\QZ7 
 
 STACK ANNEX 
 
 I Cage j 
 
 McMurry 
 How to conduct the recitation 
 
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 ! alifornia 
 
 ?ional 
 
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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 Kate Gordon Moore
 
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 EAQIERS 
 
 MANVAL5 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 How to Conduct 
 ' the Recitation 
 
 and the 
 
 Principles Underlying Methods of 
 Teaching in Classes. 
 
 ^ CHARLES McMuRRY, PH. D. 
 
 l/^ Of the State Normal School, at DeKalb, 111. 
 
 o 
 
 Copyright, 1890, by 
 
 J-NEW YORK/ CA HICAGO 
 
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 How TO CONDUCT 
 THE RECITATION, 
 
 Principles underlying Methods of Teaching 
 in Classes. 
 
 CHARLES McMuRRY, PH.D., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL METHODS AND PRACTICE IN THE STATE 
 NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN. 
 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO : . 
 
 E. L KELLOGG & CO.
 
 Copyright, 1890, 
 
 BY E. L. KELLOGG & Co., 
 
 Ne* York.
 
 Stack 
 Annex 
 
 US 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Herbart School. This paper is in the 
 main an exposition of some of the leading ideas 
 which have been developed theoretically and 
 practically by the Herbart school of pedagogy 
 in Germany. The late Professor Ziller of the 
 University of Leipzig was a disciple of Herbart, 
 and an original thinker of unusual powers. He 
 recast Herbart's ideas on education in a new 
 mould, and sought in his practice school at the 
 university to make these principles the basis of 
 systematic class-room work for the public 
 schools. Prof. W. Rein of the University of 
 Jena and many other disciples of Ziller, since 
 well known as practical teachers, have put 
 Ziller's ideas into practice during the last twenty 
 years, and have illustrated them in all the 
 studies and grades of the common school. No 
 attempt is made to present all the important 
 ideas of the Herbart school, or to give an ex- 
 haustive discussion of any one. After a brief 
 survey of certain leading ideas, there follows a 
 fuller discussion of a definite and systematic 
 plan of class-room teaching. A translation from 
 Professor Rein is appended. 
 
 840334
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF GOOD 
 RECITATION WORK. 
 
 Facts and their Connection. A liberal educa- 
 tion embraces a good many branches of study. 
 Besides the subjects of the common school, there 
 are history, classics and higher mathematics, the 
 natural sciences and the fine arts, political econo- 
 my, literature and philosophy. We are all natural- 
 ly inclined to think that the more facts we have 
 collected, the more information we have gathered 
 in each of these topics, the better educated and 
 the wiser we shall be. But this is only a half or 
 a quarter true. The strength of an army does 
 not consist in the number of men alone, as Xerxes 
 discovered long ago, but in the kind of men, in 
 their strength and courage, in their power of 
 united action. Our knowledge is really ser-' 
 viceable to us only as it is combined into con- 
 nected compact masses ready for varied use. 
 The purpose of the school, then, is not simply 
 to accumulate knowlege, but also to arrange 
 and connect, to organize and energize the facts 
 learned, to bring them into potent combination; 
 just as a general first enlists recruits, then dis- 
 ciplines them into soldiers and organizes them
 
 6 ELEMENTS OF GOOD &ECITA TION WORK, 
 
 into an effective army. The facts commonly 
 learned in the schools are indeed the materials 
 out of which our intellectual house is to be 
 built, but we are concerned not only about get- 
 ting these materials into the structure of the 
 mind, but about the plan and order there \z 
 among them, and whether the walls are loose 
 and shaky or firm and solidly built. 
 
 Digesting Knowledge. The stomach and the 
 mind are alike in some points and unlike in 
 others. The food that once enters the stomach 
 is taken up and assimilated by the organs of di- 
 gestion. Our chief care is to avoid overload- 
 ing the stomach, and to give it a chance to 
 perform its functions. It is self-acting. The 
 materials which enter the mind pass through 
 a digestive process; and this lasts longer. A 
 cow chews her cud once; but the ideas which 
 have entered our minds may be chewed over 
 and over again, and that with great profit. 
 Ideas do not assimilate so easily as the different 
 food-materials in the body. Ideas have to be 
 put side by side, compared, separated, grouped, 
 and arranged into connected series. Thus they 
 become organized for use. This sorting, ar- 
 ranging, and connecting of ideas is so important 
 that it demands more time and more care than 
 the first labor of acquisition. 
 
 Absorption and Reflection. The process of ac- 
 quiring and assimilating knowledge involves 
 certain simple conditions which are easily stated.
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TIO K WORK. / 
 
 When some new object presents itself to the 
 mind the attention must be first fixed upon it 
 for a while so that there may be time to take it 
 in as a whole and in its parts. The mind then 
 recovers itself from this momentary absorption 
 in the object, and begins to survey it in its sur- 
 roundings and connections. Absorption and 
 reflection! The mind swings back and forth 
 like a pendulum between these two operations. 
 Herbart, who has closely defined this process, 
 calls it the mental agt of breathing. As regu- 
 larly as the air is drawn into the lungs and 
 then excluded, so regularly does the mind lose 
 itself in its absorption with an object only to 
 recover itself and reflect upon it. 
 
 In this first simple action of the mind are re- 
 flected the two fundamental principles which 
 control all growth in knowledge. 
 
