THE AMERICAN RACE: A LINGUISTIC CLASSIFICATION AND ETHNOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE NATIVE TRIBES OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., Professor of American Archaeology and Linguistics in the University .of Pennsylvania, and of General Ethnology at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia ; Vice-President of the Congres International des Americanistes ; Medallist of the Societe AmericaJBe_de France ; President of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, and of the University Archaeological Association of the University of Pennsylvania; Member of the Anthropological Societies of Berlin and Vienna, and of the Ethnographical Societies of Paris and Florence ; of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, Copenhagen, and of the Royal Society of History, Madrid ; of the American Philosophical Society, the American Antiquarian Society, etc. PHILADELPHIA DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER 1022 MARKET STREET. 1901 COPYRIGHT. DANIEL G. BRINTON. 1891. f 5? IT^ o. 2. TO THE CONGRES INTERNATIONAL DES AMERICANISTES, AN ASSOCIATION WHOSE BROAD SYMPATHIES AND ENLIGHTENED SPIRIT ILLUSTRATE THE NOBLEST ASPECTS OF SCIENCE, AND WHOSE EXCELLENT WORK IN AMERICAN ETHNOGRAPHY, ARCHAEOLOGY, AND EARLY HISTORY HAS CREATED A DEEP AND ABIDING INTEREST IN THESE STUDIES THROUGHOUT EUROPE, THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. QO far as I know, this is the first attempt at a sys- . ^ tematic classification of the whole American race J on the basis of language. I do not overlook Dr. 4 Latham's meritorious effort nearly forty years ago ; but the deficiency of material at that time obliged him to depart from the linguistic scheme and accept r other guides. While not depreciating the value of physical data, . of culture and traditional history, I have constantly i placed these subordinate to relationship as indicated \ by grammar and lexicography. There are weli- l known examples in the ethnography of other races, ^ where reliance on language alone would lead the in- vestigator astray ; but all serious students of the native American tribes are united in the opinion that with them no other clue can compare to it in general results. Consequently the Bureau of Eth- nology of the United States and the similar depart- ments in the governments of Canada and Mexico , have agreed in adopting officially the linguistic classi fication for the aboriginal population within their/ several territories. X PREFACE. , Wherever the material permitted it, I have ranked the grammatic structure of a language superior to its lexical elements in deciding upon relationship. In this I follow the precepts and examples of students of the Aryan and Semitic stocks ; although their meth- ods have been rejected by some who have written on American tongues. As for myself, I am abidingly convinced that the morphology of any language whatever is its most permanent and characteristic feature. It has been my effort to pay especial attention to those portions of the continent whose ethnography remains obscure. The publications of official bodies, as well as those of numerous societies and individ- uals, have cleared up most of the difficulties in that portion of the continent north of Mexico ; hence it is to the remainder that I have given greater space. The subject, however, is so vast, and the material so abundant, that I fear the reader may be disappointed by the brevity of the descriptions I have allowed to the several stocks. The outlines of the classification and the general arrangement of the material are those which for several years I have adopted in my lecture courses before the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel- phia. In fact, this volume may properly be re- garded as an expansion of the ninth lecture that on " The American Race," in my lectures on gen- PREFACE. XI eral ethnography, published last year under the title " Races and Peoples." In defining the locations of the various tribes, I have encountered many difficulties from their fre- quent removals. As a rule I have assigned a tribe the location where it was first encountered and iden- tified by the white explorers ; though sometimes I have preferred some later location where its activity was longest known. The great variety of the orthography of tribal names has led me to follow the rule of selecting that which is locally the most usual. This variety has been not a little increased by what seems to me the pedantry of many learned writers, who insist on spell- ing every native name they mention according to some phonetic system of their own devising thus adding to the already lamentable orthographic con- fusion. I have not thought it advisable to adopt termi- nations to designate stocks as distinguished from tribes. The Bureau of Ethnology has adopted for stocks the termination an, as " Algonkian," " Siou- ian." This frequently gives terms of strange ap- pearance, and is open to some other objections. It would be desirable to have this question of termi- nology decided by the International Congress of Americanists, on some plan applicable to French, German and Spanish, as well as English, rather Xll PREFACE. than to have it left to a local body or a single authority. My thanks are due Mr. H. W. Henshaw, editor of the American Anthropologist t for revising the list of North Pacific Coast Stocks, and various suggestions. I regret that I have not been able to avail myself of the unpublished material in the Bureau of Eth- nology at Washington ; but access to this was denied me except under the condition that I should not use in any published work the information thus obtained ; a proviso scarcely so liberal as I had expected. Philadelphia, February, 1891. CONTENTS. Preface xi Table of Contents ziii INTRODUCTORY. RACIAI, HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS. Theories of the Origin of the American Race. The "ten lost tribes." The "lost Atlantis." Fu-sang. Supposed Asiatic immigrations. When man first appeared in America. The Glacial Epoch. The Post-glacial Era. Oldest relics of man in America ; in California ; in Nicaragua ; in the Columbian gravel ; in the modified -drift ; in the loess and moraines. Man did not originate in America. Physical geography of the early Quaternary Period. Land connection of North America with Europe. Opinions of geologists. Remote- ness of the Glacial Epoch. Scheme of the Age of Man in America. "Area of characterization" of the American Race. Permanence of racial traits. Cranial forms. Ceph- alic index. Os Incae. Cranial capacity. Color. Hair. Stature. Uniformity of racial type. Mental endowments. Native culture. Gentile organization. Marriage. Position of woman. Agriculture. Domestic animals. Useful arts. Religions. Myths. Symbolism. Opinions about death. Medicine men. Languages. Linguistic stocks. General classification 17-58 NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. I. THE NORTH ATLANTIC GROUP. 1. The Eskimos or Innuit, and Aleutians 59-67 2. The Beothuks 67-68 3. The Athabascans or Tinne* 68-74 (xiii) XIV CONTENTS. 4. The Algonkins 74-&> 5. The Iroquois 81-85 6. The Chahta-Muskokis 85-89 7. The Catawbas, Yuchis, Timucuas, Natchez, Cheti- machas, Tonicas, Adaize, Atakapas, Carankaways, Tonka ways, Coahuiltecans, Maratins 89-94 8. The Pawnees or Caddoes 95~97 9. The Dakotas or Sioux 98-101 10. The Kioways 101-102 II. THE NORTH PACIFIC GROUP. 1. The Northwest Coast and Californian Tribes : The Tlinkit or Kolosch ; the Haidahs ; the Salish ; the Sahaptins or Nez Perec's, etc 103-109 2. The Yumas 109-1 13 3. The Pueblo Tribes 113-117 III. THE CENTRAL GROUP. 1. The Uto-Aztecan Stock 118 a. The Ute or Shoshonian Branch 120-123 b. The Sonoran Branch 123-127 c. The Nahuatl Branch 128-134 2. The Otomis 135-136 3. The Tarascos 136-138 4. The Totonacos 139-140 5. The Zapotecs and Mixtecs 140-142 6. The Zoques and Mixes 143-144 7. The Chinantecs 144 8. The Chapanecs and Mangues 145 9. Chontals and Popolocas, Tequistlatecas and Matagal- pas 146-153 10. The Mayas I 53-i$9 11. The Huaves, Subtiabas, Lencas, Xincas, Xicaques, "Caribs," Musquitos, Ulvas, Ramas, Payas, Gua- tusos 159-164 CONTENTS. XV SOUTH AMERICAN TRIBES. PACK General Remarks 165-171 I. THE SOUTH PACIFIC GROUP. I. THE COLUMBIAN REGION. 172 1. Tribes of the Isthmus and adjacent coast : The Cunas, Changuinas, Chocos, Caracas, Timotes and others. . 173-181 2. The Chibchas 181-180 3. The Paniquitas and Paezes 189-192 4. South Columbian Tribes : Natives of Cauca ; Coco- uucos, Barbacoas, Andaquis, Mocoas, Cariaris 192-201 2. THE PERUVIAN REGION. 2O2 1. The Kechuas 203-216 2. The Aymaras 216-221 3. The Puquinas 221-224 4. The Yuncas 224-226 5. The Atacamenos and Changes 226-228 II. THE SOUTH ATLANTIC GROUP. I. THE AMAZONIAN REGION. 229 1. The Tupis 229-236 2. The Tapuyas 236-241 3. The Arawaks 241-250 4. The Caribs 251-258 5. The Cariris 258-259 6. The Coroados, Carajas and others 259-262 7. The Orinoco Basin ; Carib sub-stock ; Salivas ; Arawak sub-stock ; Otomacos ; Guamas ; Guaybas ; Guarau- nos ; Betoyas ; Churoyas ; Piaroas ; Puinavis 262-278 8. The Upper Amazonian Basin. List of Languages : The Zaparos ; the Jivaros ; the May n as ; the Yameos or Lamas ; the Ardas ; the Pebas ; the Yaguas ; the Itucales ; the Ticunas ; the Hibitos ; the Panos ; the Pammarys ; the Arauas ; the Hypur- inas 278-295 XVI CONTENTS. VAGK 9. The Bolivian Highlands. The Chiquitos ; the Yuru- " cares ; the Mosetenas ; the Tacanas ; the Samucus ; the Canichanas ; the Cayubabas ; the Apolistas ; the Otuquis ; the Ites, and others 295-306 2. THE PAMPEAN REGION. 306 1. The Gran Chaco and its stocks. The Guaycurus, Lules, Matacos and Payaguas. The Lenguas, Charruas, Guatos, Calchaquis 307-321 2. The Pampeans and Araucanians. The Chonos 321-327 3. The Patagonians and Fuegians. The Tzonecas. The Yahgans, Onas and Alikulufs 3 2 7~33 2 Linguistic Appendix 333 Vocabularies 335 Additions and Corrections 365 Index of Authors 369 Index of Subjects 374 THE AMERICAN RACE. INTRODUCTORY. RACIAL HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS. THE differentiation of the species Man into various races, with permanent traits and inhabiting defi- nite areas, took place early in the present geologic epoch. Of these races there are four which are well- marked, each developed in one of the continental areas as they existed at the time referred to. They are the Eurafrican or white, the Austafrican or black, the Asian or yellow, and the American or red race. The color-names given them are merely approximations, and are retained for the sake of convenience, and as expressing a general and obvious characteristic.* The American race was that which was found oc- cupying the .whole of the New World when it first * For the full development of these principles, I would refer the reader to my work entitled Races and Peoples ; Lectures on the Science of Ethnography (David McKay, Philadelphia.) 2 (I/) ' 18 THE AMERICAN RACE. became revealed to Europeans. Its members are popularly known as " Indians," or " American In- dians," because Columbus thought that the western islands which he discovered were part of India ; and his error has been perpetuated in the usually received appellation of its inhabitants. To the ethnographer, however, they are the only " Americans," and their race is the " American Race." When investigation proved that the continent was not a part of Asia, but a vast independent land-area surrounded by wide oceans, the learned began to puz- zle themselves with the problem of the origin of its inhabitants. The Hebrew myths of the creation of man and of a universal deluge in which the whole species perished except a few in Western Asia, for a long time controlled the direction of such specula- tions. The wildest as well as the most diverse hy- potheses were brought forward and defended with great display of erudition. One of the most curious was that which advanced the notion that the Amer- icans were the descendants of the ten " lost tribes of Israel." No one, at present, would acknowledge himself a believer in this theory ; but it has not proved useless, as we owe to it the publication of several most valuable works.* Another equally vain dream was that of " the lost Atlantis," a great island or land-connection which was imagined to have existed within recent times be- tween Northern Africa and South America. A re- miniscence of it was supposed to have survived in a * Notably, Adair's History of the North American Indians ; and Lord Kingsbofough's ittagnificeut Mexican Antiquities* THE FABULOUS ATLANTIS. 19 story of the Egyptian priests preserved by Plato, that beyond the Pillars of Hercules was a great island which had since sunk in the sea. The account may have referred to the Canary Islands, but certainly not to any land-bridge across the Atlantic to the Ameri- can Continent. Such did exist, indeed, but far back in the Eocene period of the Tertiary, long before man appeared on the scene. The wide difference between the existing flora and fauna of Africa and South America proves that there has been no connection in the lifetime of the present species.* Scarcely less incredible are the theories which still have some distinguished advocates, that the conti- nent was peopled from Polynesia, or directly from Japan or China. Several laborious works have been compiled with reference to " Fu Sang," a land re- ferred to as east of China, and identified by these writers with Mexico. A distinguished ethnologist has recently published a map showing the courses by which he supposes the Japanese arrived in America, f It is not impossible that in recent centuries some junks may have drifted on the Northwest coast. But their crews would undoubtedly have been promptly slaughtered ; and it is only in later ages that the Chinese or Japanese constructed such junks. The theory, therefore, offers no solution to the problem. * For a complete refutation of this venerable hypothesis see an article " L'Atlantide." by Charles Ploix, in the Revue d 1 Anthro- pologic, 1887, p. 291 ; and de Mortillet, Le Prbhistorique Antiquiti de r Homme, p. 124. t De Quatrefages, Histoire Generate des Races Ifumaines, p. 558. He adds the wholly incorrect statement that many Japanese words are found in American languages. 20 THE AMERICAN RACE. Still less does that in reference to the Polynesians. They had no such craft as junks, and though bold navigators, were wholly unprepared to survive so long a voyage as from the nearest of the islands of Oceanica to the coast of America. Moreover, we have satisfactory proof that the eastern islands of Polynesia were peopled from the western islands at a recent date, that is, within two thousand years. Probably the favorite theory at the present day is that the first inhabitants of the New World came from northeastern Asia, either by the Aleutian islands or across Behring Strait. Concerning the Aleutian islands we know by the evidence of language and archaeology that they were first peopled from America, and not from Asia. Moreover, they are separated one from the other in places by hundreds of miles of a peculiarly stormy and dangerous sea.* It is otherwise with Behring Straits. From East Cape in Siberia one can see the American shore, and when first explored the tribes on each side were in frequent communication. No doubt this had been going on for a long time, and thus they had influ- enced each other in blood and culture. But so long as we have any knowledge of the movings at this point, they have been from America into Asia, the Eskimos pushing their settlements along the Asian coast. It will be replied that we should look to a period an- * The nearest of the Aleutian islands to Kamschatka is 253 miles distant. The explorer Behring found the western Aleutians, those nearest the Asian shore, uninhabited. See W. H. Ball, " Origin of the Innuit," pp. 96, 97, in Contributions to North American Eth- nology, Vol. I. (Washington, 1877). WHEN MAN CAME. 21 terior to the Eskimos. Any migration at that remote epoch is refuted by other considerations. We know that Siberia was not peopled till late in the Neolithic times, and what is more, that the vicinity of the strait and the whole coast of Alaska were, till a very modern geologic period, covered by enormous glaciers which would have prevented any communication be- tween the two continents.* These considerations re- duce any possible migrations at this point to such as may have taken place long after America, both North and South, possessed a wide-spread population. The question which should be posed as preliminary to all such speculations is, When did man first appear on this isolated continent ? To answer this we must study its later geological history, the events which have occurred since the close of the Tertiary, that is, during the Quaternary age. In North and also in South America that age was characterized by one notable event, which impressed its presence by lasting memorials on the surface of the continent. This was the formation of a series of enormous glaciers, covering the soil of nearly half the temperate zones with a mass of ice thousands of feet in thickness. The period of its presence is called the Great Ice Age or the Glacial Epoch. Be- yond the immediate limits of the ice it may not have been a season of extreme cold, for glaciers form more rapidly when the temperature is not much below the * The evidences of a vast ice-sheet once covering the whole of East Cape are plainly visible. See Dr. I. C. Rosse, Medical and Anthropological Notes on Alaska, p. 29. (Washington, 1883.) 22 THE AMERICAN RACE. freezing point. Nor was it continuous. The ice sheet receded once, if not twice, causing an " inter- glacial" epoch, when the climate was comparatively mild. After this interim it seems to have advanced again with renewed might, and to have extended its crystalline walls down to about the fortieth parallel of latitude, touching the Atlantic near Boston and New York harbors, and stretching nearly across the continent in an irregular line, generally a little north of the Ohio and a little south of the Missouri rivers. Enormous ice masses covered the Pacific Slope as far south as the mouth of the Columbia river, and ex- tended over 1 200 miles along the coast, submerging the whole of Queen Charlotte and Vancouver islands and the neighboring coast of British Columbia, which at that time were depressed about two hundred feet below the present level. The ice also covered for four hundred miles or more the plateau or Great Basin between the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Range, rising in some places in a solid mass five or six thousand feet above the soil.* The melting of the second glacial inroad began at the east, and on the Pacific coast has not yet ceased. Its margin across the continent is still distinctly de- fined by a long line of debris piled up in " moraines," and by a fringe of gravel and sand called the " over- wash," carried from these by the mighty floods which accompanied the great thaw. This period of melting * Joseph Prestwich, Geology, Vol. II, p. 465, (Oxford, 1888). J. D. Dana, Text Book of Geology, pp. 355-359 (New York, 1883). Geo. M. Dawson, in The American Geologist, 1890, p. 153. The last mentioned gives an excellent epitome of the history of the great Pacific glacier. CHANGES IN LEVEL. 