom he intended to disband. Amurath IV., tarnislied a victory which he had obtained in the capture of Bagdad, by the barbarous slaughter of 30,000 Persians, who had laid down their arms, as well as of all the inhabitants. Mahomet IV. made a conspicuous figure in the annals of Europe, from the middle, till towards the close of the seventeenth centurJ^ Under him, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, and too"x Candia from the Venetians, and besieged the capital of Austria. The siege of ("andia is one of the most remarkable of modern times. Candia was the ancient Crete, and an emporium for commerce. The Turks had long desired to take possession of it, and at length, in 1645, effected a landing on it, with 60,000 men. After several towns iiad surrendered, Candia, the capital, was invested. This siege continued twentj^-five years. For the last two years, the Turks put forth every effort, inasmuch as the delay was mortifying to their pride, and disappointed their ambitious hopes. After the loss of 30,000 lives, on the part of tlie Venetians and their allies, and 118,000 on tlie part of the besiegers, in the spncc of two years and four month^^, the city surrendered on honourable terms, in 1070. It is said the besiegers made against it, fifty-six assaults and ninety-six sallies ; and that the Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon balls, 48,119 bombs, and consumed 50,317 barrels of powder. The Turks have ever since held possession of the island. In the siege of the capital of Austria, in 1683, John Sobieski, king of Poland, particularly distinguished himself. His assistance "was requested by the emperor of Germany, and readily I)estowed. Tlirougli his efforts, Austria seems to have been saved from destruc- 252 MODERiV HISTORY. PERIOD IX. tion, and the Ottoman power prevented from effecting an establish ment in the heart of Europe— a service whicli Austria has since ill requited. Sobieski, whose army, when joined by the Austrians, did not exceed 50,000 men, advanced to the environs of Vienna, and fought one of the most memorable battles of the age. An army of nearly 200,000 Turks, brave and well disciplined, was entirely de- feated b}^ the Pole, who lost only GOO men. The victors secured the great Ottoman standard, 180 pieces of cannon, and the immense treasures found in the camp of the enemy. The war continued after that defeat, in which the Turks were the greatest sufferers. The imperialists, however, were weary of it ; but neither party could be speedily brought to an accommodation, on account of the intrigues of the French king, who wished to exhaust the resources of the house of Austria. Under Solyman IL, tlie Turks were almost constantly defeated by the imperialists. Mustapha II., was severely beaten in the famous battle of Zenta, in Hungary, by prince Eugene, in 1697; and, in 1699, concluded a peace at Carlowitz, by which he was forced to cede Transylvania, Kaminiek, the Morea, and Azof. Under Achmet III., in 1715, the Ottoman court declared war against the Venetians, and recovered the Morea. At the same time, war was waged against Austria, but the most disastrous eflfects to the Turks, took place from this renewal of the contention. Prince Eugene defeated a powerful army, in the battle of Peterwaradin, and took Temeswar, in 1716. The next year, the strong town of Belgrade surrendered to his again victorious arms. The disadvan- tageous peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, followed these defeats. And tlie Ottoman, formerly so terrible in arms, was obliged to yield the palm of military skill, if not valour, to the disciplined legions of Christendom. BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 35. Our own country, is intended by the British Colo- nies in AaiERicA. During the present period, and part of the following, the people inhabiting, chiefly, the south-eastern portion of North America, were known by the above appella- tion. These colonies were settlements made j'jrincipally by the English, though some of them derived their origin from ad- ventures set on foot by otlier European nations. They were all, however, included within the English patent, and claimed by the English crown. 36. It was more than a centtny, from the discovery of the northern portion of the American continent, by Cabot, before the English made any eflectual attempts to colonize the BRITtgH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 253 country. The first grant from the crown, under which set- tlements were actually made in North America, was dated April 10, 1606. James I., by his letters patent, granted an exclusive right or privilege to two companies, called the Lon- don and Plymouth companies, by which they were autho- rized to possess the lands in America, hing between the thirty- fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude; the southern part, called South Virginia, to the London, and the northern called North Virginia, to the Pl3anouth compan}^ Before the present patents, however, a project to settle the country was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, under a com mission from Elizabeth, in 15S4, had arrived in this portion of North America, which, upon his flattering account of it, was called Virginia, in compliment to the queen's virgin majesty. But this project, as well as two that followed it, wholly failed. Under the king's patent, the London company sent Cap- tain Clnistopher Newport to Virginia, December 20th, 1606. with a colony of one hundred and five persons, to commence a settlement on the island Roanoke, now in North Carolina. By stress of weatlier, however, they were driven north of their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay. Here, up a river which they called James river, on a beautiful j)eninsula, they conmienced, in May, 1607, the settlement of Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in the United States. 37. Seven years afterwards, 1614, a colony of Dutch com- menced a settlement on the present island of New- York, which had been discovered in the year 1609, by Henry Hud- son, an Englishman in the service of Holland. The Eng- lish government claimed a prior right to the country, by vir- tue of Cabot's discovery; but the first settlers retained pos session, until 1(564, when it was surrendered to an armament fitted out Ijy Charles TI., and received its name from his bro- ther, the duke of York. It had been previously called New- xVmsterdam. The Dutch had built a fort here, and one also at Albany. 38. The same year in which the Dutch settled on the Hudson, Captain John Smith, ranged the coast, from Penob.s- cot to Cape Cod. King Charles, to whom a map of the country was presented, named it New-England, instead of 22 254 MODERN HISTOKY.- — PERIOD IX. North Virginia. Sixteen years from this, December 22. 1620, a colony of jDuritans landed at Plymouth, in Massa- chusetts, and began the first permanent settlement in INevv- England. These colonists were originally from England, but had resided several years in Holland, on account of the religious intolerance which prevailed in their native country. The colony of Plymouth was afterwards connected with another colony in New-England, called jNIassachusetts Bay, which was founded in 162S. 39. In 1623, a number of persons from England, arrived in the river Piscataqua, and began two settlements ; one at the mouth, at a place called Little Harbour, the other at a place now called Dover. These were the first settlements in New-Ham psh ire . 40. The next settlement in the order of time, seems to be that which Vt'as made by some bodies of the Dutch and Danes, about the year 1625, in New- Jersey. This was fol- lowed by the colonization of Delaware, in 1627, by the Swedes. 41. In 1637, Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Balti- more, conveying to him a tract of country, on the Chesapeak Bay, which, in honour of Henrietta Maria, daughter of the French king, he named Maryland. The next year, Balti- more appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the province, who, with about tv/o hundred planters, chiefiy Ro- man cathohcs, began a settlement, in 1634, near the mouth of the Potomac, on the northern side. 42. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecticut. This was a trading house built by some Plymouth adveu turers, who transported tlie materials up Connecticut river Two years from this, 1635, about sixty men, Avomen and children, from Newtown and Watertown, in Massachusetts, commenced their journey through the wilderness to Connec- ticut river. By these people, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hart- ford, were settled. 43. The settlement of Rhode Island, is dated from the year 1636, an event occasioned by the Jmnishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts, on account of his religious opinions. He removed with his family to Mooshawic, and began a plantation, which, on account of the Divine kin(3- ness. he called Providence. BRITISH COLONIES. 255 44. The colony of New-Haven, was formed in 1638, in consequence of tlie English having occasion lo vi.sit the ter- ritory, in an expedition against the Pequots. This colony eventually united with that of Connecticut. 45. In 1663, some of the Virginia settlers laid the foun- dation of Xorth Carolina, which was followed l^y the settle- ment of South Carolina, in 1670. The Carolinas were so called in honour of Charles IX., king of France, under whoso patronage the coast had been discovered, in 1563. 46. In Pennsylvania, a small l)ody of Swedes had plant ted themselves, at an early [)eriod. Their settlement in creased slowly, until the arrival of William Penn, in 16S1 with a numerous company of Quakers, whom religious per- secution drove across the Atlantic. Penn had acquired a grant of the territoiy now constituting the state, in conside- ration of tlie debts due from the crown, for services perform- ed by his father, admiral Penn. 47. The last settled of the original thirteen states, was Georgia, founded in 1732, by General Oglethorpe. This comes within our next succeeding period. At first, Georgia, and even the Florida ■, were covered by the Charter, as it was afterwards confirmed and enlarged, which conveyed Carolina to its proprietors. 48. Tlie three eldest of the American states, it will be per- ceived above, are Virginia, New-York, and Massachusetts. These have hitherto been the most important and influential in the confederacy. Others, however, from their numbers, are begirming to acquire their just consideration. 49. The causes of the settlement of the American states, svere various. Some were made on mercenary views, the usual principle of colonization, for the particular benefits of the proprietors. This was the case with Virginia. The im- mediate i)urpose of the settlement of New-York, was com- merce. The Dutch were then [)articularly distinguished for tlieir commercial and enterprising spirit. Massachusetts, and Xew-England generally, were planted principally to enjoy, in an unrestricted manner, the institutions of religion. 50. In the original foundation of three of the states, viz., Rhode Island, Maryland, and Peimsylvania, the free tolera- tion of religion was recognized, and these were the first civil communities which acted on a principle that now seems to 256 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. be fast gaining the popular consent. In the other colonies^ there was a degree of intolerance on the subject of religion^ the fault of the age ; and yet they laid the foundations of a civil community, the freest and best which the world had hitherto seen. In New-England, particularly, they wished to enjoy their religion in peace ; and in shutting out others- whose religious opinions differed from their own, they seem to have justified themselves on the principle of self defence, with a view to be delivered, ever afterwards, from evils simi- lar to those from which they had recently escaped. As, how ever, it must be impossible to prevent differences of opinion on the subject of religion, a civil community would be wise in providing for such a state of things, by suitable and tole^ rant regulations. 51. Many of the first settlers of the country, were men of talents and liberal culture ; and a wilderness has never been planted by a l)ody of people, who were inore solicitous for the interests of learning, and general education. Next, after the establishment of the Gospel, their greatest object was to multiply schools and higher seminaries of learning. Indeed, the colonists possessed excellent traits. Their mo^ rality and piety, their spirit of enterpriec and habits of indus- try, their love of hberty, and attention to education, were un- paralleled in the history of similar efforts. They were not perfect men, but tliey were the best and the noblest that ever founded an empire. These remarks are intended particular- ly for New-England, though they have a degree of applica- tion to all the American states. 52. The colonists purchased their lands of the Indians ; and notwithstanding what has been often asserted, respecting the frauds that were practised, there is little reason to question the purity of motive, and the good faith of those who were engaged in these transactions. .53. The settlers in some of the colonies, experienced at first but little trouble from the Indians, for many years. This was the case particularly with Massachusetts and Pennsylva- nia. In others, they were molested from this quarter, at a- very early period. Connecticut, and particularly Virginia, were obliged, soon after their settlement, to make war against the savages, in self-defence. And all the colonies, sooner or kter, suffered in various ways, and especially by contentions BlllTISII COLONIES. 257 with the natives. It is not to be denied, that in the end, Avrong was son"^times done to these nniserable tribes. Their ferocity and luj^Messness were, occasionally, met with the sternest inflictions ol vengeance on the part of the Avhites. Respecting the colonists as a body, during the present pe- riod, it may be remarked, in a very general way, that they struggled long with all the hardships, difficulties, and priva- tions incident to new est abhshments among savages; that they displayed a heroism and constarjcy, such as have rarely been witnessed among men, and though tempted to believe, in some instances, tliat tlieir imdertaking would never suc- ceed, yet that their virtues finally overcame every obstacle, ;ind they found themselves before the conclusion of this pe- riod, increasing in wealth and population. It may be added, that the colonists were often involved in the wars of the mother country, with other powers ; that a lew of their wars with the Indians, affected several of the states at a time, and that a consideration of their common exposure, led to a general intercourse with one another, and particiik\rly to the union which was formed between the New- England colonies, in 1C43 ; a union whi<^h lasted more than forty years, or until their charters were revoked, and which i'urnished the example of that nobler confederacy which has since takeii place, of all the American states. In general, however, it is with the individual colonies that we are mostly concerned in the history of this period, but the limits of our work will admit only of a very few details, in regard to one or two of the states. § Two years after the settlement of Connecticut, occurred the war uhli tlie Pcquots, a tribe of Indians, whose principal residence was on a hill in the present town of Groton These savages had pre- viously made depredations on the infant settlement, and killed seve- ral individuals, and carried others away captive. In this perilous stale of a.Tairs, a court, convened at Hartford, determined on war. Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were or- dered to be raised. Forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Windsor, and eighteen from VVetherslield. These troops, together with seventy Kiver and Mohcgan Indians, were commanded by Captain Masoii, who, sailing down the river, surprised Mystic, one of the principal forts of the enemy, in the prc.sent town of Stonington. Before the savages could get themselves in readiness, the troops instantly pressed forward and fired. The destruction soon became terrible, but the Indians raUied at length, and made a desperate re- 22* 258 MODERN HISTORy. — PLRIOD IX. sistance. All, however, was in vain. Upon vn order ;o burn them, the work of destruction was completed. Seventy wigwams were in ruins, and between 500 and 600 Indians, lay bleeding on the ground, or smouldering in ashes. With the assistance of a detachment of nearly two hundred men from Massachusetts and Plymouth, the whites pursued the rest of the tribe, who tied towards the Hudson, and, defeating them in another terrible battle, in a great swamp, in Fairfield, the power of the Pequot nation, was entirely prostrated. In Virginia, the colonists were soon involved in contests with the Indians. In addition, they suffered severely by the scarcity and badness of provisions — the consequence of which was, lliat diseases swept off one half of their number, in a few months. In the latter part of the year 1609, Captain Smith, whose romantic story has been so often told, and whose name was a defence of the settlers, and a tei - ror to the Indians, returned to England. Soon after his departure the Colonists were reduced to the greatest extremities, having had a company of thirty men slain by the Indians, and their provisions wasted on the occasion. A most distressing famine ensued, the ef- fect of which was tlie reduction, in six months, of the colonists, from nearly five hundred to sixty. The remainder embarked for their native home ; but being met by a new company of adventurers, with a large supply of provisioi».^, they were induced to return, and try the fortunes of a wilderness once more. For a number of years, it was only by the arrival of new comers, that the colony was pre- served from extinction. At last it began to prosper, from the date of Sir William Berkeley's administration, 1638, which lasted nearly forty years. Before the conclusion of this period, however, the colony experienced the evils of a terrible insurrection, known by the name of Bacon's rebellion, which terminated only with the death of its mover. 54. Ti)e principal events which relate to the coloniep, as a body, or to the greater part of them, during the present pe- riod, were Philip's war, in 1675 and 1676, w^hich was the most general and destructive war with the Indians, in which the colonies were ever involved — the oppressive measures re- lating to the colonies under the Stuart family, who attempted the destruction of their charters and liberties — and the wars occasioned by the liostilities into which the mother country entered with other European powers, usually called king Williaiu's war, and queen Anne's war; the former com- mencing rn 1690, and continuing to 1697, and the latter com- mencing in 1702. and ending in 1713. § Philip's war was carried on by a king or sachem of that name, who was at the head of the Wampanoags, and whose re- sidence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. This distinguished warrior, designing to exterminate the whites, formed a most exten- sive combination of the Indians. The greatest battle during this RUSSIA. 259 contest, is known by the name of the Swamp Fight, December, 1675, in the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large swamp. Tlie English, who were commanded by Josiah Winslow, governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, but dearly bought, with tlie loss of two hundred and thirty men, killed and wounded. The Indians lost more than four times this number, besides many women and children. Though their power was greatly broken by this defeat, they continued their depredations and massacres, until the death of their great warrior, in 1676, and in some parts of New- P^ngland, two years later. This was a melancholy period in the an- nals of the country, during which, six hundred men, the flower of its strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed, and six hundred dwelling houses consumed — a terrible destruction, out of a population not exceeding 60,000. The oppressive measures, under the Stuart family, were owing, in part, to the tyrannical disposition of the princes of that family, and, in part, to the sinister attempts of certain men, who, having visited the colonies, became hostile to them, and infused their preju- dices into the king and his ministry. Under this baleful influence, the colonies were required to surrender their charters — a demand which was complied with, except in the case of Coiuiccticut. The duration of tliis state of things, however, was short ; the revolution occurring in England, in 1688, when William and Mary were placed on the throne. From this time, the colonies, though unmolested by the mother country, in regard to their liberties, suffered by means of her wai^s with the French, who employed the savages as their auxiliaries. This was a long period of woe and desolation, lasting from 1688 tO' 1713, with an intermission of only four or five years. IIUSSIA. or>. Tlic history of Russia is both obscure and unimpor- tant, until the time of Peter I., siunamed the Great, who as- cended the throne in 1689. Russia, then raised from bar- barism and ignorance, was brought into notice with the civil- ized world ; and, by successive advancements, has attained to a rank, in power and inllucnce, second to no other state in l'^uroj)e. To Peter, that country owes all its greatness. § In regard to the early history of Russia, it is only ascertained, that in the foinlU century, the coiuitry was possessed by several different tribes. In the tenth century, it is said to have received the light of Christianity. In the fifteentli century, .Tohn Basilowitz re- deemed the empire from its subjection to tlie Tartars, and united the greater part of tlie country under one monarchy. The sovereigns of Russia, until Ivan Basilowitz IV., in the sixteenth century, bore the title Wenike Knez, " Great Prince," but he added that of czar, wiiich, in the Sclavonican language, signifies king. Peter the Great 260 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. assumed the title of emperor. It was not till the end of the six teenth century, tliat Siberia was added to the empire, which, to thai time, was bounded by the limits of Europe. The predecessors of Peter, maintained considerable splendour, as sovereigns; but their dominions were uncultivated, and their sub- jects barbarians. Alexis Michaelowitz, father of Peter, was tlie first who published a code of laws. Peter became master of the empire, by setting aside a weak elder brother, and banishing a factions sister, who liad seized the govern- ment. His youth was spent in ignoraace and debauchery ; but liis new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. .56. The principal events of his reign, were, his war v\^ith the Turks, and taking of Azof, in 1696 — his sending an embassy into Holland, which he accompanied in disguise, in order to learn the art of ship building — his destruction of the Strelitzes, a body of troops, much resembling the Janiza- ries of Turkey — his abolition of the patriarchate of Moscow, which rivalled the authority of the czars — the several de- feats lie experienced in a war with Charles XII. of Sweden — - his signal victory over tliat monarch, in the battle of Pul- towa — his building" of Petcrsburgh — and, Iinally, his institu tion of a numerous infantry, and powerful army. § Having gained tlic little knowledge he possessed from foreigners, he resolved to travel in search of more. Appointing De Fort, an able Genevese, his junbassador, he travelled as a private person in Ids suite, through Germany to Holland, and when he arrived at Amsterdam, engaged himself as a workman in the dock yard, under the name of Peter Michaelof. Here was exhibited tlie astonishing spectacle of a mighty prince, at the age of twenty-five, quitting the luxury of a court, lai)ouring with his own hands, at a toilsome me- chanic art, fed and clad like the rest of liis fellow-workmen, and obeying the orders of his temporary master I His occupation did not prevent him from attending the lectures on anatomy, surgery, mechanics, and other branches of practical philosophy, cultivated in Holland. From Holland he passed to England, where he was simi- larly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. At the end of sixteen montlis, he returned to Moscow, laden with knowledge, and the fruits of ex])erience, which he employed for the benefit of his own subjects. Charles the XH. was, at this time, sweeping ail before him. He had beaten the czar, in a number of engagements; and, suddenly breaking off a negociation, lie entered Russia with 45,000 men, with the design of dictating peace at Moscow. He would probably have accomplished his object, had he not been induced, by a treacherous promise of aid from the Cossacs, to march through the Ukraine, in the midst of winter. Here Peter seized his opportunity, when the SWEDEN 26 li enemy's army was wasted by fatigue and famine, and meeting Charles, at Piiltou'a, ho gave him battle, killing 9000 of the Swedes, and taking 14,000 prisoners. Peter diet! in 1725. His usefulness, as a sovereign, is un- questioned ; yet, as a man, he is justly obnoxious to the. charge of being ferocious, impatient, passionate, and prodigal of the lives of his subjects. SWEDEN. 57. The history of Sweden is unimportant, until the re- volution of 1523, wliich placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne, who was followed by eight sovereigns to the time of Charles Xll., in 1697. The crown was elective till 1544, when. Gustavus persuaded the states to render it hereditary in his family. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had been united, i^ito one kingdom, from the time of Margaret of Denmark, in 13S9, to the time of Gustavus. The last king (Christian 11.) of the united countries, was so tyrannical, that Gustavus was induced to take up arms against him, and deliver his subjugated countrymen. He introduced Lutheranism into hrs states, administered the govcrninent with great firmness and wisdom ; and, considering the age in which he lived, was one of the most extraordinary of men. Two at least of his successors to the period of Charles. XII., were eminent sovereigns, viz. Gustavus Adolphus, sur- named the Great, and Christiana. Gustavus was illustrious as a hero, and (Christiana was enthusiastically devoted to Hteraturc, and distinguished for her patronage of learned men. § Sweden was the eastern part of the ancient Scandinavia, and, together with Denmark, was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a colony of the Gomerians. From tiiis country came the Goths, the Gepidce, the Heruli, and the Lombards. The Swedish monarchy is very an- cient ; but the history of its earlier sovereigns is too uncertain, to .satisfy the sober enquirer. Eric IX., in the twelfth century, is the first monarch whose reign approximates to clironological truth. There appear to have been nine sovereigns between him and Gustavus Vasa. During the oppressive reign of Christian II., Gustavus Vasa wa^ sent as an hostage into Denmark, in 1518, whence he made his escape on hearing of the massacre at Stockliold of ninety-four senators, among whom liis father perished. For a while he con- cealed hin^elf In Dalecarlia ; at length he entered into a small towa 262 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. on a day when a fair was held, harangued the country people, and with their assistance took possession of the fortress, and put the Danish commander to death. From this moment his life became a scene of triumphs. Follow- ed by his brave Dalecarlians, he besieged Stockholm ; and it hap- pening, when the Danes came to relieve that city, that a sudden frost detained their ships at a great distance from the port, Gusta- vus's soldiers advanced on the ice and set fire to them. This victory opened the gates of Stockholm, and he was proclaimed king. Gustavus Adolphus began to reign m 1611. He became a hero in early life, having in his twelfth year been encircled with the laurels of victory. At the age of eighteen he was successfully prosecuting a war with Denmark, which he concluded in 1613 with an advantageous peace. He was equally successful in his wars with the Poles and Russians, from whom he took many towns. In his war with the Imperialists, he defeated their forces in the battle of Leipsic, in 1631, and afterwards in that of Lutzen; but in the latter he lost his life. Christiana, in 1632, succeeded her father Adolphus when only seven years of age, and during her reign, Sweden preserved its ascendency in the affairs of Germany. She ruled the kingdom with great wisdom and prudence, till 1654, when she resigned her crown to her cousin, Charles Gustavus. She was so eager to quit Sweden, and to reach a land more congenial to the cultivation of science, that when she arrived at a small brook, which separates that country from Denmark, she alighted from her carriage, and leaped over the stream : " At length," said she, " I am free, and out of Sweden, whither I hope never to return." She visited Paris, where imbound- ed homage was paid to her genius, but where her manners gave of- fence to the court for want of decency and conformity to rules. Rome, however, became the place of her residence, where she em- braced the Catholic religion, and where she died. 58. Charles XII. succeeded, in 1697, at the age of fifteen years. He was a competitor of Peter the Great, and divided with him the admiration of Europe. He has been lanked with the greatest conquerors of antiquity, on account of his heroism of character and, extraordinaiy achievements. But diaries was rather a singular, than a great man. His suc- cess as a warrior, for a time, alarmed and agitated Europe. Soon after his accession, his dominions were attacked on three sides, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, and he, al- though then only a boy of seventeen years, successively took the field against these powers, and signally defeated tliem. Poland he humbled in the dust. A negociation having been begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and de- clared that he would negociate only at Moscow. The rigoui DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS 263 of a Russian winter, prepared liis army for the defeat, which It so signally experienced at Piiltowa. After this battle, he fled into Turkey, where his conduct seemed to be that of a maniac, rather than of a man in his senses. § The war with Denmark he despatched in six weeks. The Danish king purchased the safely of his capital and kingdom, by making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein, whose territory he iiad attempted to wrest from liim. The Swedish monarch then hastened into Ingria, which tlie czar had attacked, and at the battle of Narva, with eight thousand men, he defeated an army of eighty thousand Russians, of whom he took thirty thousand prisoners. In his chastisement of Poland, he satisfied the dictates of the amplest revenge. lie reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated into the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw and Cracow. lie then, by means of the assembled states, declared the Polish Augustus deposed, and procured Stanislaus, his own de- pendent, to be elected sovereign of Poland. When Charles tied into Turkey, he had only eighteen hundred men. He still hoped to dethrone the czar, by engaging the Otto- man power against him. After many efforts the Sultan was induced to send two hundred thousand soldiers against the Russians. But upon the capitulation of Peter's army, peace havuig been made, Charles was disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk. He had been hospitably entertained more than three years, but his arrogance becoming insufferable, he was ordered to quit the Turkish dominions. This order he refused to obey, and proceeded immedi- ately to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he de- fended himself for some time, against an army of twenty tiiousand Turks, and only yielded, when he was taken by the legs and arms and dragged to the tent of the bashaw. Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 1. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, celebrated as an astronomer. 2. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated author of Don Q,ui.\'ote. 3. Shaks|X'are, the greatest of dramatic poets. 4. Galileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries ia mathematics and astronomy. 5. Raleigh, an eminent navigator and man of letters. 6. Bacon, an English philosopher and universal genius. 7. Kepler, a German astronomer. 8. Grotius, a Dutch writer, of various and profound learn ing. 9 Des Cartes, a famous French philosopher •264 MODERN HISTORV. — PERIOD IX. 10. Gassendi, a Frenchniari, distinguished as an astiono*- mer. 1 1 Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian. 12. Milton, the greatest of epic poets among the moderns. 13. Comeille, the prince of the French dramatic poets. 14. Boyle, an Englishman, distinguished in natural philo- sophy. 1.5. Dryden, an eminent English poet. 16. Locke, the greatest among the English metaphysi- cians. 17. Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathema tician. § 1. Tycho Brahe, descended from an illustrious Swedish family, was horn in Denmark, 1546. He was sent by his father to Copenhagen, for the purpose of studying rhetoric and philosoph}^ ; but the great eclipse of the sun on the 21st of August, 1562, engaged liiniio study astronomy. With this science lie was excessively delighted. He often spent whole nights with a small celestial globe in his hands, in learning the names of the stars, and in the acquisition of a science, which he called divine. He was honom-ed by the noble and learned of his age, and patronized by his sovereign, for a time ; but the ma- lice of his enemies drove him from liis coimtry, and he found an •asylum in Prague, where he died, in 1601. It is said, that his learning made him superstitious, and his pliilo- pophy irritaijlc, to such a degree, that in a philosophical dispute with some person, the argument rose to sucli a pitch of personal violence, that he lost his nose. This he supplied by a gold and silver one^ admirably constructed. The best of his works are, the Rodolphine Tables, and the Histo'- ria Coelestis. He opposed the Copernican system, which is a suffi- ' cient proof of the unsoundness of his judgment. 2. Cervantes, wlio is better known by this name than by his sur- name, Saavedra, was born at Madrid, 1549. He led a life of hard- ship and poverty. Before he became an author, he engaged in the military profession, and five years and an half he endured all th<: horrors of an Algerine captivity. After his release and return to Spain, he began to write plays for his maintenance, but tliough his pieces were acted with universal applause, he pined in poverty, and at last, found himself in a prison. In hiscontinement, lie began hi.- immortal work Don Quixote, which was not finished till the ex- piration of .several years. This work is read and admired in every known language ; but though popular from the beginning, it pro- duced him neither notice nor bread. He was, however, serene amidst his wretchedness. In Don Quixote, Cervantes appears the purest of all humourists, gentle, genial, and kmd. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 265 3. Shakspeare, (AVilliam) was born of a respectable family, at Stralford-oii-Avon, April, 154G. Few events of his life have been j-ecordcd, while scores of volumes have been written on his poetry and on the character of his genius. lie was designed to carry on the trade of his father, which was that of a wo(;l dealer, and with that view, he was early taken from school. He married at the age of seventeen, and soon became the father of a family. An un- fortunate and criminal act, (deer stealing,) which he committed in connexion with some thoughtless companions, was the means of driving him to London. Here, a new scene opened upon him, and he soon laid the foun- dation of a fame, which is unequalled in the history of human genius. He first enlisted among the players, and became an actor on the stage. It is not known that ho excelled in the profession of an actor ; the contrary is rather inferred. But from acting, he passed to the Avri- Img of plays, which, at first, he adapted to the lower classes; but when his i:ferformances had gained the favour of the queen and Iier court, he aimed at more elaborate compositions. Having by the productions of his pen, and by the management of the plaj^-house, acquired a competent fortune, he retired to his native town, where he lived respected and beloved by his neighbours. Shakspeare died 23d April, 1516, in the fifty-third year of his age. Several relics of the immortal bard, are still preserved in the house where he was born, tlie front of which is now occupied as a meat- shop. Among the articles are, his sitting-chair, a table on which he wrote, a Spanish card and dice-box, presented to the poet by the prince of Castile, part of a Spanish match-lock, the remains of the piece with which he shot the deer in Charlicole Park, a table-co- ver, a present from good Queen Bess, &c. &c. This is a place, which is visited bj^ thousands, of all ranks, conditions, and countries, in homage to the genius which was there first brought to light. Of Sliak.speare, it has been said, almost in the language of adora- tion, " that he is the greatest of poets and of men — that he went be- yond all men, and stands in the array of Inmian intellect, like the sun in tlie system, single and unapproachable." But eulogy has been exhausted on him. After all, it is melancholy to reflect, that amidst his great and incomparable beauties, there are many moral l)lemis]ies and defects. 4. Galileo made discoveries in astronomy, that were too astonish- ing, and too opposite to the doctrines of Aristotle, to escape the cen- sure of the philosophers of tl ~t age; and no sooner was it known, that he had embraced tlie Co; crnican system, than he was sum- moned before tlie Inquisition. Into its terrible dungeons was tliis illustrious man twice thrown, where, in the whole, he spent tlirceor four miserable years, and tliis for embracing opinions then deemed so false in philosophy, and so heretical and contrary to tlie word of God. Aniung the discoveries that have rendered the name of Ganieo imniorial, are his observation of the inequalities on the surface of the moon, and his knowledge of her vibration, his calculation of ih : 23 266 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. longitude by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which he first noti- ced, his invention of the cycloid, and his perception of the increas- ing celerity in the descent of bodies. He lived seventy-eight years. Towards the close of his long hfe, lie became blind. Milton has finely alluded to him in the lines " Like the moon, whose orb Through optic glass, the Tuscan artist views At evening, from the top of Fesole, Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe." 5. Raleigh (Sir Walter) was one of the most brilliant and useful cha- racters of the times in which he lived. His perseverance in making discoveries, first inspired the British nation with tliat ardour alter maritime distinction, which has given both wealth and glory to the empire. He was also a valiant leader, an able negociator, and a man of letters. His works, composed in the obscurity of a dungeon, on history, politics, geography, and philosophy, as well as some good poetical pieces, will make him known to future time. It must be owned, nevertheless, that his genius was cramped by the fashions ol the age. His life, not indeed free from stain, was clouded by misfortune — he became the victim of royal persecution, — and his head wasfinalh brought to the block. On the most frivolous and arbitrary charges, king James confined him in the tower thirteen years ; and thougli he was afterwards released, it was not long before he fell again under the king's suspicion, the consequence of which was his tragical end, on the 29th Oct. 1618. That at one time Sir Walter aspired to the hand of Elizabeth, would seem to be inferred from the following incident. On a win- dow where the queen could see it, he wrote this line — " Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall." Attracting Elizabeth's eye, she replied to it with her usual good sense. " If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all." 6. Bacon (Sir Francis) was born 22d January, 1561, in West- minster. Ilis astonishing faculties were early developed, and wlien only a child he was favourably noticed by Queen Elizabeth, who useid to call him her "young lord keeper," alluding to the office held by his father. On the accession of James I., he rose into power — he was knighted, and successively made attorney-general and keeper of the seals, lord chancellor, and raised to the peer-^ge. His eleva- tion excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery and corruption in the office of lord chancellor. The consequence was, that he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to be imjirisoned in the tower. But liis fine was remitted by tlie king, he was restored to the public opnuon, and sat in the first parliament called by Charles. It is a matter of some doubt whether Bacon was guilty (k DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 207 the crime alledged against him. The blame is w'.th much reason supposed to attach to his servants, so that the eulogy of the poet, is more clearly due to him than the poet's censure — " The wbest, brightest, meanest of manlcind." Bacon was indeed one of the greatest and most universal geniuses that any age or country lias produced. As an author, his " No- vum Organum Scientiarum," has, among his other performances, immortalized his name. He was the first who tauglit the proper method of studying the sciences : that is, he pointed out the way in vvliich we should begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in order to arrive at truth. In this view he has been very properly denominated " the miner and sapper of philosophy," " the pioneer of nature," " the priest of nature's mysteries." The great princi- ples of the Baconian philosophy, are now universally established. 7. Kepler, (John,) though the contemporary of Bacon, and the worthy precursor of Newton, was by no means freed from the illu- sions of the old philosophy. Tlie old or Aristotelian philosophy was the method of anticipating nature, or dictating to her as to what her operations are to be, instead of observing what they ac- tually are, and inferring general truths from particular facts. Thus, Tycho Brahe anticip:ited nature, in taking it as a certain truth, that tlie earth must be at rest, tliough he admitted the reality of the planetary motions. Thus the great Kepler, imagined that the planets must be six in number, because of certain properties of numbers, and he maintained other puerile absurdities. He was, however, a man of high celebrity as an astronomer, and deservedly commended by most of the great astronomers who succeeded him. He first proved that the planets do not move in circles, but in ellipses ; and that in their motions, they describe equal areas in equal times, &c. His earliest years were not improved by education. When, how- ever, he began to study, tlie turn of his intellect was abundantly manifest. He w^as born in 1571, and died in 1630. 8. Grotius (Hugo) was born at Delft, in 1583, and died, in 1645. A singular event of his life, showing the sufferings and dangers of literary men in those times, was the following. In consequence of the persecution of the Arminians, of whom Grotius was one, and an able defender, in 1618, he was doomed to perpetual imprisonment. His confinement was alleviated by his literary occupations, and the assiduities of his wife. The fond care of this worthy woman at last procured his deliverance, after a captivity of nearly two years. On pretence of removing books, which she declared proved injurious to her husband's healtli, she was permitted to send away a small chest of drawers, of the length of three feet and a lialf, in which he was confined, 'i'hus, carried by two soldiers from tlie prison, the chest was then removed to a distance on horseback, and at tlie house of a friend the illustrious prisoner was set at liberty, jiursuing his flight afterwards in the guise of a mason with a rule and a trowel. His particular profession Avas the law, and lie pleaded liis first «*ause at tlie agij of seventeen with great eclat. But polite literature 68 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. engaged much of his attention, and he wrote many works on moral and rehgious subjects, together with histories, poetry, critical notes, epistles, &c. His learning was very various and profound. 9. Des Cartes, (Renedes,) though a man of genius and extensive attainments, was too much of a theorist. He, however, advanced far beyond his predecessors in many respects, and if he had done nothing besides introducing a spirit of inquiry, and a wish of ex- amining the mysterious operations of nature, he would have effected much for mankind. He was well acquainted Avith mathematics and philosophy, and possessed a mind capable of profound meditation and patient inquiry, though highly imaginative. He wrote ingeni- ously on the laws of the universe, but his theory of vortices, ac- counting for the movements of the planetary worlds, is sufficiently visionary. He was courted by the learned and the noble, and princes almost vied with one another in paying him their attentions. He died at the age of fifty-four, at Stockholm, but after he had been interred seventeen years, his body was removed to Paris, as his countrymen chose to claim it. 10. Gassendi, (Peter,) also a native of France, was born in Pro- vence, 1592. He contributed somewhat to weaken the dominion oi Aristotle over the human mind, though he Ava-; not himself altoge- ther based on the true philosophy. He was nevertheless a great man and a great scholar ; and to his genius and labours, the intel- lectual improvements of subsequent ages are not a little owing. His studious habits proved injurious to his constitution, but he was in some degree relieved by phlebotomy. He, however, at length sunk under his chronic complaint, and placing the hand of his faithful amanuensis on his heart, after perceiving that the motion of that spring of life was faint and fluttering, he exclaimed in these last words, " You see what is man's life," and immediately expired, 22d Oct., 1655. 11. Pascal, (Blaise) whose early extraordinary powers and at- tainments astonished the world, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, 19th June, 1623. From a child, he inquired into the reasons of every thing, a):d he could be satisfied with noticing but with such proof as the subject examined would admit. He always sought for demonstration and truth, if tliey could be attained. The following circumstance evinces his wonderful aptitude for mathematical studies, and the superiority of his intellect. His father, an eminent mathematician, had carefully secured him, as was sup- posed, from learning the mathematics, by denying the child the requisite books. Tlie father's object was first to perfect Blaise in the languages ; but the latter extorting from his fatlier by entreaty, a definition of geometry, which was very vague and general, imme- diately entered on the study, without any otlier help. He was then but twelve years of age. He pursued his inquiries clandestinely, till his fatlier happened to enter tiie room, where ]:c was busy with his bars and rings, (used in place of geometrical lines and circles,) and to his infinite astonishment, found that the child was endeavour- DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 269 ing to domonstratc what makes the thirty-second proposition of Euclid's first book. He iiad proceeded tlius far in geometry, from axioms and principles which he had laid down, and wliich he had applied in a connected series, through the iuterveniug propositions. At the age of sixteen, he composed the ablest treatise on conic sec- tions, lliat liad appeared since the time of the ancients. At the age of nineteen, he contrived a mathematical machine, by wliich calcu- lations of every kind could be made, without the help of a pen. And at the age of twenty-three, he demonstrated the phenomena o (he gravity of the air, and soon after solved a problem, proposed by Alersennus, which had hitherto perplexed the ablest mathema- ticians of Europe. All tlicse mighty powers and attainments, he consecrated to re- ligion, and Christianity never received a more splendid offering than she did from the genius of Pascal. His religious views and feelings are embodied in his Provincial Letters, and his Thoughts on Re- ligion, &c. works, whose celebrity has not surpassed their merits. Voltaire, with his characteristic scorn of piety, calls Pascal, "u sublime madman, born a century too early." 