 Observation. The first is the inspection of 
 things in themselves and in their details. 
 Absorption with objects! Object lessons! The 
 principle of observation is confirmed in its full 
 scope. The training of the senses to the full 
 capacity of sense of perception is primary and 
 necessary. The contact with nature, the actual 
 experience with things, is the only concrete basis 
 of knowledge. 
 
 Survey. The second principle is the act of 
 reflecting upon the things which enter the mind, 
 the comparison of objects. It brings together 
 things that are alike, e.g., the river basins of
 
 8 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 
 
 North America and the river basins of South 
 America. It throws into contrast things that 
 differ, e.g., the desert of the Sahara and the rich 
 moist valley of the Amazon. By a constant 
 use of reflection and survey we classify our in- 
 creasing knowledge into larger and smaller 
 groups; causes are linked with their results, 
 and the spirit of investigation is awakened 
 which discovers and traces out those simple 
 laws which underlie the complex phenomena of 
 nature. The linking together of ideas into con- 
 tinuous series, the comparison of objects so as 
 to bring out the salient features of whole classes, 
 and the tracing of causes and results are means 
 of organizing, of binding together, ideas which 
 must be at the disposal of teachers in their reci- 
 tation work or the higher results of education 
 will not be reached. We may sum up the 
 thoughts involved in this second great principle 
 of learning as Association of Ideas. 
 
 Apperception. Going back to the first simple 
 state of the mind in learning, its absorption in 
 a given object, the question arises, How can 
 any new or partially new object be best under- 
 stood at its first appearance? How can a full 
 and distinct understanding of it be readily 
 gained by the mind ? We claim that if the 
 kindred ideas already in the mind are awakened 
 and brought distinctly to the front the new 
 object will be more rapidly and accurately ap- 
 propriated than by any other means. This is
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITATION WORK. Q 
 
 called the principle of apperception, i.e. the re- 
 ception of a new or partially new idea by the 
 assistance of kindred ideas already in the mind. 
 If old friends come out to meet the strangers 
 and throw their arms about them and lead them 
 within, how much more quickly they will be at 
 home! But these old friends who are already 
 in the house, who stand in the background of 
 our thoughts, must be awakened and called to 
 the front, they must stand on tiptoe ready to 
 welcome the new-comer; for if they lie asleep 
 in the penetralia of the home, these strangers 
 will come up and pass by for lack of a welcome. 
 Closely allied to this is the principle of proceeding 
 from the known to the unknown, which has caused 
 so much discussion and misunderstanding. Ap- 
 perception contains what is true in this idea of 
 going from the known to the unknown. As 
 soon as we see something new a-nd desire to 
 understand it, we at once begin to ransack our 
 stock of ideas to see if we can find anything in 
 our previous experience which corresponds to 
 this or is like it. For whatever is like it, or has 
 an analogy to it, or serves the same uses, will 
 explain this new thing, though the two objects 
 be in other points essentially different. We are 
 constantly falling back on our old experiences 
 and classifications for the explanation of new 
 objects that appear to us. 
 
 Examples of Apperception. A boy goes to 
 town and sees a banana for the first time, and
 
 10 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITATION WORK. 
 
 asks, " What is that ? I never saw anything like 
 that." He thinks he has no class of things to 
 which it belongs, no place to put it. His father 
 answers that it is to eat, like an orange or a pear. 
 Calling up these familiar objects, the whole sig- 
 nificance of the new thing is clear to him though 
 it differs from anything he has ever seen.* 
 
 From Simple to Complex. The notion of going 
 from the simple to the complex is illustrated 
 also in the simple process of the mind which we 
 described. First one object, then the survey 
 of it in connection with other things, forming a 
 complex unit. This idea has been confused 
 with the idea of going from a whole to the 
 
 * We will add one other illustration of apperception. Two 
 men, the one a machinist and one who is not, visit the machin- 
 ery hall of an exposition. The machinist finds new inventions 
 and novel applications of old principles. He is much inter- 
 ested in examining and understanding these new machines and 
 devices. He passes from one machine to another, noting 
 down new points, and at the end of an hour leaves the hall 
 with a mind enriched. The other man sees the same ma- 
 chines, but does not understand them. He sees their parts, 
 but does not detect the principle of their construction. His 
 previous experience is not sufficient to give him the clue to 
 their explanation. After an hour of uninterested observa- 
 tion, he leaves the hall with a confused notion of shafts, 
 wheels, cogs, bands, etc., but with no greater insight into 
 the principles of machinery. Why has one man learned so 
 much and the other nothing ? Because the machinist had 
 previous knowledge and experience which acted as interpre- 
 ters, while the other man had no old ideas and so acquired 
 nothing new. " To him that hath shall be given."
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 1 1 
 
 parts. But there is no real contradiction. There 
 are many objects which we first take in as a whole, 
 and then descend to an analysis of their parts, 
 e.g., a camel, a mountain, a flower. Almost all 
 concrete objects are approached in this way. 
 But there is an entirely different set of ideas 
 which can be best approached gradually, adding 
 part to part and comparing till the whole ap- 
 pears. This is the case with the general classifi- 
 cations in the natural sciences, and in all sub- 
 jects that admit of a system of classified ob- 
 jects. 
 
