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 ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND ANALYSIS. 
 
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 AND 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 < 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM DAVIDSON, B.A. (Lond.), 
 
 AND 
 
 JOSEPH CROSBY ALCOCK, 
 
 AUTHORS OF 
 
 •THE COMPLETE MANUAL CV PARSIXG," "INTERMEDIATE ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND 
 
 ANALYSIS," "first ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND ANALYSIS," "COMPLETE MANUAL 
 
 OF ANALYSIS AND PARAPHRASING," " KEY TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND 
 
 ANALYSIS," "ENGLISH COMPOSITION," AND "KEY TO 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION." 
 
 ff£W EDITION, WITH CONSIDERABLE ADDITIONS. 
 
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 ALLMAN & SON, Ltd., 67, NEW OXFORD STREET. 
 
 1889. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 nil 
 
 1)38' 
 
 rAf\iN 
 
 The want of a really good, practical School Grammar is still 
 felt, and it has been the aim of the writers of the present 
 hook to meet that want. Care has been taken to state the 
 rules and definitions in accurate terms, at the same time 
 keeping in view conciseness and clearness of expression. As 
 the work is intended for schools and students of all classes, 
 the writers have endeavoured to combine simplicity with ex- 
 haustiveness. Use has been made of the results of the labours 
 of the best philologists so as to secure a scientific treatment of 
 the subject. The writers wish to draw attention to the follow- 
 ing features : — 
 
 1. Copious Exercises, consisting of sentences and passages 
 from good English writers, are supplied. 
 
 2. Syntax is very fully treated. 
 
 3. An attempt has been made to render the Analysis of 
 Sentences lucid and complete. 
 
 4. A sketch of the Origin and Hidory of the Language is 
 included. 
 
 5. Numerous Questions for Examination are appended to 
 every important division of the book ; and Examination 
 Papers selected from Government and University Examina- 
 tions are placed at the end. 
 
 6. The whole work is carefully graduated. 
 
 Frequent reference is made to the "Complete Manual of 
 Parsing," a work by the present writers, which may, with 
 advantage, be used in conjunction with this Grammar. 
 
 o;ir 
 
PEEFACE TO NEW EDITION. 
 
 Advantage has been taken of the reprinting of this Grammar 
 to subject the work to a thorough revision. Considerable 
 additions have been made, especially with regard to the 
 derivation of inflexional forms, and to the origin and history 
 of the English language. Numerous additional Examination 
 questions have been given from more recent papers. In 
 dealing with the Moods of Verbs an arrangement has been 
 made (see p. 57) to meet the wishes of those who omit the 
 potential mood as well as of those who prefer to recognise the 
 five moods usually given by grammarians. Notwithstanding 
 the great extent of important matter which has been added, 
 it has been so arranged that the new edition may read with 
 the previous ones. 
 
 Augwitf 188(3. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTIOIT 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 Okthogkaphy 5 
 
 PART IL— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A. Classification and Inflexion 15 
 
 Chapter I. — Definitions. 
 1. The Noun 17 
 
 ■2. The Verb 18 
 
 3. The Adjective 19 
 
 4. The Pronoun 20 
 
 5. Thb Adverb 21 
 
 6. The Preposition 22 
 
 7. The Conjunction , 23 
 
 8. The Interjection 24 
 
 Parsing 25 
 
 Chapter II. — The Noun. 
 I. Classification 26 
 
 11. Inflexion 33 
 
 Chapter III. — The Adjective. 
 
 I. Classification 63 
 
 II. Inflexion , 68 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Pronoun. 
 I. Classification 77 
 
 II. Inflexion 87 
 
 Chapter V. — The Verb. 
 I. Classification 108 
 
 II. Inflexion 112 
 
 Conjugation 137 
 
 Irregular, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs 160 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Adverb. 
 I. Classification ". 166 
 
 II. Inflexion 173 
 
 Chapter VII.— The Preposition 175 
 
 „ VIII.— The Conjunction 183 
 
 » IX. — The Interjection 197 
 
 ,} X.— Words not easily Classified 201 
 
»> 
 
 » 
 
 >> 
 
 Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 B. Derivation. 
 
 CiiAPTEK I. — Definitions— PRiMArtY Derivatives 253 
 
 „ 11. — Secondary Derivatives 261 
 
 ,, III. — Compound Words 276 
 
 „ IV.— Old English Words 287 
 
 „ v.— Latin Words 288 
 
 VL— Greek Words 28i) 
 
 PART III— SYNTAX. 
 
 A. Rules of Syntax • 290 
 
 Chaptii:r I. — Syntax OF THE Noun 294 
 
 „ II.— Syntax op the Adjective 317 
 
 III. — Syntax of the Pronoun 334 
 
 IV.— Syntax of the Verb 319 
 
 V. — Syntax of the Adverb 367 
 
 „ VI. — Syntax of the Preposition 369 
 
 „ VII. — Syntax of the Conjunction 372 
 
 „ VIII. — The Interjection 376 
 
 „ IX.— Figures 377 
 
 Specimen Parsing 395 
 
 Synopsis of Parsing 396 
 
 B. Analysis of SentenceSo 
 
 Chapter I. — Definitions 397 
 
 „ II.— The Subject 403 
 
 „ III— The Predicate 409 
 
 „ IV. — The Completion of the Predicate 411 
 
 ,, V. — The Extension of the Predicate -417 
 
 Rules for Analysis 424 
 
 Examples of Analysis 425 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Complex Sentence 426 
 
 Example op Analysis 443 
 
 Chapter VII.— The Compound Sentence 444 
 
 Examples of Analysis 455 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 Prosody 456 
 
 PART V. 
 
 Punctuation 477 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 Origin and History of the English L.\nguage 499 
 
 E.xamination Papers i>«.7C 260 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Language is the expression of our thoughts in words. 
 
 2. Grammar is the science of language, and the art of 
 speaking and writing correctly. 
 
 3. Language consists of sentences. A sentence is a complete 
 thought expressed in words. Spoken words are made up of 
 different sounds, and written words are made up of signs called 
 letters, which are used to represent the different sounds of 
 which spoken words are composed. 
 
 4. Grammar is divided into four parts, Orthography, Etijvio- 
 logy, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 I. Orthography treats of the proper sounds of letters 
 and the just method of spelling words. 
 
 II. Etymology treats of the classification, inflexion, 
 and derivation of words. 
 
 III. Syntax treats of the correct method of arranging 
 words into sentences. 
 
 IV. Prosody treats of the laws of poetry or verse. 
 
 Questions on §§ 1 — 4. 
 
 1. What is language? 1. What Is grammar? 3. Of what does language consist? 
 4. What is a sentence ? 5. What are spoken words made np of ? 6. What are written 
 words made up of ? 7. Into how many parts is grammar divided ? 8. What is ortho- 
 graphy? 9. What is etymology ? 10. What is syntax? 11. What is prosody 'i 
 
 PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 5. Orthography treats of the proper sounds of letters and 
 the just method of spelling words. 
 
 O&s.— Letters (from Latin Utfra, a mark, through French lettre) are characters cm- 
 ployed to represent the elementary sounds. 
 
 6. There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet — «, 
 ^» c, d, e, /, g, h, i, ;, k, /, w, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, u; x, y, z. 
 
10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
 
 A vov/el is a letter which makes a complete sound by 
 itself. 
 
 A consonant is a letter which cannot be properly sounded 
 without the help of a vowel. 
 
 The vowels are a, e, i, o, u ; also lo and y when they do not 
 begin a word or syllable. 
 
 The consonants are h, c, d, f, ^, h, j, Jc, I, m, n, p, </, r, s, t, Vj 
 .T, z ; also n:- and y when they begin a word or syllable. 
 
 (9/;5. 1.— When %c and y come before a vowel in the same syllable, they are generally 
 consonants : as, sv:iixe, twine. 
 
 Obs. 2.— ir and ?/ are called semi-vowels or half-vowels, because they are used both 
 as vowels and consonants. 
 
 7. The English language contains forty-three elementary 
 sounds. 
 
 Of these fourteen are vowel sounds (viz., a in hat, a in Aa/r, a in Jiairie, 
 a in father, a in hall, a in loant, e in net, e in mete, i in pin, o in not, o in 
 note, 00 in cool, oo in noocl, u in but), five diphthongs (viz., i in sigh, ai in 
 aisle, oi in voice, ou in house, etc in new), and twenty-four consonant 
 sounds (viz., h, d, f, g, j, k, I, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z, ch in church, ng in 
 king, th in breath^, th in breatJi, z, in azure, sh, wh). 
 
 Obs.— As c, q, and x are represented in sound by other letters, they have not been 
 included in the foregoing list of consonant sounds. 
 
 V is equivalent (1) to k before a, o, v., I, r, t, as in can, come, cub, clap, cro2>, act ; 
 and where it ends a syllable : as, 'pvMlc : (2) to s before c, i, and y: as, centre, 
 city, cymbal. 
 Q is always followed by u, and is equivalent to kw, as in queen. 
 X represents the sounds of (1) A^, as in box; (2) gz, as in exert; (3) z, aa 
 in Xenophon. 
 
 8. The consonant sounds are subaivided into Mutes .and 
 S]^jlrants. 
 
 (1) Mutes, or dumb sounds, are those consonant sounds in the utterance 
 of which the breath is stopped or cut short. They are alt^o called checks. 
 
 The soft or flat mutes, that is, those which are pronounced M'ith a 
 
 small effort, are : g (in gun), j, d, b. 
 The hard or sharp mutes, that is, those which are pronounced wdth a 
 
 greater effort, are : k, ch (in church), t, p. To these may be added 
 
 the nasals, mg, n, m- 
 
 (2) Spirants are those consonant sounds in the utterance of which the 
 breath is partially stopped. 
 
 The flat spirants are ~ (in azure), z (in size), th (in breathe), v, and lO 
 
 (in iviat). 
 The sharp spirants arc h (properly only a breathing, and hence called 
 
 the aspirate), y (in ?/r,s), ,^h, s (in hou^e), th (in breath), /, wh (in 
 
 tfhi-'^l). To tliese may be added the trills r, I, produced by the 
 
 vibration of the organs of speech. 
 L, in, V, and ?•, are sometimes called litjuids from their continuous 
 
 flowing sounds, 
 
OETHOGRAPHY. 
 
 11 
 
 N.B. — Consonant sounds are often classified according to the. organs of 
 speech by which they are produced. Thvis we have 
 
 Labials, or lip-sounds : b, p, v, f, w, ivh ; also the nasal liquid m. 
 Dentals, or teeth-sounds : d, t, th (in breathe), th (in breath) ; also 
 
 the nasal liquid ». 
 Gutturals, or throat-sounds : g (in gun), h, h (a guttural breathing) ; 
 
 also the nasal itg. 
 Sibilants, or hissing sounds : z (in azure), z (in size), s (in house) ; 
 
 also the trilled liquids r, I. 
 Palatals, or palate-sounds : j, ch, and y (in yes). 
 
 Obs, 1. — /ib nearly equivalent to dzh, and ch to tsh. 
 
 Ohs. 2. — M, 11, ng are called nasals, or nose-sounds, because in these sounds the 
 breath passes through the nose. 
 
 Obs. 3. — In combining consonant sounds it is a general law for a flat sound to 
 follow a flat sound, and a sharp sound to follow a sharp sound : as, 
 
 (a) FL'.t follows flat: (1) Plural noun, rihs—ribz; (2) possessive case, hog's = hog'z ; 
 (3) third person singular of verb, rubs — rubz; (4) past tense and past participle 
 of verb, ')ilu!)ged='piuggiJ. 
 {b) Sharp follows sharp : (1) Plural noun, caps ; (2) possessive case, rat's ; (3) 
 third person singular of verb, sleeps ; (4) past tense and past participle of verb, 
 crei^t. 
 
 9. Table of Consonant Sounds. 
 
 
 
 MUTES. 
 
 
 SPIRANTS. 
 
 
 Flat. 
 
 Sharp. 
 
 Nasal. 
 
 Flat. 
 
 Sharp, 
 
 Trills. 
 
 Labials 
 
 b 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 w {icist) 
 
 f 
 
 wh {ichist) 
 
 
 Dentals 
 
 d 
 
 t 
 
 n 
 
 th (breathe) 
 
 th {breath) 
 
 
 Gutturals 
 
 g {gun) 
 
 k 
 
 ng 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 Sibilants 
 
 
 
 
 z {aziire) 
 z {size) 
 
 sh {sharp) 
 s {house) 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 Palatals 
 
 j {judge) 
 
 ch {clnirch) 
 
 
 
 y (yes) 
 
 
 10. In a perfect alphabet every phonetic element or simple 
 sound should have its own sign or letter, and no sound should 
 be represented by more than oue sign or letter. 
 
 The English alphabet is redundant, defective, and inconsistent. 
 
 It is redvndant because the letters c, q, and x are superfluous. 
 
 It is defective because forty-three sounds have to be represented by 
 twenty-three letters ; e.g., the four sounds in the words father, fate, fat, 
 fall, are represented by the same sign or letter a ; the letter o is used to 
 represent the two vowel sounds in note and not ; the sound of th in 
 thine, and th in thin, have the same sign th, \vhich is not even a simple 
 sign ; so also there are no corresponding- simple signs for ng (in song), sh 
 (in shine), and z (in a?:ure). 
 
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 It is inconsistent because one sound is frequently represented by more 
 
 than one sign : thus, the letter a (in fall) may be represented by au (in 
 
 Paul), aw (in baicl), awe (in awe-s(7'uck), al (in talk), o (in «or), oa (in 
 
 broad), oil (in hought). 
 
 Ohs. — The original and normal sounds of the letters a, e, i, o, u, ore those which 
 they liave respectively in the words father, grey, ctique, mole, rude. They are thus 
 sounded in other hmguages in which they are used. 
 
 11. A diphthong" is the union of two vowels in one sound 
 or syllable : as, ou in house. 
 
 A. triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound or 
 
 syllable : as, eait in beaut)/. 
 
 There are five diphthongs : ou or oiv, as in the words noun and now ; 
 oi or 01/, as in the words soil and boy ; eu or ew or u, as in feud, dew, 
 cruel ; i, as in high ; ai or ay, as in ais/e, aye. If two vowels come 
 together in one syllable, and only one is sounded, they form what some 
 call a written diphthong', or an improper diphthong : as, oa (in 
 boat), ea (in secun), ie (in sieve). Such combinati(ms, however, are not 
 true diphthongs, as they represent simple vowel sounds. 
 
 12. A syllable is a single vowel or collection of letters 
 pronounced by one effort of the voice, and containing only 
 one vowel sound: 
 
 Obs.— By cry vowel, with the exception of w, can form a syllable by itself. 
 
 A monosyllable is a word of one syllable : as, j^art 
 A dissyllable is a word of two syllables : as, partner. 
 A trisyllable is a word of three syllables : as, imrt-ner-sliip. 
 A polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables : as, 
 co-part-ner-sliip. 
 
 13. The following are the chief rules observed in spelling 
 English words :— 
 
 i. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending ^\^th a 
 single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the last consonant 
 when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added : as, sin, sinner ; rob 
 robbery ; commit, committing ; beg, beggar ; fat, fatten. 
 
 ii. The final consonant is usually doubled in words ending in the letter 
 I preceded by a single vowel, even when the word is accented on the first 
 pyllable ; as, travel, travelled ; counsel, counselling ; duel, duellist. 
 
 iii. The final consonant is doubled contrary to the rule in the words 
 biassed, unJAassed, icooHcn, xcorshipping, worshipped. 
 
 iv. Words ending in y preced.^d by a consonant change the y into i 
 when a syllable not beginning with i is added : as, lovely, lovelier ; glory, 
 glorify; bounty, bountiful; holy, holiness; mcn'y, merriment; envy, 
 enviable. 
 
 N.B. — When the place of y can be supplied by i, y is not generally found 
 in any part of a word except at the end. The addition of a letter or 
 syllable makes it no longer the final letter, and consequently it is changed 
 into i. In the words sly. sJiy, and (////, the y is not changed into i when 
 ly or ness is added : as, i^lyly, shyly, dryness. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 V. The final y is not changed into i when a vowel precedes it. This 
 occurs in words ending in ay, ey, oy, and wy ; as, betray, betrayed ; 
 attorney, attorneys ; purvey, purveyor ; boy, boyish ; buy, buyer. 
 
 vi. if the syllable added begins with i, the y is not changed into i : as, 
 magnify, magnifying ; deny, denying. 
 
 vii. When a word ending in ie has ing added to it, the i is changed into 
 y, and the e omitted : as, die, dying ; lie, lying. 
 
 viii. Y retains its form when proper nouns are pluralized : as, The eight 
 Henrys, The Crosbys. 
 
 ix." Mute e at the end of a word is generally omitted when a syllable 
 beginning with a vowel is added: as, love, loving ; convince, convincing ; 
 slave, slavish; desire, desirous; cure, curable; arrive, arrival; sense, 
 sensible. 
 
 X. Mute e preceded by c or g soft is retained in order to preserve the 
 pronunciation : as, service, serviceable ; change, changeable ; peace, 
 peaceable. 
 
 xi. Mute e is retained before ing in the verbs ending in oe, ye, ie, and 
 ee ; as, shoe, shoeing; dye, dyeing; hie, hieing; see, seeing. It is also 
 retained in the words swingeing and singeing. 
 
 xii. Mute e is generally retained when a syllable beginning with a 
 consonant is added : as, pale, paleness ; blame, blameless ; entice, entice- 
 ment ; shame, shamefid ; close, closely ; peace, pieaceful. 
 
 Ofe.— Sometimes, however, mute e is omitted when the syllable added begins with 
 a consonant, and the vowel sound of the last syllable is short : as, judge, judgment ; 
 acknoioledge, acknowledgment ; lodge, loagment ; abridge, abridgment. It is also omitted 
 in the words duly, truly, and awful. 
 
 xiii. When words ending in II are compounded with others ; or 
 when the suffix ness, less, ly, or ful, is added to words ending in U, one I is 
 omitted: as, albeit, although, almost, withal, until, dulness, chilblain, fully, 
 shitless, fulfil, wilful, elbow, bulrush. 
 
 Obs.—ln the words farewell, unwell, shrillness, allspice, stillborn, stillness, tallnrss, 
 illness, uphill,^ downhill, downfall, waterfall, befall, befell, millstone, millrace, and some 
 others, the I is not omitted. 
 
 xiv. If a word to which mis or dis is prefixed begins with s, the s must 
 be retained : as, dissever, dissolve. 
 
 XV. In monosyllables the final letter is generally single, except in the 
 words ending in/, /, and s, preceded by a single vowel : as, staff, stiff, stuf, 
 scoff; all, ill ; mass truss. 
 
 - N.B.— It is impossible to make rules of universal application for dividing 
 words into syllables. The four rules commonly given are :— . 
 
 (a) In most cases the word should be divided so that each syllable may begin with 
 a consonant : as, con-ster-'na-tion. 
 
 (6) When two or more consonants come together between two vowels, they must be 
 separated in the way best suited to the pronunciation of the word : as, bal-loon, in- 
 flect. Exceptions to this rule are such words as to-i^e, /fe-ftie, me-«re, ;i.a-<reii. 
 _ (c) When two vowels not forming a diphthong come together, they must be placed 
 in separate syllables : as, so-ci-e-ty. 
 
 (d) Prefixes, suffixes, and grammatical; inflexions (as er, est) form separate syUables: 
 as, trans-port, infer-ence, wis-er. 
 
 Obs.—Tae first two of these rules when applied to many words are very unsatis- 
 factory. By (a), instead of right-eous, treat-ise, imag-ine, dfsir-ous, demean-our, we 
 should have righ-teous, trea-tise, ima-gine, desi-rous, d.emea-nour. By (b), instead of 
 guard-ian, de-grade, soft-en. front-ier, burgh-er, re-plete, encamp-ing, we should have 
 guar-dian. deg-rade, sof-ten, fron-tier, burg-her, rep-lete, encam-ping. 
 
 The best general rule for dividing words into syllables is to follow as nearly as 
 possible the divisions made by the organs of speech in accurately pronouncing them, 
 retaining, as far as possible, their etymological divisions. 
 
U ENGLISH GRAMIMAR. 
 
 14. Words in the following situations must begin with 
 capital letters : — 
 
 (1) The first word of every sentence : as, He turned from their presence, 
 
 (2) The first word in every line of poetry : as, 
 
 Hoiv sleep the brave who sink to rest, 
 By all their country's wishes blest ! 
 
 (3) The first word of a direct quotation : as, He exclaimed, *' IIow 
 late you are !" 
 
 (-1) Every proper noun : as, France, Cerherm, The Schiller (ship). 
 
 (5) Words derived from names of places : as, Norwegian,. English. 
 
 (6) The names of objects personified : as, Tliou sure and firm-set Earthy 
 hear not my steps. 
 
 (7) The names of days, weeks, a,nd months : as, Monday, Easter-week, 
 January. 
 
 (8) The name of any important event : as, The Restoration. 
 
 (9) The pronoun / and the interjection 0. 
 
 (10) The form of address in a letter : as, Sir, Mil dear Father. 
 
 (11) Yours, Servant, Friend, and all words denotin'^ relationship in the 
 STibscription of a letter : as. Your obedient Servant, Yoiir sincere Friend, 
 Your affectionate Brother. 
 
 Questions on §§ 5—14. 
 
 1. What is orthography ? 2. What are letters ? 3. Name the letters of the English 
 alphabet. 4. Into what two classes are letters divided ? 5. What is a vowel ? 
 6. What is a consonant? 7. Name the vowels. 8. Name the consonants. 9. What 
 are semi- vowels? 10. How many elementary sounds exist in English? 11. Name 
 the vowel sounds. 12. Name the diphthongs. 13. Name the consonant sounds. 
 14 . To what is c equivalent ? 15. To what is q equivalent ? 10. To what is x equivalent ? 
 17. Into what two classes are consonant sounds divided? 18. Wliat are mutes? 
 19. What are spirants ? 20. Mention the flat mutes? 21. Mention the sharp mutes. 
 22. Mention the flat spirants. 23. Mention the sharp spirants. 24. What are trills? 
 25. What are liquids ? 2(j. Classify the consonant sounds according to the organs of 
 speech by which they are produced. 27. What are nasals ? 2^. What law is followed 
 in combining consonant sounds ? 29. In what respects is the English alphabet im- 
 perfect? 30. Mention the original vowel sounds. 31. What is a diphthong? 32. What 
 is a triphthong ? 33. Mention the diphthongs. 34. What is an improper diphthong ? 
 35. What is a syllable ? 36. What letters can form syllables by themselves ? 37. 
 What is a monosyllable? 38. What is a dissyllable? 39. What is a trisyllable? 
 40. What is a polysyllable ? 41. Wliat are the chief rules for spelling? 42. What are 
 the rules commonly given for dividing words into syllables ? 43. Why are these rules 
 not satisfactory? 44. What is the best general rule for dividing words into syllables? 
 45. What words must begin with capital letters ? 
 
 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A. Classification and Inflexion. 
 
 15. Etymology treats of the classification, inflexion, and 
 derivation of words. 
 
 16. The words of the Enpjlish language are divided into 
 eight classes, called Parts of Speech \— 
 
 1. Noun. 3. Pronoun. 5. Adverb. 7. Conjunction. 
 
 2. Adjective. 4. Verb. G. Preposition. 8. Interjection. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 15 
 
 Chapter I. — Definitions. 
 
 I. The Noun. 
 
 17. A noun is the name of anything : as, Henry , hare, 
 Lonncn, table, siveetness. 
 
 Explanation. — The word Henry is a noun, because it is' the name of a person : the 
 word hare is a noun, because it is the name of an animal : the word London is a noun, 
 because it is the name of a place : the word table is a noun, because it is the name of a 
 thing : the word siveetness is a noun, because it is the name of a quality. All words 
 that are the names of persons, animals, places, or things, are called nouns. The word 
 7ioun means " name" (Latin nomtn, French noni, a name). 
 
 Ohs. — The name of the thing, and not the thing itself, is the noun. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 Mention the names of things : — 
 
 1. In the schoolroom. 2. In the house, 3, In the country. 4. In the 
 town. 5. In a joiner's shop. 6. In a railway station. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 Mention the names of : — 
 
 1. Six persons. 2. Six places. ^ 3. Six animals. 4. Six rivers, 5. Six 
 mountains. 6-. Six flowers. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 Mention the nouns : — 
 
 1. The bird sings on the tree. 2. The bee gathers honey from the 
 flowers. 3. George ate an apple. 4. Mary knits stockings for her brother. 
 5. The fox looked at the crow. 6. The rats left the ship. 7. The lamb was 
 lost on the mountain. 8. The sparrow flew frctm the cage to the window, 
 9. Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. 10. The children sat round the 
 table. 11. The bells ring merrily. 
 
 II. The Verb. 
 
 18. A verb is a word which says or asserts something : as, 
 The fire hums ; The bird builds a nest. 
 
 Explanation. — The word burns is a verb, because it says what the Are does : the 
 word builds is a verb, because it says what the bird does. The word verb means 
 " word " (Latin rerbum) : it is the word of most importance in a sentence, for no 
 sentence can be formed without a verb. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 Mention the verbs : — 
 
 1. The dog barks, 2, The peacock screams. 3. The swallow twitters. 
 4, The girl sings. 5. The child laughs, 6. The river flows, 7. Birds 
 build nests. 8, The lark soars. 9, James runs, 10, The moon shines. 
 11. The boy loves his mother. 12, The lion roared in the forest, 13. 
 The steamer brought a box of oranges, 14, The scholar reads his lesson 
 well. 15. The traveller crossed the sands. 16. The shepherd tends his 
 flock. 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 Put verbs after these nouns : — 
 
 Sun, maiden, dog, knife, printer, weaver, sister, heart, needle, crow, nail, 
 kite, mole, snake, rain, gate, sea, night, plant, farmer, blacksmith, hen, 
 eagle, lamb, wasp, worm, scholar, crowd, butterfly, miller. 
 
16 ENGLISH GRAJNDIAR. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 Put nouns before these verbs : — 
 
 Floats, skims, creeps, flies, dances, sets, blows, dies, dyes, smiles, 
 trembled, mews, paints, roars, grows, sows, fjrinds, is praised, was lost, 
 burns, was bought, mourns, nibbles, walks, is? blamed^ knocks, sounded, 
 builds, watched, cuts, overflows. 
 
 III. The Adjective. 
 
 19. An adjective is a word which quahfies or Hmlts a 
 noun : as, A ripe orange ; Ticenty men. 
 
 Explanation. — The word ripe is an adjective, because it denotes the quality of the 
 orange : ticentt/ is an adjective, because it qualifies or limits the noun nun. Ripe 
 answers the question, "What kind of orange ?" Twenty answers the question, " How 
 many men ?" The word adjectiue means "added to "(Latin ad, to ; jactus, thrown). 
 It is so called because it is added to nouns to qualify or limit the things which thsy 
 name. 
 
 Obs. — A or an, and the are adjectives, because they limit nouns. 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Mention the adjectives : — 
 
 1. The king is powerful. 2. The night is long and cold. 3. It is a 
 frightful scene. 4. Many large orange trees lay on the ground. 5. Great 
 was the throne of France. 6. The streets were empty. 7. Rough shelves 
 hold the books. 8. He wore a suit of black velvet. 9. Drowsy tinklings 
 lull the distant folds. 10. The wild birds told their warbling tale. 11. 
 The winds were soft and low. 12. Noisy groups at the house-doors sat in 
 the cheerful sun. 
 
 Exercise 8. 
 
 Put adjectives before these nouns : — 
 
 Oak, sky, honey, bread, eye, desert, ship, sand, surgeon, chain, pencil, 
 window, cherry, hand, herds, wings, current, man, day, colour, dust, fly, 
 hive, village, lake, tail, tortoise, stream, meadow, rainbow. 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 Put nouns after these adjectives : — 
 
 Huge, open, wonderful, sixty, rosy, lame, low, little, great, busy, poor, 
 glittering, painted, blue, round, snowy, golden, distant, sweet, soft, oldj 
 warm, wooden, young, happy, loud, green, wild, withered, yellow. 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 Mention the nouns, verbs, and adjectives : — 
 
 1. Over the joyous feast the sudden darkness descended. 2. The old 
 man lay down on the bare ground. 3. Philip saw the bright loving smile. 
 4. The dark walls of the castle frowned against the soft blue sky. .'). She 
 reached the narrow i)orch and tlie tall door. 6. The leafless tree waves in 
 the raging storm. 7. IJank M-eeds and grasses, careless and nodding, grew 
 where Romans trembled. 8. I hear the merry sound of tinkling bells. 9. 
 A few dry sticks gave us a cheerful blaze in the open air. 10. With a 
 small knife the traveller cut off a large cluster of ripe grapes. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 17 
 
 IV. The Pronoun. 
 
 20. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : as, The 
 cottage has two rooms ; they are small. 
 
 Explanation. — The chief use of the pronoun is to prevent the too frequent repeti- 
 tion of the same noun. In the example, they is used instead of the noun rooms, and 
 prevents its repetition. The word pronoun means " for a noun " (Latin pro and nomen). 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 Mention the pronouns : — 
 
 1. He views the ships. 2. We entered it in the month of January. 
 3. Listen to me, you that are timid. 4. I would not have a slave to till 
 my ground. 5. The dogs boldly flew in between us and the lion. 6. The 
 lion was near : we fired upon him : -one of the balls went through his side. 
 
 7. When the blossom dies, the fruit appears in its place. 8. When dew 
 freezes, it forms hoar-frost. 9. The horsemen halted ; then they dis- 
 mounted. 10. She rushed into the street and clasped her child to her breast. 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 Put pronouns instead of the nouns in italics : — 
 
 1. Hedgehogs rob orchards and carry away apples sticking to the hedge- 
 hogs^ spines in order that the hedgehogs may hoard the apples up for the 
 winter. 2. The cowslips hold up the cowslips' heads. 3. The hen sits 
 upon the hen's nest. 4. The king sat on the king's throne : the throne 
 was made of gold. 5. The lark builds the lark's nest amongst the grass, 
 and thQ lark feeds the lark's young ones daily. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 
 Mention the nouns, verbs, adjectives, and pronouns : — 
 
 1. I once stopped a deaf and dumb boy, 2. He wages perpetual war on 
 the seal and walrus. 3. They say it stirs the sluggish blood. 4. They are 
 shooting the poor birds. 5. We gather ripe apples. 6. I saw many flower- 
 ing limes and weeping willows. 7. He has given him a large penknife. 
 
 8. She opened her door to the weary woman. 
 
 V. The Adverb. 
 
 21. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, 
 or another adverb : as, The bird sings siveetly ; Come hither ; 
 The battle soon ceased ; The lion is a ve7y strong animal ; She 
 reads exceedingly well. 
 
 Explanation. — Adverbs answer such questions as How ? When? Where? Sweetly 
 is an adverb, because it modifies the verb sings: hither is an adverb, because it modifies 
 the verb come : soon is an adverb, because it modifies the verb ceased : very is an adverb, 
 because it modifies the adjective strong : exceedingly is an adverb, because it modifies 
 the adverb well : well modifies the verb reads. The word adverb means "to a word" 
 (Latin ad, verbuvi). 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 Mention the adverbs : — 
 
 1. The sun shone brightly. 2. He slept softly. 3. Amyas went silently 
 and sadly back again. 4. He will write his exercise to-morrow. 5. Step 
 softly ! speak low ! 6. Morn came again. 7. The mother will arrive here 
 
 2 
 
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 to-day. 8. The fruit-cake is too rich. 9. The boy reads very badly. 10. 
 The deer runs extremely fast. 11. The thunder roars very loudly. 12. The 
 well is exceedingly deep. 
 
 Exercise 15. 
 
 I. Join adverbs to the verbs : — 
 
 1. The horse trots. 2. The dog barks. 3. The moon shines. 4. The 
 serpent hisaes. 5. The lightning flashes. 6. The bird flies. 
 
 II. Join adverbs to the adjectives : — 
 
 1. The day is cool. 2. The sea is smooth. 3. The leaves are green. 
 4. The boy is diligent, 5. The wall is high. 6. The well is deep. 
 
 III. Join adverbs to the adverbs : — - 
 
 1. John -WTites ill. 2. The gardener works hard. 3. The river runs 
 slowly. 4. He came recently. 5. The swallow flies swiftly. 6. The 
 mother treads softly. 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 Mention the nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs : — 
 
 1. The gardens were usually fringed with nettles. 2. I see my sister 
 there again. 3. He walked cheerfully onward through the green fields. 
 4. My father always rose at dawn. 5. She drank very weak tea from an 
 extremely large cup. 6. I know it too well. 7. They sleep soundly upon 
 their downy beds. 8. The new servant presently brought the breakfast 
 into the cheerful room. 
 
 VI. The Preposition. 
 
 22. A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pro- 
 noun to show the relation between it and some other word in 
 the sentence : as, The horse in the stable is sold. 
 
 Explanation. — The word in is a preposition, 'bccaiise it shows the relation between 
 the horse and the stable. The word preposition ingaua " a placing before" (Latin prae, 
 positio). 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 Mention the prepositions : — 
 
 1. Horsemen and riders on white asses hurry along the river-side. 2. Tlae 
 river flowed at some distance from them, 3. The butterflies flutter from 
 bush to bush. 4. The shepherd careth for his sheep, and bringeth them 
 back to the fold. 5. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 6. I 
 walked with a quick pace. 7. The eagle flew over the summit of the 
 mountain. 8. The rain beat against the panes. 9. He was followed by a 
 dog. 10. The road lay along the foot of the bills. 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 Tell what part of speech each word is : — 
 
 1. Brave Uricn sleeps upon his craggy bed. 2. The way to London is 
 long and difficult, 3. Blue wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees. 
 4, The vessel rose upon its prow. 5, They travelled by land. G. The road 
 wound at times through dreary woods. 7. He immediately dropped on his 
 knees. 8. We found him in an open place in the wood. 9. In a dream of 
 the night I w.as wafted away. 10. Afar in the desert I love to ride. 11. 
 They are flashing down from the mountain-brows. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 19 
 
 VII. The Conjunction. 
 
 23. A conjunction is a word which joins two sentences 
 together : as, The king went away and the queen followed 
 him. 
 
 Explanation. — The word and is a conjunction, because it joins two sentenc«s : 
 thus, 
 
 The king went away, 
 [and] the queen followed him. 
 
 The word conjunction means "a joining together " (Latin eon, junclio). 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 Mention the conjunctions : — 
 
 1 . The sun had set, but still the visitor tarried. 2. She bowed her head 
 and departed. 3. You see that he deceives you, 4. He came, yet I saw 
 him not. 5. What is sweeter than honey ? 6. Neither music nor painting 
 pieased him. 7. He came because his master required him. 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 Tell what part of speech each word is : — 
 1. Lend thy power, and lend thine ear. 2. He trembled when the 
 crowd gazed upon him. 3. He went to London, but on his return he died. 
 4. He brings them where the quiet waters glide. 5. They separated before 
 their father arrived. 6. The king either governed badly or his ministei'S 
 failed in their duty. 7. The simple peasant obeyed his master cheerfully, 
 because he loved hira. 8. My heart leaps up when I behold a rainbow in 
 the sky. 
 
 VIII. The Interjection. 
 
 24. An interjection is a word which expresses sudden 
 feeling : as, Alas ! the ship is lost. 
 
 ExPLAXATiON. — The word alas! is an interjection, because it expresses sudden 
 sorrow. The word interJectio7i means "a throwing between " (Latin interjectio). 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 
 Mention the interjections : — • 
 
 1. O brother ! say not so. 2. Lo ! tky guide is gone. 3. Hark ! the 
 iark at heaven's gate sings. 4. Hurrah ! the foes are fleeing. 5. Hush ! 
 I hear a voice. 6. Bravo ! the strain is exquisite. 7. Oh ! young Lochinvar 
 is come out of the west. „ 8. Behold ! the rocks are cloven. 9. Warder, 
 ho ! let the portcullis fall. 10. Hail ! holy Light. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 Tell what part of speech each word is : — 
 1. Oh ! speak again, bright angel. 2. O father ! I hear the sound of 
 guns. 3. Hark ! what murmurs arise from the heart of those mountainous 
 deserts ? 4. Ah, no longer wizard fancy builds its castles in the air. 5. 
 Indeed ! you greatly surprise me, for the soldier never mentioned it. 
 6. Hurrah ! the fight begins and the enemy wavers. 7. Merrily. O 
 merrily, chime the bells from the old church tower. 
 
 9 o 
 
20 ENGLISH GRAIklMAR. 
 
 25. Parsing is the exercise of telling the part of speech of 
 each word in a sentence (Latin j;a?'5, a part). 
 
 First Parsing Model. 
 The ploughman homcAvard plods his weary way, 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
 The — An adjective, because it limits the noun " ploughman." 
 
 ploughman — A noun, because it is the name of a person. 
 
 homeward — An adverb, because it modifies the verb " plods." 
 
 plods — A verb, because it says what the ploughman does. 
 
 his — A pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun "plough- 
 
 man s." 
 
 weary — An adjective, because it qualifies the noim "way." 
 
 ■vvay — A noun, because it is the nam.e of a thing. 
 
 And — A conjunction, because it joins the two sentences ''The 
 
 ploughman homeward plods his weary way " and ^^ the 
 
 ploughman leaves the world to darkness." 
 leaves — A verb, because it says what the ploughman does, 
 
 the — An adjective, because it limits the noun " world." 
 
 world — A noun, because it is the name of a place. 
 
 to — A preposition, because it shows the relation betv/een "leaves " 
 
 and " darkness." 
 darkness — A noun, because it is the name of a state, 
 and — A conjunction, because it joins the two sentences " the 
 
 ploughman leaves the world to darkness" and "the 
 
 ploughman leaves the world to me." 
 to — A preposition, because it shows the relation between "leaves" 
 
 and "me." 
 me — A pronoun, because it is used instead of the name of the 
 
 speaker. 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 
 Parse the words in these sentences : — 
 
 1. Suddenly the poor animal uttered a shrill howl and threw himself 
 into the water. 2. It flows with a gentle stream through the flat country. 
 
 3. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes it. 4. The 
 young lobsters leave the parent, and immediately seek for refuge in the 
 smallest clefts of rocks and in crevices at the bottom of the sea. 5. The 
 boy stoi)d on the burning deck. 6. We buried him darkly at dead of night. 
 7. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 8. His horsemen hard behind us 
 ride. 0. The trumpets sound the charge and the retreat. 
 
 10. Then downwards from the steep hill's edge 
 They tracked the footmarks small ; 
 And through the broken hav.- thorn hedge, 
 And by the long stone wall. 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 Parse the following : — 
 
 1. Her thunders shook tlio mighty deep. 2. The harpies of the shore 
 fehall pluck the engle of tlie sea. 3. I wandered far into the bare prairie. 
 
 4. He Bometiniea contemplated the towering height of the oak. 5. Her 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 21 
 
 tears fell with the dews at even. 6. Day and night to the billow the 
 fountain calls. 7. Mariner, mariner, furl your sails. 8. The wind blovvS 
 softly round the open wold. 9. The light of candles is dim, unwholesome, 
 hurtful to the eye?, and expensive : the light of the sun is strong, pleasant, 
 wholesome ; and it ccsts nothing. 10. The proud grandee still lingers in 
 his perfumed saloons or reposes within damask curtains. 
 
 11. He springs from the hammock, — he flies to the deck, — 
 
 Amazement confronts him with images dire, — 
 Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck, — 
 The masts fly in splinters, — the shrouds are on fire. 
 
 12. I've danced upon the trackless ocean wave, 
 When wild winds held unfettered revelry. 
 
 Questions on §§ 15 — 25. 
 
 1. Of what does etymology treat? 2. How many jiiirts of speech are there? 3. 
 Name the parts of speech. 4. What is a noun? 5. What is the word noun derived 
 from? 6. What is a verb ? 7. W'hy is a verb so called ? 8. What is an adjective ? 9. 
 What is the word adjective derived from? 10. What is a pronoun? 11 What is Ihe 
 word jji'onoM'/? derived from? 12. What is an adverb? 13. What is the word lulveib 
 derived from ? 14. What is a preposition ? 15. What is the word preposition derived 
 from? 16. What is a con junction ? 17. What is the word conjunction derived from? 
 18. What is an interjection? 19. What is the Viord interjection deiivcd from? 20. 
 "What is parsing ? 
 
 Chapter II. — The Noun. 
 I. Classification. 
 
 26. A Noun is the name of anything : as, Henrij, hare, 
 London, tahle, whiteness. 
 
 27. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 
 
 28. A Proper Noun is the name of any single individual 
 of a class : as, Charles, France, Thames, Lcndon. 
 
 Explanation.— The name Charles is a proper noun, because it is the name of a 
 particular person ; for, although there are many persons named Charles, yet when we 
 use the woid Charles it has alwaj-s reference to some particular person. The name 
 France is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular coimtry. The name 
 Thames is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular river. The name 
 London is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular city. "Proper" is 
 from Latin pnqirins, one's own. 
 
 Obs. 1. — A proper noun tends to common (a) when it is used &s the type of a class 
 and implies the possession of qualities which distinguish or distinguished any parti- 
 cular one of a class : as, She is a Madonna; A Daniel come to judgment !— (^) when it 
 denotes a class or group of persons, in which case it is pluralized : as, the Ccesars, the 
 Percies, the Pharaohs. 
 
 Obs. 2. — When a proper noun tends to common, it takes «, an, or the before it. 
 
 29. A Common Noun is a name given in common to every- 
 thing of the same class : as, man, dog, river. 
 
 Explanation.— The name 7nan is a common noun, because it is a name that ia 
 common to all men. The name dog is a common noun, because it is a name that is 
 common to all dogs. The name river is a common noun, because it is a name that is 
 common to all rivers. " Common " is from Latin coynmunis, belonging to several. 
 
 Obs. 1.— A common noun tends to proper when it is made to denote an individual : 
 as, Queen of England, Earl of Leicester, Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Common nouns tending to proper are written with capitals. 
 
 I^,B.— A proper noun, aa such, is meaningless. It is merely a mark or sign serving 
 
ENGLISH GRAJ^BIAR. 
 
 to distingiiish an individual from the rest of the class. Thus the noun London dis- 
 tinguishes the city so called troni Paris or any other city. Although a proper noun 
 may originally have had a meaning, as probably almost all proper nouns had, the 
 name is now "applied to an individual without any reference to such signification. 
 The name Deborah, which means " bee," is given without any intention of suggesting 
 that the person to whom it is applied has the qualities of a bee. 
 
 A common noun has a meaning. It not only denotes or points out the object to 
 which it is applied, but it is also significant of the properties or attributes which 
 determine such object as belonging to a particular class. 
 
 30. Common nouns are either simple, collective^ or abstract. 
 
 I. Simple common nouns denote an individual as one 
 object : as, coiv, slieep^ soldier. 
 
 II. Collective common nouns denote several individuals 
 as one object : as, herd^ Jiock^ army. 
 
 Obs. — Collective nouns sometimes convey pkirality of idea, and th\is refer to tho 
 indivi(Kials making up the group rather than to the gi'oup itself : as, Tlie medical 
 faculty have resolved to act in unison ; The public {i.e. the persons composing the 
 public) are wavering. Such nouns are then called, by some, Nouns of Multitude. 
 [Parsi7ig, p. 13.] 
 
 III. Abstract common nouns denote qualities or attri- 
 butes regarded in our minds as having a real and independent 
 existence : as, goodness, strength, sweetness. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Every object has certain qualities or attributes. Thus, we say : A good man, 
 a strong horse, a siceet flowei*. If we abstract or draw oflf these qualities or attributes 
 and regard them as existing apart from the object, the names given to them are called 
 Abstract Nouns (Latin absti-actus, drawn off). Abstract nouns are derived from (1) 
 Adjectives : as, breadth (from broad), ivickedncss (from wic/ced), sincerity from sincere) ; 
 
 (2) Verbs : as, punishment (from punish), imposition (from iinj)ose), pleasure (from please) ; 
 
 (3) Concrete nouns : as, kingdom (from king), friendship (from friend), widowhood rom 
 widow. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Abstract nouns are used as proper when the qualities or attributes they 
 denote are personified or particularised : as. For Wirdcr came ; the wind was his whip; 
 The Norman Conquest. [Parsing, p. 10.] 
 
 Obs. 3. — Abstract nouns used as proper are written with capitals. 
 
 N.B.— The whole class of nouns, when viewed with reference to the way in which 
 the things denoted by them exist, may be divided into Concrete and Abstract. The 
 name of anything, which is considered in all its properties, and which has an actual 
 or real existence, is called a Concrete noTin ; the name of an idea or of that which has 
 only a mental existence is called an Abstract noun. 
 
 An abstract noun becomes conci-ete when it is used to denote persons or things 
 possessing the quality which it denotes. The priexthood is sometimes used to mean 
 the priestly order ; manhood, the whole class of men ; nobility, the whole body of 
 nobles. When a concrete nonn is generalized it is sometimes called abstract : as, Man 
 is mortal. When abstract nouns are jiluralized they acquire a concrete sense. This 
 is also tho case when they are applied in a special or particular manner. Death is 
 abstract; a death, the deaths, concrete ; hardship is a]j*tract ; a fiardship, the hardshijis, 
 concrete. 
 
 31. Abstract nouns are : — 
 
 1. Names of qualities : as, dai'l-nea-'^, hravery, colour, heauty, goodness. 
 
 2. Names of conditions, states, or periods : as, ivarmth, disease, reign, 
 friendship, day, summer. 
 
 3. Names of actions : as, journey, flight, march, reading, writing, 
 punishment, dedication. 
 
 4. Names of quantity and degree : as, excess, deficiency, overdoing. 
 
 5. Names of feelings and powers of the mind : as, malice, hatred, 
 rememhrancp, dislike. 
 
 6. Names of arts and sciences : as, botany, philosophy, poetry, arith- 
 metic, geoloijy. 
 
II. Common 
 
 3. Abstract ■< 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 23 
 
 32. Under the head of abstract nouns are clas=;ed the verbal 
 nouns. Verbal nouns are so called because they are derived 
 from verbs : such nouns are — reading, lualking, etc. 
 
 Table of Nouns. 
 
 I Proper /^' ^*"°^^y IIe7iri/. 
 
 ^ \2. Tending to common A Milton. 
 
 ''1. Simple Boise. 
 
 2. Collective Croivd. 
 
 ' a Qualities Bravery. 
 
 b Conditions, states, or periods... Eternity. 
 
 c Actions Writing. 
 
 d Quantity and degree Excess. 
 
 e Feelings and powers of the mind Love. 
 
 \f Arts and sciences Zoology. 
 
 ,4. Tending to proper King John. 
 
 Obs.—ln parsing simple common nouns the word simple is omitted ; and, iu parsing 
 abstract C(>mmon nouns, the word common is omitted and the subdivisions may be 
 entirely disregarded. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 Mention the proper and common nouns, and say which of the latter 
 are abstract : — 
 
 1. Cold is Cadwallo's tongue. 2. The protection of the law was sus- 
 pended. 3. Through the spring and summer the persecution raged with 
 redoubled fury. 4. Oft have I watched the closing buds at eve. 5. Gold- 
 smith was born in Ireland. 6. His cheek was redder than the rose. 7. 
 The glad fish leaps ujd in the heart of the lake. 8. My uncle Toby laid 
 down his knife and fork. 9. She behaved with composure and resignation 
 when the fatal morning arrived. 10. Columbus discovered America. 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 
 Make abstract nouns from qualities of the following : — 
 
 Sun, paper, rose, knife, Hon, robber, window, oak, lark, honey, king, 
 water. 
 
 N.B. — Mode of doing the exercise. The sun is bright : hence we have 
 the abstract noim brightness. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 Mention six proper nouns, six common nouns, and six abstract nouns. 
 
 Questions on §§ 26 — 32. 
 
 1. What is a noim? 2. How many kinds of nouns are there? 3. What is a proper 
 noun ? 4. When does a proper noun tend to common ? 5. When a proper noun tends 
 to common, what precedes it ? 6. What is a common noun ? 7, Wlien does a common 
 noun tend to proper? 8. How are common nouns tending to j^roper written ? 9. 
 What are simple common nouns ? 10. What are collective common nouns ? 11. When 
 are collective nouns called nouns of multitude? 12. What is an abstract noun? 13. 
 What is the meaning of the word abstract ? 14. From what words ai-e abstract nouns 
 derived? 15. When are abstract nouns used as proper? 10. How do we write abstract 
 nouns used as proper? 17. What is a concrete noun? 18. When does an abstract 
 noun become concrete? 19. When does a concrete noun become abstract? 20. Name 
 the different kinds of abstract nouns, 21. Why are verbal nouns so called? 
 
24 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. Inflexion. 
 
 33. Inflexion (Latin Infledere, to change) is a change in a 
 word to denote a change in the meaning. 
 
 34. Nouns are inflected to express Gender, Number, and 
 Case. To nouns also belongs Person, but there is no inflexion 
 to express this. 
 
 1. Gender. 
 
 35. Gender is a distinction in words corresponding to the 
 distinction of sex. There are two genders, Masculine and 
 Feminine. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Gender is a grammatical distinction between words only. Sex is a natural 
 distinction between living things. The gender of a word in English is determined 
 by the difference of sax. 
 
 Obs. 2. —In English, only names of persons and animals have gender. In most 
 other languages all nouns have gender. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The word gen iermeans "kind" or " class " fLatm ^euits). 
 
 36. The names of males are of Masculine Gender: asj 
 man. 
 
 The names of females are of Feminine Gender : as, 
 ivonian. 
 
 37. Xouns which denote things without sex are said to be 
 of Neuter Gender : as, loood, hay, mountain. 
 
 Obs. 1. -The word H'Jitfe?- (Latin vieuter) means "neither." Nouns of neuter gender 
 are neither masculine nor feminine. 
 
 Obs. 2.- Collective nouns are neuter when they convey the notion of unity of idea: 
 as, dock, committee, brotherhood. 
 
 38. Nouns applied to both sexes alike are said to be of 
 Common Gender : as, parent, servant, bird. 
 
 Obs. —These nouns are either masculino or feminine in the singular, and bath in 
 the plural. In parsing such a word as servant, we call it masculine or feminine as 
 the case may be, provided we know which is meant. If the sex is not known, servant 
 is called common, as is also the plural servants. 
 
 39. There are three ways of indicating diff'erence of gender 
 in nouns : — 
 
 i. By a suflBx :— 
 
 (a) To indicate the feminine : — 
 
 ^fas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Abbot. 
 
 Abbess. 
 
 Baron. 
 
 Baroness. 
 
 Actor. 
 
 Actress. 
 
 Benefactor. 
 
 Benefactress. 
 
 Adjutor. 
 
 Adjutrix. 
 
 Canon. 
 
 Canoness. 
 
 Administrator. 
 
 Administratrix. 
 
 Catei'er. 
 
 Cateress. 
 
 Adulterer. 
 
 Adulteress, 
 
 Chanter. 
 
 Chantress. 
 
 Ambassador. 
 
 Ambassadress. 
 
 Coadjutor. 
 
 Coadjutrix. 
 
 Arbiter. 
 
 Arbitress. 
 
 Conductor. 
 
 Conductress. 
 
 Auditor. 
 
 Auditress. 
 
 Count. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Authorea 
 
 Czar. 
 
 Czarina. 
 

 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 3Jas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Dauphin. 
 
 Dauphiness. 
 
 Monitor. 
 
 Monitress, 
 
 Deacon. 
 
 Deaconess. 
 
 Murderer. 
 
 Murderess. 
 
 Director. 
 
 /Directress, 
 \ Directrix. 
 
 jSTegro. 
 Ogre, 
 
 Negress. 
 Ogress. 
 
 Don. 
 
 Donna. 
 
 Patron. 
 
 Patroness. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Duchess. 
 
 Peer. 
 
 Peeress. 
 
 Editor. 
 
 Editress, 
 
 Poet. 
 
 Poetess. 
 
 Elector. 
 
 Electress. 
 
 Porter. 
 
 Portress. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Empress. 
 
 Preceptor. 
 
 Preceptress. 
 
 Enchanter. 
 
 Enchantress. 
 
 Priest. 
 
 Priestess. 
 
 Executor. 
 
 Executrix. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Princess. 
 
 Founder. 
 
 Foundress. 
 
 Prior. 
 
 Prioress. 
 
 Eox. 
 
 Vixen. 
 
 Prophet, 
 
 Prophetess. 
 
 Giant. 
 God. 
 
 Giantess. 
 Goddess. 
 
 Proprietor. 
 
 / Proprietress. 
 \ Proprietrix. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Governess. 
 
 Pi-otector, 
 
 Protectress. 
 
 Heir. 
 
 Heiress. 
 
 Seamster. 
 
 Seamstress. 
 
 Heritor. 
 
 Heritrix. 
 
 Shepherd, 
 
 Shepherdess 
 
 Hero. 
 
 Heroine. 
 
 Signor. 
 
 Signora. 
 
 Host. 
 
 Hostess. 
 
 Songster. 
 
 Songstress. 
 
 Hunter. 
 
 Huntress. 
 
 Sorcerer. 
 
 Sorceress. 
 
 Idolator. 
 
 Idolatress. 
 
 Spectator. 
 
 Spectatress. 
 
 Infant. 
 
 Infanta. 
 
 Spinner, 
 
 Spinster. 
 
 Instructor. 
 
 Instructress. 
 
 Sultan. 
 
 Sultana. 
 
 Inventor. 
 
 Inventi-ess. 
 
 Tailor. 
 
 Tailoress. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Jev/ess. 
 
 Testator. 
 
 Testatrix. 
 
 Landgrave. 
 
 Landgravine, 
 
 Tiger. 
 
 Tigress, 
 
 Lion. 
 
 Lioness. 
 
 Traitor, 
 
 Traitress. 
 
 Margrave. 
 
 Margravine. 
 
 Tutor. 
 
 Tutoress, 
 
 Marquis. 
 
 Marchioness. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 Victress. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Viscount. 
 
 Viscountess. 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 Mayoress. 
 
 Votary. 
 
 Votress. 
 
 25 
 
 Obs. 1. — The ending ess (French esse, M. Latin usa) is the ordinary suffix of tliO 
 feminine in Modern English. It is used for words irrespective of their origin. The 
 suffix ess is often added to the feminine without any otlier modification : as, baron, 
 baroness ; canon, canorn^ss ; count, countess. 
 
 Sometimes tlie masculine ending is omitted before ess is added : as, abbot, abbess; 
 caterer, cateress ; governor, governess. 
 
 In other cases the masculine ending is modified or shortened before the addition of 
 ess: as, actor, actress ; ambassador, ambassadress, arbiter, arbitress. 
 
 Duchess is fi-om O. French duc-esse, duch-esse. 
 
 Marchioness is from JM. Latin meircMonissa, the masculine form of wliich is 
 marchin. 
 
 Mistress, O.E. maistresse (from maister, master or mister\ 
 
 Mister, rather than master, is the masculine form of mistress. 
 
 Emperor is from French mipereur, Latin imperatorem. 
 
 Empress is from French inqjeratrice, Latin imperatricem : it was first emim'ice, then 
 emperesse, and finally empress. 
 
 Obs. 2. — trix, the feminine form of Latin nouns in tor, occurs in some names that 
 come direct from the Latin : as, administrator, administratrix ; testator, testatrix. 
 
 Obs. 3. ine, -ina. The feminine form of hero is heroine. Both -ine and -ina are 
 
 frequent in proper names : as, Landgrctvine, Margravine, Caroline, Josephine, Pauline, 
 Czarina., Alexandrina. 
 
 Obs. 4. — a. The feminine suffix -a is found in some Romance words : as, Donna, 
 Shltaria, Infanta, S'gnora. 
 
 Obs. 5. — -en, -star, are Teutonic suffixes, -en in vixen, the feminine of fox. is the 
 only instance which we have renaaining of this Old English suffix being losed tc 
 
26 
 
 ICNGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 denote the feminine form of a noun, -slc}- was originally a feminine sufl&x, and 
 remains in the word spinster, "bpinster" now means an iinman'ied woman, but 
 formerly it meant a female spinner. The suffix -ster still exists in many words. The 
 French suffi.K -ess began to take the place of -ster as a feminino termination in the 
 fourteenth century, and the -ster came gradually to be used either as a masculine or 
 to denote the agent. It now merely denotes the agent : as, punster, whipster, throwster, 
 gamester, rhym-a'er, trickster, youngster, huckster (properly the feminine of kawlc^r). 
 •ster is frequently found in proper names : as, Baxter (from baker), A'e/Mj>s<e/" (a comber), 
 WehstT (from ivebber, a weaver), Whitsttr (a bleacher). 
 
 The following words have double feminine ondmgs — the O.E. -ster, and the French 
 •ess, viz., songstress, seamxtress, hucLsti'Css, sprtistrens, tapstress. 
 
 {b) To indicate the masculine : — 
 3fas. Fern. Mas. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 Widow-er. 
 
 groom 
 
 Fern. 
 Widow, 
 is from gr'om, O.E. guma, 
 
 Bride-groom. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — groom. In 6ri(?''.(7>'007K (bride's man), 
 a man. The old form was brydguvvi. 
 
 Obs. 2. ei'. In O.E. the fonns ior icidower and icidow were tciduwa and iciduice. 
 
 The masculine "widuwa" became obsoLete, and for "widuwe" (widow) a new 
 mtisculine had to be formed. 
 
 ii. By a prefix :— 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 2ras. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 He-ass. 
 
 She-ass. 
 
 Dog-fox. 
 
 Bitch -fox. 
 
 He-bear. 
 
 She-bear. 
 
 He-goat. 
 
 She -goat. 
 
 Cock-bird. 
 
 Hen-bird, 
 
 Man-kind. 
 
 Woman-kind. 
 
 Male-bird. 
 
 Female bird. 
 
 Boar-pig. 
 
 Sow-pig, 
 
 BuU-Ccalf. 
 
 Cow-calf. 
 
 Buck-rabbit. 
 
 Doe-rabbit, 
 
 Male-child. 
 
 Female -child. 
 
 Man-servant. 
 
 Maid -servant. 
 
 Bull-elephant. 
 
 Cow-elephant. 
 
 Mal&-servant. 
 
 Female-servant 
 
 Male-elephant. 
 
 Female -elephant. 
 
 Cock-sparrow. 
 
 Hen-sparrov/. 
 
 iii. By a 
 
 different word :— 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Bachelor. 
 
 Maid, spinster. 
 
 Husband, 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Beait. 
 
 Belle. 
 
 King, 
 
 Queen. 
 
 Boar. 
 
 Sow. 
 
 Lad. 
 
 Lass. 
 
 Boy. 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Lady. 
 
 Brother. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Man. 
 
 Woman. 
 
 Buck, 
 
 Doe. 
 
 Milter. 
 
 Spawner. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Monk. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Bullock. 
 
 Heifer. 
 
 Nephew. 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Cock. 
 
 Hen. 
 
 Papa. 
 
 Mamma. 
 
 Colt. 
 
 Filly. 
 
 Earn. 
 
 Ewe, 
 
 Dog. 
 
 Bitch. 
 
 Sir. 
 
 ^ladam. 
 
 Drake. 
 
 Duck. 
 
 Sire (a horse). 
 
 Dam,- 
 
 Drone, 
 
 Bee. 
 
 Sloven, 
 
 Slut, slattern. 
 
 Earl, 
 
 Countess, 
 
 Son. 
 
 Daughter. 
 
 Father. 
 
 INIother. 
 
 Stag, 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Friar, 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Stallion. 
 
 INIare. 
 
 Gaffer. 
 
 Gannncr. 
 
 Steer. 
 
 Heifer. 
 
 Gander. 
 
 Goose. 
 
 Swain. 
 
 Nymph. 
 
 Gentleman, 
 
 Lady. 
 
 Uncle. 
 
 Aunt. 
 
 Hart. 
 
 Roe, 
 
 Wizard. 
 
 Witch. 
 
 Hor.se. 
 
 ]\Iarc. 
 
 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Though some of the corrclutive names in iii. are distinct in appearance, 
 tlacy are ctymologically connected. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 27 
 
 Obs. 2.— Colt, foal, filly. "Foal " is O.E. fol'7. ' Filly " is the diminutive of " foal." 
 
 Obs. 3. — Drake, duck. "Drake" is a comijouncl form, being a contraction of end- 
 rake (duck-king), from end, a duck, and rake, a king. " Duck " O.E. doke, el diver. 
 
 Obs. 4. —Drone. Tiiis is so named from the noise it makes: O.E. dran. 
 
 Obs. 5.— Earl, countess. "Earl" is a contraction of O.E. ealdor-man, elder-man. 
 " Countess " is properly the feminine of the word " count." 
 
 Obs. 6.— Father, mother. " Father" is akin to Latin pater, and means "one who 
 feeds." " Mother" is akin to Latin mater ; the root is via, to produce, bring forth. 
 
 Obs. 7. - Friar, nun. " Friar " is from French frere, Latin /rater, a brother. " Nun " 
 is O.E. nonwi. 
 
 Obs. 8.— GaflFer, gammer. "Gaffer" is a corruption of "grandfather," and 
 "gammer" of " grandmoiher." 
 
 Obs. 9.— Gander, goose. "Gander" is from gans, the old form of goose. In the 
 O.E. gandra { — ganr-a^ gans-a). the a is the sign of the masculine, r is substituted for 
 an older s, and d is merely euphonic. 
 
 Obs. 10. King, queen. Dr. Morris says: "King is from the root Hn. The 
 primitive meaning of king is father, queen, mother." " King" is also said to be from 
 O.E. cyning, son of the tribe, and "queen" from root gan, to produce. 
 
 Ohs. 11. — Lad, lass. " Lass " is most probably a contraction of lad-ess (Welsh llaiod, 
 a lad ; ilodes, a girl). 
 
 Obs. 12.— Lord, lady. O.E. hidford, from hlafweard ; hidf, a loaf, and weard, a 
 keeper. "Lady ;" O E. hldf-dige ; hidf, a loaf, and daeger, a kneader. 
 
 Obs. 13.— Man, woman. "Man" in O.E. was of both masculine and feminine 
 gender. " Woman," in O.E., is vnf-man (wife-man). 
 
 Ohs. 14. — Monk ; Greek monnchos, solitary. 
 
 Ohs. 15. — Nephew, niece. These words come from Latin nepos and neptis through 
 the French. 
 
 Obs IC— Sir, madam. " Sir" is from Latin senior, elder ; French sire. "Madam" 
 is from Fi'ench madame, my lady (Latin meet donwia). 
 
 Obs. 17. — Dam. " Dam " is from Latin domina, a lady. 
 
 Obs. 18.— Son, daughter. "Son," O.E. sunu, means one brought forth. " Daughter," 
 from root diUi, to milk, means a milker, milkmaid (comi^are "dug," a pap). 
 
 Ohs. 19. — Uncle, aunt. " Uncle " is from 0. French uncle, Latin avunculus. "Aunt" 
 is from O. French a)ite, Latin aviita. 
 
 Obs. 20. — Wizard, witch. "Wizard " is not etymologically connected with " witch." 
 It is from 0. French guiscart, a wise man. "Witch" was formerly of common 
 gender. 
 
 Obs. 21. — Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine nouns: e.g.; 
 captain, champion, fisherman, judge, knight, magistrate, parson, policeman, sberifT, 
 soldier, squire. 
 
 Ohs. 22. — Some feminine nouns have no corresponding masculine forms : e.g., 
 Amazon, dryad, muse, naiad, shrew, siren. 
 
 40. Personification is a figure of speech hy means of 
 which inanimate objects and qualities are regarded as living 
 persons. Words denoting objects or qualities thus personified 
 are said to be of masculine or feminine gender by personifica- 
 tion : e.g. Sim, Time, Death, Love, Winter, Fear, Anger, Despair, 
 Heaven, etc., are often masculine gender by personification ; 
 and Moon, Ship, Nature, Spring, May, Hope, Faith, Melancliolij, 
 Mirth, Freedom, Poetry, etc., are often feminine gender by 
 personification. 
 
 O&s.— Children and inferior animals are often spoken of as neuter. This is the cr.so 
 when it is not necessary to distinguish the sex, or when the sex is not known. 
 
 Exercise 28. 
 Mention the gender of these nouns : — 
 John, Mary, witness, parent, vixen, boar, lass, pig, witch, colt, cow, 
 regiment, sultana, Joseph, donna, victor, peacock, moorhen, guardian, 
 cousin, beech, neighbour, queen, hero, scholar, child, stone, flower, teacher, 
 governess, ass, slut, actor, porter, friend, duck, hunter, shepherd, bride, 
 
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 29. 
 Give the feminine of each noun : — 
 Hor.?e, husband, sultan, czar, uncle, bull, monk, tiger, landgrave, son, 
 giant, brother, heir, stag, Jew, lad, earl, friar, peer, shepherd, lord, marquis, 
 duke, beau, host, buck, hart, priest, margrave, bachelor, spinner, don, 
 administrator, fox, emperor, father, nephew, gander, votary, wizard, he-ass, 
 bi'idegroom, viscount, widovrer, gentleman. 
 
 Questions on §§ 33—40. 
 
 1. Wliat is inflexion ? 2. What inflexions do nouns undergo? 3. What is gender? 
 4. What names are masculine ? 5. What names are feminine ? G. What does the 
 neuter denote ? 7. From what is nnitcr derived ? 8. Wliat is the gender of collective 
 nouns? 9. What is meant by common gender? 10. In what ways is, difference of 
 gender in nouns indicated? 11. Which is the ordinary feminine suffix? 12. From 
 what is dv.chess derived? 13. From what is marchio/tess derived? 14. From what is 
 mistress derived? 15. From what is emperor derived? 10. From what is emj^ress 
 derived? 17. What words form the feminine in -trix9 18. Wliat words have the 
 feminine ending ine or ina? 19. In what words is the feminine suffix a found? 20. 
 What is the origin of the feminine suffixes cii and ster ? 21. When did ess begin to 
 take the place of ster? 22. What does sler now denote ? 23. Mention words which 
 have a double feminine ending. 24. What does bridegroom mean? 2.5. What is the 
 origin of the foriaioidoicer P 26. What is the diminuiive ot foal f 27. Explain the 
 forms drake and duck. 28. Explain the word drone. 29. Explain the forms tarl 
 and countess. 30. Explain the words father and 7>iother. 31. Explain the words friar 
 and Jiun. 32. l^xplain the words gaffer and gammer. 33. Explain the words gander 
 and goose. 34. From what are king and queen derived? 3.5. From what is lass derived ? 
 36. SVhat is the meaning of the words lord and lady ? 37. Of wliat gender was man 
 originally? 38. What does icomaa mean? 39. From what is monk derived? 40. From 
 what are nephew and nii^ce derived? 41. From wliat is sir derived? 42. What does 
 viadcun mean ? 43. From what is dam derived ? 44. From what is son derived ? 45. 
 What does (/a w.v/itor mean ? 4(5. From what is ttn-cZe derived ? 47. From what is ait ni 
 derived? 48. From what is vjizard derived ? 49. Of what gender was witch originally? 
 50. Mention masculine nouns which have no correspondmg feminine. 51. Mention 
 feminine nouns which have no corresponding masculine. 52. What is personifica- 
 tion ? 53. When ai'O names of living beings regarded as neuter ? 
 
 2. Number. 
 
 41. Number is the distinction in the form of a word to 
 show whetlier reference is made to one objectj or to more than 
 one. 
 
 42. There are two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. 
 The Singular denotes one thing : as, girl, tree. 
 
 The Plural denotes more tiian one : as, girh, trees. 
 
 43. The plural is formed Ijy adding s to the singular : as, 
 horse, horses ; week; iceeh. 
 
 Obs.— In Old English, a class of masculine nouns formed the plural by adding -as to 
 the singular : as, smith, smith ■<(.•<. After the Conquest the as wiu,' modified into -es. 
 This tenninatiun being somewliat .similar to the ,s- or x of the Norman French, it 
 gi-adu:illy became tlie plural suffix of Englisli nouns generally. About the fom-teenth 
 century -as ceased to be iironounced as a distinct syllable, the e was dropped and tho 
 suffix -s was adulated as the ordinary ]ilur:il ending: as, stnilh. s)nith.<). As tlie letter -s 
 thus became a part of the same syllable to which the final letter of the singvdar belonged, 
 certain plionetic modifications were rendered necessarj-. The -s has its own proper 
 sound when the singular noun ends in a sharp consonant : as, drops, mats, etc. When 
 the singular noun ends in a flat consonant, a liquid or a vowel, -s has the sound of th^ 
 flat sibilant z : as, stag.<!, rubs, bays, bills, etc. [.See § 8, Obs. 3. j 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 29 
 
 44. The following are exceptions : — 
 
 Exc. 1. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch (soft), x, z, form their 
 plural by adding es : as, gas, gases ; grass, grasses ; bush, hushes ; 
 birch, birches ; fox, foxes ; topaz, topazes. 
 
 Ohs. — Xouns ending in ch (hard) add s ; as, monarch, monarrhs. 
 
 Exc 2. Some nouns ending in o, especially if the o is pre- 
 ceded by a consonant, form their phiral by adding es. Such 
 
 are : — Buffalo, calico, cargo, domino, echo, flamingo, hero, innuendo, 
 magnifico, manifesto, mosq;idto, motto, mulatto, negro, no, jyotato, 
 tom,ato, tornado, volcano. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — ]\rany nouns in o take s only. Such are :— Bamboo, hravo, cameo, canto, cento, 
 duodecimo, ehilir//o, grotto, halo, junto, memento, octavo, portico, quarto, rondo, solo, stiletto, 
 txoo, tyro, virtuoso, zero, folio, mcndo, oratorio, portfolio, and others in io. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Proper nouns in o tending to common form their plural by adding s : as, 
 Cato, Catos : Cicero, Ciceros ; Scipio, Scipios. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Alkali has plural alkalies ; houri, houries ; salmagundi, salmag undies. 
 
 Exc. 3. Certain nouns ending in / or fe form their plural by 
 changing / or fe into ves : as, calf, calves ; life, lives. So also : — 
 elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wolf ; knife, wife ; and 
 the Norman word beef. 
 
 Obs. 1— Noims in ief, oof, ff, and rf usually add s only : as, brief, Iriefs : hoof, lioofs; 
 cliff, cliffs; turf, turfs. So s.\so gulf, gulfs. 
 
 Ohs. 2. —But i/ae/ makes thieves, and staff, staves. 
 
 Obs. 3.— Wharf, scarf, and <M7-/have both forms • as, wharfs, wharves ; scarfs, scarves ; 
 turfs, turves. 
 
 Obs. 4. —Some nouns in/e add s only ; as, strife, strifes; fife, fifes : safe, safes. 
 
 Exc 4. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form 
 their plural by changing y into ies ; as. lady, ladies ; glory, 
 glories. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Formerly the singular ended in ie : as, ladie, glorie. The older spelling of 
 the singular, therefore, has been changed, while that of the plural has been retained. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Nouns ending in ij preceded by a vowel form their plural by adding s; as, 
 ■lay, days ; chimiiey, chimneys. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Noiuis ending in quy change y into ies ; as, soliloquy, soliloquies. In such 
 woi'ds qu is treated as a single consonant. 
 
 Ohs. 4. — Proper names in y tending to common usually add s : as, the Marys. Gay 
 (originally a proper name) makes gays. 
 
 Exc 5. Seven nouns form their plural by a change in the 
 body of the word. 
 
 Sing. Phi. Sing. Phi. 
 
 Man. Men. Tooth, Teeth. 
 
 Woman. Women. Louse. Lice. 
 
 Toot. Feet. Mouse. Mice. 
 
 Goose. Geese. 
 
 Exc. 6. Three nouns form their Dlural in en : viz.. ox, oxen; 
 child, children ; brother, brethren. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — The plural ending en or n was formerly very common : thus we have sliOe, 
 thoon : eye, eyne, eyn, een : hose, hosen ; house, housen ; cow, kine. 
 Obs. 2.— Children (child-er-en) is a double plural. 
 
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ohs. 3.—Kine is a double plural. The plural of 0. E. cu (cow) was c^ or hp Then ty 
 the addition of the plural ending -en, cj) became kin, kxn, Line (kl-ne). 
 
 Obs. 4.— In early English writei-s we tind such words as trecn (trees), fone (foes), been 
 (boes), 2)esen (pous), Jken (fleas), puUen (fowls), calcen (calves), lamhren (lambs). 
 
 Exc. 7. Some nouns have the singular and plural alike : as, 
 
 apparatus, cannon, deer, fish, fowl, grouse, heathen, mackerel, jjerch, 
 jpike, salmon, series, sheep, species, sivine, teal, trout. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The singular of such worrds is indicated by prefixing a or o>i; as, a heathen, 
 an apparatus. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Fish, fowl, and some others have a plural ending m s when number is 
 implied. 
 
 Ohs. 3. —Other nouns which, in certain significations, have the smgular and plural 
 alike are -.pov.nd, head (of catile), cannon, shot, shilling, fathom, pair, brace, couple, dozen, 
 score, gross, quire, stone, hundredweight, foot (soldiers), horse (soldiers). 
 
 45. Compound nouns generally form the plural by adding 
 
 ' s to the principal word of the compound : as, 
 
 Sing. Phi. 
 
 Aide-de-camp. Aides-de-camp. 
 
 Attorney-general. Attorneys-general. 
 
 Court-martial. Courts-martial. 
 
 Cousin-german. Cousins-german. 
 
 Father-in-law. Fathers-in-law. 
 
 Going-out. Goings-out. 
 
 Hanger-on. Hangers-on. 
 
 Knight-errant. Knights-errant. 
 
 Looker-on. Lookers-on. 
 
 Maid- servant. Maid-servants. 
 
 Man-stealer. Man-stealers. 
 
 Qbg_ 1.— •NViicn the worcJs are so closely combined that the meaning requires them w 
 be regarded as one word, the s is added to the end : as, padfals, the Jive-per-cents, 
 spoonfuls. 
 
 Obs. 2.— In some titles the s is added to the last noun ; as, lord-lieutenants, major- 
 generals. In other titles the i)lural sign is, in accordance with' the French idiom, 
 attached to both nouns : as, knights-templars, lords-justices, loj-ds-commissioners, lords- 
 v:ardens, lord^-appeUants, lords bishops. 
 
 Ohs. 3. — Both words in each of the compound nouns men-servants and tco7nen-sci'vants 
 have the plural form. 
 
 Ohs. 4.— All the three forms, "The Miss Smiths," "The Misses Smith," "The 
 ]\Iisscs Smiths" are used. " The Miss Smiths " has, in some degree, reference to the 
 separate action of the individuals, while " The Misses Smith " is regarded more as a 
 collective unity. 
 
 Ohs. 5. — " Messrs. Smith " is the ordinary form in commercial life. 
 
 46. Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning : — 
 
 •r. .1 (hrothcrs, sons of the same parents. 
 
 \hrefhren, members of the same society or church. 
 n tl (cloths, pieces or kinds of cloth. 
 
 \clothes, garments, 
 stamp for coi 
 small cubes used in frames. 
 
 ■p.. (dies, stamp for coining. 
 
 {(I'ce, small cubes used ii 
 p. , f fishes, when ninnber is meant. 
 
 \ fish, when quantity is meant. 
 
 r^ • (qeniii.ses, men of talent. 
 
 Genius <•' •• r , • •. 
 
 \ (jinat, labulous spn-its, 
 
 T A Jinile.Tes, tables of contents. 
 
 ^indices, algebraic exponents. 
 
Etymology, 
 
 31 
 
 Pea 
 Penny 
 
 Shot 
 
 " Pence " is sometimes compounded with a definite numeral adjective, as the 
 a coin or a piece of money. It then has a singular signification and takes a 
 
 (peas, when number is meant. 
 
 \ pease, when quantity is meant. 
 
 (pennies, separate coins. 
 
 Xpence, a sum. 
 
 (shots, the number of times fired. 
 
 \shot, the number of balls (collective). 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Pea is formed from jiease, O.E. pisa ('plural pisen, pises). The distinctive 
 plural ending being dropped, the same form served for both numbers. Eventually it 
 was restricted to the piural use, and 2^ea, formed from pease, was used as the singular, 
 taking a new plural peas. In coining the word pea, s in pease, which forms part of the 
 root, was altogether ignored. 
 
 Obs. 2. -Pennies, O.E. pcnegas, later pennycs, pans, pens, the meaning being the 
 same. '' 
 name of 
 plural : as, one sixpence, three sixpences. 
 
 47 (i). Some nouns, from the. nature of the things they 
 express, cannot have a i)lural. The nouns that have no 
 pkiral are : — 
 
 (1) Proper nouns : as, London, Henry. 
 
 (2) Abstract nouns : as, hardness, prudence, negligence, 
 chemistry. 
 
 (3) Names of materials that are weighed or measured : 
 as, ^vater, tea, ivheat, wool, milk, etc. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— When proper nouns are pluralised, even if they are not expressive of some 
 quality or property (as, the twelve Ccesars, the two Scipios), they cannot, strictly 
 speaking, be considered as proper nouns, but are proper nouns tending to common. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Abstract nouns have a plural when different instances of any particular 
 quality or attribute are denoted : as, beauties, igyiorances. Some grammarians consider 
 that, when abstract nouns are pluralised, they are converted into simple common 
 nouns, inasmuch as they do not then denote an abstract quality, but particular 
 varieties of the quality or particular actions. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Names of materials admit a plural when we wish to distinguish different 
 kinds of the material : as, lovtes, wools, clays. The noun, in sucl^ases, can be used 
 in the singular with a before it ; as, a wine, a clay, a wool 
 
 47 (ii.). Some nouns have no singular :- 
 
 Aborigines. 
 
 Amends. 
 
 Annals. 
 
 Antipodes. 
 
 Archives. 
 
 Arms (weapons). 
 * Assets. 
 *Assizes. 
 
 Banns. 
 
 Bellows. 
 
 Betters. 
 
 BiUiards. 
 
 Bitters. 
 
 Blues. 
 *Bo-?^ls. 
 
 Breecheg. 
 
 Calends. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Clothes. 
 
 Commons (House of). 
 
 Compasses. 
 
 Credentials. 
 
 Customs (taxes). 
 
 DOVTOS. 
 
 Draughts. 
 
 Drawers. 
 
 Dregs. 
 
 Dumps. 
 *Embers. 
 *Entrails. 
 
 Espousals. 
 ♦Fetters. 
 ♦Filings. 
 
 Fives. 
 
 Forceps. 
 
 Goods. 
 
 Hatches. 
 
 Hose. 
 
 Hustings. 
 
 Hysterics. 
 
 Ides. 
 
 Uluminati. 
 ♦Intestines. 
 
 Jigi^Chigh) 
 
 L"ees. 
 
 Letters (learning). 
 
 Lights. 
 Literati. 
 *Lungs. 
 Mallows. 
 Manners. 
 Matins. 
 Measles. 
 Minutiae. 
 Molasses. 
 Morals. 
 Mumps, 
 Nippers, 
 Nones. 
 Nuptials. 
 Nut-crackers. 
 Oats. 
 
 Obsequies. 
 Odds. 
 
 Eauiiiloons. 
 Pincers? " 
 Pliers. 
 Prenaiaes. 
 Proceeds (of a sale). 
 
 ♦Reins. 
 Scissors, 
 
 Sessions (of magis- 
 trates). , 
 Shambles. 
 Shears. 
 Snuffers. 
 Spectacles. 
 Staggers. 
 Statistics. 
 Suds. 
 Summons. 
 Sweepstakes. 
 Tactics. 
 Thanks. 
 Tongs. 
 Trappings. 
 Trowsers, 
 Tweezers. 
 Vespers. 
 Victuals. 
 Vitals. 
 Yellov/s. 
 
S2 English grammar. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Some of tliese nouns are the names of things which have more pafte than 
 one : 
 
 {a) Instruments, tools, etc. : as, forceps, shears, snv.fftrs. 
 
 (b) Articles of clothing : as, tron-sers, drau-ers, breeches. 
 
 (c) Diseases : as, m^-dslfS, stagffcrs, mumps. 
 
 (d) Parts of the body : as, lungs, lights, intestines. 
 
 Other nouns are the names of things taken in the mass or aggregate : as, ash''s, 
 eviibi'rs, Jllings. 
 
 Obs. 2.— "AU which nature, or art, or habit has made plural have no singular." — 
 Cobbett. 
 
 Obs. Z. — The nouns marked * in the above list are sometimes found in the singular, 
 but the meaning is usually somewhat different. 
 
 48 (i.). Some false or apparent plurals are true singulars, 
 though now used generally as plurals : as, 
 
 (1) Alms, a true singular, is now used both as singular and plural. 
 O.E. aehiiesse, plural aelmesen ; M.E. almesse, almes, plural almtssen, 
 almesses. 
 
 " Who asked an alms." — Ads. 
 
 *' None was heard to ask an alms." — Macaulay. 
 
 " Angels desire an alms." — Massinger. 
 
 (2) Eaves, a true singular, is now chiefly used as plural. O.E. yfes, ffese, 
 margin, brim or edge, plural, efesen, eveses. 
 
 (3) Ilich.es, a true singular, is now used as plural. M.E. richcsse, 
 plural 7'ichesses (from the French). 
 
 " Bichesse that cometh litel and htel." — Chancer. 
 "Yet is not this riches of thy getting," — Old English Plays. 
 "And for that riches where is my deserving." — Shalcesjware. 
 " In one hour is eo great riches come to naught." — Eei-elation. 
 'Riches fineless (endless) is as poor as winter." — Shakespeare. 
 "Riches are not for ever." — English Bible {Proverbs). 
 
 (4) Summons, an apparent plural, is really singular, and is still used 
 as such (plural su7nmonses). O.E. somons ; O. French semonse. 
 
 Obs. — It is obvious that the s in the above words is part of the singular, and not the 
 sign of the plural. 
 
 48 (ii.). Some nouns really plural are used as singular or 
 plural. 
 
 (1) Am.ends (French amende) is a true plural, but it is frequently used 
 as singular. 
 
 "A little amends." — Spectator. 
 
 "To make «?i amends." — Percy Anecdotes. 
 
 (2) Means, a true plural, is used both as singular and plural. 
 
 "yl means to do the prince my master good." — Winter's Tale, 
 "I will embrace tliem {i.e., the means)." — Ivanhoe. 
 
 Ols.- -The singular mean is also used by writers of the present century (as Hamilton 
 and Carhfli). 
 
 (3) News is a true plural. We find it formerly used both as plural and 
 singular, but chiefly as plural. It is now always used as singular. 
 
 " These were news indeed." — Shakespeare. 
 "Ten days ago I drowned these neios in tears." — Shakespeare, 
 " This news hath made thee a most ugly man." — Shakespeare, 
 " 111 neius runs apace." — Proverb. 
 
EtYMOLOGt. 33 
 
 (4) Pains is a ti-iie plural, but it is usod both as singular and plural. 
 When preceded by "much," "great," it should have a singular verb. 
 
 ''Yoar pains are registered." — Shakespeare. 
 
 (5) Tiding'S is a true plural. It is used both in the singular and plural, 
 but is generally plural. 
 
 " 77iat tidings came." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " To bring this tidings." — Shakespeare. 
 
 '* These tidings will well comfort Ca-s&ms.'" —Shakespeare. 
 
 (6) Wages, really plural, is used both as singular and plural. 
 
 " He earneth wages to put it into a bag with holes." — Eng. Bible. 
 
 (7) Small-pox (small pocks), a disease, is singular. The word'is really 
 a plural disguised by a new spelling. 
 
 (8) Odds is used both in the singular and plural. 
 
 "^4 fearful od'h."— Shakespeare. 
 
 (9) Gallows is really plural, but is commonly used as singular. 
 
 ''A gallon's.'" — Goldsmith. 
 "The gallons itself." — Cooper. 
 
 Belloivs, thanks, barracks, shambles, innings (at cricket) are also nouns 
 of this class. 
 
 Obs. — The singular forms amend, gallow, mean, pain, tiding, ihanJc, wage, are found in 
 old writer53. 
 
 N.B. — The names of sciences ending in ics are plural in form, but singular in mean- 
 ing : as, acoustics, dunamics, economics, ethics, hydraulics, hydrostatics, mathematics, 
 mechanics, metaphysics, optics, physics, 'pncumdtics, j)olitics, statics. Some of these, 
 eepecially mathematics, metaphysics, -dnd physics, are also used as plurals. 
 
 48 (iii). The meaning of some nouns is changed in the 
 plural: as, beef, beeves; comjjass, compasses; copper, coppers; 
 corn, corns ; domino, dominoes ; draught, draughts ; good, goods ; 
 grain, grains; ground, grounds : scale, scales ; spectacle, spectacles ; 
 vesper, vespers, etc. 
 
 49. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular, and two 
 or more in the plural : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 fl, habit.?. 
 .-< i^ 1 1 •!. /-I ,„<.„„,„ I -, revenues, duties. 
 
 Custom, habit. Customs A y| dcpartnieut which manages 
 
 \^ the customs. 
 I" 1, of alphabet. 
 Letter, of alphabet. Letters n 2, literature. 
 
 ( 3, epistles. 
 
 Number, in counting. Numbers { ^y j^; poeSy?^' 
 
 Pain, suffering. Pains | J,; tnfuble.^^' 
 
 -^ . ,. . . -D „4.„ ) 1> divisious. 
 
 Part, a division. I'arts j ^^ ab^ities. 
 
 50. Most foreign nouns retain their foreign plurals : as, 
 
 Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 
 
 Addendum (L.). Addenda. Animaculum (L.). Aniiualcula. 
 
 Alumnus (L.). Alumni. Antithesis (Gr.). Antitheses. 
 
 Amanuensis (L.). Amanuenses. Apex (L.). Apices. 
 
 Analysis (Gr.J. Analyses. Aphelion (Gr.). Aphelia. 
 
 3 
 
u 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Aphis (Gr.). 
 
 Appendix (L.)- 
 
 Arcanum (L.). 
 As(L.). 
 
 Automaton (Gr.). 
 Axis (L.). 
 Bandit (It.). 
 Basis ((Jr.). 
 Beau (Fr.). 
 Bureau (Fr.). 
 Calculus (L.). 
 Calix (L.). 
 Calx (L.). 
 Cherub (Heb.). 
 Chrysalis (Gr.). 
 Cognoscente (It.)- 
 Conversazione (It.). 
 Corrigendum (L.). 
 Criterion (Gr.). 
 Crisis (Gr.). 
 Datum (L.). 
 Desideratum (L.). 
 Diteresis (Gr.). 
 Dictum (L.). 
 Dilettante (It.). 
 Dogma (Gr.). 
 Echinus (L.). 
 Effluvium (L.). 
 Ellipsis (Gr.) 
 Emphasis (Gr.). 
 Emporium (L.). 
 Encomium (L.). 
 Ephemeris (Gr.). 
 Ephenieron (Gr.) 
 Erratum (L.). 
 Fascis (L.). 
 Flambeau (Fr.). 
 Focus (L.). 
 Formula (f;.). 
 Frustum (L.). 
 Fungus (L.). 
 Genius (L.). 
 Genus (L.). 
 Gymnasium (L.). 
 Hiatus (L.). 
 Hypothesis (Gr.). 
 Ignis-fatuus (L.). 
 Index (L.). 
 
 Plural. 
 Aphides. 
 j Appendixes. 
 ( Appendices. 
 Arcana. 
 Asses. 
 Automata. 
 Axes. 
 Banditti. 
 Bases. 
 Beaux. 
 Bureaux. 
 Calculi. 
 Calices, 
 Calces. 
 Cherubim. 
 Chrysalides. 
 Cognoscenti. 
 Conversazioni. 
 Corrigenda. 
 Criteria. 
 Crises. 
 Data. 
 
 Desiderata. 
 Diaereses. 
 Dicta. 
 Dilettanti. 
 Dogmata. 
 Echini. 
 Effluvia. 
 Ellipses. 
 Emphases. 
 Emporia. 
 Encomia. 
 Ephemerides. 
 Ephemera. 
 Errata. 
 Fasces. 
 Flambeaux. 
 Foci. 
 
 Formulae. 
 Frusta. 
 Fungi. 
 Genii (§ 46). 
 Genera. 
 Gymnasia. 
 Hiatus. 
 Hypotheses. 
 Ignes-fatui. 
 Indices (§ 46). 
 
 Singular. 
 Iris (L.). 
 Lamina (L.). 
 Larva (L.). 
 Locus (L.). 
 Macula (L.). 
 Madame (Fr.). 
 Magus (L.). 
 Mausoleum (L.). 
 Medium (L.). 
 Memorandum (L.). 
 Menstnuun (L.). 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Irides. 
 
 Laminae. 
 
 Larvae. 
 
 Loci. 
 
 Maculaj. 
 
 Jlesdamee, 
 
 Magi. 
 
 Mausolea. 
 
 lyiedia. 
 
 Memoranda. 
 
 Menstrua. 
 
 Metamorphosis (Gr.). ^Metamorphoses. 
 
 Miasma (Gr.). 
 Momentum (L.). 
 Monsieur (Fr.). 
 Nebula (L.). 
 Nucleus (L.). 
 Oasis (Gr.). 
 Parenthesis (Gr.). 
 Parhelion (Gr,). 
 Perilielion (Gr.). 
 Phasis (Gr.). 
 Phenomenon (Gr.). 
 Polypus (L.). 
 Postulatura (L.). 
 Radius (L.). 
 Radix (L.). 
 Ranunculus (L.). 
 Sarcophagus (L.). 
 Savant (Fr.). 
 Scholium (L.). 
 Scoria (L.). 
 Seraph (Heb.). 
 Series (L.). 
 Species (L ). 
 Specti-um (L.). 
 Speculum (L.). 
 Sphinx (Gr.). 
 Stamen (L.). 
 Stimulus (L.). 
 Stratum (L.). 
 Succedaneum (L.). 
 Terminus (L.). 
 Thesis (Gr.). 
 Tumulus (L.). 
 Vertex (L.). 
 Virtuoso (It.). 
 Vortex (L ). 
 
 Miasmata. 
 
 Momenta. 
 
 Messieurs. 
 
 Nebula)'. 
 
 Nuclei. 
 
 Oases. 
 
 Parentheses. 
 
 Parhelia, 
 
 Perihelia. 
 
 Phases. 
 
 Phenomena. 
 
 Polypi. 
 
 Postulata. 
 
 Radii. 
 
 Radices. 
 
 Ranunculi. 
 
 Sarcophagi. 
 
 Savants. 
 
 Scholia. 
 
 Scoriaj. 
 
 Seraphim. 
 
 Series. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Spectra. 
 
 Specula. 
 
 Sphinges. 
 
 Stamina. 
 
 Stinuili, 
 
 Strata. 
 
 Succedanea 
 
 Termini. 
 
 Theses. 
 
 Tumuli. 
 
 Vertices. 
 
 Virtuosi. 
 
 Vortices. 
 
 Obs. 1.— There is a general tendency to adopt the English plural when a foreign 
 noun comes into common use : as, l<t/idUs, chcruhs,si'raphs, ge»hisis, crocuses, vivariums, 
 memorandumK, cncomiuins, ilo<iraas, forviulas, avtomatons, focuses, hteius. 
 
 Ol'S. 2. — Aborit/incs, ag< nda, antipodes, arcana, dilettanti, ephemera, and errata are 
 used chiefly in the plural. 
 
 N.B.— Particles treated as nouns liave plural forms: as, "vps and dnicns," "pros 
 and cons," " oi/es and noes." '.S is sometixues used instead of s to mark the plural of 
 a word seldom used as a noini. 
 
 " For once the O's and Mac's were in the right." — Macaulay. 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 Give the }ilnrals of these nouns : — 
 
 Analysis, church, fish, loaf, luiof, hiss, donkey, knife, grotto, lady, fife, 
 penny, brother, bo}', potato, kniglit-errant, man, staff, tooth, cloth, ox, 
 genius, bandit, indc.\', hat, goose, desk, alkali, glory, chimney, cow, half, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 35 
 
 mason, colloquy, brush, deer, fox, apparatus, suffix, pea, crutch, beau, kiss, 
 cherub, oasis, apex, day, mouse, beauty, focus, story, topaz, cargo, die, 
 datum, seraph, life, genus, animalculuni. 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 Give the singular of these nouns : — 
 Wharfs, phenomena, monkeys, footmen, calves, mice, classes, men, skiffs, 
 appendices, tyros, hypotheses, leaves, stories, bases, dicta, storeys, teeth, 
 woes, radii, beaux, horses, halves, cherubim, nebulte, chimneys, gipsies, 
 autom.ata, houses, genera, foxes, genii, grasses, oxen, axes, women, media, 
 nuncios, knives, staves, kine, mottoes. 
 
 EXEKCISE 32. 
 Mention the number of each noun : — 
 1. The waves rush in on every side. 2. The agitation of lakes, rivers, 
 and springs in Great Britain was remarkable. 3. At Loch Lomond, in 
 Scotland, the water rose against its banks. 4. The chairs were covered 
 with a coarse green clotli. 5. The people gazed with wonder and admira- 
 tion at the trains. 6. He had sent for the captains and other great officers 
 of the fleet. 7. My mother milked thirty kine. 8. The bowmen altered 
 the direction of their shafts. 9. The field was covered with separate bands 
 of foemen. 10. The victorious cavaliers now rushed towards the 
 sanctuaries. 
 
 Questions on §§ 41 — 50. 
 
 1. What is number ? 2. How many numbers are there ? 3. What does the singular 
 denote ? 4. What does the phiral denote ? 5. How is the plural generally formed ? 
 G. What is the origin of this mode of forming the plural ? 7. How do nouns ending 
 in s, sh, ch (soft), x or z form the plural? 8. What is the plural of monarch ? 9. How 
 do nouns ending in o form the plural ? 10. When proper nouns ending in o tend to 
 common, how do they form the plural? 11. What is the plural of alJcali? 12. What 
 nouns change ./ or Jh into ves? 13. What nouns ending in / add s for the plural? 
 14. How do nouns ending in ?/ preceded by a consonant form the plural? 15. How 
 do" nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form the plural ? 16. When proper nouns 
 tending to common end in ?/, how do they form the plural ? 17. Name seven nouns 
 that make their plural by a change in the body of the word. 18. Name three nouns 
 whose plufals end in en 19. Give examples of old plurals in en. 20. Give examples 
 of nouns having the singular and plural alike. 21. How is the singular of such words 
 indicated? 22. How is the plural of compound nouns generally formed? 23. Mention 
 some double titles with double plurals. 24. What is the plural of vian-servant i 25. 
 What is the plural of M>ss Smith ? 2G. WiJ^C nouns have two plurals differuig m 
 meaning? 27. From what is jmt derived? 28. From what is pennies derived? 29. 
 When has pence a singular signification? 30. What nouns have no plural? 81. \Vhen 
 doproper nouns become plural? 32. When have abstract nouns a plural? 33. Wlieu 
 have names of materials or substances a plural? 34. What nouns have no singular? 
 35. What is said of the words alms, eaves, riches, summons'? 36. What is said of the 
 words amends, means, nexus, pains, tidings, iceiges, small-pox, odds, gallows ? Si. What 
 names of sciences are singular number, plural form ? 38. Mention some nouns which 
 have a different meaning in the plural. 39. Mention nouns which have one meaning 
 in the singular and two or more in the plural. 40. What is the plural of foreign 
 nouns? 41. Give examples of foreign nouns with foreign plurals. 42. When a 
 foreign noun comes into common use, how is the plural often formed ? 43. When 
 have particles plural forms ? 44. When is 's used instead of s to mark the plural? 
 
 3. Person. 
 51. Person is the relation which limits the meaning of a 
 noun, a pronoun, or a verb, to some person speaking, some 
 person spoken to, or some person or thing spoken of. 
 
 3—2 
 
36 ENGLISH GRAMMAIt. 
 
 52. There arc three persons, the First, the Second, j,jid the 
 Third. 
 
 The First Person denotes the person speaking : as, I, John, 
 say so. 
 
 The Second Person denotes the person spoken to : as, 
 Boys, be silent. 
 
 The Third Person denotes the person or thing spoken of : 
 as, The fox is cunning ; The sailor wounded the bean . 
 
 53. Nouns are nearly always of the third person. 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 Mention the person of the nouns : — 
 1. The snow covered the ground. 2. We petty men walk under his 
 huge legs. 3. Soldiers ! make ready your arms. 4. I, Henry Thompson, 
 solemnly declare that I have told the truth. 5. The sun shines brightly 
 in this secluded valley. 6. The pine grows on this mountain. 7. O father, 
 stay ! 8. The boy rides on a pony. 9. The man fell from the ladder. 
 10. Hail ! blithesome stranger of the grove ! 
 
 Questions on §§ 51 — 53. 
 
 1. "Wliat is person ? 2. How many persons are there ? 3. Wliat is the first person? 
 4. What is the second person ? 5. What is the third person ? G. Of what person are 
 nouns usually ? 
 
 4. Case. 
 
 54. Case is the form given to a noun or pronoun to show 
 the relation in which it stands to some other word in the 
 sentence. 
 
 Obs.—Case (Lat. cadere, casus) means "a falling." The old grammarians represented 
 that form the noun takes when it is the subject of a sentence, by an upright Hue, 
 and likened the otlier forms to lines fulling away from the perpendicular at various 
 angles. The nominative was called the upright C;ise (casus rectus), and the others 
 (except the vocative) oblique cases (casus vUiqui). Henco the enumeration of the 
 cases of a noun or pronoun is called Declension (Lat. de, down ; ciino, I bend). 
 
 55. There are in English three cases, the Nominative, the 
 Possessive, and the Ohjedive. 
 
 Obs. 1. — In the oldest English, nouns were inflected or had casc-ondings to show 
 their relation to other words. There were six cases, I^ominative, Vocative, Accuxativ, 
 Genitive, Dative, and Jnsirumcntal or Abiativf. The purpose for which ciso-endings 
 were used is to a great extent now served by prepositioiiS. In Modern English the 
 possessive, which corresponds to the older genitive, is the only case where nouns are 
 inflected. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^Some grammarians make five c;usc8 in English, viz , Koviinative, Accusative, 
 Genitive (or possessive), Dative, and I'ocative. 
 
 56. The Nominative is the case which denotes the person 
 or thing about which we are speaking : as, The moon shines. 
 
 Obs. 1. — That about wliich we are speaking is called the subject (§§ 40*2-4). The 
 Boniinative, tliereforc, is Uie caso of tlie subjet-t, and answers the question vho? or 
 vhalf Tims, in the sentence "James runs," if we ask tlic question Who runs? the 
 answer, James, is in the nominative. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The Nominative Absolute, Nominative 0/ Address, and Nominative Exclamatory 
 are explained in §§ 298-300. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. -^7L \ y^ 37 
 
 57. The Possessive is the case which denotes possession : 
 as, David's harp. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — The possessive answers the question whose f or of what ? In the sentence, 
 "He watched his father's sheep," if we ask " Whoxr s,\\ccy> did he watcliV" the 
 answer, father's, is in the possessive case. In the sentence, "A primrose grew on the 
 river's brink," if we ask "On the brinlc of ichat did a primrose grow?" the answer, 
 riuer's, is in the possessive case. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The possessive is said to be governed by the name of the thing possessed 
 <S 302). 
 
 58. The Objective is the case which denotes the object of 
 an action or which comes after a preposition : as, The horse 
 kicked the groom ; The troops marched from London. 
 
 Qf,s. 1.— The objective answers the question whomf or what? In the sentence, 
 "The miller grinds corn," if we ask " What does the miller grind?" the answer, 
 corn, is in the objective case. In the sentence, " Jael smote Sisera," if we ask 
 " Whom did Jael smite?" the answer, Sisera, is in the objective case. 
 
 Olg^ 2. — When the objective case denotes the object of an action, it is said to be 
 governed by the verb, which is then called transitive (§ 110) ; and when it comes after 
 a preposition, it is said to be governed by the preposition. 
 
 Ol^s'. 3.— The direct object of a transitive verb is known as the Accusative, and the 
 indirect olfct, or the name of the person to whom something is given or told, or for 
 tohovi something is done, is known as the Datke. The Dative case is seen in such 
 constructions as : Give me {i.e., to me) the dagger ; He told him (i.e., to him) the truth ; 
 They built him (i.e., for him) a house. The infinitive of purpose is a dative: as, I 
 came io bury Caesar. The preposition to or for may always be put before a Dative 
 case. See §§ 307, 416. 
 
 59. In nouns the nominative and objective cases have the 
 same form. They are both without case-endings, and are only 
 distinguished by their position and use in a sentence. 
 
 60. The possessive case is formed by adding s preceded 
 by an apostrophe to the nominative : as, man, man's ; men^ 
 men's. ^'^ 
 
 Exc 1. When the plural ends in s already, the apostrophe 
 only is added : as, ladks, ladies' ; kings, kings'. 
 
 Esc. 2. When singular nouns end in 55 or ce, and when 
 foreign proper nouns of two or more syllables end in 5 or x, 
 the 5 is omitted, and the apostrophe only is placed after the 
 word : as, for righteousness'' sake ; for conscience' sake ; Brutus' 
 statue; Thetis' wrath; Felix' room; Pericles' acts; Euripides' 
 dramas. 
 
 Ohs. 1 .—When ordinary English names end in s, the s with preceding apostrophe is 
 generally appended : as," Burns' s, James's, Bass's. ., ., ^ , . . j 
 
 06s 2 — Alth.ou^h it is usual to drop the s when too many sibilant or hissing sounds 
 would come togettier, there is a growing tendency to adhere to the general rule of 
 adding s preceded by an apostrophe to the noun. _l _ , , ^ x x,. i 4. 1 
 
 Obs 3 —In compound nouns the mark ol the possessive is added to the last word : 
 as, father-in-laio's house ; the Queen of Evr/huicTs daughter ; the Duke of Saxony's 
 nephew Even when there are two names the mavli of the possessive is generally 
 attached to the last : as, Emmerson and Wood's factory ; thy wife and children's Uood. 
 
 Obs 4 -The ending ('.s) of the possessive is an abbreviation of cs. In Old English 
 ■es was the genitive suffix of a certain class of nouns. It was gradually extended to 
 nouns in general. In later English -is, a modification of -cs, came into use, but wa3 
 not always joined to the noun. This, most probably, accounts for the erroneous im- 
 pression formerly prevalent that ('s) was a contvaction of his in such phrases as, 
 
ENGLISH GRAMJMAR. 
 
 "Thomas liis book," " Christ his sake." The absurdity of such a supposition is made 
 apparent by attempting to .ipply it to feminine and plural nouns. In the phrases, 
 "The (Queen's crown," "The men's hospital," the possessive sign 's cannot possibly 
 be cquiviilent to his. Moreover the word his is itself the possessive case of he or hit 
 (il). Tlie substitution of his .or -is and -es originated about the fourteenth century ; 
 and by an imitative in-ocess hur and their came to be used in a similar way. In the 
 Eni'lish Bible led. Kill) we find : " By Naomi ht-r instruction Ruth licth at Boaz his 
 feet" ; " .Mordccai his matters " ; " Asa his heart." 
 
 The\') which, in the singular number, denotes the omission of the letter e, was 
 adopted, cither to mark the distinction between the possessive case and ])lural 
 number, or to signify the omission of the vowel in -t^s when that suffix was no longer 
 pronounced and written as a separate syllable. The use of the apostrophe did not 
 become general before the latter part of the seventeenth century. An instance of 
 the old form -cs still exists in our word ]Vcd)iesda!/ (,0.E. ]Voden-es-daeg). 
 
 61. N'oiuis are thus declined : — 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Boy 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Boy's 
 
 Boys'. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Boy 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Man 
 
 Men. 
 
 Horse 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Man's 
 
 Men's. 
 
 Horse's 
 
 Horses'. 
 
 Man 
 
 Men. 
 
 Horse 
 
 Horses. 
 
 62. Second Parsing Model. 
 
 The maiden placed her hand on Gertrude's head. 
 The— An adjective. -^UjuV, 
 
 maiden — A common noun, feminine gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " placed." 
 placed— A verb, 
 her — A pronoun, 
 
 hand — A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive verb 
 
 "placed." 
 on— A preposition. 
 
 Gertrude's — A proper noun, feminine gender, singular member, third 
 
 person, possessive case, governed by the noun "head." 
 head— A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition " on." 
 
 {Parsing, pp. 10 — 15.] 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 Decline these nouns : — 
 Lady, breeze, father, conscience, forest, woman, Cadmus, tooth. 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 
 Give the possessive case singular of these nouns : — 
 Goodness, oak, doctor, thrush, Socrates, James, convenience, butler, 
 church, knight, guide, queen, cherub, gentleman. 
 
 Exercise 3G. 
 
 (Jive the possessive case plural of these nouns : — 
 Child, father, clown, goose, beauty, servant, corporal, nuncio, stair, sheep, 
 penny, hunter, rose, candle. 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 
 Mention the case of each noun : — 
 1. The dews of summer night did fall. 2. The sounds of busy life were 
 8till, 3. The maids brought flowers to Sarah's grave. 4. My lord's sou 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 39 
 
 grew up. I). The master heard the robber's footsteps, 6. A poor widow, 
 in a small town in the north of England, kept a stall of apples and sweet- 
 meats. 7. After dinner, Stephen's father left the room. 8. Her husband's 
 eyes sparkled with plea?ure at the cheerfulness of her countenance. 9. The 
 report sent Tom's heart into his mouth again. 10. My breakfast of tea 
 has been cooked by a Tartar woman, with water of the Amur. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. Fortunatus had a wishing hat. 2. Man's unhappiness comes of his 
 greatness. 3. The spell was broken by a sound of carriage-wheels. 4. 
 I have roasted wild eggs in the sand of Sahara. 5. The little woman 
 shook her head. 6. John's heavy tramp was heard upon the staircase. 7. 
 The surgeons di'essed his wounds. 8. The news of Hampden's death pro- 
 duced great consternation in his party. 9. The mute herd snuff the 
 shivering gale. 10. Lead was fetching a high price in Antwerp. 11. The 
 people rang the bells for joy, 
 
 12. I bind the sun's throne with a burning zone, 
 And the moon's with a girdle of pearl ; 
 The volcanoes are dim, and the stars reel and swim> 
 When the whirlwinds my banner unfurl. 
 
 Questions on §§ 54 — 62. 
 
 1. What is case? 2. What is declension? 3. How many cases are there? 4. What 
 cases were there in Old English ? 5. What is the nominative case? 6. What is the 
 subject of a sentence ? 7. What is the possessive case ? 8. What is the objective 
 case? 9. In nouns, what cases have the same form? 10. How is the possessive 
 singular formed? 11. How is the possessive plural formed? 12. What singular nouns 
 foi-m the possessive by adding an apostrophe only ? 13. How do compound nouns 
 form the possessive ? 14. Of what is 's an abbreviation ? 15. How are the nouns io y, 
 man, and horse declined ? 
 
 Chapter III— The Adjective. 
 I. Classification. 
 
 63. An Adjective is a word which qualifies or Hmits a 
 noun : as, A rijM orange ; twenty men. 
 
 Obs. 1.- An adjective does not denote the quality of the noun, but of the thing for 
 which the noun stands. In the phrase, " A ripe orange," the adjective rijic describes 
 the sort of orange and not the sort of noun the word "orange" is. In the phrase, 
 " Twenty men," ticenty limits the application of the noun "men" to twenty of the 
 individuals which form the class denoted by the word " men." 
 
 Obs. 2.— An adjective limits the meaning of the noun it qualifies. " Orange," in the 
 example above, is the name given to all the individuals. The addition of the adjective 
 ripe, by indicating the quality of ripeness in the thing denoted by the noun, limits or 
 restricts the application of the name to a i)ortion of the whole class represented by 
 the noun "orange." The adjective " ripe " and the noun " orange " taken together 
 may be regarded as a kind of compound descriptive name, denoting a smaller class 
 chosen from a larger class designated by the noun " orange." 
 
 64. Adjectives are of three kinds, Adjectives of Quality^ Ad- 
 jedives of Qiiantity, and Distinguishing Adjectives. 
 
40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 65. Adjectives of Quality exj^resstho quality of a thing : 
 as, A dark night ; a stormy sea. They answer the question 
 what sort ? 
 
 Obs, 1, — Most of the adjectives in the English language belong to tliis class. 
 
 Obx. 2. — Adjectives derived from projier names are called Proper Adjectives of Quality: 
 as, Enfflish language, }\'onnnn warrior, Aoricegian river. 
 
 O/'*". 3.— Participles (§ 122) arc often used as adjectives of quality: as, Dicindling 
 income ; folded arms. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Nouns are often used as adjectives of quality : as, Gold ring ; iron bar ; 
 glass door. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Adjectives are sometimes used as Abstract nouns and sometimes as Concrete 
 uoims : e.g., 
 
 Abstract: "The sublime and the ridiculous arc often so nearly related, that it is 
 difficult to class them scijarately "; " The cri7 that men'do lives after 
 them "; " He did much good." 
 
 Concrete: " Thy songs were made for the 'pure and free"; " The X'oor ye always 
 have with you "; " The loise are happy." 
 
 66. Adjectives of Quantity express how much of a thing 
 or how many things of a class are referred to : as, Much silver ; 
 some rivers ; ten houses. They answer the question How much ? 
 or Hovj many ? 
 
 Adjectives of Quantity are of four kinds : — 
 
 i. Adjectives denoting Quantity in Bulk or Mass : 
 
 as, Any bread. The adjectives which denote quantity in bulk 
 or mass are : All^ any^ enough, little, much, no, none, some, ichole. 
 
 Obs. 1. — All, any, ennugh, no, none, some, and whole are adjectives of number when 
 they answer the question lloio many ? 
 
 Obs. 2. — Little is an adjective of quality when it denotes size : as, A little boat. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Many of the adjectives of quantitj' in bulk or mass may be used as nonps : 
 as, All is silence ; Enoiigli has been done ; Little has been heard ; JJuch has been seen ; 
 A little is better than none. Whenever possible, a noun should be suj^plied : as, Lidle 
 (news) has been heard. 
 
 Obs. 4. — All, any, enough, no, and some are also used as adverbs : as, Ho is n'l 
 powerful ; He could not walk any faster ; He is old enough ; I could come no sooner ; 
 lie lived some titty years ago. 
 
 ii. Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact 
 
 number. They are of two kinds : — 
 
 (a) Cardinal Numerals, which denote how many : as. 
 
 One, two, twertty ; no, none, both. 
 
 (b) Ordinal Numerals, which denote the order in which 
 objects are placed : as. The Jirst man ; the sixth house. 
 
 Obs. 1. — No and none are adjectives of quantity in bulk or mass when they answer 
 the question IJoir murh f 
 
 Obs. 2. — In Multiplicatives the greater numeral follows the less : as, four hundred, 
 Multiplicatives may be formed in various waj-s : 
 
 (n) By the English suffix -fold : as, threefold. 
 
 (6) liy the Latin or Homance suffix -pie or -lie: as, duple or double ; triple or treble; 
 
 quadruple. The sufTix -We or -pic has the same meaning nafold. 
 (<•) 15y twice and thrice placed before a numeral : as, ticice .s-(>, thrice tico. 
 (d) By the word limes put between mimerals : as, seven times six. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Quarter, half, third, fourth, tithe, etc., arc termed fractional numerals. Car- 
 dinal and fractional numerals are frequently used as nouns or pronouns : as. All my 
 I)rctty ones; Tu-o-thirds of the tree were decayed ; The half is Igss than the whok. 
 