12. Milton, (Jolm,) was born in London, 1608. His political and controversial writings are justly celebrated, and contain many ad- mirable passages. He was a strenuous asserter and defender of liberty, and, in many of his views on this and kindred subjects, was far in advance of his own age. But as a poet, he is still more justly celebrated, and is, at least, a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His Paradise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have pro- duced. In his life time, the poet never received the meed of praise which was his due; but ample justice has since been accorded to hun, and all [posterity will render homage to his transcendent genius. The incidents of his life are interesting, but they are so well known, that we shall pass them over, except to say that he was tiirice married ; was subjected to much domestic infelicity, in his first marriage ; became blind in writing his Defence of the l-iUglish People, against the Attack of Salmasius ; suffered not a little from personal and political enemies ; and, finally, died comparatively poor and forsaken by the world. It may be added, that he was uncommonly handsome, when young; was economical in his living, and rigidly abstemious; and, in religion, was a puritan, with some diversity, however, in his re- ligious views, at the different periods of his life. He died of the gout, in 1674. 13. Corneille, (Peter,) whose poetical works are among the sub- limest effusions of the French muse, was born at Rouen, 1606. He was brought to the bar, but ho soon abandoned it for poetry, which was far more congenial to his taste. He wrote plays, tlie most cele- orated of which was, the Cid, a tragedy, which drew against him the persecution and obloquy of rival wits and unsuccessful poets. He is .said to have been a very meritorious man, in private life : liberal, humane, and devout, and rather inclined to melancholy. He lied at the age of seventy-nine years. 23^ 2^0 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 14. Boyle, (Robert,) was the seventh son and fourteenth child ol Richard, earl of Cork, and born in 1626. After having visited foreign countries, he retired, in 1646, to his estate at Stalbridge, and, amidst the confusion and timtiuits of the time, enjoyed there a peaceful soli- tude. He, however, laboured assiduously for tlie promotion of learning and religion, to both of which he was devoted in a most exemplary manner. He was eminent in natural philosophy and hemistry, in which, from adopting the Baconian method, he made many discoveries. " To him," says Boerhaave, " we owe the secre<;s of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils; so that, from his works may be deduced the whole system of natural knowledge." He invented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. His re- gard for rehgion, he showed in the purity of his life, the general tendency of his writings, his aversion to temporal honours, which were abundantly offered him, and his liberal benefactions in aid of benevolent and pious undertakings. His regular charities amounted to £1000 annually. He founded a public lecture for the defence of divine revelation against unbelievers, and particularly interested himself in tlie propagation of the Gospel among the nations, send- ing many hundred copies of parts of the New Testaments into the east. He died in his sixty-fifth year. 15. Dryden, (John,) early gave proof of his superior poetical abili- ties. He continued to write to old age, and improved to the very last, not only in judgment, but in fire, of which, his Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, and his Fables, are a proof. He wrote much, bolh in poetry and prose, and doubtless too much ; for the rapidity with which he composed, prevented correctness. He produced no less than twen- ty-seven plays, besides a very large number of other works. He excelled less in dramatic composition, than in any other species of poetry. In his prose, he was equalled by few of his age, for judg- ment, criticism, and erudition. He professes himself to have derived, in regard to prose writing, more essential aid from Tillotson, than from any other writer. Dr. Johnson's critique on Dryden, is very just and discriminating. The Edinburgh reviewers place him at the head of his line; they think him great as a satirist, but, in respect to genuine poetic power a step lower than the j)oets of Elizabeth and James. His writings are too much tinctured witli the licentiousness of the age, and, in his religious views, the poet was too flexible and accommodating. The vear of his birth avhs 1C31— that of his death 1701. 16. Locke, (John,) so celebrated as a philosopher, and an orna- ment of English literature, was born in 1632. In the field of men- tal and political philosophy, he has won laurels that can never fade. He has been called, " the glory of theorists." By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situa- tion under government, and wrote, at that time, several political tracts. The danger of prosecution for high treason, compelled his lordship, at length, to fly to Holland. Thither Mr. Locke followeo him. After a time, the English demanded him of the States Gene- ral, on suspicion of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion. SWEDEN. 271 Thus persecuted, Locke concealed himself twelve montlis, devoting his lime to literary labours; and, two years after, when lie returned to England, in consequence of the revolution, he published his cele- brated Essay on the Human Understanding, in the composition of which, he had been engaged nine years. The latter portion of his life was passed in religious retirement, and in the composition of theological treatises. He died at the seat of lady Musham, his friend, in 1704, giving emphatic testimony, in what he said, to the vanity of human life. 17. Leibnitz (William Godfrey) was not undistinguished as a statesman, lawyer, and poet, though he is mo.st celebrated as a mathematician and philosopher. On the principle of the Baconian philosophy, he must be pronounced wanting, in some respects, yet he enjoyed the singular felicity of being esteemed the greatest and most learned man in Europe. In civil life, he had considerable employment, and attained to some distinction. He spent thirteen years in studying the plan of an universal language, but he died before he had completed the extra- ordmary design. Leibnitz proposed characters which, like those in algebra, might not only be simple, but expressive, and enable men of all nations to converse familiarly together. He died in 1716, of those complicated disorders, the gout and the stone, aged seventy. In temper, he was passionate; in character, avaricious. At his death, such a quantity of money was found in his house, hoarded in sacks, that the wife of his nephew, who possessed his property, died with excess of joy at the sight. PERIOD X. The period of the American and French Revolutions ; ex- tending from the death of Charles XTI., of JSiveden, 1718 A. C, to the final restoration of the Bourbons, 1815 A. a SWEDEN. Sect. 1. In pursuing the history of Sweden, a country which at this time excited much attention, on account of the character of its sovereign, we have to record an event, which secured for Sweden a reformation of her government, and saved Europe from the ravages of a fatal ambition. This was the death of Charles XII., who, while besieging a Nor- wegian fortress, was Icilled by a cannon ball, on the llth of December. 1718. 272 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. § T^^lile Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king ol Denmark ravaged Sweden on every side. At the same time, through the influence of the czar, Stanislaus had been driven from the throne of Poland, on which Augustus was replaced. This state of affairs made Charles desirous of returning to his own country, especially as he despaired of engaging the sultan in a war with Russia. Re- turning in disguise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting Norway from Denmark. This project, however, he soon abandoned, in consequence of failing in the outset. Sweden was too much exhausted and distracted, and surrounded by too many powerful enemies, to sustain him at that time, in a war of conquest. His able minister, Goertz, advised him to a different course, which was, to make peace with the czar, and with him, unite in the attempt to dethrone George I., and reinstate James, on the throne of Great Britain. These measures were agreed upon ; but in tlie interval oi preparation, Cliarles, still wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes, made an attack on that country. It was in this expedition that he lost his life. A half pound ball, disci larged from a cannon loaded with grape shot, struck his head, while he was exposing himself, with per- fect temerity, to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a groan, the moment he had received the blow, he instinctively grasped the hilt of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic of his temper. No conqueror, either of ancient or modern times, ever had a more enthusiastic passion for glory, than Charks XII. This is the clue to all those eccentricities and acts of daring, which have justly entitled liim to the epithet of "mad-man." His preceptor asked him, when a pupil, what he tliought of Alexander. " I think," said he, " that I should choose to be like him." "Aye, but," .said the tutor, " he lived only thirty- two years." " Oh," answered the prince, " that is long enough, when a man has conquered kingdoms." After the death of Charles, Sweden, exhausted and impoverished, demanded repose and enjoyed it. She engaged in the pursuits of com- merce, and cultivated the attendant arts. Her islands in the West Indies, were of great consequence to her foreign trade. The states took the opportunity to reform the government, and wisely restricted the prerogatives of the crown. 2. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrica Eleonora, by the election of the states, wlio permitted her husband, the prince of Hesse, to be associated with her in the government ; but they greatly limited the power of the sovereign. Ulrica soon resigned the throne to her husband. On his death, in 1751, the states elected Adolphus Frederick, a prince of mild and pacific virtues, but whose reign was rendered most uneasy, by the factions of the senate. After his decease, the sceptre was given to his son, Gustavus III.' in 177i, who, notwithstanding his coronation oath, deprived PRUSSIA. 273 the senate of its privileges, and rendered himself absolute. The despotism, however, which he wrongfully procured, he moderately exercised, and the succeeding part of his reign was marked with peace and prosperity. In 1792, he was assas- sinated, at a masked ball. § Gustaviis effected the change in the government, in the following manner. Having assembled the officers of his army, without making any communication of his design, he repaired to the senate house, v/here he read a decree, already prepared, for making the crown ab- solute, caused it to be signed by all the members of the senate, and then dismissed the assembly. 3. Gustavus IV., son of the former, now succeeded to the throne, under the regency of the duke of Sudermania. In 1800, he joined the Northern Confederacy against England, but made peace with that power the next year. In 1805, he united with Austria and Russia, in the war against France. He soon after, lost Pomerania and Rugen, and in 1808, Fin- land, which was conquered by Russia. He was dethroned in 1809, and the crown given to the duke of Sudermania. § The conduct of Gustavus, in the latter part of the period of these wars, was marked by so much extravagance, that he was considered mentally deranged ; and to prevent the total ruin of the kingdom, it was determined to dethrone him. This plan was carried into ef- fect, without difficulty or blood-shed. 4. The duke of Sudermania, under the title of Charles XIII. , made peace with France ; but the king having no children, Bernadotte, a favourite general of Napoleon, was, through his influence, declared crown prince, and successor to the throne, 1810. Bernadotte, however, has been faithful to the country which adopted him, and he never aflbrded any aid to his former master. § Upon the death of Charles, in 1818, the crown prince quietly succeeded to the throne. He rendered efficient aid in the wars which terminated in tlie overthrow of the French emperor. He proves to be a wise prince, and promotes the welfare of his subjects, by salu- tary improvements and reforms. A few years before the accession of Bernadotte, (1814,) Norway was taken from Denmark, and an- nexed to Sweden, in opposition to the wishes and efforts of the Nor- wegians. PRUSSIA. 5. Prussia was very little noticed, till some time within the present period, when Frederick II., the Great, raised the kingdom to a high degree of splendour. It had existed as a 274 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X kingdom, from the year 1700, when all the German states acknowledged it as such. It was before stvled the Electorate of Brandenburgh. § This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it Borussia, wliich has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered by the knights of the Teutonic order, whom Cassimer IV., king ol Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves Ins vassals, and to al low Polish Prussia to continue under the protection of Poland. Modern Prussia, is a kingdom formed of several states, united by alliances and conquests. The house of Brandenburgh, which now occupies the tlirone, is descended, in a direct line, from the ancient family of Hohenzollern, mentioned in history from the year 800. The more distinguished predecessors of the great Frederick, Avere Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, and Frederick Wil- liam I., the father of the Great Frederick. Frederick William, the Elector, was a prudent and valiant prince. At the commencement of his reign, his electorate resembled a desert ; the villages were burnt, the cities presented nothing but ruins, and a part of his inheri- tance was in the hands of the Swedes. He began by regulating the finances, and discharging his father's unworthy ministers, and by skilful negotiations, regained all the provinces guaranteed to him by the peace of Westphalia. Frederick William I., would have been deemed an extraordinary man, had he not been eclipsed by his greater son. As the cai=e is, his talents and management excite a degree of wonder. His father was profuse, and lavished treasures without an object. Frederick William was economical in the extreme, and expended nothing ex- cept on the soldiery. In his dress and diet, he was remarkably sim- ple and plain. He even denied liimself the common comforts of life, being wont to say, that a prince ought to spare not only the blood, but the property of his subjects. Voltaire describes this monarch thus. " He used to walk from his palace, clothed in an old blue coat with copper buttons, half way down his thighs ; and when he bought a new one, these buttons were made to serve again. It was in this dress that his majesty, armed with a huge Serjeant's cane, marched forth every day to review his regiment of giants. These giants were his greatest delight, and the things for which he went to tne heaviest expense. The men who stood in the first rank of this re- giment, were none of them less than seven feet high ; and he sent to purchase them from the farthest parts of Europe, to the borders of Asia." FrederickWilliam was a man of vulgar habits, and coarse manners, and often treated his children with a rudeness and asperity, that would have disgraced a savage. According to an account given by his daughter, Wilhelmiua, princess of Prussia, it would be diflicult to count the canings and the fisticuffs with which he gratified his son, the great Frederick, w'.io could never appear before the king with- out being beaten, or, at least, insulted. The princess, trjo, had her full share of the brutal liberality of her father, who often struck her. PRUSSIA. 275 Slie tells us, one day, " he seized her by the hand, gave her several blows on the face with his fist, one of which knocked her over." What added to tlieir misfortunes was, the severe diet to which they were condemned, for they were almost literally fiimishing. There was often nothing at their father's table but garden-stuff, so badly cooked, that it disgusted them. Frequently, indeed, it was impossi- ble to touch it, for, after serving the other guests, Frederic William would spit in the dish, that his children might not break their fast. What a specimen of a prmce's coui-t. 6. Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne, 1740. His father had left hiin an efficient and well disciplined army, amounting to sixty-six thousand men. His views were bent on conquest, and on the enlargement of his small territory. With the best arm)^ in Europe, he was by no means backward in putting his ambitious projects into execution. The next year after his accession, he revived some obsolete claim to Silesia, and accordingly marched against the Austrians, whom he de- feated at tlie battle of Molwitz. He effected the conquest of Silesia, in ] 742. He next invaded Saxony, but the part he had already acted, was sufficient to alarm the neighbouring states. Accordingly, Russia, Austria, and France, concluded a treaty of defensive alliance against him. This confedera- cy took place in 1756, and constituted what is called, " the seven years' war," which proved to be an extremely sangui- nary contest. § The success of this war was various. Frederick maintained his ground against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and sometimes conquered. He lost, perhaps, as many battles as he gain- ed ; but so equal a contest was wonderful, considering the vast su- periority of nimibers on the side of his opponents. At last, howe- ver, his affairs became so critical, from his diminishing resources, and the increase of his enemies, that he began to act solely on the de- fensive. But the death of the Russian empress, at this time, afford- ed him the most essential relief. Her successor made peace with the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with whose aid, Frederick obtained an important victory, he was enabled to secure an honourable peace with all the hostile powers. In 1772, Frederick added New Prussia to his dominions, which, in conjunction with Russia and Austria, he disinem- l>ered from Poland. In 17S6, he died, at the age of seventy- four years, with the reputation of being the greatest warrior of the time, and one of the most distinguished princes of whom history has preserved any memorial. This distinc- 276 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tion, however, lies not in his moral, but in his intellectual endowments. § Frederick possessed a discernment, energy, activity, decision, and constancy of purpose, which fitted him to act the part of a hero; and, together with these quaUties, as much moral perverseness as is required to make a consummate hero. He was not so distinguished for tlie conduct of a battle, or a campaign, as for resources in adver- sity, for celerity of operation, and, especially, for the discipline of his troops. An instance of his decision of character, and the seve- nty of his discipline, appears in the following relation : Intending to make, in the night, an important movement in his camp, which was in sight of the enemy, he gave orders, that by eight o'clock, all the lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death. The moment that the time was past, he walked out himself to see whe- ther all were dark. He found a light in the tent of a captain Zietern, which he entered, just as tlie officer was folding up a letter. Zietern knew him, and instantly fell on his knees, to intreat his mercy. The king asked, to whom he had been writing ; he said it was a let- ter to his wife, which he had retained the candle these few minutes beyond the time, in order to finish. Tlie king coolly ordered him to write one line more, which he should dictate. This line was to in- form his wife, without any explanation, that by such an hour the next day, he should be a dead man. The letter was tlien sent as had been intended, and tlie next day the captain was executed. Frederick was remarkably attentive to business, and every depart- ment of administration was under his own immediate inspection The most minute particulars of national and domestic policy, did not escape his observation. He extended the limits of his kingdom, and much increased its industry, population, and wealth. His intellectual powers were great,, and when we considerhis situation, and the little care that had been taken of his education, we must acknowledge, that his literary acquisitions were considera- ble. He had much general knowledge of the sciences, and was well conversant with French writers on polite literature. He aimed at the reputation both of philosopher and poet, and was a voluminous author in prose and verse. Nothing favoin-able can be said of his moral and religious charac- ter. He was sceptical, undevout, and addicted to various species of vice. Atheists and libertines were his bosom companions, particu- larly the corrupting and flagitious Voltaire. 7. He was succeeded. 1786, by Frederick William II., his nephew, an impolitic, pleasure-loving priuce, who joined in the league against tlie French republic, and tlien deserted his allies. Dying in 1797, he Avas succeeded by his son Frede- rick William III., who unhappily revived some obsolete pre- tensions to Hanover, in 1S05. and on Napoleon's proposing to restore that electorate to the Idng of England, in 1806, Fre- GERMANY. 277 dericK took the field against him, and experienced c:n utter overthrow at the great battle of Jena, which was fought Oc- tober 14, 1806. § A hereditary animosity against Austria, prevented a co-operation of strength, when their national existence was threatened. The wiiole of ticrmany, well united and organized, would, probably, al any time, have resisted the power of Napoleon. But being di- vided, both Prussia and Austria, as well as the lesser states, were overrun and subjected by the fortunate conqueror. Prussia, after neglecting several opportunities of humbling the common enemy, with a strange inconsideration, risked her national existence on the ■ssue of a single battle. Slie trusted too implicitly in her ancient mi- litary fame, and the beauty of her army, (for there was not a proud- er army in Europe,) and, therefore, fell before lier more sagacious and calculating enemy. Frederick was shorn of nearly half of his dominions. S. in 1812, the Prussian monarch assisted the French in their Russian campaign ; but on the faikire of that enter prise, joined his forces with those of the emperor Alexander, and contributed to the subsequent overthrow of Napoleon. At the battle of Waterloo, his army, under the valiant Blucher, tinned the fortune of the day, and thus essentially contributed to the restoration of the Bourbons. Prussia honourably acquit- ted herself in this great contention, and regained her former territory. Of late years, the Prussian king has been efl'ectu- ally engaged in promoting the intellectual improvement of his people. Perhaps, no monarch in Europe, has done more than he, to advcuicc the true happiness and glory of his kingdom. He has declared, that a Bible shall be put into the hands of every peasant's family in his realm. § It has been conjectured by politicians, that Prussia cannot long preserve the rank that she has now attained, situated as her territory is, runainir out in dilTerent parcels of lands, of singular shape, and inteisecte;! by half of the secondary states of Germany. It is, llicre- fore, further supposed, that Frederick only waits a favourable oppor- tunity, to consolidate his territorj"^ ; and they are little acquainted ivitli llie intelligence, energy, and ambition of the Prussian people, who imagine they will be backward in attempting any thing wliich iir.omises to promote their national honour and security. GERMANY. 9. In the history of Germany, during this period, we arc principally concerned with Austria, its more important mem- bcr, in which the imperial crown usually resides. From th^d from a noble family, had been a dis- tinguished officer in the United States of America, during the war of the Revolution. The Poles elected him tlieir general, and he proved worthy of their choice. Cader more propitious circumstan- ces, he would have been hailed as the deliverer of his country. After his defeat, he was held as a prisoner at Petersburgh, till the death of the empress, in 1797. Upon the accession of Paul, he obtained his freedom, and was favoui-ed with a pension — an act on the part of the Russian monarch, which received the applause of the civilized world. Kosciusko has since been in America. 23. A third and final dismemberment of Poland, took place in 1795. when the three powers appropriated it entirely to themselves. Both Stanislaus and Kosciusko, were secured; the spirit of the Poles was crushed, and the robbers had only quietly to divide all that remained of their bloody prey. At the congress held at Vienna, in 1815, part of Poland was united to the Russian Empire, with the preservation of its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, emperor of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland. RUSSIA. 24. In the history of Russia, we find Catharine I., the wife of Peter the Great, on the throne, near the commencement of this period. By his appointment, she succeeded him, in 1725. She reigned only two years, but with great ability, and pursued the plan begun by her husband, in civilizing her people. § Catharine was originally the wife of a Swedish soldier, but fall ing into the power of the Russians, she was employed in the gene ral's kitchen, where MenzicofT, one of Peter's favourites, saw and obtained her. Peter having met her at .AlenzicofT's house, and being delighted with her uiiderstandiiig, at first made her his mistress, but afterwards married her. She obtained a complete control i:cceeded, in 1762, by her nephew, Peter IH,, son of her elder sister Anne, and consequently grandson of the great Peter. He was at first somewhat popular with his subjects, but they soon became disallected towards him. Hb was found to be deficient in talents and strength of chcrac^ ter ; and his wife, Catharine, becoming disgusted with him, -and inspired with ambitious views, is supposed to have beeft '288 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X. the mover of the conspiracy l)y which he was dethroned and murdered, in the first year of his reign. § Catharine of Anhalt, a princess of Germany, had been married to Peter several years before his accession ; and as she began her political life witli crime, she seems never afterwards to have been scrupnlous as to the means with wliich she executed her plans. It was by the help of her paramour Orloff, that she arrested tlie em- peror, and procured his deposition and death. Orloff first gave hiin poisoned brandy to drinic, and then strangled him. 29. Catharine II., who was immediately proclaimed, com- bined with her singular depravation of principle, a powerful intellect. As a woman, she was a disgrace to her sex and to human nature, but as an empress she was great, and justly denominated '' the Semiramis of the North." Her reign was brilliant and long, and at once the admiration and terror of all Europe. Notwithstanding the great extent of her empire, she sought continually to enlarge its boundaries. In hei wars with Turkey, Persia, and Poland, she secured immense acquisitions of territory. Her transactions in regard to the dismemberment of Poland, have already been related. In regard to Turkey, her object appears to have been nothing less than the possession of the Ottoman throne in Europe — an object which Russia has ever since had at heart, § One of the victorious wars which Catharine carried on wltJj Turkey, cost her'two hundred thousand men, and 200,000,000 rubles -, while it cost the latter three hundred and thirty thousand men, and 300,000,000 piastres — a war scarcely less ruinous than triumphant. In tliis v.'ar, Ismail was t!ie Jast town that surrendered. Twice were the Russians under Suwarrow repulsed ; but at tlie third at- tack, they scaled tlie ramparts, forced their ^vay into the place, and put to the sword all wlio opposed them. Fifteen thousand ilussians purchased with their lives \he bloody laurels of their leader, who wrote to the empress with his usual brevity, " The haughty Ismail is at j'our feet." 30. Catharine was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrowit;^, J 796, whose reign was the reverse of that of his mother, .and who occupied himself with trilles. In 1799, he declared war against revolutionary Prance, and sent Suwarrow into Italy, wdio met with great success till he passed into Swit/fuland, whence he was recalled by his sovereign. In ISUl, Paul declr.red war against England, and obliged Sweden and Denmark to join; but soon afterwards this unhappy monarch was strangled, by some conspirators, who were ollicers in his court. RUSSIA. 289 31, Alexander I., the eldest son of Paul, was proclaimed in ISOl, at the age of twenty-two. His name will descend with renown to after ages, as the deliverer of enthralled nations. His reign was at first pacific, nor did he make those eflbrts against France, which seemed desirable at that junc- ture. He, however, became alarmed at length by the am- bition of Bonaparte, and in 1S05, formed a coahtion with Austria, against the conqueror. He Avas able to efiect a junction with only a remnant of the Austrian forces, which had previously been deserted, and being attacked imexpectedly at Austerlitz, he experienced a signal overthrow. He then withdrew his army into Russia, but designing to assist Prussia, the next year he hastened to the scene of war ; but before his army could reach it, the battle of Jena had been fought, and the power of Prussia half annihikited. Russia left alone on the field, maintained the contest with the French emperor for a few months, during wliich several sangumary battles were fought, without any decisive advanta2:e on either side. At length the fatal battle of Friedland, obliged Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit. In ISOS; he engaged in a war with Sweden, in which Fin- land was conquered, and in 1811, he commenced hostUities against Turkey. At this critical time, a mighty contest was about to ensue, Avhicli was to decide the fate of a great part of the globe. The refusal of Alexander, in 1812, to concur in Bonaparte's scheme, of excluding British commerce from the whole European continent, highly displeased the latter. This circumstance, concurring with the French emperor's de- sire to establish an universal monarchy, induced him to march against Russia, with all the force of the territories imder his dominion, and of every state rendered subservient to his views. "In that way," says Prof. Heeren, "a storm of na- tions arose, (about twenty were united under the standard of tlic conqueror,) unparalleled in history, since the expeditions of Xerxes and Attila." The Russians retreated steadily before the French, not without engaging in several ])loody liattles, in which the French were victorious, but by means of which they were continually weakened. At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus- sians made a stand, and here was fought one of the most terrible battles ever recorded. The loss on both sides was 25 5i90 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X. nearly equal ; the Russians, however, retired, and the French entered Moscow. But they entered it to Avitness its confla- gration ; the Russians had set it on fire, and thus deprived the French army of its expected winter quarters. It was obhged to retreat ; and the animosity of the Russians, aided by the terrible severity of the weather, contributed almost to anniliilate the most efficient military force that ever invaded a nation. § Upon tlie invasion of his dominions, Alexander soon made peace with the Turks, and this on advantageous terms, as has always been the case in the wars between Russia and Turke}'. Alexander might have met his foe with an equal number of nations, if he had had time to summau them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All his troops, divided into three armies, by no means equalled, in num- ber, those of the enemy, which amounted to more than half a mil- lion. But although the collection of the Russian force was only partially effected, yet there vvas a high moral preparation in the spirit, fjoth of the prince and his people. After one conspiracy in the be- ginning of tlie contest was detected, and its authors summarily pun- ished, all orders of tiie people manifested the most determined pur- pose to resist tlie enemy, submitting to sacrifices, which nothing but devoted patriotism and the deadliest hatred of the invader, could in- spire. Alexander, in his manifesto, declared that he would never make peace, so long as the enemy remained within his empire. And to engage God and religion on the side of Russia, one entire conse cration of the empire and of the church, was made to the God a armies. The constant retiring of the Russians, without risking a great bat- tle, greatly weakened the expectation indulged by Bonaparte, oi speedily terminating the war, by penetrating into the heart of the empire. Fire and rapine, by friends and foes, marked the course of the invading army, and seemed to render return impossible. Wiliia was occupied the 28th of June. The French advanced with many skirmishes by way of Witepsk to Smolensk, where two of the Rus- sian armies formed a junction, August 6th, while the Prussian aux- iliaries besieged Riga, and t'ae Atistrians were manieuvcring in Vol- Jiynia. Smolenic w"as slormod and destroyed, August IStli ; after which, Koutousoff was vested with the chief command. After tlie battle of Borodino, the solitary capital was entered, September 14th and 15th. In tlie Kremlin, the ancient residence of the Czars, the conqueror took up his head quarters, the limit of his expedition, and the grave of his greatness. •Moscow, fired by its own citizens, fell a victim for the empire ; for such a drama demanded such a catastroplie ; but in its pillars of fire the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe in the farthest East. Instead of a Capua, the army suddenly stood in a waste. " The campaign may now end," was the proposal of Napoleon ; " the campaign is now beginning," was the rei)Jy of Koutousoff. A spee- RUSSIA. 291 dy retreat, before the beginning of tlie winter's cold, might, perhaps, have saved the army; but the pride of the conqueror disdained tliis measure, till it was too late. When three-fourths of Moscow were consumed to the ground, just as tlie fatigued and debilitated army of the French entered it, needing repose and refreshment, and an un- conquerable Russian army was before it, it Vv'as impossible for Na- poleon to stay there. Never was a disappointment more sudden and more bitter. The retreat which he had declined, he was obliged to undertake, and such a retreat, so disastrous and terrific, history never before recorded. 32. Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the boundaries of his empire, and thus gave the signal for the emancipation of Europe. He first exhorted Prussia to war. She obeyed the call, and others, the late vassals of France, sooner or later, joinod his standard. "From this ti]ne the storm of nations, which had gathered in the west, against the east, was to be turned from the east against the west." An immediate erup- tion was prevented, by the fortresses and countries which were occupied by the relations of the rulers, and the certainty that Napoleon had himself escaped. But in the nature of the case, it could not l)e long ere the subjugated nations should turn upon their falling master. Austria was the last to join iTie alliance ; her \rcight m the scale was decisive. The campaign of 1813, which thus began, is one of the most memorable in history. Never were more battles fought within a given space of time, and never were greater than some of them. In regard to the battle of Leipsic, which fin- ished the cam|)aign, Heeren says, '• If the mass of combat- ants, almost half a million, met on the field, makes it the first battle of lUDdern times, its consequences do so no less." The way was now opened to France itself, in the signal defeat of the French emperor. Accordingly, in the begimiing of the year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered Paris, dethroned Napoleon, and replaced on the throne the house of Bourbon. The renown of Alexander was now complete, as the provi- dential deliverer of Europe. § This prince deceased 1st December, 1825, and was succeeded by Nicholas J. The character of Alexander, will appear with advantage on the page of history, and his success in saving Russia and Eurojie, from the grasp of military ambition, will consecrate his name as the most fortunate of sovereigns. The circumstances under which he enter- ed upon nis reign, were, indeed, calculated fully to bring into action qll his faculties. Though inferior to his great antagonist in native 292 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. intellectual poAver, he was, perhaps, of all the European sovereigns, the most fit, by his indefatigable spirit, to contend with him. He appears to have been guided mainly by a principle of honesty ; and if several private accounts are to be credited, there are pleasing in- dications, that he was one of the very few princes who can be called tridy religious. Tlie most inexplicable part of his character, in a moral view, was his suppression of the Russian Bible Society, which had, a few years before, commenced under his own auspices. Since the event, which we have mentioned as the termination of the tenth period, the affairs of the Russians have been generally pros- perous. Besides a successful conflict which they have maintained with Persia, they have rushed into war recently, with their old ene- mies, the Turks; and although tlie present is the second campaign, they have been met with so vigorous a spirit, on the part of the lat- ter, under their warlike sultan, Mahmoud II., that the issue of the contest seems somewhat doubtful. Russia puts forth her whole power, and Turkey fights for her existence. Russian successes have, of late, been reported ; but it is altogelher probable, that other cam- paigns* will be necessary, in order to drive the Ottomans into Asia, should the other great po\yers of Europe suffer tlie contest to con tinue. ENGLAND. House of Bru/istvick. 33. George I., Elector of Hanover, liad been proclaimed king, by the regency, on the death of Anne, 1714. At the cominencement of the present period, he had, therefore, been on the throne about four years. Notwithstanding the divided state of the kingdom, the accession of George took place without the least opposition, tumult, of sign of popular dis- content. It was protestantism that gave tlie house of Brunswick the throne, and it was protestantism that vras to preserve it to them. No new maxims, no new continental policy, could therefore become prevalent ; it was the ancient policy of Wil- liam III., modified according to the circumstances of the times. Thus harmony was established between the nation and the government ; and fortunately for the new house, there was for a long time yet, a pretender, who did not permit these maxims to be forgotten. * Since the above was penned, a series of splendid \dctories has attended the Russian arms, in consequence of which, a peace has been, concluded be- tween the contending powers, on terms exceedingly humiliating to the Turks ENGLAND. 298 Tlic natiirctl consequence of this policy was, the fall of the tory miiik-tiy, which had made itself more than suspected by its conduct towards the pretender, and the restoration of the superiority of the wliigs. § George J., was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., and was in the 55th year of his age, wlicn lie ascended the throne. Tiio Pretender, who was styled the Chevalier St. George, was the son of .lames H. His exchision from the throne affected the public tranquillity, for a time. He had his partisans chiefly among the to- ries, aufl in Scotland ; but the several attempts M'hich they made in liis behalf, were ineffectual; his intrigues were detected; his forces were overpowered in battle ; many of the leaders among the rebels were captured and executed; but the chevalier had the good fortune fo escape to France. 34. In 1720, the king having recommended to the com- mons the consideration of proper means for lessening the na- tional debt, this proved a prelude to the famous South Sea act, which became so ruinous in its consequences. In this scheme, it was believed possi!3le speedily to perform by art, what can be the result oidy of continued exertion — the liqui- dation of the public debt ; but the projects of the South Sea company foundered, and thousands were involved in ruin. As tlie English government, however, allowed itself no des- potic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and it found itself able, by a diminution of interest, to establish a sinking fund, which only needed a better administration, to effect its object. § The character of George I. was that of a wise and good mo- narch, but he was less popular than he might have beCn, had he staid more at home, and manifested less partiality for his German domi- nions. He died suddenly, of a paralytic disorder, on the continent, in the GStli year of his age. 34] George II., succeeded his father, 1727, and, like himj favoured the whigs, and was stroitgly attached to his German possessions. His character was that of an active, intelligent prhice, possessing a violent temper, and a love of war. His administration of affairs was generally ecjuitable, and satisfac- tory to the people. A period of jieace, during ten years, in the former part of his reign, happily occurred through want of a plausible pretence for embarking in a war. At length, occasion was found for collision with Spain, and war was declared in 1739. It produced no important results. In 1744, England declared war against France, and assisted Maria 294 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Theresa, of Austria, in the war of siiccrssion. In this public contest, the principal states of Europe were involved ; and among others, the battles of Dettingen and Fonlenoy were fought ; the former terminating in favour of the allies, the latter in favour of the French. The Britisli king command- ed, in person, his army on tlie continent. § The minister who guided the destinies of England, during this part of the reign of George II., as also during the principal part of the former, was Sir Robert Walpole. Concerning him, the his- toric professor of Gottingen says, " that without the restless ac- tivity which is often called greatness, he was a statesman most wor- thy of respect. He introduced uprightness into politics, at a time, ■when they were disgraced by the profligate Dubois, and the false Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good terms with all, entangled him in a web of negociations and relations ; from which, only an island state, like England, could have disengaged itself." Others, however, speak of liini as distinguished for the sj'stem of corruption and venality which he practised in his administration. 35. During the absence of tlie king on the continent, the rebellion in Scotland, 1745, took place, in consequence of an effort made by tlie son of the old pretender, for the British throne. The young Charles was assisted by Louis XV., and having landed in Scotland, led an army against the royal forces, which he defeated in the battles of Preston Pans, and Falkirk ; but in the subsequent battle of Culloden, he met with a decisive overthrow. The Stuart family made no more attempts to take possession of the sceptre which they liad lost. In 1755, war was renewed between France and England, on account of encroachments made on the British territories in North America. The war was not at first very fortunate to the British ; but, at length, they met with signal success, and the result of it was, the surrender of all Canada, on the part of the French. It was in this war, tliat the brave AVolfe perished, having distinguished himself by the capture of the city of Q,uebec. § In the expedition against Quebec, the courage and perseverance oi General Wohe, surmounted incredible difficulties. It was on the Heights of Abraham, which he succeeded in gaining, that he fought and defeated the French army. As he occupied a conspicuous station in tlie front of the line, lie had been aimed at by the enemy's marksmen, and received a shot in the wrist. Wrapping a handker- chief round his hand, he gave his orders, as usual, without betraying the least emotion ; and while he was advancing, at the head of the grenadiers, another ball, unfortuaately, pierced the breast of this ENGLAND. 296 young hero, who thus fell at the moment wlien victory was aimoun- ced. His death was mourned as a national loss. 36. At this period, the arms of Great Britain were tmim- phant in every quarter of the globe ; but in the midst of his successes, the old king suddenly expired, in the 77th year of his age, and in the 34(h of his reign. 37. George III., grandson of the deceased, succeeded him in 1760. He was then in his eighteenth year, and swayed the sceptre during the long period of sixty years ; the longest reign in the annals of Great Britain. It is distinguished as a period of important events, and of the nation's advance- ment ill power, wealth, conmierce, and the arts. The re- sources of the British, in their great contests, during this reign, appear to have been almost inexhaustible. George III. commenced his reign at a favourable period, when the arms of the nation were triumphant, and when Chatham, the ablest and most popular of the British minis- ters, administered the government. His miriistry, which be- gan imdcr the former reign, continued from the 20lh of Octo- ber, 1756, to the 5th of October, 1761. § " WTiat five years !" says Heeren. '• By the greatness of his own cliaracter, he elevated the spirit of his nation, for he was the first to breathe into it a confidence in itself." Upon the resignation of Mr. Pitt, violent political dissensions arose, which were afterwards increased, upon the retirement of the duke of Newcastle. 38. An ill-judged course of policy, pursued by tlie ministry towards the American colonies, gave rise to those animosities, which ended in tlie separation of the colonies from the mother country. 