 Excite Interest. That the interest of children 
 is to be awakened in the subject of study may 
 now be accepted as one of the axioms of teach- 
 ing. To answer the important question how a 
 healthy and sustained interest is to be awak- 
 ened in studies would be to solve many of the 
 greatest difficulties in teaching. To interest 
 children, not simply for the hour, but perma- 
 nently; to select, arrange, and so present ideas 
 that they awaken a steady appetite for more 
 knowledge and create a taste for what is ex- 
 cellent, this at least is one aim that we must 
 insist upon in recitation work. Some things al- 
 ready mentioned contribute to this result. Na- 
 ture and natural objects have a charm for us all, 
 children included. Story, biography, history, 
 and poetry, each in its place and time, awakens 
 mind and heart, and sows seed that will germi- 
 nate and grow.
 
 12 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITATION WORK. 
 
 Compare. In school life, also, the more. seri- 
 ous work of s.iudy requires ;us. to put familiar 
 objects together and to notice how they resem- 
 ble or differ, and it may excite interest to note 
 the superiority of one or its defect. This gives 
 children a chance to see and compare for them- 
 selves* to draw conclusions and form their own 
 opinions. Still more the tracing of causes and 
 their effects, the following out of analogies in 
 botany and zoology, or in the life of great men, 
 may .'contribute greatly to interest oider chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Arouse Self-activity. We are v ,^lrf a^^^n- 
 croaching upon, the principle of self-actirity 
 which we. believe, with many other teachers, 
 sh-puld be systematically encouraged from the 
 beginning of school life.: The child itself should 
 have something to do., some aim set up to be 
 
 O i 
 
 reached, a problem .to be solved, a series of 
 objects, places, or words to develop, not simply 
 something to learn .by heart, but something that 
 requires thought, discovery, invention, arid ar- 
 rangement; e.g. first-grade children may be 
 
 asked to hunt, .up and form a list of all the 
 
 1 
 
 words in. the lesson containing /// or // or some 
 other combination. 
 
 Develop Will Power. 77/<? effort, to create a pro- 
 gressive and. sustained, interest in study and the 
 arousing of self-activity are steps preparatory 
 to the growth of will power. This is one of 
 the root ideas of intellectual as well as of moral
 
 good recitation 
 
 no
 
 14 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 
 
 energy, steadily cultivated from the earliest 
 years of school life, indicate that it is not simple 
 knowledge or increased information which we 
 aim ai, but increase of intellectual resource, and 
 a permanent, progressive interest in knowledge. 
 
 Lesson Unities. It is evident that in this kind 
 of teaching no single recitation can be viewed 
 apart from the series of lessons to which it be- 
 longs. The subject-matter of any study should 
 be first selected so as to be adapted to the age, 
 spirit, and previous knowledge of children, and 
 then it should be arranged into a succession of 
 topics or unities each of which may be treated 
 first separately, and then in its relation to the 
 others. One of these methodical unities may 
 be completed in a single recitation or it may 
 spread over a series of lessons. 
 
 Steps in Teaching a Lesson. On the basis of the 
 psychological principles already treated, the pro- 
 cess of teaching a new topic leads through a 
 series of steps. The Herbartian school of peda- 
 gogy in Germany has developed a plan of reci- 
 tation work based upon these steps, and has 
 applied them successfully to the teaching of 
 common-school studies. The two main stages 
 on the road to acquisition of knowledge have 
 been already indicated: i. As observation and 
 scrutiny of individual things; 2. As the associa- 
 tion and comparison of objects or ideas with a 
 view to arrangement into classes or for the pur- 
 pose of generalizing and formulating results.
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK, I 5 
 
 First Stage : Presentation. The first stage may 
 be broken into two smaller half-day journeys. 
 Before setting out on a journey it is well to sur- 
 vey the road and glance at a guide-book. Be- 
 fore beginning a new subject it is well to recall 
 familiar ideas bearing upon it, to refresh our 
 minds. This is a preparatory study, a making 
 ready for the lesson. The second part is the 
 actual presentation of the new facts, the famil- 
 iarizing the mind with the new subject. 
 
 The subject-matter is now at hand, and the 
 first stage of teaching the lesson is complete. 
 But this newly acquired information has not 
 yet settled to its proper place in the mind; it is 
 not properly associated with previous knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 Second Stage : Elaboration. This elaboration of 
 newly presented ideas and facts leads us through 
 a series of three additional steps, which thus 
 complete the process of acquisition: i. The new 
 object is compared with similar things already 
 in the mind. In this way it finds its fitting 
 companionship. 2. Every new object presented 
 to the mind and then compared with others 
 gives rise to new conclusions. The clear state- 
 ment of this general result or truth focuses the 
 main idea of the lesson. 3. This general truth 
 may now be, exemplified in new cases and ap- 
 plied to new circumstances. 
 
 Briefly stated the steps are as follows: i. Pre- 
 paration; 2. Presentation; 3. Association and
 
 ov/J oJni na/Jo'id 3d 
 -il mtifo-rejirvejoabered .thai: a 
 tr&te<il <in ctly&i n^nner must 
 thoughtj; jtihat it 
 
 d generalization, -i sidT 
 ,the -Farauer. 'Thesie steps may be 
 
 in>.their 
 
 analogy. -jtaHemi ^f ixzuaoi the 
 Tdtoe feoil ife> ipldughedi, harroiwfixijfflnid'Ttyiade wady 
 foji'theriseedl fie^riTIh&i^rajn'iis.sovwedoiipan the 
 reaxiy>j3biliaiwi rnakedi irfcoi 3J pTihe/g^o wingi gnaiil 
 ia ciiltivjatfid'ifenjli the^^eedp 
 hiarwest iajbrouightiiiir.v 
 practical purposes of food. 
 