23 is the " Post-glacial Era." It was accompanied by extensive changes in the land-levels and in tempera- ture. In the glacial and early post-glacial periods, the northern regions of the continent and the bottom of the Northern Atlantic were considerably above their present levels ; but in the late post-glacial or " Cham- plain " period the land had sunk so much that at Lake Champlain it was five hundred feet lower than now, and at New York Harbor ten feet lower. The St. Lawrence river was then an arm of the sea, Lake Champlain was a deep bay, and the mouth of the Delaware river was where the city of Trenton now stands, the river itself being a wide inlet.* The climate, which in the early post-glacial period had been so cold that the reindeer enjoyed an agree- able home as far south as Kentucky, changed to such mildness that two species of elephants, the giant sloth and the peccary, found congenial pasturage in the Upper Ohio and Delaware Valleys. f The interest which this piece of geologic history has for us in this connection is the presence of man in America during all the time that these tremendous events were taking place. We know he was there, from the evidence he has left behind him in the va- rious strata and deposits attributable to the different agencies I have described. How far back his most ancient relics carry us, is not quite clear. By some, the stone implements from Table Mountain, Califor- * James D. Dana, loc. cit. , p. 359. t James D. Dana, "Reindeers in Southern New England," in Aimrican Journal of Science, 1875, p. 353. 24 THE AMERICAN RACE. nia, and a skull found in the auriferous gravel in Calaveras county, California, are claimed to antedate any relics east of the mountains. These stone uten- sils are, however, too perfect, they speak for a too specialized condition of the arts, to be attributable to a primitive condition of man ; and as for the Calaveras skull, the record of its discovery is too unsatisfactory. Furthermore, in a volcanic country such as the Pa- cific coast, phenomena of elevation and subsidence occur with rapidity, and do not offer the same evi- dence of antiquity as in more stable lands. This is an important point, and applies to a series of archaeological discoveries which have been an- nounced from time to time from the Pacific coast. Thus, in Nicaragua, human foot-prints have been found in compact tufa at a depth of twenty-one feet beneath the surface soil, and overlaid by repeated later volcanic deposits. But a careful examination of all their surroundings, especially of the organic re- mains at a yet greater depth, leads inevitably to the conclusion that these foot-prints cannot be ascribed to any very remote antiquity.* The singular changes in the Pacific seaboard are again illustrated along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. For some sixty miles north and south near the mouth of the Esmeraldas river there is a deposit of marine clay six or eight feet thick underlying the surface soil in a continuous stratum. Under this again is a horizon of sand and loam containing rude stone implements, and what is * See " On an Ancient Human Footprint from Nicaragua," by D, G. Brinton, in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1887, p. 437. EARLIEST RELICS OF MAN. 2$ significant, fragments of rough pottery and gold or- naments.* This shows conclusively that an extensive and prolonged subsidence took place in that locality not only after man reached there, but after he had developed the important art of the manufacture of clay vessels. This was certainly not at the beginning of his appearance on the scene ; and the theory of any vast antiquity for such relics is not tenable. The lowest, that is, the oldest, deposit on the east- ern coast in which any relics of human industry are claimed to have been found, is that known as the " Columbian gravel." This is considered by geolo- gists to have been formed in the height of the first glacial period. From its undisturbed layers have been exhumed stones bearing the marks of rough shaping, so as to serve the purpose of rude primitive weapons, f During the first or main Interglacial Period was deposited the " modified drift." In a terrace of this material on the Mississippi, near Little Falls, Minne- sota, Miss Babbitt found numerous quartz chips regarded by competent archaeologists as artificial products. ^ They represent the refuse of an early workshop near the quartz veins in that vicinity, and * J. S. Wilson, in Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of Lon- don, Vol. III., p. 163. f The finders have been Messrs. H. P. Cresson and \V. H. Holmes. From my own examination of them, I think there is room for doubt as to the artificial origin of some of them. Others are clearly due to design. \ Her account is in the American Naturalist, 1884, p. 594, and a later synopsis in Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1889, p. 333. 26 THE AMERICAN RACE. were cast aside by the pristine implement-maker when the Minnesota glacier was receding for the last time, but still lifted its icy walls five or ten miles above the present site of Little Falls. The extensive beds of loess which cover many thousand square miles in the Central United States are referred to the second Glacial Epoch. Professor Aughey reports the finding of rudely chipped arrow- head in this loess as it occurs in the Missouri Valley. They lay immediately beneath the vertebra of an elephant, an animal, I need scarcely add, long since extinct. Another proof of man's presence about that date is a primitive hearth discovered in digging a well along the old beach of Lake Ontario. Accord- ing to that competent geologist, Professor Gilbert, this dated from a period when the northern shore of that body of water was the sheer wall of a mighty glacier, and the channel of the Niagara river had not yet begun to be furrowed out of the rock by the re- ceding waters.* Other finds which must be referred to about this epoch are those by McGee of a chipped obsidian implement in the lacustrine marls of western Nevada ; and that of a fragment of a human skull in the westernmost extension of the loess in Colorado, f More conclusive than these are the repeated discov- eries of implements, chipped from hard stones, in deposits of loess and gravels in Ohio and Indiana, which deposits, without doubt, represent a closing episode of the last Glacial Epoch. There may be * G. K. Gilbert, in The American Anthropologist, 1889, p. 173. t W. J. McGee, "Palaeolithic Man in America," in Popular Science Monthly, November 1888. GLACIAL MEN. 2/ some question about the geologic age of the former finds, but about these there is none. They prove be- yond cavil that during the closing scenes of the Qua- ternary in North America, man, tool-making, fire- using man, was present and active.* This decision is not only confirmed, but greatly extended, by the researches of Dr. C. C. Abbott and others in the gravels about Trenton, on the Delaware. These were laid down contemporaneously with the terminal moraine in Ohio and Indiana, from which the palae- oliths were exhumed. Abbott's discoveries include several hundred stone implements of the true palaeo- lithic or " Chelleen " type, and some fragments of human skeletons.! They reveal to us not only the presence of man, but a well defined stage of culture strictly comparable to that of the " river drift " men of the Thames and the Somme in western Europe, which has been so ably described by De Mortillet. \ Such discoveries have not been confined to the northern portion of the continent. Barcena reported the relics of man in a quarternary rock in the valley of Mexico. | The geologists of the Argentine Repub- lic describe others which must be referred to a very remote age. The writers who have given the most * See G. Frederick Wright, The Ice Age in North America. ( Dr. Abbott has reported his discoveries in numerous articles, and especially in his work entitled Primitive Industry^ chapters 32, 33- \ De Mortillet, Le Prehistorique Antiquite de rffomme, p. 132, sq. || Mariano de la Barcena, " Fossil Man in Mexico," in the Amer- ican Naturalist, Aug., 1885. 28 THE AMERICAN RACE. information about them are Ameghino and Burmeis- ter. They found bone and stone implements of rude form and the remains of hearths associated with bones of the extinct horse, the glyptodon, and other animals now unknown. The stratigraphic relations of the finds connected them with the deposits of the receding Austral glacier.* Such facts as these place it beyond doubt that man lived in both North and South America at the close of the Glacial Age. It is not certain that this close was synchronous in both the northern and southern hemispheres, nor that the American glacier was con- temporary with the Ice Age of Europe. The able geologist, Mr. Croll, is of opinion that if there was a difference in time, the Ice Age of America was pos- terior to that of Europe. In any case, the extreme antiquity of man in America is placed beyond cavil. He was here long before either northern Asia or the Polynesian islands were inhabited, as it is well known they were first populated in Neolithic times. The question naturally arises, did he not originate upon this continent ? The answer to this is given by Charles Darwin in his magistral statement " Our progenitors diverged from the catarhine stock of the anthropoids ; and the fact that they belonged to this stock clearly shows that they inhabited the Old World." f In fact, all the American monkeys, * Florentine Ameghino, La Antiguedad del Hombre en el Plata, passim. (2 vols, Buenos Aires, 1880.) f The Descent of Man, p. 155. Dr. Rudolph Hoernes, however, has recently argued that the discovery of such simian forms in the American tertiary as the Anaptomorphus homunculus, Cope, ORIGIN OF AMERICANS. 29 whether living or fossil, are platyrhine, have thirty- four teeth, and have tails, characteristics which show that none of the higher anthropoids lived in the New World. We are obliged, therefore, to look for the original home of the American glacial man elsewhere than in America. Some interesting geological facts throw an unexpected light upon our investigations. I have already remarked that in the various recent oscilla- tions of the earth's crust, there occurred about the middle and later Glacial Epoch an uplift of the northern part of the continent and also of the north- ern Atlantic basin. In the opinion of Professor James Geikie this amounted to a vertical elevation of three thousand feet above the present level, and re- sulted in establishing a continuous land connection between the higher latitudes of the two continents, which remained until the Post-glacial period* Dr. Habernicht also recognizes this condition of affairs and places it during the " old stone " age in Europe.f which corresponds to the position assigned it by McGee. Very recently, Professor Spencer has summed up renders it probable that the anthropoid ancestor of man lived in North America. Mittheil dcr Anthrop. Gesell. in Wien, 1890, \ 71. The Anaptomorphus was a lemur rather than a monkey, and had a dentition very human in character. * Quoted by G. F. Wright in The Ice Age in America, p. 583. f H. Habernicht, Die Recenten Verdnderungen der Erdober- Jldche, s. 27 (Gotha, 1882) . He further shows that at that time both northern Russia and northern Siberia were under water, which would effectually dispose of any assumed migration by way of the latter. 3O THE AMERICAN RACE. the evidence in favor of the elevation of the northern portions of America and the north Atlantic, about the early Pliocene times, and considers that it proves beyond a doubt that it must have reached from 2000 to 3000 feet above the present level.* Further testimony to the existence of this land bridge is offered by the glacial striae on the rocks of Shetland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland and .south Green- land. These are in such directions and of such a character that Mr. James Croll, a high authority, maintains that they must have been produced by land ice, and that the theory of a land connection be- tween these localities " can alone explain all the facts."f A comparison of the flora and fauna in the higher latitudes of the two continents reveals marked identities which require some such theory to explain them. Thus, certain species of land snails occur both in Labrador and Europe, and the flora of Greenland, although American in the north, is dis- tinctly European in the south. $ Again, in certain very late Pliocene formations in England, known as the Norwich crag and the red crag of Suffolk, " no less than eighteen species of American mollusca occur, only seven of which still live on the Scandinavian coast, the remainder being confined to North America." In consequence of * J. W. Spencer, in the London Geological Magazine, 1890, p. 208, sqq. f James Scroll, Climate and Time, p. 451. \ G. F. Wright, The Ice Age in North America, pp. 582-3 (New York, 1890). De Mortillet, Le Prehistorique, etc., pp. 186-7. H. Rink, in Proc. of the Arner. Philos. Society, 1885, p. 293. THE LAND-BRIDGE TO EUROPE. 31 such facts the most careful English geologists of to- day hold that the land communication, which cer- tainly existed between Europe and North America in Eocene times by way of Iceland and Greenland, which was then a part of the American continent, continued to exist through the Miocene and Pliocene Epochs. This land bridge formed a barrier of sepa- ration between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, so that the temperature of the higher latitudes was much milder than at present.* The evidence, therefore, is cumulative that at the close of the last Glacial Epoch, and for an indeter- minate time previous, the comparatively shallow bed of the North Atlantic was above water ; and this was about the time that we find men in the same stage of culture dwelling on both its shores. - The attempt has often been made by geologists to calculate the remoteness in time of the close of the Ice Age, and of these vestiges of human occupation. The chronometers appealed to are the erosion of river valleys, especially of the gorge of Niagara, the filling of lake beds, the accumulation of modern detritus, etc. Professor Frederick Wright, who has studied the problem of the Niagara gorge with es- pecial care, considers that a minimum period of twelve thousand years must have elapsed since its * In his excellent work, The Building of the British Isles, (Lon- don, i8S8), Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne presents in detail the proofs of these statements, and gives two plates (Nos. XII. and XIII.), showing the outlines of this laud connection at the period referred to (pp. 252, 257, etc.). 32 THE AMERICAN RACE. erosion began.* But as Professor Gilbert justly re- marks, whatever the age of the great cataract may be, the antiquity of man in America is far greater, and reaches into a past for which we have found no time-measure.f The same may be said for Europe. De Quatre- fages and many other students of the subject consider that the evidence is sufficient to establish the pres- ence of man near the Atlantic coast in the Pliocene Epoch ; and excellent English geologists have claimed that the caves in the valley of the River Clwyd, in north Wales, whose floors contain flint implements, had their entrance blocked by true glacial deposits, so that man was there present before the Great Ice Age began. From this brief presentation of the geologic evi- dence, the conclusion seems forced upon us that the ancestors of the American race could have come from no other quarter than western Europe, or that por- tion of Eurafrica which in my lectures on general ethnography I have* described as the most probable location of the birth-place of the species.:}: * Wright, The Ice Age, p. 504. t Gilbert, Sixth An. Rep. of the Com. af the N. Y. State Reser- vation, p. 84 (Albany, 1890). \ Races and Peoples, chapter III. (David McKay, Philadelphia.) AGE OF MAN IN AMERICA. Scheme of the Age of Man in America. 33 AGB. PERIOD. GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. HUMAN RELICS. I i. Pre-glacial. j Auriferous gravels of California (?). Lower lake beds in Calaveras skull (?). I Great Basin. 1 Attenuated drift. P a 1 a? o li t h s from Columbia formation. Sinking of Atlantic Claymont, Del. 2. First glacial. { Coast. Old glacial drift in Mississippi Valley. Brick clays. f Modified drift of Min- Flint chips and rude nesota. implements. 1 Medial Gravels in 3. Inter-glacial. -4 Great Basin. ] Pampas formation. Bone and stone imple- Quaternary meius. ( New glacial drift and or till, fiords. f Moraines of Ohio Val- Palaeolithic i m p 1 e - Pleistocene. ley. ments from the mo- 4. Second glacial. { raines. Loess of central United States. British America and N. Atlantic elevated. Trenton gravels. Palaeolithic i m p 1 e - ments from Tren- ton. Completion of Great Brachycephalic Lakes. skulls from Tren- 5. Post glacial. ton. Elevation of North At- Hearth on former lantic subsiding. shore of L. Ontario. Reindeer in Ohio Val- Skulls of Pontimelo ley. and Rio Negro, S.A. Climate cold. '' Lacustrine deposits. A rgi llite imple- ments. Seaboard deposits. Earliest kitchen- middens. i. Champlain Land below present Limonite bones in J level. Florida. or Climate mild. Lagoa Santa bones in Brazil. Fluvial. Elephant, mastodon ohioticus, megather- Recent. ium, giant bison, horse (all now ex- tinct). River deposits Quartz and jasper im- 2. Present plements. Formation of forest Pottery. Later shell or loam. heaps. Dhio mounds. Alluvial. Relics of existing or known tribes. 34 THE AMERICAN RACE. Many difficulties present themselves in bringing these periods into correspondence with the seasons of the Quaternary in Europe ; but after a careful study of both continents, Mr. W. J. McGee suggests the following synchronisms : * North America. Western Europe. Inter-glacial period Epoque chelleenne. Early second glacial period Epoque mousterienne. Middle (mild) second glacial period Epoque solutreenne. Close of second glacial period and post- glacial , Epoque magdale'nienne. Champlain period Kitchen-m iddens and epoque Robenhausienne. Of course it would not be correct to suppose that the earliest inhabitants of the continent presented the physical traits which mark the race to-day. Racial peculiarities are slowly developed in certain " areas of characterization," but once fixed are indelible. Can we discover the whereabouts of the area which impressed upon primitive American man an immi- grant, as we have learned, from another hemisphere those corporeal changes which set him over against his fellows as an independent race ? I believe that it was in the north temperate zone. It is there we find the oldest signs of man's residence on the continent ; it is and was geographically the nearest to the land-areas of the Old World ; and so far as we can trace the lines of the most ancient mi- grations, they diverged from that region. But there ^re reasons stronger than these. The American In- * " Palaeolithic Man in America " in Popular Science Monthly \ Nov., 1888. THE " AREA OF CHARACTERIZATION." 