'J'his colonial war commenced in 1775. The elo- quence of Chatham was arra}ed against the unjust and op- pressive measiues of the British pailiamcnt. But his coun- sels \\ ere overruled; and after a long and distressing conten- tion with tlie American states, Great Britain acknowledged their independence in 1783, Thus was laid the foundation of a great and rising empire in the new world, w'hicii bids fair, in time, to rival the most renowned nations of Europe, and of antiquity. Antecedently to this contention, party spirit had become general and violent in Great Britain, and produced frequent changes in pulilic men and measures. § In the colonial war, France and Holland, after a time, formed an alliance with the American government, and took part in the con- fention. Though England thus lost important foreign possessions 296 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. and increased her public debt, (from 146,000,000, to 257,000,000^ sterling,) yet she lost nothing in her contest with other powers; her commerce and resources were constantly extending, and her spirit was equal to every effort. 39. Another important feature of this reign, was the ex- tension of the British possessions in India. Tlie British East India Company, before the year 1766, conquered, and took possession of the kingdom of Bengal, together with Bahar and part of Orissa, a large and flourishing country, contain- ing above 10,000,000 of people, and producing an immense revenue. These territories, afterwards, received a very great addition, as the fruits of several wars, w4iich the Company had with the natives. Hyder x4.11y, and afterwards Tippoo, his son, distinguished themselves by their opposition to the British encroachments, but they were obliged to submit to superior prowess. § Tippoo was vanquished by Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, and de prived of one half of his dominions. In 1799, Seriiigapatam, the capital of Mysore, v/as taken by Gen. Harris, and Tippoo was slain. 40. The Irish rebellion, in 1798, and the subsequent union, in 1800, of Ireland and Great Britain, weie also hiiportani events during this reign. The rebels in Ireland were princi- pally Romanists, the most numerous and least favoured part of the Irish population, whom the spirit of the French revolution had at this time affected. The xict of Union was the favour- ite object of Mr. Pitt, and made Ireland an integral part of the British empire. From the danger of the separation of Ireland from the British sovereignty, the ministry and the par- liament, both had been urged to this project of a legislative incorporation ; and in the anxiety which was felt, were less scrupulous as to the means of securing a majority in both houses, than became the dignity of the empire. For this object, the arts of corruption were employed. The effects of the union, however, have been mutually advantageous. § A spirit of discontent and revolution, had been working for a long time, in the minds of the Irish people. This was inflamed, by the countenance which the government of France had given to cer- tain insurrectionary projects. With a view to effect a separation from England, and form a close connexion with France, several at- tempts were made on the part of the French, to land troops in Ire- land ; but these attempts proved abortive. The French fleets were either dispersed by storms, or defeated by the valour of the British admirals, Duncan and Warren. Jn the summer of 1798, the spirit of revolution had arisen to such ENGLAND. 297* a height, that several counties were in a state of insurrection. Lord ' Cornwallis was now appointed lord lieutenant, and took command of the government's forces. He engaged the rebels, on several oc- casions, and many lives were lost. Pursued by the vigilance of the government, and despairing of foreign succour, they at last submit- ted. Some of them suffered punishment, others emigrated to America. 41, The reign of George III., was particularly distinguish- ed, by the wars which grew out of the French revolution. This great event, which will be more particularly noticed in the history of France, commenced in 1789. It threatened in its consequences, the ov'ertlnow of all established govern- ments, and deeply convulsed the whole civilized world. From the commencement of the revolution, to the restoration of the Bourbons, in 1815, Europe endured more, in the loss of lives and property, and suffered more misery, than in any other equal poition of time, since it has been known in history. § Tlie g'overnment of Great Britain, early conceiving a jiist alarm' for its own safety, zealously embarked in the European war, with a view to check the dissemination of disorganizing principles, both at home and abroad. All the Christian states in Europe, opposed in their turn, the tyranny and ambitious views of France; but Great Britain only pursued tlie object with undeviating constancy, and with a just conception of tlie character of the common enemy. Wil- liam Pitt, one of the ablest ministers which it ever had, was then at its head. Under his auspices, alter various vicissitudes of disap- |)ointnient and success, victory crowned the efforts and sacrifices of the British nation ; efforts and sacrifices, of which history does not, perhaps, record a second example. All Europe was arrayed against her at times ; yet, so far was she from being intimidated, or dis- heartened, tliat she met the enemy, whether on the sea or land, wherever he was to be found. Her greatest efforts, particularly in the former part of the war, were made on tlie sea. Here Nelson, the first of naval captains, gained the battles of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Trafalgar, and ahnost innihilated the maritime power of the continent. In tlie latter part Df the contention, Wellington conquer- ed the armies of France, at 'J'alavera, Salanranca, Vittoria, and Waterloo. An interval of peace occurred between the years 1801 and 1803. But this short suspension of arms, was felt to be too long for the safety of the Britisli government, while the emperor of P'rance seemed to set no bounds to his ambition. Tlie war was accordingly renewed ; and though, on tiie part of the French, the invasion of England was threatened, and lier commerce was designed to be ex- cluded from the whole continent, j'et one of the projects was aban- doned, and the other ]jroved fruitless. In the battle Of the Nile, which happened August 1, 1798, the ma- 298 MODERN HTSTORY.-^PERIOD X. ritime fame of Great Britain was established beyond all competition' The French fleet had every advantage of situation, but Nelson cap tiired nine ships of the line, and destroyed several others. In the battle of Trafalgar, which was fought on the 21st of October, 1805, the great English hero defeated a powerful fleet of the enemy, con- sisting of thirty-tliree ships of the line. His own force amounted to twenty-seven ships of tlie line. Nineteen of the French and Span- isli ships were captured, though four of them only reached port, the rest having been purposely destroyed, as it was impossible to take care of them on account of tempestuous weather. Subsequently, the greater part of the enemy's ships which escaped, were either wrecked or captured. The day of this great triumph to the Eng^ lish admiral, was the day of his death. His person was much ex- posed in the battle, and being observed by the enemy, he was point- edly assailed by the musketry, and received a mortal wound. 42. While the resources of Great Britain were called forth in the great European contest, she found, or made an enemy ill the United States of America. The long depending dis- putes between the two nations, respecting commercial rights, terminated in hostilities, which were commenced on the part of the United States, in the summer of 1812, by an attack on Canada. This war, though not very vigorously prosecu- ted, inasmuch as the aflairs of Europe engrossed the attention of the British ministers, was, nevertheless, marked by uncom- mon acrimony. It continued until the last of the year 1814. 43. During the last ten years of the reign of George III., he was reduced to helplessness, by an inveterate insanity. In the meantime, his son, the prince of Wales, acted as re- gent. In regard to the great contest, the latter pursued the course which had been adopted by his royal father. § The old king died on the 29th of January, 1820. The subver- sion of his intellect, is supposed to have been brought on, by the sickness and death of his youngest daughter, Amelia, aided by the advance of age, and the toils and anxieties of state. Amelia, when sensible of her approaching dissolution, presented to him a ring, re- questing him to wear it in remembrance of her affection. This terr- der incident, created a sympathy which soon mastered his faculties, and he gave way to an incurable despondency. He was a good monarch, seemed to be guided by religious principle, and was ho- noured and beloved, as tlie father of his people. His natural endow- ments were not great, though he possessed good sense, and a culti- vated mind. His successor, the present king, is George IV., who has, hitherto, generally reigned in peace and prosperity The only war of any consequence which has occurred during his reign, is tliat wliicli was carried on a few years since in the East. By this, the British pos» FRANCE. y9y •cessions have been immensely enlarged, particularly by a reduction ol" a considerable part of the Burnian em{)ire. To the above we may add, the single battle of Navarino, against the Turkish fleet, in connexion with the naval forces of France and Russia. FRANCE. House of Bourbon. — Revolution. -^NaiJoleon. — Bourhous restored. 43 i The successor of Louis XIV. was a great grandson, who ascended the throne under the title of Louis XV., at the age of five years, 1715 A, C. Contrary to the will of the old king, his nephew, Philip of Orleans, obtained the regency. § Without morals, and without sense of shame, the duke of Orleans was regarded as more profligate than he actually v.^as, and tlie long continued anxiety respecting the life of the young king, who was sickly, had a strong influence on the politics of the times. Cor- ruption of manners was a natural consequence of such a regency, and the French court was never more dissolute than at this time. It Avas during this regency, that France made an abortive attempt to pay off its debts by means of the paper bank law, and the Missis- sippi scheme, connected with it. These were of no small conse- queiice for its future fate, and its whole influence in the European political system. The ruin of thousands of families might be re- paired in time, but it was the arbitrary money operations of tlie go- vernment, that reduced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this time, uo paper money could be issued in France, under the old con- stitution. The French financial sj'stem was ever after in an unset- tled state. 44. The niLiister Avhom Louis chose soon after he came of age, was cardinal Fleury, whose seventeen years' admi- nistrafion, if it was not free from faults in the interior, secu- red tranquillity (o France, and was beneficial to Europe. The reign of Louis, which was fifty-nine years, was too long for his reputation as a sovereign, and for the happiness of his people. He was at first styletl well-beloved by them, but they had occasion eventually to lay aside that flattering epithet. § Louis pursued a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyran- ny, and in the latter part of his reign, he became infamously licen- tious and debauched. He was the slave of his mistresses, and his government was a government of mistresses. The last ejioch of his reign, may be compared to what has been mythologically de- nominated the iron age. lie became insensible, not only to the disgrace and ruin of his state, Init to the loss of his nearest and 300 MODEilN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. dearest relatives, many of whom deceased during the latter part of his life. It is said, that the profusion of this monarch, led him, in the first instance, to undertake the scandalous traffic of a monopoly of corn, which, while it starved his subjects, enabled him to support the ex- travagant claims of his minions and mistresses. It is at least certain, that at his demise, 200,000,000 of livres, in specie, were found in his private treasury, and that their acquisition could be traced to no other source. It is no matter of surprise, that the vices and errors of Louis, particularly his extortions, should have produced difficulties between him and his people. These were manifested in the disputes which he carried on with his parliaments, and in the opposition which they expressed against his rapacious acts. He conducted the controversy, on his part, in so ill-judged and unjust a manner, that affairs grew worse and worse, and fast ripened for that dreadful state of things which followed under his unfortunate successor. The aggregate of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., is one hundred and thirty-one years, which is unparalleled in history. Du- ring so long a period, what treasures were drawn from the French people, in consequence of tlie amI)itious wars of the one, and the profusion and fiscal mismanagement of the other ! And is it to be wondered at, that they felt their burdens to be insupportable ? 45. Louis XVI., who was grandson of the late king, as- cended the throne in 1774, at the age of twenty years. His situation, from the first, \vas critical and dangerous, beyond the common lot of kings. With a temper fitted to make a people happy in ordinary circumstances, he was ill calculated for the evil days on w^hich he was fallen, when his sul^jects were almost maddened by the oppression of their former mas- ter, and now unreasonably jealous of his successor. § Louis seemed to aim at a prudent and conciliatory course. He early made some removals from office, that were designed to be po- pular, and sought integrity and talents in his ministers. Turgqt, Necker, and Calonne, were successively placed at the head of the finances. After the efforts made by France in favour of American indepen- dence, and tlie consequent great increase of her debt, her financial situation became alarming, and demanded attention. 'J'he disclo- . sures and discussions on this subject, led directly to the great con- vulsion which followed. There were other concurrent causes, such as the corruption of religion, and the abuses which existed in the church; tlie despotism and profligacy of the government ; the ine- quality, and the enormous burden of taxation ; the hauteur and odious privileges of the nobility and clergy; the notions respecting liberty and equal rights, generated by the revolution in America, and especially the progress of pliilosopln', freethinking, and atheism, which the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and otiiers. so effectually : aided. These, and perhaps otJier causes combined, threw a great FRANCE. 301 nation into madness, and created a revolution which rocked the world. A state of things arose not only in France, but among all civilized nations, very different iVom any which ever existed before. " The contemporary world, which lived in this period," says professor Heercn. " calls it the revolutionary ; it is as yet, too early to decide with wiiat name it shall be denoted by posterity, after the lapse of a century ; probably, the constitutional ; for the struggle after regiilar but free constitutions, is the thread that guides through the whole confusion." 46. Our limits preclude a minute account of the revolution which was now about to burst forth. Suffice it to say, that the operations of government being nearly suspended for want of supplies, the king was induced to convoke, first an assem- bly of the notables, next the parliament, and aftenvards, the parliament and notables together ; but nothing was effected by their measures. At last, the convocation of the states-gene- ral, May 5th, 1789, was resorted to ; but difficulties arising between tl)e branches of which it was composed, the popular branch soon declared themselves the representatives of the people, and constituted the National Assembly. Conciliatory as the language of the king liad been, the measures of this body Aveie dictated by a spirit of opposition to his prerogatives. The revolution, properly speaking, began with the destruc- tion of the ancient prison of the state, the Bastile, 14th July, 1789. This was followed by other excesses on the part of the populace, till Paris became a field of blood. § The States General consisted of three orders — nobility, clergy, and the " tiers etat" or conimons. With the commons, a small portion of the nobility and clergy united in calling themselves a national assembly, \\laen this measure was adopted, there actually remain- ed of the monarchy only the name. The king and the royal family were obliged to yield to the popular feeling, which demanded their removal from Versailles to Paris. Here, however, the king was with difficulty preserved from violence, which the mob seemed inclined to offer to his person. He attempted to flee at one time, but his flight was intercepted. The progress made by the National Assembly at its earlier sit- tings, in tiie work of reform, was manifested by several important acts, such as the abolition of titles of nobility, and feudal rights — the exclusion of the clergy from all judicial functions — the suppres- sion of religious houses and vows — and the division of France into eighty-three departments. In the year 1790, those political societies began to appear, parti- cularly the Jacobin club, which controlled the measures of the As- sembly in so remarkable a degree. 26 £»02' MODERN HISTORY. rfcRiOu js.. 47. Although Louis accepted the new constitution of 1791, which estabUshed the equality of ah ranks and was othe*"- wise obsequious to the Assembly, yet the Jacobins were clamorous for the abolition of royalty ; and accordingly, the regal government was abolished, and Prance declared to be a republic, on the 21st of September, 1792. This was done by a new body, called tlie National Convention, on the first day of its meetnig. The views of the enemies of royalty, were not as yet, fully answered. For the king, nothing further was to remain, than in the language of Manuel the re- porter of the commune, " the right of justifying himself before the sovereign people." He and the royal family were immediately imprisoned in the temple. Soon after, he was brought to the bar of the Convention, and being condemned on several charges brougiit against him, he was sentenced to suffer death, by the axe of the guillotine, which took place on the 21st January, 1793. The fate of Louis has been widely commiserated. His character was that of an intelligent and inoffensive man, but he wanted firmness, to stem the torrent of faction. In death, he displayed a manly dignity and fortitude. § Among tlie cliarges alledged against the king, were, his having supplied tlie enemies of France with money ; his being the author of the war waged on the French territory ; his having conspired against the liberty of the country, &c. &c. He answered the accusations against him, in a self-possessed and dignified manner. The man who was the most influential in procuring the destrr.c- tion of tlie king, was the Duke of Orleans, one of the princes of the blood, and a monster of wickedness. It was a sublime remark, made by the king's confessor to him, as he mounted the scaffold, on which he was executed, " Offspring of St. Louis," he said, " ascend to heaven." 48. After the death of the king, the " reign of terror," as it has been denominated, commenced in France, under tlie revolutionary tribunal erected by Robespierre and his associ- ates. Factioiis soon arose in the Convention, and their mu- tual jealousy led to the most fearful consequences. The san- guinary excesses of monsters in human form, which France for a long time was doomed to suffer, are too shocking to be described. Besides the countless massacres of the rich and noble, and generally of those who opposed the revolutionary fury, the parties in the Convention sought the destruction of FRANCE. 303 one another. Each successive faction, as it triumphed, was at length put down, and made to answer with blood, the cruel- ties which it had committed. Thus these execrable wretches became the instruments of inflicting merited vengeance on one another. The Convention, in its acts, outraged decency, and rendered its infamy immortal, by renouncing the Chris- tian religion. The queen of France, Maria Antoinette, perished by the axe, 16th October, 1 793. Madame Elizabeth, sister of the late king, was beheaded 4th February, 1794. § The human monster who exercised the longest and most terrific sway, was Robespierre, Avith his villanous accomplices, at first Dan- ton and Marat, and afterwards Collot d'Herbois, Billand-Varennes, Coulthon, and St. Just. The party which was opposed to Robes- pierre in tlie Convention, called tlie Girondin, fell under his ruth- less domination. Among them was the infamous Orleans. He smiled at his condemnation, and made but one request, which was, that his punishment should not be delayed until the following day. On his way to execution, he braved the insults of the multitude, whose contemptible idol he had so long been ; and perished with- out the smaUest remorse of conscience. Robespierre and his party, were at length put down, and of all the actors and victims of the revolution, he suffered the most in the circumstances of his death, and was the least pitied. In attempting to destroy himself with a pistol, he dreadfully mangled his jaw, and while overwhelmed with indescribable agony from the wound, he was conveyed to the place of execution, surrounded by a populace intoxicated with joy. With him perished eighty-three of his as- sociates. 49. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin clubs were suppressed, and in the course of the succeeding year, 1795, Oct. 26th, the Convention closed its sittings, having been the means, in all probability, of more human sulfering than any other deliberative body that ever met. Two days after, the executive power was vested in a Directory of five, and the legislative power in two Councils. 50. While these transactions, which belong to the internal history of the revolution, were taking place, the external re- lations of France were seriously all'ected. The republic had waged a desperate war with the adjoining states, from nearly the commencement of the revolution. These states, particu- larly Austria and Prussia, took the part of Louis and his government, from natural sympathy, from a sense of danger, from resentment at the disorganizing principles which the revolutionists disseminated, and from the desire to restore 304 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tranquillity, and reinstate the king on his throne. The nu- merous emigrants also, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and rich citizens, who had been enabled to escape from the scene of blood, offered encouragement and aid. Accordingly, seve- ral armies marched to the borders of France, but the repub- lic, up to the time of the Directory, not only sustained itself against the efforts of its enemies, but made the conquest of the Netherlands, changed Holland, then perhaps the richest country in Europe, into a dependency of Fiance, and inva- ded Germany. Such was the energy of the republic, that alone, without allies, it had at command, one million of fight- ing men, in the year 1794. 51. The government of the Directory, continued till 1799, when the executive power was vested in three consuls, of whom the first was Bonaparte, the second Cambaceres, and the third Le Brun. The Directo'y had been in several instances unfortunate in the field, and the consulate was de- signed to restore, and, as we shall soon see. did effectually re- store, the energy of the government. The series of hostile efforts, which the different states op- posed to France directed against that country, are termed coalitions. Including both republican and imperial France, there were six of these coalitions with which she contended ; two under the former character, and four under the latter. In these combined eflbrts, all the nations of Europe were, at one time or another, engaged. The first of these coalitions, includes the wars already ad- verted to, and beginning in 1793, it continued till nearly the time of the consulate. In this coalition, England, Spain, and the Stadtholder, were included. France had declared war against these powers ; and indeed Portugal, Naples, Tuscany, and the Pope, were involved. § William Pitt, was the founder and head of these combinations. " He was more correct than others in his estimate of the danger, and no less great in character than in talents, he never capitulated with political maxime. Whatever could be accomplished by gold and perseverance, he accomplished." Tliis war was not merely a conflict of arms, but of clashing elements. An express decree of the Convention, announced the introduction of the sovereignty of the people, in every country which its armies sliould subdue. The nature of the warfare carried on by the c -mbined powers, aroused in France a resistance of desj^iir. This called forth, as has already appeared, a reign of terror, with all its cruelties, and all its FRANCE 305 Vigour, and sanctioned, at the same time, a maxim more momentous and fearful tlian a series of victories — that every citizen is a soldier. The success of France in this war, was signal. At length, some of the powers, as Prussia, Spain, and the grand duke of Tuscany, withdrew from the coalition, and made peace with the republic. The coalition, however, was not entirely dissolved. It was held together oy British gold. A foreign commerce, embracing every quarter of the globe, and aided by an oppressive maritime law, oppressive to neutrals, supplied Great Britain, at this critical time, with wealth, which no other nation, ancient or modern, possessed in an equal de- gree. The war of the continent was carried on with the most vigour against Austria ; but the fate of Austria was not to be decided in Cfermany ; there, the archduke Charles repelled the armies of the republic. It was to be reached through Italy. This country, there- fore, l)ecame the principal theatre of the war, in 1796, 1797. Here, Napoleon Bonaparte, in his 27th year, first entered on the splendid and bloody career he was destined to run. To him the command of the army of Italy was intrusted, February 23d, 1796. One cam- paign gave him Italy ; the second, peace. This was the peace of Campo Formio. Out of the Austrian and Papal provinces in Italy, a new republic was formed, under the name of the Cisalpine Re- public. After the peace of Campo Formio, there was no suitable theatre in Europe, for the hero of the day. Egypt, the land of ancient won- ders, was invaded and seized by the conqueror of Italy, 1798. Pre- pared under the mask of an expedition against England, the execu- tion was yet more wonderful than the preparation. No undertaking ever created such immeasurable anxiety in England. Even the great naval victory at Aboukir, could not allay it, tliough that victo- ry produced important results. England, therefore, was determined not to rest, till Egypt should be torn from France. 52. The second coalition was foimed in 1799, by means of England and Russia. Tliis "was a consequence of the victo- ry of Aboukir. Austria, and some otiicr powers, soon enga- ged in it, making it a more extensive combination than the precednig. Prussia, however, maintained its neutrality. Un- der the mismanagement of the directorial government of France, one campaign gave the victorious aUies, Italy, Swit- zerland, and Germany ; but they were headed by the able arcliduke Charles, and the dreaded Suwarrow. § A brief account of the situation of Switzerland will now be given, as here a convenient place is found. That country, in the lieart of Europe, had succeeded for three hundred years in avoiding all parti- cipation in those great disputes in which the world had been involv- ed ; but it was destined to come within the vortex of tlie French re- volution. This country became agitated, and tlie revolution began in the Pays de Vaud, December. 1707. The evils of the .federal consti- '2G* 306 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tution were disclosed ; there was a Avant of unity, and the burden at last fell almost exclusively on Berne. The French advanced on two sides, with bloody fights ; Berne was overpowered, March, 1798, and the other cantons were conquered, except the three smaller. These made an obstinate resistance, and an honourable capitulation. The consequence of the French military operations against Switzer- land was, that the Helvetian Republic Avas proclaimed, April, 1798. Then followed five unhappy years of war and faction, till the French act of mediation, 1803, restored to the Swiss, their federal, but alter- ed constitution. It was at the critical period, when the success of the allies, and their approach towards the borders of France, excited such alarm for the fate of the republic, that Bonaparte returned from Egypt and Syria, to Paris, and overthrew the directorial constitution. The directory abdicated ; the deputies of the people were driven asunder with clubs, and Bonaparte was appointed regent, as first consul. The most important results ensued. Factions were quelled ; internal enemies were over- awed ; tranquillity w^as restored; and new energy and hfe were infused into every department of the government. From this time, the popular sovereignty was at an end. The military force of the nation was put in a l)etter train, and a series of victories and conquests conuiienced, which have no parallel in modern history. Before Bonaparte put himself at the head of the French armies, Russia had seceded from the coalition, and it was necessary to conquer only Austria, on the continemj feebly aided by Naples, and the soulh of Germany. The great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, besides many smaller ones, brought Austria to terms, and led the way to the general peace of Amiens, 1S02. "^riiis peace raised Bona- parte to the zenith of his renown. He was soon after elected first consul for life. At this epoch, he might have ruled Eu- rope, without further contests, had he been able to rule himself. Absolute sovereignty only could suffice, and he was according- ly proclaiuiod enn^jeror of France, in 1804, to which, the next year, he added the title of king of Italy. This elevation was brought about in consequence of a new war, which had com- menced the preceding year, and which is soon to be spoken of. § The peace of Amiens was enjoyed throughout Europe; but it was enjoyed only for a sliorl time. This was to have been expected, when the object for which the war had been waged by the coalition- ists, viz. the freedom of Europe, was fariher than e^-er from being secured. Ever England desired peace, inasmuch as she had effected the deliverance of l-gypt. This was witli her, after the failure of FRANCE. 307 the general object, the turning point. She never could consent to see Egypt a colony of France. Egypt was restored to the Porte, in 1800, by means of the successes of Abercronibie, and othcs. From tlie conflict wiiich has been related, France had retired with its interior well ordered and tranquillized, with an increase of territory, and with the restoration of all its colonies. Tliis seemed to be llie work of Napoleon, together witli the rebuilding of the al- tars, and the cstablislimcnt of religious liberty. The project of an imiversal monarcli}', was now in a fair way of being realized. Such a project. Napoleon doubtless had formed, but it was defeated by a concurrence of providential circumstances. No potentate in Europe ever had such resources at command. Ilis sovereignty in the interior, was absolute. Abroad, France extended to the Rhine, and beyond the Alps, and the kingdom of Italy fell under Bonaparte's sceptre ; the rest of Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, and the Ger- man states on tlie Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances, or by fear, and Hanover was occupied by a French army, in the heart of the Prussian monarchy. 53. The third coalition against France, was formed in 1805, by England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. England was its centre. A general rising of Europe was, according to Pitt's plan, to reduce France to its ancient bounds, and the in- dependence of the states was to be secured by judicious regu- lations and divisions. England had been at war with France nearly two years before this combination, the peace of Amiens l)a\ ing continued between these nations scarcely a year. The coalition was most unfortunate. The power of Austria was broken at Ubn, and at Austerlitz, and the peace of Presburg followed, 26th December, 1805. The expeditious movements of the French emperor, overthrew the whole plan of the allies. $ The war between England and France alone, which commenced in 1803, was brought on by the refusal of England to give up the island of Maha, wliich is the bulwark of Egypt, and with that island, the dominion of the Mediterranean. France would not concede these jjoinls. Thou£;li these nations were prbfc-sedly at war, there were found few points of contact, as the one, at that time, had no power, except on the sea, and the other none except on land. Great Britain swept from tlic ocean, all the enemy's forces that could be found on that element, and recovered the colonies that had been re- stored to France. Before the conclusion of this war, it was, that the famous naval battle of Trafalgar was fought. The first instance of a rf)yal family being dethroned, by a bare prochunation, occurred at Naples; and Bonaparte, by placing his el- der brother, Joseph, on that throne, laid the foundation of the do- minion of his family in Europe. 308 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. In ihis war, Prussia obstinately insisting on neutralitA'-, was not to le gained. And yet, without the accession of this power, it was im- possible to make an efficient attack on France ; the northern half of which, was protected by Prussia's neutrality. The consequences, however, of the peace of Presburgh, revealed to Prussia, as well as to the rest of Europe, what was to be expected from the gigantic ambition of Napoleon. It was ascertained that neutrality could not be preserved, towards one who wished for none. Prussia stood di- rectly in the conqueror's way, and its neutrality was violated with- out hesitation, by the march of French troops through one of its provinces. That power began to make preparations after the war had been actually decided at Ulm and Austerlitz. When, however, the Prussian monarch found that according to the treaty of peace, the quiet of northern Germany was to be purchased, on the condi tion that he was to cede to France several provinces, and occupy Hanover in return, thereby exposing himself to a war with Englanu and Sweden, his embarrassment was extreme. But the scales turn- ed in favour of a war with France, and thus arose a new combi- nation, though the old one could hardly be said to have ceased, since Russia had not wholly retired from the field. 54. A fourth coalition, as it may perhaps be numbered, was soon matured, 1806, which inchided Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden and England. Prussia, which began the war, was utterly overthrown by one battle, that at Jena and Auerstadt. Its capital was entered, and here Bonaparte is- sued the Berlin Decree, announcing the blockade of the British islands. The conqueror's army passed into Poland, and the war was thus transferred from tbe banks of the Soal, to those of the Vistula, where Russia was under the necessity of de- fending its frontiers. In the course of this war, were fought the obstinate and bloody battles of Pultusk, Eylau, and Friedland, with the Russians. The last only was decisive, and led to a peace, which was concluded at Tilsit, 7th July, 1807. Peace was concluded two days after with Prussia, by which about one half of the monarchy was returned, as a gift of charity, and this once potent nation, was reduced to a state of second rank. Russia gained a small accession of territory, but both nations agreed to close their harbours and countries against British navigation and trade. All was now French law or influence throughout continental Europe, and all was made to bear against Britain. § By the peace of Tilsit, Russia had been made beforehand, not merely a spectator, but an active participator in the project of crush- ing Britain, by excluding it from all trade and communication with the continent. This was done by the secret articles of the peace. FRANCE. 309 England, however, anticipated the enemy's dependance on the fleet of Denmark, and effected its snrrender, by tlie bombardment of Copen- hagen. One consequence of this act was, a declaration of war by Russia against England, and another was an alliance of Denmark with France, which was to open to this latter power the road to Sweden. The Berlin Decree was met by the British Orders in Council whicli prohibited every sliip from entering any French port, or any port under French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was followed by the Decree of Warsaw, declaring that all British com- modities, in the Hanseatic cities, were confiscatcfl, without respect of owners. This decree was retaliated by a strict blockade of the Elbe and the Weser, and by the Order ii; Council, declaring in blockadcj all ports from which the British flaj; was excluded, and that all ships proceeding thither, should be captui ed, unless they had touched at a British port, and paid a duty. This was answered by the Decree ot Milan, by which every ship which should sulmiit to these conditions, was declared denationalized, and a lawful prize. Thus, neutral pow- ers could have no navigation. Afterwards, the mad Decree of Fon- tainebleau, consigned to the flames, all British manufactures from Naples to Holland, and from Spain to Germany. But Europe could not subsist under the operation of such measures. Industry was fatally paralized. 55. jSapoleon, triumphant and powerful, now wislied to enlarge the dominion of his liiniily, by appropriating to his remaining brothers, the thrones of Portugal and Spain. Spain was destined to receive his brother Joseph, whom Mu- ral, the emperor's brother-in-law, was to succeed in the king- dom of Naples. Louis Bonaparte had before been made king of Holland, and Jerome, king of Westphaha. His de- sign on Portugal failed, though its throne was prostrated. A new and greater throne arose, on the other side of the ocean. Under a British convoy, the royal house of Portugal emi- grated to Brazil. His design on Spain succeeded for a time, by his having artfully secured the person of the Spanish mon- arch, and compelling him to resign his crown, in favour of Joseph Bonaparte, 20th June, 1808. This act, to say nothing of its moral character, was a political fault on the part of Naj)oleon ; the first fatal step which lie took, towards his subsecpient downfal. He had already the con- trol of Spain, by his inlluence. " It was done without a knowledge of the country and nation : an universal insur- rection having ensued, it opened the abyss which devoured alike, the French armies, and the French finances ; and it gave Fjugland a theatre for war. But it taught Europe that 310 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. the people are more powerful than mercenary armies, and it was destined to give freedom to another quarter of the globe." The British, wlio were called to the aid of Spain, in connex- ion with the Spanish forces, carried on the war from 1808, to 1813. Many battles were fought, in which the English- Spanish trooi)3 were generally victorious. Here " the Marl- borough of the nineteenth century," began his brilliant career. The French were eventually driven out of the country. 56. While the war in Spain, employed the best forces of the French empire, the insatiable conqueror meditated a new, greater, and more formidable war. That was the war with Russia, in 1812 ; a war whic'i decided the destiny of Europe. It is unnecessary to repeat what has already been said con- cerning this terrible conflict, in the history of Russia. 57. After Napoleon's defeat, he fled to Paris, and raising another army, he hoped to regain the dominion which he had lost in the east. To oppose him, the Fifth Coalition was formed, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, a part of the Confederation of the Rhine, and Sweden. Of this con- flict also, no particular mention need be made liere, since the details have been given elsewhere. It may only be said, that the allies carried the w^ar into the heart of France- -that after much and strenuous fighting, they entered Paris, which capitulated, 30th March, 1814 — and that with the capital, France was conquered, because in France, the capital is every tb.ing. 58. The results of these successes of the allied jjowers, were important, and great changes took place. The situa- tion of Napoleon becoming extremely critical, he abdicated the throne of France, and w^as removed to the island of Elba. His mighty empire, reared b}'^ a military despotism, fell into ruins. And Louis XVIII. , after an absence of twen- ty-three years from his kingdom, returned and took possession of his rightful throne. § Bonaparte had it in liis power, while the allies held a cong^ress at Chalillon, to preserve the throne and empire, had he been satis- fied with ancient P'rance. But it was fortunate that he demanded too much, and even this, as an intercepted letter of his minister, Maret, afterwards showed, was only a deception. After his defeats in defending France, the senate, lately his slave, openly proj)osed the deposition of Bonaparte, and he himself, not without many useless attempts in favour of his son, descended from the falling throne FRANCE. 311 having executed an unconditional abdication on the part of himself and liis heirs, Isl April, 1814. He was soon after escorted to Elba, which he received with full sovereignty, with a pension of two and a half millions from the revenues of France, and with a body guard of four hundred men. Louis XVIII. had spent his time in Italy, Germany, Russia, and finally England. Tlie same month that restored to France her king, beheld three other princes, who had been driven from their thrones, ascend them again. — Pius VII., returned to Rome, Ferdinand VII. to Madrid, and Victor Emanuel to Turin. 59. To restore the political system of Europe, which had been so completely subverted, a General Congress Avas as- sembled at Vienna, 1st November, 1814. Six of Llie crowned heads of Europe were present, united in peace as in war, with a long and splendid list of princes, ambassadors, and ministers. While they were engaged in their difficult and important deliberations, an event occurred which was the cause of the sixth and last coalition of the European powers. " The man of destiny" again made his appearance on the bloody arena where he had lately acted so conspicuous a part, but whence, it was hoped, he had been excluded forever. Having escaped from Elba, Bonaparte, after an vmparralleled adventure, reached Paris, and re-seated himself on the im- perial throne. A temporary confusion enstied, but the result proved that the army, and not the nation, was the support of that throne. The great day of Waterloo, the 18th June, 1815, buried the hopes of Napoleon Bonaparte in the dust. § The French king, upon Bonaparte's return to Paris, withdrew to Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. He came back to his capital after an absence of one hundred days, and was the second time seated on his throne. In the whole career of Bonaparte, nothing was more extraordina- ry than his progress through France, and re-occupancy of tlie throne. He larwied at Cannes, March 1st, 1815, and in twenty days from that time, accompanied with about fifteen hundred men, he reached, though without opposition, the scene of his former triumphs. No blood was spilt. The previous conspiracy seems not to liave been very extensive, because the emperor could, and of course did, rely on the assistance of the troops. They received him with en- thusiastic shouts. The nation was held in mute astonishment for a time; but it soon became evident that he had lost in a measure liis influence over it. Instead of ruling the parties as formerly, he seems to have been swayed by them. So much the more energetic were his warlike preparations — lie could now indulge no hope of peace. It was a happy circumstance that the news of Napoleon's return, 312 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD jw. reached the congress of Vienna, while still in session. The most prompt and decisive measures were adopted. By a special act, he was declared the enemy of the nations, and to have forfeited the protection of the laws. Almost every nation in Europe, small and great, combined against the usurper. The sum of all the contin- gents to be furnished, amounted to 1,057,400 fighting men. A Bri- tish-German and a Prussian army were assembled with the utmost speed, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon was equally active, and pressed forward across the boundaries with 170,000 men, 15lh June, 1815. He first met "the gray hero" (Blucher,) at Ligny, who, after a bold resistance was forced back to Wavre. Meanwhile the army of Wellington was drawn up at Waterloo. Napoleon commenced the attack at noon, of the 18th June, with a great su- periority. After an awful conflict, the victory was fluctuating at evening, when Blucher appeared with his auxiliaries, at the right crisis, and decided tlie battle. Bonaparte fled to Paris, abdicated anew in favour of his son, and after fruitless attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to a British ship of the line; but instead of being permitted to land in England, as he wished, he was transported to tlie island of St. Helena, Oct. 16tli, and was detained as a prisoner of war till hia death, which happened 5th May, 1821. Thus "on an island rock in the midst of the ocean, died, almost unnoticed, the man, whose name but a short space before, had filled the world. His plans were wrecked ; from tlie thraldom, which he was preparing for the nations, there sprang liberty in more than one quarter of the globe. UnknoAvn to himself, he was but the in- strument of a higher power ; for his objects were not its objects. Whatever judgement posterity may pass on him, universal his- tory can view him only from this point." He was the aiUhor of several valuable institutions, and effected some propitious changes, not only in France, but in the rest of Europe ; yet they were pur- chased at too dear a price— infinitely dearer than if he had taken Washington, and not Caesar, as Iiis model. Like other great con- querors, he sacrificed the repose, liberty, and happiness of millions, to his insatiable ambition. France, having been conquered the second time, by the second taking of its capital, was required to indemnify the allies for their expenses and sacrifices. Slie was left a great and a powerful nation, little less diminished in territory tlian after tlie first pacification, which fixed her limits nearly as they were in 1789. The indemnity which the allies received, consisted chiefly in money, and in the occupancy of eighteen fortresses, by a portion of tlieir troops, to be supported at the cost of France. These troops, however, were ali withdrawn long before the term agreed on, whicli was five years. Louis XVn'h, whose reign was that of a prudent, though ineffi- cient monarch, died in 1824, and was succeeded l)y his brotlier, the Count d' Artois, under tlie appellation of Cliarles X. The princi- pal event of the reign of Louis, was tlie invasion of Spain, m 1823, SPAIN. 313 by a Fren(;h army under the Duke d' Angouleme, but without a declaration of war, in consequenr^e of the decisions of llie congress of Verona, in 1822. 