 Iprew 
 
 of instiffictioniioiTihi3jpresentaliijG)nqs,dowiH^jrtlaie 
 sdejdr''uipOB:^thi^^ prepared) soil 61 '-ithpnmind. J The 
 ^rirdrtstagesli!s;rthei ortltivatiDni! fof .t 
 drapi^febq WDrikfing/ 'jcxver^ofl the 
 acqiiicedljjy/ nieanejicxfrjCQTOpariJson. i The fokarth 
 step^is thfil harivBst .time^ttbe; dra / wing>ioitt ; 'oi:'.'tHp 
 gdneanaiutrilthjior! -law: iavolved in the lesson; 
 Fin'ally^liKr>papiic'iila5r use^toiwMrh the? harvest 
 gc^airb i& pu^bhe/ applicitidri >oi : acquired knqwiH 
 edge to the practical uses off life.; baiiq 
 
 rlfb. Royal Road in TeaohingJ-f-oEfoejeiTTfe .steps 
 just outlinied 'aVe based, as we feeWive^ ongenrera^
 
 ELEMENTS. OF GOOD RECITA T1ON WORK. 
 
 principles which make them applicable to al- 
 most every subject of study. But the manner 
 of applying them to different studies varies 
 greatly. The ability to apply them successfully 
 to geography would not qualify for equal sac* 1 
 cess in arithmetic or botany. The teacher must 
 first be a proficient in the; study which he would 
 desire to teach in this way. Both the concrete 
 facts-arid the general truths of the subject 
 should be familiar and logically arranged in his 
 mind. To put it. in a mild form, the teacher 
 must have a thorough knowledge of his sub- 
 ject, and must have this knowledge well digested 
 for teaching purposes For teaching purposes ! 
 That rs, that we have a knowledge of those psy- 
 chological principles- which we first outlined as 
 a basis of the five steps, vi..-#bserv.ation of con- 
 crete -things, apperception, comparison and as^ 
 sociation, generalization and the awakening- of 
 interest, self-activity, and will power- by these 
 means. Now it is evident that no platf based 
 on these principles will furnish a royal road to 
 success in teaching. Success along this line de- 
 pends upon industry, adaptability, and continu- 
 ous practice. It will be an uphill road for some 
 time, and it is only gradually that one will ac- 
 quire that mastery of the subject and that tact 
 in; the -manipulation of a somewhat complex 
 machinery that come only through toil and 
 pains. 
 Dull Machine Work. It does not require a
 
 1 8 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITATION WORK. 
 
 prophet to see that the five steps in careless 
 hands will degenerate into a dry mechanical 
 routine. It might be even worse than text-book 
 lore, for a good text-book is always better than 
 a poor teacher. It is not intended that this 
 plan and these principles shall make a slave of 
 the teacher, but that by a hard-earned mastery 
 of their details, and by a successful application 
 of them to the concrete materials of study, he 
 gradually works his way out into the clear day- 
 light of conscious power. In this way the 
 teacher becomes a skilled architect, with clear 
 ideas of the strength and resistance of ma- 
 terials. 
 
 Examples of the Formal Steps. Three simple 
 illustrations of this succession of steps in the 
 treatment of a subject will now be given. 
 Some criticisms which have been raised against 
 this plan will then be discussed. Finally, the 
 translation of Professor Rein's introduction to 
 the formal steps will be appended. 
 
 (i) Statement of the Aim. 
 
 We will examine and study the oak trees found 
 in our forests. 
 
 i. (Preparation.) Let the class recall what 
 they have seen of oak trees in the woods, size 
 of trees, acorns. Do they remember the shape 
 and size of the leaves ? What is the appear- 
 ance of the wood and what is it used for? 
 
 (The purpose of the teacher here is not to
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 1 9 
 
 present any new facts to the class, but simply 
 to find out what they remember from previous 
 observation and to excite interest.) 
 
 2. (Presentation of facts.) The best plan is 
 to visit the woods or an oak grove, notice care- 
 fully the trunk and bark, branches and leaves, 
 acorns (food of squirrels.) On returning to 
 school, have an accurate description of the oak 
 tree from the class, according to definite points 
 (e.g. trunk and bark, branches, leaves, and 
 acorns.) Then follows a discussion of oak wood 
 for chairs, desks, doors and windows, beams, 
 posts and other building purposes, bridges, 
 walks, etc. (The teacher adds such facts as the 
 children cannot furnish.) 
 
 3. (Comparison.) Name the different kinds 
 of oak white oak, red oak, burr oak. Notice the 
 differences in leaves and acorns, size of trees, 
 wood and uses. 
 
 4. (Classification, generalization.) Definition 
 of the oak family. The oak is a native hard- 
 wood tree. It has acorns, and simple leaves of 
 nearly uniform shape. The wood is tough and. 
 strong, of varying colors, but always useful for 
 furniture, building or other purposes. (After 
 the previous observation and discussion, the 
 pupils will be able to give a definition similar to 
 this, assisted by a few questions from the 
 teacher.) 
 
 5. (Application.) Children should be trained 
 to recognize the different kinds of oak trees
 
 $9 ELEMENTS OP GOOD RECITATION WORK. 
 
 about.home, and to distinguish them from other 
 hard- wood trees. They may also notice the oak 
 panels and furniture, and be able to tell oak 
 finishing in public and private houses. 
 