 1 -^0. 
 
 >^ ^y^ ETYMOLOGY. 41 
 
 iii, Indefiaite Numeral Adjectives, which denote number 
 indefinitely : as, Some men. The indefinite numeral adjectives 
 are : All, another, any, certain, divers, enough, few, '.nanijy other^ 
 several, some, sundry, and ivhole. 
 
 Obs. — All, any, enough, some, and whole are adjectives of quantity ia bulk or mass 
 when they answer the question How much ? 
 
 iv. Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which denote a 
 
 number of objects taken separately : as, Every hour. The dis- 
 tributive numeral adjectives are : Each, every, either, neither. 
 
 Obs. — Many is often used with an or a as a distributive numeral adjective : as, Many 
 a flower, 
 
 67. Distinguishing Adjectives point out or distinguish 
 
 a thing from its class : as, This horse. The distinguishing 
 adjectives are a or an, the, this, that, these, those ; also yon, yonder^ 
 identical, such, same and selfsame.' ' >»."". vf '"^^t-, ■?' * • 
 
 Obs. 1. — These is the plural of this ; those is the plural of that. 
 
 Obs. 2.— A, an, and the cannot stand alone. They nlways qualify a noun expressed. 
 They are often called Articles (Latin articuius, a little joint). A or an is called the 
 indefinite article, the the definite article. 
 
 Obs. 3. — A or an is only used before singular nouns ; the before nouns of both num- 
 bers. A is used before a ccnjsonant or the vowel ?', (pronounced as in union): as, A 
 farmer, a horse, a unit. An is used before a vowel (except long u) and silent h: as, 
 An object, an heir. When a word beginning with h aspirated has the accent on the 
 second syllable, an is more usual than a, but both usages are found : as, An historical 
 account, an hyjiothesis ; but also, A historical account, a hypothesis. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The, this, thnt, yon, yonder, same, self-same, such, as well as the third personal 
 pronouns, are often called demonstrative pi-onouns. The was formerly declined, like 
 other adjectives, for gender, number and case. This (O.E. mas. thes, fem. theus, neu. 
 this). Tlie plural of all genders was thc'is. Later we have thes = thfse and thisc = this. 
 That was originally the neuter of the (mas. se, fem. sec, neu. that). The pliiral of that 
 is (hose (O.E. thc'is:). Such (O.E. swilc) is a cumpoiuid of O.E. swd, so, and E. lie, like. 
 Same (Middle E. same). Yon, yond, yonder (O.E. ^con). 
 
 Table op Adjectives. 
 
 I. Of Quality Yelloio. 
 
 I Quantity in Bulk or Mass Much. 
 
 TN r. ., Tv-r ^ K ^^ L- rCardinal Seven. 
 
 Definite Is umeral Adjectives|Q^^j^^j ^^^^,^^^^j^^ 
 
 Indefinite Nnmeral Adjectives Many. 
 
 Distributive Numeral Adjectives Each. 
 
 III. Distinguishing Thin. 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 Mention the adjectives, and say to which class they belong : — 
 
 1. Few things in this world strike me with more surprise. 2, Always 
 there is a black spot in our sunshine. 3, A transient pleasure sparkles in 
 his eyes. 4. I see the golden helmet. 5, All those ships have families on 
 board, 6, I have received four shillings. 7. She sings the wild songs of 
 her dear native plains. 8. The little red spark in the bowl of the pipe had 
 flickered up and died. 9. His high black plume floats abroad over the 
 throng. 10. More golden coin fell into the little parlour till, 11. Each 
 
42 ENGLISH gra:\imar. 
 
 fatlier had lost two sons. 12. Every settler carried arras for several days. 
 13. The morning was windy and wet. 14. The low damp ground was 
 hard. 15. The sun withdraws his last cold feeble ray. 
 
 16. Amidst the flashing and feathery foam 
 The stormy petrel finds a home. 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 
 Mention the adjectives of quantity, and say to which subdivision each 
 belongs : — ■ 
 1. They found many passengers in the inn. 2. Have you discovered 
 any gold ? 3. He took some linen from a cupboard. 4. He supped with 
 some gentlemen. 5. They obtained no shelter. 6. Her husband took all 
 those materials with him. 7. They must pass through all Wiltshire. 8. 
 Every dog has his day. 9. The brothers adopted neither course. 10. The 
 soldiers were arranged in two lines. 11. Several men rushed upon the 
 thief. 12. He came on the second day. 
 
 Exercise 41. 
 
 Put the indefinite article (a or an) before each noun : — 
 Stranger, house, honour, harp, ostrich, mountain, eagle, palace, hour, 
 hill, sunbeam, egg, bush, queen, bird, ox, ounce, glass, tree, apple, orange, 
 temple, blossom, apricot, voice, owl, metal, oven, tomb, home. 
 
 Questions on §§ 63 — Q7. 
 
 1. Wliat is an adjective? 2. How many kinds of adjectives are there? 3. \\'hat 
 are adjectives of qiuility? 4. What are proper adjectives? 5. "What words are often 
 used as adjectives of quality? C. What are adjectives of quantity? 7. How many 
 kinds of adjectives of quantity are there? 8. What adjectives denote quantity in 
 bulk, or mass? 9. What adjectives denote both quantity (in bulk or mass) and 
 number? 10. When is /j^^k an adjective of quality? 11. What adjectives of quantity 
 may be used as nouns? 12. What adjectives of quantity may be used as adverbs? 
 13. What are definite mimeral adjectives? 14. Of how many kinds are definite 
 numeral adjectives? 15. What are cardinal numerals? IG. What are ordinal numerals? 
 17. What part of speech is no? 18. What part of speech is 7tonef 19. How are 
 multiplicatives formed? 20. What are fractional numerals? 21. What are indefinite 
 numeral adjectives? 22. Name the indefinite numeral adjectives. 23. What are dis- 
 tributive numeral adjectives? 24. Name the distributive numeral adjectives. 2r>. 
 What are distinguishing adjectives? 26. Name the distinguishing adjectives, 27. 
 What is a or an called? 2S. What is the called? 20. Before what nouns is o used? 
 i)0. Before what nouns is an used? 31. Give the derivation of the, this, that, suc/\ 
 same, and yon. 
 
 II. Inflexion. 
 
 68. The adjectives which arc inflected are (1) those which 
 denote quahty, and (2) a few adjectives of quantity and 
 number, viz., Feiv, liWe, many, much. 
 
 Obs.—This and that arc inflected to express number, their plurals being <Acsc and 
 titose. Others, a plural form of other, is to be regarded as an adjective used as a noun. 
 Bo with the iwssessive forms othci-'s, another's. [Parsini/, pp. 2;», 117.] 
 
 69. Adjectives are inflected to express comparison. There 
 arc three degrees of comparison, Positive^ Comparative^ and 
 Superlative, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 43 
 
 Comparison is the change of form wliich the adjective 
 undergoes to mark the different degrees of quality, quantity, 
 or number. 
 
 70. The Positive Degree is the adjective in its simple 
 form : as, ric\ wise. 
 
 71. The Comparative Degree denotes that one of two 
 things, or of two sets of things, possesses a certain quality in 
 a greater degree than the other : as, richer^ iviser. 
 
 72. The Superlative Degree denotes that one of more 
 than two things, or sets of things, possesses a certain quality 
 in a greater degree than all the others : as, richest, ivisest. 
 
 73. The Comparative is formed by adding er to the 
 
 positive, and the Superlative is formed by adding est to the 
 
 positive : as, — 
 
 Positive. Comimrative. Superlative. 
 
 Strong, Stronger, Strongest. 
 
 Obs. 1.— When the positive ends in e, r and st only are added: as, large, larger, 
 largest. 
 
 Obs. 2. — When the positive ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, 
 the consonant is doubled : as, red, redder, reddest. 
 
 Obs. 3. — When the positive ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into 
 i : as, hcq')py, happier, liaiipiest. 
 
 Obs. 4. — When the positive consists of two or more syllables, the comparative is 
 generally formed by prefixing more, and the superlative by prefixing most: as, active, 
 more active, most active. Dissyllables ending in y, ble, er and oiu, and those accented on 
 the last syllable, are compared by adding fr and est : as, merry, merrier, merriest ; feeble, 
 fcebkr, feeblest : slender, slenderer, slenderest; shallow, shcdlower, shalhivest : xtolite, 
 politer, politest. 
 
 Obs. 5.— A Tew English adjectives and also a few adjectives of Latin origin, which 
 have the comparative form, are now regarded as positives : as, (English) eld> r, former, 
 'hinder, inner, latter, nether, outer, under, upper; (Latin) anterior, exterior, inferior, 
 junior, major, minor, posterior, prior, senior, superior, 
 
 Obs. (5.— The affix ish is sometimes added to lessen the signification of the positive. 
 This forms what is termed the Imperfect or Sub-positive degree : as, red, reddish. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Terminational comparison, as well as that denoted by more and most, always 
 increases the signification. Less and Iceist decrease it, and must, therefore, be parsed 
 as adverbs when modifying adjectives, but need not be said to indicate degree. Some 
 gi-ammarians, however, consider that less indicates the comparative and least the 
 superlative degree of diminution. 
 
 74. Many adjectives of quality, on account of their absolute 
 signification, do not admit of comparison. Such are : — 
 
 (1) Those denoting perfect and invariable qualities : as, Almiglity, 
 'perfect, supreme, eternal, dead, rigid, icrong, square, full, chief, circular, 
 conscious, earthly, empty, everlasting, external, extreme, false, Jilial, fluid, 
 free, godly, heavenly, human, impossible, infinite, living, natural, omnipo- 
 tent, etc. 
 
 (2) Those denoting material : as, brazen, golden, wooden. 
 
 (3) Such adjectives as the following denoting qualifications of time and 
 
 place : as, perpetual, weekly, daily, annual, French, African. 
 
 O&s.— Some adjectives which, strictly speaking, cannot be compared, are, when 
 used in a relative sense, allowed to take the comparative and superlative de^ees : as, 
 independent, more indeycvdent, mo-it independent, 
 
44 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 75. The following adjectives are compared irregularly :— 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative, 
 
 worst. 
 
 worst. 
 
 farthest, 
 f fort most. 
 \ first. 
 
 best. 
 
 hindmost. 
 
 worst. 
 f latest. 
 ■ \ last. 
 
 least. 
 
 most. 
 
 most. 
 Jnighest. 
 \next. 
 r oldest. 
 \ eldest. 
 
 furthest, 
 f inmost. 
 \ innermost. 
 Toutmost. 
 -! utmost. 
 (^ uttermost. 
 
 nethermost, 
 /upmost. 
 \ uppermost. 
 
 topmost. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — The forms in most are double superlatives, the old superlative endings being 
 -ema and -oat (=z-csf.). These forms also occur : Aflcrmost, dounmost (Scottish), tastmost, 
 easternmost, fronimf'st, hit/tfrviost, midmost, middlemost, nethermost, norihnwst, northi-.m- 
 most, renrnwst, sovJlimort, sontlicrnmost, undermost, iccstmost, iresternmost. 
 
 Ohs. 2.— Bad, evil, 111— worse, worst. O.E. yf'el, 7ri/rsa, iri/rrest, ^cyrst. Bad does 
 not occur in Old Eng-li.sh. It was first used in the thirteenth century. Evil hTid ill 
 are not inflected. Eril is from t//ef, and ill is a cogiiate form, of Scandinavian 
 origin. Worse and trorst are formed from the root or lost positive weor, bad. 
 
 Olis. 3.— Far, farther, farthest. O.E. //-or, Jf/rra, fyrrest ; later, fcr, f-rre {ferrer), 
 and ferrest. Farrcr is the true comparative of far. The th has been inserted from a 
 mistaken analogy withfurther. 
 
 Further, O.E. furthor, is the comparative of the adverb forth. Forthmost is the 
 Old English superlative. Farther means "more distant "; further, " more advanced " 
 or " additional.' 
 
 Oljs. 4.— First is the superlative of fore. The old superlative was /onjja, from which 
 we obtain jormrr. 
 
 Ohs. .'i.— Good, better, best. O.E. fu'd, bctera, betcst—hrt(e)st. G6d has neither 
 comp.arativc nor superlative. .Ba< ( = good) is the positive of betera. The same root is 
 found in hoot ( = to boot) 
 
 Ohs. C— Late, later or latter, latest or last, O.E. laet, Intor, latost, or laetemest : 
 Middle Engli.sh, latr, Intttr, luttst, bitst. There is now a distinction between the 
 meanings of latter and later, last and latest. Latter and last refer to order, while later 
 and latest refer to time. 
 
 Obs. 7.— Little, less, least. O.E. l>/teJ, laesia, laesest, laest. The root of little is lite, 
 less and least arc from the root of las, infirm. A double comparative, lesser, is used : 
 ep., Lesser A.sia. 
 
 Obs. 8.— Much, more. most. O.E. mirel, mdrn, maest. The root is ma?i, or viaf/?i, 
 gTeat. The later forms of micel are miehel, viuchel, nwchel, Scotch muckle. 
 
 Many, O.K. maneg, Tho root mang is a form of mag or mo.h. Mor^, O.E. rruira 
 
 Bad, 
 Evil, 
 rr.r, 
 
 Fore, 
 
 Good, 
 Hind, 
 111, 
 Late, 
 
 Little, 
 Many, 
 Much, 
 
 Nigh, 
 
 Old, 
 [Forth, adv.'\ 
 [In, pre}).] 
 
 [Out, adv.] 
 
 [Neath, j^i'^}^-] 
 Up, ^;j*q?.] 
 [Top, noun] 
 
 worse, 
 worse, 
 farther, 
 
 former, 
 
 better, 
 hindei', 
 worse, 
 f later, 
 \ latter, 
 less, 
 more, 
 more, 
 
 nigher, 
 
 folder, 
 \ elder, 
 further, 
 
 inner, 
 
 f outer, 
 \ utter, 
 
 nether, 
 
 upper. 
 
I 
 
 liXYMOLOGV. . 45 
 
 (=:in(th-ra) is used as the coniparative of both much and man;/. More is now used both 
 as an adjective and adverb, host, O.E. 7nofSt { = mah-sl). In U.E. michel, and in Middle 
 i English mvchel, muchc, mochc = greAt, large. 
 
 Obs. 9.— Nigh, Higher, nighest (next); near, nearer, nearest. O.E. nedfih,veh; 
 nyra, marra ; lucihst, iichst. The O E. forms are properly represented by 7i/r//i, nf«r, 
 vext. Near la from O.E. nyra or ncarra, and is in reality a comparative form. 
 h'eurer is a double comparative. In nearest, the old comparative form has the modem 
 Bupcrlative suffix added to it. Next is a contraction of nighesf. 
 
 Obs. 10.— Old, O.E. eatd, aid; elder, O.E. yldra, ehlra : eldest, O.E. yJdest, eldfst. 
 The more recent forms older and oldfst, formed directly from old, are now commonly 
 used. ELdtr and eldi'st are now applied only to living beings. 
 
 Obs. 11.— Over is the comparative of O.E. ufan, above. 
 
 76. Third Parsing Model. 
 Just retribution overtook those guilty men. 
 
 Just— An adjective of quality, positive degree, qualifying the noun 
 
 " retribution." 
 retribution — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " overtook." 
 overtook — A verb. 
 
 those — A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun " men." 
 
 guilty — An adjective of quality, positive degree, qualifying the 
 
 noun "men." 
 men — A common noun, masculine gender, plural number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive verb 
 
 " overtook," 
 
 {Parsing, pp. 16 — 21.] 
 
 Exercise 42. 
 
 Compare these adjectives : — 
 Hollow, melancholy, distant, costly, wild, busy, weary, yellow, dim, 
 coarse, rich, calm, little, dry, clean, harmless, old, wonderful, good, lovely, 
 sweet, dangerous, far, beautiful, glad, brave, gallant, horrible, fair, fragrant, 
 pure, pretty, agreeable, great, giddy, nigh, bad, fierce, clear, marvellous, 
 observant. 
 
 Exercise 43. 
 Parse : — 
 1, Adown the glen rode armed men. 2. Martin had dealt a heavier 
 stroke than he intended. 3. Caius !* of all the Romans thou hast the 
 keenest sight. 4 His steady hand made the straightest furrow. 5. 
 Towards evening they reached a little secluded village amid the Surrey 
 hills, ivy-clad and topped by a golden spire. 6. The boat has left a stormy 
 land. 7. More good was everywhere. 8. I received no other hurt, and 
 the dwarf was pardoned at my desire. 9. He gently took me up in both 
 his hands. 10. I took a thick cudgel and threw it with all my strength. 
 11. He bowed to several well-dressed persons. 12. A most wonderful 
 event occurred. 13. London is larger than Paris. 14. The letter was 
 written in the simplest language. 
 
 15. Soft and pale is the moony beam, 
 Moveless still the glassy stream ; 
 i- The wave is clear, the beach is bright 
 
 k With snowy shell and sparkling stones ; 
 
 r The shore-surge comes in ripples light, 
 
 In murmurings faint and distant moans. 
 
 * When a noun is second person, it is called the nominative case of address. 
 
46 ENGLISH GRAlVtAiAR. 
 
 Questions on §§ 68 — 76. 
 
 1. What adjectives are inflected? 2. What inflexions have adjectives? 3. llo^ 
 many degrees are there ? 4. Wliat is the positive decree ? 5. What is the comparaiive 
 degi-ee? 6. What is the superlative degree? 7. How is the comparative formed? 
 S How is the super hxtive formed? 9. How are adjectives ending in e compared? 10. 
 How are adjectives ending in .y compared? 11. What adjectives are compared by more 
 and most ? 12. What dissylhibles are compared by adding er and csl ? 13. How is the 
 imperfect degree formed? 14. How are the comparative and superlative of diminution 
 formed? 15. What adjectives do not admit of comparison ? 1(5. When may adiectives, 
 which do not properly admit of comparison, be compared? 17. What adjectives are 
 compared irregularly ? IS. Explain the ending most. 19. Which adjectives compara- 
 tive in form are regarded as positives ? 20. Give the derivation of hitter and best. 21. 
 Give the derivation of vmrs/; and zvorst. 22. Explain the forms little^ less, least, lesser. 
 23. What is nea.r the comparative of ? 24. Distinguish between older and elder, oldest 
 and eldest. 25. Distinguish between /aj-f/icr and /ur<^6''?-. 26. Explain the forms mur^, 
 more, most. 27. Give the derivation of many. 2S. Explain the forms ni<jh, ni;jher, 
 nlghest, near, nearer, nearest, next. 29. Give the derivation of over. 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Pronoun. 
 I. Classification. 
 
 77. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : as, The 
 cottage has two rooms ; they are small. 
 
 78. Pronouns are of three kinds, Personal^ Relative, and In- 
 terrogative. 
 
 79. A Personal Pronoun is the simple substitute for a 
 noun : as. The master spoke and the boys obeyed him. 
 
 The personal pronouns are : /, thou, he, she, and it. I is called 
 the pronoun of the first person ; thou is called the pronoun of 
 the second person ; he, she, and it are called pronouns of the 
 third person. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — / and thou, with their phtrals we, ye, or you, are the original personal 
 pronouns. They are inflected for number and case, but not for gender. The personal 
 l)rijnouii3 of the third person are, by many granimju-ians, regarded as demonstrative 
 ]ironouns. They, like the old demonstratives, are inflected for gender as well as for 
 number and case. 
 
 (AVs. '2.— One, in such phrases as ^' One is quite perplexed," is an indefinite personal 
 pronoun, and is derived from the French on. It is distinct fi'oni the adjective one, 
 which corresponds to French xm, Latin iinus. 
 
 80. Compound Personal Pronouns are formed 
 
 i. By adding the noun self : thus, Myself, thyself, himself, 
 herself itself, oneself. 
 
 Ohs.— Self (O.E. silf, plunil sylfe), which is now a noun, was originally an adjective 
 (meaning " same ") and declined as such. It is used 
 
 (1) To mark emphasis : as, He hirnsiirwus hurt. When the pronouns are so used 
 thej' are called Emphatic Pronouns. 
 
 (2) To sliow that the doer of an action and the object acted on are the same : as, 
 He hurt himxelf. Comixmnd personal jn-dnouns used in this way are also called 
 Reflexive Pronouns. The simple personal pronouns, me, thee, you, Mm, etc., 
 are sometimes iLscd reflc.xively : as, I repent me, Hie tlitc to that city. He sat 
 him down. My, thy, etc., in the compounds myself, thyself, etc., axe thought by 
 some to be corruptions of vie and thee. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 47 
 
 ii. By adding the intensive adjective of quality own : as, 
 3Ii/ own, thy own, Jus own, her own, Us own, one's own. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The compound personal pronouns myself, thystlf, etc., are generally joined 
 either to the simple pronoun or to any ordinary noun to make it more emphatic. 
 These pronouns are usually in the same case as the noun or pronoun to which they 
 are joined : as, I myself told liim. 
 
 O'js. -2. — Qjiesdf ixndones own are called compound indefinite personal pronouns. 
 Oneself or on-'s self is modern. In Shakespeare's time we have a man's self, which la 
 equivalent to one's self. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Own is, by origin, the past participle of owe. 
 
 81. A Relative Pronoun is one which, besides being used 
 instead of a noun, also joins two sentences together : as. The 
 surgeon icho performed the operation is dead. 
 
 ■ ExPL\XATiON.— The word v:ho refers to the preceding noun surgeon, and it also joins 
 the sentence of which it forms a part (" who performed the operation ") to the 
 sentence " The surgeon is dead." A relative pronoun has, therefore, the force both of 
 a pronoun and a conjunction. 
 
 063.— Relative pronouns are so called because they releile to a preceding noun or 
 pronoun. The word to wliich they relate is called the Antecedent. 
 
 82. The relative pronouns are icho, ichich, and tJiaf. Who 
 relates to persons, ivhkh to the lower animals and things with- 
 out life, that either to persons or things. That is often used 
 for icho and li'liich to prevent their too frequent repetition. 
 
 q}js_ 1.— When as follows such words as such, the same, so, or as, it is often called a 
 relative ; it is, however, merely a conjunction, as can be shown by supplying the 
 ellipsis : as, We are such stuff eis dreams are made of =we are such stuff as [the stuff 
 is which] dreams are made of. Such phrases as " The man as rides to market " are 
 simply vulgarisms. [Parsing, pp. 35, 1(32.] 
 
 Ubs. 2.— But is sometimes called a negative relative { = %clio+not), when it corre- 
 sponds to the Latin quin : as, " There is no vice so simple, but assumes some mark of 
 virtue on its outward parts." Here "but assumes " is equivalent to " which assumes 
 not." It is belter, however, to parse but as a conjunction and supply it or which as 
 nominative to assumes. 
 
 83. The Compound Relatives include both the relative 
 and the antecedent. They are : — 
 
 i. JFhaf, which is equivalent to the thing which or the 
 things which. 
 
 Ol's. -In parsing, what must be resolved into its component parts. What was 
 originally only the neuter of the interrogative pronoun zcho. 
 
 ii. JFhoso, formed by adding so to the simple relative. 
 iii. Those ending in ever, viz., ivhoever, ivhichever, ivhatever. 
 iv. Those ending in soever, viz., ichosoever, ivhichsoever, 
 whatsoever. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The endings so, ever, and soever render the signification more wide and 
 universal. Soever is an older form than ever. The forms in so and soever are now 
 
 rarely used. ^ .i , ^ a 
 
 Obs. 2.— These compounds, as well as the simple relatives which and that, may oe 
 
 used as adjectives. 
 
48 , ENGLISH GRAJilMAPw 
 
 Qls, 4.— The compound relative is cquivaleut to :— 
 
 (1) Two nominatives : as. The man is not what he was, 
 
 (2) Two objectives : as, I told ichut you said. 
 
 (3) Nominative and objoclivo . as, Tliis sword is what I want. 
 
 (4) Objective and nominative : as, They knew what it was. 
 
 84. An Interrogative Pronoun is one which is used in 
 asking questions : as, ll^ho planted this tree 'I Unuit have you 
 done ^ JFhich of the men do you mean ] 
 
 ExPLAVATiox — The above expressions are elliptical, being respectively equivalent 
 to " Mention the person who planted this tree," " Mention the tlnng ichich you have 
 done," '• Mention the particular man which you mean." This explains why the uiter- 
 rogatives have the same form as the relatives. 
 
 85. The interrogative pronouns are icho, ivhat, .^nd ichkh. 
 The interrogative who i '■> used of persons only, u-hat (the neuter 
 of ^i'ho) is used of things only, and icMch is used of both 
 persons and things, and requires one or more to be selected 
 from some class or group. 
 
 Obs.— Whether { = v,Anc\\ of two?) was formerly much used as an interrogative: as, 
 Whether of them twain did the will of his father? Whether is noW mostly used as a 
 conjunclion : as, I cannot tell u-hether he will go or not. UTicther is the pronoun who 
 with the old comparative suffix ther. 
 
 86. The Compound Interrogative Pronouns are icJwevcr, 
 
 whatever, u-hichever : as, IVhoever will give it to him 1 Whatever 
 will he say ? JVhichever did you mean ? 
 
 Oha. — The interrogatives lohat and xchich and their compounds ichat>'ver and whichern' 
 are often used as adjectives : as, Jf'AcU conquest brings he home? Which king will ye 
 serve ? 
 
 Table of rEONOUNS. 
 
 X -r> 1 fl. Simple /. 
 
 I. Personal ..Jy^ Compound Mi/self. 
 
 TT Ti 1 X- ri. Simijle Who. 
 
 II. Relative ...j^. Compound Whoecer. 
 
 TTT T 1. i.' fl. Simple Who? 
 
 III. Interrogative|2_ Compound Whoever F 
 
 N.B. — In parsing, the word simple is omitted. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The term Indefinite Pronoun is by some applied to the words .4/?, another, 
 an>/, both, c-rtain, dicers, enough, few, mani/, none, other, sevo'al, sonv., such, sundri/, and 
 wholn, especially when the noun is not expressed. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The term Distributive Pronoun is, by some, applied to the words each, every, 
 either, neither. 
 
 Obs. Z. — The terra Danonstratice Pronoun is, by some, applied to the words this, that, 
 thes'', those. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Each other and one another are called Reciproc-nl Pronouns. 
 
 Obs. b.— Myself, thyself, etc., are called Refitxive Pronouns when, along with the verb, 
 they show that tlie action comes back upon the doer. 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 
 Mention the pronouns, and say whether they are personal, relative, or 
 interrogative : — 
 
 1. I visited Westminster Abbey. 2. He has lived for himself. 3. She 
 followed the boy. 4. It was a huge, high, airy room. 5. Then the 
 thought of his own mother came across him. G. What doest thou here, 
 Elijah ? 7. Ye are brothers ! we are men ! 8. The widow herself \va3 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 49 
 
 blamed. 9. He rushes to the field. 10. He left the name at which the 
 world grew pale. 11. I conquered myself. 12. The man who bought 
 the ivory carried it to Europe. 13. The days that are gone return not. 
 14. Whoever lives must die. 15. I come to speak to you of what he 
 wished. 
 
 Questions on §§ 77 — 8G. 
 
 \. What is a pronoun? 2. How many kinds of pronouns are there? 3. What is a 
 personal pronoun ? 4. Name the personal pronouns. 5. Which is the pronoun of the 
 first person ? 6. Which is the pronoun of the second person ? 7. Which are the pro- 
 nouns of the third person ? 8. When is one a pronoun ? 9. How are compound per- 
 sonal pronouns formed ? 10. What does the affix St// denote? 11. What is o ;/•//? 12. 
 What is a relative pronoun ? 13. Why are relative pronouns so called ? 14. What is 
 meant by the antecedent? 15. Name the relative pronouns. 16. To what docs ivhc 
 relate? 17. To what does wAicA relate ? 18. How is </ia/; used ? 10. When is a« con- 
 sidered a relative ? 20. What is as really? 21. When is but considered a relative? 
 22. What is but really ? 23. Name the compound relatives. 24. To what is the com- 
 pound relative 7chat equivalent? 25. What is the effect of the affixes so, fver, and 
 soever ? 26. What is an interrogative pronoun ? 27. Name the interrogative pronouns. 
 28. When is the interrogative wAo used ? 29. When is the interrogative what used'f 
 30. When is the interrogative which used? 31. What is said about the word ichelherf 
 82. Name the compound interrogative pronouns. 83. Which intenfogatives may be 
 used as adjectives? 
 
 11. Inflexion. 
 
 87. PronouDS have Gender, Number, Person, and Case. 
 
 1. Gender. 
 
 88. Only pronouns of the third person have any distinction 
 of gender : as, Masculine, he ; feminine, she ; neuter, it. Pro- 
 nouns of the first and second persons have no inflexion for 
 gender, because the sex of the person speaking and the person 
 spoken to is always regarded as obvious. 
 
 0/.*.?. — Pronouns of the first and second persons are said to be of common gender 
 unless the gender of the noun for which they are used is apparent, and then they are 
 called masculine or feminine as the case may be. 
 
 89. Of the relative pronouns, ivho is of common gender, 
 lohich is of neuter gender, and that is of all genders. 
 
 90. Of the interrogative pronouns, tvho is of common gender, 
 what is of neuter gender, and which is of all genders. 
 
 Obs. — Compound pronouns are of the same gender as their corresponding simple 
 pronouns. 
 
 2. Number. 
 
 91. The personal pronouns have different words for the 
 plural : as, /, we; thou, ye or you ; he, they; she, they ; it, they. 
 
 Obs. — The afl&x self in compound personal pronouns makes the plural selves. 
 
 92. The relative pronouns have the same form for both 
 numbers : as. The horse which ; the horses ivhich. 
 
 93. The interrogative pronouns have the same form for 
 both numbers : as, Which of the dogs is loose ? JVliich of the 
 dogs are loose ? 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. Person. 
 
 94. The personal pronouns have different words for tho 
 separate persons (§ 79). 
 
 95. The relative pronouns have the same form for all 
 persons : as, I who ; thou wlio ; he ii:lio. 
 
 96. The interrogative pronouns have the same form for all 
 persons. 
 
 4. Case. 
 
 97. The personal pronouns are inflected for the' possessive 
 and objective cases. 
 
 98. The personal pronouns /, tliou, she, we, you, and they 
 have two forms of the possessive case, viz., my, mine; thy, 
 thine; her, hers; our, ours; your, yours; their, theirs. The 
 former of each pair is used when the noun follows it, the 
 latter when the noun is omitted. 
 
 This is -{ 
 
 C my 
 thy 
 her 
 our 
 your 
 
 ^ their 
 
 > boat. 
 
 This boat is 
 
 mine. 
 
 thine. 
 
 hers. 
 
 ours. 
 
 yours. 
 
 theirs. 
 
 [boat] understood. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The apostrophe is never used with the possessive case of pronouns. 
 Ohs. 2. — The compound personal pronouns in st\f have no possessive case. 
 Oh&. 3. — In old writers, miac and thbic were used before nouns beginning with a 
 vowel or h : as, Wipe thou ihine eyes. 
 
 99. The relative pronoun vjho is inflected for the possessive 
 and objective cases. JVliich and tJiat have no possessive case, 
 and the objective is the same as the nominative. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The compound relative pronoun u-hosoever is inflected for the possessive and 
 objective cases. Tlic compound relative prrmouns ichdt, ivhichever, whatever, whichxonvcr, 
 whatsoever have no jjossessive case, and the objective is the same as the nominative. 
 Whoso and whoever are used only in the nominative case, 
 
 Obs. 2. — Whosf, now used as tlic possessive of who, was originally an interrogative of 
 all gen'lcr.s. It is now very rare in tlic neuter, except in poetry, and even then it is 
 chiefly used when objects are personified. Some grammarians, however, give it as 
 the possessive of which as well as of v;ho, 
 
 100. The interrogative pronoun ivho is inflected for the pos- 
 sessive and objective cases. 
 
 101. The interrogative pronouns irhat and which have no 
 possessive case, and the objective is the same as the nomina- 
 tive. 
 
 Obs. — The compound inteiTogativo pronouns whatever and vihickerer have no possessive 
 case, and t)ie objective is the same as the nominative. Whofv r is only used in the 
 nominative case. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 51 
 
 102. The personal pronouns are thus declined : — • 
 
 Person. 
 
 Gender. 
 
 
 
 First 
 
 Mas. or 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 
 Second 
 
 Mas. or 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 
 Third 
 
 Mas. 
 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Third 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Third 
 
 Neiit. 
 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 I 
 
 M}', mine 
 
 Me 
 
 Thou 
 
 Thy, thine 
 
 Thee 
 
 He 
 
 His 
 
 Him 
 
 She 
 
 Her, hers 
 
 Her 
 
 It 
 
 Its 
 
 It 
 
 Plural. 
 We. 
 
 Our, ours. 
 Us. 
 
 Ye or you. 
 Your, yours. 
 You. 
 They. 
 
 Their, theirs. 
 Them. 
 They. 
 
 Their, theirs. 
 Them. 
 They. 
 
 Their, theirs. 
 Them. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. One ; Poss. one's 
 
 Ohs. 1. 
 
 are parsed by 
 of one individual they are 
 
 Obj. one. 
 
 My, thy, etc., as also their compounds nvj oion, thy own, etc. 
 some grammarians as possessive adjective pronouns. 
 
 Ohs. 2. — When you, your, yours, our, and ours are used 
 parsed as ' ' singular number, plural form. " 
 
 Obs. o. — l originally ended in c or ch. Me (O.E. me) is used as a Direct Object, as, 
 " He hurt me," and also as an Indirect or Dative Object, when it is used before the 
 impersonal verbs, methinks, etc., or after interjections in such expressions as, Ah 
 7ne .' 
 
 My (O.E. min), thy (O.E. thin), her (O.E. hire), OUT (O.E. eiire), your (O.E. coicer), 
 their (O.E. ^Adra) are used attributively: as, il7.y horse is dead. Mine, thine, hers, 
 ours, yours, theirs are used predicatively : as, The house is mine. 3Iine and tliine are 
 sometimes used attributively in poetry when placed before h or before a noun begin- 
 ning with a vowel : as. Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice. Mine, and thine 
 are the older forms of the possessive case. Thou (O.E. thu) was formerly used to 
 express familiarity, superiority, or contempt. " AVe maintain that thou from superiors 
 to inferiors is proper, as a sign of command ; from equals to equals is passable as a 
 note of familiarity ; but from inferiors to superiors, if proceeding from ignorance, 
 hath a smack of clownishness ; if from affectation, a tone of contempt." — Fuller. 
 Thee (O.E. iAc) was used both as accusative and dative, and is now used both as direct 
 and indirect object. Ye (O.E. ge) was originally used as the nominative. It is now 
 used only in poetical or elevated language, the dative or objective you having super, 
 seded it. In the Enghsh Bible ye is always used as a nominative, and ijou as objective ; 
 e.g., Ye have not chosen me, but I have chosen you. Ye is sometimes used in the 
 objective case instead of you even by the best writers : e.g., I do beseech ye if you 
 bear me hard ; Vain pomp and glory of the world, I hate ye ; His wrath which one 
 day will destroys ye both. You (O.E. covi), which in Old English was an accusative, is 
 now used as a nominative plural, a direct object and an indirect or dative object : as, 
 You came early ; I saw you ; He gave you the money. He (O.E. he) was in Middle 
 English corrupted into ha and a: e.g., A was a merry man; Again would a come. 
 His (O. E. his, later hise^ is a true possessive formed from he. 
 
 Him (O.E. /ii?rt_) contains the dative suffix ?7z. (Compare who- ?«.) It was originally 
 the dative of he. It is now also used as accusative, having reiilaced the old accusative 
 hine. She is the Old English definite article in an altered form. She supplanted an 
 older form heo, which still survives as hoo in the Lancashire dialect. Her contains 
 the dative feminine suffix -r (-;v). Hi or heo, the old accusative feminine, has given 
 place to her, which was formerly a dative. Her now represents (1) O.E. hire (possessive) : 
 as. We saw her dog; (2) O.E. hire (dative): as, I gave her a dog; (3) O.E. hi or heo 
 (accusative): as. You praised her. It (O.E. hit): the t was originally a suffix of the 
 neuter gender. (Compare wha-f, tha-«.) Its is modern. His and not its is the form 
 always used in the authorised translation of the Bible (1611). 
 
 They (O.E. thd) is the nominative and accusative plural of the old definite article. 
 Their (O.E. thdra) is the genitive plural, and them (O.E. thdm) is the dative phual, but 
 is now used as the accusative. 
 
 4—2 
 
62 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 103. The compound personal pronouns are thus declined : — 
 
 Person. 
 First 
 
 Gender. 
 Mas. or Fern. 
 
 Second Mas. or Fein. 
 
 Third ' Mas. 
 
 Third Fem. 
 
 Third Neut. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Foss. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 liovi. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Pass. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Sinqular. 
 Myself 
 
 Myself 
 
 Thyself or yourself 
 
 Thyself or yourself 
 Himself 
 
 Himself 
 Herself 
 
 Herself 
 Itself 
 
 Itself 
 
 Plural. 
 Ourselves. 
 
 Ourselves. 
 Yourselves. 
 
 Yourselves. 
 Themselves. 
 
 Themselves. 
 Themselves. 
 
 Themselves. 
 Themselves. 
 
 Themselves. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Oneself ; Poss. wanting ; Obj. oneself. 
 Obs.—TYiQ compounds my own, thy own, etc., are possessive case. 
 
 104. The relative pronoun ivho is thus declined : — ■ 
 
 Masculine and Feminine. 
 Singular, Plural. 
 
 Nom. Who Who. 
 
 • Poss. Whose Whose. 
 
 Ohj. ^\^lora Whom. 
 
 105. The compound relative pronoun ichosoever is thus de- 
 clined : — 
 
 Masculine and Feminine. 
 
 Sinrfular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Whosoever Whosoever. 
 
 Poss. Whosesoever Whosesoever. 
 
 Ohj. Whomsoever Whomsoever. 
 
 106. The interrogative pronoun wlio is declined in the same 
 way as the relative icho {§ 10-4). 
 
 Obs.—Wh.o (O.E. hwa), which (O.E. hwilc), and "what (O.E. Inrad) were originally 
 interrogative pronouns. The ordinary relative was that (O.E. thaet). Whose (O.E. 
 hwaes) and whom (O.E. hwaan) came into use as a relative as early as the thirteenth 
 century ; but vcho was not, used as a rcla'^ive until the end of the sixteenth century. 
 In the authorised version of the Bible that is more commonly used as a relative than 
 uho. Formerly wliose was of .all genders, but its use now, with regard to inanimate 
 oVjjects, is limited to poetry. It is sometimes used absolutely: as, Whose is this 
 scheme? The s in f-Aose is a genitive suffix. )r/(ic/i was once used for all genders and 
 both numbers. It is now .applied only to things that are inanimate and to beings 
 that are irrational. Wttom, originally dative, is now used both o.s a direct and indirect 
 object. That was originally a demonstrative, but in Old English, was used as a neuter 
 singular relative. It is now employed of .all genders and both numbers. That, like 
 v)hat, is now sometimes used in the sense of that which. What (O.E. hwaet) was in Old 
 English only used interrogatively and in the singular number. It may now be used 
 with a noun of any gender .and either number. "When used without a noun, it is 
 singular number and neuter gender. 
 
etymology. 53 
 
 107. Fourth Parsing Model. 
 Nelson received his death-wound from the ship which he 
 had twice spared. 
 
 Nelson — A proper noun, masculine gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb "received." 
 received^ A verb, 
 his — A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 third person, possessive case, governed by the noun 
 
 "death-wound." 
 death -wound — A compound common noun, neuter gender, singular 
 
 number, third person, objective case, governed by the 
 
 transitive verb "received." 
 from — A preposition. 
 
 the — A distinguishing adjective, limitifig the noun "ship." 
 
 ship — A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition 
 
 " from." 
 which — A relative pronoun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, agreeing with its antecedent " ship," objective 
 
 case, governed by the transitive verb " had spared." 
 he — A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 third person, nominative case to the verb " had spared." 
 had spared — A verb, 
 twice — An adverb. 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 22—36.] 
 
 EXEKCISE 45. 
 
 Give the gender, number, person, and case of each pronoun : — • 
 1. Slowly he falls amidst triumphant cries. 2. Let us think of them 
 that sleep by thy wdld and stormy deep. 3. His hour-glass trembled while 
 he spoke. 4. I can recover damages. 5. Your years have run to a great 
 length. 6. To what can I liken her smile? 7. She had been with us. 
 8. A troop of wandering angels stole my little daughter away. 9. They 
 left in her stead a changeling. 10. I saw clearly the doom which had 
 been prepared for me, and congratulated myself upon the timely accident 
 by which I had escaped. 11. The odour of the sharp steel forced itself 
 into my nostrils. 12. It had a very different effect upon Olivia, who mis- 
 took it for humour. 
 
 Exercise 46. 
 Parse :— 
 1. You still keep your eyes. 2. AVho clothed you ? 3. I owe all this 
 to your goodness, madam ; for it you have my prayers. 4. We ran directly 
 to my colleague's house and left our own house open. 5. At Malsio's 
 house we found many people who had fled to him in great perplexity. 
 6. What are you doing? 7. My companion laid himself down with his 
 head upon the precious portmanteau. 8. The redbreast sings from the 
 tall larch that stands beside our door.' 9. Thou art a welcome month to 
 me. 
 
 10. I had a little daughter. 
 
 And she was given to me, 
 To lead me gently backward 
 To the Heavenly Father's knee. 
 
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " 
 
 Questions on §§ 87—107. 
 
 1. Which personal pronouns have distinction of gender? 2. Wliy have pronouns of 
 the first and second pei-sons no distinction of gender ? 3. What is the gender of the 
 relative pronouns? 4. How do personal pronouns form the plural? 5. Give the 
 plurals of I, thou, he, she, it. 6. What is the plural of s.lf? 7. Whicla classes of pronouns 
 have the same form in both numV^ers ? 8. Which class of pronouns has different 
 words for the three persons? 9. Which classes have the same form? 10. For which 
 cases are personal pronouns inflected ? 11. Which jjersonal pronouns have two forms 
 of the possessive? 12. How are these forms used? 13. Which relative pronoun is 
 inflected? 1-1 Which relative pronouns arc not inflected? 15. Which interrogative 
 Ijronoun is inflected ? 10. Which interrogative pronouns are not inflected ? 17. Decline 
 the personal pronouns. IS. What was the original form of If I'J. How is j/ie used ? 
 20. Give the old forms of my, thy, her, our, your, and their. 21. How was thou formerly 
 iised? 22. Whaty changes have taken place in the use of thee, ye, you, he, him, she, herf 
 23. Give the derivation of it, his, they, their, thna. 24. Decline the compound personal 
 pronouns. 25. Decline the relative who. 26. Decline uhosoever. 27. How is the inter- 
 rogative icho declined? 2S. Give the derivation of uTto, ivhich, u-hat.' 29. When did 
 w?io come into use as a relative ? 30. What changes have taken place in the use of 
 whose, which, whom, that, and tvJiat ? 
 
 Chapter V. — The Verb 
 
 I Classification. 
 
 108. A Verb is a word which says or asserts something : as, 
 The fire hums ; The bird luilds a nest. 
 
 Ohs. — The essential oflace of the verb is to assert, and hence it expresses with regard 
 to the thing spoken of — 
 
 i. What it is, seems, or becomes ; 
 ii. What it does ; 
 or iii. What is done to it. 
 
 When a question is asked or a command given, the verb still asserts, although it 
 may seem not to do so ; and such expressions as " Will you come ?" " Go away !" are 
 mcrelj'' abbreviations of " 1 ask whether you will come ;" " I request that j'ou will go 
 away." The verb to be (called the Verb Substantive) is the only verb which asserts what 
 a thing is ; it never asserts what a thing does, nor what is done to it. In logic, it is 
 called the copula, because it joins together two notions : as. The sky is clear. Here is 
 joins the two notions expressed by the words sL-y and clear. 
 
 109. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and Intransitive. 
 
 110. Transitive Verbs express action passing from an 
 agent to an object : as, The ship carries a flag. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Transitive is from Latin iransire, "to pass over." The doer of an action is 
 called the Agent : the person or thing affected by the action is called the Object. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Transitive verbs include (1) Reflexive Verbs, which denote actions that have 
 the same agent and object : as, " He praises himself ;" and (2) Iteciprocal Verbs, which 
 denote actions that pass from the object to the agent as well as from the agent to the 
 object : as, " They love one another." Many transitive verbs, although not reflexive in 
 'form, are so in meaning : as, II e kept out of the way = He kept [himself] out of the waj'. 
 
 111. Intransitive Verbs express being, state of being, or 
 action confined to the agent and not passing over to an object : 
 as, The stars twinkle. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Intransitive verbs are used transitively when they have a causative mean- 
 ing : a.s. He walked the prisoner about the yard ; 'He ran a needle into his hand. Fell, 
 lay, raise, and set arc distinctive causative forms of the verbs, jail, lie, rise, and sit 
 respectively. 
 
 ^; ?■ — '^•'•'tnsitive verbs are \ised intransitively : ns, The ships have struck: 
 
 Obs. 3. — Many intransitive verbs arc made tr.msitive by an appended preposition : 
 
 as, He swerved from the line ; We despairal of success ; They laughed at us. Such 
 
 verbs arc called Preposilion-verl/s. [Parsinj, pp. 00, 148.] 
 
I 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 55 
 
 Table of Verbs. 
 
 I. Transitive I write (a letter). 
 
 II. Intransitive I sleep. 
 
 Exercise 47. 
 
 Mention the verbs, and say whether they are transitive or intransi- 
 tive : — 
 1. He served his country. 2. He loved England. 3. He fell upon his 
 face. 4. They shook hands in silence. 5. Then Nelson spoke of himself. 
 6. He expired at thirty minutes after four. 7. Men started at the intel- 
 ligence. 8. The stream rushed downward to the clamouring mill. 9. After 
 dinner I began with my usual toast. 10. The squire talked with ease. 
 11. Sleep went from my eyes. 12. I crossed the road. 13. I found a 
 footpath over the fields. 14. He reaps the bearded grain at a breath. 
 15. The skirmish ended. 16. The wild flowers bloom. 17. She loved 
 reading. 18. His light scrip contained a scanty store. 19. The wild 
 winds drowned the name. 
 
 20. He gazed at the flowers with tearful eyes, ^ 
 ^'rS^f fj ■^'^ kissed their drooping leaves, 
 
 / \rr ^-' It was for the Lord of Paradise 
 He bound them in his sheaves. 
 
 ' ^"^ Questions on §§ 108—111. 
 
 1. What is a verb ? 2. What does a verb assert? 3. "What is the copula? 4. How 
 many khids of verbs are there ? 5. What are transitive verbs ? C. What is the woi'd 
 tmn.ntlre derived from ? 7. What are reflexive verbs ? 8. What are reciprocal verbs ? 
 9. What are intransitive vez-bs ? 10. When are intransitive verbs used transitively ? 
 11. Give an instance of a transitive verb used intransitively. 12. What are preiaosition- 
 verbs ? 
 
 II. Inflexion. 
 
 112. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. 
 
 These are expressed partly by inflexions, and partly by the 
 aid of auxiliary verbs. An Auxiliary Verb is one which assists 
 other verbs in forming their voice, mood, or tense. 
 
 1. Voice. 
 
 113. Voice is a change in the form of a verb by which we 
 show whether the subject is the name of the doer of the action 
 or the name of the person or thing acted upon. 
 
 114. Transitive verbs have two voices, the Active and the 
 Passive. 
 
 1. The Active Voice is that form of a verb in which 
 the subject denotes the doer of the action : as, Cain hilled 
 Abel. 
 
 ii. The Passive Voice is that form of a verb in which 
 the subject denotes the person or thing acted upon : as, Abel 
 was killed by Cain. 
 
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The passive voice of a verb is formed by prefixing the different parts of the 
 verb to be to the perfect participle of the verb. 
 
 Obs. 2.— When the active voice is changed into the passive, the object is changed 
 into the nominative: as, The slave gathered the figs = the fig? were gathered by the 
 sLive. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Only transitive verbs have voice. Reflexive and reciprocal verbs have no 
 passive. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Transitive verbs, active voice, are Hsed intransitively : as. The cakes ate 
 short ; The ground ploughs well ; The table moves. Some writersapply the term Middle 
 Voice to this usage. 
 
 OOs. 5. — Tlie agent in the passive voice is usually indicated by the preposition i.v. 
 
 Obs. C. — A preposition-verb may be used in the i)assive voice : as, They despairtd of 
 his recovery = His recovery icas despaired of. 
 
 Obs. 7.— Either the direct or indirect object of a verb in the active voice may be the 
 subject of the verb in the passive voice : as, 
 Active vo'c. : I tanghl him geogr-iphy. 
 Passive voice : (1) Geography icas taught him by me. 
 (2^ He icas taught geography by me. 
 
 Obs. S.— The verbs is come, is nrrivd, etc., in the sentences "He is come," "Ho is 
 arrived," etc., must not be confounded with verbs in the passive voice. 
 
 Exercise 48. 
 
 Mention the transitive verbs active voice, and the transitive verbs 
 passive voice : — 
 
 1. The cockpit was crowded with wounded and djdng men. 2. The 
 fleet.s of the enemy were destroyed by the English. 3. I was thanked by 
 the chaplain. 4. He attacked the sea-horses on the ice. 5. During the 
 second act Partridge made very few remarks. 6. She watched the gardener 
 at his work. 7. Beneath the rushes was thy cradle swung. 8. The mid- 
 night brought the signal-sound of strife. 9. These friends were first 
 sketched by Steele. 10. Our revels now are ended. 
 
 Exercise 49. 
 
 Express the following by the passive voice : — 
 
 1. The earl demanded his name. 2. He calls the servants by their 
 names. 3. You see the goodness of the master even in his old house-dog. 
 4. The king directed his warrant to Sir James Tyrrel. 5. No man sues a 
 beggar. 6. I fixed my eyes on a thousand different objects. 7. .Our 
 streams proclaim a welcoming. • 8. He hath thro^\'n aside his crook. 9. 
 Swallows follow the flies and gnats. 10. The little petrel enjo^'s the 
 heaviest gale. 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 Express the following by the active voice : — 
 
 1. Perkin was brought into the king's court. 2. The streets were 
 thronged with spectators. 3. Swords were drawn by the nobles. 4. In 
 the winter he was left without a fire. 5. Benches were placed below the 
 I)latforn). G. The load was lined with people. 7. The greensward is torn 
 up and trampled down. 8. A general peace was established. 9. Our little 
 life is rounded with a sleep. 10. For a time the young are fed on the wing 
 by their parents. 
 
 Questions on §^ 112—114. 
 
 1. Classify the inflexions of verbs. 2. What is an auxiliary verb? .3. What is voice? 
 4. How many voices are there? 5. Wl)at is the active voice? 0. What is the passive 
 voice? 7. How is the active voice changed into tlio pas.sive? S. Whicli verbs have 
 voice? 'J. Which kinds of tiansitiv<) verbs have no passive voice? 10. Give examples 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 57 
 
 of transitive verbs, active voice, used intransitively. 11. How is the agent in the 
 passive voice usually expressed ? V2. Howls the passive voice formed? Vd. Show, 
 by an example, that a preposition-verb may be used in the passive voice. 14. Show 
 that cither the direct or indirect object in the active voice may become the subject in 
 the passive voice. 
 
 2. Mood. 
 
 N.B. — Students who adopt the four-mood system in the conjugation of the verbs 
 are to omit the sections which are bracketed. 
 
 115. Mood (Latin modus) is a change in the form of a verb 
 to show the manner in which an assertion is made. 
 
 116*. Verbs have four moods, Indicative^ Subjunctive, Ini- 
 lierative and Infinitive. 
 
 [116. Verbs have five moods, Indicative, Subjunctive, Iin- 
 verative, Infinitive, and Fotential."] 
 
 117. The Indicative Mood makes a direct assertion : as, 
 The sun is bright ; Csesar received the roll ; The horse was 
 struck. 
 
 Obs. — The indicative is used in asking questions: as. Saw ye Count Albert? Why 
 sh7-ieks the owlet grey ? 
 
 118. The Subjunctive Mood expresses a condition or 
 supposition : as. If you had studied, you would have been 
 successful. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The subjunctive mood is so called because it is always subjoined to some 
 other statement to express a condition or sui^position. The subjunctive is generally 
 introduced by one of the following words : Albeit, although, before, ere, exceid, hoio, if, 
 lest, provided, provided that, fo, that, though, till, unless, v.ntil, whether, whoever, however, 
 ■whatever. Jlany of these words are used with the indicative as well as with the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 Obs. 2. — When the words "as may be the case " can be inserted after the conjunction, 
 the verb is in the subjimctive mood. When the words "as is the case" can be 
 inserted after the conjunction, the verb is in the indicative mood. 
 
 (a) Subjunctive : If (as may be the case) he Jtave anything, he will give it. 
 
 (b) Indicative : If (as is the case) he has anything, he gives it. 
 
 Obs. 3.— When the verb in the present tense is in the subjunctive mood, the 
 auxiliary should can be inserted before it. Tlius, for "If I go" we can substitute 
 "If I should go." 
 
 Obs. 4.— The indicative is always used when an actual fact is represented. The 
 subjunctive is used with reference to what is future, contingent, and doubtful in 
 result. 
 
 (a) Indicative : (1) If he is not guilty, why do you not employ him ? 
 
 {2) Though it is long since I wrote to you, 1 have not yet received 
 a reply. 
 (h) Subjunctive : (1) If he be g\;ilty, by all means let him be punished. 
 
 (2) If the king-wolf lose the scent, how will the pack hold it? 
 
 Ohs. 5. — If a statement which really implies doubt is in argument regarded as true, 
 the indicative should be used : as, If to drink so many hogsheads is to be hospitable 
 we do not contend for the fame of that virtue. 
 
 " In the following passages the indicative mood would be more suitable than the 
 subjunctive : ' If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made 
 bread' ; 'If thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross.' For, although the 
 address was not sincere on the part of the speakers, they really meant to make the 
 supposition or to grant that he was the Son of God ; ' seeing that thou art the Son of 
 
 * This section is to be omitted by those who recognise Jive moods. 
 
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 God.' Likewise in the following : ' Now if Christ he preached, that he rose from the 
 dead, how say some amon^^ j'ou that there is no resurrection from the dead?' The 
 meaning is, ' yeeiu:^ now tliat Clirist is preaclied.' In the continu ition tlie conditional 
 clauses are of a diiforent character, and he is appropriate : ' But if there be no 
 resurrection from tlie dead, then lie is not, risen. And if Christ 6f not risen, then is 
 our i^reaching vain, and your faith is also vain.' Again, 'If chou Iring thy gift to 
 the altar, and there remnmberest,' etc., consistency and correctness require rtmember." 
 — Harrison. 
 
 Obs. C— It is always better to err by using the indicative for the subjunctive than 
 the subjunctive for the indicative. 
 
 Obs. 7.—" If I were" is the only subjunctive form that differs from the indicative 
 form in the past tense. 
 
 Obs. 8.— The subjunctive preceded by if is sometimes called the conditional mood/ 
 
 119. The Imperative Mood expresses a command, desire, 
 or entreaty : as, Ojjen the window ; Go with us. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is generally omitted : as 
 Come = Come thovi. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Entreaties and desires or requests are commands of a weaker kind. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Strictly speaking, the imperative mood is always in the second person 
 singular or plural. When we, so to speak, entreat or command ourselves, as, " Let 
 me go," or when we appear to command a tliii'd person, as, "Let him go," let 
 ( = suffer) is an imperative addressed to a person not named and .90 is an infinitive, 
 the to being omitted. Let, in Old English, was used in the sense of cause. 
 
 120. The Infinitive Mood makes no assertion, but merely 
 names the action : as, They were forced to retire. 
 
 Obs. 1.— In O.E. the infinitive was partially inflected. The nominative and accusa- 
 tive ended in an : as, ivritan, to write ; etan, to eat. The dative ended in -anne or 
 -enne, and had to before it : as, to ivritanne, or to writenne ; to eUmne, or to etenne. _ It 
 was used to express purpose, and isca'led the gerundial infinitive, both to distinguish 
 it from the simple infinitive, ;ind to show its simllari y of function to tlie Latin 
 gerund. About the twelfth century -en or -e began to be substituted for the -an of 
 the simple infinitive, and tlie -anm or -enne of the dative became -ene, -en or -e. 
 Later the terminational -e of the infinitive became silent or was dropped, and the to 
 of the dative or gerundial infinitive was applied also to the simple infinitive. 
 
 Obs. 2. — -The infinitive mood is reallj^ a verbal noun, and may be the subject or 
 object of a verb : as. To err is human ; The scholar loves to learn. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The forms in ing, as in " Seeinrj is believing," " Tilling the ground was his 
 employment," "He loves rowing," generally called gerunds or vei-bal nouns, are by 
 many considered to be infinitives of the verb, and to have originated from the old 
 infinitive ending -an being changed, first to en or in, and afterwards to -ing. These 
 forms in -ing do the work of nouns in exactly the same manner as infinitives : thus, 
 Seeing is believing=lo see is to believe ; Tilling the ground=<o till the ground ; He loves 
 roiving=he loves to row. The -ing in the above forms is, however, most probably 
 from the O.E. -ung, which later became ing. Tliis was the ending of verbal nouns. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The infinitive, though really a noun, may as a verb be modified by adverbs : 
 aS; He learned to speak flaently ; and, if transitive, it may have an object after it : 
 as. He learned to speak German. 
 
 Ohs. 5.— The particle to which usually precedes the infinitive is no part of the mood 
 itself, and is omitted after certain verbs. (Se ; § 300.) Infinitives used without the 
 particle to arc sometimes called Pure Infinitives : as, I saw him heat the sm-gcon. 
 
 [121. The Potential Mood expresses possibility, liberty, 
 power, will, obligation, or necessity : as. The bank may fail ; 
 He may depart ; A prince can make a belted knight ; You 
 would not obey your king ; They should hej) the truce ; I must 
 leave thee.] 
 
 Obs. 1.— The potential mood is used in asking questions : as, Canst thou not minister 
 to a mind diseased ?] 
 
 [Ob.^. 2.— Tlie potential mood isf ormcd by aid of the auxiliaries may, might, can, 
 could, must, wovAd, and should.} 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 59 
 
 [Obs. 3. — In such cases as " If he shouirt come, I shall sec him," the verb should come 
 is parsed as potential mood conditional form, since it combines the functions of both 
 subjunctive and potential mood.] 
 
 122. Besides the moods, verbs have certain forms called 
 Fartkijjles. 
 
 A Participle is a verbal adjective. There are tAvo participles 
 properly so called, the Present, Incomj^lete, or Inrperfed, and the 
 Pad, Complete, or Perfect. 
 
 i. The Present, Incomplete, or Imperfect Participle 
 
 ends in ing, and expresses an incomplete action or state : as, 
 singing, luriting, loving. 
 
 ii. The Past, Complete, or Perfect Participle has 
 
 various endings, and expresses a completed action or state : 
 as, sung, uritten, loved. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The word participle is from Latin pars, "a part," and ca-pcre, "to take." 
 Participles are so called because they participate in the nature both of the verb and 
 the adjective. The incomplete participle of a transitive verb may take an object after 
 it : as. The watchman, rousing the sleeper, asked his name. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Strictly speaking, participles have no reference to time : incomplete and 
 complete are, therefore, more accurate terms than present and past, but the latter are 
 more generally used. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The complete participle of transitive verbs is always passive. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The most common endings of the complete participle are d, ed, n, en, and 
 t : as, Tieard, asked, sown, spoken, taught. 
 
 Obs. 5.— Participles sometimes become simple adjectives: as, A icinning smile; a 
 broken glass. They then precede the noun, and may be compared. When used as 
 participles, they usually follow the noun to which they refer : as, The soldiers, 
 marching steadily, soon reached their destination ; The son, struck with the resem- 
 blance, questioned the stranger. 
 
 Qlis^ 6.— The participle may be modified by an adverb : as, The fire, bla ing cheer' 
 fully, diffused a grateful warmth. 
 
 123. There are four Compound Participles :— 
 
 1. Perfect Participle Active, compounded of the word 
 having and the complete participle : as, having struck 
 
 2. Perfect Participle Active Progressive, compounded 
 of the words having been and the incomplete participle : as, 
 having been striking. 
 
 3. Present or Incomplete Participle Passive, com- 
 pounded of the word being and the complete participle : as, 
 being struck. 
 
 4. Perfect Participle Passive, compounded of the 
 words having been and the complete participle : as, having 
 been strucJc. 
 
 Obs.— The phrases about to and going to are used to form certain compounds convey- 
 ing a future sense : as, going to strike, about to strike. Such compounds are, by some, 
 called future participles. [But see Parsing, pp. 58. 50.] 
 
 124. The verbal form in ing is often used as a noun : as, 
 He is fond of learning his lesson. When so used it is called 
 a Gerund. 
 
60 ENGLISH GRAJSlMAll. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The tonnination in;j in modern Eaglish represents four different termina. 
 tious in the earlier forma of the language : — 
 
 (1) an, the ending of the indefinite infinitive : as, writan, to write. 
 
 (2) enne. or anne, the ending of the gerundial infinitive : as, to wriknne. This is 
 used to denote purpose or fitness. 
 
 (3) ende or ande, the ending of tin incomplete participle : as, wrUenJe. 
 
 (4) ung, the ending of a verbal noun, formed from many verbs. 
 
 It is often diflScult to say wiiich of these the ending inflr represents. 
 Obs. 2. — Of the forms in ing used as nouns, it may be observed : — 
 
 (a) When the form in ing is preceded by an adjective (especially if also followed 
 by the preposition of), or h;\s the pi'ir.d form, it is a verbal or abstract noun* 
 ns, A turning of keys was heard ; '/lUsainys follow the good. 
 
 (l) When the form in inj is not qualified by an adjective, has the singular form, 
 and is the subject or object of a verb, it is cither a verbal noun or an in- 
 finitive ; but many call it a gerund. 
 
 (c) When the form in ing is not qualified by an adjective, has the' singular form, 
 and is governed by a preposition, it corresjionds to the Latin gL-rund: as, born 
 for acting : tired of gathering apples. 
 
 05?. 3.— The gerund may govern an objective case. It would be better tp call the 
 gerunds verbal nouns. 
 
 Ob'i. 4. — In the sentence "He was accused of stealing a knife," the word stealing is 
 usually parsed thus : — A gerund from the transitive verb tn steal, neuter gender, 
 singular number, third person, objective case, governed by the preposition of. Or 
 thus : — A verbal or abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, thii-d person, 
 objective case, governed by the preposition of. Knife is objective case, governed by 
 stealing, but soma would understand o/after stealing. Stealing is sometimes also parsed 
 thus : — A present participle from the transitive verb to steal, referring to he ; used as 
 a verbal or abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third person, objective 
 case, governed by the preposition of. 
 
 Exercise 51. 
 
 Tell the mood of each verb : — 
 
 1. Fly then, false shadows of Hope. 2. Can I choose my own king? 
 3. We watch for the lisrht of the mora to break. 4. No human care could 
 avail. 5. The officer could not leave the deck. 6. Come nearer to me. 
 7. We entered into a debate upon the merits of our young landlord. 8. 
 The Scots marched along the mountain -side. 9. He was afraid to drink 
 too much. 10. May I beg leave to ask your name ? 11. "Renounce the 
 world !" the preacher cries. 12. Toll for the brave ! 13. Fly, ere evil 
 intercept thy flight. 14. My hopes no more must change their name. 15. 
 Britannia needs no bulwarks. 16. These raging fires will slacken, if his 
 breath stir not their flames. 17. If thou consider rightly of the matter, 
 Cfesar had great wrong. 18. The boatman may repose upon his oars. 19. 
 What though the field be lost ! 
 
 20. Either to disenthrone the king of heaven 
 
 We wai-, if wtiv be best, or to regain 
 
 Our own right lost. 
 
 Exercise 52. 
 
 Mention the participles, and say to what noun each refers : — 
 
 1. I heard the skylark in the bright cloud singing. 2. I came away in 
 despair, crying and roaring like a little boy that had been whipped. 3. A 
 certain Spaniard, being injured by another inhabitant of the same town, 
 resolved to destroy him. 4. A stone, impelled by the power of the arm, 
 will produce a greater effect than the arm itself. 5. He saw at Lyons a 
 sawmill driven with an u^iright wheel. 6. We feel regret mingled with 
 admiration. 7. Unsheathing his broad-sword, he advanced on me. 8. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 61 
 
 The landlady presently appeared, with a lighted piece of split fir blazing 
 
 in her hand. 
 
 9. All alone, by the side of the pool, 
 
 A tall man sate on a three-legged stool, 
 Kicking his heels on the dewy sod, 
 And putting in order his reel and rod. 
 
 Exercise 53. 
 
 Tell when the verbal forms in ing are participles and when they are 
 verbal nouns '"^ : — 
 
 1. On entering the house, we discovered the family, eleven in nnmljer, 
 at dinner. 2. The Phcenix soars aloft, hovers with outstretched wings, 
 filling earth with her music, 3. Captain Hardy congratulated him on 
 having gained a complete victory. 4. The moment of finishing his plans 
 in deliberation, and commencing them in action, was the same. 5. I 
 returned with a sad heart to my house, blessing and adoring the mercy of 
 God to me and mine. 6. I heard one of the country fellows muttering to 
 his companion. 7. I did not choose to shrink back after having declared 
 my resolution, 8. After narrowly escaping breaking my shins, I found a 
 crazy half- decayed door, constructed of wicker. 9. He rushed into the 
 field and, foremost fighting, fell. 10. Advancing three steps before his 
 family, he reclaimed his sword. 11. The coachman begged pardon for 
 setting me right. 12. The poor chevalier won my pity, and he finished 
 the scene with winning my esteem too. 
 
 Questions on §§ 115—124. 
 
 1. What is mood? 2. How many moods are there? 3. What is the indicative 
 mood? 4. What is the subjunctive mood? 5. Mention words which precede the 
 subjunctive mood. 6. How do you ascertain whether a verb is indicative or sub- 
 junctive ? [7. What is the potential mood ?] S. Which moods are used in asking 
 questions? [9. By what auxiharies is the potential mood formed ?] 10. What is the 
 imperative mood? 11. What is the infinitive mood? 12. How is the infinitive like a 
 noun ? 1 3. How is the infinitive different from a mere noun ? 14. What is the usual 
 sign of the infinitive ? 15. What is the infinitive of purpose sometimes called ? 1(3. 
 What is a participle? 17. What is the present pai-ticiple? 18. wnat is the past 
 participle ? 19. What is the word participle derived from ? 20. How does the complete 
 participle usually end ? 21. Give instances of participles used as simple adjectives. 
 22. Name the four compound participles. 23. What is the gerund? 24. What ter- 
 minations are now represented by ing ? 25. When does the form in ing correspond to 
 the Latin gerund ? 
 
 3. Tense. 
 
 125. Tense is a change in the form of a verb to express 
 time (Latin, tempus). 
 
 126. There are three principal tenses, Present, Fast, and 
 Future ; and three secondary tenses, Ferfect (or Fresent Ferfed), 
 Fluperfect (or Fast Ferfect), and Future Ferfect. 
 
 065.— Only two tenses (the present and the past) are formed by inflexion ; all the 
 others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs. The tenses formed by inflexion are 
 called Simple Tenses ; the others are called Compound Tenses. 
 
 127. The Present Tense shows that an action is going on 
 at the present time : as, John urites. 
 
 * Or gerunds 
 
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obs l.~The present tense has three forms, («) Indefinite : as, John writes : (h) Pro- 
 gressive*- as John is icriling : (c) Emphatic : as, John dnes write. To these maybe 
 added the Complete form, John has zcritten, which is called the Perfect (or Present 
 Perfect) Tense. 
 
 Ol/s. 2.— The present tense has many uses :— 
 
 (1) It denotes what is actually taking place : as, The finches carot ; Now I steal 
 
 along a woody lane. .■,.-, • i i. 
 
 (2) It expresses a repeated act : as, In this state she gallops Jiight by night. 
 
 (3) It expresses habit : as, He lorites a good hand ; Birds shiff. 
 
 (4) It expresses general truths : as, Age is full of care ; Men's evil manners live m 
 brass. 
 
 (5) It expresses a permanent condition : as, The castle looks over the downs. 
 
 (6) It expresses the possession of some faculty : as, My wife sings, plays, and 
 dances well. . 
 
 (7) It describes past acts as present : as. The Russian line brings forward each 
 wing as our cavalry advniice. This occurs in poetic descriptions, and in 
 animated narrative generally, and is called the Historic Presmt-. 
 
 (8) It is used for a future : as, Duncan comes here to-night. 
 
 (9) It is used as a future perfect : as. Till thou speak, thou shalt not pass from 
 hence = till thou shalt have spoken, etc. ; I cannot decide till the steamer arrives 
 { — shall have arrived). 
 
 (10) It is used of a writer saying anything in his works (if the works be extant) : 
 as, Shakespeare says, " All the world's a stage." 
 
 128. The Past Tense shows that an action is past : as, He 
 heard it, but he heeded not. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The past tense has three forms, (a) Indefinite : as, He heard it ; (b) Progres- 
 sive : as, He was hearing it ; (c) Emphatic : as. He did hear it. To these may be 
 added the Complete form, He had heard it, which is called the Pluperfect Cor Past 
 Perfect) Tense. 
 
 Ohs. 2. — The past tense has many uses : — 
 
 (1) It expresses generally that scmething took place in past time : as, Then rose 
 from sea to sky the wild farewell. 
 
 (2) It expresses repeated acts in past time : as, 
 
 The albatross did follow ; 
 And every day for food or play 
 Ceime to the mariners' hallo. 
 
 (3) It expresses habit in past time : as, He delivered liimself so entirely to study, 
 that he was seldom seen by his neighbours. 
 
 (4) It expresses a permanent condition in past time : as, A silver stream (jlidcd 
 by the hermitage. 
 
 (5) It expresses the possession of some faculty in past time : as, He had great 
 conversational powers. 
 
 (6) It is used for the past progressive : as. While he raved, his enemies actcd- 
 while he was raving, his enemies ivere acting. 
 
 129. The Future Tense shows that an action is to take 
 place at some future time : as, I shall write. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The future tense has three forms, (a) Indefinite: as, I .'shall icritc ; (b) Pro- 
 gressive : as, I sh'dl be writing ; (c) Emphatic : as, I trill n-rite. To these may be added 
 the Complete form. I shall have written, which is called the Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The future tense is formed by aid of the auxiliaries shdl and ivill. 
 
 130. The Perfect Tense shows that an action has been 
 completed in time still present : as, John has written. 
 
 Obs. 1.— Tlie xierfect tense has two forms, (a) Ordinary: as, I have writtai ; {b) Pro- 
 gressive ; as, I have been writing. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The perfect tense is sometimes used for a future : as, When I have finished 
 the work, I will bring it to you = when I shall have finished, etc. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The perfect tense is formed liy aid of the auxiliary verb Jiave. 
 
 131. The Pluperfect Tense shows that an action was 
 completed before angther action took place : as, Ho had heard 
 the news before you came. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 63 
 
 Obs. 1.— The pluperfect tense has two foi-ms, («) Ordhiary : as, He had heard the 
 news ; {b) Progressive : as, Ho had been hmring the news. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The pkiperfect tense is formed by the aid of had, the past tense of the 
 auxiliary verb have. 
 
 132. The Future Perfect Tense shows that an action will 
 be completed at a certain future time : as, I shall have tvritten 
 the letter before the mail closes. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The future perfect tense has two forms, (a) Ordinary : as, I shall have writUn 
 the letter ; (6) Progressive : as, I shall have been loritino the letter, 
 
 Obx. 2.— The future perfect tense is formed by aid of the words shall have, will 
 have. 
 
 Exercise 54. 
 
 Give the tense of each verb : — 
 
 1. Efigland has had many heroes. 2. I will carry this token of your 
 prowess with me to Scotland. 3. He shut the ponderous tome. 4. The 
 honeysuckle round the porch has wov'n its wavy bowers. 5 . Earthward 
 he boweth the heavy stalks of the mouldering flowers. 6. But lo ! the 
 ruthless storm its force hath spent. 7. A heavier gloom pervades the 
 chilly air. 8. The flowers will have faded ere you come. 9. Thou shalt 
 seek the beach of sand. 10. Rushes shall be strewed on the stair. 11. 
 An armed knight stood by the lonely flame. 12. I had not opened my 
 eyes. 13. His letters are lost, but hers have been preserved. 
 14. Hark ! he has passed the gloomy wood ; 
 He crosses now the ice-bound flood. 
 
 f Questions on §§ 125—132. 
 
 1. What is tense ? 2. Name the tenses. 3. Which tenses are formed by inflexion ? 
 4. How are the rest formed ? 5. What is the present tense ? 6. Name the three forms 
 of the present. 7. What are the uses of the present tense? 8. What is the past 
 tense? 9. Name the three forms of the past tense. 10. What are the uses of the 
 past tense? 11. What is the future tense? 12. Name the three forms of the future 
 tense. 13. How is the future tense formed ? 14. What is the perfect tense ? 15. 
 Name the two forms of the perfect. 16. For what is the perfect sometimes used ? 
 17. How is the perfect tense formed? 18. What is the pluperfect tense ? 19. Name 
 the two forms of the pluperfect. 20. What is the futui'e perfect tense? 21. How is 
 the future perfect tense iormed ? 
 
 4. Number. 
 
 133. Number as applied to verbs is a change in the form 
 of the verb to show whether the assertion is made about one 
 or about more than one. 
 
 134. Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural, 
 
 Ohs. 1. — The verb is of the same number as the subject or nominative. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The verb to be is the only verb in which inflexions for number remain. 
 
 Exercise 55. 
 
 Tell the number of each verb : — 
 
 1. They were disappointed. 2. The trumpet sounded. 3. Come thou 
 hither, my little footpage. 4, His helmet was laced. 5. They are 
 exceedingly poor. 6. Adam gratefully replied. 7. The hungry sheep 
 look up, and are not fed. 8. Tower'd cities please us then. 9. Her face 
 was veiled. 10. In the ground the bended twigs take root. 11. The 
 cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep. 12. My heart is at your 
 festival. 
 
G4 ENGLISH GRAMilAR. 
 
 Questions on §§ 133, 134. 
 
 1. Wliat is meant by number as applied to verbs? 2. How many numbers have 
 verbs ? 3. Whicli word has the same number as the verb? 4. Which verb has distinct 
 plural inflexions ? 
 
 5. Person. 
 
 135. Person as applied to verbs is a change in the form of 
 the verb to show whether the speaker speaks of himself, of 
 the person addressed, or of some other person or thing. 
 
 136. Verbs have three persons, First, Second, smd Third: 
 as, I love ; thou lovest ; he loves. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The verb is of the same person as the subject or nominative.. 
 
 06s. 2. — Person-inflexions are now only found in the singular. The personal suffixes 
 were originally pronominal elements joined to the verbal root. The sufSx of the 
 first person singular -m, which remains in the word am, was previously -mi, a 
 weakened form of -ma (-1). The suffix of the second person singular -st was 
 originally -t. This -t is from -ti, which has the same origin as the root of " thou," 
 twa, tva, ta. The suffix of the third person singular -th is the root of thf, tha-t (=he 
 that), and is derived from the demonstrative root ta ( = he). S is a softened form of 
 •th, and occurs as early as the tenth century. 
 
 Exercise 56. 
 
 Tell the person of each verb : — 
 
 1. I waked ; she fled ; and day brought back my night. 2. What 
 suppoi'ts me, dost thou ask ? 3. In such spots insects most abound. 4. 
 To the ocean now I fly. 5. Comfort thyself. 6. She can teach thee. 7. 
 We shall catch them. 8. Shall I go on ? Or have I said enough ? 9. We 
 lost her as we came. 10. The tops of the hills appear. 
 
 Questions on §§ 135, 136. 
 
 1. What is meant by person as applied to verbs? 2. How many persons have verbs? 
 3 Which word is of tlie same person as the verb? 4. In what number only arc 
 person-inflexions found ? 5. Name the person-endings. (J. Which verb has a person- 
 ending for the first person ? 7. What were the person-endings origuially ? 
 
 6. Conjugation. 
 
 137. Conjugation of a verb is its proper arrangement in 
 all its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and i)ersons. 
 
 138. To conjugate a verb fully. Auxiliaries must be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 139. An Auxiliary Verb is one which as.sists other verbs 
 in forming their voice, mood, or tense. The auxiliary verbs 
 are be, may, can, must, have, shall, will, and do. 
 
 Obs. — Auxiliary verbs are always placed before an infinitive or a participle. 
 
 140. The Auxiliary of Voice is be. 
 
 1. When the verb to be is united to the complete participle of 
 any transitive verb, it forms the passive voice : as, I love. Active 
 voice ; I ajn loved. Passive voice 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 05 
 
 2. When the verb to he is united to the incomplete 
 participle, it forms the progressive form : as, I am loving. 
 
 141. The auxiliary verb be is thus conjugated : — ■ 
 
 Be. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 2. Thou art. 
 
 3. He is. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I was. 
 
 2. Thou wast. 
 
 3. He was. 
 
 Singular. 
 1. I shall be, 
 % Thou wilt be. 
 3. He will be. 
 
 i^ingular. 
 
 1. I have been. 
 
 2. Thou hast been. 
 
 3. He has been. 
 
 Singular. 
 1. I had been. 
 2 Thou hadst been. 
 3. He had been. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 We are. 
 You are. 
 They are. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 We shall be. 
 You will be. 
 They will be. 
 
 Plural. 
 We have been. 
 You have been. 
 They have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had been. 
 
 2. You had been. 
 
 3. They had been. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 
 
 3. He will have been. 3. Thev will have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I be. 
 
 2. If thou be. 
 
 3. If he be. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we be. 
 If you be. 
 If they be. 
 
 5 
 
Q6 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I were. 
 
 2. If thou wert. 
 
 3. If he were. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we were. 
 If you were. 
 If they were. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall or will be. 1. If we shall or Avlll be. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt be. 2. If you shall or will be. 
 
 3. If ho shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I have been. 
 
 2. If thou have been. 
 
 3. If he have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I had been. 
 
 2. If thou hadst been. 
 
 3. If he had been. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we have been. 
 If you have been. 
 If they have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we had been. 
 
 2. If you had been. 
 
 3. If they had been. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have been. 1. If we shall or will have been. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. If you shall or will have been. 
 
 3. If he shall or will have been. 3. If thev shall or will have been. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The person-endings are sometimes omitted in the Subjunctive Mood. 
 Obs. 2. — The future and future perfect subjunctive may also have the following 
 forms : — 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I should be. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst be. 
 
 3. If he should be. 
 
 Pluro.l. 
 
 1. If we should be. 
 
 2. If you should be. 
 
 3. If they should be. 
 
 FiUure Perfect Tense. 
 Sin()>dar. 
 
 1. If I should have been. 1. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst have been. 2. 
 
 3. If he should have been. 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we should have been. 
 If j'ou should hare been. 
 If they should have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 2. Be, or be thon. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 2. Be, or be you. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present. 
 To be. 
 
 Perfect. 
 To have been. 
 
etymology. 67 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present or Incomplete. Past or CompCete. Perfect. 
 
 Being. Been. Having been. 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 n. I may, can, or must be. ]. We may, can, or must be. 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 
 ,_3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Singnlar. Plural. 
 
 [1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 
 be. should be. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. You might, could, would, or 
 
 or shouldst be. should be. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or 
 
 be. should be. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 \. I may, can, or must have been. 1. We may, can, or must have been. 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have been. 
 
 been. 3. They may, can, or must have 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have been. been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ri. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would or 
 I have been. should have been. 
 
 i 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. You might, could, would or 
 , or shouldst have been. should have been. 
 
 13. He might, could, would or should 3. They might, could, would or 
 L have been. should have been. 
 
 PKOGEESSIVE FOKM. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 1 am being. 
 Thou art being. 
 He is being. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We are being. 
 
 2. You are being. 
 
 3. They arc being. 
 
 1, 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 I was being. 
 Thou wast being. 
 He was being. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were being. 
 
 2. You were being. 
 
 3. They were being. 
 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 .3. 
 
 Singular. 
 If I were being. 
 If thou wert being. 
 If he were being. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were being. 
 
 2. If you were being. 
 
 3. If they were being. 
 
 5—2 
 
^S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obs. 1.— There arc eleven forms of the verb be. These forms are derived from the 
 three distinct roots, as, I'yis, and be. They may be thus arranged :— 
 
 i. Am, art, is, arc. 
 iL 'W^as, wast, were, wert. 
 iii. Be, being, been. 
 (77,s. 2. — Am = as-7)t, as being the root, and m the first personal pronoun ; o)--f = ns-?, 
 t benig the second personal pronoun ; is is a weakened form of as ; are^=as-e. 
 
 Obs, 3. — The forms wast and vert are late forms. The second' person singular used 
 to be were = ici's>'.. Was is from Old English wesa.n, to be. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Bf was formerly conjugated in the present tense, singular and ijlural, indi- 
 cative : as. If thou beest Stephauo, touch me ; We 6« twelve brethren. 
 
 [142. The Auxiliaries of Mood are maij, can, and must ; 
 also should and 2vould.'] 
 
 143. Ma7j is used to express (1) permission or liberty : as, I 
 7nay walk ; (2) possibility or concession : as, It may be true, but 
 I have very grave doubts ; (3) wish or desire : as, May he be 
 happy ! 
 
 May. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may. 1. We may. 
 
 2. Thou mayst. 2. You may. 
 
 3. He may. 3. They may. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Si}}gular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might. 1. We might. 
 
 2. Thou mightst. 2. You might. 
 
 3. He might. 3. They might. 
 
 144. Can is used to express power : as, I can swim. 
 
 Can. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 I can. 
 
 Thou canst. 
 He can. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We can. 
 
 2. You can. 
 
 3. They cph. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 I could. 
 Thou couldst. 
 He could. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. We could. 
 
 2. You could. 
 
 3. They could 
 
 06s.— The I in could is redundant, and does not occur in the early forms of the 
 language. It was probably inserted to make the past tense resemble should and 
 would. 
 
 145. Must denotes necessity : as, I must wait. It has no 
 inflexions, and is only used in the present tense. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 69 
 
 Must. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I must. 1. We must. 
 
 2. Thou must. 2. You must. 
 
 3. He must. 3. They must. 
 
 N.B. — For conjugation of should and would see § 148. 
 
 146. The Auxiliaries of Tense are have, shall, and will. 
 
 147. Have as an auxiliary is used to make the perfect and 
 pluperfect tenses, and (with shall or will) the future perfect 
 tense. As an auxiliary it is thus conjugated : — 
 
 Have. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Singula}'. 
 
 1. I have. 
 
 2. Thou hast. 
 
 3. He has. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had. 
 
 2. Thou hadst. 
 
 3. He had. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall have. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have. 
 
 3. He will have. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Future Tense, 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 We have. 
 You have. 
 They have. 
 
 Plural 
 We had. 
 You had. 
 They had. 
 
 Plural 
 We shall have. 
 You will have. 
 They will have. 
 
 Singidar. 
 
 1. If I have. 
 
 2. If thou have. 
 
 3. If he have. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I had. 
 
 2. If thou hadst. 
 .3. If he had. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we have. 
 
 2. If you have. 
 
 3. If they have. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. If we had. 
 
 2. If you had. 
 
 3. If they had. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. If I shall have. 1. If we shall have. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have. 2. If you shall or will have. 
 
 3. If he shall or will have. 3. If they shall or will have. 
 
70 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obs. — The future subjunctive may also have the following form :— 
 
 Sinfixdar. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should have. 1. If we should have. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst have. 2. If you should have. 
 
 3. If he should have. 3. If they should have. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present. 
 To have. 
 
 Participle. 
 
 Present or Incomplete. 
 Havifig. 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singula)'. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must have. 1. We may, can, or muist have. 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have. 2. You may, can, or must have. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have. 3. They may, can, or must have.. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 fl. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, Vv-ould, or 
 
 have. should have. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. You might, could, would, or 
 or shouldst have. should have.. 
 
 3. He might,, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 
 should have. should have. 
 
 Ohx. — When the verb have is not an auxiliary, but has the sense of to l-eep or to 
 hold, it has the full conjugation of a transitive verb. 
 
 148. Shall and Will denote future time : as, I shall go ; He 
 ivill go. 
 
 Shall 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall. 
 
 2. Thou shalt. 
 
 3. He shall. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I should. 
 
 2. Thou shouldst. 
 
 3. He should. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I will. 
 
 2. Thou wilt. 
 
 3. Hev/ill. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall. 
 
 2. You shall. 
 
 3. They shall. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We should. 
 
 2. You should. 
 
 3. They should. 
 
 Will. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plurat. 
 
 1. We will. 
 
 2. You will. 
 
 3. They will. 
 
\ 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 71 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I would. 1. We would. 
 
 2. Thou wouldst. 2. You would. 
 
 3. He would. 3. They would. 
 
 [Ohs. 1. — The past tenses should and mould are used as auxiliaries of mood.] 
 Obs. 2. — (o) 'i'o denote simi)le futurity, shall is vised in the first person and vnll in the 
 second and third : as, I shall read, thou I'-ilt read, lie will read, (b) When tvill is used 
 in the first person and shall in the second and third, something else besides futurity 
 is denoted, viz., 
 
 (1) Determination, or Emphatic Form : as, I u-'tll not go. 
 
 (2) Promise : as, I icill assist you. 
 
 (3) Certainty: as, Rome shall perish; The sides shall be equal; Yet forty daj's 
 and Nineveh shall be overthrown. 
 
 (4) Command : as. Thou shall not kill ; Thou shall love the Lord thy God. 
 
 (5) Authority : as. He shall see you to-day. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Will is a principal verb when it means " to be willing," or "to exercise the 
 will": as, " He can walk if he icills it." 
 
 149. The Auxiliaries of Form are Be and Bo. The 
 auxiliary verb be is used to make the progressive form (§ 140). 
 It has been conjugated in § 141. The auxihary verb do is 
 used — 
 
 (1) To express the emphatic form of the verb: as, I do 
 read, I did read. 
 
 (2) To complete the interrogative form of the verb : as, 
 Do you read ? Did he read ? 
 
 (3) To complete the negative form of the verb : as, I do 
 not read. 
 
 (4) As a mere expletive : as, Feeble expletives their aid 
 do join. 
 
 Da 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I do. 1. We do. 
 
 2. Thou dost. 2. You do. 
 
 3. He does. 3. They do. 
 
 Past Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I did. 1. We did. 
 
 2. Tliou didst. 2. You did. 
 
 3. He did. 3. They did. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I do. 1. If we do. 
 
 2. If thou do. 2. If you do. 
 
 3. If he do. 3. If they do. 
 
72 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAR, 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Sinqidar. 
 
 1. If I did. 
 
 2. If thou didst. 
 
 3. If he did. 
 
 Shifjular. 
 2. Do, or do thou. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we did. 
 
 2. If you did. 
 
 3. If they did. 
 
 T^iPEiiATiYE Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 2. Do, or do ye. 
 
 Obs. 1.— When do is not an auxiliary verb, it has the full conjugation of a transitive 
 verb. 
 
 O'jff. 2.— Shall and wiU are used as auxiliaries of form (emphatic) in the future anil 
 future perfect tenses (§ 15-2). 
 
 Table of Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 Auxiliaries o 
 
 f 
 
 Parts used. 
 
 Joined- to 
 
 Signifying 
 
 I. Voice. Be. 
 
 All parts. 
 
 Complete 
 
 Being or exist- 
 
 
 
 Participle. 
 
 ence, 
 r Permission or 
 liberty. 
 
 
 'May. 
 
 Pi-esent and 
 
 Past. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 - Possibility or 
 
 concession. 
 
 Wish or desire. 
 
 II. Mood. 
 
 Can. 
 
 Present and 
 Past. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Power. 
 
 
 Must, 
 
 Present. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Necessity. 
 
 
 Should. 
 
 Past. 
 
 InHnitive. 
 
 Obligation. 
 
 
 Would. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Volition. 
 
 III. Tense. 
 
 
 
 
 i. Perfect. Have. 
 
 Pres , Past, 
 
 Complete 
 
 Possession. 
 
 
 and Put. 
 
 Participle. 
 
 
 r Shall, 
 ii. Future. -. 
 
 Will. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Futurity and Ob- 
 
 
 
 ligation. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Futurity and Ob- 
 
 
 
 
 ligation. 
 
 IV. Form. 
 
 
 
 
 i. Progressive. Be. 
 
 All parts. 
 
 Incomplete 
 
 Being or exist- 
 
 
 1 
 
 Participle. 
 
 ence. 
 
 ii. Emphatic. \ 
 iii. Interrogative, j- Do. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 Present and 
 
 infinitive. 
 
 Action. 
 
 iv. Negative. 
 
 J 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 Exercise 57. 
 
 Mention the auxiliary verb?, and say what each indicates : — 
 
 1. He was declared incapable of holdiu'jf any office in the state. 2. 
 You can play no part but Pyramus. 3. Fielding was robbing birds' ne.sta. 
 4. Tlie plan of the Spectator must be allowed to be both original and 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 73 
 
 eminently liapi^y. 5. The mourner was sitting upon a stone bench at the 
 door. 6. Do you pity him ? 7. I could easily perceive that his heart 
 burned to relieve the five starving children. 8. From cock-crow he had 
 been travelling. 9. To him the mighty Mother did unveil her awful face. 
 10. Come, tell me all that thou hast seen. 11. On the eve of St. John I 
 must wander alone, 12. A lam was carrying out the order with his usual 
 energy. 13. You may have reason for keeping it a secret, perhaps. 14, 
 Gifted bard^ have ever loved the calm and quiet shades. 1,5. I considered 
 what I should do with the money. 16. After that thought I could not 
 sleep a wink more. 17. He might have passed through this village. 18, 
 We shall hear the truth from him. 19. It will not pass away. 
 20. To thine own self be true ; 
 
 And it must follow, as the night the day, 
 Thou canst not then be false to any man. 
 
 Questions on §§ 137—149, 
 
 1, What is conjug-ation? •-'. To conjugate a verb fully, what must be employed? 
 3. What is an auxiliary verb ? 4. Name the auxiliary verbs. 5. What are auxiliary 
 verbs placed before? 6. Name the auxiliary of voice. 7. When does the verb be 
 indicate passive voice? 8. When does the verb he indicate pro^^ressive form of active 
 voice? 9. Conjugate the verb 6''. 10. What three distinct roots are used in the con- 
 jugation of the verb If) 11. Name the eleven forms that occur in the conjugation. 
 1-2. Explain the formation of o.m, art, is, and ore. l'^. Explain the forms u-as, vmst, 
 inert, and v-cr<\ 14. Give an example of the form he as an indicative. 15. Name the 
 auxiliaries (jf mood. lO. What does wnj express? 17. Conjugate tnny. 18. What 
 does ca?i express ? 19. Conjugate c«ii. 20. What does must denote? 21. Conjugate 
 must. 22. What do should and would denote? 23. Name the auxiliaries of tense. 
 2i. Which tenses does hnve assist in forming? 25. Conjugite havf: as an auxiliary. 
 20. When have is not an auxiliary, how is it conjugated ? 27. What do shall and v:ill 
 denote? 28. Conjugate shall. 20. Conjugate icil/. 30. How are the past tenses of 
 lihall and will employed? 31. When shall is used in the first person and will in the 
 second and third, what do they imply? 32. When u-ill is used in the tirst person, and 
 sfiail in the second and third, what do they imply ? 33. Name the auxiliaries of fonn. 
 34. What is the auxiliary of the progTcssivo form? 35. What are tne uses of the 
 auxiliary (Zo? 36. Conjugate do as an auxiliary. 37. When do is not an auxiliary, 
 how is it conjugated ? 
 
 150. Conjugation of the transitive verb love. 
 
 Love- 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I love. 1. We love. 
 
 2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 
 
 3. He loves. 3. They love. 
 
 Pa^t 2\me. 
 Shiqular. Plural. 
 
 1. I loved. 1. We lo/ed, 
 
 2. Thou lovedst, 2, You loved. 
 
 3. He loved. 3. They loved. 
 
74 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall love. 
 
 2. Thou wilt love. 
 
 3. He will love. 
 
 Shu/nlar. 
 
 1. I have loved. 
 
 2. Thou hast loved. 
 
 3. He has loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved. 
 
 3. He had loved. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 o 
 O. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 We shall love. 
 You will love. 
 They will love. 
 
 Plural. 
 We have loved. 
 You have loved. 
 They have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had loved. 
 
 2. You had loved. 
 
 3. They had loved. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 
 
 3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 o 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 o 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 If I love. 
 If thou love. 
 If he lovev 
 
 Singular. 
 If I loved. 
 If thou lovedat. 
 If he loved. 
 
 o 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 If I shall or mil love. 1. 
 
 If thou shalt or wilt love. 2. 
 
 If he shall or will love. 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 If I have loved. 
 If thou have loved. 
 If he have loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 If I had loved. 
 If tliou liadst loved. 
 If he had loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense, 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we love. 
 If you love. 
 If they love. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we loved. 
 If you loved. 
 If they loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we shall or will love. 
 If you shall or will love. 
 If they shall or will lore. 
 
 Plural 
 If we have loved. 
 If you have loved. 
 If they have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we had loved. 
 
 2. If you had loved. 
 
 3. If they had loved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 75 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have loved. 1. If we shall or will have loved. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. If you shall or will have loved. 
 
 3. If he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved. 
 
 06s. — The future and future perfect subjunctive may also have the following 
 fdrm — 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should love. 1. If we should love. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst love. 2. If you should love. 
 
 3. If he should love. 3. If they should love. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should have loved. 1. If we should have loved. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst have loved. 2. If you should have loved. 
 
 3. If he should have loved. 3. If they should have loved. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love you. 
 
 Obs. — The imperative raood of the third person is usually expressed by a periphrasis : 
 as Let kii'ii love. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present, To love. Perfect, To have loved. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present or Incomplete. Perfect. 
 
 Loving. Having loved. 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must love. 1. We may, can, or must love, "j 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must love. 2. You may, can, or must love. I 
 .3. He may, can, or must love. 3. They may, can, or must love. | 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 '\. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, orj 
 love. should love. j 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2, You might, could, would, or 
 
 or shouldst love. should love. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or 
 
 love. should love. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must have loved. L We may, can, or must have 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
76 
 
 ENGLISH dllAMMAR. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Si'vjular. 
 
 1. I might, cuuld, Avould, or should 1. 
 
 hav3 loved. 
 
 2. Thou mi^ditst, couldst, wouldst, 2. 
 
 or shouldst have loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or should 3. 
 
 have loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 We might, would, could or should 
 
 have loved. 
 You might, could, would, or 
 
 should have loved. 
 They might, could, would, or 
 
 should have loved. j 
 
 
 151. The Progressive Form of a verb denotes the con 
 tinuance of an action. It is also called the Continuous Form. 
 
 Love. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am loving. 
 
 2. Thou art loving. 
 
 3. He is loving. 
 
 Sinr/ular. 
 
 1. I was loving. 
 
 2. Thou wast loving. 
 
 3. He was loving. 
 
 1 
 
 Siiifjular. 
 I shall be loving. 
 
 2. Thou wilt be loving. 
 
 3. He will be loving. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tensf. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We are loving. 
 
 2. You are loving. 
 
 3. They are loving. 
 
 PluraK 
 
 1. We were loving. 
 
 2. You were loving. 
 
 3. They were loving. 
 
 Sill qui or. 
 I have been loving. 
 Thou hast been loving. 
 He has been loving. 
 
 Singular. 
 I had been loving. 
 Thou hadst been loving. 
 He had been loving. 
 
 Perftct Ten-ie. 
 
 Pluperfect Tensr. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall be loving. 
 
 2. You will be loving. 
 
 3. They will be loving. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been loving. 
 
 2. Yon have been loving, 
 
 3. They have been loving 
 
 Phwal. 
 
 1. We had been loving 
 
 2. You had been loving 
 
 3. They had been loving. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I shall have been loving. 1. We shall have been loving. 
 
 Thou wilt have been loving. 2. You will have been loving. 
 
 He will have been loving. 3. They will have been loving. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 1. If I be loving. 
 'J. If thou lie loving. 
 3. If he be loving. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Tf I were loving. 
 
 2. If thou wert loving. 
 :i. If he were loving. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we be loving. 
 
 2. If you be loving. 
 
 3. If they be loving. 
 
 Past Teiise. 
 
 Phtral. 
 If we were loving. 
 If you were loving. 
 If they were loving. 
 

 ETYMOLOGY. 77 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Si'igv.lar. Plural, 
 
 1. If I shall or will be loving. 1, If we shall or will be loving. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt be loving. 2. If you shall or will be loving. 
 
 3. If he shall or will be loving. S. If they shall or will be loving. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I have been loving. 1. If we have been loving. 
 
 2. If thoii have been loving. 'J. If you have been loving. 
 
 3. If he have been loving. 8. If they have been loving. 
 
 Phqw-fect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I had been loving. 1. If we had been loving. 
 
 2. If thou hadst been loving. 2. If you had been loving. 
 
 3. If he had been loving. 3. If thej had been loving. 
 
 Future Ptrj\ct Tens'". 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have been loving. 1 . If we shall or will have been loving. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have been loving. 2. If you shall or will have been loving. 
 
 3. If he shall or will have been loving. 3. If they shall or wiU have been loving. 
 
 Oos. — The future and future perfect subjunctive may also have the following 
 form ; — 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should'be loving. 1. If we should be loving. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst be loving. 2. If you should be loving. 
 
 3. If he should be loving. 3. If they should be loving. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should have been loving. 1. If we should have been loving. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst have been loving. 2. If you should have been loving. 
 
 3. If he should have been loving. 3. If they should have been loving. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2. Be loving, or be thou loving. 2. Be loving, or be you loving. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present, To be loving Perfect, To have been loving. 
 
 Participle. 
 
 Perfect, Having been loving. 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sinmdar. Plural. _ 
 
 1. I may, can, or must be loving. 1. We may, can, or must be lovnig. 1 
 2 Thou mayst, canst, or miist be loving. 2. You may, can, or must be loving. [ 
 .3. He may, can, or must be loving. 3. They may, can, or must be lovmg. | 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 "1. I might, couid, would, or should be 1. We might, could, would, or should' 
 
 loving. he loving. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. You might, could, v/ould, or should 
 
 shouldst be loving. be loving. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or should 
 
 be loving. be loving. 
 
78 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMjIAR. 
 
 Perfect Tens:. 
 
 Singular, Plural. 
 
 ri. I may, can, or must have been 1. We may, can, or must have been" 
 
 ! loving. loving. 
 
 j 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have been 
 
 been loving. loving. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have been 3. They may, can, or must have been 
 [ loving. loving. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or should have 1. We might, could, would, or should 
 been loving. have been loving. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. You might, could, would, or should 
 shouldst have been loving. have been loving. 
 
 3. He might, could, would or should 3. They might, could, would, or should 
 have been loving. have been loving. 
 
 152. The Emphatic Form of a verb expresses- an act or 
 state asserted with emphasis. The emphatic form is only used 
 in the present, past, future, and fu-ture perfect tenses of the 
 indicative and subjunctive moods, and in the imperative mood. 
 
 Love. 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 2. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I do love. 
 
 
 1. We do love. 
 
 2. Thou dost love. 
 
 
 2. You do love. 
 
 8. He does love. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 3. They do love. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I did love. 
 
 
 1. We did love. 
 
 2. Thou didst love. 
 
 
 2. You did love. 
 
 3. He did love. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 3. They did love. 
 
 Sinav.Iar. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I will love. 
 
 
 1. We will love. 
 
 2. Thou Shalt love. 
 
 
 2. You shall love. 
 
 3. He shall love. 
 
 
 3. They shall love. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I will have loved. 
 
 
 1. We will have loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt have loved. 
 
 
 2. You shall have loved. 
 
 3. He shall have loved. 
 
 
 3. They shall have loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If I do love. 
 
 
 1. If we do love. 
 
 2. If thou do love. 
 
 
 2. If j'ou do love. 
 
 3. If he do love. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 3. If they do love. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If I did love. 
 
 
 1. If wc did love. 
 
 2. If thou didst love. 
 
 
 2. If you did love. 
 
 8. If he did love. 
 
 
 3. If they did love. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Do love, or do thou love. 
 
 2. 
 
 Do love, or do you lovo. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 70 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 153. Love. 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am loved. 
 
 2. Thoii art loved. 
 
 3. He is loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I was loved. 
 
 2. Thou wast loved. 
 
 3. He was loved. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 o. 
 
 Phiral. 
 We are loved. 
 You are loved. 
 They are loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 We were loved. 
 You were loved. 
 They were loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 I shall be loved. 
 Thou wilt be loved. 
 He will be loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 I have been loved. 
 Thou hast been loved. 
 He has been loved. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall be loved. 
 
 2. You will be loved. 
 
 3. They will be loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been loved. 
 
 2. You have been loved. 
 
 3. They have been loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 I had been loved. 
 Thou hadst been loved. 
 He had been loved. 
 
 Pliqicrfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had been loved. 
 
 2. You had been loved 
 They had been loved. 
 
 o 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 
 
 Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 
 
 He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I be loved. 
 
 2. If thou be loved. 
 
 3. If he be loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I were loved. 
 
 2. If thou wert loved. 
 
 3. If he were loved. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we be loved. 
 
 2. If you be loved. 
 
 3. If they be loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were loved. 
 
 2. If you were loved. 
 
 3. If they were loved. 
 
80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. If I shall or will be loved. 1. If we shall or will be loved. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. If you shall or will be loved. 
 
 3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved. 
 
 Perfect Ten-^e. 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. If I have been loved. 1. If we have been loved. 
 
 2. If thou have been loved. 2, If you have been loved. 
 
 3. If he have been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singnlar. Plural. 
 
 1. If I had been loved. I. If we had been loved. 
 
 2. If thou hadst been loved. 2. If you had been loved. 
 
 3. If he had been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. If I shall or w-ill have been loved, 1. If we shall or -n-ili have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have been 2. If you shall or will have been 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
 3. If he shall or will have been 3. If they shall or will have been 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
 Ql,g_ — The future and future perfect subjunctive may also have the following 
 form : — 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should be loved. 1. If we should be loved. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst be loved. 2. If you should be loved. 
 
 3. If he should be loved. 3. If they should be loved. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I should have been loved. 1. If we should have been loved. 
 
 2. If thou shouldst have been loved. 2. If you should have been loved. 
 
 3. If he should have been loved. 3. If they should have been loved. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present or Incomplete. Past or Complete. Ptrfect. 
 
 Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must be loved. 1, We may, can, or must be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must be 2. You may, can, or must be loved, 
 loved. 3. They may, can, or must be 
 
 3. He may, can, or must be loved. loved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 81 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or should 
 
 be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, would^t, 
 
 or shouldst be loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or should 
 
 be loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 We might, could, would, or 
 should be loved. 
 2. You might, could, would, or 
 should be loved. 
 They might, could, would, or 
 should be loved. 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must have been 1. We may, can, or must have been 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 
 
 been loved. been loved. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have been 3. They may, can, or must have 
 
 loved. been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense 
 Singiilar. 
 ) . I might, could, would, or should 
 have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
 
 or shouldst have been loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or should 
 
 have been loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We might, could, would, or 
 should have been loved. 
 
 2. You might, could, would, or 
 should have been loved. 
 
 3. They might, could, would, or 
 should have been loved. 
 
 154. The Progressive Form of the Passive Voice is 
 
 used only with the present and past tenses of the indicative 
 and with the past tense of the subjunctive. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am being loved. 
 
 2. Thou art being loved, 
 
 3. He is being loved. 
 
 Singuk(,r. 
 
 1. I was being loved. 
 
 2. Thou wast being loved. 
 
 3. He was being loved. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We are being loved. 
 
 2. You are being loved. 
 
 3. They are being loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were being loved. 
 
 2. You were being loved. 
 
 3. They were being loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I were being loved. 
 
 2. If thou wert being loved, 
 
 3. If he were being loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were being loved. 
 
 2. If you were being loved. 
 
 3. If they were being loved. 
 
 155. The Passive voice has no Emphatic Form. 
 
 N.B. — Intransitive verbs are conjugated like transitive vobs, active 
 voice, but their participles are Present or Incomplete, Past or Complete, 
 and Perfect : as. Present or Incomiikte, Smiling ; Past or Complete, 
 Smilsd ; Perfect, Having smiled. 
 
 6 
 
82 ENGLISH GRA^tlVlAR. 
 
 EXEECISE 58. 
 
 Conjugate (as in §§ 150, 153) the active and passive voice of :— >. 
 Save, praise, receive, desire, conquer, defend. 
 
 Exercise 59. 
 
 Conjugate (as in §§ 151, 15-1) the progressive form of ; — 
 Trighten, want, release, turn, carry, persuade. 
 
 Exercise 60. 
 Conjugate (as in § 152) the emphatic form of : — • 
 Puzzle, search, finish, consider, fear, revrard. 
 
 Questions on §§ 150 — 155. 
 
 1. Conjugate love in the active voice. 2. How is tlie imperative mood of the third 
 person usually expressed ? 3. What is the progressive form? 4. Conjugate the pro- 
 gressive form of lore in tlie active voice. 5. What is the emphatic form? 6. In what 
 moods is it used? 7. Conjugate the emphatic form of love. S. Conjugate love in the 
 passive voice, y. In which moods and tenses is the progressive form of the passive 
 voice vised? 10. Conjugate love in the progressive form, passive voice. 11. Wliich 
 form is wanting in the i^assive voice ? 
 
 158. The Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is 
 used in asking questions. 
 
 (1) If there be no auxiliary, the interrogative form is made : — 
 
 {a) By simply putting the verb before its nominative : 
 as, Lovest thou ? 
 
 {h) By putting the present or past tense of the auxiliary 
 do before the nominative : as, Host thou love 1 
 
 (2) If there be one or more auxiliaries, the interrogative 
 form is made by putting the nominative immediately after the 
 first auxiliary : as, Hast thou loved ? AVilt thou love ? Canst 
 thou love 1 Hast thou been loved 1 
 
 157. The Negative Form of a verb is that which is used 
 in denying. 
 
 (1) If there be no auxiliary, the negative form is made ; — • 
 
 (a) By putting not after the verb : as, I heard not; He 
 listened not. 
 
 (h) By putting the present or past tense of the auxiliary 
 do with 7iot after it, between the nominative and the verb : 
 as, I do not hear ; I did not hear. 
 
 (2) If there be one or more auxiliaries, the negative form is 
 made by putting not after the first auxiliary : as, I shall not 
 hear ; I may not have heard. 
 
 158. The Interrogative and Negative Forms are com- 
 bined by putting not immediately after the nominative in the 
 interrogative form : as, Lov.^st thou not ? Dost thou not love 1 
 Hast thou not loved 1 Wilt thou not love? Canst thou not 
 love 1 Hast thou not been loved ? 
 
 159. The verb love is thus conjugated (1) interrogatively, 
 (2) negatively, (.3) interrogatively and negatively 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 83 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Pres. 
 Past 
 
 fiU. 
 Per/. 
 PLuperf. 
 Fat. Per/. 
 
 I 
 
 Pres. 
 Past 
 Per/. 
 
 Plupcrf. 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Pres. 
 Past 
 
 Fut. 
 Perf. 
 Pluperf. 
 Put. Perf. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Past 
 
 ~Pres. 
 Past 
 Perf. 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Interrogntive Form. 
 
 Negative Form. 
 
 Interrogative and Nega- 
 tive Fnryns combined. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Do I love? 
 
 I do not love. 
 
 Do I not love ? 
 
 Past 
 
 Did I love ? 
 
 I did not love. 
 
 Did I not love ? 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Shall I love ? 
 
 I shall not love. 
 
 Shall I not love ? 
 
 Perf 
 
 Have I loved ? 
 
 I have not loved. 
 
 Have I not loved ? 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 Had I loved? 
 
 I had not loved. 
 
 Had I not loved ? 
 
 Fat. Perf 
 
 Shall I have loved ? 
 
 I shall not have loved. 
 
 Shall I not have loved ? 
 
 Progressive Form. 
 
 Am I loving? 
 Was I loving? 
 Shall I be loving? 
 Have I been loving ? 
 Had I been loving ? 
 Shall I have been lov- 
 iog? 
 
 I am not loving. 
 I was not loving. 
 I shall not be loving. 
 I have not been loving. 
 I had not been loving. 
 I shall not have been 
 loving. 
 
 Am T not loving? 
 Was I not loving ? 
 Shall I not be loving ? 
 Have I not been loving ? 
 Had 3 not been loving? 
 Shall I not have been 
 loving ? 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 'Pres. 
 
 May I love ? 
 
 I may not love. 
 
 Fast 
 
 Might I love ? 
 
 I might not love. 
 
 Perf. 
 
 May I have loved ? 
 
 I may not have loved 
 
 IPluperf. 
 
 Might I have loved ? 
 
 I might not have loved 
 
 Progressive Form. 
 
 May I be loving ? 
 
 Might I be loving? 
 
 May I have been lov- 
 ing? 
 
 Jlight I have been lov- 
 ing? 
 
 I may not be loving. 
 I might not be loving. 
 I may not have been 
 
 loving. 
 I might not have been 
 
 loving. 
 
 May I not love ? 'I 
 
 Might I not love ? | 
 
 May I not have loved ? 
 Might I nothave loved ?J 
 
 May I not be loving? 1 
 Might I not be loving ? 
 May I not have been 
 
 loving ? 
 Might I not have been 
 
 loving ? 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Interrogative Form. Negative Form. 
 
 Interrogative and Nega- 
 tb'P Forms combined. 
 
 Am I loved ? 
 Was I loved? 
 Shall I be loved ? 
 Have I been loved '? 
 Had I been loved ? - 
 Shall I have been loved ? 
 
 Progressive Form. 
 
 Am I being loved ? 
 Was I being loved ? 
 
 I am not loved. 
 I was not loved. 
 I shall not be loved. 
 I have not been loved. 
 T had not been loved. 
 I shall not have been 
 loved. 
 
 I am not being loved. 
 I was not being loved. 
 
 Am 1 not loved ? 
 Was I not loved ? 
 Shall I not be loved ? 
 Have I not been loved ? 
 Had I not been loved ? 
 Shall I not have been 
 loved? 
 
 Am I not being loved ? 
 Was I not being loved ? 
 
 [Potential Mood.] 
 
 "May I be loved ? 
 Might I be loved ? 
 May I have been loved? 
 
 Mieht I 
 loved ? 
 
 have been 
 
 I may not be loved. 
 I might not be loved. 
 I may not have been 
 
 loved . 
 I might not have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 :May I not be loved ? 
 Might I not be loved? 
 May I not have been 
 
 loved ? 
 Jlicdit T not have been 
 
 iSvcd ? 
 
 "6^2 
 
'84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [Obs. I. -In the above conjugation, each auxiliary of mood is used in the same way 
 
 0!js. 2.— In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary do does not 
 necessarily make the verb emphatic, but is used to complete the interrogative and 
 negative forms of the verb. 
 
 N.B.— It will be a useful exercise for the student to write out the full conjugation 
 of the verb love, (I) interrogatively, (2) negatively, (3) interrogatively and negatively. 
 