'J'iiis uniustifial)le act resulted in the overthrow of the Cortes; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immedi- ately re-established. ITALIAN STATES. (JO. In the history of Italy, during modern ages, nothing important occiured till the late convulsions, occasioned by the French revolution. The Italian states shared deeply in them, as lias already appeared. It may be only added, tliat the Congress of Vienna, in 1S15, decreed the subdivision of Ita- ly, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated with arbitrary sovereignties ; and Austria is become the pre- ponderating power of Italy. SPAIN. 61. Phihp v., the monarch of Spain, at the commence- ment of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the opera- tion of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel reli- gion, aided l^y the natural indolence of the people. § In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia ; but the next year invaded Sicily, without success. 62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746, who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren of those events which usually furnish matter for histor3^ The indolent and efreminate Charles III., brother of Ferdi- nand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788. The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the family compact, between France and Spain ; the union of these nations against England, in the American war; and their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar. § In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordi- nance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended attacks by sea and land ; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boat.s,_ bomb-vessels, battering sliips, military stores, and anmiuuiiion. In- deed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the king- dom, were assembled to atlbrd re(juisite assistance, and the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line 27 314 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable force* was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the fort, and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many can- non and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would have annihilated it — all looked like a mass of fire in and around it. hut the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might have been expected, while tliat of the Spanish and French was im- mense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly in- creased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege. 63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his father, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate mo- iiarch. In 1792, he entered into a leati^ue against the Frencli repubUc, but being defeated, he united witli France against Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Fer- dinand VII. dethroned his father. The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue, afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formal- ly surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the purpose of tfefeating the claims of his son ; who, after being also obliged to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account al- ready given concerning France. § Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad, she has lost her colonies in South America ; at home, the horrors ot anarch}^ and internal war, and, at length, of despotism and the In- quisition, she has been doomed to bear. Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. lis situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty in the history of the world ; yet such has been the fact in regard to the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurp- er, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the adherents of the regular government. The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under .lohn, dulce of Braganza, in 1064, to the time of the French revolu- tion, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether. Since the latter period, tlie incidental notices which have been given of its atTairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese THE NETHERLANDS. 315 are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost fliost of what they used to hold in Asia. THE NETHERLANDS. 64. The liistory of tlie Netherlands, under the name of Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as constituting an independent nation, was the most important portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabi- tants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people, also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages preceding the French revolution, their conunerce was exceed- ed by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently extensive, and they had numerous collisions with their great rivals, the British, who Avere destined, at last, far to surpass them in riches and naval power. Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it was apparent, that the Dutch Avere falling from their high eleva- tion. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of wealtli, had, in a degiee, alfected this excellent people ; and their spirit, which would otherwise have been invincible, yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm, at the era of the revolution. The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands. Prussia, also, has shared in them ; and, indeed, they have often changed inasters. They were swallowed up eventually in the great jjolitical voitex, to which reference has been so frequently made. § No space remains for an accovmt of the stadtholders of Holland, since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period. Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was seve- ral times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it has been held by the princes of the house of Orange. 65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the French, in 1795, and the stadtlioldcr and his family were obliged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed and plundeied by the Frencli, and the melancholy spectacle was presente;'.; of ruined conmicrce and civil discord, with an 316 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides misery at home, there was loss abroad ; and Holland, rich in colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the re- rolutionary wars, in which she was involved. In 1814, the prince of Orange ^vas recalled, and Flanders being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he as- sumed the title of king of the Netherlands. § The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe, effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected with the fate of the Belgic, no less tlian the Batavian provinces, ap- peared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessa- ry, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence ; and the iraion of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by I he Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted the royal title, and gave them a free constitution. TURKISH EMPIRi:. 66. In the history of Turkey, we perceive the evidences of a rapid decUne, from about the commencement of the present period. The people have been extremely depressed, and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of Europe. Some changes have very recent!}^ been elfectcd. The discipline of the army has been improved, and the an- cient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government and its master, has been broken up by the present cHergetic Sultan. Yttt the empire, as it respects European dominions, is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious ca- reer of the Russians. From its conflicts with that j)eople, it has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its teriitories, and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia, also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms. At the commencement of this period, Achmet HI. was the reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time, ♦ By the late treaty of peace, which the SalUin ratified, on theilOth Septpm- ber, 1829, European Turkey is nominallv itreservcil in indei>enclencc ; but tlie terms of pacification were so lavuuraoie lo ivunain, liiat the !,ilter enjoys almost every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the country. TURKISH EMPIRE. 317 there liave been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet V., Osman Til., Mustapha III., Aclimet IV., Sclim III., Mustapha IV., and Mahnioud II., the present sultan. § Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious and bloody war, whieh lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a fleet whieh sailed to tlie Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of the Morea, whose inhabitaius soon rose in a general revolt, and de- clared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to the Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inllicting the severest punishment on luany of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the Turks. The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to Russia. Koutousolf greatly distinguished himself in this war, as did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bona- parte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to that country, which have been related in the history of France. Achmet, and also his successor, 3Iustapha IV., were deposed and murdered by the Janizaries. The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected with the Frencli revolution, with the exception of the war with Rus- sia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Mol- davia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was more active in Arabia, against the ^'v'echabites, than in Europe, the tranquillity of wliich it is not for its interest to disturb, if it be itself left in quiet. This, however, has not been suffered to be the case, since llie year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost inces- sant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a ruinous war with Russia. The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom, and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An insurrection broke out simultaneously, in almost every section of the territory, and has been pursued on botli sides, on the mainland, and on the sea, with a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedent- ed sulTering, (Greece has become elTedively free, by its own heroism, and the interference of Russia, France and England. The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liber- ties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia, and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the Islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, the Turks w(>re driven from the Morea and the islands, with the ex- ception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these por- tions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrasscd by the vindic- tive Turks, till lately, tlieir contest with Russia, for their own exis» fence, has absorbed every other interest. 27* 318 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. CHIINA. 67. At the commencement of this period, Yong-Tching of the twenty-second dynasty, occupied the throne of China. Two emperors of this dynasty, which is that of the Tartars, had preceded him, viz. Chun-tsi, and Kang;-hi. A revohition in China, which commenced in 1641 , broiiglit the Tartars a second time into power ; but they were not considered as set- tled, till 1649, which is properly the date of the twenty- second, or the present dynasty. 1'he successors of Yong- Tching, have been Kien-Long, and Kia-Khing. The name of the present emperor is not known to the author of this work. § In the reign of Yong-Tching, the Jesuits, who first penetra- ted into tlie empire, in 1683, were banished, and the chiistians were persecuted, not excepting those of tlie imperial family. In the reign of the same prince, also, an earthquake look place, at Pekin and its environs, such as had never before been felt in China. The first shocks were so sudden and violent, that in less than a minute, above 100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houses, and a still greater number in the surrounding country, where whole villages and towns were destroyed. - Kien-Long died in 1795, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in the sixty-second year of his reign. It is said to have been a peaceful and happy, as well as long reign. In 1793, the celebrated British embass}^, under Lord Macartney, arrived in China, with a view to the establishment of a commercial intercourse between the two countries. An account of tliis embassy, has been written by Sir George Staunton. In the estimation of Europe, Kien-Long stood at the head of the sovereigns of half civilized nations. Kia-Khing died in 1819, at the time when the famous Russian mission, under Timkowski, was approaching the celestial empire. He was the seventeenth son of Kien-Long, and reigned happily. The Russian mission, took notice that the buttons, which are so con- spicuous in the Chinese official costume, disappeared from all the caps of the loyal Chinese and Mongul officers, and that they, as well as their countrymen, adopted a white dress. This, among them, is the mourning colour, for as good a reason, doubtless, as black among the Europeans, blue among the Persians, and violet among the Turks. PERSIA. 68. Soon after the beginning of the present period, Persia, which was governed for a time by the posterity of Tamer- kine, and afterwards by the Sophis, had llic famous Kouli PERSIA. 319 Khan, or Nadir Sliali, for its sovereign. He had been the general of Abbas 111., his predecessor, whom it is supposed he poisoned, and thus supplanted the Sophia family. In 1739, he invaded India, and conquered the Mogul empire, taking Delhi, acquiring immense wealth, and committing the most horrible massacres. This monster then took the title of Emjxjror of the Indies, and returning into Persia, attempt- ed to change the religion, and strangled all the priests, after which, in self defence, he was murdered in his tent, by his own officer. After his death, Persia was desolated by civil wars, be- tween various rivals for the throne ; but the country, after being exhausted by these events, settled itself under Kerim Khan, an able prince, of obscure birth, who died in 1779. On his death, Persia again fell into confusion, till the last ot his family was overthrown, and the sovereignty regained by Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1794. He delegated the govern- ment to his sons. § The origin of the Sophis, is connected with a revohition on ac- count of religion, in the end of the fifteenth century. Hadar, or Sophi, a rehgious entliusiast, restored or estabhshed the sect of Ali in Pcrsiii, whom lie considered to be the successor of Mahomet, rather lliau Omar. The Persians liking a doctrine that distinguished them from tlieir enemies, the Turks, and being attlie same time exempted from the obligation of performing pilgrimages to Mecca, embraced it in great numbers ; and Ishmael, the son of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. All Per- sia and Armenia submitted to his arms. His descendants ruled till ihe time of Kouli Khan. Persia has been often conquered, yet the form of its government, and the state of society, have continued nearly the same through almost two thousand years. In a late war with Russia, it has lost '•onsiderable territory. INDIA. 69. The vast and populous country under the name of India, makes but an inconsiderable figure in history. Doubt- less, many subjects of an interesting nature might be found, could the modern historian have a fair opportunity of research ; but [e\v have, as yet, ajipeared, and these in so detached a manner, that a regular account cannot easily be given of the events in Indian history. The mention of this country, sepa- rately from otJiers, has accordingly been omitted till the pre- 320 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. sent period. Indeed, it has little claim on our attention, in ad outline of general history, till very modern times. The few details that can be alTorded, both of its earlier and later histo- ry, will appear below. Like most other Asiatic countries, it has been often and easily conquered, but without materially afTecting the form of its government, or its manners and cus- toms. Successive dynasties have luled over most of the ori- ental nations, but they have left the latter where they found them. So far back as authentic records carry u.s, we find among the people, little or no advances made in civilization, refinement, or knowledge: They are the same in indolence, effeminacy, and luxury, that they were two thousand years ago; not ignorant, yet without a spirit of enterpiise; accom- plished in certain arts, yet incapable of learning others. § India was but little known to the ancients. Alexander the Great, first invaded, tlioiigh he did not conquer it, except in part. The country was afterwards visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell in the partition of Alexander's empire; and Antiochus the Great, two hundred years subsequently, made a short expedition thither. The Arabians penetrated into Hindoostan, about 710, and founded an empire extending to the Ganges, which, in 1155, was usurped by the Persians. After this, followed the march of Genghis Khaii, who is said to have given the name of 3Iogul, to India ; and subse- quently, the conquering career of Tamerlane, both of whicla have been elsewhere mentioned. The descendants of Tamerlane enjoy- ed no more than the northern parts, till after 1498, when sultan Ba- ber subdued almost all the country, except the Deccan, Grezerat, and Bengal. Aureng Zeeb, who reigned between 1660 and 1707, conquered Bengal, and the greater part of the Deccan. At his death, he left an empire of great extent, and producing a revenue of more than £35,000,000 sterling. But a succession of weak princes and wicked ninisters reduced this vast empire, in the course of fifty years, to in- significance. In 1739, Hindoostan was invaded by Kouli-Klian, who anniliilated the Mogul empire. It was, however, afterwards reviv- ed, for a time, but soon fell into decay, and can now be scarcely said to exist. The British are now the principal possessors of India. Their do- minions in India have been created, first, by the establishment of factories for trade ; 2d, by wars made upon the natives by tlie resi- dents of those factories ; and lastly, by the capture of the Portuguese, Dutch, and French colonies in India. The British Indian dominions, which were extensive before, and which began as early as 1757, have been greatly increased within the last thirty or thirty-five years. A statement, somewhat recent, makes the number of square miles of territory, under British juris- diction or influence, 776,000, and tlie population not less than eighty- UNITED STATES. 321 six millions. To the above it must be added, that their Indian do- minions have been lately increased by a portion of the Burraan em- pire, in consequence of a war with the latter. The government of this immense country, is vested in a Governor General, and a council of four, appointed by the British crown, Avho reside at Calcutta. THE UNITED STATES. 70. The United States of America, which, at the be- ginning of this period, were in a colonial condition, assumed before the conclusion of it, their separate and equal station among the nations of the earth. It was with tliem an era of great events, and the change from colonies to a state of independence, though it lay in the natural course of things_ was equally unexpected and instructive to the v/orld. The colonies enjoyed a degree of tranquillity from the peace of Utrecht, to the year 1744. In that year, a war breaking out between Great Britain and France, America was involved in it, the result of which was the capture of Louis- burgh, on the island of Cape Breton, a place of gTeat strength. This conquest was effected principally by the troops of Mas- sachusetts. A small proportion of the soldiers was furnished by the other New England states. The place, however, was restored to France, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. After the peace of Utrecht, the French had built Louisburgh, as a security to their navigation and fishery, and had fortified it at a vast expense. Twenty-five years had been spent upon the fortifications, and though not entirely completed, they were considered the strong- est in America. It was deemed indispensable to take this fortress, as it afforded a convenient resort to such privateers as disturbed the New England fisheries. Accordingly, efforts were made to engage the co- lonies in the enterprise, and circulars were addressed by the govern- ment of Massachusetts to the colonies as far south as Pennsylvania for their assistance. But New England alone undertook the expedi- tion. Massachusetts furnished nearly three fourths of the troops, who were placed under the command of General Pcpperell. Their success was peculiar and almost unexpected. With some as- sistance from an Enated 3^2 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. in two years by his convivial and hospitable habits. He now Avrote' for the stage, at the solicitation of Bu'igarella, the celebrated singer, and soon found himself the object of general admiration. A very large portion of his life, he spent at Vienna, enjoying the patronage of the sovereigns of Austria. He died at the age of eighty-four. Rome was the place of his birth, Vienna of his death. His works consist of twenty-six operas, eight sacred dramas, be- sides masques, sonnets, and other poetical miscellanies. They have been translated into various languages, and possess a high reputa- tion. The sweetest pictures of virtue and morality are delineated in ■ his writings; nor is he wanting in flights of sublimity. It is said, that Metastasio believed in no poetic inspiration, or propitious sea- sons for the composition of poetry, and that he trusted to no such thing in himself, but always set himself down calmly to his prescrib- ed task, and completed it as he would any other piece of business. 14. Euler (Leonard) was born at Basil, 1707. His father intend- ed him for the ministry, but the genius of his son was bent to philo- sophical pursuits. In 1727, he went with the Bernouillis to Peters- burg. Here his publications ranked him among tlie greatest of phi- losophers. In 1740, he gained, with Maclaurin and D. Bernouilli, the prize of the academy of Paris, on the nature nf tides. In 1741, ne removed to Berlin, at the invitation of the king of Prussia, and assisted that monarch in the establishment of an academy of scien- ces. Here he produced his theory of the motions of the planets and comets, that of magnetism, &c. He died suddenly, while convers- ing with a friend, on the new planet, and as he was playing with one of his grand-children, at tea time. He was attacked by a fit of apoplexy. " I am dying," were his last words, and in a few hours after, he expired, aged 76 ysars. His mental powers were astonishing. While his fellow academi- cians asked four months to complete an important calculation, he finished it in three days, but so intense had been his application that it produced a fever, by which he lost the sight of one of his eyes. In one night, he calculated in his head, the six first powers of all the numbers above twenty, which he repeated the next day most correct- ly to his astonished friends. His erudition was immense. He read tdl the Latin classics, and had the history of all ages and nations, even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Indeed, so re- tentive was his memory, that he could repeat the whole of the /Eneid. In society he was never absent like Newton or Adam Smith ; but like Hutton and Hume, he was thoughtless and playful in his hours of relaxation; and entered into all the trifles and frivolous anecdotes with which many choose to kill time while in company. 15. Johnson, (Samuel,) surpassed by no one in literature, was born at Litchfield, 1709. He was educated at Oxford in part, the insol- vency of his father obliging him to leave the university premature- ly. Involved in poverty, and with unpromising prospects before DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 353 him, he trit'J various expedients to obtain a livelihood, but abandon- ed them successively, till in company with liis pupil Garrick, he went to London i:i quest of employment, in 1737. From this period till 1762, he was engaif^d in literary labours, under the pressure of poverty and disappoiniment. A part of the fruit of these labours were his immortal works, the English Dictionary and the Rambler. He comiiletcd his Dictionary, in the space of seven years, and re- ceived for it £1575; but owing to the urgency of his wants, the money had been advanced during the composition of the work. During tliis period he was once arrested for a debt of five guineas, from which lie was relieved b)' the kindness of Richardson. His services to literature were not, however, to pass unrewarded ; for, in 1763, he was presented by the king with a pension of £300 per annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his writini^s. The Lives of the Poets, he began in 1777, and complet- ed in 1781. This is a noble model of that description of writing, and embodies some of the choicest criticism in the English language. The inflictions of disease now began to be felt, and Johnson con- templated, not without gloomy apprehensions, the end of his earthly beinji. His fear of tliis event was excessive, for his temperament was deeply melancholic, and he did not at first perceive the true ground of confidence for sinful men. At least, his mind was not satisfied on this subject. But as he approached the tomb, darkness fled from his soul. He was soothed and cheered, he saw the proper ground of confidence, and departed with the faith and consolation o.f a christian. Johnson's works are numerous ; none are indifferent, and some are of the highest order of literary excellence. His powers of conversa- tion were admirable. The particulars of his life, character, opinions, connexions, Otc. have been minutely recorded by Strahan, Mrs. Piozzi, Boswell, and others. 16. Franklin (Benjamin) was born at Boston, Mass., 1706. In lis youth he was apprenticed to an uncle in the business of print- ;iig; and eager after knowledge, he read attentively, in the night, t\m works which he had printed in the daj'. In this way he early amassed a valuable stock of information, and as he possessed a re- flecting and philosophizing, and withal a practical sort of mind, he turned his knowledge to the best account. After he commenced business for himself in Philadelphia, he soon rose in public esteem, so that he was called t(> offices of trust in the commonwealth, and finally, in tlie contention of the coloni.?s with the mother country, he acted a most conspicuous and useful part. He was a member of the American congres"s during that eventful period. Several times in the course of his life, he went to Europe, where he was received witli the distinction due to his pre-eminent worth as a statesman and philosopher. As a public ncgociator, he effectually secured the honour and the hiterests of his country. He died governor of Penn- sylvania, full of years and glory, 1790, aged eighty-four years. His 4iscoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton. 30* 354 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. He is the father of that branch of philosoph}' which explains the laws of the electric fluid ; and the utility of llie lightning rod, will forever point him out as a temporal benefactor of the human race. His political reflections have placed him by the side of the greatest legislators of antiquity 17. Gibbon (Edward) was born at Putney, 1737, of a respectable and ancient family. He acquitted himself poorly at the university, and it would seem, from his own account, that he was not much in the fault. " The fellows," he says, " were easy decent men, who supinely enjoyed the gifts of their founder ; their days were filled by a series of uniform employments ; the chapel and the hall, the coffee-house, and the common room, till they retired weary and well satisfied, to a long slumber. From the toil of reading, or thinking, or writing, they had absolved their consciences." The student with such examples before him, might well be excused for indolence. Gibbon afterwards, when at Lausanne, paid much attention to classi- cal literature, and acquired such a perfect knowledge of the P'rench language, that he could both speak and write it with as much facility as his own. A portion of his printed works is in French. The great work wliich has immortalized Gibbon, is his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. It was in the midst of the ruins? of Rome, that he conceived the idea of this magnificent topic. This history cost him twenty years of labour. His resources for it he derived, in a considerable degree, from his own library, which con- sisted of ten thousand volumes. It is an elaborate and splendid production, and generally accurate. But his accormt of the causes of the progress of Christianity, is highly exceptionable, and he ap- pears throughout the work, a thoroughgoing skeptic and unbeliever. His sneers at the holy religion of the Saviour, very much detract from the value of the work. He received from his booksellers, eight thousand pounds for his history. Among his miscellaneous works, are a volume or two of letters, highly sjiirited and entertaining, and rich with the stores nf an elegant, cultivated, and playful mind. These, however, are also tinctured with infidelity. He wrote memoirs of himself He ac- knowledges that from the Provincial Letters of Pascal, he " learned to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on sub- jects of ecclesiastical solemnity." In describing the characteristics of his intellect, he says, "Wit I have none ; my imagination is rather strong than pleasing ; my memory both capacious and re- tentive. The shining qualities of my understanding are extcnsive- ness and penetration, but I want both quickness and exactness." He died of a dropsy, in 1794. 18. Burns (Robert) was born, 1759, at Ayr, in Scotland. Though a ploughman originally, he rose to high poetical fame. He has been cahed the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems, which are in the Scotch dialect, possess uncommon beauty, and an elegant simplicity. He no sooner appeared in print, than he was noticed and drawn from the plough, to associate with men of letters and opulence. By the exertions of his friends, a handsome sub- DISTINGUrSIlED CHARACTERS. 355 scription of nearly one thousand one hundred pounds was raised for him, and a place in the excise was obtained, and a farm rented, where he might exercise his genius, and live in comfortable affluence. But the change ruined him. He became a sot, and indulged in licentious pleasures, till his constitution gave way, and the tomb re- ceived him. His age was thirty-nine. 19. Burke (Edmund) was the son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, in Ireland, where he was born, 1730. He took his bache- lor's degree at Trinity College, Dublin, where, it is said, he was not nnich distinguished- In 1753, he came to London, and entered at i!i(" Middle Temple. With all his powers of elocution, he paid no serious attention to the law, but devoted his time principally to literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, procured for him distinction. He therefore became a public man, and in 1765, was introduced into parliament. He then joined to the character of a most elegant writer, that of a most eloquent speaker. The American M'ar, he denounced tvith great vehemence and justice, and was so liappy at length as to witness its termination. When the French revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen- tious principles, and with a view to counteract them in England, lie published his celebrated Reflections. His Anti-Gallican zeal brought on a rupture between him and his former associates — Mr. Fox and others. From this time, though he atlected to be as fond of liberty as ever, he favoured the administration of Mr. Pitt, and the court rewarded him with a large pension for his able services. By many, in his high- wrought enthusiasm in favour of the war agaiust France, he was considered as the oracle and bulwark of the country. Some time before his death, Mr. Burke retired from public life, but tliough loaded with honours, he sunk, three years after, a melancholy viclini to the recent loss of his only and dearly beloved son. His death occured in 1797. As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged. He was copious, elegant, and forcible. His pieces are nuniv^rous. His Re- flections were so interesting in the public opinion, that 18,000 copies were sold in a few weeks. 20. Washington, (George,) who has filled the world with his own, and his country's glory, was born 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in Virginia, where his father was possessed of large landed property. Washington was educated under the care of a pri\ate tutor, and after making rapid progress in mathematics and engineering, he em- braced the military profession. Here he displayed his great talents, particularly his wisdom and caution, and showed himself master of the knowledge of military stratagems. Eminent also was his per- f'oual valour, and lu; proved he could fight, whenever he cahailated upon the prospect of decisive advantage, or certain victory. He had greatly distinguished himself in several expeditions in his native state, before he was called to the command of the American army, n the war of the Revolution. How ably he sustained his country's cause, and to what a successful termination he brought the great 35Gt JfrODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X, Struggle, our readers need not be informed. As a military captain; he ranks among the greatest, whether of ancient or modern times: But in some respects, he is beyond a comparison with the most ce- lebrated heroes. He had no stain of an unhallowed ambition. A^ the close of the war, America was in his power, but instead of a dictator, he became one of her most obedient sons. Military com- mand he assumed as a duty, and whenever an opportunity offered, he hastened to resign h, that he might retire to the shades and peace of private life. Washington was the first president of the United States, and was inaugurated into that high otRce, in 1789. Having served during two presidential terms, he declined the honour which his country- men would doubtless have again conferred upon him, and sought the gratifications of his farm at Mount Vernon. The All-wise Dis- poser did not suffer him to enjoy many years in his peaceful retire- ment. He was called away irom life, rather unexpectedl)', after a few days illness, 14th December, 1799. '• He was buried with due national honours. America, in a pubhc mourning, deplored in him Ihe loss of her father, and of her friend, and a new city was erected on the borders of the Potomac, which, in becoming the capital of the United States, records to distant times, in bearing his name, the services, the patriotism, and the glories of her great and illustrious founder." Besides the qualities which distinguish the warrior and statesman, Washington was endowed witl: every virtue of humanity. His pas- sions were naturally strong, but he attained to a wonderful command of them. He was modest, condescending, and affable, and excellent in all the relations of private and domestic life. His punctuality and method in managing liis multifarious concerns, are a model to every one. And his exemplary conduct, as a Christian, and his calmness in death inspire the belief that liis memorial is on high. 21. Cowper, (William,) who died in 1800, was son of Dr. Cow- per, chaplain to George II., and rector of Berkhampstead, Herts. He was in his eighteenth year, when he left Westminster school, and as lie was destined for tlie law, he entered at the Iimer Temple, and at the age of thirty-one, was apprenticed clerk in the house of lord.s. But weakness of nerves, and the most distressing diffidence, unfitted him for public employment of any kind. He soon fell into a re- ligious melancholy, wliich arose to such a height, that in a fit of des- ;>cration, he attempted his own life, but was providentially saved from so awful an end. He, however, attained at '.ength tiie cheering and serene hope of religion. He became an author, not until he was fifty years of age. Ilis first volume of poems, appeared in 1782, and in 1785, his second volume, which raised towards liim the gene- ral voice of approbation. He afterwards executed a valuable trans- lation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in blank verse. About this time, (1787,) a similarity of literary undertakings, biouglit Cowper and Hayley the poet, into an intercourse of friend- Btup, which contimied to the la.-t peri/d of life. Hayley has com- memorated the genius and virtues of his friend, in an interesting and DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. SSTT f elegant account of his life and poetic labours. In this account, many of Cowper's letters are embodied, which, together with a volume or two, since published, place him at the head of English epistolary writing. In 1794, the king, as became the sovereign of an enlight- ened nation, honourably bestowed upon the poet a pension of three hundred pounds per annum. But the bounty came too late to be much enjoyed. Cowper was again sunk into dejection and religious melanclioly, which continued, witli lew intervals of reason and hope, till he ceased to be an inhabitant of this world. He died at the age of seventy. The Task, is Cowper's most celebrated work, and abounds in beauties of every kind. It exhibits religion, particularly, in a most' engiiging form. 22. Klopstock (Frederick TheophiUis) was bom at Quedlinburg, in 1724. He studied theology at Jena, where he wrote a great part of his Messiah, which he published in 1747. His name is immor- talized chiefly by this poem. Though at the time of its publication,, it was censured by some, it was admired by more, and Bodmer, and the .Swiss in general, were loud in its praises. Klopstock was in- vited into their country, whence he was called to Copenhagen, by llie rnost flattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. He died in 1803. His funeral was conducted with extraordinary pomp. It was attended bj^ the senate of Hamburgh, where, at the time of his decease, he was residing as Danish legate. The diplomatic body, also the clergy, men of letters, and merchants, honoured his remains by their presence. The whole constituted a procession of seventy- six coaches. At Altona, it was joined by fifty more carriages, to the village of Ottensen, wiiere he was buried, with every ceremony expressive of profound regard. As a writer, he \% characterized by a fervid imagination ; but though rich in imagery, and lofty in sentiment, he is frquently obscure and turgid. Besides the Messiah, he was the author of three tragedies, called the Death of Adam, Solomon, and David. 23. Heyne (Christian Gottlieb) was born in Silesia, 1729. He succeeded Gesner. in 1763, in the professorship of Rlietoric, at Got- tingen, where also he became secretary to the society of Sciences. He drew up a catalogue of the library at Gottingen, which made 150 folio volumes. King George HI. placed his three younger sons un- der his care, and they all treated him with the greatest respect. He died suddenly, in 1812. As an editor of the classics, he is just- ly celebrated, and his critical skill has been the admiration of the learned world. He is the first of his class. From poverty and ob- scurity, he arose to comfort and fame, and lie is an encouraging in- stance of tlie rewards which often attend diligent and well-directed mental eflTorts. 24. Staol, (Anne Louisa Germaine Necker,) a baroness, was the daughter of the celebrated M. Necker, and born at Paris, 1766. She received a liberal education, and early displayed extraordinary ta- lents. Her understanding was of a masculine character. Perhaps no female of ancient or modern times, has equalled her in native strength- 358 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X; of intellect, especially as manifested in an elegant and profound phi-, losophy. In 1786, she married baron de Stael, a Swede, by whom she had four children, two of whom only survived her. She began' her literary career, 1789, in Letters on the Writings and Character of Rousseau, and soon afterwards took an active part in the French Revolution. At Paris, she engaged in political intrigues, to which she had a great propensity. The consequence was, that she offend- ed Buonaparte, who banished her from the capital. From this, she went to Germany, next to Italy, and twice visited England. She died in 1817. Her works are highly finished productions, among which may be particularly noticed, her Corinne, or Italy, a novel, and her book on The Influence of Literature upon Society. She seems to have been a votary of the new philosophy, so called. 25. Dwight (Timothy) was born at Northampton, Mass., on the r4th of May, 1752. He was a grandson, on the mother's side, oi^ the illustrious Edwards. His great capacity was early displayed, and to his excellent mother he was peculiarly indebted, by her pre- cepts and example, for the moral and intellectual qualities with which he was so richly gifted. At the age of seventeen he took the bachelor's degree at Yale College, and two years afterwards, he was elected a tutor of that institution. In the tutorship he continu- ed six years, after which he was variously employed for several years, residing for the most part of the time in his native place. In 1783, he was settled in the Christian ministry, over the parish of Greenfield, in the town of Fairfield, Con. Here he continued twelve years, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and faithful pastor. His fame also, as a teacher of youth, (for he had previously been much engaged in that business,) was greatly ex- tended, by the academy which he established and superintended in tiiat place. During this period he published his Conquest of Canaan, and his Greenfield Hill; the one an epic, in eleven books, which was completed in his twenty-fourth year, the other a descriptive and didactic poem, in seven books. In 1795, he was elected to the presidency of Yale College, which station he retained till his death, in 1817. Under his auspices, that institution flourished in a most remarkable degree; every department was improved ; the standard of literary attainments was greatly raised ; extensive religious reformations took place ; and the num- ber of students, by the time of his death, had increased nearly three-fold. His death, which, under the visitation of a protracted and most severe disease, took place before he had reached the ordinary bounds of human life, gave a shock alike to the republic of letters and to the church of God. It was lamented as the fall of one of the great- est, best, and most useful men that have adorned the annals of this country. Since his death, his theological lectures, under the title of Theology, have been published in five octavo volumes, and have passed through several large editions, both in the United States and Great Britain. NO' American work, it is believed, has ever been more popular in 'ho^ blSTfNGUlSHED CHARACTERS. 359 latter country, than this. His Travels also, have been extensively circulated at home and abroad. 26. Buonaparte (Napoleon) was a native of Corsica, where he was born, in 1769. His education was chiefly military, thougli the wonderful powers of his mind, enabled him to appear with advan- tage on ahuost every subject which engages human attention. The times in which he entered on the stage of action, were big with events, and afforded him rare occasions for the display of his talents, and for the gratification of that inordinate ambition which was so natural to him. The revolution in France was beginning to bear down all the land marks of former ages, and Buonaparte embraced the opportunity of playing his part on that imposing theatre. By a masterly management, and by a series of successes, he rose in the military profession, till he was placed at the head of it, and till he eventually placed himself at the head, not only of France, but ol almost all the nations of continental Europe. From the time he was appointed to the command of the army of Italy, in 1796, to near the termination of the campaign against Russia, he met with an almost uninterrupted series of brilliant successes and victories, dictating peace to one nation after another, till the idea of an uni- versal empire seemed likely to be realized. From that period, though he gained two or three important victories, he met in gene- ral with sad reverses ; but it was not until nearly the whole ol Europe was allied against him, that he was crushed. Twice he abdicated the throne : in the former instance, retaining the sove- reignty of the island of Elba, whither he retired for a time, only again to seize on his dominion : in the latter instance, after his de- feat in tlie battle of Waterloo, fleeing to a British fleet with a view to protection. He was, however, exiled to St. Helena, and continued there, guarded by a body of Britisli troops, till his death, which oc- curred on the 6th May, 1821 ; having been kept in confinement be- tween five and six years. Buonaparte has received, and will continue to receive the applauses or execrations of mankind, according as they view his mighty achievements, connected with the good whicli has incidently growu out of them, or with the evil which they directly produced, and ' which the author did not care to avert from the world. GENERAL VIEWS: OR A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE PECULIAR INSTITUTIONS OF THE MIDDLE AGES, AS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, CHI- VALRY, &c.; ALSO OF THE MANNERS AND CHARAC- TER OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS; LEARNING AND THE ARTS; DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS; INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS; AND THE PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS IN RESPECT TO AG- RICULTURE, ROADS, CONVEYANCES, INTERCOURSE. EDUCATION, MANUFACTURES, iStc; AND FINALLY, OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. The Feudal Systein. Sect. 1. A peculiar system of policy prevailed aniong all the nations of Europe, at an early period. Sina^ular as it seems, and diffei-ent from the establishments of the present times, it was the general state of society, among the ancestors of modern Europe. This was the Feudal System. The Feudal System, means that tenure on which the owners of land held their possessions, viz., an obligation to perform military service, w^henever required by the cliief to whom they owed allegiance. Such is i*s nature; its origin and history, its principle and its eftects will be soon jiointed out. § It was on the following' plan, that the feudal policy was ar- ranged: — every freeman or soldier, upon receiving an allotment of conquered lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com- mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him for this pur- pose. This miUtary service was the condition upon which every one received, and the tenure by which he continued to hold his lands. It was not at first considered either a degradation or hardship. The came service which a vassal owed to his lord, was due from tb.e lord to his king. The king required those among whom the conquered lands were distributed, to repair to his standard, with a number of followers, in proportion to the extent of their respective estates, and to assist him in his expeditions. This service was due to the king; but when obedience was refused, it could be enforced, not by civil regulations^ but only by wax. Under such a system, the nobles or FEUDAL SYSTEM. 