35 dians cannot bear the heat of the tropics even as well as the European, not to speak of the African race. They perspire little, their skin becomes hot, and they are easily prostrated by exertion in an elevated temperature. They are peculiarly subject to diseases of hot climates, as hepatic disorders, showing none of the immunity of the African.* Furthermore, the finest physical specimens of the race are found in the colder regions of the temperate zones, the Pampas and Patagonian Indians in the south, the Iroquois and Algonkins in the north ; whereas, in the tropics they are generally undersized, short-lived, of inferior muscular force and with slight tolerance cf disease, f These facts, taken in connection with the geologic events I have already described, would lead us to place the " area of characterization " of the native American east of the Rocky Mountains, and between the receding wall of the continental ice sheet and the Gulf of Mexico. There it was that the primitive glacial man underwent those changes which resulted in the formation of an independent race. - We have evidence that this change took place at a very remote epoch. The Swiss anatomist, Dr. J. Kollmann, has published a critical investigation of the most ancient skulls discovered in America, as the one I have already referred to from Calaveras county, * " No one could live among the Indians of the Upper Amazon without being struck with their constitutional dislike to heat." " The impression forced itself upon my mind that the Indian lives as a stranger or immigrant in these hot regions." H. W. Bates, The Naturalist on the Amazon, Vol. II., pp. 200, 201. t See E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, pp. 189, 190, who speaks strongly of the debility cf the tropical Indians. 36 THE AMERICAN RACE. California, one from Rock Bluff, Illinois, one from Pontimelo, Buenos Ayres, and others from the caverns of Lagoa Santa, Brazil, and from the loess of the Pampas. All these are credited with an antiquity go- ing back nearly to the close of the last glacial period, and are the oldest yet found on the continent. They prove to be strictly analogous to those of the Indians of the present day. They reveal the same discrepancy in form which we now encounter in the crania of all American tribes. The Calaveras skull and that from Pontimelo are brachycephalic ; those from Lagoa Santa dolichocephalic ; but both possess the wide malar arches, the low orbital indices, the medium nasal apertures and the general broad faces of the present population. Dr. Kollmann, therefore, reaches the conclusion that "the variety of man in America at the close of the glacial period had the same facial form as the Indian of to-day, and the racial traits which distinguish him now, did also at that time." The marked diversity in cranial forms here indi- cated is recognizable in all parts of the continent. It has frustrated every attempt to classify the existing tribes, or to trace former lines of migration, by grouping together similar head-measurements. This was fully acknowledged by the late Dr. James Aitken Meigs, of Philadelphia, who, taking the same collec- tion of skulls, showed how erroneous were the pre- vious statements of Dr. Morton in his Crania Ameri- cana. The recent studies of Virchow on American crania have attained the same conclusion.* We must *See J. Kollman, Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 1884, s. 181 sq. The conclusion of Virchow is ' ' que les caracteres physionomiques CRANIOLOGY CONSIDERED. 37 dismiss as wholly untenable the contrary arguments of the French and other craniologists, and still more peremptorily those attempted identifications of Ameri- can skulls with " Mongolian " or " Mongoloid " types. Such comparisons are based on local peculiarities which have no racial value. Yet it must not be supposed from this that carefully conducted cranial comparisons between tribes and families are valueless ; on the contrary, the shape and size of the skull, the proportion of the face, and many other measurements, are in the average highly distinctive family traits, and I shall frequently call attention to them. The lowest cephalic index which I have seen re- ported from an American skull is 56, which is that of a perforated skull from Devil river, Michigan, now in the medical museum at Ann Arbor university ; * the highest is 97, from a Peruvian skull, though probably this was the result of an artificial de- formity. It is not necessary to conclude from these or other diversities in skull forms that the American race is a conglomerate of other and varied stocks. As I have pointed out elsewhere, the shape of the skull is not a des tetes Ame'ricaines inontrent une divergence si manifeste qu'on doit renoncer definitivement a la construction d'un type universel et commun des Indigenes Americains." Congres dcs Amtrican- istes, 1888, p. 260. This is substantially the conclusion at which Dr. James Aitken Meigs arrived, in his " Observations on the Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines," in Proc. of the Acad. Nat. Set. of Phila., 1866. * Henry Oilman, Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1885, p. 239. Other perforated skulls from similar graves in the same locality showed indices of, 82, 83, 85. 38 THE AMERICAN RACE. fixed element in human anatomy, and children of the same mother may differ in this respect.* A special feature in American skulls is the pres- ence of the epactal bone, or os Incae, in the occiput. It is found in a complete or incomplete condition in 3.86 per cent, of the skulls throughout the continent, and in particular localities much more frequently ; among the ancient Peruvians for example in 6.08 per cent., and among the former inhabitants of the Gila valley in 6.8 1 per cent. This is far more fre- quently than in other races, the highest being the negro, which offers 2.65 per cent., while the Euro- peans yield but i.iQ.f The presence of the bone is due to a persistence of the transverse occipital suture, which is usually closed in fetal life. Hence it is a sign of arrested development, and indicative of an inferior race. The majority of the Americans have a tendency to meso-or brachycephaly, but in certain families, as the Eskimos in the extreme north and the Tapuyas in Brazil, the skulls are usually decidedly long. In other instances there is a remarkable difference in members of the same tribe and even of the same household. Thus among the Yumas there are some with as low an index as 68, while the majority are above 80, and among the dolichocephalic Eskimos we occasionally find an almost globular skull. So far as can be learned, these variations appear in per- * D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples ; Lectures on the Science of Ethnography, p. 20. (David McKay, Philadelphia.) f Dr. Washington Matthews, in the American Anthropologist, 1889, p. 337. AMERICAN SKULLS. 39 sons of pure blood. Often the crania differ in no wise from those of the European. Dr. Hensell, for instance, says that the skulls of pure-blood Coroados of Brazil, which he examined, corresponded in all points to those of the average German.* The average cubical capacity of the American skull falls below that of the white, and rises above that of the black race. Taking both sexes, the Parisians of to-day have a cranial capacity of 1448 cubic centimetres; the Negroes 1344 c. c. ; the Amer- ican Indians 1376^ But single examples of Indian skulls have yielded the extraordinary capacity of 1747, 1825, and even 1920 cub. cent, which are not exceeded in any other race. ^ The hue of the skin is generally said to be reddish, or coppery, or cinnamon color, or burnt coffee color. It is brown of various shades, with an undertone of red. Individuals or tribes vary from the prevail- ing hue, but not with reference to climate. The Kolosch of the northwest coast are very light col- ored ; but not more so than the Yurucares of the Bo- livian Andes. The darkest are far from black, and the lightest by no means white. The hair is rarely wholly black, as when examined by reflected light it will also show a faint undercolor * Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, Bd. II., s. 195. f Cf . Lucien Carr, in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Pea- body Museum, p. 367. J Lucien Carr, " Notes on the Crania of New England Indians," in the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural His- tory, 1880 ; and compare Topinard, Elements d" Anthropologie Gen- irale, p. 628. (Paris, 1885.) 4O THE AMERICAN RACE. of red. This reddish tinge is very perceptible in some tribes, and especially in children. Generally straight and coarse, instances are not wanting where it is fine and silky, and even slightly wavy or curly. Although often compared to that of the Chinese, the resemblances are superficial, as when critically ex- amined, " the hair of the American Indian differs in nearly every particular from that of the Mongolians of eastern Asia." * The growth is thick and strong on the head, scanty on the body and on the face ; but beards of respectable length are not wholly un- known, f The stature and muscular force vary. The Pata- gonians have long been celebrated as giants, although in fact there are not many of them over six feet tall. The average throughout the continent would prob- ably be less than that of the European. But there are no instances of dwarfish size to compare with the Lapps,, the Bushmen, or the Andaman Islanders. The hands and feet are uniformly smaller than those of Europeans of the same height. The arms are longer in proportion to the other members than in the Euro- pean, but not so much as in the African race. This is held to be one of the anatomical evidences of infer- iority. *H. Fritsch, in Compte-Rendu du Cong res des Americanistcs, 1888, p. 276. f For instance, some of the Mixes of Mexico have full beards (Herrera, Decadas de las Indias, Dec. IV., Lib. IX., cap. VII.) ; the Guarayos of Bolivia wear long straight beards, covering both lips and cheeks (D'Orbigny, L^Homme Americain, Vol. I., p. 126); and the Cashibos of the upper Ucayali are bearded (Herndon, Ex- ploration of the Valley of the Amazon, p. 209). COURSE OF MIGRATION. 41 On the whole, the race is singularly uniform in its physical traits, and individuals taken from any part of the continent could easily be mistaken for inhabi- tants of numerous other parts. /' This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the geographical features of the continent, which are such as to favor migrations in longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special conditions in latitude tend to produce. The trend of the moun- tain chains and the flow of the great rivers in both South and North America generally follow the course of the great circles, and the migrations of native na- tions were directed by these geographic features. Nor has the face of the land undergone any serious alteration since man first occupied it. Doubtless in his early days the Laramie sea still covered the ex- tensive depression in that part of our country, and it is possible that a subsidence of several hundred feet altered the present Isthmus of Panama into a chain of islands ; but in other respects the continent be- tween the fortieth parallels north and south has re- mained substantially the same since the close of the Tertiary Epoch. Beyond all other criteria of a race must rank its mental endowments. These are what decide irrevo- cably its place in history and its destiny in time. Some who have personally studied the American race are inclined to assign its psychical potentialities (r a high rank. For instance, Mr. Horatio Hale hesi- tates not to say : " Impartial investigation and com- parison will probably show that while some of the aboriginal communities of the American continent 42 THE AMERICAN RACE, are low in the scale of intellect, others are equal in natural capacity, and possibly superior, to the highest of the Indo-European race."* This may be re- garded as an extremely favorable estimate. Few will assent to it, and probably not many would even go so far as Dr. Amede Moure in his appreciation of the South American Indians, which he expresses in these words : " With reference to his mental powers, the Indian of South America should be classed im- mediately after the white race, decidedly ahead of the yellow race, and especially beyond the African." f Such general opinions are interesting because both of them are the results of personal observations of many tribes. But the final decision as to the abilities of a race or of an individual must be based on actual accomplished results, not on supposed endowments. Thus appraised, the American race certainly stands higher than the Australian, the Polynesian or the African, but does not equal the Asian, j,-- A review of the evidence bears out this opinion. Take the central social fact of government. In an- cient America there are examples of firm and stable states, extending their sway widely and directed by definite policy. The league of the Iroquois was a thoroughly statesman-like creation, and the realm of Peru had a long and successful existence. That this mental quality is real is shown by the recent history of some of the Spanish-American republics. Two of * " Report on the Blackfeet," in Trans. Brit. Assoc. Adv. of Science, 1885. t " Les Indiens de la Province de Mato Grosso," in the Nou- velles Annales des Voyages, 1862. NATIVE ART. 43 them, Guatemala and Mexico, count among their ablest presidents in the present generation pure-blood American Indians.* Or we may take up the arts. In architecture nothing ever accomplished by the Africans or Polynesians approaches the pre-Colum- bian edifices of the American continent. In the de- velopment of artistic forms, whether in stone, clay or wood, the American stands next to the white race. I know no product of Japanese, Chinese or Dravidian sculpture, for example, which exhibits the human face in greater dignity than the head in basalt fig- ured by Humboldt as an Aztec priestess.f The in- vention of a phonetic system for recording ideas was reached in Mexico, and is striking testimony to the ability of the natives. In religious philosophy there is ample evidence that the notion of a single incor- poreal Ruler of the universe had become familiar both to Tezcucans and Kechuas previous to the conquest. While these facts bear testimony to a good natural capacity, it is also true that the receptivity of the race for a foreign civilization is not great. Even individ- ual instances of highly educated Indians are rare ; and I do not recall any who have achieved distinction in art or science, or large wealth in the business world. The culture of the native Americans strongly at- tests the ethnic unity of the race. This applies equally to the ruins and relics of its vanished nations, * The Mexican president Benito Juarez was a full-blood Zapotec ; Barrios of Guatemala, a full-blood Cakchiquel. t Vues des Cordilteres, et Monumens des Peiiples Indigenes de , Tome I. p. 51. 44 THE AMERICAN RACE. as to the institutions of existing tribes. Nowhere do we find any trace of foreign influence or instruction, nowhere any arts or social systems to explain which we must evoke the aid of teachers from the eastern hemisphere. Th_e_culture of the American race, in whatever degree they possessed it, was an indigenous growth, wholly self-developed, owing none of its germs to any other race, ear-marked with the psy- chology of the stock. Furthermore, this culture was not, as is usually supposed, monopolized by a few nations of the race. The distinction that has been set up by so many eth- nographers between " wild tribes " and " civilized tribes," Jdgervolker and Culturvolker, is an artificial one, and conveys a false idea of the facts. There was no such sharp line. Different bands of the same linguistic stock were found, some on the highest, others on the lowest stages of development, as is strik- ingly exemplified in the Uto-Aztecan family. Wher- ever there was a center of civilization, that is, wher- ever the surroundings favored the development of culture, tribes of different stocks enjoyed it to nearly an equal degree, as in central Mexico and Peru. By them it was distributed, and thus shaded off in all directions. When closely analyzed, the difference between the highest and the average culture of the race is much less than has been usually taught. The Aztecs of Mexico and the Algonkins of the eastern United States were not far apart, if we overlook the objec- tive art of architecture and one or two inventions. To contrast the one as a wild or savage with the AMERICAN CULTURE. 45 other as a civilized people, is to assume a false point of view and to overlook their substantial psychical equality. For these reasons American culture, wherever ex- amined, presents a family likeness which the more careful observers of late years have taken pains to put in a strong light. This was accomplished for governmental institutions and domestic architecture by Lewis H. Morgan, for property rights and the laws of war by A. F. Bandelier, for the social condition of Mexico and Peru by Dr. Gustav Briihl, and I may add for the myths and other expressions of the religious sentiment by myself.* In certain directions doubtless the tendency has been to push this uniformity too far, especially with reference to governmental institutions. Mr. Mor- gan's assertions upon this subject were too sweeping. Nevertheless he was the first to point out clearly that ancient American society was founded, not upon the family, but upon the gens, totem or clan, as the social unit.f The gens is "an organized body of consan- guineal kindred " (Powell), either such in reality, or ? when strangers have been adopted, so considered by * Ancient Society, by Lewis H. Morgan (New York, 1878); Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines, by the same (Washington, 1881); Bandelier, in the Reports of the Peabody Museum ; Dr. Gustav Briihl, Die Culturvolker Alt Amerikas (Cin- cinnati, 1887); D. G. Brinton, The Myths of the New World, sd Ed. revised, David McKay (Philadelphia, 1896); American-Hero Myths, by the same (Philadelphia, 1882). t The word totem is derived from the Algonkin root od or ot and means that which belongs to a person or " his belongings," in the widest sense, his village, his people, etc. 46 THE AMERICAN RACE. the tribal conscience. Its members dwell together in one house or quarter, and are obliged to assist each other. An indeterminate number of these gentes, make up the tribe, and smaller groups of several of them may form " phratries," or brotherhoods, usually for some religious purpose. Each gens is to a large extent autonomic, electing its own chieftain, and de- ciding on all questions of property and especially of blood-revenge, within its own limits. The tribe is governed by a council, the members of which belong to and represent the various gentes. The tribal chief is elected by this council, and can be deposed at its will. His power is strictly limited by the vote of the council, and is confined to affairs of peace. For war, a " war chief " is elected also by the council, who takes sole command. Marriage within the gens is strictly prohibited, and descent is traced and prop- erty descends in the female line only. This is the ideal theory of the American tribal or- ganization, and we may recognize its outlines almost anywhere on the continent ; but scarcely anywhere shall we find it perfectly carried out. The gentile system is by no means universal, as I shall have occa- sion to point out ; where it exists, it is often traced in the male line ; both property and dignities may be in- herited directly from the father ; consanguine mar- riage, even that of brother and sister or father and daughter, though rare, is far from unexampled.