 Exercise G1. 
 
 Conjugate interrogatively : — 
 Ask, pray, support, demand, mention, try. 
 
 Exercise 62. 
 
 Conjugate negatively : — • 
 Disturb, save, chase, betray, turn, regard. 
 
 Exercise 63. 
 
 Conjugate interrogatively and negatively : — 
 Convince, call, visit, raise, pity, frighten. 
 
 Questions on §§ 156—159. 
 
 1. What is the interrogative form of a verb? 2. How is the interrogative form 
 made when there is no auxiliary ? 3. How is the inteiTogative form made when there 
 are auxiliaries'? 4. What is the negative form of a verb? 5. How is the negative 
 form made when there is no auxiliary? 6. How is tlie negative form made when 
 there are auxiliaries? 7. How are the interrogative and negative furms combined? 
 8. Conjugate lore interrogatively. 9. Conjugate love negatively. 10. Conjugate loci- 
 interrogcitively and negatively. 11. What is the use of do m mterrogative and 
 negative sentences ? 
 
 7. Irregular, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs. 
 160. Verbs are divided, according to their mode of inflexion, 
 into two classes, Fiegular and Irregular. 
 
 I. Regular Verbs are those which form the past tense 
 and past or complete participle by adding ed (or d only, 
 when the verb ends in e) : as, jimj), jumped, jumjjed ; love, 
 loved, loved. 
 
 II. Irregular Verbs are those which vary from this 
 rule in either, or in both cases : as, steal, stole, stolen. 
 Note. — Some grammarians divide verbs into Stronrj and Weak. 
 Strong- Verbs are those which form their past tense from the present 
 tense by a change of the radical or root vowel : as, hind, hound. The 
 past or complete participle of all strong verbs once ended in en : in some 
 this ending is now lost, in others it is altered into 7ie : as, done, gone. 
 
 The following is an alphabetical list of strong verbs : — 
 Ahide, arise, awake, hake, hear (to carry), hear (to bring forth), heat, 
 hegin, hehold, hid, hind, hite, hlow, hreak, hurst, chide, cJioose, cleave, cUmh, 
 dinrj, come, croio, do, draw, drink, drire, eat, fall, fujht, find, fling, fly, 
 forhcar, forget, forsake, freeze, get, (fire, go, grave, engrave, grind, grow, 
 hang, heave, help, hew, hold, knou; lade, lie, lo.<ie, melt, mow, ride, ring, 
 rise, rive, run, see, seethe, shake, shave, shear, shine, shoot, shrink, sing, 
 sink, sit, slag, slide, sling, slink, S77iite, sow, sprak, spin, spring, stand, steal, 
 sting, stink, stride, strike, strive, swear, swell, szrim, swing, take, tear, 
 thrive, throve tread, 2vake, weave, vnn, wind, wring, write. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 8^ 
 
 Weak Verbs are tho?e which do not form their past tense by a change 
 of the vowel. These for the most jxart add d, ec/, or t, to the present tense 
 in order to form the past tense and past or complete participle. The weak 
 verbs which are apparently stromj are: Bend, bleed, breed, bu'dd, burn, 
 cast, clothe, cost, cut, dwell, feed, gild, gird, have, hit, hurt, knit, lay, lead, 
 learn, let, light, make, meet, pay, pen, put, read, rend, rid, say, send, set, 
 shed, shred, shut, slit, speed, spell, spend, spill, spit, split, spread, stay, 
 sweat, thrust, wet, whet.. 
 
 The following verbs that are now weak were once strong : Ache, blind, 
 carve, climb, clothe, crow, delve, dread, drown, fare, fill, fold, fret, fetch, 
 know, grave, hang, heat, heave, help, hew, knit, laugh, melt, fitch, reach, 
 seethe, sew, shajje, shear, sleep, sngw, starve, spend, squeeze, stretch, sweat, 
 swell, walk, iveep, yield. 
 
 The following verbs that are now strong were once Aveak : Betide, dig, 
 hide, stick, spit, wear. 
 
 There is also an intermediate kind of verb which, though classed among 
 the strong verbs, partakes of the nature of the weak. The verbs of this 
 class, called Mixed Verbs, are: Bereave, beseech, bring, buy, catch, 
 cleave, creep, deal, dream, feel, flee, hear, keej^, kneel, lean, leap, leave, lose, 
 mean, seek, sell, shoe, sleep, stand, sweep, teach, tell, think, iveep, ivork. 
 
 The strong verbs form also what is called the Ancient Conjugation ; the 
 weak verbs form what is called the Modern Conjugation. Tlie latter class 
 is the more numerous. 
 
 Verbs of primary origin are strong; and derived verbs, or verbs of 
 gecondaiy formation, are weak. 
 
 161. The following verbs are Irregular :— 
 
 Present. 
 
 Abide, 
 Am, 
 
 Arise, 
 
 Awake, 
 
 Bake, 
 
 Bear (to ) 
 carry), f 
 
 Bear (to ^ 
 bring [ 
 forth), ) 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Become, 
 
 Befall, 
 
 Beget, 
 Begin, 
 Begird, 
 
 Behold, 
 
 Bend, 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 Beset, 
 
 Bespeak, 
 
 Bespread, 
 
 Bestrew, 
 
 Pc(f>t or Com- 
 Past. plete Parti- 
 
 ciple. 
 
 Abode, Abode. 
 
 Was, Been. 
 
 Arose, Arisen. 
 
 J Awaked, I Awaked. 
 ( awoke, ) 
 
 r Baked, 
 
 I : 
 
 awoke 
 Baked, 
 
 Bore, bare 
 
 baken. 
 Borne. 
 
 Bore, bare. Born. 
 
 Beaten, beat. 
 
 Become. 
 
 Befallen. 
 
 Begotten. 
 
 Begun. 
 
 Beat, 
 Became, 
 Befell, 
 / Begat, 
 I begot. 
 Began, 
 
 ( Begirded, ) J Begirded, 
 \ begirt, J \ begirt. 
 
 J Beheld, 
 
 I beholden. 
 
 Bent. 
 
 Bereft. 
 
 Besought. 
 
 Beset. 
 
 Beheld, 
 
 Bent, 
 
 Bereft, 
 
 Besought, 
 
 Beset, 
 
 Bespoke, 
 
 Bespread, 
 
 Bestrewed, 
 
 Bespoken. 
 Bespread. 
 J Bestrewn, 
 ( bestrewed. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Bestride, 
 
 Bestrew, 
 
 Bet, 
 
 Betake, 
 
 Bethink, 
 
 Bid, 
 
 Bind, 
 
 Bite, 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 Blend, 
 
 Bless, 
 
 Blow, 
 
 Break, 
 
 Breed, 
 
 Bring, 
 
 Build, 
 
 Burn, 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Buy, 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Catch, 
 
 Chide, 
 
 Choose, 
 Cleave (to | 
 stick), ) 
 
 Past. 
 
 Bestrode, 
 
 Bestrewed, 
 
 Betted, bet. 
 
 Betook, 
 
 Bethought, 
 
 Bade, bid, 
 
 Bound, 
 
 Bit, 
 
 Bled, 
 
 J Blended, > 
 
 t blent, r 
 
 \ Blessed, ) 
 
 7 blest, ; 
 
 Blew, 
 
 Broke, 
 
 Bred, 
 
 Brought, 
 
 Built, 
 
 J Burned, ) 
 
 ( burnt, ) 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Bought, 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Caught, 
 
 Chode, chid. 
 
 Chose, 
 \ Clave, 
 ( cleaved 
 
 Pait or Com- 
 jjlcte Parti- 
 cijjle. 
 
 Bestridden. 
 
 ( Bcslrown, 
 \ bestrewed. 
 Betted, bet. 
 Betaken. 
 Bethought. 
 Bidden, bid. 
 Bound. 
 Bilten, bit. 
 Bled. 
 
 < Blended, 
 
 t blent. 
 
 J Blessed, 
 
 ( blest. 
 Blown. 
 Broken. 
 Bred. 
 Brought. 
 Built. 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 Burst. 
 Bought. 
 Cast, 
 Caught. 
 J Chidden, 
 ( chid. 
 Chosen. 
 
 Jcic» 
 
 caved. 
 
86 
 
 ENGLISH GRALDIAR. 
 
 Present. Past. 
 
 Past or Com- 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Cleave (to ) 
 split), I 
 
 Climb, 
 
 Cling, 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 Come, 
 Cost, 
 Creep, 
 Crow, 
 
 Curse, 
 
 Cut, 
 Dare * (to 
 
 venture). 
 Deal, 
 
 Dig, 
 
 Do, 
 
 Draw, 
 
 Dream, 
 
 Dress, 
 
 Drink, 
 Drive, 
 Dwell, 
 Eat, 
 
 Engrave, 
 
 FaU, 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Feel, 
 
 Fiifht, 
 
 Find, 
 
 Flee, 
 
 Fling, 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Forbear, 
 
 Forbid, 
 
 Foreknow, 
 
 Forerun, 
 
 Foresee, 
 
 Foresliew, 
 
 Foreshow, 
 
 Foretell, 
 
 Foi-^et, 
 
 Forgive, 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 Forswear, 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 Freight, 
 
 Gainsay, 
 
 Get. 
 Gild, 
 Gird, 
 Give, 
 
 Glide, 
 
 Cleft, clove, Cleft, cloven. 
 
 ( Climbed, ) Climbed. 
 
 ( clomb, j 
 
 Clung, Clung. 
 
 /^T i.T- J 1 J f Clothed, 
 Clothed, clad, i ^.j.^^^ ' 
 
 Came, Come. 
 
 Cost, Cost. 
 
 Crept, Crept, 
 Crew, crowed, Crowed. 
 
 I Cursed, ) 
 
 ( curst, J 
 Cut, 
 
 I Durst, 
 
 Dealt, 
 
 Dug, digged, 
 Did, 
 Drew, 
 j Dreamed, 
 ( dreamt 
 J Dressed, 
 ( drest, 
 Drank, 
 Drove, 
 Dwelt, 
 Ate, 
 
 Engi'aved, 
 
 Fell, 
 Fed, 
 
 Felt, 
 
 Fought, 
 
 Found, 
 
 Fiel, 
 
 Flung, 
 
 Flew, 
 
 Forbore, 
 
 Forbade, 
 
 Foreknew, 
 
 Foreran, 
 
 Foresaw, 
 
 Foreshewed, 
 
 Foreshowed, 
 
 Foretold, 
 
 Forgot, 
 
 Forgave, 
 
 Forsook, 
 
 Forswore, 
 
 Froze, 
 
 Freighted, 
 
 Gainsaid, 
 Got, 
 
 GildeH, gilt, 
 Girded, girt. 
 Gave, 
 
 Glided, 
 
 Curst. 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Dared. 
 
 Dealt. 
 
 Dug, digged. 
 
 Done. 
 
 Drawn, 
 
 H Dreamed, 
 dreamt. 
 ) J Dressed, 
 ; I drest. 
 
 Drunk. 
 
 Driven. 
 
 Dwelt. 
 
 Eaten. 
 
 j Engraved, 
 
 ( engi-aven. 
 
 Fallen. 
 
 Fed. 
 
 Felt. 
 
 Fought. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Fled. 
 
 Flung. 
 
 Flown. 
 
 Forborne. 
 
 Forbidden. 
 
 Foreknown. 
 
 Forerun. 
 
 Foreseen. 
 
 J Foresiiewn, 
 ( foreshewed. 
 
 / Foreshown, 
 
 \ foreshowed. 
 
 Foretold. 
 
 Forgotten. 
 
 Forgiven. 
 
 Forsaken. 
 
 Forsworn. 
 
 Frozen. 
 ( Freighted, 
 { fraught. 
 
 Gainsaid. 
 
 Gotten. 
 
 Gilded, gilt. 
 
 Girded, girt. 
 
 Given. 
 ( Glided, 
 ( glidden. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Go, 
 
 Grave, 
 
 Grind, 
 Grow, 
 
 Hangt (in- \ 
 
 trans.), ) 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Heave, 
 
 Help, 
 
 Hew, 
 
 Hide, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hold, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Inlay, 
 
 Keep, 
 
 Kneel, 
 
 Knit, 
 
 Know, 
 Lade (load). 
 Lay, 
 Lead, 
 
 Leap, 
 
 Learn, 
 
 Leave, 
 Lend, 
 
 Jl^et, 
 
 ^ «jie I (to rest), 
 
 ,riift. 
 
 Light, 
 
 Lose, 
 
 Make 
 
 Mean 
 
 Meet, 
 
 ilelt. 
 
 Mislay, 
 Mislead, 
 Misspell, 
 Misspend, 
 
 Misshape, 
 
 Mistake, 
 
 Mow, 
 
 Outdo, 
 
 Outgrow, 
 
 Outrun, 
 
 Outsliine, 
 
 Overcome, 
 
 Overdo, 
 
 Overcrow, 
 
 Overhang, 
 
 Overhear, 
 
 Ovcrlado 
 
 Past. 
 
 Went, 
 
 Graved, 
 
 Ground, 
 Grew, 
 
 Hung, 
 
 Heard, 
 
 (overload). 
 Overshoot, 
 Overspread, 
 
 J 
 
 Heaved, hove, 
 
 Helped, 
 
 Hewed, 
 
 Hid, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Held, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Inlaid, 
 
 Kept, 
 
 Knelt, 
 
 ( Knitted, \ 
 
 \ knit, ) 
 
 Knew, 
 
 Laded, 
 
 Laid, 
 
 Led, 
 
 ( Leaped, | 
 "( leapt, ) 
 
 ( Learned, ) 
 
 ( learnt, ) 
 Left, 
 Lent, 
 Let, 
 Lay, 
 
 Lilted, lift. 
 Lighted, lit, 
 Lost, 
 Made, 
 Meant, 
 Met, 
 
 Melted, 
 
 Mislaid, 
 Misled, 
 Misspelt, 
 Misspent, 
 
 Misshaped, 
 
 Mistook, 
 
 Mowed, 
 
 Outdid, 
 
 Outgrew, 
 
 Outran, 
 
 Outshone, 
 
 Overcame, 
 
 Overdid, 
 
 Overgrew, 
 
 Overhung, 
 
 Overheard, 
 
 Overladcd, 
 
 Overshot, 
 Overspread, 
 
 Past or Cor.i' 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple, 
 
 Gone. 
 J Graven, 
 ( graved. 
 Groimd. 
 Grown. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Heard. 
 Heaved. 
 J Helped, 
 ( holpen. 
 Hewn. 
 Hidden, hid. 
 Hit. 
 
 Held, holden. 
 Hurt. 
 Inlaid. 
 Kept. 
 Knelt. 
 ( Knitted, 
 '( knit. 
 Known. 
 Laden. 
 Laid. 
 Led. 
 
 J Leaped, 
 ( leapt. 
 
 Learnt. 
 
 Left. 
 Lent. 
 
 Lam^ 
 
 Lifted, lift. 
 
 Lighted, lit. 
 
 Lost. 
 
 Made. 
 
 Meant. 
 
 Met. 
 
 ( Melted, 
 
 ( molten 
 Jlislaid. 
 Misled. 
 Misspelt. 
 Misspent. 
 J Misshaped. 
 
 ( mis.«ihapen 
 :Mistakeu. 
 Mown. 
 Outdone. 
 Outgi-own 
 Outrun. 
 Outshone. 
 Overcome. 
 Overdone- 
 Overgrown. 
 Overhung. 
 Ovorhcard. 
 Overladcd, 
 
 , overladen. 
 Overshot. 
 Overspread, 
 
 { 
 
 Dare, transitive, is rcgidar. + Ha»fj, transitive, is regular. 
 
 X lie (to utter an untruth) is regular. 
 
etymology: 
 
 87 
 
 Present 
 
 Overtake, 
 
 Overthrow, 
 
 Partake, 
 
 Pay, 
 
 Pen, 
 
 Prepay, 
 
 Prove, 
 
 Put, 
 
 Quit, 
 
 Bead, 
 
 Rebind, 
 
 Rebuild, 
 
 Recast, 
 
 Regild, 
 
 Rend, 
 
 Repay, 
 
 Retake, 
 
 Retread, 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Ride, 
 
 Ring, 
 
 Rise, 
 
 Rive, 
 
 Run, 
 
 Saw, 
 
 Say, 
 
 See, 
 
 Seek, 
 
 Seethe, 
 
 Sell, 
 Send, 
 
 S^t, 
 
 Sew, 
 
 Shake, 
 
 Shape, 
 
 Shave, 
 
 Shear, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shew, 
 
 Shine, 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 Show, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sink, 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Slay, 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 Slide, 
 
 Sling, 
 
 Slink, 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Smell, 
 
 Smite, 
 
 Past or Com- 
 P(^st. ptete Parti- 
 
 cijjle. 
 
 Overtook, Overtaken. 
 Overthrew, Overthrown. 
 Partook, Partaken. 
 
 Paid, Paid. 
 
 Penned, Pent, Penned, pent. 
 Prepaid, Pi-epaid. 
 
 Proved •! Proved, 
 
 riovea, | proven. 
 
 Put, Put. 
 
 Quitted, quit, Quitted, quit. 
 
 Read, 
 
 Rebound, 
 
 Rebuilt, 
 
 Recast, 
 ( Regilded, 
 \ regilt, 
 
 Rent, 
 
 Repaid, 
 
 Retock, 
 
 Retrod, 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Rode, 
 
 Rang, 
 
 Rose, 
 
 Rived. 
 
 Ran, 
 
 Sawed, 
 
 Said, 
 
 Saw, 
 
 Sought, 
 
 Seethed, sod. 
 
 Sold, 
 Sent, 
 Set, 
 
 Sewed, 
 
 Shook, 
 
 Shaped, 
 
 Shaved, 
 
 Sheared, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shewed, 
 
 Shone, 
 
 Shod. 
 
 Shot, 
 
 Showed, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shrank, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Sang, 
 
 Sank, 
 
 Sat, 
 
 Slew, 
 
 Slept, 
 
 Slid, 
 
 Slung, 
 
 Blank, 
 
 Slit, 
 
 j Smelled, \ 
 
 ( Smelt, j 
 
 Smote, 
 
 H 
 
 Read. 
 Rebound. 
 Rebuilt. 
 Recast. 
 Regilded, 
 regilt. 
 Rent. 
 Repaid, 
 Retaken, 
 Retrodden, 
 Rid. 
 Ridden. 
 Rung, 
 Risen, 
 Riven. 
 Run. 
 
 Sawed, sawn. 
 Said. 
 Seen. 
 Sought. 
 
 ( Seethed, 
 '( sodden. 
 Sold. 
 Sent. 
 Set. 
 
 f Sewed, 
 I sewn. 
 Shaken, 
 j Shaped, 
 
 ( shapen. 
 
 ( Shaved, 
 
 ( shaven. 
 
 ( Shorn, 
 
 ( sheared. 
 Shed. 
 Shewn, 
 Shone, 
 Shod, 
 Shot. 
 Shown. 
 Shred. 
 Shrunk. 
 Shut. 
 Sung. 
 Sunk. 
 Sat. 
 Slain. 
 Slept. 
 
 Slidden, slid. 
 Slung, 
 Slunk. 
 Slit. 
 
 f Smelled, 
 
 ( smelt. 
 Smitten, 
 
 Present, 
 
 Sow, 
 
 Speak, 
 
 Speed, 
 
 Spell, 
 
 Spend, 
 
 Spill, 
 
 Spin, 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Split, 
 
 Spoil, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spring, 
 
 Stand, 
 
 Stave, 
 
 Steal, 
 
 Stick, 
 
 Sting, 
 
 Stink, 
 
 Straw, 
 
 Strew, 
 
 Stride, 
 
 Strike, 
 
 String, 
 Strive, 
 
 Strow, 
 
 Swear, 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 Sweep, 
 
 Swell, 
 
 Swim, 
 
 Swiuf 
 
 Take, 
 
 Teach, 
 
 Tear, 
 
 Tell, 
 
 Think, 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 Throw, 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Toss, 
 
 Tread, 
 
 Unbend, 
 
 Unbind, 
 
 Undergo, 
 
 Understand, 
 
 Undertake, 
 
 Undo, 
 
 Ungird, 
 
 Unlade ] 
 (imload), ) 
 Unsay, 
 Unweave, 
 Unwind, 
 
 Uphold, 
 
 Uprise, 
 
 Past. 
 
 Sowed, 
 
 Spoke, 
 
 Sped, 
 
 j Spelled, \ 
 ( spelt, j 
 
 Spent, 
 
 Spilled, spilt. 
 
 Span, 
 
 Spat, 
 
 Split, 
 
 ( Spoiled, ) 
 ( spoilt, j 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Sprang, 
 
 Stood, 
 
 Staved, stove, 
 
 Stole, 
 
 Stuck, 
 
 Stung, 
 
 Stank, 
 
 Strawed, 
 
 Strewed, 
 
 Strode, 
 
 Struck, 
 
 Strung, 
 Strove, 
 
 Strewed, 
 
 Swore, 
 f Sweated, \ 
 \ sweat, j 
 Swept, 
 
 Swelled, 
 
 Swam, 
 
 Swung, 
 
 Took, 
 
 Taught, 
 
 Tore, 
 
 Told, 
 
 Thought, 
 
 Throve, 
 
 Threw, 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Tossed, tost. 
 
 Trod, 
 
 Unbent, 
 
 Unbound, 
 
 Underwent, 
 
 Understood, 
 
 Undertook, 
 
 Undid, 
 (■ Un girded, ') 
 "( ungirt, j 
 
 • Unladed, 
 
 Unsaid, 
 
 Unwove, 
 
 Unwound, 
 
 Upheld, 
 
 Uprose, 
 
 Paift or Com- 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Sown, sowed. 
 
 Spoken. 
 
 Sped. 
 
 J Spelled, 
 
 \ spelt. 
 
 Si3ent. 
 
 Spilled, spil.i: 
 
 S])ini. 
 
 Spit. 
 
 Split. 
 
 ( Spoiled, 
 
 i spoilt. 
 
 Spread. 
 
 Sprung. 
 
 Stood. 
 
 Staved. 
 
 Stolen. 
 
 Stuck. 
 
 Stung. 
 
 Stunk, 
 
 ( Strawed, 
 
 ( strawn. 
 
 ( Strewed, 
 
 ( strewn. 
 Stridden. 
 
 f Struck, 
 
 ( stricken. 
 Strung. 
 Striven. 
 
 I Strewed, 
 
 ( Strown. 
 Sworn. 
 
 J Sweated, 
 
 ( sweat. 
 Swept. 
 
 ( Swelled, 
 
 \ swoUen. 
 
 Swum. 
 
 Swung. 
 
 Taken. 
 
 Taught. 
 
 Torn. 
 
 Told. 
 
 Thought. 
 
 Thriven. 
 
 Thrown. 
 
 Thrust. 
 
 Tossed, tost. 
 
 Trodden. 
 
 Unbent. 
 
 Unbound. 
 
 Undergone. 
 
 Understood. 
 
 Undertaken, 
 
 Undone. 
 
 f Ungirdcd, 
 
 ( ungirt, 
 
 ( Unladed, 
 
 \ unladen. 
 Unsaid. 
 Unwoven 
 Unwound. 
 J Upheld, 
 
 ( upholdcu. 
 Uprisen, 
 
88 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Upset, 
 Wake, 
 
 Wax, 
 
 Wear, 
 Weave, 
 
 Wed, 
 
 Weep, 
 
 Weud, 
 
 Wet, 
 
 Whet, 
 
 Past. 
 
 Upset, 
 Waked, woke, 
 
 Waxed, 
 
 Wore, 
 
 Wove, 
 ( Wedded, ) 
 ( ^^'cd, j 
 
 Wept. 
 ( Wended, ) 
 ( went, f 
 
 Wetted, wet, 
 ( Whatted, ( f 
 1 whet, ]• 1 
 
 Pant or Com- 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Upset. 
 Waked, 
 j Waxed, 
 
 ( waxen. 
 Worn. 
 Woven. 
 
 ( Wedded, 
 
 \ wed. 
 Wept. 
 
 Wended. 
 
 Wetted, wet. 
 
 Whetted, 
 
 whet. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Win, 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Withdraw, 
 
 Withhold, 
 
 Withstand, 
 
 Work, 
 
 Wreathe, 
 
 Wring, 
 Write, 
 
 Writhe, 
 
 Pa^st. 
 
 Won, 
 Wound, 
 
 Withdrew, 
 Withheld, 
 Withstood, 
 f Worked, 
 ( wrought, 
 
 Wreathed, 
 
 Wrung, 
 Wrote, 
 
 Writhed, 
 
 Past or Com- 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Won. 
 
 Wound. 
 
 Withdrawn. 
 
 AVithholdeu. 
 
 Withstood. 
 j Worked, 
 ( wrought. 
 ( Wreathed, 
 
 t wreathen. 
 
 Wrung. 
 
 Written. 
 Writhed, 
 writhcn. 
 
 .{ 
 
 162. The Chief Parts of a verb are the present tense, past 
 tense, and past or complete participle. 
 
 A Defective Verb is one which wants one or more of the 
 chief parts. 
 
 163. The defective verbs are : — 
 
 Present. 
 
 Beware. 
 Can, 
 
 Past. 
 Could. 
 
 Past or Com- 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Present. 
 
 JIust. 
 Ought. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past or Com- 
 plete Parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 
 Dight. 
 
 Foregone. 
 
 Hight. 
 
 Quoth. 
 Should. 
 Would. 
 Wist. 
 
 
 Forego, 
 
 
 ShaU, 
 Will, 
 
 Wis, wot. 
 Worth. 
 
 
 
 
 May, 
 Melists, 
 
 Wight. 
 Mclisted. 
 MeseemeJ. 
 Methought. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yclejit. 
 
 Methinks, 
 
 
 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Am, be, and was are, strictly, three defective verbs, though usually classed 
 among irregular verbs. Go is defective, its past tense ^cent being supplied from 
 another verb (u'e«</) : its own past tense t/odc { = gode = go-C'l)is obsolete. Do, in the 
 phrase "This will do" ( = this will answer the purpose), is a defective verb, being 
 dilTerent from the verb do ( = to act). It is, in Old English, dugnn. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Beware is only used in the imperative and infinitive. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Couth, the obsolete past or complete participle of can, occurs in the word 
 uncouth, and the present or incomplete participle of can has become the adjective 
 cunning. 
 
 Obs. 4.— Dight = decked, adorned, Old English dihtan. 
 
 Obs. 5.— Eights: called. Old English hatan. 
 
 Ohs. 6.— Melists, meseems, an I methinks are impersonal verbs (§ 164). 
 
 Olis. 7. — Ought is, i)ropcrly, the past tense of oti-c, but it is now used as a present. 
 
 Ohs. 8. —Quoth is only use I in the past tense, and always precedes its nominative. 
 It is from Old English cwctlian, to sav : the pre>!ent tense is found in be-qiceath. 
 
 Obs. 9.— Will, Tueaning "to exercise the will," is regular. 
 
 Obs. 10. — The infinitive of the verb wis or 2vot is to xi-it. 
 
 Obs. 11. — Worth is a fragment of iceorthan, to be or become, .and onlj' occurs in the 
 phrase " Woe worth " : as, Woe worth the day = woe be to the day. 
 
 Ols. 12.— Yclept ( = clept, or called) is from cleopian or clypian. The y is a substitute 
 for ge. 
 
 Oiis. 13.— The following verbs are termed anomalous because they vary from the 
 rules of conjugation : — Be, can, dare, sli'dl, maii, owe, must, wit, own (in "1 oua I was 
 to blame ") and do (in " How do you do?"). 
 
I 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 89 
 
 164. An Impersonal Verb is one which can only be used 
 in the third person singular with it as nominative : as, It 
 thunders; It nmis ; It hails; It snoics. 
 
 Obs. — Meseems(=\t seems to me), methin1cs{— it seems to me), and melists (=it pleases 
 me) are often call-d true impersoiials. It is, however, worthy of reinark that the 
 nominative is the succeeding sentence ; thus, Methuiks [I have heard the name but 
 lately]. The sentence in brackets is the nominative, 'fhiii/c.'; (in mei/anX-.?) is fiom 
 O.E. thincan, to seem; the word tkvak (to exercise the understanding) is from O.E. 
 thencan, 
 
 165. Fifth Parsing Model, 
 
 The wretch, condemned with life to part, 
 Still, still on hope relies. 
 
 The — A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun "wretch." 
 
 wretch — A common noun, common gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " relies " 
 condemned — A past participle from the transitive verb "to condemn," 
 
 referring to the noun " wretch." 
 with — A preiDosition. 
 
 life — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition 
 
 " with." 
 to — A particle, indicating infinitive mood, 
 
 to part — A regular intransitive verb, infinitive mood, present tense, 
 
 governed by the participle " condemned." 
 Still — An adverb, 
 
 still — An adverb, 
 
 on — A preposition, 
 
 hope — An abstraet noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition "on." 
 relies — A regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
 
 singular number, third person, agreeing with its nomina- 
 tive " wretch." 
 
 \_Parsli)rj, pp. 37—74.] 
 
 Exercise 64. 
 
 Give the past tense and past or complete participle of each verb : — 
 Abide, beseech, cast, dare, fall, take, svvcar, stand, speak, hang, lade, 
 quit, saw, shoe, shoot, say, read, grow, lay, have, get, am, set, catch, deal, 
 feed, show, see, bind, weave, teach, lead, gild, hear, arise, awake, chide, 
 dig, shred. Wed, split, keep, hit, shrink, tear, sweat, leap, feel, seek, learn, 
 help, give, speed, tell, work, do, choose, eat, draw, spell. 
 
 N.B. — Any of the irregular verbs may be taken as exei'cises in con- 
 jugation. 
 
 Exercise 65. 
 
 Mention the verbs, and say whether they are regular, irregular, or 
 
 defective : — 
 
 1. Go, climb the hills. 2. I rambled abroad in the fields. 3. I began 
 
 to look about me for a tree. 4. The battle now raged furiously. 5. Bid 
 
 my lieutenant, Peto, meet me at the t )wn's end. 6. Weigh the vessel up. 
 
 7. He foregoes the pleas\ire. 8. I must not come ; I dare not come to 
 
90 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 thee. 9. Look thou tell me true. 10. You ought to go, 11. " But what 
 good came of it at last?" quoth little Peterkin. 12. Woe worth the hour. 
 13. March on ! 14. He advised us not to entei*. 15. The ocean eagle 
 soared from liis nest. IG. I thank you that j^ou taught me the stern truth. 
 17. The swallow lays from four to six white eggs. 18. I hear the thunder 
 mutter its ciirses in the air. 19. The winds come to me from the fields of 
 sleep. 20. The fishers had brought ^^•ith them the mast of a l^oat. 
 
 Exercise 66. 
 
 Mention the impersonal verbs : — 
 
 1. Oh ! methought no note can equal thine, sweet bird ! 2. It rained 
 down fortune. 3. Methinketh the running of the foremost is like that of 
 Ahimaaz. 4. It rained all night. 5. It freezes to-day. 6. Was ever 
 day like this ? It has rained, hailed, snowed, and thundered. 7. Me- 
 thought the shrill-tongued thrush mended his song of love. 8. It suddenly 
 thawed. 
 
 Exercise Q7. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. The rain still continued to fall incessantly. 2, Suddenly a sharp 
 flash of lightning, followed by an instantaneous tliunder-peal, lighted up 
 all the forest. 3. The demand for amusement and instruction had, durinar 
 the course of twenty years, been gradually increasing. 4. On the passage 
 the boat was driven by a midnight storm on the rocks. 5. Why do I treat 
 thee thus? 6. Though enemies surround me, yet other men and other 
 times shall hear. 7. The experiment having thus failed, Casar rose and 
 ordered the crown to be carried to the Capitol. 
 
 8. I love you for lulling me back into dreams 
 
 Of the blue Highland mountains and echoing streams 
 
 And of birchen glades breathing their balm, 
 While the deer was seen glancing in sunshine remote, 
 And the deep mellow crush of the wood -pigeon's note 
 Made music that sweetened the calm. \siJ^^ 
 
 9. Men must work, and women must weep, 
 Though storms be sudden, and waters deep, 
 And the harbour bar be moaning. 
 
 10, The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, 
 
 Lets in new light through chinks that time has made. 
 
 11. Speeding on with might and niciin, 
 Hitherward rides a gallant train. 
 
 12. A barking sound the shepherd hears, 
 
 A cry as of a dog or fox ; 
 He halts, and searches \\'ith his eyes, 
 
 Among the scattered recks ; 
 And now at distance can discern 
 
 A stirring in a brake of fern ; 
 And instantly a dog is seen, 
 
 Glancing through that covex-t green. 
 
 Questions on §§ 160—165. 
 
 1. How .nrc verbs divided accordiiig to their mode of inflexion ? 2. What arc regular 
 Verbs? .S. What are irrcpn-ilar verbs ? 4. Wliat arc ptrong verbs'? r>. Wliat are weak 
 verbs ? 0. What arc miXed verba 't 7. Which class of verbs is the more uunieroua ? 
 
 ] 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 91 
 
 8. What are the chief parts of a verb? 9. What is a, defective verb? 10. Name the 
 defective verbs. 11. E>ci)]ain do in the phrase "This will do." 12. How is leware 
 used? 13. Explain uncouth and cunnin<j. 14. What does dight mean? 15. What is 
 ought loYvaed iroml 1(5. How is r/Ho<A used? 17. When is jr//^ regular? 18. Explain 
 the verb worth. 19. Explain yck^t. 20. What is an impersonal verb ? 21. Explain 
 metkinks, mcsecms, and melists. 
 
 Chapter YI. — The Adverb. 
 
 I. Classification. 
 
 166. An Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an 
 adjective, or another adverb : as. The bird sings sweetly ; Come 
 hither ; The battle soon ceased ; The lion is a veri/ strong 
 animal ; She reads exceedingly ivell. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The primary use of the adverb is to modify the verb ; its secondary use is 
 to modify adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Many adjectives are used as adverbs: as, Slow tolls the village-clock the 
 drowsy hour. 
 
 167. Adverbs are of eight kinds : — 
 
 I. Adverbs of Time :— Afresh, after, afterwards, again, ago, 
 already, aXicaijs, aneia, anon, aivhile, before, betimes, continually, con- 
 tinuously, daily, directly, early, eftsoons, erewhile, erst, ever, formerly, 
 fortnightly, generally, hereafter, heretipon, hourly, immediately, late, lately, 
 long, monthly, mostly, never, next, now, now-a-days, often, once, seldom, 
 soynetimes, soon, then, thereafter, thereupon, to-day, to-morrow, weekly, 
 when, whilom, yearly, yesterday, yestreen. 
 
 Obs. — The words to-dat/, to-morrow, yesterday, and yestvMn may also be parsed as 
 nouns. The to in to-day and to-morrow is a form of the demonstrative this: cumpare 
 This day. 
 
 II. Adverbs of Place : — Aboard, above, cdrroad, after, ahead, any- 
 lohere, apart, around, ashore, adde, away, back, backward, backwards, 
 before, behind, below, beneath, beyond, down, doivnuard, doumicar-ds, else- 
 lohere, everywhere, far, forth, foricard, fro, hence, here, hither, in, into, left, 
 near, nowhere, off, out, right, round, sidewards, thence, there, thither, to^ 
 underneath, unto, up, iipward, upioards, ivhence, where, whither, wide^ 
 ivithin, ivithout, yonder. 
 
 III. Adverbs of Manner -.—Thus, so, well, quickly, etc. This is 
 the largest class of adverbs, and m it are included nearly all those 
 derived from adjectives and ending in ly : as, firmly, badly, slowly, 
 xvoTiderfully, etc. 
 
 Obs. — Z2/=like; it is, properly, an adjective-ending. 
 
 ly. Adverbs of Degree : — Almost, altogether, eminently, enough, 
 es2)ecially, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, greatly, highly, least, less, 
 more, most, nearly, only, quite, prodigiously, scarcely, too, very, wholly, 
 etc. 
 
 Obs. — The adverbs of manner and degree are called, by some, adverbs of quality. 
 
 V. Adverbs of Measure : — Much, little, enough, abundantly, some- 
 ivhat, partly, entirely, sufficiently, half, etc. 
 
 VI. Adverbs of Number and Order : — Once, ttcice, thrice, firstly, 
 secondly, thirdly, lastly, etc. 
 
 (96s.— Adverbs of measure, number, and order are called, by eome, adverbs of 
 quantity. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 In. Adverbs of Mood :-— 
 
 1. AfiSrinatioii : — }'(.«?, certainly, truly, surety, absohiiely, indeedi 
 aye, really, yea. 
 
 2. Neg-ation : — No, not, nay. 
 
 3. Probability and Doubt : - Perhaps^, mayhap, probably, 
 pjossibly, perchance, peradvcnture, liktiy, unlikely, improhably. 
 
 VIII. Adverbs of C?iuse '.— Therefore, thence, hence, loherefore, 
 u'hy, irhcnce. 
 
 168. Interrogative Adverbs are those which are used in 
 asking questions : as, JFIiy do you tarry ? The interrogative 
 advei-bs are : IFhi/, ivherefore, ivhen, how, ichere, ichither^ ivheiice, 
 whereby, ivherein, ivherewith, ivherewithal. They are derived from 
 interrogative pronouns. When used to join sentences, these 
 words are conjunctions ; when employed interrogatively, they 
 are adverbs. 
 
 169. Relative Adverbs not only modify some verb, 
 adjective, or adverb, but also join sentences : as, He departed 
 ichen we arrived. JVhen, ivhence, ivhenever, tvhcre, u'hereafter, 
 whereas, ivhereat, whereby, ivherefore, ivherein, whereon, ivhereout, 
 whereto, ivhereupon, ivherever, wherewith, ivliile, ivhilst, tvJiither, 
 ivhithersoever, and ivhy are all derived -from relative pronouns, 
 and are therefore called, by some, Retative Adverbs. They 
 have also been called Conjunctive Adverbs. As they join 
 sentences, they should be classed as Conjwndions. 
 
 170. There are many Compound Adverbs or Adverbial 
 Phrases : as, At least, at once, at present, at random, by-and-by, 
 by no means, in future, in general, now and then, not at all, of 
 course, of necessity, etc. These may all be classified under 
 some of the preceding heads. In parsing, take each word of 
 the compound separately and then the whole phrase. [^Parsing, 
 pp. U6, 150—153.] 
 
 Ot.?. — As many plinxses are equivalent to adverbs, so adverbs are often equivalent 
 to phrases, e.g., thus-in this manner; hencc = irom this place; therc-in that place. 
 
 171. The adverb maj^, as a rule, be known by its being 
 movable to any place in the sentence in which it is used. The 
 only case in which it is not movable is when it modifies an 
 adjective or another adverb. 
 
 172. Some words are classed both as adverbs and pre- 
 positions. If they govern an obj<^ctive case expressed oi 
 understood, they are |yrei-)Ositions ; if they do not, they are 
 adverbs: e.g., The lark tlies uj) (adv.); The boy climbed ?/jj 
 the tree (prep.). 
 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 93 
 
 Table of Adverbs. 
 
 Time Again. 
 
 Place JJcre. 
 
 Manner Merrily. 
 
 Degree Excessively. 
 
 Measure Much. 
 
 Number and Order Once. 
 
 (1. Affirmation Yes. 
 
 Mood^ 2. Negation JS'ot. 
 
 [3. Probability and Doubt Perhaps. 
 
 VIII. Cause Therefore. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 III. 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Table of Siiniple Pronominal Adverbs. 
 
 Pro- 
 
 iicmiiial 
 
 root. 
 
 Place 
 where. 
 
 Motion to. 
 
 Motion 
 from. 
 
 Time 
 when. 
 
 Manner. 
 
 Cause. 
 
 Whe- 
 
 wlie-re 
 
 whi-ther 
 thi-ther 
 
 whence 
 
 whe-n 
 
 how wh-y 
 
 The- 
 
 tlie-re. 
 
 the-nce 
 
 the-n 
 
 thus the for thy (O.E.) 
 
 He- 
 
 he-re. 
 
 hi-ther 
 
 he-nce 
 
 
 so 
 how (O.E.) 
 
 
 Exercise QS. 
 
 Mention the adverbs, and say to which class each belongs : — 
 1. It was also the playground for the village school. 2. Low in a gTa.srsy 
 dingle he was laid. 3. Here he came, pierced by a fatal blow. 4. The 
 swallow too is come at last. 5. Anon it seems to weary of its rest. 6. So 
 let us live. 7. Now I steal along a woody lane. 8. Yes, I have stood 
 and marked thy varied note. 9. I have heard what pleases me still more. 
 10. The tardy fields pay not their promised food. 11. Upward I gaze. 
 12. The whistling ploughman stalks afield. 13. The swallow darted to 
 and fro. 14. Sometimes the cooing wood-pigeon came near. 15. Never 
 elsewhere in one place I knew so many nightingales. 16. You may per- 
 chance behold them on the twigs. 17. Across the old wharf they went 
 together, gently, carefully, for the night was dark, and strange anchors, 
 tubs, and piles of timber were strewn about. 18. Here he stopped and 
 v.'^ept very much. 
 
 Exercise 69, 
 
 Mention the interrogative adverbs : — 
 1. Wherefore sleepest thou? 2. Where are thy men of might? 3. 
 Why sittest thou by that ruined hall ? 4. How did you contrive it ? 5. 
 Whither shall this' unhappy old man retire? 6. Whence came you? 7. 
 Wherewith shall I discharge the debt ? 8. W^here is the boat ? 9. Where- 
 withal shall a young man cleanse his way ? 10. Whereliy shall I know 
 this? 11. Wherein doth liberty consist? 12. When did you quit the 
 army I 
 
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 Exercise 70. 
 Assign each adverb to its proper class : — 
 Yet, once, heretofore, well, gently, now, still, how, oft, perhaps", fast, 
 ever, not, so, bravely, more, when, then, no, hither, already, where, only, 
 dearly, soon, within, certainly, here, almost, really. 
 
 Exercise 71. 
 
 Change the phrases in italics into adverbs : — 
 1. They speak in anger. 2. He treated his brother with Mndness. 3. 
 In vain doth valour bleed, while avarice and rapine share the land, 4. 
 Act tcilh humility. 5. How marvellous are thy works ! in iclsdom hast 
 thou made them all. 6. The knight spoke with sincerity. 7. They came 
 ^cith eagerness, and departed ivitlt rebictance. 8. His successor was re- 
 ceived zvHh joy and gkidness. 9. They cultivated tcith more success the 
 sublime science of astronomy. 10. They woi-ked ivith industry. 
 
 Exercise 72. 
 Form adverbs fi-om these adjectives : — 
 Dear, weary, noble, generous, brave, dark, gay, distinct, cheerful, glad, 
 bright, glorious, sweet, soft, wild, sad, right, large, graceful, near, gallant, 
 wide, bold, sure, hearty, happy, fierce, warm, exquisite, real. 
 
 Exercise 73. 
 
 Make twelve sentences, each containing one of the following ad- 
 verbs :— 
 Now, securely, very, away, again, there, yesterday, scarcely, v/ell, often, 
 not, forward. 
 
 Questions on §§ 166—172. 
 
 1. What is an adverb? 2. What is the primary use of the adverb? 8. What is ib 
 secondary use ? 4. Give an examplo of an adjective used as an adverb. 5. How many 
 kinds of adverbs are there ? 6. Name the different kinds. 7. Namo adverbs of time. 
 S. Explain <o in <o-(/ay. 9. Name adverbs of place. 10. Name adverb.s of manner. 11. 
 How are adverbs of manner formed from adjectives ? 12. Name adverbs of degree. 
 13. Name adverbs of measure, 1-1. Name adverbs of number and order, 15. How are 
 adverbs of nio xl subdivided ? 16. What are adverbs of cause ? IT. Name adverbs of 
 cause. 18. What are inteiTOgative adverbs? 19. When do interrogative adverbs 
 become conjunctions? 20. What are relative adverbs? 21. To which part of speech 
 do they proi)erh' belong ? 22. Mention some compoxmd adverbs. 23. How are they 
 parsad ? 24. Wliat are many adverbs equivalent to? 25. By what test may an 
 adverb be known ? 20. How can an adverb be known from a preposition? 27, Write 
 out the simple pronominal adverbs. 
 
 II. Inflexion. 
 173. Some adverbs have, like the adjective, degrees of com- 
 parison. They are compared : — 
 
 i. By adding er and est to the adverb : as, 
 
 Positive. Comparative, Superlative. 
 
 Soon, fSooner, Soonest. 
 
 Often, Oftener, Oftenest. 
 
 Seldom, Seldomer, Seldomest. 
 
 Hard, Harder, Hardest. 
 
 Long, Longer, Longest. 
 
 T''<wd, Louder, Loudest. 
 
 Early, Earlier, Earliest. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 95 
 
 Ohs.~tn poehy, other adverbs in Z^/ besides early arc compared byerand est: as, 
 ht'ightlii, bi ghtlier, hri<jhlliest ; gladly, gladli(r, gladliest, 
 
 ii. By using the comparative and superlative form of the 
 adjective adverbially : as, brightly, brif/hfer, hrigh'est. 
 
 iii. By prefixing more and most to the adverb : as, hrighthj, 
 more brightly, most brightly. This is the most usual method. 
 
 iv. Irregularly : as, 
 
 Positive. 
 Badly, 
 
 
 
 Comparative. 
 Worse, 
 
 Superlative. 
 Worst. 
 
 Evilly, 
 
 
 
 Worse, 
 
 Worst. 
 
 Far, 
 
 
 
 Farther, 
 
 Farthest. 
 
 Forth, 
 
 
 
 Further, 
 
 Furthest. 
 
 111, 
 
 
 
 Worse, 
 
 Worst. 
 
 Late, 
 
 
 
 Later, 
 
 Last. 
 
 Little, 
 
 
 
 Less, 
 
 Least. 
 
 Much, 
 
 
 
 More, 
 
 Most. 
 
 Near, 
 
 
 
 Nearer, 
 
 Nearest, next. 
 
 Nigh, 
 
 
 
 Nigher, 
 
 Nighest, next. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The adverb rail 
 Erst is the supei-lative of 
 a comparative Ucfer. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Many adverbs, 
 ivhcre, once, etc. 
 
 ler is the comparative of the obsolete adjective rath". ( = early). 
 ere (now used only as a conjunction). Z-ic/( = wiilingl3^) has 
 
 from their nature, cannot be compared : as, then, to-day, noio, 
 
 174. Sixth Parsing Model. 
 For we sometimes gently wrangled. 
 
 For — A conjunction. 
 
 we — A personal pronoun, common gender, plural number, first 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " wrangled." 
 sometimes — An adverb of time, modifying the verb "wrangled." 
 gently — An adverb of manner, modifying the verb "wrangled." 
 wrangled — A regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, past tense, 
 
 plural number, first person, agreeing with its nominative 
 
 " we." 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 75—77, 142—147.] 
 
 Exercise 74. 
 Compare the adverbs : — 
 Much, gladl}', near, soon, badly, sumptuously, far, seldom, late, often, 
 ill, vigorously, little, hard, loud, forth, long, civilly, early, happily, merrily, 
 nigh, evilly, rapidly. 
 
 Exercise 75. 
 
 Mention the adverbs, and say of what degree each is : — 
 1. I seldom come on shore here. 2. No writer has said more exactly 
 what he wanted to say. 3. Fire, that is closest kept, burns most of all. 
 4. Fast bind, fast find. 5. It becomes the thronbd monarch better than 
 his crown. 6. She sings most divinely. 7. I could have better spared a 
 better man. 8. He thought most bitterly of the past. 9. The piper loud 
 and louder blew. 
 
 10. Fate never wounds more deep the generous heart, 
 Than when a blockhead's insult points the dart. 
 
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 76. 
 Parse : — 
 1. I am for managing it rationally. 2. Weeks went by. 3. Adam 
 immediately saw in his mind a plan for building it up again. 4. Giving 
 up the argument, I went straight to my lodgings. 5. Harness me down 
 with your iron bands. 6. Show him in. 7. I did not wonder. 8. He 
 then enquired after the ghost. 9. I am to desure that you would now and 
 then give us a lesson on good humour. 10, Partridge immediately de- 
 clared it was the finest place he had ever been in. 11. Deep mourns the 
 turtle in sequestered bower. 12. Oft shall the pilgrim lift the latch. 13. 
 I can listen to thee yet. 14. Down he throws his flowers. 
 15. Beneath these fruit-tree boughs, that shed 
 Their snow-white blossoms on my head, 
 With brightest sunshine round me spread 
 
 Of Spring's unclouded weather ; — 
 In this sequestered nook, how sweet 
 To sit upon my orchard -seat, 
 And birds and flowers once more to greet, 
 My last year's friends together. 
 
 QuESTiOxXS ON §§ 173—174. 
 1. How are adverbs compared? 2. How are some adverbs in ly compared in poetry? 
 3. Explain the form rather. 4. Explain the form erst. 5. Give the meaning of lief. 
 Q. What adverbs cannot be compared ? 
 
 Chapter VII. — The Preposition. 
 
 175. A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or 
 pronoun to show the relation between it and some other word 
 in the sentence : as, The horse in the stable is sold. 
 
 176. The preposition is used to show the relation between — 
 
 1. A noun and a noun or pronoun : as, We crossed the 
 threshold of the door. Here of shows the relation between 
 threshold and door. 
 
 2. A verb and a noun or pronoun : as, Primrose /?'0??i the 
 mossy bank is peeping. Here from shows the relation be- 
 tween is i^eeping and hank. 
 
 3. An adjective and a noun or pronoun : as, He is weary 
 of life. Here of shows the relation between weary and life. 
 
 Obs. — Prepositional phrases are equivalent to— 
 
 (1) Adjectives, when the preposition relates a noun to a noun or pronoun : as, A 
 man of mif/lU — a. viighty man. 
 
 (2) AdvcibR, when the proposition relates a verb or adjective to a noun or pronoim : 
 an, The boy icWfrom the Kcill (whence) ; We ran to the bridge (whither). 
 
 177. Prepositions may be divided into Simple and Com- 
 pound. 
 
 The Simple Prepositions are -.—At, by, for, from, in, of on, 
 
 throuyh, till, to, nj), ivith. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 07 
 
 The Compound Prepositions are :— Abaft, ahout, ahove^ 
 across, adoivii, afore, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, 
 amongst, anent, around, aslant, astride, athwart, hating, before, 
 behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, 
 concerning, considering, despite, down, during, ere, except, excepting, 
 inside, into, maiigre, near, next, nigh, notwithstanding, off, outside, 
 over, 2^cist, pending, regarding, respecting, round, save, since, through- 
 out, touching, toward, towards, under, underneath, wdil, unto, upon, 
 wit] bin, ivithouf. 
 
 Gbs. 1. — The simple prepositions are from Old English : — Al. (O.E. oet, Latin ad) ; by 
 (O.E. he, Ai = about) ■,—j'o)- (O.E. for, Latin pro) ; from (O.E. fram) ; in, on (O.E. in, on, 
 an, Latin in)\ of, off (O.E. o/'=froni ; comiKire Latin a.b); through (O.E. thvrh); lo 
 (O.E. to) ; up (O.E. vp) ; v:ith (O.E. ^':ith, irlthcr, from, against). Tlie original meaning 
 of v:Uh is seen in the word v:ilhstund. In the word from, -m is a superlative ending. 
 There is an elymoiogical connection between J'or und fro, and also between these 
 words and /«)• and /(>;•«. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The derived or compound prepositions, with the exception of the verbal 
 prepositions, are from Old English. The verbal prepositions, which are merely the 
 imperative or participial forms of verbs used as prepositions, are mainly derived from 
 the Latin. Tliese are : except, scire, concerning, considering, daring, excepting, pmding, 
 res^pfcting, bating (O.E.), yiotwithsiundin g (O.E.), regarding (Ft.), and tov.ching (Fr.). 
 
 Obs. 3. — The er in after, over, under, is the comparative suffix. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Prepositions arc also classified according to the relation which they express, 
 viz. :— 
 
 (1) Place. («) Rest in : at, in, near, (b) Motion to and from : to, unto, towards, 
 from. (<:) Place and direction : on, upon, up, down, abore, below, etc. 
 
 (2) Time. («) Time as well as place ; at, in, on, before, by, about, above, between, 
 (b) Time onlj' : since, tdl, until, during, etc. 
 
 (3) Agent and instrument : by, through^ u-ith. 
 
 (4) Cause (end, purpose, motive, or reason) : for, from, by u:ay of, oat of, on account 
 <f. 
 
 (5) Reference : on, of, obouf, touching, concerning. 
 
 (6) Separation and exclusion : without, save, except, but. 
 
 (7) Inclination and conformity : for. 
 
 (S) Aversion and opposition : against, with, athwart. 
 (9) Substitution : for, inslrad of, in place of. 
 (10) Possession : of, to; as, (consists) of, (belongs) to. 
 
 178. The chief Prepositional Phrases are : — According 
 to, agreeably to, apart from, apropos of, away from, by means of, by 
 reason of, by virtue of, conformaUy to, for the sake of, in accordance 
 icith, in addition to, in behalf of, in case of, in comparison to, in 
 compliance tcith, in consequence of in defiance of, in favour of, in 
 opposition to, in place of, in preference to, in quest of, in reference 
 to, in regard to, in respect of, in search of, in spite of, instead of, 
 on occount of, out of, oicing to, with reference to, with regard to. 
 
 Obs. — In parsing these phrases, take each word separately, and then the whole 
 phrase as a compound preposition. [Parsing, pp. 154, 155.] 
 
 179. Many prepositions are appended to verbs in order to 
 form preposition-verbs : as, Love laughs at locksmiths. 
 
 180. Prepositions may be known by observing that they 
 cannot be removed from one part of the sentence unless in 
 connection with the noun or pronoun which they govern. 
 
 181. Prepositions have no inflexion. 
 
 7 
 
S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 182. Seventh Parsing Model. 
 A change came o'er the spirit of my dream. 
 
 A — A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun "change."' 
 
 chan'^'e — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third person, 
 
 nominative case to the verb "came." 
 came — An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, past tense, 
 
 singular number, third person, agreeing with its nominative 
 
 "change." 
 o'er — A preposition, showing the relation between ".came" and 
 
 "spirit." 
 the — A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun "spirit," 
 spirit — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third person, 
 
 objective case, governed by the preposition " o'er." 
 of — A preposition, showing the relation between " spirit " and 
 
 "dream." 
 my — A personal pronoun, common gender, singular number, first 
 
 person, possessive case, govei'ued by the noun "dream." 
 dream — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third person, 
 
 objective case, governed by the preposition " of." 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 78, 79.] 
 
 Exercise 77. 
 
 Mention the prepositions and say what they relate : — 
 1. See yon robin on the spray. 2. The repairs were ordered to be 
 executed with all despatch. 3. He busied himself with sketching a plan, 
 4. He sat on a block, with his head resting on a planing-table. 5. The 
 .sun w^as on the point of setting. 6. He hurried across the Chase, stalking 
 along the narrow paths between the fern. 7. You promised me three 
 warnings which I have looked for* nights and* mornings. 8. The times 
 were not ripe for a rising. 9. Dudley was not zealous for inquiry. 10. In 
 the afternoon we were in a barge, watching the games on the river. 11. In 
 the day he wore a shirt of mail under his robes, and he slept with a guard 
 of a hundred men. 
 
 12. Our father lives in Washington, 
 And has a world of care. 
 
 Exercise 78. 
 
 Mention the preposition-verbs : — 
 L He was well acquainted with most of the modern languages. 2. Tliey 
 dream of spring. 3. John never talked of his history. 4. The very stones 
 prate of my whereabouts. 5. Beware of entrance to a quarrel. 6. Thou 
 com'st in such a questionaVjle shape, that I will speak to thee. 7. (He is) 
 still harping on my daughter. 8. Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray. 9. We 
 bitterly thought of the morrow. 10. Make her laugh at that. 11. O, 
 beware, my lord, of jealotisy. 12. She sat lilcc patience on a monument, 
 smiling at grief. 13. Stand by the cause of truth. 14. He made for the 
 thiclcet. 15. He met with an accident. 16. They wondered .'\t tlie 
 result. 17. How did you come by that name? 18. The boys play at 
 Uiarbles. 
 
 * On understood. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. ^^ 
 
 EXEKCISE 79. 
 
 Parse t— 
 1. 'Twas nigh the hour of evening pra3'er. 2, From nature he had 
 received an uncouth figure. 3. On the Areopagus the Christian leader 
 takes his stand. 4. This tale awakened the pity of the auditors, .5. 
 They went into Leicestershire, and came to Bosworth Field. 6. The 
 senate awarded the prize of eloquence to Tiberius. 7. Augustus wrote 
 verses against Asinius. 8. The allegory of Bunyan , has been read by 
 many thousands with tears. 9. At the end of the long dark valley he 
 passes the dens in which the old giants dwell. 10. H-is last cry of anger 
 comes back from the skies. 
 
 11. He told how murderers walked the earth 
 
 Beneath the curse of Cain — 
 With ci'imson clouds before their eyes, 
 And flames about their brain. 
 
 12. He sat upon the wave-washed shore 
 
 With madness in his eye. 
 
 Questions on §§ 175 — 182. 
 
 1. What is a i5i:,?position ? 2. "What relations ra-o expressed by the preposition? 3. 
 To what parts of speech are prepositional phrases equivalent? 4. Classify preposi- 
 tions. 5. Name simple prepositions. 6. Name compound prepositions. 7. Give the 
 derivation of the simple prepositions. 8. Name prepositional phrases. 9. How are 
 prepositional phrases parsed ? 
 
 Chaptek VIII. —The Conjunction. 
 
 183. A Conjunction is a word which joins two sentences : 
 as, The king went away and the queen followed him. 
 
 Obs. 1.— Some grammarians say that a conjunction joins words and phrases as well 
 as sentences. It may, however, generally be shown, by supplying the ellipsis, that a 
 conjunction really joins sentences. Examples :-(l) John and Thomas cany a sack to 
 market ; (2) Vitt and Fox were opponents. 
 
 These sentences may be thus written : — 
 
 ^^^ r ^. rvJ""^^^ ""■''■'* 1- carry a sack to moarket. 
 [and] Thomas carries ) •' 
 
 (2) Pitt urts an opponent of Fox ) ^^j.^ opponento 
 
 [and] Fox teas an opponent oj Fitt ) 
 Of)S. 2.— When conjunctions seem to join words or phrases, the student should, 
 before parsing, write out the sentence in its extended form. 
 
 N B —It is, however, sometimes difficult to resolve satisfactorily some constructions 
 into sentences. This is accounted for by the fact that they are generally the final 
 result of a succession of abbreviations. In such cases it will be sufficient to consider 
 the conjunation as joining words, and to take the words so joined as a compouna 
 form. IFarsiiif/, pp. 84, 85. J 
 
 184. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Coiyulative and Dis- 
 junctive. 
 
 185. A Copulative Conjunction is one which joins two 
 
 sentences, and at the same time unites their meaning : as, 
 hShe had a rustic, woodland air, 
 And she was wildly clad. 
 
 ^ 9 
 
 < -I 
 
100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 186. The Copulative Conjunctions are : — Accordingly, 
 
 afte}\ also, and, as, because, before, both, coiiseqnentl]/, ere, even, for, 
 farther, furthermore, how, if, likewise, moreover, provided, seeing, 
 since, so, that, then, therefore, till, until, when, tvhence, ichenever, 
 ■where, thereafter, tvhereat, whereby, ivherefore, wherein, tvhereof, 
 ■whereon, whercoiU, whereto, whereunto, whereupon, wherever, where- 
 with, ichile, ichilst, whither, whithersoever, why. 
 
 187. The Compound Copulative Conjunctions are : — 
 
 According as, after that, as far as, as if as long as, as much as, 
 CIS often as, as soon as, as sure as, as though, as well as, as when, 
 before that, by reason that, for a < much as, for fear that, for that, 
 if that, in as much as, inasmuch as, in case, in case that, in order 
 that, in so far as, i7isomuch that, in that, seeing that, so as, so far 
 as, so long as, suppose that, supposing that, till that, until that, ichen 
 that. 
 
 Ob^. —In parsing these compounds, take each word separately, and then the whole 
 phrase as a comiiound copulative conjunction. [Parsiny, p. 150.] 
 
 188. A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which joins 
 sentences, but at the same time disconnects their meaning : 
 as, 
 
 Alas ! they had been friends in youth ; 
 But whispering tongues can poison truth. 
 
 189. The Disjunctive Conjunctions are : — Albeit, although^ 
 
 but, either, else, except, liowbeit, however, lest, neUher, nevertheless, 
 nor, notwithstanding, or, otherwise, save, still, than, though, unless, 
 whereas, ivhether, yd. 
 
 190. The Compound Disjunctive Conjunctions are : — 
 
 But and if, but that, except that, except when, for all ( = although), 
 lest that, nor that, not that, notwitlistanding that, provided that, save 
 that, save ichen, though that, unless that, unless ivlien, ivithout that. 
 
 Obs.— In parsing these compounds, take each word separatelj', and then the whole 
 phrase as a compound disjunctive conjuiaction. [Pariini;, p. loci.] 
 
 191. Correlative Conjunctions are such as are used ia 
 pairs. Of these there are three classes : — 
 
 i. Conjunction. Conjunction. 
 
 {Nevertheless 
 Still 
 Yet 
 As So 
 
 Because Therefore 
 
 Both And 
 
 Either Or 
 
 If Then 
 
 Neither Nor 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 101 
 
 Conjunction. 
 
 Notwithstanding 
 
 Since 
 
 Though 
 
 Whether 
 
 And in poetry, 
 
 Nor 
 Or 
 
 11. 
 
 Adverb . 
 As 
 
 Equally 
 Not 
 
 Not merely 
 
 Not only 
 
 Rather 
 
 So 
 
 So 
 
 Then 
 
 There 
 
 Thither 
 
 lU. 
 
 Adjective. 
 
 Any comparative 
 
 Other 
 
 Same 
 
 Such 
 
 Such 
 
 Conjunction. 
 Nevertheless 
 Still 
 Yet 
 
 Therefore 
 'Nevertheless 
 Still 
 Yet 
 Or 
 
 Nor 
 Or 
 
 Covjiinctrov. 
 
 As 
 
 And 
 
 But 
 rBut 
 I But also 
 
 \But even 
 But likewise 
 rBut 
 I But also 
 
 But even 
 
 But likewise 
 
 Than 
 
 As 
 
 That 
 
 When 
 
 Where 
 
 Whither 
 
 1 
 
 Conjunction. 
 Than 
 Than 
 As 
 As 
 That 
 {Parmig, pp. ^— 14>] 
 
 192. The following conjunctions are, by some grammarians, 
 called Conjunctivo Adverbs : — AecordwgJy, also, as (after so, 
 such, or as), heforc, ronsequeritli/, else, ere, even, fwiher, further- 
 more, how, hoicever, likeivise, moreover, neverlheless, notinthstandivg^ 
 othericise, since, so, still, than, that (after so, such, etc.), then, 
 therefore, till, until, irhen, uhenc-e, ichenerer, ivhere, ichereaftcr, 
 whereas, whereat, tcherehy, wherefore, wherein, 'whereof, ichereon, 
 whercout, ichereto, icherennto, icherenpon^ wherever, whereicifh, while, 
 whilst, irhither, u'hithersoever, why, yet. 
 
 Pure Conjunctions are those which cannot be used as 
 adverbs or prepositions : as, And, hut, either, or, nor, etc. 
 
102 ENGLISH GRA:\I]VIAR, 
 
 193. Conjunctions are frequently divided into Co-orclinat'we 
 and Suhordinat'ive. 
 
 (a) Oo-ordinative Conjunctions, or those which join two 
 
 principal sentences, are : — AcconlnKjlt/, also, and, because, both, 
 but, consequent! //, either, else, even, for, further, furthermore, hoio- 
 ever, likewise, moreover, neither, nor, nevertheless, notwithstanding, 
 or, otherwise^ so, still, then, therefore, lohence, icherefore, luhether, 
 yet. 
 
 (b) Subordinative Conjunctions, or those which join a 
 subordinate to a principal sentence, are : — After, albeit, although, 
 as, because, before, but, ere, except, for, how, howbeit, however, if, 
 lest, nevertheless, notwithstanding, provided, save, seeing, since, so, 
 than, that, though, till, unless, until, ivhen, lohence, ichenever, ichere, 
 whereafter, tuhereas, lohereat, ivherehy, icherefore, icherein, ichereof, 
 whereon, lohereout, ivhereto, tchereunto, u'hereupon, tuherever, tvhere- 
 with, zvhether, luhile, whilst, ichither, whithersoever, ichy, yet. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The conjunctions because, hut, for, however, nevertheless, noticlthstand'uig, so, 
 7ckence, tckere/ore, wheiher, and yet, are used sometimes as co-ordiuative and sometimes 
 as subordinative conjunctions. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The conjunctions which are placed before verbs in the subjunctive mood 
 (§ lis, Obs. 1) are said to govern the subjunctive mood, and are therefore called Govern- 
 ing Conjunctions. 
 
 194. When it is difficult to know whether a word is a con- 
 junction or an adverb, it may be determined by the following 
 test : — If the word be movable to any other part of the sentence, 
 it is an adverb ; but if it cannot be moved from the beginning 
 of the sentence it introduces, it is a conjunction. 
 
 195. Conjunctions have no inflexion. 
 
 Table op Conjunctions, 
 
 I. Copulative AjuI^ 
 
 II. Disjunctive Bat. 
 
 196. Eighth Parsing Model. 
 
 Nor martial shout nor minstrel touc 
 Announced their march. 
 
 This is equivalent to 
 
 [Nor ( - neither)] martial shout announced their march 
 
 [nor] minstrel tone aimounced their march. 
 
 Nor— A disjunctive conjunction, introducing the sentence " martial 
 
 shout amiounce.d their warcli." 
 martial— An adjective of quality, positive degree, qualifying the noun 
 
 "shout." 
 nhout — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb annoimud uuder- 
 
 atood. 
 
L 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 103 
 
 nor — • A disjunctive conjunction, correlative to " nor," joining the 
 
 sentences " martial shout announced their march " and 
 
 " minstrel tone announced their march." 
 minstrel — A common noun used as an adjective of quality, qualifying 
 
 the noun " tone." 
 tone — An absti-act noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " announced." 
 announced — A regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 
 past tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with 
 
 its nominative "tone." 
 their — A personal pronoun, common gender, plural number, third 
 
 person, possessive case, governed by the noun "march." 
 march — An abstract noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive verb 
 
 " announced." 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 80 — 85.] 
 
 Exercise 80. 
 
 Mention the conjunctions, and say what they join : — 
 1. I pressed my shivering children to my bosom, but I could not speak. 
 2. The daisy and the buttercup are nodding courteously. 3. The winter 
 was long and dreary ; but it is all over now. 4. Every avenue to escape 
 was closed, for the entrance to the square was choked up. 5. It was not 
 long before sunset when the van of the royal procession entered the gates 
 of the city. d. If what you have written should turn out impeifect, you 
 can correct it. 7. The little birds will cover us %\ith leaves as they did 
 the babes in the wood. 8. I never knew how ill she was till the fever 
 came upon her. 9. I am never alarmed, except when I am informed that 
 the sovereigns want treasure. 10. You are more active than I. 
 
 Exercise 81. 
 
 Mention the correlative conjunctions :— 
 1. Quarter was neither asked nor given. 2. She was such an artless 
 little creature that all loved her. 3. He was such a man as I never saw 
 before. 4. Where the dead leaf fell, there did it rest. 5. Alas ! I have 
 nor hope nor health. 6. Though he die, yet sliall he live. 7. I know not 
 whether he writes poetry or prose. 8. I love both flower and tree. 9. No 
 man was so poor that he could not make restitution. 1 0. Nor scratch had 
 he, nor harm nor dread. 11. You must either work or starve. 12. When 
 pride cometh, then cometh shame. 13. As he excels in virtue, so he rises 
 in estimation. 14. He would consent rather than suffer. 15. Since the 
 sides are equal, therefore the angles are equal. 
 
 Exercise 82. 
 Parse : — 
 1. He was gallant and free. 2. He darted to a conclusion rather by 
 intuition than by reasoning. 3. If I had looked a moment longer I 
 should have dropped. 4. He suffered, but his pangs are o'er. 5. Out 
 went the taper as she hurried in. 6. He swam the Esk river, where fox-d 
 there was none. 7. Ere he alighted at Netherby Gate, the bride had 
 consented. 8. Let not a man move from his rank before I give the sign. 
 9. When I receive your long letters I am ashamed. 
 
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAFv. 
 
 10, A kins' sat on the rockv brow 
 
 Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis ; 
 And ships in tho\isands h\y below, 
 
 And men in nations ; — all were his ! 
 He counted them at break of day — 
 And when the sun set, where were thej ? 
 
 Questions on §§ 183—196. 
 
 1. Wliat is a conjunction? 2. Whether do conjunctions join words or sentences? 
 3. How many kinds of conjunctions are there? 4. What is a coimlative conjunction ? 
 5. Name copulative conjunctions. 0. Name compound copulative conjunctions. 
 7. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 8. Name disjunctive conjunctions. 9. Name 
 compound disjunctive conjunctions. 10. What are correlative conjunctions? 11. 
 Name the correlative conjunctions of the first class. 12. Name the correlative con- 
 junctions of the second class, l.'i. Name the correlative conjunctions of. the third 
 class. 14. Which conjunctions are sometimes called conjunctive adverbs? 15. What 
 are pure conjunctions? 16. What are co-ordinative conjunctions? 17. What are 
 sub-ordhiative conjunctions? IS. By what test can you distinguish between an 
 adverb and a conjunction ? 19. Have conjunctions any inflexion ? 
 
 9 
 
 Chapter IX — The Interjection. 
 
 197. An Interjection is a word which expresses sudden 
 feeling : as, yilas / the ship is lost. 
 
 Obs. — An interjection forms no part of a sentence, but is simplj' an exclamation 
 expressing joy, sorrow, surprise, pain, grief, or other sudden feeling. As it has no 
 grammatical relation to other words, it has no inflexion. 
 
 198. The chief Interjections ^vq\— Adieu! ah! aha/ 
 ahoy/ alack/ alas/ avaunt ! away/ ay, ay/ hegone / behold/ 
 bravo / eh / farewell I faugh / fie / fy / fuh / fudge / good-bye / 
 gramercy / ha/ hih / had/ hark/ hcighdw / hey/ heyday/ 
 liist / ho / holla ! hollo / horrible / hurrah / hush ! huzza / indeed ! 
 lid / lo / look ! marry I mum ! I oh I oho I pish I 'poh ! iiooh ! 
 'prithee I pshaw ! pugh ! see ! soho / strange / striking / tush I 
 ugh / welconi'i ! what f zooks ! zounds ! 
 
 199. Any of the leading parts of speech uttered by itself 
 to express a sudden emotion may he called an interjection : 
 as, 
 
 1. Noun :^ Peace! breathe not his name. 
 
 2. Adjective : Sfraiuje ! I seemed to feel a breath of air. 
 
 3. Pronoun : What ! you are weepint; yet ! 
 
 4. Verb : Harh ! heard you not the thunder's roar ? 
 
 5. Adverb : A irri;/ ! the flames are coming nearer. 
 
 200. Ninth Parsing Model. 
 Ay, marry, why was he sent into England 1 
 
 Ay — An interjection. 
 
 marry — An interjection. (Marry U a corruption of hy St. ^fary.) 
 wliy — An interrogative adverb, modifying the verb " vva.=', sent." 
 was — ■ An auxiliary verb to *' sent," indicating passive voice, past 
 
 tense. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 105 
 
 he — A pei'soiical pronoun, masculine gender, s^ingular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " was sent." 
 sent — A past participle from the transitive verb "to send," referring' 
 
 to "he" 
 was sent— An irregular transitive verb, passive voice, indicative mood, 
 
 past tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with 
 
 its nominative "he." 
 into — A preposition, showing the relation between " was sent " and 
 
 "England." 
 England— A proper noun, neuter gender, singular number, third person, 
 
 objective case, governed by the preposition "into." 
 
 [Pa7'dn^, p. 86.] 
 
 Exercise 83. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Alas ! we turn to brave the billows of the world's tempestuous sway. 
 2. Ah ! forgive a stranger rude. 3. Ha ! what seest thou there ? 
 
 4. Oh ! sing unto my roundelay ; 
 
 Oh ! drop the briny tear with me ; 
 Dance no more at holiday. 
 
 Like a running river be ; 
 My love is dead, 
 Gone to his death -bed. 
 
 All under the willow^-trae. 
 
 5. Oh, could I fly, I'd fly with thee ! 
 We'd make, with joyful wing, 
 Our annual visit o'er the globe. 
 Companions of the Spring. 
 6. O that those lips had language ! Life has passed 
 With me but roughly since I heard thee last. 
 Those lips are thine — thy own sweet smiles I see, 
 The same that oft in childhood solaced me. 
 
 Questions on §§ 197—200. 
 1. What is an interjedion? ?.. Have interjections any inflexion ? 3. Name inter- 
 jections. 4. Wliich parts of &peecli may be used as interjections ? D. Give examples. 
 
 Chapter X.— Words not easily classified. 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 160-182.] 
 
 201. There are many words Avliich may be used sometimes 
 as one part of speech" and sometmies as anotlier. Of such 
 words the principal arc : — • 
 
 202. About. Prep. He danced about the sta;^^. 
 
 Adv. She shuffles her threads about. 
 
 203. After. Prep. The tossing of the sea remains after the storm. 
 
 Adr. To-day deep thoughts resolve with me to drench. 
 
 In mirth that, after, no repenting draws. 
 Conj. I shall decide after I have heard the witnesse?. 
 Adj. After ages shall sing his glory. 
 
lOG 
 204. All. 
 
 205. Alone. 
 
 206. Another. 
 
 207. Any. 
 
 208. 
 
 As. 
 
 Conj. 
 Adv. 
 
 209. 
 
 Besides. 
 
 Prep 
 
 Adv. 
 Conj. 
 
 210. 
 
 Both. 
 
 Def. 
 
 211. But. 
 
 212. Either. 
 
 213. Eke. 
 
 214. Else. 
 
 215. Enough. 
 
 216. Even. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Adj. of quantity. All the world's a stage. 
 
 Indef. numeral a'lj. And all tlie men and women 
 
 merely playtrs. 
 Noun.* All was activity and excitement. 
 Adv. All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 
 Adj. It is thou alone that keeps the soul awake. 
 Adv. She stood alone. 
 Adj. There is another and a better world. 
 Noun. Teach nie to feel another's woe. 
 Adj. of quant ft I/. Who will show us any good ? 
 Indef. numeral adj. Are there any witnesses present ? 
 Adv. The courier could not travel any faster. 
 I directed him as he desired. 
 There are as many thorns in the path of life 
 
 as there are flowers. 
 And there was a famine in the land, besides 
 
 the first famine. 
 He sang and recited besides. 
 Conj. The duke must grant me that ; besides, his 
 
 picture I will send far and near. 
 Def. numeral adj. Brother, brother, we are both in 
 
 the wrong, 
 Conj. Both charge and danger speak 'gainst so great 
 
 a number, 
 Covj. I change, but I cannot die. 
 Prep. Who can it be but him ? 
 Adv. There was but ( = only) one thing to be done. 
 Noun. He began his speech with a but. 
 Adj. Take either path, 
 Conj. Either say thou'lt do't, or thrive by other 
 
 means. 
 Vtrh. They eke out the performance. 
 Adv. 'Twill be prodigious hard to prove, 
 That this is eke the throne of love. 
 Adv. Myself could else out-frown false fortune's 
 
 frown. 
 Adj. The tempest in my mind 
 
 Ddth from my senses take all feeling else. 
 Conj. He has some reason, else he could not beg. 
 Adj. of quantity. We have straw and provender 
 
 enough. 
 Ind<f. numeral adj. 'We have cherries enough. 
 Noun.* He had enough to do. 
 Adv. She looks pretty enough to be well. 
 Verb. This will even all inequalities. 
 Adj. ]V[etliinks, the ground is even. 
 Adv. Even in our ashes live their wonted fires. 
 Noun. They i)laved at odd and even. 
 Conj. And behold I, even I, do bring a flood of 
 
 waters on the earth. 
 
 Strictly, an adjective, witli a noun understood. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 107 
 
 217. Except. 
 
 > 
 
 218. 
 219. 
 
 Few. 
 For. 
 
 220. Half. 
 
 221. Least. 
 
 222. Less. 
 
 223. 
 224. 
 
 Like. 
 Little. 
 
 225. More. 
 
 226. Most. 
 
 227. Much. 
 
 228. 
 229. 
 
 Neither. 
 Next. 
 
 230. No. 
 
 Adj. 
 Adv. 
 Verb. 
 Adj. 
 
 Verb. We include the father in the charge, but 
 
 exctjpt the son. 
 Prep. All except one agreed. 
 Conj. I will not liit thee go except thou bless me. 
 Indcf. numeral adj. Few things have failed to 
 
 which I set my will. 
 Koun* The tracts are read only by the happy few. 
 Conj. This prophecy Merlin shall make j for I live 
 
 before his time. 
 Prep. 'Tis not for mortals ah\'ays to be blest. 
 Adv. The squire has been asked for. 
 Xoun. Thy half o' the kingdom hast tiiou not forgot. 
 Half measures were of no avail. 
 The slave v/as half dead with fear. 
 They will half the inheritance. 
 A man can no more have a positive id^a of 
 
 the greatest than he has of the least /space. 
 A dv. She is the least beautiful of the three. 
 Koun.* Least said is soonest mended. 
 Adj. Of two evils the less is always to be chosen. 
 Aciv. I do not love Caesar less. 
 Noun.* Less vvill not suffice. 
 Adj. There is no virtue like necessity. 
 Adv. He was perfumed like a milliner. 
 Adj. of quality. It lies in my little one's cradle. 
 Adj. of quantity. 0, I have ta'en too little care of 
 
 this. 
 Adv. He sleeps little. 
 
 Noun." Little of this great world can I speak. 
 Adj. of quantity. Made you no more offence than 
 
 what you speak of ? 
 Indef. numeral adj. Here more roses bloom. 
 Adv. Once more the cup of hope was dashed to the 
 
 ground. 
 Koun.''^ I have heard more since. 
 Adj. of quantity. The most wool comes from 
 
 colonies. 
 Indef. numeral adj. Most men have a thirst 
 
 glory. 
 Adv. I loved her most. 
 Noun.* The oldest hath borne most. 
 Adj. of quantity. Manasseh wrought much wicked 
 
 ness. 
 Adv. He wept very miich. 
 Noun.* We shall never see so much. 
 Adj. The upright judge inclines to neither party. 
 Conj. Give me neither poverty nor riches,' 
 Adj. At the next instant the boat sank. 
 Pi-ep. Her princely guest was next her side. 
 Adv. Who follows next ? 
 Adj. of quantity. An innocent man needs no elo 
 
 quence. 
 
 I 
 
 Strictly, an adjective, with a noun understood. 
 
 the 
 for 
 
108 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 231. Notwith- 
 
 standing. 
 
 232. Off. 
 
 233. One. 
 
 234. Only. 
 
 235. Other. 
 
 236. Pass. 
 
 237. Round. 
 
 238. Save. 
 
 239. Since. 
 
 240. So. 
 
 241. Some. 
 
 242. Somewhat. 
 
 243. That. 
 
 Adv. 
 P 
 
 rep. 
 
 Conj. 
 
 244. Then. 
 
 Def. numeral adj. He asked no heaps of hoarded 
 
 gold. 
 Peace hath her victories no less renowned 
 
 than war. 
 Notwithstandinfr the Avarninsf. he rushed on. 
 Notwithstanding, in thy days I will not do it. 
 Prep. The slave-ship was captured off Brazil. 
 Adv. The robber made oflf that way. 
 Interj. Off ! base wretch ! 
 
 Adj. The off horse in the team began to plunge. 
 Def. numeral adj. One man in his time plays many 
 
 parts. 
 Indef. pern. pron. One scarcely knows why ne did it. 
 Adj. My only plea is gone. 
 Adv. There was a silence broken only by the fall of 
 
 the ashes in the grate. 
 Conj. Take what I have, only leu me go. 
 Adj. Why, then your other senses grow imperfect. 
 jS'ouu. True piety will weep for others' woes. 
 ^'ou-n. What, have his daughters brought him to 
 
 this pass ? 
 Verb. Vex not his ghost : O, let him pass ! 
 Adj. Round dealing is the honour of man's nature. 
 Prep. Captain Cook sailed round the world. 
 Adv. Wheel the sofa round ! 
 Verb. They round the edges of the stone. 
 JS^oun. We run the daily round of duty. 
 Verb. He cried, " Save me !" 
 Prep. Fear prevailed o'er all on board save one. 
 Conj. That mortal dint, 
 
 Save he who reigns above, none can resist. 
 
 Since truth and constancy ai-e vain, 
 
 Since neither love nor sense of pain 
 
 Nor force of reason can persuade. 
 
 Then let example be obe3'ed. 
 I have not seen him since last, spring. 
 You spoke not with her since. 
 It had so sweet a breath. 
 
 The other won't agree thereto, 
 
 So here they fall to strife. 
 Adj. of quantity. Some time I <>hall sleep out. 
 Indef numeral adj. Some men excel in husbandry, 
 
 some in gardening, some in mathematics. 
 Adv. It was founded some eighteen centuries ago. 
 JVoun. I have somewhat to say unto thee. 
 Adr. I am somewhat faint with our long talk. 
 Jjistinej. aiJj. Thy wish was father, Harr}', to that 
 
 thought. 
 Tiel. pron. Base is the slave that pays. 
 Compound rel. pron. We speak that we do know. 
 Conj. Nor did you kill that you miglit eat. 
 Adv. Then sunk tlie star of Solyma. 
 Conj. Oh, then, I see. Queen Mab hath been with yovi. 
 
 Conj. 
 
 Prep. 
 A'fr. 
 Adv. 
 Conj. 
 
liTYMOLOGY. 
 
 109 
 
 ;545. Therefore. 
 
 246. Well. 
 
 247. What. 
 
 k« 
 
 248. Whether. 
 
 Adv. I have married a wife, and therefore I cannot 
 
 come. 
 Co7iJ. The sides are equal, therefore the angles are 
 
 equal. 
 Adj. Your daughter is not well. 
 Adv. I do not well know, my lord. 
 Noun. I advised him to leave well alone. 
 Jnterj. Well, my good lord, I have informed them so. 
 Jnterrof/. pron. What does he complain of? 
 Adj. What neat repast shall feast us, light and 
 
 choice ? 
 Compound rel. jn'on. My nature is subdued to 
 
 what it works in. 
 Adv. What with hardship ana fatigue, the soldier 
 
 was exhausted. 
 Inferj. What ! did my father's godson seek your life? 
 Intenrg. pron. Whether is more beneficial, that we 
 
 should have the same yearly quantity of 
 
 heat distributed equally, or a greater share 
 
 in summer, and in winter a less ? 
 Conj. Kesolve whether you will or no. 
 Jnterrog. piron. Which of them shall I take ? 
 Bel. j^von. He touched nothing which he did not 
 
 adorn. 
 Adj. Which man is it? 
 Adv. Why dost thou use me thi;s ? 
 Conj. I have a reason why I would not have you 
 
 speak so tenderly 
 Noun. He asked the why ana wherefore. 
 Interj. Why, this fellow has banished two of his 
 
 daughters. 
 Particijile, When were you wont to be so full of 
 
 songs ? 
 Noun. His wont was to read at meals. 
 Verb. A yearly solemn feast she wont to make. 
 Conj. I come to you in the spirit of peace ; yet you 
 
 wall not receive me. 
 Adv. You yet may spy the fawn at play. 
 
 Exercise 84. 
 
 Classify the words in italics : — 
 1. That civil war embitters all his life, 2. She bids him yet beware. 
 3. Act btd an honest and a faithful part. 4. He did hear that sound the 
 first amidst the festival. 5. Glad creatures of the sea ! how all seems life ! 
 6. She has Uttle understanding. 7. Each climate needs ichat other climes 
 produce. 8. A few years since a child was lost in the woods. 9. The 
 bear was much straitened for food. 10. Deification after death was the 
 most that could be attempted. 11. The little boy's father, half frantic, 
 leaped with others into the jolly-boat, but it was too dark to see far before 
 them. 12. Fear nought b^lt sin. 1.3. I do my most and best. 14. Here 
 eke that famous .golden apple grew. 15. The children of Israel are 7nore 
 than we. 
 
 249. Which. 
 
 250. Why. 
 
 251. Wont. 
 
 252. Yet. 
 
110 
 
 ENGLISH GRATMMAR, 
 
 16. And nought was green upon the oak 
 Jhit moss and i-arest mistletoe. 
 
 Questions on §§ 201—252 
 
 1. What parts cf speech may the word oMut be ? 2. What parts of speech may the 
 word after be ? [N.B.— lu the same manner go through the other words in the list. J 
 
 B. Derivation. 
 
 Chapter I— Definitions. Primary Derivatives. 
 
 253. Deriv8jtion is that part of etymology which explains 
 the different parts of which a word is made up. 
 
 254. Words are either Primitive^ Derivative, or Compound. 
 
 255. A Primitive Word is a Avord in its simplest form : 
 as, son, good, /, speak, doicn, and. 
 
 (}6«.— Such words are often called roots. 
 
 256. A Derivative is a word formed from a primitive 
 word or root. Derivatives are of two kinds, Primary and 
 Secondary. 
 
 I. A Primary Derivative is formed from a primitive 
 word by a change in the body of the word : as, strike, 
 stroke. 
 
 II. A Secondary Derivative is formed from a 
 primitive w^ord by adding prefixes or suffixes : as, learn, 
 mi-tearn, learn-er. 
 
 A Prefix is a syllable put before a root : as, con-d\.\ct. 
 
 A Suffix (or affix) is a syllable added after a root : as, 
 duct-?7^. 
 
 257. A Compound Word consists of two or more vvords, 
 each of which is significant : as, inill-stone, door-step, horse-leech. 
 
 Primary Derivatives. 
 
 258. Nouns are formed as primary derivatives : — 
 i. By changing the vowel sound : as, 
 
 Prim, iconl 
 
 Hape, 
 
 Knit, 
 
 Lay, 
 
 I<e;irn, 
 
 Lend, 
 
 Lut, 
 
 Say, 
 
 Prim, tvord. 
 
 Bear, 
 
 Bind, 
 
 Bite, 
 
 Bless, 
 
 Breed, 
 
 Click, 
 
 Crack, 
 
 Deal, 
 
 Deem, 
 
 Drive, 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Dfiir. 
 
 Bier. 
 
 Band, bond. 
 
 Bit. 
 
 Bliss. 
 
 Bmod. 
 
 Clock. 
 
 Creak. 
 
 Dole. 
 
 Doom. 
 
 Drove. 
 
 Food. 
 
 Scrape, 
 «oll. 
 
 Derir. 
 Gap. 
 
 Knot, net 
 Law. 
 lii )re. 
 Loan. 
 Lot. 
 ( Saw (a 
 
 "( iiig). 
 Srrap. 
 bale. 
 
 say- 
 
 Prim, icoi 
 
 'd. Dcriv. 
 
 .Shear, 
 
 ( Share, .shore 
 ( sliiro. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 Sheen. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Song. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Scat. 
 
 Sneak 
 
 Snake. 
 
 Stake, 
 
 Stick. 
 
 Strike^ 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 Toll, 
 
 TAle. 
 
 Write, 
 
 Writ. 
 
ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 111 
 
 ii. By changing the last consonant sound : as, 
 
 Pj-i7n. word. 
 
 Deriv. 
 
 Prim, viord. 
 
 Da-iv. 
 
 Prim. word. 
 
 Deriv. 
 
 Abuse, 
 
 Abuse. 
 
 r»ig, 
 
 Ditch, 
 
 Speak, 
 
 Speech. 
 
 Advise, 
 
 Advice. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 Girth. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 Stitch. 
 
 Arc, 
 
 Arch. 
 
 Grieve, 
 
 Grief. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 Strife. 
 
 Behove, 
 
 Behoof. 
 
 Practise, 
 
 Practice. 
 
 Use, 
 
 U.se. 
 
 Believe, 
 
 Belief. 
 
 Prove, 
 
 Proof. 
 
 Wreathe, 
 
 Wreath 
 
 Devise, 
 
 Device. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Obs. — When the verb and noun are the same in form, the consonant is often soft in 
 the verb and sharp in the noun : as, to house (pron. home), house (pron. houce). 
 
 iii. By changing both vowel and consonant sounds : as, 
 
 Prim. v:ord 
 
 Dcrir. 
 
 Prim. Tjord. 
 
 Deriv. 
 
 Prim. word. 
 
 Deriv. 
 
 Bake, 
 
 Batch. 
 
 Choose, 
 
 Choice. 
 
 Live, 
 
 Life. 
 
 Bank, 
 
 Bench. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 Cloth. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Break, 
 
 f Breach, 
 ( breech. 
 
 I)i?, 
 
 Dike. 
 
 Seethe, 
 
 Sud. 
 
 Hold, 
 
 Hilt. 
 
 Wake, 
 
 Watch. 
 
 Breathe, 
 
 Breath. 
 
 Lathe, 
 
 Lath. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 Wouf, web 
 
 X.B. — lilanj' primary derivatives arc tbe same as the primitive words : as, to praise 
 (verb) ; praise (noun). Verbs and nouns of the same form are often distinguished by 
 a change of accent : as. 
 
 Verb. Koun. 
 
 Abstract, Abstract. 
 
 Colleagtie, Colleague. 
 
 Desert, Desert. 
 
 259. Adjectives are formed as primary derivatives : — 
 
 i. By changing the vowel sound : as, 
 
 Prim. word. Deriv. Prim. word. Dcriv. 
 
 File (in de- ) v^„i Flit. Fleet. 
 
 file), P Heal, Hale. 
 
 Fill, Full. Heat. Hot. 
 
 Prim, vjord. 
 Pride, 
 String, 
 Wring, 
 
 Deriv. 
 Proud. 
 Strong. 
 Wrong. 
 
 ii. By changing the last consonant sound : as, 
 
 Prim, viord. Dcrir, 
 
 Diffuse (-ze). Diffuse (-cc) 
 
 Loathe, Loth. 
 
 Milk, Milch 
 
 iii. By changing boHi vowel and consonant sounds : as, 
 
 Prim. word. Deriv 
 
 Cool, Chill. 
 
 Love, Lief. 
 
 Wit, Wise. 
 
 260. Verbs are formed as primary derivatives : 
 
 i. By changing the vowel sound : as, 
 
 Prim. word. 
 
 Deriv. 
 
 
 
 Prim. WO) 
 
 •d. Deriv. 
 
 Blood, 
 
 Bleed. 
 
 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Gild. 
 
 Chop, 
 
 Chip. 
 
 
 
 Knell, 
 
 Knoll. 
 
 Dhi, 
 
 Dun. 
 
 
 
 Lie, 
 
 I ay. 
 
 Drop, 
 
 Drip, d" 
 
 roop. 
 
 
 Post, 
 
 Roost. 
 
 Fall 
 
 Fell. 
 
 
 
 Rise, 
 
 Raise, rouse. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Flee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii. By changing 
 
 the 
 
 last consonant sound : as, 
 
 Prim, word. 
 
 Deriv, 
 
 
 
 Prim, wot 
 
 d. Deriv. 
 
 Bulk, 
 
 Bulge. 
 
 
 
 Grease, 
 
 Grease. 
 
 Calf, 
 
 CaH-e. 
 
 
 
 Half, 
 
 Halve. 
 
 Clin?, 
 
 Clinch. 
 
 
 
 Price, 
 
 Prize. 
 
 l^og, 
 
 Dodge. 
 
 
 
 Shelf, 
 
 Shelve. 
 
 word. 
 
 Prhn 
 
 Roll, 
 
 Slial-e, 
 
 Sit. 
 
 SniL, 
 
 Sop, 
 
 Prim, word. 
 
 Sooth, 
 
 Stick, 
 
 Thief, 
 
 Wink, 
 
 Deriv 
 
 Reel. 
 
 Shock. 
 
 Set. 
 
 Snuff. 
 
 Sip. 
 
 Deriv. 
 
 Soothe. 
 
 Stitch. 
 
 Tlievc. 
 
 Wince. 
 
112 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 iii. By changing both vowel and consonant sounds : as, 
 
 Prim. word. Dcric. Prim, tvord. Deriv. Prira. word. 
 
 Blink, Blench. Glass, Glaze. Hound, 
 
 Cliiig, Clench. Grass, Graze. Wake, 
 
 Drink, Drench. Hook, liitch. Wriug, 
 
 Drag, DreJgo. 
 
 iv. By prefixing an augment, a.s, s, t, c, g : as, 
 
 Prim. word. 
 
 Dun, 
 
 Knap, 
 
 Lush, 
 Mash, 
 Melt, 
 
 Derir. 
 
 Stun. 
 
 Snap. 
 
 Slash. 
 
 Smash. 
 
 Smelt. 
 
 Prim. v:ord. 
 
 Nip, 
 
 Plash, 
 
 Quash, 
 
 Rob, 
 
 Rumble, 
 
 D riv. 
 
 Snip. 
 
 Splash. 
 
 Squash. 
 
 Crib. 
 
 Grumble. 
 
 Prim. v}ord. 
 
 Rumple, 
 
 Tumble, 
 
 Wag, 
 
 Whirl, 
 
 Wing, 
 
 Deriv. 
 Hunt. 
 Watch. 
 ^Yrench. 
 
 Deriv. 
 Crumple. 
 Stumble. 
 Swag, sway. 
 Swirl, twirl. 
 Swing. 
 
 \j 
 
 Exercise 85. 
 Mention primary derivatives from these Avords : — 
 Boar, say, heat, thief, hook, rob, wing, grass, cool, knit, bite, teU, dig, 
 melt, dog, gold, fall, lie, flit, hold, lose, wake, feed, pride, break. 
 
 Exercise 86. 
 
 With what simple words are the following etymologically connected ? 
 Ditch, w^oof, stumble, s'nock, bliss, seat, gap, splash, strong, wrench, 
 twirl, breach, choice, strife, lot, full, snake, sheen, band, brood, raise, reel, 
 milch, doom, clock. 
 
 Questions on §§ 253—260. 
 
 I. "What is derivation? 2. Classify words as to their structure. 3. What is a 
 primitive word? 4. What are jirimicive words often called? 5. What is a derivative? 
 6. How many kinds of derivatives are there? 7. What is a ja-imary derivative? 8. 
 What is a seconlary derivative? 9. Wliat is a prefix? 10. What is a ^utfix? 11. 
 What is a compound word? 12. How are primary derivative nouns formed? 13. 
 Give examples of each method. 14. How are primary derivative adjeciives formed? 
 15. Give examples of each method. 10. How are primary derivative verbs formed? 
 17. Give examples of each method. 
 
 Chapter II. — Secondary Derivatives. 
 
 261. Prefixes and .suffixes used in English are cliiefiy -of 
 Eivjlish, Latin, or Greek origin. 
 
 262. The English Prefixes are :— 
 
 X A. (O.E. an, on, in), on, out, from : a-foot, a-sliore, an-on, a-bove, 
 a -round, a-rise, a-thwart (on the cross). 
 
 After, folloicing : after-noon. , 
 
 Al, all: al-most, al-together, al-so. 
 
 At, to : atone. 
 
 B3 (O.E. hi/), near, iq)on, over, to make: be-speak, be-dim, be-calm, 
 before, be-dew. 
 
 En, em, to make : en-dear, em-power, en-rich. 
 
 For, through, also denotes op])o^it'ion : for-bid, for-sake, for-swear. 
 
 Fore, before : fore-know, fore-head, fore-noon. 
 
 Gain, againd : gain-say. 
 
 In, in : in-come, in-take, in-step. 
 
 Mid, middle: mid-way. 
 
 Mis, amiss: mis-lead, mi.s-takc, mis-hap. 
 
 Nj not : n-either, n-ever, n-one, n-or. 
 
I 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 113 
 
 Off, away : off-shoot, off-scouring, off-spring. 
 KOut, excelling, beyond : out-bid, out-cry, out-shin 
 
 Over, above: over-hang, over-do, over-flow. 
 
 To, implying addition : to-gether, to-wards. 
 
 To, this : to-day, to-night. 
 
 To, asunder : all to brake his skull ( = quite in pieces brake his skull). 
 
 XJn (before an adjective or adverb), not : un-easy, un-kind, un-safe. 
 
 TJn (before a verb) denotes depy^ivation or reversal : un-furl, un-tie, 
 un-roU. 
 
 Under, beneath : under-ground, under-sell, under-pay. 
 
 Up, upK-ards : up-raise, up-cast, up hold. 
 
 With., against, from, back: with-stand, with-draw. 
 
 Exercise 87. 
 
 Mention each prefix, and give its meaning :— 
 Withhold, to-morrow, unhappy, mislead, instep, never, outdo, overthrow, 
 uproar, enable, forlorn, foreshew, benight, beside, aboard, together, un- 
 loose, underhand, bedizen, midshipman. 
 
 263. The Latin Prefixes are :- 
 
 ^ 
 
 A, ab, abs,/ro??i.' a-vert, ab-sorb, abs-ti'act. 
 
 I Ad (a, ac, af, ag, al, am, an, ap, ar, as, at), to : ad-mit, a-scend, ac-cede, 
 af-tirm, ag-gravate, al-lude, am-munition, an-nounce, ap-ply, ar-rest, 
 as-sume, at-tend. 
 Am (amb), on both sides, round : am-putate, amb-ition. 
 Ante (anti), before : ante-date, ante-chamber, anticipate. 
 Bene, ivell : bene-f actor. 
 ".-p-Bis, twice ; bi (bin), two : bi-ped, bis-cuit, bin-ocular. 
 Circum (circu), round: circum-scribe, circu-it. 
 Cis, on this side of: cis-alpine. 
 
 Con (co, cog, col, com, cor), together : con-tend, co-equal, cog-nate, 
 col-lect, cora-pute, cor-rupt. 
 
 Contra (contro, Fr. counter), against: contra-diet, contro-vert, 
 counter-part. 
 
 De, doivn,frmyi: de-scend. 
 Demi, haf: demi-god. 
 T Dis (di, dif), asunder : dis-miss, di-vide, dif-fer. 
 Eqni, equally : equi distant. 
 
 Ex (e, ec, ef), out of: ex-press, e-ject, ec-centric, ef-flux. 
 Extra, beyond : extra-ordinary. 
 
 In (il, im, "ir), before a verb, into : in-clude, il-lume, im-plore, ir-rigatc. 
 yin (ig, il, im, ir), before an adjective, not: in-firm, ig-noble, il-legal, 
 im-pure, irresolute. 
 
 Inter (intel, Fr. enter), between, among: inter-rupt, intel-lect, en- 
 ter-prise. 
 Intra, ivithin : intra-mural. 
 Intro, within: intro-duce. 
 Juxta, nigh to : juxta-position. 
 Male (raal), ill : male-ficent, mal-treat. 
 Non, not : non-juror, non-existent. 
 
 Ob (o, oc, of, op, or), against : ob-taiu, o-mit, oc-cur, of-fer, op-press, 
 os-tensible. 
 
 8 
 
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Per (pel, pol, Fr. par), throufjh : per-mit, pel-lucid, pol-lute, par-don. 
 Post, after: post-script, puny (Fr. puind, O.Fr. puis-ne, Lat post 
 
 natus). 
 
 Prae (pre), before : pre-scribe. 
 
 Praeter (preter), beside, contrary to : preter-rait. 
 
 Pro (Fr. por, pur, pour), before, for : pro-long, por-tray or pour-tray, 
 
 pur-chase. 
 
 He (red), back, again : re-move, red-eem. 
 
 Retro, backward: retro-spect. 
 
 Se (sed), apart: se-cede, sed-ition. 
 
 Semi, half: semi-breve. 
 
 Sine (sim, sin), without: sine-cure, sim-ple, sm-cere. 
 
 Sub (su, sue, suf, sug, sup, sur, sus), vnder : sub-ject, su-speet. suc-ceed. 
 suf-fice, sug-gest, sup-port, sur-reptitious, sus-pend. 
 
 Subter, beneath : subter-fuge. 
 
 Super (Fr. sur), over : super-scribe, sur-vive. 
 
 Supra, above : supra-mundane. 
 
 Trans (tra, Fr. tres), ao^oss : trans-port, tra-duce, tres-pass. 
 
 Ultra, beyond : ultra -marine. 
 
 Vice (vis), in place of: vice-roy, vis-count. 
 
 Exercise 88. 
 
 Mention each prefix, and give its meaning :— 
 Antecedent, postpone, retrieve, retrograde, submit, adduce, percussion, 
 circumference, semitone, transmit, extravagant, construct, equilateral, 
 preface, preternatural, ultramontane, simple, progress, _ subterranean, 
 suppress, explore, interjection, contravene, benediction, dissolve, infuse, 
 inclement, intromit, bisect, obstruct, ambient, abdicate. 
 
 264. The Greek Prefixes are :— 
 
 Amphi, both : amphi-bious. ' 
 
 An (a, am), not : an-archy, a-^athy, am-brosial. "•= 
 
 Ana, up : ana-logy. ■ . ' 
 
 Anti (ant), against : anti-pathy, ant-agonist. 
 
 Apo (aph), /;-om; apo-stle, aph-orism. / , 
 
 Arcli, head: arch-angel, -l-^ , 
 
 Auto, self : auto-graph. [* ■ ' 
 
 Cata (cat, cath), down : ca^-ract, cat-echism, cath-edrrX 
 
 Dia (di), through :■•' dx^-xaetQT, di-orama. 
 
 Dys, ill : dys-pepsia. 
 
 En (el, em), in: en-demic, el-lipsis, em-blem. 
 
 Epi (ep, eph), upon : epi-demic, ep-och, eph-emeral. 
 
 Eu (ev), well : eu-phony, cv-angelist. 
 
 Ex (ec), out, from : ex-odus, ec-ctasy. 
 
 Hemi, half : hemi-sphere. 
 
 Hetero, different : hetero-geneous. 
 
 Homo, the same : homogeneous. 
 
 Hyper, over : hyperbolical. 
 
 Hypo (hyph), under: hypo-thesis, hyph-en. 
 
 Meta (met, meth), change : mcta-phor, mct-on}any, meth-od. 
 
 Mono (mon), alone: mono-tone, mon-arch. 
 
 Pan, cdl : pan-theon. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. Ill) 
 
 Para (par), beside : para-ble, par-allel. 
 
 Peri, around : peri-meter, 
 
 Philo (phil), loving : philo-sophy, phil-anthropy. 
 
 Poly, ma)i>j : poly-syllable. 
 
 Pro, before : pro-gramme. 
 
 Pros, towards : prosody. 
 
 Pseudo,/a/.sc .• pseudo-nym. 
 
 Syn (sy, syl, sym), ivith : syn-tax, sy-stem, syl-lable, sym-pathy. 
 
 Exercise 89. 
 
 Mention each prefix, and give its meaning : — 
 Synthesis, amphitheatre, hypocrite, metamorphosis, philology, po]3gon, 
 monogram, anomaly, pantheist, prologue, apology, diagram, autocrat, 
 anatomy, architect, catastrophe, dysentery, antipodes, emphasis, entliusiasm, 
 hemistich, eulogy, heterodox, proselyte, pseudo-apostle, period, paradox, 
 metaphysics, hypocritical, homologoias. 
 
 Exercise 90. 
 
 Mention each prefix, give its meaning, and say from what language 
 it is derived : — 
 Offal, perijDatetic, evangelist, ultra-liberal, awake, extract, exodus, 
 antarctic, archbishop, mislead, semitone, depart, almost, unwise, parody, 
 superstructure, dishonoiu-, overhear, withdraw, irregulax^, ellipsis, diamicter, 
 sustain, surpass, forswear, foretell, malefactor, nonsense, purvey, advance, 
 beneath, differ, automaton, traverse, counterfeit. 
 
 265. The English Suffixes of Nouns are :— 
 
 i. Denoting agent or doer : — 
 
 ar : beg-g-ar, li-ar. 
 
 er : read-er, paint-er, talk-er, spid-er ( = spinner). 
 or : sail- or, tail-or. 
 yer, ier : law-yer, saw-yer, cloth-ier. 
 en (feminine) : vix-eu. 
 
 ard, art : slug-g-ard, drunk-ard, brag-g-art, wiz-ard, lag-g-ard, 
 ster, properly feminine, as, spin-ster ; but noAV used as masculine, as, 
 pun-ster, web-ster ( = weaver). 
 
 man : wood-man, sword-s-man, sport-s-man. 
 woman, maid : fish-woman, milk-maid. 
 ther, ter : bro-ther, daugh-ter. 
 ward, keeper : bear-ward, hay-ward. 
 
 ii. Denoting abstract ideas, as, state, quality, action, being, 
 condition, etc. :— 
 
 craft : priest-craft, wood-craffc, witch-craft. 
 
 dom : king-dom, martyr-dom, thral-dom, hali-dom (holy state), earldom, 
 ship, scape: hard-ship, friend-ship, wor-ship ( = worth-ship), land- 
 scape. 
 
 hood : man-hood, hardi-hood, girl-hood, 
 head (==hood) : God-head. 
 kind : man-kind, woman-kind. 
 riess : dark-ness, white-ness, good-ness. 
 
 8—2 
 
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 th : leng th (from long), mir-th (fr. merry), dea-th (fr. die), tru-th (fr. 
 true), steal-th, dear-th, heal-th, fil-th (fr. file in de-file), streng-th (fr. 
 strong), slo-th (fr. slow), bir-th fr. bear), ear-th (fr. ear, to plough). 
 
 t, passive, that icldch is made or done: sigh-t (fr. see), fiigh-t, heigh-t, 
 weigh-t, wef-t (fr. weave), drif-t (fr. drive), gif-t, clef-t. 
 
 y: beggar-y. 
 
 ery : raock-ery, cook-ery, brav-ery. 
 
 ry (collective) : husband ry, fiue-ry, chival-ry. 
 
 try : pan-tx*y (a place for bread, Fr. pain). 
 
 ric : bishop-rio. 
 
 ter : langh-ter, slaugh-ter (fr. slay). 
 
 red : hat-red, kin-d-red. 
 
 lock : wed-lock. 
 
 ledge : know-ledge. 
 
 ing" (O.E. uiig) : read-ing, writ-ing. 
 
 age (properly of French origin) : bond-age, till-age. 
 
 iii. Denoting diminution, i.e., a smaller form or less degree 
 of an object or quality : — 
 
 ock : hill-ock, bull-ock, Poll-oclc (fr. Paul). 
 
 ie,'*^ y : bird-ie, lass-ie, Will-ie, Ann-ie, bab-y. 
 
 kin : lamb-kin, fir-kin (fr. four, a firkin being one-fourth of a barrel), 
 bump-kin, bus-kin, pip-kin (fr. pipe), man-ni-kin, Wat-kin, Simp-kin 
 (fr. Samuel), Peter-kin, Haw-kin (fi*. Hal, Harry), Wil-kin. 
 
 ing : farth-ing (fr. fourth), tith-ing, Rid-iiig (fr. thrid = third). 
 
 ling' : dar-ling (fr. dear), gos-ling (fr. goose), duck-ling, found-ling. 
 Ground-ling, hire-ling, Avorld-ling have a depreciative sense. 
 
 et : pock-et, lock-et, hatch-et, thick-et, niall-et, latch-et, cask-et. 
 
 let : ring-let, stream-let, brook-let, leaf-let. 
 
 iv. Denoting instrument or means by which something is 
 
 done : — 
 
 le : gird-le, hand-le, thimb-le (fr. thumb), f^piu-d-le, set-t-le. 
 el : satch-el (fr. sack), shov-el, swivel, tram-ra-el. 
 er, r : fing-er (fr. fang, to take), lai-r (fr. lie), wat-er (fr. wet). 
 ther, ter, der : fea-ther, mur-der, rud-der. 
 
 V. Forming patronymics, i.e., words denoting sonship or 
 descent : — 
 
 ing : Athel-ing, Elis-ing, and in names of places and persons. 
 son : John-son, Wil-son, Thom-son. 
 
 266. iN'ouns are also formed by the suffixes : — 
 
 d : see-d (fr. sow), cu-d (fr. chew), for-d (far.an, to go). 
 k: haw-k, mil-k, yol-k {i.e., yel-k, fr. yellow). 
 m ; bloo-m (fr. blow), sea-m (fr. sew), qual-m (fr. quail). 
 OW : shad-ow (fr. shade), mead-ow. 
 
 en, n: ward-en, maid-en, hcav-en. Ciiick-en (chick = cock) and 
 kit-ten (lcit-=cat) are diminutives. 
 
 * in io Lowlaud ycotcli. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 1 1 7 
 
 ^ E5fell75ls'E^ 91. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Napkin, darknessi, sailor, songster, wisdom, width, sight, wilding, cliicken, 
 hatchet, ringlet, bloom, girdle, helnisman, lordship, sluggard, mockery, 
 hatred, walking, firkin, \vedlock, hillock, pantry, knowledge, stealth. 
 
 267. The English Suffixes of Adjectives are :- 
 
 i. Denoting quality : — 
 
 like : lady-like, war-like. 
 
 ly, like : gentleman ly, king-ly, man-ly, spright-ly. 
 able, ible (properly, Latin), may or can be : eat-able, drink-able, 
 ish, rather so : thiev-ish, girl-ish, whit-ish. 
 less, negative, void of : law-less, sense-less. 
 ful, having or full of: fear-ful, fruit-ful, hope-ful. 
 
 some, partaking of a quality . tire-some, hand-some, buxom (-=buck- 
 .some), irk-some. 
 
 y, pertaining to: might-y, head-y, storm-y. 
 
 ey, abounding in : clay-ey. 
 
 er : clev-er, bitt-er ^fr. bite). 
 
 fast : stead-fast, sooth-fast, shame-fast (written "shame-faced"). 
 
 le : litt-le, britt-le, id-le. 
 
 ing", participial adjective active : pleas-ing, trutli-tell-ing. 
 
 ed, participial adjective passive : wretch-ed, rag-g-ed, neat handed. 
 
 en, participial adjective passive : molt-en, drunk-en, forlor-n, tor-n. 
 
 ii. Denoting material : — 
 
 en, 7nade of: lead-en, gold-en, leather-n. 
 
 iii. Denoting number :— 
 
 teen, ten: four-teen = four + ten. 
 tb. : four-th, seven-th, nin-th, etc., ordinal numerals. 
 ty, ten: for-ty, seven- ty, nine-ty, etc., cardinal numerals. 
 fold : four-fold, seven-fold, mani-fold. 
 
 iv. Denoting place or direction : — 
 
 ern : north-ern, south-ern. 
 
 erly : north-erly, south-erly. 
 
 ward : down-ward, north-ward, fro-ward, awk-ward (awk -= left). 
 
 Obs.—The suffix /««« occurs in stead-fast. 
 
 Exercise 92. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Godlike, easterly, tenth, upward, dewy, cloud-compelling, frolicsome, 
 lovely, fifty, sixteen, truthful, blackish, houseless, booted, fordable, tenfold, 
 silvern, silvery, steadfast, woodtn, tearful, hilly, winsome, f reward, ninety. 
 
 268. The English Suffixes of Verbs are :— 
 
 i. Denotins; to maJce : — 
 
 en : weak-en, strength-en, darken, dead-en, swcct-en. 
 
 se : clean-se, rin-se. 
 