361 barons, enjoyed a subordinate sovereignty, in their own dominions ; while their vassals or dependants, were in complete subjection lo their will. 2. The origin of this iiittiiutionlies in a remote antiquity Some writers have attributed it to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest clGaul, are supposed to have divi- ded their lands among tlieir followers, on the condition of miUtary service. But we must look for it to a remoter source. It is consonant with the usages of all warlike, barbarous na- tions, among whom we remark a strict sulwrdination of the meml)ers of a tribe, to their chief or leader. This subordi- nation affords the clue to the general policy, and so far as the history of it can be traced, it is a fact, that Julius Caesar noticed it among the Gaulish nations, before the Christian era. § With the Ganls, this subordination was peculiarh^ strong, and subsisted not only between the soldiers and their commander, but between tiie inferior towns or villages, and the canton or province to whicJi they belonged. When in peace, every man cultivated liis land, free of all taxation, •and subject to no other burden, than that of military service, i-equi- red by his chief. "Wlien the province was at war, each village, thougli taxed to furnish only a certain number of soldier.s, was bound to send, on tlie day appointed for a general muster, all the males capable of bearing arms, from whom the rated number was selected by the chief of the province. This relation between soldiers and their commander, sub- sisted among the Franks, as well as among the Gauls. It subsisted among the Romans also, who, to check the inroads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests, were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. To each oflicer in those garrisons, it v/as customary to as- sign a portion of land, as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts were named benficia or fiefs. § When the Franks overran Gaul, a great part of the land was found ill the hands of the Romans, held by this tenure, as the rest was found so held by the Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to the same policy, would naturally adopt it, in the partition of their • new conquests, each man being boimd to service, on receiving his share of the land. The fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to liim on the death of the vassal. But the possession of fiefs, under Ihe imbecile Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency ■?.nd security of property. - It was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should ' capable of being given out in portions, and that the vassal hitrt- O JL 362 GENERAL VIEWB. self, holding his lands of the sovereign, by the tenure of militafj; service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving to them parts of his estate, to be held on the same condition, of fol- lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord, and paying, as a symbol of tlieir subjection, a small annual present. 3. The piinciple of policy upon which this singular estab- lishment was founded, was self-protection. The new settler? in a country, wished to secure themselves, not only against the attacks of the inhabitants w^iom they had expelled from their possessions, but especially against the inroads of fresh invaders. But unfortunately for the peace of society, it was attended w4th many evils, especially after the land had be- come unalienable property. The effects, therefore, of the feudal system, demand some notice in this place. It was natural, in those disorderly times, when the authority of government, and the obligation of general laws, were extremely weak, that the superior or over- lord snould acquire both a civil and criminal jurisdiction over his vassals. Such power, in their hands, must have been an en-^ gine of oppression. They moreover exercised the privilege of coining money, and carried on wars against their private enemies. So situated, they disdained to consider themselves as subjects ; and the con.-cquence was, that a kingdom Avas broken into as many separate principalities, as it contained powerful nobles ; and the occasions of war thus becan)e innu- merable. § Every country in Europe was wasted, or kept in continual alarm, by the feuds of the barons, and in every country, vast multitudes of castles and places of strength, were erected for the security of des- potic chieftains, against domestic invasions. In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was at its height, not less than one thousand castles, with their depen- dencies, had been erected in the southern part of the Island. Pri- vate retaliation and revenge were the only law in the minds of proud and ferocious chieftains. The edicts of kings and magistrates were trampled on. A baron who was provoked by injury, met his adver- sary at the head of his vassals, in hostile array, and sought redress only by his sword. The most numerous and useful part of the com- munity, the common people, were no better thUn slaves, and though not chained by the leg, as was the fact with slaves among tlie Ro- mans, yet they were transferred from one lord to another, like cat- tle, and the implements of husbandry. They were styled serfs or illeins, a name implying their servitude and degradation. In this state of thing.s, neitlier the iimocent could be protected, nor the guilty punislied, by the regal authority. A general anarchy pre- CHIVALRY. 363 called ; the feelings of the people became familiarized to violence and blood, to despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral im- provement was suspended, the arts and sciences were banisiied, the light of Christianity was obscured, and only the stern and rough virtues were nourished. Never was there a period in the annals of Europe so filled with atrocious actions, as tiiat which intervened from the seventh to the eleventh century, the era of the prevalence of the feudal system. At tlie commencement of the twelfth century, this unhappy state of things began to abate, and government, laws and manners, exert- ed a degree of influence on tlie minds of men. Chivalry produced a propitious effect, and a variety of other causes, operated to check the licentiousness of the barons, and to soften their ferocity. Per- haps no one cause was more efficacious, than the establishment of standing armies, in the fifteenth century. This engine, wielded by kings, crushed tlie power of the nobles, and reduced them to order and obedience. The first monarch who adopted this measure, was Charles VII. of France, in tlie year 1445 ; but so opposed was it to the genius of feudal- ism, that it required the greatest boldness to carry it into execution. Charles, however, did not shrink from the attempt. He retained a large body "of forces in his service, and appointed funds for their regular payment. The principal nobility soon repaired to his stan- dard ; and as the feudal militia were only occasionally called out, they were in tim.e regarded with contempt by regular soldiers. This example was followed by the politic Henry VIZ., of England. Chivalry. Sect. 1. Nature, Origin, and First Appearance. — Chivahy, or knighthood, was an institution common to Eu- rope, during tlie middle ages, having principally for its ob- ject, the correction of those evils that were peculiar to the state of society which then existed. The feudal system at that time prevailed, the disorders flowing from which, con- nected with the ignorance and barbarism of the people, ren- dered some such institution as ciiivalry, necessary, provided a better could not be found. Considered in this aspect, chival- ry was co-existent with feudalism. It was designed as a cor- rective of feudal despotism, injustice, and licentiousness. It sought to support, the weak, to protect the oppressed, to re- strain the lawless, to refine the rude, to avenge wrongs, and, especially, to maintain the rights, and defend the purity of the female sex. In its elements, it combined bravery, honour,, courtesy, love, and rehgion. 364 GENERAL VIEWS. § In the origin of the term chivalry, or knighthood, reference wasi had to the nature of its duties, which were performed on horseback. Hence, the languages which were formed on a Latin basis, derived' their phrases descriptive of mihtary duties on horseback, from cabal- his, a horse ; cabillarius, a horseman ; and cabillare, to ride — the letter b, being pronounced Uke v, in the south of Europe. In all languages of Teutonic origin, the same circumstance was expressed by words literally signifying service. The German knight, the Sax- on cniht, are synonymous with the French cavalier, the Italian ca- valiere, &c. The word, rider, also designated the same person. Chivalry was, in many respects, a beautiful and beneficial form ot manners, though in others, it was highly objectionable, as will ap- pear in the sequel. We must not, however, confound the extrava- gant knight-errantry of the old romances, or even the natural chi- valry common to most nations, with the gallant and Christian chi- valry of Europe, which constituted a military barrier against oppres- sion. That was, in some degree, a moral institution, which sought to make travelling safe, and the intercourse of society refined and liberal, though it would have been more moral, had it not itself em- ployed violence. Chivalry had its origin in that state of ^;ociety in which the feudal system arose; and regarded particularly in a mi- litary light, we find it a part of tlie earliest condition of most of the European norld. Its foundation, in fact, was the an- cient character of Europe, and it grew into the form and con sistency which it at length assumed, from the following prac- tices common among the early Europeans, particularly the Germans, viz. from receiving their weapons in an assembly of the nations associating in clans, protecting and revering women, and performing acts of service when atiection and duty commanded them. The exact time when these elements were framed into that system of thought and action, which we call chivalry, it is impossible to tell. Knighthood was certainly a distinc- tion of society before the days of Charlemagne. But it want- ed religion. When it began to be marked by religious rites, it formed a regular institution. Its union with religion, took place somewhere betvv'o.en tbc nintli and eleventh centuries. Its character was raised and perfected by the crusades. § Religious rites were not used in the days of Charlemagne, for he girt the military sword on his son, Louis the Good, according to the rude principles of ancient Germanic chivalry ; and a century after- wards, we read of the English Edward the Elder, clothing Athel- stan, in a soldier's dress of scarlet, and fastening around him a gir- dle, ornamented with precious stones, in which a Saxon sword, in a CHIVALRY. 365 sheath of s.)kl, was inserted. In the century following, however, during thr reign of Edward the Confessor, we meet with the story of Hereward, a vi'ry noble Anglo-Saxon youth, being knighted by the abbot of Petei ciorough. He made confession of his sins, and after he had received absolution, he earnestly prayed to be made a legitimate knight. Knighthood was always, and essentially, a personal distinction, and in this respect, different from nobility. The nobility of Europe were the lords of particular districts of a country, and although ori- ginally they lield their dignities only for life, yet their title soon be- came hereditary. Every person of noble birth, was required, when twelve years old to take a solemn oath, before the bishop of his diocese, to defend the op[)ressed, &c. Tliis was ordained at the Council of Clermont, in the eleventh century ; thus giving a public and sacred sanction to the hunianitit's of cliivalry. But besides the nobility, others might be promoted into tlic order, by meritorious valour. Almost the whole of Europe was affected witli the chival- ric spiiit. It flourished most, however, in France, Spain, and (uMinany, and more early developed itself as a fixed princi- ple of action, in these countries than in others. England, at length, was not imdistinouishcd for its chivalry. 2. Desi'rces of CUirnlnj. — There were three degrees in the chivalry of Europe : — knights bamiarets, knights, and esquires. A soldier must have passed through the ranks of esquire, and knight, before he could be classed with the knights ban- narcts. That high. dignity could be possessed only by a k'niglit, who had served for a length of years in the wars, and witli distinction, and who had a considerable retinue of men- at arms, and other soldiers. § The privileges of a knight bannaret, were considerable. He did hot tigiit under the standa«-d of any baron; but he formed his sol- diers under his own. The baron and bannaret, as soldiers, were of equal authority. The s(!cond and most numerous class of chivalric heroes, consisted of knights. A general qualification for knighthood, was noble or gentle birth, which, in its widest signification, expressed a state of inde])endence. § There was no fixed amount of estate necessary for knighthood. It was, however, a costly dignity, and many were obliged to forego it, on account of its expenses. Tiiough it was often bestowed as an ornament of custom on the nobility and gentry of a state, it never altogether lost its character of being a reward of merit. Men-at-arn'is, and other soldiers, were often exalted to tlie class of kniehts. 31* 366 GENERAL VIEWS. The last class of chivalry, the squirehood, was composed of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knight, and superior to the men-at-arms. Many of them, on various accounts, remained in this station, during all their military career. § It was a maxim in chivalry, that a man had better be a good esquire, than a bad knight. MiUtary honours could be reached by the squirehood, as well as by the knighthood of a country. 3. Education of a Knight. The education of a knight in the family of a feudal lord, generally commenced at the age of seven or eight years. The place of education was sometimes a school appointed by the nobles of the country, but most frequently the nobleman's own castle, or that of some brother nobleman, served. § The duties of the boy, for the first seven years of his service, were chiefly personal. He learned the dignity and beauty of obedi- ence, being made to feel it a privilege to attend the lord and his lady in the hall, and follow them in their exercises of war and pas- time. The intellectual and moral education of the boy was given by the ladies of the court. From the lips of the ladies, the gentle youth learned both his catechism and the art of love. He was directed to regard some one lady of the court as the type of the future mistress of his heart ; she was the object of all his hopes and wishes ; to her he was duti- ful, faithful, and courteous. The ingredients of religion, love, and war, were strangely com- bined in chivalry. Surrounded by noble females and valorous cavaliers, the first impressions of the futnre knight were on these subjects ; and he was taught to regard chivalry and its honours, as the most noble object of ambition. The military exercises of the youth were not many ; and they were important ordy as they w^ere the earliest ideas of his life. During the first seven years, he was called a valet damoiseau, or a page — in the old English jjallads a child. § During this period, he was taught to leap over trenches, to laimch or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, in his walk to imitate the measured tread of the soldier, and in mock battle to fight agamst stakes or his youthful companions. At the age of fourteen, he received the title of armiger, or esquire ; and though he was then authorized to carry arms, yet his personal domestic service continued for some time. His education was not completed, till the age of twenty -one. § The esquire prepared the refection in tlie morning ; and at dinner, he, as well as the pages, attended at the table, and presented to the lord and his guests the water used for washing. The knight CHIVALRY. 367 and the squire never sat before the same table, not even in the case of father and son — so strict was the principle of chivalric subordina- tion. The squires often made tlie beds of their lords. Each one had his respective duties — one was the squire of the chamber, or the chamberlain, and another tlie carrying squire. But their many duties cannoi here be described. Spenser, in the following stanza, beauinully paints the domestic squire discharging some of his duties. " There fairly them receives a gentle squire, Of mild demeanor ant! raTe courtesy Right cleanly clad in comely sad attire ; In word and deed that show'd great modesty, And knew his good to all of each degree, Hight reverence. He them with speeches meet Does faire entreat, no courting nicety, But simple, true, and eke untained sweet. As might become a squire so great persons to greet." Jn the life of a squire, the anxieties of love, and military exerciser- were commingled. Chaucer delighlfuhy paints the softer employ- ment. " vSinging he was or floyting all the da\'. He was as fresh as is the month of May, He could songs make, and well endite, Just and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write ; So hole he loved, that by nighterdale* He slept no more than doth the nightingale." He practised every mode by which strength and activity could be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst, heat and cold, in their extremes, and to plunge all covered Vi'ith dust into 'he running stream. He accustomed himself to wield the sword, to thrust the lance, to strike with the axe, and to wear armour. But iio exercise was more important than that of horsemanship. Of the true knight, it could be said, " Wei could he sit on horse and hit ride." 4. IncuigurcUion of a Knight. The full dignity of knighthood, was seldom conferred on a squire befoie the age of twenty-one. The ceremonies of inauguration were so lemn. The preparation consisted in prayer, confession, and fasting— was accompanied by clothing iiim with a white dress, which was considered symbolical of tlie purity of his new character ; and by throwing over him a red garment^ whicli was to mark his resolution to shed his blood in the cause of heaven. These and other rites were a necessary prehminary. * Night-time< 368 GENERAL VIEWS. A church, or hall of a castle, was generally the place of inauguration. The candidate first offered his sword to the priest, who blessed it. Before it was returned to him, he took his oaths of chivalry. § He solemnly swore to defend the church, to attack the wicked, to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre- serve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood, even to the last drop, in behalf of his brethren. The young warrior having kneeled with clasped hands before the supreme lord in the assembly, (a purely feudal ceremony,) and having declared that his only object is to maintain religion and chivalry, was now invested with all the exterior marks of the order. The knights and ladies of the court attended on him, and delivered to him the various pieces of his harness. § The armour varied at different periods and in different countries, but some matters were of jiermanent usage. The spurs were al- ways put on first, and the sword was belted on last. The concludiug sign of being dubbed or adopted into the order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord to the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the body, the neck, whereon it was struck. The lord then pro- claimed him a knight, in the name of God and the saints § The ceremonies of inauguration, which have been concisely des- cribed, were gone through when knighthood was conferred on great and public occasions of festivity, but they often gave place to the power of rank, and the necessity of circumstances. Princes were exempted from the laborious offices of page and squire. Men who were distinguished soldiers were often adopted into chivalry on the eve of a battle, as it was considered that a sense of their new honours would inspire their highest gallantry. 5. EqiiipmeHt of a knight. The horse of the cavalier was his peculiar piide, and skill in the management of the anitnal was a distinction deemed worthy of every effort. The knight bore about with him a variety of the instruments of death. His chief oll'ensive weapon was the lance. His otlier offensive weapons were a sword, (a favourite weapon,) dag- ger, battle-axe, and maces. His defensive armour Avas also various. He had his shield, helmet with its visor and l)eaver, and body harness made of plates of steel, to which dillerent names were given according to the different parts of the body which it covered. A long flowing rol)e, reachir)g down to the heels, constituted the dress of the knight. CHIVALRY. 369? Some of the defensive armour was so constructed, that it could be rolled up, and carried by the squire on horseback. It was too rigid, heav)^, and cumbersome to be worn for a long time togethefj though tlie kniglits were often subjected to that inconvenience. When they were completely armed, no weapon could reacli the bo- dy. It was not often tliat a knight could be killed, except by being unhorsed. In tliat event, a tliin dagger, which was worn by each assailant, was employed. This could be thrust into the body between the plates. It is only in romance, tliat we read of swords cutting through that solid front of iron, by wliich a kniglit was protected. The only way in which deatli could be inflicted, Avlicn he was mounted, was, by thrusting a lance through the small liole in the visor. Such a mode of death was not very common, for the cavalier always bent his face almost to the saddle-bow, when lie cJiarged. He might, however, be unhorsed, in the shock of meeting. In that case, he was at the mercy of the foe, who was in the better condition. The horse of the knight was defended by mail, or plate, agreeably to the fashion of the age. His head, chest, and flanks, were either^ wholly or partially protected, and sometimes, on occasions of pomp, lie was clad in complete steel. 6. The Chlvalric Character. — in the clinractcr of a true knio^ht, were combined many virtues and noble endowments. It necessarily included, also, some prominent defects. Co77i- panionship in Arms, was a sacred principle, and a knight woidd fly to the relief of his companion in arms, even were his services demanded by a female, at the time. His valour was connected with modesty, and both were, in the highest de- gree, conspicuous. In chivalric war, much humanity was displayed, though in contentions of a different kind, it was unliappily suppressed. As a knight fouglit for the church, he was intolerant, and towards infidels and heretics he ceased to exhibit his \vonted forbearance. His sense of honour was keen, and his independence was consistent with discipline and submission. His whole course was dictated by a regard to religion. His devotions were frequent. Religion entered into all tlic observances of chivalry, but it was only the religion of the times — a form rather than spirit — too corrupt to be a safe guide. The knight, finally, was characterized by a very re- markable fidelity to obligations, by generosity, and by court § Companionship in arms, was the strongest tie in chivalry : " From this day forward ever mo, Neither fail, either for weal or wo, To help other at need. Brother, be now true to me, And I shall be as true to thee. 370 GENERAL VIEWS. Such a thirst for renown in arms, for the display of valiancy, had; a knight, that he would sometnues attempt the very height of he- roism, and engage in the execution of impossibilities. It was this passion, which dictated many of his vows. Certain young l^nights of England, during the French wars of Edward III., each bound up one of his eyes with a silk riljbon, aiid swore before the ladies and the peacock, that he would not see with both eyes, until he had ac- omplished certain deeds of arms in France. The valiancy of chivalry was finely chastened by humility : " And of his port, as meek as is a maid.' Every hero, as well as Chaucer's knight, demeaned himself in all, things, as if God solely had controlled ; and in the divine name, used his arms, without vaunting or praising himself; for praise was regard- ed as blame, in the mouth of him who commended his own actions. The clemency of chivalry was often shown, especially in sparing inferior people. As a knight could gain no honour in sla}''ing an un- armed peasantry, so he seldom attacked one of this class; and even an enemy of his own order, if prostrate and supplicating, was not often despatched. Still, he was ruthless towards the infidel and heretic. He knew no other argument than the sword, to gainsay the infidel, and he was ready, at all times, to " thrust it into the belly of a heretic as lar as it would go." Of his moral virtues, perfect fidelity to a promise was very con- spicuous ; for his nobleness disdained any compromise with conve- nience or circumstances. However absurd the vow, still he was compelled to perform it, in all the strictness of the letter. Knights were renowned for their com'tesy ; and this principle, like every other blessing of modern times, had its origin in the Christian religion. The world thought, that courtesy and chivalry accorded together, and that villanous and foul words, were contrary to an order which was founded on piety. A knight was always spoken ol as gentle. The following anecdote curiously marks this quality of chivalric manners. The wife and sister of Du Gueselin, were once living in a castle, which was attacked by a force of Normans and Englishmen. The success was great and important; but public in- dignation was excited against the invaders, because they had trans- gressed the license of war, in being guilty of the uncourteous action of surprising and distui'bing ladies while they were asleep. 7. Every day life of the Knight. — The military and mo- ral qualities of knighthood, were fostered by all the circum- stances of chivalric life, even those of a peaceful nature.- Their common life was one of amusement and revelry, in which the images of tlieir favourite pursuits were easily re- called to their minds. They passed most of tlieir hours of peace, in the diversions of falconry and chess-playing, in lis tening to the minstrels, who sung the feats of chivalry, in read; CHIVALRY. 371 ing romances, and in conversation, which turned ahnost wholly on love and war. Entertainments, also, at each other's castles, were frequent ; in these, the utmost merriment prevailed. §The minstrel's lay, the poetry of the troubadour, the romance of the learned clerk — all spoke of arms and amours — of the duties and sports of cliivalry. Every baronial kniglit had his gay troop of min- strels, that accompanied him to the field, and afterwards chanted in his hall the martial deeds which had renowned his family. At their entertainments, the knights were wont to repose on couches, or sit on benches. The guests were placed two by two, and only one plate was allotted to each pair ; for to eat on the same trencher or plate with any one, was considered the strongest mark of friendship or love. Peacocks and plieasants were the peculiar food of kniglits, on great and festival occasions. S. The Chivalrlc lady-love. The females of chivalry, possessed a distinct and peculiar character. The lady, like the knight, was regularly trained up to become, at length, the mistress of his affections. Siie was commonly educated in the castle of some knight or baron, her father's friend. One of the first duties or accomplishments which she learned, was that of courtesy, and condescension to her inferiors. In those days, her mental education was not of a high polish. Some knowh)dge of medicine was deemed desirable, as chivalry re- quired lier to take care of her wounded knight. Her dress was required to be plain, except on festive occasions. § The only tasks on her intellect, were to repeat the prayers of the church, to sing a brief piece of poetry, or the longer romaunt. She could also play on the harp. Sometimes the graver sciences were introduced into female education. There were solitary instances, m which might be applied what was sung of Felice, the daughter of the earl of Warwick. " l^usy they (her masters) were that maiden to leer, And they lered her of astronomy Of armsmetrick, and of geometry ; Of sophistry she was also witty, f)f rhetorick and of other clergy; I /earned slic was in musick, Of clergy was her iwne Hkc." In tliat singular system of manners which we call chivalric, lo^C; next to religion, was the most influential principle. In many instan - ces, it was doubtless the most influential. The true knight was 'a more perfect personification of love, than poets and romancers ever dreamed. The fiiir object of his passion, reigned in his heart, with absolute dominion. Every gallant spirit of " gentle" Gower's days, the reign of E?] 'ward III., said of liis mistress, '372 GENERAL VIEWS. "What thing she bid me do, I do, And where she bid me go, I go." Chivalric love, had both its absurdities and impieties. Knights were not satisfied to fight in defence of the ladies, and to joust in their honour, but from the extravagance of their love, each knight maintained at the point of liis lance, that his mistress surpassed all other ladies in beauty. Cliivalric love, became a foe to the distictions of wealth and rank, and many a knight, whose whole fortune lay in his prowess, gained the hand of high born beauty. In chivalry there was always a generous consideration foi woman. Hence proceeded the honorable maxim, that it was not just or courteous to take ladies in war. § In the wars of the Guelphs and the Gltibellines, the emperor Conrad, as an offended sovereign, had refused all terms of capitula tion to the garrison of Winnisberg ; but as a courteous knight, ho permitted the women to depart with such of their precious effects as they themselves could transport. The gates of the town w^re thrown open, and a long procession of matrons, each bearing a hus- band or a father, or brother, on her shoulders, passed in safety through the applauding camp. 9. Totirnanients and Jousts. Tournaments and jousts, were both the offspring and the cherislier of chivalry. No amusentent or exercise was so delighted in by gallant knights and beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobility, and the gentry, us these images of war. They were often splendid beyond description, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, ' and important victories. Tournaments were military exercises, performed by two parties of cavaliers, with hurl less weapons. § If the occasion was high and solemn, it was aunounced at the courts of different sovereigns, l)y heralds, sent by the king who pro- posed to hold the martial exercise ; and all those who valued their kniglithood, together with respected dames and maidens, were invi- ted to repair to the appointed city, and prove tlieir chivah-y. Not knights alone, but kings and princes, pricked over the plain in gal- lant and graceful array ; for tliough they were not expected to stoop to many kniglitly observances, they were eager to prove their chi- valric character, by deeds of valour. For this they overlooked tlie pride of station Not every kjiight might tourney. He must have been guilty oi no unchivalric deportment. He must never have blasphemed God, or otfended tlie ladies ; must never have been false, ungrateful, or deserted a brother-in-arms in battle. The rules of tourneying, liow- cver, were sometimes evaded. Young knights, particularly, often concealed their names, and came in disguise. The place of cotnbat was, the lists, a large space, surround Chivalry — a Tournament. P- 372 Washington taking the oath of office. ScmE— Front of the old Federal Hall, New- York. /'. 33-1. CHIVALRY. 373 ed by ropes or railing, in single or double rows. Sometimes there was a wooden division in the lists or area, to prevent the horses of the adverse knights from careering against one another. The ladies were the supreme judges of tournaments ; but they generally deputed their power to a knight, who was cal- led on this account, the Knight of Honour. They some- times proposed the rewards, such as a diamond, ruby, &c. But the meed of renown was oftcner military. § Wlien the knights reached the hsts, their arras were examined by the constable, in order tliat only hurtless ones miglit be used. But, notwithstanding this regulation, there existed a strong disposi- tion, in many instances, to convert tovu'naments into real battles. Victory at a tournament was scarcely less glorious than victory in the field. The ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled mul- titude, acclaimed the conqueror. The practice of converting the elegant tournament into a deadly fray, occasioned an oatli to be im- posed on all knights, that they would frequent tournaments, solely, to learn military exercises. The chivalric bands were so well poised, that one encounter seldom terminated the sport. The lances were broken, horses and knights overthrown, and the tide of victory flowed to either end of the lists. The air was rent with names of ladies. Each knight called upon his mistress to assist him, thinking that there was a magic in beauty, to sustain his strength and courage. Death sometimes, though not often, ensued. It was on the whole a hazardous and dissolute amuse- ment. Tlie revelry whicli followed, lasted often two or three days. The court of Rome was justly hostile to tournaments, and thunder- ed its denial of christian sepulture to those who fell in a tilting ground ; but still the practice went on. Of jousts, there were two sorts ; the joust to the utterance, and the joust of peace. The former expressed a single com- bat between two knights, who were generally of dififerent .nations, Tn strictness of speech, the judicial combat was a joust to the utterance ; and so was every duel, whether lawful or unlawful ; but with such jousts, chivalry has no direct con- cern, though the absurd and iniquitous practice of modem duelling, grew out of its principles. § The joust was not so favourite an amnsemont as the tournament, for baronial pomp was not necessary to its display ; often was it held Without a store of bright ladies distributing the prize. The joust of peace often took i)lace at the conclusion of a tournament. A knight who had acquired honour, would ride about the lists, and call on the siurounding cavaliers, b)' their valiancy, and for the love of the ladies, to encounter hiip 32 3/4 GENERAL VIEWS. in three strokes of tlie lance. The joust was more fieqneiit/- ly held at a place expressly appointed for the occasion. The mode of combat was always specifically described. .Tousts possessed a more martial character than tourna- ments. Such usually was the dexterity of the combatants, that the encounter of the lance was seldom fatal. § Through the long period of the middle ages, tournaments and jousts were the elegant pastimes of Europe and Greece. Knight- hood had its triumph over classical institutions, when the games of chivahy were played in the circus of Constantinople. In the West they survived chivalry itself, whose image they had reflected and brightened, for changes in the military art, did not immediately af- fect manners ; and the world long clung with fondness to those splendid and graceful, though dissipating shows which had thrown light and elegance over the warriors and dames of yore. 10. Orders of Knighthood. Chivalry had its various orders, or associations of cavaliers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a benevolent character. Ten of them remain to the present time. Most of the present orders are otherwise than of a chivalric origin. The orders of chivalry were of two general descriptions, viz. religious and military. Tliey extended over various countries, particularly the Holy Land, England, Spain, France, and Italy. Some of the rehgious orders were those of the Templars, St. James, Calatrava, Alcantara, the Lady of Merc)^, and St. Michael. In the re- ligious orders, the cavaliers were bound by the three great monastic vows, of chastitj", poverty, and obedience. The military orders, were imitations of the religious. Those of the Garter, th? Golden Fleece, and St. Michael, in France, were clearly of c.Hivalric origin. Many others tiiat now ex- ist, cannot boast cf such a descent. All these institutions had particular rules b} which they professed to be governed, but they varied with the spirit of the times. They need not here be recited. § Our limits will not permit us to describe the character and pro- gress of chivalry in the several countries in which it flourished, or to detail the exploits of renowned individuals. It belongs to this work to sketch only the general features of the system, which has been done. It remains now to notice the merits and effects of chivalry, IL Merits and Effects of Chivahy. Chivalry was, m many respects, a whimsical institution ; but it well suited the period in which it rose and flourished, and seems to have CHIVALRY. 375 been needed in those ages. It was probably the best system that could have been adopted to aid the improvement of so- ciety, at a time when Christianity was so deeply corrupted. The principles of this religion, as it was then understood and practised, were incorporated in it ; and much of (he good which it included, was the fruit of the Gospel. Its theory, however, was in several resjiects indefensible, and its practice was larely ever so good as its theory. Still we find much to admire m chivalry, considering the character of the nations among whom it prevailed. § " The patriarchal system of manners, shaped and sanctioned by Christianity, formed llie fabric of chivalry ; and romance, witli its many coloured hues, gave it light and beauty. The early ages of Europe gaily moved in all the wildness and vigour of youth ; imagi- nation fresliened and heightened every pleasure ; the world was a vision, and life a dream. The common and palpable value of an ob- ject, was never looked at, but every thing was viewed in its connec- tion witli fancy and sentiment. Prudence and calculation were not suffered to check noble aspirations ; duties were not cautiously re- garded with a view to limit the performance of them ; for every principle was not only practised with zeal, but the same fervid wish to do well, lent it new obligations. From these feelings proceeded all the graceful refinements, all the romance of chivalry." This institution fostered civilization, and was therefore needed in a barbarous age. It refined tlie manners, and added harmony to social intercourse, where otherwise little but rudeness and misrule would have prevailed. It contributed to the safety and order of society, inasmuch as it thinned the ranks of robbers and ruffians. It infused kind and beneficent feelings into the bosom, and enjoined external propriety of conduct, and courtesy of behaviour. It culti- vated a humanity which was not limited by kindred or country. As chivalry was spread over Europe, it formed mankind into one band, one order of men. The features of war were softened by its influence. It taught the warrior gentleness and clemency. A nice sense of honour and a scrupidous regard of truth were fostered by its maxims. It was a principle, as well as a feeling and a love in chivalry, to guard and cheri.sli woman, and many of its amenities proceeded from her mild influence. In fine, it corrected the peculiar evils of the feudal system, haughtiness, tyranny, oppression, and misrule. NotwithstandinfT tliese beneficial effects of cliivalry, it must be acknowledged that other effects attended it, which may well qualify tiie language of praise. Still we are willing to believe, that it did more good than mischief, in a secular view. It has. however, been more condemn .'d than lauded, and every one knows the exquisite ridicule which has been tlirown upon it, or rather upon its extrava- gancies, by th." iiiimitaljle author of Don Quixote. It resulted in 376 GENERAL VIEWS, some degree m looseness of morals, in respect even to the intercourse?' of the sexes ; the purity of which it so highly professed to regard and defend. Instances of gross violence and injustice in the con- duct of knights, too often appeared ; and it nourished feelings of re- sentment and the love of war. While it stript war of many features of savageness by the civilities and courtesies with which it surrounded it, it at the same time nourished that proud and sensi- tive spirit, falsely called honour, which suffers no wound, without seeking redress in the private duel. These, it is thought, are mostly exceptions to its general spirit and tendency ; and as to individual persons, it is doubtless too true, that recreant knights may be found, on the same principle, that false pro- fessors may be found of the only true rehgion on earth, viz., the im- perfection of human nature. A witty old English author says, that " errant knights were arrant knaves." And another remarks, that "their horses groan under the burden, not of weapons, but of wine; not with lances, but cheeses ; not with swords, but with bottles ; not with spears, but with spits." This is spleen. It is difficult to define the precise period of the duration of chivahy. It was a hght which was kindled in a dark age, and it went out when that age was beginning to be brightened with superior himinaries. Viewing tke subject in its great and leading bearings, chivalry may be said to be coeval with the middle ages o^ Europe, and all its power ceased when new systems of warfare were matured, when the revival of letters was complete and general, and the reformation of re- ligion gave a new subject for the feelings and thoughts of men. Romances. A peculiarity of the middle ages, connected with chivalry and subservient to it, was the production of Romances. These were books which describe an extravagant kind of chivalry, and were then read with singular avidity, and indeed con- stituted the principal reading of the people. They were so called, from the language in which they were written ; Ro- mance, a mixture of the Gallic and Latin. They first ap- peared about the middle of the twelfth century, and their ori- gin is to be traced to the Provenjal Troubadours, a sort of story tellers and bards in Provence. In these productions, it has been observed, appeared the first dawnings of modern Uterature. § The more ancient romances did not record contemporary events^ since fiction or exaggeration hero would liave been detected. Their PILGRIMAGES. 377 subjects were an ideal chivalry. They depicted not only knigiits, settinilth and effemi- nacy. In the time of Trajan the custo;.) was confiut;d to the rich INCIDENTS AND rUUlOVS PARTICULARS. tOl and luxurious. It was gradually adopted by the meanest of the people. 6. Afler the age of Tiberius, the decay of agriculture was felt in Italy, and it was a just subject of complaint that the life of the Roman people depended on the accidents of the winds and waves. 7. In regard to habitations, our English ancestors in early times had few luxuries or even conveniences. Down to the reign of Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns had no chiimieys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the windows. Tlie houses were mostly built of walling, plastered over with clay ; the floors were of earth, strewed, in families of distinc- tion, with rushes; and the beds were oidy straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better than his subjects, for in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, " to exumino every niglit the straw of the king's bed, that no dag- gers might be concealed therein." A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were " marvellously altered" for tlie worse in England ;" the multitude of ciiimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange of treene platters into ]>ewter, and wooden spoons into silver and tin, and he comphuns bitterly that oak instead of willow was em- ployed for tlu; building of houses. In the middle ages the fires in tlie houses were made in a cavity in the centre of tlie floor, over which there generally was an open- ing in the roof for the escape of the smoke ; and when the fire was out, or the family retired to rest, Ihfe place in which it was made was closed by a cover. In those days a law was almost universally established on the continent, that fires should be extinguished, and the family be all at home, at a certain hour in the evening, which was notified by the ringing of a bell ; that, in England, was called the corfeu, curfew. 8. In 1100, an inundation of the sea happened which overflowed the lands of Godwin, earl of Kent, called Godwin's Sands, to this day. Of these shoals the following account was given not many years since. " Upon our journey to Ramsgate," says Mr. Snieaton, civil engineer, " having visited the Godwin Sands, in order to ex- amine their nature, we found that though, like quicksand, they were clean and unconnected, yet they lay so close that it was diflicult to work a pointed iron bar into them more than to the depth of six or seven feet. 9. The spirit of the middle ages is shown in the following instan- ces of wild magnificence or barbarity. On a certain occ;i«ion, when the nobility of Languedoc met in 1174, the countess of Urgel sent to the meeting a diadem, worth 2000Z., to he placed on the head of a wretched butfoon. The count of Thoulouse sent a diadem also of twice tli;it value, to a favourite knight, who distributed the same amount in money among the poorer knights. Other acts of mad prodigality w'ere performed, particularly tlie soM'ingof a piece of plowed "ground with small coin to the amount of 1500 English 31* 402 GENERAL VIEWS. guineas, by count Bertrand Rimbault. But the barbarous wasteful- ness of lord Raymond was the most remarkable feat on the occasion. Having ordered thirty of his most beautiful and valuable horses to be tied to stakes, and surrounded with dry wood, he wantonly set it on fire, and suffered iiis favourites to perish in the flames. 10. Among the Romans the interest of money was not fixed by law. It is on this account that we find in the Roman satirists so many loud complaints of extortion, and of the severity with which pecuniary claims were enforced. Horace describes a rich old miser, who " Dooms the wretches, on the appointed day, His interest or principal to pay." Many of the bankers acquired large fortunes, and arrived at the highest dignities of the state. Their establishments were of a pri- vate nature, and such banking houses are known to have existed in the chief cities of Italy in tlie 13tli and 14th centuries ; and about the some period the first public banks appear to have been establish- ed by some of the Italian states, for the purposes of contracting loans and managing the collection of the revenue. The most an- cient general bank for the deposit of cash and the issue of its own paper in return, appears to have been formed in the city of Barce- lona, in 1401. 11. The specious miracles of Arabian magic were introduced into Europe, by means of pilgrimages and the holy wars. Fairies and giants, flying dragons and enchanted palaces, were blended with t\w more simple fictions of the West ; and the fate of Britain depended on the art or predictions of Mf-rlin. 12. The magnificent castle of Windsor, was built by Edward HI., in the fourteenth century, and his melliod of conducting tlie work, may serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that age. No contracts were made with workmen as in the present times, but every county in England was assessed to send the king a certain mimber of masons, tilers, and caroeiTters, who were to perform their quota of labour. 