 Note. If there is time enough for a separate study of two 
 or Tiiofti varieties of oak, and-the trees are close by so as to he 
 sefn,TJt;ig;well to treM each variety according to the first and 
 second /itapSj,, ^nd in the third compare as above. 
 
 zjnioq aJinfte.b.rOJ :,, ., . - 
 
 (2) The Cotton-? in. 
 
 .897B91 ,?SflonB-: P 
 
 (Aim.) We .will find out how a machine 
 invented to remove the seed. from. cotton. 
 
 1. (Preparation.) Question the class cm the 
 cotton-plant, raising and picking cotton.^nd' 
 the uses of cotton. 
 
 2. (Presentation.) Tell,' or read the story of 
 Whitney and the invention of the cotton-gin. 
 Notice the effects of this invention on the pro- 
 duction of cotton in the South, and upon the 
 growth of. the South. 
 
 3. (Comparison.), Najm^ other important in- 
 ventions and their effects, sewing-machine, 
 pr^n.tmg-press, steam-engine, reaper, steamboat, 
 telegraph, etc. Which of these had the most 
 important results? 
 
 4. (Generalization or abstraction.) Call upon 
 the children to state the general purpose of all 
 these inventions, to save labor, to make a. better 
 use ctf the forces of nature. 
 
 5. (Ap^ic^itioftJ n j>o any hardships result : to 
 anybody in consequence of these useful inven-
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOQ-DvRMGfTATJQK.WOKK. 21 
 
 of .e 
 
 use.Qf nfechinery ( ()n B iBiiv/ llo: y^m uov nin' 
 bomsonoo OTB > 
 )i4ft9*lT) ^ )&dw Jo 
 
 ose thai: a Glass'has'had oral and written 
 
 
 (Aim.) In Xal^i^^and ^i 
 
 , We 
 now about a 
 
 * io noiJ 
 
 fe%) iflfe^yn fe^Ic 
 
 before ?" 
 
 sentence. ;< The ship sa^ n o^r ^e^ ocean." 
 
 (It may be that these questions cannot" be 
 answered by the children fojr lack of knowledge. 
 
 and ift 
 
 B o rnaiil lieiv; i>v/ :K.'!V/ nc 
 
 e, Called nouns, ^^y^, ^l^bteift - 
 hpuse, carpet, pictur^- w^ft, sh^ 
 tain. Hay^^Qu ^e^^y^g^hings ?. ;b 
 
 fi w(jrds fttfn^) 1 
 
 .r 1 r;- ': 
 
 ^^f^^f 6 words and 
 
 th^:noup ; s ; ? ^pok, at the nouns again and tell 
 what they refer to. MJJ O
 
 22 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 
 
 4. (Definition.) Looking at our list of nouns 
 again you may tell what a noun is. So far as 
 these words are concerned every noun is the 
 name of what ? (The conclusion that the children 
 may reach by a little good questioning is that 
 all these nouns are the names of objects. The 
 treatment of proper nouns and abstract nouns 
 may be according to a similar method in the 
 following lessons, and then the complete defini- 
 tion of a noun can be obtained.) 
 
 5. (Application.) Each child may make a list 
 of nouns that we have not had. 
 
 Let easy sentences be given in which they 
 may point out the nouns. 
 
 CRITICISMS. 
 
 Anticipating Results. One objection raised to 
 the clear statement of the aim of a lesson at the 
 start was that in such a statement we tell the 
 children what we wish them to find out for 
 themselves, that we anticipate results which 
 they should learn to discover and state. This 
 criticism is just if true. But it is a misconcep- 
 tion of the proposed manner of stating the aim. 
 It is a fundamental principle that the statement 
 of the aim should not anticipate results. It 
 should be definite and clear, but it should state 
 a problem for solution. It should point in the 
 direction of the result without giving the clue. 
 If the teacher proposes to develop and illus- 
 trate the law of multiple proportions in phys-
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITATION WORK. 2$ 
 
 ics, he would not state the law as the aim, but 
 put it in some such form as this: We have 
 noticed that certain chemical elements unite to 
 form compounds; we will next investigate the 
 question as to whether they unite according to 
 any definite law. Experiment and investiga- 
 tion will reveal what the law is. 
 
 Pupil's Work. Another serious criticism of 
 this plan of class-work is that it outlines well 
 the work of the teacher, but. what does the pupil 
 have to do ? 
 
 We will attempt to illustrate as follows: 
 (Preparation.) The pupil has to prepare his 
 lesson before coming to the class. This is done 
 in all good schools. Suppose that the subject 
 treated is the early discovery and exploration of 
 the Ohio Valley previous to the French and In- 
 dian War. The teacher proposes this as the next 
 topic for history study. If this subject is treated 
 according to the recitation plan, the first thing is 
 to determine how much or how little the children 
 know of the proposed subject. Who were the 
 first explorers of the Ohio Valley ? Whence 
 came they ? Who owned the land ? The topics 
 naturally brought out by this brief questioning 
 <tre, The French, the English, the Indians. Hav- 
 ing determined thus what the children know, 
 and having excited their curiosity, the next work 
 for the teacher (at this stage) is to indicate what 
 pages of the text-book and, if desirable, what 
 pages in other histories bear directly upon this
 