118 ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 
 
 isli : biirn-ish, fin-ish. 
 
 y : wor-r-y (fr. Avear), sul-l-y (fr. soil). 
 
 ii. Forming frequentatives, or words denoting the repetition 
 of an act, and hence a habit or occupation : — 
 
 k : tal-k (fr. tell), har-k (fr. hear), stal-k (fr. steal). 
 
 le : hand-le, start-le, strag-g-le (fr. stray), wad-d-le (fr. wade), nib-b-le 
 (fr. nip), criim-ble, crack-le, throt-t-le (fr. throat). 
 
 1, after a vowel or r : knee-1, draw-1, snar-1 (fr, sneer). 
 
 er : glim-m-er (fr. gleam), wand-er (fr. wend), frit-t-er (fr. fret), stag-g-er, 
 clamb-er, shiv-er, ling-er (fr. long). 
 
 on : reck-on, blaz-on, beck-on. 
 
 om, m : bloss-om (fr. blush), glea-m (fr. glow). 
 
 Exercise 93. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Dibble, kneel, falter, shiver, gleam, worry, cleanse, weaken, beckon, 
 wander, talk. 
 
 269. The English Saifixes of Advei^s are :— 
 
 i. Denoting manner : — 
 
 ly, like : bad-ly, wise-ly. 
 
 way, ways : al-ways. 
 
 v/ise : other- wise, like-wise. 
 
 long' : head-long. 
 
 s, properly a genitive ending : beside-s, need-s, while-s, hereabout-s. 
 
 ii. Denoting time : — 
 
 ce : on-ce, twi-ce. 
 
 times : four-times, some-times, often-times. 
 
 st : whil-st. Compare the prepositions amomi-st, amidst. The st is 
 properly the superlative affix. 
 
 om, properly a dative ending . whil-om, seld-om. 
 n : whe-n, the-n. 
 
 iii. Denoting place :— 
 
 ward : for-ward. 
 
 wards : back-wards. 
 
 re, at or in (rest) : he-re, the-re, whe-re. 
 
 nee, from (motion) : he-nce, the-ncc, whe-nce. 
 
 ther, to (motion) : hi-ther, thi-ther, whi-ther. 
 
 Exercise 91. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and gi\'e its meaning : — 
 Badly, seldom, hither, straightway, nowise, hithcrward, sidelong, besides, 
 where, once, whilst, hence. 
 
 270. The Latin Suffixes of Nouns are :— 
 
 i. Denoting agent or person : — 
 
 an, ain : artis-an, vill-ain. 
 
 ate : advoc-ate, cur-ate. 
 
 tor, sor : ac-tor, execu-tor, spon-sor. 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 110 
 
 trix, tress : execu-trix, moni-tress. 
 
 ant, ent, participial ending : defend-ant, leg-ent 
 
 eer, ier : chariot-eer, cash-ier. 
 
 ee, -person acted upon : legatee. 
 
 ive, pcr.'^oii acted tipon : capt-ive. 
 
 iff: caitiff, plaint-iff. 
 
 ary, a crajftsman : statu-ary, lapidary. 
 
 ii. Denoting abstract ideas : — 
 
 age, act of doing, thing done, also state: pass-age, parentage. 
 
 ion : opin-ion, domin-ion. 
 
 tion, sion, state of: mo-tion, acces-sion. 
 
 ment : move-ment.. discern-ment. 
 
 t, te, thing done : fac-t, jes-t, effec-t, da-te, 
 
 ty, ity : pover-ty, dign-ity. 
 
 tude : forti-tude, grati-tude. 
 
 our, or : hon-our, ard-our, err-or. 
 
 y : miser-y. 
 
 cy : clemen-cy, secre-cy. 
 
 ce : justi-ce. 
 
 ure : verd-ure, cult-iire. 
 
 ture, sure : pic-ture, era-sure. " 
 
 ance, ence, verbal-noun endings : abund-ance, vigil-ance, pres-ence. 
 
 lence : pesti-lence. 
 
 escence, growing more and more so : incand-escence, putr-escence. 
 
 cy, office or state : cura-cy, magistra-cy. 
 
 mony : patri-mony, matri-mony. 
 
 and, end, gerundial siiffixes : vi-and, leg-end. 
 
 iii. Denoting place : — 
 
 ary, place for or collection of: libr-ary, gran-ary. 
 tory, place for doing : donni-tory. 
 
 iv. Formin2; diminutives : — 
 
 icle : cubicle. 
 ule : glob-ule. 
 cule : animal-cule. 
 culum : animal-culum 
 cle, le : corpu£-cle, circ-le. 
 el : lib-el, chap-el. 
 et : lanc-et. 
 aster : poet-aster. 
 
 V. Denotino- instrument : — 
 
 o 
 tre : sceptre, 
 chre : sepul-chre. 
 bule, ble : vesti-bule, sta-ble 
 cle : vehi-cle. 
 brum : candela-brum. 
 ment : cape-ment. 
 
 Ohs.—Om in laU-oon is an augmentative ending, since it implies a larger form or 
 higher degree. 
 
120 ENGLISH GRAMMA r. 
 
 Exercise 95. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Courage, endurance, occasion, matrimony, vehicle, particle, globule, 
 grandeur, sceptre, culture, secrecy, plaintiff, mortgagee, sponsor, ad 
 ministratrix, dignity, labour, discretion, opinion, chapel. 
 
 271. The Latin Suffixes of Adjectives are :— 
 
 i. Denoting quality : — 
 
 al, belonging to : leg-al, reg-al. 
 
 an, ain : hum-an, cert-ain. 
 
 ian : Christ-ian. 
 
 ane, ene, ine : mundane, terrene, femin-ine. 
 
 ic, ical : civ-ic, naut-ical. 
 
 ique : un-ique, obl-ique. 
 
 esque : pictur-esque. 
 
 able, ible, that may or can he : port-able, ed-ible. 
 
 il, ile, tile : civ-il, serv-ile, vola-tile. 
 
 ar : sol-ar. 
 
 ary : auxili-ary. 
 
 ous, full of : copi-ous. 
 
 OSe : verb-ose, grandi-ose. 
 
 aceous, acious : crust-aceous, viv-acious. 
 
 tory, sory : araa-tory, cur-sory. 
 
 id : ferv-id, tim-id, horr-id, ac-id. 
 
 ive, tivG, sive : express-ive, captive, pen-sive. 
 
 ate : consider-ate, sed-ate. 
 
 ferous, hearing: somni-ferous, carboni-ferous, 
 
 cuiid : jo-cund, rubi-cund. 
 
 fic, making: terri-fic, horri-fic. 
 
 bund : mori-bund. 
 
 ant, ent, participial endings : eleg-ant, flu-ent. 
 
 olent, full of: vi-olent. 
 
 ulent : turb-ulent. 
 
 escent, growing more and more : conval-escent. 
 
 and, end, that must he : multiplic-and, divid-end (used as nouns). 
 
 cndous ( = end-ous) : stup-endous, trem-endous. 
 
 ii. Denoting material : — 
 
 ine : sal-ine. 
 
 eons : lign-eous, vitr-eous. 
 
 iii. Denoting degree : — 
 
 ior, comparative ending : super-ior, infer-ioi*, jun-ior. 
 me, superlative ending : supre me, extre-me. 
 
 iv. Denoting number : — 
 
 pie : sim-ple, tri-ple. 
 ble : dou-ble. 
 
 Exercise 96. 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meanhig : 
 Rampant, equal, honorary, desolate, fa\ourable, picturesque, servile, 
 glorious, simple, jocose. Christian, extreme, turbulent, timid, solar, 
 inoribund, fluent, miique, cursory, saline. 
 
I 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 1:71 
 
 272. The Latin Suffixes of Verbs are :— 
 
 i. Denoting to maJce : — 
 
 fy : magni-fy, grati-fy, fructi-fy. 
 
 ite : exped-ite. 
 
 ate : hesit-ate, vac-ate. 
 
 it : ed-it, cred-it, aud-it. 
 
 ii. Denotinir to become more and more: — 
 
 o 
 
 esce : coal-esce. 
 
 Exercise 97. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Alienate, simplify, terminate, facilitate, expedite, credit, horrify, edit, 
 coalesce, limit, 
 
 273. The Greek Suffixes of Nouns are :— 
 
 i. Denoting agent or person : — 
 
 t : prophe-t. 
 
 te : athle-te. 
 
 ist : soph-ist, botan-ist. 
 
 cian : physi-cian, mechani-cian. 
 
 ine : hero-ine. 
 
 ite : Israel-ite. 
 
 ii. Denoting abstract ideas : — ^xjc 
 
 sm, asm, ism : cha sm, pleon-asm, soph -ism. 
 
 m.a : panora-ma, 
 
 sis, )irocess (Norman-French sy) : cri-sis, empha-sis, drop-sy. C)^ 
 
 ad : Ili-ad. 
 
 id : yEne-id. 
 
 y, e : eulog-y, monarch-y, epitom-e, catastropn^e. 
 
 ic, ics, tic, tics : rhetor-ic, eth-ics, arithme-tic, sta^tios. 
 
 iii. Forming diminutives ; — • 
 isk : aster-isk, obel-isk, i^/\. 
 
 iv. Denoting place : — v 
 tery : baptis-tery, monas-tery. 
 
 Exercise 98. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Music, magnetism, monarchy, basilisk, analyst, monastery, tnad, 
 diorama, djTiamics, athlete, politician, etymology. 
 
 274. The Greek Suffixes of Adjectives are :— 
 
 i. Denoting quality : — 
 
 ic : angel-ic, hieroglyph-ic. 
 
 ical (Gr. ic, Lat. al) : mechan-ical, polem-ical, 
 
 idal : pyramidal. 
 
 iac : demon iac. 
 
122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 tic, tical: splene-tic, splene-tical. ^ - 
 
 stic, stical : pla-stic, sophi-stical, 
 
 oid, oidal, resembling inform or character : spher-oid, spber-oidal. 
 
 ii. Denoting material : — 
 
 ine : cedr-ine. 
 
 Exercise 99. 
 
 Mention each suffix, and give its meaning : — 
 Harmonic, maniac, C3'cloidal, elastic, mimic, practical, petrine, didactic, 
 oligarchical, rhomboidal. 
 
 275. The Greek Suffix of Verbs is :- 
 
 ize, to make : bapt-ize, critic -ize, botan-ize. 
 
 Exercise 100. 
 
 Mention each suffix, give its meaning, and say from vv^hat language 
 it is derived : — 
 Botanize, perambulate, linger, magnify, drunkard, argillaceous, arith- 
 metical, ligneous, ragged, verbose, agitate, angelic, triad, sanctimony, 
 trustee, laughter, obelisk, lassie, iDrewster, anatomy, hatred, politician, 
 barrister, sophist, shepherdess, secretary, cleanse, creation, laboratory, 
 sully, destructive, analysis, delicacy, finery, bondage, bishopric, oration, 
 panorama, pestiferous, legible, aneurism, wealth, flood, lambkin, rubescent, 
 pyramidal, fertile, lively, southward, glimmer, canine, cedrine, marine, 
 fervid, wooden, patient, lov/er, consolatoi-y, valour, duckling. 
 
 Chapter III. — Compound Words. 
 
 276. In most compound words the second word indicates 
 the genus or cLxss, and the first word the species or the 
 quahty that distinguishes the object denoted by the compound 
 from the class : thus, cornfield means a particular kind of fields 
 viz., one that grows corn. 
 
 277. The accent is placed upon the first or defining word : 
 as, bdchUte, outlet, Idndhreeze. 
 
 I. Compound Nouns. 
 
 278. Compound Nouns consist of : — 
 
 1. A noun preceded by a noun: as, servant-man, onoonlight, railway, 
 
 man-eater, torchlight, dayatar, paper-cajo, bookcase, shoemaker, steamboat. 
 
 0!)^. — This is the largest class. Sometimes a geuitive case ending occurs : as, cra/ls- 
 mayi, herdsman, co.I.'Ukw. 
 
 2. A noun preceded by an adjective : as, quicksilver, freeman, nobleman, 
 blackbird, bluebell, halfpenny. 
 
 3. A noun preceded by a transitive verb : as, daredevil, spitfire, pick- 
 pocket, turnspit, mab shift, catchpenny, j^stime (-= pass-time), tell-tale. 
 
 Obi. — The verb governs the noun. 
 
 4. A verb preceded by a noun : as, godsend, windfall. 
 
 5. A nomi preceded by a gerund : as^ turning -lathe, spinning-jenny, 
 riding-habit. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 123 
 
 6. A noun preceded by an adverb : as, foreknowledge, afterthought, by- 
 laic, hf/-u:ord, ofi'iet, onset, inroad. 
 
 7. A noun preceded by a preposition : as, forenoon, afternoon, 
 
 8. A verb preceded by an adverb : as, lodcome, inlet. 
 
 9. An adjective preceded by a noun : as, court-martial, knight-errant, 
 Theatre-Roy cd, Prince- Regent. 
 
 10. A phrase : s^%, ne^er-do-well, forget-me-not, hearsay, standstill. 
 
 Exercise 101. 
 
 Divide each compound, say of what pai-ts of speech it is composed, and 
 give its meaning : thus, 
 
 Tea — a noun "I , «••••. 
 
 cr /-tea-spoon = a spoon for stirrmcj tea. 
 
 bpoon — a noun j ^ ^ » r 
 
 Farm-yard, bookstand, bread-basket, freeman, spendthrift, breakfast, 
 foresight, by-lane, welcome, holdfast, errand-boy, racehorse, thoroughfare, 
 riding- whip, afterthought, stopgap, bluebeard, quicksilver, outlet, cousin- 
 german. 
 
 II. Compound Adjectives. 
 
 279. Componnd Adjectives consist of : — 
 
 1. An adjective preceded by a noun : as, snoiv-wMte, hlood-red, ice-cold, 
 coal-black, aidde-deep, foot-sore, nut-broion. 
 
 2. An adjective preceded by an adjective : as, blue-black, yelloivish- 
 ivhife, blue-green. 
 
 3. An adjective preceded by an adverb : as, all-powcrfuJ, over-strict, 
 non-resident, up-right. 
 
 4. An incomplete participle preceded by an adjective or adverb : as, all- 
 seeing, all-ruling, soft-flowing, fast-sailing, r)ierry-')naUng. 
 
 5. A com-plete participle preceded by an adjective or adverb : as, new- 
 born, free-sjooken, dear-bought, fresh-made, over-fed, inbred, new-laid. 
 
 6. An incomplete participle preceded by a noun : as, fruit-bearing, music- 
 making, tale-bearing, time-serving, truth-telling, heart-rending. 
 
 7. A complete participle preceded by a noun : as, heaven-born, bed' 
 ridden, blood-stained, tempest-tossed. 
 
 280. Many adjectives are at once compound and derived. 
 They are usually formed by adding d or ed to compounds made 
 
 ; \\^ of — 
 
 1. A noun preceded by a noun : as, iceb-footed, iron- jointed, ox-eyed. 
 
 2. A noun preceded by an adjective : as, white-robed^ blue-eyed, long- 
 legged. 
 
 Exercise 102. 
 Divide each compound, say of what parts of speech it is composed, 
 and give its meaning : — 
 
 Sky-blue, fair-haired, heart-rending, all-powerful, full-blown, ell-long, 
 1^ close-grained, underdone, homebound, full-eared, long-necked, grass-green, 
 K well-built. 
 
 i in. Compound Pronouns. 
 
 281. Compound Pronouns consist of : — 
 
 1. The word self preceded by a personal pronoun : as, myself, thyself 
 
124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. The word own preceded by a personal pronoun : as, my oivn, thy own 
 (§ 80). 
 
 O/js.— These compounds are always written as separate words. 
 
 3. The words so, ever, or so-ever preceded by a relative or interrogative 
 pronoun : as, whoso, whoever, irhosotver (§§ 83, 85). 
 
 N.B. — The compound relative what is compound in nieaning but not in 
 
 form. 
 
 Exercise 103, 
 
 Divide each compound into its separate parts : — 
 Himself, her own, whatsoever, whoso, tlieir own, thyself, one's own, 
 themselves, whichever, whoever. 
 
 IV. Compound Verbs. 
 
 282. Compound Verbs consist of : — 
 
 1. A verb preceded by an adverb: SiS, foretell, otifclo, undervalue, over- 
 throw. 
 
 06s.— Akin to this class are preposition-verbs : as, to laugh-at, to swerve-from, etc. 
 
 2. A verb preceded by a noun : as, top-dress, henpeck, browbeat. 
 
 3. A verb preceded by an adjective : as, rough-hew. 
 
 Exercise 104. 
 Divide each compound, say of what parts of speech it is composed, and 
 give its meaning : — 
 
 Overlap, backbite, whitewash, ianderstate, waylay, foretell. 
 
 V. Compound Adverbs. 
 
 283. Compound Adverbs consist of : — 
 
 1. A preposition preceded by an adverb : as, therefrom, whereby, here- 
 upon, forthivUh. 
 
 2. An adverb preceded by an adverb : as, thereabout, thenceforward. 
 
 3. An adverb preceded by an adjective : as, somehow, someichere, any- 
 where, also, everywhere. 
 
 4. A noun preceded by a noun : as, piecemeal, sideways, lenrfthways. ^ 
 
 5. A noun preceded by an adjective : as, straiyhtway, novnse, othe noise, 
 yesterday, meamvhi'e. 
 
 6. A noun preceded by a preposition : as, indeed, indoors, upstairs, for- 
 sooth. 
 
 Oi.v.— Akin to these are such words as pcradventure, 2)eyho2'>s. 
 
 7. An abbreviated phrase : as, head-foremost ( = head being foremost). 
 Oba. 1.— JIany compound adverbs are formed from compound adjectives by adding 
 
 Jy: as, Ic/t-hfinilnlli/. 
 
 ' Obs. '2.— Many adverbial phrases, of which the component words are written sepa- 
 rately, are treated as compound adverbs (S 170). 
 
 Exercise 105. 
 Divide each compound, say of what parts of speech it is composed, and 
 give its meaning : — 
 
 Always, sometimc.=!, meanwhile, downstairs, henceforward, heretofore, 
 lengthways, thereupon, nowhere, hereby. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 125 
 
 VI. Compound Prepositions. 
 
 284. Compound Prepositions consist of : — 
 
 1. A preposition preceded by a preposition : as, i77(o, ttj)on, within, 
 
 2. A noun preceded by a piepot-ition : as, inside. 
 
 3. A phrase : as, according to, by means of (§ 178). 
 
 Exercise 106. 
 
 Divide each compoimd and tay of what parts of speech it consists : — 
 Inside, into, underneath, thioiighoiit, withoiit, owing to, upon, wiihin. 
 
 VII. Compound Conjunctions. 
 
 285. Compound Conjunctions consist of : — 
 
 1. A noun preceded by an adjective : as, Ul:eicise, othericise. 
 
 2. An adverb preceded by an adverb : as, moreover, whenever, hoicever, 
 whereas. 
 
 3. A preposition preceded by an adverb : as, wherefore, therifore, 
 whereafter, ivhereat, ivherehy. 
 
 4. A conjunction preceded by an adjective : as, although. 
 
 5. An abbreviated phrase : as, albeit, howbeif, nevertheless, notwith- 
 standing. 
 
 N.B. — Many compound conjunctions have their parts written as separate 
 words : as, according as, as soon as, etc. (§§ 187, 190). 
 
 EXEECISE 107. 
 
 Divide each compound, and say of what parts of speech it consists : — 
 Furthermore, whereupon, likewise, wherein, moreover, wherewith, 
 howbeit, nevertheless, how^ever, albeit. 
 
 VIII. Disguised Compounds.^ f 
 
 ''286. Many words, really compounds, do not appear to be 
 
 such. In others the component parts are difficult to recognise. 
 
 Such are the following : — 
 
 Apricot, formerly "apricock," Fr, ahricot, Lat. [malum) j^Taecox, 
 early ripe (apple) ; as, O. E. als, eall-siua, also ; atone, at-one, to cause to 
 be at one ; ballast, O.E. bat-last, boat-load ; bandog", band-dog ; 
 barn, O.E. berern, bere-aern, bere-place or barley-house ; biscuit, Fr. 
 from Lat. bis cocfus, twice cooked ; bridal, bi'ide-ale, bride-feast ; 
 burglar, Fr. burgla'ire, Lat. burgilatro, burg- or house-robber ; cliafier, 
 chapfare, way of bargaining ; constable, Fr. connctahle, Lat. comes 
 stabuli, count of the stable, master of the horse ; cormorant, Fr., Ital. 
 corvo marino, sea-crow ; curfew, Fr. couvre-feu, cover-fire ; daisy, 
 day's eye ; doff, do off ; don, do on ; every, O.E. aefer-aelc, e\er-each ; 
 futtocks, foot-hooks or foot-locks ; garlick, gar leek, spear leek (O.E. 
 gar, a spear) ; goshawk, goose hawk ; gospel, O.E. god-spell, good 
 news ; gossamer, God's summer ; gossip, O.E. god-sib, God-related 
 originally " sponsor " ; groundsel, O.E. griind-sicelige, ground-dwelling 
 plant ; grunsel, O.E. grund-syl, ground-sill, threshold ; halliards 
 or halyards, haul yards ; handsel, O.E. hand-selan, hand-to give ; 
 
126 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 heifer, O.E. hea-fore, stall-cow ; huzzy, O.E. hus-wif, house-wife ; 
 icicle, O.E. u-rikcl, Iximp of ice; jeopardy, Fr. jpi parti, Lat. jocus 
 partUm, a divided game, an even chance ; kerchief, Fr. couvre chej\ 
 cover-head ; lammas, O.E. hlaf-maesse, loaf -mass or feast ; lamprey, 
 Fr. lamproie, Lat. lampetra, lambo-petra, lick-rock ; lapwing, lepe'.ving 
 (from its mode of flight) ; liquorice, Gr. glyhirrhiza, sweet-root ; 
 midriff, O.E. mid-hrij\ mid-body ; neighbour, O.E. neah-bur, near 
 dweller ; nightingale, night .singer ; nostril, nose-thrill, nose-hole ; 
 not, naught, no-aught, not anything; orchard, O.E. ort -yard, root 
 garden ; osprey, Fr. orfrale, Lat. ossifrcuja, bone-breaker ; jporcupine, 
 ital. porcospinoio, Lat. porcus spinosus, thorny^ hog ; porpoise, Ital. 
 porco ^:)6sc6, Lat. porcus-jnscis, hog-fish ; prithee, I pray thee ; 
 quandary, Fr. qiien dirai-je? What shall I say of it? .samphire, 
 Fr. Saint Pierre, the herb of St. Peter ; seaboard, O.E. scauberk, 
 scraper (sharp instrument), to hide ; sheriff, O.E. sclre-gerefa, shire- 
 reeve ; stirrup, O.E. stige-rap, mounting rope ; such, O.E. su-a-Iic, so 
 like ; tadpole, toad head ; vinegar, Fr. viu-aigre, sour wine ; viper, 
 Lat. vipera, for vivi-pera, the bringer forth alive ; walrus, whale horse ; 
 warlock, O.E. icaer-Ioga, treaty breaker ; wassail, O.E. waes hael, be 
 of good health ; which, hwa-Uc, who like, Scotch ichilh ; whiskey, 
 Keltic uisge-beaOm, water of life ; windov/, Icelandic toindanga, wind 
 eye ; woman, O.E. ivijman, wifman. 
 
 Questions on §§ 276—286. 
 
 1. Wliicli part of a compound indicates the genus? 2. "Which part indicates the 
 species? 3. Where is the accent placed in a compound ? 4. Of what parts of speech 
 do compound nouns consist? 5. Of what do comijound adjectives cousis'- ? (3. Show 
 how adjectives may be at once compound and derived. 7. Of what do compound 
 pronouns consist? S. Of what do compound verbs consist? 0. Of what do compound 
 adverbs consist? 10. Of what do compound i)repo.sitions consist ? 11. Of what do 
 compound conjunctions consist? 12. Give a list of disguised compounds. 
 
 Chapter IY.— Old English Words. 
 
 287- The principal words in the oldest form of the English 
 language from which modern English words are taken are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Ac, OH oaJc : acorn, barnacle, Auckland. 
 
 Acan, to feel pain : ache. 
 
 Acsian, to as/c : ask. 
 
 Adl, disease: addled. 
 
 iEcer, a field : acre. 
 
 Aefen, ei-en : eventide. 
 
 Aefre, always : ever, every. 
 
 Aelc, eacA .■ every = ever-each. 
 
 Aelmesse, alms : alms. 
 
 /Er, before: ere, early, or.«t, or. 
 
 Aerian, to plough : ear. 
 ^1 Acsc, ash : Ascot, Es -combe, Ashby. 
 
 Aes-cc, embers : a-shcs. 
 
 Aespen, a kind of poplar : a.«pcn. 
 
 Aestpornan, to kick : spurn. 
 
 Aethelo, noble : Atheling, Ethelbert. 
 
 Aetwitan, to reproach : twit. 
 . Afjan, to possess (past, alite) : own, ought. 
 > Aht, anylhinfi : aught, naught. 
 
 An, ony.: an, a, any, only. 
 
 Ancleow, the joining of the foot and leg: 
 
 ankle. 
 Andswerian, to reply : answer. 
 Angel, hook : angle. 
 Appel, apple : apple. 
 .\rcwe, arroic : arrow. 
 Arm, arm : armlet. 
 
 Aasa, ass.- Compare Gcr. csel, Lat. asinus. 
 Ata, oat : oats. 
 Ath, swearinij: oath. 
 Ba, iftc tik-o : both. 
 
 Uacan, to bake : bacon, batch, imbiiked. 
 Baec, back: backbite, backwards, aback. 
 Bajlg, a hirg : belly, bellows, bilge, bulge, 
 
 billow. 
 Baer, hare: barefoot, barefaced, barely. 
 ^JJaest, inner bark : bast. 
 Baetan, to rein in : 1)it (for horses). 
 B;it;th, a lath : Bath, bathe. 
 Bald, brave: bold, Ethclbald, Baldwin. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 127 
 
 bane, ratsbane, hen- , 
 
 Ban, a lone : bone. 
 Bana, death, killer 
 
 bane. 
 Banc, a seat : bench. 
 Bar, a boar : boar. 
 Bat, a boat : boatswain. 
 Beajftan, behind : abaft. 
 Bca'iU, bale: baleful. 
 Beam, a tree, anything in a straifjht liae : 
 
 beam, hornbeam, sunbeam, Banipton. 
 Bean, a bean : bean. 
 Beam, a child : bairn. 
 Beatan (past, beot), to beat : batter, beetle. 
 Bccuman, to happen : become. 
 Bed, bed: bedridden, bedstead. 
 Bed, a^jirayi'V, from bidden, tox)ray : bedes- 
 man, bead. < 
 :^hofian, to reqmre : behove. 
 
 ieodan, to oj-dcr : bid, beadle. 
 Boon, to be: become, albeit. 
 ^leorgan, to protect: burg, borough, burrow, 
 
 harbour, harbinger, borrow. 
 'Beorht, bright .- Albert. 
 Berai), to bear: bui-deu, bier, bairn, birth, 
 
 berth, brood, burden, bird. 
 jei'e, barley: barn, barley. 
 Jereafian, to rob : Isereave. 
 Betan, to make good: better, best, to boot, 
 
 bootless. 
 Bicnian, to nod : beck, beckon, beacon. — 
 Bidan, to wait : bide, abide. 
 Bill, ajdlchion: bill-hook, 
 "^-^indan, to bind : band, bond, bondage, 
 / bundle, woodbine. 
 /Birce, birch : birch. 
 /Bisgian, to be ingaged: busy, business. 
 / Bitan, to bite : bit, beetle, bait, bitter 
 i Blac, j>aZe .• bleach, bleak. 
 JLiBlsec, black : black, blacking. 
 1 ^Isesan, to blow: blast, bluster. 
 Blendan, to mix : blend. 
 Bleo, colour : blue. 
 Bletsian, to bless : blithe, bliss. 
 Blind, blind: blindness. 
 Blod, blood: bleed. 
 Blowian, to blossom: blow (of flowers), 
 
 blood, blade, blossom, bloom. 
 Boc, book: boc-land. 
 Bodian, to announce : forebode. 
 Bodig, the chest: body, bodice. 
 Bolla, abou-l: bowl, bolster. 
 Bonda, a hokler : husband. 
 Bord, board: boarder. 
 Bosm, the breast: bosom. 
 Bot, remedy : bootless, to boot. 
 Brad, broad: breadth, Bradford. 
 Brsegen, brain : brains. 
 Brfes, brass: brar^en. 
 Brjeth, breeith : breathe. 
 Braew, brow : eyebrow. 
 Brecan, to break: brake, bray, breach, 
 
 breakers, bracken, brick, breakfast, 
 
 breakwater. 
 Breost, breast : abreast. 
 Breowan, to breio : broth, broae, barley 
 
 bree. 
 Brer, brio.r : sweetbrlar. 
 Bricg, bridge: Cambridge. 
 
 Jrid, the young eye any anlraal : b"ird. 
 hidan, to braid r bridle. 
 Bringan, to bring: bringing. 
 Broe, a broejk : brooklet. 
 Broc, a badger: Broxbourne (badgers' 
 
 stream). 
 Broni, broom: Brompton, 
 
 rbthei-, brother : brethren, brotherhood. 
 Bryd, a bride : bridegroom, bridal. 
 B\ian, to cultioate : boor, neighbour. 
 Buc, a pitcher : bucket. 
 Bugan, to bend: bay, bight, bow, bugle, 
 
 bough, elljow, buxom. 
 Bur, a dwelling : bower. 
 Buih, a town, a fort: borough, burgh, 
 
 Edinburgh, Canterbury. 
 Byrgan, to bury: burial. 
 Byrnan, to burn : brimstone, brown, bnmt, 
 
 brand, brandy, brindled. 
 Oald, coid: chill, cool, Caldwell, Colebrook. 
 C'alu, bedd : callow. 
 Curian, to care : careful, chary. 
 Catt, cat : catkin, kitten, caterpillar. 
 Ceaca, cheek: cheeks. 
 Ceafu, cheiff: chaff. 
 
 Cealf, cedf: calve Calverley, Kelvedon. 
 Ceapian, to buy : cheap, chapman, chaffer, 
 
 Cheapside. 
 Cearcian, to creaJc : cark, chirp, chaffer. 
 ■ Cemban, to comb : kempster, unkempt. 
 Cennan, to bring forth : kindle, kin, kind, 
 
 kindred, kindly. 
 Ceol, o smedl ship : keel, Chelsea. 
 Ceorfan, to carve : carver. 
 Ceorl, a husbandman: churl, carlo. 
 Ceosan, to pick out : choose. — 
 ^1?eowan, to chew : chew, cud. 
 Cepan, to keep: keepsake. 
 L'etel, kettle: kettle-drum. 
 Cidau, to reprove : chide. 
 Cild, child : childhood, childish, Childer- 
 mas. 
 
 Cut, rhjn • p.hin , 
 
 Clffine, clean : cleanse. 
 
 Clam, that ichich is cla.mmy or holds fast: 
 clam, clamp, clumi?, clammy. 
 
 Clath, cloth: clothe, clothier. 
 
 Cleofan, to cleave: cleaver. 
 
 Clucgge, a bell : clock. 
 
 Clufan, to cleare: cliff, cleft, cloven. 
 
 Clypian, to cedl : yclept. - ■^ 
 
 Clyppan, to embrace : clip. 
 
 Cnafa, a boy, servant : knave. 
 
 Cnawan, to knoio : knowledge. 
 
 Cnedan, to knead: kneading-trough. 
 
 CliAOw, knee : kneel. 
 
 Cniht, a youth : knight. 
 
 Cnyttan, to knit : knot. 
 
 Coc, cock : chicken, chickwced, chicken- 
 pox. 
 
 Comb, rcdley : Boscomb, Compton, Wy- 
 combe. 
 
 Corn, seed : corn, pepper-corn, kernel. 
 
 Coss, kiss: kissing. 
 
 Crseft, art : craft, crafty, handicraf to 
 
 Crset, cart: carter, cartage. 
 
 Crafian, to crave : craven. 
 
 Cran, crane : Cranbourne. 
 
 A 
 
128 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Crane, weak: cranky. 
 
 Crawan, to emu-: crow, crowbar. 
 
 Creopan, to creep : creeper. 
 
 Cric, bent: crutch, crook, crooked, crotchet, 
 
 crocket, cricket. 
 Cu, cow : kine. 
 
 Cue, cwic, alu-e : quick, quicken, quickset, 
 couch-giass, quicklime, quicksand, 
 quicksilver. 
 Cuman, to come : comely. 
 Cunnau, to know : can, ken, con, cunning, 
 kin:^, uncouth ( = unknown), canny, 
 ale Conner (inspector of ales). 
 Cwaethan, to say : quoth, bequeath. 
 Cwellm, to skuj : kill, quell, quail. 
 L'wen, a iconvm : queen, quean. 
 Cwenc in, to quench : quench. 
 Cwysan, to crush: quash, squeeze. 
 Cyning, kiiiff : Kingston. 
 Cyrrin, to tarn : jar, charwoman. 
 Daeg, da,'/ ; dagnian, to dawn : day, dawn, 
 
 daisy. 
 Dsel, a part ; daelan, to divide : deal, dole, 
 
 to deal, dale, dcU. 
 Deaf, without hi'drinj : deaf, deafen. 
 Deag, colour : dye. 
 Dearran, to dare : daring. 
 Death, death : deathless. 
 Deawinn, to moisten : dew, thaw, dough, 
 
 dewlap. 
 Delfan, to dig : delve. 
 Demin, to judje : deem, doom, doomster, 
 
 dempster. Doomsday. 
 Denu, a vale : dene, Waldeu, Tenterden. 
 Deofan, to dive : diver. 
 Deop, deep: depth, Deptford. 
 Door, a wild animal : deer, Durham, Derby. 
 Deor, dear: dearth, darling, endear. 
 Deorc, dark: darken. 
 Die, dyke : ditch. 
 Dihtan, to prepare : dight. 
 Disc, a plate : disc, dish, desk. 
 J)o\\toY, daughter : daughter. 
 Dol, foolish : dull, dolt. 
 Don, to do or put : do, don, doff, deed. 
 Draeiau, to fear : dreai, dreadful. 
 Dragau, to draw: dr.ig, draw, draught, 
 
 dray, draggle, dredge. 
 Drencin, to soak: drench. 
 Dreogan, to loork : drudge. 
 Dreorig, bloody, sail : drear, drearj'. 
 Drifan, todrirc: driver, drift, drove. 
 Drigan, to dry : dry, drag, drought. 
 Drincan. to drink : drunk, drunkard. 
 Dripan, to drop: drip, dribble, driblet, 
 
 drivel, droop. 
 Dugan, to be worth : do (in " How do you 
 
 do ?"), dougiity. 
 Dumb, without sp<'ech : dumb, dummy. 
 Dun, a hill : downs, Snowdon, Huntingdon. 
 Duru, a door : doorstep. 
 Dust, dust : dusty, dustpan. 
 Dwinan, to pine : dwindle. 
 Dynan, to dine: dinner. 
 Dyne, noise ; dynan, to make a luuse : din, 
 
 dun. 
 Dynt, a st rokr : dint, dent, dimple. 
 Dyppau, to din : dip, deep. "iivo. 
 
 Dysig, foolish: dizzy, dizziness. 
 Ea, running icaVrr: eddy, island, Anglesey. 
 Eac, a'so: eke, nickname (an eke name). 
 Eage, the ey--. : eye, daisy, Egbert, eye- 
 bright. 
 Eald, old : old, eld, alderman, Aldborough. 
 Eall, all : already, withal, also, Albert. 
 Eaai, ale : briilal. 
 Eare, ear : earwig, earring. 
 Earni, arm: armlet. 
 Earn, eagle : Earuley. 
 Farnian, to reap : earn, earnings. 
 East, east: Essex, Sterling (:=Easterling), 
 
 Easter (goddess Eostre). 
 Ebbe, liowing back : ebb, Ebbsfieet. 
 Ecg, edge : Edgehill, to egg. 
 Ei'er, a -wild boar: Everton, Eversley, 
 
 Everleigh. 
 Efese, hrim or edge: eaves, eavesdropper, 
 
 Evesham. 
 Eft, again: after, afterwards, abaft, 
 
 eftsoons. 
 Ege, OAcc : awful. 
 Edcs, (>(her : else, elsewhere. 
 Elne, OM ell, the nrrn: elbow. 
 Eorl, a vian of ra.lour : earl, earldom. 
 Eorthc, earth : earthen, earthquake, 
 
 earthenware. 
 Brian, to plough : ear (of corn), earing. 
 Etan, to eat : eater. 
 
 Fadan, to set in order: fidget, fiddle, faddle. 
 Faiger, fair : fairly, fairness. 
 Fajgnian, to he glad: fain. 
 Fsest, fast : fasten, steadfast, soothfast. 
 Fget, a vessel : fat, vat. 
 Faether, /a^/icr .- fatherland. 
 Fsethm, the space between the hen anns 
 
 extended: fathom. 
 Faran, to gn, to happen fare, ferry, welfare, 
 ford, fieldfare, farewell, thoroughfare, 
 wayfaring, seafaring, fern, Chelms- 
 ford. 
 Feallau, to fall: fall, fell. 
 Fealo, t/eilow : fallow, fallowdeer, field-fare 
 
 (O.E. feala-for). 
 Fearh, a little pig : farrow. 
 Feccan, to fetch: fetch. 
 Fedan, to feed: food, fodder, foster 
 
 (foodster), forage (fodder age), foray. 
 Fel, skin : fell, fellinoiiger. 
 Feld, afield: field, Sheffield. 
 Fengan, to take, selz" : fang, fangle, finger, 
 
 new-f;uigled. 
 Feoh, cattle, money : fee. 
 Feohtan, tofght ■ fight. 
 Feol, a rasp : file. 
 Feond, an enemy ; fian, to hate : fiend, fy, 
 
 foe, fend. 
 Feorm, food : farm. 
 Feowcr, four: farthing, firkin, fourteen, 
 
 forty. 
 Fersc, fresh : freshen, freshet, freshman, 
 
 refresh. 
 ^Vther, feather: feathcrv. 
 Fif, fire': fifteen, fiftv. 
 Fillan, toftl : full, fulfil. 
 Finilan, to find: finder, foundling. 
 Fisc, fish : fisher, fishery, Fishguard. 
 
 1 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 129 
 
 Flaesc, fla^h : flesher. 
 
 Fleogan, to flu : flj^ flight, flea, fleawort, 
 
 fleabane, fledged, flit. 
 Floe, a company : flock. 
 Flotan, to float : fleet, float, ice-floe, 
 
 afloat, Fleetwood, Northfleet. 
 Flowaii, tofloio: flood. 
 Fola, foal : 'filly. 
 
 Folc, pcopie : folk, Suffolk, folk-lore. 
 Folgian, tojbiloic : follower. 
 Fot, foot : fetter, fetlock. 
 Fox, /ox; vixen, foxglove. 
 Fr am, from : fro, fro ward. 
 Freo, free : freedom. 
 Freon, to lore : friend. 
 Freosan, to freeze: frost, frosty 
 Fretan, to gnaw : fret. 
 Frician, tojump,fiisL-: frog, freak. 
 Fugel, bird : fowl, fowler. 
 Fidian, to corrupt : foul, filth, defile, 
 
 fulsome. 
 FuUiau, touhiteii: fuller. 
 Furh, a furrow : furrow, furlong. 
 Fus, ready: fuss, fussy. 
 Fyr, flre : fire. 
 Fyst, flst : fist. 
 Gabhan, to mock : gab, gibber, gibe, 
 
 jabber, gabble, gibberish. 
 Gad, goad : goad, gadfly. 
 Gaderian, to gather : together. 
 Gaers, grass: grasshopper, graze, grazier, 
 
 Grasmere. 
 Galan, to sing : nightingale. 
 Gamenian, to game : gamble, gamester. 
 Gangan, to go : gang, gangway, gait, gate, 
 
 ago. 
 Gar, a dart: to gore, garlick, garfish. 
 Gast, breath: ghost, ghastly, aghast. 
 Gat, goat : Gatford, Gatcombe. 
 Geac, a cuckoo, a sbnpkton : gowk, gawky. 
 Gealga, galloics : gallows. 
 Geap, icide : gape, gap. 
 Gear, year : year, yearling. 
 Gea,ra, formerly : yore. 
 Geard, an enclosure: gyrdan, to enclose: 
 
 yard, garden, vineyard. 
 Geai'O, recuty : yare, yarely. 
 Geat, a gale : gateway. 
 Gehaep, .At .• hap, happy, mishap, happen, 
 
 hap-hazard. 
 Genoh, suflicicnt : enough. 
 Geoc, yoke : yokefellow. 
 Geogoth, yf^uth : youthful. 
 Geolo, yellow : yellow-hammer. 
 Geong, yoking : youth. 
 Geotan, to pour out : gush, gutter, ingot, 
 
 nugget ( = an ingot). 
 Gerefa, a governor : reeve, land-reeve, 
 
 sheriff (shire-reeve), landgrave. 
 Gese, yes : yes. 
 Get, yet: yet. 
 Gewiss, certainly: i-wis. 
 < jicel, a piece : icicle (is gicel). 
 Gifan, to give : gift, gew-gaw. 
 Girnan, to yearn : yearning. 
 <'!itan, to obtain : get. 
 
 ( laed, glad: gladsome, gladden, gladness. 
 Claes, glass : glaze, glazigr. 
 
 Glewan, to shine : gleam, glow. 
 
 Glisnian, to shine : glisten. Akin to 
 
 "glitter "and "glint." 
 Gliw, g/ee : gleeful. 
 Gnagan, to gmnv : nag. 
 God, good: God, good, gospel ( = god spcl, 
 
 good news), gossip (=:God silj, related 
 
 in God, a sponsor), demigod, godhead, 
 
 good-bye. 
 Gold, gold : gild, gilt, marigold. 
 Goma, gum : gum. 
 
 Gorst, a prickly shrub : gorse, gooseberry. 
 Gos, goose : g(/sling, goshawk, Gosport. 
 Graeg, grey: gray, grayling. 
 Grafan, to carve, to dig: grave, graft, 
 
 groove, engrave, grub. 
 Grapian, to lay hold of: grab, grapple, 
 
 grope, grip, grapnel. 
 GreJig, grtcdy: greediness. 
 Gren, green: greensward. 
 Greot, dust : grit, grate, groats. 
 Gretan, to greet: greeting. 
 Grim, horrible : grim. 
 Grindan, to grind : grindstone, grist. 
 Growan, to grow : growth, green. 
 Grund, ground: grunsel, groundsel. 
 Guma, a man : bridegroom. 
 Gyf, if: if. 
 
 Gyldan, to give up, to pay : yield, guilt. 
 Gyrdan, to enclose: girdle, gird, girth. 
 Gj'st, guest : guestchamber. 
 Habban, to have .■ behave, haft. 
 Had, state or condition: Godhead, nian- 
 
 hood. 
 Haer, hair : hairy. 
 Haerfaest, harvest : har\-est-home. 
 Haerincg, lierring : herring-fishery. 
 Hae.'^t, hot : haste, hasty. 
 Haeth, heath : heathen. 
 Hafoc, a haick : hawk, havoc. 
 Haga, a hedge : haw, hawthorn, haw-haw, 
 
 Hagley. 
 Hagol, hail : hailstone. 
 Hal, hael, sound; haelan, to make sound: 
 
 hail, hale, heal, whole, wassail, health. 
 Halig. holy : holy, halidom, hallow, 
 
 halibut (holy fish), holly hock, AU- 
 
 Hallows. 
 Hals, a neck : halter, habergeon, hauberk. 
 Ham, a diceUing : home, hamlet, Hamp- 
 
 stead, Buckingham. 
 Hand, hand: hand, handiwork, handy, 
 
 handicap, handsome, handle, handsel. 
 Hangian, to hang : hang, hinge, ytone- 
 
 henge, hank, hanker. 
 Har, hoar: hoarj', horehound. 
 Hara, a hare : hare, harrier, harebelL 
 Hat, hot: heat, hot. 
 Hatan, to command : behest. 
 Hatau, to call : hight. 
 Hatian, to hate : hate, hatred. 
 Heafod, head : headland. 
 Heah, high : height, highness. 
 Healdan, to hold: holding, behold, be- 
 holden, hilt, upholsterer. 
 Healf, side : half, behalf. 
 Heap, heap : heap. 
 Heard, hard: harden, hardness. 
 
 9 
 
130 
 
 EiNGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Hcawiin, to hero : hew, hoc. 
 
 Ilebban, to lift: heave, heaven, heave- 
 offering, heavy, head (O.E. heafod). 
 
 Helan, to hide: hell, hole. 
 
 Help, kelp : helpmate. 
 
 Heoi'd, a flock, treasure: here;, horde, 
 hoard, shepherd. 
 
 Heort, a hart: hart, hartshorn, Hartle- 
 pool, Hertford. 
 
 Heorte, heart : heartfelt. 
 
 Ileorth, hearth : hearthstone. 
 
 Here, aa arm>/ : harbinger, harbour, 
 herring, heriot, harry. 
 
 Hina, a serrant : hind. 
 
 Hind, a female deer : hind. 
 
 Hlaf, a loaf: Lammas, lord (lilaford), 
 lady (hlaefdige). 
 
 Hleapan, to jump : leap, lapwing. 
 
 Hleotan, to cast Lots: allot, lottery. 
 
 Hlidan, to cover : lid. 
 
 Hlud, noisij : loud, loudly. 
 
 Hlystan, to Hat en : listener.- 
 
 Huecca, the necJc : necktie. 
 
 Hnut, a nut : walnut (=foreign nut). 
 
 Hof, hoof: hoof. 
 
 Hof, house : hovel. 
 
 Holi, hed : hough, hock. 
 
 Holen, holla: holm-oak. 
 
 Holm, an island : Axholm. 
 
 Horn, horn: hornbeam, hornet. 
 
 Hors, a horse : walrus (whale horse). 
 
 Hradian, to hasten : ready, rathe, rather. 
 
 Hi-.iegel, clothing : rag, night-rail. 
 
 Hreac, smoke : reek, reeky. 
 
 Hrefn, raven : raven. 
 
 Hreod, a reed : reed. 
 
 Hreoh, rough : rough, rugged, raw. 
 
 Hreosan, to rash : rush. 
 
 Hreowan, to regret : rue, rueful. 
 
 Hricg, back : ridge, Loughrigg Fells. 
 
 Hriddel, a sieve : riddle. 
 
 Hrif, bowels : midi'iff. 
 
 Hrim, Jioar-frost : rime. 
 
 Hring, ring : ringlet. 
 
 Hrof, roof: Rochester (Hrove-ceaster). 
 
 Hu, lioio : however, howbeit. 
 
 Huiid, a dog ; hound, hunt. 
 
 Hund, a hundred : hundred-fold. 
 
 Huuig, honey : honeysuckle, horehound. 
 
 Hurst, atvood: Midhurst. Chiselhurst. 
 
 Hus, a house : husband, housewife, hussy, 
 h'lstings. 
 
 Hwa, who: where, what, why, whence, 
 w^hither, when. 
 
 Hwael, wliale : whale, walrus. 
 
 Hwaet, sharp: whet, whittle. 
 
 llwaete, tvheat : wheat, Wheathampstead. 
 
 Hwcarf, a place of exchange: wharf. 
 
 Hweol, wheel: wheelwright. 
 
 Hweoifan, to turn : warp. 
 
 Hwhit, u-hite : Whitsunday, Whitchurch. 
 
 Hyg, hai/ : hayloft. 
 
 Hyngrian, to hunger: hungiy. 
 
 Hyr, hire : hireling. 
 
 Hyran, to obey : hear, hearken, heai-say. 
 
 Hyth, chore: Eotherhitho. 
 
 Ic, 1. 
 
 Ixig. aposhtre.- Reading. 
 
 •ing, son of: names of persons : as, Brown- 
 ing, Atheiing. 
 
 -ingham, dw-Uing-place of the sons of: 
 names of places : as, Buckingham, 
 Birmingham. 
 
 Tren, iron : iron-grey. 
 
 lul, the merry , feast, Christmas: yule, yule- 
 log, yule-tide. 
 
 Kyrtel, kirtle: kirtlc. 
 
 Lacnlan, to cure: leech. 
 
 La3ccan, to sieze : latch. 
 
 Lajdan, to lead : loadstar, loadstone. 
 
 Lpefan, to leave : leave. 
 
 Lsen, lean : leanness. 
 
 Lasnan, to lend: loan. 
 
 Lasr, doctrine ; laeran, to teach : lore, learn. 
 
 Lpes, that not : lest. 
 
 Loet, late: late, latter,' last, belated, 
 latter-math. 
 
 L?etan, to IH : let. 
 
 Lab, low : lowland. 
 
 Lam, lame : lameness. 
 
 Lamb, lamb : lambkin. 
 
 Land, land : landlord. 
 
 Lang, long: along, length, Langley. 
 
 Leac, leek: leek, garlic, house -leek, 
 cherlcck, hemlock. 
 
 Leaf, leaf: leaflet. 
 
 Leag, afield: lea, Elmsley. 
 
 Leas, false : leasing. 
 
 Leas, loose : loosen, suflSx -less. 
 
 Lecgan, to lay : lair, layer, lav/, belay, 
 outlay, lawyer. 
 
 Lenctcn, spring : Lent. 
 
 Leod, people: lewd. 
 
 Leof, dear: lief, ieman. 
 
 Leofian, to lire: life, livelong, livelihood. 
 
 Leogan, to deceine: lie, liar. 
 
 Leoht, light : lighten, lightning. 
 
 Leornian, to learn : learning. 
 
 Leosan, to lose ; loren, lost : lose, forlorn. 
 
 Lie, a corpse : lich-gate, Lichfield. 
 
 Lim, glue: lime, birdlime. 
 
 Lit, little : little. 
 
 Lit, a ship : lighter, lighterman. 
 
 Loca, a lock : locker, locket, lock-jawj 
 
 Lyft, air: loft, lift, aloft. 
 
 Lysan, to loose : loosen, 
 
 Lystan, to please : lust, list, listless. 
 
 Maclan, to make : maker. 
 
 Macd, u-hat is mowed : mead, meadow. 
 
 Macl, time: piecemeal, inchmeal. 
 
 Maenan, to think: mean, mind. 
 
 Maenig, many: manifold. 
 
 Maga, stomach: maw. 
 
 Magan, to be ahk : may, might, main. 
 
 Mangian, to traffic: monger, costermongcr 
 ( = costard-monger, apple seller). 
 
 Mearc, a boundary: mark, march. 
 
 Med, reward: meed. 
 
 Mengan, to mix: mingle, among, mongi-el. 
 
 Mcolc, milk: milch, milksop. 
 
 Mere, a lake or tnarsh : Wiiadcrmere. 
 
 Metan, to measure: mete. 
 
 Metan, to meet : meet, moot-hall, to moot, 
 moot-point, Witenagemote. 
 
 Mete, food; metsian, to feed ; meat, sweet- 
 meat, meat-Qffering, mess, messmate. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 131 
 
 Mid, viiddle : amid, middling, midrib, 
 midsummer. 
 
 Milde, mild : Mildred. 
 
 Mona, moon : month, moonlight, moon- 
 shine. 
 
 Mor, moor: Westmoreland, mire, morass. 
 Chat Moss, moorhen. 
 
 Morgen, morning: morn. 
 
 Morth, death: mm-der. 
 
 Mils, mouse : mouse, titmouse (little 
 mouse). 
 
 Muth, mouth : mouthful. 
 
 Mycel, great : much, micklc. 
 
 Nacod, naked: nakedness. 
 
 Najddre, a snake : addei". ' 
 
 Na^dl, a 7icedte : needlewoman. 
 
 Najgel, a nedl : 
 
 Nsesse, a heaelland: naze, -ness (in Caith- 
 ness, etc.). 
 
 Nafu, the nave of a wheel : navel. 
 
 Kama, name : namesake. 
 
 Neah, close to: near, nigh, next, neighbour. 
 
 Nearo, narrow: narrowness. 
 
 Neat, ox : neat, neatherd. 
 
 Neb, face, beak : nib, nibble, snipe, snap, 
 snub. 
 
 Neod, need: needs ("of necessity," geni- 
 tive of "need"), needy, needless. 
 
 Nest, nest: nestling. 
 
 Nett, net : netting, network. 
 
 Niht, 7iiqht : nightingale, nightshade, be- 
 nighted. 
 
 Nither, ilown : nether, nethermost, be- 
 neath. 
 
 Niw, neio : news, renew, new-fangled. 
 
 Nosu, nasu, a nose : nostril (nose-hole), 
 nozzle, nosegay. 
 
 Nil, now : nowadays. 
 
 Ofer, shore : Andover, 'Wendover. 
 
 Other, second: other, another. 
 
 Otor, otter : otter-hound. 
 
 Oxa, ox : ox-lip. 
 
 Paeth, path: pathway. 
 
 Pic, point : peak, pickets, pike, pickerel, 
 to peck, woodpecker, pick, The Peak. 
 
 Pip, py^e .• pipkin. 
 
 Plega, plat/ : playmate, playful. 
 
 Pliht, condition ; iAight!xii,to 2yledge : plight, 
 plot. 
 
 Pyt, 2^it: armpit, cockpit, pitfall. 
 
 Rsedan, to read: rede, riddle, Mildred 
 (mild in counsel). 
 
 Ksepan, try bind : rap, rope, wrap, stirrup. 
 
 Rathe, soo7i : rather. 
 
 Read, red : ruddy, ruddock. 
 
 Reafian, to rob : bereave, reever, robber. 
 
 Reccan, to care : reck, reckless. 
 
 Rein, clean : rinse. 
 
 Reod, reed: Reedham, Ridley. 
 
 Ric, dominion : bishopric. 
 
 Rim, number: rhyme (more correctlj', 
 rime). 
 
 Rinan, to rain : rainbow. 
 
 Rip, harvest ; ripan, to cut : ripe, reap. 
 
 Risan, to rise : arise. 
 
 Risce, a rush : Rushholme, Rushworth, 
 Risborough. 
 
 Rod, a cross : rood, roodloft, Holyrood. 
 
 Rowan, to row .' rower. 
 
 Saed, seed : seedling. 
 
 ISiielig, blessed : silly. 
 
 Sam, half: sandblind. 
 
 Sar, sore : sorry, sorrow. 
 
 Sceadan, to divide : scot, scatter, shed. 
 
 Sceapan, to form : shape, shop, ship, 
 iriendship, landscape. 
 
 Sceamu, shame : shamefaced (more cor- 
 rectly, shamefast). 
 
 Sceap, a sheep : sheijherd, Shepton, Ship- 
 ley. 
 
 Sceathan, to injure : scathe, scatheless. 
 
 Seel, shell : shale, scale, scales. 
 
 Sceotan, to shoot : shot, shut, shutter, 
 shuttle, scud. 
 
 Scinan, to shine : sheen. 
 
 Bciraii, to cut : shear, share, shire, shears, 
 sheer, scar, score, shore, ploughshare, 
 shard, sheriff, shred, potsherd, short, 
 skirt, shirt. 
 
 Scridan, to clothe : shroud, enshroud. 
 
 Scrob, a bush : shrub, scrubby, Shrews- 
 bury. 
 
 Scufan, to thrust : scuff, scuffle, shove, 
 shovel, sheaf. 
 
 Scunian, to shun : shimt. 
 
 Scur, a shoicer : scour. 
 
 Scj^id, a shielel : shield. 
 
 Secg, sedge: Sedgemoor. 
 
 Secgan, to say : saw, saying. 
 
 Seid, ra.re : seldom. 
 
 Sencan, to sink: sinking. 
 
 Sendan, to send: Godsend. 
 
 Seoc, siek: sickly, homesick. 
 
 Seon, to see : sight. 
 
 Seothan, to boil : seethe, sod, soap-sud. 
 
 Settan, to make to sit ; sittan, to sit : sit, set, 
 seat, settle, saddle, saddler, Somerset, 
 Dorset. 
 
 Sib, releUed: gossip. 
 
 Side, side: aside, beside, sidle. 
 
 Singan, to sing : song, songster. 
 
 Slacian, to be slow ; slaw, slov: : slack, slug, 
 sluggish, slacken, sloth, slow-worm. 
 
 Slefan, to cover : sleeve, sleeveless. 
 
 Slehan, to kill : slaj', slaughter, sleight 
 sly (clever in killing), onslaught. 
 
 Smitan, to smite : smith, smithy, gold- 
 smith. 
 
 Snican, to creep : sneak, snake, snail. 
 
 Soth, true : sooth, forsooth, soothsayer. 
 
 Spsetan, to spit : spittle. 
 
 Sped, success: speed, God-speed. 
 
 Spcl, 7ieu-s : speJl, gn?pel, spellbound. 
 
 Spinnan, to spin : spinster, spindle. 
 
 Stalian, to steal : stealth, stealthy. 
 
 Stan, stone : StanLopc, Stanley. 
 
 Steal, a place : stalh Tunstall. 
 
 Stearc, hard : stark, starch. 
 
 Stede, a place : stead, homestead, steady, 
 instead, bedstead, steadfast, Hamp- 
 stead. 
 
 Steopan, to lercave : stepson, stepmother. 
 
 Steoi", a young beast : steer, stirk. 
 
 Steoran, to steer : steersman, starboard, 
 steerage. 
 
 Steorfan, to die : starve. 
 
 9—2 
 
132 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Sticce, a piece : steak. 
 
 Stician, to stick: stitch, stake, stickle, 
 
 stickler, stock, stockade, stockfish, 
 
 stockstill. 
 Stigan, to ascend: stairs, stage, stye, storey, 
 
 still, stirrup (mounting-rope). 
 Stille, stilt : stillness, stillborn. 
 Stoc, a place: Stoke, Woodstock, Stoke- 
 
 Pogis. 
 Stow, a jilace : stow, bestow, Chepstow, 
 
 stowaway, stowage, Bristol. 
 Stracian, to stroke: strike, streak, stricken. 
 Sund, ft strait: Sound, Bomarsund. 
 Suth, south : Sus.sex, Suffolk. 
 Swa, so : also, such (swa-lic). 
 Swart, black: swarthy, 
 Sweltan, to die : sweltry, sultry. 
 Swerian, to take an oath: swear, forswear, 
 
 answer CO. E. andsKarian, from and, in 
 
 opposition to). 
 Swifan, to move quickly : swift, swivel. 
 S^'llan, to give, to sell: sell, sale, handsel. 
 Synn, sin : sinner, sinful. 
 Ta, toe : toeplate. 
 Tade, a toad : tadpole. 
 Tselan, to speak ill of : tell-tale. 
 Tsosan, to pluck, pull : tease, teasel. 
 Tellan, to count : tell, tale, foretell. 
 Temian, to yoke together : tame, team. 
 Teogan, to draio : tug, tow, team, tough, 
 
 tight, tooth. 
 Teotha, tenth : tithe. 
 Thencan, to think: think. 
 Thic, thick : thicket. 
 Thincan, los'-evi: methinks. 
 Thing, a meeting, council : busting (house- 
 council). 
 Thirlian, to j^eVrce ; thirl, thrill, drill, 
 
 nostril, thrall, thraldom. 
 Thorpe, a village : Bishopthorpe. 
 Thringan, to press : throng. 
 Throwian, to suffer : throe. 
 Thuma, thumb: thumb, thimble. 
 Thweorian, to tunst : thwart, athwart. 
 Tid, time : tide, betide, Whitsuntide. 
 Tredan, to tread: tread, treddle, trade (a 
 
 trodden path, a way of living), 
 
 tradesman, trade-wind. 
 Treowian, to trust : trow, troth, betroth, 
 
 true, truth, trust. 
 Tumbei'c, « dancer : tumbler. 
 Tun, an enclosure : town. 
 Twa, twegen, ttco : two, twain, twin, 
 
 twine, between, twelve, twenty, 
 
 twice, betwixt, twilight. Both = ba- 
 
 twa=: two-two. 
 Ut, out : utmost, out. 
 Wac, weak : weak, weaken, weakling. 
 Wacian, to watch : wake, wakeful, awake, 
 
 watch. 
 Wad, wood : wood, woodbine, woodruff, 
 
 woodman. 
 Waed, a garment : (widow'.s) weeds. 
 WiBgen, a icagon : wagon, wain. 
 W.i['pcn, a wM.pon : weapon, wapentake. 
 Waer, cautions: ware, beware, wary, 
 
 aware. 
 Waet, wet : wet, Wedmore. 
 
 Wagian, to wag : wag, waggle, wagtail. 
 Wald, a vjood : Weald, wold, Waltham. 
 Wanian, to decrease : wane, wan, want, 
 
 wanton. 
 Wealdan, to rule : wield. Bretwalda. 
 Wealla, a foreigner : AVelshman, walnut, 
 
 Cornwall, Wales. 
 Weallan, to spring up: well, Wells. 
 Weard, guard : ward, warden, guard, 
 
 guiii'dian, Edward. 
 Weaxan, to groiu : (to) wax. 
 Wed, a -pledge : wed, wedlock, wedding. 
 Wefan, to weave : weave, weaver, web, 
 
 cobweb, woof, weft, Webster. 
 Weg, way : way, away, wayward. 
 Wegan, to bear : weigh. 
 Wela, loeal : weal, wealth, commonwealth, 
 
 wealthy. 
 Wenan, to think: ween, overweening. 
 Wendan, to go : wend, wander, went. 
 Weorpan, to throw: warp. 
 AVeorthan, to become : worth (in ' ' woo 
 
 worth the day "). 
 Weorthe, u-orthy : worthy, stalwart (steel- 
 worthy). 
 Wei'ig, tirf.d: weary 
 Wesan, to he : was. 
 Wic, a dwelling : Alnwick, Harwich. 
 Wicca, wicce, a witch : witch, witchcraft, 
 
 wicked. 
 Wid, broad: wide, width. 
 Wif, 0, luife : wife, woman (wif-man), 
 
 hussy (hus-wif). 
 Wiht, a creature, a thing: wight, whit, 
 
 aught ( = a whit), naught, not, naughty. 
 Wild, 2cild : wild, wilderness, bewilder. 
 Win, war: Baldwin, Godwin. 
 Win, zcine: wine, ^vinepress, winebibber. 
 Wind, wind: wind, windward, window 
 
 (wind-eye). 
 Wise, ioay, manlier : wise, likewise, guise. 
 Witan, to knoic : wit, ywis, unwittingly, 
 
 wot, weet, Witenagemote, wisdom, 
 
 wistful, witness. 
 With, against : withstand, withhold. ■ 
 Wolcen, a cloud : welkin. 
 Wop, iccping : whoop. 
 Wortli, a farm : Tamworth. 
 Wos, juice : ooze. 
 
 Wnustan, to tirist: wrest, VTestle. 
 Wrccan, to revenge : wreak, wreck, wretch, 
 
 wretched. 
 Wregan, to accuse : bewray. 
 Writan, to write: write, writ. 
 Writhan, to twist : writhe, wreathe, 
 
 wi-cath, wrath, wroth, yny, awrj-. 
 Wuda, a wood : wood, Woodstock. 
 Wul, wool : wool, woollen. 
 Wunian, to dwell : wont. 
 Wyn, joy : winsome. 
 Wyrcan, to work: work, wrought, wheel- 
 
 •wTight. 
 Wyrd, fate: weird. 
 Wyrian, to curse : worry. 
 Wyrm, iconn : blindworm, wormwood. 
 Wyrt, root, herb : splecnwort, orchard 
 
 ( = wort-yard), wart. 
 Yfcl, evil : evil, ill. 
 
KTYMULOGY. 
 
 133 
 
 CHAPTER v.— Latin Words. 
 
 288. The principal Latin words from which modern English 
 words are taken are as follows : — 
 
 Acer, sharp : acrid, acrimony. 
 
 Acerbus, litter : acerbity. 
 
 Acidus, sour: acid. 
 
 Acuo, acutum, I sharpen : acute. 
 
 ^des, a house : edify, edifice. 
 
 ^quua, equal : equal, equator. 
 
 iKstimo, / value : esteem, estimate. 
 
 .^^Istus, the tide : estuary. 
 
 J3ternus, of endless duration : eternity. 
 
 iEvum, 0)1 age: coeval, longevity. 
 
 Ager, a, ti'^ Id: agriculture, agrarian, pere- 
 grination. 
 
 Agger, a heap: exaggerate. 
 
 Ago, actum, / do: agent, act, agitate, 
 exact. 
 
 Alacer, cheerful : alacrity. 
 
 Albus, luldte : alb, albino. 
 
 Alius, another ; ulienus, another's : alien, 
 alienate. 
 
 Alo, / nourish : aliment, alimony. 
 
 Alter, otlier of two : altercation, alternate. 
 
 Altus, fdgh : exalt, altitude. 
 
 Ambulo / walk : perambulate, preamble. 
 
 Amo, / love : amatory, amity. . 
 
 Amicus, a friend: amicable, inimical. 
 
 Amcenus, pleasant : amenity. 
 
 Amplus, large: ample, amplify. 
 
 Ango, / choke, I rex : anger, anguish, 
 anxiety. 
 
 Angulus, a corner : angle, rectangle. 
 
 Anima, breath; animus, the mind: ani- 
 mate, animal, unanimous. 
 
 Annulus, a ring : annular. 
 
 Annus, a year : annual, biennial. 
 
 Antiquus, ancient : antiquity. 
 
 Anus, an old vioman : anile. 
 
 Aperio, / open ; aperient, overt, April, 
 
 Apis, a bee : apiary. 
 
 Aptus, Jitted ; apto, I fit : apt, adapt. 
 
 Aqua, water : aquatic, aqueduct. 
 
 Aquila, an eagle : aquiline. 
 
 Arbiter, a judge : arbitrate. 
 
 Arbor, a tree : arbour, arboraceous. 
 
 Arceo, / drive away : exercise, coerce. 
 
 Arcus, a how : arc, arch, arches. 
 
 Ardeo, / hum : ardent, arson, 
 
 Arduus, lofty : arduous. 
 
 Areo, I am 2^arched : arid. 
 
 Arguo, I prove : argue, argument. 
 
 Arm a, a7-7?i,s ; disarm, armour. 
 
 Aro, I plough : arable. 
 
 Ars, an art : art, artist, inert. 
 
 Articulus, a little joint : article, articulate. 
 
 Asinus, an ass : asinine. 
 
 Asper, rough : asperate, exasperate. 
 
 Atrox, crw I : atrocious. 
 
 Audax, hold : audacious. 
 
 Audio, / hear : audible, auditor. 
 
 Augeo, 1 increase : augment, auction, 
 author. 
 
 Augur, a soothsayer : inaugurate. 
 
 Auris, the ear : aurist. 
 
 Aurum, gold: auriferous, orange, 
 
 Auster, the south wind : austral. 
 
 Auxilium, help : auxiliary. 
 
 Avarus, covftous : avarice. 
 
 Avidus, greedy : avidity. 
 
 Avis, a bird : aviary, auspice. 
 
 Barba, a beard: barb, barber, 
 
 Beatus, happy: beatitude. 
 
 Bellum, vMr : rebel, belligerent. 
 
 Bene, well : benediction, benefit. 
 
 Benignus, kind: benign, benignant. 
 
 Bibo, / drink : bib, imbibe, beverage. 
 
 Bini, two by two : binary, combine. 
 
 Bis, twice : bissextile, bisect. 
 
 Bonus, good: bounty, boon. 
 
 Brevis, short : breve, brief, abbreviate. 
 
 Brutus, senseless : brute. 
 
 Caballus, a horse : cavalry. 
 
 Cado, / fall : cadence, case, accident, oc- 
 casion. 
 
 Csedo, / cut, kill : homicide, concise, 
 suicide. 
 
 Calculus, a pfhhle : calculate. 
 
 Calx, lime: calcine, chalk. 
 
 Campus, aplain: camp, decamp, champion. 
 
 Candeo, / biirn, shine ; candidus, white : 
 candid, incendiary, candour. 
 
 Canis, a dog : canine, kennel. 
 
 Canto, / sing: cant, canticle, accent, 
 chant, enchantment. 
 
 Caper, a goat : capricious. 
 
 Capillus, hair : capillary. 
 
 Capio, / taJce : capable, accept, conceive, 
 principal, emancipate. 
 
 Caput, the head : cape, capital, chaplet, 
 
 Carbo, charcoal : carbon. 
 
 Career, a prison : incarcerate. 
 
 Cardo, a hinge : cardinal. 
 
 Carmen, a song : charm. 
 
 Caro, carnis, flesh : carnal, charnel. 
 
 Carpo, I pluck : carp. 
 
 Cams, dear : caress, cherish, cheer, 
 
 Castiis, 2nire : chaste, incest. 
 
 Causa, a cause : accuse, excuse. 
 
 Caveo, / beware : caution. 
 
 Cavus, hollow : cave, excavate, cavern. 
 
 Cedo, / go, yield : cede, exceed, accede. 
 
 Celer, sivift: celerity, accelerate. 
 
 Celo, / Jiide : conceal. 
 
 Censeo, I judge : census, censure, censor 
 
 Centxmi, a hundred: cent, centipede. 
 
 Cera, wax : sincere, cere-cloth. 
 
 Cerno, cretum, / see : discern, discreet, 
 recruit, secret. 
 
 Certo, / strive : concert. 
 
 Certus, sure : certain, certify. 
 
 Charta, paper : chart, chartist, cartoon, 
 
 Cingo, I surround : cincture, succinct. 
 
 Circus, a ring : circle, circulation, 
 
 Cito, / rouse : excite, incite. 
 
134 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Civis, a citizen : civil, civic, city. 
 Clamo, I cr// out: cliunour, exclaim, v 
 Clarus, clear : clarify, declare. 
 Claudo, 1 shut: conclude, conclusion, close, 
 
 clause. 
 Clemens, 7nild : clemency, inclement. 
 Clino, Ihend: incline, declension. 
 Clivus, a slope : proclivity, declivity, cliff. 
 Ccelum, the sL\'j : celestial. 
 CoUuni, the neck : collar. 
 Colo, Itill: colony, cultivate, agriculture. 
 Color, colour: disc')h)ur. 
 Comes, a companion : concomitant, count. 
 Concilio, I unite: reconcile. 
 Contra, ai/ainst : contrary, counter. 
 Copia, 'plenty: copious. 
 Copulo, I join l>:(jtthtr : couple, copulative. 
 Coquo, coctum, I boil : decoction, cook. 
 Cor, cordis, the heart : core, accord, cordial. 
 Corona, a crown : coronation, coronet. 
 Corpus, the body : corporal, corisoration, 
 
 corpse. 
 Cras, to-morrow: procrastinate. 
 Credo, / believe : creed, credit, incredible. 
 Crco, / create : creator, creature. 
 Cresco, cretum, I grow : crescent, concrete. 
 Crimen, a crime : criminal, recriminate. 
 Crux, a cross : crucify, crusade, crucial. 
 Cubo, cumbo, / lie down : succumb, incu- 
 bation. 
 Culpa, a fault: culprit, culpable. 
 Cunuilus, a hi-o/p: accumulate. 
 Cu]3io, / dedre : cupidity. 
 Cura, care: cure, cuiious, secure, incur- 
 able. 
 Curro, cursum, / run : cun-ent, precursor, 
 
 recur, course, succour. 
 Curvus, bent : curve, curvature. 
 Custodia, fiunrdianship : custody. 
 Damno, / cond'tvin : damage, damn. 
 Debeo, debitum, / oioe : debt, debit. 
 Debilis, feebU : debility. 
 Decern, ten : December, decennial. 
 Dccens, becmninf/ : decency, indecent. 
 Decor, b'-aiUy : decorate. 
 Dens, dentis, a tooth : dentis, indenture. 
 Densus, thick : dense, condense. 
 Deus, God : deify, deity, deist. 
 Dexter, right hand: dexterity. 
 Dico, dictum, / say : predict, diction. 
 Dies, a day : diurnal, diary. 
 Digitus, a finger : digit. 
 Dignus, ic'orthy : dignity, indignity. 
 JM.sco, / learn : disciple. 
 Divide, / divide : divisor, subdivide. 
 Divinu.s, belonging to a god : divine. 
 Do, datum, / give : date, add, addition. 
 Ddceo, I teach : docile, doctor. 
 Doleo, / grieve; dolor, grief: condole 
 
 doleful. 
 Domiuus, a master : dominant, domain. 
 Domo, I tame: indomitable. 
 Doinus, a house: domestic, dome. 
 Dono, I present : donation, donor. 
 Dormio, / sleep : dormant, dormouse. 
 Dubius, dnubtfat: dubious, doubt. 
 Dueo, ductum, / had: introduce, duct 
 ductile, duke, i-educc. 
 
 Dulcis, sweet : dulcet, dulcimer. 
 Duo, two: duplicate, duel. 
 Durus, hard : endure, obdurate. ^ 
 EbriUS, drunken : inebriate, sobriety. 
 Edo, / eat : edible. 
 Ego, /.- egotist. 
 
 Emo, emptum, I buy: redeem, redemp- 
 tion. 
 Eo, I go : e.Kit, initial. 
 Equus, a horse ; eques, a horseman : equeny, 
 
 equine, equip. 
 Erro, Ju-ander: err, aberration, erroncoiis. 
 Exemplum, an exauiple : exemplify, 
 
 sample. 
 Expedio, I set free: expedition. 
 Experior, / try : experience, expert. 
 Faber, a. loorkman : faljricl 
 Eabula, a story : fable. 
 Facies, the face : deface, fashion, facial. 
 Eacilis, easy : facility, difficult, faculty. 
 Facio, factum, / do, I make : fact, affect, 
 
 beatify, perfect. 
 Fallo, falsum, / deceive : false, fallible. 
 Fama, report : fame, infamous. 
 Familia, a family: familiar. 
 Fanum, a temple : fane, profane. 
 Fatims, silly : fatuity. 
 Febrio, a fever : febrile. 
 Felix, happy : felicity. 
 Femina, au-oman: effeminate, feminine. 
 
 Fendo, I strike : fender, fence, defend. 
 
 Fero, I bear : confer, fertile, conference. 
 
 Ferox,/<!)re.- ferocious. 
 
 Ferveo, / boil : fervid, fervour. 
 
 Festus, jo///«/ .• festival, feast. 
 
 Fidelis, faithful : fidelity. 
 
 Fido, I trust : confide, perfidious. 
 
 Figo, fixum, I fix : fix, fixture. 
 
 Filiiis, a son : filial. 
 
 Findo, fissum, I cleave : fissure. 
 
 Fingo, fictum, / shape : feign, fiction. 
 
 Finis, an end : finite, define, infinite. 
 
 Firmus, strong: firm, atiirm, confirm. 
 
 Fiscus, a treasury : fiscal, confiscate. 
 
 Flagro, / bii7-n : flagrant. 
 
 Flanuna, afiarae: flame, inflammation. 
 
 Flecto, flexum, I bend: inflect, refle.x. 
 
 Fligo, flietum, I dash : afflict, profligate. 
 
 Flo, tlatum, I blow : inflate. 
 
 Flos, floris, afiou-er: floral, flourish. 
 
 Fluo, fluxum, Ifiow: flux, fluctuate, fluid. 
 
 Fodio, fossum, I dig: fossil. 
 
 Folium, a leaf: foliage, folio, cinquefoil. 
 
 Fons, a fountain: font, fount. 
 
 Forma, a shape : form, conform, uniform. 
 
 Formido, fcor : formidable. 
 
 Fors, chance: fortune, fortuitous. 
 
 Fortis, strong: fortif}', fortress, 
 
 Frango, fi-actum, I break: fi-agile, infringe, 
 fracture. 
 
 Frater, a brother : fraternal, friar. 
 
 Fraus, dccit : fraud, defraud. 
 
 l'"rigus, cfld: frigid, refrigerate. 
 
 Frons, (he forehead : front, affront. 
 
 Fruor, / enjoy ; fructus, fruit : fructify, 
 fruit, frugal. 
 
 Frustra, i>i rain : frustrate. 
 
 Fuglo, Ijtee : fugitive, refuge. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 135 
 
 I 
 
 Tiilgeo, I siiine: refulgence, effulge. 
 
 Fulmen, a thunderbolt : fulminate. 
 
 Fumus, smoke : fumigate, perfume. 
 
 Fundo, fusum, I pour : jirofuse, fusible. 
 
 Fundus, the bottom: foundation, profound. 
 
 Fungor, / discharge : function. 
 
 Funus, a bunnl .• funeral. 
 
 Garrio, 1 2'>rattle : garrulous. 
 
 Gelu, ice: gelid, congeal, jelly. 
 
 Gens, a race : gentile, genteel. 
 
 Genus, generis, a kind: general, ingenuous, 
 progeny, regenerate. 
 
 Gero, gestum, / carry : gesticulate, digest, 
 jest. 
 
 Glacies, ice : glass, glacier, glaze. 
 
 Gloria, glory : glorify, glory. 
 
 Gradior, gressum, / go : grade, retrograde, 
 digress, aggressor. 
 
 Grandis, large: grandee, aggrandize. 
 
 Grannm, grain : granary, garner. 
 
 Gratia, favour : gratify, grace, ingrate. 
 
 Gravis, heavy: gravitate, grave, grief. 
 
 Grex, a flock : aggregate, egregious. 
 
 Eabeo, babitum, / have: habitable, in- 
 habit, prohibit. 
 
 Hsereo, hsesum, I stick: adhere, hesitate. 
 
 Hasres, hseredis, an heir : heritable. 
 
 Halo, / breathe : exhale, inhale. 
 
 Haurio, haustum, I draw : exhaust. 
 
 Homo, a man : human, homicide. 
 
 Honor, honour: dishonour, honest. 
 
 Horreo, I shudder : horror, abhor. 
 
 Hortor, I encourage : exhort. 
 
 Hortus, a gnnhn : horticulture. 
 
 Hospes, hospitis, a guest: hospital, host. 
 
 Hostis, an enemy : hostile. 
 
 Humus, the ground : exhume, humble. 
 
 Ignis, firf. : igneous, ignite. 
 
 Ignore, / knoio not : ignore, ignorant. 
 
 Imago, a likeness: image, imagine. 
 
 Imitor, / imitate : inimitable. 
 
 Impero, T command : imperious, emperor. 
 
 Inferus, loic : inferior. 
 
 Insula, Oil island : insular, peninsular. 
 
 Integer, 7chole, sound: integrity, integrate. 
 
 Invito, / call : invite, invitation. 
 
 Ira, ajiger : ire, irascible. 
 
 Iirito, I provoke : irritate. 
 
 Iter, itineris, ajourn'>y : itinerant. 
 
 Jaceo, / lie down : adjacent. 
 
 Jacio, jactum, / throio : deject, object. 
 
 Jocus, a jest : joke, jocular. 
 
 Judico, i judge : judicial, prejudice, judge. 
 
 JugTim, a yoke : adiugate, conjugal. 
 
 Jungo, junctum, I join : junction, joint, 
 adjunct, subjunctive. 
 
 Jure, I SIC ear : juror, abjure, perjmy. 
 
 Jus, right, laic : jurisprudence. 
 
 Justus, right : justice, adjust, unjust. 
 
 Juvo, jutum, / help : adjutant, coadjutor. 
 
 Labor, toil .- laboi;r, laborious. 
 
 Labor, lapsus, I fall : lapse, relapse. 
 
 Lacero, / mangle : lacerate. 
 
 Lsedo, Isesum, / hurt : collision. 
 
 Lapis, lapidis, a stone : dilapidate. 
 
 Latus, lateris, a side : lateral, bilateral. 
 
 Latus, bro'd : latitude. 
 
 Latus, brought : ablative, collate, translate. 
 
 Laus, laudis, jyra'ise : laudatory. 
 
 Laxus, loose : laxity, relax. 
 
 Lego, / send or depute : legate, legacy. 
 
 Lego, lectum, I gather, read: elect, collect, 
 neglect, select, legible. 
 
 Levis, light : levo, / lift : levy, alleviate. 
 
 Lex, legis, alaw : legal, legislate, sacrilege. 
 
 Liber, free : liberty, illiberal. 
 
 Liber, o honk : library, libel. 
 
 Ligo, 1 bind : ligament, oblige, religion. 
 
 Limes, a bounda.ry : limit, illimitable. 
 
 Linea, a line: line, lineal, outline. 
 
 Lingua, a tongue: linguist, language. 
 
 Linquo, lictum, I leave: relinquish, relict. 
 
 Liqueo, Imdt: liquid, liquor. 
 
 Litera, a letter : literal, obliterate. 
 
 Locus, a place: local, locomotion. 
 
 Lougus, long: loi gevity, elongate, oblong. 
 
 Loquor, locutus, 1 speak: loquacious. 
 
 Ludo, lusiim, / play : ludicrous, allusion. 
 
 Lumen, light : illuminate, lumiuousr 
 
 Luna, the moon : lunar, lunacy. 
 
 Luo, / ivash : ablution, dilute, pollute. 
 
 Lustrum, a 2^uriflcation : lustre, illustrate. 
 
 Lvix, lucis, light: lucid, elucidate. 
 
 Macula, a spot : immaLul^te. 
 
 Magister, a master : magistrate, master. 
 
 Magnus, great : magnify, magnitude. 
 
 Major, greater: majority, majestic, mayor. 
 
 Mains, bad : malady, maltreat, malice. 
 
 Mamma, a breast : mamma, mammalia. 
 
 Maudo, / commit, enjoin : mandate, com- 
 mand. 
 
 Maneo, mansum, I stay: manor, manse, 
 remain. 
 
 Manus, the hand : manacle, manuscript. 
 
 Mare, the sea : marine, mermaid. 
 
 Mars, the god of v:ar : martial. 
 
 Mater, a mother : maternal, matrimony. 
 
 Materia, timber, stuff : material, matter. 
 
 Slaturus, ripe : mature, premature.. 
 
 Medeor, / heal : medical remedy. 
 
 Medius, middle : mediate, immediate. 
 
 Mel, mellis, honey: mellifluous. - 
 
 Melior, better : ameliorate. 
 
 Memor, mindful : memory, commemorate. 
 
 Mens, mentis, the mind: mental. 
 
 Mereo. meritum, / deserve : merit. 
 
 Mergo, mersum, / dip : submerge, im- 
 merse. 
 
 Metior, mcnsus, / measure: mete, im- 
 mense, mensuration. 
 
 Merx, mercis, goods : merchant, commerce. 
 
 ]Migro, I icaader : migrate, immigrate. 
 
 Miles, militis, a soldier: militate, military. 
 
 Mille, « thousand: millennial, milfoil. 
 
 IMinister, a servant : minister, administer. 
 
 Jlinor, less ; minuo, 1 lessen : minority, 
 diminish. 
 
 iVIirns, wonderful: miracle, admire. 
 
 Misceo, mixtum, / mix: miscellany, mix. 
 
 ]Miser, wretched: misery, commiserate. ' 
 
 Mitto, missum, T send : admit, mission. 
 
 Modus, a measure : moderate, mood, 
 modest. 
 
 Mola, a millstone: molar, immolate, emolu- 
 ment. 
 
 Mollis, soft : mollify, emollient. 
 
136 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Moneo, / warn : monument, monitor. 
 Mons, montis, a inountaiii: movint. 
 Monstro, I point out : demonstrate. 
 Morbus, disfo^e : morbid. 
 Mordco, morsum, J bite: morsel, remorse. 
 Mors, mortis, death : mortal, mortgage. 
 Mos, moris, a castoni : moral, demoralise. 
 Moveo, motum, Imovf.- movement. motion. 
 iMultus, TTUiny : multiform, multiply. 
 Jlunio, 1 fortify : muniment, ammunition. 
 !Munus, muneris, a gift : munificent. 
 Murus, a vxiH : mural, immure. 
 Itlusa, a muse : music, museum, amuse. 
 Muto, I chanae : mutable, commute. 
 Narro, / n-iaic .• narrative. 
 Nascor, natus, I am horn: nascent, innate, 
 
 natal. 
 Kavis, a ship : navy, navigate. 
 Necto, nexum, / tie : annex, connect. 
 Kego, / deny : negation, abnegate. 
 Negotium, business: negotiate. 
 Neuter, neither: neutial. 
 Niger, black: negro. 
 Noceo, I hurt : noxious, innocent 
 Nomen, a name : nominal, denominate. 
 Non, not : nonconformist, nonsense. 
 Norma, a rule : normal, enormous. 
 Nosco, notum, I knov> ; nobilis, welt known : 
 
 note, cognition, noble. 
 Novus, new : novel. 
 
 Nox, noctis, night: nocturnal, equinox. 
 Nubo, nuptum, / marry : connubial, nup- 
 tial. 
 NuUus, 7io/ie; nullity, annul. 
 Numerus, u number : numeral, enumerate. 
 Nuncio, 1 tell : announce, enunciate. ] 
 
 Nutrio, I nourish: nutritive, nurse. 
 Obliquus, slant : oblique. 
 
 Oblivio, forgetfulness : oblivion. 
 
 Obscurus, dark : obscmitj". 
 
 Octo, eight : October, octagon. 
 
 Oculus, the eye : ocular, inoculate. 
 
 Odor, smell : odorous. 
 
 Officium, duty : offico. 
 
 Omen, o sign : ominous, abominate 
 
 Omnis, all : omnipotent. 
 
 Opinor, /i/tini-; opinion. 
 
 Opto, / wish : optative, option. 
 
 Opus, operis, wm-k : operate, inoperativs. 
 
 Orbis, a circle: orb, exorbitant. 
 
 Ordo, ordinis, order: ordinal, extra- 
 ordinary. 
 
 Orior, ortus, I rise: orient, abortive, origin. 
 
 Oro, / speak, entreat : orator, adore. 
 
 Os, oris, a mouth : oral. 
 
 Ovum, an egg : oval, oviparous. 
 
 Pagus, a village : pagan, peas.mt. 
 
 Pallium, a cloak : palliate, pall. 
 
 Palpo, I stroke: pali)ablc. 
 
 Pando, passura, I s^iread: expand, ex- 
 panse. 
 
 Par, equal: disparity, compare. 
 
 Pareo, I appear : apparent, disappear. 
 
 Pario, I bring forth: parent, viviparous. 
 
 Paro, I prepare: parade, prepare. 
 
 Para, partis, a part: part, apartment, 
 portion. 
 
 Pasco, pastum, J feed : pastor, pasture. 
 
 Fassus, a step : pace, compass, trespass. 
 Pater, a father : paternal, j)atron, parri- 
 cide. 
 Patior, passus, / suffer : patient, passion. 
 Patria, a native-land : patriot, expatriate. 
 Pauper, poor : pauperism, j^overtj'. 
 Pax, pacis, peace: pacify, api)ease. 
 Pectus, pectoris, the breast : pectoral. 
 Pecunia, money : pecvmiary, 
 Pello, pulsum, I drive : compel, repulse. 
 Pendeo, / Jiang : pendant, depend. 
 Pendo, pensum, / weigh, pay : pension, 
 
 expend, recompense. 
 Pene, almost : peninsula. 
 Penetro, 1 pierce : penetrate. 
 Penuria, ^vant : penury. 
 Perdo, / lose : perdition. 
 Persona, a mask, a person : personal. 
 Pes, pedis, afoot: pedal, biped, impede. 
 Pestis, a plague : pestilence. 
 Peto, petitum, I seek: petition, competent, 
 
 appetite. 
 Pilo, / steal : pillage, pilfer. 
 Pingo, pictum, I paint : picture, painter. 
 Piscis, a fish : piscatory. 
 Placeo, I please : placid, complacent. 
 Placo, / appease : implacable. 
 Planta, Uie sole of the foot: plantation. 
 Planus, level : plain, explam. 
 Plaudo, plausum, / clap hands: plaudit, 
 
 plausible, applause. 
 Plecto, plexum, I weave : complex. 
 Pleo, I fill : plenus, full : replete, plenary, 
 supply, replenish. 
 
 Plico, / fold : pliable, comply, duplicate, 
 surplice. 
 
 Ploro, / bewail : deplore, explore. 
 
 Plumbum, lead : plumber, plummet. 
 
 Plus, pluris, more: plural, pluperfect. 
 
 Poena, punishment : penal, pain, repent. 
 
 Polio, / make smooth : polish, polite. 
 
 Pondus, weight: ponder, preponderate. 
 
 Pouo, positum, 1 peace: postpone, repose, 
 opposite. 
 
 Populus, the people: popular, depopulate, 
 publish. 
 
 Porto, I carry: export, support, important. 
 
 Possum, / am able ; potens, powerful : 
 possible, potent, omuiijotent. 
 
 Post, after: posterity. 
 
 Postula, / demand : postulate. 
 
 Preeda, booty : depredation, prey. 
 
 Precor, / 2>ray : deprecate. 
 
 Prehendo, / seize: apprehend, reprehen- 
 sible. 
 
 Premo, pressum, / press: compress, op- 
 press. 
 
 Pretium, a price : precious, depreciate. 
 
 Primus, first : primeval. 
 
 Princeps, chief: principal, prince. 
 
 Privo, J deprive: private, deprive. 
 
 Probo, / try: probable, approbation, re- 
 prove. 
 
 Proprius, one's oicn : property, propriety. 
 
 Puer, a boy : puerile. 
 
 Pugno, I fight : pugnacious, impugn. 
 
 Pungo, punctum, / prick: pungent, 
 punctual. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 137 
 
 Puuio, T punish: punitive, impunity. 
 Purge, / cleanse : purge, expurgate. 
 Piito. I prune, /</< i ii/i .• amputate, dispute. 
 Putris, rotten : putrid, putrescence. 
 Qua3ro,quaesitum,/«si; inquire, question, 
 
 acquisition. 
 Qualis, of what sort : qualify. 
 Quatio, quas3uni (in composition, cutio, 
 cussum), / shake : discuss, repercus- 
 sion. 
 Queror, / complain : querulous. 
 Quies, 7-est : quiet, requiem. 
 Quinque, five : quinquennial. 
 Quot, how many : quotient. 
 Radius, a rod, a ran : radiate, radiance 
 Radix, a root : radical, eradicate. 
 Rado, rasura, / shave : razor, erase. 
 Rapio. raptum, 7 seize: rapacious, rapture. 
 Rarus, thin : rare, rarefy. 
 Jiiitvis, fixed : rate, ratify. 
 Rego, rectum, / rule : regular, indirect. 
 Repo, / creep : reptile, surreptitious. 
 Res, a thing : real, reality. 
 Rex, a king : regal. 
 
 Ridoo, risum, I laugh : deride, derision. 
 Rigeo, / am stiff: rigid. 
 Rivus, a brook : river, rival, arrive. 
 Robiu", oak : robust, corroborate. 
 Rodo, / gnaw : corrode. 
 Rogo, / ask : rogation, interrogative. 
 Rota, a loheel : rotation, rote. 
 Rotundus, round .- rotundity. 
 Rumpo, ruptum, / break : rupture, bank- 
 rupt. 
 Ru'^, ruris, ths country : rustic, rural. 
 Sacar, holy: sacerdotal, sacred, sacra- 
 ment, desecrate. 
 Sagax, ivise : sagacious, sage, presage. 
 Sal, salt : saline, salary. 
 Salio, saltum, / leap : salient, assail, 
 
 salmon, insult, result. 
 Salus, salutis, safety : salute, salutation. 
 Salvus, safe: salvation, 
 Sanctus, holy : sanctity, saint. 
 Sanguis, sanguinis, blood: sanguinary. 
 Sanus, sound : sane, sanity. 
 Sapio, I taste, am wise , sapor, taste : savour, 
 
 sapient, insipid. 
 Satis, enough: satiate, satisfy. 
 Scala, a ladder : scale. 
 Scando, scansum, I climb : scan, ascend, 
 
 ascension. 
 Scindo, scissum, I cut : rescind, scissors. 
 Scio, / know : science, conscience. 
 Scribo, scriptum, I vn-ite : scribe, describe, 
 
 manuscript, conscription. 
 Scrutor, /examine: inscrutable. 
 Seco, sect\im, / cut : section, bisect. 
 Sedeo, sessum, / sit ; sido, / si-t : sedo, I 
 settle: sedan, sedate, consider, pre- 
 side, supersede. 
 Semen, seed : seminary, disseminate. 
 Senex, an old man : senile, senator. 
 Sentio, sensum, / feet : sentiment, sense, 
 
 dissension, resent. 
 Sepelio, I bury : sepulchre. 
 Septem, seven : September, septennial. 
 Sequor, secutus, / follow : sequence, con- 
 sequence, execute, prosecute. 
 
 Sero, sertura, I set in a row : series, sermon, 
 insert, exert. 
 
 Servus. a slave ; servio, I serve : servo, I 
 v}atch or prcs^'rve : serve, serf, servitude, 
 preserve, observe, deserve. 
 
 Sidus, sideris, a star : sidereal. 
 
 Signum, a sign : .signal, design, ensign. 
 
 Similis, like: similar, dissemble, simulate. 
 
 Sinus, a bend : sinuous, insinuate. 
 
 SLsto, / stop, stayid : assist, desist, resist. 
 
 Socius, a companion : social, as.sociate. 
 
 Sol, the sun : solar, parasol, solstice. 
 
 Solidus, firm : solid, consolidate, solder. 
 
 Solor, / comfort : solace, console 
 
 Solum, the <irov,nd: soil. 
 
 Solus, alone : solitude, desolate. 
 
 Solvo, solutum, / Loosen : solve, resolution. 
 
 Soranus, s/cep ; somnolent. 
 
 Sono, I sound: sonorous, consonant. 
 
 Spai'go, sparsum, / strew : asperse, dis- 
 perse. 
 
 Specio, spectum, / look ; species, appear- 
 ance, kind : special, respect, siaectator, 
 suspicious, despise. 
 
 Spero, / hope : desperate. 
 
 Spiro, 7 breathe : spirit, inspire. 
 
 Spleudeo, / shine : splendour, splendid. 
 
 Spondeo. sponsum, / answer : despond, 
 response. 
 
 Stella, a star : stellar, constellation. 
 
 Sterno, stratum, / lay fi,at: prostrate, con- 
 sternation. 
 
 Stilla, a drop : distil. 
 
 Stimulus, a good : stimulant. 
 
 Sto, statum, I stand : stable, state, dis- 
 tant, armistice, substance. 
 
 Stringo, strictum, / tighten: stringent, 
 constrain, strict, restrict. 
 
 Struo, structum, 1 build: structure, con- 
 struct, destroy, construe. 
 
 Studeo, I am eager ; studium, zeal : study. 
 
 Stupco, I am amazed : stupid. 
 
 Suadeo, suasum, / advise : suasion, per- 
 suade. 
 
 Sublimis, raised aloft: sublime. 
 
 Sum, lam: esse, to be; futurus, about to 
 be : entity, present, future. 
 
 Summus, highest : summit, siunmary. 
 
 Sumo, sumptum, / take: assume, con- 
 sumption. 
 
 Surge, / rise : insurrection, resource. 
 
 Tabula, a table : tabular. 
 
 Taceo, 1 am silent : tacit, taciturn. 
 
 Tango, tacttun, / touch: tangent, tact, 
 contiguous. 
 
 Tardus, slow : tardy, retard. 
 
 Tego, tectum, / c»v( r : tegument, protect. 
 Temno, temptum, / despise: contemn, 
 
 contempt. 
 Tempero, J restrain : temper, temperature. 
 Tempus, temporis, time: temporal, con- 
 temporary. 
 Tendo, tensum, I stretch : tendency, con- 
 tend, tension. 
 Teneo, ten turn, I.'i^ld: tenable, tenacious, 
 
 retain, conti'uinns. 
 Tento, I try: tentative, attempt. 
 Terminus, a bouwlary : term, determine. 
 Tero, tritum, I rub : trite, detriment. 
 
138 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Terra, the earth : terrace, mediten-anean. 
 
 Terreo, I frighten : terror, deter. 
 
 Testis, a witness: testify', contest, in- 
 testate. 
 
 Texo, textum, / uxave : text, textile, con- 
 text. 
 
 Timeo, I/'Cir: timid, intimidate. 
 
 Torqueo, tortum, J tuial: torment, tor- 
 ture, retort. 
 
 Torrco, tostuni, I 'parch : torrid, toast. 
 
 ToLus, tc/ioli.- total. 
 
 Traho, tractuni, / draiv ; tracto, / handle: 
 truct, tvciic, abstract, tractable. 
 
 Tremo, / shake : tremor, tremble. 
 
 Tre.s, tria, three : triangle, trcfoiJ. 
 
 TribiiO, J pice : tribute, distribute. 
 
 Tribus, a tiibf, : tribe, tribune. 
 
 Tnido, trusum, I thrust: extrude, abstruse. 
 
 Tueor, I 'protect : tutor, tuition. 
 
 Tumeo, I .nrcfl : tumid, tumult. 
 
 Tur'oa, a ciowd: turbid, disturb. 
 
 Ultra, Uyond ; mturior, /or j/tcr; ultimus, 
 farthest : iiltei-ior, ultimate. 
 
 Umbra, a shale : lunbrage, umbrella. 
 
 Uiida, a leave : undulate, abound. 
 
 Unguo, unctum, 1 anoint: unguent, unc- 
 tion. 
 
 Unus, one : imanimous, unite. 
 
 Urbs, a cilij : lubun, suburb. 
 
 Urgeo, I press : urge, urgent. 
 
 Uro, ustum, I burn: combustion. 
 
 Utor, usus, 1 use : use, utility, usurp. 
 
 Vacca, a cow .- vaccinate. 
 
 Vaco, I n7n at leisure: vacant, evacuate. 
 
 Vado, vasum, I go: evade, invasion. 
 
 Yagor, / vjandtr ; vagus, u-andering : 
 vagrant, vagab(md, vague. 
 
 Yaleo, 1 am strong: vulid, convalescent, 
 prevail, valedictory. 
 
 Vapor, steam: vapour, evaporate. 
 
 Varius, ilifferent: vary, invariable. 
 
 Vastus, desolate: vast, waste, devastate. 
 
 Vebo, vectum, / carry : veliement, vehicle, 
 convey, invective. 
 
 Velum, a covering : veil, develop, reveal. 
 
 Veudo, / sdl : vend, venal. 
 
 Venio, ventum, I come : advent, venture, 
 prevent. 
 
 Ventus, the wind : ventilate. 
 
 Vei bum, « icord : verb, verbose, proverb. 
 
 Vergo, J incline : conveige, diverge. 
 
 Vermis, a zcorm : vermin, vermicular. 
 
 Vcrto, ver.sum, / tuin: vertex, advert, 
 convert, reverse. 
 
 Verus, true : verity, verify, averment. 
 
 Vestis, a garment : vest, invest, vesture. 
 
 Vetus, veteris, old : veteran, inveterate. 
 
 Via, a wag: deviate, viaticimi, •trivial. 
 
 Vicis, change : vicissitude, vicar, viceroj'. 
 
 Video, visum, I see : visage, evidence, pro- 
 vide, survey, envy. 
 
 Vinco, victum, 1 conquer : invincible, con- 
 vict. 
 
 Vir, a man; virttis, 'manli7iess : virtue, 
 triumvirate. 
 
 Vita, lije : vital. 
 
 Vitium, fault : vice, vitiate. 
 
 Vitrum, glass: vitreous. 
 
 Yivo, victum, / live : vivacious, convivial, 
 vivid, victual. 
 
 Voco, T call: vocal, advocate, revoke, 
 vowel, vocabulary. 
 
 Volo, //.//.• volatile. 
 
 Volo, / will : volition, benevolent, volun- 
 tary. 
 
 Volvo, volutum, / roll : revolve, involu- 
 tion, volume. 
 
 Vori), 1 devour: voracious, devotu*, carni- 
 vorous. 
 
 Voveo, votum, I voir : vote, devote, votary. 
 
 Vulgus, the common people : vulgar. 
 
 Vuluus, a wound : duvulnerable 
 
 Chapter VI. — Greek Words. 
 
 289. The principal Greek words from which modern English 
 words are taken are as follows : — 
 
 (English c^ Greek K;y = v; ch = %; 6 = ?;; o = w; h trough breathing.) 
 
 Adelphos, a brother : Philadelphia. 
 Aor, tjie air : aeronaut. 
 ■Agoge, a Uiiding ; agHgos, o leader : syna- 
 gogue, demagogue. 
 Agon, a contest: antagonist. 
 A!;mo, a point : acme. 
 Akouo, J hear: acoustics. 
 Akros, top : acropolis, acrostic. 
 Ainigma. o riddle: enigma. 
 AUe.oi, one another : i>arallel. 
 Alios, anothf-r : allopathy. 
 Amphi, on hoi h sides : amjihibious. 
 Anemos, the wind : anemone. 
 AnuT, andros, a man: monandria. 
 Angelos, a messenger : angel, evangelist. 
 Anthos, ajlouer: anthology. 
 
 Anthropos, a man : misanthrope, anthro- 
 
 pology. 
 An;he, rule, beginning: monarch, architect. 
 Arctos, a hear: Arctic. 
 Aristos, best: aristocracy. 
 Ariihmos, number: arithmetic. 
 Askeo, J exercise : ascetic. 
 Aster, a star: asterisk, astronomy. 
 Atmos, virpour : atmosphere. 
 Autos, self: autobiograi^hy. 
 Axioma, a sfif-evident truth: axiom. 
 Ballo, I throw : hyperbole, parable, 
 liapto, J diji : bai)tize. 
 Baios, ireight : barometer. 
 Basis, tre<!ding, siij^poyt : base, basis, 
 liiblion, a lo\/k : Bible, bibliography. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 139 
 
 Bios, life : biography, amphibious. 
 
 Botane, a plant : botany. 
 
 Character, something engravpd : character. 
 
 Charis, tlumks, love : eucharist. 
 
 Cheii-, tlie hand: chirography. 
 
 Chole, hil", : melancholj'-. 
 
 ChovdH, a strinci : chord. 
 
 ChrisTos, anointed, Christ, Christian, 
 
 chrism. 
 Chronos, thne : chronometer. 
 Chrusoi?, golden : chrysalis. 
 Chumos, ju(cs; chyme. 
 Daimon, a spirit : demon. 
 Daktulos, a finger : dactyle. 
 Deka, ten : decalogue. 
 Demos, the people : democrat. 
 Dendron, a tree : rhododendron. 
 Deuteros, second: Deuteronomy. 
 Diploma, aw/thing folded: diploma. 
 Dogma, an opinion: dogmatic. 
 Doxa, an opinion, g'ory : doxology. 
 Drao, / act : drastic, drama. 
 Domos, a running : hiiDpodrome. 
 Dunamis, 2'>oicer : dynamics. 
 Eidolon, an imnge : idol, idolatry. 
 Ekklesia, the church: ecclesiastical. 
 Elao, / draw out : elastic. 
 Eremos, solitary: eremite, hermit. 
 Ergon, a work : chirurgcon, enei'gy. 
 Ethnos, a nation : ethnology. 
 Ethos, a custom : ethics. 
 Etumos, true: etymology. 
 Eu, icell : eulogy. 
 Gala, milk : galaxy, • 
 Gameo, I marry : bigamy, 
 Gaster, the belly : gastric, 
 Ge, the earth : geography. 
 Genos, a race : genealogy, heterogeneous. 
 Glossa, or Glotta, the tongue : glossary, 
 
 polyglot. 
 Glupho, / carve : hieroglyphic. 
 
 Gnomon, a 2^ointer : gnomon physio- 
 gnomy. 
 
 Gonia, a corner : pentagon. 
 
 Gi-amma, a letter : gi-ammar, epigram. 
 
 Grapho, I lorite : graphic, autograph. 
 
 Gumnos, naked : gymnastic. 
 
 Gune, a woman : misogyny. 
 
 Halma, blood .• hfbmorrhage. 
 
 Hairesis, choice : heresy. 
 
 Helios, the sun : heliotrope. 
 
 Hemi, half: hemisphere. 
 
 Hamera, a day : ephemeral, 
 
 Hepta, sere J!. ; heptagon. 
 
 Heteros, another : heterodox. 
 
 Hex, six : hexagon. 
 
 Hieros, sacred : hierarchy. 
 
 Hippo?, a horse : hippopotamus, 
 
 Hodos, a loay : method, exodus. 
 
 Holos, zcho'e : catholic. 
 
 Homoios, like: homoeopathy. 
 
 Homos, same : homogeneous. 
 
 Hura, an hour : horoscope. 
 
 Huddr, water : hydrogen. 
 
 IchthUS, nfish : ichthyology. 
 
 Idios, peculiar : idiom. 
 
 Isos, equal : isosceies. 
 
 Kalos, beautiful : caligi-aphy. 
 
 Kalupto, I hide : apocalypse. 
 
 Kanon, a. ride : canonical. 
 
 Kaustikos, burning : caustic, 
 
 Klimax, a ladder : climax. 
 
 Klino, / bend : clinic, enclitic. 
 
 Koinos, commoyi : epicene. 
 
 Kosmos, world : cosmogony, 
 
 Kranion, the skidl : craniology. 
 
 Kratos, strength : democrat. 
 
 Krino, I judge : critic, crisis, 
 
 Krupto, I hide : apocryphal. 
 
 Kuklos, a circle : cycle, encyclopaedia. 
 
 Ku~'n, a dog : cynic. 
 
 Lambano, / take (root la.b, lep) : syllable, 
 
 epilepsy. 
 Lego, / say ; lexis, speech : eclectic, lexicon, 
 dialect. 
 
 Leipij, I fail : ecliptic, ellipse. 
 
 Lithos, a sJone/ lithograph. 
 Logos, speech, reason, science : logic, dia- 
 logue, mythology. 
 
 Luo, / loosen ; lusis, a loosening : paralysis. 
 Mania, mndness : maniac. 
 
 IMai'tur, au-itness: martyr. 
 
 jMachema, learning : mathematics. 
 
 Mechane, a contrivance : mechanics. 
 
 Melas, black : melancholy. 
 
 Melos, a song : melody. 
 
 iletallou, a mttal : metal. 
 
 Meter, a mother : metropolis. 
 
 Metron, a measure : geometry, 
 
 Mikros, small : microscope. 
 
 llimos, an imiteitor : mimic, 
 
 Misos, hatred: misanthroi^e. 
 
 Mnemon, remembering : mnemonics, 
 
 Monos, alone : monarch. 
 
 Morphe, shape : amorphous, 
 
 Muthos, fable : mythical. 
 
 Naus, a ship : nausea, na»tical, 
 
 Xekros, dead: necropolis. 
 
 Neos, new : neology, Neapolis. 
 
 Nesos, an island. : Polynesia. 
 
 Nomos, a imo : astronomy. 
 
 Nosos, a disease : nosology. 
 
 Ode, a song : ode. 
 
 Oikos, a house : economy, diocese. 
 
 Oligoi, feio : oligarchy. 
 
 Onoma, « na,me : synonym. 
 
 Ophthalmos, the eye: ophthalmia, 
 
 Optomai, I see : optics, synopsis. 
 
 Orgauon, an instrument : organ. 
 
 Ornis, ornithos, a bird : ornithology. 
 
 Orphanos, bereaved: orphan. 
 
 Orthos, right, straight: orthography. 
 
 Oxus, sheirp : oxide, oxygen. 
 
 Paideia, instruction : cyclopaedia. 
 
 Pais, paidos, a boy : pedagogue. 
 
 Pas (root, pan) all : panacea, pantheist. 
 
 Pathos, feeling : imthetic. 
 
 Pente, five : pentagon. 
 
 Petalon, a leaf: petal. 
 
 Petra, a rock : petrify. 
 
 Phago, I eat: sarcophagus. 
 
 Phaino, /appear: phenomenon, phantasy, 
 fancy. 
 
 Phcnii, / say : prophecy, blaspheme. 
 
 Phero, / carry : metaphor. 
 
 Philos, fond of : philosophy, Philip. 
 
140 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Phobos, fmr : h j'drophobia. 
 Phone, voice : phonetic. 
 Phos, photos, li(//it : photogrnphy. 
 Phrasis, saying: phrase. 
 Phren, tlie mind : phrenology. 
 Phthongos, sound : diphthong. 
 Phnsi.s, natiire: phj'sics. 
 Plan?tC'S, u-anderiri(/ : planet. 
 Plasso, / mould : plastic. 
 Plosso, / striL-e : apoplexy. 
 Pneurna, air : pneumatics. 
 Poieo, / 7nake : poet. 
 Polemos, v:ay : polemical. 
 Poleo, I sell: bibliopolist. 
 Polis, a city : police. 
 Polus, many : polygon. 
 Potamos, a river : hipiiopotamus. 
 Pons, podos, afoot : antipodes, poly 
 Prasso, / do : practice. 
 Presbuteros, elder : presbyter, pries 
 Protos, Jirst : prototype. 
 Pseudos, /a/se .• psei:do-ma7-tyr. 
 Psuche, the soul : psychology. 
 Ptdma, a. fall: sj^mptom. 
 Pur, fire : pyre, pyramid. 
 Rhetor, an oreiiov : rhetoric. 
 Sarx, flesh : sarcasm. 
 Schizo, J divide : schism. 
 Skelos, a leg: isosceles. 
 
 pus. 
 
 Skene, a tent : scene. 
 
 Skopeo, / see : telescope, episcopacy 
 
 Sophos, zvise : philosopher. 
 
 Spao, / di(no : spasm. 
 
 Sphaira, a glohn : hemisphere. 
 
 Sta.sis, « standing : statics. 
 
 Stello, / send : apostle, epistle. 
 
 Stenos, narrov: : stenography. 
 
 Stichos, a line: distich, acro.stic. 
 
 Stigma, a brand : stign^a. 
 
 Strophe, a turning : ajjostrophe. 
 
 Sukos, a fig: sycophant. 
 
 Taphos, (1 tomb : ei^itaph. 
 
 Taxis, an arra/igenient : syntax. 
 
 Techne, an art : technical. 
 
 Tele, far off: telegraph. 
 
 Teuchos, implement, book : pentatcuch. 
 
 Thcaomai, J see : theatre. 
 
 Theos, God : theism. 
 
 Thermos, 2carm : thermometer. 
 
 Thesis, a placing, position : hypothesis. 
 
 Tome, a cutting : epitome. 
 
 Topos, a place : topography. 
 
 Tropos, a turning: tropics. 
 
 Tupos, / shape : type. 
 
 Turannos, a despot : tyrant. 
 
 Zone, a girdle : zone. 
 
 Zoon, an animal : zoology. 
 
 Remarh. 
 
 A Hybrid Word is a word of which the constituent parts are derived 
 from different languages : as, (1) Causeless, from Latin causa and English 
 less ; (2) Uncertain, from English ^ln and Latin cerius ; (3) Eatable, from 
 English eat and Latin suffix ibtlis ; (4) Parasol, from Greek imra and 
 Latin sol, 
 
 PART III— SYNTAX. 
 A. Rules of Syntax. 
 
 290. Syntax treats of the correct method of arranging 
 words into sentences. 
 
 291. Words are related to each other, by way of Concord 
 and Government. 
 
 292. Concord is the agreement of one word with another 
 in gender, number, person, or case. 
 
 293. Government is the power which one woi^d has over 
 another in deterniinincr its case or mood. 
 
 Chapter I.— Syntax of the Noun. 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 107—115.] 
 
 I. The Nominative. 
 294. Rule I. The subject of a verb is always iu the nomina- 
 tive case : as, Man thinks ; lie walks. 
 