* In fact, no one element of the system was uniformly re- * Among the Brazilian hordes, for instance, Martins, BeitragC zur Ethnographic und Sprachenkundc Amerikas, Bd. I. s. 116 (Leipzig, 1867). THE GENTILE SYSTEM. 47 spected, and it is an error of theorists to try to make it appear so. It varied widely in the same stock and in all its expressions.* This is markedly true, for instance, in domestic architecture. The Lenap, who were next neighbors to the Five Nations, had noth- ing resembling their " long house," on which Mor- gan founded his scheme of communal tenements ; and the efforts which some later writers have made to identify the large architectural works of Mexico and Yucatan with the communal pueblos of the Gila valley will not bear the test of criticism. The foundation of the gentile, as of any other family life, is, as I have shown elsewhere,f the mu- tual affection between kindred. In the primitive period this is especially between the children of the same mother, not so much because of the doubt of paternity as because physiologically and obviously it is the mother in whom is formed and from whom alone proceeds the living being. Why this affection does not lead to the marriage of uterine brothers and sisters why, on the contrary, there is almost every- where a horror of such unions it is not easy to ex- plain. Darwin suggests that the chief stimulus to the sexual feelings is novelty, and that the familiarity of the same household breeds indifference ; and we * Thus the Heiltsuk and Kwakiutl of the northwest coast, though speaking close dialects of the same stock, differ funda- mentally in their social organization. That of the former is ma- triarchal, of the latter patriarchal. Boas, Fifth Report to the Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science, p. 38. f Races and Peoples ; Lectures on the Science of Ethnography, p. 55 (David McKay, Philadelphia.) 48 THE AMERICAN RACE. may accept this in default of a completer explana- tion. Certainly, as Moritz Wagner has forcibly shown,* this repugnance to incest is wide-spread in the species, and has exerted a powerful influence on its physical history. In America marriage was usually by purchase, and was polygamous. In a number of tribes the pur- chase of the eldest daughter gave the man a right to buy all the younger daughters, as they reached nubile age. The selection of a wife was often regarded as the concern of the gens rather than of the individual. Among the Hurons, for instance, the old women of the gens selected the wives for the young men, " and united them with painful uniformity to women sev- eral years their senior." f Some control in this direc- tion was very usual, and was necessary to prevent consanguine unions. The position of women in the social scheme of the American tribes has often been portrayed in darker colors than the truth admits. As in one sense a chattel, she had few rights against her husband ; but some she had, and as they were those of her gens, these he was forced to respect. Where maternal de- scent prevailed, it was she who owned the property of the pair, and could control it as she listed. It passed at her death to her blood relatives and not to his. Her children looked upon her as their parent, but esteemed their father as no relation whatever. * Die Entstehung der Arten durch Raumliche Sonderung (Basel, 1889). f J. W. Sanborn, Legends, Customs and Social Life of the Seneca Indians, p. 36 (Gowanda, N. Y., 1878). MATRIARCHAL SYSTEM. 49 An unusually kind and intelligent Kolosch Indian was chided by a missionary for allowing his father to suffer for food. " Let him go to his own people," replied the Kolosch, " they should look after him." He did not regard a man as in any way related or bound to his paternal parent. The women thus made good for themselves the power of property, and this could not but compel respect. Their lives were rated at equal or greater value than a man's ; * instances are frequent where their voice was important in the council of the tribe ; nor was it very rare to see them attaining the dignity of head chief. That their life was toilsome is true ; but its dangers were less, and its fatigues scarce greater, than that of their husbands. Nor was it more onerous than that of the peasant women of Europe to-day. Such domestic arrangements seem strange to us, but they did not exclude either conjugal or parental affection. On the contrary, the presence of such sen- timents has impressed travelers among even the rudest tribes, as the Eskimos, the Yumas and the hordes of the Chaco ; f and Miss Alice Fletcher tells me she has constantly noted such traits in her studies of life in the wisrwam. The husband and father will * Father Ragueneau tells us that among the Hurons, when a man was killed, thirty gifts were required to condone the offence, but when a woman was the victim, forty were demanded. Relation des Jesuits, 1635. fDr. W. H. Corbusier, in American Antiquarian, Sept., 1886; Dr. Amedde Moure, Les Indiens de Mato C rosso, p. 9 (Paris, 1862). 4 5O THE AMERICAN RACE. often undergo severe privations for his wife and chil- dren. The error to which I have referred of classifying the natives into wild and civilized tribes has led to regarding the one as agricultural, and the other as depending exclusively on hunting and fishing. Such was not the case. The Americans were inclined to agriculture in nearly all regions where it was profit- able. Maize was cultivated both north and south to the geographical extent of its productive culture; beans, squashes, pumpkins, and potatoes were assid- uously planted in suitable latitudes ; the banana was rapidly accepted after its introduction, even by tribes who had never seen a white man ; cotton for clothing and tobacco as a luxury were staple crops among very diverse stocks. The Iroquois, Algonkins and Mus- kokis of the Atlantic coast tilled large fields, and depended upon their harvests for the winter supplies. The difference between them and the sedentary Mex- icans or Mayas in this respect was not so wide as has been represented. It was a serious misfortune for the Americans that the fauna of the continent did not offer any animal which could be domesticated for a beast of draft or burden. There is no doubt but that the horse ex- isted on the continent contemporaneously with post- glacial man ; and some palaeontologists are of opinion that the European and Asian horses were descendants of the American species ; * but for some mysterious reason the genus became extinct in the New World * This opinion is defended by Max Schlosser in the Archivfur Anthropologie, 1889, s. 132. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 51 many generations before its discovery. The dog, do- mesticated from various species of the wolf, was a poor substitute. He aided somewhat in hunting, and in the north as an animal of draft ; but was of little general utility. The lama in the Cordilleras in South America was prized principally for his hair, and was also utilized for burdens, but not for draft.* Nor were there any animals which could be domesticated for food or milk. The buffalo is hopelessly wild, and the peccary, or American hog, is irreclaimable in its love of freedom. _ We may say that America everywhere at the time - of the discovery was in the polished stone age. It had progressed beyond the rough stone stage, but had not reached that of metals. True that copper, bronze and the precious ores were widely employed for a variety of purposes ; but flaked and polished stone remained in all parts the principal material selected to produce a cutting edge. Probably three- fourths of the tribes were acquainted with the art of tempering and moulding clay into utensils or figures ; but the potter's wheel and the process of glazing had not been invented. Towns and buildings were laid out with a correct eye, and stone structures of sym- metry were erected ; but the square, the compass, the plumb line, and the scales and weight had not been devised. f Commodious boats of hollowed logs or of *The lama was never ridden, nor attached for draft, though the opposite has been stated. See J. J. von Tschudi, " Das Lama," in Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1885, s. 108. {See "The Lineal Measures of the Semi-Civilized Nations of Mexico and Central America," hi my Essays of an Americanist, p. 433 (Philadelphia, 1890). 52 THE AMERICAN RACE. bark, or of skins stretched on frames, were in use on most of the waters ; but the inventive faculties of their makers had not reached to either oars or sails to pro- pel them,* the paddle alone being relied upon, and the rudder to guide them was unknown. The love of music is strong in the race, and wind instruments and those sounded by percussion had been devised in considerable variety; but the highest type, the string instruments, were beyond their capacity of invention. "he religious sentiment was awake in all the tribes of the continent,' and even the lowest had myths and propitiatory rites by which to explain to themselves and cajole to their own interests the unknown powers which order the destiny of human life. There is a singular similarity in these myths. The leading cycle of them usually describes the exploits of a di- vine man, the national hero-god, who was the first instructor, often the ancestor of the tribe, and the creator of the visible universe. His later history is related with singular parallelism by tribes in Canada and Mexico, in Yucatan and Uruguay. After teach- ing his people the arts of life and the sacred rites, the forms of their social organizations and the medicinal powers of plants, he left in some mysterious way, not by the event of death, but for a journey, or by rising to the sky ; leaving with them, however, his promise to return at some future day, when they should need him, and he should again become their guide and protector. * The Caribs and some of the Peruvian coast tribes sometimes lifted a large square cloth when running with the wind ; but this is not what is meant by a sail. MYTHS AND RELIGION. 53 The interpretation of this fundamental American myth, which I have shown to be the typical religious legend of the race,* offers an interesting problem. Comparing it with others of similar form in Egyptian and Aryac antiquity, I have explained it as based on the natural phenomenon of the returning and depart- ing day, as, if not a solar, at least a light myth, devel- oped through personification and etymologic pro- cesses. Often the hero-god is identified with some animal, as the raven, the rabbit, the wolf or coyote, the jaguar, the toucan, etc. Possibly in these we may recognize the " totemic animal " after which the gens was named ; but in most cases the identification cannot be made. The hero-god is usually connected with tales of a creation and a flood, or other destruction of the world. These cosmogonical and cataclysmal myths belong together, and arise from the same impulse to explain cosmic phenomena by the analogy with ordinary changes of the seasons and the day. In constant connection with them, and also with the rites of re- ligion and medicine, with the social institutions and the calendar, with the plans of edifices and the ar- rangement of gens and phratries, in fact, with all the apparatus of life, was a respect for the sacred num- ber. It is strange how constantly this presents itself throughout American life, and is, in fact, the key to many of its forms. The sacred number is Four, and its origin is from the four cardinal points. These were the guides to the native in his wanderings, and, as identified with the winds, were the deities who * American Hero-Myths (Philadelphia, 1882). 54 THE AMERICAN RACE. brought about the change of the seasons and the phe- nomena of the weather. They were represented by the symbols of the cross, whose four arms we see por- trayed on the altar tablet of Palenque, on the robes of the Mexican priests, in the hieroglyphs of the Algonkins, and in countless other connections. A rich symbolism rapidly developed in all the sedentary tribes, and very much along the same lines. The bird, the serpent, the sacred stone, the tree of life, water as a purifier, the perpetual fire, all these are members of a religious symbolism, clear signs of which recur in all segments of the continent. The chants and dances, the ritual of the medicine men, the functions of esoteric orders and secret societies, present a resemblance greater than that which can be explained by a mere similarity in the stage of culture. I explain it by the ethnic and psychical unity of the race, and its perpetual freedom from any foreign in- fluence. The mortuary rites indicated a belief in the con- tinued existence of the individual after apparent death. These were by incineration, by inhumation, by exposure, or by mummification. Articles were placed with the deceased for use in his future state, and the ceremonies of mourning were frequently severe and protracted. A sacredness was generally attached to the bones and therefore these were care- fully preserved. In accordance with a superstition widely felt in the Old World, they were supposed to harbor some share of the departed spirit. The con- ception of the after life is wholly material. The Zapotec, for instance, believes that he will return to MEDICINE-MEN. 55 his familiar haunts after a few hundred years, and buries all the money he makes that he may then live at his ease. Von Gagern estimates the amount of silver thus secreted and lost within the last century at a hundred million dollars.* The ceremonies of religion, which included that of the treatment of disease, inasmuch as a demonic cause was always assigned to illness, were in the hands of a particular class, known to the whites as " medicine men," or shamans, or sorcerers. Some- times the right of belonging to this order was heredi- tary in a gens, but generally peculiar aptitude for the business was the only requirement. Many of them were skilled in legerdemain, and even to-day some of their tricks puzzle the acutest white observers. As doctors, augurs, rain-makers, spell-binders, leaders of secret societies, and depositaries of the tribal tradi- tions and wisdom, their influence was generally pow- erful. Of course it was adverse to the Europeans, especially the missionaries, and also of course it was generally directed to their own interest or that of their class ; but this is equally true of priestly power wherever it gains the ascendency, and the injurious effect of the Indian shamans on their nations was not greater than has been in many instances that of the Christian priesthood on European communities. The psychic identity of the Americans is well illustrated in their languages. There are indeed in- definite discrepancies in their lexicography and in their surface morphology ; but in their logical sub- * Carlos de Gagern, Charakteristik der Indianischen Bevdlker- ung Mexikos, s. 23 (Wien, 1873.) 56 THE AMERICAN RACE. structure, in what Wilhelm von Humboldt called the " inner form," they are strikingly alike. The points in which this is especially apparent are in the develop- ment of pronominal forms, in the abundance of gen- eric particles, in the overweening preference for concepts of action (verbs), rather than concepts of existence (nouns), and in the consequent subordina- tion of the latter to the former in the proposition. This last mentioned trait is the source of that char- acteristic which is called incorporation. The Ameri- can languages as a rule are essentially incorporative languages, that is, they formally include both sub- ject and object in the transitive concept, and its oral expression. It has been denied by some able lin- guists that this is a characteristic trait of American languages ; but I have yet to find one, of which we possess ample means of analysis, in which it does not appear in one or another of its forms, thus revealing the same linguistic impulse. Those who reject it as a feature have been led astray either by insufficient means of information about certain languages, or by not clearly comprehending the characteristics of the incorporative process itself.* As intimated, however, in spite of this underlying sameness, there is wide diversity in the tongues them- selves. Where we cannot find sufficient coincidences of words and grammar in two languages to admit of supposing that under the laws of linguistic science they are related, they are classed as independent * I have treated this subject at considerable length in opposition to the opinion of Lucien Adam and Friederich Mu'ller in my Essays of an Americanist, pp. 349^389 (Philadelphia, 1890). LANGUAGES. 57 stocks or families. Of such there are about eighty in North and as many in South America. These stocks offer us, without doubt, our best basis for the ethnic classification of the American tribes ; the only basis, indeed, which is of any value. The efforts which have been heretofore made to erect a geographic clas- sification, with reference to certain areas, political or physical ; or a craniological one, with reference to skull forms ; or a cultural one, with reference to stages of savagery and civilization, have all proved worthless. The linguistic is the only basis on which the subdivision of the race should proceed. Similarity of idioms proves to some extent similarity of descent and similarity of psychic endowments. Of course, there has been large imposition of one language on another in the world's history ; but never without a corresponding infiltration of blood ; so that the changes in language remain as evidence of national and race cormninglings. I select, therefore, the lin- guistic classification of the American race as the only one of any scientific value, and, therefore, that which alone merits consideration. The precise number of linguistic stocks in use in America at the discovery has not been made out. In that portion of the continent north of Mexico the re- searches of the Bureau of Ethnology of the United States have defined fifty-nine stocks, no less than forty of which were confined to the narrow strip of land between the Rocky mountains and the Pacific ocean. For convenience of study I shall classify all the stocks into five groups, as follows : 58 THE AMERICAN RACE. I. The North Atlantic Group. II. The North Pacific Group. III. The Central Group. IV. The South Pacific Group. V. The South Atlantic Group. This arrangement is not one of convenience only; I attach a certain ethnographic importance to this classification. There is a distinct resemblance be- tween the two Atlantic groups, and an equally distinct contrast between them and the Pacific groups, ex- tending to temperament, culture and physical traits. Each of the groups has mingled extensively within its own limits, and but slightly outside of them. Each is subject to conditions of temperature, altitude and humidity, which are peculiar to itself, and which have exerted definite influences on the constitution and the history of its inhabitants. Such a subdi- vision of the race is therefore justified by anthropol- ogic considerations. I. THE NORTH ATLANTIC GROUP. I. THE ESKIMOS. word Eskimo, properly Eski-mwhan, means 1 in the Abnaki dialect of Algonquin, " he eats raw flesh," and was applied to the tribe from its cus- tom of consuming fish and game without cooking. They call themselves Inmtit, " people," a term the equivalent of which is the usual expression applied by American natives to their own particular stock. The Innuit are at present essentially a maritime and arctic nation, occupying the coast and adjacent islands from the Straits of Belle Isle on the Atlantic to Icy Bay, at the foot of Mount St. Elias on the Pacific, and extending their wanderings and settle- ments as far up Smith's Sound as N. Lat. 80, where they are by far the northernmost inhabitants of the earth. They have occupied Greenland for certainly more than a thousand years, and were the earliest settlers in some of the Aleutian islands. Portions of them at some remote period crossed Behring Strait and settled on Asiatic soil, while others established them- selves along the shores of Newfoundland. Indeed, from the reports of the early Norse explorers and from the character of relics found on the Atlantic coast, it is probable that they once extended as far (59) 60 THE AMERICAN RACE. south as the mouth of the Delaware river.