13. In tlie } ear 1414, the citizens of London were ordered to hang out lanterns to light the streets, and one of its mayors, in 1417, re- newing the order, " ordained lanthornes with lights to be hanged out on the winter evenings between hallontide and candlemasse." in this particular, London must have set the example to the other cities of Europe. Diu-ing tliree centuries afterwards, the citizens were occasioiuiUy reminded of this regulation, under pains and penalties for its non-observance ; but the frequency of the repetition only proves, how ill it was obeyed. In 1716, it was directed that each house should have a lamp hung out on every night between tlie 2d after full-moon until the 7th after new moon, from the hour of six in the evening until eleven. In 1736 and 1739, the present mode of lighting was partially adopted, but it was not till 1744, that an act of parliament was passed for completely lighting the cities ol London and Westminster. INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS. 403 14. During the periods of feudal strife, when neighbouring' chief- luins often made sudden inroads on eacli other, every baronial castle was provided with its warders, i. e. men that were posted on the tops of towers to watch tlie apj)roach of an enemy. In Wales, these persons were furnished with horns to sound an alarm ; and those in tlie castles of the German princes, in the sixteenth century, blew a horn every morning and evening, on the relieving and setting of he guard. 15. Between the years, 1312 and 1315, Germany groaned under all the miseries of plague; and famine, by which whole towns were depopulated, and provinces brouglit to desolation. The rich sought an asylum in other countries, while the poor, unpitied and imassist- ed, miserably perished. Hunger .«o preyed upon wolves and other ravenous beasts, that overcoming their f(^ar of man, they rushed into the villages, and gorged themselves with human blood. Trees and houses were swept away by cataracts bursting from the mountains ; and the earth was dreadfully convulsed by earthquakes. IG. It was not until towards the close of the sixteenth century, that potatoes made their appearance in Europe. They were first brought by Sir Walter Raleigh, from America to Ireland. From t'lence they passed by slow degrees over to Scotland, and the nor- thern counties of Euiiland, and iiave since become general through- out Great Britain. I'he lapse, however, of two centuries has not sufficed to introduce so important a vegetable into common con- sumption, in the soutli of Europe. 17. In the year 1500. there happened so great a plague in Eng- land, that it obliged the king and court to remove to Calais, and carried off upwards of 30,000 people in London. 18. The progress o{ improvement has been slow in many res- pects. Many centuries of the christian era had passed away, before any thing better tiian splinters of wood, was used by our English ancestors for lighting their houses by night. It was not until towards the close of the thirteenth century, that tallow candles were employed for this purpose. It was not until this period that cups and saucers were used, and then they were considered as luxuries. A few centuries only have gone by since knives and forks were used in eating ; since hats were worn in lieu of cloth hoods and knit caps ; since the ladies were accommodated with pins instead ox skewers ; and since knit stockings were introduced in the room of cloth hose. 19. In 1546, a law was made in England for fixing the interest of nioney at 10 per cent. This was the first legal interest known in that country. Strange as it may seem to us, all acts of that nature were formerly considered as usurious. 20. Between the years 1660 and 1670, two awful calamities befel London— a f)lague which carried off 68,000 persons— and a fire, which, breaking out near London bridge, and continuing several days, destroyed eighty-nine churches and thirteen thousand two hundred dwelling houses. 404 GENERAL VIEWS. 21. A few years before the landing of the puritans at Plymouth, a remarkable pestilence destroyed most of the Indians from Nara- ganset to Penobscot, which seems to have been a providential oc- currence to facilitate the settlement of New-England. 22. The waste lands in the united kinirdom of Great Britain and Ireland, amount even at this time to 15,301,994 acres. 23. In the year 1828, American shipping in foreign trade amount- ed to 824,781 tons, and foreign shipping employed in American trade was 149,435 tons — the whole being 974,216 tons. The en- rolled coasting tonnage of the country is nearly or quite equal to that in foreign trade. 24. In the year 1829, tlie public libraries in Europe were com- puted to contain 19,847,100 volumes. 25. The expenses of Great Britain in war, since 16S8 amount, as appears from a statement lately made, to £2,023,500,000, viz. — Years. Expense. The war of the Revolution, 9 £36,000.000 Spanish Succession, 11 62,500^000 Spanish w^vr, 1739, and ) 1 ) 54,000,000 Austrian Succession, ^ 9 ^ ' ' The "Seven years war" with ) the French, Spanish, Austri- \ 7 112,000,000 ans and Russians, of 1756, ) The American war, of 1775, 8 136,000,000 French Revolution war, 9 464,000,000 The war against Bonaparte, ^ the three last years of which > 12 1159,000,000 with the United States, S There w-ere about sixty-five years of war, and seventy-live ol peace, in a period of one hundred and forty years. Present state of several Natwyis in respect to Agriculture, Roads, Conveyances, Intercourse, Education, Trade, Manufactures, ^"c. 1. The history of culture, in respect to many characteristics, were they to be traced from their origin, and described as they have ex- isted in past ages, v/ould be interesting and instructive. Some sub- jects of this kind have been thus traced and described. It may an- swer the purpose of so succinct an outline, to present others to the reader, as we now find them, with little reference to the past. The articles above enumerated, may therefore come under review, in res- pect chiefly to tl)e present times. They are properly characteris- tics ot the age, or the history of it, so far as such particulars are concerned. PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 405 2. Agriculture. — Agriculture, as tlie foundation of the means of living, and as connected witli the state of society, and with the civil and intellectual character of a people, deserves a liigh degree of at- tention. Accordingly, it has been a commanding object of pursuit, with all civilized communities, from the beginning. But it is only to be remarked here, that in modern times it has received more conside- ration than formerly. The ancient Romans, perhaps, were as much devoted to it as any modern nation ; and their agricultural wealth, as individuals, when, in some instances, several tlionsand yokes of oxen were the property of a single farmer, exceeds probably any thing known at present. But with tlie exception of tlie Romans, if they were on the whole an exception, modern nations manifestly esx- cel antiquity. Especially do they excel the middle ages, for then this great interest suffered, with every thing else, a lamentable decay. In very recent times, peculiar attention has been bestowed on the subject, both in Europe and America, by means of numerous agri- cultural societies. Indeed, science has been of late most successfully applied to the purposes of advancing the agricultural art. The bu- smess in the hands of scientific practical farmers, has assumed a sys- tematic arrangement, unknown in former days. 3. Roads. — In Europe, as the Roman empire declined, the roads gradually fell into neglect ; and during the dark ages, their ruinous condition, rendered communication difficult, beyond what we can now find it easy to conceive. It is not readily ascertained what the state of the roads was, but they must liave improved as trade in- clreased. We know that tlie amelioration of them was slow ; that the arts of constructing and directing them, were for a long time un- derstood very imperfectly ; and that the first kingdom in which the condition of the great roads, at all approached the present standard of excellence, was Sweden, w'here from its want of wealth, and its remote situation, no such occurrence could reasonably have been looked for. In England, the change in regard to the arrival and departure of the mails, whicli took place in 1793, greatly forwarded that improve- ment of the principal roads, wliicli had been going on tlirough the eighteentli century ; and from 1793 to the present moment, the high- ways, cross-roads, bridges, and ferries, throughout the whole extent of tliat country, are decidedly superior to those which are to be seen any v/here else. A remarkable improvement, however, has recently taken place in roads and bridges, all over Europe. Materials for road making have been found where formerly they were liot believed to exist, and the skill with which they are employed is sur[)rising. Neither clay, sand, morasses, torrents, precipices, nor any otlier obstacles, are deem- ed insurmountable. A terrace has been conducted along the whole face of tlie Appennines, from Nice, tf) the gulf of Spezzia. The finest carriage roads cross the Alps, over mount Ceni.s, St. Bernard, the Simplon, St. Gotliard, the Splugen, from the lake of Coino to the source of the Inn, from Trent to Brixeii, and where the road from Vienaa to Vei' 'ce crosses them at Ponteba. An entirely new road 406 GENERAL VIEWS. has been formed in the kingdom of Netherlands, from Namur to Lux embourg ; another runs along the banxs of the Rhine from Mentz to Nimeguen ; another from Hamburg to Hanover, and from Hanover to Deventer. Others have been formed, and particularly the whole way between Berlin and Petersburgh, probably presents by this time an admirable line of communication between these two capitals. Other roads are said to be under consideration, and particularly one from Berlin to Hamburg, through sands which appear almost impas- sable. Indeed, the traveller in Europe, since the cessation of wars, every where witnesses the utmost zeal in building bridges, in open- ing, widening, levelling, and repairing roads. Nor has less been done, or is less doing in the United States. Pro- bably no people in the same time, ever made so many improvements in roads and bridges. Where two hundred years ago, all was a wide wilderness, traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians, there are now thousands of good roads. The extent only of post-roads in this country, now considerably exceeds 100,000 miles. In some parts ol Europe and of the United States, rail-roads have been made, or are in progress, v^'hich promise the greatest advantages to commerce and inland transportation. The recent construction of carriages moved by steam, which are designed to pass over roads of this des- cription, will form an era in the history of travelling. Moving with the velocity of thirty miles or more by the hour, these vehicles will seem to annihilate space. 4. Water Conveyance. — The progress lately made in water con- veyance, is also very remarkable. The first canals known in Europe, were those which were formed in Italy and the Low Countries, and served in several cases both to drain the groimd, and for the convey- ance of merchandize. France followed their example, und by means of the canal of Langucdoc, joined the chaimel and the Mediterra- nean. Several others have since been completed, and others are begun; but that country is never likely to place much dependence on its ca- nal commimications. About the middle of the last century, the commercial prosperity of Great Britain, induced it to turn its atten- tion to canals, and from its alnmdance of water, and the moderate elevation of its surface, it has now pushed canal navigation, beyond •every other country. The total lengtli of canals in Great Britain at the present time, is 2,600 miles. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, now possess canals ; and Russia, both within her old limits and in Pd- land, is zealously encouraging canals, to connect her rivers, and trans- port the produce of her soil. Next to Great Britain, the United States have displayed the most enterprise in the business of canals. In the several states, twenty-two canals are finished, in progress, or ui immediate contemplation, whose aggregate length is about 2,500 miles. Tlie greater part of them are cither finished or in progress. Two of them, viz. the Hudson and Erie, and the Chesapeake and Ohio canals, are each 360 miles, the Ohio state canal is 306, and the Pennsylvania canal is 296 miles. The Hudson and Erie canal, which is in operation, is the boast of the new world. The application of iteam to shipping, which deserves to be ranked PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 407 among the greatest discoveries, tlieoretical or practical, tliat were ever made, lias done more witliin the last twenty years, to facihtate the communication between diflerrnt places, by water, than all the contrivance's that went before it. Steam vessels are now foiaid per- manently or occasionally plying from the bottom of the Mediterra- nean, all nnmd to the top of ihe Kaltic. No place in the eastern part of the world has derived so great advantage from the discovery of steam vessels, as England. Its situation, coal, and commerce, en- ables it to shoot forth these vessels in every direction, and by means of the certainty and celerity of their passage, tiiey have diminished its distance, and multiplied its means of access to every part of t'ne European continent. In the United States, where the application of steam to the purposes of navigation was first made, these vessels arc most extensively employed. They abound, with all their facility of conveyance, on our coasts, and in our rivers ; hundreds of them are owned on tlie Mississippi alone. The combination of the above dis- coveries and improved arrangements, has produced an ease, certain- ty, and rapidity of intercourse, exceeding all past experience or ima- gination. 5. Travellinmon pro- perly belong ? Where was this state situa- ted ?] 15. To what do the events of Egypt, du- ring this period, chieily refer? When and where did Nitocris reign ? Is any thing known of the other kings of Egyju, during this period ?-[What was the cliaracter of Nitocris? In what way was Sesostris dis- tingui.stieil?] 16. How long did the second dynasty of China continue? Ol'liow many emperors did it consist ?-[Wliat was tlie character of Ching-tang, its founder? What anecdotes are related of two of liis successors ?] Distinguished Characters. Who were the distinguished character.' ia this period, and for what were they cele- brated ?-[l. Relate the principal incidents in the life of Abraham. 2. What is known of Melchisedec? 5. What did Cecrops teach the Atheni- ans? 0.. Of how manv letters did the alphabet consist, which Cadmus introduced into Greece ?] PERIOD IV. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod ? 1. What was there remarkable in the history of the Israelites at this era? By what means did Muses effect their deliver- ance from Egypt ? How long did they wan- der in tlie wilderness? How far were they conducted by Moses ? What is tlie date of this event ?-[Relate the first incident which is mentioned after the Israelites left Egypt? What other instances of rebellion against God are recorded ? What punishment was inflicted on them for these sins ? What was the sin and punishment of Korah, Da- than, and Aliirain? When and liovv did the Israelites begin their conquests?] 2. What did Joshua aceoiiiiilisli for them? How long were they governed by judges? Why did they desire a king?-[By what mi- racle did Josliua enter Canaan ? What fol- lowed this event ? Why were tlie IsraeUtes often brought into bondage ? Who were in- struments of delivering them, on these oc- casions? What is related of Gideon? Of Samson? Of Samuel?] .3. Who was the first king of Israel? When was he anointed, and what was the character of his reign ? Who was his suc- cessor? What was his character, and the state of the nation under his reign? By whom, and when was the foundation of the temple laid7-[What more is said of Saul? Of David?] 4. What was the fate of the Canaanites? 5. What arts were early cultivated among the Phccnicians? What were their princi- pal kingdoms ? With whom was Hiram contemporary 7-[What is related of the foundation of Sidon and Tyre ? How far did their trade extend? In what way did their king assist David and Solomon ?] 6. How is the history of Greece pursued during this period? What was done for Athens by Theseus 7-[How was he treated by its citizens ?] 7. Wtiy, and when did a change take lilace in tlieir government ?-[What anec- dote is related of Codrus? What olfice was created at his death?] 8. How long did the family of Sysiphua reign in Corinth ? By wliom, and when was tlie last king deposed? 9. Give an account of the last great en- terprise of the Greeks ?-[ What is said of the cause and success of this expedition? What games were instituted on their re turn?] 10. IVIenlion the two war» which occur- red in Greece during this period- QUESTIONS ON 11. What is the most celebrated event in the annals of Greece in this period? When did it commence and terminate 1 What was the consequence to Troy? AVhy was it undertalien ?-[Where was Troy situated ? When, and by whom was it founded 7 What was the chai-acter of the people ? Relate the circumstances of this war. Who of the survivors settled in Italy ?] 12. When did the war of the Heraclida; begin 1 Wliat was the occasion of it 1 What was the result ? 13. What was the state of Greece after this event 1 14. Who is supposed to have been the king of Egypt that was drowned in the Red 6ea?-[What celebrated work of art was ac- complished during this period? For what was Hermes Trismegistes celebrated ? What is said of Actisanes ? From what king of Egypt was the word Proteus de- rived ?] 15. Into how many dynasties are the kings of Lydia divided ? When did the first begin to reign ? For what were the Lydians celebrated ?-[Who is the supposed founder of Lydia? Where was this coun- try situated ? For what were this people early remarkable ?] 16. At what time did Italy begin to be a kingdom ? When did ^Eneas arrive there, and how did he become connected with their history ? Which among the early kingdoms of Italy deserves attention ? Why are these worthy of notice ?-[What reasons are there for supposing that the Etruscans were a refined people ? From whence was Italy probably peopled ? What is the story of Latinus and JEneas ?] Distinguished Characters. Who were the distinguished characters of this period, and for what were they emi- nent ?-[l. What are the principal events in the life of Moses? 2. What was the first city conquered by Joshua ? What more did he do for the Is- raeUtes ? When did he die ? 3. Relate the story of Orpheus. 4. What poem appeared in this period, and by whom was it written? .'>. What is said of Samson ? 6. What of Sanconiathon ? 7. What was the character of David as a prince and a poet ? How long did he reign, and when did he die ?] PERIOD V. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod? 1. What was the character of the reign of Solomon? What was the most important undertaking of this prince ? By what was he characterized ? What was the conse- quence of his sins to the Israelites ?-[De- scribe the Temple.] 2. When did Relioboam begin to reign ? What important event occurred during his reign ? Were the kingdoms of Judah and Israel ever reunited? 3. What is the character of the kings of Israel during this period ? Wliat marks their history ?-[What is related of Jero- boam, their first king? What of Zimril Of Ahab ? Of Jehu ? Of Jehoash ? In whose reign were the ten tribes carried to Assyria?] 4. What was the character of the kings of Judah during this period ? Why were the people whom they governed called Jews?-[What occurred during the reign of Rehoboam? What was the conduct of Je- hoshaphat? What was that of Ahaziah ! What is recorded of Joash? What of Uz- ziah and Jotham ?] 5. What induced the Gbeeks to adopt a popular form of government? Who was distinguished in this work of reformation ? 6. When and by whom were the poems of Homer introduced into Greece ? What was their eti'ect ?-[What is said of Homer and his poems ?] 7. What etTect had the peculiar institu- tions of Lycurgus upon Sparta ? What was the form of government introduced by him7 What appears to have been his sole object? When did this cliange take place ?-[Who vfas Lycurgus? How did he commence reformation ? What were his regulations respecting lands, coins, and food i What was a part of the ceremony at their public meals? How were the children taught^ From what is the term lavoiiic derived 1 How did Lycurgus ensure the observance of these laws, and how long did they con- tinue in force ? What are some of their de- fects?] 8. From what time do the Olympic games form a certain epoch in history ? 9. Where was Macedon ? When and by whom was it founded? How long did the government continue in his line ? 10. How long a chasm do we find in the history of Assyria? What is recorded respecting Pul, one of its last sovereigns ?- [What effect had the preaching of Jonah ou the Ninevites?] 11. Who was the last of the Assyrian monarchs ? What occurred during his reign ? What monarchies arose upon its ruins ?-[What was the character and fate of Sardanapalus?] 12. Who were the most con.siderable of the kings of Egypt during this period ?- [What is recorded of Shishak? What of the three others ?] 13. By whom were the Phienicians go- verned din-ing this period? Why was Dido obliged lo llee? 14. When did Dido arrive in Africa? What nation dates their history from thi.s event? Where did she fi.\ her habitation? How did this nation afterwards beconje tiunous ? What character had this colony ? What was the extent of its dominion and population in the height of its splendor ?- [What were the circunstances of Dido'a flight?] AN^CIENT HISTORY. ff>. When was rticre a turn in the events nf Italy deserving noticed What was it 7 Who were Ruinulus anil Ilciiius !-[Give au account ol'tlieir early history fj Distinguished Characters. Who were the distinguished characters in this period, and for what were they emi- nent ?-[l. What were the writings of Solo- mon 1 How long did he reign, and when did he die 1 2. What is known of the parentaaic and circumstances of Homer 1 By what is his poetry characterized I When did his po- ems appear in Greece? Who arranged them In their present form? 3. What is said of Uesiod and his poetry ^ 4. Why did Lycurgus travel in foreign coimtries ! 5. What was there tragical in the death of Dido? fi. Give an account of the life and charac- ter of Isaiah.] PERIOD VI. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod ? 1. When did Romulus conunence the building of Rome ? What became of Re- mus ! Where was the city situated! What was its early state ]-[What were the circum.>tances which decided its .situation 1] 2. What was the character of the regula- tions introduced by Romulus 1 3. What was the cause of the Sabine war 7 How long did Romulus reign ■> By whom was he succeeded 1 When did this occur ]-[now was peace prod\iced between the Romans and 8abines ) W'hat occasion- ed the death of Romulus? What was the character of Numaand his reign? What were the names and duties of the different classes of priests?] 4. Who was the third king of Rome ? When did he begin to reisn ? What were the effects of liis warlike disposition ? What was the most remarkable event of his reign 7-[Describe this combat.] 5. What four other kmgs successively ffovemed Rome ? For what was each re- markable ? When did the monarchical go- vernment end at Roirie ?-[Wliat anecdote is related of Tullia? What was the occasion ofTanpiin's expulsion from Rome? Who was Brutus, and what part did he take in this event /] 0. W'liat was the form of government now introduced at Rome ^ To whom was the supreme authority committed ? In what respect did their power differ from that of kings? Wlio were the first consuls ?- [What was the result of a conspiracy form- ed against the government ? What was the conduct of Brutus on this occasion? In what way was Rome saved in the war with I'orsetma t Wlmt incident led to the con- clusion of a peace 1] 7. Why ana. When was the Persian fleet de- stroyed ?] 3. Did Xerxes make anv further attempts upon Greece? Wliat became of him? What was the state of the military glory of the Greeks? What was l lie cause of tlicir prosperity? Wlio was (.'imon ? 4. When did lie coinnieiice his military career ? What were lii.-i successes against the Persians?-! How long did the military glory of the Greeks continue ? What was the treatment which Cinion received from his countrymen? In what way did he iiu- ANCIENT HISTORY. prove the city ? What anecdotes are re- conleil of Aristiiles'i) 5. Between whom was the power of Athens divided ? Which obtained tlie con- trol in the repuldic .' What etrect liad his aihninislration upon Alliens? Wjicn did the Lacfda-iiionian war coinnience ! IIow lonj dill I'encles live after its coiinnence- iiieiil ! Who succeeded hiuif On what terms was the Lacedaemonian war closed I What Spartan signalized himself in this war ?-[What more is said of Pericles 7 (Jive an account of his death, and the oc- casion of It. What was the cause of the LacedwiTioiiian war 7 What was the con- duct of Alcibiades, dnringtliis war ? What treatment did he receive from the Atheni- ans ] Why did (he Athenians wish his re- turn 7 In what manner did he return 7 What was the termination of his varied life ! What brought the Lacedajuionian war to a close 7 What was the conse- quence to Athens 7] 6. What government was established at Athens 7 When and by whom was the re- publican government re-established ?-[Who were the thirty tyrants 7' How long did they continue in authority? What is as- cribed to Ly Sander 7] 7. What occurred to stain the Athenian character, about this time7-[Wlio was So- crates? What were the distinguishing traits of his philosophy I INIention the circum- stances of his death !] 8. What celebrated event occurred in the year 401 B. C.( What are the remarkable circumstances of tliis retreat 7-[Whal was the occasion of th Greeks being in such a situation 7 Who has written an account of this retreat? How did Sparta become en- faged in this war 7 What was the result to parta 7 When was a peace concluded 7] 9. Which of the Grecian States became distinguished during this period 7 What occasioned the war Ijetwecn this state and Sparta? What slates assisted Thebes? Who were the Theban leaders? What celebrated battles were gained by the Tlie- bans? What is the date of these battles? What paved the way for the entire subjuga- tion of the Cfrecian states to a foreign pow- cr7-(How long was the Theban fortress kept by the Spartans ? By whom, and how was it received? What was the staiiipn and character of Epaininondas? To what was the success of the Theban army at the bat- tle of Leuctra owing? How were these two generals treated by their countrymen? Give an account of the death of Epaniinon- das71 10. What change look place in the govern- ment of Rome, during this period 7 Had it not been a dfnwrrii'-y before 7-lHow was this change eftecled !| 11. When, and upon what occasion did the Uoinans choose a Dictator? Who was appointed? What service did he render his country 7 II.iw long did he retain his power 7-[\Vhat w.is the character of Cin- sinnatus 1 What more is said of himi] 12. When were the Decemviri chosen 1 For what purjiose 7 What was the charac- ter of their laws ! How many crimes were jiunishable with death ;-[What was the first code of laws of the Uomaiis f In what way did the Decemviri e.xercise their authority I How long did this government hut? What tragical event was the cause of its dissolu- tion 7] 13. What itnportant law passed 445 B. CI What was substituted for Consuls, the same year? Were the Consuls ever restoreill Wlien was the otTice of Censors created 7 What was iheir duty 7-[What barriers sepa- rated the patricians and plebeians? How were they removed? Why was the otSce of Censors important?) 14. How did the Senate repay themselves for their concession to the people? What efliect had this on Roman ambition 7 15. What cities were taken by Camillusl When were they taken 7-[What were the circumstances of the siege of Veil? What occurred during the attack on Faleriil What became of Camillus?! 16. What calamity befel Rome soon after these successes? Wlien did this event occur? How were they expelled from the city 7-[What was the cause of this invasion? What occurred in the Senate hou.se ? How was the capital preserved from the general ruin?] 17. When did the Roman constitution undergo another change? What was iti What effect had this on the power of Rome J -[What was the cause of tliis change?] 18. When, and by whom was tlie king- dom of Egypt restored? How long did it conlintie independent? To what power was it then subjected? 10. With what nation is the history of Persia involved during this period ? What sovereigns were engaged in this war? -[What is said of Artaxerxos 1.7 What of Xerxes II. 7 Wliat of Arlaxerxes II,, and Ochus?] a). What king first gave Macedon celeb- rity 7 What advance had he made in con- quest, before the birth of his son Alexan- der ?-[In what way did lie ascend the throne? What was his character? What more is related of him?] Distinguished Characters. AVho were the distinguished characters of this period, and for wliai were they emi- nent 7-11. What is said of Confucius 7 2. What does the history of Herodotiia describe? In what dialect was it written, and what is its character? 3. Of what country was Pindar a native? What is said of his compositions? 4. For what statues was Phidias celebra>' ted 7 5. What is said of the life of Euripides? What of his writings ? 6. For what was Sophocles distinguish- ed? What is said of his writings? What anecdote is related of him? What was th« occasion of bis death? 8 QUESTIONS ON 7. Of what country was Socrates a native 1 What was his early occupation? What was his character 1 Wliy was he condemn cd to die'? What was his belief? 8. Under what circumstances did Thu cydides write his history of the Peloponne 8ian war? Wh^ are the peculiarities of liis style 1 9. Where was Hippocrates born ? How did he acquire the knowledge of medicine? 10. What more can you say of Xeno- phon ?] PERIOB VDI. What IS the name and extent of this pe- riod? 1. What was the situation of Greece, at the commencement of this period ? With what nation is their history connected 7 What was the cause of the sacred war? How did Philip become engaged in it? Who roused the Athenians to oppose him ? When was the battle of Cheronea ? How were the Greeks treated by Philip ?-[now did Philip obtain a place in the Amphicty- onic council? From what is the term Phi- lippic derived? What proof is recorded of the success of his eloquence ? What great expedition was Philip contemplating at the time of his death ? How did he die ?] 2. When did Alexander, the son of Philip, enter Greece? What did he do there? [How old was he when he began to reign ? What is said of his early life? Describe his interview with Diogenes. What was the result of his consisting the oracle at Delphos? Did he retain possession of the Grecian states without an effort?] 3. When did Alexander invade Persia? How old was he ? What was the size of his army ? What countries did he conquer ? How long was he in conquering them? Where, and how did he die? What was his character ?-[ Where was his first bat- tle with the Persians fought? What was the fruit of this victory ? Where was the next encounter? What was the conse- quence to the Persians? How did he em- ploy himself from this time to the battle of Arbela? What is said of this battle? What more did he accomplish? What instances of amiable feeling are recorded of him ?] 4. How were the possessions of Alexan- der divided, immediately after his death ? How were they afterwards divided ? Which was the most powerful of these divisions? -[How did Alexander's family become ex- tinct?! 5. What was the situation of the Grecian states, after the death of Alexander ? What and when was the last effort made to revive the spirit of liberty ?-[ What was the occa- sion of the deatli of Demosthenes? In what respect did he differ from Phocion ? What was the character and death of Pho- cion ? What prevented the success of the Achaean league?] 6. What was soon to be the fate of Mace- donia and Greece? When did Macedonia become subject to the Romans 7 When, and by whom was Greece subdued? Whal was the pretext for attacking Greece ? Un- der what name did Greece become a pro- vince of Home ?-[ What was the occasion of introducing the Romans into Greece^ What was tiie result to Macedonia, and their last king, Perseus? What was the fate of Corinth? In what year did this oc- cur? What other event renders this year important? What is said of Philopoemon ? WhatofNabis?] 7. What was the situation of Rome at the commencement of this period? 8. What nations did the Romans easily subdue ? Against whom did they then turn their arms ? How long were they engaged in this war? What nation did they subju- gate in the mean time ? [What was tlie country of the Samnites ! What remarka- ble instanceof bravery occurred during the war with this nation? Whal incident in the war with the Latins shows the sternness of Roman virtue ?] 9. Wliat mortification did tlie Roman army experience during the war with the Sam- nites? When-were they subdued? What nation shared their fate?-[Relate the cir- cumstances of the disgrace ofthe Romans?] 10. When were the Romans engaged in vi'ar with the Tuscans ? What general de- feated them? What was the most impor- tant war in which they were engaged at this time? How did Pynhus become en- gaged with the Romans? What was the success of his attack on them ? When did all Italy submit to the Romans ?-[What , anecdote illustrates the ambition of Pyr- rhus ? To what was he indebted for his first successes in Italy ? What was his fortune in Sicily ? What instance of gene- rosity is mentioned? What was the condi- tion of the States of Italy after they were conquered by the Romans?] 11. What was the occasion of the first Punic war? When did it commence) How long did it last? What exception is mentioned to the general success of the Romans? What reasons were there for supposing that the Romans would not suc- ceed in tlieir naval engagements ? Where was the principal scene of this war ? On what terms did the Carthaginians conclude a peace ?-[What was the object of both nations? What was the success 'of the naval engagements? What orders were given to Reguliis ? Why did he wish to re- turn home ? How were the Carthaginians enabled to defeat him ? In what way did he show uncommon devotedness to his country ? What was the condition of Sicily after this war?] 12. How long did the peace between Rome and Carthage continue? Over what nations did the Roman arms triumph? How often had the temple of Janus been shut since the foundation ofthe city ? How did the Romans employ themselves durinij this interval ?-[ What was the cause of tho war with the lUynans and Gauls ?] ANCIENT HISTORY. t3. How did the Carthaginians improve this season of peac(t J How was ll>c se- cond Punic war coiiiiiiouccd ! Who was the leader ia tliis war ! When did this war commence, and liow long did it lastl Where was the war al first carried on? Willi what success ! Why was Hannibal obljijed to leave Italy? What finally deci- ded the fate ot" the war! On what terms did the Carthaginians obtain a peace? (Wliat oath did Hannibal take when a child ? what was his characliu" and habits! De- scribe tlie course of Hannibal from Africa to Italy. How old was he, and what was the number of his troops? What battles were lost by the Romans? What were the circumstances of the battle of Caimaj? What is said of Paulus vEmiiius ? To what causes can you attribute the future ill suc- cess of Hannibal i Under wliom were the Romans a^ain victorious ? By what means did Fabius conduct the war prosperously 7 Who reduced Spain? What was the fate of Asdrubal? Why did Scipio carry the war into Africa? What was the cliaracter of Scipio ! What was the loss to the Car- thaginians at tlie battle of Zama? What more is said of Hannibal ? When did the second Punic war end !) 11. What other victories were obtained by the Romans .'-[What was the war with Philip called?] 1.'). What war commenced in 192 B. C. ? What was the result of this war? What was the cause of it? What was the conse- quence of these successes to Rome ? 16. What is said of the government of Sicily ! With what nation were they fre- quently at war ? Wlien were they brought under the Roman sway?-[What were the circumstances of the early settlement of this island ! By wlioiu was Syracuse found- ed ? Who established a tyrannical govern- ment there? What was "the character of his successor, Dionysius the younger? Who etfected his first banishment? Who his secoud ! By whom was this city taken ? Wliat interesting anecdote is connected with thp taking of this city ?] 17. When, and under what monarch did the kingdom of Svkia arise into import- ance ? To whom did it fall on the first di- vision of Ale.vander's empire? How did Keleucus obtain it? What were the sove- reigns of this kingdom called ?-[By whom was Syria settled? What do we learn of tlie kinss of Syria from the Bil)le?l IS. How did Seleucus obtain possession of Macedonia? What preventcil his re- taining it?-lW)iowas the successor of Se- leucu.s, and what is related of liim ! What is said of Antiochus Tlieos 7 Who reigned between hiin ;md Antiochus the Great ! Relate the principal events of his reign? What occurred during the reiiin of Seleu- cus Philopafcr? Wh.at was the occasion of the death of his sui-ces^or Antiochus Epiphanes? Wliat is sale! of the other so- vereigns during this period?) 20. What do wc notice in the history of the Jews at tlic commencement of this pe- riod? What was their state under the kings of Persia? When did this prosper- ous state expire ?-[What particular favours did they receive under Arta.\rrxes ? Whal abuses were reformed by Nehcniiah and Joiada? How was Alexander the Great met by the high priest?] 21. What was the state of the Jews after 323 B. C. ? What was the consequence of an invasion of Antiochus Epiphanes ? When were the Syrians driven from Judeal Who was the leader of the Jews on this occasion ?-[ReIate the circumstances of the invasion of Judea by Ptolemy governor of Egypt? When, and by whom was the translation of the Bible called the Septua- gint m.tde ? What led the Jews to revolt from Antiochus ? How was his death con- nected Willi this event? What was the fato of Judas Maccabeus?] 22. What was the state of Egypt when conquered by Alexander the Great? What change took place after his death? When did this event occur? How long did the Ptolemoean dynasty last? Who was the last sovereign ? How many of this dynasty are included in this period ?-[Who wero these princes, and what is said of them?] 23. When does the history of Parthia begin? By whom was it founded? Of what did it at first consist? What are the successors of Arsaces called ?-[What did the Parthian empire include ? To whom had Parthia been subject? What was Iha occupation of the Parthians?] 24. What was the character of the Arsa- cidaj? How far did Mithi'idates I. extend his dominions? 25. What is the date of the commence- ment and close of the third dynasty of Chi- na? How many emperors did it include, and what is it called ? When did the fourth dynasty begin and terminate ? How many emperors did it include ? What is it called? -[What is related of Chaus ? What was accomplished by Ching? What is said of his ambition !] Distinguishea Characters. Who were the distinguished characters in this iieriod, and for what were thev emi- nent .'-[1. What is said of the lili^, charac- ter, and manners of Plato? What of his writings? What truth did he maintain with powerful arguments ? 2. When did Apelles live? What is said of his pictures? 3. Mention the iirinclpal circumstances in the lite of Alexander. What anecdotes are recorded of hlin which exhibit ainiablQ feelings ? ■1. Wliat difficulties stood in the way of Demosthenes' ever becoming a great ora- tor ! How did he overcome them? How did he die ! 5. What was the peculiarity of Aristotle's mind? What is said of his writings, habits, and appearance ? Where did he teach phi- 10 QUESTIONS ON losophy'? Relate the circumstances ofhia death. 6. Where did Euclid live, and where did he flourish 1 For what was he distinguish- ed 7 7. When and where did Theocritus live ? What was the character of his writings ^ What was the cause of his death 1 8. Of what country was Zeno a native 1 What influenced him to devote his life to philosophy 1 Where did he deliver his in- structions ? What was his character and habits % 9. In what way did Archimedes assist in defending the city of Syracuse, when be- sieged by the Romans 7] PERIOD IX. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod 7 1. What was the state of the Roman peo- ple in this and several succeeding periods 1 When was Carthage conquered by the Ro- mans? How long was the war! Who were the aggressors ? What was the result to Carthage as a city and nation?- [What measures did the Carthaginians lake to pre- vent this war t What demands were made upon them by the Romans? How did they receive them? How did they defend the city, and with wliat success ? In what way were they attacked by Scipio? What other circumstances relating to the destruction of the city are mentioned?] 2. Wliat defeat did the Romans sufTer ebout this time ? What success attended their arms in Spain after this defeat ? When did Spain become a Roman province ?-[What were the principal events of this war?l 3. What was the state of Rome 133 years B.C.? What was the occasion of the death of Tiberius Gracchus? Why was his brother Cains Gracchus obnoxious to the nobles ? What was his fate ?-[Who were the Gracchi ? What is relared of her 7 What circumstance occasioned the death of Tiberius? What was the character of Caius Gracchus? To what were these tu- mults a prelude?] 4. What were the conquests of the Ro- mans abroad about this time ? Wlien did the war with Jugurtha comi-nence and close? How many of the Nuniidian army were slain? What became of Jugurtlia? What Roman generals commanded in this war?-[Who was Jugurtha? How did he obt.iin the crown of Numidia? What was the state of the war when Marius succeeded to the command ? What was the character of Marius? How did he obtain possession of Jugurtha?] .'i. In \vhat war were the Romans again engaged under Marius? What was the oc- casion of the Social war? What was the result of this war? G. When did the Mithridatic war com- mence? Where had Sylla distinguished himself? Why was liis a|ipointment to this expedition Hie cause of dreadful dissensions in Rome ? How long was Sylla absent, anil what was his success ?-[Who was Mithri- dates, and over what countries did he ex- tend his dominion ? What were his means for carrying on a war with Rome ? On what pretence did the Romans attack him? Who was Sylla and what was his character? With what act of cruehy did Mithridates commence this war? What was the suc- cess of the two battles which succeeded? Why did both parties desire a cessation of arms?] 7. When did the contention between Ma- rius and Sylla begin? What was the con- duct of Sylla when recalled to Rome? How did he enter the city? What was his suc- cess? Why did Sylla return into Asia? What occurred during his absence ?-[Who was Cinna, and what was his character?] 8. Was Sylla victorious in Asia? What was his conduct on his return to Rome? -[By whom was the ariny headed which opposed Sylla ? What was the consequence of this battle ? With what purposes did Sylla enter Rome ? How far did he extend the work of destruction?] 9. How was Sylla enabled to support this violence ? When did this dictatorship com- mence and how long did it last ? After this time what was the government of Rome ? What was the character of Sylla's dictator- ship ] How were the Romans freed from this tyrant ? What motives led him to re- linquish his authority ?-[What more is re- lated of him ?i 10. What was the situation of Syeia un- til it became a province of Rome? When did that event occur ?-[Who were the first two of the Seleucida; of the present era, and what is said of them? Who succeed- ed, and what occurred in his reign ? Why diu the Syrians exclude the Seleucidre from the throne ? How did they accom- phsh it? Who reigned after Tigranes? Who reduced Syria to a Roman provmce "i] 11. What was effected for the Jews by the brothers of Judas Maccabajus? What was accomplished by John Hyrcanus 1 For what was he celebrated? When and how long did he reign? What twi; offices were united in him and continued in his family ? By what appellation are his de- scendants distinguished ?-[What more ia said of Hyrcanus? Who was Aristobulus, and what is recorded of Jiiin?] 12. What was the state of Egypt during this period? How many cities did these states include ?-[ What was the first Ptolemy of this period called? What was his cha- racter? Who was his successor, and what is recorded of him .'] 13. What was the situation of Parthia during this period ( Who were its prin- cipal sovereigns ?-[On what occasion were the Chinese first known to appear abroad ?J Distinguished Characters. Who were the distinguished ciiaractera in this period, and for what were they ANCIENT HISTORY. 11 eminent ?■[!. Kelate tlio principal circum- stances in ttic life of Polybins. What his- tory uict he write, and wliat is its cliarac- ter i 2. When did Apollodorus flourish, and what did lie write ( 3. Of what kind of writing was Liicilius tlie founder ! What is said of hiui by Black we U I 4. What anecdote is recorded of Ma- riusl] PERIOD X. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod I 1. Wliat was the state of Rome at the commencement of this period'? What dis- tiiiftuished character made his appearance at this time ! What was his first military enterprise, and how was it rewarded \ What were his next exploits 1-[What ap- ppared from this time to be his object'! What advaiitages did Cresar possess for ob- tainins office and popularity 7 What remark was made of hini by Cicero ?] 2. What contentions broke out after the death of SyUa ! How were tliey termina- ted l-[What was the occasion of the war between Catulns and Lepidus ? What was the ri'sulil Wlio was Sertorius? What was the origin of his war ! By whom was it terminated 1 Relate the cause, progress, and close of the Servile war.] 3. Which was one of the most important wars in which Rome was ever engai;ed \ By what means had Mithridates rendered himself formidable to the Roman power 1 By whom was he defeated 1 To what were his succrsses afterwards owing"! By what general was this powerfvU enemy finally subdued? When diil the war ter- minate ?-[How long was Mithridates the enemy of Rome "! How was he enabled to maintain so long a contest ? By what means had Pompey acquired his populari- ty 1 Why did not this great authority which was given him by the people, render him dangerous to their liberties'! Relate the events of this war. What was the fate of Mithridates?] 4. After the defeat of Mithridates, what dill Pompey accomplish ! When, and how did he enter Rome ?[What nations did Pompey make experience the power of Rome in this expedition ! What is said of his triumph? WTiat was the amount of treasures carried to Rome? Was the real prosperity of Rome increased by these vie lories?) 5. Who wa.<; Sergius Catiline? By what is he reiidi-red conspicuous? How was his Eroject frustrated? What became of Cati- nc? What gave Cicero so nmch renown? 6. What was the occasion of Pompey's contention with Crassus? For vvliat was Ca;sar aspiring? How did he endeavour to accomplish his object ? What arose out of tliis union? When did tliis occur? IIow •were tlie power and popularity of Caesar strengthened ? \Miat effect had the trium- virate on the liberties of Rome ! 7. How did these thnc individuals divide the empire ? Of what base acts was Caisar guilty before he deparli;d to his govern- ment? On what pretext was this accom- plished ? By whom was he recalled from exile !-[What was the character of Cicero? How was his banislmunt accomplished? When, and why was he jecalled by Pom- p.