SYNTAX. 141 
 
 Explanation.— il/a';i is the subject of the verb thinks, and is in the nominative C5ase ; 
 he is the subject of the verb nalks, and is in the nominative case. 
 
 06.?.— The leading rules referring to nouns apply also to pronouns. Those which are 
 peculiar to the pronoun are given separately under the " Syntax of the Pronoun." 
 
 Exercise 108. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The squirrel ascends the neighbouring beech. 2. The bold bird of 
 prey alights. 3. He sees me. 4. The cottage curs at early pilgrims bark. 
 5. Down the rough slope the ponderous waggon rings. 6. The maid of 
 honour had her own equipage. 7. A prophet hath no honour in his own 
 country. 8. The wrinkle on the cheek may be the course of secret tears. 
 9. The experience of the trapper was in the right. 10. A wise caution was 
 observed in this respect ; for the treachery of a single deserter might have 
 imperilled the success of the expedition had the exact object been known. 
 
 295. Rule II. The verb to he and other copulative verbs 
 take the same case after them as before them : as, Wellingrton 
 was a great general ; William was surnamed Rufus. 
 
 Explanation. — Wellington before the verb was is in the nominative case, therefore 
 general (which refers to the same person) after the verb u-as, is also in the nominative 
 case. William before the verb was surnamed is in the nominative case, therefore Hufics 
 (which refers to the same person) after the verb icas surnamed, is also in the nominative 
 case. 
 
 296. The Copulative Verbs are : To he, to appear, to become, to he 
 born, to be bred, to begin (intrans.), to come (especially in phrase to come 
 off), to commence (intrans.), to continue (intrans.), to die, to expire, to fall, 
 to go, to groiv (intrans.), to lie, to look, to j->rove (intrans.), to reign, to 
 remain, to return (intrans.), to rise, to seem, to sit, to stand (intrans.), to 
 turn (especially in phrase to turn out), to wander. 
 
 The following verbs called factitive (§ 309) become copulative in the 
 passive voice : — To account, to acknowledge, to admit, to advertise, to 
 appoint, to argue, to believe, to bespeak, to bring (in phrase to bring tip), to 
 call, to choose, to christen, to confess, to consecrate, to consider, to constitute, 
 to count, to create, to crown, to declare, to decree, to deem, to discover, to dub, 
 to elect, to enrol, to enter (as, " He entered himself a soldier"), to entitle, to 
 esteem, to fancy, to feel, to feign, to fnd, to guess, to hold, to ju/lge, to 
 know, to lead, to leave, to make, to mould, to name, to nominate, to offer, to 
 own, to place, to proclaim, to pronounce, to prove, to rank, to reckon, to 
 relate, to render, to report, to salute, to say, to see, to show, to style, to sup- 
 pose, to take (as, "He took the captain prisoner"), to think, to vote, to 
 warrant, to write. 
 
 ^ Exercise 109. 
 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. It was a friar of orders gray. 2. To the peasants of old times the 
 world outside their own direct experience was a region of vagueness and 
 mystery. 3. Their priests were called Druids. 4. Mary would soon cease 
 to be a difficulty, 5. I would be a merman bold. 6, All the_ world's a 
 stage._ 7. My eldest son was a bred scholar, 8, He was Sorn heir Co a 
 large estate. 9. Elizabeth was proclaimed queen. 10. He returned to his 
 own country a millionnaire. 
 
 297. Rule III. The verbal nouns* being, becoming, appearing^ 
 remaining, and the like (§ 296), take a noun after them in the 
 
 * Or gerunds. 
 
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 nominative case even when they are not preceded by a nomina- 
 tive case : as, She prided herself also upon being an excellent 
 contriver in housekeeping. 
 
 Explanation.— J5'i /If/, though not preceded by a nominative case, takes after it the 
 noun contriver in the nominative case. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The idiom described in this rule is also explained (1) by supplying: «in 
 ellipsis : thus, " She prided herself on being an excellent contriver " = she prided herself 
 on being (/.?., existing) as an excellent contriver exists; (2) by regarding the verbal 
 noun and the following noun as a compound : thus, bdng-an-excdleat-contriver, a com- 
 pound noun. 
 
 ()l)S. 2.— The infinitives of the verbs mentioned above (§ 296) take the same case 
 after them as before them (by Rule II.), but if they are not preceded by a case, the case 
 following them is tlie nominative : e.g., To be a ben^'actor is better than to be a 
 loarrior. 
 
 Exercise 110. 
 Parse : — ■ 
 1. My wife insisted upon her being called Olivia. 2. I valued myself on 
 being a strict monogamist. 3. He had not the sense to discern the impro- 
 priety of his being an incessant talker. 4. He enjoyed the privilege of 
 being chief of his party. 5. Far from being an upright man, he ir, not even 
 possessed of common honesty. 6. The idle boy was severely reprimanded 
 for not being a diligent scholar. 7. How loudly did I complain of being 
 considered a traitor to a country for which my affection is unbounded ! 8. 
 Instead of being a harsh father, thou art indeed kind and gentle. 9. To 
 be a good linguist was his sole aim. 10. By being named judge, he has 
 attained to the height of his ambition. 
 
 298. RuIg IV. A noun or a pronoun is said to be in the 
 Nominative Absolute when it is followed by a participle and 
 has its case independent of any other word in the sentence : 
 as, The speech dehvered, the orator retired ; He being dead, we 
 shall live. 
 
 Explanation.— SiJccc/i is in the nominative absolute, because it is followed by the 
 past or complete participle ddivtrcd, and depends on no other word for its case. Ik 
 is in the nominative absolute, because it is followed by the present or incomplete 
 participle IdtKh and depends on no other word for its case. 
 
 Oba. 1.— In bid English the absolute case was the dative, and of this some traces 
 are found in Milton and other writers— e.£/.. Him destroyed, all else will follow. Hero 
 him, originally dative absolute, is now parsed as objective absolute. 
 
 Obi. 2.— An absolute phrase is an abridged sentence. Thus, " Tlie moon rising, wc 
 resumed our journey " =when the moon rose, we resumed our journey. 
 
 Exercise 111. 
 
 Parse :-— 
 1. The churches, the lead having been torn from the roofs, crumbled 
 into ruins. 2. My whole thought being now bent on cultivating my 
 talent, I applied to business. 3. My sole study, therefore, being to escape 
 with my household gods, I disappeared from the playhouse. 4. Micliael- 
 mas-eve happening on the next day, we were invited to burn nuts and 
 play tricks at neighbour Flamborough's. 5. The business of the toilet 
 being over, we had at last the satisfaction of seeing him mounted upon 
 the colt. 6. Her mother dying of the gift she gave,— that precious gift, — 
 what else remained to him ? 7. Nothing could exceed the neatness of my 
 enclosures, the elms and hedgerows appearing with inexpressible beauty. 
 8. The day having dawned, I started on my journey. 
 
I 
 
 SYNTAX. 143 
 
 9. And one man in his time plays many parts, 
 
 His acts being seven ages. 
 10. So folly pleads, 
 
 And, avarice being judge, with ease sucoeeds. 
 
 299. Rule V. A noun or pronoun used in direct address is 
 in the Nominative of Address : as. Then yield thee, coward ; 
 Cry aloud, thou that sittest in the dusk. 
 
 Explanation.— The words coward and thou are used in direct address, and aro 
 therefore in the nominative of address. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The nominative of address is, by some grammarians, called the vocative. 
 Obs. 2. — Nominatives of address are always of the second pei'son. 
 
 Exercise 112. 
 Parse : — 
 1. O friends, I hear the tread of nimble feet hasting this way. 2. These 
 are Thy glorious works. Parent of good. 3. Heavenly stranger, plea.->e to 
 taste these bounties. 4. Grieve not, my child, chase all thy fears away. 
 5. Wake, melancholy mother, wake and weep. 6. England, with all thy 
 faults, I love thee still, my countrv ! 7. What wind blew you hither, 
 Pistol ? 
 
 8. Sweet Teviot ! on thy silvery tide, . 
 The glaring bale-fires blaze no more. 
 
 300. Rule VI. A noun used abruptly in an exclamation is 
 called the Nominative Exclamatory: as, Thy crystal stream^ 
 Afton, how lovely it glides ! 
 
 Explanation. — Stream is used in an exclamatory manner, and is called the 
 nominative exclamatory. 
 C6s.— Nominatives exclamatory are treated by some grammarians as interjections. 
 
 Exercise 113. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Poor, forlorn creature ! where are now the flatterers that he courd 
 once inspire and command ! 2. Religion ! what treasures \mtold reside 
 in that heavenly word ! 3. These cowards — I despise them ! 4. The 
 king ! who's that ? 5. Your house ! It is left unto you desolate. 
 6. Resplendent sight ! Behold the coxcomb Czar. 
 The autocrat of waltzes and of war. 
 
 Place of the Nominative. 
 
 301. Rule VII. The nominative denoting the subject 
 generally precedes the verb : as, / had a dove, and the sweet 
 dove died. 
 
 The exceptions to this rule are : — 
 
 1. When the sentence is interrogative : as. Where is your son ? 
 
 2. When the sentence is exclamatory : as, How sweet are all things 
 here ! 
 
 3. When the sentence is optative, that is, expresses a wish : as, Long 
 live the king ! 
 
 4. When the sentence is imperative : as. Go ye into all the world. 
 
 5. When the sentence begins with one of these words, hence, here, here- 
 after, herein, now, so, such, that, then, thence, there, therein, the same, 
 
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 these, this, those, thus, v:herehi, yet, or a phrase: as, Then began a 
 murder grim and great ; From the heart of the procession rose a solemn 
 chant. 
 
 6. When the subjunctive is used with the sign omitted : as, 
 
 Did Charity prevail, the press would prove 
 A vehicle of virtue, truth, and love. 
 
 7. When neither or nor is used for and not, and precedes the verb : as, 
 Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it. 
 
 8. When the verbs reply, say, quoth, thinJc, answer, confinve, vjhl'iper, 
 mutter, and the like, are used parenthetically : as, Stay, replied the 
 captain. 
 
 9. When the sentence begins with an emphatic adjective or adverb : as, 
 Wonderful are thy works ; Down fell the toivers. 
 
 10. When emphasis requires a change : as, Silver and gold have I none. 
 
 1 1. In poetry : as, 
 
 After him came spurring hard 
 
 A gentleman almost forespent with speed. 
 
 Obs.— "When an infinitive or a sentence is the nominative case to the verb, it 
 generally follows the verb, and is repi'esented before it by the pronoun it : us, It is 
 excellent to Iiave a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant. 
 
 Exercise 114, 
 Parse :— 
 1. There appeared at a great distance a very shining light, and in the 
 midst of it, a person of a most beautiful aspect ; her name was Truth. 
 2. " Let me pass !" cried he, in a voice of entreaty. 3. Beside the portal 
 doors, buttress'd from moonlight, stands he. 4. Such was the portrait an 
 apostle drew. 5. Of their train am I. 6. So work the honey bees. 7. 
 Down came, by the hands of one of the Syrian slave-girls, the fowl and 
 the wine. 8. Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep. 
 9. Oh, could their ancient Incas rise again. 
 
 How would they take up Israel's taunting strain ! 
 Art thou too fallen, Iberia ? 
 10. Heavily hangs the broad sunflower 
 
 Over its grave i' the earth so chilly ; 
 Heavil}' hangs the hollyhock, 
 Heavily hangs the tiger-lily. 
 
 Questions on §§ 290—301. 
 
 1. What is syntax ? 2. How are words related to each other? 3. Wliat is concord ? 
 4. What is government? 5. What is the case of the subject? 6. What verbs take the 
 same case after them as before them? 7. What is a copulative verb? 8. Name 
 copulative verbs. 9. What is a factitive verb? 10. What case follows the verbal 
 nouns of copulative verbs ? 11. Explain the construction of "lam tired of being a 
 drummer." 12. What is the nominative absolute? 13. What was the absolut*" case 
 in Old English? 14. What is an absolute phrase equivalent to? 15. What is tlie 
 nominative of address ? 16. What otlier name is given to the nominative of address? 
 17. What is the ])erson of a nnminative of address? IS. What is the nominative 
 exclamatory? 10. What are nominatives exclamatory sometimes called? 20. What 
 is the usual place of the nominative of the subject? 21. When is the nominative of 
 the subject placed after the verb ? 
 
 II. The Possessive. 
 
 302. Rule VIII. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun 
 is governed hy tiie name of the tiling possessed : as, Solomon's 
 temple was destroyed ; Their banner was lost. 
 
SYNTAX. 145 
 
 fixPLANATioif. — When the former of two iioims, which come together, implies 
 possession with reference to the other, it is put in the possessive case, and is said to 
 be governed by the othei-. Thus, Solomon's is in the i>ossessive case, being •governed 
 by temple, the name of the thing possessed ; so their is possessive case, being governed 
 by bamier, the name of the thing possessed. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The latter or governing noun is sometimes omitted : as, They went to St. 
 Paul's (cathedral). 
 
 Obs. 2. — The objective case with the preposition of 13 frequently used to express the 
 sense of the possessive : as, Philip's house=the house of Philip. Philip's is called the 
 English possessive or genitive ; of Philip is called the Norman possessive or genitive. 
 The possessive case (English genitive) is generally used with names of persons, 
 animals, and personified objects : as, John's houses ; The farmer's horse ; The elephant's 
 tusk; The torreiW s roxr; R'!a'ioii's voice; The Law's delay. Certain periods of time 
 are also sometimes put in the possessive case : as, A day's march. In this usage 
 poets have greater latitude than prose writers— e. jr., Seeking the bubble reputation 
 even at the cann'^n's mouth ; He sat him down at a pillar's base. The objective with 
 of (N'orman genitive) is chiefly used with nouns of neuter gender, and invariably so 
 when one noun denotes some quality or characteristic of the object denoted by the 
 o'.har noun : as, A crown or gold ; The violence of the viind. 
 
 Ob.^. 3. —The noun that governs a plural possessive should not be made plural unless 
 the sense requires it : as, What is your life? not, What are your lives? 
 
 Obs. 4. —When the thing possessed is only one of a number belonging to the 
 possessor, both the possessive case and of are used : as. Read a sonnet of Milton's. 
 We cannot properly say " That face of yours," because a person has but one face, but 
 we can say " That friend of yours," because a pei-son may have more than one friend. 
 
 Obs. 5. — The possessive case is equivalent to au adjective; as, The Icing's cause = 
 the royal cause. 
 
 Exercise 115. 
 
 Change into the possessive form : — 
 1. The house of Ahab was destroyed. 2. The paintings of "Raphael 
 are renowned. 3. The works of Shakespeare are an inexhaustible mine. 
 4. The victories of Napoleon produced no lasting good. 5. The fields of 
 the farmer are yellow. 6. The horses of the dealers are for sale. 
 
 Exercise 116. 
 
 Parse : — 
 
 1, I am out of humanity's reach. 2. Men's evil manners live in brass ; 
 
 their virtues we write in water. 3. Wolfe's body was embalmed, and 
 
 borne to the river for conveyance to England. 4. Basil was Benedict's 
 
 friend. 5. Men's happiness or misery is most part of their own making. 
 
 6. There was lack of woman's nursing, there was dearth of woman's tears, 
 
 7. Labour for labour's sake is agiiinst nature. 8. We should not judge of 
 things by men's opinions, but of opinions by things. 
 
 9. He had left his home in his spirit's pride 
 With his father's sword and blessing. 
 10. Rome ! thou art doom'd to perish, and thy days, 
 Like mortal man's are numbered. 
 
 303. Rule IX. When two or more nouns follow each 
 other in the possessive case, the sign of the possessive is 
 affixed only to the last : as, England and France's armies fought 
 in the Crimea. 
 
 Explanation.— Although the armies are the property of both England and France, 
 the sign of the possessive is affixed only to the latter name (France's). 
 
 Obs. 1 — When each word is emphatic, when the words are not in apposition, or 
 when the thing possessed is the separate property of two or more posse* sois, the 
 sign of the possessive is affixed to each noun : as, He has obtained the mayor's and 
 the sheriff's signature. 
 
 10 
 
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obs. 2. — If any words intervene between the possessives, the sign of the possessive 
 roust be affixed to each : as, England's, not France's sailors landed in China. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Sometimes a whole expression is dealt with as a single word and the sign 
 of the possioanive is affixed to the last word in the expression : us, Ihe king of 
 Holland's fleet sailed. Here king is possessive case, with its sign transferred to 
 Holland, wliich is reallj^ oViiectivc. The whole expression king oj Holland is tieated 
 as a single word and the sign of the possessive is affixed to Holland, the last word in 
 the expression. 
 
 Exercise 117 
 Parse : — 
 ■ 1. The Earl of Surrey's troops were victorious. 2. Israel and Syria's 
 forces fought against Judah. 3. Every one has heard of Rosinante, the 
 Knight of La Mancha's steed. 4. The Duke of Wellington's tactics 
 v/ere crowned with success.- 5. He had his father's and his friend's 
 assistance. 6. Athens and Sparta's sons fought side by side against the 
 common foe. 
 
 Place of the Possessive. 
 
 304. Rule X. The possessive case always precedes the 
 
 noun by which it is governed : as, The king's castle, not The 
 
 castle king's. 
 
 Exercise 118. 
 . Parse : — 
 
 1. I am Duke Humphrey's wife. 2. The Greeks took Troy after a ten 
 years' siege. 3. In a cowslip's bell I lie. 4. Who kills a man, kills a 
 reasonable creature, God's image. 5. The crag repeats the raven's croak. 
 6. The links o'er Malcolm's neck he fluug. 7. Old .Kaspar's work was 
 done. 8. A beehive's hum shall soothe my ear. 
 
 9. O, open for our Lady's sake, 
 A pilgrim's blessing Avin ; 
 10. In every change of Man's estate 
 Ai'e lights and guides allowed. 
 
 Questions git §§ 302—304. 
 
 1. By what is the possessive cas3 governed ? 2. Give an instance in which the 
 governing word is omitted. 3. How may the sense of the possessive ease be ex- 
 pressed? 4. When should we use the possessive, and when the objeciive with of? 
 5. When should the noim governing a plural possessive be plural? 6. When are 
 the possessive and of both used ? 7. To what part of speech is the posses.-ive case 
 equivalent? 8. When two or more possessives come together, where is the sign 
 placed? 0. When is the possessive sign affixed to each noun? 10. When an ex- 
 pression like " The queen of England" is treated as a single word, where is the sign 
 of the possessive placed ? 11. What is the pLice of the possessive ? 
 
 III. The Objective. 
 
 305. Rule XI. Transitive verhs, active voice, govern the 
 ohjective case : as, Love rules his kingdom without a sword; I 
 know thee. 
 
 ExpL\NATiON-.— TJi/Zcs is a transitive verb, active voice, and governs kingdom in the 
 objective case; know is a transitive verb, active voice, and governs thee in the ob- 
 jective case. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Transitive particii)lcs gnvprn tlic nbjeotive case: as. In the bows stood Ji 
 man of gigantic stature, brandishing a harpoon in his right hand. 
 
SYNTAX. 147 
 
 Ohs. 2.— The verbal nouns* of transitive verbs govern the objective case: as, He 
 would beat the bushes without catching the birds. 
 
 Ohs. 3.— The verb to he and other copulative verbs (§ 296) take the same case after 
 them as before them : as, His virtues were his pride. 
 
 Exercise 119. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The doctor repeated his remarks. 2, Orestes had spoken the exact 
 truth. 3. Our ancestors bought gold with victory. 4. Floating forests 
 paint the wave with green. 5. Having engaged the limner, our next 
 deliberation was to show the superiority of our taste in the attitudes. 
 6, Soft pity heals his woes. 7. Thought would destroy their paradise. 
 8, Cast thy bread upon the waters. 9. The midnight brought the signal 
 sound of strife. 
 
 10. She left the web, she left the loom, 
 
 She made three paces through the room, 
 She saw the water-lily bloom, 
 
 She saw the helmet and the plume, 
 
 306. Rule XII. Two nouns or a noun and pronoun in the 
 objective case, the one denoting a person and the other a 
 thing, follow certain verbs : as, I sent him a guinea. 
 
 Explanation.— The vei-b sent is followed by a noun and pronoun in the objective 
 case, viz., him denoting a person, and guinea denoting a thing. Ilini is called the 
 indirect object, and gidiua the direct object. In parsing, the indirect object may be 
 placed under the government of a preposition imderstood : thus, to is understood 
 before Jiim. 
 
 307. The verbs which take an indirect as well as a direct object after 
 them are :— Advance, alloiv, ask, hrincj, buy, cost, deny, do, enry, fine, 
 forward, give, grant, guarantee, leave, lend, male, offer, order, fay, 
 2:)rocnre, promise, refitse, sell, send, shoiv, teach, tell, yield. [Parsing, 
 p. 112.] 
 
 Exercise 120. 
 Parse :— 
 1. I brought Goldsmith the money. 2. Then the king gave him a purse 
 of gold, and dismissed him. 3. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me 
 your ears. 4. Sirrah, I'll teach thee a speech. 5. When a wise man gives 
 thee better counsel, give me mine again. 6. I could not refuse him my 
 company. 7. My father on a birthday gave it me. 8. JNIy wife gave him 
 great encomiums. 9. She left him her fortune. 
 
 10. My soul shall yield thee willing thanks and praise 
 For the chief blessings of my fairest days. 
 
 308. Rule XIII. Some verbs in the passive voice take an 
 object after them : as, He was refused admittance. 
 
 Explanation.— The verbs which, in the passive voice, take an object after them 
 are tljose whic:i, in the active voice, are followed by two objects, one of the person, 
 and the other of the thing. Thus the verb refuse, in the active voice, may be followed 
 by an object of the person and an object of the thing : as. They rciused /nm ad- 
 vrittancc. In the passive voice, the i^orsun is made the subject, and the object of the 
 thing is retained, hence admittance is objective ease after ims re/used. 
 
 h 
 
 ♦^ Or gerunds. 
 
 10—2 
 
148 ENGLISH GRAtviMAR. 
 
 Exercise 121. 
 
 Parse : — 
 1. We were shown Edward the Confessor's tomb. 2. He was owed 
 money by the Regent. 3. We were shown a room, 4. The prisoner was 
 allowed an advocate. 5. Am I denied this favour? 6. The eldest son 
 was promised a watch on his sixteenth birthday. 7. I have been told this 
 wondrous tale. 8. The wily courtier was offered a post of honour. 9. 
 The teacher was asked a question. 10. Nothing was ever denied me by 
 my wortliy master. 
 
 309. Rule XIV. Certain verbs called factitive admit, in 
 the active voice, tAvo objects after them : as, The common 
 people made him their leader. 
 
 Explanation.— The verb made has two objects, (1) direct, him, (2) faciitive, leader. 
 
 Oha. 1. — Factitive verbs arc so called because they contain the idea of making 
 (Latin fnccre thy thought, word, or deed. In the passive voice they aie copulative 
 vcrl)s. See list in § 2i»6. 
 
 OI,s. 2.— The verb to he may be imderstood between the direct object and the 
 factitive object : thus, The common people made him'ifo 6A their leader. 
 
 Exercise 122. 
 Pai'se ; — 
 1. We called him a poet. 2. She refused positively to name Mary 
 Stuart her successor. 3. We must declare ourselves his rivals. 4. Who 
 calls himself a friend ? 5. He considered the transaction a legal sale. G. 
 I found you a queen in 
 
 8. I hear 
 Thou call'st its children a happy 
 
 9. Ye winds that have made me your sport ! 
 
 Convey to this desolate shore 
 Some cordial endearing report 
 
 Of a land I shall visit no more. 
 10. I crown thee king of intimate delights, 
 Eireside enjoyments, home-born happiness, 
 And all the comforts that the lowly roof 
 Of undisturbed retirement, and the hours 
 Of long, uninterrupted evening know, 
 
 310. Rule XV. Some intransitive verbs are followed by an 
 object of kindred meaning : as, He dreamed a dream. 
 
 Explanation. — Dream is akin in meaning to the verb dreamed, and is called the 
 object of cognate signification, or the Cognate Objectivo. 
 
 Exercise 123. 
 Parse : — 
 1. He sang his song and I replied with mine. 2. A scornful laugh 
 laughed he. 3. We lived a life as careless as birds. 4. He laughed a 
 laugh of merry scorn. 5. Sing a new song. 6. Live not a life of sloth. 
 7. We danced the country dance. 8. We have dreamed a dream and 
 there is no interpreter. ^ 9. I have fought a good fight. 10. She sleej^s the 
 sleep of innocence. iX . at>/VvNj2/l 
 
 311. Rule XVI. Some verbs take after them an object of 
 time, space, weight, number, or measurement : as, We watched 
 all day. 
 
 in your court. 7. I'll pr'ove thee a teaitor; . ^...^.,.. j 
 iiar thee sp, ak of the better land : J,4./ v' V^ itflL 
 m call'st its children a happy band. Ci>M'^^ 
 
SYNTAX. 149 
 
 E::planatiox.— Drtj/ is in the objective case, denoting duration of time. 
 
 Ohs. — A preposition is understood. Thus, We watched all day=we watched during 
 all the day. 
 
 Exercise 124. 
 Parse : — 
 
 i. He taught there forty years. 2. And the next day, both morning 
 and afternoon, he was kept by our party. 3. Hooper burned three quarters 
 of an hour. 4. A man usually requires to sleep eight hours out of the 
 twenty-four. 5. The nugget weighed sixty ounces. 6. I went three times 
 and saw him not. 7. The mighty rampart rose six thousand feet above 
 our head. 8. I hunted some years with Lord Darlington's fox-hounds. 
 
 312. Rule XVII. Prepositions govern the objective case : 
 as. He sailed from Hidl to London. 
 
 Explanation. — Hull is objective case governed by the preposition f;y}>n : London is 
 objective case governed by the preposition to. 
 
 Oba. 1. — The preposition is often understood after like, nigh, near, next, unlike : a?, 
 TVords are like to arrows. Also after zcorth : as, It is not u-orth a groat. 
 
 Ob.9. 2.— Prepositions are often understood before an indirect object : as, lie gave 
 me the book=:he gave to me the book. 
 
 Oiis. 3. — The prepositions in, on, during, for, from, etc., are often understood before 
 nouns of time, place, etc. : as. He walks all day=he walks during all the d;:y. 
 
 Exercise 125. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The wakeful trump of doom must thunder through the deep. 2. I 
 spy the rock beneath the smiling sea. 3. A stranger, accustomed to the 
 crowds and bustle of London or Paris, is struck on his arrival at St. Peters- 
 burg by the emptiness of the streets. 4. Our hopes, like withered leaves, 
 fall fast. 5. My friend caught me by the elbow, and led me out of the 
 public walk. 6. Cataracts of water flooded the houses in the city and 
 turned the streets into rivers ; trees were torn up by the roots and whirled 
 through the air, and — a more awful omen— the forked lightning struck 
 down the steeple of the church where the heretic service had been read for 
 the first time. 
 
 Place of the Objective. 
 
 ^ 313. Rule XVIII. The objective case follows the verb or 
 
 preposition on which it depends : as, The Avaves dashed the 
 
 shijj against the rocks. 
 
 The exceptions to this rule are : — 
 1, When the word in the objective case is a relative or an interrogative 
 
 I pronoun : as, Is there a bard whoin genius fires ? What do you mean ? 
 2. When the noun in the objective is pi'eceded by lohatever, ichatsocirr, 
 OT lohichsoever : as, Whatever uneasiness he seemed to endure, it could easily 
 be perceived that Olivia's anguish was much greater. 
 3. When emphasis requires a change : ac, J/e have ye bereaved of my 
 children. 
 
 4. When poetic license is used : as, His pi^ayer he saith, this holy man. 
 
 Exercise 126. ^ " 
 
 Parse : — 
 1, The mind returns to its usual state of indifference, 2. This I my 
 glory account, my exaltation, and my whole delight. 3. The danger they 
 
/ 
 
 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 discern not they deny 4. Words learned by rote a parrot may rehearse. 
 5, License they mean when they cry liberty. 6. Whom have I to complain 
 of but myself ? 7. Each flower the dews have lightly wet. 8. A smaller 
 boon than this I cannot beg. 
 
 9. An habitation giddy and unsiiro 
 
 Hath he that buildeth on the vulgar heart. 
 10. The hounds ran swiftly through the woods 
 The nimble deer to take, 
 And with their cries the hills and dales 
 An echo shrill did make. 
 
 Questions on §§ 305—313. 
 
 1 What case follows transitive verbs, active voice ? 2. "What verbs take the same 
 case attev them as before them? 3. What case do transitive participles goveni ? 
 4 What case do the verbal nouns* of transitive verbs goveni? 5. What verbs are 
 followed bv a double object? 6. What verbs, in the passive voice, retain an objective 
 case ' 7 What are factitive verbs? 8. How many objects follow factitive verbs? 9. 
 What do factitive verbs become in the passive voice ? 10. What verb may be under- 
 stood between the direct and factitive objects ? 11. What is the object of cognate 
 signification' 12. What is the object of time, space, weight, number, or measmement ! 
 13 What case do prepositions govern ? 14. After what adjectives is the preposition to 
 understood? 15. What is the usual place of the objective? IG. When does the objec- 
 tive precede the governing verb ? 
 
 IV. Apposition. 
 
 314. Rule XIX. ^Ylien two nouns, or a noun and pronoun, 
 come together, the one serving to explain the other, they are in 
 apposition and agree in case : as, John the Bcq^tht was beheaded; 
 Brutus killed Caesar, him v/ho had been his friend. 
 
 Explanation.— 7o7r/i is nominative case to the verb jm.s beheaded, and Baptist, which 
 signifies the same person, is nominative case in apposition with John. Casar is 
 objective case governed bv the tran^itiv3 verb kiUed, and /ii//i, which signifies the 
 same person, is objective case in apposition with Ceesar. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Apnosition, from Latin appositio, means " a placing beside." The -word in 
 apposition is adjectival to the oiher, being used to define the person or thing more 
 
 accurately. . . . . ... m ^.i ' 
 
 Obs. 2. —When a word is repeated for emphasis, it is lu apposition : as, Truth, 
 simple truth, was written in his face. 
 
 Ohs. 3. — A noun is sometimes in apposition to a whole sentence : as, Tlie pii-ates 
 boarded the ship, an act which was promptly resented by the gallant crew. 
 
 Obs. 4.— A part is often put in apposition with the whole: as, They love one another. 
 Th''y and one (or person understood) are in apposition. 
 
 Obs. 5.— The nominatives before and after the verb to be and other copulative verbs 
 are in a kind of apposition. Hence copulative vcrb.s are also called anposilion-verbs. 
 In the sentences, It is /; It is we -I is in apposition with it, and ice is in apposition 
 with it. 
 
 Ohs. G.— It is generally improper to use both the noun and its pronoun as nominatives 
 to tlie same verb or as ubjectivcs after the same verb: as, Jly heart it is broken. 
 But in the older writers we find tins visage where emphasis is required : as, the Lord 
 he is God. It is a species of apposition. 
 
 Exercise 127. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Calais, the glory of England, the fear of England's enemies, was lost. 
 2. Thus perished Pythagoras, the Samian pliilosopher, founder of the 
 
 * Or gn-unds. 
 
t 
 
 SYNTAX. 151 
 
 Italian school, and the great luminary of the heathen world. 3. God him- 
 self is with us for our captain. 
 
 4. The birds they sing, 
 The deer they fling, 
 
 5. Lo ! where the rosy-bosom'd Hours, 
 Fair Venus' train appear. 
 
 6. Soul of the age ! 
 
 The applause, delight, the wonder of our stage ! 
 My Shakespeare, rise ! 
 
 315. Rule XX. When two or more nouns in apposition 
 form one complex name, the sign of the pkuval is used with the 
 last only : as, Tlie Miss Smiths. 
 
 Explanation. —3Iiss and Smith are in apposition, and form one complex name : 
 hence the sign of the plural is affixed only to Smith, 
 
 6>'«. — Some prefer Misses Smith, while others write ilfisses Smiths. (See § 45, Obs. i.) 
 The form Messrs. Lambert has the sanction of usage. 
 
 Exercise 128. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. The Lords Justices reserved their decision. 2. The Miss Vernons 
 were invited. 3. Lords Wardens were appointed by the king. 4. The 
 Lords Commissioners prorogued the parliament. 5. The Miss Arundels 
 were remarkable for their beauty. 6. The Messrs. Smith chartered a 
 vessel. 
 
 316. Rule XXI. When the nouns in apposition are in the 
 possessive case, the sign of the possessive is used only with one 
 of them : as, Eead the poet Cowpi^fs works. 
 
 Explanation. — Poet and Cowpcr are in apposition, but the sign of the possessive is 
 only used with the latter noun, Cowper. 
 
 Obs. — The sign of the possessive is usually affixed to the last noun, but if several 
 nouns, or a description, be appended to the first noun, the sign of the possessive is 
 affixed to the first noun : as, I called at Smith's, an old friend of mine, and a very 
 worthy man. 
 
 EXEECISE 129. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. Lord Warwick's days are o'er. 2. Stephen the miller's carts were in 
 front of the inn. 3. The woi'k is George Eliot's, the greatest living 
 novelist. 4. Henry the Eighth's policy was successful. 5. My brother 
 Walter's pet rabbit is dead. 6. Livy the historian's works are of great 
 interest. 
 
 Questions on §^ 314 — 316. 
 
 1. Wliat is apposition? 2. When nouns arc in apposition, in wliat do they agree? 
 3. Give an example of a noun repeated in apposition for empliasis. 4. Give an example 
 of a noun in apposition to a whole sentence. 5. Give an example in which a part is 
 put in apposition with the whole. 6. Why are copulative verbs called apposition 
 verbs ? 7. When nonns in apposition form a complex name, where is the si^n of the 
 plural placed ? S. Why is the form Misses Smith incorrect? 9. When nouns in apposi- 
 tion are in the possessive case, where is the possessive sign placed? 10. When should 
 the possessive sign be affixed to the first noun? 
 
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Chapter II. — Syntax of the Adjective. 
 
 [Parsing, ipp. 116-122.] 
 317. Rule XXII. Every adjective qualifies a noun expressed 
 or understood : as, PFild flowers charm us ; 3Iajiy are called. 
 
 •Explanation. — The adjective wild qualifies the noun flowers ; the adjective many 
 qualifies the noun persons understood. 
 
 Qlg^ 1. — The adjective, when it stands alone and takes the before it, is, by some, 
 parsed as " an adjective used as a noun :" as, The good are happy. 
 
 Obs. 2. — When a quality is assumed as belonging to a noun, the adjective expressing 
 the quality is said to be used attributively ; when a quality is asserted as belonging to 
 a noun, the adjective is said to be used 2rredicatively. Thus :— Attributive, A huge lion 
 appeared ; Predicative, The lion was huge. 
 
 (jl,g_ 3. — An adjective qualifies factitively when it is used to complete the meaning 
 of factitive verbs (§ 296) : as, He deemed himself ivise ; They made themselves comfort- 
 able : The fleet was rendered useless. 
 
 Ql)s_ 4. — An adjective qualifies not only a noun but any word, phrase, or sentence 
 equivalent to a noun ; hence it may qualify infinitives and verbal nouns : as, To walk 
 is jileasant ; Walking is pleasant. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Adjectives qualify pronouns predicatively or factitively, but not attri- 
 butively. 
 
 Qfjg^ 6. — Adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs : as, The ii-on was red hot. 
 
 Obs. 7. — An adjective and a noun may form a compound which can be qualified by 
 another adjective : as, A valuable black horse. 
 
 Obs. 8. — Many intransitive verbs take an adjective instead of an adverb : as. He 
 fell ill. 
 
 Obs. 9.— A noun is often used as an adjective : as. The iron ship sank. 
 
 Exercise 130. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Keading makes a full man ; speaking a ready man ; writing a correct 
 man. 2. Her right arm lay folded over her bosom. 3. The evening was 
 boisterous. 4. The night is chill. 5. The forest is bare. 6. The dew on 
 his robe was heavy and chill. 7. He mounted the narrow stair. 8. The 
 summer evening grew black as night. 9. I am booted and spurred. 10. 
 The miserable have no other medicine, but only hope. 11. He had con- 
 tracted a passion for the marvellous and the supernatural. 12. We 
 received a card from the town ladies. 13. Mute was the wind, soft fell 
 the dew. 
 
 14. I had a message to send her, / 
 
 So tender, and true, and sweet, I i / 
 
 I longed for an angel to bear it, \ | ^ 
 
 And lay it down at her feet. J \ ! -' 
 
 I placed it, one summer's evening, 
 On a little white cloud's breast ; 
 But it faded in golden splendour, 
 And died in the crimson west 
 
 15, With fingers weary and wan,^ 
 With eyelids heavy and red, 
 A woman sat in unwomanly rags, 
 Plying her needle and thread. 
 
 318. Rule XXIII. The comparative degree is used in 
 comparing two objects, and the superlative in comparing 
 more than two : as, This soldier is taller than the next ; This 
 soldier is the tallest in the army. 
 
SYNTAX. 153 
 
 Explanation.— In comparing two soldiers, we use the comparative, taller ; in com- 
 paring more than two, we use the superlative, tallest. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The comparative is used when one thing is compared with a set of things ; 
 and when one set of things is compared with another set of things. 
 
 Obs. 2.— It frequently happens that, when one thing of a class is compared with all 
 others of that class, the comparative with other is used instead of the superlative : -s, 
 Samson was the stronrjest of all men ; Samson was stronger than all othtr men 
 
 Obs. 3. — The comparative degree is followed by tho.n when oi^position is denoted, 
 knd by of when selection is implied : as (1), John is ■^iser than James (opposition) ; 
 (2) He is the elder of the two (selection). 
 
 Exercise 131. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The grandest and most renowned of all the ancient amphitheatres is 
 the Colisseum at Eome. 2. The merle may trill his richest note in vain. 
 3. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought, 4. It was 
 nimbler much than hinds. 5. The darkest hour in the twenty-four is the 
 hour before day. 6. Those who have never observed our boldest coasts 
 have no idea of their tremendous sublimity, 7. A circle is more beautiful 
 than a square ; a square is more beautiful than a parallelogram. 8. Ice- 
 land is an island somewhat larger than Ireland. 9. The adventure was 
 most perilous. 
 
 10. A sadder and a wiser man 
 He rose the morrow morn. 
 
 319. Rule XXIV. Double comparatives and superlatives 
 sliould not be used : as, A more braver man ; The most bravest 
 man. 
 
 Explanation. — In Old English such fo'»-ms were in use, but modern usage is against 
 them. Lesser has established itself iu the phrase " lesser Asia." 
 
 Obs. 1. — The existence of these double inflexions is, in some cases, owing to a desire 
 to emphasise or strengthen the comparison, while in others it is due to the common 
 ending being added to a comparative mistaken for the positive, or no longer used in 
 its original sense. 
 
 06s. 2.— Some adjectives which, by their nature, do not admit of comparison, are 
 occasionally compared : as, chieftst, most universal (§ 74). 
 
 320. Rule XXV. Adjectives which denote quantity in 
 bulk or mass qualify nouns in the singular number : as, Has 
 he any bread ? 
 
 Explanation.— ^'/'.y is an adjective denoting quantity in bulk or mass, and qualifies 
 b7-ead in the singular number. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The adjectives which come under this rule are : — All, any, enough, litlU, 
 much, no, none, some, lohole. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Enovj, the old plural of enough, is used to denote number : as. Men enoic 
 None was formerly used before a vowel : as. This is none other but the house of God. 
 Some, when used with numerals, has sometimes the meaning of '"about" : as, Some 
 fifty summers gone. 
 
 Exercise 132 
 Parse : — 
 1. My whole effort was to save life. 2. We landed some hundred men, 
 where we found fresh water. 3. I have no sympathy with them. 4. Who 
 will show us any good ? 5. Yet show some pity. 6. In the Mhole narrative 
 I can scarcely promise you one adventure, 7. We have space enough for 
 our purpose. 8. He has much confidence, but little or no ability. 9. Her* 
 we find little clay. 10. We have toiled all night. 
 
 I. 
 
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 321. Rule XXVI. Definite cardinal numeral adjectives 
 (except om) qualify nouns in the plural number : as, Twerdij 
 men. 
 
 Explanation.— Twenf^ is a definite cardinal numeral adjective, and qualifies men 
 
 in the plural number. 
 
 Ohs. I. — One qualifies nouns in the singular number : as, One house, 
 
 Ohs. 2,— No and none may also qualify nouns in the singular ; as, No friend cheered 
 
 me. No always qualities a nou.n expressed. 
 
 Exercise 133. 
 Parse : — 
 1. No word spoke the deliverer. 2. I have not seen him for ten days, 
 3, Four armies to the field were led. 4. Vfhen it dashed madly across the 
 stream, some twenty oars flashed through the water in pursuit. 5. Ten 
 thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain, 6. At the expiration of sixty 
 days the debt was discharged by the loss of liberty or life. 7. By thirty 
 hills I hurry dowm, or slip between the ridges. 8. The Greeks beheld 
 with surprise the two royal sisters seated on the sa.me throne. 9. He left 
 eight children. 
 
 10. Seven days, seven nights, I saw that curse, 
 And yet I could not die. 
 
 322. Rule XXVII. Definite ordinal numeral adjectives 
 qualify nouns in the singular number : as, The third day. 
 
 Explanation.— TAircZ is a definite ordinal numeral adjective, and qualifies day in 
 the singular number. 
 
 (}/;,,._When two niunerals qualify one noun, some writers plitce the ordinal ad- 
 jective first, others the cardinal. When we say the first three we imi)ly that there is a 
 ser,ond three ; when we say the three first we mean difJerent fi/xts (as in different sets) 
 or we imply the removal of each first, so that the second and third become, succes- 
 sively, fii-st. 
 
 Exercise 134 
 
 Parse : — • 
 1. The second and third crusades trod in the footsteps of the first. 2, 
 A solemn day, the twenty-fifth of December, had been Axed for his execu- 
 tion. 3. The sixty books of the Basi/ics, the code and pandects of civil 
 jurisprudence, were gradually formed in the three first reigns of that 
 prosperous dynasty. 4. Clement the Third was consecrated in the Latcran, 
 6. In his return by sea from an unfortunate crusade, Louis the Seventh 
 was intercepted by the Greeks. 6. Refer to the eighth page. 7. This 
 event may be ascribed to the tenth century of the Christian era, 8. The 
 prudent Urban adjourned the decision to a second synod. 9. Philip the 
 First was the great grandson of Hugh Capet. 10. The Jews observe the 
 S(!venth day of the week. 
 
 323. Rule XXVIII. The indefinite numeral adjectives 
 (except another) quahfy nouns in the plural number : as, 3Iaiuj 
 days passed away. 
 
 Explanation. — The indefinite numeral adjective mcuii/ qualifies the noun da^s in 
 the plural. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Any, certain, and otJier may also qualify nouns in the singular; as, Aujf 
 man would have done the same. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Another always qualifies nouns in the singular : as, Another day is gone. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Many is used in the phrase moMy a, with a distributive force, before singular 
 nouns ; as, Many a liill did Lucy climb, In this idiom, many has been regarded as (\ 
 noun, — " a many of hills," 
 
\ 
 
 SYNTAX. 155 
 
 Exercise 135. 
 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. Thou shalt be a father of many nations. 2. Other lords besides thee 
 
 have had dominion over lis. 3. Thou shalt not sow thy fields with divers 
 
 seeds. 4. Let me leave some of the folk that are with me. 5. Several of 
 
 them neither rose from any conspicuous family, nor left any behind them. 
 
 6. This country is large, having in it many -people, and several kingdoms. 
 
 7. Brutus is an honourable man ; so are they all, all honourable men. 8. 
 They embarked with all their goods. 9. The Atlantic Ocean exceeds all 
 the other oceans in the number of its seas and gulfs. 10. Many a good 
 horse fell, and threw its rider to the earth. 
 
 324. Rule XXIX. The distributive numeral adjectives 
 each, evert/, either, neither, qualify nouns in the singular number 
 only : as, Everij tree is known by its fruit ; JEach man received 
 ten pounds. 
 
 Explanation. — The distributive numeral adjective every qualifies the noun h'ee in 
 the singular ; the distributive niuneral adjective each qualifies the noun man in the 
 singular. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Each denotes two or more taken separately : as, Each thorn trips his nimble 
 feet. Everi/ denotes more than two taken individually and comprehends them all : 
 as, Ye shall gather a certain rate every day. Either denotes one of two, but not both : 
 as, Choose either course. Neither means not either. Either is wrongly used for each or 
 loth : as. On either side = on both sides. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Every qualifies a noun expressed. 
 
 Exercise 136. 
 Parse : — 
 1. At each door, neighbour with neighbour fed. 2. A preacning friar 
 settles himself in every village. 3. Each horseman drew his battle-blade, 
 4. Every house was an inn where all were welcomed and feasted. 5. She 
 believed every word that he said. 6. I will Avear neither of the swords. 
 7. Take either road. 8. Neither of those n^en has done his duty. 
 9. Each morning sees some task begun, 
 Each evening sees its close. 
 
 *;= 
 
 325. Rule XXX. The distinguishing adjective an or a 
 limits nouns in the singular number : as, He could drav/ a 
 sword. 
 
 Explanation. — The distinguishing adjective a limits the noun svwrd in the singular. 
 
 Obs. I.— An or a sometimes means each : as, He earns five shillings n day. 
 
 Obs 2. — A is usod before plural nouns in the phrases a f/r'ot many, a j'ev:, a hundred, 
 etc. : as, A few days. In the latter exami^le, feio days is viewed as an aggregate. A 
 few days = some, but not many days. Fev} days = hardly any days. There is a similar 
 difference between little and a little : thus, a^little breads some, but not much bread ; 
 little bread = hardly any bread. 
 
 Obs. 3. — An or a always limits a noun expressed. 
 
 Exercise 137. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. There lies a sleeping city. 2. A sound came from the land. 3. I 
 see a star. 4. Lo ! o'er the city a tempest rose. 5. You are a counsellor. 
 6. I see a fountain large and fair, 
 A Avillow and a ruined hut, 
 
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 326. Rule XXXI. The distinguishing adjective an or a is 
 omitted before proper nouns, and al.^o before abstract and other 
 nouns used in a general sense : as, Fahchood is odious ; A false- 
 hood is odious. 
 
 Explanation.— In the first c-s.a,m-ple, falsehood is used in a general sense and has no 
 distinguishing adjective ; in the second example, falsehood is used in a particular 
 sense and is limited by a. 
 
 Obs. —A or an can be used before proper nouns tending to common : as, He is a 
 Brutus. 
 
 Exercise 138. 
 
 Parse : — 
 1. Man hath a v/eary pilgrimage. 2. Virtue is its own reward.^ 3, 
 There is not a virtue which does not ennoble a man. 4. The man is a 
 Nestor. 5. A murder has been done. 
 
 6. Murder may pass unpunish'd for a time, 
 But tardy justice will o'ertake the crime. 
 
 327. Rule XXXII. The distinguishing adjective the limits 
 nouns both in the singular and plural number : as, The star 
 appears ; The stars shine. 
 
 Explanation.— In the first example, the distinguishing adjective the limits the noun 
 star in the singular number ; in the second example, the distinguishing adjective the 
 limits stars in tlie plural number. 
 
 Obs. l.—The is sometimes used before an adjective when thenoim is understood : as, 
 The brave (men) are ready to die. It is also used before an adjective to form an 
 abstract noun : as. We love the Beautiful and the True. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The is used with comparatives : as, The oftener he plays, the more he loves 
 the game. In this case, the is an adverb (being a corruption of thy, ablative of the 
 demonstrative that). 
 
 Exercise 139. 
 
 Parse : — 
 1. The house-martin makes his nest against the sides of houses. 2. 
 Round and round the sounds were cast. 3. The unfortunate are loud and 
 loquacious in their complaints. 4. The less kind I found Fortune at one 
 time, the more I expected from her at another. 
 
 5. Weave the warp, and weave the woof, 
 
 The winding-sheet of Edward's race. 
 
 6. By the rushy-fringed bank, 
 
 Where grows the willow, and the osier dank. 
 My sliding chariot stays. 
 
 328. Rule XXXIII. The distinguishing adjective the is 
 omitted before proper nouns, and before nouns used in u 
 general sense : as, Men are mortal. 
 
 Explanation.— If the distinguishing adjective ^/u' were placed before men, the sense 
 would be restricted and the statement would be that some particular "men arc 
 mortal." 
 
 Ohs.—The may be used before proper nouns tending to common : as. He is the Nestor 
 of the party. The is always placed before proper nouns when a common noun is 
 understood : as, The Thames^ the river Thames. 
 
 Exercise 140. 
 
 1. Liege is the Birmingham of Belgium. 2. The Royal George Sank 
 3, Homer was the greatest epic poet. 4. He is the Homer of his country, 
 
i 
 
 k 
 
 SYNTAX. 157 
 
 5, We read the lives of the Caesars. 6. The Volga flows into tne Caspian 
 Sea. 
 
 329. Rule XXXIV. When two or more nouns denoting 
 the same person or thing come together, the distinguishing 
 adjective is placed before the first only : as, Cicero was an 
 orator and statesman. 
 
 Explanation. — Orator and statesman denote the same person, hence the distin- 
 guishing adjective an is only placed before orator. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — If two nonnsare applied to the same person by way of comparison, only one 
 distinguishing adjective is used : as, He was a better poet than painter. 
 
 OI'S. 2. — When several adjectives qualifying one noun refer to the same person or 
 thing, the distinguishing adjective is placed before the first adjective only : as, What 
 a wretched and peevish fellow is this king of England ! 
 
 Exercise 141. 
 Parse : — 
 1. In this glorious and well-foughten field, we kept together in our 
 chivalry. 2. The pretty and sweet manner of it forc'd these waters from 
 me. 3. An ancient and venerable father now appeared. 4. Trevor was 
 the secretary and treasurer of the company. 5. He was a better scholar 
 than statesman, 
 
 6. Nor doth he dedicate one jot of colour 
 Unto the weary and all-watched night. 
 
 330. Rule XXXV. When two or more nouns denoting dis- 
 tinct persons or things come together, the same distinguishing 
 adjective is placed before each : as, The horse and the ox are 
 useful to man. 
 
 Explanation.— Z/brse and ox denote distinct animals, hence the distinguishing 
 adjective the is placed before each. 
 
 Ois. — When several adjectives qualifying one noun refer to different persons or 
 things, the distinguishiug adjective is used with each of them : as, A vigilant and a 
 stealthy foe are alike to be dreaded. 
 
 Exercise 142. 
 Parse : — 
 1. I planted this rose and this lily. 2. A tame and a wild elephant were 
 placed in the same enclosure. 3, The noble and the lowly born are both 
 alike to him. 4. The trumpets sound the charge and the retreat. 5. A 
 horse and an ass were jogging along together. 6. The pope and the 
 emperor were at variance. 
 
 331. Rule XXXVI. The distinguishing adjectives this and 
 that limit nouns in the singular number ; and the distinguishing 
 adjectives these and those limit nouns in the plural number : as, 
 This house is empty ; These houses are empty. 
 
 Explanation. — The distinguishing adjective this limits the noun house in tho 
 singular number ; the distinguishing adjective thtse limits the noun houses in the 
 plural. 
 
 Obs. 1. — This and these refer to the neai-er : that and those to the farther. 
 Obs. 2. — This and that are joined to nouns in the plural denoting an aggregate; Si3t 
 This twenty years. ' " 
 
158 tNGLISK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 143. 
 Parse : — 
 1. That is a difficulty next to impossible. 2, How fit is this retreat for 
 uninterrupted study ! 3. Nothing can give that to another M'hich it hath 
 not itself. 4. This world is a region of danger, in which perfect safety is 
 possessed by no man. 5. That is another of your odd notions. 
 I had rather be a kitten and ci-y, mew ! 
 Than one of these same metre ballad-mongers, 
 
 332. Rule XXXVII. The distinguishing adjectires ijon, 
 yonder, same, and selfsame limit nouns in both numbers : as, 
 Yon tree is an oak ; Yon trees are oaks. 
 
 Explanation. — In the first example, the distinguishing adjective yon limits the 
 noun t7-pe in the singular number ; in the second example, the distinguishing adjective 
 7/on limits the noun trees in the plural number. 
 
 Exercise 144. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Through yonder valley a shower is passing. 2. At the same time the 
 waters in the river began to swell again. 3. His servant was healed in 
 the self -same hour, / . ^ Vw---8 " V\ '' 
 
 4. The same fond mother bent at night, ' ' „pX ^ NPt 
 
 O'er each fair sleeping brow. 
 
 5. But, look, the morn in russet mantle clad, 
 
 Yv^alks o'er tlie dew of yon high eastern hill. 
 
 6. Pray, Alice, pray, my darling wife, \ 
 
 That we may die the self -same day. ; 
 
 U illii. 
 
 Place of the Adject ire, 
 
 333. Rule XXXVIII. The adjective is generally put im- 
 mediately before the noun it qualifies or limits-, as, He is an 
 earnest scholar. 
 
 The exceptions to this rule are : — 
 
 1. When the adjective is used predicatively : as, The oracles are dimib. 
 
 2. When the adjective is used as a title: as, Philip the Fair; Henry, 
 the Sixth. 
 
 3. When some word or phrase is joined to the adjective to explain its 
 meaning : as, He was a man fet^t He in i-esource. 
 
 4. When time, number, or space is mentioned : as, A tower eighty feet 
 hir/h stands in the centre of the square. 
 
 5. When several adjectives are connected with the same noun : as, The 
 queen, /f^ar/ess and raolute, at once advanced. 
 
 6. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, He is a man 
 exceedingly wary. 
 
 7. Wh' n the adjective is factitive : as, You think him humhle — God 
 accounts him proud. 
 
 8. Certain adj( ctives never precede their nouns, viz., A<h'y, afloai 
 ajraid, orjhaM, akin, aJcrt, alike, alive, alone, aivi^s, ashamed, a^keu; 
 asleep, athirxt, averse, aivake, aware, aury, devoid, else, loth, poorly, 
 pur,$iia)it, rerfvavf, vmvell, veil, and vorth. The adjectivts apparent, 
 X>resnmptive, and rampant, often follow tlu'ir nouns. 
 
SYNTAX. 159 
 
 9. The adjectives all and hoth may be separated from their nouns by 
 the: as, All the effoi'ts proved in vain, 
 
 10. The adjectives such, many and what, and those preceded by as, hou\ 
 so and too, are separated from their nouns by an or a : as, What a gloom 
 hangs all around ! 
 
 11. When the adjective is emphatic, it is sometimes placed at the begin- 
 ning of the sentence, and at some distance from the noun it qualifies : as, 
 Delighted beyond measure am I at your success. 
 
 12. When poetic licence is used : as, They wrapped the ship in splendour 
 mid. 
 
 Exercise 145. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The smaller birds were not afraid of me. 2. The poor man is hungry 
 and athirst. 3. Beautiful it is to tmderstand and know that a thought 
 did never yet die. 4. Last noon beheld them full of lusty life. 5. The 
 star-led wizards haste with odours sweet. 6. O, what a noble mind is 
 here o'erthrown ! 7. It is a beauteous evenino- calm and free. 
 
 8. But pangs more cruel, more intensely keen. 
 Wound and distract their sympathetic Queen. 
 
 9. Who o'er the herd would wish to rei^n. 
 Fantastic, fickle, fierce, and vain ? 
 
 10. Broad shadows o'er their passage fell, 
 Deeper and narrower grew the dell. 
 
 Questions o^- §§ 317—333. 
 
 1. What does eveiy adjective qualify? 2. How are adjectives used attributively? 
 3. How are adjectives ustd predicatively ? 4. Give an example in which an adjective 
 qualifies an intinitive. 5. Give an example in which an adjective is used as an adverb. 
 6. Give an example of an adjective qualifying a compound formed of an adjective and 
 a noun. 7. Give an example of a noun used as an adjective. 8. What degi-ee is used 
 in comparing two objects? 9. What degree is used in comparing more than two 
 objects? lu. Shuw how the comparative may be used instead of the superlative? 
 11. When is the comparative followed by than ^ 12. When is the comparative followed 
 by 0// 13. What is the rule about tlie use of double comparatives and superlatives? 
 
 14. In what number do adjectives of quantity in bulk or mass qualify nouns? 15. In 
 what number do aefinite carainal numeral adjectives qualify nouns? 16. In what 
 number does one qualify nouns ? 17. In what number do no and none qualify nouns ? 
 
 15. In what number do definite ordinal numeral adjectives qualify nouns ? 19. What 
 is the difference between the three Jint and the Jirst, three? 20. In what number do 
 indefinite numeral adjectives qualify nouns? 21. What indefinite numeral adjectives 
 may qualify nouns in the singular? 22. In what number does another always qualify 
 nouns? 28. Explain the phrase wan^ a /((V^. 24. In what number do the distributive 
 numeral adjectives qualify nouns? 25. What does each denote? 26. What does ecery 
 denote? 27. What does either denote? 28. What does neither denote? 29. Which 
 distributive always qualifies a noun expressed? 30. In what number does an era 
 limit nouns? 31. Give an example in which an or a means "each." 32. What is 
 the difference between a feiv dai/s and feie clays? 33. What is the difference between 
 (I mile Irread and Utile bread ? 34. When is an or a omitted ? 35. When is an or a 
 used before a proper noun ? 36. In what niuaber docs the limit nouns? 37. Give an 
 instance of the before an adjective when the noun is understood. 38. What part of 
 speech is ^Ac when used with comparatives ? 39. When is </*>- omitted ? 40. When is 
 ihf used hcfore projier nouns? 41. When two or more nouns denoting the same 
 person or thing come together, where is the distinguishing adjective placed? 42. 
 When two or m< re nouns denoting distinct persons or things come together, where 
 is the distinguishing adjective placed? 4.3. In what number do thii^ and that limit 
 nouns? 44. In what number do these and those limit nouns? 45. Wliat is the 
 difference in mrnning between //(?s and tliot, th^se^nd tho.<e? 46. When are this and 
 that used with plural nouns? 47. In what number do yon, yonder, same and selfsame 
 limit nouns? 'J 8. Where is the adjective generally placed? 49. What are the excep- 
 tions to this rule ? 
 
s. 
 
 100 ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Chapter III.— Syntax of the Pronoun. 
 
 [Parsiiig, pp. 123—127.] 
 
 1. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 334. Rule XXXIX. Personal pronouns must agree in 
 gender, number, and person with the nouns for which they 
 are used : as, 0, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven. 
 
 Explanation.— The noun offence is neuter genckr, singular number, third person ; 
 therefore the personal pronoun it which is used for offence is neuter gender, singiolar 
 number, third person. 
 
 Obs. 1.— A pronoun is used instead of the equivalents of a noun :— 
 
 (a) An adjective used as a noini : as (1), The poor had endured great pmvations ; 
 thy became veiy turbulent : (2) Four of the ringleaders were seized ; they were 
 thrown into prison. ^ ,„ « m, 
 
 (/>) A verb in the infinitive mood : as, It is disgraceful to steal, (bee § 121, 
 
 Obs. 1.) , . ^^. 
 
 (c) Aq infinitive phrase ; as, /( was his great ambition to succeed m the under- 
 taking ; ii is excellent to have a giant's strength. , , , . 
 
 (d) A verbal noun or gerund: as. The boy loves fencing, therefore let hun 
 
 practise it. 
 
 (e) A sentence : as, It now happens that the king returned from Fra,nce. 
 Obs. 2.— When the pronoun is used for a clause or part of a sentence, it is neuter 
 
 gender, singular number, third person : as, " That I have ta'en away this old man's 
 
 daughter, it is most true." ,.,,,, „ . ■ 
 
 Obs. 3.— The pronoun must be singidar number when it stands for a collective noun 
 
 conveying unity of idea : as, The army was on its way to the scene of action. The 
 
 pronoun must be plural number when it stands for a collective noun conveying 
 
 plurality of idea : as, The Council are divided in their opinions. 
 
 OOs 4.— When a noun denotes a child or an animal without regard to sex, the 
 
 pronoun is neuter gender : as, The child cries for ita mother ; The sparrow builds its 
 
 nest. . J-. i [ 
 
 Ohs. 5.— The plural ice is used for the singular by sovereigns, reviewers, editors, etc., . A 
 
 and is then parsed as " singular number, plural form " : as, We rKiuy Henry the Fif|ihV ' : 
 
 do salute you, Duke of Burgundy. The plural form you, is uiiua lliyiead ol thou in 
 
 respectful address, and is then parsed as "singular number, plural form ": as, Do 
 
 yon like me, Kate ? 
 
 Obs. 6.— TheS??fhe or a similar form of the pronoun should be preserved tm-oughout 
 
 a sentence : as, / ; 
 
 And if you do, you will but make it blush, ^ 
 
 And glow with shame of 2/0 Mi- proceedings, Hubert. • , 
 
 Exercise 146. 
 
 Parse : — 
 1. Sweet to the miser are his glittering heaps. 2, Deep is the sleep ot 
 the dead, low their pillow of dust. 3. Can the Ethiopian change his skin 
 or the leopard his spots ? 4. Behold how good and how pleasant it is for 
 brethren to dwell together in unity. 5. The assembly then resumed their 
 places. 6. Lapland and Iceland have their historians, tlieir critics, and 
 their poets. 7. The improvidence of the Esquimaux often reduces them 
 to terrible straits. 
 
 8. Friend of my soul ! this goblet sip, 
 'Twill chase that pensive tear. 
 
 9. Nought shall make u.s rue \ 
 If England to itself do rest but true. 
 
 ^ 10. The western waves of ebbing day 
 
 lioll'd o'er the glen their level way. 
 
SYNTAX. 161 
 
 335. Rule XL. Two or more nouns joined by and require 
 the pronoun which is used for them to be in the plural : as, 
 He asked for the widow and her son ; they Avere gone. 
 
 Explanation. — The nouns loidoio and son are joined by anrf; hence the pronoun 
 tTiey, which is used for them, is in the plural. 
 Ols. — The pronoun is in the singular, if two singular nouns joined by and 
 
 (1) Describe the same person or thing : as, My faithful friend and companion is 
 gone ; he will return no more. 
 
 (2) Are contrasted : as. The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his ofl&ce. 
 
 (3) Are preceded by each or (verij : as, Every flower and every herb has its time 
 to wither. 
 
 Exercise 147. 
 Parse : — ■ 
 1. Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in 
 their death they were not divided : they were swifter than eagles, they 
 were stronger than lions. 2. The two sons of Alexius, John and Isaac, 
 maintained the fraternal concord, the hereditary virtue of their race. 3. 
 Simeon and Levi are brethren ; instruments of cruelty are in their habita- 
 tions. 4. The sword and the dagger have done their work, 5. Famine 
 and pestilence stalked through the land ; thousands were destroyed by 
 them. 
 
 6. Foxglove and night-shade, side by side, C^^ ^ 
 
 ^ Emblems of punishment and pride, I / rv ^ W V-s 
 
 Grouped their dark hues with every stain ^^^^^^a*-^ ij Ck^'^K^ 
 The weather-beaten crags retain. i / / 
 
 336. Rule XLL Two or more singular nouns joined by or 
 or nor require the pronoun to be in the singular : as, The page 
 or the gardener must lend Ms aid. 
 
 Explanation. — The singular noims pa^-e and gardener ^xe joined by or; hence the 
 pronoun hi'i is in the singular. 
 
 Ohs.—Wiien a plural noun and a singular noun are joined by or or nor, the pronoun 
 must be in the plural : as. Either the teacher or his pupils have produced this result 
 
 by thuir neglect. 
 
 Exercise 148. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Either the captain or the sailor will lose his life in this fearful 
 struggle, 2, Literature or art has had its influence on this poet's mind. 
 3. A hero or a demi-god may, by his example, have incited the heathen to 
 noble deeds. 4. Neither the king nor the emperor governed liis subjects 
 well. 5. Either Lucy or Caroline has lost her purse. 6. A senator or a 
 counsellor must not overstep his duty. 
 
 337. Rule XLII. When a pronoun refers to more than 
 one noun or pronoun of different persons, it must be of the 
 first person plural in preference to the second, and of the 
 second person plural in preference to the third : as, You and 
 I have finished our work ; You and James have finished your 
 work. 
 
 Explanation. — Our (first person) is usei-^cause it refers to yojt (second person) 
 and /(first person): your (second person) is used because it refers to you (second 
 person) and James (third i^erson). / 
 
162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 149. 
 Parse : — 
 1. You and I have met at last ; we must now our quarrel settle. 2. 
 He and I have done our best. 3. My servant and I fought our way 
 through the crowd. 4. My son and I do bequeath to you our faithful 
 services. 5. You and your brother have thus far followed the bent of 
 your own inclinations. 6. You and Frederick seem to live by your wits, 
 
 338. Rule XLIII When singular pronouns of different 
 persons are used, the second precedes the others, and the third 
 precedes the first : as, You and he must come ; He and / must 
 come. 
 
 Explanation.— The second person you precedes the tMrd person he, and the third 
 person he precedes the first person /. 
 
 Exercise 150. 
 Parse : — 
 1. You and I must say farewell. 2. You and he must take your chance. 
 3. She and I gathered flowers in the wood. 4. Even for that he and I 
 thank you. 5. Let thee and me this feat attempt. 6. Such was the kind- 
 ness they showed to her and me. 
 
 339. Rule XLIV. When phiral pronouns of different 
 persons are used, the first precedes the second, and the second 
 precedes the third : as, JFe, you, and iliei/ are invited. 
 
 Explanation. — The first person phn-al u-e precedes the second person phu-al t/ou, and 
 yoi'.> iirecedes the third person plural they. 
 
 Exercise 151. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Be assured you and they will be set free. 2. The wise (virgins) 
 answered, saying, " Not so ; lest there be not enough for us and you." 3. 
 We and they have acted as you desired. 4. We, j^ou, and they must 
 denounce this villany. 5. You and they seem to mock us. 6. He has 
 showered benefits on you and them. 
 
 340. Rule XLV. The personal pronoun is often employed 
 and the noun for which it is used omitted, if the noun is 
 assumed to be well known : as, Blessed are they that mourn. 
 
 Explanation.— The noun people, for which the pronoun they stands, is omitted. 
 Obs. 1.— The nouns for which pronouns of tlie first nn.l second persons stand are not 
 expressed : as, 1 smile to hear the assertion ; You tell me what 1 knew before. 
 Obs. 2.— The pronoun it has man}' peculiar uses : — 
 
 (1) Witli impersonal verbs : as, It snows. 
 
 (2) Bofure the verb to be and some other cnpnlatlve verbs when the real subject 
 follows : as, It is I ; It is ])leasant to wander througli the woods ; It is clear that 
 you do not knuw him. It is even used when a jilural follows: as, It was the 
 Komans that introduced tlie custom. It m.iy represent u pronoun of any person ; 
 as, It is / ; It is you ; It is he. 
 
 (3) To express a general state or condition : as, IIow is it with you ? 
 
 (4) Indefinitely after intransitive verbs : as, Tlioy frisk it from bovigh to bough, 
 (a) In questions, when the ]ierson or thing is altogether unknown : as. Who is 
 
 it ? Whi.h is it ? What is it ? 
 
 (r») To represent a noun ill the masculine or feminine gender : as, U was Pctei 
 who denied his JIa;^tcr. 
 
SYNTA.^. 163 
 
 Exercise 152. 
 Parse :— 
 1. It had pleased Heaven, he said, to bless him with three sons. 2. 0, 
 it is excellent to have a giant's strength : but it is tyrannous to use it like 
 a giant. 3. It can be no more sin to ask what God grants. 4. It was her 
 fingers which gave the pickles their peculiar green. 5. I am not what you 
 take me for. 6. Who are you ? You know me. 7. Your son has not 
 used me well. 8. They that sow in tears shall reap in joy. 9. The colony 
 is under personal obligations to you. 
 
 1 0. We look before and after, 
 And pine for what is not. 
 
 Place of the Personal Pronoun^r^ 
 
 341. Rule XLVI. Personal pronouns generally come after 
 the words for which they are used : as, The animal becomes too 
 large for its habitation. 
 
 Obs. — The pronoun sometimes comes first : as, Hark ! the!/ whisper, angels say. This 
 is especially the case with it : as, It was William who gave the signal. 
 
 Exercise 153. 
 Parse :— 
 1. The sun himself withheld his wonted speed. 2. The priests had a 
 portion assigned them, 3. Men befool themselves. 4. The boy's eye is 
 fixed towards Heaven, and his young heart on Hira who reigns there. 5. 
 Bruce was in front of his own line, arranging his men. 6. A man who 
 dedicates his life to knowledge becomes habituated to pleasure which carries 
 with it no reproach. 7. Many tribes of Indians are indebted to the bison 
 for their means of living. 8. The path is narrow ; and it narrows still. 9. 
 The great skill of a teacher is to get and keep the attention of his scholar. 
 10. It was the time of roses, — 
 We pluck'd them as we pass'd. 
 
 Questions on §§ 334 — 341. 
 
 1. How must pei-sonal pronouns agree with nouns ? 2. Of what gender, numbei", 
 and person is a i^ronoun used for a clause or sentence ? 3. Of what number is a pro- 
 noun which stands for a coUective noun conveying unity of idea? 4. Of what nuuaber 
 is a pronoun which stands for a collective noun conveying plurality of idea? 5. Of 
 what gender is a pronoun which denotes a child or animal without regard to sex? 6. 
 When is ive singular ? 7. How is it parsed ? S. When is you singular ? 9. How is it 
 parsed ? 10. When two or more nouns are joined by and, what is the number of the 
 pi-onoun? 11. What are the exceptions to this rule ? 12. When two or more singular 
 nouns are joined by or or ncn; what is the number of the pronoun? 13. When a 
 plural and a singular noun are joined by or or nor, what is the number of the pronoun ? 
 14. When a pronoun refeis to nouns or pronouns of different persons, which person 
 is it of? 15. When sinr^mlar pronouns of different persons are used, which person has 
 tlie precedence? 16. When plural pronouns of different persons are used, wliich 
 person has the precedence? 17. Give an example in which a pronoun is used wlicn 
 the noun for which it stands is omitted. IS. Name the peculiar uses of the pronoun 
 it. 19. What is the position of personal pronouns ? 20. Give an example in which 
 the pronoun precedes the noun for which it stands. 
 
 2. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 342. Rule XLVII. The relative pronoun agrees with its 
 antecedent in gender, number, and person : as, The man trho 
 found the purse restored it. 
 
 11—2 
 
164 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAil. 
 
 Explanation. — The antecedent ma^i is masculine gender, singula!' number, and 
 third person, therefore the relative tcho is masculine gender, singular number, and 
 third person. 
 
 O'ls. 1. — M'ho is applied to persons, which to the lower animals and things ; that is 
 tlsed for who or which : as, At last a Scotch sailor ivho was on board called to me ; You 
 have killed a tiny bird irhich flew not till to-daj^ ; There are here divers trees which 
 are not to be found elsewhere ; The man thai hath done this thing shall surely die ; 
 The fish that leapt up was a salmon ; This I take to be a great cause that hath hindered 
 the progression of learning. 
 
 Obs. 2. — That should be used instead of ivho or which after 
 
 (1) The interrogative v-ho : as, Who, that has looked on the meek, deer-like face 
 of a kangaroo, would imagine that any danger could attend a combat with so 
 gentle a creature ? 
 
 (2) The words all, any, none, nothing, same: as, He was not the same that had 
 given permission ; You shall know all that you are like to know. 
 
 (3) The superlative degree : as, Adrian, his successor, was the most curious man 
 that lived. 
 
 (4) Two antecedents, the one requiring who and the other ivhich : as, The shep- 
 herd and the dog that were seen on the mountain perished in the snow. 
 
 (5) A collective noun : as, The crowd that surrounded his chariot greeted him 
 with exulting cries. 
 
 (6) An incomplete antecedent, i.e., one which needs to be deiined : as, There is 
 yet one in the world that will never forsake thee. 
 
 Ohs. 3. — A collective noun followed by a singular verb is neuter gender and requires 
 which or that ; but when it is followed by a plural -v^rb, it.is masculine, fen?i;iine, or 
 common gender, and requires who or that, jfv , _^ ' ' 
 
 Ohs. 4. — (1) If no nominative comes betwefen the relative and the verb, the relative 
 is nominative case to the verb : as, 1 had a dream which was not all a dream. 
 
 (•2) But if a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative 
 is governed by the preposition preceding it or by the verb or noun following it : 
 as. The first misfortune of my life, which you all know, is great. 
 Ohs. 5. — The relative, when in the objective case, is sometimes omitted : as, 
 
 The light of the heaven (which) she came from 
 Still lingered and gleamed in her hair. 
 
 Ohs. 6. — Tlie antecedent, when it is third person, is sometimes omitted : as. Hand- 
 some is that handsome does. 
 
 Obs. 7.— The relative v:hich has sometimes a sentence for its antecedent : as, Mrs. 
 Arnold politely offered to send a couple of her footmen for my sou's baggage, which he 
 at first seemed to decline. 
 
 Obs. 8.— Tlie relative is sometimes used as an adjective : as. All which miseries, at 
 length, by God's providence, had their end 16th November, 1558. 
 
 Obs. 9. — The relative is sometimes omitted, and the antecedent attracted into the 
 case of the relative : as, 
 
 Him I accuse. 
 The city ports by this has entered. 
 
 Ohs. 10. — The relative that is never preceded by a preposition : as. This is the house - 
 tha.t I dwelt in = this is the house in which I dwelt. 
 
 Ohs. 11. — The relative pronouns icho, which, and that, have both a restrictive use and 
 a co-ordinative or conjunctive use. 
 
 («) They have a restrictive use when they are used to introduce a clause which 
 limits, defines, or explains the antecedent : as, " He tliat dies pays all debts;" " O, 
 how wretched is that poor man who hangs on princes' favours ;" " Is this a dagger 
 which I see before me ?" 
 
 All such relative clauses are called adjective clauses, inasmuch as they are 
 similar to adjectives in limiting and defining nouns. 
 
 (6) They have a co-ordinate use when they connect two co-ordinate sentences : 
 as, " Her pet lamb died last night, irliich ( = and thi.s) has caused her much grief ;" 
 "The boj', seeing the danger, ran to his father, n-ho ( = and lie) lost no time in 
 removing him from the place ;" " I met a friend that ( = and he) told me of the 
 occurrence." 
 
 In the restrictive use of the relative, the practice cf the best idiomatic winters 
 
 is to prefer thnt to w)io or lohich : " lie that goes a borrowing goes a sorrowing;" 
 
 "... the thousand natural shocks that flesh is heir to ;" " I'>ance had no infantry 
 
 that dared to face the English bows and bills ;" " All is not gold tliat glitters." 
 
 Ohs. 12. —The infinitive, the participle, "and this," "and he," etc., 'if," "wherein," 
 
 "whereon," "whereby," "whereupon," etc., may be used as substitutes for the 
 
 relative. 
 
SYNTAX. 165 
 
 (a) The infinitive : He was the first to hear that sound = He was the first who heard 
 that sound. 
 
 (b) The participle : The men loniting outside are artisans seeking relief = The men 
 v)ho loalt (or who are vmiting) outside are artisans ivho seek (or who are see/cinr/) 
 relief. 
 
 (c) And this : I asked the boatman to land me, and this he refused to do. (. . . 
 which he refused to do.) 
 
 (d) And she: The child ran to his mother, and she Immediately caught him up 
 and soothed and caressed him. (. . . icho Immediately, etc.) 
 
 (e) //.• If a man studies revenge he keepeth his own wounds green = The man 
 that studies revenge keeps his own wounds green. 
 
 (/) Whernn: Nor can I rid me of the bonds whp.rein ( = in which) I lie alone. 
 
 (p) Wherenn : The feet whereon { = on which) he flies betray him. 
 
 (h) Whereby: Sorrow is the ground whereby ( — by lohich) the heart doth pine in 
 deadly woe. 
 
 (i) Whereupon : When a carver makes an image, he shapes only that part tohere- 
 upon ( = upon which) he worketh. 
 
 Exercise 154. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The husbandman pays respect to the redbreast, which predicts fine 
 weather. 2. Then must you speak of one that lov'd not wisely, but too 
 well, 3. He then requested her to stand on the straw, which she did. 
 4. My mistress gently chides the fault I made. 5. None love their 
 country but who love their home. 6. Thrice is he arm'd that hath his 
 quarrel just. 7. Cork is the outer bark of a large oak which grows in the 
 countries around the Mediterranean. 8. Let not men think there is no 
 truth but in the sciences that they study, or the books that they read. 9. 
 Who will, may pant for glory. 10. It was reserved for Portugal to tear 
 aside the veil which hung over the greater part of Africa. 11. Every joint 
 in the animal frame can be shown to be exactly suited to tlie function 
 which it has to perform. 12. In this manner we spent the forenoon till 
 the bell summoned us to dinner, where we found tlie manager of the 
 strolling company that I mentioned before, who was come to dispose of 
 tickets for the "Pair Penitent," which was to be acted that evening — 
 the part of Horatio by a young gentleman who had never appeared on 
 any stage. 13. I have revealed the discord which befel. 
 
 14. It was the English, Kaspar cried, / t'^.fa[^')OtJiL-^'<.oo^\ 
 
 That put the French to rout. • p 
 
 15. We, ignorant of ourselves, 
 
 Beg often our own harms, which the wise powers 
 Deny us for our good. 
 
 343. Rule XL VIII. When the relative is preceded by two 
 antecedents of different persons, it generally agrees in person 
 with the one next it : as, I am he 2vho sings the victor's praise. 
 
 Explanation. — The relative tvho is third person to agree with he the antecedent 
 next it. 
 
 06s.— But the relative often agrees with the first antecedent. The meaning is not, 
 liowever, the same. Thus, "I am the man who command you " = I, your commander, 
 am the man : " I am the man who commands you "==1 am your commander. 
 
 Exercise 155. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Thou art the man that should guide the ship. 2. You are the person 
 who was implicated in the conspiracy. 3. I am the unfortunate victim 
 T/ho has felt the tyrant's injustice. 4. The deliverer on that occasion was 
 
166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I, who am still ready to be your leader. 5. Thou art he who points out to 
 us the path of duty. 6. I am she who devotes herself willingly to this 
 sacred cause. 
 
 344. Rule XLIX. When as is used as a relative, the verb 
 agrees in number and person with the noun to which as refers : 
 as, Such as do evil will be punished. 
 
 Explanation.— Do is plural number third porson, agreeing with jxrsons to which 
 as refers. It is, however, better to supply the ellipsis and parse as as a conjunction : 
 thus, Such persons as [the persons are who] do evil will be punished. [Parsing, 
 pp. 35, 162. 
 
 Exercise 156, 
 
 Parse : — ^ ._ ^ 
 
 1. Such as our motive is, our aim must be. 2. Such curiosities on the 
 way as could be seen for nothing, he was ready enough to look at. 3. 
 This is not such a liquor as Homer speaketh of, wliich ran from Venus' 
 baud, when it was pierced by Diomedes. 4. Such as were so disposed 
 might give themselves to histories, modern languages, books of policy, 
 and civil discourses. 5. He followed the same line of action as his 
 predecessor. 
 
 6. In at this gate none pass 
 
 The vigilance here plac'd but such as come 
 Well knoAvn from heaven. 
 
 345. Rule L. The relative tvJio is used in the objective case 
 after the conjunction than : as, Aristotle, than 'tchom a greater 
 philosopher never lived, was tutor to Alexander. 
 
 Explanation.— Tr/iOJji is objective case after than. In this case than must be con- 
 sidered a pi-eposition. The construction, which seems to have arisen from the Latin 
 ablative after a comparative, is not to be imitated. 
 
 Place of the Relative Pronoun. 
 
 346. Rule LI. The relative follows its antecedent, and, to 
 prevent ambiguity, should be as near it as possible : as, ^ J ()j 
 
 We heard the distant and random gun. ^ . , ^ 
 That the foe Avas sullenly firing. ^^ \^V1 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The relative sometimes precedes the antecedent : as, 
 
 Whom Fortime favours, him the envious hate. 
 
 Ohs. 2. — The relative being a connecting word docs not admit a conjunction, and 
 therefore always stands first in the sentence to which it belongs : as. There is not an 
 heroic scribbler in the nation that has not his admirers vho think him a great genius. 
 
 Exercise 157. 
 
 Pai'se : — 
 1. He was buried beside his father, who had died but a few months 
 before. 2. My account is rather of what I saw than what I did. 3. Of 
 all the affections which attend human life, the love of glory is the most 
 ardent. 4. He that has a mind to believe has half assented already ; and 
 he that, by often arguing against his own sense, imposes falsehoods on 
 others, is not far from believing himself. 5. The population of St. Peters, 
 burg is the most varied and motley that mind can imagine, 
 
SYNTAX. 167 
 
 0. Southward a mountain rose with easy swell, 
 Whose long, long groves eternal murmurs made. 
 
 7. For our bad neighbour makes us early stirrers, 
 Which is both healthful and good husbandry. 
 
 8. And in his hand he shakes the brand 
 Which none but he can wield. 
 
 9. To climb steep hills 
 Requires slow pace at first : anger is like 
 
 A full hot horse, who being allowed his way, 
 Self-mettle tires him, 
 10, Love had he found in huts where poor men lie ; 
 His daily teachers had been woods and rills, 
 The silence that is in the starry sky, 
 The sleep that is among the lonely hills. 
 
 QuESTiOKS ON §§ 342—346. 
 
 1. How docs the relative agree with its antecedent ? 2. What is v:h.o applied to ? 
 3. '^h'Si.t is, lohich applied to? 4. How is </iaf used? 5. When is that used instead of 
 tvJio or ivhich 7 6. When does a collective noun require !y/ac'/i or ;A«<? 7. When does 
 a collective noun require ivko or thatf 8. In what way may the case of a relative be 
 known? 9. Give an eximple in which the relative is omitted. 10. Give an example 
 in which the antecedent is omitted. 11. Give an example in which t\te antecedent is 
 a sentence. 12. Give an example of the relative used as an adjective. 13. Which 
 relative is never preceded by its governing preposition ? 14. When have the relatives 
 v:ho, luhlch, and ^Aaf a restrictive use? 15. When have the relatives icko, which, and 
 (^^« a co-ordinative use? 16. What words are nsed as snbstitutes for relatives? 17. 
 When the relative is preceded by two antecedents of different persons, with which 
 does it agree? 18. Explain the difference between " I am the man who command 
 you " and " I am the man who commands you." 19. When as is used as a comiwund 
 relative, with what does the verb a^^ree? 20. How should «.s in this case be parsed? 
 21. Explain the construction than whom. 22. What is the place of the relative? 
 
 3. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 I 347. Rule LII. An interrogative pronoun is of the same 
 gender, number, person, and case as the noun or pronoun 
 v/hich is expected as the answer to the question : as, JFho told 
 you ? Henry (told me). 
 
 Explanation.— TF/io is masculine gender, singular number, third person, nominative 
 case, becaiise Henri/ is. 
 
 Obs. — The interrogative is sometimes used as an adjective : as, W/iat passion cannot 
 music raise and quell ? 
 
 Exercise 158. 
 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. What do you want? 2. "Who knows what may happen? 3. Ah, 
 
 who the melodies of morn can tell? 4. Who hath not lost a friend? 
 
 \m 5. Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? 6. Who is here so base 
 
 !'"^ that would be a bondman ? If any, speak ; for hfm have I offended. 
 
 Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman ? If any, speak ; for 
 
 him have I offended. 7. What bird is this ? 8, Whoever gazed upon the 
 
 broad sea without emotion ? 9. What were my orders ? 10. After whom 
 
 is the king of Israel come out ? 
 
 Place of the Interrogative Pronoun. 
 
 348. Rule LIII. The interrogative pronoun is always the 
 first word in the sentence to which it belongs : as, JFhat has 
 he left that he can yet forego ? 
 
16o ENGLISH GRAMJMAR. 
 
 Exercise 159. 
 Parse : — 
 1. What warmth is there in your affection towai-ds any of these 
 princely suitors ? 2. Who goes there ? 3. What is most like thee ? 
 4. Watchman, what of the night ? o. Which way went he ? 6. Who is 
 (m our side? 7. What ill retiuest did Brutus make to thee ? 8. What's 
 your pleasure, sir ? 
 
 9. What hope or fear or jo}^ is thine ? 
 Who talketh with thee, Adeline ? 
 10. And still as I comb'd I would sing and say, 
 " Who is it loves me ? Who loves not me ?'* 
 
 Questions on §§ 347, 348. 
 
 1. With what does an interrogative pronoun agree ? 2. What is the place of the 
 interrogative pronoun ? 
 
 Chapter IY. — Syntax of the Verb. 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 128—141.] 
 
 1. Concord. 
 
 349. Rule LIV. The verb agrees with its nominative in 
 number and person : as, The kite flies ; The kites/?-/. 
 
 Explanation. — The verb flies is singular number, third person, to agree with its 
 nomiuative kite : the verb fly is plural number, third person, to agree with its 
 nominative kites. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — The verb to he does not necessarily agree with the nominative foUovping : 
 as, Ye are the salt of the earth ; A penny is four farthings. In the sentence "The 
 wages of sin is death," we must either consider dtath to be the subject, or wages to 
 be singular. 
 
 0//S. 2. — Some nouns with plural endings take singular verbs : r.s, Great pnins was 
 taken. It is generally better to use a plural verb, Great pains iocre tiiken. 
 
 Obs. :]. — The plural title of a single work may have a singular verb : as, " The Last 
 Days of Pompeii" n-as written by Bulwer Lytton. 
 
 Ohs. 4. —The plural is used when number is thought of : as, Seven women vere in 
 the field. When quantity is thought of, even when exjaressed in number, the singular 
 is used : as, Forty shillings is the i)rice. 
 
 Ohs. 5. — When the subject is an infinitive mood, a sentence, or any part of speech 
 (other than a pronoun) used as a noun, the verb is in the singular luimber, third 
 person : as, To obey is better than sacrifice ; That you have been deceived is evident ; 
 Green is a colour. 
 
 Obs. 6.— The nominative is often omitted (1) before a verb in the imperative, iv?, 
 C(nnp. = coxaQ ye ; (2) in poetry, as. Lives there who loves his piiin ? (3) after the con- 
 junction thu/ii, as, He is better than v}as expected. 
 
 Ohs. 7. — The same form of the verb, whether simple, progi'essive, or emphatic, 
 should be preserved tliroughout the sentence. 
 
 Of's. 8. — The impersonal verbs mdldnks, mesecms, aud melistcih are said to have no 
 nominative. In reality, the nominative follows— c.^., Methought I was at home=[I 
 was at liome] seemed to me. 
 
 Obs. y. — When you is nominative the verb is always of the plural form. 
 
 Exercise ICO. 
 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. The reindeer is tractable and easily tamed. 2. The marmot absconds 
 
 in winter. 3. Kipe api)les drop about my head. 4. The allies of Rome 
 
 were slaves. 5. The native inhabitants of Greenland are true Es(|uimaux. 
 
 6, Warwick is hoai-se with calling thee to arms. 7. The smallest worm 
 
SYNTAX. 169 
 
 will turn, being trodden on. 8. Things ill-got had ever bad success. 9. 
 Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. 10. The panting herds repose. 
 11. One touch of nature makes tlie whole world kin. 12. Wisdom cries 
 out in the streets, and no man regards. 13. I can call spirits from the 
 vasty deep. 14. Two stars keep not their motion in one sphere. 15. The 
 better part of valour is discretion. 16. We must be brief when traitors 
 brave the field. 17. Fling away ambition. 18. Bat to throw one's self 
 into cold spring water, when the body has been heated by the e.xercise of 
 the sut), is an imprudence which may prove fatal. 19. The Lives of the 
 Chancellors is a voluminous work. 20. Methought I saw the grave where 
 Laura lay. 
 
 350. Rule LV. Two or more singular nominatives joined 
 by and require a verb in the plural : as, Sorrow and silence 
 are strong. 
 
 Explanation. — Sorrow and silence being joined by the conjunction and form a 
 plural nominative and require the verb are in the plaral. 
 
 Obf. 1.— The conjunction and is frequently understood : as, Birds, beasts, insects, 
 there abound. 
 
 Obs. 2. — If the nouns joined by and are in apposition, the verb is singular : as, The 
 great oi'ator and statesman is dead. 
 
 Obs. 3. — When two or more singular nouns are joined by and expressed or under- 
 stood and qualified by the adjectives each, every, no, the verb must be singular : as, 
 Every sheep and every lamb enters the fold. 
 
 Obs. 4. — When cwo nouns are joined by and so as to form a compound-which is 
 regarded as singular, the verb must be singular : as, Bread-and-cheese icas his chief 
 food. 
 
 Obs. 5.— Sometimes when the verb precedes the nominatives it agrees with the first, 
 and is understood witli the rest : as, 
 
 Ah ! then and there was hurrjnng to and fro, 
 And gathering tears and tremblings of distress. 
 
 Exercise 161. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Innocence and independence make a brave spirit. 2. Both he and 
 she are still within my power. 3. At one point the Danube and the Rhine 
 are only twelve miles apart. 4. A piece of bread and a draught of water 
 were often his sole and evening repast. 5. Wolfe, Monckton, and Murray 
 landed with the first division. 6. I heard the wrack as if earth and sky 
 would mingle. 7. Sheba and Raamah border the Persian Gulf. 8. Copper 
 and tin are soft metals. 
 
 9. Rocks, torrents, gulfs, and shapes of giant size, 
 
 And glittering cliffs on cliffs and fiery ramparts rise. 
 10. Here I and sorrow sit : 
 
 Here is thy throne, bid kings come bow to it. 
 
 351. Rule LVI. Two or more singular nominatives joined 
 by or or ?io?' require a verb in the singular : as, He or his friend 
 has been here. 
 
 Explanation.— //c and friend being joined by the conjunction or require the verb 
 has been in the singular. 
 
 Obs. 1.— Singular nominatives joined hy as zcell as must always have the verb in 
 the singular : as, In the time of Cajsar, the reindeer, as well as the elk and wild 
 bull, zoas a native of the Hercynian forest. 
 
 Obs. 2.— When a singular and plural nominative are joined by or or nor the verb 
 agrees with the nearest nominative : as, Neither stone, nor brick, nor tiles, were 
 employed in these habitations. 
 
170 ENGLISH GRAM^IAR. 
 
 Exercise 162. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Pride or passion will carry a man to great lengths. 2. No nook or 
 corner was left unexplored. 
 
 3. There was neither sound nor sight 
 To serve them for a guide. 
 
 4. No other noise, or people's troublous cries,. 
 As still are wont to annoy the walled town. 
 Might there be heard ; — but careless quiet lies, 
 Wrapt in eternal silence, — far from enemies. 
 
 Whether love 
 Or victory thy royal thoughts did move, 
 Each was a noble cause. 
 6. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 
 
 The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 
 The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn. 
 No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
 
 352. Rule LVII. AVhen the nominative is a collective noun 
 conveying unity of idea, the verb is singular ; but when it is a j 
 collective noun conveying plurality of idea, the verb is plural : ' 
 as, The crowd is silent ; The crowd are excited. 
 
 Explanation. — When crowd conveys unity of idea, it requires the verb to be singular, 
 in ; The crowd (as one body) is silent. When croicd conveys plurality of idea, it requires 
 the verb to be jjlural, are excited ; The crowd (as separate persons, each of thenij are 
 excited. 
 
 Exercise 163. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The council, being awakened by the serjeant-at-arms, rubbed their 
 ej'es. 2. The jury were discharged. 3. The multitude were divided in 
 opinion. 4. The Parliament has elected its Speaker. 5. The meeting has 
 chosen a president. 6. The House of Commons were well agreed in passing 
 the bill. 
 
 353. Rule LVIII. When nominatives of different persons 
 are joined by and, the verb is plural and agrees with the first 
 person rather than with the second, and with the second rather 
 than with the third : as, He and I ( = we) are well ; You and 
 he ( = you) are well. 
 
 Explanation. — He ''third person) and / (first person) are joined by and, hence tho 
 verb are is plural nmnber, first i^erson. Y"ii (second person) and he (third person) arc 
 joined by ami, hence the verb are is plural number, second pei'son. 
 
 Exercise 164. 
 Parse : — 
 1. My father and I have lived here fifteen years. 2. We and they 
 landed yesterday. 3. The bishop and I undertook the work. 4. You and 
 she might pass for sisters. 5. Y<ni and I must protect these orphans. 6. 
 You and they are now in a position to pay the debt. 
 
 354. Rule LIX. AVhen nominatives of different persons are 
 joined by or or twr the verb agrees in person with the nearest ; 
 HB, Either you or I am wrong. 
 
SYNTAX. 171 
 
 Explanation.— Fou (second person) and /(first person) ai'O joined by or, hence tho 
 verb am is first person agreeing with J. Tlie full construction is :— Either you [are 
 wrong] or I am wrong. 
 
 Obs.—Vf hen two or more nominatives of different persons ai-e in apposition in a 
 sentence which contains only one statement, the verb agrees iu number and person 
 with the first nominative : as, I, your father, bid you go. 
 
 Exercise 165. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Neither you nor he has witnessed the new play. 2. Either she or I 
 am deceived. 3. Either you or Lovell has been at the masquerade. 4. 
 Neither you nor I can realise the appalling truth. 5. Neither you nor the 
 priest was in the right. 6. Either he or I am sadly changed. 
 
 Questions on §§ 349—354. 
 
 1. With what does a verb agree? 2. Give an example in which a verb does not 
 agree with a nominative following. 3. Explain the construction ' ' The wages of sin 
 is death." 4. Give au example of a singuhxr verb after a nominative having the plural 
 form. 5. Give an example of a singular verb with the plural title of a wui-k. 6. Of 
 what number and person are the verb when the nominative is an infinitive mood, a 
 sentence, or any word (not a pronoun) used for a noun? 7. When is the nominative 
 often omitted? 8. Wliat verbs are said to have no uomiuadvu? 9. When 7/011 is 
 nominative, of what number is the verb in form ? 10. When two or more singular 
 nominittives are joined by and, of what number is the verb ? 11. Give au example in 
 which and is understood between two nominatives. 12. In what cases do two or 
 more nominatives jonied by and take a verb in the singular ? 13. When two or more 
 singular nominatives are jouied by or or nor, of wliat number is the verb ? 14. When 
 the nominatives are joined by as v:dL as, of what number is the verb ? 15. When a 
 singular and plural nominative are joined by or or nor, which does the verb agree 
 with? 1(3. Of what number is the verb when the nominative is a collective noun? 
 17. When nominatives of different persons are jcjined by and, what is tlie portion of 
 the verb? 18. When nominatives of different persons are joined by or or nor, what is 
 the pei-son of the verb ? 
 
 2. The Subjunctive Mood, 
 
 355. Rule LX. The subjunctive mood is always preceded 
 by a conjunction expressed or understood : as, give it me, 
 lest thy hard heart do steel it ; Had I not known those customs, 
 I should have been beholden to your paper. 
 
 Explanation.— Do stcd is subjunctive mood, and is preceded by the conjunction 
 lest : had knoinx is subjunctive mood, and is preceded by the conjunction ij under- 
 stood. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The verb is often made to precede its nominative in order to indicate that 
 the sign of the subjunctive has been suppressed : as, 
 
 Were there hope to conquer them again, 
 
 My sword should shed hot blood, mine eyes no teai-s. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Certain words with a coaijuuctive force precede the subjunctive : as. Such 
 levity, whatsoever be the motive, is unworthy of a legislator and a man. 
 
 Obs. Z.—That and lest, i:ireceded by a command or wish, or denoting a purpose or 
 consequence, are followed by the subjunctive mood : as. Pity me then and wish (that) 
 I icere renew d. 
 
 Obs. 4.— The subjunctive may be used for the potential : as, That wei-e a state nt | 
 for his holiness = that 2cou/d be :. state fit for his holiness. ' 
 
 065. 5.— The potential mood has sometimes the conditional or subjunctive form 
 as, 
 
 If I could lorite the beauty of your eyes, 
 
 And in fresh numbers number all your graces 
 
 The age to come would say, this poet lies, 
 
172 
 
 ENGLISH GRAIkOIAR. 
 
 356. The conjunctions and other words which precede a 
 verb in the subjunctive mood are as follows : — 
 
 Albeit. 
 Although. 
 
 An ( = if). 
 Before. 
 
 * * * 
 
 He will fail albeit the duke be on his side. 
 Her father is no better than an earl, 
 Although in glorious titles he excel. 
 An he be content, why, so am I. 
 Thus is his cheek the map of days out- worn. 
 When beauty liv'd and died as flowers do now, 
 Before the golden tresses of the dead, 
 The right of sepulchres, were shorn aw^ay. 
 
 Ere. Now timely sing, ere the rude bird of hate 
 
 Foretell my hapless doom from some grove nigh. 
 
 Except. Ye shall not go hence except your youngest brother 
 
 come hither. 
 
 How. Let him look into the errors of Phocion, and he will 
 
 beware how he be obstinate or inflexible. 
 
 If, If the king-wolf lose the scent, how will the pack 
 
 hold it ? 
 
 Lest. Mend your speech a little lest it mar your fortune. 
 
 Provided. Provided the chieftain pay the tribute, he will not be 
 
 molested. 
 
 Provided that. I will do it provided that he will give me leave. 
 
 So. 
 
 Suppose. 
 
 Supposing. 
 That. 
 
 Though. 
 
 Till. 
 
 Unless. 
 
 Until. 
 
 Whether. 
 
 "Whoever. 
 However. 
 
 WTiatever. 
 
 So we be rid of them, do with 'em what thou wilt. 
 Suppose the field be won, what will be the gain to 
 
 us? 
 Supposing this be true, we must e'en look to it. 
 It is necessary to the progression of sciences that 
 
 readers be of the most able and sufficient men. 
 Let it fall rather, though the fork invade the region 
 
 of my heart. 
 Till the eye have vision the whole members are in 
 
 bonds. 
 Public censure speaks a public foe, 
 Uiuess a zeal for virtue guide the blow. 
 If so, gaze on, and grovel on thy face, 
 Until thy head be circled with the same. 
 I doubt whether there be a city on the globe that 
 
 can show anything equal to the beauty of one 
 
 of these boat- excursions on the Neva, during a 
 
 fine summer night. 
 I shall humble him whoever he be. 
 " Plowever that be," criud I, " the most vulgar ballad 
 
 of all generally pleases me more than the fine 
 
 modern odes." 
 Whatever were the fruits of their industry, their 
 
 patron and his family inherited the third part, 
 
 or even the whole of their fortune. 
 
 lOG. 
 
 Exercise 
 Parse : — 
 1. If }ou touch one, you touch all. 2. Life is no trifle, howsoever short 
 it Beem. 3. What though no real voice nor sound amid their radiant orbs 
 
I 
 
 SYNTAX. 173 
 
 be found ? 4. Though they to one be ten, be not amazed. 5. He will not 
 come till she be gone. 6, If I were a king it should be otherwise. 7. 
 Though all the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon the earth, so 
 Truth be in the field, we do injuriously by licensing and prohibiting, to 
 misdoubt her strengtli. 8. In whatsoever shape he lurk, I'll know. 
 9. Saw I that insect on this goblet's brim, 
 I would remove it with an anxious pity. 
 10. This sword hath ended him ; so shall it thee, 
 Unless thou yield thee as my prisoner. 
 
 Questions on §§ 355, 356. 
 
 1. What is tlie subjunctive preceded by? 2. When the sign of the subjunctive is 
 suppressed, where is the nominative placed? 3. When are that and lest followed by 
 the subjunctive ? 4. Give an example in which the subjunctive is used for the 
 potential. 5. Give an example in which Ihe potential has the conditional or subjunc- 
 tive form. G. What words precede the subjunctive mood ? 
 
 3. The Imperative Mood. 
 
 357. Rule LXI. The imperative mood is sometimes used 
 absolutely : as, Some horsemen, say twenty, passed this way. 
 
 Explanation.— 5^2/ is imperative mood used absolutely. We may supply an ellipsis 
 — Let us say. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — The expression have done is an instance of an imperative mood, perfect 
 tense. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The imperative may be used in the first and third persons : as. Return we 
 to the subject : Long live the king. In the latter case an ellipsis may be supplied : 
 " Mai/ the king live long," or " Let the king live long." 
 
 Exercise 167. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Now let us sing "Long live the king." 2. The people shouted 
 " God save the king." 3. The hostile army is immense, consisting of, say, 
 one hundred thousand men. 4. The distance is great, say fifteen thousand 
 paces. 5. Many nobles, say fifty, were in the assembly. 
 6. And be the Spartan's epitaph on me — 
 
 " Sparta hath many a worthier son than he." 
 
 Questions on § 357. 
 
 1. Show how the imperative mood maybe used absolutely. 2. Explain the form 
 have done. 3. Give examples of imperatives of the first and third persons 
 
 4. The Infinitive Mood. 
 
 358. Rule LXII. The infinitive mood is governed by a 
 verb, an adjective, or a noun : as, (1) He strives to learn; (2) 
 He is anxious to learn; (3) He shows great anxiety to learn. 
 
 Explanation.— In (1) to learn is governed by the verb strives ; in (2) to learn is 
 governed by the adjective anxious ; in (3) to learn is governed by the noun anxiety. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Ihe infinitive sometimes had a preposition before it : as, He stood up for to 
 read. This usage is obsolete : hence /or should never be used before the infinitive. 
 
 Ohs. 2. — The infinitive sometimes denotes the object, and sometimes a purpose : as. 
 He loves to rend (Object) ; He comes to read (^Purpose). When the infinitive denotes 
 purpose it is called the Gerundial Infinitive. 
 
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 168. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The Bailie found a way to make them speak English. 2. The bishops 
 agreed to proceed. 3. Newton has learned to see what Kepler saw. 4. 
 He was ready to die in her defence. 5. The bishop consented to reply. 
 6. They agreed to give four shillings in the pound for one year. 7. The 
 voice of that one man is able to put more life in us. 8. I drew my knife 
 and began to pick the flint. 9. It is no time to joke. 10. Sir Henry was 
 advised to defer his attack. 11. He rather liked to talk. 12. When the 
 mourner had gone thus far in his story, he stopped to pay Nature her 
 tribute, and wept bitterly. 13. She dropped her glove to prove his love, 
 then looked at him and smiled. 
 
 14, Thy triumphs, Rome, I shall not see, 
 For I return to die. 
 
 15. Where's the coward that would not dare 
 To fight for such a land ? 
 
 359. Rule LXIII. The infinitive mood is sometimes used 
 absolutely : as, To conclude, I shall point out an important 
 lesson. 
 
 Explanation. — To conclude is the infinitive absolute, because it is not governed by 
 any other word. We may, however, supplj^ an ellipsis : as, [xVs I am] to conclude, I 
 shall point out an important lesson. 
 
 Exercise 169. 
 Parse : — 
 1. To do her justice, she was a good-natured, notable woman. 2. To 
 say the truth, I was tired of being always wise. 3. To confess the truth, 
 this man's mind seems fitted to his station. 4. To say the truth, I don't 
 know that they imitate anything at all, 5. It is an admirable sword, to 
 be sure. 
 
 6. To be short, for not appearance, and 
 
 The king's late scruple, by the main assent 
 Of ah these learned men she was divorced. 
 
 360. Rule LXiV. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is 
 omitted after the verbs w«?/, can, rntist, shall, ivill, hid, dare, do, 
 feel, have, hear, let, make, need, see, and sometimes after observe, 
 zcatch, heeiJ, knoWy behold, mark, find, and ijerceive : as, \Ve see 
 the sun rise. 
 
 Explanation.— The infinitive rise omits its sign after the verb see. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — After the passive the .sign to must be used : as, The sun is seen io rise. 
 
 Obx. 2.— Some of these verbs are occasionally followed by to. Dare (when signifying 
 to challenge), bid (in the phrase bids fair), ful (intrans.), need (intrans.), and hare 
 (implying possession or obligation) are followed hyto: as, I dare thee to conttst the 
 prize. 
 
 Exercise 170. 
 Parse : — 
 1. My gentle Phoebe did bid me give you this. 2. The English vessels 
 saw their ]jrey pass by. 3. At first I heard every man say, "Let us hang 
 the priest." 4. I dare assure you, sir, 'tis almost two. 5. You can hear 
 him swing his heavy sledge. 6. Lot go thy hold when a great wheel runs 
 downhill. 7. I never knew one of them find fault with it. £ > The p-ood- 
 
SYNTAX. 175 
 
 natured girl let fall a teai' at this account. 9. I bid you spurn the gilded 
 bait they bear. 
 
 10. The bleak wind of IVIarch 
 
 Made her tremble and sshiver, 
 But not the dark arcli 
 
 Or the black flowing river. 
 
 361. Rule LXV. The infinitive mood is really a verbal 
 noun, and generally does the work of a noun : as, To die is the 
 lot of man. 
 
 Explanation.— The infinitive to die is a verbal noun, and forms the nominative to 
 the verb is. 
 
 Ohs. 1. - The infinitive mood may be (1) the subject, as. To smite the poor is treason 
 against God ; (2) the object, as, The sun begins to rise ; (8) qualified by an adjective, 
 as, To yluck flowers is delightful ; (4) in apposition, as, Ho loimd it iuconvenicnt to 
 he poor. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The particle to is really no part of the infinitive : its use has arisen from a 
 confusion of the real infinitive which ended in an and the gerundial infinitive which 
 enf'.ed in o/nne and had to prefixed. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The infinitive usually denotes the object after verbs expressing passions or 
 powers of the mind : as. Love, hate, loathe, vnsh, desire, learn, mean, intend, design, 
 purpose, propose, offer, expect, hope, fear, remember, forget, think, like, seek, resolve, delay, 
 cause, make, teach, and the like. 
 
 Exercise 171. 
 Parse : — 
 1. To measure life learn thou betimes. 2. The trees began to whisper 
 ar/J the wind began to roll. 3. To have an open ear, a quick eye, and a 
 nimble hand, is necessar}'- for a cut-purse. 4. It is noble to seek truth, 
 and it is beautiful to find it. 5. "lis a cruelty to load a falling man. 
 6. How hard it is to hide the sparks of nature. 7. It is not safe to play 
 with error and dress it up to ourselves or others in the shape of truth. 
 8. I thought to stand where banners waved. 
 
 9. To copy beauties forfeits all pretence to fame ; 
 
 To copy faults is want of sense. 
 10. To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, 
 To throw a perfume on the violet. 
 To smooth thu ice, or add another hue 
 Unto the rainbow, or with a taper light 
 To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, 
 Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. 
 
 Questions on §§ 358—361. 
 
 1. By what is the infinitive mood governed? 2. What is said of the sentence, "He 
 stood up for to read "? 3. Give an example of the infinitive of purpose. 4. What is 
 the infinitive absolute? 5. After what verbs is the sign of the infinitive omitted? 
 (5. What is the real function of the infinitive mood? 7. Show how the infinitive does 
 the work of a noun. 8. How has the use of to with the infinitive arisen ? 9. After 
 what verbs does the infinitive denote the object? 
 
 5. Participles. 
 
 362. Rule LXVI. All participles refer to nouns or pro- 
 nouns : as, Smiling faintly^ he pointed upward. 
 
 Explanation. — The participle smiling refers to the pronoun he, which it qualifies. 
 Obs. 1.— Participles are really verbal adjectives; they are often -used as simple 
 adjectives of quality, in which case they precede the noun : as, A loving parent. 
 
176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ■VVTien participles are used as simple adjectives they admit of degrees of coftiparisoli i 
 as, Loviiu!, more loving, most locin;]. '^ 
 
 OUr. 2.— Participles with the prefix v.n often become adjectives. If the verb has 
 the prefix, its jiarticiple retains its verbal character and does not necessarilj- become 
 an adjective. [Pnvsiiui, pp. V2\, 122.] ■ 
 
 Obs. 3. — A participle sometimes refers to a whole sentence : as, Owing to the 
 numerous failures that attended his efforts, his simit of enterprise was completely 
 crushed. 
 
 Obs. 4,— Tlie past or complete participle and not the past tense should be used after 
 the verbs hare and Im : as, He has hn ken (not hroke) the law ; The enemy was smitttn 
 (not smote). Generally, the jiast or complete participle must not be used for the past 
 t^jnse, nor the past tense for the past or complete participle. 
 
 Exercise 172. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Fanned by a fresh breeze, the blaze rose into the sky. '2. So, pur- 
 posing each moment to retire, she linger'd still. 3. Being apprised of our 
 approach, the whole neighbourhood came out to meet their minister, 
 dressed in tlieir fine clothes, and preceded by a pipe and tabor. 4. Birds 
 of calm sit brooding on the charmed wave. 5. Hope deferred maketh 
 the heart sick. G. A livintr doo' is better than a dead lion. 7. Thou art 
 unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight. 
 
 8. We wander o'er a sunburnt thirsty soil, j^.. 
 JNIurmuring and weary of our daily toil. 
 
 9. Waiting till the west-wind blows, 
 The freighted clouds at anchor lie. 
 
 10. Then came fair May, the fairest maid on ground, 
 Deck'd all with dainties of her season's pride, 
 And throwing flowers out of her lap around. 
 
 363. Rule LXVII- A present or incomplete participle is 
 sometimes used absolutely : as, Generally speaking, they live 
 very quietly. 
 
 Explanation.— The participle spealing is said to be used absolutely. This idiom 
 may be exi)lained by supplying an ellipsis : as [If we were] speaking generally, [we 
 would saj' that J they live very quietly. [Parsing, p. 134 ] 
 
 06s.— This is an adverbial use. 
 
 Exercise 173. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Generally speaking, this physician rises at five in the morning. 
 
 2. Considering by what means he gained his ends, he'must be condemned. 
 
 3. Seeing the straits to which he was pushed, it was natiiral for him to 
 invoke your aid. 4. Judging at random, there are threescore and ten kine 
 in the meadow. 5. Generally speaking, Godfrey excels his rivals. t5. 
 Speaking in round numbers, this happened three centuries ago. 
 
 364. Rule LXVIII. The present or incomplete and the 
 perfect participles of transitive verbs govern the objective 
 case : as, Clasping her hands, she prayed ; The wolves, having 
 rpgaincd their feet, sprang directly towards me. 
 
 Explanation.— The present or incomplete participle clasping povenis liamJn in iho 
 objective case : the perfect i)artieiplc having regained governs feet in the objective 
 case. 
 
SYNTAX. 177 
 
 Exercise 174. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Lamenting the barren superfluity of materials, I have studied to 
 compress the narrative of these uninteresting transactions. 2. Elated by 
 his recent success, he despatched a herald with a bold defiance to the 
 cami) of the Romans, requesting them to fix a, day of .battle. 3. Mani- 
 festoes were diligently circulated, exhorting the Persians to assert their 
 freedom against an odious and contemptible tyrant. 4. I shook each 
 tenderly by the hand, and leaving them my blessing, proceeded forward 
 without meeting any further interruption. 5. Having thus instructed 
 him, and settled the rest, I walked down to the common prison. 6. From 
 my study I see the lamplight descending the broad hall-stair. 
 
 7. Waving wide her myrtle wand. 
 
 She strikes a universal peace through sea and land. 
 