 24 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TJufr 
 
 topic. : If Lhe-.refereii<riets a#e : *n6re ttiaft'-'one' per- 
 son wUV/haveetime.tocltiotkfifrp^cena'Mi persbns'ot 
 sectirojas of the class may be asked to be pre- 
 p^redojni .special /.poirits/' r cft'''/bo5dk6- 1 off 'f-efereftce. 
 The xvork of. preparing: tbe lefcson 'by studying 
 up these; references isi-sitpilir t^4hat-tef : 1fesso ( M 
 as usually assigtred^I adj Jcrfv/ Insva-t lliv/ noiJ 
 to (Rresjent 
 not only to 
 
 studied, but to ^a 51-' 'close 
 tional facts and topics presented 
 pupils^-arnd''-JCc^e^4P44^f tail J&Wan^e'ItHe -'f^cts 
 prieaentedrqbyi thtii^tejilfl itffEss (i^td ^sy^tferniaitic 
 
 oral 
 
 tfa e.'opupil i'-jnus^t nba^e> '/hte twits': 
 ersft 
 fols 
 
 .! Joaf.dua airlJ H .vbuJs -rio^iri to^ aiqoi 
 pith t^(^te0i%bi|o%o<rtr4WSTp^k ( Myt^'W^fe 
 i Witfe^tnfe'' / fi ) rk fI <Wd- steps; 
 ^^ 
 
 . ^ v-;[i!-,7 otdO e>dj 1 
 aoiTIhe ittUrd 
 facts obfe 
 
 ff Is f^ll 
 
 them !tt>!'repfo'dliGe similar 
 history wh^Pe t)he:iE^$teh^a^id"Fre?i^&th$ Eng- 
 Ksfevand' Dtftofo, the f JEftg^ish 1 aiTd - S^a%?sh <ha ve 
 both r explored' ^tid'-^aid^'dMtW^ !> f iie\v terri-
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITATION WORK, & 
 
 tory, causing conflicting -claims: e.g. the claim 
 of the English and French to Nova Scotia; the 
 claim of English a.nd->&Utch' to New-York; the 
 claim-; of -English and Spanish ;to Georgia; and 
 Carolina; etc.. : 'rrne>j fi to anoiaivib aasrlT .znob 
 
 The. clear statement, of .each ok<thefeeocases 
 and their comparison will bring o:ut,, a common 
 conclusion from the children regarding them all 
 (fourth step). What, did all. these claims rest 
 Y:PQOi-#fld how wierd they enforced ? The; pupil's 
 own intelligence and moral niadgmetrt aTejabund:- 
 antly sufficient to answer; jtfeefce questions. The 
 conclusion thus reached Will rproba"bly:,poiaitnto 
 the manner in wftidb theijclaifn^ta.'tbe ;Okio 
 Vrftllfiy.Was settled (fifth step^oca io altBJab ad; 
 
 After a topic has been fc'hh'S f ulty treated^ ber- 
 for -and .during; the jrebitationy: it- will often 
 prove an excellent exercise to; call ;oDf& written 
 composition giving , a -ffulkrdiscussien^ocfr/this 
 .topic.,. The pupil i$ leftttfresictpqtrSat .ihaerimain 
 topics in his own way, Theroiiit'Hne^jfi^faft^siib- 
 ject has beernf-^r^ady: .fuUy);d.ev^tDpi3di?.irt 
 filas^, but the pupil is free to 
 in his own language, and :-tQ : 
 elusions..^ 9 di isid ['i'rrr yn veb-oT " 
 
 : Jgol JerfJ hi 
 TRANSLATION FROM PROF. Wj,g^^.^s 
 
 ScHUL J: A^'; dj fiji7/ b3! 
 The Formal Steps in, ,t^khQflUiDi^ Proceed- 
 ing now to the act of instruction, it-self; we jiQt'ice 
 first ;of. all;: that .the subject;-.raatter of .evry
 
 26 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. - 
 
 study like Arithmetic or Geography is to be 
 divided up into a large number of smaller 
 parts, units of instruction, each of which will 
 occupy from one to four, or even more, recita- 
 tions. These divisions of a term's work in His- 
 tory or Geography are what Ziller calls methodi- 
 cal unities, and each one of them is to be carried 
 through the successive steps of a systematic 
 recitation plan, namely, the formal steps. 
 
 For if the single topics which go to make up 
 the great variety of school studies are to be 
 clearly understood and thoroughly assimilated, 
 each must be worked over by itself. For this 
 purpose sufficient time must be given so that 
 the details of each object can be absorbed, and 
 this absorption with the details must be suc- 
 ceeded by a period of recollection, a brief sur- 
 vey of the situation, a glance backwards and 
 forwards, so as to fix the relations of this object 
 to others. Suppose that the instruction in a 
 class begins with one of these methodical unities. 
 The first thing to do is to make plain to the pupils 
 the general object or aim of the lesson. In a 
 primary class, for instance, the aim may be so 
 expressed: " To-day we will hear the story of a 
 little girl that lost both father and mother." For 
 a more advanced class as follows: " We are ac- 
 quainted with the earth as a great ball hanging 
 in space. We will next see whether this ball is 
 at rest or in motion." 
 