-y !J 8. Of what country was Caesar the go- vernor? How did be conduct himself there? When did he invade and subdue Britain ?-[Give an account of his conquests during the nine years he remained governor of Gaul.] 9. What put an end to the Triumvirate? To what did Ca!sar and Pompey aspire Eifter this event ? What was the comparative strength of each ! What was the result of the ambilion of these two individuals ? Where did they meet in battle ? What was the consequence to Pompey and his army") What is the date of this event ?-[What propositions were made by Ccesar to the senate before ho turned his arms against his country ? Why did they not comply with them ! What circumstances are men- tioned respecting Cssar's entrance into Italy ? What was hi^ reception there ? Where did Pompey go ! How long was CcBsar in subduing Spain ? To what offices was he chosen ? What was the situation of Pompey's army ? Where did the opposing armies first meet? What was the result? What anecdote is related to iUustrate the character of Cwsar ! Where was their next meeting? What was the dilTerence in the respective ai'mies ! What determin- ed the fate of the battle ? What was the loss on the part of Ciesar ? How were the vanquished treated by him? Relate the tragical fate of Pompey ?] 10. By what means, and when, did Egypt become a Roman province ? Whom did he subdue two years after lhis?-[What indu- ced Caesar to engage on the side of Cleopa- tra? How did he convey the report of tlie reduction of Pharnaces to Rome?] 11. Why was it necessary for Ca;sar to hasten to Rome ! Who had taken up arms in Africa? W' hat was the result? When did CKsar rot\irn in triumph to Rome 1 How did he obtain the favour of the peo- ple ? What honours and titles were be- stowed upon liim ?-LRclate the story of Cato] 12. When, and why , Nemea, Epidaurus, and Lerna re- markable 7 With what was Amyclae ho- noured ? Why were the Spartan slaves call- ed Helo'tes 7 For what were Teenarus and Taygetus noticed? For what were Elis, Olympia, and Corinth famous? Of what was Arcadia the country 7 WTiere was Mercury born? Why was Stymphalus and llie Isthmus famous? For what was Eleusis remarkable? What mountains in Attica were celebrated, and why? What was the character of tlie Boeotians? For what was Chperonea remarkable 7 WHiy is the cave of Trophonius, Thespia, Ta- nagra and Delium mentioned ? To whom were Helicon and Aganippe consecrated? What did the Greeks conjecture of Phocis? What rendered Delphi and Parnassus illus- trious? For what was Anticyra famous? For what was Narix and Thermopylae re- markable 7 In what did the jEtollans ex- cel? From what circumstance was Nau- pactus named? What rendered Leucato and the lake Acherusia remarkable 7 Which was the most ancient oracle of Greece ? From what did Cliaonia receive its name? To what was Pindus sacred? From what were the Acroceraunian moun- tains called? Describe the vale of Tempe. For what was Thessaly reno\\^led7 For what was Larissa, Heraclea, Othrys, and Amphrysus remarkable 7 To whom was Pierus sacred? Why were the women of Thessaly famed? What renders Athos and Stagira remarkable 7 Why were ApoUonia and Strymon celebrated? For what were the islands of Corcyra and Ithica remarkable? Why were Strophades and .lEgina famed? What rendered Delos, Paros, Naxos, and Crete remarkable 7 For what was Rhodes famous 7 Why was Pat- mos celebrated? For what was Scio fa- mous? What circumstances caused Lem- nos to be celebrated?] 43. Which were the most renowned cities of Greece 7 Of what was Athens tlic capi- tal? From what was it named? WbaX ANCIENT HISTORY. 15 was it called by the ancients'! Describe it. [Where was the citadel! What is said of tlie upper and lower city !]-What edi- fices were in the citadel ! Which is one of the noblest remains of antiqu;ty 1 What magnificent structure was in the lower city ! What was its size l-[How many liarl)ours had Athens and how were they situated ! VVhere were the principal gymnasia of Athens'! What was a Gymnasium 7 1-How was Sparta situated? How was it l)uilt ) When were its walls erected! Wliy did it not need them before '!-[VVl)y were the houses of the Spartans destitute of or- naments ! Was the city entirely unadorn- ed ? To whom was reliiiious respect shown ? What is saiii of the environs of the city 7] How was Curinlh situated! How did it compare with the other cities of Greece! By wliom was it destroyed ! Was it ever rebuilt !-[I*Vom what were Corinthian pil- lars named! To what did the citizens of Corinth devote themselves ? Of what was this city a distinguished seal ! What is its present slate !]-Describe Thrhes. When were the Tliebans masters of Greece '! At what time was it only an inconsiderable village ■![What is said of its destruction by Alexander?] 44. What was the general character of the government of Greece? In what re- spects did it bear a resemblance to tlie go- vernment of the U. S. of America ?■[ What was the government of Athens before and after the death of Codrus?]-Into what classes were the inhaldtaiits of Athens di- vided? What were the privileges of citi- zenship ? How were they ubiained ?-f How were the citizens of Athens divided !]- What was the situation of sojourners ? What was the distinction between the slaves of Athens? How were the magis- trates divided ? How were they distin- guished ? Mention them, with the different methods of their election. -[Who were usually appointed to th^ offices of the state? Wliat was required of the magi.strates be- fore their election, and after their term of office had e.xpired!]-How was the usual government of Athens carried on ? What power was held by the Archons ? How were they elected, and what were their privileges ?-[ What was the number of Archons? What was the first called, and what concerns were as ;igned to him? What were the others called ? What was their duty?]-How was the Senate of five hundred elected ? What was the Dusiness of this liody?-[What was the power of the Si>nate ?]-For what purpose were As- semljlirs of the people convened? Who composed them? How often were they hp|d?-[Wliat was the smalle.st number of which they co'.dil consist? What was their Imsiness? Where did the orators of Alliens exert their inlluence?]-What other celebrated body of men was there at Athens ?-[Froin what was the name of this court taken? Why was its repute hieh? Of what did it take cognizance? What was required of its members?]- What ab- surd peculiarity was there in the govern- ment "of Athens? How were the inhabitants of Sparta di- vided? What were the two classes of citizens called? What were their privi- leges ! What was the number and situa- tion of the Helots ? How many kings had Sparta? What was their power'? -(What were their duties ?]-Of what did the senate consist? What was their duty I Who were the Ephori ? For wliat purpose were they elected? For what purpose were assemblies held? How many were there, and what were they called ? Who composed them? What was the govern- ment of the otlier sovereignties of Greece? What was that of Thebes ?-[For what were many of the sovereigns of Thebes celebrated !]-What was the Amphictyonic Council ?-[How many deputies were sent; from each state ! V/here did tliey meet?] 45. Of what were the armies of Greece composed ?-[Of what did the main body of the armies consist ?]Of what were the Greek arms made ? What were their de- fensive arms ! What their offensive ■? [In what kind of warfare were the armies inefficient ! What [lunishments were in- flicted on deserters by the Lacedtemo- nians? Why was Archilochus banished?] 46. How many kinds of ships had the Greeks i-[For what purposes were the dif- ferent kinds used?] 47. What was the religion of the Greeks'? How were their gods divided? Who was Jupiter considered ?-[What was the only authority for the popular behef? How is the account here given to be regarded'? Why is it particular?] Who were the celestial deities ?-[Who was Jupiter, and where was he born'? How did he become possessor of the world '? How did he divide it? What was one of his greatest exploits ? ^Vhat was his cha- racter? How is he represented? Who was Apollo and where was he born ? Over what did he preside ? 'What was the con- sequence of his killing Cyclops ? Relate some of his adventures on earth. How is he represented? Who was Mars? Of what was he the god ? What was offered to him? What is recorded of him? How is he represented? Who was Mercury'? What was his office, and of whom was he the patron? Wlat is said of him? How i.-3 he rei)resonted? Who was Bacchu.s, and of what was he the god? How were his festivals celebrated? How is he de- picted? Of what was Vulcan the god, and of whom was he the patron? ^^^^ose son was he? How did he become a crip- ple? What was his business in heaven'? Of whom was he llie husband and father'? Hf)w is he rein'escmled ? Wlio was Juno, and what is slie styled? Where was she born ? Why was she held in great venera- tion by the ancients? What is said of her person and worship? How is she repre- sented? Of what was Minerva the god- 16 QUESTIONS ON dess 1 How did she compare with the other divinities ■? In what did she instruct 1 What city claimed her particular attention ! How is she representea? Of what was Venus the goddess t Who were her pa- rents 1 What was the character of the worship paid to her? Where were her most beautiful temples'? Where was her favourite residence i How is she represent- ed? Of what was Diana the queen? To what was she and lier attendants devoted ? What plants were sacred to lier ? How is she represented ? Of what was Ceres the goddess, and who were her parents ? Wliat was her life ? What mysteries were celebrated to her honour ? How is she re- presented ? Of what was Vesta the goddess and guardian? How is she represented?] Who were the -niarine deities ?-[What was tlie ranli of Neptune among the gods ? Over what did he reign? What was the consequence of his conspiring against Ju- piter? How is he represented? Who was Oceanus? Of what was he the father? How many sons had he and his wife The- tys? Who was Triton, and what was his office? Describe liim. Who was Nereus ? How many daughters had he, and what were they called 1 Who was Proteus ? What power did he possess?] Who were the infernal deities ?-[ Who was Pluto, and over what did he exercise dominion? What is related of him? Were any temples raised to his honour ? ITow is he" represented ? Who was Plutus ? What was Charon's olBce ? What is said of his person and character? What was requisite in order to enter his boat ? Where were departed souls carried by him ? Who were the Furies? How are they repre- sented? What is their office ? Who were the Fates? On what did they decide? How was it accomplished ? Who were the judges of the dead ?] What other divinities were there ?-[How was Cupid represented? Who were the parents of the Muses? How many were there, and what were their names? Over what did each preside? Who were the Graces ? What are they supposed to do ? How are they represented?] Wlio were the rural deities ?-[Of what was Pan the god? Over what dirt Pylvanus and Priapus preside? What did AristKus invent and discover? What did Termineus watch over? What is said of tlie Sirens? Who were the Gorgons? Wliat are the Harjiies said to have been ? Wlio were the Dryads, Naiads, and Nere- ids? Who were the Tritons? Over what dill the Lares and Penates preside ? Who were the Fauns and Satyrs? Who was Pales? What is said of the Nymphs?] How was the worship of these divini- ties conducted ?-[From whence did the Greeks derive their religion? By whom was it extended ? How many gods did they worship? How are they rejiresented ? In wliat did the religion of the common people consist? What was the belief of their poets and philosophers with respect to a future state ? What did they think rela- tive to the immortality of women ?]-Wliat picture have tliey drawn of Hell? How did they describe Heaven ? What was connected with tlie religion of the Greeks? Where were their principal temples situa- ted and how were they built? Which was the most celebrated ?-[Where were the statues of the gods placed, and the sacri- fices performed? To what do templea among the heathen probably owe their ori- gin ?]-In what estimation were oracles held by the Greeks? How was the will of the superior powers communicated ?-[What may tiiey be called when compared with the predictions of the Scriptures? Which were the most celebrated?]- What were the public Games in Greece? What were the contests in these games? How were the victors treated ?-[By whom, and when were the Olympic games instituted? What was an Olympiad ? How were the victors crowned ? What is said of the celebration of the Pytliian games? What of the Ne- mean and Isthmian ?] 48. What was the state of literature in Greece? In what are they still unrivalled? -fDid the Greeks derive any part of their learning from foreign nations ? In what did their peculiar glory consist? What contributed to the rapid advances niade by them in civilization and knovilertge ?]-IIow early did they cultivate poetry ?-[What celebrated names do we find in each de- partment of poetry ?]- Where, and with what success was oratory cultivated 1 Where did it become an object of attention? -[Who were the most distinguished ora- tors, and what were their peculiar excel- lences ?]- When was history ctdtivated, and witii what success ?-[ What is said of their historians?]- What was the state of philosophy among the Greeks ? From what did "the professors of philosophy ori- ginate ? What were they called? What was the character of the Grecian philoso- phy ?-[What were the principal sects, and byVhom were they founded? What were some of the pecuharjties of doctrine which distinguished these sects? What was a subject of special research among the Gre- cian philosophers ? What was the opinion of some of thein upon this topic? Who were the seven wise men of Greece?] 49. When did Greece abound in archi- tects, sculptor.s, and painters? What im- provement did they make in the useful and necessary arts? In what did they excel all other nations? What did they carry to perfection ?-[What system of architecture did thev invent ? Of what orders did it con- sist? Describe them. What specimena of their sculpture are mentioned ? Who among tlieir painters have been highly ex- tolled ? Did thev excel in music ?] 50. Was the dress of the ancients simi- lar to that of the moderns? What was the dress of the men among the Greeks ? What of the women? What covering did they ANCIENT HISTORY. 17 wear on their hcail3 7[What did the Athe- nians wear in thoir hair? What was the external appearance of the higher classes among the Spartans 1 Wliat was the military costume 7 Upon wliat did tlit-y set a hi?h value !]-Describe the meals of the Grceks.-[\Vhat were convivial enter- tainnii-nts in the earliest ages 1 Wliat was used fur (Irinlving and lor food by the Greeks 1 What were some of their cus- toms relative to feasts'!]- When were mar- riages lawful ! How were they esteemed among the Greeks ?-[Was polyg;uuy ever allowed 1 What were the liabits of tlie Grecian women 1 What was required of parents and children i]-IIow were funerals attended 1 51. How was Phankia situated'? 52. What was the capital, and for what xvas it distinguished .' How was Tyrus situ- ated ?-[ What is said of it ! Were there any other cities in Phoenicia ?1-What vestiges of splendour still remain ^ 53. What effect had the situation of the Pliojniciaus on their pursuits'! How early were they known as a commercial peo- ple ? 54. What improvement did they make in tlie sciences !-[What euiiiient pliilnso- phers were there among theiii!]-In what manufactures were they skilled ! What proof have we of their skill in architect- ure 1 55. Why is it probable that they were in- structed in the worship of the true God 1 -(Wliat were the principal objects of their mistaken adoration 7] 56. Where was Lydla situated 7-[What is said of the inhabitants on the coast 7] 57. What were the principal cities 7-[For what was Ephesus famous 7 By whom, and why was it burnt 7 What otlier cir- cum.slances rendered it famous 7 What is its present situation 7 Of what prediction is that a fulfilment 7J 5vS. What was the character of the Ly- •lians, before and after the introduction of Persian lu.xuries7 59. What were some of their customs 7 (30. Wliat country did the Roman.^ inha- bit 7-[What other names had Italy 71-How was it situated? How was it divided? •[What were its principal districts?] 61. Does Italy furnish any interesting lo- calities 7-[For what are Andes, Comum, Verona, and Patavium celebrated ! Why are Ravenna and the river Po 7 What ren- ders Padusii. Rubicon, and Etruria famous ! Why are Circeii and Tuseulum noticed? For wh.at are Capua and Cumaj celebrated ? What was first invented at Nola ? Wliat rendered the eruption of Vesuvius, in 79, A. C, remarkable? Bv whom was the city of Arpi founded ? Where was Horace born? Whv are .\.pulia, Brundii.^ium, Ru- diae, and Tarentum iiienliimed ! Why were Pastum, Mctaponluin, Thurium, and Petilia famous? For wliat was Sicily cele- brated ! For what were Lipara, Sardinia, Corsica, and Urcinium famous ?] 62. What was the seat of the Roman em- pire? How was it built? Where were the residence of the kini;s, the Capitol, and the Tarpeian rock ?-[Why are not the in- e(|ualities in the surface of Rome, as dis- tinctly marked as formerly ? How was water conveyed for tlie use of the city 7 What was the Circus Ma.ximus 7 Mention some of the magnificent rums which still remain. What was the extent of its walls 7 WTiat is its present state? De.-^cribe the Forum. For what purpose was it used 7 What was the Campus Martius 7] G.3. What were the several governments under which the Romans lived? When does ancient history end? How were the. kings chosen, and what was their power? -[What were their external distinctions, and what were their prerogatives 7]-How were the Roman people divided! Who composed the Senate 7 What was their business and rank?-[What changes did the Senate undergo?]- Who were the Knights ?-[What was their business ?]• What were tlie remainder of the Roman citizens called? How were they divided? -[What division of the citizens was call- ed centuries?]- What was the situation of the s/ai'ejj?-[Wliat punishments were in- flicted on them 7 Wliat privileges had the slaves?]- What provision for uniting the different orders, was made by Romulus? How many, and what names had the Ro- mans ?-[What did each signify ?]-Did the privileges of citizenship extend out of the city 7 Where was the power of the Ro- man people expressed ? What were they called 7 For what purpose were they sum- moned ?-[How manv kinds of Comitia were there? Which was the principal, and what was their business 7 Where did they meet 7 Who created the subordinate magistrates 7 Who were called candidati 7 When did the Comitia fall into disuse 71- How were the Roman magistrates d\v\ded% Who were the ordinary 7 ^Vlio the ex- traordinary ? Who the provincial 7-[What officers performed the dirties of^ kings af- ter their banishment? At what age were they eligible to office 7 What was the duty of the Tribunesof the people? What was the duly and power of the Censors 7 For what were Pra»tors appointed 7 What was the duty of Proconsuls and Pro-pra;- tors7 Who were the .T^diles? For what were Quaistors appointed ? Wlien were Dictators created? What was their pow- tir? Wh.it check was given to it? Wlio were the Decemviri 7 What was the pow- er of Military Tribunes? What was an Interrex?] 6-1. What gods did the Romans worship 1 How were their jiriesfs selected? How were they divided ?-[What were the tirin- cipal of the first of these divisions? Men- tion the respective duties of each ?]-Give an instance of the kind of priests appropri- ated to particular deities.-[Wliat was their duty?) 65. Wliat was the tendency of all the 18 dUESTIONS 6ii Roman institutions'? What was tlie duty I oi" every citizen .' IIow long after tlie build- 1 ing of Rome did tlie soldiers serve without pay ^-[What way was necessary to be ap- pointed to any honourable office 7]- What change took place about tlie time of Marius 1 What was the appearance of a Roman le- gion ■? Of how many men did it consist 1 How were they divided ? On what was the dependence of Rome placed ?-[Of what did tlieir defensive arms consist! What were their weapons of assault 'i What was the pilum7 What was the Roman sword! Describe their method of drawing up an army, and attacking an enemy. ]-What were their engines of attack in besieging a town'!-[Describe the aries. IIow were the soldiers protected IJ-How was a Ro- man camp formed ^-[Did they ever ne- glect a regular encampment 7 What could each soldier accomplish, when it was ne- cessary to leave their camps! Wliat was the character of the Roman soldiers 1]- What were the rewards of distinguished soldiers'! What was the liighest object of Roman ambition '! By whom was it de- creed '!-[Describe a triumph. What was an ovation?] 66. What is said of the Roman ships'! To what was the success of the Romans at sea, owing 7-[What was their object in sea battles'! From what model did tiiey first construct their ships 1 In how short a time could they fit a fleet for sea'! By what was the size of their ships reckoned'! 67. When did the Romans pay much at- tention to agriculture '! What two profes- sions did they unite '! What distinguished generals were called from the plough to the army 7 When were the pursuits of agri- culture abandoned 7-[How often did the farmers visit the city 7 What were some of their common maxims on agriculture 7J 68. What is mentioned as an amusement of the Roman people 7 Which were the most popular, comedies or tragedies 7 What oiJier entertainments were in use on the stage ?-[By whom and when was the first regular play written 7 Wliat distinguished tlie comic and tragic actors 7 Why were the Senate opposed to theatres 7 When was the first, of stone, built 7 For what is it now used7]-Which of the public games were most frequented 7 Wliat did these sliows exhibit 7-[With what was the fe- rocious taste of the Romans gratified 7]- What had superior attractions for them 7 By whom were these attended7-[By wlioni were they first exhibited 7 What liiil Ihey become 1- When were they entirely al)olislied7 Wliat numbers fought at the fiuiies exhibited by Trajan and Claudius? Wild were the gladiators? What mode of figliling is mentioned? Which was the most celebrated Amphitheatre for this pur- pose?] 69. What is said of the system of edu- cation among the Romans? To what was their attenti'jn priiiripally directed? In what way did the politeness of the Romans show itself ?-[What improvement Was made in education, after their intercourse with the Greeks ! To what were children habituated in the family 7 Where were the young men placed at the age of 17 7 What were the chief objects of pursuit of tlie Roman youth 7 To what may be at- tributed the great number of eminent men and women during the republic 7 What swept away the most valuable of their in- stitutions?] 70. What was the state of Roman litera- ture, previous to their intercourse with Greece 7 How did it compare with that of Greece in tlie Augustan age ? What was cultivated -with success ?-[ What writers improved their language ?]-What appears to have been their earliest intellectual ef- fort 7-[What names adorned the Roman drama? Who were their Lyric poets 7 Who excelled in elegies, and who in satiric poetry? In what did Lucretius and Virgil excel'?]-With what success was history cultivated 7-[Who were tlie most eminent of their historians?]- What was a favourite study at Rome 7 How did the most dis- tinguished orators often exercise their talents 7 What were the characteristics of Roman eloquence?- [Wliat is saiil of Cffisar, Hortensius, and Cicero 7]-When did philosophy first appear at Rome 7 From wlience was it derived ?-[IIow was it introduced? Why was the philosophy of the stoics at first generally received 7 Who were among the Roman stoics? Who were disciples of the old, and who of the new academy 7 What made the Epicurean philosophy fashionable 7 Who were devo- tees to this system?]- Was natural philoso- phy much cultivated by the Greeks or Romane ? Whose name is the only one conspicuous in this department? What contributed greatly to the advancement of learning at Rome 7-[For what was the li- brary of LucuUus remarkable 7] 71. How did the Romans compare with the Greeks in the fine arts?-[How were their temples and private dwellings adorn- ed 7]-WTiat was the state of the mechanic arts7-[IVIention some conveniences which they did not possess.] 72. How were tlie houses of the Romans constructed before luxury reached its ut- most bounds 7-[What is said of them in the time of the emperors 7 How were their tables made 7 What was a Roman villa ?]- What change took place in the meals of the Romans? How many meals had they, and in what manner were they taken ? -fOf what did the diet of the earlier Ro- mans consist 7 Wliat were esteemed great delicacies? Wliat wines were used'? Of what were the services of their tables made? Describe their manner of taking their meals.]- What is said of their hnt/is? -[What rendered their frequent balliiiigs necessary ?]-Of what did the dress of the Romans consist? What was the toga 7 What was the toga virilis 7 What was the timica7-[What was the difference be- ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 tween the dress of the women and the men? When were hats and caps worni Were ornaments, pins, and mirrors, in uselj-la wliat estiinatiun was marriage held by the Romans? On what did tiie validity of tlie transaction depend !-[\Vhal was always attended to before a marriage was solenniized ■? W'liat power had fathers over their children iJ-What were the fune- ral ritea of tlie Romans ? When did the practice of burnim; llie dead fall into dis- use !-[Why did tliey slaughter animals at the tomb of the deceased !J 7'2 1-2. What was the commerce of Rome 7 What circumstance ri'siricted their com- mercial dealings !-lIn what estimation was tralhc held ! Wlial was the size of their largest merchant ships >] 73. Wliat was the situation of Syria ? What were its principal towns 7-[How did Aniioch compare with other cities ! Wliat is said of Daplme and Seleucial What rendered Damascus famous 7 Why are the remains of Heliopolis interesting ! 15y wiunu was Palmyra foimded ) What shows its former magnificence >] "4. What was the character of the an- cient Syrians? 7^). When did the Syrian language be- come a distinct tongue 1 Where was it spoken ?-[What is its character?] 7(3. What was the extent of Carthage 7 -[By wliom was it rebuilt after its destruc- tion by tlic Romans 7]-From what time may its decay be traced? 77. What was the government of Car- tilage ? What was their chai-acler ? 78. What was the situation of Parlhial IIow were tlie people governed ?-[Who were tlie ancient Parthians? To what were they accustomed from infancy ? For what were they celebrated by the ancients ? What was the state of their morals and re- ligion ?1 79. What was the extent and situation of ancient Persia? 80. What was their government ?-[How were the kings of Persia treated by their subjects ? What anecdote is mentioned as a proof of this ? What is said of the royal palace ? For what purpose did the Persian monarchs live ?] 81. Wliat was there peculiar in the edu- cation of the Persians? 82. What were their punishments ?•[ Wliat was the most severe?! 83. To what kind of military exercise were they |)articularly trained? Upon what dill Iliey di pend for success ?-[ What singular custom prevailed?] 81. What was their religion ?-[Is it proba- ble that they were ever acfpi.ainted with the worship of the true God? Who was Zoroaster?] Mythology of Ancient Nations. I. What was the religion of the nations of antiquity? Wliat was their systcin called f 2. Wlio were esteemed deities among them?-[Wliat was the character of the religion of Egypt ? What did the Babylo- nians and Arul)ians worship? Xyho were the gods of the C'aiiaanites, Syrians, Phceni- cians, and Carthiigiuians? Whom did the Moabites and Pliilistines worship? Who was the favourite deity of tlie Scythians'? What was there peculiar in the religious riles of the (,'elts? What is said of the re- ligion of the Persians ? What was the my- thology of the ancient Hindoos .'] 3. VVhat is said of llie worship of a mul- titude of gods? To what were the agree- able fictions of mytliology adapted ?-| IIow was the Pagan theology divided 7 Wliat was the first 7 How was this estimated by the wiser heathens? What was tlie se- cond I Who were the writers of this class, and to what did their speculations relate? What was the third?] 4. How were the systems of mythology explained by the refined and liberal ? What use is to be derived from the study of the Pagan systems of religion? What other advantages are mentioned 7-[What was meant by mundane and super-mundane gods I Into how many orders were they distinguished ? What duties were assigned to each ] Why was it necessary that the governors of the mundane gods should be twelve 7 Who were they ? How may this truth be seen in the statues of Apollo, Minerva, and Venus ? How did the other mundane gods subsist 7 Give some exam- ples. What was the genuine pagan creed as given by a heathen philosoiiher 7] 5. What docs a survey of the heathen mythology present ?-[How long did this state of things continue ? What effect has the Bible produced in the moral world?] Discoveries, Inventions, and Improve- ments of Early Ages. 1. To what is special reference had in this article 7-[Wliat evidence exists of the early progress of mankind in the arts of life I] 2. What urged the cultivation of the arts at first? What are among the earliest arts ? What is said of astronomy ? Of geometry ? Of medicine? Of agriculture? | How did asriculture llourish among the Romans? How among the Israelites and Egyptians? How do the moderns compare with the ancients in this respect 7]-What is said of architecture 7 3. What was one of the minuter divisions of ancient art? What articles did the an- cients generally use in embalming dead bodies? Did they know all that the mo- derns know on this .subject ? What is said of the Egyptiuus JfWliat way of embalm- ing was most aiu-irnt? What was the Egyptian method .M-Wliat is said of the strl'cts of ancient Rome? What attention did the Greeks and Romans pay to their public roads 7-tWhat is further said of the 20 aUESTIONS ON ANCIENT HISTORY. Roman roads 1 What was the ordinary rate of travelling compared with the pre- sent ■?]-What was the oldest method of conveying news "! Wliat was another mode !-[What is further said of public criers'! What of the mode of posting 7]- To what is the origin of making glass probably due t Where is it said to have been discovered 7-[Relate the history of the discovery of glass f] What were the oldest mirrors mentioned in history made ofl Of what were they afterwards made 1 Were glass mirrors known to the ancients ?-[ What were the looliing glasses mentioned in our English Bible ? What is said respecting the date of the invention of glass mirrors 'Jl-Wliere, as is supposed, was linen first manufactur- ed 1 Were the Greeks acquainted with it ^ When was it introduced into Rome 1 What is said of the arts of spinning and weaving 7 By what people was wool in Europe first manufactured i-[From what country aid sheep originally come f With what were the early inhabitants of northern Europe forages clothed 7]-Is the art of dyeing an ancient one 1 By what nations was it known 1 What articles did they dye 1 To what ancient people was steel known"! What names did the Greeks give to it"! -[How does the steel of the ancients com- pare with that of the moderns'!] aUESTIONS ON OUTLINES OF MODERN HISTORY. BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS. INTRODUCTION.* 1. What event have some writers taken as the divitlma: period between Ancient and Modern Hi.story ! What have others l;vken ! Mention that whicli i.s assumed in this book. 2. Why is the Cliristian era the most pro- per separating point 1-[Wliat made it re- markable, in divine providence % Describe the state of the world in a political view ?] 3. What is saidof tlie materials of Modern History 7 What lias diminished our means of infonnalion on this subject ^-[Mention the causes which have rendered portions of Ancient History obscure. What pai'ticu- lars can you relate of the hbrary at Alex- andria 1 What has happened to some li- braries since t] General Division. -[How may Modern History be divided I By what may eacli period lie remember- ed !1-What is the name and e.vtent of the first period J Repeat this question m every period. PERIOD I. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod? 1. With what great event does this pe- riod commence ? Why does itbelong to tlie Roman history? When did the birth of Jesus occur, in common reckonina 1 What is the general opinion of the learned on this subject? According to tliis opinion, how old was Jesus at the vulgar date ?-[What is said of the temple of Janus, at this time 7] 2. How long had Rome been an empire f What was it.< slate at the birth of Christ? What afterwards ? What was one of the causes of its down M\ ! \V'hy did ambassa- dors daily arrive at Rome ? 3. Who was the first Roman emperor, and when did he die ? What were the events between the birth of Christ and the death of Augustus? 4. What was the political condition of the Romans at this time ?-(On what accounts are we inclined to undervalue antiipiily? How does this subject appear to a contem- plative luind?] 5. Who now assumed the government? Who was Tiberius ? How long did he ap- pear just and moderate ? After this, what was his character? Who were the first oljjects of his suspicions ? What is said of the Roman people, upon the death of Ger- manic us ? What did Tiberius afterwards? How did he die ?-[Whcn did he abandon Rome, and whither did he repair? What is said of his person and habits i How long did he live and reign 7] 6. Wliat Wits the character of the Ro- mans at this time ?-[IIow did Tiberius feel in view of their character? What formed a part of the festivities of the Romans?] 7. Whom did Tiberius adopt 7 ^\'ho was Caligula, and why so called ? When did he begin to reign, and in what manner 7 How- did he at length act? What was s^eneca's idea of him? When, and how did he die? -[What were his cruelties, impieties, folly, and prodigality? What does Heeren re- mark concerning his prodigality? By wlioni, and in what manner was his death accomplished?] 8. What followed the death of Caligula 7 Who wa.s proclaimed emperor 7 Wlio was Claudius? What was his character? -[What became of his family ? By whose jealousy was he instigated to acts of cruel- ty 7]- What particular enterprise marked his reign 7 How did it terminate 7 Wliat became of Messalina his wife 7 Wliom did he afterwards marry ? What did Agrippi- na do? When was t'iaudius jiut to death? -[Repeat the story of Petus and .\rria.] 'J. How many inhabitants did Rome at this time contain? What was its moral condition 7 10. Who succeeded to the empire ? To whom had Nero's education been entrust- ed ? How long did he appear just and hu- mane? Whatdidheafterwai-dsdo? What is said of his flagitiousness, his meanness, and puerility? By whom was he slain? How long did he live and reign ?-[What was the cause of the burning of Rome? What is said of Piso's conspiracy against him? What was tlie state of Rome, and the surrounding cfluntry i Why was the despotism of tlie Roman emperors quietly borne by the people 7].During the reigu of Nero, what occurred among the Britons? What among the Parlhians? The Jews? 11. Who succeeded Nero in the empire? Who proclaimed Galba? What body sanc- « It will l)C noticed, tlmt the same onler which provail.s through tlio Hi.story, is proson-ed in the followiiii: Questions— and also tlmt the Huestions on that part of the work vsliich is printed on the tmaller type, are included in brackela. llms -[ J. at'ESTIONS ON tioned this measure? What was the cha- racter of Galba, before his elevation '! How did lie manifest his severity 7-[What would have made him more acceptable as an emperor ? Mention an instance of his se- verity. What is said of his parsimony 1]- How long did Galba reign ! On what ac- count was he slain? What did Otho ex- pect ? Did the emperor favour this design 1 What followed 1 12. ^\^^o was raised to the throne 1 What was the character of Otho? How long did he reign? What did Vitellius do?-[From whom was Otho descended? What has been obser\'ed respecting the last moments ofhishfe?] 13. Who now assumed the government? How long did Vitellius retain it? What was his character? Under what circum- stances did Vespasian appear in Italy at this time? What became of Vitellius? -[What instances of his cruel disposition are here recorded? What is said of his gluttony ?] 14. When and by whom was Vespasian declared emperor? By what was he dis- tinguished? What is said of the Jewish war, during his reign ? After this, what was the state of the empire ?-[What were the acts of his administration ? What were his feelings in regard to learning? How did he die?] 15. When did Titus succeed to the em- pire? What was his character? What is said of his reign? When did he die? -[What is related as an instance of the go- vernment of his passions ? What is said of his tenderness ? Mention some events that happened during his reign. What were the circumstances attending his last sickness ? Who was suspected of having hastened his death ?] 15i. \Vhen did Domitian assume the pur- ple?" What were his acts after a short pe- riod? WTiat is said of his reign? What most occupied his private hours ? What is said of the persecution of Christians ? Did he derive renown from the success of his general, Agricola?-[To whom was Domi- tian particularly hostile ? What did he do to the senators, at particular times? By whom had his death been predicted ? How did that circumstance affect him? What docs Heeren say of the fall of Domitian ? Who concerted measures to destroy him ?]- What race ended with Domitian? Who was the first, and who the last emperor of tlie Augustan family ? 16. Who was now elected emperor ? Who was Nerva? What unfitted him to cure the disorders of the empire ? Whom did he adopt as his successor? When, and in what year of his age did he die ?-[During his reign, what commendable things did he do? Relate an instance of his lenity?! 17. Who now possessed the throne? What was the character of Trajan? In what ])articular was his equity implicated? VVliat is said of the extent of the empire at tlii.s time? What of Trajan's liberality towards learning? What of his column? How long did he reign, and when did he die ?-[Did Trajan fear his enemies? Men- tion an anecdote in point. What war did he first engage in? Whither did he turn his arms aftei~wards ? Where and how did he die ? How was the estimation in which Trajan was held, shown ?] 18. Who succeeded Trajan? When? How was Adrian declared ? Who was he ? What did he do on his accession? De^ scribe his character. When did be die? -[What did he achieve in Britain"; What in a war with the Jews ? In what manner did he travel? What is said of his endow- ments? Why did he wear a long beard? Whom did he adopt for his succes.sor? Iti what manner did he bear the pains that pre- ceded death? What was the character of his reign ?] 19. Who succeeded to the empire? When? Wliat was the character of An- toninus? How was his reign marked 7 What were the most remarkable foreign occuiTences ? What was the extent of his age and reign ?-[What i.s said of his munifi- cence — his humanity — his love of peace — his regard of Christians ? What, neverthe- less, took place respecting them? What was his patronage of learned men ? Relate the circumstance respecting Apollonius. How did the emperor die ?] 20. Who now came to the throne ? When ? Who had been designated with Marcus 1 Was Verus admitted as a partner ? What was the character of the two brothers ? How did Marcus illustrate his attachment to philosophy ? How did Verus conduct in war? What is said of the Parthians and Germans ? After the death of Verus, what did Aurelius do? Where and when did Aurelius die ? What was an infelicity of this emperor's reign ? Who were the in- struments in the persecution of Christians? •[What is said of this emperor's love of re- tirement? Relate the story of a " Christian legion."]-Upon the death of Aurelius, what was the state of the empire ? At the period of Trajan's death, what countries did the empire comprehend ? 21. Who now mounted the throne ? When ? Who was Commodus, and what his character ? What is said of his admi- nistration ? How Euid when did he perish ? -[What is further said respecting his cruelty?] 22. Vvho was the successor of Commo- dus ? When was Pertinax proclaimed ? Who was he ? When, and by whom was he murdered ? 23. Who next succeeded to the empire ? When? How did Didius obtain it? What happened at the same time ? Who seized the government ? Wlien and by whom was Didius put to death ?-[Relate the circum- stances of his purchase of the empire. From this period to what was he cxiioscd? What at the crisis of alTairs did the senate do ?) 24. Who was now at the head of the Ro- man world ? Who was Severus ? What is said of his military talents ? His admi- nistration of government ? What work did MODERN HISTORY. be accomplish in Britain! Where and when did he die 1 To whom did he leave the empire .'-[VVliat was the first act of Se- verus ! Witli whom diil lie soon after en- gage in war 7 What is said of his activity and love of conquest f What of the wall he built in Britain 1 What circumstances preceded his death 1] 25. Who were now established in the em- pire ! What were the characters of Cara- calla and Geta J What was the end of Car- acal la .' During his reign what was the state of the empire (-[Detail some of his bad ac- tions; his feelings in respect to death.] 2o. When was Macrinus proclaimed 1 How did he lose the atfeclions of his army, ajid finally his life f How long was his reign? 27. Who was now raised to the throne 1 Wliat was the character of Heliogabalus 1 How long did he reign 1-[Mention some facts respecting his elfeminacy, prodigality, and cruelty. How was his death accom- plished!] 28. When was Alexander Severus pro- claimed I What is said of his character and qualities ? How was he cut olf *-[What was a specimen of his virtuous character ; his remark on a certain occasion; his intellect- ual endowments? Mention some of the acts of his reign ; his manner of living.] 29. How and when did Maximinus ascend the throne ? What is said of his de.scent and person 7 What was his character as a sovereign? To what end did he- come? How long was his reign, and what took place during it ?-[In what diil this emperor di-ligtit ? How did he act wlion the senate appointed others to the supreme power ? What is said of his strength and voracity?] Who was now proclaimed I 30. When did Gordian assums tho rm- pire? How old was he at this time ! St;ite what he did. What part did I'hilijt tlie Arabian act?-[How was Gordiaii's fondness for learning shown ?] 31. When did Philip acquire the empire? How long did he reign ? What was the manner of his death ? 32. Who succeeded in the empire? When ? Wliat is said of Decius in respect to his activity ? What causes were enfee- bling the empire ? When and how did his reign terminate 7 33. When and how was Callus raised to the throne ? Give an account of his char- acter and the manner of his death.-[What Jiappened during his reign ?] 3^1. When did Valerian succeed to the throne ? What did he sufTcr ?-[To what use was he put by Sapor ? What was the mannf^r of his death ?] Si). Who was Gallienus, and when was he chosen emperor ? Wliat is said of him af- ter his elevation? Of thirty pretenders? Of the emperor's death? 36. Who was now invested willi the pur- ple ? When ? What was the character of Claudius ? What kind of death did he die ? -[What is said of his military exploits ?] 37. How and when was Aurolian chosen emperor? Wliat is said of liis parentage ? How did he pass his time after his elevation 1 How did he fall ?-( What is said of hia strength ? Relate a further particular con- cerning him?] 38. Was a new emperor innnediatcly elected? Wlien did Tacitus take the reins of govurnment ? What was his character 7 How and at what age did he die ? 39. Who succeeded Tacitus? Who, how- ever, was chosen by the army ? How long did Florian enjoy this distinction? What became of hmi ? What was the character of Probus ? Why and by whom was he slain ?-(What is said of his parentage? Of his energy and virtue ? Repeat the story of Bonosus.] 40. Who succeeded Probus? When? Who was Carus ? Who were associated with him in command ? Wliat was the char- acter of Carus ? Of his two sons? What is said of their reign ? What became of Carus and his sons ?-[Tcll the story of Nu- merian.] 41. When did Diocletian begin his reign? Whom did he associate with himself in the empire ? What did they achieve ? What step did they soon take ? What was the state of things at this time ? What did the two emperors do in a few years ? How did they feel and act from that time ? When did each die ?-[What was Diocletian's pa- rentage ? Why dill he choose Galerius for his as.sociate 1 What is further said of Diocletian ? Of Maximian ?] 42. Who were now universally acknow- ledged emperors? Who ruled the eastern ; who the western parts of the empire 1 Who were the two partners whom (.'on- stantius and Galerius took in with them? What was the character of the two empe- rors respectively ? When did Constantius die, and whom did he leave as his succes- sor ? When and how did Galerius die 1 What did he instigate Diocletian to do 1 -[Of what did the western parts of the em- pire consist? Of what the eastern ? Re- late an anecdote of Conslantius.] 43. What is said of the prevalence, and number of the persecutions of Christians during this period ? Name the persecuting emperors. From what motives did they act thus? 44. When did Judea become a province of the Roman empire ? When did the l)irth of our Saviour take place ? What did Herod do in reference to this occur- rence? What happened to him ?-[In what vear of the world was our Saviour born 1 What era do we nevertheless adopt ? Can the mistake now be rectified ! Who were troubled by his birth ? How was Jesus in his infancy saved from the designs of He- rod ? What kind of life did our Saviour lead? Under whom ilid he suffer? What is further said of Christ ?]-Are the affairs of the Jews at this period sufficiently im- Sortant to be particularized ?■( How was udea divided at this time ? What is a te- trarchy ? Who held the difl^erent tetrarch- ies? Who was the successor of Arcliclausl What is related concerning him ? Who QUESTIONS ON was the successor of Ilerod II. ? Mention what is said in connexion with his name. Who was his successor, and what is said of him ?] 4o. When and by whom was Jerusalem atiacked 1 What was the cause 1 How Wisre the Jews treated ! How many of them perished 1 Wliat did they suffer 1 What will the reader of the Bible see and learn in these events founder what em- peror did the Jewish war commence 1 Who was his general 1 Who at length prosecuted the war ; Mention the particulars narrated] 46. Was Jerusalem rebuilt after this 1 What foUowed .' When was the city finally destroyed ! When it was afterwards built over aiiew, what was it called ! 47. At thebeginningof this period, under what sway did Parthia continue ! When did the second branch of the Arsacidae commence !-[What is said of Veronesl.?] 48. Under whom did the second branch commence"! How long did it last ? What is funher related of the Parthians '![What is said of Artabanus V. ?] 49. How long had Persia been subject to the Parthians from the time that it was brought under the Macedonian yoke 1 When and by whom was the Persian em- pire restored ? What happened between the Persians and Roiuans under Artaxares 7 What is said of Sapores 1. 1 By what name was the present dynasty called l-[What is further said of Sapores J What is said of Hormisdas II. •?] 