 8. Whispering pleasure as they fly, 
 
 Cool zephyrs, through the clear blue sky 
 
 Their gathered fragrance fling, / . ,] f^ |j . )^ mr^ / 
 
 9. We buried him darkly at dead of night, ' ^ M^ t- '^ ^ ^ 
 The sods with our bayonets turning. (j ^J , 
 
 'Twas vain ! t.hfi Irrnrl w^n.vps InsVipH f.hp shnrp ./«*«/! T^ 
 
 10. 'Twas vain ; the loud waves lashed the shore, ^^yV)! 
 Return or aid nrevftntino-. . r 
 
 Return or aid preventing 
 
 y- 
 
 Questions on §§ 362—364. 
 
 1. To what do participles refer? 2. What are participles really? 3. What is said 
 of participles with un prefixed? 4. Give an example in which a participle refers to 
 a sentence. 5. Which part of the verb is used after have and be ? 6. Give an instance 
 of a participle used absolutely. 7. Which participles govern an objective case ? 
 
 6. Verbal nouns in -ing. 
 
 365. Rule LXIX. When the verbal form in -%ng is pre- 
 ceded by ft??, «, or the, it is a verbal noun and is generally 
 followed by the preposition oj : as, It is the displaying of the 
 glory of learning in sovereignty that I propound to myself. 
 
 Explanation. —The verbal noun displayinrj is preceded by the and followed by of. 
 
 Obs. 1. — When an, a, or the does ,not precede the form in ing, of should not follow : 
 as, Accident pi-ovided the means of ending them. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The gerund in ing beiug really a noun may be used as the subject or object 
 of a verb : as, " 
 
 " Binding themselves by these terms was imprudent." 
 " She hated spending money." 
 
 Obs. 3. — The gerund in ing may also be governed by a preposition : as, " He lashed 
 his slender means to the utmost in educating him for a learned and distinguished 
 career " : " Nature ijays no heed to birth or condition in hfstoiuing her favours." 
 
 Obs. 4. — An action is exjiressed by a gerund without reference to the time of the 
 act or to the agent. 
 
 Obs. 5. —A gerund derived from a transitive verb may take an object : as, " I had 
 no opportunity for senng him ;" " I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that icord." 
 
 Obs. 6. — The preposition in, together with its older forms on and an, was often used 
 with the gerund in iyig : as, an hunting, on going, in telling. The shortened form a of 
 the preposition also occurs : e.g., "a coming home;" "burst out a crying ;" "fell a 
 weeping ;" " go a hunting." In many cases the a was omitted : as, The book is print- 
 ing. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Such forms as being loved, having heard, having been wounded, having been 
 reading, etc., are, when used as nouns, called Compound Gerunds. 
 
178 ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 175. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Once I remember carrying my own bread under my arm. 2. My 
 sensations were ever too violent to permit my attempting her rescue. 3. 
 By taking the current a little farther up, the rest of the family got safely 
 over, 4. Talking is not always to converse. 5. I did not consider the 
 impropriety of my being in such company till I saw a mob gather about 
 me. 6. I comforted myself with reflecting that London was the mart 
 where abilities of every kind were sure of meeting distinction and reward. 
 
 7. Captain Hardy congratulated him on having gained a complete victory. 
 
 8. Upon Mr. Thornhill's entering, he seemed, at seeing my son and me, to 
 start back. 9. Upon the bleeding of his wounds, he called unto him one 
 of his flatterers. 10. We rode over Castlewood Downs before' the breaking 
 of dav/n. 
 
 Questions on § 365. 
 
 1. "When an, a, or fJie precedes a verbal noun in inr/, what follows? 2. "^^^lat follows 
 tlie verbal form in inr/ if an, a, or the does not precede? 3. Give an example of the 
 gerund as subject. 4. Give an example of the genmd as ol)jcct. 5. Give an exaraplo 
 of the gerund governed by a preposition. 6. In what way is an action expressed by a 
 gerund? 7. When does a gerund take an object? 8. Which preposition was often 
 used with the gerund ? 9. What are compound gerunds ? 
 
 Place of the Verb. 
 
 N.B. — For rules as to the place of the finite verb, see §§ 301, 313. 
 
 366. Rule LXX. The infinitive mood and the gerund* 
 in ing have the pk\ce of a noun (see §§361, 365) : the participle 
 usually follows the noun to which it refers. 
 
 Obs, — When used as an adjective, the pai-ticiple takes the place of an adjective. 
 
 EXEKCISE 176. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Cassius hath a lean and hungry look, 2, Maidens still wear their 
 Norman caps. 3. One devious step at first may lead into a course of 
 habitual vice. 4. Icebergs are of various sizes. 5. Sir John Moore, while 
 earnestly watching the result of the fight, was struck on the left breast by 
 a cannon shot. 6. 'Tis one thing to be tempted, Escalus, another thing tp 
 
 fall. 
 
 Questions on § 366. ^/" 
 
 1, What is the place of the finite verb ? 2. What is the place of the infinitive mpod 
 and verbal noun ? 3. What is the place of the participle? 
 
 Chapter Y. — Syntax of the Adverb. 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 142—147.] 
 367. Rule LXXI. Adverl^s modify verbs, adjectives, and 
 other adverbs : as, lie acted wiseltj ; He is verij tall ] He spoke 
 most eloquently. 
 
 Explanation. — The adverb ?ci.w?,v modifies the verb acted ; the adverb vct'y modifies 
 the adjective tall ; and the adverb most modifies the adverb eloquentlii. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The adverbs yes, yea, ay, no, nay are used independently. Each of these 
 ■words is equivalent to a sentence. Amen (-so be it) is a similar kind of word. 
 
 * Or verbal noun. 
 
SYNTAX. 179 
 
 Obs. 2.— Adjectives ai-e sometimes used as adverbs in poetry: as, Slow sail'd the 
 weary mariners. This usas?e should be avoided in prose. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives : as, The then premier addressed 
 the House on the subject. The expression is elliptical for " The then (acting) 
 premier," etc. 
 
 Obs. 4. —Some adverbs and adjectives are alike in form : as, Hard, long, fair, loud, 
 etc. 
 
 Ohs. 5. — Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns : as, Now is the time. 
 
 Ohs. 6. — The adverbs hence, thence, and wlience should not be preceded by from, 
 because they already contain the meaning of motion from. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase or a whole sentence : as, lis aiTived 
 just at midnight ; Unfirtiinateh/, he thinks too highly of himself. 
 
 Ohs. 8. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, and therefore should not be 
 used when negation is intended. In Old English writers the negative is doubled or 
 even trebled for the pm-pose of adding emphasis : as. Nor never seek prevention of 
 thy foes, 
 
 Obs. 9. — "The termination bj was originally adjectival. At present it is a deriva- 
 tional syllable, by which we convert an adjective into an adverb. When, however, an 
 adjective ends in l>/ the formation is awkward. ' I eat my dail;/ bread ' is unexception- 
 able. ' I eat my bread dnilU') ' is exceptionable. One of two thinfrs niust here take 
 place : the two syllables li-l;// are j)acked into one, or else the construction is that of 
 an adjective deflected." — Latham. 
 
 Obs. 10.— In some imperative sentences the adverb seems to supjily the place of a 
 suppressed verb : as, Down with him. 
 
 Ohs. 11. — It is not strictly correct to use the adverbs of "rest in a place," here, there, 
 and where, instead of the adverbs of motion towards a place, hither, thither, whither. 
 
 tExEKCISE 177. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Where shall v/e sometimes meet? 2. He speaks like a man. 3. I 
 had almost forgotten hiin. 4. Command me absolutely not to go. 5. In- 
 stances of longevity are chiefly among the abstemious. 6. Act well yonr 
 part, there all the honour lies. 7. The storm bursts overhead. 8. Penn 
 dealt justly and kindly with the Indian^. 9. I missed him all day long, 
 and knew not till then how much I had loved him. 10. Smoothly, but 
 quickly, as an arrow's flight, he glides over, and is seen no more. 11. Now 
 my weary lips I close. 12. He had always loved books, and they were 
 now necessary to him. 13. Where is the mother that looked on my child- 
 hood ? 14. Whence come you? 15. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. 
 16. They strolled up and dov,ai the terrace walks, talking incessantly. 17. 
 She did not know him. 
 
 18. Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs 
 Upon the slimy sea. 
 
 19. Touch her not scornfully, 
 Think of her mournfully, 
 Gently and humanly. 
 20. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship. 
 Yet she sailed softly too : 
 Sweetly, sweetly blew the breeze, 
 On me a,lone it blew. 
 
 Place of the Adverl. 
 
 368. Rule LXXII. The adverb is generally placed as near 
 as possible to the word which it modifies. It usually precedes 
 an adjective or another adverb, and follows a verb : as, The 
 well is exceedingly deep ; He spake very harshly ; He wrote 
 
 V1^2 
 
180 ENGLISH GRAIktIMAR. 
 
 There are many exceptions to this rule : — 
 
 1. If a verb is transitive with an object following, the adverb follows 
 the object : as, The burning paper lighted it up. 
 
 2. The adverb is often placed between the last auxiliary and the verb : 
 as, You have always been a very good friend to me. 
 
 3. For emphasis the adverb may precede the verb : as, Blithely the gay 
 bells sound. 
 
 4. When the verb is a single word, the adverb not always follows and 
 the adverb never always precedes : as, Tell it not in Gath, publish it not 
 in the streets of Askelon ; He never denied it. 
 
 5. Enoiigh is placed after the adjective it modifies, and both adjective 
 and adverb after the noun : as, This is a ship large enough for our purpose. 
 Enough also follows the adverb it modifies : as, He acted vigorously 
 enough. 
 
 6. Interrogative adverbs stand first in the sentence : as. Where is he ? 
 
 7. The adverb may stand in any part of the sentence, but its meaning 
 usually varies with its position. Mistakes often occur in placing the words 
 even and only. The following examples show the different meanings of the 
 latter word : — 
 
 1. Ovly, the peacock displays his glittering plumage on the lower hills. Only is 
 equivaleut to hut, and is a conjunction : " We see few interesting sights here, only 
 (but) the peacock displays," etc. 
 
 2. The peacock -on ;^ (alone) displays his glittering plumage on the lower hills. No 
 other bird displays its plumage. 
 
 3. The peacock onf^-displays his glittering plumage on the lower hills. The peacock 
 does nothing else. 
 
 4. The peacock displays o/iJy-his-glittering plumage on the lower hills. The peacock 
 displays his glittering plumage and no other. 
 
 5. The peacock displays his glittering plumage-o?iZ^ on the lower hills. He displays 
 nothing else. 
 
 6. The peacock displays his glittering plumage twi^yon-the-lower-hilis. He displays 
 it nowhere else. 
 
 7. The peacock displays his glittering plumage on the <wi?y -lower-hills. The only 
 hills that are lower than some hills implied. 
 
 Exercise 178. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Then ceased the storm. 2. His hands were enormously large. 3. I 
 linger yet with nature. 4. Put not your trust in princes. 5. How came it 
 there ? 6. To thine own self be true, and it must follow, as the night the 
 day, thou canst not then be false to any man. 7. I cry out too late to save. 
 8. Duncan comes here to-night. 9. They were soon overtaken. 
 10. Merrily, merrily goes the bark 
 
 On a breeze from the northward free. 
 
 Questions on §§ 367, 368. 
 
 1. What do adverbs modify? 2. Name adverbs which are equivalent to sentences. 
 3. Give an example of an adjective used as an adverb. 4. Give an exanij le of an 
 adverb used as an adjective. 5. Mention some adjectives and adverbs which are alike 
 in form. 6. Give an example of an adverb used as a noun. 7. Give an example of an 
 adverb modifying a phrase or sentence. 8. What is the usual place of the adverb ? 
 0. What are the exceptions to this rule? 10. Show, by examples, the various mean- 
 ings of only. 
 
 Chapter VI.— Syntax of the Preposition. '' -^ 
 
 [Parsing f pp. 148 — 155.] 
 
 N.13. — Prepositions govern the objective case {§ 312) : as, I come yVom 
 haunts of coot and hern. The word governed by the preposition is often 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 181 
 
 omitted : as, He is not a pleasant man to deal loith ( = with whom) ; The 
 heavens above ( = above us). 
 
 369. Rule LXXIII The preposition is often joined to an 
 intransitive verb, to make what is called the preposition-verb : 
 as, He boasted of his descent. 
 
 Explanation.— The preposition of is joined to the intransitive verb boasted, and 
 forms with it the transitive preposition-verb boasted-of. [Parsing, pp. 09 — 148.] 
 
 Obs. — Prepositions are sometimes joined in this way to transitive verbs to vary the 
 meaning : as, To meet with, to pick up. 
 
 Exercise 179. 
 Parse : — 
 1. He spoke of the Queen of Scots. 2. He spake to a deaf audience. 
 3. He spoke of many strange places. 4. We despair even of life. 5. The 
 voyagers met with many disasters on the way. 6. The rustics wondered at 
 his agility. 7. We bitterly thought of the morrow. 8. The prince affected 
 to complain of the insincerity of the Greeks. 9. The king sided with the 
 bolder party. 10. The governor of the castle connived at his escape. 
 
 370. Rule LXXIV. Certain words and phrases must be 
 followed by appropriate prepositions : as, They expelled the 
 deserter from the ranks. 
 
 Explanation.— i^/om appropriately follows the verb expelled; no other preposition 
 would be suitable. 
 
 N.B. — The following is a list of words with appropriate prepositions :— • 
 
 Abhorrence of. 
 Abound in, imth. 
 Abridge of. 
 Accede to. 
 Accord with, tc. 
 Accuse of. 
 Acquiesce in. 
 Acquit of 
 Adapt to, for. 
 Adequate to. 
 Admonish of. 
 Affinity to, between. 
 Agree with, to. 
 Agreeable to. 
 Alienate yVom. 
 Alight />-o?w, by. 
 Ambitious of. 
 Antipathy to, againstk 
 Assent to. 
 Attend to, upon. 
 Averse to, from. 
 Awert from. 
 Bestow upon. 
 Blush afjfo". 
 Boast of 
 Call o??., for, 
 Capable of 
 
 Change for. 
 Clear of, from. 
 Compatible zcith. 
 Compliance with. 
 Confer on, upon, vnth. 
 Confide in, to. 
 Conformable to. 
 Congenial to. 
 C<mscious of 
 Consonant to, ivith. 
 Convenient to, for. 
 Conversant loith, in. 
 Convince of. 
 Correspond loith, to. 
 Deficient in. 
 Deficiency of. 
 Depend on, upon. 
 Deprive of. 
 Derogate yVow. 
 Derogatory to. 
 Desirous of. 
 Devolve on, upon. 
 Die of, by. 
 Differ nnth,from. 
 Difference ivith, between. 
 Difficulty in. 
 Diminution of 
 
182 
 
 EN'GLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Disappointed of. 
 
 Disapprove of. 
 
 Discouragement to. 
 
 Dissent /ro7?2. 
 
 Distinguished /rom, hy. 
 
 Eager in. 
 
 Enani(^ured of. 
 
 Endeared to. 
 
 Endowed wltli, hy. 
 
 Enjoin iLiton. 
 
 Exception to, from. 
 
 Exclusive of. 
 
 Expert at, in. 
 
 Fall under, from, upon, into, 
 
 in, etc. 
 Fawn on, upon. 
 Foreign to. 
 Free jrom. 
 Frown at, on. 
 Glad of. 
 
 Greedy after, of. 
 Grieve at. 
 Guilty of. 
 "Ignorant of. 
 Incapable of. 
 Inculcate upon. 
 Independent of. 
 Indifferent to. 
 Initiate into, in. 
 Inseparable from. 
 Insist upon. 
 Intent 07i, iqjon 
 Inured to. 
 Made of, for. 
 Marry to. 
 Martyr /or, to. 
 Militate aijainst. 
 INIistrustful of. 
 Need of. 
 
 Observance of. 
 
 Opposite to. 
 
 Overwhelmed tvlth, by. 
 
 Prejudice against. 
 
 Preju(Hcial to. 
 
 Profit by. 
 
 Proud of. 
 
 Provide /or, with, against. 
 
 Pursuance of. 
 
 Pursuant to. 
 
 Reconcile to. 
 
 Recreant to, from 
 
 Reduce to. 
 
 Reflect 071, upon. 
 
 Regard /o>', to. 
 
 Rejoice at, icith. 
 
 Relevant to. 
 
 Rely upon. 
 
 Remind of 
 
 Repine at. 
 
 Replete with. 
 
 Resemblance to. 
 
 Resolve on, upon. 
 
 Significant of. 
 
 Similar to. 
 
 Smile at, upon. 
 
 Swerve fro7n. 
 
 Sympathize ivith. 
 
 Taste of, for. 
 
 Think of, on. 
 
 Thirst /o?', after. 
 
 Triumph over. 
 
 True to, of 
 
 Trust in, to. 
 
 Versed in. 
 
 Wait on, at, for, in. 
 
 Want of. 
 
 Warn of. 
 
 Worth}' of 
 
 Ols. 1. — The preposition to or for is iised with verbs of motion before names of 
 places : as, (1) They marched to Rome ; (l') The archbishop and the prefect embarked 
 j'or Cyprus. 
 
 Oha. 2.— The jircposition ?/i is generally used with verbs of rest before the names of 
 countries, cities, und large towns, and the preposition at before the names of ^mall 
 towns, villages, and foreign cities : as, (1) My fiiend lives in London ; his brother is 
 at Vienna ; (2) The vine grows in France ; (3) Cotton is manufactured at Manchester. 
 
 Exercise 180. 
 
 Append suitable prepositions to these words : — 
 
 Regard, worthy, resolve, confer, avert, averse, < deficient, correspond, 
 triumph, accuse, devolve, dissent, differ, glad, bestow, warn, expert, profit, 
 sympathy, smile. 
 
SYNTAX. 183 
 
 Exercise 181. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. He was ignorant of letters. 2. The hero could not depend on the 
 faith of a tyrant. 3. He was beheaded at Nice. 4. He was deprived of 
 his only friend. 5. The fugitives of Palestine were entertained at 
 Alexandria. 6. I am not wortliy of the least of all these mercies. 7. 
 The insidious smile upon the cheek would warn him of the canker in the 
 heart. 8. The title of Lord Protector was bestowed on Cromwell. 9. 
 Do not acquiesce in every opinion. 10. If they had waited for him, their 
 troops would have deserted. 11. I have found a history that has ajreat 
 resemblance to hers. 12. She came to Paris. 13. When our visit was 
 ended, he called for his hat. 14. Many are desirous of testifying their 
 respect by attending. 15. The great beauty of both depends on the con- 
 trast between splendour and obscurity. 
 
 Place of the Preposition. 
 
 371. Rule LXXV. Prepositions stand before the words 
 they govern : as, We watched her breathing ihrough the night. 
 
 There are exceptions to this rule : — 
 
 1. The preposition never precedes the relative that : as, Behold the 
 stream that I told you of. 
 
 2. The preposit'.on is sometimes placed at the end of interrogative and 
 relative sentences : as. What ha,ve you been playing at? This is the horse 
 which I asked for. In relative sentences this usually occurs when the 
 relative is omitted : as, To have no screen between the part he played and 
 him ho played itybr. 
 
 3. In poetry the preposition may follow the governed word : as, 
 
 No war or battle's sound 
 Was heard the world around. 
 
 This also occurs when emphasis is required : as. Such conduct I am at a 
 loss to account /o?\ 
 
 4. In some cases two prepositions come together : as, 
 
 Prom before the lustre of her face, 
 White break the clouds away. 
 
 A noun may be supplied after the first preposition : as, From the place 
 before, etc. 
 
 Exercise 182. 
 Parse : — 
 
 1. On fickle wings the minutes haste. 2. A father bends o'er him with 
 looks of delight. 3. I steal by laM-ns and grassy plots. 4. The gorse is 
 yellow on the heath. 5. The tx-adesman that you were acquainted ^^•ith 
 has failed. 6. I have you fast in my fortress. 7. Echo walks steep hills 
 among. 8. With what a glory comes and goes the year ! 
 9. Thou wast a bubble once — a cup and ball 
 
 Which babes might play with. 
 10. Around their sovereign, on the verdant ground, 
 Sweet airy forms in mystic measures bound. 
 
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Questions on §§ 369—371. 
 
 1. How are preposition-verbs forrr,ed? 2. Mention words and phrases followed by 
 appropriate pi-epositions. 3. Which iireposition is used with verbs of motion before 
 names of places ? 4. Which prepositions are used with verbs of rest before names of 
 places ? 5. What is the place of the preposition ? 0. What are the exceptions to the 
 general rule, 
 
 Chapter VII. — Syntax of the Conjunction. 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 156 — 158,] 
 
 372. Rule LXXVI. Conjunctions generally join the same 
 cases of nouns and pronouns and the same moods and tenses 
 of verbs : as, He forsook his father and me ; He reads and 
 writes well. 
 
 Explanation. — Fathn- and me, which are joined by and, are both objective case: 
 reads and un-itcs, which are joined by and, are both indicative mood, present tense. 
 It must be carefully borne in mind that conjunctions join sentences ; hence the above 
 are elliptical . (1) He forsook his father and [he forsook] me ; (2) He reads [well] and 
 [he] writes well. 
 
 O'js.— Conjunctions do not always join the same moods and tenses of verbs : as, As 
 it u-as in the beginning, is now, and ever shaU he; He has gone away, but he shoidd 
 have remained here. 
 
 Exercise 183. 
 Parse : — 
 1, The wolves howled and whined. 2. Ill news is winged with fate and 
 flies apace. 3. Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend. 4. He was 
 a scholar and a good one. 5. Many were in tears, and many knelt before 
 him and blessed him as he passed. 6. Shame greatly hurts or greatly 
 helps mankind. ^ , , 
 
 7. He plied his work, and Lucy took ' ij 
 
 The lantern in her hand. ■ > "^ ' '.i 
 
 8. In vain doth valour bleed, '^ 
 While avarice and rapine share the land. 
 
 9. He looks to her and rushes on 
 Where life is lost or freedom won. 
 
 10. Here, in cool grot .and mossy cell, 
 We rural fays and fairies dwell. 
 
 373. Rule LXXVII. The conjunction than takes the same 
 case after it as before it : as, Peace hath her victories no less 
 renowned than War. 
 
 Explanation.— The noim IF«r after the conjunction t.han is nominative case, like 
 the noun Peace before it, the construction being "than War [hath its victories]." 
 
 Obs. — Than is said to govern the relative in the oV)jectivc. The construction than 
 whom has probably arisen from the Latin ablative after a comparative. W^e must 
 consider than to be a preposition in this case. 
 
 Exercise 184. 
 Parse : — 
 1. No person ever had a better knack of hoping than I. 2. My skill in 
 music availed me nothing in a country where every peasant was a better 
 musician than I. 3. They wrote faster than I. 4. The frigate-bird is 
 little more than wings ; he has scarcely any body. 5. I love you better 
 than he. 6. I love you better than liim. 
 
SYNTAX. 186 
 
 374. Rule LXXVIII. Some conjunctions have their corre- 
 sponding conjunctions : as, Thou shalt neither vex a stranger 
 nor oppress him. 
 
 Explanation. — The conjunction neither has its corresponding conjunction nor. 
 Obs. —Conjunctions of this kind are called correlative. For list see § 191. 
 
 Exercise 185. 
 Parse : — 
 1. Hesiod was either contemporary with Homer or lived immediately 
 after him. 2. He understands how to manage both public and private 
 concerns. 3. 'Tis neither here nor there. 4. Though her father be the 
 king of Naples, Duke of Anjou and Maine, yet is he poor. 5. I could 
 neither read nor write with satisfaction. 6. Whether is the lion or the 
 ox the stronger ? 7. As the lion reigns in Africa, so the tiger is lord and 
 master of the Indian jungles. 8. Though it does not seem to move, yet 
 it slowly forces its way down the valley till it reaches the sea. 
 9. The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark, 
 
 When neither is attended. 
 10. The Komans, in Rome's quarrel, 
 Spared neither land nor gold, 
 Nor son nor wife, nor limb nor life. 
 In the brave days of old. 
 
 Place of the Conjunction. 
 
 375. Rule LXXIX. Conjunctions stand between the sen- 
 tences which they join : as, The rain fell again and the wind 
 howled. 
 
 There are exceptions to this rule : — 
 
 1. When contraction occurs, the conjunction stands between one sentence 
 and the fragment of the other : as, John writes and reads. 
 
 2. The conjunction that sometimes stands first in a sentence : as, That 
 you have wronged me doth appear in this. 
 
 3. The conjunction that is sometimes omitted : aS; I wish [that] all men 
 did heartily believe so much of this as is true. 
 
 4. Neither, nor, and either, or, are placed next the words to which they 
 refer : as, There would be neither moon nor star. 
 
 Exercise 186. 
 Parse : — 
 1. The warders waved their caps and cheered, but the crowd looked on 
 impassively. 2. Our soldiers performed such feats as they are not able to 
 express. 3. The bay is wide, but dangerous from shoals. 4. He took her 
 soft hand ere her mother could bar. 5, Wrath is cruel and anger is out- 
 rageous, but who is able to stand before envy? 6. Be swift to hear, but 
 cautious of your tongue, lest you betray your ignorance. 7. To-morrow let 
 us do or die. 8. They also serve who only stand and wait.. ' ■ *_>? ^: 
 
 9. The cold sweat melted from their limbs, 
 
 Nor rot nor reck did they. ] / 
 
 10. Lives of great men all remind us >. Y^nJx- 
 
 We can make our lives sublime. 
 
18G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Questions on §§ 372—375. 
 
 1. What no conjunctions join? 2. Which case follows the conjunction than'i 8. 
 Explain the construction t/ian wlwm. 4. Give an example of a corresponding or 
 correlative conjunction. 5. What is tlie place of the conjunction ? 6. What are the 
 exceptions to tliis rule ? 
 
 Chapter YIII. — The Interjection. 
 
 [Parsi7}g, pp. 86, 159.] 
 376. Rule LXXX. Interjections are independent c£ syntax, 
 but certain interjections take after them the objective case of 
 the first personal pronoun and the nominative case of the 
 second personal pronoun : as, Ah me ! thou ! 
 
 Explanation.— ilfe, objective case of the first personal pronoun, follows the inter- 
 jection Ah! Thou, nominative case of the second, personal pronoun, follows the 
 interjection 0. Ah mx ! is elliptical, the full sense being "Ah, pity me," or "Ah 
 (alas) for me," or " Ah, what grief awaits me." 
 
 (};;<..— Interjections, being independent of syntax, may be introduced in any part of 
 a sentence. 
 
 Exercise 187. 
 
 Parse : — 
 1. Alas ! how little can be known. 2, Oh, that those lips had languaf^e ! 
 3. Oh ! take the wanderer home. 4. Alas ! how soon thy little course 
 will end. 5. My cheek is cold and white, alas ! 6. O brother, say not so ! 
 7. Ah me, how wearily pass the hour,-:. 8. 0, lift me from the grass ! 
 9. Lo, the lilies of the field ! 
 
 Kow their leaves instruction yield. 
 10. Ah, well-a-day ! what evil looks 
 Had I from old and young ! 
 
 Chapter IX. — Figures. 
 1. Figures of Syntax. 
 
 377. Tlie principal figures of syntax are Ellipsis, EnaUage, Hyperhaton, 
 Pleonasm, and Zeugma. 
 
 378. Ellipsis (Greek elleipsis, an omission) is the omission of some, 
 word or words in a sentence for the sake of brevity or elegance : as, Either 
 you or I must go = Either you [must go] or I must go. Words thus omitted 
 are said to be understood or implied. 
 
 379. Enallage (Greek enallage, change) is the use of one pai't of 
 speech for another : as. Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring. The 
 adjective deep is used for the adverb deeply. 
 
 380. Hyperbaton (Greek, transgression) is the transposition of woi'ds : 
 as, No haughty foat of arms I tell. 
 
 381. Pleonasm (Greek pleonasmos, fulness) is a redundancy of words : 
 
 as, 
 
 Now tell us what 'twas all about, 
 Young I'eterkin he cries. 
 
 382. Zeugma (Gx-eek, a joining) is that form by which a verb that 
 grammatically belongs to two or more nouns is, as to its meaning, apj^lic- 
 able only to one : as. They wear a garment like the Scythians, but a lan- 
 guage peculiar to themselves. This figure is extremely rare in English. 
 
SYNTAX. 187 
 
 2. Figures of Rhetoric. 
 
 883. The pinncipal figures of rhetoi-ic are Allrcjory, Antifliesh, Apo- 
 strophe, Climax, Hyperbole, Irony, Metaphor, Metonymy, Prosopopoeia, 
 Siviile, and Synecdoche. 
 
 384. Allegory (Greek aUegoria, from alios, other, and aqorend, I 
 speak) is a figure in which the primaiy object is described by means of a 
 secondary one to wliich it bears resemblance. It is a continuation of 
 metaphors. Under allegories are included parables ar\d fables. 
 
 385. Antithesis ((ireek, from an^i, against, and tithemi, I place) is a 
 figure by which words and ideas are contrasted : as, Wit laughs at things ; 
 humour laughs wdth them. 
 
 383. Apostrophe (Greek ajoo, from, strophe, a turning) is a figure by 
 which the speaker turns from the subject of discourse and addresses some 
 other person or thing : as, Then shall be brought to pass the saying that is 
 written, Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? 
 
 387. Climax (Greek klimax, a ladder) is a figure by which a subject 
 rises step by step from a lower to a higher interest : as, And the messenger 
 answered and said, Israel is fled before the Philistines, and there hath been 
 also a great slaughter among the people, and thy two sons also, Hophni 
 and Phinehas, are dead, and the ark of God is taken. 
 
 Anti-climax is a figure by which a subject descends step by step from 
 a higher to a lower interest : as. Die, and endow a college or a cat. 
 
 388. Hyperbole (Greek, excess) is a figure by which more is ex- 
 pressed than is literally true : as, I shall strike the stars with my crown. 
 
 389. Irony (Greek eh'onia, from eiron, a dissembler in speech) is a 
 figure by which a meaning is conveyed quite contrary to the literal mean- 
 ing of the words : as, And it came to pass at noon that Elijah mocked 
 them, and said, Cry aloud : for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is 
 pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be 
 waked. 
 
 390. Metaphor (Greek imetaphora, change) is a figure by which one 
 object is -designated by the name of another object to which it bears some 
 resemblance or analogy : as, the minister was the pillar of the state. It is 
 a simile without the sign of comparison lihe or as. 
 
 Ohs. — Tlie term metaphorical is often extended to figiu-ativc language in general. 
 
 391. Metonymy (Greek metdnumia, a change of name) is a figure 
 which puts the name of one thing for that of another Avhich is connected 
 with it, as (1) the cause for the effect, (2) the effect for the cause, (3) the 
 sign for the thing signified, (4) the container for the thing contained : as. 
 Now swarms the village o'er the joyful mead. 
 
 39^;. Prosopopoeia (Greek pi^^osdpon, a'person, and poieo, 1 make) or 
 Personification (Latin persona, a person, and _/ac/o, I make) is a figure by 
 means of w^hich inanimate objects and qualities are regarded as living 
 persons : as, . 
 
 "Winter, like a pilgi-im old, 
 Shakes his silver :ieard wilh cold. 
 
 393. Simile (Latin similis, like) is a figure by which we express a 
 comparison founded on resemblance : as. Charity, like the sun, brightens 
 every object on which it shines. It is always known b_y the sign lilce or as. 
 
 3c)4. Synecdoche (Greek suneJcdoche, a taking together) is a figure 
 by which the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole : as, He gets 
 his bread by his labour. 
 
 OZ-s.— Synecdoche is closely allied to metonymy. 
 
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 188. 
 
 Mention the figures of speech : — 
 1. Gray hairs should be respected. 2. A fleet of twenty sail left the 
 harbour. 3. In peace thou art the gale of spring ; in war, the mountain 
 storm. 4. They read Milton. 5. What a piece of work is man ! How 
 noble in reason ! How infinite in faculties ! In form and moving how 
 express and admirable ! In action, how like an angel ! In apprehension, 
 how like a god ! 6. They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger 
 than lions. 7. He waged more' wars than others had read ; conquered 
 more provinces than others had governed ; and had been trained up from 
 his youth to the art of war, not by the precepts of others, but by his own 
 commands ; not by miscaniages in the field, but by victories ; not by 
 campaigns, but triumphs. 8. It is highly criminal to bind a Roman 
 citizen ; to scourge him is enormous guilt ; to kill him is almost parricide ; 
 but by what name shall I designate the crucifying of him ? 9. The Roman 
 people hate private luxury, but love public grandeur. 10. He bought thirty 
 head of cattle. 11. Cicero should be read by all lovers of eloquence. 12. Xo 
 fair Penelopes enchant the eye. 13. The kettle boils. 14. Hannibal 
 killed forty thousand Romans at the battle of Cannse. 15. He drank the 
 frothing bowl. 
 
 16. There's a beauty for ever unchangingly bright, 
 Like the long sunny lapse of a summer day's light. 
 
 17. Many a night I saw the Pleiads, rising through the mellow shade, 
 Glitter like a swarm of fire-flies tangled in a silver braid. 
 
 18. The sky is changed ! — and such a change ! Oh, night, 
 And storm and darkness, ye are wondrous strong, 
 Yet lovely in your strength. 
 
 19. (Love took up the glass of Time and turned it in his glowdng hands ; 
 Every moment, lightly shaken, ran itself in golden sands. 
 Love took up the harp of Life, and smote on all the chords with 
 
 might ; 
 Smote the chord of Self, that, trembling, pass'd in music out of 
 
 '^/V^/^''^^' f^'^ 20. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
 
 fi^ Which, taken at the flood, leads on to Fortune ; 
 
 Omitted, all the voyage of their life C^l L^ 
 
 Q ^'U-; : ■ Is bound in shallows and in miseries. \^/KM ■ ' 
 
 •^ ' On such a full sea are we now afloat ; 
 
 ~ ^vyQ ^ And we must take the current when it serves, 
 
 y*^ "^ Or lose our ventures. 
 
 Questions on §§ 377—394. 
 
 1. Name the chief figures of syntax. 2. What is ellipsis ? 3. What is enallage ? 4. 
 What is hyperbaton ? 5. What is pleonasm ? (5. What is zeugma ? 7. Name the chief 
 figiires of rhetoric. 8. What is allegory? 9. What is antithesis ? 10. What is apostrophe ? 
 1]. What is climax? 1-J. What is anti-climax? l:?. What is hyperbole? 14. What 
 is irony ? \h. What is metaphor? 16. Wliat is metonymy V IT. What is prosopopoeia ? 
 18. What is a simile ? 19. What is synecdoche 'i 
 
 395. Specimen Parsing. 
 
 A. Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 
 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands : 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 189 
 
 But lie that filches from me my good name, 
 Eobs me of that which not enriches him, 
 And makes me poor indeed. 
 
 Who— 
 
 A relative pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 third person, agreeing with its antecedent " he" under. 
 
 stood, nominative case to the verb " steals " 
 An irregular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 
 present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing 
 
 with its nominative " who." 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 first person, possessive case, governed by the noun 
 
 " purse." 
 A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive verb 
 
 " steals." 
 An irregular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 
 present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing 
 
 with its nominative " he " understood. 
 A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive verb 
 
 "steals." 
 A pei'sonal pronoun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " is." 
 An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present 
 
 tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with its 
 
 nominative " it." 
 something — A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case after the verb "is." 
 A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case after the verb " is " understood. 
 
 [It is nothing.) 
 A personal pronoun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " was." 
 An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, past tense, 
 
 steals — 
 
 my- 
 
 purse- 
 
 steals — 
 
 trash — 
 
 it- 
 
 is 
 
 nothing 
 
 It- 
 
 was — 
 
 mme- 
 
 singular number, third person, 
 
 agreeing 
 
 it- 
 
 is- 
 
 his- 
 
 and — 
 
 has — 
 been — 
 
 with its 
 
 nominative " it." 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 first person, possessive case, governed by the noun 
 
 " purse " -understood. 
 A personal pronoun, neuter gender, singular number, tliird 
 
 person, nominative case to the verb " is." 
 An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present 
 
 tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with its 
 
 nominative "it." 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 third person, possessive case, governed by the noun 
 
 " purse " understood. 
 A copulative conjunction, joining the sentences " 'tis his " 
 
 and " it has been slave to thousands." 
 An auxiliary verb to "been," indicating perfect tense. 
 A past participle from the intransitive verb "to be," re« 
 
 f erring to "it" understood. 
 
190 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 has been — 
 
 slave — 
 
 to— 
 
 thousands— 
 
 Bu-t— 
 he— 
 that — 
 
 filches — • 
 
 from — 
 me — 
 
 my— 
 
 good — 
 name — 
 
 Robs — 
 
 me — 
 
 of— 
 
 that— 
 which — 
 
 not — 
 enriches — 
 
 him — 
 
 An ii'regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect 
 
 tense, singular number, tliird person, agreeing with its 
 
 nominative "it" understood. 
 A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, nominative case after the verb "has been." 
 A preposition, showing the relation betv/een "slave" and 
 
 *' thousands." 
 A common noun, neuter gender, plural number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition 
 
 "to." 
 A disjunctive conjunction, joining the sentences "he steals 
 
 trash" and "he robs me of that." 
 
 personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 third person, nominative case to the verb " robs." 
 
 relative pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 third person, 
 
 a^reemsf 
 
 with its antecedent "he," 
 
 nominative case to the verb " filches." 
 A regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 
 present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing 
 
 with its nominative "that." 
 A preposition, showing the relation between " filches " and 
 
 "me." 
 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 first person, objective case, governed by tlie preposition 
 "from." 
 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 first person, possessive case, governed by the noun 
 
 " name." 
 
 An adjective of quality, positive degree, qualifying the 
 
 noun " name." 
 
 A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive verb 
 "filches." 
 
 A regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing 
 with its nominative "he." 
 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 first person, objective case, governed by the transitive 
 verb " robs." 
 
 A preposition, showing the relation between " robs " and 
 " thing " understood. 
 
 A distinguishing adjective limiting the noun " thing " 
 vindf;rstood. 
 
 A relative pronoun, neuter gender, sing-ular number, third 
 person, agreeing with its antecedent " thing " under- 
 stood, nominative case to the verb "enriches." 
 
 An adverb of mood (negation), modifying the verb " en- 
 riches." 
 
 A regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing 
 with its nominative " which." 
 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 third person, objective case, governed by the transitive 
 verb "enriches." 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 191 
 
 And— 
 
 makes 
 me — 
 poor — 
 
 indeed — 
 
 B. I can 
 
 received by 
 
 I— 
 
 can — 
 
 show — 
 
 Or 
 
 X- 
 
 can — 
 show — 
 can show- 
 
 the— 
 
 scars- 
 
 Or 
 
 scars- 
 
 of- 
 
 those — 
 wounds- 
 
 which — 
 
 A copulative conjunction, joining the sentences " he robs 
 me of that" and "//e robs vie of that." (He robs me 
 of that which not enriches him, and he robs me of that 
 ichich makes me poor indeed.) 
 
 An irregular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing 
 with its nominative " v^'hich " understood, 
 
 A personal pi^onoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 first person, objective case, governed by tho transitive 
 verb " makes." 
 
 An adjective of quality, positive degree, qualifying the 
 pronoun " me " or the noun "man " understood. (Makes 
 me to be a poor 7nan. ) 
 
 An adverb of degree, modifying the adjective ' ' poor. 
 
 show the scars of those wounds which I have 
 facing the enemies of my country. 
 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 first person, nominative case to the verb "can." 
 An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, pi'esent 
 
 tense, singular number, first person, agreeing with its 
 
 nominative " I." 
 An irregular transitive verb, active voice, infinitive mood, 
 
 present tense, governed by the verb "can." 
 
 A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 first person, nominative case to the verb "can 
 
 show." 
 An auxiliary verb to "show," indicating potential 
 
 mood, present tense. 
 An irregular transitive verb, active voice, infinitive 
 
 mood, present tense, governed by "can." 
 An irregular transitive verb, active voice, potential 
 
 mood, present tense, singular number, first person, 
 
 acrreein^ with its nominative " I." 
 A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun "scars. 
 A common noun, neuter gender, plural number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive 
 
 verb "show." 
 
 A common noun, neuter gender, plural number, third 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive 
 verb " can show." 
 
 A preposition, showing the relation between " scars " 
 and " wounds." 
 
 A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun " wounds." 
 
 A common noun, neuter gender, plural number, third 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition 
 "of." 
 
 A relative pronoun, neuter gender, plural number, third 
 person, agreeing with its antecedent " wounds," ob- 
 jective case, governed by the transitive verb " have 
 received." 
 
192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I — A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 first person, nominative case to the verb " have ■ 
 
 received." 
 have — An auxiliary verb to "received," indicating perfect 
 
 tense, 
 received — A past participle from the transitive verb " to receive," 
 
 referring to " which." 
 have received — A regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, 
 
 perfect tense, singular number, first person, agreeing 
 
 with its nominative "I," 
 by — A preposition, showing the relation between " have 
 
 received" and "facing." 
 facing — A gerund from the transitive verb " to face," neuter 
 
 gender, sing-ular number, third person, objective case, 
 
 governed by the preposition "by." 
 the — A distinguishing adjective, limiting the noun " enemies." 
 
 enemies — A common noun, masculine gender, plural number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the transitive 
 
 gerund "facing." 
 of — A preposition, showing the relation between " enemies '' 
 
 and " country." 
 my — A personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 
 
 first person, possessive case, governed by the noun 
 
 " country." 
 country — A common noun, neuter gender, singular number, third 
 
 person, objective case, governed by the preposition 
 
 " of." 
 
 [Parsing, pp. 87 — 99.] 
 
 Exercise 189. 
 
 Miscellaneous Parsing Examples. 
 
 {Selected from Examination Papers. ) 
 
 ■ 1, But I should ill become this throne, O Peers, 
 And this imperial sov'reignty, adorn'd 
 With splendour, armed with power, if aught propos'd 
 And judg'd of public moment, in the shape 
 Of difl&culty or danger, could deter 
 Me from attempting. Wherefore do I assum 
 These royalties, and not refuse to reign, 
 Refusing to accept so great a share 
 Of hazard as of honour, due alike 
 To him who reigns, and so much to him due 
 Of hazard more, as he above the rest 
 High honour'd sits ? 
 
 2. When first thine eyes unveil, give thy soul leave 
 
 To do the like ; our bodies but forerun 
 The spirit's duty ; true hearts spread and heave 
 Unto their God, as flowers do to the sun. ) 
 
 3. There is none of you so mean and base i\M>(/vVAA/ ^ * 
 That hath not noble lustre in your eyes. \^(^ ^^i , 
 
 I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips '\ ' , rt Q^^r^ 
 
 Straining upon the start. -C*^ ' ' 
 
SYNTAX. 193 
 
 4. But some of Cicero's friends found means to give him early notice of 
 it, upon which he set forward presently, with his brother and nephew, 
 towards Astura, the nearest villa, which he had upon the sea, with the 
 intent to transport themselves directly out of the reach of their enemies. 
 But Quintus being wholly unprepared for so long a voyage, resolved to 
 turn back v»'ith his son to Rome, in confidence of lying concealed there till 
 they could provide money r.nd necessaries for their support abroad. 
 5. But thou 
 
 Revisit'st not these eyes, that roll in vain 
 To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn ; 
 So thick a drop serene hath quench'd their orbs, 
 Or dim suffusion veil'd. Yet, not the more 
 Cease I to wander where the Muses haunt 
 Clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill, 
 Smit with the love of sacred song ; but chief 
 Thee, Sion, and the flowery brooks beneath, 
 That wash'd thy hallo w'd feet, and warbling flow, 
 Nightly I visit. 
 G. Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more ; 
 Or close the wall up with our English dead ! 
 In peace, there's nothing so becomes a man a 
 
 As modest stillness and humility : ^' 
 
 But when the blast of war blows in our ears . ' -^li^y ^ 
 Then imitate the action of the tiger, / *" 
 
 Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood, '/ r 
 
 Disguise fair nature with hard-favour'd rage : y ^ 
 
 Then lend the eye a terrible aspect ; ^'' "' 
 
 Let it pry through the portage of the head , 
 
 Like the brass cannon ; let the brow o'erwhelm it, 
 As fearfully as doth a galled rock 
 O'erhang and jutty his confounded base, 
 Swill'd with the wild and wasteful Ocean, 
 Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide ; 
 Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit 
 To his full height ! on, on, you noblest English 
 Whose blood is fet-'" from fathers of war-proof. 
 
 7. Imagination in a poet is a faculty so wild and lawless, that it needs 
 to have some check put upon it, lest it outrun the judgment. The great 
 easiness of blank verse renders the poet too luxuriant ; he is tempted to 
 say many things which might better be omitted, or at^ J^ast shut up in 
 fewer words. But when the difficulty of artful rhyming is interposed, 
 where the poet confines his sense to his couplet, and must contrive that 
 sense into such words, that the rhyme shall naturally follow them, not 
 that the rhyme ; the fancy then gives leisure to the judgment to come in, 
 which, seeing so heavy a tax imposed, is ready to cut off all unnecessary 
 expenses. 
 
 8. There love and freedom we'll in peace enjoy. 
 
 No Spaniards will that colony destroy : 
 
 We to ourselves will all our wishes grant, 
 
 And nothing coveting can nothing want. 
 
 * Fetched. 
 
194 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 p^ 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 M 
 
 
 O 
 
 t-H 
 
 
 zn 
 
 P3 
 <1 
 
 
 HH 
 
 1 
 
 
 C/2 
 
 • 
 
 
 flH 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 bo 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 •J 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 • r-i 
 
 CC 
 
 
 +3 
 
 
 
 • H 
 
 C9 
 
 
 t:"« 
 
 O 
 
 
 n (4-^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 -t-> 
 o 
 
 «r 
 
 o 
 
 _ CJ o . 
 
 ,0 p. . r-( 03 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 ^-d 
 
 O) cr o 
 
 r] EC K yj ^ 
 
 g S S 3 a' 
 
 P ^ -*^ -^ -*-* '-^! 
 
 O ^ O Q) <D aj • 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 U3 
 
 C 
 
 +-> 
 
 -tJ 
 
 -+-I 
 
 -f^ 
 
 n 
 
 -e 
 
 
 t>. 
 
 >, 
 
 o 
 
 t>>>.t>S>i 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 r-i 
 
 
 o 
 
 ;= 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 (') 
 
 P> 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 73 
 
 O 
 
 o o o o 
 
 
 o 
 
 I-* 
 
 
 f 
 
 & 
 
 
 c 
 
 Sh 
 
 >-. 
 
 a 
 
 +J 
 
 o 
 
 »— 1 
 
 -) 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CJ 
 
 0) 
 
 ^-H 
 
 
 m 
 
 u 
 
 > 
 
 rt 
 
 t- 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 !^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1— 1 
 
 <+H 
 
 <fiwa 
 
 oooo 
 
 -^ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 P»:5 
 
 t> 
 
 o 
 
 bo 
 
 c 
 
 bO 
 
 n 
 
 -i^ 
 
 QQ 
 
 Q 
 
 :2; 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 c4 
 
 CI 
 
 ta 
 a 
 o 
 
 o5 
 
 (/3 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 C5 
 
 ^ <u o « 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 &a 
 
 
 c O 
 
 oooft. 
 
 •a 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 195 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 ;^ ^ ;-< 
 
 
 01 75 to • 
 
 S 3 c3 P 
 
 o 
 
 . O 
 
 H 
 
 O •>-< CD O O (D -r-f 
 
 •^ & -^ rd /2 rG fe 
 +i ''^ -tJ +J -|J -)_l '_^ , 
 
 £ .2 ^ .D ,0 ;0 
 
 'r;; 'd TIJ TJ TZJ 
 
 s o o o la 
 
 X ""* ^ ^ (-• 
 
 P" t< t- ;-. >-. 
 
 f <D <D O) 0) 
 
 c3 f> > > > 
 
 O O O 
 
 O M W- i C^ O HH 
 
 o o 
 
 a- 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 (^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ f^3 
 
 ;h ^ !h 
 o rt o 
 
 £3 1/3 a? aj • 
 
 S s a a 'H 
 
 pH +^ ^J 4-5 P^ 
 
 I* a> 03 o o o 
 -|J +3 +3 +J +J 
 _ >> >i >1 P-1 !>J 
 
 bo • 
 
 g 
 
 
 o 
 g 
 
 &4 
 
 
 o tJ -7:3 Ti 'd 
 
 tJ 
 
 
 p» O o o (U 
 
 y 
 
 
 m fl c c a 
 
 
 
 ?i ^ iH ^ ^- 
 
 fH 
 
 
 -3 o O O 0) 
 
 >; 
 
 
 -*^ t> t> > > 
 
 >• 
 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 :;aoo 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 M GQ m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o o o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O O o 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ;z; 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^ - ' 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 fcOfO-tf 
 
 
 Pk 
 
 .s-§ 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 <5 -S 
 
 
 < 
 
 3 
 
 
 1-:) 
 
 
 
 pq 
 
 
 
 (4 
 
 1 
 
 :4 
 
 u: fl ^ 
 
 
 
 l-(5^ 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 o 
 
 ? s s s 
 
 Dig 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 !z; 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 l-H 
 
 CD 
 O 
 
 ;o 
 
 
 4) 0) « 
 
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 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
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SYNTAX. 
 
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198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 B. Analysis of Sentences. 
 Chapter I. — Definitions. 
 
 397. A Sentence is a thought expressed in words. 
 
 OA.?.— A sentence, as to its form, may be Assertive, Interrogative, Imperative, Optative, 
 Exclamatory, or Conditional. 
 
 1. Assertive or Declarative :— 
 
 (a) Affirmative : as, I am writing. 
 (6) Negative : as, I am not writing. 
 
 2. Interrogative: as, Whither goest thou ? 
 
 3. Imperative : as, Call my men. 
 
 4. Optative : as, May you have health and long life 1 
 
 5. Exclamatory : as. How are the mighty fallen ! 
 
 6. Conditional : as, If he should grieve. 
 
 398. Sentences are of three kinds, Simple, Complex, and 
 Compound. 
 
 399. A Simple Sentence contains one subject and one 
 finite verb : as, The wind moans. 
 
 400. A Complex Sentence not only contains a principal 
 subject and its verb, but has other dependent or subordinate 
 sentences, which have subjects and verbs of their own : as, 
 
 I dreamed that, as I wandered by the way, 
 Bare winter suddenly was changed to spring. 
 
 401. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more 
 
 principal or independent sentences connected by a co-ordinative 
 
 conjunction : as, 
 
 A sensitive plant in a garden grew, 
 
 And the young winds fed it with silver dew. 
 
 402. To analyse a sentence is to take it to pieces in order 
 to show the parts of which it is made up. 
 
 Every sentence consists of two parts : — 
 
 1. Subject, which expresses the thing about whicli we 
 are speaking. 
 
 2. Predicate, which expresses that which is said about 
 
 the subject. 
 
 Siihjerf. Predicate. 
 
 Havens croak. 
 
 Exercise 190. 
 
 Attach a predicate to each of the following subjects :— 
 The heather, the fish, the wood, the bell, the ship, the sea, the spring, 
 the boy, the star, the angel, the snow, the river, the forest, the night, the 
 branches, the lion, the Thames, the sand, the reaper, the lamp, the door, 
 the fields, the blossom, the drum, the man, the eye, the wind, the king, 
 the glass, the leaves, the sun, the lance. 
 
synta:?^. 190 
 
 Exercise 191. 
 
 Put a subject before each of the following predicates : — 
 Swings, hangs, was heard, shakes, breaks, falls, rose, shone, awakes, 
 came, stood, decays, were laid, grasps, blows, bloom, moves, shouts, 
 blushes, speak, grow, crows, gaze, lives, sailed, open, smites, tremble, ring, 
 struck. 
 
 Exercise 192. 
 
 Divide each sentence into subject and predicate : — 
 1. She paused, 2. The hall was cleared. 3. He woke. 4. The bark 
 glides. 5. The dog barked. 6. The maid replied. 7. The war-pipes 
 ceased. 8. The boatman rows. 9. The lightning flashes. 10. Time 
 flies. 11. The doe awoke. 12. The blackbird warbled. 13. The fold 
 was guarded. 14. The shout was hushed. 15. Wolves howl. 16. The 
 lark carols. 17. The rose blooms. 18. The father called. 19. The bull 
 was slain. 20. The bows are bent. 
 
 Questions on §§ 397—402. 
 
 1. What is a sentence ? 2. What fonns may a sentence assume ? 3. What are the 
 three kinds of sentences ? 4. What is a simple sentence ? 5. What is a complex 
 sentence? 6. What is a compound sentence? 7. What is meant by analysing a 
 sentence? 8. Of what pai'ts does every sentence consist? 9. What is the subject? 
 10. What is the jjredicate ? 
 
 Chapter II.— The Subject. 
 1. Simple Subject. 
 
 403. Subjects are of two kinds, Slmjyle and Enlarged. 
 
 404. The Simple Subject is either a noun, or a word or 
 phrase equivalent to a noun, in the nominative case. Thus, it 
 may be : — 
 
 1. A noun : as. Flowers fade. 
 
 2. A pronoun : as. They wither. 
 
 3. An adjective used as a noun, or with a noun understood : as, The 
 hecmtifid wins admiration ; The rjood (men) die first. 
 
 4. \a) A verb in the infinitive mood : as, To err is human. 
 
 (6) An infinitive phrase : as, T'o loa^lc in the fields is pleasant. 
 
 5. (o) A verbal* noun or gerund : as, Reading is useful. 
 
 [h) A gerundialf phrase : as, Reading good books is useful, 
 (c) A participle with a noun understood : as, Around lay the dying 
 and the dead. 
 
 6. A quotation : as, " To arms /" resounded through the plain. 
 
 7. A sentence : as. That the crops will be large is evident. 
 
 Ofe.— Such a sentence is not simple, however, but complex. When the subject is a 
 sentence, that sentence is a noun sentence (§ 428). 
 
 405. The subject usually precedes the predicate. For ex- 
 ceptions, see § 301. 
 
 * Ov jpariidpial, t Ox particqnal. 
 
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 Exercise 193. 
 
 IMentlon each subject, and say of what it consists : — 
 3. The lands are bought. 2. The skipper had taken his little daughter 
 to bear him company. 3, This is a sorry sight. 4. The storm sweeps 
 over the land, .5. The ship glides over the stream. 6. They did their 
 work well. 7. She felt for Pelagia. 8. A charming prophetic trance 
 you've had ! 9. I led him to a lonely field. 10. To delay longer is un- 
 safe. 11. How are the mighty fallen ! 12. "Dust thou art, to dust 
 returnest," was not spoken of the soul. 13. A boat was on the shore. 
 14. The dew is on the grass. 15. Each did well in his degree. 16. That 
 bower and its music I never forget. 17. What constitutes a state? 18. 
 Roaming among the hills is pleasant. 19. Many are called. 20. The 
 sleepnig were suddenly aroused. 21. To dream of the past, is my fate. 
 22. They steal their way from stair to stair. 23. To yield to remedies 
 is half the cure. 24. Their sleep lasted for several hours. 25. I know 
 him by his bearing. 
 
 2. Enlarged Subject. 
 
 406. The simple subject is enlarged when it has one or 
 more qualifying words or phrases added to it. 
 
 407. The simple subject may be enlarged by : — 
 
 1. An adjective : as, The mother weeps ; The ivintry hedge was Vjlack. 
 
 2. A noun in apposition : as, Cicero, the orator, wrote many books ; It 
 is wise to he circunuiJect. 
 
 3. A noini or pronoun in the possessive case : as, Thnour^s front was 
 covered with a line of Indian elephants ; His designs were lost. 
 
 4. (a) An infinitive : as. The time to sj^eah was come. 
 
 (6) An infinitive phrase : as, A desire to excel in mnsic animated 
 -*^ him. 
 
 5. A prepositional phrase : as. The tidings of minfortune fly with a 
 rapid wing * * 
 
 6. (a) A participle : as. The sailor, diring, recovered the treasure. 
 
 (b) A participial phrase : as. The dog, seLbig the man hy the collar^ 
 dragged him out ; United icith the Pope, Frederic continued his 
 march ; Having wandered far, he sat down to rest. 
 
 7. A sentence : as, 
 
 ' The bieath vhofie might I have invoked in song 
 
 Descends on me. 
 
 N.B. — A sentence of this kind is called an adjective sentence (§ 430). 
 
 06,!. l.~An or a and ihc are, by some, treated not as enlargements but as parts of 
 the simple subject. 
 
 Ohf. 2.— When if precedes a verb as subject, and a phrase or sentence follows ex- 
 plaining (7, this ])hra.se or sentence is in apposition : as, It is wise to he circumspect — 
 It, viz., to be circumspect, is \visc. 
 
 Ohs. H, — It is sometimes said that an adverb may form an enlargement : as, Tlio 
 ca.stle htre is very old. This is equivalent to " The castle which is here is very old." 
 {Parsing, pp. 142, 143.] 
 
 408. The above methods of enlarging the subject may be 
 repeated or combined : as, 
 
 Dear, grnlh, paficuf, nottto Nell was dead. 
 
 Every ^ land of induMry has been developed with wonderful rapidity iu 
 the United States. 
 
SYNTAX. 201 
 
 No trees of any magnitude are to be seen. 
 
 Our neighbour's son, having ventured too near the river s edge, fell into 
 the stream. 
 
 Exercise 194. 
 
 Point out the enlargements of the subject, and say of what they 
 consist : — 
 
 1. Then was there heard a most celestial sound of dainty music. 2. 
 The gentleness of heaven is on the sea. 3. The rising moon lias hid the 
 stars. 4. The Garden of Gethsemane those aged olive trees are shading 
 vet. 5. Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-Pr^, 
 dwelt on his goodly acres. 6. The Genius, being moved with compassion 
 towards me, bid me quit so uncomfortable a prospect. 7. Tlip ^ rose of 
 England bloomed on ^ l qrtni(jie'a nheftlc. 8. Some men's tempers arc 
 ("[uickly weary of any one thing. 9. A fire, breaking out in the cellar, 
 consumed the whole house. 10. Feeling it chilly, I went below. 11. 
 Musing upon many things, I sought the woodlands wide. 12. 'Tis sweet 
 to see the evening star appear. 
 
 13. The sable mantle of the silent night 
 
 Shut from the world the ever-joysome light. 
 
 1 4. Rich fruitless war from wanton glory waged, 
 Is only splendid murder. 
 
 15. This ruthless tiger in her jungle raging, 
 Is dreadful to the shepherd and the flock. 
 
 Questions on §§ 403—408. 
 
 1. What is a simple subject ? 2. Of what kinds of words may a simple subject 
 consist? 3. What is the usual place of tne subject ? 4. When does the subject follow 
 the predicate (§301)? 5. How is the simple subject enlarged? 6. What kinds o( 
 words are used as enlargements? 7. Which adjectives are sometimes ti-eated as parts 
 of the simple subject? 8. Explain the construction of the sentence, " It 1b wise tu 
 be circumspect." 'J. Explain the sentence, " The castle ^c/-e is very old." 
 
 Chapter III. — The Predicate. 
 409. The Predicate consists of : — 
 
 1. A finite verb : as, Hope remains ; The king was slain ; the messenger 
 
 may have been deceived. 
 
 Obs. — &. finite verb is a verb which has number and person. Infinitives and parti- 
 ciples, therefore, cannot of themselves form a predicate. 
 
 2. The verb to be followed by : — 
 
 {a) An adjective : as, Food is necessary, 
 {b) A noun in the nominative case : as, Thou art the man. 
 (c) A pronoun in the nominative case : as, It is I. 
 {d) A gerundial* phrase : as, Procrastination is 2'>utting off from 
 time to time. 
 
 (e) An infinitive : as. To labour is to worship. 
 
 if) An adverb : as. The shepherd is here. 
 
 (g) A phrase : as, Goliath was of gigantic stature. 
 
 * Or particlj^'Ud. < 
 
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. Any copulative verb (§ 296, and Parsinrj, pp. G5, QQ) followed by : — 
 (a) An adjective : as, The brave man turned pah. 
 (6) A novui in the nominative case : as, Elizabeth became queen. 
 (c) A pronoun in the nominative case : as, He seenis himself a-gain. 
 {(l) A phrase : as, The matter was deemed of great importance. 
 
 Obs. 1.— Tlie verb to he cannot by itself form a predicate unless it means " to exist :' 
 as, God is, i.e., God exists. 
 
 Ohs. J. — The predicate denotes (1) what a person or thing is or becomes, (2) what 
 a perf.on or thing does, or (o) what is done to a person or tiling. 
 
 Ohx. 8. — When the predicate consists of the verb to he or other copulative verb 
 foUov.'cd hj some other word or words, the words following the verb are called, by 
 some, the Complement. Thus, in the sentence, "Mars is a planet," ///an«< is called 
 the complement. AVhen the predicate consists of the verb to be or otlier copulative 
 verb followed by a noun or pronoun, the noun or pronoun is called the Comple- 
 mentary Nominative, and, by some, the Nominettive Coniplefion. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Verbs which of themselves do not form a predicate but require some other 
 words to complete the sense are called Verbs of Incomplete Predication. Among these 
 are included certain intransitive verbs, as, feel, groic, taste, sraell, etc. : as. They feel 
 loarra. 
 
 Ohs. 5.— The verb to he and other copulative verbs often take a prepositional phrase 
 as part of the complementary nominative, the noun in such cases being understood : 
 as, (1) The field is of vast extent -Th.e field is [a field] of vast extent; (2) The man 
 remained of unsound ?ni/i,d=The man remained [a man] of unsound mind. 
 
 Exercise 195, 
 
 Mention the predicate, and say of what it consists : — 
 1. Her goodly armour seemed a garden green. 2. "Blessings are plentiful . 
 3. The door stood always open. 4. Our life is sliort 
 'tff^l^iMLiiP^ "UT- hin^imi ]if(; is scorninp; to reveii'je an injury 6. The doors 
 are open. 7. I am no pilot. 8. \Ve are of that sort ourselves. 9. Work 
 is of a religious nature. 10. His design had always been to land in the 
 Highlands. 11. The clouds were gathering. 12. Are you good men and 
 true? 13. The broken sheds look'd sad and strange. 11. The whole 
 army wa-s in a deplorable condition. 
 
 15. A man convinced against his will 
 Ic of the same opinion still. 
 
 Exercise 196. 
 
 Divide each sentence into subject and predicate : thus, 
 
 Si'.hject. Predicate. 
 
 The pleasant place is glad. 
 
 1. The mob recoiled. 2. Fierce cries arose. 3. The French appeared to 
 be resting. 4. She was of the blood royal of England. 5. The sky grew 
 black. 6. Death is bitter. 7. Life is sweet. 8. The dykes were frozen. 
 9. Tlie marriage was to pass quietly. 10. The weather was wild. 11. It 
 is a day of rain. 12. Glory built on selfish principles is shame and guilt. 
 13. Work is of a brave nature. 11. The moon is down. 15. To-day i« 
 ours. 
 
 410. The predicate is enlarged by any word or words stand- 
 ing in the objective or adverbial relation : as, The traveller 
 heard the shout ; The squire lives there. AYords in the objective 
 relation are said to complete the predicate, and words in the 
 adverbial relation are said to extend the predicate. 
 
SYNTAX. 203 
 
 Questions on §§ 409, 410. 
 
 1. Of what may the predicate consist ? 2. What is a finite verb ? 8. When can tho 
 verb to be form a predicate by itself. 4. What does the predicate denote ? 5. What 
 is the complement? 6. What is the complementary nominative or nominative com- 
 pletion ? 7. What are verbs of incomplete predication? 8. How is the predicate 
 enlarged ? 9. How is the predicate completed? 10. How is the predicate extended? 
 
 Chapter IV.— The Completion of the Predicate. 
 
 411. The predicate, when it consists of a transitive verb 
 active voice, is completed by expressing the word or ^yords 
 which are in the objective relation to the verb. Sometimes, 
 however, another term is required to be expressed before the 
 sense of the predicate is completed. 
 
 412. Hence there are two kinds of objects, the Direct Object 
 and the Indirect Object. 
 
 1. The Direct Object. 
 
 413. The Direct Object is either a noun, or a word or 
 phrase equivalent to a noun, in the objective case. Thus, it 
 may be : — 
 
 1. A noun : as, The bee forsakes the _/lower. 
 
 2. A pronoun : as, A soldier caught him. 
 
 3. An adjective used as a noun, or with a noun understood : as, The 
 poet loves the Beautiful ; We pity the poor [people]. 
 
 4. (a) A verb in the infinitive mood : as, He learns to lorlte. 
 
 [b) An infinitive phrase : as. The Commons promised to defend the 
 country. 
 
 5. (rt) A verbal* noun or gerund : as, He regretted speaJcing. 
 
 (6) A gerundialf phrase : as. We enjoy roaminc/ along the shore. 
 
 (c) A participle with a noun understood : as, The nurses cheer the 
 moaning [persons] ; They soothe the tortured [persons]. 
 
 6. A quotation : as, " Try not the pass .'" the old man said. 
 
 7. A sentence : as, He hath decreed that thou shoiddst cheat the malice 
 of the grave. 
 
 N.B. — A sentence of this kind is called a noun sentence (§ 428). 
 Obs. 1.— Those verbs (§ 307) which in the active voice take two objects, retain a 
 direct object in the passive voice : as, 
 
 Active : My father taught ra/i musk. 
 Passive : I was taught music by my father. 
 
 Obs. 2. —Many intransitive verbs take an object of kindred meaning called the 
 connate object : as, Ho lived a noble life. 
 
 Exercise 197. 
 
 Mention the direct object, and say of what it consists : — 
 1. Thou still hast feared me. 2. Pity left the field. 3. One cried, 
 " God bless us." 4. Caesar, I crave to have my cause deferred. 5. "To 
 
 - Or participial. t Or participial. 
 
204 ENGLISH GRA:.DrAPu 
 
 arms !" cried Mortimer. 6. I have loved thee, Ocean. 7. Virtue alone 
 outbuilds the pyramids. 8. He betrayed his benefactor. 9. Continual 
 dropping wears away stones. 10. The slightest alarm will betray them. 
 11. ^1 ijnt r_ th TnrndtMil- 12. They loved to hear my counsel. 13. He 
 practisei^^iSg"'a^s. 14. We admire the brave. L 
 
 15. Still achieving, still pursuing, jT^-^v/ 
 J, Learn to labour and to wait. *^ J 
 
 414. The direct object may be enlarged by : — 
 
 1. An adjective : as, I bring /?'€s/i showers. 
 
 2. A noun or pronoun in apposition : as, Crowds followed Peter the 
 Hermit ; I visited the stranger, him [whom Geoffrey mentioned]. 
 
 3. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case : as, He seized the boatman's 
 hand; Its weight resisted her strength. 
 
 4. (a) An infinitive : as. They saw a house to ht. 
 
 {h) An infinitive phrase : as, The queen indicated the course to he 
 imrsued by her ministers. 
 
 5. A prepositional phrase : as. He saw the fire of the midnight camp. 
 
 6. (a) A participle : as. We remembered him sfanding. 
 
 (b) A participial phrase ; as, My predecessor had made a seat oifer- 
 fthaded by a hedge of hawthorn and honey sacklc. 
 
 7. A sentence : as, She plucked the flowers lohich greio on the river's 
 brink. 
 
 N.B. — A sentence of this kind is called an adjective sentence (§ 430). 
 
 Obs. — An infinitive, a phrase, or sentence may be in apposition with it as object : as, 
 Thou think'st it much to tread the ooze of the salt deep. 
 
 415. The above methods of enlarging the object may be re- 
 peated or combined : as, 
 
 She obeys her grai'e parents' icise commands. 
 Eoxh scene of many colour''d Ife he drew. 
 Frecl'led nest eggs thou shalt see 
 Hatching in the haivthorn tree. 
 
 Exercise 198. 
 Mention the enlargements of the object, andl^ay of what each con- 
 sists : — 
 
 1. The lark now leaves his watery nest. 2. I had ^ most need oLbkiatiiag. 
 3. He doth bear a gold bow. 4. I never saw 'a fairer mortal. 5. Canst 
 thou find a way to measure out the wind ? 6. Open wide the mind's cage 
 door. 7. They could render no help. 8. Richardson kept his shop. 9. 
 VYbat moii£st_thfliigMa-^ha_aQlfiLileaiCli£a-l 10. I see a field to mow. 
 ll. Mark the quick kite, 12. The soldiers^ dropped the points of their 
 lances. 13. No stealth of time has thinned my flowing hair. 14. He 
 opened the door communicating with the prince's room. 
 
 15. The hunter, coming in to help his wearied hounds, 
 He desperately assails. 
 
 2. The Indirect Object. 
 
 416. The indirect object may be : — 
 
 1. Factitive, when it is used together with a direct object after 
 factitive verbs, or those which contain the idea of viaking by thought, 
 jvord, or deed (§§ 29G, 309 ; Parsing, p. 06) : as, I'll call thee llamkt. 
 
SYNTAX. 205 
 
 Qls^ 1.— An adjective l3 frequently used as an Indirect object after factitive verbs, 
 but in all such cases a noun (understood) may be supplied : as, Success made him bold 
 (man understood). 
 
 Obs. 2.— Some writers call the factitive object a complement and place it in the 
 predicate : as, 
 
 Subject. Predicate, Object. 
 
 i will call— Hamlet thee. 
 
 Ohs. 3.— In the passive voice factitive verbs become copulative : consequently the 
 noun or pronoun (or adjective with noun understood) which follows them, beiujc then 
 a complementary nominative and not an indirect object, forms part of the predicate. 
 In the first of the two following examples, " [to be] bold [man]" is an indirect object, 
 and in the second, it is a complementary nominative : — 
 
 Subject. Predicate Direct Object. Indirect Object. 
 
 1. Success made him bold [man]. 
 
 2. He was made bold [man]. 
 
 Obs. 4.— When the conjunction as has the force of to be, some writers regard it as 
 redundant, while others treat it as an appositive conjunction joining two words. The 
 best way, however, is to supply the ellipsis: as. They counted him as a prophet = 
 They counted him as [they counted] a prophet. 
 
 Obs. 5.— The preposition for is occasionally found with the sense of to be : as, They 
 counted him for a prophet. Some writers regard for as redundant. In analysing, 
 call " for a prophet " the indirect object. 
 
 ■\ 2. Infinitive, especially after transitive verbs denoting authority : as, 
 
 They induced him to leave the realm / The king required his subjects to 
 
 arm. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The infinitive may follow an intransitive verb, as. They appeared to agree : 
 or an adjective preceded by a copulative verb, as. He was anxious to learn. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Instead of the infinitive we sometimes find a participle with an ellipsis of 
 the infinitive to be : as, We saw women [to be] grinding corn ; I feel myself [to be] 
 forced to obev. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The verbs hear, feel, etc. (§ 360), take the infinitive as an indirect object, 
 the particle to being omitted : as, He made her [to] weej) ; I heard every man [to] 
 speak. . 
 
 Obs. 4.— When the infinitive denotes purpose, it is an extension and not an indirect 
 object : as, Working parties remained to bury the dead. 
 
 Obs. 5.— The name of Double or Compound Object is given by some writers to the 
 direct object and infinitive in such sentences as. We ordered him to leave. It re- 
 sembles the Latin construction of accusative with infinitive. 
 
 3. Dative or Personal, when it denotes the person [or thing] to 
 whom something is given or for whom something is done. The preposition 
 to or for is either expressed or understood : as, Give the cloak to me ; 
 Give [to] thy thoughts no tongue. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The verbs which take a dative or personal object are given in § 307. 
 Obs. 2.— The dative sometimes denotes advantage : as, Knock me at the gate = Knock 
 for me. ^ 
 
 4. Genitive, when it consists of a noun or pronoun governed by the 
 preposition of after :— 
 
 (1) Verb : as, They accused the stranger of theft. 
 
 (2) Adjective : as, He was guilty of great cruelty. 
 
 ' Obs. — The genitive object is found after verbs and adjectives which denote :— 
 ■ (1) Power : as. The pioneers were capable of great exertion. 
 
 (2) Impotency : as. Anger is incapable of self-restraint. 
 
 (3) Accusation : as, He is accused oj murder. 
 
 (4) Innocence : as, He is innocent of the crime. 
 
 (5) Condemnation : as, The thief was convicted of felony. 
 
 (6) Acquittal : as, His brother was acqviitted of fraAi/d.. 
 
 (7) Memory : as, This reminds us of our duty. 
 
 (8) Forgetfulness : as, The negro was unmindful of the kindness. 
 
 5. Object after Preposition-Verbs (§ 369) : as. They laughed at 
 he neios ; They complained of him; The physician despaired of his 
 
 'patient's life. 
 
206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — If the verb and preposition are taken together as a transitive verb, the 
 object following will be direct and not indirect. 
 
 Obs. 2. — We find this oliject after expressions equivalent to preposition-verbs. 
 Such expressions consist of the verb to be or other copulative verb followed by an 
 adjective : as, He is fond of learning. The adjectives which are used in this way are 
 either derived from verbs or denote some mental state. 
 
 N.B. — The indirect object is, by some, analysed as the complement. 
 
 Exercise 199. 
 
 Mention every object, and say whether it is direct or indirect : — 
 
 1. I heard the owl scream. 2, It will make us mad. 3. He lent me 
 counsel. 4. I lent him eyes. 6. The officers bade me accompany them 
 in their search. 6. It beckons you to go away with it. 7. In eight days 
 I'll make an old man of fourscore a child. 8. I saw her dash with rapid 
 wing. 9. Let my ear your music catch. 10. We find the apostle John 
 living in exile. 11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 12. I hear 
 the echoes through the mountains throng. 13. Hardy saw tlu-ee men 
 raising him up. 14. Williams owed his landlord no rent. 15. We gave 
 him a hearty welcome. 16. Let me bear the blame for ever. 17. Verus 
 abandoned the cares of empire to his wiser colleague. 18. Too much 
 sleep makes us dull. 
 
 19. I heard the trailing garments of the night 
 Sweep through her marble halls. 
 
 20. I see the lights of the village 
 Gleam through the rain and the mist. 
 
 Exercise 200. 
 
 Mention each indirect object : — 
 
 1. I will speak to thee. 2. Sir, I have heard of j'our misfortunes. 
 3. He was forced to temporise. 4. He seemed to sleep. 5. We are fully 
 acquainted with the tenets of Irenseus. 6. He is worthy of the trust. 
 7. The reader may judge for himself. 8. He directs the younger men to 
 be obedient to the elders. 9. He thought of the past. 10. We read of 
 the fleet's coming to Portsmouth. 11. You were guilty of robbery. 12. 
 He has met with his match. 13. I think of my own native land. 14, I've 
 heard of fea,rful winds. 15. A present \^'as given to him. 
 
 Questions on §§ 411—416. 
 
 1. When does a predicate require comi^letion ? 2. How many kinds of objects are 
 there? 3. What is the direct object? 4. Of what does the direct object consist? 
 5. Which verbs in the passive voice retain an object? 6. What is the cognate object? 
 7. How may the direct object be enlarged? S. Name the different kinds of indirect 
 objects. 0. What is the factitive object? 10. What is a factitive adjective ? 11. What 
 do factitive verbs become in the passive voice ? Vl. Explain the construction of the 
 sentences, '"Success made him bold" and "He was made bold." 13. Explain the 
 force of OS in the sentence, " They counted him as a prophet." 14. Give an example 
 in which the preposition for has the sense of to he. 15. What docs the infinitive 
 object follow? 1(). What sometimes takes the place of this infinitive? 17. After 
 which verbs is tlie sign of the infinitive omitted? IS. What is tlie infinitive of 
 purpose? 10. What is meant by tlie double or compound object? 20. Wliat is the 
 dative or personal object? 21. After which verbs is the dative object used? 22. What 
 is the genitive object ? 23. After what words is the genitive object foiuid ? 24. Give 
 examples of objects after preposition-verbs. 25. What expressions are equivalent to 
 prepositiou-verljs ? 26. How do some treat the indirect object in analysing ? 
 
I 
 
 SYNTAX. 207 
 
 Chapter V.— The Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 417. The predicate of a sentence may be extended or 
 modified by an adverb, or any word or words equivalent to an 
 adverb. Thus, it may be extended by : — 
 
 1. {a) An adverb : as, We live merrily ; The kitten is very playful. 
 
 (6) An adverbial phrase : as, We dug very steadily indeed, 
 
 2. An adjective : as, Come quick. 
 
 3. (a) A participle : as, He discourses sitting. 
 
 {h) A participial phrase : as, He sings sailing on the ivater. 
 
 4. [a) An infinitive : as, They rose to go. 
 
 (b) An infinitive phrase : as, I come to bury Ca'sar. 
 
 5. A prepositional phrase : as. We v-ith singing cheered the way. 
 
 6. A noun in the objective case : as, I bless thee all the livelong day. 
 
 7. A nominative absolute : as, The dim red morn had died, her journey 
 done. 
 
 8. A sentence : as, The quarrel is a very pretty quarrel as it stands. 
 
 N.B. — A sentence of this kind is called an adverbial sentence (§ 432). 
 
 OI)S. 1. — When the extension is a noun in the objective case, it is governed by some 
 preposition understood : as, I bless thee all the livelong du>/ -Ihiess thee duriiuj all 
 the livelong day. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The nominative absolute is equivalent to a sentence : as, The dim red morn 
 had died, her journey {being] do«e=The dim red morn had died, v;hen her journey was 
 done. 
 
 Obs. 3.— Many writers do not regard the adverb not as an extension, but as part of 
 a negative predicate : as. The dog is not of mountain breed. Here tliey put as 
 predicate, " is-not of -mountain-breed." 
 
 418. The above methods of extending the predicate may 
 be repeated or combined : as, 
 
 Around thejire, one wintry night, 
 
 The farmei-'s rosy children sat. 
 
 Here the old burgher would sit in perfect silence. 
 
 In those happy days a well-regulated family always rose with the. dawn. 
 
 His testy master goeth about to take him. 
 
 EXEKCISE 201. 
 
 Mention the extension, and say of what it consists : — 
 1. A gleam of hope flashed across her mind. 2. How long halt ye 
 between two opinions? 3. Why should we yet our sail unfurl? 4. Let 
 not the sun go down upon your wrath ! 5. In a moment, with the wind 
 cutting keenly at him sidewa3^s, he was staggering down to his boat. 
 6. Still clings she to thy side. 7. The violet still grows in tlie depths of 
 the valleys. 8. The nymphs in twilight shade of tangled thickets mourn. 
 9. I wander for my sin. 10. The day having dawned, everybody went 
 down to the beach. 11. Again he winds his bugle horn. 12. Now nought 
 v/as heard beneath the skies. 13. Next morning, being Friday the third 
 day of August, in the year 1492, Columbus set sail, a little before sunrise, 
 in presence of avast crowd of spectators. 14. To-day I fetched it from 
 the rock. 
 
 1 5. From the cool cistern of the midnight air 
 My spirit drank repose, 
 
208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 419. All wor«ls and phrases which show when, where, 
 how or why an action is performed, are extensions of the 
 predicate. Extensions are accordingly classified as extensions 
 of (1) Time, (2) Place, (3) Manner, and (4) Cause. 
 
 420. Extensions of Time denote :— 
 
 1. Point or Period of Time {when?) : as, The dews shall weep thy fall 
 to-72ifjht. 
 
 2. 'Duration of Time {hoio long ?) : as, There for two lolnier days he 
 was left without food. 
 
 3. Repetition of Time (Iiov: often ?) : as. Often have I stood to hear it 
 sing. 
 
 Exercise 202, 
 
 Mention each extension of time : — 
 1. How soon doth man decay ! 2, In such a night did Thisbe fearfully 
 o'ertrip the dew. 3. I waited some time. 4. Waters on a starry night 
 are beautiful and fair. 5, In a few moments he was there. 6. I v.-ill not 
 leave you this night. 7. At an early hour next morning the Bishop 
 arrived. 8. For three nights the Colonel had not been in bed. 9. He 
 was shot down at the instant. 10. In his early years he had occasionally 
 seen the great. 11. One morning in the month of May I wandered o'er 
 the hill. 12. I feel his absence in the hours of prayer. 13. I for a 
 moment thought the famous hill removed. 14. Upon the north at mid- 
 night hour a mighty noise was heard. 
 
 15, Ten years ago, ten years ago, 
 Life was to us a fairy scene. 
 
 421. Extensions of Place denote :— 
 
 1. Rest in a Place {where ?) : as, Here will we sit. 
 
 2. Motion to a Place {ivhither ?) : as. Thither the rainbow comes. 
 
 3. Motion from a Place {whence ?) : as, The royal barges came do%vn the 
 Tham es from Hichm on d. 
 
 Exercise 203. 
 
 Mention each extension of place : — ■ 
 1. Thou sitt'st at home safe by thy quiet fire. 2. The heavenly dew 
 was on his garments spread. 3. Who lies in the second chamber ? 4. You 
 came across the sea. 5. Were you in Asia ? 6. At my feet the city 
 slumbered. 7. Wine comes from France. 8. She came into the drawing- 
 room in a great tremoiu'. 9. He ran to the cui-ate's house in Kensington. 
 ]0. Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea. 11. The ministers of 
 death were despatched to Chalcedon. 1 2. They dr.agged the emperor from 
 his sanctuar}'. 
 
 , 13. And round about him man}- a pi'etty page 
 
 \ Attended duly, ready to obey. Ji r>\) C ■ L ^ 
 
 14. Under a spreading chestnut treaJ>7C L\>^/»Vb«A>t ' 
 The village smithy stands. 
 
 422. Extensions of Manner denote -.— 
 
 1. Manner simply {how '!) : as, The air bites shrewdhj. 
 
 2. Degree {how much /) : as, All the maritime schemes of France were 
 totally frustrated. 
 
SYiNTAX. 200 
 
 3. Measure {of loliat vimsure, ?) : as, The pillar is three feci round, 
 
 4. Agent (/>// ivhom ?) : as, Sir John Moore had been carried to the 
 town bi/ a j^ctrii/ of so'diers, 
 
 5. Instrument {icifh ichat?) : as, Richard I. was wounded hi/ an arroio. 
 G. Means [throunh vlicd ?) : as. He grew rich by iudmfrij. 
 
 7. Accompanying circumstances {along with v:hom ? or, along icith 
 ichcit ?) : as, He landed u'lth a naked sword in his hand. 
 
 Obs. — There ara also extensions of ordfr and number, and of mr,od, including afjiima- 
 tion, n''!7atlO'i.a.nd prohcMUfi/ ov doubt. These extensions are closely allied to exteu- 
 siou3 oif manner. 
 
 Exercise 204. 
 
 Mention the extensions of manner : — 
 1. Hours had passed away like minutes. 2. He had seen the matter in 
 a wrong light yesterday. 3. Earth fills her lap with pleasure of her own. 
 4. This hai-angue was uttered Avith rapid gesticulations. 5. In silence I 
 grieve. 6, The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the folds. 7. My 
 heart beat? fast. 8. I like him very much, 9. We have been loitering 
 pleasantly. 10. He knows well the evening star. 11. With nimble glide 
 the 3katers pkay. 12. One of the Frenchmen, attempting to make his 
 escape down the rigging, was shot by Mr. Pollard, 13. Sir John Moore 
 was struck on the left breast by a cannon shot. 14. They rowed towards 
 the island with their colours displayed. 
 
 423. Extensions of Cause denote :— 
 
 1. Reason {lohy?) : as, The man died of grief ; He snSeved from fatigue. 
 
 2. Purpose {for ivhat jiurpose ?) : as, Man's hands were formed for 
 honest labour ; He came to settle the dispute. 
 
 3. Motive {with what motive ?) : a,s, The knight-errant fought /or glory. 
 
 4. Condition {on what condition, T) : as, With care he will recover. 
 
 5. Material {of what material?) : as, Linen is made of fax. 
 
 6. Concession or Adversativeucss {notwithstanding ivhat ? or, in sjnte oj 
 ichat ?) : as, In spite of all his efforts he failed. 
 
 7. Source {from what source .?) : as, I learnt history /rom Hume. 
 
 Exercise 205. 
 
 Mention the extensions of cause : — ■ 
 1. We weep to see you haste away so soon. 2. The barbarians shouted 
 ■\vith delight. 3. Man was not formed to live alone. 4. The screen leaves 
 quiver with the cooling wind. 5. My heart fluttered with impatience. 
 a. My wings are feathered for a lowly flight. 7. I will do penance for 
 offending thee. 8. I come to bring you news. 9. She loved me for myself 
 alone. 10. The natives came daily into the town to sell their goods. 11. 
 Let us not act from fear. 12. Studies serve for delight. 13. Read not to 
 contradict. 14. Notwithstanding all their efforts, the boat sank. 15. 
 With application, he will become a ripe scholar. 
 
 N.B. — In analysis, the minute subdivisions of the extensions may 
 generally be disregarded. 
 
 Questions on §§ 417 — 423. 
 
 1. How may the predicfitc be extended ? 2. Name the kinds of words and phrases 
 which may form the extension. 3. Wlieu the extension is a noun in the objective 
 case, how is it governed? 4. To what is the nominative absohite equivalent? 5. How 
 is the adverb not treated in analysis ? 0. How are extensions classified as to their 
 
 14 
 
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 meaniHg? 7. What do extensions of timo de'iote? 8. What do extensions of place 
 denute ? 9. What do extensions of mannei* denote ? 10. What do extensions of cause 
 denote ? 
 
 Rules for Analysis. 
 
 424. The following rules will help the student to analyse 
 
 simple sentences :— 
 
 ^ 1. Find the finite verb and set it down as the predicate. 
 
 "1, Find the nominative case to this verb and set it down as the subject. 
 o. With the subject set down all the words "which qualify it. 
 ■1. If the pxedicate be a transitive verb, look for its object. 
 o. See whether there be any indirect object. 
 
 6. With the object set down all words which qualify it. 
 
 7. Find the words expressing the time, place, manner, or cause of the 
 action, and set them down as extensions. 
 
 8. Do not mistake a participle or infinitive mood for a predicate. A 
 participle is really an adjective, an infinitive mood a noun. 
 
 0, Remember that the verb to be cannot by itself form a predicate 
 unless it means to exist, 
 
 10. In analysis, disregard : — 
 
 (1) Interjections ) (because they stand, as it were, out 
 
 (2) Nominatives of address j (^ of the sentence. 
 
 Some writers also propose to throw out as redundant : — 
 
 (1) As, when it is appositive (§ 410, 1, Obs. 4). 
 (■J) For, when it means to be (§ 41(5, 1, Obs. [>). 
 
 (3) There, when it is an expletive adverb: as, "There is a land." It may be 
 treated as forming part of the predicate. 
 
 (4) II, when it takes the place of the real subject or object of a verb (§ 407, Obs. 2 ; 
 Hl-i, Obs ). 
 
 bume writers b-eat not as part of the predicate, and do not regard o::i, a. and the as 
 enlargements. / 
 
 11. Observe carefully the various uses of the infinitive. It may be : — 
 
 (1) Subject : as, To die is the lot of man. 
 
 (2) Enlargement of subject : as, The moment to stfikc had come ; 
 'Tis sweet to linger here. 
 
 (3) Part of predicate : as, To desire other men's goods is to cocef, 
 
 (4) Direct object : as, He loves to dance. 
 
 (5) Enlargement of object : as. We saw a field to sell ; He thought 
 it easy to win the prize, 
 
 (6) Indirect object : as, We heard the lions roar. 
 
 (7) Extension of cause (purpose) : as, He came to diceU in the town. 
 
 12. Observe carefully the various uses of the prepositional phrase. 
 When it is equivalent to an adjective, it may qualify a noun in any part 
 of the sentence ; when it is equivalent to an adverb, it may modify a verb, 
 adjective, or adverb in any part of the sentence. Hence it may he : — 
 
 (1) Enlargement of the subject : as, A sound of music touched mice 
 ears. 
 
 (2) Part of the predicate : as, He is cfa da^perate character (§ 400, 
 0/m-. 5). 
 
 (3) Enlargement of complementary nominative : as, This river is a 
 stream of great (fcpth. 
 
 (i) Enlaigemcnt of direct object : as, The most valiant of the 
 Persian army had almost enclosed the small forces of the {jireckn. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 211 
 
 (5) Indirect object : as, They accused Caesar of ambition. 
 
 (6) Enlargement of indirect object: as, They crowned him king of 
 fairij-lancL 
 
 (7) Extension of predicate : as, One cruse of water on his back he 
 bore. 
 
 13. It is often convenient, in analysis, to treat words joined by a pure 
 conjunction as a simple expression : e.g., Sloidy and sadly we laid him 
 down. Here Sloidy and .<iadly may be called a compound extension of 
 manner. The full construction, however, is : Slowly [we laid him down] 
 and sadly we laid him down. 
 
 425. Examples of Analysis. 
 
 1. For thee a feast the schoolboy strews at eventide. 
 
 What favouring dream bids you to happier hours awake ? 
 With her dart the flying deer she wounds. 
 4. In that hour of deep contrition, 
 He beheld with clearer vision, 
 Through all outward show and fashion, 
 Justice, the avenger, rise. 
 
 1. Tabular Analysis. 
 
 3. 
 
 
 Subjfct. 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Chject. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 1. 
 
 The schoolboy 
 
 strews 
 
 a feast {Dir. Obj.) 
 for thee {Indir. Obj.) 
 
 at evcutido 
 (Time}.* 
 
 fc) 
 
 What favouring 
 dream 
 
 bids 
 
 you (Dir. Obj.) 
 [to] awake to happier hours 
 {ladlr. Obj.) 
 
 
 3. 
 
 She 
 
 wounds 
 
 the flying deer 
 
 with her dart 
 {Instruvient). 
 
 4, 
 
 He 
 
 beheld 
 
 Justice, the aveuger, (Dir. 
 Ohj.) 
 [to] rise (IiuUr. Obj.) 
 
 in that hour of deep 
 
 contrition (Time) 
 with clearer vision 
 
 (Manner) 
 through all outward 
 
 show and fashion 
 
 (Place). 
 
 1. For thee 
 a 
 
 feast 
 the 
 
 schoolboy 
 strews 
 at eventide. 
 
 2. Detailed Analysis. 
 
 Indirect object. 
 
 Enlargement of direct object. 
 
 Direct object. 
 
 Enlargement of subject. 
 
 Subject, 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Extension {Tljne). 
 
 * The student need not necessarily insert the kind of extension, but it is often 
 useful to do so. 
 
 14—2 
 
212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 2. What Enlargement of subject, 
 favouring Enlargement of subject. 
 dream Subject. 
 
 bids Predicate. 
 
 you Direct object. 
 
 [to] awake Indirect object, 
 
 to happier hours? Enlargement of indirect object. 
 
 3. With her dart Extension [In.^trumtnl). 
 the Enlargement of object, 
 flying Enlargement of object, 
 deer , Object. 
 
 she Subject, 
 
 wounds. Predicate. 
 
 4. In that hour of deep contrition Extension {Time), 
 He Subject. 
 
 beheld Predicate. 
 
 with clearer vision Extension {3Ianiie)'). 
 
 Through all outward show and 1 -r, , . i rn „\ 
 r 1 • Y Extension [Flace). 
 
 fashion j ^ 
 
 Justice Direct object. 
 
 the avenger Enlargement of direct object. 
 
 [to] rise. Indirect object. 
 
 EXEECISE 206. 
 
 Analyse the following sentences : — 
 1. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. -2. But yesterday, 
 the word of Csesar jnight have stood against the world. 3. I love to stand 
 by the foaming surge of ocean. 4. He perhaps reads of a shipwreck on the 
 coast of Bohemia. 5. I waited for the train at Coventry. 6, He sat pon- 
 dering over the strange chances of the ds^y. 7. Peace ! Peace ! Orestes -like 
 I breathe this prayer. 8. To put the power of sovereign rule into the 
 good man's hand, is giving peace and happiness to millions. 9. We were 
 immediately conducted into the little chapel on the right hand. 10. 
 Having often received an invitation from my friend Sir Roger de Coverley 
 to pass away a month with him in the countr}', I last week accompanied 
 him thither. 11. Here on timber leg the lame soldier hops painfully along, 
 begging alms. 12. He went on speaking with great animation of gesture. 
 
 13. Far in the northern land, 
 By the wild Baltic strand, 
 -I, with my childish hand, 
 Tamed the ger-falcon. 
 
 14. Oft did the cliffs reverberate the sound 
 
 Of parted fragments tumbling from on lii^Ji. 
 
 15. In such a night 
 
 Stood Dido, with a willow in her hand, 
 Upon the wild sea-banks. 
 
 CiiAPTEii \l. — Tjie Complex Sentence, 
 
 426. There are three kinds of subordinate sentences, the 
 Noun Sentence^ the Adjective Sentence, and the Adverhial Sentence. 
 
 427. The connecting words are either conjunctions or rela- 
 tive pronouns. 
 
SYNTAX. 213 
 
 1. The Noun Sentence. 
 
 428. A Noun Sentence is one that stands in the place of 
 a noun. Thus, it may be : — • 
 
 1. Subject of a sentence : as, That you have lost your way is evident. 
 
 2. Part of the predicate, formino- the complementary nominative : as, 
 His complaint was that you deceived him. 
 
 3. Direct object after : — 
 
 (a) Transitive verb, active voice : as, He said tliat he could do it. 
 [h) Transitive verb, passive voice : as, I was taught that learning 
 is good. 
 
 4. Indirect object : as, We are desirous that you shoidd succeed = 'We 
 are desirous of your success. 
 
 5. In apposition with : — 
 
 (a) A noun : as. The fact that he ivas loifh them is well known. 
 
 {b) The pronoun it: as, It is strange that you shotild think so = It, 
 
 viz., that you shoidd think so, is strange. 
 
 Ohs,— A noun sentence may be \;sed in place of the double object after factitive 
 verbs : thus, I beUeve that he in iniiocent — I believe him to be innocent. 
 
 429. The Connectives of the Noun Sentence are :— 
 
 1. That : as, I am convinced that he vnll go. 
 
 2. But that : as, There is no doubt hut that he is a traitor. 
 
 3. Interrogative pronouns, who, which, what, lohether, ivhoever, what' 
 ever: as, Dhat caused the tumult remains a mystery; I know ivho you 
 are. 
 
 4. Other interrogative words, when, how, ivhy, where, wherefore, etc. : 
 as, Some asked me ivhere the rubies grew. 
 
 Obs. ]. — The conjunction that is frequently omitted ; and when the sentence is a 
 direct quotation no connective is required : as, I know he will stay^l know (that) he 
 will stay ; He said, " Tliou art the man." 
 
 Obs. 2. — The principal sentence is sometimes put parenthetically, and the conjunc- 
 tion is then omitted : as, His son, it may be, dreads no harm = ii may be [that] his son 
 dr-ads no harm. Some writers would analyse the parenthetical sentence separately, 
 without refererice to the other sentence, which they treat as the principal one. 
 
 Obs. 3.— A noun sentence may be tested by substituting for it tlie word something. 
 
 Exercise 207. 
 Mention the noun sentences : — 
 1. I am afraid they have awaked. 2. I can see whose power condemns 
 me. 3. The ti-uth is I have loved this lady long. 4. He asked again 
 whether supper would be ready soon. 6. The prince cannot say to the 
 merchant, " I have no need of thee." 6. It is to the genius of one man 
 that all this is mainly owing. 7. It was hoped that about noon the rain 
 would slacken. 8. Volumes have been written on the long-disputed point 
 whether the mental powers of women be equal to those of men. 9. They 
 well knew how they could deliver themselves. 10. Let them say what 
 they will, she will do what she list. 11. The design, it seems, is to avoid 
 the dreadful imputation of pedantry. 12. Little white Lily said, " It is 
 good." 13. I wonder how our princely father 'scaped. 
 
 14. I tell thee, lady, this aspect of mine 
 Hath feared the valiant. 
 
 15. What you can make her do 
 
 I am content to look on ; what to speak, 
 I am content to hear. 
 
2U ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Questions on §§ 426—429. 
 
 1. "What are tho three kinds of subordinate sentences? 2. What classes of words 
 are used as connectives? 3. What is a noun sentence? 4. In which parts of the 
 principal sentence may a noun sentence stand? 5. What are the connectives of the 
 nouu sentence ? 0. Wlieu is no connective found with the noun sentence ? 7. How 
 are parenthetical sentences treated? 8. By what test may a noun sentence be 
 known ? 
 
 2. The Adjective Sentence. 
 
 430. An Adjective Sentence is one that stands in the 
 place of an adjective. It may qualify a noun or any of its 
 equivalents in any part of the principal sentence. Thus we 
 find an adjective sentence attached to : — 
 
 1. The subject : as, The person lolio grieves, suffers his passion to grow 
 upon him. 
 
 2. An enlargement of the subject : as, The daring of the plan which 
 brought on the combat is unparalleled. 
 
 3. The complementary nominative : as, 
 
 True love's the gift u'hich God han given 
 To man alone beneath the heaven. 
 
 4. The object :— - 
 
 (a) Direct : as, The man approached the lamp which teas on the 
 table. . 
 
 (6) Indirect : as, 
 
 Some men make gain a fountain whence proceeds 
 
 A stream of libercd and heroic deeds. 
 
 5. An enlargement of the object : — 
 
 (a) Direct : as, We attacked a body of stout apprentices, ivho had 
 taken jjossession of apart of the ground allotted to us for the scene of 
 our diversions. 
 
 [b) Indirect : as, He gave a purse of gold to the son of the man 
 tvho had saved his life. 
 
 6. An extension : as. My grandfather received this relation with that 
 coldness of civility ivhich was peculiar to him. 
 
 431. The Connectives of the Adjective Sentence 
 are : — 
 
 1. The relative pronouns, loJio, ivhich, that, whoever, ivhosoaver : as, He 
 breaks the cord tliat held him at the rack. 
 
 2. The words ivhere, ivhen, ivhij, whereon, wnereof, whereby, etc., which 
 have a pronominal character, being each equivalent to a relative prontmu 
 preceded by a preposition. Thus, where = 'm which; ivhen = aX. which 
 (time) ; why-^iov which ; irhereon^ on which ; ichereof=oi which ; where- 
 by =hy which ; e.g.. He finds the pasture ichere his fellows graze. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— The relative, when in the objective case, is sometimes omitted : as, The 
 wreath [which] he wore drew down an instant curse. 
 
 OOs. 2.— Sometimes the antecedent of an adjective sentence is not expressed : as, 
 W/io stea's my purse, steals trash. 
 
 Olj<^_ .3.— A sentence introduced by a compound relative may be resolved into an 
 antecedent nouu or ijronoan and an adjective sentence. In such a case the ante- 
 cedent will belong to the principal sentence and the relative to thu adjective 
 sentence : as, 
 
 (1) Tell me toJuit ynu ioant-iG\\ to me the thing ivhicli you want. 
 
 (•J) Whoever told ijoii so spoke falsely -the person spoke falsely icho told you so. 
 
 (;i) U'f'iUiva- you dr>, do well -do the tiling well vihich you do. 
 
SYNTAX. 215 
 
 OU. 4.— When hut is equivalent to who+not, tlmt-^-not, ov whlch+not, it introduces 
 an adjective sentence: as, There is nothing iu the world bv.t i'jas made bj Gud-'Uhaio 
 is nothing iu the world ichich was not made by God. 
 
 Obs. 5.— When the relative pronoun ivho can be turned into and he, the sentence 
 that who introduces must be considered co-ordinate and not adjective : as, I wrote t) 
 your brother, t/)ho re.plkd that you wrre uwny from homc~add he v plied, etc. 
 
 Qlfs^ Q_ — }y}iich, when it does not relate to a noun or pronoun, but to the import of 
 the clause, often connects co-ordinate sentences : as, He heard that the bank had 
 failed, tvhich was a heavy blow to him-and this fad v.re ivas, etc. 
 
 Obs. 7.— Some writers call as after such, same, so, or as (g S2, Obs. 1) a relative : as. 
 Such as diff''.r from them are unwise. But this sentence is elliptical, being equivalent 
 to " Such [persons] as [the persons are tvho] differ from them are vuiwise." Here " as 
 the persons are" is an adverbial sentence (§ 432), and " who differ from them" an 
 adjective sentence. 
 
 N.B.— Care must be taken to distinouish between noun sentence.s in 
 which an indirect question is involved and adjective sentences introduced 
 by the conjunctions hoio, when, where, why, etc. An adjective sentence 
 always qualifies a noun (or its equivalent) expressed or understood, e.(j., 
 She wanted to know irhere he put the letter (noun sentence). 
 
 She wanted to know the place where ( = in whicli) /<e imt the letter 
 (adjective sentence). /IV 6? 'P r L {^ 
 
 ^" EXEECISE 208. 
 
 Mention the adjective sentences : — 
 1. There was a peculiar relish in these meals which I remember. 2. 
 They have their temples, whereof the chief stands in their metropolis. 
 
 3. The man proceeded to this inn, which w^as the best in the town. 4. 
 Then the other company which is lett shall escape. 5. Divers letters were 
 shot into the city with arrows, wherein Solynian's councils w^ere revealed. 
 6. Fair is the daisy that beside her grows. ' 7. We were the first that ever 
 burst into that silent sea, 8. I have been found guilty of robbing orchards 
 I never entered. 9. I strongly resembled my father, who \vas the darling 
 of the tenants. 10. The only accession which the Roman empire received 
 was the province of Britain, 11. It was the time when lilies blow. 12, 
 Thou hadst a voice w'hose sound was like the sea, 13, It then draws near 
 the season wherein the spirit held his ^yont to walk. 
 
 14. The iron gate is bolted hard 
 At which I knock in vain. 
 
 15. There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st, 
 But in his motion like an angel sings. 
 
 Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim. 
 
 Questions on §§ 430, 431. 
 
 1. What is an adjective sentence? 2. What may an adjective sentence qualify? 
 ". In which parts of the principal sentence may adjective sentences be introduced ? 
 
 4. What are the connectives of the adjective sentence? 5. When is the connective of 
 an adjective sentence omitted ? 6, How may a sentence introduced by a compound 
 relative be resolved ? 7. Wlxen does 5?'.« introduce an adjective sentence? S. When 
 does who introduce a co-ordinate sentence? ^. When does u-hirh introduce a co- 
 ordinate sentence? 10. Explain the construction of the sentence, "Such as differ 
 from them are unwise." 11. Show how to distinguish noun sentences and adjective 
 sentences introduced by the same connectives 
 
 3. The Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 432. All Adverbial Sentence is one that stands in place 
 of an adverb, and therefore modifies some verb, adjective, or 
 adverb : as, 
 
 I. He began the work i':hen I came (modifies verb began). 
 
216 ENGLISH GRAMMAPw 
 
 2. He is taller them I am (modifies adjective taller). 
 
 3. He came oftener than we expected (modifies adverb ofteaer). 
 
 Usually, however, the adverbial sentence is attached to the 
 predicate. 
 
 433. Adverbial sentences express Time, Place, Manner, or 
 Cause. 
 
 434. Adverbial Sentences of Time denote :— 
 
 1. Point or Period of Time [lohen ?) : as, When they heard my dcsptrate 
 crle^, they came out of the shed. 
 
 2. Duration of Time {hoio long?) : as, AVe frolic tvh'de 'tis May. 
 
 3. Repetition of Time {how often f ) : as, When my arms I stretch, he 
 stretches his. 
 
 435. The Connectives of Adverbial Sentences of Time are 
 
 the subordinative conjunctions After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, ichen, 
 
 vhenever, whereupon, tchile, ichilst, and the compound conjunctions As 
 
 soon as, as often as, as long as, just when, no sooner than, the moment that, 
 
 after that, before that, till that, until that. 
 
 OIjs. 1. — When hut is equivalent to than, it introduces an adverbial sentence of time : 
 as, He had no sooner departed but the rebellion broke out. 
 
 Obs. 2. — When as is equivalent to it-hilst, it introduces an adverbial sentence of time : 
 as. 
 
 And as I mounted itp the hill 
 The music in my heart I bore. 
 
 Oh. 3. — An adverbial sentence of time is often abbreviated : as, He fell ichilst walk- 
 iag on the UrivM-'Q.Q fell whilst [he was] walking on the terrace. 
 
 EXEECISE 209. 
 
 Mention the adverbial sentences of time : — 
 1. When Greeks joined Greeks, then was the tug of war. 2. "WTien the 
 mourner had got thus far in his story, he stopped to pay Nature her 
 tribute. 3. As they lowered the bod}' into the earth, the creaking of the 
 cords seemed to agonize her. 4. A comrade stood beside him while his 
 life-blood ebbed away. 5. As they looked on him with astonishment the 
 eyes opened. 6. When beggars die there are no comets seen. 7. He 
 whistled as he went for want of thought. 8. O, make a league with me 
 till I have pleased my discontented peers ! 9. I am never merry when I 
 hear sweet music. 10. When the ice broke up, Hudson prepared for the 
 homeward voyage. 11. Life has passed with me but roughly since I heard 
 thee last. 12. The Russian gunners, after the storm of cavalry had passed, 
 returned to their guns. 13. As we went up tlie body of tlie church, the 
 knight pointed at the trophies upon one of the new monuments. 
 
 14. She was a phantom of delight 
 
 W!ien first she gleamed upon my sight. 
 
 15. Wlien the breeze of a joyful dawn blew free 
 In the silicon sail of infancy, 
 
 The tide of time flowed back with me. 
 
 436. Adverbial Sentences of Place denote : — 
 
 1. Kest in a Place {where'/) : as, ]\ here light is, chameleons change. 
 
 2. Motion to a Place {ichither ?) : as, Whit/ur thou goest, I will go. 
 
 3. Motion from a Place {whence ?) : as, lie will return whence he came. 
 
SYNTAX. 217 
 
 437. The Connectives of Adverbial Sentences of Place are 
 
 the subordinative conjunctions Whence, ivheuce-iioever, where, ichercsotver, 
 wherever, ichither, whithersoever. 
 
 Exercise 210. 
 
 Mention the adverbial sentences of place : — 
 
 1. Where ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise. 2. 'Tis virtue makes 
 
 the bliss where'er we dwell. 3. Where your treasure is, there will your 
 
 heart be also. 4 They dug his grave e'en where he lay. 5. The turf looks 
 
 green where the breakers roll'd. 6. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 
 
 7. Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered togethei-. 
 
 8. Go where thou wilt. 9. Convey me where thou art commanded. 10. I 
 ahvays linger where the violets grow. 11, Bear me where you will. 
 
 12. There let it stand, 
 
 Where it best fits to be, in Henry's hand. 
 
 13. Wheresoe'er thou art in this world's globe, 
 I'll have an Iris,* that shall find thee out. 
 
 14:. How would you bear to draw your latest breath 
 Where all that's wretched paves the way for death ? 
 
 15. Let the guU'd fool the toils of war pursue 
 Where bleed the many to enrich the few, 
 
 438. Adverbial Sentences of Manner denote :— 
 
 1. Likeness : as, As the snoiv gathers together, so are our habits formed. 
 
 2. Comparison : — 
 
 {a) Equality : as. He was as gentle «.s a dove [is gentle]. 
 {!)) Inequality : as. Example is better tha7i 'precept \is good]. 
 (c) Proportion : as. The more my knowledge increased, the more I 
 perceived the injustice of his behaviour. 
 
 3. Effect or consequence : as. The torrent between us rolled so violently 
 that to pass vms impossible. 
 
 4. Certainty or Uncertainty : as, As surely as yonder sun is shining, I 
 speak the truth. 
 
 439. The Connectives of Adverbial Sentences of Manner are 
 
 the subordinative conjunctions -46", than, that, and the compounds As . . 
 as, so . . as, according as, as if, as though, so that. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The predicate of the adverbial sentence of manner is usually omitted : as, 
 Vii-tue dreads it os her <//•« re = Virtue dreads it as [shf. dreads] hrr grave. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Proporti-)nate equality is expressed by the use of the adverb the with the 
 comparative : as, The iioorer the guest, the better pleased he ever is with being tx'eated. 
 
 Exercise 211. 
 
 Mention the adverbial sentences of manner : — 
 1. Thy lips have shed instruction as the dew. 2. I will use my friend 
 as Moses did his rod. 3. He mouths a sentence as curs mouth a bone. 4. 
 The ecstasy of fear was such that, instead of paralysing his tongue, as on 
 ordinary occasions, it even rendered him eloquent. 5. To obey is better 
 than sacrifice. 6. This frank declaration pleased me so much that I pulled 
 out niy purse. 7. The more I honour thee the less I love. 8. Unstable 
 as water, thou shalt not excel. 9. It was sad as sad could be. 10. Men 
 deal with life as children with their play. 11. The desert shall blossom as 
 
 '•' The goddess of the rainbow^ Juno's messenger. 
 
218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the rose. 12. Make me thy lyre even as the forest is. 13. Men turned 
 pale as if they had heard of the loss of a dear friend. 
 
 14. Safer shall he be upon the sandy plains 
 Than where castles mounted stand. 
 
 15. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio 
 Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. 
 
 440. Adverbial Sentences of Cause denote :- 
 
 1. Reason : as, I went, because 1 icas invited. 
 
 2. Condition : as, If he may have his jest, he never cares at whose 
 expense. 
 
 3. Concession : as, Though the sea threatens, it is merciful. . 
 
 4. Purpose or Motive : as, I'll accost him that I may learn the nevjs. 
 
 441. The Connectives of Adverbial Sentences of Cause are 
 the subordinative conjunctions Albeit, although, as, hecaiise, except, for, 
 however, if, lest, nevertheless, notwithstanding, ^irovided, save, seeing, since, 
 so, that, though, unless, whereas, and the compounds Forasmuch as, inas- 
 much as, in case, in order that, j^rovided that, seeing that, so that. 
 
 Ohx. 1.— The conjunction is sometimes omitted : as, Wtre. you my brother, I could 
 notdoitforyou = [Iflyouwevemy brother, etc ,.,. , , . ,, 
 
 Qlg -_^Yhen the conjunction is omitted, the conditional sentence is often iiut 
 interrogatively : as, 7s any r,um crv-l, he is also a coward=[if] any man is cruel he is 
 also a coward. 
 
 Exercise 212. 
 
 Mention the adverbial sentences of cause : — 
 1. If o-ood fortune came, it came in such a manner that it was almost 
 certain to be abused. 2. If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand 
 forget her cunning. 3. .Judge not, that ye be not judged. 4. I had my 
 own plan, though I could not broach it. 5. I assented, though I thought 
 it doubtful that my father would give us leave, 6. Although there is little 
 or no rain in Egypt, there are continuous and heavy rains at the sources of 
 the Nile. 7. He was afraid to yield now, lest he should be thought a 
 coward. 8. Wheat is the most valuable of all grains, for of it we make 
 bread. 9. He started up v/ith more of fear than if an armed foe were 
 near. 10. It is a very absurd, because a very incorrect, expression. 11. 
 Shall his law be set at nought that I may live at ease ? 12. Though this 
 proposal did not at all suit my hiclination, I was afraid of discovering my 
 aversion to it, lest I should disoblige the only fiiend I had in the world. 
 
 13. If parts allure thee, think how Bacon sliined, 
 
 The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. y* 
 
 14. If thou wouldst view fair Melrose aright, ^ • 
 Go visit it by the pale moonlight. . ^ "v ' 
 
 15. Sweet Iser ! were thy sunny realm V ^'' 
 
 And flowery gardens mine, 
 Thy waters would I shade with elm, 
 To prop the tender vine. 
 
 V- 
 
 Connectives of Subordinate Sentences. 
 