* Their ancestors quite possibly dwelt on the moors of New England when the reindeer browsed there, and ac- companied that quadruped in his final migration to the north. They belong in history and character to the Atlantic peoples. This question, as to where their common progeni- tors resided, has been much discussed. A favorite theory of some writers has been that they migrated out of Asia by way of Behring Strait ; but those who have studied their culture on the spot do not advocate this opinion. These observers have, without excep- tion, reached the conclusion that the Innuit were origi- nally an inland people, that their migrations were toward the north and west, and that they have been gradually forced to the inhospitable climes they oc- cupy by the pressure of foes. Dr. Rink, who passed many years among them, would look for their early home somewhere in Alaska ; but Mr. John Murdoch and Dr. Franz Boas, two of our best authorities on this tribe, incline to the view that their primal home was to the south of Hudson Bay, whence they separ- ated into three principal hordes, the one passing into Labrador and reaching Greenland, the second mov- ing to the coast of the Arctic sea, and the third to Alaska. These form respectively the Greenland, the Chiglit and the Kadjak dialects of the common tongue. f * Packard, " Notes on the Labrador Eskimo and their former range southward," in American Naturalist, 1885, p. 471. t John Murdoch, in The American Anthropologist, 1888, p. 129 ; also Dr. Henry Rink, The Eskimo Tribes (London, 1887) ; Dr. TRAITS OF THE ESKIMOS. 6l The closest observers report the physical traits of the Eskimos as thoroughly American and not Asian, as has sometimes been alleged.* In appearance the Innuits of pure blood are of medium or slightly un- dersize, color dark, nose prominent and sometimes aquiline, hair dark brown or black, moderately strong on the face, the pubes and in the axilla ; the eyes are dark brown and occasionally blue. The skull is generally long (dolichocephalic), but is sub- ject to extensive variations ranging from almost globular to exceptionally long and narrow speci- mens, f In spite of the hardships of their life, the Innuits are of a singularly placid and cheerful temperament, good-natured among themselves and much given to mirth and laughter. \ The ingenuity with which they have learned to overcome the difficulties of their Franz Boas, The Central Eskimo, in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology ; W. H. Dall, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest (Washington, 1887); Ivan Petroff, in The American Naturalist, 1882, p. 567. * Dall is positive that there is no racial distinction between the Innuit and the other American Indians, loc. cit., p. 95. He adds : "The Tartar, Japanese or Chinese origin of these people finds no corroboration in their manners, dress or language." f Commander G. Holm found the East Greenlanders, a pure stock, well marked mesocephalic, with a maximum of 84.2 (Les Cronlandais Orientaux, p. 365, Copenhagen, 1889). Dall gives the range to his measurements of Innuit skulls from 87 to 70 (Con- tributions to American Ethnology, Vol. I, p. 71). \ " Unlike the Indian," writes Mr. F. F. Payne, " the Eskimo is nearly always laughing, and even in times of great distress it is not hard to make them smile." " The Eskimo at Hudson Strait," in Proc. Canad. Institute, 1889, p. 128. 62 THE AMERICAN RACE. situation is quite surprising. In a country without wood or water, frightfully cold, and yielding no man- ner of edible fruit or vegetable, they manage to live and thrive. Their principal nurriture is the pro- duct of the sea. They build boats called kayaks or bidarkas from the bones of walrus covered with the skins of seals ; their winter houses are of blocks of snow laid up on the principle of the circular arch to form a dome, with windows of sheets of ice. These they warm by means of stone lamps fed with blubber oil. Their clothing is of bird skins and furs, and they are skilled in the preparation of a sort of leather. As faithful companions they have their dogs, intelligent animals, used both in hunting and for drawing small sledges built of wood or bone. With their tools of bone or stone they fashion many curious and useful articles, displaying a marked in- ventive faculty and an artistic eye. The picture- writing which they devised for the assistance of their memory is greatly superior to any found north of Mexico in the faithful delineation of objects, espe- cially of animal forms.* The long winter nights are enlivened by music and songs, of which they are passionately fond, and by the recital of imaginative tales, the stock of which is inexhaustible. A skillful bard enjoys a wide reputa- tion, and some of their poems contain fine and delicate sentiments, f Others are from ancient date, and are *W. J.Hoffman, "On Indian and Eskimo Pictography," in Trans, Anthrop. Soc. of Washington, Vol. II, p. 146. f See some examples in my Essays of an Americanist ', pp. 288- 290 (Philadelphia, 1890). SONGS AND STORIES. 63 passed down from generation to generation with scru- pulous fidelity, every tone, every gesture, being imi- tated. The meter and rendition of their songs seem to the European monotonous, but the Eskimo has his own notion of the music of verse, and it is a very advanced one ; he would have it akin to the sweet sounds of nature, and for that reason their poets sleep by the sound of running water that they may catch its mysterious notes, and model on them their own productions.* These songs also serve as a peaceful means to allay feuds. When two persons quarrel, they will appoint an evening and sing " nith songs" at each other, and the audience will decide which comes out best. This verdict will put an end to the ill-feeling. The imaginative character of the people is also reflected in their religions. They believe in one or several overruling powers, and in a multitude of in- ferior spirits and uncanny monsters. These require propitiation rather than worship. The general belief is that a person has two souls, one of which is in- separably connected with his name and passes with it to any infant named for him ; while the second either descends to a warm and pleasant abode under the earth or passes to a less agreeable one in the sky ; the streaming lights of the aurora borealis were sometimes thought to be these latter spirits in their celestial home. The rites of their religion were performed chiefly by the priests, called angekoks, who, however, were *G. Holm, Les Gronlandais Orientaux, p. 382 (Copenhagen, 1889). 64 THE AMERICAN RACE. little better than conjurers. In some parts this office was hereditary. The language of the Innuits is very much the same throughout the whole of their extended domain. Bishop de Schweinitz once told me that a few years ago a convert from the Moravian mission in Labra- dor went to Alaska, and it required but a few weeks for him to understand and be understood by the na- tives there. In character the tongue is highly agglu- tinative, the affixes being joined to the end of the word. The verb is very complex, having thirty- one hundred modified forms, all different and all in- variable.* It is rich in expressions for all the objects of Eskimo life, and is harmonious to the ear. Like the Greek, it has three numbers, singular, dual and plural. Those Eskimos who live in Asia call themselves Ymt, a dialect form of Innuit. They dwell around East Cape and the shore south of it, in immediate contact with the Namollos or Sedentary Chukchis, a Sibiric people, totally different in language, appear- ance and culture. The Yuits have not at all assimi- lated to the reindeer-keeping, pastoral habits of the Chukchis, and by their own well-preserved traditions, moved across the straits from the American side, with which they continue commercial intercourse. Their villages are sometimes close to those of the Namollos, or Sedentary Chukchis, they intermarry, and have a jargon sufficient for their mutual purposes ; but it is an error, though a prevailing one, to suppose that *Dr. A. Pfizmaier, Darlcgungen Gronlandischer I'erbalformen (Wien, 1885). THE ALEUTIANS. 65 they are the same people. The Chukchis never en- tered America, and the Innuits, as a people, never crossed from Asia, or originated there.* The jade im- plements of northeastern Siberia have proved to be of the Alaskan variety of that stone, and not the Chinese jade, as some supposed. f From all points whence we have definite informa- tion, this interesting people are steadily diminish- ing in numbers, even where they are not in contact with the whites. The immediate causes appear to be increasing sterility and infant mortality. Two sur- viving children to a marriage is about the average productiveness, and statistics show that it requires double this number for a population to maintain itself even stationary. The Aleutian branch occupies the long chain of islands which stretch westward from the southwestern corner of Alaska. The climate is mild, the sea abounds in fish, and innumerable birds nest in the rocks. We may therefore believe the navigators of the last century, who placed the population of the islands at 25,000 or 30,000 souls, although at present they have sunk to about 2,000. They have the same * On the relative position of the Chukchis, Namollos and Yuit, consult Dall in American Naturalist, 1881, p. 862 ; J. W. Kelly, in Circular of the U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 2, 1890, p. 8 ; A. Pfizmaier, Die Sprachen derAleuten, p. i (Vienna, 1884). The Yuits are also known as Tuski. The proper location of the Na- mollos is on the Arctic Sea, from East Cape to Cape Shelagskoi (Dall). t Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum , 1883, p. 427. All of Clement G. Markham's arguments for the Asiatic origin of the Eskimos have been refuted. 5 66 THE AMERICAN RACE. cheerful temperament as the Eskimos, and their grade of culture was, when first discovered, about the same. In their own language they call themselves Unangan, people, the name Aleutes having been given them by the Russians.* It may be considered settled that their ancestors populated the islands from the American and not the Asiatic side. Not only do their own traditions assert this,f but it is confirmed by the oldest relics of their culture, which is Eskimo in character, and by their language, which is generally acknowledged to be a derivative of the Alaskan Eskimo. ^ It is divided into two dialects, the Unalashkan and Atkan, not very dissimilar, and is remarkable for the richness of its verbal forms. || In physical traits they are allied to the Eskimos, though with rounder heads, the average of twenty- five skulls giving an index of 80. Early in this cen- tury they were brought under the control of Russian missionaries, and became partially civilized and at- tached to the Greek Church. In their ancient myths their earliest ancestor was said to have been the dog, * Either from the river Olutora and some islands near its mouth (Petroff); or from Eleutes, a tribe in Siberia, whom the Russians thought they resembled (Pinart). t Ivan Petroff, in Trans. Amer. Anthrop. Soc., Vol. II, p. 90. J Comp. H. Winkler, Ural-Altdische Volker und Sprachen, s. 119, and Dall, Contributions to N. Amer. Ethnology ', Vol. I, p. 49, who states that their tongue is distinctly connected with the Innuit of Alaska. || Dr. A. Pfizmaier, Die Sprache der Aleuten und Fuchsinselrt, s. 4 (Vienna, 1884). Dall, loc. cit., p. 47. NEWFOUNDLAND INDIANS. 6/ which animal was therefore regarded with due re- spect.* 2. THE BEOTHUKS. Adjacent to the Labrador Eskimos and the north- ern Algonkins, upon the Island of Newfoundland, dwelt the Beothuks, or " Red Indians," now extinct, who in custom and language differed much from their neighbors of the mainland. Although called " red," they are also said to have been unusually light in complexion, and the term was applied to them. from their habit of smearing their bodies with a mixture of grease and red ochre. They are further described as of medium stature, with regular features and aquiline noses, the hair black and the beard scanty or absent. In several elements of culture they had marked differences from the tribes of the adjacent mainland. Their canoes were of bark or of skins stretched on frames, and were in the shape of a crescent, so that they required ballast to prevent them from upsetting. The winter houses they constructed were large conical lodges thirty or forty feet in diameter, having a frame of light poles upon which was laid bark or skins, generally the latter. Hunting and fishing provided them with food, and they have left the reputation of irreclaimable savages. They had no dogs, and the art of pottery was unknown ; yet they were not unskilled as artisans, carving images of wood, dressing stone for implements, and tanning deerskins for clothing. An examination of their language discloses some words borrowed from the Algonkin, and slight coincidences * Ivau Petroff, loc. cit., p. 91. 68 THE AMERICAN RACE. with the Eskimo dialects, but the main body of the idiom stands alone, without affinities. Derivation was principally if not exclusively by suffixes, and the general morphology seems somewhat more akin to Eskimo than Algonkin examples.* 3. THE ATHABASCANS (TINNE). Few linguistic families on the continent can com- pare in geographical distribution with that known as the Athabascan, Chepewyan or Tinne. Of these syn- onyms, I retain the first, as that adopted by Busch- mann, who proved, by his laborious researches, the kinship of its various branches.f These extend in- terruptedly from the Arctic Sea to the borders of Durango, in Mexico, and from Hudson Bay to the Pacific. In British America this stock lies immediately north of the Algonkins, the dividing line running approximately from the mouth of the Churchill river on Hudson Bay to the mouth of the Frazer, on the Pacific. To the north they are in contact with the Eskimos and to the west with the tribes of the Pacific coast. In this wide but cold and barren area they are divided into a number of bands, without coherence, and speaking dialects often quite unlike. The Lou- cheux have reached the mouth of the Mackenzie river, * Mr. A. S. Gatschet has compiled the accessible information about the Beothuk language in two articles in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1885 and 1886. t J. C. E. Buschmann, Der Athapaskische Sprachslamm, 4to., Berlin, 1856, and Die. Vcrwandtschafts- Verhaltnisse der Athapaski- schen Sprachen, Berlin, 1863. ATHABASCAN BANDS. 69 the Kuchin are along the Yukon, the Kenai on the ocean about the peninsula that bears their name, while the Nehaunies, Secaunies and Takullies are among the mountains to the south. The Sarcees lived about the southern headwaters of the Saskat- chewan, while other bands had crossed the mountains and wandered quite to the Pacific coast, where they appear as Umpquas near Salem, Oregon ; as Tututenas on Rogue river ; and in California as Hupas, on and about Trinity river. These are but a small fraction of the great southern migration of this stock. The Navajos belong to it, and the redoubted Apaches, who extended their war parties far into Mexico, and who were the main agents in destroying the civilization which ages ago began to reveal fair promise in the valleys of the Gila and its affluents, and who up to very recent years defied alike the armies of both Mexico and the United States. Their southern mi- grations beyond the valley of the Gila probably do not date far back, that is, much beyond the conquest. Although the Mexican census of 1880 puts the Mexi- can Apaches at ten thousand, no such number can be located. Orozco y Berra mentions one of their tribes in Chihuahua, which he calls Tobosos ; but Spanish authors refer to these as living in New Mex- ico in 1583. The only Apache band now known to be in Mexico are the Janos or Janeros in Chihuahua, made up of Lipans and Mescaleros. (Henshaw.) Wherever found, the members of this group pre- sent a certain family resemblance. In appearance they are tall and strong, the forehead low with prom- inent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightly oblique, 70 THE AMERICAN RACE. the nose prominent but wide toward the base, the mouth large, the hands and feet small. Their strength and endurance are often phenomenal, but in the North at least their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. Intellectually they rank below most of their neighbors, and nowhere do they appear as fosterers of the germs of civilization. Where, as among the Navajos, we find them having some repute for the mechanical arts, it turns out that this is owing to having captured and adopted the members of more gifted tribes. Their temperament is inclined to be gloomy and morose ; yet in spite of their apparent stolidity they are liable to panic terrors, to epidemic neuroses, temporary hallucinations and manias a condition not at all rare among peoples of inferior culture.