50. When did the fifth dynasty of China commence 1 When did it terminate ? What is it called 1 During how many years, and under how many emperors did it last ? Who was the head of it ?-[ What is related of Kao-Tsou ^ What of Vuti ?]- When did the sixth dynasty beghi and end 1 What is it called .1 How was China divided at this time? Distinguished Characters. Who were tlie distinguished characters of this period, and in what respects distin- guished ?-[!. What is said of the fame of Livy 1 What of his Roman history ! 2. To what study was Ovid irresi.stibly inclined? What was his fate in life i How are his poems characterized ? 3. Relate what is said of Tibullus. 4. What only remains of Strabo's works ? Describe it. 5. Mention the circumstances in tlie life of Seneca. 6. Relate the facts in I.ucan's life. What is the character of his Pharsalia 1 7. What is said of the studiousness of Pliny 1 Give an account of his work on Natural History. How did he lose his life l 8. Give the history of Quintillian. What is said of his Institutions'? 9. Give the particulars of the life of Ta- citus. Describe his writings. 10. Mention the facts in Plutarch's life. What is said of his Lives of Illustrious Men ? 11. What can you say of Juvenal's hfe ? What of his pieces? 12. Give an account of the character of M.Antoninus. Of his Meditations. 13. Who was Tertullian, and what do liis writings evince? Which are the most es- teemed of his works ? 14. Give an account of the life, character, and writings of Origen. 15. What is said of Cyprian?] PERIOD n. Wliat is the name and extent of tliis pe- riod? 1. When was Constantine proclaimed? Who had been proclaimed before him, and who had declared himself at the same time? Whom did Galerius create emperor? Were these rivals of Constantine soon removed? What has Constantine been styled ? What did he do in this character? What has been assigned as the cause of tliis ? If the cause were real, would it account for his conduct ?-[Give an account of his seeing the cross. What occurred in 314?] 2. How was Constantine's administration at first, compared with what it was after- wards ?-[In what light has his character been considered ? What ought we to think of it?]-Of what change in the empire was he the author, aside from its religious change ? Can his motives for this be ascer tained? What was the effect of the mea- sure ? How and when did he die ?-[How was the new seat of empire said to have been pointed out?]-How long are the histo ries of Rome and Constantinople blended? 3. What is said of the comiption of Rome at this time ? What held the empire longer together ? What specially tended to over throw the fabric at this period ?-[Whal is said of the Roman armies ?] 4. On whom did Constantine settle the empire ? When did their sovereignty com- mence? Who of these remained in pos- session of the whole empire, and how did it happen ? How long and in what manner did Constantius reign ?-[By what enemiea was the West annoyed? By what the East? Whom did Constantius create Ca?sar ? De- scribe his person and character.] 5. On what account was Julian called the apostate ? When was he acknowledged by the senate ? How was he situated in re- spect to Constantius? Describe his char- acter. What did he do in favour of pagan- ism ? What did he attempt in respect to Jerusalem ? How and at what age did he die ?-[In what manner did he treat the Christians? Which is the most famous of his compositions ? How were his last mo- ! ments spent ? Why did he attempt to re- build the temple at Jerusalem ? What is further said on this subject.] 6. What was the condition of things on the death of Julian ? Who was finally fixed on as emperor? When? What did Jovian do in respect to the Persians ? What in res- pect to the church ? How lone was his reicn and age ^-[Mention a circumstance respecting his death.] 7. When was Valentinian I. elected? Whom did he associate with him ? When MODERN HISTORY. was the division of the empire perfected 1 Was it still considered as one 1 vVliat ene- mies attacked the empire 1 How did tlie emperor demean himself? When. did lie die 7-[Mention the m;mner of his death. 1 What is said of Valens ?[What did he do iti respect to the Huns 1 How did he pe- rish?) 6. When did Gratian succeed his father? Upon the death of Valens wliom did Gratian associate with him ? How lonsi did he reign ? What was liis character ?-(What was the occasion of his death 1 In what year ?] 9. Who succeeded Gratian i What oc- f urrod to Valentinian H. ? What became of the tyrant Eugenius? 10. hi tVie East who succeeded after Va- lens ? When ? What was Theodosius sur- nained? Why so? What Is said of Chris- tianity at this time ? When did Theodosius possess the whole empire ? Did any em- peror afterwards reign over both the East and West ?-| WIhi wiis Tln-odosius ? What victory did lie obtain soon alii'r his election? What did he do in 3'JU? Which religious party did he espouse? By what was his faith said to be confirmed ?] 11. What circumstance favoured the pro- jects of the barbarians ? Wlio were the Huns ? Where did a part of them settle? •[What is further said of them?] Who were the Alains ? How early did they invade the empire ?-[What is further said of them?] Whence came the Vandals? Where did they settle once and again ?-[Wliat is further said of theni ? Whence originated the Goths ? Where did they first settle ? What division did they form ?-[What is further said of them ?] Whence did the Htruli originate? Where did they emigrate first and last?-[What is further said of them ?] Wlio were the Gepidie ? Where did tliey fix finst and last ?-[Wliat is further said of them ?] Who were the Suevi, and where did they live?-[Wliat is further said of them?) What was the coimtry of the Bur- pmdians ? Name a few others of the bar- barians 1 12. In the West who held the sceptre ? To whose vigour was it owing that the bar- barians were repelled for a time ? Whom did Stilicho defeat ? When did Alaric take Rome ? For how many years had the city been unmolested by a foreign enemy ? •(What was one cause of the attacks of the barbarians t From what regions did they issue ? How did Stilicho act against them ? What fate did he experience ? What tribe joined Alaric? What was the numlier and character of Rome's population at this time ? What hastened the fate of the city ? What completed the work )) Wliat became of Alaric? What did Ilonorius now do 7 To wliat year did he continue to ri'ign ? I'.i. When was ValentiniaVi III. crowned ? Who was he ? What resulted from the re- volt of Count Boniface ?-rnow was Boniface aiii and Europe ! What happened to Columbus through the influ- ence of his enemies i When and how did he die 1 2. When and where was Raphael bom 1 In what arts was he eminenf! What place has been assigned to him as a painter'! 3. What was Angelo Buonaroti 1 In what has he surpassed all the moderns 7 What is his style ? How long did he live ? 4. What was Erasmus as to learning'? In what estimation is he held by his coun- trymen 1 On what side was he in the ques- tion of Protestantism and popery 1 5. What is related of the life of Coperni- cus f Of his great discovery % In what manner did he die ? 6. Where and when was Luther born '? By what incident were his views directed to the church '! What station did he occupy in the university at Wittembeig'! Where did he learn more particularly the igno- rance, &c. of the church dignitaries ! What was the occasion of commencing a reform- ation'! When and where did he die! In what respects was he qualified for the ser- vice he performed ! 7. Give an account of Calvin's life. On what accotmt did he attract the attention of the world ! What is said of him as a man of piety and talents ! 8. What work didCamoens write'! What did he meet with in life ! 9. What is said respecting the life of Bu- chanan '! What was he as a writer! 10. Give an account of Montaigne. 11. What great work was written by Tasso ! What period of hfe did he live 1 What was there peculiar in his death! 12. What was the character of Spenser, as a poet ! How was his hfe concluded !] PERIOD IX. What is the name and extent of this pe- riod ! 1. Who was now on the throne of Franc el What act of justice did Henry do to the Calvinists! How did be repair the desola- tions of a long civil war ! What is said of his talents, <&c, '! What was the manner of his death !-lState the circumstances of it. What project had he in view about the time of his death!] 2. When, and under whose regency did Louis XIII. come to the throne! How did Richelieu arre.stthat decline of affairs which had begun to take jilace ! What were the principal evcntsof the reign of Louis!-[Did the Protestants attempt to throw off their allegiance ! For what reason ! What was their head quarters ! How long did they endure the miseries of a siege ! What was the result! How did Richelieu endeavour to humble the Austrian greatness ! Were his plans attended with success ! Was this minister a patron of learning ! At what age did Louis die!) 3. When and under whose regency did Louis XIV. ascend the throne! What haa 16 QUESTIONS ON given a deep interest to his reign ? Name tlie most conspicuous events of his reign. • [Wliat battles did the duke of Enghein gain in the war with the Spaniards 1 Give an ac- count of the commotions of the Fronde. What did Louis do upon the deatli of Maza- rine 1 What great generals had he in the war with Holland I liy wtiom were the Hollanders assisted? What battles were gained'.' Was England gained to the alh- ance 1 What nevertheless was the success of Louis? Give an account of the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Who brought about the league of Augsburg 1 What victories were obtained by Louis in this war'! What nations were engaged in the war of the succession 1 What was the object of it 1 On whose side was the advantage now 1 What battles did the duke of Marlborough gain?] 4. What was the age of Louis, ami the length of his reign 1 What constitutes his chief claim to the admiration of posterity 1 Wliat was the result of it? In what was Louis's sagacity peculiarly manifest'! Give an account of some of his generals and mi- nisters. What were his accomplishments and character? 5. By whom was the throne of England ascended in J603? To what house did the ece])tre now pass? What is said of this event ?-[How did Elizabeth point out her succes.sor ? In the history of Scotland what is said of David Bruce ? Of Robert II. ? Of Robert III. ? Who was James I. ? Wiiat were his quahties ? What did he accom- plish for his people ? What is said of James II. ? Of James III.? Of James IV.? What was the character of the reign of James VI. ? What occasioned his death? By whom was he succeeded?] 6. What conspiracy soon tended to dis- turb James's reign? What baser project followed ?-[Relate the story concerning the plot.] 7. What expectation had the puritans fonned at the accession of James? What evils drovemany of them to the new world ? What pohcy did James pursue ? Why was he prejudiced against the puritans ? What change were the minds of Englishmen un- dergoing? How long did James reign over England 1 How long over Scotland ? What is said of his character, disposition, and reign ?-[What incident shows his love of flattery ! Was he not on the whole a va- luable prince ?] 8. When did Charles I. ascend the throne? What was there in the state of the English people which demanded a more liberal ad- ministration than had before been observ- ed? Did Charles regard this state of feel- ing? What led Charles to certain tyrannical measures ?-[now began the quarrel be- tween Charles and his parliament? What acts were passed by a new parliament de- termined on reformation?] 9. What class of people were now em- barking for America ? Why? What pro- vjdentiallv proved an unhappy afTair for Charles ?-[What is said of Hampden ? What did Laud attempt against public feeling? What was the national covenant of the Scots? What other evils did the king and his party meet with ?] 10. Was the sword now to decide the contest? What did the parliament do? What the king? What was the issue of several battles ? Who were the supporters of Charles ? Who of the parliament ?-[With whom did the parhauient enter into a con- federacy ? Who directed the measures of the army? Which battles were favourable to the royalists ? Which to the Parliament 1 What was the religious state of Cromwell's army? Relate how the king was taken, tried, and punished. What was the cha- racter of Charles? Did God seem to over- rule events in this instance for the advance- ment of civil liberty ? What is said of Charles as an author ?] 11. What took place in England on the death of Charles ?-[ What religious interest began now to prevail ! By whose influence alone could the confusions of England be settled? What was the state of things in Ireland and Scotland ? What did Cromwell do to establish his authority in those coun- tries? Relate tlie story of king Charles II. in attempting to escape. How did the re- public act at this era I What was its suc- cess in a war with Holland? How and where did Cromwell annihilate the repub- lic? What kind of parliament did he then assemble? What did they finally do?] 13. When was Cromwell declared Pro- tector? What was his power? What was the condition of the nation ? Why was he not popular ? How, at length, did he feel in his elevation ? When did he die ?-[Whal was his character?] 14. Who succeeded in the protectorate 1 Did he continue long in it? 15. What took place after the abdication of Richard Cromwell ?-[How was the resto- ration effected? Who was the instrument in it?] 16. How was Charles regarded by the English people? What had he to recom- mend himself to them ? Why and when did his government become unpopular? In what way was he screened from odium 1 What evils became prevalent during his reign ? What change was there in the peo- ple, by which Charles's tyrannical disposi- tion was more submissively borne than It had been ? What was the origin of the dis- tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory'? What do they stand for? To what act did the prevalence of tory principles lead? •[What events of this reign are recorded 1 What party became predominant before the end of it? How was England now thrown into a flame? How did the king act?] 17. When did Charles expire ? In what year of his age and reign ?-[What things are added concerning the character of Charles?] 18. Who was proclaimed on his death 1 When? What does the history of this reign consist of?-[Wbat is said of the capa- city and conduct of this prince '!] MODERN HISTORY. 17 W. What wa? one of tho principal events of his reisn ! Wlial led the kins to his ruin 7 Wliat application was maile for re- lief from the tyranny of .lauics !|()ii his arrival, hy whom was William joIikhI !]- Whitlier did James flee ^ What did a con- vention-parliament do on this occasion 7 -[What character was given hy the duke of Buckingham of Charles and James 7) 'JO. Wlio now ascended the throne 7 What is this event often called 7 What was accomplished by the revolution 7-f Why was a revolution indispensable 7 Who were Btyled non-jurors, &c. 7] 21. How were the Irish affected towards James 7 In what battle wore they subdtied by William 7 What was the principal cause of the wars in which this prince en- gaged 7 When did the peace of Ryswick take place 7 On what principle did William act in his foreign wars !-[State the circum- stances of the naval battle of La Hoirue. What is said of James in the latter part of his life!) 22. After the death of James, who was proclaimed at St. (!ermains7 What effect had this act on the British nation ! Under what circumstances did William die 7 -[What is said of his person, ect- ed witli llie l"reiu:h revolution ! What was tlie character ol' that revolution )-lWhat were the views, the spirit, and the eti'orts of the British nation in lliis war ! Wliat vic- tories did they gain on the land and on the sea 7 When was there an interval of peace 7 Wlml caused the renewal of the war 1 What is mentioned of the battle of the -Nile 3 Of Trafalgar!] 42. What other war was Oreat Britain engaged in at this lime ! What was the cause of this war I When did it coni- ijiencp and terminate ! What was its cha- racter? 43. What happened lo George III. during (he latter part of his life? Who acted as regent in the mean time7-[VVhen did the old king die 7 What is supposed to have bruughl on his insiuiity ? What is his cha- racter 7 Who succeeded him 7 What is said of his reign 7] 43i. Who was the successor of I,ouis XlV.'on the throne of France 1 When did Iio begin lo reign 7 Who was regent during tile kiim's minority 7-[What was the charac- t' r of the Duke of Orleans 7 What ruined the credit of the government 7] 44. Who was the minister of Louis after he came of age 7 What did Henry's ad- liiiiii.slralion etfect 7 How long was the ni.'u of Louis 7 What was its charatter7- IMeiulon some particulars of his conduct. What did his profusion iead him to under- take .' How did his conduct aflect his peo- ple?] 45. Who ascended the throne in 1774 7 What was his situation 7 Was his temper fined for the evil days on which he w.as lalji u7-fWliat course did Louis pursiic 7 What led directly to the revolution? What other concurrent causes were there? What is thi.-: period now called ? What may it be liereallnr?] 46. What steps did the king take when the government was destitute of supplies ! Il.nv wa.s the National Assembly constitu- ted ? When and with what event did the Re- volution, properly speaking, begin 7-[What did the States General consist of? When the National Assembly was called, what be- came of the monarchy 7 What wa.5 the situation of the king and royal family 7 What important acts did the Assembly pass ? What appeared in 1790 7] 47. When was the regal government abol- ished 7 By what body was this done 7 What became of the king 7 What was his charactf-r ?-[ What were some of the charges alleged aL'ainst th(! king 7 Who exerted the most influence against him 7] 48. What coiiimi need after the death of the king? Wliat did the factions in the Convention do 7 What act in particular has given immortal infamy to that ljo;ly 7 When and how did the queen of France perish ? When did the sister of the king7.]\Vho was the most execrable of ths revolutionary leaders 7 Who were his accomplices 7 What is said of the death of the Duke of Or- leans 7 What of Kobesjiierre !] 49. After the fall of Kubespierre, what, took place? What is said of the suftering caused by the Convention 7 When were the Directory and the two Councils esta- blished 7 00. What is said of the e.xternal relations of France at this lime 7 Why did Austria and Prussia take the part of Louis 7 What is said of the emigrants 7 What was the republic able to do 7 How many fighting men had it at command in 1794 7 51. How long did the government of the Directory cotuinue7 In what was the ex- ecutive power then vested 7 What was the design of the consulate 7 What were the coalitions against Knmce 7 How many were there ? What does the first of these coali- tions include 7-[Who was the founder of these combinations 7 What effect was pro- duced on France 7 Were the French suc- cessful ? What held the coalition together after the retirement of some of the powers'? Against what nation was the war most vigo- rously carried on 7 Through what country chielly7 To whom was the array of Italy entrusted in 1796 7 What did he soon achieve 7 What is said of the invasion of Egypt 7] 52. When and by whose means was the second coalition carried on 7 Was it more extensive than tlie other 7 From what cause was the allies victorious 7-[Give a brief account of Switzv>rland.]-When was it a critical period with France ? Upon his return from Egypt, what did Bonaparte ef- fect ? What was so(m the state of things'? \\ hat led the way to the peace of Amiens7 What is said of Bonaparte at this time'? When was he proclaimed emperor 7. [Why was the peace of Amiens enjoyed only for a short time 7 When and by what means was Egypt restored to the Porte 7 What was the condition of France at this time 7 What project had Napoleon formed? What resources had he for accomplishing it?] 53. When and by whom was the third coalition formed 7 Wliat was the plan 'J How long had England been already at war with France 7 What happened to the coa- lition 7-[What brought on the war between France and England7 What was the first royal family dethroned by Napoleon's proc- lamation? What was the condition of Prus- sia in this war 7 What step did she at length take 7] 54. When and by whom was a fourth coalition matured? What was the result to Prussia? What battles were foughtv\'ith the Russians 7 What did Russia and Prus- sia agree to 7-[Why and how did the British secure the fleet of Denmark ? What two consequences flowed from this act? Give an account of the various decrees by which France and England destroyed the com- merce of neutrals. What was the conse qu(;nce (o Europe 7] 5.'5. Relate Napoleon's schemes for ag- graudiaing his family. IIow did his design 22 QUESTIONS ON on Spain become the first fatal step in his downfall'? Who were called to the aid of Spain ? How long was the war carried on ■? Were the French driven out of Spain? 5(5. While the war continued in Spain, what other war did the conqueror project '.' What did this war do ? 57. What did Napoleon do after his de- feat ■? Why was the tilth coalition formed 7 Of what powers was it formed? When did Pans capitulate? 58. What were the results of these suc- cesses 7-[Give an account of Napoleon's ab- dication. Whither was he afterwards con- veyed, and under what circumstances 1 Where had Louis XVIIl. spent his time? What other kings were restored at this time ?] 59. For what purpose was a general con- gress assembled at Vienna? When was this? What extraordinary event occurred during the sesi-ion ? Did it occasion ano- ther coalition I Was the nation with Bona- parte at this time ? What event defeated his hopes for ever?-[What became of the French king upon Bonaparte's return ? Relate particulars of his return ? What did the congress of Vienna do on this occasion ? What army was now assembled against him? Relate what is said of the meeting of Napoleon and his toes. What became of him after his defeat? When did his death happen? W^as he the author of several valuable institutions ? What evil, never- theless, did he do? What indemnity did the allies require of France ? What sort of raonarch was Louis XVIIl. 1 Who suc- ceeded him?] 60. What is said of the history of Italy in modern times? How was Italy divided at the congress of Vienna? 61. To what year did Philip of Spain reign ? From what causes did the nation degenerate ? 62. W^ho succeeded Philip ? When ? What was his character ? How long did Charles III. reign? What was liis charac- ter? What were the principal events of his reign ?-rDescribe the siege of Gibraltar.] 63. VVho possessed the crown in 17ffi!? Give his character. What did he do in 1792? What was the condition ofSpain after the treaty of Amiens was broken ? To whom did Charles and his son make an appeal? What ensued ?-[In what respects has Spain been unfortunate since the peace? What also has been the condition of Portugal? Are the Portuguese rich in colonies ?] 64. What was the most important portion of the Lotc Countrirs or Netherlands 7 What is said of the commerce, &c of Hol- land before the French revolution? When and how did the Dutch begin to degenerate ? How has Belgiiun usually been divided since its freedom from the Spanish yoke? 65. What was the condition of the United Netherlands after they were overrun by the French ? How was Holland atfected as to her colonies? When and under what cir- cumstances did the prince of Orange as- sume the title of king of the Netherlands?, -[Why was it necessary for the congresaat Vienna to unite Holland and Belgium?] 66. In the history of Turkey, what do we perceive about this time ? What changes, however, have been lately effected? How has Turkey generally retired from its con- flicts with Russia ? Who was sultan at the conanencement of this period ? When was he deposed? How many sultans have there been since ?-[What occurred under Musta- phalll. ? What under Achmet IV., Selim III., (fee. ? How far did the Porte escape from the convulsions of the French revolu- tion ? What has happened to Turkey since 1S21 ? What have the inhabitants of Greece effected within a few years? When did the spirit of insurrection first show itself? What was accomplished at the end of the year 1821?] 67. Who now occupied the throne of Chi- na? What two of the Tartar dynasty had preceded him ? What is the date of the present dynasty ?-[What occurred in the reign of Yong-Tching? Relate the particu- lars concerning Kien Long. What is said of the famous Russian mission in the reign of KiaKhing?] 63. Who was the sovereign of Persia near the beginning of the present period? What had Kouli Khan been before ? What did he do in 1739? What was the stale of Persia after his death till 1794?-[Givean ac- count of the origin of the Sophis. What is peculiar to Persia in respect to its form of government, &c. ?] 69. What figure does India make in his- tory ? W^hy caimot historians easily give a regularaccount of it? Doesit much deserve our attention till modern times? What are thepiMiple as to civilization, arts, character, &c. /-[What is said of India in ancient times'? What occurred in 710? What in 11.55 ? What after this till 1660 ! Who then conquered Bengal ? What was the state of his empire at his death? What did it become in 50 years? What took place in 1739? Give am account of the British possessions.] 70. What event took place in regard to the United Status during this period ? In what war were the colonies involved in the year 1744? What was its result ? Where were the troops mostly obtained ?-[In what condition were the fortifications at Louis- burg? Why was it deemed essential to take this place?] 71. What became of a powerful French armament sent against America in 1746 1 How long did the peace of Aix-la-Chapello last? When did the French and Indian war begin and end 1 What was the issue of it 1 Who first came into notice during these con- tentions ?-[What is further said of the French armament? What was the effect of the return of peace ? What was the occa- sion of the French and Indian war ? What sen'ice was entrusted to George Washing- ton? What is said of the result? Ilowmany and what expeditions were planned against the French in 1775? Give the details of each one. When was war formally decla- red? What ensued in the early and what MODERN HISTORY. 23 in the latter part of the year I'/SSI V/hat was the object anan-(What took place in Boston and Portsiuoutli 7 Were similar manifestations made elsewliere !] 75. What did the British ministry now do 7 On what were duties laid in 1767 7' What re- sulted from the opposition made to these duties ? Could tea be sold in America 7 Wliat was done with acar^o of it in Boston harbour ! J(j. To what acts did England now resort 7 When was the Boston jiort b 11 passed 7 "(What is further said of the port bill, and other bills 7] 77. When and where was there a congress opened 7 What diil it resolve to do 7 What alternative diil England choo.'e 7-[What is further said of this congress 7J 7.S. When and where did hostilities begin 7 What did the British hope in the commence- ment of this contest 7-lGive an account of the battle of Lexington 7] 79. By what was the war soon signalized 7 Whatw^as the fate of an expedition against Cana'la7 What was the character of t)ie war 7 Who only seemed to be cap-xble of waging it 7-[What is sai.! of the bailie of Bunker's Hill 7 Who was chosen leader of the American forces 7 What did Washing- ton do on his arrival at Cambridge 7 What is said of the northern expedition 7 What befel Norfolk in Virginia7 When and why did the British evacuate Boston? Wliat at- tempt did ihey make on Sullivan's Island?] 80. When was the Indepf^ndence of Ame- rica declared 7 When was Uuruoyne taken 7 By what was this event i^receied? Upon the capture of Burgoyiie, wi.at did the French court do 7 'Who were allies of France ?-[ Wlien and by whom was the mo- tion made to declare the states independ- ent? What were the character and effects of this measure ? Describe the depressed condition of American affairs? What did many ofthe Americans do in the neighbour- hood of New- York ? What fort was taken at this tiiue 7 What wa-5 the force under Washington on the '>,M of November? What In the early part of December? How did congres.s appear at this time 7 When were the articles of confederation adopted 7 How did the piople feel? What force did Con- gress determine to raise? What achieve- ment did Washington make at Trenton? What at Princeton 7 How lar:;e was the American aiiiiy in 1777 7 Wiien was the battle of Brandywine fouaht? With what result ? Wliat is said of the battle of Ger- mantown ? Give an account of the capture of Burgoyne 7] 81. How was America affected by the al- liance of France? Who, nevertheless, has the glory of having struck the decisive blow 7 When did C(u'nwa!lis capitulate 1 By what had this event been preceded? VVhat was now the financial state of the country ? When was the independence of the United Stales acknowledged by Great Britain 7 When did a definitive peace take place ?-[Where did the Britisli resolve to concentrate their force 7 Give an account of the battle of Monmouth. What part of the country before the close of 1778 became the principal theatre of war? What state fell under the power of the British? What depredations did the British make in 1779 1 Were there any important cx])editions made by the Americans 7 To what causes was the deficiency of exertion owing? De- scribe the second cause at large? What events took place in South Carolina in 17601 At this time what was doing at the north 1 Describe the battle of Cowpens : also that of Guilford Court House. Where was La Fayette called to oppose CornwalUs ? Give an account ofthe battle of Yorktown. When was the American army disbanded 7] 82. What was the cliaracter of the first con.stitution ? What was effected by the constitution of 1789. Who was the first president? By what perhaps nmst t)ie union be preserved? Describe the com- mercial prosperity of the United States.- [What was the danger of the country at first ? Under the old confederation why was the nation unable lo pay its debts'? When w^as the Federal Constitution pre- sented to Congress 7 How many states at first adopted it? Wlien was Washington chosen president ? How did he conduct the government? Did he meet with any opposition? Was he chosen the second time 7 What were among the important events during his admiiiisrration?] 83. Who succeeded Washington 7 When! How long did John Adams retain the presi- dency ? " What is said of the pohtical strife at this time? When was Mr. Jefferson chosen president? What occurred under Adauis's administration ? Was Jefferson chosen the second time ? What was the stale of the country at this lime? Did difficulties at length occur with the bellige- rents of Europe'! What did congress do on December 22d, 1307? What on the 1st of March, 1S08? How long did the restrictive plan continue in resi^^ct to France? How long in respect to Great Britain 7 When did the United States declare war against Great Britain? What did the navy do? What the army? When did peace take place ■> Under whose presidency did this war oc- cur? When was Mr. Madison elected, and how long did he continue 7 What were the principal events that marked the adminis- tration of Jefferson and Madison ?-( What were the principal grounds of the war7 Was there an agreement in Congress and among the peojile on the subject? How did the war coiniiience? Give an accoimt of the battle of Queenstown. When 'was the 24 QUESTIONS ON frigate Guerriere captured 1 What other tiaval victories were obtained during the year? What is said of the battle of the river Uaisin 7 Give an account of the naval operations during the year 1813. What is said of llie battle of York 7 What did the British do on the seaboard 7 What events occured during the remainder of the year ? When was the battle of New Orleans fought 7] &!. What did the war with England ef- fect 7 How long did the presidency of Mon- roe continue 7 How many States were added to the Union during his administration 7 What is said of party spirit 7 When were John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson elected 7 What may be remarked general- ly 7-[Soon atler the conclusion of the war, to what was the attention of congress turned 7 Was this easily accomplished? W^hen did the bill receive tlie signature of President Madison 7 To what sum was the capita! of the bank fixed 7 What is said of the eflforts that have lately been made to obtain a re- charter of the 'bank 7 What did President Madison do soon after his accession? What did his tour serve to effect? What was done early in the presidency of Monroe? Under whose authority did the adventurers claim to be acting? Where had they form- ed an establishment? Why did the United States deem themselves authorized to take possession of Amelia island? Under whose command was a naval force despatched? When was Ameha island surrendered 7 What followed soon after 7 What States were admitted into the ITnion during the administration of Monroe ? When was Mississippi received? How long did the French claim the country 7 To whom did they cede their possessions eastofthe river? When did Illinois adopt a State convention 7 When was it admitted into the Union ? What became of the tirst settlements made by the French in Illinois? What took place in 1762? What happened after the war of the revolution ? When was Alabama admitted into the Union 7 How long did this country continue the Imnting ground of savages? What event occurred in 1817 7 When was Maine admitted as an independent State into the Union 7 What had it formerly been 7 AVhen was a separation accompUshed ? When was Missoini declared to be a mem- ber of the Federal Union ? What is said of its previous condition 7 What occasion- ed the difficulty in the admission of Missou- ri? Describe the circumstances respecting the Seminole war, and the conduct of Gen. Jackson. When was there a convention concluded between Great Britain and the United States 7 What is said respecting the cession of Florida to the United States 7 Where were the territorial governments formed for Arkansas and Florida? WHiat is said of the suppression of piracy in the West Indies 7 Describe the visit of La Fay- ette to this country. Wliat is said of the presidency of John Q. Adams 7 What was the situation of the country at the time of Jackson's entrance on the presidency?] ' What is said of his cabinet? Describe the I Indian controversy in respect to the remo- val of the tribes. Mention the acts of Con- gress in 1831. Describe the South Carohna difficulties.] 85. What was the condition of the pro- vinces of South America till the time of the French revolution? What have they be- come within the present century? What is Brazil styled ? How many and what are the names of the free States 7-[In what did their struggle for freedom originate ? Give a further account of it.] Distinguished Characters. Who were the distinguished characters of this period, and tor what were they distin- guished 7-[l. Mention particulars in Addi- son's life? What is said of his writings, their style, Ac. 7 2. What was the time of Newton's life and death ? What is said of his early studies? What wa.i his greatest discovery 1 When w-as his Pri.icipia published? How did he endure the sickness preceding his death? What was his character? Wiiat has a celebrated writer said of him? 3. Give an accoim' of Boerhaave. 4. Where was P jpe born 7 Give an ac- count of his different productions. What was he in person, disposition, and man- ners ? 5. Mention some par'iculars in the life of Swift. What is said of his writings? How was the eccentricity of his character shown ? 6. Give an account of Montesquieu. 7. Mention events in the life of Edwards. Wliat is said of his character and writings? 8. What particulars are mentioned in the life of Hume ? What is said of him as a writer ? 9. What influence had the writings of Voltaire in regard lo the revolution 7 Give the particulars of his lite and writings. How did he die? What is said of his person, &c.? 10. Give the life of LlnnEeus. In what is science indebted to his sagacity? Wliat is said of his knowledge and industry? 11. Where was Rousseau born? Did he enjoy much happiness in life ? Where and in what manner did he end his days ? What is said of his genius and works? 12. Give the particulars of Pitt's life. What was he as an orator and statesman? 13. Give an account of the life and wri- tings of Metastasio. 14. What is related in the life of Euler7 Describe his menial powers. How did he appear in society? 1.5. Give the history of Johnson's life, and of his works. In what manner did ha approach death ? How are his works cha- racterized 7 16. Tell the circumstances of Frankhn's hfe. 17. Why was not Gibbon at first distin- guished as a scliolar? When did he pay special attention to classical Lterature? MODERN HISTORY. 25 What is said of his Decline and FaJl of the Roman Empire"! What is further said of his writmgs f What wiTe the characteris- tics of his intellect, as he descrilies themi 18. Give an account of ({urns. 19. Kelate the jiarticulars of Uurke's life. What was he as an aullior ! 20. Where was VVashJnjilon borni In what situation did he first show his talents 7 What was he as a military captain 7 What was his public life after the revolution'! What was his character generally 7 21. Give the particulars of the life and writings of Cowper. What is said of his Task! 22. Relate the circumstances of Klop- stock's life. By what is he characterized as a writer 7 23. Relate the history of Heyne. 24. What is said of Madame de Stael7 25. What are the particulars in the life of r)wight7 How was his death resarded? How have his works been received iince his death 7 2G. Give an account of Bonaparte's life. How will maiikmd couliime to regard him 7] GENERAL VIEWS. The Feudal System. 1. What was the peculiar state of society among the ancestors of modern Europe called 7 What does tlie Feudal system mean 7-[Detail the plan on which the feucjal policy was arranged !) 2. By some writers to whom has the ori- gin of the Feudal system been attributpd7 "What is its real source !-[What is said of the subordination of the • lembersof a tribe to their chief among the Gauls 7 What was the practice when in peace? What in war 7]- Among what ol her nations did such a relation subsist 7[ When the F'rank's over- ran Gaul what was the condition of the country in this respect ! Were the fiefs at first revocable 7 When did they become otherwise 7 What was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary 7] 3. What w-as the principle on which this establishment was founded? Mention tlie effects produced by tiie feudal system 7 -fWhat was the state of Europe through the feuds of the barons 7 What was the condition of England in this respect in the reign of Stephen 7 Which was the urdiap- piest period in the annals of Europe ! What causes operated to produce a better State of things 7 What .■rionarch first adopt- ed the measure of having a standmg army 7 Who followed his example 7] Chivalry. 1. What was chivalry or knighthood? Was some such instilulion necessary, if a better could not be found ! Of what was it designed as a corrective 7 What did it aim to do 7-[What is said concerning the source of the term chivalry 7 Willi what is chival- ry not to be confounded ?]Iii what had chivalry its origin? From what practice did it grow into the form it aflerward.s as- sumed 7 Caji we tell ihe exact lime of this7 When was religion united with chivalry ! -(Were religious rites used in the days'of Charlemagne? What do we read concern- ing Edward the Elder? What does the story of Hereward show us 7 Was knight- hood a personal distinction only 7 What was every per.son of noble birth required to do at 12 years ?]-In what countries did chivalry flourish most? 2. How many and what were the degrees of chivalry 7 Who could be classed with the knights bannerets 7-[What is said of the privileges of a knight banneret ?]-What was the second class of chivalric heroes? What was a general qualification for knight- hood ?-[Was it a cosily dignity? Was it always a reward of merit?]- What was the last class of chivalry 7 3. When did the education of a knight generally commence? At what place? Mention the particulars. What was the youth called during the first 7 years? -[What was taught during this period ?]- What took place at 14 years? When was his education completed ?-[Mention some of the duties of esquires. How did they strengthen their bodies?] 4. At what age was knighthood confer- red? What was the preparation for itl What was the place of inauguration 7 When did the candidate take his oaths of chivalry ?-[What did he swear to do7]- What followed in the ceremony? What concluded it?-[What exemptions were there from these rites ?] 5. What is said of the cavalier's horsel Mention his offensive weapons — his defen- sive ?-[How was his defensive armour some- times carried? Was it easy to kill a knight in full armour? How could it be done "7 Was his horse defended?] 6. Mention the virtues in the chivalric character ?-[What was the strongest fie of chivalry 7 What is said of a thirst for renown? Of a knight's humility 7 Of his clemency 7 Towards whom, nevertheless, was he ruthless 7 What is said of his fideli- ty? Of his courtesy?] 7. Give an account of his every-day life. -(What did the minstrels do? What was there pecuhar in the entertainments of kniglits?] H. How was the knight's lady educated 1 [What tasks were imposed on her intel- lect? What is said of the influence of love in chivalry ?]-What consideration was there ofwoman in chivalry ?-[Relate a piece of hi.story on this poiiil,] 9. In what amusements did knights and ladies most delight? What were tourna- ments 7-[Mcntioii the manner in which they were got U)). When might a knight tour- ney ?]- Describe the place of combat. Who were the judges? What were Ihf rewards? [Give an account of the combat. ]-IIow many kinds of jousts were there 7 Describe the joust of utterance. What absurd prac- tice grew out it? De.scribe the joust of 26 QUESTIONS ON peace. Were jousts more martial than tournaments ^-[How long did these pastimes last?] 10. How many orders of chivalry remain to the present time? What is said of mosi of the present orders of knighthood? Of what general description were they ? Over what countries did they extend? What were some of the religious orders? What is said of the military orders? 11. How is chivalry related to the age in which it arose? What did the good it in- cluded spring from? Were its theory and practice so good as they should have been? -[What is said of the gayety and imagination of the early ages of Europe ? Mention the beneficial efl'ects of chivalry in regard to civilization, &.c. What opposite tendencies had it ? Were not these mostly excep- tions ?]-When did the hght of chivalry go out ? By what causes in particular did its power cease ? Romances. What were romances? Why so called? When did they first appear? What their origin ?-[What were the subjects of the early romances? Mention some of the ce- lebrated ones. What progeny sprung from these ? What new order arose afterwards ? What was the last form of the Romance ? What has an author observed concerning these books? What is said of them aa re- epecls Italy and England?] Pilgrimages. What were pilgrimages? In what light were they considered ? At what time did they prevail ? What places were most visited ?-(What is said of Jerusalem as a resort? What of Composfella? In what countries have pilgrimages been common?] Manners and Character of the Gothic Na- tions. [Why are the manners, &c. of these tribes curious objects of inquiry ?]-Who were the Gothic or Scandinavian nation ? What were the other barbarous tribes from northern Europe or Asia? (1) Were some characteristics common to them all? What did their habits and education form them for? Why could the Roman world but fall before them ?-[What reasons are there to believe that the Scandinavian and Prythian nations had the same origin ? How was the theology of the Scandinavians an index of their manners ? Mention the names and attributes of their divinities. What joys did they ex-]3ect hereafter? Was there a similarity between their manners and those of the Germans? Whence were the Ger- mans drrived ? What was the religious system of the Cellae? When did the Goths nominally embrace Christianity ?]-(2) What is said of the diver.^ities of character that existed?-[Mention some particulars respect- ing the Goths properly so called. When they were divided into Ostrogotlis and Visi- goths, in what respects did their policy vary ? Mention some particulars from the Visigoths' code of laws. Give an account of the Heruh. Of the Huns.] Learning and the Arts. 1. Why are these topics to be treated ac- cording to certain eras ? Describe the three eras included in this sketch. -[Did the Au- gustan age extend a little into this period?] 2. What is to be noticed in the first era? What style of writing soon prevailed 1 Were the writers, however, inferior in ge- nius to their predecessors? Was there a decline in science and philosophy ?-[Men- tion some particulars of the poets on this subject. What is said concerning several other authors in science, philosophy, >ophy and science advan- ced ! What it said of iuiprovenients since ? -(Of what is the following account designed as a sketch ! Wliat resulted from the fall of Constaiiljtiople / In the restoration of learning, what was the most important step ! Who were engaged in looking up manu- scripts ! What pope was distinguished for encouragement of learning .' What was one great cause of the restora- tion of learning? What people led in this restoration ? What other nations soon felt the influence? Who is considered as the father of French poetry ? What is said of English scholars ? Give an account of the progi-oss made in hterature in Europe ? What is said of the progress of philosophy 1 Oivesome details concerning the fine arts at this period. When did the human mind put forth its greatest eftbrts ? For what was that period distinguished ? Who taught the true method of philosophizing? Was the progress of philosophy rapid at first? Who at length dispelled the darkness that rested on philosophy I What is said of Locke I Give an account of the philosophers on the continent before the time of Bacon. What is said of Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and Hiiygens ? Mention the instruments that were invented, connected with the advance- ment of knowledge. What learned socie- ties were established in the seventeenth century ? What is saiil of tlie useful and mechanic arts in this century ? What was the progress of literature in the middle por- tion of this era? Give the names of some fine writers in England and France. What was the culture of the fine arts at this pe- riod? What is said of the last portion of the present era? What sciences during this Eeriod have been fixed on a new and firm asis? What is here said of astronomical science? Have the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries been distinguished in po- lite learning? When is the Augustan age of English literature said by some to have begun? Mention some names. What is here said of poetry ? What is said of litera- ture in the United States? What of peri- odical literature? Give an account of the fine arts inthis pe- riod. What is the character of the inven- tions of these times ? Mention some disco- veries and inventions. On what does the further improvement of mankind in know- ledge, depend ? What societies arc there fitr this object in England and France ? Where else are there literary associations ? What is said of the power of association? What is efl^scted by newspapers ? Give a further account of them. In what diURL -URL 1990 ^mmm L 006 026 1 52 6 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 001 313179 2 b I'^M ^^•1