 Reasons for Stating the Aim at First. There
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 2/ 
 
 are several important reasons in favor of the 
 plain statement of the purpose of a recitation 
 at the beginning, i. It pushes aside and out 
 of view those irrelevant thoughts which chance 
 to occupy the mind before the recitation, and it 
 accordingly makes room for those ideas which 
 are about to be developed. 2. It transplants 
 the children into the new circle of ideas which 
 are to demand their attention, and it encour- 
 ages the rise in the child's mind of those older 
 and kindred thoughts which will be most wel- 
 come supports to the new ideas about to be pre- 
 sented. 3. It excites expectation, and this is 
 the most favorable disposition of mind for the 
 beginning instruction. 4. It gives the child a 
 strong incentive to an exercise of the will, and 
 impels it to voluntary co-operation in solving 
 the difficulties of the proposed lesson. 
 
 The last point is of fundamental importance, 
 and worthy of a special consideration. The 
 pupil should know beforehand what is coming 
 if he is to bring all his powers to bear on the 
 work of learning, and it is easier to call out 
 all his effort if he knows beforehand just what 
 is to be gained. To conduct a child along an 
 unknown road toward an unknown object, by 
 means of questions and hints, the object of 
 which he does not see, to lead him on imper- 
 ceptibly to an unknown goal, has the disadvan- 
 tage that it develops neither a spontaneous men- 
 tal activity nor a clear insight into the subject.
 
 28 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 
 
 Having reached the end of such a line of 
 thought, the pupil looks about himself bewil- 
 dered. He cannot survey the road that he has 
 just gone over. He does not comprehend what 
 has happened to him. He stands at the goal, 
 but does not see the relation in which the re- 
 sult stands to the labor performed. He does 
 not rise to that satisfactory mental activity and 
 favorable disposition of mind which are stimu- 
 lated by the pursuit of a clearly set purpose. 
 No aim, no will! Now since an instruction that 
 aims at moral character finds its highest pur- 
 pose in the development of will power, it 
 follows that a lesson should develop the will 
 just as much as the understanding. But to 
 develop will-power, instruction must pursue 
 plainly set aims, and to reach them the pupil 
 must be called upon to throw all his mental 
 powers into the effort. 
 
 The general purpose of a lesson having been 
 made plain, the real work of teaching then be- 
 gins, and in every methodical unity this work 
 runs through a succession of five steps. 
 
 First Step. The first step in this process con- 
 sists in a preparation of the ground for the re- 
 ception of the new lesson. This is done by 
 freshening up and calling clearly to the mind 
 such older ideas as bear upon the new, such as 
 by their similarity explain and assist the under- 
 standing of the new. It is only when a troop 
 of old familiar ideas come forth to meet the
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 2g 
 
 strangers that they are received easily into the 
 mind. It is in this way alone that they can 
 make a lasting impression upon the thoughts 
 aud feelings. If these forces which lie asleep 
 in the background of one's thoughts are not 
 called into activity, one will remain dull and 
 indifferent to the recitation, and the instruction 
 reminds us of a learned discourse which shoots 
 over the heads of the listeners. Instead of in- 
 terested attention and participation, it produces 
 only weariness of mind. 
 
 This result will always follow when that 
 which is said awakens no chords of sympathy 
 in the minds of the hearers. If nothing springs 
 forth from within to greet that coming from 
 without, the lesson will be meaningless and the 
 pupil unreceptive. Things new and strange 
 can only be appropriated by means of a wealth 
 of old ideas, and the plan of recitation must 
 see to the preparation of these old materials 
 during the first step. 
 
 Second Step. The second step begins with the 
 presentation of the new lesson, which will vary 
 in manner according to the age of pupils and 
 the nature of the study. A story would be 
 related to a primary class, or developed accord- 
 ing to the conversational method. A reading 
 lesson for older pupils would be read. A geog- 
 raphy topic would be presented by the teacher 
 while talking and drawing, and a subject in 
 physics while experimenting and speaking. If
 
 30 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 
 
 the preparation has been of the right kind the 
 lesson will be appropriated with ease and 
 certainty, and the teacher will not be compelled 
 to talk and ask and explain all round the sub- 
 ject. Whenever this is necessary the prepara- 
 tion, the first step, must be regarded as a failure. 
 What has been learned is not only to be mo- 
 mentarily understood, but permanently appro- 
 priated. It is necessary to close up this step with 
 repetition and drill, and these must be continued 
 under varying forms till the lesson has been 
 firmly fixed. In this manner the first great act 
 in the process of teaching and learning has been 
 completed, namely, the presentation and recep- 
 tion of the subject-matter, and it consists, as we 
 have seen, of two steps, preparation of the 
 ground and presentation of the lesson. The 
 second act within the limits of a methodical 
 unity is the process of building up and bring- 
 ing into distinct form the general or abstract 
 ideas which are to be drawn from the concrete 
 materials already collected, and this second act 
 is brought to a conclusion in the three following 
 steps. 
 
 Third Step. In the third step we are to bring 
 together in the mind the newly won ideas, to 
 compare them among themselves and with 
 older ideas, and when necessary with additional 
 new ones still to be presented; in short, to com- 
 pare and to combine the new and the old. 
 Such a comparison and union of ideas is neces-
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD XECITA T10N WORK. 3 1 
 
 sary for two reasons: (i) in order that con- 
 nection and harmony be established in one's 
 range of ideas, and (2) that what is general 
 and essential in the midst of special individ- 
 ual things may be extracted from them. No- 
 where should heterogeneous heaps of knowl- 
 edge, like piles of gravel, be brought together. 
 Always and everywhere there should be an 
 effort towards well associated and systematized 
 knowledge. " Our whole personality rests in 
 the end upon the unity of consciousness, and 
 this is disturbed and injured when the mind is 
 driven through a confused conglomerate of 
 knowledge in which unconnected ideas are piled 
 up together." 
 