* Nowhere do we find among them any form of gov- ernment. Their chiefs are chosen without formality, either on account of their daring in war or for their generosity in distributing presents. The office is not hereditary, there is rarely even any war chief, their campaigns being merely hurried raids. A singular difference exists as to their gentile systems, and their laws of consanguinity. Usually it is counted in the female line only. Thus among the Takullies of the north a son does not consider his father any relation, but only his mother and her people. When a man dies, all his property passes to his wife's family. The totems are named from animals, and as usual a wife must be selected from another totem. This does not . * See Mgr. Henry Faraud, Dix-huit Ans chez les Sauvages, pp. 345, etc. (Paris, 1866.) Petitot, Les Dhi& Dindjti, p. 32. ATHABASCAN CUSTOMS. 71 stand in the way of a son being united to his father's sister, and such a marriage is often effected for prop- erty reasons. Among the Sarcees the respect for a mother-in-law is so great that her son-in-law dares not sit at a meal with her, or even touch her, without paying a fine. Among the Navajo and Apache tribes the son also follows the gens of the mother, while in the Umpqua and Tutu branches in Oregon he belongs to that of his father. In all the southern tribes the gens is named from a place, not an animal.* Mar- riage is polygamous at will, wives are obtained by purchase, and among the Slave Indians the tie is so lax that friends will occasionally exchange wives as a sign of amity. Usually the position of the woman is abject, and marital affection is practically unknown ; although it is said that the Nehaunies, a tribe of eastern Alaska, at one time obeyed a female chief. The arts were in a primitive condition. Utensils were of wood, horn or stone, though the Takully women manufactured a coarse pottery, and also spun and wove yarn from the hair of the mountain goat. Agriculture was not practised either in the north or south, the only exception being the Navajos and with them the inspiration came from other stocks, f The Kuchin of the Yukon make excellent bark canoes, and * See George M. Dawson, in An. Rep. of the Geol. Survey of > Canada, 1887, p. 191, sq. ; Washington Matthews and J. G. Bourke, in Jour, of Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890, p. 89, sq. f The best blanket-makers, smiths and other artisans among the Navajos are descendants of captives from the Zuni and other pueblos. John G. Bourke, Journal of American Folk-Lore, 1890, p. 115. 72 THE AMERICAN RACE. both they and their neighbors live in skin tents of neatly dressed hides. Many of the tribes of the far north are improvident in both clothing and food, and cannibalism was not at all uncommon among them. The most cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said to signify " large cornfields," from their extensive agriculture. When the Span- iards first met them in 1541 they were tillers of the soil, erected large granaries for their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or acequias, and lived in substantial dwellings, partly underground ; but they had not then learned the art of weaving the celebrated " Navajo blankets," that being a later ac- quisition of their artisans.* In their religions there was the belief in deified nat- ural forces and in magic that we find usually at their stage of culture. The priests or shamans were re- garded with fear, and often controlled the counsels of the tribe. One of their prevalent myths was that of the great thunder-bird often identified with the raven. On the Churchill river it was called Idi, and the myth related that from its brooding on the primeval waters the land was brought forth. The myth is found too widespread to be other than genuine. The Sarcees seem to have had some form of solar worship, as they called the sun Our Father and the earth Our Mother. The Navajos, who have no reminiscence of their ancestral home in the north, locate the scene of their creation in the San Juan mountains, and its date *A. F. Bandelier, Indians of the Southwestern United States, pp. 175-6 (Boston, 1890). ATHABASCAN DIALECTS. 73 about seven centuries ago. Their story is that the first human pair were formed of the meal of maize brought by the gods from the cliff houses in the canons.* The Athabascan dialects are usually harsh and dif- ficult of enunciation. In reducing them to writing, sixty-three characters have to be called on to render the correct sounds, f There is an oral literature of songs and chants, many of which have been preserved by the missionaries. The Hupas of California had extended their language and forced its adoption among the half-dozen neighboring tribes whom they had reduced to the condition of tributaries.^: ATHABASCAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. Apaches, in Arizona, Chihuahua, Durango, etc. Ariquipas, in southern Arizona. Atnahs, on Copper river, Alaska. Beaver Indians, see Sarcees. Chepewyans, north of the Chipeways. Chiricahuas, in southern Arizona. Coyoteros, in southern Arizona. Hupas, in California, on Trinity river. Janos, in Chihuahua, near Rio Grande. Jicarillas, in northern New Mexico. Kenais, on and near Kenai peninsula, Alaska. Kuchins, on Yukon and Copper rivers, Alaska. Lipanes, near mouth of Rio Grande (properly, Tpa-nde). Loucheux, on lower Mackenzie river ; most northern tribe. * Dr. Washington Matthews, in Journal of American Folk-Lore, 1890, p. 90. t The student of this language finds excellent material in the Dictionnaire de la Langue Dene-Dindjie, par E. Petitot (folio, Paris, 1876), in which three dialects are presented. J Stephen Powers, Tribes of California, p. 72, 76 (Washington, 1877). 74 THE AMERICAN RACE. Mescaleros, in New Mexico, W. of Rio Grande. Montagnais, north of Chipeways. Nahaunies, on Stickine and Talton rivers, Alaska. Navajos, northern New Mexico and Arizona. Sarcees, on upper Saskatchewan and at Alberta. Sicaunies, on upper Peach river. Slaves, on upper Mackenzie river. . . Tacullies, head waters of the Fraser river, Brit. Col. Tinn^ synonym of Athabascan. Tututenas, on Rogue river, Oregon. Umpquas, Pacific coast near Salem, Oregon. j ' 4. THE ALGONKLNS. The whole of the north Atlantic coast, between Cape Fear and Cape Hatteras, was occupied at the discovery by the Algonkin stock. Their northern limit reached far into Labrador, where they were in immediate contact with the Eskimos, and along the southern shores of Hudson Bay, and its western littoral as far north as Churchill river. In this vicinity lived the Crees, one of the most important tribes, who re- tained the language of the stock in its purest form. West of them were the Ottawas and Chipeways, closely allied in dialect, and owners of most of the shores of lakes Michigan and Superior. Beyond these again, and separated from them by tribes of Dakota stock, were the Blackfeet, whose lands ex- tended to the very summit of the Rockies. South of the St. Lawrence were the Abnakis or Eastlanders, under which general name were included the Mic- macs, Echemins and others. The whole of the area of New England was occupied by Algonkins, whose near relatives were the Mohegans of the lower Hud- son. These were in place and dialect near to the TRAITS OF THE ALGONKINS. 75 Lenap6s of the Delaware valley, and to the vagrant Shawnees ; while the Nanticokes of Maryland, the Powhatans of Virginia and the Pamticokes of the Carolinas diverged more and more from the purity of the original language. These and many other tribes scattered over this vast area were related, all speaking dialects mani- festly from the same source. Where their ancient home was situated has been the subject of careful in- vestigations, the result of which may be said to be that traditions, archaeology and linguistic analysis combine to point to the north and the east, in other words, to some spot north of the St. Lawrence and east of Lake Ontario, as the original home of the stock. The Algonkins may be taken as typical specimens of the American race. They are fully up to the average stature of the best developed European na- tions, muscular and symmetrical. The distinguished anthropologist Quetelet measured with great care six members of the Chipeway tribe, and pronounced them as equaling in all physical points the best spec- imens of the Belgians.* Their skulls are generally dolichocephalic, but not uniformly so. We have in the collection of the Academy seventy-seven Algon- kin crania, of which fifty-three are dolichocephalic, fourteen mesocephalic, and ten brachycephalic.f The * " On voit que leur conformation est a pen pres exactement le notre." Quetelet, " Sur les IndiensO-jtb-be-was," in Bull.Acad, Royale de Belgique, Tome XIII. t I refer to the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. The numerous measurements of skulls of New England Algonkins by Lucien Carr, show them to be mesocephalic tending to dolicho- 76 THE AMERICAN RACE. eyes are horizontal, the nose thin and prominent, the malar bones well marked, the lips thin. The color is a coppery brown, the hair black and straight, though I have seen a slight waviness in some who claim purity of blood. The hands and feet are small, the voice rich and strong. Physical endurance is very great, and under favorable circumstances the longevity is fully up to that of any other race. The totemic system prevailed among the Algonkin tribes, with descent in the female line ; but we do not find among them the same communal life as among the Iroquois. Only rarely do we encounter the " long house," occupied by a number of kindred families. Among the Lenapes, for example, this was entirely unknown, each married couple having its own resi- dence. The gens was governed by a chief, who was in some cases selected by the heads of the other gentes. The tribe had as permanent ruler a " peace chief," selected from a particular gens, also by the heads of the other gentes. His authority was not absolute, and, as usual, did not extend to any matter concerning the particular interests of any one gens. When war broke out, the peace chief had no concern in it, the campaign being placed in charge of a " war chief," who had acquired a right to the position by his prominent prowess and skill. While the Mohegans built large communal houses, the Lenaps and most of the eastern Algonkins con- structed small wattled huts with rounded tops, cephaly, orthognathic, mesorhine and megasetne. See his article, " Notes on the Crania of New England Indians," in the Anniver- sary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1880. ARTS OF THE ALGONKINS. 77 thatched with the leaves of the Indian corn or with sweet flags. These were built in groups and sur- rounded with palisades of stakes driven into the ground. In summer, light brush tents took the place of these. Agriculture was by no means neglected. The early explorers frequently refer to large fields of maize, squash and tobacco under cultivation by the natives. The manufacture of pottery was wide- spread, although it was heavy and coarse. Mats woven of bark and rushes, deer skins dressed with skill, feather garments, and utensils of wood and stone, are mentioned by the early voyagers. Copper was dug from veins in New Jersey and elsewhere and hammered into ornaments, arrowheads, knives and chisels. It was, however, treated as a stone, and the process of smelting it was unknown. The arrow and spear heads were preferably of quartz, jasper and chert, while the stone axes were of diorite, hard sandstone, and similar tough and close-grained ma- terial.* An extensive commerce in these and similar articles was carried on with very distant points. The red pipe-stone was brought to the Atlantic coast from the Coteau des Prairies, and even the black slate highly ornamented pipes of the Haidah on Vancouver Island have been exhumed from graves of Lenape Indians. Nowhere else north of Mexico was the system of picture writing developed so far as among the Algon- kins, especially by the Lenapes and the Chipeways. It had passed from the representative to the symbolic stage, and was extensively employed to preserve the * The best work on this subject is Dr. C. C. Abbott's Primitive Industry (Salem, 1881). 78 THE AMERICAN RACE. national history and the rites of the secret societies. The figures were scratched or painted on pieces of bark or slabs of wood, and as the color of the paint was red, these were sometimes called " red sticks." One such, the curious Walum Olurn, or " Red Score," of the Lenapes, containing the traditional history of the tribe, I was fortunate enough to rescue from oblivion, and have published it with a transla- tion.* The contents of others relating to the history of the Chipeways (Ojibways) have also been partly preserved. The religion of all the Algonkin tribes presented a distinct similarity. It was based on the worship of Light, especially in its concrete manifestations, as the sun and fire ; of the Four Winds, as typical of the cardinal points, and as the rain bringers ; and of the Totemic Animal. Their myths were numerous, the central figure being the national hero-god Manibozho or Michabo, often identified with the rabbit, appar- ently from a similarity in the words. He was the beneficent sage who taught them laws and arts, who gave them the maize and tobacco, and who on his de- parture promised to return and inaugurate the Golden Age. In other myths he is spoken of as the creator of the visible world and the first father of the race. Along with the rites in his worship were others di- rected to the Spirits of the Winds, who bring about the change of seasons, and t6 local divinities. * The Lendpe and their Legends ; with the Complete Text and Symbols of the Walum Olum, and an Inquiry into its Authenticity. By Datiiel G. Brinton, Philadelphia, 1885 (Vol. V. of Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature)* BLACKFEET AND LENAPES. 79 The dead as a rule were buried, each gens having its own cemetery. Some tribes preserved the bones with scrupulous care, while in Virginia the bodies of persons of importance were dried and deposited in houses set apart for the purpose. The tribe that wandered the furthest from the primitive home of the stock were the Blackfeet, or Sisika, which word has this signification. It is de- rived from their earlier habitat in the valley of the Red river of the north, where the soil was dark and blackened their moccasins. Their bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegan Indians. Half a cen- tury ago they were at the head of a confederacy which embraced these and also the Sarcee (Tinne) and the Atsina (Caddo) nations, and numbered about thirty thousand souls. They have an interesting mythology and an unusual knowledge of the constellations.* The Lenapes were an interesting tribe who occupied the valley of the Delaware river and the area of the present State of New Jersey. For some not very clear reason they were looked upon by the other members of the stock as of the most direct lineage, and were referred to as " grandfather." Their dialect, which has been preserved by the Moravian Missionaries, is harmonious in sound, but has varied markedly from the purity of the Cree.f It has lost, for instance, the * See Horatio Hale, " Report on the Blackfeet" in Proc. of the Brit. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1885. t See Len&pe- English Dictionary : From an anonymous MS. in the Archives of the Moravian Chttrch at Bethlehem, Pa. Edited with additions by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D., and Rev. Albert Se- qaqkind Anthony. Published by the Historical Society of Penn- sylvania. Philadelphia, iSSS. Quarto, pp. 236. 80 THE AMERICAN RACE. peculiar vowel change which throws the verb from the definite to the indefinite form. The mythology of the Lenape's, which has been preserved in fragments, presents the outlines common to the stock. AI.GONKIN LINGUISTIC STOCK. Abnakis, Nova Scotia and S. bank of St. Lawrence. Arapahoes, head waters of Kansas river. Blackfeet, head waters of Missouri river. Cheyennes, upper waters of Arkansas river. Chipeways, shores of Lake Superior. Crees, southern shores of Hudson Bay. Delaware*, see Lendpes. Illinois, on the Illinois river. Kaskaskias, on Mississippi, below Illinois river. Kikapoos, on upper Illinois river. Lendpes, on the Delaware river. Meliseets, in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Miamis, between Miami and Wabash rivers. Micmacs, in Nova Scotia. Menomonees, near Green Bay. Mohegans, on lower Hudsonjijyer. Manhattans, about New Yotkj^y. Nanticokcs, on Chesapeake Bay. Ottawas, on the Ottawa river and S. of L. Huron. Pampticokes, near Cape Hatteras. Passamaquoddies, on Schoodic river. Piankishaws, on middle Ohio river. Piegans, see Blackfeet. Pottawattomies, S. of Lake Michigan. Sauteux, see Crees. Sacs and Foxes, on Sac river. Secoffies, in Labrador. Shawnees, on Tennessee river. Weas> near the Piankishaws. THE FIVE NATIONS. 8l 5. THE IROQUOIS. When the French first explored the St. Lawrence River, they found both its banks, in the vicinity where the cities of Montreal and Quebec now stand, peopled by the Iroquois, This tribe also occupied all the area of New York state (except the valley of the lower Hudson), where it was known as the Five Nations. West of these were the Hurons and Neu- tral Nation in Canada, and the Eries south of Lake Erie, while to the south of the Five Nations, in the valley of the Susquehanna and pushing their out- posts along the western shore of Chesapeake Bay to the Potomac, were the Andastes and Conestogas, called also Susquehannocks. Still further south, about the head-waters of the Roanoke River, dwelt the Tuscaroras, who afterwards returned north and formed the sixth nation in the league. West of the Apalachians, on the umjer waters of the Tennessee River, lived the Che^^^Ky who, by their tradition, had moved down fr^JPne upper Ohio, and who, if they were not a branch of the same family, were af- filiated to it by many ancient ties of blood and lan- guage. The latest investigations of the Bureau of Ethnology result in favor of considering them a branch, though a distant one, of the Iroquois line. The stock was wholly an inland one, at no point reaching the ocean. According to its most ancient traditions we are justified in locating its priscan home in the district between the lower St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay. If we may judge from its cranial forms, its purest representatives were toward the east. The skulls of the Five Nations, as well as 6 82 THE AMERICAN RACE. those of the Tuscaroras and Cherokees, are distinctly dolichocephalic, and much alike in other respects, while those of the Hurons are brachycephalic.