 442. Tlic following is a complete table of connectives of 
 subordinate sentences : 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 219 
 
 I. Noun 
 
 Seutenca 
 
 II. 
 
 Adjective 
 Sentence 
 
 III. 
 
 Adverbial 
 Sentence 
 
 Th7U. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Mav.n< 
 
 Cavse 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 That, but that. 
 
 rin in- 
 Interrogative pronouns : who, which, etc > I direct 
 Otlier interrogative words : when, liow, etc. ) j ques- 
 
 Ltions. 
 
 ( Relative pronouns. 
 
 \ When, where, wh3', etc., being words equivalent to a 
 ( relative pronoun preceded by a preposition, 
 r After, as, before, ere, since, till, luitil, when, whenever, 
 I whereupon, while, whilst ; but ( = than). 
 J As soon as, as often as, as long as, just when, no 
 I sooner than, the moment that, after that, before that, 
 \ till that, until that. 
 
 j "Whence, whencesoever, where, wheresoever, wherever, 
 ( whither, whitliersoever. 
 ] As, than, that, the (with comparative). 
 ( As— as, so— as, according as, as if, as though, so that. 
 /-Albeit, although, as, because, except, for, liowever, if, 
 lest, nevertheless, notwithstanding, provided, save, 
 J seeing, since, so, that, though, unless, wliereas. 
 Forasmuch as, hiasmuch as, in case, in order that, 
 ^ ^ provided tJiat, seeing that, so that. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Compounds like as if, ns ichen, really introduce two subordinate .sentences : 
 as, 'Tis e'en as if an angel shook his wings = 'Tis e'en as [it would taej 7/an angel shook 
 his wings. 
 
 Obs, 2. — The word that introduces : — 
 
 (a) A noun sentence : as, I told bun that I had received a small sairply of money. 
 (6) An adjective sentence : as, Art thou the man that sleic him? 
 
 (c) An adverbial sentence of manner (consequence) : as. It is seldom danger IS 
 so pressing that there is not time enough for nason to do its v:orl:. 
 
 (d) An adverbial sentence of cause (purpose) : as, He put down his weapon 
 that he might rest awhile. 
 
 Questions on §§ 432—442. 
 
 1. What is an adverbial sentence? 2. What do adverbial sentences modify? 3. 
 What do adverbial sentences express? 4. What do adverbial sentences of time 
 denote? 5. What are the connectives of adverbial sentences of time ? 6. When does 
 hut introduce an adverbial sentence of time ? 7. When does as introduce an adverbial 
 sentence of time ? S. What do adverbial sentences of place denote ? 9. What are the 
 connectives of adverbial sentences of place? 10. What do adverbial sentences of 
 manner denote ? 11. What are the connectives of adverbial sentences of manner? 
 12. How is xjroportionate equality expressed? 13. What do adverbial sentences of 
 cause denote? 14. What are the' connectives of adverbial sentences of cause? 15. 
 AVhat is the full construction of the sentence '"Tis e'en as if an angel shook his 
 wing8 " ? 16. What kinds of sentences are introduced by that ? 
 
220 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 05 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 pE] 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s> 
 
 ,?! 
 
 s 
 
 C/J 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 (s] 
 
 o 
 
 t-1 
 
 o 
 
 Ph 
 
 *• 
 
 S 
 
 
 o 
 
 n3 
 
 O 
 
 .S 
 
 
 S 
 
 EE4 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ■§ 
 
 CQ 
 
 -'a: 
 
 t— 1 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 <D QJ 
 
 >5 
 
 •s -1-=' 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 > iS 
 - a 
 
 55 
 
 ard a 
 look 
 
 g 
 
 ^s- 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ij 
 
 CD HH 
 
 ^ 
 
 •n -,5 
 
 IrH 
 
 -^3 c3 
 
 < 
 
 c2h 
 
 H 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 Extension. 
 
 sudden 
 {Manner) 
 
 
 
 
 IS' 
 
 > 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 on thee 
 
 {1)1 dir. 
 
 Ohj.) 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 
 M 
 
 -4-a 
 
 Si 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 c 
 
 < 
 
 Principal sentence 
 to 6. 
 
 Adjective sentence 
 to " voice " in a. 
 
 Noun sentence, 
 object to b. 
 
 Adverbial sentence 
 
 of cause (purpose) 
 
 to c. 
 
 
 Sudden I heard 
 a voice 
 
 that cried 
 
 53 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 That I may look 
 on thee. 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 ^© 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
SYNTAX. 221 
 
 Exercise 213. 
 Analyse : — 
 1. The moving light which he beheld had proved that it was the 
 residence of man. 2. Then the road jDasses straight on through a waste 
 moor, till at length the towers of a distant city appear before the traveller. 
 3. Our conductor pointed to that monument where there is the figure of 
 one of our English kings without a head. 4. As the evening darkened, 
 Columbus took his station on the top of the castle or cabin in the high 
 poop of his vessel. 5. The bison is so sure-footed that he can pass over 
 ffroimd where no horse could follow. 6. Plants must wait till their food 
 comes to them. 7. Whoever lost his footing in that fierce tumult, never 
 rose again. 8. Every milder method is to be tried before a nation makes 
 an appeal to arms. 
 
 9. She struck where the white and fleecy waves J: /\ 
 
 Look'd soft as carded wool. W-*^*^' ' "^tjU^, 
 
 10. While thus I sing, I am a king, . ^, ' VyJ A a >i 
 Although a poor' blind boy. . >^U-t^^ Kia3^fl«^ 
 
 11. Yet some there be, that by due steps aspire 
 To lay their just hands on that golden key 
 That opes the palace of eternity. 
 
 12. When thou wouldst solace gather, 
 
 When our child's first accents flow, 
 Wilt thou teach her to say " Father !" 
 Though his care she must forego ? 
 
 13. Such were the sounds that o'er the crested pride 
 9f the first Edward scattered wild dismay, 
 As down the steep of Snowdon's shaggy side 
 He wound with toilsome march his long array. 
 
 V 14. O nightingale, that on yon bloomy spray 
 
 Warblest at eve j when all the woods are still, 
 Thou with freslr hope the lover's heart dost fill. 
 While the jolly hours lead on propitious May. 
 15. I heard a thousand blended notes. 
 While in a grove I sate I'eclined, 
 In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts 
 Bringr sad thoughts to the mind. / 
 
 ^r 
 
 Chapter VII. — The Compound Sentence. 
 
 444. Co-ordinate sentences are divided into four classes, 
 Copulative, Disjunctive, Adversative, and Illative or Causative. 
 
 1. Copulative. 
 
 445. Copulative co-ordinate sentences are those which arc 
 simply coupled by a conjunction implying addition : as, The 
 Indians are completely deceived, and not a shot is fired. 
 
 446. The Connectives of Copulative Co-ordinate Sen- 
 tences are And, also, besides, likewise, moreover, but also, but 
 likewise, as ivell as, both — and, not merely — but, not only — but, 
 further, furthermore. 
 
2-2'2 i:nglish grammar. 
 
 Obs. 1. — When nor ( = and not) is not preceded hy neither, it is copulative : as, Eye 
 hath not seen, i!0)- ear heard ^aiirf ear hath not heard. Ndthcr is used in the same 
 %vay when not followed by nor : as, They toil not, acllher do they spin = «n(i they do 
 ;iotspin. 
 
 " Obs. 2. — The relative, when equivalent to a co-ordinative conjunction and a personal 
 pronoun, joins copulative co-ordinate sentences: as, I met your brother ?cAo( = and 
 he) told me that you were here. 
 
 Ohs. 3. — The pronominal words when. v:licrc, etc., when cquivaleiit to a co-ordinative 
 conjunction and an adverb, join copulative co-ordinate sentences : as, I walkei with 
 him to the bridge u-here ( = and tliero) wc parted. 
 
 Oh^. 4. — Copulative co-ordinate sentences are often put together without any con 
 nectives : as, The knot had been secui-ely bound ; the victim sank without effort. 
 
 Exercise 214. 
 
 Mention the copulative co-ordinate sentences : — 
 1. The fair breeze blew, the white foara flew, the furrow followed free. 
 2. They drew off and encamped. 3. Receive me, and shield my vexed 
 spirit, ye groves. 4. Her little bird — a poor, slight thing the prcssnre of 
 a finger would have crushed — was stirring nimbly in its cage ; and the 
 strong heart of its child-mistress was mvite and motionless for ever. 5. . 
 They heard and were abashed. 6. Another ranger dismounted and came 
 to his assistance. 7. He is old ; moreover, he was confided to ni}^ care. 8. 
 He is not only bold but he is likewise imscrupulous. 9. He cannot deny 
 it nor will he attempt to do so. 10. They were exposed to an oblique fire 
 from the batteries on the hills on both sides, as well as to a direct fire of 
 musketry. 11. They have been at a feast of languages, and stolen the 
 scraps. 12. His directions were obeyed, and they pulled ashore directly. 
 
 13. Your praise the birds shall chant in every grove, 
 And winds shall waft it to the powers above. 
 
 14. The whistling ploughman stalks afield ; 
 
 Down the rough slope the ponderous waggon rings ; 
 Through rustling corn the hare astonished springs ; 
 Slow tolls the village clock the drowsy hour ; 
 The partridge bursts away on whirring wings ; 
 Deep mourns the turtle in sequester'd bo-wer ; 
 And shrill lark carols clear from her aerial tower. 
 
 2. Disjunctive. 
 
 447. Disjunctive or Alternative co-ordinate seutences 
 are those which are disconnected in meaning by a conjunction 
 implying exclusion : as, He will neither come 7ior send an 
 apology. 
 
 Obs. — These are called alternative because a choice is offered or denied between two 
 
 statements. 
 
 448. The Connectives of Disjunctive Co-ordiiate 
 
 Sentences are: in affirmative statements, Either, or; in 
 negative, Neither, nor. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — When else and otherwise mean or, they join disjunctive co-ordinate sentences : 
 as, You must pay my wages, else I will not work ( = or 1 will not work) ; Do your duty, 
 othf-rwise you will not be honoured (-or yon will not be honoin-ed). 
 
 Obs. 2. — Tlie ]>hraRc in nthf-r wonh. is sometimes a connective of di.'ijunctive co-ordinate 
 sentences. It may stand alone or be preceded by or : .as, He is a liar : in other ironl.'i, 
 he is ii man uliom no one can trust ; He has gained the throne, or, in other icords, ho 
 has purcliascd for himself a bed of thorns. 
 
 ()'>^. :5.— When 710)- = and not, it joins copulative sentences. The same is the case 
 with neither (g 445, OOs. 1). 
 
SYNTAX. 223 
 
 EXEKCISE 215. 
 
 Mention the disjunctive co-ordinate sentences : — 
 1. I did not feel afraid, or sorry, or glad. 2. What's Hecuba to him, or 
 he to Hecuba ? 3. Neither a borrower, nor a lender be. 4. He received 
 an appointment or the offer of a commission. 5. Although we cannot 
 discommend, we cannot absolutely approve either willingness to die, or 
 forwardness to die. 6. We had neither a relation nor a friend in the 
 world. 7. Singing he was or flirting all the day. 8. It is either sixteen or 
 seventeen years ago. 9. Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. 10. 
 Walk quickly, else you will not overtake him. 11. Awake, arise, or be for 
 ever fallen. 12. Let us do or die. 13. Either he is drowned or some 
 passing ship has saved him, 
 
 14. Was I deceived, or did a sable cloud 
 Turn forth her sliver lining on the night? 
 
 15. He either fears his fate too much 
 Or his deserts are small, 
 
 Who dares not put it to the touch 
 To gain or lose it all. 
 
 3. Adversative. 
 
 449. Adversative or Antithetical co-ordinate sentences 
 are those in which the second stands opposed to, or is con- 
 trasted with, the first : as, Pope had perhaps the judgment of 
 Dryden, hut Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. 
 
 450. The Connectives of Adversative Co-ordinate 
 
 Sentences are But (the principal one), hoivever, nevertheless, 
 notwithstamling, only, still, yet, and the correlatives Indeed — hut, 
 iioio — then, at one time — at another time, on the one hand — on the 
 other 
 
 Ohs. — The connective is sometimes understood : as, Men's evil manners live in. 
 brass ; their virtues we write in water { = but their virtues we write in water). 
 
 Exercise 216. 
 
 IMention the adversative co-ordinate sentences : — 
 
 I, Our wants are many and grievous, but quite of another kind. 2. I 
 called him, but he gave me no answer, 3. In no wise speak against the 
 truth, but be abashed of the error of thy ignorance. 4. Take each man's 
 censure, but reserve thy judgment. 5. I will speak daggers to her, but use 
 none. 6. His comrade bent to lift him, but the spark of life had fled. 7. 
 Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins. 8. Some natural 
 tears they dropped, but wiped them soon. ^ , 
 
 9. Men may come and men may go, J^ '(l/Unfkx^ 
 \ But I go on for ever. v//i*i,/'«' i^i/ ^ 
 
 10. My hasting days fly on with full career. 
 
 But my late spring no bud nor blossom showeth. 
 
 II. Not a sound rose from the city at that early morning hour. 
 But I heard a heart of iron beating in the ancient tower. 
 
 12. Fitz-James looked round — yet scarce believed 
 The witness that his gii/ht received. 
 
224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 13. And her little band lay lightly, confidingly in mine, 
 
 But we'll meet no more at Bingen — loved Bingen on the Rhine. 
 
 1 i. To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, 
 But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven. 
 
 15, My thoughts still cling to the mouldering Past, 
 But the hopes of youth fall thick in the blast, 
 And the days are dark and dreary. 
 
 4. Illative. 
 
 451. Illative co-ordinate sentences are those which are 
 joined by conjunctions impl^dng reason and inference. They 
 are of two kinds : — 
 
 1. Illative, when the first denotes the reason, and the second the 
 inference, logical deduction, or consequence : as. The smoke falls, thtrefore 
 it will rain. 
 
 2. Causative, when the first denotes the inference, logical deduction, 
 or consequence : as. It will rain, for the smoke falls. 
 
 Ohs. 1. — Causative sentences must be distinguished from adverbial sentences of 
 cause. Thus, in the sentence, "I returned home bccous; I was tired," htcause intro- 
 duces the reason for the previously mentioned action. Wh'/ did I return home? 
 Biicauxe I was tired (adverbial sentence of cause). In the sentence " It will rain, j<rr 
 the smoke falls,"./?))- introduces the reason for the inference that it will rain. How do 
 I know that it will rain? By the falling of tlie smoke, which is not the cause of the 
 rain, but merely the ground of the inference. Hence " It will rain " and " the smoke 
 falls " are illative or causative co-ordinate sentences. 
 
 Ohs. 2.— Causative .sentences transposed become illative and vice ret'sd : as. It will 
 rain, for the smoke falls (Causative) ; The smoke falls, therefore it will rain (Illative). 
 
 452. The Connectives of Illative Co-ordmate Sentences 
 
 are : {a) Illative, Accordinghj, consequent! i/, hence, ichence, thence, 
 then, so, and so, therefore, and therefore, ^ckerefore, therevpon, thus, 
 and for, on this account, for this reason ; (b) Causative, For. 
 
 Exercise 217. 
 
 Mention the illative and causative co-ordinate sentences : — 
 1. The smoke by no means escaped from its legitimate aperture, for j-ou 
 might observe little clouds of it bursting out of the doors and windows. 2. 
 He blushes ; therefore he is guilty. 3. Your ihetoric is too moving, for it 
 makes your auditory weep. 4. Gawtrey seemed wounded, for he staggered 
 forward. 5. Take courage, for this grief availeth nothing. G. She is a 
 woman, and therefore to be wooed ; she is a woman, and therefore to be 
 won. 7. The squire is old, for his hair is silver-grey. 8. It will be fine 
 weather to-day, for the sky is red and lowering. 9. The land is good, for 
 the crop is heavy. 10. The crop is heavy, therefore the land is good. 11. 
 Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou knowest not what a day may 
 bring forth. 12. The angles are equal, consequently the sides are equal. 
 
 13. His friends must have deserted him ; for he was alone in the world, 
 
 14. He must have done his duty, for he is a good man. 
 
 15. Take the instant waj', 
 
 For honour travels in a strait so narrow, 
 Where one but goes abreast. 
 
SYNTAX. 225 
 
 453. Compound sentences are contracted when the co- 
 ordinate sentences have : — 
 
 1. The same subject : as, The moon rose and threw her silvery light 
 upon the sea = 
 
 The moon rose 
 [and] the moon threw her silvery light upon the sea. 
 
 2. The same predicate : as, The winds and the waves were still « 
 
 The winds were still 
 [and] the waves were still. 
 
 3. The same complementary nominative : as, He neither is ncr can be a 
 poet = 
 
 [neither] He is a poet 
 [nor] he can be a poet. 
 
 4. The same object : — 
 
 (a) Direct : as, John loves and William dislikes the sea = 
 
 John loves the sea 
 [and] William dislikes the sea. 
 
 (6) Indirect : as, John lends and William gives him a knife = 
 
 John lends (to) him a knife 
 [and] William gives (to) him a knife. 
 
 5. The same extension of the predicate : as, During the daytime owls 
 sleep and men work = 
 
 Owls sleep during the daytime 
 [and] men work during the daytime. 
 
 06s.— Several contractions may occur in the same sentence : as, Such birds as were 
 to search and gather their food, whether herbs or insects, in the bottom of pools and 
 deep waters, have long necks for that purpose. 
 
 Connectives of Co-ordinate Sentences. 
 
 454. The following is a complete table of the connectives of 
 co-ordinate sentences : — 
 
 /"And, also, besides, further, furthermore, likewise, 
 I ConulativQ -^ moreover, neither ( = and not), nor ( = and not). 
 
 ^ j But also, but likewise, as well— as, both— and, not 
 
 V merely— but, not only— but. 
 ( Either, or ; neither, nor, 
 \ Else ( = or), otherwise ( = or), in other words. 
 
 {But, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, only, 
 still, yet. 
 Indeed— but, now — then, at one time— at another 
 time, on the one hand — on the other. 
 'Accordingly, consequently, hence, so, then, thence, 
 
 therefore, thereupon, thus, whence, wherefore. 
 And so, and therefore, and for, on this account, for 
 this reason. 
 
 II. Disjunctive. 
 III. Adversative 
 
 IV. Illative. 
 
 Illative 
 
 I Causative. For. 
 
 Questions on §§ 444—454. 
 
 1. Name the four classes of co-ordinate sentences. 2. What are copulative co-ordinate 
 sentences ? 3. Name the connectives of copulative co-ordinate sentences. 4. When is 
 nor copulative ? 5. When is neither copulative ? 6. When does the relative join copu- 
 lative co-ordinate sentences ? 7. When do the pronominal words when, ichere, etc., 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMIMAII. 
 
 join copulative co-ordinate sentences? 8. Give an example of copulative co-ordinate 
 sentences with the connective omitted. 0. What are disjunctive co-ordinate sentences ? 
 10. Why are they also called alternative? 11. Name the connectives of di.^junctive 
 co-ordinate sentences? 12. When are else, and othenvlse connectives of disjunctive 
 co-ordinate sentences? 13. What are advcr.sative co-ordinate sentences? 11. Name 
 the connectives of adversative co-ordinate sentences. 15. Give an example of adversa- 
 tive co-ordinate sentences with the connective omitted. 1(5. What are illative co- 
 ordinate sentences? 17. When arc they called causative? IS. Show how to distinguish 
 between causative co-ordinate sentences and adverbial sentences of cause. 19. Name 
 the connectives of illative and causative coordinate sentences. 20. In what ways 
 may compound sentences be contracted ? 
 
 \\ 
 
 455. Examples of Analysis of Coi^rpouND Sentences. 
 
 1, Such a one on English ground, 
 And in the broad highway I met ; 
 Along the broad highway he came, 
 His cheeks with tears were wety- 
 2. When I consider how my light is spent* 
 
 Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 
 And that one talent which is death to hide 
 Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 
 To serve therewith my Maker, and present 
 
 My true account, lest he, returning, chide : ^ 
 
 " Doth God exact day-labour, light denied ?"' 
 I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent 
 That murnmr, soon replies, " God doth not need , 
 
 Either man's work, or his own gifts ; who best 
 Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best : his state 
 Is kingly : thousands at his bidding speed, \ J 
 
 ■< And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 
 
 * They also' serve who only stand and wait '" 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 -t 
 
 -'O 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 227 
 
 Extension. 
 
 on English 
 grcnmd (Place) 
 
 in the broad 
 highway (Place) 
 
 along the broad 
 highway (Place) 
 
 with tears (CoMse) 
 
 
 in this dark 
 
 world and wide 
 
 (Place) 
 
 t 
 
 
 1 
 
 such a one 
 
 [such a one] 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 [met] 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 were wet 
 
 consider 
 
 c 
 
 ft 
 ■x: 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 o 
 
 Si 
 
 05 
 03 
 
 (U 
 
 -o 
 
 03 
 .'2' 
 
 
 1— ( 
 
 r 
 
 hH 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 a) 
 
 o 
 
 t—t 
 
 my light 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 that one ta- 
 lent, lodged 
 with me 
 
 Connective. 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 1 
 
 When 
 
 o 
 
 
 < 
 
 Kind of Sentence. 
 
 Principal 
 
 sentence. 
 
 Principal sentence, 
 
 co-ord. (copulative) 
 
 to </, f, d. 
 
 Principal sentence, 
 
 co-ord. (copulative) 
 
 to «, b, d. 
 
 Principal sentence, 
 
 co-ord. (copulative) 
 
 to a, b, c. 
 
 Adv. sentence of 
 time to ./'. 
 
 Noun sentence, 
 obj. to a. 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Noun sentence 
 obj. to a. co-ord. 
 
 to';'. 
 
 ?5' 
 s 
 
 SO 
 
 1 
 
 Such a one on English 
 ground [I met] 
 
 And [such a one] in the 
 broad highway I met 
 
 Along the broad high- 
 way he came 
 
 0! 
 
 1 
 
 m p 
 .2 
 
 "When I consider 
 
 .2t3 
 
 l> 03 
 
 o-a 
 ^53 
 
 Ere half my days [are 
 spent] 
 
 And that one talent 
 
 lodged with mc [is] 
 
 useless 
 
 
 s 
 
 ►i 
 
 <j 
 
 '^ 
 
 s 
 
 -d 
 
 c 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 r-J 1 c5 
 
 IK. 
 
228 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 
 i 
 
 [more] (Degree) 
 
 
 light [being] 
 denied (Condition) 
 
 fondly (Manner) 
 
 soon (Time) 
 to prevent that 
 murmiu- (Cause) 
 
 •2 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 • 
 Ho 
 
 
 QJ a> r- o 
 
 G S ^ 
 o u ,• 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 05 
 
 a 
 
 •<s> 
 
 Q 
 
 •r-» 
 
 4J 
 
 r— 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 • rH 
 
 ■t-9 
 
 r< 
 -(-1 
 
 
 M 
 
 § 
 
 • rH 
 »— ( 
 
 •0 
 « 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■♦o 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 O 
 
 1—1 
 
 13 
 O 
 03 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 bp 
 
 *-< 
 • r-1 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 8 
 
 g 
 
 • r-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 a; 
 
 1' 
 
 t 
 
 T3 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 ,£3 
 
 • r-4 
 
 s 
 
 '2 
 
 '3 
 
 8^- 
 
 o § 
 goo 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 -If p< 
 " J: 
 
 6 
 
 
 »: • 
 
 3 
 
 
 g 
 -t-» 
 
 G 
 
 02 
 
 t 
 
 £ 
 
 g82 
 
 •Sep 
 
 t< > 
 
 pH+-"r3 
 
 S . 
 
 g^ 
 '"•;^ 
 
 G ® 
 
 
 'A 
 
 s 
 
 •rH 
 
 A 
 o 
 
 :S 
 
 o 
 73 
 to 
 
 ,13 
 o 
 
 • iH 
 
 2^ 
 
 a-? 
 
 m u 
 
 ' — ^ -3 <U 
 
 
 
 c >> 
 
 s 3 
 
 K' 
 
 K <y 
 
 K^ ^ " 
 
 a 
 
 Ti '^ p 
 S fl 
 
 
 
 ts 
 
 e 
 
 ^H 
 cT 
 
 03 
 
 ,—1 
 
 
 M 
 
 G 
 
 S 3 
 
 f- s • 
 
 -G-2 
 
 G 3 2^ 
 
 •2 a 
 
 
 
 §^ 
 
 G^ 
 
 G G 
 
 rH rt 
 
 ^ a 
 
 *^ 
 -« J5 
 
 OS 
 
 
 C 
 
 "-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^5; 
 
 •^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 229 
 
 s 
 .2 
 
 CO 
 
 [not] (Negation) 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 4J 
 
 0^ 
 
 s 
 M 
 
 
 at his bidding 
 (TLiic) 
 
 o'er land and 
 
 ocean (Place) 
 
 without rest 
 
 (Manner) 
 
 
 i 
 >» 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 "3 
 
 o 
 
 1— J 
 
 >-• 
 
 his own 
 gifts ._ 
 
 hislmild 
 yoke 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 [doth 
 need] 
 
 ^ 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 is kingly 
 
 speed 
 
 post 
 
 t 
 o 
 
 tc 
 
 1 
 
 wait 
 
 Subject. 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 they 
 
 his state 
 
 00 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 -d 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 'o' 
 'I 
 
 Connective. 
 
 O 
 
 m5 
 
 S 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 also 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 Noun sentence, obj. 
 to k, co-ord. to I. 
 
 Adjective sentence 
 to '• they" in o. 
 
 Noun sentence, obj. 
 to k; co-ord. to I, m. 
 
 Noun sentence, obj. 
 to k, co-ord. to I, m, o. 
 
 Noun sentence to k, 
 co-ord. to I, m, o, p. 
 
 cr ^ ^ 
 
 ^ ? * 
 
 « o 
 5 --^ 
 
 Noun sentence to k, 
 co-ord. to I, m, o, p, 
 
 q, r. 
 
 Adjective sentence 
 to "they" in s. 
 
 Adjective sentence 
 
 to " they" in «, 
 
 co-ord. to t. 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 or [God doth not need] 
 his own gifts 
 
 Who best boar his mild 
 yoke 
 
 -p 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 r=5 
 >> 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 to 
 
 thottsands at his bidding 
 speed 
 
 And [thousands] post 
 o'er land and ocean with- 
 out rest 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 who only stand 
 
 1 
 
 (—1 
 
 "3 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 .a 
 
 § 
 
 
 s 
 
 ~ 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 ■^ ^* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 218. 
 Analyse : — 
 1. The man whom I call worthy of the name, is one whose thoughts 
 and exertions are for others rather than for himself ; whose high purpose 
 is adopted on just principles, and is never abandoned while heaven and 
 earth afford means of accomplishing it. He is one who will neither seek 
 an indirect advantage by a specious road, nor take an evil path to secure 
 a really good purpose. 
 
 2. Some blue peaks in the distance rose, 
 ^ And white against the cold-white sky 
 Shone out their crowning snows. 
 
 One willow over the river wept, 
 And shook the wave as the wind did sigh ; 
 Above, in the wind, was the swallow, 
 Chasing itself at its own wild will ; 
 And far through the marish green and still. 
 The water -courses slept, 
 v Shot over with purple, and green, and yellows 
 3^ The oracles are dumb ; 
 No voice or hideous hum 
 
 Runs through the arched roof in words deceiving. 
 Apollo from his shrine 
 Can no more divine, 
 
 With hollow shriek the steep of Delphos leaving. 
 No nightly trance, or breathed spell, v * 
 
 Ii^spires the pale-eyed priest from the prophetic cell, v^ 
 4. UBut yesterday, the word of Caesar might 
 
 Have stood against the world : now lies he there, 
 And none so poor to do him reverence. 
 Oh, masters ! if I were disposed to stir 
 Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage, 
 I should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius WTon^, 
 Who, you all know, are honourable men. ^ 
 
 5. Our young gentleman, by his insinuating behaviour, acquired tlie 
 full confidence of the doctor, who invited him to an entertainment, which 
 he intended to prepare in the manner of the ancients. 1( i 
 
 6. Sickness is a sort of early old age ; it teaches us a diffidence in our \\V 
 earthly state, and inspires us with the thoughts of a future, better than ' 
 a thousand volumes of philosophers and divines. 
 
 7. As I looked more attentively, I saw several of the passengeri: 
 dropping througli the bridge into the great tide that flowed underneath hv 
 it ; and upon further examination, perceived there were innumerable trap- 
 doors that lay concealed in the bridge, Mhich the passengers no sooner 
 trod upon, but they fell through them into the tide, and immediately dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 8. Through the hushed air a whitening shower descends 
 At first thin, wavering, till at last the flakes 
 Fall broad, and wide, and fast, dimming the day 
 With a continual flow. The cherished fields 
 l*ut on their winter robe of purest white : 
 'Tis brightness all, save where the new snow melti* 
 Along the mazy current. 
 
SYNTAX. 231 
 
 9. The night has been unruly ; where we lay 
 Our chimneys were blown down, and, as they say, 
 Lamentings heard i* the air, strange screams of death, 
 i^nd prophesyings with accents terribie 
 Of-dire combustions )and confused events T\\ 
 
 New hatch'd to the woful time : the obscure bird 
 Clamour'd the livelong night : some say, the earth 
 Was feverous and did shake. 
 10. Part in the plains, or in the air sublime 
 
 Upon the wing, or in the swift race, contend \ . 
 
 As at th' Olympian games, or Pythian tields ; \ J(\ 
 
 Part curb their fiery steeds, or shun the goal \ pA 
 
 With rapid wheels, or fronted brigades form v^^jk^ 
 
 As when, to warn proud cities, war appears ^ lpi\ 
 
 Wag'd in the troubled sky, and armies rush , ^- V 
 
 To battle in the clouds ; before each van 
 
 Prick forth the airy knights, and couch their spears 
 
 Till thickest legions close ; with feats of arms "^ 
 
 From either end of Heav'n the welkin rings. ^ 
 
 PART IV.— PROSODY. 
 
 456. Prosody treats of the laws of poetry or verse. 
 
 457. Accent is the stress or force which is laid on a par- 
 ticular syllable. 
 
 Obs. 1. — All words of more than one syllable are accented. Monosyllables may bo 
 accented or not as occasion requires, 
 
 Obs. 2.— The stress placed on a particular word in a sentence to distinguish the 
 sense is called Emphasis. 
 
 458. Quantity is the time which is occupied in pronouncing 
 a syllable. 
 
 Obs. 1. — In English, a syllable is long when the vowel is long, and short when the 
 vowel is short. Thus Jiate is long, hat is short. 
 Ohs. 2. — English poetry is regulated by accent, and not by quantity. 
 
 459. Recurring groups of syllables are called feet, from the 
 resemblance which the movement of the voice bears to the 
 motion of the feet in walking. 
 
 Rhythm is the regular succession of accented and unaccented 
 syllables. 
 
 Metre is a rhythmical arrangement of words, measured off in lines of 
 equal or varying length. 
 
 A verse is a cycle of feet, forming a line of poetry. 
 
 460. A Caesura ''Latin, a cutting off) is a pause in a. line of 
 poetry. 
 
 Obs.— It is generally near the middle of the line. 
 
 461. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number 
 of syllables so that those similarly accented may recur at 
 regular intervals. 
 
 Obs.— In prose the accents do not recur at regular intervals. 
 
232 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 462. Rhyme is the correspondence in sound of the final 
 syllable of one line with that of another. 
 
 Single Rhymes are those of one syllable : as, dry, try. 
 Pouble Rhymes extend over two syllables : as, drying, trying. 
 Triple Rhymes extend over three syllables : as, scornfully, mourn- 
 fully. 
 
 Obs.—The Rules for a Perfect Rhj^me are : — 
 
 1. That the vowel sound and the parts following it be the same. 
 
 2. That the parts preceding the vowel be different. 
 8. That the rhyming sjTiables be accented alike. 
 
 463. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme, and has always 
 ten syllables in a line. 
 
 464. Alliteration is the recurrence of the same letter at 
 short intervals. 
 
 065.— This is the characteristic of the earliest English poetry, which also has no 
 rhyme, " In two successive short lines, three chief words — two in the first line and 
 one in the other— are made to begin with the same letter. If one of these words has 
 a prefix, the alliteration is with the first letter of the root-word, not that of the 
 prefix. When the chief words begin with vowels, the rule is reversed and the 
 Yoweis differ "—e.g., 
 
 A mous that mmche good 
 
 Kouthe, as vie thoughte 
 
 Strook forth sterneley, 
 
 And stood bifore hem alle. 
 
 465. The different kinds of feet are :— 
 
 I. Those consisting of two syllables, viz., 
 
 (a) Iambic, in which the first is unaccented and the second accented : 
 as, confute, reside. 
 
 (6) Trochee, in which the first is accented and the second unaccented ; 
 • as, fervour, farmer. 
 
 II. Those consisting of three syllables, viz., 
 
 (a) Anapaest, in which the first and second are unaccented and the 
 third accented : as, interfere. 
 
 (i) Dactyl, in which the first is accented, and the second and third 
 unaccented : as, wdndering, clamorous. 
 
 (c) Amphibrach, in which the first and third are unaccented, and 
 
 the second accented : as, amdzement. 
 
 Ohsi.—lhoYQ are also the following kinds of two-syllable feet, (1) Spondee, consisting 
 of two accented syllables, as^ Ami-n, fdrewell ; (L>) Pyrrhic, consisting of two un- 
 accented syllables, as, (fdas-) ibl5. Of three-syllable feet, a Tribrach consists of three 
 unaccented syllables, as, (vdnjC-rable. 
 
 466. Verse is called Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic, DacfyHc, or 
 Amphibradiic, according to the kind of feet composing it. 
 
 467. The Measure of a verse is determined by the number 
 of feet in it. 
 
 468. l^Ieasures are called Monometer, Dimeter^ Trimeter^ Tetra- 
 meter, Pentaiiieler, Hexameter^ Ileptameter, or Octometer, as they 
 have onCj two, three, four, five, six, seven, or eioht feet in a line. 
 
PROSODY. 233 
 
 469. A verse which has a syllable too much is called hyper- 
 metrical or redundant. 
 
 A verse which has a syllable too little is called catalectic 
 or deficient. 
 
 A verse which is complete is called acatalectic 
 
 470. Iambic Measures. 
 
 The Iambic measure is the most common in English poetry. 
 
 It sometimes admits of an additional syllable (hypermeter) 
 
 through whole poems. 
 
 One Foot. 
 
 The bo^vl. 
 A-way. 
 
 One Foot, with an additional syllable. 
 The mo6n | lo6ks. 
 
 Two Feet. 
 
 Unheard, | nnkndwn. 
 He m^kes | his moan. 
 
 Two Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 No 6 I ther pl6a | sure 
 With this I could m^a | sure. 
 
 05s.— Iambic monometer and dimeter are only found in combination with other 
 measures. 
 
 Three Feet. 
 
 Blow, blow, j thou win j ter wind, 
 Thou dvt 1 not so | unkind. 
 
 Three Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 Hew down I the bridge, [ Sir Gun j sul, 
 With all the speed ye may. 
 
 O&j.— This is sometimes called Gay's Stanza. 
 
 FouE Feet, 
 
 And may [ at last | my w^a [ ry dge 
 Find 6ut | the ped,ce | ful her | mit^ge. 
 
 Four Feet, with an additional syllable, 
 
 I'm trii I ly s6r | ry man's | domm | iou 
 Has bro | ken Nd 1 ture's so | cial uii | ion. 
 
 Five Feet. 
 
 The ciir ] few t6\h \ the kn^U I of part j ing ddy, 
 
 The Idw I ing herd j winds slow | ly o'er j the lea, 
 
 Obs.— The Iambic pentameter, when written in rhyme, is termed the Heroic 
 Measure. Nearly all the epic, dramatic, and descriptive poetry is written in this 
 me.isure. When without rhyme, it forms our Blank Verse. 
 
 Five Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 Would God, I that a | ny in ! this no | ble pr(;3 | ence 
 Were enough noble to be upright judge. 
 
234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Six Feet. 
 
 If love I make me | forsworn, | how shdll | I swear | to 16ve ? 
 O n^ I ver f;lith | could h61d, ] if ndt | to bedu | ty vdw'd. 
 
 Ois.— This measure is called the Alexandrine. It is seldom used, except to com- 
 talete a Spenserian Stanza (§ 475). 
 
 Six Feet, with ax additional syllable. ' 
 
 Thine eye | Jove's light | ning seems, | thy voice | his dread | ful thun | der. 
 Which not to anger bent is music and sweet fire. 
 
 Seven Feet. 
 
 The king \ has come j to mar [ shal vis | in -AW \ his arm } our dr^st, 
 And he | has bdund | a sn6w j white pliime | updn | his gdl J lant cr^st. 
 
 OZ^s.— This measure is also written in lines of four feet and three feet alternately, 
 the latter being the rhyming lines. This arrangement is adopted in the metrical 
 psalms, in many hymns, and other lyrical pieces, and is called Service Metre or 
 Common Metre. From being often employed in ballads, it is also called Ballad 
 Metre. 
 
 Seven Feet, with an additional syllable 
 
 So gen I tie El I len now | no more | could make | this sad | house chee | ry. 
 And Ma | ry's m61 I ancho | ly ways | drove Ed | ward wild | and wea | ry. 
 
 Eight Feet. 
 
 O en I ter then | his gates | with praise, j approach | with joy j his courts ] 
 
 unto : 
 Praise, laud, | and bless | his name | always, | for It ] is seem | ly s6 | to 
 
 d<5. 
 
 Ohs.— This is now divided into lines of four feet rhyming alternately, and then it is 
 called Long Metre. 
 
 471. Trochaic Measures. 
 
 In trochaic verse an accented final syllable is allowable. 
 
 One Foot. 
 
 Tiirning, 
 Burning. 
 
 One Foot, with an additional syllable. 
 
 Chill'd with | tears, 
 Kill'd with I f^ars. 
 
 Two Feet. 
 
 Ht^art is | bleeding, 
 All help I needing. 
 
 T\yo Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 Give the | vengeance | dii'e 
 T6 the I vdliaut | crew. 
 
 Three Feet. 
 
 Now they | stood con | founded. 
 While the | bdttle | sounded. 
 
 Three Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 Tdke, oil I take those | lips a | wiiy, 
 That so I sw(ictly | w^re for | sworn. 
 
PROSODY. 235 
 
 Four Feet. 
 
 God of I stillness | and of j nidtion, 
 Of the I desert | jCnd the | dcean. 
 
 FocR Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 Then me | thought I i heard a | hollow | sound 
 Gdth'riug i up from I all the | lower | ground 
 
 Five Feet. 
 Virtue's | brfght'ning | ray shall | beam for | ever. 
 
 Five Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 Hark, the [ sound of | gladness [ from a | distant ] shdre. 
 
 Six Feet. 
 
 On a j mountain | stretch'd be | neath a | hojlry | willow 
 Ljiy a I shepherd | swain and | view'd the \ rdlling | billow. 
 
 Six Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 Casting ; down their | gulden | cniwns a ■ round the | gldssy | Sca. 
 
 Seven Feet. 
 
 Hasten, | L6rd, to \ rescue | me and j set me | safe from | trduble. 
 
 Seven Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 And I I said, My | cousin j Amy, ( speak, and | sp^ak the j truth to | m^ 
 Trust me, 1 coiisin, | all the | current | of my | being | sets to | th^e. 
 
 Eight Feet. 
 While I 1 uddded | nearly i napping, | suddenly there \ c^me a j tapping, 
 
 472. Anapsestic Measures. 
 
 One Foot. 
 
 'Tis in vain 
 They complain. 
 
 Two Feet. 
 
 In my rage | shall be seen 
 The revenge { of a queen. 
 
 Two Feet, with an additional syllable. 
 
 He is gone | on the moun | tain, 
 He is lost j to the for | est. 
 
 Three Feet. 
 
 From the c^n j tre all roiind | to the s^a, 
 I am \6rd \ of the fowl | and the brute. 
 
 Four Feet. 
 
 And the 6yes \ of the sleep | ers wax'd dead [ ly and chill, 
 And their hearts | but once he^v'd | and for ev | er grew still, 
 Obs. — Longer lines than tetrameters are very seldom found in this metre. 
 Four Feet, avith an additional syllable. 
 Give their roof | to the flame | and their flesh | to the 6a | glea. 
 
236 ENGLISH GRA^IMAR. 
 
 473. Dactylic Measures. 
 
 One Foot. 
 
 Fearfully, 
 Tearfully. 
 
 Two Feet. 
 
 Midnight, as ] sist our moan, 
 Help us to I sigh and groan. 
 
 Four Feet. 
 Weary way | wdnderer, | languid and [ sick at heart, 
 Travelling j painfully | 6ver the | nagged road. 
 Ojys, —Pentameters and lieptameters are seldom met with in this measure. 
 
 Six Feet. 
 This is the | forest pri j meval. But j where are the | hearts that 
 
 be I neath it 
 Leap'd like the | rde when he [ he^rs in the ] wo<5dland the 1 voice of 
 the I huntsman ? 
 Ols.—lhQ last foot is a spondee. 
 
 474. Amphibrachic Measures. 
 
 One Foot. 
 
 Hearts beating 
 At meeting. 
 
 Two Feet. 
 But nothing | can vilnquish 
 The touch that j they die from. 
 
 Three Feet. 
 A c<5nqnest 1 how hard and | how gldrious. 
 
 Three Feet, catalectic. 
 A116w me | to miise and | to sigh, 
 Nor talk of | the chdnge that | ye find 
 
 Four Feet. 
 I cllmb'd the ] dark brclw of | the mighty ] Helvt^llyn. 
 Four Feet, catalectic. 
 O hush thee, | my Mbie, | thy sire was | a knight, 
 Thy m6ther | a Iddy | both lovely | and bright. 
 Chs.—li is not uncommon to read dactylic or anapaestic lines as amphibrachic. Iho 
 regular amphibrach metre being rare. 
 
 475. Stanzas. 
 A Stanza is the combination of a certain number of lines 
 in rhyme. 
 
 A Couplet is a stanza of two lines. 
 A Triplet is a stanza of three lines. 
 
PROSODY. 237 
 
 A Quatrain is a stanza of four lines, 
 
 A Senary is a stanza of six lines. 
 
 Octosyllabics are verses made up each of four iambics, 
 and therefore containing eight syllables. 
 
 Elegiacs are quatrains of iambic heptameters, with the 
 rhymes alternate. 
 
 Terza Rima is a stanza consisting of heroics, with three 
 rhymes at intervals. 
 
 Rhyme Royal is a stanza of seven lines of heroics. 
 
 Ottava Rima is a stanza of eight lines of heroics. 
 
 Spenserian Stanza is a stanza of nine lines, the first 
 eight heroics, and the last an Alexandrine 
 
 A Sonnet is a stanza of fourteen lines, each line being an 
 iambic pentameter. 
 
 476. Scanning is the dividing of verse into the feet of 
 which it is composed. 
 
 Ols.—ln scanning, divide the feet by pei-pendicular lines, name each foot, and then 
 name the measure of the whole line or verse. 
 
 Exercise 219. 
 Scan the foUowino' : — 
 
 1. It was a friar of orders gv&y 
 Walk'd forth to tell his beads. 
 
 2. 'Tis night, and the landscape is lovely no more ; 
 I mourn, but, ye woodlands, I mourn not for you. 
 
 3. I've seen the smiling 
 Of fortune beguiling. 
 
 4. Bowers, adieu ! where love decoying. 
 
 First enthrall'd this heai't o' mine. - 
 
 5. I saw from the beach, when the morning was shiningi - 
 A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on. ^ ((^ft C^^"^ 
 
 6. Like leviathans afloat r1 CU ^ 
 Lay their bulwarks on the brine. V h 
 
 7. Fast they come, fast they come ; 
 See how they gather, 
 
 8. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, 
 From the seas and the streams. 
 
 9. I have breath'd on the South, and the chestnut flowers 
 By thousands have burst from the forest bowers. 
 
 10. Merrily, merrily shall I live now, /^A""^" 
 
 Under the blossom that hangs on the bough. V^ 
 
 Questions on §§ 456 — 476. 
 
 1. "WTiat is prosody? 2. "What is accent? 3. What is emphasis? 4. What 18 
 quantity? 5. How is the length of a syllable determined? 6. What arc feet? 7. 
 What is rhythm? 8. What is metre? [K What is a verse? 10. What is a cajsura? 
 11. What is versification? 12. What is rhyme? 13. What are single rliymes? li. 
 
23S r.NGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 What are double rhymes? 15. What are triple rhymes? 16. Give the rules for a 
 perfect rhjmic. 17. What is blank verse? IS. What is alliteration? 19. Name the 
 different kinds of feet. W. What is an iambic? 21. What is a trochee? 22. What 
 is an anapaest? 23. What is a dactj-1? 24. What is an amphibrach ? 25. How is the 
 measure of a verse determined ? 26. Kame tlie measures. 27. Explain the terms 
 hypermetrical, catolccik, and acatalcciic. 28. Give examples of iambic measures. 29. 
 GJve e.\amples of trochaic measures. SO. Give examples of anapsestic measures. 
 .^1. Give examples of dactylic measures. 32. Give examples of amphibrachic 
 measures. 33. What is a stanza ? 34. What is a couplet ? 35. What is a triplet '{ 
 36. What is a senary? 37. What are octo.syllabics ? 38. What are elegiacs? 39. 
 What is terza rima ? 40. AVhat is rhyme royal ? 41. What is ottava rima ? ■l2. What 
 is the Spenserian stanza ? 43. What is a sonnet ? 44. What is scanning ? 
 
 PART Y.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 477. Punctuation (Latin pandum, a jDoint) is the art of 
 dividing written language into sentences, or parts of sentences, 
 by points or stops, for the purpose of showing the relation of 
 the words, and of indicating the different pauses which the 
 sense requires. 
 
 478. The stops used in English are :— 
 
 The Comma , The Note of Interrogation ? 
 
 The Semicolon ; The Note of Exclamation ! 
 
 The Colon : The Parenthesis ( ) 
 
 The Period or Full Stop . Quotation Marks *< " 
 
 The Dash — 
 
 The Comma. 
 
 479. Rule I. The subject, predicate, and object, in their 
 simplest forms, or even with simple enlargements, are not 
 separated from each other by any point : as, 
 
 The rolling mountains of the deep obey thy strong commaud. 
 
 480. Rule II. When several words (as a noun sentence or 
 an infinitive or participial phrase) are used as the subject, or 
 when the subject has several inseparable enlargements, a 
 comma is sometimes placed before the verb : but it is often 
 better to omit the comma unless the omission would cause 
 ambiguity : as, 
 
 To be indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character. Or (better). 
 To be indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. 
 
 481. Rule m. Subordinate sentences are separated from 
 the principal sentence and from one another by commas : as, 
 
 That Carcass, which you call dead Societj', is but her mortal coil. 
 06s.— There are many exceptions to this rule : — 
 
 1. When phrases and subordinate sentences arc employed in a restrictive sense 
 no comma is used : jus, 
 
 The liord is nigh imto them that arc of a broken heart. 
 
 2. When the subordinate sentence is short and closely connected with the 
 l*rincipal sontcucc, no comma is used : as, 
 
 The noise pursues me whercsoo'cr I go. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 239 
 
 482. Rule IV. The nominative of address, the nominative 
 absohite, the infinitive absohite, the imperative absohite, and 
 the participle used absokitely are separated from the rest of 
 the sentence by commas : as, 
 
 (1) Mark, king of Scotland, mai'k. ; (2) The wind being favourable, the squadron 
 sailed ; (3) To be brief, I accuse the prisoner of theft ; (4) Lend nie some money, say 
 five i^ounds ; (o) Generally speaking, one will suffice. 
 
 483. Rule V. Adverbs and adverbial phrases are some- 
 times separated from one another by commas : as, 
 
 Afterwards, in the time of Elizabeth, another gi-eat change was made. 
 
 484. Rule VI. Adverbial phrases and connectives used 
 parenthetically are separated by commas from the rest of the 
 sentence : as, 
 
 (1) In sooth, such things have beou ; (2) I told him, however, that I should not go. 
 
 Otis. — The following words are separated in this way, especially when they begin a 
 sentence : Again, besides, finnlly, first, firstly, hence, hoiccver, lastly, moreover, nojyiety, 
 nciy, now, secondly {thirdly, etc.), so, then, therefore, thus. 
 
 485. Rule VII. Words brought together in the same con- 
 struction must be separated by a comma : as, 
 
 Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother's hand. 
 
 Of life, of crowm, of queen, at once despatch'd. 
 
 486. Rule VIII. When two words are joined by a con- 
 junction, they are not separated by a comma : as, 
 
 Ramped and roared the lions, with horrid laughing jaws. 
 
 Ohs. — But a comma must be used (1) when the conjunction is omitted, as. This, 
 however, was concealed from all except Captain Hardy, the chaplain, and the 
 medical attendants ; (2) when there are several enlargements to the words, as. This 
 nut contains a white fleshy kernel, and a sweet liquor called cocoa-nut milk. 
 
 487- Rule IX. When words are joined in pairs by a con- 
 junction, the pairs are separated by a comma : as, 
 
 We should be devout and humble, cheerful and serene. 
 
 488. Rule X. A comma is used when a word is omitted : 
 as, 
 
 Peace bi-ings prosperity ; war, desolation. 
 
 489. Rule XL A comma is sometimes used to separate co- 
 ordinate sentences when the clauses are simple and the con- 
 nexion close : as, 
 
 Now the hungry lion roars. 
 And the wolf behowls the moon. 
 
 The Semicolon. 
 
 490. Rule XII. A semicolon is used to separate two co- 
 ordinate sentences not so closely connected as those separated 
 by commas : as, 
 
 Thou hast her, France ; let her be thine. 
 
 Ohs. — A semicolon is vised to separate subordinate sentences, when each of them 
 depends dii-ectly on the principal sentence and has the same relation to it : as, Much 
 
240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 more, sir, is he to be abhon-ed who, as he has advanced in age, has receded fr<»m 
 virtue, and become more wicked with less temptation ; who prostitutes himself for 
 money which he cannot enjoy, and spends the remains of his life in the ruin of his 
 countiy. 
 
 The Colon. 
 
 491. Rule XIII. When the members or clauses of a com- 
 pound sentence make a complete sense in themselves and are 
 not joined by a conjunction, they are separated b}^ a colon /I 
 as h>JAC/U^"J| 
 
 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest : it becomes ! "^ i lL^ 
 
 The throned monarch better than his crown. L^C^'^^ 
 
 492. Rule XIV. The colon is used before a quotation ; as, 
 
 Saith godly Canynge : " I do wee-p, 
 That thou so soon must die." 
 
 03,5.— When the quotation closely depends on the preceding sentence, a comma is 
 used : as 
 
 Then did she say, " Now have I found the proverb true to prove, 
 The falling out of faithful friends renewing is of love." 
 
 The Period. 
 
 493. Rule XV. The period or full stop is put at the end 
 
 of a sentence, whether simple, complex, or compound : as, 
 
 The flame is hollow. 
 
 Inside of it is the vapour I told you of just now. 
 
 Meantime the French had given way, and were flying in all directions. 
 
 The Dash. 
 
 494. Rule XVI. The dash is used to mark a break in the 
 sentence : as, 
 
 Then returning to me again, he said: "But your father— how came you not to 
 show him what you wrote ?" 
 
 The Note of Interrogation. 
 
 495. Rule XVII. The note of interrogation is put at the 
 end of a direct question : as, 
 
 Will he ne'er come again ? 
 
 The Note of Exclamation. 
 
 496. Rule XVIII. The note of exclamation is used after 
 interjections and other exclamatory expressions : as, 
 
 (1) Ho ! ho ! the breakers roared. (2) Oh, for a soft and gentle wind ! 
 
 Obs. — When the nominative of address is i)receded bj' 0, it is often followed by a 
 note of exclamation : as, O Heaven I he cried, my bleeding country save ! 
 
 The Parenthesis. 
 
 497. Rule XIX. The parenthesis is used to enclose an 
 explanatory phrase or sentence : as, 
 
 A vast number of fiiscincs (bundles of wood) had been cniploj'cd by the army in 
 conducting the siege. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 
 
 241 
 
 Quotation Marks. 
 
 498. Rule XX. Quotation marks are used to mark the 
 actual words of the speaker or writer : as, 
 
 I follow'd him, and said, "My friend, 
 What ails you ? wherefore weep you so T 
 
 Questions on §§ 477—498. 
 
 1. What is punctuation ? 2. Name the stops used in English. 3. Which parts of a 
 sentence are not separated by any point ? 4. When may the subject be separated 
 from the verb by. a comma? 5. How are subordinate sentences separated from the 
 principal sentence and from one another '? 6, State the exceptix)ns to this rule. 7. 
 Name absolute phrases separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 8. ilow 
 is the nominative of address separated ? 9. How are adverbial phrases separated ? 
 10. Name adverbs and connectives which arc usually separated by commas from the 
 rest of the sentence. 11. How are words brought together in the same construction 
 separated? 12. When words are joined in pairs by a conjunction, which stop is 
 used? 13. Give an example in which a comma marks the omission of a word. 14. 
 Give an example in which a comma separates co-ordinate sentences. 15. How is a 
 semicolon used? 1(3. When is a colon u.?cd ? 17. Where is a period put? IS. What 
 is the use of the dash ? 19. How is a note of interrogation used ? 20. Where is a 
 note of exclamation used ? 21. How is the parenthesis used? 22. For what purpose 
 are quotation marks used? 
 
 PART YL— ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 499. The languages spoken in the world may be divided 
 into the Aryan or Indo-European, the Semitic, the Turanian, 
 the Chinese and Indo-Chinese, the African and the American 
 Indian. 
 
 500. The Aryan fa,mily of languages comprehends nearly 
 all the languages of Europe and several of those of Asia. The 
 following table shows the relation of the chief Aryan or Indo- 
 European languages. 
 
 A. Asiatic. 
 
 I. Indian 
 
 (or Hindu). 
 
 dialects descended from 
 
 II. Iranian. 
 
 C\. Sanskrit (dead). 
 
 2. Prakrit (dead). 
 
 3. Pali (dead). 
 
 4. Modern Indian 
 
 Sanskrit : — 
 (a) Hindi. 
 {h) HindustanL 
 
 (c) Bengali. 
 
 [d) Mahratti, etc. 
 
 5. Cingalese. 
 
 6. Gipsy dialects (Hindu patois). 
 
 /I. Zend (dead). 
 
 2. Cuneiform inscriptions of Darius, Xerxes, 
 
 etc. 
 
 3. Modem Persian. 
 
 4. Armenian. 
 
 5. Khurdish. 
 '6. Afghan. 
 
2i2 
 
 ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. 
 
 B. European. 
 
 III. Keltic. 
 
 IV. Italian. 
 
 V, Greek 
 
 (or Hellenic). 
 
 'a. Cymric : — 
 
 (1) Welsh, 
 
 (2) Cornish (dead). 
 
 (3) Bas-Breton or Armorican. 
 j3. Gadhelic : — 
 
 (1) Erse or Irish. 
 
 (2) Gaelic. 
 
 (3) Manx. 
 
 fl. Old Italian dialects : — 
 (a) Oscan (dead). 
 h) Umbrian (dead), 
 {c) Latin (dead). 
 2. Romance languages descended from Latin : — 
 
 (a) Italian. 
 
 (b) French. 
 
 (c) Provenyal. 
 {d) Spanish. 
 {e) Portuguese. 
 
 (/) Romansch (spoken in the Grisons, a 
 
 canton of Switzerland). 
 (g) Wallachian. 
 
 1. Ancient Greek, comprising the classical 
 Greek dialects : — 
 (a) Ionic. 
 {b) Doric, 
 (c) ^olic. 
 id) Attic. 
 ^2. Modern Greek or Romaic. 
 
 /a. 
 
 VI. Teutonic. 
 
 Low German : — 
 
 (1) Mffiso- Gothic, formerly spoken in 
 
 Dacia (dead). 
 
 (2) Frisian : — 
 
 (a) Old Frisian (dead). 
 {b) Modern Frisian, spoken in 
 Friesland. 
 
 (3) Dutch : - 
 
 {a) Old Dutch (dead). 
 (6) MocKrn Dutch (Holland and 
 Belgium. 
 
 (4) Flemish :— 
 
 (a) Old Flemish (dead). 
 
 (b) !Modcrn Flemish. 
 
 (5) Old Saxon, formerly spoken between 
 
 the Rhine and the Elbe (dead). 
 (G) English : — 
 
 {a) Old English or Anglo-Saxon 
 
 (dead). 
 {b) !Modern English. 
 * Lowland Scotch. 
 
 II 
 
OKIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 243 
 
 //3. 
 
 VI. Teutonic 
 
 {contimied). 
 
 VII. Lettic. 
 
 Vni, Sclavonic. 
 
 y- 
 
 
 a. 
 
 (3. 
 
 \ 
 
 Scandinavian : — 
 
 (1) Old Norse (dead). 
 
 (2) Icelandic. 
 
 (3) Ferroic. 
 
 (4) Danish : — 
 
 {a) Norwegian. 
 {h) Swedi,7b. 
 High German : — 
 
 (1) Old High German (eighth to eleven 
 
 century). 
 
 (2) Middle High German (twelfth to 
 
 fifteenth century). 
 
 (3) Modern High German. 
 
 Old Lettic (dead). 
 
 Lettish or Livoniau (spoken in Kurland and 
 
 Livonia). 
 Lithuanian (spoken in E. Prussia). 
 
 South-east Sclavonic : — 
 
 (1) Old Bulgaria]! ( .r 
 
 Slavic. 
 
 (2) Modern Bulgarian. 
 
 (3) Russian. 
 
 (4) Illyrian : — 
 
 (a) Servian. 
 {b) Kroatian. 
 (c) Slovenian 
 Styria). 
 Western Sclavonic : — 
 (.5) Polish. 
 
 (6) Bohemian or Tchechiau. 
 
 (7) Slovakian (spoken by Slovaks in 
 Hungary). 
 
 Ecclesiastical 
 
 (Carinthia and 
 
 (8) Wendian or 
 
 dialects). 
 
 (9) Polabian. 
 
 Serbian (Lusatian 
 
 Obs. 1. — The word Aryan is from the Sanskrit, and means '"honourable," "noble." 
 Obs. 2.— The only European peoples not belonjjing to the Aryan family are the 
 
 Turks, the Jews, the Lapps, the Finns, the Esths of Estlionia, the Magyars and the 
 
 Basques (iu N. Spain). 
 
 501. When the various languages of the Aryan family are 
 examined, it is found that a certfiiri family likeness exists in 
 the words of waich they are composed. The law which regu- 
 lates this correspondence is called Grimm's Law, and is as 
 follows : — 
 
 I. If the same roots or the same words exist in Sanskrit, 
 Greek, Latin, Keltic, Slavonic, Lithuanian, Gothic, and Old 
 High German, then wherever the Sanskrit or Greek has an 
 aspintte, the Gothic has the corresponding /«^ mute, and the 
 Old High German the corresponding shar2) mute. 
 
 16—2 
 
244 
 
 ENGLISH GRAI^BIAR. 
 
 IT. If in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Keltic, and 
 Slavonic, we find Viflat mute, then we find a corresponding 
 sharp mute in Gothic, and a corresponding aspirate in Old 
 High German. 
 
 Ill When the six first-named languages ' show a sharp 
 mute, then Gothic shows the corresponding aspirate, and 
 Old High German the corresponding /a/f mute. 
 
 General Table cf Grimm's Law. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 bh 
 (h) 
 
 f(b)' 
 b 
 
 b 
 
 II. 
 dh 
 
 (b) 
 G 
 
 f (d, 
 b) 
 
 d 
 d 
 
 III. 
 
 gb 
 (h) 
 
 X 
 h(f) 
 
 g 
 g(z) 
 
 
 
 g{z) 
 
 ■ 
 
 g 
 
 k 
 
 IV. 
 
 b 
 
 b 
 b 
 
 b 
 ' b 
 
 (P) 
 
 ph 
 (f) 
 
 i 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. ; 
 
 VII. 
 
 P 
 
 7r 
 P 
 
 (P) 
 
 P 
 P 
 
 f(b) 
 
 f (V) 
 
 VIII. 
 
 t 
 
 T 
 t 
 
 t 
 (th) 
 
 t 
 t 
 
 th 
 
 (d) 
 d 
 
 IX. 
 
 1 
 
 k : 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 C 1 
 
 (qu) ■ 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 h.g 
 (f) 
 
 b, g, 
 h 
 
 Sanskrit 
 
 d 
 
 g ; 
 
 Greek 
 
 d 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 d 
 
 t 
 z 
 
 r 1' 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 g ! 
 g 
 
 g(z) 
 g (z)' 
 
 k 
 ch 
 
 
 Latin 1 
 
 Keltic 
 
 
 Slavonic 
 
 lydli uanian 
 
 b 
 
 i 
 
 i b 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 p 
 
 d 
 d 
 
 t 
 
 
 Gothic 
 
 Old Hiyh German 
 
 Ohs. 1.— Keltic, Slavonic, and Lithuanian have no distinction between aspirates and 
 
 ' Obs. 2 — "" If it be remembered that soft=Jlat and hard = i<}uii-p, tlio whole of Grimm's 
 law can be remembered by the mnemonic word Ash, with its varying forms Sha or 
 Has according to the sound which is to come first" (Dr. Morris). Thus the 
 mnemonic word for tlie first law is Asii, for the second Sha, and for the third Has. 
 
 Examples op Grimm's Law. 
 
 The following examples are chiefly from Bopp and Max Muller. It will 
 be borne in miud that English follows the changes of the Gothic. 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 245 
 
 I. 
 
 SansJcrit. 
 
 Gvcik. 
 
 Liiliit. 
 frango 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Old High 
 Gtrnian, 
 
 Enr)lish. 
 
 bhanj 
 
 rhegnumi 
 
 brikan 
 
 prechan 
 
 break 
 
 
 bhratr 
 
 phrater 
 
 frater 
 
 brothar 
 
 pruoder 
 
 brother 
 
 
 bhrf 
 
 phero 
 
 fero 
 
 baira 
 
 piru 
 
 bear 
 
 
 bhavami 
 
 phuo 
 
 fu (in fui) 
 
 
 pirn 
 
 [ am (O.E. 
 
 II. 
 
 
 
 fera 
 
 
 tior 
 
 beom) 
 
 
 ther or 
 
 dius 
 
 deer (O.E 
 
 
 
 pher 
 
 
 
 
 deor) 
 
 
 dhrish 
 
 tharsein or 
 tharreln 
 
 fortis 
 
 gadaursan 
 
 tarran 
 
 dare 
 
 
 — 
 
 themis 
 
 
 doms 
 
 — 
 
 doom 
 
 
 madhya 
 
 messes 
 
 mediu-s 
 
 midja 
 
 miti 
 kans 
 
 mid 
 
 IIL 
 
 hansa 
 
 chen 
 
 anser 
 
 gans 
 
 goose 
 
 
 hyas 
 
 chthos 
 
 heri 
 
 gistra 
 
 kestar 
 
 yester day 
 
 
 lih 
 
 leicho 
 
 b'ngo 
 
 laigo 
 
 lekom 
 
 lick 
 
 IV.* 
 
 
 chole 
 
 fel 
 
 
 
 gall 
 
 kubja 
 
 kubos 
 
 cubo 
 
 hups 
 
 huf 
 
 hip 
 
 V. 
 
 dvau 
 
 duo 
 
 duo 
 
 tvai 
 
 zuei 
 
 two 
 
 
 dru 
 
 drus 
 
 — 
 
 triu 
 
 
 tree 
 
 
 dama 
 
 domos 
 
 domus 
 
 timr 
 
 zimmer 
 
 timber 
 
 VL 
 
 uda 
 
 hudor 
 
 unda 
 
 vatu 
 kan 
 
 wazar 
 
 water 
 
 jna 
 
 gnomi 
 
 gnosco 
 
 chan 
 
 ken 
 
 
 janu 
 
 gonii 
 
 genu 
 
 kniu 
 
 chniu 
 
 knee 
 
 
 jati 
 
 genos 
 
 genus 
 
 kuni 
 
 chunni 
 
 kin 
 
 
 jani 
 pada 
 
 gune 
 
 pes (pedis) 
 
 (pn6(qen3) 
 
 chena 
 
 queen 
 
 VIL 
 
 pous(podos) 
 
 fotus 
 
 vuoz 
 
 foot 
 
 
 panchan 
 
 pente 
 
 ([umque 
 
 fimf 
 
 vinf 
 
 five 
 
 
 pitri 
 
 pater 
 
 pater 
 
 fadar 
 
 vatar 
 
 father 
 
 
 pilrn'a 
 
 pleos 
 
 plenus 
 
 fulls 
 
 vol 
 
 full 
 
 VIIL 
 
 trayas 
 
 trois 
 
 tres 
 
 threis 
 
 dri 
 
 three 
 
 
 tvam 
 
 tu 
 
 tu 
 
 thu 
 
 du 
 
 thou 
 
 
 tanus 
 
 — 
 
 tenuis 
 
 (OldNorse, 
 thunnr) 
 
 dunni 
 
 thin 
 
 
 tad 
 
 to 
 
 — 
 
 thata 
 
 (Ger. das) 
 
 that 
 
 IX. 
 
 hrid 
 
 kardia 
 
 cor(cordis) 
 
 hairt6 
 
 herza 
 
 heart 
 
 
 kas 
 
 kos (pos) 
 
 [UlS 
 
 hvas 
 
 wer 
 
 who (O.E. 
 hva) 
 
 
 9van 
 
 kuon 
 
 cams 
 
 hunths 
 
 hund 
 
 hound 
 
 1 
 
 pagu 
 
 poll 
 
 pecus 
 
 faihu 
 
 vihu 
 
 fee (cattle) 
 
 * E.xamples of this ckiss are very rare. 
 
246 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 502. The English language is a Low German dialect of 
 the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family of languages ; and 
 was brought into this country by our ancestors, who originally 
 dwelt on the shores of the Baltic and in the lowlands of 
 German}^ 
 
 503. The first English Settlement in this country was 
 made in 449. The people called themselves ^Englisc or 
 English, and they called the land in which they settled ^ngla- 
 land or England. The settlers were made up of three tribes, 
 Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. 
 
 The following is a list of all the settlements made : — 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 Tribe. 
 
 Zea kr. 
 
 Settlement. 
 
 Datr. ; 
 
 Jutes 
 Saxons 
 Saxons 
 Saxons 
 
 Angles 
 Angles 
 
 Hengist and Horsa 
 
 Ella and Cissa 
 Cerdic and Cynric 
 
 Ida 
 
 Kent, I. of Wight, and Hamijshirc 
 
 Sussex 
 
 Wessex 
 
 Essex 
 
 East Anglia 
 
 f Beornicia (Ijetween Tweed and > 
 \ Forth) 1 
 
 449 
 
 477 
 
 495 
 
 530 
 ( During reign' 
 ( of Cerdic 
 
 547 
 
 1 
 
 Two other kingdoms, viz., Deira and Mercia, were sub- 
 sequently established by the Angles. 
 
 The language introduced by these settlers was an inflected 
 language, and it was an unmixed language. In course of 
 time, it has lost most of its inflexions, and has borrowed many 
 words from other languages. 
 
 The people who inhabited this land prior to the arrival of 
 the English were of Keltic race. They spoke a Keltic 
 language. From this the English borrowed some words. 
 The Romans had conquered the country, and from their 
 language certain words (such as names of places in caster) 
 were adopted. These words form what is called the Latin oj 
 the First Period. 
 
 504. Our English forefathers were converted to Christi- 
 anity in the sixth centuiy. Many Latin words were intro- 
 duced by ecclesiastics and by English writers who translated 
 Latin works. This is called the Latin of the Second Period. 
 
 505. At the end of the eighth century, the Danes or 
 Koithmen ravaged the shores of England and neighbouring 
 countries, and, in the ninth century, they had permanent 
 settlements in England, especially in tho kingdoms of 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 247 
 
 Xorthumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. In the eleventh 
 century, Danish sovereigns ruled over all England. The 
 Danish and English were kindred tongues. It is difficult to 
 ascertain precisely from which of the two some of our modern 
 English words are derived. 
 
 506. After the Norman invasion in 1066, French became 
 the language of the court, the nobility, the clergy, courts of 
 law, schools, and literature. The Norman and English races 
 ultimately coalesced, and the language of the majority, viz., 
 English, prevailed. Through the French, many Latin words 
 were added to the language. This is called the Latin of the 
 Third Period. The French words adopted in English are 
 terms having reference to war and the feudal system, to the 
 church, to the law, and to the chase. 
 
 507. A great revival of learning took place in the 
 beginning of the sixteenth centur3^ This gave rise to the 
 introduction of another large number of Latin words into 
 English. This is called the Latin of the Fourth Period. 
 
 508. The advance of science has led to the introduction 
 of many words, especially from the Greek, and the spread 
 of commerce has caused the adoption of words from almost 
 every language in the world. 
 
 509. The number of words in the language is over 
 100,000. Most of these are words adopted from other 
 languages. The chief element, however, in our current speech 
 is pure English. 
 
 510. The English element includes :— 
 
 1. The parts of speech most extensively used : adjectives of quantity, 
 numeral adjectives, distinguishing adjectives, pronouns, auxiliary and 
 defective verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and primary adverbs. 
 
 2. Words formed by modification : as, irregular verbs, nouns forming 
 their plural by a change of vowel, and primary derivatives (and their 
 roots). 
 
 3. Grammatical inflexions : as, the plural endings (s and en), the 
 possessive ending ('s), the person endings of verbs, and the degree endings 
 of adjectives. 
 
 4. Many common prefixes and suffixes (§§ 262, 265 — 269). 
 
 5. Most words of one syllable : as, sun, wife, home. 
 
 6. Most of ths nouns, verbs, and adjectives in most common use. 
 
 Ohs. 1.— In the last class are included words expressive of natural feelings ; names 
 of objects of natural scenery, heavenly bodies, animals, bodily organs and postures ; 
 words used in earliest chUdhood, in the business of the shop, market, street, or farm; 
 words used in proverbs ; terms of satire, contempt, invective, humour, anger, and 
 pleasantry. 
 
 06s. 2. —Notwithstanding the large number of words derived from foreign sources, 
 
2f8 
 
 ENGLISH GPvAlNrMAR. 
 
 it still remains, both in its vocabulary and its grammar, essentially Teutonic. Pro- 
 fessor Marsh, in his "Lectures on the English Language," gives the following 
 examples among others :— 
 
 Chaucer, in his " Nonnes Preestes Tale," employs of Anglo- 
 Saxon words 
 
 Sir Thomas More (in 7 folio pages) 
 
 Spenser (in 1 canto) ... 
 
 New Testament (in 13 selected chapters) ... 
 
 Shakespeare (3 Acts) ... 
 
 Milton ("L' Allegro") 
 
 „ (" Paradise Lost," Book VL) 
 
 Pope (" First Epistle," and " Essay on Man ") 
 
 Johnson (Preface to " Dictionary ") 
 
 Macaulay (" Essay on Racon ") ... 
 
 Robert Browning (" Blougram's Apology") 
 
 Tennyson (" Lotus Eaters ") 
 
 Ruskin (" Modern Painters ") ... 
 
 Longfellow (" Miles Standish ") 
 
 511. The Keltic element in English is comparatively 
 small and consists of : — 
 
 1. GeograpMcal names of : — 
 
 («) Rivers : as, Trent, Oitse, Avon, Exe (with the forms Axe, E,^h, 
 Uix, UsJc, Ux, all meaning " water "), Don, Dee, Thames, Severn. 
 
 {h) Islands : as, Wight, Arran, Mull, Man, Bute. 
 
 (c) Hills : as, Mendip, Malvern, Chiltern, Grampian, Cheviot. 
 
 {(l) Counties : as, Kent {Cant-^si corner), Glamorgan, Cornwall, 
 Devon. 
 
 (e) Towns : as, Penzance, Cardiff, Caerleon, Carlisle. 
 
 2. Components of geographical names : — 
 
 93 pel 
 
 • cent. 
 
 84 
 
 
 86 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 89 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 (0 
 
 
 S4 
 
 
 87 
 
 
 73 ' 
 
 ,. 
 
 87 
 
 )> 
 
 Aber, a mouth : Aberystwyth, Aber- 
 
 feldy, Aberwick (Berwick). 
 Al, white : Albyn, Allan. 
 Ard, aird, high : Lizard Point (high 
 
 fort point), Ardnamurchan, Kin- 
 
 naird, Ard^rosi^an. 
 Ath, ford : Athlone. 
 Auch, ach, audiin, a field : Auchln- 
 
 lecJc, Achray, AiirhmuU. 
 Auchter, a height : Auchttrarder, 
 
 Auchtergaven. 
 Baly bally, a village : Balmoral, 
 
 Balgoxcnie, BallysJiannon . 
 Bala, issue of river from lake : Bala, 
 
 Balloch. 
 Ban, white : Bandar,, Banna. 
 Beg, little : BuUyhcg. 
 Ben, a mountain : Ben Nevis, Ben 
 
 Lomond. 
 Blair, a plain or open : Blair Goivric, 
 
 Blair Athol. 
 Brae, a hill or slope : Braemar. 
 
 Cairn, a heap of stones : Cairngorm^ 
 
 Cairn toul. 
 Cambus, the bend of a river : Cam- 
 
 bushennefh. 
 Can, a point : Cantire. 
 Cefn, back, chine : Cheviot, Keyn- 
 
 ton. 
 Coed, a wood : Cotsicold. 
 Combe, civm, a hollow or vale : }Vy- 
 
 combe, Ilfracombe, Cwmneath. 
 Craig, carrick, croagh, crich, a crag, 
 
 a rocky mountain : Craigmillar, 
 
 Carrickfergus, Croagh patrick, 
 
 Crickhovell. 
 C^d, back or hind part : Cidross. 
 Dal, del, a plain : Dalkeith, Dol- 
 
 Dliu, dhuibh, duff, di(, do, doo, don, 
 black, dark : Rossdhu, Benmuick- 
 duibh, Dvffcrin, Didoch, Dov 
 (=Do-avon), Doon ( = Doo-avon), 
 DoveraJi. 
 
 Caer, car, a fort : Caernarvon, Car- Don, water : Bandon. 
 
 low. j Dour, water : Darent, Dart, Darwin, 
 
 Cain, white : Ken, Kennef. 1 Derwent. 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 249 
 
 Drum, a ridge : Drumcliff, Drum- 
 clog. 
 
 Dun, dum, don, a hill : Dunfermline, 
 Dumbarton, Snowdon. 
 
 Esk, water : E>^ker, Estlnvaite. 
 
 Gar IV, rough : Garry, Yarrou\ 
 
 Glen, glyn, a narrow valley : Glencoe, 
 Glenshee, Glynneath. 
 
 Gorm, blue : Cairr^gorm. 
 
 Givent, a plain : Winchester. 
 
 Inch, innis, ennis, ynys, an island : 
 Inchcape, Innishofin, Enniskillen, 
 Ynysmoch. 
 
 Inver, a nioiith : Inverary. 
 
 Ken, kin, a head : Kenmare, Kinrofi'^. 
 
 Kit, a cell, chapel : Kilmarnock, Kil- 
 kenny. 
 
 Knock, a hill : Knockmeledown. 
 
 Lin, a pool : Roslin, Linlithgow. 
 
 Lis, a mound : Lismore. 
 
 Llan, a sacred enclosure : Llandaff, 
 
 Magh, a plain : Armagh. 
 Mar, more, mavr, great, 
 
 large : 
 Strathmore, Penmaen- 
 
 3Io7'ven, 
 
 maivr. 
 Mor, sea : Moray, Glamorgan. 
 Pen, a hill : Penmaenmawr, Pen 
 
 rhyn, Pen-y-gant. 
 Rath, a mound : liathlin. 
 Bin, a point : Penrhyn. 
 Pos, rose, ross, a promontory : Pos- 
 
 lin, Melrose, Culross. 
 Slieve, a hill : Slieve Bloom. 
 Strath, a valley : Strathmore, Strath- 
 earn. 
 Tarn, spreading, broad : Tamar, 
 
 Thames. 
 Tre, a town : Oswestry (=--town of 
 
 St. Oswald). 
 Tulla, tully, a height : Tullamore, 
 
 Tullyhardine. 
 Wy, water : Comvay. 
 
 Llandudno. 
 
 3. Names of things (implements, etc.) in common use, cind 
 also other familiar terms* : — 
 
 Balderdash [haldorddus, prating). 
 
 Barrow [her fa, a mound). 
 
 Basket (hasgaicd). 
 
 Bill {brvyell, a hatchet). 
 
 Bran (bran, skin of wheat). 
 
 Broider [brodiarr, to darn, embroider). 
 
 Bug, bugbear {bwg, hobgoblin). 
 
 Bully {bygylu, to threaten). 
 
 Bump {picmp, round mass). 
 
 Button {botwrn). 
 
 Cabin {cab, caban, Imt). 
 
 Carol [carawl, love-song). 
 
 Chine [cefn, back). 
 
 Clout [clwt, a patch). 
 
 Coble {ceubal, a boat). 
 
 Cock, in cockboat [cwch, boat). 
 
 Cocker {cockru, to indulge). 
 
 Cower [ctorian, to squat). 
 
 Cramp, in cramp-iron (craff, clasp, 
 
 brace; 'Fx.cigraffe). 
 Crimp {crim, crimp, ridge). 
 Crisp {crlsb). 
 Crockery {crochan, pot). 
 Crook [crog, a hook). 
 Crouch {crwcan, to bend). 
 Crowd {cricth, a fiddle). 
 
 [Cudgel {cog, truncheon ; cogel, shoit 
 
 staff). 
 Cvdl {cwll, separation). 
 Cuts = lots {ciufws, lots). 
 Dainty {dantaeth, choice morsel). 
 Darn {darn, patch). 
 Dock {fociaiv, to cut short). 
 Drill {rhill, a row). 
 Drill {trid, a borer). 
 Flannel {giclanen, from gvdan, 
 
 wool). 
 Flaw {fflaw, shiver, splinter). 
 Fleam {jflaim, cattle-lancet). 
 Flip {guiyb, liquor). 
 Flummery {llymry, jelly made with 
 
 oatmeal). 
 Frieze {ffris, nap of cloth). 
 Fudge {fug, deception). 
 Funnel '{ffynel, air-hole, chimney). 
 Garter {gardus, from ga)', shank, 
 
 tas, tie). 
 Glen {glyn, valley). 
 Goal {grryal, mark). 
 Goblin {coblyn, a sprite). 
 Gown {gwn, robe). 
 Griddle {greidell, iron baking-plate). 
 
 * Selected from a longer list given by Mr. Garnett iu the "Proceedings of the 
 Philological Society," vol. i., p. 171 et seq. 
 
250 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMi^IAlt. 
 
 a covering ; 
 
 hivsan, a 
 
 Gmel {(jrual). 
 
 Grumble (gri/mialu, to murmur). 
 
 Gusset {cwysed, from cioys, ridge, 
 
 furrow). 
 Gyve {gcfyn, fetter). 
 Harlot (herlawd, youth ; herlotlts, a 
 
 hoyden). 
 Hackle [htidan, heisyllf, instrument 
 
 to dress flax). 
 Hem {hem, a border). 
 Hitch [htcian, to halt). 
 Hog {hu-ck, swine) 
 Housing {Jnvs 
 
 hood). 
 
 Hoyden {hoeden, a flirt). 
 Kex {ceci/St hemlock). 
 Kick {cic, foot ; clciaw, to strike 
 
 with the foot). 
 Kiln (cj/l, cylyn). 
 Knell {and, passing bell). 
 Knob {cnap, button ; cnwh, knob). 
 Knock {cnoc, a rap). 
 Knoll {cnbl, hillock). 
 Lad {Uawd, youth). 
 Lass (Uodes, girl). 
 Lath {Hath, I'od). 
 Lick {llachiav:, to cudgel). 
 Locker {llogell, drawer, partition). 
 Matter {madredA, pus). 
 Mattock {matog). 
 Mesh {masg, stitch in netting). 
 Mop {niojy). 
 
 Muggy {mwygl, sultry). 
 Nudge {imgiaic, to shake). 
 Pail {patoJ, a pail or pot). 
 Pan (pa?2, cup, bowl). 
 Park {pare, field, enclosure). 
 Paunch {paneg, penygen, entrails). 
 Peck {pe{;, peged, a measure). 
 Pellet (pe/e(Z, 'little ball, bullet) 
 Piggin {picyn, a small 
 
 vessel). 
 Pimple {pivmp, round mass ; 
 
 pimnpf, knob, etc.). 
 Pitch {pdciair, to throw) 
 
 Pose, puzzle (posiaio, to interrogate, 
 
 embarrass). 
 Pottage {pot€8, a cooked mess). 
 Puck {pvxa, hobgoblin). 
 Quay {eae, enclosure, hedge). 
 Rail {rhaU, a fence,, mound). 
 Rasher {rhasg, a slice). 
 Ridge {rhic, rhig, notch, groove). 
 Rim {rliim, raised edge or border). 
 Rug {rhuwch, rough garment). 
 Size {^yth, stiffening, glue, etc. ). 
 Smooth {esmwyth, even, soft). 
 Soak {-"toegl, to steep). 
 Solder {savxluriau', to join, cement). 
 Sough {soch, sink, drain). 
 Stook {ysfice, shock of corn). 
 Tackle {tael, instrument, tool). 
 Tall {tal, lofty). 
 Tarry {tariaw, to loiter). 
 I Task {tasg, a job, piece-work). 
 Tassel {tasel, fringe, tuft). 
 Ted = to spread hay {teddu, to 
 
 spread). 
 Tenter {delntur, frame for stretching 
 
 cloth). 
 Tinker {tinetrdd, lit. tail-trade, 
 
 lowest craft). 
 Toss {tosiaiv, to jerk, throw). 
 Trace {tres, chain or strap for draw- 
 
 hooped 
 dim. 
 
 a jug ; Breton 
 
 mg). 
 
 Trip {triplaiv, to stumble). 
 
 Trudge {troddi, move forward, 
 
 progress). 
 Twaddle {chwedleiia, to prate, 
 
 gossip). 
 Vassal {gioas, youth, servant). 
 Wain {gicain, a carriage). 
 Wall {gwall, rampart). 
 Want {chwant, desire). 
 Wed {giceddu, to yoke, unite, 
 
 marry). 
 Whap {ehwap, smart, stroke). 
 Welt {gwald, hem, border). 
 Wicket {gicictd, little door ; Pr. 
 
 guichef). 
 Wire {gu-yfr). 
 
 Pitclier {I'lier, 
 pncher). 
 
 Many Keltic words in English have become obsolete 
 hvg, a ghost 
 Gaelic soldier 
 Otliers 
 
 pda, a castle ; i7np, to engraft ; kem, 
 
 ; crovxl, a fiddle ; croivder, a tiddler ; kex, 
 
 remain in provincial dialects : hej'r, force (Lane.) : 
 
 cam, crooked ; 
 a light -armed 
 a reedy plant. 
 hraf, an apron 
 
 (Lane); braunet brambles (Lane); h7'ee, to fear (Lane); cob, beat 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 251 
 
 (Xorth) ; cocher, to fondle (Lane.) ; croo, a cattle-crib (Lane.) ; flasket, a 
 basket (Lane, and Devon) ; kephijll, a horse (Craven in Yorkshire). 
 
 4. Words of late introduction :— 
 Bannock. Druid. Reel. 
 
 Bard. Dudheen. Shamrock. 
 
 Bog. Fillibeg. Shillelagh. 
 
 Brogue. Gag. Slab. 
 
 Clan. Kilt. Slogan. 
 
 Claymore. Pibroch. Tartan. 
 
 Clog. Plaid. Whisky. 
 
 Colleen. Pony. 
 
 512. The Danish element includes :— 
 
 1. Geographical names or components of geographical 
 names (chiefly in the N. and E. of England and round the coast) : — 
 A, ay, an island : Staff a, Cumbray. 
 Ark, argh, a temple or altar : Arkholme, Grimsargh. 
 Beck, a bi-ook : Caldbeck, Wansbeck, Beckford. 
 By, a town : Whitby, Grimsby, Derby. 
 Dale, a valley : Dovedale, Tweeddale. 
 Dan, Dane = Danby. 
 
 Den, dean hollow valley : Hawthornden, Southdean 
 Ey, ea, an island : Orknej'-, Anglesea. 
 Fell, a rock, hill : Scawfell. 
 Fleet, flood : Ebbsfleet, Purfleet. 
 Force, a waterfall : Scale Force, High Force. *' 
 
 Ford, forth, firth, an inlet of the sea : Milford, Seaforth, Pentland Firth. 
 Garth, guard, an enclosure : Applegarth, Fishguard 
 Gate, a way : Margate. 
 Gill, a ravine : Ormesgill. 
 Grim, a hero's name : Grimsby. 
 
 Jlag, haig, haugh, high pasture land : Haggate, Haigh, Kirkhaugh. 
 Holm, an island : Akliolm, Arkholm. 
 Kdl, a spring : Kelby. 
 
 Kirk, a church : Kircudbright ( = St. Cuthbert's Church), Falkirk. 
 Lax, a salmon : Laxay, Laxford. 
 Nes><, a headland : Caithness, Sheerness. 
 Sccde, a shealing : Portinscale, Shields. 
 Scar, scarth, a steep rock : Scarborough, Scarth Gap. 
 Scaw, a wood : Scav.'fell. 
 Skip, a ship : Skipsea. 
 Ster, a place : Lybster, L'lster. 
 
 Suther, suiter, sodor, south : Sutherland, Sutterby, Sodor and Man. 
 Tarn, a mountain lake : Talkin Tarn, Tarnsyke. 
 
 I'hing, ting, ding, a place of meeting : Thingwall, Tingwall, Dingwall. 
 Thorpe, thorp, throp, drop, a village : Althorpe, Grimsthorp, Milnthrop, 
 
 Staindrop. 
 Thwaite, an isolated piece of land : Crosthwaite. 
 Toft, a small field : Lowestoft. 
 
 Wig, tvick, ivich, a small creek or bay : Wigton, Berwick, Greenwich. 
 With, a wood : Langwith. 
 
 8. The termination -son : Swainson, Ericsun. 
 
252 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. Some common words :— 
 
 Are. Daze. 
 
 Bait (v.). Die. 
 
 Bang. Din. 
 
 Bask. Doze. 
 
 Bloated. Droop. 
 
 Blunt. Drub. 
 
 Boil. Dub. 
 
 Bole. Dull. 
 
 Bore (tidal wave). Dwell. 
 Bound (for a journey). Earl. 
 
 Box (blow). Fellow. 
 
 Bracken. Flatten. 
 
 Bray. riims5% 
 
 Braze. Flit. 
 
 Buckle -to. Fond. 
 
 Bunker. Fool. 
 
 Bustle. Fro. 
 
 Cake. Froth. 
 
 Call. Gait. 
 
 Carouse. Gust. 
 
 Cast (v.). Hug. 
 
 Chime. Hustings. 
 
 Clip. 111. 
 
 Clums}'. Irk. 
 
 Cross. Keg. 
 
 Curl. Kid. 
 
 Dairy. Kindle 
 Dash. 
 
 06s.— ?.Iany Scandinavian words are obsolete or linger only in provincial dialects. 
 Such are :—£ou>i, ready ; busl; prepare ; flay, to frighten ; flit, to change houses; 
 gar, to make ; greet, to weep ; loice, a flame : neif. a fist ; s/caw, a wood. 
 
 513. The Latin element includes : — 
 
 1. In the First Period (a.d. 43— 410)— words referring to military 
 affairs or stations : — Castra, a camp (as, Lancanter, Chester) ; colonia, 
 a colony (as, Lincoln) ; fossa, a trench {Fossbury) ; pons, a bridge {Ponte- 
 fract) ; partus, a harbour {Bridport) ; strata, a paved way {Strattoii, 
 Watling Street) ; vallum, a rampart ( Wallbiiri/). 
 
 2. In the Second Period (a.d. 596— 106G) :— 
 
 (a) Ecclesiastical words : — Alms, altar, ayicJiorite, apostle, arl; 
 bishop, cojidle, canon, chalice, chapter, clerk, cloister, coicl, creed, cross, 
 deacon, disciple, /east, font, heretic, hymn, martyr, mass, vionk, offer, 
 parjan, pall, porch, preach, j)riesf, j^'^alm, psalter, sacravieiif, sai)it, 
 stole, synod. Several of these words are of Greek origin, but came to 
 us through the Latin. 
 
 {b) Names of foreign productions : — Aqate, anise, beet, l&x, 
 camel, cedar, chalk, chrrry, crystal, cucumber, elephant, elm, Jig, helle- 
 bore, laurel, lettuce, lily, lion, mallow, marble, millet, mule, myrrh^ 
 oyster, j)alm,pard, j)each, peacock, p)ear, pearl, pease, pepper, ])hoenix, 
 jjine, pumice, riie, sponge, sycamore, tiger, trout, turtle, vulture. 
 
 Leap (year). 
 
 Ling. 
 
 Loft (aloft). 
 
 Lubber. 
 
 Lurk. 
 
 Muck. 
 
 Mumble. 
 
 Niggard. 
 
 Odd. 
 
 Pudding. 
 
 Rap (n,). 
 
 Root. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Scald (a poet). 
 
 Scold. 
 
 Shrug. 
 
 Skull. 
 
 Sky. 
 
 Slant. 
 
 Slush. 
 
 Sly. 
 
 Snug. 
 Thrive. 
 
 Ugly- 
 Weak. 
 
 Whim. 
 
 Window. 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 253 
 
 {r) Miscellaneous words : — Acid, anchor, axle, belt, bench, bile, 
 hutttr, capital, cadle, chancellor, cheese, chest, circle, city, cook, coulter, 
 crest, crisp, crown, cymbal, ell, empire, epistle, fever, fork, gem, giant, 
 grade, inch, metre, mile, mint, mortar, muscle, nurse, ounce, palace, 
 philosopher, plant, plaster, illume, pound, projie, prove, jrrovost, purple, 
 rheum, rule, sack, school, senate, spade, table, temple, theatre, title, 
 tunic, verse. 
 
 3. In the Third Period (a.d. 1066— 1480)— words introduced through 
 the French : as, balm, caitif, coy, fashion, frail. ^ The original form of 
 such words is better seen in balsam, captive, quiet, faction, fragile. 
 
 The words of this period consist of those pertaining to : — 
 
 a. Feudalism and war: — Aid, armour, arms, art-ay, assault, 
 banner, baron, battle, buckler, captain, chcdlenge, chivalry, constable, 
 count, duke, equerry, esquire, fealty, fief gcdlant, harness, hauberk, 
 hercdd, homage, joust, Icmce, lieutenant, mail, march, marquis, peer, 
 Qnayor, relief, scutage, scutcheon, soldier, standard, tcdlage, tenant, 
 prince, tournament, trumpet, truncheon, usher, vassal, viscount, vizor, 
 war, ward, ivarden. 
 
 b. The church.: — Bajytism, Bible, ceremony, charity, devotion, 
 friar, homily, idolatry, interdict, penance, p)^'-^!!^ pUgrini, prayer, 
 "relic, religion, sacrifice, scandal, sermon, tonsure. 
 
 c. The law : — Advocate, annoy, approver, arrest, assize, attorney, 
 
 case, cause, chancellor, contract, court, damages, dower, estate, fee, 
 
 felony, fine, judge, jury, justice, larceny, mulct, nuisance, jmramount, 
 
 jmrliament, plaintif, plea, plead, p>rison, puisne, sentence, statute, sue, 
 
 suit, sunwions, surety, tax, trespass. 
 
 d. The chase : — Bay, brace, chase, copse, couple, covert, falcon, 
 forest, leash, leveret, mews, palfrey, quarry, rabbit, reclaim, reynard, 
 sport, squirrel, tiercel, venison. 
 
 e. Domestic life : — Attire, aunt, beef, boil, boot, broil, chair, 
 chamber, consort, codume, cousin, curtain, dress, furniture, garment, 
 lace, mutton, pantry, parent, parlour, pork, scdmon, sausage, sjyouse, 
 sturgeon, uncle, veal, veil. 
 
 4. In the Fourth Period (from a.d. 1480)— words of all kinds with 
 little change of form. 
 
 Durino' the period from A.D. 1480 to the present time, class-ical words 
 have been profusely introduced. Even now the requirements of science 
 and of the industrial arts lead to the adoption of nev/ classical words— 
 e.g., Caloric, dentist, emigrant, locomotive, prospectus, etc. 
 
 514. The Greek language has contributed many words, 
 especially scientific terms : as, ])hysiology, botany^ zoology, 
 anatomy, etc. 
 
 515. The English language has borrowed a vast number of 
 miscellaneous words : as, 
 
 I. Hebrew '.—Abbey, abbot, amen, behemoth, cabal, cherub, cinnamon, 
 ephod, gehenna, hallelujah, hosanna, Jehovah, jubilee, leviathan, manna, 
 2>harisakal, rabbi, sabbath, sapj)hire, seraph, shekel, shibboleth. 
 
 II. Arabic :— Admired, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, ahmhic, cdpehra, 
 alkali, almanac, cumber, ambergris, amidet, arrack, arsenal, artichoke. 
 
254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 assassin, atlas, attar, azimuth, bazaar, borax, cadi, caliph, camphor, 
 candy, carat, caravan, carob (tree), chemistry cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, 
 crimson, damask, damson, dragoman, elixir, emir, felucca, frman, gazelle, 
 girafe, harem, hazard, hegira, islam, jar, julep, koran, lemon, lime, lute, 
 magazine, mameluke, mattress, minaret, mohair, monsoon, moonshee, 
 moslem, mosque, mvfti, mummy, nadir, naphtha, nard, ojnum, ottoman., 
 popinjay, salaam, saffron, sandal (wood), sheik, sherbet, shruh, simoom, 
 sirocco, sofa, sidtan, syrup, tabor, taJisman, tamarind, tambourine, tariff, 
 zenith, zero. 
 
 Ohs.— 'Many of these words from Arabic are connected with astronomy and other 
 sciences, and were derived from the Moors in Spain. 
 
 III. Persian : — Azure, backsheesh, balcony, barbican, bashaw, 
 caravan, checkmate, chess, curry, dervish, emerald, hookah, howdah, 
 indigo, jackal, jasmin, kaffir, lilac, musk, orange, paradise, pasha, pawn 
 and rook (in chess), saraband, sash, satrap), scarlet, shawl, taffefy, tiffin, 
 tulip, turban. 
 
 IV. Hindu :— Banian, betel, brahmin, buggy, bungalow, calico, 
 cassowary, chintz, coolie, cowry, dimity, durbar, jungle, lac, lascar, loot, 
 mnllagatawny, muslin, nabob, pagoda, palanquin, p)ariah, punch, pundit, 
 rajah, rice, rum, rupee, sepoy, shampoo, sugar, suttee, thug, toddy. 
 
 V. Malay : — Amuck, bamboo, bantam, cajejmt, cockatoo, creese, 
 gamboge, gingham, gong, gutta-j^ercha, junk, mango, mangrove, ourang- 
 'ontang, rattan, sago, upas, verandah. Polynesian -.—boomerang, kangaroo, 
 taboo, tattoo. 
 
 VI. Chinese :—Bohea, caddy, congou, hyson, joss-stick, mandarin, 
 nankeen, pekoe, satin, souchong, soy, tea. 
 
 VII. Turkish :—Bey, bo^h, caftan, caique, chibouk, chouse, divan, 
 fakir, fez, janissary, khan, kiosk, odalisque, scimitar, seraglio, yashmak, 
 yafngan. 
 
 VIII. American: — Alpaca, buccaneer, calumet, cannibal, canoe, 
 caoutchouc, cayman, cocoa, condor, guano, hammock, hominy, hurricane, 
 jerked (beef), 'jaguar, jalap, lama, mahogany, maize, mocassin, opossum, 
 jmmpas, pjemm'ican, potato, skunk, squaiv;^ tajnocct, tapir, tobacco, 
 tomahawk, tomato, ivampum, wigwam, yam. 
 
 IX. Italian : — Akimbo, cdarm, alert, allegro, cdto, ambassador, ambua- 
 cade, arquebuse, askance, askant, altitude, avast, bagatelle, bcdcony, ball, 
 ballad, balloon, balufitrade, bandit, bankrupt, banquet. Lass, bassoon, bigot, 
 biretta, boa, bosky, bravo, breve, brigade, brigand, briganiine, brocade, 
 broccoli, bronze, brush, bubble, buffoon, burltsque, bust, buzz, cadence, 
 cameo, cannon, canteen, canto, cape, caper, caprice, captain, caricature, 
 carmine, carnivcd, cartel, cartoon, cascade, casemate, ' casino, cassock, 
 castle, catafalque, cavalcade, charlatan, cicerone, citadel, colonnade, 
 company, companion, comrade, conceit, concert, contrcdto, conversazione, 
 cornice, corridor, cosset, coze/i^, crate, cupola, curvtt, cutlass, despatch, 
 dilettante, ditto, doge, domino, txtravaganza, jiasco, folio, fresco, gabion, 
 gambado, garnet, gazette, generaUssi mo,, gondola, granite, grate, grotesque, 
 grotto, guitar, gulf, harlequin, imbroglio, improvisatory incognito, in-^ 
 fluenza,' intaglio, inveigle, lagoon, lava, lazaretto, macaroni, madonna, 
 'madrigal, malaria, manifesto, marttUp, masquerade, mezzotinto, motett, 
 tnotto, moustache, niche] nuncio, opera, paladin, ^ja^eZ/e, liantaloon, 
 parapet, jmrasol, pedant, pedestal, pianoforte, piazza, pigeon, pilgrim, 
 pistol, jJolicy (insurance), p)orcupine, portico, proviso, punchinello, quarto. 
 
 i 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 255 
 
 regatta, rochet, ruffian, scaramouch, serenade, sketch, soai-, sonata, sonnet^ 
 soprano, sovereign, stanza, stiletto, stucco, studio, tenor, terrace, terra- 
 cotta, tirade, torso, trombone, umbrella, vedette, vermiceUl, vermilion^ 
 vertii, virtuoso, vista, volcano, zany. 
 
 Obs.— In the time of Chaucer Italian had a powerful influence on our literature. 
 Italy had produced Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio before a writer of distinction ai«- 
 peared in any other country of modern Europe. The writings of Surrey, Wyatt, 
 Spenser, and Milton show numerous traces of the influence of Italian. Italy, too, long 
 had the pre-eminence in architeeture, mwsic, painting, and sculpture. Ilcnce it is 
 that many of the words derived from Italian relate to these arts. 
 
 X. Spanish : — Alcove, alligator, almond, armada, armadillo, barilla, 
 barricade, battledore, bravado, cannibal, caparison, caracole, carbonado, 
 cargo, castanet, chocolate, cigar, cochineal, cork, Creole, desjjerado, dismay, 
 don, duenna, el-dorado, embargo, embarrass, fdibuster, filigree, flotilla, 
 gaberdine, gala, galleon, grandee, grenade, hidalgo, jade, javelin, jennet, 
 maroon, matador, mosquito, mulatto, negro, octoroon, olio, pamphlet, 
 parade, jJeccadillo, picaroon, port, punctilio, quadroon, renegade, savannah, 
 sherry, tornado, vanilla. 
 
 XI. Portuguese : — Albatros-^, ayah, cash, caste, cobra, cocoa-nut, 
 commodore, fetishism, marmalade, moldore, palanquin, palaver, porcelain, 
 tanl\ 
 
 XII. Frencli : — Words relating to : — 
 
 {a) Literature, art, and business : Aper^u, attache, ballet, 
 belles lettres, bon mot, broch'ure, bureau, clef, clique, connoisseur, coup 
 d'etat, coupon, crayon, critique, cue, debut, denouement, doctrinaire, 
 encore, esprit, fagade,feuilleton^flnesse, hautboy, jeu d' esprit, laissez 
 faire, mise-en-scene, naivete, nom de plume, nom de guerre, parliament, 
 parvenu, persiflage, personnel, portfolio, portrait, pourparler, pirecis, 
 programme, redaction, regime, renaissance, resum^,. role, rondeau, 
 routine, savant, tapis, troubadour, vers de societe. 
 
 (b) Fashion and manners : — A la mode, amende honorable, 
 badinage, beau, belle, bizarre, blase, bonbon, bonliomie, bonne, boudoir, 
 bouquet, brusque, carte, chaise, conge, croquet, distingue, eau de Cologne, 
 eclat, dlfe, ennui, entree, etiquette, fete, foible, mesalliance, millionnaire, 
 le beau monde, nonchalance, outre, p)as, rechauffe, recherche, roue, 
 rouleau, sangfroid, soiree, ton, valet. ^ 
 
 (c) J>vesi'.— Blonde, blouse, bonnet, busl; chemise, chignon, coif, 
 coiffure, crinoline, crochet, deshabille, fichu, golosh, modiste, moire, 
 paletot, peignoir, pelisse, queue, rouge, surto\d, trousseau. 
 
 {d) Cookery : — Biscuit, dejeitner, diner, entri&es, entremets, fricassee, 
 gout, menu, omelet, ragofd. 
 
 (c) War : — Aide-de-camp, bayonet, bivouac, casern, chevalier, 
 
 cordon, corps, elan, 6meute, epaulet, fusee, glacis, hors-de-combat, intern, 
 
 man^uvre, marqtie (lettre de), materiel, melee., mitrailleuse, mobilise, 
 
 I parley, j^arole, picquef, redan, retreat, reveille, ruse, scarp, sortie, 
 
 '-^ squad, tirade, tirailleur. 
 
 (/) Miscellaneous : — Accoucheur, accouchement, a pro^w.?, an 
 fait, cafe, canard, chagrin, chdteaii, chef, cortege, creche, cut de sac, 
 debris, dep6t, deimier ressort, . devoir, douceur, douche, eu-^emble, en- 
 tourage, fracas, immortelles, lieu, 2')enchant, p)restige, protege, rapport, 
 riverie, seance, soi-disant, souvenir, tete-a-tete, ticdouloureiix, vie-d-vis, 
 vogue. 
 
 ^ 
 
256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 XIII. Dutch : — Blocl\ loom, hoor, bowsprit, cruise, hoy, loiter, lubber, 
 luff, ogle, ravel, reef, ruffle, scamper, Srhkdam, schooner, skates, skipper^ 
 sloop, smack, smugrjle, spoor, stiver, taffrail, icear (a ship), yacht. 
 
 Obs.— These words are, for the most part, nautical and trading terms. 
 
 XIV. German: — Cobalt, felspar, lavdgrave, landgravine, lansquenet, 
 loafer, margrave, meerschaum, morganatic, nickel, plunder, quartz, wait", 
 zinc. 
 
 Ob^.—^orae compound terms are formed after the German model : as, hand-hooli 
 
 fatheiiand, folk-lore, etc. 
 
 XV. Hussian : — Czar, drosky, knoid, morse, umse. 
 
 XVI. Swiss :—Daicn, dlsmcd, fetlock, glimpse, haggle, mart. 
 
 XVII. Walloon (N.E. France aud Belgium) -.—Fester, funk, harridan. 
 
 XVIII. Hungarian : — Hussar, uhlan. 
 
 XIX. Tartar : — Caviare, mammoth, stej^pe. 
 
 XX. African dialects : — Assegai, canary, gorilla, kraal, zebra. 
 
 XXI. Names of Persons :— -4 ?na20?i (the Amazons, a warlike 
 ration of women in Scythia), ammonite (Jupiter Ammon), atlas (the 
 demi-god), August (Augustus Cecsar), Bacchanalian (Bacchus, god of 
 wine), Bluchers (Marshal Blucher), Biggin (Beguines, a French religiouf 
 society), [to] boycott (Captain Boycott), braggadocio (a character in the 
 "Faery Queen"), brougham (Lord Brougham), buhl (Boule, a French 
 worker in ebony), \to'\ burke (the murderer Burke), camellia (Kamel, a 
 Moravian Jesuit), cliauvinism (Chauvin, the chief character in Scribe's 
 "Soldat Laboureur"), chimera (Chimsera, a fabulous monster), cicerone 
 (Cicero), cinchona (Countess del Cinchon), colt, a revolver (Colt), cravat 
 (the Croats), ckedal (Dsedalus), daguerrotype (Daguerre), dahlia (Dahl, a 
 Swede), Davy lamp (Sir Humphry Davy), dolomites (Dolomien), doyly 
 (Doyly, the maker), draconlan (Dracon, the Athenian legislator), dunce 
 (Duns Scotus), epicure (Epicurus), flbert (St. Philibert), fuchsia (Fuchs, a 
 German botanist), galvanism (Galvani), garibaldi, a red shirt (General 
 Garibaldi), gordian (Gordins, king of Phrygia), [to] gorgonise (Medusa, 
 one of the Gorgons), grimalkin (grey Malkin, Malkin benig a diminutive 
 of Mal = Mary), grog (Admiral Vernon, who wore grogram breeches), 
 guillotine (Dr. Guillotin), hansom (Mr. Hansom), [to] hector (Hector, the 
 Trojan chief), herculean (Hercules), hermetic (Hermes), hippocras (Hippo- 
 crates), Jacobite (Jacobus, James II.), January (Janus), jeremiad (Jere- 
 miali), Jesuit (Jesus), jovial (Jupiter or Jove), July (Julius Casar), June 
 (Junius, a Roman gens), knickerbockers (Diedrich Knickerbocker, 
 imaginary author of Irving's "History of New York"), lazaretto (Lazarus), 
 [to] lynch (Lynch, an American), macadamize (Macadam), mackintosh 
 (Mackintosl), the inventor), magnolia (Magnol, a French botanist), March 
 (Mars), maudlin (Magdalene), mausoleum (Muusolus, khig of Caria), May 
 (Maia, "the incYea.Hcr"), mentor (Mentor, guide of Telemachus), mercurial 
 (Mercury), merry Andrew (Andrew Borde, an itinerant physician), 
 mesmerism (Mesmer, a German physician), morris-dance (the Moors), 
 negus (Colonel Negus), nicotine (Nicot), orret-y (Lord Orrery), 2Hean 
 (Apollo, called Ptean = healer), paHadium (Pallas), pandar (Pandarus), 
 panic (Pan\ parrot (Perrot, diminutive of Pierre = Peter), jxisquinade 
 (IVqiiiii. a Roman cobbler), petrel (Peter), phaeton (Phaethon), philippic 
 (Philip, king of Macedon, against whom Demosthenes delivered orations), 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 257 
 
 platonic (Plato), phUonic (Pluto), i^rotean (Proteus), punch (Punchinello, 
 from Pulcinello, a droll character in Neapolitan comedy), quassia (Quassia, 
 a negro sorcerer of Surinam), quixotic (Don Quixote), I'hodomontade 
 (Rodomont, a Moorish hero in Boiardo and Ariosto), samphire (Saint 
 Pierre = St. Peter), sarcenet (Saracen), saturnine (Saturn), silhouette (M. 
 de Silhouette), simony (Simon Magus), spencer (Earl Spencer), stentorian 
 (Stentor), syr'mga (Syrinx, a nymph who was changed into a reed), tantalize 
 (Tantalus), tawdry (Saint Audry = Saint Etheldreda), thrasonical (Thraso), 
 tontine (Tonti, an Italian), valentine (St. Valentine), vernicle (St. Veronica), 
 volcano (Vulcanus), vulcanite (Vulcanus), voltaic (Volta), Wellingtons (Duke 
 of Wellington). 
 
 XXII. Names of Tlaces '.—Academy (Academia, where Plato 
 taught), afjate (Achates, a river in Sicily), angora (Angora), Arabesque 
 '(Arabia), arras (Arras), artesian (Artois), attic (Attica), haldacchino 
 (Baldacco = Babylon), bantam (Bantam in Java), bayonet (Bayonne), 
 bedlam (Bethlehem), bergaviot (Bergamo in Lombardy), bezant (Byzantium), 
 bilbo (Bilbao in Spain), h'obdignagian (Brobdignag), buncombe (Buncombe 
 in North Carolina), calico (Calicut), cambric (Cambray), canary (Canary 
 Islands), candy tuft (Island of Candy), canter (Canterbury), carronade 
 (Carron in Scotland), caryatides (Caryse in Laconia), cashmere (Cashmere), 
 chalcedony (Chalcedon), cherry (Cei-asos in Pontus), china (China), copper 
 (Cyprus), cypress (Cyprus), cordwahier (Cordova), cuirants (Corinth), 
 damask (Damascus), damson (Damascus), del/ (Delft in Holland), diaper 
 (Ypres in the Netherlands), dittany (Mount Dicte in Crete), elysian 
 (Elysium), ermine (Armenia), faience (Faenza in Italy), florin (Florence), 
 fustian (Fostel, a suburb of Cairo), galloway (Galloway), gamboge (Cam- 
 bodia), gasconade (Gascony), guernsey ((xuernsey), guiufa (Guinea), gypsy 
 (Egypt), hoch (Hockheim in Germany), indigo (India), italics (Italy), jalap 
 (Jalapa in Mexico), japan (Japan), jersey (Jersey), laconic (Laconia), 
 landau (Landau in Bavaria), liliputian (Liliput), lockram (Loc-renan in 
 Brittany), himber (Lombardy), meander (Maeander, a river in Asia Minor), 
 magnesia (Magnesia in Thessaly), magnet (Magnesia in Thessaly), majolica 
 (Majorca), malmsey (Malvasia in the Morea), malvoisie (Malvasia in 
 Thessaly), mantua (Mantvia in Italy), milliner (Milan), morocco (Morocco), 
 muslin (Mosul), nankeen (Nankin), palace (Mons Palatinus in Rome), 
 p>alatine (Mons Palatinus in Rome), parchment (Pergamos), peach (Persia), 
 pheasant (Phasis, a i-iver of Colchis), pistol (Pistoja near Florence), j^ort 
 (Oporto), quince (Cydon, a town of Crete), rhubarb (the Rha or Volga), 
 sardonic (Sardinia), savoy (Savoy), shallot, from Fr. eschalotte (Ascalon), 
 sherry (Xeres), solecism (Soli in Cilicia), spaniel (Spain), stoic (Stoa Poecile, 
 a portico at Athens), swede (Sweden), tarantula (Tarentum), tobacco 
 (Tobago), turkey (Turkey), tweed (Tweed), iitopian (Utopia), u'orsted 
 (Worsted in Norfolk). 
 
 516. Before the Norman Conquest there were two dialects, 
 the Northern and the Southern, the latter being the literary 
 language. After the Conquest the dialects became more 
 marked, and in the thirteenth and fourteenth century we find 
 three : — 
 
 1. Northern, spoken in Northumberland,, Durham, Yorkshire, and the 
 Scottish Lowlands. 
 
 17 
 
258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 2. Middle, spoken in the midland and East Anglian counties and in 
 those west of the Pennine Chain (Cun^berland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, 
 and Shropshire). 
 
 3. Southern, spoken in the coimties pouth of the Thames, in Somerset- 
 shire, Gloucestershire, and in parts of Herefordshire and Worcestershire. 
 
 517. As the midland dialect was very widely diffused it had 
 various local forms, of which the most marked were the Eastern 
 Midland and the Western Midland. In the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century, it was cultivated as the literary dialect 
 Wickliffe, Gower, and Chaucer wrote in it. Thus it gradually 
 became the standard language. 
 
 518. The various Stages of the English language are :— 
 
 First Stage, 449—1100. In this period the grammar 
 was synthetic. 
 