 But every concrete individual thing which is 
 treated as a methodical unity contains or em- 
 bodies a general truth, an abstract notion, which 
 may be separated from the concrete thing in 
 which it is embodied. But it can only be 
 brought to light by bringing this object into 
 comparison with other well-known concrete ob- 
 jects which contain the same essential idea or 
 truth, by bringing together in the mind things 
 similar but not identical. That which is com- 
 mon and essential to all is strengthened by 
 repetition, while accidental features and differ- 
 ences drop easily into the background. The 
 common truth which all the objects embody 
 springs forth as a new idea of higher potency, 
 as a general notion, as a rule or law.
 
 32 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 
 
 Fourth Step. But the abstract idea is still 
 bound up with the concrete thing; a complete 
 separation of this abstract or general notion 
 from its clothing in particulars has not yet taken 
 place: and this is the purpose of the fourth 
 step. By means of a few well-directed ques- 
 tions we call out into pure and simple relief the 
 general truth or rule, freed from its particular 
 applications. We reduce this idea to definite 
 language expression, and finally bring it into 
 systematic connection with our previously ac- 
 quired knowledge. It only. remains to impress 
 the abstract ideas thus acquired upon the mind 
 by repetition, so as to convert them into a real 
 mental possession. With this the process of 
 abstraction is complete, but teaching cannot 
 afford to end the matter here. A fifth step is 
 needed to convert the knowledge acquired intd 
 use. 
 
 Fifth Step. Knowledge and ability to know 
 have of themselves no value either for the indi- 
 vidual or for society. Knowledge must first 
 step into the service of life. One must know 
 how to apply his knowledge. Knowledge and 
 power must be changed into use; they must be 
 transformed into conscious ability. But will 
 not this take care of itself? Not at all. Hun- 
 dreds of children have learned how to estimate 
 the surface of a triangle, and many of them 
 can give the proof of the rule with ease and 
 precision. But put the question to one of them:
 
 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA TION WORK. 33 
 
 How many acres does a triangular garden con- 
 tain ? He will stand helpless, unconscious of 
 the fact that he possesses in his own mind all 
 the necessary elements for the solution of the 
 problem. How is this explained ? He has not 
 learned to employ his knowledge. It is a dead 
 possession. And are there not plenty of such 
 cases ? The conclusion is that even the applica- 
 tion, the use of knowledge, has to be learned. 
 " Here also it is only practice that makes the 
 master. But drill which aims only at mechani- 
 cal habit is not sufficient. Even during school 
 life that which is learned should be applied as 
 often and in as many cases as the narrow limits 
 of the child's life permits." 
 
 Since the value of knowledge culminates in 
 use, instruction should cultivate its use so far as 
 possible in a closing step called application. For 
 this purpose the child should be held to a dili- 
 gent use of its stock of ideas as rapidly as they 
 are acquired, to go from the particular to the 
 general, and back again from the general to the 
 particular, to traverse his circle of ideas from a 
 given standpoint in all directions, and to make 
 use of the results reached for the solution of 
 moral, theoretical, and practical questions. In 
 this manner a child's acquired ideas may be so 
 developed, so welded together in firm, system- 
 atic, comprehensive association, that all his 
 knowledge becomes a reliable, personal posses-
 
 34 ELEMENTS OF GOOD RECITA T10N WORK. 
 
 sion. It is clear and systematic as well as prac- 
 tical. 
 
 And this ends the development of general 
 notions within the limits of the formal steps of 
 instruction. 
 
 To recapitulate: In the work of instruction 
 each methodical unity should be carried through 
 the following steps: 
 
 1. It should introduce the new lesson by 
 means of a preparatory discussion. 
 
 2. Present the new lesson. 
 
 3. Compare the new in its parts and with 
 older ideas and their combination. 
 
 4. Draw out" the general results of this com- 
 parison, and arrange them in systematic form. 
 
 5. Convert the knowledge acquired into use.
 
 OJf 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 Hall's Contents of Children's Minds on Entering 
 
 SCHOOL. By Dr. G. STANLEY HALL. Details the results of an inquiry 
 into a matter of much importance to primary teachers. A knowledge 
 of what the average child already knows when be first goes to school 
 will be a valuable guide in determining not only what to teach him but 
 how to teach him. 
 
 This little book gives the results of careful investigations made by the 
 writer and others to determine the amount and kind of knowledge pos- 
 sessed by the average child on entering school. The book opens up a 
 valuable field of inquiry and shows how it may be carried on. It is sure 
 to interest teachers. 
 
 All " Child Study" organizations should read this bpok. Dr. Hall is 
 the acknowledged leader of the child study movement in this country. 
 
 Size, 63-8x4 1-2 inches. 56 pages. Limp cloth covers. 2 5 cent*. 
 
 Hall's A Study of Dolls, 
 
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 Child, study circles will do well to make a study of this book. 
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 A photograph ot the " Sand Pile " is given. Limp cloth. 5 cento. 
 
 Perez's First Three Years of Childhood. 
 
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 an intr9duction by James Sully. 
 
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 Size, 7 l-2x 5 inches. 295 pages. Library cloth binding, SI. 5O ; t* 
 teachers, S1.2O; postage, 1O cents.
 
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