* Physically the stock is most superior, unsurpassed by any other on the continent, and I may even say by any other people in the world ; for it stands on record that the five companies (500 men) recruited from the Iroquois of New York and Canada during our civil war stood first on the list among all the re- cruits of our army for height, vigor and corporeal symmetry. In intelligence also their position must be placed among the highest. It was manifested less in their culture than in their system of government. About the middle of the fifteenth century the Onondaga chief, Hiawatha, succeeded in completing the famous league which bound together his nation with the Mohawks, Oneidas, Senec^^and Cayugas into one federation of offence and qdkrfcc. " The system he devised was to be not a ^Jpand transitory league, but a permanent government. While each nation was to retain its own council and management of local affairs, the general control was to be lodged in a federal senate, composed of representatives to be elected by each nation, holding office during good behavior and aknowledged as ruling chiefs through- out the whole confederacy. Still further, and more remarkably, the federation was not to be a limited one. It was to be indefinitely expansible. The * J. Aitkein Meigs, " Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines," in Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia, May, 1866. HIAWATHA'S PLAN. 83 avowed design of its proposer was to abolish war altogether." * Certainly this scheme was one of the most far- sighted, and in its aim beneficent, which any states- man has ever designed for man. With the Iroquois it worked well. They included in the league por-^ tions of the Neutral Nation and the Tuscaroras, and for centuries it gave them the supremacy among all their neighbors. The league was primarily based upon or at least drew much of its strength from the system of gentes ; this prevailed both among the Iroquois and Cherokees, descent being traced in the female line. Indeed, it was from a study of the Iroquois system that the late Mr. Morgan formed his theory that ancient society everywhere passed through a similar stage in attaining civilization. It is consonant with their advanced sentiments that among the Iroquois women had more than ordi- nary respect. They ^tad represented by a special speaker in the councils^f the tribe, and were author- ized to conduct negotiations looking towards making peace with an enemy. Among the Conestogas we have the instance of a woman being the recognized " Queen " of the tribe. With the Wyandots, the council of each gens was composed exclusively of women. They alone elected the chief of the gens, who represented its interests in the council of the tribe.f * Horatio Hale, The Iroquois Book of Rites, pp. 21, 22. (Phila- delphia, 1883. Vol. II. of Brinton's Library of Aboriginal Amer- ican Literature.} t J. W. Powell, First Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 61. (Washington, 1881.) 84 THE AMERICAN RACE. In Sundry other respects they displayed an intelli- gent activity. In many localities they were agri- cultural, cultivating maize, beans and tobacco, build- ing large communal houses of logs, fortifying their villages with palisades, and making excellent large canoes of birch bark. According to traditions, which are supported by recent archaeological researches, the Cherokees when they were upon the Kanawha and Ohio had large fields under cultivation, and erected mounds as sites for their houses and for burial purposes. When first encountered in East Tennessee they con- structed long communal houses like the Five Nations, had large fields of corn, built excellent canoes and manufactured pottery of superior style and finish. Although no method of recording thought had ac- quired any development among the Iroquois, they had many legends, myths and formal harangues which they handed down with great minuteness from generation to generation. ^*Irr remembering them they were aided by the wampum belts and strings, which served by the arrangement and design of the beads to fix certain facts and expressions in their minds. One of the most remarkable of these ancient chants has been edited with a translation and copious notes by Horatio Hale.* The Cherokees had a simi- lar national song which was repeated solemnly each year at the period of the green corn dance. Frag- ments of it have been obtained quite recently. The Iroquois myths refer to the struggle of the first two brothers, the dark twin and the white, a familiar symbolism in which we see the personification of the * The Iroquois Book of Rites, referred to above. CHOCTAW LEGENDS. 85 light and darkness, and the struggle of day and night. IROgUOIS LINGUISTIC STOCK. Andastes, see Conestogas. Cayugas, south of Lake Ontario. Cherokees, on upper Tennessee river. Conestogas, on lower Susquehanna, JSries, south of Lake Erie. Hurons, see Wyandots. Mohawks, on Lakes George and Champlain. Neutral Nation, west of the Niagara river. Oneidas, south of Lake Ontario. Onondagas, south of Lake Ontario. Senecas, south of Lake Ontario. Susquehannocks, on lower Susquehanna, Tuscaroras, in Virginia. Wyandots, between Lakes Ontario and Huron. 6. THE CHAHTA-MUSKOKIS. The various nations who are classed under the Muskoki stock occupie Dec. II., Lib. V., cap. 8. t Strebel, Alt-Mexiko. | Pimentel, Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico, Tom. III., p. 345, sq. L || From didja, language, za, the national name. THE RUINS OF MITLA. 141 stituted a powerful independent state, the citizens of which seem to have been quite as highly civilized as any member of the Aztecan family. They were agricultural and sedentary, living in villages and constructing buildings of stone and mortar. The most remarkable, but by no means the only speci- mens of these still remaining are the ruins of Mitla, called by the natives Ryo Ba, the " entrance to the sepulchre," the traditional belief being that these im- posing monuments are sepulchres of their ancestors.* These ruins consist of thirty-nine houses, some of adobe, but most of stone, and two artificial hills. The stone houses have thick walls of rough stone and mortar, faced with polished blocks arranged in a variety of symmetrical patterns, such as are called grecques. Sometimes these patterns are repeated on the inner walls, but more frequently these were plastered with a hard white coat and painted an Indian red, with numerous figures, These delinea- tions are on a par with those from the valley of Mexico and the ancient cities of Yucatan, and reveal much the same technique. One of the rooms is called the " hall of the columns," from six round monolithic columns nearly ten feet in height, which were intended to support a roof of heavy stone slabs. The Mixtecs adjoined the Zapotecs to the west, extending along the coast of the Pacific to about the present port of Acapulco. In culture they were * Mr. A. Bandelier, in his careful description of these ruins (Re- port of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico, Boston, 1884) spells this Lyo-ba. But an extensive MS. Vocabulario Zapoteco in my possession gives the orthography riyoo baa. 342 THE AMERICAN RACE. equal to the Zapotecs ; having a preference for an agricultural life, constructing residences of brick and stone and acquainted with a form of picture or hiero- glyphic writing, in which they perpetuated the mem- ory of their elaborate mythology.* They pretended to have taken their name from Mixtecatl, one of the seven heroes who set out from Chicomoztoc, " the land of seven caves," far in the north, and at other times pretended descent from the fabulous Toltecs, claims which Sahagun intimates were fictions of the Nahuas living among them.f The Zapotecs made use of a calendar, the outlines of which have been preserved. It is evidently upon the same astronomical theory as the Mexican, as was their system of enumeration. Their language is not inharmonious. It is called the ticJia za, " language of the noble people." ZAPOTEC-MIXTEC LINGUISTIC STOCK. Amusgos, in Guerrero. ChaiinoS) in Oaxaca, department of Jamiltepec. Chuchonas, on borders of Oaxaca and Guerrero. Cuicatecos, in Oaxaca, department of Teotilan. Mazalecos, in Oaxaca, near boundary of Puebla, in ancient prov- ince of Mazatlan. Mixtecos, in Oaxaca and Guerrero. Papabucos, in Oaxaca. Soltecos, in Oaxaca. Zapotecos, in Oaxaca. * Garcia, Origen de los Indies, Lib. V., cap. IV., gives a lengthy extract from one of their hieroglyphic mythological books. t Sahagun, Hlstoria de la Nueva E$pafta t Lib. X., cap. VI. TRIBES OF TEHUANTEPEC. 143 6. THE ZOQUES AND MIXES. The mountain regions of the isthmus of Tehuante- pec and adjacent portions of the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca are the habitats of the Zoques, Mixes, and allied tribes. The early historians draw a terrible picture of their valor, savagery and cannibalism, which reads more like tales to deter the Spaniards from approaching their domains than truthful ac- counts.* However this may be, they have been for hundreds of years a peaceful, ignorant, timid part of the population, homely, lazy and drunken, but not violent or dangerous. The Mixes especially cultivate abundance of maize and beans, and take an interest in improving the roads leading to their towns.f The faint traditions of these peoples pointed to the south for their origin. When they lived in Chiapas they were conquered by the Chapanecs (Mangues), and this induced many of them to seek independence in the Sierra to the north and west. At present the main village of the Mixes is San Juan Guichicovi, while the Zoques are scattered between the Rio del Corte and the Rio Chiapa. They are described as agricultural and laborious, but also as stupid, in- clined to drunkenness, and very homely. ^ A comparison of the two languages leaves no doubt as to their derivation from a common stem. * Herrera, Historia de las Indias Occidentals. Dec. IV., Lib. X., cap. 7. \ Explorations and Surveys of the Isthnius of Tehuantepec^ pp. 126-7. (Washington, 1872.) J J. G Barnard, The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, pp. 224, 225. (New York, 1853.) 144 THE AMERICAN RACE. ZOQUE LINGUISTIC STOCK. Chimalapas, a sub-tribe of Zoques. Mixes, in Oaxaca, and on the Isthmus. Tapijulapanes, on Rio de la Sierra. Zoques, in eastern Tabasco, Chiapas and Oaxaca. 7. THE CHINANTECS. The Chinantecs inhabited Chinantla, which is a part of the state of Oaxaca, situated in the Sierra Madre, on the frontiers of the province of Vera Cruz. Their neighbors on the south were the Zapotecs and Mixes, and on the north and east the Nahuas. They lived in secluded valleys and on rough mountain sides, and their language was one of great difficulty to the missionaries on account of its harsh phonetics. Nevertheless, Father Barreda succeeded in writing a Doctrina in it, published in 1730, the only work which has ever appeared in the tongue. The late Dr. Berendt devoted considerable study to it, and expressed his conclusions in the following words : " Spoken in the midst of a diversity of languages connected more or less among themselves, it is itself unconnected with them, and is rich in peculiar feat- ures both as to its roots and its grammatical structure. It is probable that we have in it one of the original languages spoken before the advent of the Nahuas on Mexican soil, perhaps the mythical Olmecan." * The Chinantecs had been reduced by the Aztecs and severely oppressed by them. Hence they wel- comed the Spaniards as deliverers. Their manners were savage and their disposition warlike. f Other * Apuntes sobre la Lengua Chinenteca, MS. fHerrera, Hist, de las Indias Occideittales. Dec. III., Lib. III., cap. 15. HISTORICAL TRADITIONS. 145 names by which they are mentioned are Tenez and Teutecas. 8. THE CHAPANECS AND MANGUES. In speaking of the province of Chiapas the historian Herrera informs us that it derived its name from the pueblo so-called, " whose inhabitants were the most remarkable in New Spain for their traits and incli- nations." * They had early acquired the art of horsemanship, they were skillful in all kinds of music, excellent painters, carried on a variety of arts, and were withal very courteous to each other. One tradition was that they had reached Chiapas from Nicaragua, and had conquered the territory they possessed from the Zoques, some of whom they had rendered tributary, while others had retired further into the Sierra. But the more authentic legend of the Chapas or Chapanecs, as they were properly called from their totem ic bird the Chapa, the red macaw, recited that their whole stock moved down from a northern latitude, following the Pacific coast until they came to Soconusco, where they divided, one part entering the mountains of Chiapas, the other proceeding on to Nicaragua, where we find them under the name of Mangues, or Chorotegans, along the shores of Lake Managua. f Here they oc- cupied a number of populous villages, estimated by the historian Oviedo to contain about forty thousand souls4 They were agricultural and sedentary, and * Herrera, Historia de las Indias Occidentales. Dec. IV., Lib. X., cap. ii. f Gregoria Garcia, Origen de los Indios, Lib. V. , cap. v. J Oviedo, Historia General de las Indias, Lib. XLIL, cap. 5. IO 146 THE AMERICAN RACE. moderately civilized, that is, they had hieroglyphic books, wove and spun cotton, were skilled in pottery and had fixed government. They are described as lighter in color than most Indians, and wearing long hair carefully combed. A small band wandered still further south, to the vicinity of Chiriqui Lagoon.* The Chapanec language is one of marked individu- ality. Its phonetics are harmonious, but with many obscure and fluctuating sounds. In its grammatical construction we find a singular absence of distinction between subject and object. While the appreciation of number in the form of nouns is almost absent, their relations are expressed with excessive particu- larity, so that a noun may have different forms, as it is used in different relations.f There is compara- tively slight development of the polysynthetic struc- ture which is generally seen in American languages. CHAPANEC LINGUISTIC STOCK. Chapanecs, on Rio Grande in Central Chiapas. Chorotegas, see Mangues. Dirians, in the mountains south of Lake Managua. Guetares, in Costa Rica. Mangues, on Lake Managua, Nicaragua. Orotinans, on the Gulf of Nicoya. 9. CHONTALS AND POPOLOCAS ; TEQUISELATECAS AND MATAGALPAS. According to the census of 1880 there were 31,000 Indians in Mexico belonging to the Familia ChontaL\ * Peralta, Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panama, en el Siglo XVI. p. 777. (Madrid, 1883.) fLucien Adam, La Langue Chiapaneque (Vienna, 1887); Fr. Miiller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. IV., Abt. I. s. 177. J Anales del Minislrerio de Foinento, p. 98. (Mexico, 1881.) CONFUSION OF TERMS. 147' No such family exists. The word chontalli in the Nahuatl language means simply " stranger," and was applied by the Nahuas to any people other than their own. According to the Mexican statistics, the Chontals are found in the states of Mexico, Puebla, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tobasco, Guatemala and Nica- ragua. A similar term \spopoloca, which in Nahuatl means a coarse fellow, one speaking badly, that is, broken Nahuatl. The popolocas have also been erected into an ethnic entity by some ethnographers, with as little justice as the Chontallis. They are stated to have lived in the provinces of Puebla, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan, and Guatemala. Sometimes the same tribe has been called both Chontales and Popoloras, which would be quite cor- rect in the Nahuatl tongue, since in it these words are common nouns and nearly synonymous in sig- nification ; but employed in an ethnographic sense, they have led to great confusion, and the blending into one of distinct nationalities. I shall attempt to unravel this snarl as far as the linguistic material at my command permits. The Chontales of Oaxaca lived on the Pacific coast on the Cordillera in that State, in the Sierra Quiego- lani. They were brought under instruction in the latter part of the sixteenth century by Father Diego Carranza, who labored among them for twelve years with gratifying success, and wrote a Doctrina, Ser- mones and Ejercicios Espirituales in their language.* Unfortunately these works are no longer to be found, *Beristain y Souza, Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Septen~ trional, Tomo I., p. 438. 148 THE AMERICAN RACE. and the only specimen of their idiom which I have obtained is a vocabulary of 23 words, collected by John Porter Bliss in 1871. This is too limited to admit of positive identification ; but it certainly shows several coincidences with the Yuma linguistic stock.* Provisionally, however, I give it the name of Tequis- tlatecan, from the principal village of the tribe, where Father Carranza built his church. The Chon- tales of Guerrero were immediately adjacent to those of Oaxaca, in the same Sierra, and there is every reason to believe that they belonged to the same family ; and from their location, history and associa- tions, I do not doubt that Orozco y Berra was right in placing the Triquis in the same family, f The Chontales of Tabasco occupied most of the basin of the Rio Grijalva. Herrera states that their language was that in general use in the province, be- ing richer in words than the Zoque, or the provincial Mexican which has been introduced.^: This leads us * For example : Tequistlatecan. Yuma dialects. Man, acue, eke-tam, ham-akava. Woman, canoe, anai, sinyok. Sun, ord, rahj. Moon, mutla, h'la. Water, laha, aha, kahal. Head, ahua, hu. Eyes, au, yu. Mouth, aco, a, aha. Tree, ehe, ee-ee. Foot, \a.mish, mie. Two, ucuc, kokx, goguo. f Geografia de las Lenguas de Mejico, p. 187. t Historia de las Indias Occidentals, Dec. III., Lib. VII., cap. III. THE CHONTALS DEFINED. 149 to believe that it was a Maya dialect, a supposition confirmed by a MS. vocabulary obtained by the late Dr. C. H. Berendt. By this it is seen that the Chon- tal of Tabasco is a member of the numerous Maya family, and practically identical with the Tzendal dialect.* In Nicaragua two entirely different peoples have been called Chontales. The first of these is also sometimes mentioned as Popolucas. Their tongue is, or a generation ago was, current in and around the city of Matagalpa and in various hamlets of the departments of Matagalpa, Segovia and Chontales. The only specimen I know of it is a vocabulary, ob- tained in 1874 by the Rev. Victor Noguera, and sup- plied by him to Dr. Berendt. It contains a small per- centage of words from the neighboring dialects, but in the mass is wholly different, and I consider it an independent stock, to which I give the name Mata- gdlpan. The second Chontales of Nicaragua are those men- tioned as Chontal-lencas by M. Desir Pector, and are none other than the Lencas described by Mr. E. G. Squier. The Chontal of Honduras is located geographically in those regions where the Chorti dialect of the Maya stock prevails, and there is no reasonable doubt but that it is Chorti and nothing more. The Chontales described by Mr. E. G. Squier as living in the mountains north of Lake Nicaragua, * See also Dr. Berendt's observations on this language in Lewis H. Morgan's Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity in the Human Family, p. 263. (Washington, 1871.) 