 1. Nouns and adjectives possessed grammatical gender. 
 
 2. Nouns had at least three declensions and five cases (nominative, 
 genitive, dative, accusative, and a.blative or instrumental). 
 
 3. The definite article was inflected. 
 
 4. Pronouns had a dual number {ivii, we two ; git, ye two). 
 
 5. The infinitive of verbs ended in an, the dative infinitive in anne 
 (enne), and only the dative infinitive was preceded by to. 
 
 6. The present or incomplete participle em^ed in ends, and the passive 
 participle had the prefix ge. Both participles were declined as adjectives. 
 
 The chief works were BeoicuJf, Caedmon's Paraphrase, Alfred's Trans- 
 lations from Bedeand Boethius, .^Ifric's Homilies, and the earlier part of 
 the Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Second Stage, 1100—1250. The following were the 
 principal changes : — 
 
 1. The articles se and seo were less frequently used. 
 
 2. The ablative case was disappearing. 
 
 8. Inflexions of nouns were dropping off. 
 4. The ending of the infinitive was changed from an to e. 
 The chief works were Layamon's Brut, Ormin's Orniullim, History oj 
 King Leir, and the closing part of the Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Third Stage, 1250—1350. The following were the 
 principal changes : — 
 
 1. The article the was of all genders, but had different case-endings, 
 
 2. Grammatical gender disappeared in nouns. 
 
 8. Cases were expressed by prepositions, except in the accusative. 
 
 4. The dual forms of pronouns were obsolete. 
 
 5. The infinitive was expressed by to as well as by the ending. 
 
 6. The ending of tlie dative infinitive disappeared. 
 
 7. Participles had no declension ; the ending endc was changed to ing. 
 The chief works were Genesis and Exodus, Haiiok the Dane, Kobert of 
 
 Gl(^ucester's Chronicle of England, and his Lives and Legends of English 
 Saints, and Wickliffe's English Bible. 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 259 
 
 Fourth stage, 1350—1550. The folio vnng were the 
 principal changes : — 
 
 1. The article the was now of all cases and genders. 
 
 2. There was only one declension of nouns, with some irregular plurals 
 {feet, etc.). 
 
 3. The accusative ending ceased. 
 
 4. The infinitive was used with to, and the ending dropped. 
 
 The chief Avriters were Longlande, who wrote Piers Plowman, Mande- 
 ville {Travels), Chaucer {Canterbury Tales), Gower {Confessio Amantis), 
 Lydgate {Histories of Thebes and Troy), Caxton {IVanslations, etc.), More, 
 Tyndale, Surrey {^Sonnets). 
 
 Fifth Stage, 1550 to the present time. By the reign 
 
 of Elizabeth, the English language had received its present 
 shape, though many words used by Shakespeare have become 
 obsolete, and new ones introduced as they were required by 
 the great advancement of science and arts. Dr. Johnson 
 brought in a Latinized style, which is only now disappearing. 
 
 Obs, — The assigning of dates to different stages is intended as a help to the memory 
 and not as a rigid limit. The common names given to these stages are, bj' most 
 philologists considered misleading, and are falling into disuse. The following list 
 exhibits these names and those which it is proposed to substitute for them : — 
 
 Stage. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Cothmon Name. 
 
 New Name, 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 Fourth 
 
 Fifth 
 
 449—1100 
 1100—1250 
 1250—1350 
 1350—1550 
 1550— 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 
 Semi- Saxon 
 Early English 
 Middle English 
 Modern English 
 
 Old English, or First English. 
 r Transition English. 
 
 -Modern English. 
 
 Earle calls the second stage ' 
 fourth ' ' First national English. 
 
 Broken Saxon," the third " Early English," and tho 
 
 Questions on §§ 499—518. 
 
 1. Kow may the languages spoken in the world be divided ? 2. Mention the Aryarf 
 languages. 3. Name the Hindu languages. 4. Name the Iranian languages. 5. Name 
 the Keltic languages. 6. Name the Italian languages. 7. Name the Greek languages. 
 8. Name the Teutonic languages. 9. Name the Lettic languages. 10. Name the 
 Sclavonic languages. 11. What does Jj-^au mean? 12. Name European peoples not 
 belonging to the Ai-yan familj'. 13. State Grimnr's law. 14. Give examples of Grimm'a 
 law. 15. To which family of languages does the English belong? 1(5. Give tho deriva- 
 tion of Eiif/land and English. 17. Enumerate tho settlements made by our English 
 forefathers in this country. IS. In what respects did the First English differ from 
 our present English? 19. What is the source of the Keltic element in English? 20. 
 Name the periods at which Latin words have been introduced. 21. What effect had 
 the Danish invasions on the English language ? 22. What effect on the language was 
 produced by the Noi-man Conquest? 23. What has been the influence on English of 
 the advance of science and the spread of commerce ? 24. How many words are there 
 inEuglish? 25. What kinds of words are included in the purely English element? 
 26. What does the Keltic element include? 27. What does the Danish element include? 
 28. What does the Latin element in the first period include? 29. What does the 
 Latin element in the second period include ? 30. What does the Latin element in the 
 third period include? 31. What does the Latin element in the fourth period include ? 
 32. What does the Greek element include ? 33. Give examples of words borrowed 
 fi-om (1) Hebrew, (2) Arabic, (3) Persian., (4) Hindu, (5) Malay, (6) Chinese, (7) Turkish, 
 (8) American, (9) Italian, (10) Spanish, (11) Portuguese,- (12) French, (13) Dutch, (14) 
 
 17—2 
 
260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 German, (15) Russian, (16) Swiss, (17) T\"alloon, (18) Hungai-ian, (19) Tartar, (20) African 
 dialects. 84. Give examples of words derived from names of persons. 35. Give ex- 
 amples of words derived from names of places. 3(j. What dialects of English were 
 there before the Norman Conquest? 37. Name the three English dialects of the 
 thirteenth century. 3S. Which of these became the standard language. 39. Mention 
 the periods or stages of the English language. 40. What were the characteristics of 
 the tirst period? 41. Name the chief writers of the fir.st period. 42. What were the 
 characteristics of the second period? 43. Name the chief writers of the second period. 
 44. What were the characteristics of the third period ? 45. Name the chief writers of 
 the third period. 46. What were the characteristics of the fourth period ? 47. Name 
 the chief writers of the fourth period. 48. When did the English language receive its 
 present shape ? 49. What influence had Dr. Johnson on the language ? 
 
 Examination Papers. 
 
 A. Questions set to Pupil Teachers. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 1. Parse, with syntax, the following sentence : " Many authors have written on 
 the variety of this world, and on its incapacity to produce lasting happiness." 
 
 2. State the different kinds of nounS; and give an example of each. 
 
 3. Give the past participle of the following verbs :— freeze, siceat, run, sleep] wind, 
 flee. 
 ' 4. " An adjective qualifies a noun." What does this mean ? Illustrate your answer 
 
 by examples. 
 
 5. Which consonants are called /ate and which are called sharps ? 
 
 C. State the distinction between stronff and weak verbs, and give the past tense and 
 passive participles of the following verbs : — creep, peep, teach, reach, flay, pay, slay, 
 read, lead, tread. 
 
 7. Give the comparative and superlative of the adjectives : — evil, little, fore, old, 
 sad, bad, happy, gay. 
 
 8. Parse the following : — 
 
 Neither a borrower nor a lender be, 
 For loan oft loses both itself and friend. 
 
 9. Classify the following •aonns: — Queen, May, slate, captain, steam-vessel, regiment, 
 virtue, ivealth, riches, duke, Wellington, youth, wages, people, goods, news. 
 
 10. State briefly, as if to a junior class, what you have to say about the numbers* 
 persons, tenses, moods, and participles of any transitive verb. 
 
 11. Compare the following adjectives : — Late, free, near, hind, fore, virtny, viuch, 
 trusiwortliy, horrid. 
 
 12. Describe the methods by which the plural of nouns is formed ; illustrate by an 
 example in each case, and introduce, if you can, nouns which we borrow directly 
 from Greek and Latin. 
 
 13. Describe the case and declension of a nomi. Give the singular and pliu-al 
 possessive cases of these nouns : — Jlcnry, Charles, princess, goose, child, father, house. 
 
 14. Give the past tense and past participle of :—be, go, have, bring, fling, cling, sting. 
 
 15. Parse :— " Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." 
 
 16. Give an account of the infinitive mood as if j-ou were teaching a class. 
 
 17. Give a list of adjectives which do not admit of comparison. 
 
 18. Classify adjectives, and point out the adjectives in the foUo-ss-iug lines : — 
 
 His drooping head sinks gradually low, 
 And from his side the red drops, ebbing slow 
 From the rod gash, fall heavy one by one, 
 Like the first of a thimder show'r. 
 
 19. Parse carefully aU the verbs and all the nouns in the following lines :- 
 
 Ye mariners of England, 
 
 That guard our native seas, 
 
 AVhose flag has braved a thousand years 
 
 The battle and the breeze, 
 
 Your glorious standard launch again, 
 
 To match another foe. 
 
 20. Pick out, first, all the nouns, and secondly, all the ftdjcctivc.««, in the following 
 sentence, and parse each of the nouns :—" Truth may be called the vciy basia of all 
 that is excellent and praiseworthy in human character." ■ 
 
I 
 
 EXAMINATION PAPERS. 261 
 
 21. Parse fully all the nouns, verbs, and adjectives in the following sentence ^-- 
 " In these sayings I have in very truth taught thee all that is enough for maa to 
 know in this iietber world." 
 
 22. There is sweet music here that softer falls 
 
 Than petals from blown roses on the grass, 
 Or night dews on still waters between walls 
 
 Of shadowy granite in a gleaming pass ; 
 Music that gentlier on the spirit lius 
 Than tired eye-lids upon tired eyes. 
 (a) Name the prepositions in the above, and show between what nouns each 
 prepopition shows the relation. 
 (U) Parse each word in the last two lines of the above. 
 
 (c) What is the more usual mode of comparing "gently," and what is the rule 
 for the comparison of adverbs? 
 23. Distinguish between personal and demonstrative pronouns. Name the personal 
 pronouns. 
 
 21. For he to-day that sheds his blood with me ^ L 
 
 Shall be my brother; be he ne'er so vile <*7 * Jj^iA^^ 
 This day shall gentle his condition. •^' ' ' 
 
 Parse all the nouns and adverbs in the above. 
 
 25. Mention pronouns that are used both adjectively and substantively. Give 
 examples of their use in each capacity. 
 
 26. In what respects do prepositions resemble conjunctions, and in what respects 
 are they distinguished from conjunctions? 
 
 27. I walked about, admired of all and dreaded 
 On hostile ground, none daring my affront. 
 Then sicoU'n with pride into the snare I fell. 
 Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics. 
 
 28. "What is the orduiary endiug of past participles of (o) strong verbs, {b) weak or 
 regular verbs ? 
 
 Illustrate your answer from the above passage. 
 
 29. The affix -ing may indicate (1) a present participle ; (2) a verbal noun ; (3) an 
 adjective. Write out three sentences, introducing the word "daring" in each of 
 these uses. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 1. Mention as many as you can of the pure English prefixes. 
 
 2. Mention the defective, auxiliary, and impersonal verbs. 
 
 3. What consonants are called labials (<>r lip-letters)? 
 
 4. Classify pronouns and illustrate each class by examples. 
 
 5. Comment on the expressions abed, in two, at large, betimes, to-day. 
 
 (3. Parse the pronoun v^hat in the sentence " I do what is just," and also parse the 
 two verbs do and is. 
 
 7. Give a list of adverbs which, besides an adverbial, have a conjunctive force, and 
 illustrate their use by sentences. 
 
 8. Explain fully and clearly the force of prepositions, and illustrate your explana- 
 tion by sentences. 
 
 9. " And everyone to rest themselves betake." " I have hefird fi-om my father that 
 is in America." Are the foregoing sentences inaccurate, and if so, why ? 
 
 10. Parse carefully the following :— "The more you learn, the more likely you are 
 to become a wise man." 
 
 11. Classify adverbs, and give an Instance of an adverb of each class. 
 
 12. "A preposition can connect the noun which follows it only with a noun, a 
 verb, or an adjective." Show that you understand this by writing three short 
 sentences in illustrating it. 
 
 13. Give a list of the relative pronouns, and explain the name. Decline icho, and 
 give all the forms in which it is compounded. 
 
 -14. With what ocher parts of speech can adverbs combine? Write three short 
 sentences, showing the adverb combined with other parts of speech. 
 
 15. Parse the following passage :— " Sir Roger was no sooner dressed than he called 
 for a glass of the Widow i ruby's water, which he told me he always drank before he 
 went abroad. We then set out together." 
 
 1(5. Give a list of participles most commonly used as j^repositions. 
 
 17. Parse, with syntax :—" The fall from riches to poverty, as it commonly oc- 
 casions the most real distress to the sufferer, so it seldom fails to excite the most 
 sincei'« commisftratiun in the spectator." 
 
262 ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 
 
 18. Parse the following : — 
 
 Give thy thoughts no tongue. 
 Nor any unproportioned thought his act. 
 
 19. Explain any difference of seupe in the use of the preposition "of" in the 
 following sentence : — " The son of Philip, Alexaudei", a youth of great promise, was 
 one of the officers." 
 
 ZO, Parse the following :— 
 
 Enough for me, 
 With joy I see 
 The different dooms our fates assign, 
 
 21. Clear had the day been from the dawn, 
 
 AU- chequered was the sky. 
 Their clouds like scarfs of cobweb lawn 
 
 Veiled heaven's most glorious eye. 
 The wind had no more strength than this. 
 
 That leisurely it blew 
 To make one leaf the next to Iciss 
 
 That close]}' by it grew. 
 
 (a) Say in yo\ir own words wh\t this passage means. 
 
 {b) Parse the words printed in italics. 
 
 (c) Analj'se the second j^assage, from the fifth to the eighth line. 
 
 22. Correct, if needful, these sentences, and give reasons for your correction : — 
 
 That is the best of the two. 
 He is a stronger man than me. 
 Yi'hom did you say it was ? 
 
 23. What are the exact meanings of these words, and of theii: pai'ts :— Impose, inter- 
 pose, expose, repose, de2iose, and svpjwse ? 
 
 24. As with the force of winds and waters joenf 
 
 When mountains tremble, thc&e tiro massy piiZflj-s 
 With horrible convulsions to and fro 
 He tiKjo'd, he shook, till doKn they came and dreiv 
 The whole roof after therii. 
 
 Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics. 
 
 25. From what language are the noun-ending -ance, and the adjective-ending -ire 
 derived ? Give instances of each, and state what meanings those terminations give to 
 words. 
 
 26. Paraphrase the following :— 
 
 I dare do all that may become a man ; 
 Who dares do more, is none. 
 
 Third Yoar. 
 
 1. Which consonants are lahials (lip-letters), and which are dentals (tooth-letters)? 
 
 2. Give a careful classification of conjunctions, and illustrate by examples. 
 
 3. Parse and analyse:—"! pray thee, Launce, and if thou see my boy, bid him 
 muke haste." , , ., , 
 
 4. " He was idle, therefore he did not succeed." State whether you consider there- 
 fore in this case as an adverb or a conjunction, and your reason for doing so. 
 
 5. Parse fully the following sentence :— " I do not much care whether he go or 
 
 ti. Analyse the following sentence :— "Know thou this truth, enough for man to 
 know ; virtue alone is happiness below." 
 
 7. Give a list of pure conjunctions which are never used as prepositioos or as 
 adverbs. Also give a list of phrases serving as conjunctions. 
 
 8. Give examples of co-ordinate and of dependent sentences. 
 
 9. In the sentence "The sun and moon shine," show that the conjunction docs 
 more than merclv couple the two nouns. 
 
 10. Parse and analyse the sentence :— " I told him that he was mistaken if ever man 
 was." 
 
 11. Write a sentence containing a co-ordinate conjunction, and a second sentence 
 containing a subordinate conjunction. 
 
 1-'. Exjjlain the tonus sidject and predicai.e : also write a sentence showing an en- 
 largement of the subject and an extension of the predicate. 
 
loeldjol iX 
 
 EXAMINATION PAPERS. 263 
 
 13. Parse and analyse : — " If tins bo good nature, let me always be a churl." 
 
 14. Comment fully on the word thin. State what part of speech you take it for, and 
 give your reasons ; also illustrate what you say l>y sentences. 
 
 15. Parse and analyse :— " Love is the fulfilling of the law ; and, therefore, if a man 
 hate another, he sins aofainst the law." 
 
 16. What letters in the alphabet are sibilants ? 
 
 17. Explain and analyse the following passage : — 
 
 It is the first mild daj' of March ; 
 
 Each minute sweeter than before, 
 The redbreast sings from the tall larch, 
 
 That stands beside our door. 
 
 IS. Define suhordhiative conjunctions, and explain and illustrate their use. 
 
 19. Parse, and afterwards analyse, the following sentence : — " In outward things I 
 will look to those that are beneath me, that, if I must build myself out of others, I 
 may rather raise content than murmur. " 
 
 20. Take the words, dignity, rcf/oJ, restless, and nuhmit. Explain the meaning of 
 their parts, and give exaniples of other words formed in the same way. 
 
 21. Make a complex sentence, containing an adjective sentence and an adverbial 
 sentence, besides the principal ; and show by example the difference between a sen- 
 tence and a phrase. 
 
 22. Parse the sentence : — 
 
 I had as lief not be, as live to be 
 In awe of such a thing as I myself. 
 
 Explain the two different uses of the word "be " in this sentence. 
 
 23. But wlien,/;'flm under this terre.s*trial ball. 
 He fires the proud tops of the e.istern pines, 
 And darts his light in every guilty hole, 
 Then murders, treasons, :i.ud detested sins, 
 The cloak of night being plucked from off their backs," 
 Stand bare and naked. 
 
 Analyse the foregoing passage, parsing the word in italics. 
 
 24. Pick out ten words of English origin in the passage,, and explain th« derivation 
 of any of them. 
 
 25. What is the prefix in each of the following woi'ds :— Append, illegal, allude, co» 
 Jieir, suggest, effect, deacon ? 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 1. Give a seiitence with an infinitive as subject. 
 
 2. Describe the Spenserian stanza. 
 
 3. Make out a table of adjectives formed from nouns, classified according to the 
 way in which they ai-e formed. 
 
 4. Classify the three ilat consonants, b, d, and ff, and the three sharp consonants, p, 
 t and L; as dentals, gutturals, and labials. 
 
 5. Parse and analyse :— " Hannibal's manoeuvre made him change his route, so that 
 he -was forced to keep the lake on his right." 
 
 •3. Diprent, assign, despair. Show the Latin prefixes in these words, with their 
 meaning. 
 
 7. Classify the letters of the English alphabet as fully as you can. 
 
 8. Write sentences, one containing a noun clause, a second containing an adjective 
 clause, and a third containing an adverbial clause. 
 
 9. Point out the historical order in which the component parts of the EnglLsh lan- 
 guage were severally incorporated with it. 
 
 10. Give the plurals of apex, automaton, bandit, cherub ; and give the feminine oi fox, 
 testator, hero, marquis, traitor, 
 
 11. Parse and analyse :— 
 
 Fnau that bleak tonement 
 He, many an evening to his distant home 
 In solitude returnin'/, saw the hills 
 Grow larger in the distance. 
 
 12. The Latin word pono means " I place." Explain the literal force of the following 
 words : — Oirpositioa, compose, dep'isf, disjioxf, expose, impose, interpose, oppose, preposition, 
 'postpone, propose, suppose, super pos.tion, repository, tianspose. 
 
264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 13. Parse with sjTitax, and scan the following passage :— 
 
 Though now no more the musing ear 
 
 Delights to listen to the breeze 
 That lingers o'er the greenwood shade, 
 
 I love thee, winter, well. 
 
 14. Parse, and afterwards aualj-se, the following : -- 
 
 To reigu is worth ambition though in hell : 
 Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven, 
 
 I'l. Parse, and afterwards analyse, the following lines : — 
 
 Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, 
 
 Is our destined end or way. 
 But to act, that each to-morrow 
 
 Find us further than to-day. 
 
 16. Pai*se and analyse the following lines: — 
 
 Here, on this delightful day, 
 
 I caiuiot choose but think 
 How oft a vigorous man I lay 
 
 Beside this water's brink 
 
 17. Explain the following words with special reference to theiv]^reQ.xe5:— Amputate, 
 compact, counteract, dilute, occur, 2^resumc, 
 
 15. The infinitive is sometimes called the substantive mood. Explain this, and 
 give some sentences in w^hich the infinitive is equal to a noun. 
 
 19. Take the two Latin verbs scribo and v^^rto, and give as many English deriva- 
 tives from them as you can, with the meaning of each. 
 
 20. Analyse this sentence : — 
 
 In the golden lightning 
 
 Of the sunken sun, 
 O'er which clouds are brightening, 
 
 Thou dost float and run, 
 
 Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun. 
 
 21. What is meant by the "Revival of Learning" in England? Say when it 
 happened, and what effect it had on the English language. 
 
 22. The tmutner, clrcumstancts, and conclusion of that voyage, with the rare accidents 
 which hajipened in it, will tio douM be ctt large remembered by lohosoever shall have the 
 courage to write the transactions of that time with that integrity he ought to d.o : in 
 ■icliich it will manifestly appear, how muck of the prophet was in the wisdom of the 
 king. 
 
 Analyse the above passage, parsing the words in italics. 
 
 23. Hake a list of the woi-ds in the above derived from Latin roots. 
 
 21. So where a ship well freighted with the stores 
 The sun matures on India's spicy shores. 
 Has dropped her anchor and her canvas /?',)?fd 
 In some safe haven of the Western wurld, 
 'Twere vain inquiry to ichat poi't she went, 
 The gale informs us, laden with the scent. 
 
 Analyse the foregoing lines, parsing the words in italics. 
 
 25. What is the root of the follov>-ing words : — Museum, royal, instruction, im- 
 perial, exaggerate, patriot, amia1)le, union? 
 2tj. How was the Englisli language affected by the Norman Conquest? 
 
 B. Questions set to Candidates for admission into Training 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 I. To which parts of speech do the following words belong:— I'^s, no, whence, 
 u-hereoj, ill, lodl, godly, only, idone, but, less, more, hotr, vhy, v:herejbre? 
 
 '2. What are the rules for the comparison of adjectives? Explain the forms inmost, 
 ittrnost, former, foremost, nearest, next, farther, further. 
 
 :i. Enumerate the different kinds of Pronouns. Decline such pronouns as admit 
 of declension. 
 
 4. " I .sometimes oven improved upon the hints he furnished." Is tliis a complete 
 construction V If not, complete it ; parse whatever you insert, and give the name of 
 the grammatical figure which denotes the omission of words. 
 
> 
 
 jEXAMINATION PAPERS. 265 
 
 5. Which of the parts of speech have the effect of abbreviating language? Give 
 examples. 
 
 6. Explain the real use of the conjunction. Classify conjunctions. 
 
 7. What kind of verbs can be used in the passive voice, and what kind cannot ? 
 Give a reason for this. 
 
 8. Explain t jc terms subject, object, predicate. Give examples. 
 
 9. What is meant in grammar by the term inflexion ? Show that nouns, adjectives, 
 pronouns, verbs, and adverbs admit of inflexion. 
 
 10. What Latin prepositions enter into the words surprised, extraordinary, extra.' 
 dition, and what is the English of these prepositions ? - 
 
 11. At what period did the English language assume nearly its present form? 
 
 12. Explain what is meant by rhyme and what by metre. 
 
 13. Classify adverbs, giving examples of each class. 
 
 14. Give examples of English words which are dei-ived from (1) Latin, (2) French, 
 (3) Greek. Whence do we get the words muslin, sofa, tea, sherry. ^ 
 
 15. Give a list of English pronouns. 
 
 1(3. Name the different kinds of verbs, and state what is meant by the terms voice, 
 mood, tense, numher, and person when applied to verbs. Enumerate our principal 
 auxiliary verbs. 
 
 17. Give the meanings of the following Latin prepositions, and exemplify them by 
 English compound words in which they occur— viz., ad, de, 2»'o, prceicr, sub, supra, 
 oMe, j)OSt, inter, extra. 
 
 18. Write a brief account of the sources and growth of the English language. 
 
 19. What are the comparatives and superlative's of many, red, old, barren, interesting, 
 heavy, indifferent, tidy, loio, and sad ? 
 
 20. Account historically for the presence of so many words of foreign origin in the 
 English language. 
 
 '.:!l. Enumerate the most usual English prefixes, and illustrate their meaning by 
 examples. 
 
 '22. Write out the following words, so as to mark (by hyphens) the root and the 
 aflix or prefix. Draw a line in each case under the root. 
 
 JSeirjhbov.r, vigorous, profession, experiment, obtained, conversation, occasionally, 
 sinewy. 
 
 23. Classify the letters of the alphabet. 
 
 24. What is a jireposition, and what case do English prepositions govern ? 
 
 25. Give the various rules for the formation of the plural of nouns, with illustra- 
 tive examples. 
 
 2(5. How do you distinguish between adverbs and conjunctions, adverbs and pre- 
 p:-sitions, adverbs and adjectives'? 
 
 27. What are participles, and to what uses are they applied in the formation of 
 sentences ? 
 
 28. Give instances of the employment of adverbial and prepositional phrases, and 
 classify them according to their meaning. 
 
 ay. Parse the words in italics in the following passage, not omitting to give and 
 explain their syntax, and carefully distinguishing the words which occur twice 
 over : — 
 
 For therein stands the office of a King, 
 
 His honour, virtue, merit, and cidef praise, 
 
 That for the public si'.ch a weight he bears. 
 
 Yet he who reigns icithin himself, and rules 
 
 Passions, desires, and fears, is more a King . 
 
 Which every wise and virtuous man attains : 
 
 And who attains not, ill aspires to rule 
 
 Cities of men or headstrong multitudes, 
 
 Subject himself to onarcliy within. 
 
 Or lawless passions in him, which he serves. 
 
 30. Analyse the passage (in 29) into its component sentences, and show in separate 
 columns : — 
 
 (a) The nature of the sentence : [b) (If dependent) its relation to the principal 
 sentence : (c) Subject : (jl) Its enlargements (if any) : (e) Predicate : (/) Extensions 
 (if any) : {g) Object (if any) : {h) Its enlargements (if any). 
 
 31. Of the fifteen nouns in the above passage (question 29), nvc arc of Anglo- 
 Saxon, eight of Latin, and two of Greek origin. Classify them accordinglj'. About 
 which word only may there be a difference of opinion, and why? 
 
 32. JIake a list of the auxiliary verbs, distingi'ishiug those of mood from those of 
 tense. 
 
9M ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 83. Give examples of English words in which differences of (o) case, (6) number, 
 (c-) gender, (a) degree, (<) mood, (/) tense, (g) voice, are indicated by changes In the 
 form of the word itself (inflexion). 
 
 34. Point out the historical order in which the several foreign elements were in- 
 coi'porated into the English language. During what period did English seem to be 
 dying out, and under what circumstances and influences did it revive? 
 
 35. Parse the words in italics in the following passage, not omitting to give and 
 explain their syntax : — 
 
 I met a traveller from an antique land, 
 ir/io said : Two vast and trunkless legs of stone 
 Stand in the Desert. + Near them, on the sand, 
 Half-sunk, a shattered visage lies, loliose frown 
 And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command, 
 Tt:ll that the sculjitor well those passions vfud 
 Which still survive, stamped on these lifeless things, 
 The hand that mocked them, and the heart that/ed; 
 And on the pedestal these words appear : — 
 " My name is Ozymandios, King of kings. 
 Look on my works, j'e mighty, and despair !" 
 Nothing hcsul". remains. Round the decay 
 Of tlui.t colossal wreck, ho^mdless and bare 
 The lone and level sands stretch far o.icay, 
 
 36. Analyse either the first or the last half of the above passage into its component 
 sentences (as in question 30), 
 
 37. Examine and illustrate the etymology of any five of the following words from 
 the above sonnet : — Traveller, visage, passions, survive, despair, level, boundless, 
 lone, decay, colossal, desert, lip, pedestal. 
 
 38. Show by definition and examples what is meant by («) substantive, (b) in- 
 transitive, (ci passive, (d) defectiv3, (e) strong (irregular), and (/) weak (regular) 
 verbs. To which of the two last-named classes would you refer the verbs to had, to 
 spread, to show, to sivcep, to spend, and why? 
 
 39. Give your definition of an adverb, a preposition, and a conjunction, and show 
 by examples the difference between each of them and the other two. Can you 
 mention any words belonging to these three classes which cannot be parsed without 
 knowing their position in a sentence? 
 
 40. Give a short historical sketch, with dates, of the origin and growth of the 
 English language. 
 
 0. Questions set to first year students in Training Colleges. 
 
 1. Parse the following sentences and be careful to give in full the syntax of the 
 prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns : — " For all of us have it in our choice to do 
 everything that a good man would desire to do ; and are restrained from nothing but 
 what would be pernicious either to ourselves or oiu' fellow-citizens.' 
 
 2. In what cases is the sign of the infinitive mood omitted? 
 
 3. Give the etymology and etymological meaning of explain, protect, enforce, alsolute, 
 rights, simple, relative, connections, coinplicatrd. 
 
 4. What is the general meaning of the terminations ive, Hon, av, v:ise, al, ty, ov.s f 
 Give instances of each. 
 
 5. In how many different ways may the word that be parsed? Give examples, with 
 a full explanation of each. 
 
 6. Make a list of the Saxon prefixes which occizr before verbs, with their meanings. 
 
 7. With what verbs are the following nouns connected by derivation :—Uiss, girth, 
 leitch, share, v:oof, ditch, hilt, thrift, toll, dole, rv.th') 
 
 8. Name the different kinds of adjectives, and assign each of the following to its 
 proper class — viz., this, yonder, such, much, tviry, great, heavy, ivise, wonderful, twenty, 
 tftntieth. 
 
 9. Explain the meaning, formation, and derivation of each of the following words, 
 and di-stribute them under the lieads of (a) derivatives, and (6) compound words — viz., 
 enrich, outrun, maynify, whiten, ot/<cricise, Jiomewird, ditch, hrowl/cat, gainsay, vianu- 
 script, hnmoeopalhi/, lend'zvous, kxeediep, diannter, catastrophe, pxaseproud. 
 
 10. Give the rules of syntax as to the number of the verb, (>() '^'ben the subject 
 coiiaists of one or m.Te persons or thing.s (di.stinguisliiiiLf the difTerent combinations) ; 
 (If) when the subject i.s a collective nnun. Give examph-s of each rule. 
 
 11. Give a classified list of the au.\i;iary vobs in the Engli.sh language. 
 
 VI. State, and show \<y examples, what words or comLiiaations of words may form 
 Lhe subject of a scnleuce. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 26? 
 
 13. Give examples of English words in which differences of (a) number, (h) gender, 
 (c) person, (d) case, (e) mood, and (/) tense, are marked by changes in the form of the 
 word. 
 
 1-1. Furnish a classified list of the compound pronouns. 
 
 15. Name the auxiliaries of mood and conjugate them. 
 
 1(3. Enumerate the jDoints and marks used in written and printed language. 
 
 17. Comment on the words than, hut, and that in all their various uses, with 
 examples. 
 
 IS. For what pm-pose do English verbs change their form ? What is mood? Name 
 the several moods, and give their distinctive meanings. 
 
 19. Conjugate the verb " to strike" in the passive voice, giving the infinitive, im- 
 perative, and potential moods, and the participles. 
 
 20. Give some general rules for the order in which parts of speech are to be placed, 
 relatively to each other, in an English sentence. 
 
 21. Parse and analyse the following : — 
 
 In vain the sage, with retrospective eye. 
 
 Would from the apparent what conclude the why, 
 
 Infer the motive from the deed, and show 
 
 That what we chanced was what wc meant to do. 
 
 22. Parse and analyse the following :— 
 
 Immeasin-able strength they might behold 
 In me, of wisdom nothing more than mean ; 
 This with the other should, at least, have pair'd. 
 These two proportioned ill drove me transverse. 
 
 23. What is meant by the "Nominative Absolute," "Parenthesis," and 
 "Metaphor"? 
 
 24. Compose one or two sentences with a verb in the infinitive mood or a sentence 
 acting as nominative to a following verb. 
 
 25. What is the perfect tense of " Methinks "? Define, with three examples of 
 each, Impersonal, Intransitive, Strong, and ]]'eaL- Verbs. 
 
 26. Distinguish between Derivation and Composition in Language ; and give ex- 
 amples of Adjective and Adverbial Suffixes, and Verb and Adjective Compounds. 
 
 27. Give a hst of verbs which have both the weak and the older strong form in the 
 past tense or perfect participle. Also give instances of nouns which have two forms 
 in the plural. 
 
 2S. State the various kinds of Attributive Adjuncts which may be employed, and 
 give instances. Also analyse the following sentence:—" If I had not seen Bloudin'a 
 feat, I could not have believed but that he must fall." 
 
 29. Parse the words italicised in the following passages :— 
 
 («) Hard by a cottage chimney smokes. 
 
 (Z;) There held in holy passion still 
 Forget thi/stlf to marble. 
 
 (.) Till old experience do attoJn 
 
 To something like prophetic strain. 
 
 ((.() We drove a^ntld, and both iogithcr heard 
 
 What time the gray-fly winds her sultry horn. 
 (c) What recks it tficm? what need they? They are sped. 
 
 (/) Blind vioiitjis ! that scarce themselves know hovj to hold 
 A sheepliook, or have learned aught else the least 
 That to the faithiul herdsman's art belongs ! 
 
 SO. Analyse fully the following sentences : — 
 
 (a) Thus done the tales, to bed they creep. 
 
 (Ji) If the air will not permit, 
 
 Some still removed place will fit, 
 Where glowing embers through the room 
 Teach litfht to counterfeit a gloom. 
 (c) But, O sad Virgin, that thy power 
 
 Wight raise Musa^us from his bower, 
 
 Or bid the sor.l of Orpheus sing 
 
 Such notes as, warble 1 to tlie string. 
 
 Drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek. 
 
 And made hell grant what love did seek 1 
 
268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ((?) ^Fay at last my weary age 
 
 I'ind out the peaceful hermitage. 
 The hairj' gown and mossy eell, 
 Where 1 may sit and rightly spell 
 Of every st;ir that heaven doth shew 
 And every herb that sijjs the dew, 
 Till old experience do attain 
 To something like prophetic strain. 
 
 (e) Together both, ere the high lawns appeared 
 Under the opening eyelids of the morn, 
 We drove afield, and both together heard 
 What time tlie gi-ay-fly winds her sidtry horn, 
 Battening our flocks with the fresh dews of night, 
 Oft till the star that rose at evening bright. 
 Towards heaven's descent had sloped his westering wheel. 
 
 31. Derive mdo.nchoJu, conievq^lation, counterfeit, tv'Uighi, ecstasies, wizard, primrose, 
 amaranthns. 
 
 32. Explain the force of the prefix or stiffix in yclepcd, delude, bested, downward, 
 ennoUtO, under ti<-ath, vermling, jioivertts. 
 
 'i'.i. Make a table showing the souices of our language from which j-ou derive 
 buxom, ixujeanlr;;, ntcUins, lu'.rruoni/, demure, cherub, demon, tourney, troi<h[i, cloisters, 
 hermiteif/'', guerdon. 
 
 84. Give the force of the metaphors in the following phrases :—" low-browed 
 rocks," "wreathed smiles," "the chain that ties the hidden soul of harmony," 
 "labouring clouds," " dewy feathered sleep." 
 
 D. Questions set to second teak Students in Training Colleges. 
 
 1. What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive moods? Illustrate 
 your answer. 
 
 2. In each of the following words, separate the root (by hyphens) from the other 
 part, and state precisely the grammatical difference which that other part makes tc 
 the root : Spltndour, assume, 'moment. Exhibit the same roots in combination with 
 other prefixes or terminations, and state the precise change thereby occasioned in 
 each instance. 
 
 3. Separate the root from the other parts in the following words, and show the pre- 
 cise effect of each of the additions : — Unmerilable, slanderous, business, empty, valieiat, 
 provender, corporal, barren, Jdshion. 
 
 4. Give the third person singular of the verb to icrite in all the forms of the tenses 
 of the indicative mood. 
 
 5. Define an adveib and a conjunction. Mention words which are used as both one 
 and the other, and show the points of approach and difference between these parts of 
 speech. 
 
 0. Classify extensions of the predicate, (1) as to their form, (2) as to their subject 
 matter. 
 
 7. What is the precise oB&ce of a preposition ? Distinguish accurately between a 
 preposition and an adverb. Have any words jjassed from being one to being the 
 other? Can prepositions be compared ? 
 
 S. Is the word but ever a preposition ? Prove your answer. How may prepositions 
 become conjunctions and vice versa f 
 
 9. Distinguish accurately between extensions and completions of the predicate. 
 
 10. What is antithesis V 
 
 11. Give, with any comments, the positive and comparative of next, fv.rthei; first, 
 last, innermost, utmost. 
 
 12. Illustrate fully the usages of tfiat, but, as, all, eiiher. 
 
 13. Exemi)lify by sentences tlie various kinds of adverbial clauses. 
 
 14. Give a list of the ]:)rincipal terminations of English adjectives and state, where 
 you can, the force of each termination and from what language it is taken. Illustrate 
 by examples. 
 
 15. How do .'strong verbs form their past tenses, and generally also their past parti- 
 ciples? Take as examples blov>, shake, drin/c, f<//it, acej), lose. Give a list of verbs 
 which are weak in their jiast tenses but strong in their past imrticiples. 
 
 1(5. Give examples of tlie following special rules relating to the objective ca.se, (a) 
 Xeuter verbs sometimes take an oV)joct ;vfter them ; (') Some passive verbs take an 
 object after them ; (c) Some transitive verbs take two objects after them ; (d) The 
 conjunction than is followed by the fibjccfivc case in certain instances. Explain, as 
 far ail you can, the rcas-ju of each of tlicisC exceptional rules. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 269 
 
 17. Give a classification of tlac pronouns, and show how they differ from nouns in 
 signification, form, and position relative to words. 
 
 18. What is the rule of syntax for the government of the verb in each of the follow- 
 ing cases? (a) When two or more singular subjects are connected by a copulative 
 conjunction. (/') When they are connected by an alternative or adversative conjunc- 
 tion, (c) When they are qualified by a distributive or negative adjective. C'O When 
 two or more alternative subjects are of different forms. («) When, of two subjects, the 
 one is affirmative and the other negative. Give an example of each rule laid down, 
 and mention any exceptions that occur to you. 
 
 19. Derive the words sterling, Hallowmas, forego, caitiff, attorney, sympathy, 
 attainder. 
 
 20. Scan the following lines :— (a) My manors, rent, revenues, I forego, (b) The 
 badges of his grief and patience, (c) His eyes do drop no tears, his prayers are in jest. 
 (cO And let thy blows doubly redoubled, (e) Making the hard way sweet and delect- 
 able. 
 
 21. What is peculiar in the grammatical construction of the follcHving passages : — 
 
 (a) Two kinsmen digged their graves with weeping eyes." ^H 4/^kC^\^'V' 
 (h) How earnest thou by this ill tidings? 
 
 (c) Peace shall go sleep. /« . I ^^ff^ ^ 
 
 (d) Ay, no ; no, ay ; for I must nothing be. Therefore, no, no. VV*'" i^ 
 
 (e) Vex not yourself, nor strive not with your truth. 
 
 (J) Chasing the royal blood with fury from his native residence. 
 
 E. Questions set at the Matriculation Examinations of the 
 
 University of London. 
 
 1. Give three instances in which the subjunctive mood is used, and quote the rules 
 which regulate its use. 
 
 2. Give some exam j)les of " irregular " verbs and adjectives; and explain how the 
 irregularity may be accounted for. 
 
 3. With what familiar English words are the following derivatives connected? 
 Bitch, ought, tvander, should, gift, month, husband, doomsday, length, woof, huntsman, 
 seed, burden, forlorn, shadou\ mirth. 
 
 4. Make a sentence containing a simple subject and predicate only ; and add other 
 sentences showing how subject or predicate may be enlarged by phrases or by sub- 
 ordinate sentences. Resolve the following sentence into its elements : — 
 
 ' "What seem'd his head 
 
 The likeness of a kingly ci-own had on." 
 
 5. Make a list of English pronouns, classifying them according to the system which 
 you prefer. Point out any examples of true inflexion which your list contains. 
 
 6. Define inflexion in grammar. Show what classes of words admit of the most 
 varied inflexion, and what classes of words are incapable of it. Comment also on the 
 inflexion of the following words -.—Geese, pence, vixen, ii-hat, brethren, eldest, ichovi, could, 
 did, themselves, striclccn, vjorse, Jcept, ouffht. 
 
 7. What is a Relative Pronoun ? Make a table of English Relatives, and mention 
 any words derived from them. Quote the rules for their concord and govei-nment, 
 and give examples. 
 
 8. To what use do we put the verb to be in the English language ? 
 
 y. Give some examples in English of compound words. How may such words be 
 classified? 
 
 10. Explain fully how number and person are indicated in English verbs. 
 
 11. Discuss the ifollowing forms :—Are, uevt, could, methinks, durst, ought, distraught. 
 
 12. Explain fully the various uses and constructions of but, than, and as respec- 
 tively. 
 
 13. When is that, as a relative, preferable to which 9 
 
 14. How are conjunctions most conveniently classified ? Do they connect sentences 
 only, or words also ? Justify your answer. 
 
 15. Give the exact force of the following prefixes and affixes : Man-hood, spin-.s^f)-, 
 wef-t, sea-m, sla v-is/i, tive-nome, spark- ?<?, mis-give, for-got, withstand, 6e-troth, in- 
 nocent, n-ever. 
 
 16. Give the past and perfect tenses of sit, sew, shrink, thrive, lend, rnv, Imd, lie, set, 
 lay, su-ing, seethe ; and give the past tense of the following :— " I t/are do all that may 
 become a man ;" and " I ovght to know." 
 
 17. Conjugate the future tense of any verb, and give a rule for the use of shall and 
 tvill in future forms. What arc indefinite forms of a tense ? and what continuous f 
 
270 ENGLISH GPtAMMAn. 
 
 IS. Distinguish adverbs, conjunctions, find prepositions ; and dassifv them. 
 IP. How are English phn-als formed ? Give examples of anomalous and of obsolete 
 formations. Give instances of nouns that vary their meaning with their number. 
 
 20. Point out the difference between an adverb and a conjunction ; and give 
 examples of words used both as adverbs and cunjunctions. What adverbs take de- 
 grees of comparison ? 
 
 21. Parse the following sentences :— (1) "The Lord hear thee in the day of trouble ;" 
 (2) " They gave him such a reception as gralihed him, and sucb an answer as he 
 wished to receive." 
 
 22. Give the plural forms of brother, carao, valley, strife, seraph, virtuoso, madame, 
 niemoraiidurii, fish, penni/, vesper, Mr. Thomson, yea. Comment on the forms which 
 violate the common rules. 
 
 23 Give the past tense and the complete participle of lie dotcn, la>/i freight, hide, 
 shear, sew, saiu, si'e, sit, set, fxd, hid. 
 
 21. Take the forms »io», /«?)• (fero), and graph (grapho) ; add as many prefixes and 
 affixes as you can, giving the force of each. 
 
 25. Into what two parts may everj- simple and complex sentence be divided ? How 
 many enlargements and extensions does each part admit? 
 
 26. Give rules for English punctuation. 
 
 27. What i.s than after a comparative, and by what case is it followed ? Criticize the 
 following : — " Than whom none higher sat." — Milton. 
 
 28. What tense-forms have we in English for calling attention to the continuousness 
 of an act ? What are indefinite forms ? And what are emphatic forms ? 
 
 29. What affixes are used in English to express diminutiveness (a) in nouns, (Jj) in 
 adjectives, and (c) in verbs ? Give affixes that indicate an agent, a state, and a place. 
 
 30. How are compounds and derivatives distinguished ? 
 
 31. What are correlative conjunctions? Give the correlatives of either, though, loth, 
 and of such and so with different senses. 
 
 32. Append the appropriate prepositions to the following : Independent, diffcrenc?^ 
 agree, averse, dissent, correspond, conformable. * 
 
 oZ. In what different ways are objective cases governed in English? 
 
 34. Explain the following constructions : — "Is the news true?" "The people arc 
 divided." "Every limb and every feature appears with its appropriate grace." 
 " Justice, as well as benevolence, is our rule." 
 
 35. What is the meaning of adjective-endings in cr? Give a list of iiTegular super- 
 lative foi-ms. 
 
 3G. Show the relationship of English to other languages of the Indo-Eui'opean 
 family. 
 
 37. Explain the formation of the comparative and superlative in the adjectives 
 good, bad, much, lltVe, far, and near. 
 
 38. Distinguish between u-hidi and that as relatives. 
 
 39. "Duncan conies here to-night." Exjdain the tise of the present indefinite in 
 this sentence. What other distinct forms of thought can be expressed in English by 
 the use of the same tense ? 
 
 40. Tell the history of the use of to before a verb in the infinitive ; and discuss the 
 difference of usage in such phrases as " I dare say ;" and "I ought to say." 
 
 41. Explain peculiarities in conjugation of the verbs be, go, ought, must. 
 
 42. Distinguish between "1 think" and " Jlethinks." What is the grammatical 
 structure of each of the following phrases ?—" The self-same daj';" " Many a day ;" 
 "A house to let;" "Lady-Day;" "To wit;" "By lights;" "Forty pounds a year ;" 
 "A few things." 
 
 43. What do you understand by " Gender" in grammar? Show how 3*our definition 
 applies to each of these words i—Aunl, Scmpstnss, She, That, Man-servant, 2'(statri.v, 
 Mistress, Heroine, Margravine. 
 
 44. Wliat is ajiposition? Give some examples, and enunciate any rules which they 
 respectively illustrate. 
 
 45. Explain the precise signification of the words it and there in the sentences :— 
 It rains ; It is he ; I struck it with a sword ; There lived a man ; Are there many in 
 the room? There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech ; Go there as fast as possible; 
 Is it not we that arc in fault? 
 
 46. Take the following adjectives and convert them, by the help of prefixes or 
 siiffixcs, into verbs: — Larg,', just, hinnble, strong, wide : and take the folloNving verbs 
 and convert them inio nouns : — Sow, snc, dig, laave, compel, receive, think. Explain in 
 each case the law of formation, and ^ive other examples of it. 
 
 47. Give rules for the riglit use of the Subjunctive in English, with examples. 
 
 48. Discuss and illustrate the conditions of Perfect Rhyme. 
 
 49. Explain tlic suffixes in the words hilloclc, hemlock, ivedlock, Inovledgc, freedom, 
 ffUoicship; and account for the vowel in the first syllabic of the words kitten, vixen, 
 thimble. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 271 
 
 50. What ig meant by the Infinitive Mood of a verb ? Distinguish between Gerund 
 and Participle. 
 
 51. Give the Rules of S.vntax which concern the use of Pronotuis. 
 
 52. What foreii?u ingredients are to be found in our English vocabularj' ? Account 
 historically for their presence. 
 
 53. State Grimm's Law, and give .some illustrations of it. 
 
 54. Give some examples (1) of irregular comparison in adjectives, (2) of double 
 superlatives, (3) of the use of the historical present. 
 
 55. Trace the derivation of the words strength, wroxgJif, wcj't, wealth, uncouth, 
 songstress, twain, drench, melhinks, ought, vixrn, farthing. 
 
 5*^. Give some rule for determining the case of a relative pronoun in an English 
 sentence, and cite some examples. 
 
 57. What is Gi'ammar, and why is it so named? 
 
 58. Define each of the Parts of Speech. 
 
 59. Explain the terms Declension, Conjugation, Case, Mood, Tense, Participle, 
 Gerund, and illustrate each by an example. 
 
 60. Explain the origin and force of the terminations .r>/, ize, ty, head, tJi, est, ncss, and 
 give illustrations showing to what parts of sijeech words having these endings re- 
 spectively belong. 
 
 61. Explain the syntax of the following sentences, with special reference to the 
 words in italics : — 
 
 62. He was paid a shilling. I taught him Latin. We walked twenty viilea. That 
 is a horse of raine. It grieves me to hear this. Who runs may read. 
 
 "There is no man here 
 But honours you." 
 
 63. Give examples showing how the predicate of a sentence may be modified (1) by 
 a word, (2) by a phrase, (3) by a subordinate sentence. 
 
 64. Give examples of Correlative words in English, and some sentences illustrative 
 of their proper use. 
 
 65. What is the force of -en and of -er as terminations, — in nouns, in adjectives, 
 and in verbs ? 
 
 66. In what classes of terms, and among what parts of speech, do we find the 
 largest proportion of purely English words ? How do you account for the presence 
 in our vocabulary of so many words of foreign origin ? 
 
 67. Write out a list of Prefixes, distinguishing those of English from those of Latin 
 origin. Cite some examples of hybridism in English words. 
 
 68. Put the following phrases into sentences, and give a reason for the construc- 
 tion which you employ: — "As good as I;" "As good as me;" "Wiser than he;" 
 "Wiser than him;" "Than whom;" " A friend of my brother's;" "All but her;" 
 " Many a man ;" " You and I ;" " You and me." 
 
 69. What do you know of words terminating as follows, (1) as to the part of speech 
 to which they belong, (2) as to the language from which they are derived? -fid ; -ize ; 
 •en: -ible ; -ness ; -ty ; -ons ; -ar ; -ory ; -tion ; -fy ; -ling; -less; -isle. 
 
 70. Analyse :— 
 
 Fame is the spur that the clear spirit doth raise, 
 That last infirmity of noble mind, 
 To scoi*n delights and live laborious daj^s : 
 But the fair guerdon when we hope to find. 
 And think to burst out into sudden blaze, 
 Comes the blind Fury with the abhorred shears 
 And slits the thin-spun life. 
 
 71. By the help of Suffixes, convert the following Adjectives into Nouns: — Sweet, 
 humble, vv.se, broad, pure, '/■)erfect ; and the following Nouns into Adjectives : — Snoic, 
 grace, brother, sense, fool, wood. Give two examples of each formation, and state to 
 what language each affix belongs. 
 
 72. Parse and analyse the sentence : — 
 
 What thou biddest, 
 Unargued I obey. 
 
 73. Take the following forms, and state from them the rules for forming English 
 plurals : — m^n, /cine, churches, a/nimalcula, sons-in-law. 
 
 74. In what cases are the several words italicized ? —This cost five shillings. He 
 was offered a pension. He died as a Cliristian. He lived a saint. " And all the air a 
 solemn stillness holds." The investment yielded me large profit. 
 
 75. Place each of the following phi-ases iu a sentence of your own constniction, so 
 as to illustrate the way iu which it may be properly used : — " Better than he ;" 
 " Better than him ;" " Than whom ;" " And which ;" " As good as 1 ;" " As good as 
 m--. ■;' " The wiser man ;" " Would that ;" "Sixty head," 
 
272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 76. Take the following sentence, and aiTangc in three gi-oups the words of Saxon, 
 Greek, and Latin origin, respectively: give fully the derivation of the words 
 italicized : — 
 
 Not second he, who rode sullime 
 
 Upon the seraph wings of ecstast/ 
 
 The secret of the abyss to spj\ 
 He passed the flaming bounds of place and tinm 
 The living throne, the sapphire blaze, 
 AVhere angels tremble while they gaze, 
 He saw ; but. blasted with excess of light, 
 Closed his eyes in endless night. 
 
 77. Define the meaning of the following gi-ammatical terms, and give examples of 
 their use : — "Relative;" "Transitive;" "Predicate;" "Infinitive;" "Apposition." 
 
 7S. State the origin and describe the force of the following Prefixes and SuflBxes 
 respectively : — li"-, -nesx, -kin, for-, -tion, dis-, -our, ]'>re-, -ster, sub-, i)ur; -fuU. 
 
 79. Correct or justify the following phrases, and in each case give your^^easons :— 
 
 (1) Let each esteem other better than themselves. '\ (^ (\ jf \fi ^y^ 
 
 (2) Are either of these men your friend ? ^ 
 
 (3) It is not me who he is in love with. 
 
 (4) Who shall I give it to ? 
 
 (5) They will never believe but what I have been to blame. 
 
 (6) Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible as example. 
 
 (7) The thunder was heard roll over our heads. 
 
 (8) I am verilj' a man who am a Jew. 
 
 (9) Extravagance as well as parsimony ai'e to be avoided. 
 
 80. Correct or justify the following, adding in each case your reason : — 
 
 " Of which doctrine we assert that no teaching can so certainly deaden 
 spiritual life." 
 
 " Of all others he is the ablest writer they have." 
 
 " He is arrived." 
 
 " I knew it to be he." 
 
 •' The Thames is derived from the Latin Tamesis." 
 
 " Every thought and feeling are opposed to it." 
 
 " Milton seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to 
 know what it w^as nature had bestowed on him." 
 
 " Men all slept sound save she who loved them both." 
 
 81. Discuss the correctness of the following sentences : — 
 
 (1) His worship and strength is in the cloiids. 
 
 (2) Neither Charles nor "William were there. 
 
 (3) Good order and not mean savings produce great profit. 
 
 (4) The two first boys in the class. 
 
 (5) Alfred, than wilom never wiser prince governed England 
 ((3) Whether you will or no. 
 
 (7) He docs not know but what it is true. 
 
 (8) Are either of those horses yours? 
 
 (9) H e went away all of a sudden. 
 
 (10) It was thought to be he. "^^ *.Sfe»- 
 
 82. Wiite down the words in the Lord's Prayer which are not of Saxon origin. ^' 
 S3. Correct or justify tlie following, stating in each case your reasons. Parse (c). 
 
 {ill), and (h). 
 
 (a) Let eacii esteem other better than themselves. 
 
 (b) Nobody said so but him. 
 
 (c) He had liked to have boon drowned. 
 
 (d) The fact of me being a minor cannot matter. 
 ie) He was scarce gone when you came. 
 
 (/) He has eaten no food nor drunk no wMnc this two days. 
 
 (fj) Who should I meet to-day but him vou are talking of ? 
 
 (h) Will that be all .you want ? 
 
 (0 My " Lives of tlie Poets " are reprinting. 
 
 (k) He or you arc in the wrong. 
 
 (/) Nor want nor cold his course delay. 
 
 (m) What and if I did ? 
 
 (") Many a day. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 273 
 
 84. CoiTect or justify the following, giving in each case your reason :— 
 
 (a) How beautiful must be 
 The God that made so good a thing as thee ! 
 
 (b) There are many ways of dressing a calvo's head. 
 
 (c) You must either be quiet or must leave the room. 
 
 (d) The Muses sung before the throne of Jupiter. 
 
 (e) Thoughts are only criminal when they are first chosen and then voluntarily 
 continued. 
 
 (/) And when he was set he opened his mouth and taught. 
 
 Iff) You did not ought to go. 
 
 (A) I called upon him, and wished to have submitted my MS. to him. 
 
 85. Con-ect or justify the following sentences, and give in each case your reason :— 
 
 (1) It is most likely that neither of these are the correct version. 
 
 (2) This man and that man was born there. 
 
 (o) In modern English two negatives destroy one another. 
 
 (4) Every one has their faults. 
 
 (5) Th^adiofMi^bujii, this poem was unanimous. 
 
 (0) Till bdafs were drawn ashore, having first taken out the cargo. 
 (7) He trusted to have equalled the Most High. 
 
 (S) The Duke of 'Wellington is not one of those who interferes with matters 
 over which he has no control. 
 (9) We know little individually of his hearers. 
 
 86. Explain fully the formation of plurals in English. Give examples (1) of words 
 that have two plurals ; (2) of plurals which have no singular. How is the plural 
 formed of words compounded (0 of two nouns; (2) of a nouu and an adjective ; 
 (S) of a noun and a particle ; (4) of a noun and a verb? 
 
 87. How is a word known to be an adjective ? Give examples of adjectives which 
 have come to be used as nouns. Are English adjectives ever declinable? Give six 
 examples of irregular forms of comparison. Of what word is " first" the superlative? 
 
 88. Explain all terms used in the classification of the letters of the Alphabet. 
 
 89. Describe and account for the different methods of indicating Case, Gender, and 
 Number in nouns. 
 
 90. Write three short sentences showing the use of the word "that," (1) as a 
 demonstrative pronoun, (2) as a relative pronoun, and (3) as a conjunction. 
 
 91. Give rules and examples showing the syntax of the Pronoun, when it is either 
 the subject or in any way related to the subject of a sentence. 
 
 92. Analyse the following sentence : — 
 
 " I was confirmed in this opinion, that he who would not be frustrate of his 
 hope to write well hereafter in laudable things, ought himself to be a true poem." 
 
 93. Correct or justify the syntax in each of the following sentences :— 
 
 " Avoid those kind of things." 
 
 " He printed a great number of authors in such a manner as show him to be a 
 very ingenious and learned man." 
 
 " Petulant. — You were the quarrel. 
 " 3JiUamant.—Me [" 
 
 " Regard is to be had to everj' one's circumstances, healths, and abilitiea." 
 " He was neither learned in the languages nor philosophy." 
 " I was going to have written him a letter." 
 
 "Now either spoke, as hope or fear impressed 
 E ich their alternate triumph in the breast." 
 
 " The tale is to be in five chapters, and I have fini.shed the first three." 
 
 94. Our "throe" is in Latin " tres," in German "drei." Give some account of 
 ithe law deduced from such variation in the form of words within the family of 
 ianguages to which Eng-lish belongs. 
 
 ^95. Trace the derivation of the words stitch, roimc, wrench, doU, losn, loan, sud, glaze, 
 .dredge, — distinguishing between ijrimary and secondary derivatives. 
 
 9o. " Plain livinq and high thinking are no more ;" " This livbifi death." Dis- 
 tinguish grammatically between the two forms of the w^rl Italianized in these two 
 .seatsnces, and add some information about what is called the lufinitivo Mood in 
 Verbs. 
 
 07. Write a few sentences to illustrate as fully as you can the fact that the gram- 
 ,m\tical u^e of the same word may vary, so that it shall be now one part of speech 
 and now another. 
 
 18 
 
274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PS. Comment upon the grammar of each of the fullowhig sentences : — 
 
 "But the greatest error of all the rest is the mistaking or misplacing of the 
 best or furthest end of knowledge." — Bacon. 
 
 " 'Tis they, that still renew Ulysses' toils." — Prior. 
 
 " Thou great fir.st cause, least understood. 
 Who all my sense confined." — Pope. 
 
 " The sun has rose and gone to bed, 
 Just as if Partridge were not dead." — Siri/l. 
 
 "■ In the temper of mind he was . . . ." — SlecJc 
 
 " . . . , which I had no sooner drank, but I found a pimple rising in my fovQ- 
 head."— Addison. 
 
 " 'Twas Love's mistake, wlio fancied what it icaved."—Crabbe. 
 
 99. What is " to " in the following jahrases? — (1) " Early to bed and early to rise ;" 
 (2) "To-morrow;" (3) "What went ye out for to see?" After what verbs is "to" 
 generally not inserted before the infinitive ? 
 
 100. Explain the following forms, and state in each case the meaning of the italicized 
 letters :—Poet-CiS, weal-th, dast-ard, satch-el, man-hond, u-ith-Btaiid, for-give, hln-ster, 
 be-dhn, Z/e-times, truth-/"*'', John-son, con-Id, to morrow. 
 
 lul. Correct or justify the following, giving your reason in each case : — 
 
 " What kind of an article is the ?" 
 
 " These ten last examples are of a different nature to the former." 
 
 " Seldom or ever did a lawyer rise to eminence by wit." 
 
 " Wrongs are engraved on marble, benefits too often on sand. ' 
 
 " These are apt to be requited, those forgot." 
 
 " In modern English two negatives destroy one another." 
 
 " No man is so perfect but what he may err." 
 
 " Without you learn it soon, it will be too late." 
 
 '' Whom do j'ou think he is ':" 
 
 " He is one of the wisest that has ever lived." 
 
 102. Justif J' or correct the following, giving your reasons in each case : — 
 
 " While shame, thou looking on, did utmost vigour rAisQ."—3Iilton. 
 
 " Homer as well as Virgil were studied on the banks of the Rhine." — Gibhon, 
 
 " There is sometimes more than one auxiliaiy to a verb. — Marrai/. 
 
 " More than a little is required of us." — Butler. 
 
 " Nothing but grave and serious studies delight him." 
 
 " Can England spare such men as him?" — Brougham. 
 
 " It is better for you and I as it is." 
 
 " You ought to have come." 
 
 " I expected to have finished at six." 
 
 " Mantua's law 
 Is death to any he that utters them." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " This sentence of the Dr'an's is itself ungi-ammatical." — Cobbctt. 
 " 1 could not see it in the posture I lay." — Swift. 
 
 103. Correct or justify the following: — 
 
 "Who can it be from?" 
 
 " In men, as in carriages, firmness and softness in each is the best arrangement 
 
 fur the safety of all." 
 
 " The logical and historical analysis of a language often coincides." 
 
 " A history now by a Mr. Hume would be examined with different eyes than 
 
 had it borne any other name." 
 
 " 'S cannot be a contraction of Jiis, for it is put to female noims." 
 
 " Men arc put in the plural number because they mean many." 
 
 " It is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that speak." 
 
 " His father's and his mother's names are on the blank leaf." 
 
 " His father and his mother's name is on the blank leaf " 
 
 " Like I did." 
 
 " Tlioir healths were drank with great enthusiasm." 
 
 " Having failed in this attempt, no further trial was made." 
 
 104. Crilicizc the strncturc of the following sentences ; and give the reason for any 
 correction which you think it necessary to make : — 
 
 "This principle is of all others the most important." 
 
 " His conduct lost liiin tlic king's conlidcnce." 
 
 " He took lily departure from the same point from which hi3 father Lad done." 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 275 
 
 " He was angry at me quitting the house." 
 
 "I had rather not go." , . , ^, . , 
 
 " The king then entered on that career of misgovernment, -which, that he was 
 able to pursue it, is a disgrace to our history." 
 
 " Thy honourable metal may be wrought 
 
 From that it is disposed." 
 " What conscience dictates to be done, 
 Or warns me not to do, 
 This, teach me more than hell to shun, 
 That, more than heaven pm-sue." 
 
 10.5. Examine the following expressions ; and give your reasons for thinking them 
 either good or bad : — 
 
 *' The Senate have decided,*' 
 
 " The King with the Lords and Commons form the Legislature." 
 " If thou beest he." 
 " Whom do you think I am?" 
 " From London to Brighton is fifty miles." 
 " I had rather not." . 
 
 " Did he not confess his fault, and begged to be forgiven ?" 
 "Our mutual friend." 
 10(3. Correct or justify the following, giving your reason in each case :— 
 " A versifier and poet are two different things." 
 " Liberal not lavish is kind Nature's hands." 
 
 " Not Prester John or Cham of Tartary 
 Are in their houses monarch more than I. '' 
 
 " I knjow how much pains have been taken in his case." 
 " I wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you." 
 " The sentence is faulty somewhat in the same manner with the last." 
 " Myself is (not am) weak : Thyself is (not art) strong." 
 " She fell a-laughing like one out of their right mind." 
 " A wise man scometh nothing, be it never so small or homely." 
 " There are five compartments; put it in either of them." 
 " Avoid extremes ; and shun the fault of such 
 "WTio still are pleased too little or too much." 
 
 " I was offered the post a year ago." 
 
 107. With what languages of Europe is English in origin most closely connected? 
 What exactly is its relation to Latin ? What to French ? 
 
 108. Explain the term Anglo-Saxon. What objections are there to it? What terms 
 have been proposed in its stead? Give reasons for its retention. 
 
 109. Mention any words that have been added to our vocabulary in the present 
 century. 
 
 110. Discuss the plural form children. Write down some nouns that have no special 
 form to express plurality. Is it correct to speak of " a two-foot rule "? 
 
 111. Point out the grammatical difference between the in such a phrase as " He did 
 his duty, and was the happier for it," and the the in " He was the happier of them." 
 
 112. Examine the forms lesser, icorst, foremost, elckr, farther. Derive next, last, best, 
 further, rather. 
 
 113. Explain the terms " strong " and " v/eak " as applied to verbs ; also the term 
 coniugation. To which conjugation do you assign teach, firjht, loork, do, pj, flow, flee, 
 till, tdl, toll ? 
 
 114. Mention some verbs that, being originally pr^lcrites, have come to be used as 
 presents. Can you account for such a usage ? 
 
 115. What is the force of run in such a phrase as "To run wild ;" of vjear in " The 
 day wears ;" of (/ivcin "The shoe gives;" of obtain in "This doctrine obtained;" of 
 ioLe in "Take offence "? Mention any noticeable uses of to taste, ring, sit, stand, go. 
 
 716. Point out and discuss anything grammatically questionable in these sen- 
 ences : — 
 
 (a) The threatened assault was met by Buckingham by a counter attack on the 
 Earl of Bristol, whom he knew would be the chief witness against him. 
 
 (b) They were desirous of removing those abuses which the Stuart kings had 
 introduced into the Government, and which overlaid the Constitution. 
 
 (<■) And many a holy text around she strews 
 That teach the rustic moralist to die. 
 
 18—2 
 
276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (d) This view has been maintained by one of the greatest writers that has ap« 
 peared in this country. 
 
 (e) The administration of so many various interests, and of disti'icts so remote, 
 demand no common capacity and vigoui-. 
 
 117. Give examples of verbs that are used both as " complete" and as "incomplete 
 predicates ;" and e.xphvin tliese terms. 
 
 lis. Analyse tliese sentences :— 
 
 (a) What is this? 
 
 (b) I had rather not go. 
 
 (c) Who is he, to behave in such a manner? 
 
 (r7) There were readers in multitudes ; but then* money went foi' other purposes, 
 as their admiration was fixed elsewhere. 
 (e) His answers were such as to win unqualified praise. 
 
 119. Describe the metre of the following stanza : — 
 
 We look before and after. 
 
 And pine for what is not ; 
 Our sincerest laughter 
 
 With some pain is fraught ; 
 Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. 
 
 120. Discuss each of these plural forms -.— leaves, oxen, line, men, brethren; also the 
 forms neirs, pains, riches, eaves, summons. 
 
 121. What is a Cardinal Number? Distinguish between the forms of tivo and hvain. 
 Discuss the origin of the words ten, eleven, twelve, hundred, thousand, dozen, scare. 
 
 122. Write eight sentences, giving four examples of the use of the same verb transi- 
 tively and intransitively. Rewrite the fuur sentences containing transitive verbs 
 with change of voice from active to passive. Add some notes upon the present use of 
 the Subjunctive Mood in English. 
 
 123. Give the fullest sub-division of an English verb into tenses that you have met 
 with in any grammar. Which of those tenses are distinguished by inflexions ? Dis- 
 tinguish between shall and v:ill as signs of a Future Tense. 
 
 124. Which form would you jirufer to use : He dcnx not, or He dares not? What is 
 to be said on boiialf of each form ? P^xplain the forms wiily nilb/, won't, to wit. 
 
 125. Explain, with reference to their origin, the use of the words own and owe, in 
 " I own a pound," "I owe a pound," and " 1 ou-n 1 oivc a laouud." Explain the vci'bs 
 in the question " How do you do f 
 
 120. Show how adverbs may be classified according to their meaning. Why are les 
 and No placed among adverbs. 
 
 127. Analyse the sentence : — " There is no branch of human work whose constant 
 laws have not close analogy with those which govern every other mode of man's 
 exertion." 
 
 12S. Correct or justify the syntax in the following passages, giving for each case the 
 rule that is in question ; — 
 
 («) " It has generally been observed, that the European population of the 
 United States is tall, and characterized by a pale and sallow countenance." 
 
 {!)) " When distress and angnisli cometh upon you." 
 
 (c) " By young Telemachus his blooming years." 
 
 \d) " Sorrow not as them that have no hope." 
 
 (e) " He having none but them, they having none but he." 
 
 (./) " Breaking a constitution by the very same errors that so many have been 
 broke before." 
 
 {(j) " They are not only the most charitable of any other nation, but most judi- 
 cious in distinguishing tlie propcrest objects of compassion." 
 
 (A) " The part of this reed used by the Indians is from ten to eleven feet long, 
 and no taijcring can be perceived, one end being as thick as .another." 
 
 (i) "It is observable that each one of the letters bear date after his banish- 
 ment." 
 
 (j) " If he had writ mc word by the next post this had been just and civil." 
 
 F. Questions set at the Cambridoe University Local Examinations 
 
 (Juniors). 
 
 1. Define and derive (a) pronortn, (h) prcpn.HUon. Show how your answers apply to 
 the words printed in italics in the following— (1) To be or not to ho,— that is the 
 question ; (2) They had nothing to amuse themselves xoith. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 277 
 
 2. Give the nxles for forming tlio pltirals of (a) nnnns ending in y, (h) nouns ending 
 in ch. Write down the possessive case plural of fox, ox, salmon, youth, touth, man* 
 servant, servant-man, man-nf-icar. 
 
 3. What p.n-ts of speech may an adverb modify? Parse fully the words alone, 
 almost, h\ each of the following sentences :—(«) He almost succeeded alone; {IS) Ho 
 succeeded almost alone ; (c) He, alone, almost succeeded. 
 
 4. What is a passive verb ? Why so named ? Write down (a) the infinitive active, (h) 
 the infinitive passive, of the verbs to which belong hast, did, vnlleth, badf, lade, made. 
 
 5. What does the infinitive mood express? Parse fully the verbs in the following: — 
 " It is lau_f liable to see beginners play." 
 
 6. Correct : — 
 
 (ft) Should the frost continue as sharp as last week, which I do hope it may, the 
 large pond will bare. . ■ 
 
 (Jj) He advised me to choose the smallest of the two, and which certainly appear*; 
 to be the most preferable. 
 
 (c) If I had only ran the few last yards instead of walked, I should have caught 
 the train easy enough. 
 
 7. Distinguish between s,ph;xtse and a sentence: — 
 
 "The Saxons invaded England." Write out this sentence (a) with the predicate 
 extended by a prepositional phrase, (6) with the predicate extended by an adverbial 
 sentence relating to time. 
 
 8. Analyze :— 
 
 In Bruges to^on is many a stree 
 
 IVhcnce busy life hath fled ; « g)_ 
 
 Where, without hurr^^, noiseless feet LK \C^^ 
 
 The gi-ass-grown pavement tread. L \ 
 
 There heard we, haltlnrj in the shade, I O 
 
 Flung from a ron?-"ji<.tower, * /vJ^ 
 
 A harp that tuneful prelude made 
 
 To a voice of thrilling power, i / 
 Parse fully the words in italics. i 
 
 9. Write down in a column all the parts of speech. Underline the one you consider 
 most important, and doubly underline the two which you consider least important, 
 giving reasons in each case for your opinion. 
 
 10. Give the derivation and definition of the temi adjective. Distinguish the different 
 kinds of adjectives in the sentence :— '"Every man did that which was right in his 
 own eyes." Give one examjile of each kind of adjective not represented in the preced- 
 ing sentence. 
 
 11. Write down, in tabular form, the past tense and past participle of each of the 
 verbs awake, flee, hurt, melt, ring, sou, slati, sow, wrint. Point out three of the above 
 verbs which may be used both transitively and intransitivelj'. Illustrate in each 
 instance by a short sentence. 
 
 12. Parse the infinitives in the following sentences : — fl) To tell the truth I think 
 you are to blame for going to sleep to kill time ; (2) To think that any one, who can 
 help it, should be content to live with nothing to do ! 
 
 13. Give the derivation and definition of the term imrticiple. Shew how j'our 
 answer applies to the participles in the following sentence : — In playing tennis he 
 was always forgetting that a ball returned by his opponent, if it touched the top of 
 the net dividing the courts, was likely to twist. 
 
 14. Point out the ambiguities in the following sentence :— "Ethel told Mary that it 
 would not be her fault if she did not succeed." 
 
 Distinguish the different meanings obtained by changing the position of the word 
 only in the following : — John attempted only three problems. 
 
 15. Correct :- («) They each followed in their turn ; {b) If he don't know I am sure 
 I don't ; (c) He did it without intending to. 
 
 16. Analyse, in tabular form : — 
 
 This England never did, nor never shall, 
 
 Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror, 
 
 But when it first did help to wound itself. 
 
 Now these her princes are come home again, 
 
 Come the three corners of the world in arms. 
 
 And we shall shock them. Nought shall make us rue, 
 
 If England to itself do rest hut true. 
 
 Parse fully the words in italics. 
 
 17. TiehnQ inflexion. Which of the parts of speech u.re incapable of inflexion? Give 
 two examples of each. 
 
278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 18. Give the derivation and definition of the term ^r;"0';iot(5i. Name the different 
 classes of jironouns, and give two examples of ench class. 
 
 19. Wliat are auxiiia.ry verbs ? Give a list of them. 
 
 20. Which of the following verbs are intransitive : — Bring, rieceive, def>/, dcslroi/, fall, 
 find, flow , raisi', smile, strive? Distinguish clearly between the meaning of It if^- 
 stroyeiT, Me is deceived, on the one hand, and that of It is fallen, He is risefi, on the 
 other. 
 
 21. Define adverb. Shew by examples what parts of speech adverbs qualify. Mention 
 two adverbs of place, two of time, and two of degixe ; and form adverbs from north, 
 other, thrc., ivhol". 
 
 22. In thu following passage sparse fully the words in italics : — 
 
 " The wonder is, not that Wordsworth rose no higher, but that, considering the 
 level on which his taste was formed, he had i^ower to rise to the height above his 
 age, ivhiclb he did attain. He lias left the marks of his teaching upon ever}' poet 
 who has written verses ivorth reading for the last twenty years." — C. Kingsby. 
 
 23. Correct the following, and give yoiir reasons for the changes you make : — (a) I 
 said thai- I will try again : {!>) The son walks exactly like the fathei(did : (c) Tliis is 
 one of the best books that has ever been written : {d) I heard of hiin saying as you 
 were ill. 
 
 24. Analyse, in tabular form : — 
 
 Tlie swallow stopt as he hunted the bee. 
 
 The snake slipt under a spray, 
 The wild hawk stood with the down on his beak. 
 
 And stared, with his foot on the prey, 
 And the nightingale thought, " I have sung many songs, 
 
 But never a one so gaj%" 
 For he sings of what the world will be 
 
 When the years have died away. 
 
 G, Questions set at the Cambridge University Local Examinations 
 
 (Seniors). 
 
 1. How many letters are there in the English alphabet? Which of these maybe 
 considered superfluous? Distinguish between lahicds, dentals, gutturals, and sihilants. 
 
 2. State the principal ways in which difference of gender in nouns is indicated. 
 Write down the feminines of gaffer, executor, emperor, fox, sloren, sulta7i. 
 
 3. Define an adjective. Of what inflexions are adjectives susceptible? Give 
 examples of adjectives that are capable of being used substantively. 
 
 4. What are the three natural divisions of time? How are these subdivided in 
 grammar ? Give the past tense and the past jjarticiple of the following verbs, and 
 classify them : — to aiceike, to heseech, to latch, to draio, to help, to strive, to jrcep. 
 
 5. What is a preposition ? Distinguish between tlie uses of iirepositions and con- 
 junctions. Give two examples of phrase-ad cerhs and phreise-prep^ositions. 
 
 i). 8t:ite the rule for the agreement of the relative w'ith its antecedent. When 
 ujay the relative be omitted? Give an example. 
 
 7. Parse the words in italics in the following lines : — 
 
 21ie night is chill ; the forest hare ; 
 
 Is it the wind titat moaneth bleak? 
 
 There is not wind i-nouglt in the air. 
 
 To viove em-ay the ringlet curl 
 
 From the lovely lady's cheek. — Coleridge. 
 
 8. Analyse:— 
 
 tSo cheer'd he his fair spouse, and she was cheer'd ; 
 
 But silently a gentle tear let fall 
 
 From cither eye, and wip'd them with her hair ; 
 
 Two other precious drops that ready stood. 
 
 Each in their crystal sluice, he ere thej' fell 
 
 Kiss'd, as the gracious signs of sweet remorse 
 
 And pious awe, that feared to have olTended. — Milton. 
 
 9. What is the meaning of predicate, parlici^le, adverb, apposition, genitive, infinitive 
 vwod 9 Illustrate by an instance in each case. 
 
 10. Give the feminine of songster, vnirqitis, hcau : flic masculine of irilch, roe, slut ; 
 the plural of shrep, she({f, cargo, cameo. Compare out, awry, sad, fore, late. 
 
 11. Distinguish between the use of .^hedl and iritl; also between the use of uvuld 
 and should, giving examples original or quoted. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 270 
 
 12. Give the past tense (1st person) and past participle of drive, iceai^e, slay, fics, 
 cling, toritig, tcreak, helj). What forms of lutlectiou of verbs (not taking auxiliary 
 verbs into account) survive in English? Give one example of each kind* 
 
 13. Parse fully the italicised words in the followini? passajrcs :— (1) He had laid him 
 low : (2) It were best let alone : (:5) Choose whom you will, we will pay him respect. 
 
 14. Analyse :— 
 
 In such a place as this, at such an hour, 
 If ancesti-y in aufjht can be believed, 
 Descending spirits have conversed with man, 
 And told the secrets of the world unknown. 
 
 15. Give English examples of the nine chief natural varieties of the verb as to fcind 
 of action and iimc of action. 
 
 1(3. CoiTect the following sentences and point out the nature of the mistakes :-/ 
 had. 7iiore rather lie be neither a soldier or Inwiier Witt boast holdlier than rnc9 
 
 17. What is an inflexional langung-e? What parts of speech may be inflected iu 
 En^ish ? Illustrate your answer by cxamp es 
 
 IS. How does the possessive case differ ho'ch in form and in use from the old 
 genitive ? State and illustrate the rules for its use in the singular and in the pluraL 
 
 19. In what cases may the subject be omitted in English ? Explain the construc- 
 tion of methnv.ght in the sentence :— " Methought the billows spoke and told me of it." 
 
 20. State the various ways in which the infinitive mood may be used. Give illustra- 
 tive sentences. 
 
 21. Point out and con-ect, giving your reasons, any grammatical irreg\ilarities in 
 the following sentences :— 
 
 ('?) The look of immovable endurance which underlaid his expression. 
 {h) I offer a prize of six pairs of gloves to whomsoever will teU me what 
 thought is passing through my mind. 
 
 22. Parse fully the italicised words in the following passage : — 
 
 All this, I know well enough, will sound v:ild and chimerical to the profane 
 herd of tliose vulgar and mechanical politicians, v/ho have no place among us : a 
 sort of people who think that nothing exists hat what is gross and material ; and 
 loho, therefore, far from being qualified to be directors of the great movement of 
 empire, are not fit to turn a wheel in the machine. 
 
 23. Analyse :— 
 
 Daughter of Jove, relentless power, 
 
 Thou tamer of the human breast, 
 Whose iron scourge and torturing hour 
 
 The bad affright, afflict the best ! 
 Bound in thy adamantine chain 
 The proud are taught to taste of pain, 
 And purple tyrants vainly groan 
 With pangs unfelt Tjefure, impitied and alone. 
 
 24. What are the chief constituent elements of the English language? GivO the 
 derivation of six of the following words, pointing out any change of meaning :—allj', 
 agony, chaffer, check, dyspeptic, giid, journal, lord, oar, person, ornithologist, poison, 
 rival, sherry, silly, somersault, spice, telegraph, villain, volume. 
 
 H. Questions set at the Oxford University Local Examinations 
 
 (Juniors). 
 
 1. What is a noun? Enumerate the various kinds of nouns, and instance objects 
 to which they may be severally applied. 
 
 2. How is the past participle formed ? Illustrate your explanation by reference to 
 the following forms -.—Received, c'ovcn, fled, brought, flung, laden, shorn, put. 
 
 3. What do you mean by Gender '! 
 
 4. How should you describe "child" and "fowl" with respect to Gender? And 
 what are the feminine forms of actor, executor, htro, and lad? 
 
 5. Analyse the following passage : — , 
 
 From his native hills N 
 
 He wandered far, much did he see of men. 
 Their manners, their enjoyments and pursuits. 
 Their passions and their feelings ; chiefly those 
 Essential and eteraal in the heart. 
 That 'mid the simpler forms of rural life, 
 Exist more simple in their elements, 
 And speak a i:)lainer language. 
 
280 ENCILTSII GPvAMRIAR. 
 
 6. Parse each word in the following passages :— 
 
 (1) His caliing laid aside, he lived at ease. 
 
 (2) The youth resigned 
 
 A task ne was nn.ible to perform. 
 
 (3) We parted, nothing willingly. 
 
 (4) He could afford to suffer 
 With those whom he saw suffer. 
 
 7. Give the past tense and the past participle of the following verbs '.—Steal, hold, 
 creep, espy, tell, zcear, build, receive, catch, bespeak; yird, receive, shut, stick, striJc, sit, 
 leave, d'xUne. 
 
 8. What is a pronoun ? 
 
 9. What is the difference between a relative and a demonstrative pronoun ? 
 
 10. What is an intransitive verb? 
 
 11. What is a verb in the passive voice? 
 
 12. Give an account of the English auxiliary verbs. 
 
 13. What is an adverb? 
 
 14. How are adverbs classified? 
 
 15. Analyse this passage : — 
 
 Yet not for these, 
 Nor what the potent victor in his rage 
 Can else inflict, do I rej^ent or change, 
 Though changed in outward lustre, that fixed mind, 
 And high disdain from sense of injured merit, 
 That with the Mightiest raised me to contend. 
 
 16. Parse every word in the following passage :— 
 
 His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
 Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast 
 Of some great amiral, were but a wand, 
 He walked with. 
 
 17. Derive the following words : — Pnny, aii'ive, paramount, apathy, treason. 
 IS. Explain : — Simile, metaphor, elision, oblique narration. 
 
 19. Give the derivation of the following words : — Profusely, assault, presage, master, 
 courteous. 
 
 20. Parse the words in italics : — 
 
 (1) What recks it them ? What need they ? They are sped, 
 
 (2) Had ye been there ? 
 
 (3) Thin-spun liie. 
 
 (4) That sunk so low. 
 
 (j) " Who hath reft," quoth he, "my dearest pledge ?" 
 (6) Let our frail tliouf/fits dally. 
 
 21. Derive :— Isle, dirge, paradise, sprightly, ambush, melancholy, remorse, bower. 
 
 22. Give some account of the following terms : — Syntax, Consonaut, Analysis, Mood, 
 Abstract Nouns, Participle. 
 
 23. Distinguish case, tense, mood ; rhyrw, rhythin, metre, 
 
 24. Parse every word in the following lines': — 
 
 It was that fatal and perfidious bark. 
 
 Built in th' eclipse, and rigg'd with curses dark, 
 
 That sunk so low that sacred head of thine. 
 
 25. Analyse and punctuate correctly : — 
 
 Fame is the s^wr that the clear sjjirit doth raise 
 
 That last infirmity of noble mind 
 To scorn delights and live laborious daj-s 
 
 But the fair guerdon when we hope to find 
 And think to burst out into sudden blaze 
 
 Comes the blind Fury with th" abhorr'd shears 
 
 And splits the thin-si)un life. 
 
 I. — Questions ret at the Oxford University Local Examinations 
 
 (Seniors). 
 
 1. Exjdain the terms :—f«) Objective Case, (6) Apposition, ic) Abstract Nouns, (rf) 
 Auxili.ary Verb, (,t) Intransitive Verb. Illustrate your explanations by examples. 
 
 2 Give the past tense and perfect participle of each of these verbs : — i>nik; diy, flee, 
 lie, lay, set, sit, tlirirf, f/d!, /cU, rise, swim. 
 
 S, Give the origin and meaning of the following prefixes i—Con, de, dis, ac, sub, syin, 
 un, in. lllustrute your answer by examples. 
 
EXAMINATION TAPERS. 281 
 
 4. Distinguish the imperfect participle from the participial Ruhstaiitive. Explain 
 the expressions :—(-/) Walking- stick ; (6) Runuinj^ to.innin ; (c) The house is a-build- 
 ing ; (d) He is bnilJiu;^ a hou/^Q ; (e) Actiu^^ is better than talking. 
 
 6. Wliat is a preposiiion ? Distinguish the preposition from the conjunction. 
 
 6. Analyse tliis passage :— 
 
 And where two raging fires meet together, 
 Tliey do consume the thing tliat feeds their fury ; 
 Thougli little fire grows great with little wind, 
 Yet extreme gusts will blow out fire and all. 
 
 7. Parse each word whicli is printed in italics in the following passages, and state 
 its grammatical connection with other words of the same sentence : — 
 
 (1) '• Boast not my fall," he cried, " insuUing foe I 
 
 Thou by seme other shall be laid as loir. 
 Nor think, to die dejects my lefty mind ; 
 All that I dread is leaving you behind." 
 
 (2) Come one, come all, this rock shall fly 
 From its firm base as soon as I. 
 
 (3) Besides, it were a moch 
 
 Apt to be i-endered, for some one to say 
 " Break wp the Senate till another time, 
 When Cibsay's wife shall meet with better dreams." 
 If Cfesar hide himself, they shall not whisper 
 " Lo, Csesar is afraid !" 
 
 8. Name and distinguish the different uses of each of the following words : — IHm- 
 self, vjhich, besides, rather, very, hut, as. 
 
 9. Explain the difference between :— (1) Transitive and Intransitive V^erbs, (2) 
 Adverbs and Conjunctions, (3) Subject and Object, (4) Nouns and Pronouns. 
 
 10. How does the language of Chaucer differ fi-om modern literary English in the 
 use of Inflections? Trace the several changes as completely as you can. 
 
 11. Distinguish between: — Lie, lay, laid; eat, ate; rode, road, rotved ; fell, fallen; 
 dyed, dinl ; and give the present and past participles of : — Slay, bray, rij}ly, rise, shak',, 
 speed, shrive, lice, obey, shoot, teach, set. 
 
 12. Parse fully all words in italics in the following passages : — 
 
 (1) 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a 'prey. 
 Where wealth accumulates, and r,ien decaj^. 
 
 (2) For him light labour spread ?icr wholesome .store, 
 Just gave what life requir'd but gave no more. 
 
 (3) All but yon widow'd solitary thing. 
 
 That feebly bends beside the pla.shy spring. 
 
 13. Punctuate tJie following passage :— 
 
 The needy traveller serene and gay 
 
 Walks the wild heath and sings his toil away 
 
 Does envy seize thee crush the upbraiding joy 
 
 Increase his riches and his peace destroy 
 
 New fears in dire vicissitudes invade 
 
 The rustling brake alai-ms and quivering shade 
 
 Nor light nor darkness brings his pains relief 
 
 One shows the plunder and one hides the thief. 
 
 14. Define a pronoun, and give a classification of pronouns, illustrating cacli class 
 by examples. 
 
 15. Give the characteristic forms (present indicative, past imperfect indicative, and 
 past participle), of shake, seethe, meet, burst, lose, lecqy, ride, lie, (1) to speak falsely, (2) to 
 recline, and lay. 
 
 16. Write out the present sulijunctive and the past subjunctive of " to be." 
 
 17. Distinguish between the use of "that" and "who" or "which" as relative 
 pronouns. 
 
 18. Parse the words printed in italics in the following sentences or phrases :— 
 
 (1) A fool of honour letter than I wa.'' 
 
 (2) He creates Lucius proconsul. 
 
 (3) Matter of scorn not to he given the foe. 
 
 (4) He spent a fortune in educating his son. 
 
 19. Distinguish between :— " Only he lost his child," " He only lost his child," " He 
 lost only his child " " He lost his only child." •' He lost his child only." 
 
282 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 
 
 'JO. Ai:alyse :— 
 
 Then slie, for her good deeds and her pure life, 
 
 And for the power of minihtration in Ler, 
 
 And hkewise for the high rank she had boine, 
 
 Was chosen abbess, there, an abbess, hved 
 
 For tljree brief years, and there, an abbess, passed 
 
 To where beyond those voices there is peace. 
 
 21. Parse the words in italics : — 
 
 His years hid young hut his experience old : 
 Idis head unrnelloiced, but his Judgment ripe; 
 Ai.d in a word (for far behind his worth 
 Come ail the 2yraises that I now bestow) 
 He is complete in feature and in mind, 
 ]\'ith all good grace to grace a gentleman. 
 
 J. Questions set at Examinations of the College of Preceptobs. 
 
 1. What facts in the early history of Britain are shown in the names Colchester, 
 Caerleon, Lincoln, Strctlord, Kirby, Sutherland ? 
 
 2. Enumei-ate, with examples, the vowel sounds commonly found in modern 
 English. 
 
 3. What letters in the English alphabet are superfluous, and why? What sounds 
 have no separate symbol to represent them? 
 
 4. Do active and p:\ssive verbs differ in meaning? If not, how do they dilTc-? 
 What is a cognate accusative? Give an example. Parse rae, in the sentence, " Writo 
 me a detailed account." 
 
 5. Analyse the following :—"J?f(?/-^ day is a little life, and our w-hole is 6u< a day 
 repeated : those therefore that dare lose a day, are dangerously prodigal : those that 
 dare misspend it, desperate." Parse the italicised words. 
 
 6. Analyse the following passage : — 
 
 Gather the rosebuds while ye may, 
 Old Time is still a-flying ; 
 And the same flower, that smiles to-day, 
 To-morroic u-ill he dying. 
 
 7. Parse the words in italics in the above passage. 
 
 8. Explain the use of the subjunctive mood, and distinguish between the words 
 might, should, covld. 
 
 y. Correct the errors, if any, in the following sentences, and account for your 
 corrections : — 
 
 (i.) Between you and I that man is greatly over-rated._ 
 
 (11.) Morning or evening are the best time for meditation. 
 
 (ill.) That wife of my cousin's makes him a clever housekeeper. 
 
 (iv.) Every one must judge of their own feeling. 
 
 (v.) If he speaks so he be a liar. 
 
 (vi.) This writer's works arc fraught with good and bad grammar. 
 
 10. Form two short sentences to show agreement in gender, and two others to 
 show agreement in luimber, and then exjilaln what grannnatlcal agreement means. 
 
 11. Ilnw is the semicolon employed? Write two sentences in which it is used. 
 
 12. Point out the afhxcs in the following derivatives, and explain the force of 
 each aflix : — Drwikard, hrookiet, horsemanshij), blackness, hatchet, sponsor, sophist, 
 CUnaanite, multitud'', ghihulc. 
 
 ' 13. Exi^lain the meaning of the words : — Opportune, Quixotic, enthusiasm, tistimonial. 
 privilege, implication ; and form short sentences to show the usage of each. v^ i\ ' ip 
 
 14. Parse fully the words in italics in the following sentence :— . . (xLslP^L V 
 
 There i.s a Reaper wliosc name is Death, (' *1 \^ jQ t^^ >■' 
 
 And z(;(7/t his sickle /.".'/i m ^^sJi^ ^ 
 
 He ?Tay>s the boarded grain at a breath /^ '^X ^^ 
 
 Aud the flotoers that grop) he I i'y en. O^ ' ^ 
 
 15. Show clearly, by a table, the verbs, subjects, and objects in the following 
 sentence :— " Our ship touched at an island on the way home, where my black 
 servant took me a walk over rocks and hills, till we passed a garden where we saw 
 a man walking." 
 
 16. Write three short sentences to show the use of personal pronouns. Give the 
 objective case (.singidar and plural) of the i-ronoiuis /, thou, he, shf, it. 
 
 17. What is meant by the voice of a verb, an intrni)sitive verb, a strong verb? Write 
 the followinfr sentence in the passive foim :— " The master scolded the boy." 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS, 283 
 
 IS. What is the force of the prefix in each of tlic following words :—i/i,!schance, 
 ««fortunatc, retrospectivo, prosyiectivo, sit/^terranean, co/itemporary ? 
 
 19. Write the i^resent iudic-itive 1st person singular of the verbs of which tho 
 fallowing are the past participles ■.—taught, spoJcd", c/ddJcn, eaten, shod, xcrung, borne, 
 
 20. Correct the following sentences, giving your reasons : — 
 
 (i.) He had not began his studies. 
 
 (ii.) Who are you looking for? 
 
 (iii). Tlie knife was laying on the table. 
 
 (iv.) His was one of those violent tempers that produces such sad results. 
 
 21. Punctuate, and put the necessary capitals and inverted commas in the follow, 
 ing passage :— pompey was sailing about near the coast of asia in the year be CO afcer 
 completing the destruction of the pirates when the news reached him of the great 
 authority which had been given him though he had been longing for it in his heart 
 and inducing his friends to try and get it for him he pretended not to like it now 
 that he had it what he said will rome burthen me with a new war must i never have 
 any rest. 
 
 K. Questions set at the Civil Service Examination for Engineer 
 
 Students. 
 
 1. Divide the following lines into separate sentences, and name the kind of 
 sentence each of them is. Define sciite-nce, subject, \rredicate, and divide each of iho 
 separate sentences into subject and predicate : — 
 
 " Then think I of deep shadows on the grass ; 
 Of meadows where in sun the cattle graze, 
 
 Where, as the breezes pass, 
 The gleaming rushes lean a thousand luays ; 
 
 Of leaves that slumber in a cloudy mass, 
 Or whiten in the wind : of waters l>lue 
 That from the distance sparkle through 
 Some woodland gap." 
 
 'J. Parse those words in the above which are printed in italics. 
 
 3. What is an adjective? a preposition ? a verb? What kinds of verbs are there? 
 Write sentences containing examples of all the kinds, naming the kinds in each case. 
 
 4. In the following lines state clearly the nature of the work each word does in its 
 sentence, and then name its part of speech : — 
 
 " A land, where, girt with friends or foes, 
 A man may speak the thing he wiU." 
 
 5. What is a pronoun ? What kinds of pronouns are there? From the following 
 lines pick out the pronouns, and state of what kind each is : — 
 
 " I write not to hurt any, but to profit some." 
 
 " This is the point whereat he would have stayed." 
 
 "What's that she mumbles ?" 
 
 " What is he that shall buy his ilock and pasture?" 
 
 " Certain came in that day who said Gordon had been slain." 
 
 L, Select Passages for Parsing and Analysis from Examination 
 
 Papers. 
 
 1. Scarce the third glass of measur d hours was run. 
 When like a fiery meteor sunk the sun. 
 
 The promise of a storm ; the shifting gales 
 Forsake by fits, and fill the flagging sails ; 
 Hoarse nuxrmtirs of the main from far were heard, 
 " And night came on, not by degrees prepared, 
 But all at once ; at once the winds arise, 
 The thvindcrs roll, the forky lightning flies. 
 
 2. For your wants, 
 
 Yoiu' suffering in this dearth, you may as well 
 Strike at heaven with your staves, as lift them 
 Against the Roman State ; whose course will on 
 The way it takes, cracking ten thousand ciu'bs 
 Of more strong links asunder, than can ever 
 Appear in your impediment : for the dearth, 
 The gods, not the patricians make it : and 
 Your knees to them, not arms, must help. 
 
284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 3. Serene will be our days, and bright 
 And liappy will 6ur nature be, 
 
 When lovtj is an luitrrliig ligbt, . 
 
 And joy its own securit}-. I' 
 
 And they a blissful course may hold 
 
 Ev'n now who, not unwisely bold, 
 
 Live in the spirit of this creed ; 
 
 Yet find that other strength, according to their naed. 
 
 4. Yet did the King almost forsaken quite 
 By all his men, maintain a noble fight, 
 As if ashamed to outlive the sad 
 Discomfiture which his own rashness made 
 Nor did his faltering hand e'en then forget 
 To play a soldier's part ; appearing yet 
 \Vorthy the fear of his assailing foe. 
 While death attended every furious blow 
 
 5. Far differently the mute Onej^da took 
 His calumet of peace aiid cup of joy ; 
 
 As monumental bronze unchanged his look 
 A soul that pity to\ached but never shook ; 
 'J'rained from his tree-rocked cradle to his bitr 
 The fierce extreme of good and ill to brook 
 Impassive — fearing but the shame of fear — 
 A stoic of the woods — a man without a teai*. 
 
 6. Come, lady, while heaven lends us grace 
 Let us fly this cui'sed place, 
 
 Lest the Sorcerer us entice 
 With some other new device, 
 
 7. Two such I saw, what time the labour'd ox 
 In his loose traces from the fuirow came. 
 And the swink'd hedger at his supper sat ; 
 I saw them under a gi-een mantling vine. 
 That crawls along the side of yon small hill, 
 Plucking ripe clusters from the tender shoots ; 
 Their jDort was more than human as they stood ; 
 I took it for a faery vision 
 
 Of some gay creatures of the element, 
 That in the colours of the rainbow live, 
 And play i' th' plighted clouds. 
 
 8. A while the maid the stranger eyed, 
 And reassured, at last replied, 
 That Highland halls were open still 
 To wildered wanderers of the hill. 
 Xor think you unexpected come 
 
 To yon lone isle, our desert home ; 
 Before the heath had lost the dew, 
 This morn, a co"ch was pulled for you ; 
 On yonder mountain's purple head, 
 Have ptarmigan and heath-cock bled. 
 And our broad nets have swept the mere. 
 To furnish forth your evening cheer. 
 
 9. Pure, quick, and sportful, is the wholesome day ; 
 But soon elaps'd. The horizontid sun, 
 
 Broad o'er the south, hangs at his utmost noon, 
 
 And, ineffectual, strikes the gelid cliff. 
 
 His azure gloss the mountain still maintains. 
 
 Nor feels the feeble touch. Perhaps the vale 
 
 ll'jlonts awhile to the reflected ray ; 
 
 Or from the forest falls the clustered snow, 
 
 ^tvriads of gems, that in the waviiig gleam 
 
 Gay twinkle as Ihey scatter. Thick around 
 
 Thu:Kler3 the sport of tlmsc who, witli the gun 
 
 And dog impaticnJ. bounding at the shot, 
 
 Worse than the season, desolate the fields. 
 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 285 
 
 10. Above, below, in Ocean, Earth, and Sky, 
 Thy fairy worlds. Imagination, lie, 
 
 And Hope attends, companion of the way 
 Thy dream by night, thy visions of the day. 
 In yonder pensile orb, and every sphere 
 That gems the starry girdle of the year ; 
 In those nnmeasur'd worlds, she bids thee tell, 
 Pure from their God, created millions dwell, 
 Whose names and natures, um-eveal d below, 
 We yet shall learn, and wonder as we know. 
 
 11. Still, where rosy pleasure leads, 
 
 See a kindred grief pursue ; 
 Behind the stops that misery treads 
 
 Approaching comfort view : 
 The hvies of bliss more brightly glow, 
 Chastised by sabler tints of woe ; 
 And blended form, with artful strife, 
 Thy strength and harmony of life. 
 
 12. About the captive tides of Trojans flow ; 
 All press to see, and some insult, the foe. 
 
 Now hear how well the Greeks their wiles disguised ; 
 Behold a nation in a man comprised. 
 Trembling the miscreant stood : unarmed and bound, 
 He star'd, and roU'd his haggard ei'cs aroimd. 
 Then said, " Alas ! what earth remains, what sea 
 Is open to receive unhappy me ? 
 What fate a wretched fugitive attends, 
 Scorn'd by my foes, abandon'd by my friends ?" 
 
 13. Her younger sister, that Speranza hight, 
 Was clad in blew, that her beseemed well ; 
 Not all so chearefuU seemed she of sight, 
 As was her sister ; whether dread did dwell, 
 Or anguish in her neart, is hard to tell : 
 Upon her arme a silver anchor lay. 
 Whereon she leaned ever, as bercll ; 
 
 And ever up to heaven, as she did pray, 
 
 Her stedfast eyes were bent, ne swarved other way, 
 
 14. Dames of ancient days 
 
 Have led theii children thro' the mirthful maze, 
 
 And the grey grandsire, skilled in gestic lore, 
 
 Has fi'isked beneath the burden of threescore. 
 
 So West a life these thoughtless realms display 
 
 Thus, idly busy, rolls their life away : 
 
 Theirs are those arts which mind to mind endear, 
 
 For honour forms the social temper here : 
 
 Honour, that praise which ie:U merit gains, 
 
 Or e'en imaginary worth obtains, 
 
 Here passes current ; paid fioui hand to hand 
 
 It shifts, in splendid traffic, through the land, 
 
 15. Though boundless snows the withered heath deform 
 And the dim sun scai-ce wanders throiigh the storn;, 
 Yet shall the smile of social love repay 
 
 With mental light, the melancholy day !_ 
 And when its short and sullen noon is o'er. 
 The ice-chained waters slumbering on the shore, 
 ■ How bright the faggots in his little hall 
 
 Blaze on the hearth and warm the pictured wall ! 
 13, This idol's day hath been to thee no day of rest 
 Labouring thy miml 
 More than the working day thy hands. 
 And yet perhaps more ti'ouble is behind 
 For I descry 1 his way 
 Some other tending ; in his hand 
 A sceptre or quaint staff he be irs, 
 Comes on amain, speed in his look. 
 By his habit I disctrn him now 
 A public officer and now at hand : 
 Ilia message will be short and voluble 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Faulty Sentences. 
 N.B. — The references are to the Sections in the Grammar 
 
 Correct the following : — 
 
 1. Who does this book belong to ? 
 
 This is incorrect, because, by Rule XVII., § 312, prepositions govern the ob- 
 jective case. "Who" should, therefore, be "whom," objective case, governed 
 by the preposition "to." The corrected sentence stands thus: — To whom docs 
 this book belong ? 
 
 2. Whom do you think owns this estate ? (§ 204). 
 
 3. He is a servant whom I consider deserves promotion (§ 294). 
 
 4. You and me will take a walk (§§ 294, 372), 
 
 5. Whom do men say that he is ? (§ 2i>5). 
 G. I little thought it was her (§ 295). 
 
 7. That face of yours grows pale (% 302, Obs. 4). 
 
 8. We called at Franklin's, the bookseller's (§ 303). 
 
 9. Somebody said so, I forget whom (§ 294). 
 
 10. Let you and I the battle try (§§ 305, 372). 
 
 11. Who do you think I met this morning? (§ 305). 
 
 12. He asked my father and I to visit him (§§ 305, 372). 
 
 13. I do not know who to send ('§ 305). 
 
 14. Neither of them are better than they ought to be (§§ 324, 349) 
 
 15. Stephen is a bettor scholar than me (§ 373). 
 
 16. Is he older than her ? (§ 373). 
 
 17. Was you there ? or was it him ? (§ 349, Obs. 8 ; § 295). 
 
 13. Neither you nor I answers the questions which are put (§ 354). 
 
 19. I have neither gold or silver (§ 374). 
 
 20. The boy and his father is coming (§ 350). 
 
 21. The waves dash him to earth ; there let him lay (§ ICl). 
 
 22. He don't hke it (§ 349). 
 
 23. He has drove me wrong (§ 362, Obs. 4). 
 
 24. Me and you went to London (§ 294). 
 
 25. Observing the house actually on lire, it was evident the engines were required 
 (§ 3G2\ 
 
 2ij. I can't go unless John comes home (§ 355). 
 
 27. Riches does not belong to everj-body (§ 349). 
 
 28. I saw a black and wliite man walking together (§ 330). 
 
 29. He picked up the man who he knocked down (§ 305). 
 
 80. Of London and Paris the former is tlie wealthiest (§ 318). 
 
 31. Going into tlic garden, the grass wetted my feet (§ 302). 
 
 32. You neither honour your father or your mother (§ 374 ; § 375, Obs. 4). 
 
 33. I saw the secretary and treasurer, and they examined my accounts (§ 230). 
 
 34. Of all other nations England is the greatest (§ 318, Obs. 2). 
 85. Being a fine day, I went out for a walk (§ 302). 
 
 NSC. How will wc know whether is the greatest of the two':' (§§ 148, 318"!. 
 y- 37. Neither John or Thomas considered that morning or evening are the best time 
 
 for study (§§ 374, 351). . -- 
 
 ^ 38. Every member of our families have been introduced to each other (§ 049). 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 287 
 
 39. These sort of acci louts often occm- (§§ 331, 3-19). 
 
 40. I shall ride to-morrow if it is fine (§ 355). 
 
 41. If I was to run quick, I would fall (§§ 355, 367, 143). 
 
 42. He runs quicker than me (§§ 3(37, 373). 
 
 43. " Did you do it ?" " Me ? certainly not " (§ 294). 
 
 44. Tell me who you mean (§ 305). 
 
 45. Neither you or me are invited (§§ 374, 294, 351). 
 
 46. He did not get so many marks as me (.§§ 372, 294). 
 
 47. Was you in time or not? (§ 340, Ohs. 8). 
 
 48. Honour as well as profit are ti be gamed by tins (§ 351, Obs. 1). , , , 
 
 49. Solomon made as wise proverbs as any one has done, Him only excepted who 
 was a much wiser man than Solomon (§ 298). _ /.. o-on 
 
 50. The council have no intention to adhere to itsE ormer decision (.§ 6-jZ). 
 
 51. This is the best as I ever met with (§ 82). 
 
 52. He is more worthy of blame than me (§ 373). 
 
 53. The lion, having laid down, roared (§ 161). 
 
 54. Each of the boys read in their turn (§§ 349, 334). , . . • 
 
 55. The happiness or misery of men's lives depend very much on his early training 
 (:5§ 351, 334). 
 
 56. My " Lives of the Poets " are reprinting (§ 349, Ohs.Z 
 
 57. Tlie effluvia was offensive (§§ 50, 349). 
 
 58. The object of the candidates are uncertain (§ 349). 
 
 59. Three months' int'W^st are due (§ 349). 
 
 CO. Neither king nor commoner were happy (§ 351). 
 
 61. Either he or I are in fault (§ 351). 
 
 62. No sound but their own voices were heard (§ 349). 
 
 63. "Where Was you aU last night ? (§ 349, Ohs. 8). 
 
 64. What signifies promises without performance ? (§ 349). , , . o^n ^, „v 
 
 65. Every man and boy showed their joy by clapping their nands (§ 350, Ohs. 3). 
 
 66. Are either of those sheep yours? (§§324, 349). ,^om/i7 ox 
 
 67. The " Last Days of Pompeii" were written by Bulwer Lytton(§ 349, Ohs. o). 
 
 68. Ho was one of the wisest men that has ever lived (§§ 342, 349) 
 
 69. Everybody has their faults (§ 334). 
 
 70. Having finished the chapter, the book was closed (§ 362). 
 
 71. I do not like those kind of things (§ 331). 
 
 72. This is the greatest error of aU the rest (§ 318). 
 
 73. Homer as well as Virgil were studied at that period (§ 351, Obs. 1). 
 
 74. Nothing but grave and serious studies delight him (§ 349). 
 
 75. Such a prince as him had not been seen (§ 372). 
 
 76. The fleet are to sail to-morrow (§ 352). 
 
 77. The cavalry wears helmets (§ 352). 
 
 78. The pope and emperoi- were at variance (§ 330). 
 
 79. The parliament were dissolved (§ 352). 
 
 80. A numerous party were already there to greet him (§ 352). 
 
 81. Shakespeare is greater than any dramatist (§ 318, Ohs. 2). 
 
 82. Shakespeare is the greatest of all other dramatists (§ 318, Obs. 1). 
 
 83. These kind of fish are very plentiful (§ 331). 
 
 84. Cicero was an orator and a statesman (§ 329). 
 
 85. Can you see a stone and a brick house ? I can see neither (§ 330). 
 
 86. This folly is of all others the most prevalent (§ 318, Ohs. 2). , . , , i 
 
 87 Many an emigrant have regretted the domestic pleasures from which they 
 have been deprived, and which were impossible to y3e carried to their new country. 
 
 88 The family was well conducted and regular attendants at church. 
 
 89. He had two sisters : the one a wealthy spinster, the other, a married sister, is 
 the wife of a farmer. , ' •, . 
 
 90. As he lay down the weight, it slipped and broke his arm. 
 
 91. Whom do you suppose was going to go for it ? 
 
 92. He said he won't give me none. 
 
 93. Neither of those boys have learned to read quick. 
 
 94. Louis was in some respects a good man, but being a bad ruler his subjects 
 rebelled. 
 
 95. I do not know who you wished to read this letter. 
 
 96. I never have and never can believe it. u .i, in 
 
 97. James and me was at school together ; but John was older than us boui. 
 
 98. The diligent study of classics and mathematics prepare the mind tor any 
 pursuit in which it might engage. - „ , , . -^ ^.^ i -Ka^v. 
 
 99. There has been at least three times as much rain fall this week tuau iias oeeu 
 the cas.e in the previous week. 
 
288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 100. He didn't ought to have broke the window. 
 
 101. Let each esteem other better than themselves. 
 
 102. I had more rather he be neither a soldier or lawyer. 
 
 103. If I had not broke your stick, you would never have run home nor beeun U 
 tell those kind of lies, which nobody but foolish men believe. ' 
 
 104. Horses are jjlural. 
 
 105. She was angry at me making the remark. 
 
 106. What is the use of him saying so ? 
 
 107. He accused the Minister for betraying the Dutch. 
 
 108. ATiian is the noblost work of the creation. 
 luO. Every one of the rebels were banished from his native country 
 
 110. His being at enmity with Caesar and Antony were the caiise of nerrtetua] 
 discord. ■ *^ ^ 
 
 111. Tlie son walks exactly like the father did, 
 
 112. The British parliament consist of King, Lords and Commons, 
 
 113. Any bod J' may have this ; I care not whom. 
 
 114. He married nobody knows who. 
 
 115. Nothing but misfortunes have been the result. 
 
 116. More than one writer has made the same remark. 
 
 117. Let you and I take a walk, 
 lis. I said that I will try again, 
 
 119. These sort of apples are good to eat. 
 
 120. They have not yet began the game, 
 
 121. He talked like one out of their mind. 
 
 122. This must be drank on the premises. 
 
 123. The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as was expected, 
 
 124. In his writings there are not only beauty of style, but originality of thoueht 
 12o. We must be careful of our healths. o j e, • 
 
 126. I saw many dead soldiers riding across the battle-field. 
 
 127. He seemc-d to eagerly listen. 
 
 128. I was going to have written him a letter. 
 
 129. Tbey which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 
 
 130. They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 
 
 131. I would like to have seen him. 
 
 132. An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind, 
 
 133. He dur-st not to displease his master. 
 
 134. I expected to lisw^eeeii you in the summer-house. 
 
 135. Who art thou who would oppose the king ? 
 
 136. He has only done that much of his work. 
 
 137. Both Luther and 31elancthon were sincere and zealous Reformers • but Luthar 
 was the most intrepid. ' 
 
 138. He was a.s rich or even richer than his father. 
 
 139. The centres of each cei ing are beautifully ornamented. 
 l-!0. The " Lives of the Chancellors " ai e a voluminous work. 
 
 141. No nook or corner were left uiiexjilored. 
 
 142. Mend your speech a little lest it mars your fortune. 
 
 143. The mourner began to bitterly weep. 
 
 144. I never knew one of them to find fault with it. 
 
 145. Eve was the fairest of her daughters. 
 
 146. Orestes had .cpoke the exact truth. 
 H7. That f;ice of yours i.s sad. 
 
 148. A mure braver man I never knew. 
 
 149. Homer was the greatest of all other epic poets. 
 
 150. The council, being awakened by'the serjeant-at-arms, rubbed its eyes. 
 For other examples, see " Examination Paper.*," pp. 200-283 ; and "English 
 
 Composition," pp. 15Q-1G9, 
 
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