150 THE AMERICAN RACE. about the sources of the Blewfields river, and of whose language he gives a short vocabulary,* are proved by this to be members of the extensive family of the Ulvas. Of the various tribes called Popolocas, that living at the period of the conquest in and near Puebla was the most important. Their chief city was Tecamach- calco, and they occupied most of the old province of Tepeaca. We can form some idea of their number from the statement that in the year 1540 Father Fran- cisco de las Navas visited their country for missionary purposes, and in less than two months converted (!) and baptized 12,000 of them, and this without any knowledge of their language.f The first who did obtain a familiarity with it was Francisco de Toral, afterwards first bishop of Yucatan. He described it as most difficult, but nevertheless succeeded in re- ducing it to rules and wrote an Arte y Metodo of it, now unfortunately lost.:}: Its relationship has re- mained obscure. De Laet asserted that it was merely a corrupt dialect of the Nahuatl ; while Herrera was * In his Nicaragua^ its People ', Scenery and Monuments, Vol. II., PP- 3M, 3 2 4- (New York, 1856.) f " Fr. Francisco de las Naucas primus omnium Indos qui Popo- locae nuncupantur anno Dom. 1540, divino lavacro tinxit, quorum duobus mensibus plus quam duodecim millia baptizati sunt." Franciscus Gonzaga, De Origine Seraphicae Religionis, p. 1245. (Romae, 1587.) J " Fr. Francisco de Toral, obispo que fud de Yucatan, supo primero de otro alguno la lengua popoloca de Tecamachcalco, y en ella hizo arte y vocabulario, y otrasobrasdoctrinales." Geronimo de Mendieta, Hisloria Eclesiastica Indiana, Lib. V., cap. 44. \ " Lingua Mexican^, paullulum diversa." De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 25. THE VARIOUS POPOLOCAS. !$! informed by his authorities that it was a wholly dif- ferent tongue.* In this opinion he was right. In 1862 Dr. Berendt succeeded in obtaining a short vocabulary of it as it is still spoken at Oluta, Tesiste- pec, San Juan Volador and the neighboring country. A comparison shows that it belongs to the Mixe family. The ancient province of Tepeaca adjoined directly the territory of the Mixes, and this identifi- cation proves that their tongue was more important and extended much more widely than has hitherto been supposed. It was spoken, therefore, by the Tlapanecos, Coviscas and Yopes, who were located in this region. The Popoloca of Oaxaca is an entirely different tongue. It is mentioned as identical with the Cho- chona, and some have supposed this dialect, in which we have a Catecismo by Father Roldan, was the same as the Popoloca of Tepeaca. This is an error. As I have said, the first missionary to master and write about the latter was Father Toral, who wrote his Arte about 1561 ; but more than ten years before that, to wit, in 1550, Father Benito Fernandez had printed in the city of Mexico his Doctrina en Lengua Mis- feca, and had composed variants in the Tepuzcolola and Chochona dialects of that tongue.f The Cho- chona or Popoloca, of Oaxaca, belongs to the Zapo- tec-Mixtec, and not to the Zoque-Mixe family. The Popolocas who lived in and near Michoacan were also called Tecos, and Orozco y Berra enumer- * Historiade laslndias Occidentals, Decad. II., L,ib. X., cap. 21. f See the note of J. G. Icazbalceta to the Doctrina of Fernandez, in H. Harrisse's Biblioteca Americana Vetustissima, p. 445, sq. 152 THE AMERICAN RACE. ates the language they spoke, the Teca, among those which are extinct.* The name Tecos, however, was merely an abbreviated form of Cuitlatecos, and was applied to the conquered Nahuatl population around Michoacan. In some of the old glossaries teco is ex- plained by Mexicano.\ The language they spoke belonged to the Nahuatl branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock. The Popolocas of Guatemala were located at the close of the eighteenth century in two curacies widely apart. :{: One of these was Yanantique, partido of San Miguel, province of San Salvador, and contained the villages Conchagua and Intipuca. Now Intipuca is a Lenca name, as stated by Mr. Squier, and we are thus authorized to identify these Popolocas with the Lencas. The other Popolocas were at and near Con- guaco in the partido of Guazacapan, province of Escuintla, where they lived immediately adjacent to the Xincas. Dr. Otto Stoll identifies them with the Mixes, but by an error, as he mistook the vo- cabulary collected by Dr. Berendt of the Popoloca of Oluta, for one of the Popoloca of Conguaco. What language is spoken there I do not know, as I have not been able to find a word in it in any of my author- ities. * Geografia de las Lenguas de Mejico, p. 273. t See an article " Los Tecos," in the Anales del Museo Michoa- cano, Ano II., p. 26. % Domingo Juarros, Compendia de la Hisioria de la Ciudad de Guatemala, Toino I., pp. 102, 104, et al. (Ed. Guatemala, 1857.) \ Dr. Otto Stoll, Zu,r Ethinographie der Republik Guatemala, s. 26 (Zurich, 1884). LEGENDS OF THE MAYAS. 153 Dr. Julius Scherzer has further added to the con- fusion about the Popolocas of Guatemala by printing at Vienna a vocabulary under this name which he had obtained near the Volcan de Agua.* It is noth- ing more than the ordinary Cakchiquel dialect of that locality, known as the lengua metropolitana from its official adoption by the church. 10. THE MAYAS. The geographical relations of the members of the Maya stock are in marked contrast to those of the Uto-Aztecan its only rival in civilization. Except the colony of the Huastecas on the shores of the gulf of Mexico in the valley of the Rio Panuco, all its dialects were in contiguity. The true Maya, which is believed to be the purest form of the language, ex- tended over the whole of the peninsula of Yucatan, around Lake Peten, and far up the affluents of the Usumacinta, the dialect of the Lacandons being closely akin to it. The principal tribes in Guatemala were the Quiches, the Cakchiquels and the Mams ; while in Tabasco the Tzendals and the Tzotzils held an extensive territory. We cannot identify the build- ers of the ruined cities of Palenque in Tabasco and Copan in Honduras with the ancestors of any known tribe, but the archaeological evidence is conclusive that whoever they were, they belonged to this stock, and spoke one of its dialects. The historic legends of several members of the family have been well preserved. According to the *In the Sitzungsbericht der Kais, Akad. der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1855. 154 THE AMERICAN RACE. earliest authorities, those of the Quiches went back more than eight hundred years before the conquest,* that is, to about 700 A. D. ; while the chronicles of the Mayas seem to present a meagre sketch of the nation nearly to the beginning of the Christian era.f The uniform assertion of these legends is that the ancestors of the stock came from a more northern latitude, following down the shore of the Gulf of Mexico. This is also supported by the position of the Huastecas, who may be regarded as one of their tribes left behind in the general migration, and by the tradition of the Nahuas which assigned them a northern origin.:}: So far no relationship has been detected with any northern stock, but the striking similarity of some art remains in the middle Missis- sippi to those of Yucatan, suggests that one should search in this vicinity for their priscan honne. Physically the Mayas are short, strong, dark, and brachycephalic. The custom of compressing the skull antero-posteriorly which formerly prevailed, exaggerated this latter peculiarity. When first en- countered by the Spaniards they were split into a number of independent states of which eighteen are * "Detnasde ocho cientos anos," says Herrara. Historia de las Indias Occidentals, Dec. III., Lib. IV. Cap. XVIII. f I have edited some of these with translations and notes, in The Maya Chronicles, Philadelphia, 1882. (Volume I. of my Library of Aboriginal American Literature}. \ Sahagun, Historia de la Nueva Espana, Lib. X., cap. 29, sec. 12. $ One of the most remarkable of these coincidences is that in the decoration of shells pointed out by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, in his article on "Art in Shells," in the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. (Washington, 1883.) MAYA ARCHITECTURE. 155 enumerated in Yucatan alone. According to tra- dition, these were the fragments of a powerful con- federacy which had broken up about a century be- fore, the capital of which was Mayapan. The tribes were divided into gentes, usually named after animals, with descent in the male line. A man bore the names of both his father's and mother's gens, but the former was distinguished as his " true name." The chieftainship was hereditary, a council from the gentes deliberating with the ruler. The art in which these people excelled was that of architecture. They were born builders from a re- mote epoch. At the time of the conquest the stately structures of Copan, Palenque, T'Ho, and many other cities were deserted and covered with an appar- ently primitive forest ; but others not inferior to them Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Peten, etc., were the centers of dense population, proving that the builders of both were identical. The material was usually a hard limestone, which was polished and carved, and im- bedded in a firm mortar. Such wa.s also the charac- ter of the edifices of the Quiches and Cakchiquels of Guatemala. In view of the fact that nqne of these masons knew the plumb-line or the square, the ac- curacy of the adjustments is remarkable.* Their efforts at sculpture were equally bold. They did not hesitate to attempt statues in the round of life-size and larger, and the facades of the edifices were cov- ered with extensive and intricate designs cut in high * On this point see " The Lineal Measures of the Qemi-Civilized Nations of Mexico and Central America," in piy ?ss(iys of (in Americanist, p. 433. (Philadelphia, 1890.) 156 THE AMERICAN RACE. relief upon the stones. All this was accomplished without the use of metal tools, as they did not have even the bronze chisels familiar to the Aztecs. Gold, silver and copper were confined to ornaments, bells and similar purposes. The chief source of the food supply was agricul- ture. Maize was the principal crop, and the arable land was carefully let out to families by the heads of the villages. Beans and peppers were also cultivated and bees were domesticated, from which both honey and wax, used in various arts, were collected. Cot- ton was woven into fabrics of such delicacy that the Spaniards at first thought the stuffs were of silk. It was dyed of many colors, and was the main material of clothing. Brilliant feathers were highly prized. Their canoes were seaworthy, and though there was no settlement of the Mayas on the island of Cuba as has been alleged, there was a commercial interchange of products with it, since Columbus was shown wax from Yucatan and was told about the peninsula. An active commerce was also maintained with southern Mexico, along the Gulf Coast, the media of exchange being cacao beans, shells, precious stones and flat pieces of copper.* The points which have attracted the most attention in Maya civilization, next to its architecture, are the calendar and the hieroglyphics. The calendar is * The principal authority is the work of Diego de Landa, Rela- tion de las Cosas de Yucatan. It has been twice published, once imperfectly by the Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, 1864, 8 vo. ; later very accurately by the Spanish government, Madrid, 1881, folio. MAYA HIEROGLYPHS. 1 57 evidently upon the same basis as that of the Mexi- cans, turning upon the numerals thirteen, twenty, and four. But the Mayas appear to have had more extended measures for the computation of time than the Aztecs. Besides the cycle of twenty years, called by them the katun, and that of fifty-two years, they had the ahau katun, or Great Cycle, of two hundred and sixty years. Both the Cakchiquels, Quiches and Mayas of Yucatan were literary peoples. They made frequent use of tablets, wrote many books, and covered the walls of their buildings with hieroglyphs carved on the stone or wood, or painted upon the plaster. Their characters are entirely different from those of the Mexicans. Most of them have rounded outlines, something like that of a section of a pebble, and for this reason the name " calculiform " has been applied to the writing. Their books were of maguey paper or of parchment, folded like those of the Mexicans. Although five or six of them have been preserved, as well as numerous inscriptions on the walls of build- ings, no satisfactory interpretations have been offered, largely, perhaps, because none of the interpreters have made themselves familiar with the Maya lan- guage.* Imperfect description of the myths and rites of the Yucatecan Mayas are preserved in the old Spanish * The most profitable studies in the Maya hieroglyphs have been by Dr. Cyrus Thomas in the United States, Dr. E. Forstemann, Ed. Seler and Schellhas in Germany, and Prof. L. de Rosny in France. On the MSS. or codices preserved, see " The Writings and Records of the Ancient Mayas " in my Essays of an Americanist, pp. 230- 254- 158 THE AMERICAN RACE. authors ; while of the Quiches we have in the original their sacred book, the Popol Vuh with a fair transla- tion by the Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg.* This may well be considered one of the most valuable monuments of ancient American literature, and its substantial authenticity cannot be doubted. Its first part presents a body of ancient mythology and its second the early history of the tribe. The latter is supplemented by a similar document relating to the history of their neighbors the Cakchiquels, written at the time of the conquest, which I have published from the unique MS. in my possession. f Many facts relating to their ancient mythology, history and superstitions were written down by educated natives of Yucatan in a series of documents entitled " the Books of Chilan Balam," copies of a number of which have been preserved. \ They are replete with curious material. MAYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Achis, in eastern Guatemala, now extinct. Aguatecas, in Aguacatan, Guatemala. Cakchiquels, in central Guatemala. Chaneabals, in eastern Chiapas. Chinantecos or Cinantecos, same as Tzotzils. Choles, in Depart. Palenque, in Chiapas. Chortis, in valley of Rio Montagua, near Copan. Huastecas, on Rio Panuco, north of Vera Cruz. * Popul Vuh, Le Livre Sucre. Paris, 1861. t The Annals of the Cakchiquels, the original text with a Trans- lation, Notes and Introduction. Phila., 1885. (Volume VI. of my Library of Aboriginal American Literature.) t See "The Books of Chilan Balarn, " in -my Essays of an Ameri- canist, pp. 255-273. INTER-TSTHMTAN STOCKS. Ixils, on head-waters of Rio-Salinas, in Guatemala. Lacandons, on the Rio L,acandon. Mams, in western Guatemala. Mayas, in peninsula of Yucatan. Mopans, north of the Chols, in Guatemala. Quekchis, on Rio Cahabon, in Guatemala. Quiches ( Utlateca), head-waters of Rio Grande, Guatemala. Pokomams, south of Rio Grande, in Guatemala. Pokonchis, in central Guatemala. Tzendals, in Tabasco and Chiapas. Tzotzils, in Chiapas. Tzutuhils, south of lake Atitlan, Guatemala. Uspantecas, on Rio Negro, Guatemala. II. THE HUAVES, SUBTIABAS, LENCAS, XINCAS, XICA- QUES, " CARIES," MUSQUITOS, ULVAS, RAMAS, PAYAS, GUATUSOS. The small tribe of the Huaves occupies four ham- lets on the isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Pacific Ocean.* The men are tall and strong but the women are unusually ugly. Their occupation is chiefly fish- ing and they have the reputation of being dull. The language they speak is said to be of an independent stock, and according to various writers the tribe claims to have come from some part of the coast a considerable distance to the south. The vocabularies of their tongue are too imperfect to permit its identi- fication. The Subtiabas are inhabitants of the valley of that name near the modern city of Leon in Nicaragua. They were called Nagrandans by Mr. E. G. Squier,f * The name Huaves is derived from the Zapotec huavi, to be- come rotten through dampness. ( Vocabulario Zapoteco, MS. in my possession.) It was probably a term of contempt. f Nicaragua, its People and Scenery, Vol. II., p. 310. 160 THE AMERICAN RACE. because the site of of ancient Leon was on the plain of Nagrando and the province also bore this name at the time of the conquest. They are probably the de- scendants of the ancient Maribois, whom both Oviedo and Palacios place a few leagues from Leon and to whom they ascribe an independent language ; but it is an error of some later writers to confound them with the Chorotegans or Mangues, to whom they had no relationship whatever. Their language stands by itself among the inter-isthmian stocks. The Lenca is spoken by several semi-civilized tribes in central Honduras. Its principal dialects are the In- tibucat, Guajiquero, Opatoro and Similaton. It is an independent stock, with no affinities as yet discovered. The Guajiqueros dwell in remote villages in the San Juan Mountains southwest of Comayagua, the capital of Honduras. We owe to the late Mr. E. G. Squier vocabularies of all four dialects and an interesting description of the present condition of the stock.* A little known tribe in a low stage of culture dwelt on the Rio de los Esclavos, the Xincas. They ex- tended about fifty miles along the Pacific coast and thence back to the Sierra which is there about the same distance. The one vocabulary we have on their tongue shows some loan words from their Nahuatl neighbors the Pipiles, but in other respects it appears to be a stock by itself. Its radicals are generally monosyllabic, and the formation of words is by suf- * E. G. Squier, " A Visit to the Guajiquero Indians," in Harper's Magazine, October, 1859. A copy of his vocabularies is in my possession. TRIBES OF HONDURAS. l6l fixes.* The tribe was conquered by Alvarado, in 1524, who states that their principal village was at Guazacapam. It was built of wood and populous. There are some reasons for believing that previous to the arrival of the Quiches and Cakchiquels on the plains of Guatemala that region was occupied by this nation, and that they gave way before the superior fighting powers of the more cultured stock. The Xicaques live in the state of Honduras to the number of about six thousand. Their seats are on the waters of the Rio Sulaque and Rio Chaloma. They acknowledge one ruler, who is elective and holds the office for life. Their language contains a few Nahuatl words, but in the body of its vocabulary reveals no relationship to any other stock. The word Carib is frequently applied by the Span- ish population to any wild tribe, merely in the sense of savage or wild. Thus on the upper Usumacinta the Lacandones, a people of pure Maya stock, are so called by the whites ; on the Musquito coast the un- civilized Ulvas of the mountains are referred to as Caribs. There are a large number of pure and mixed Caribs, probably five or six thousand, in British Hon- duras near Trujillo, but they do not belong to the original population. They were brought there from the island of St. Vincent in 1796 by the British au- thorities. Many of them have the marked traits of the negro through a mingling of the races, and are * I collected and published some years ago the only linguistic material known regarding this tribe. ni. Snake, tub t kibi. 1 84 THE AMERICAN RACE. either filially connected or deeply influenced by the outposts of the Chibcha nation. These were the Guaymis in Veraguas, who possessed the soil from ocean to ocean, and the Talamancas of Costa Rica, who in a number of small sub-tribes extended quite to the boundaries of the present state of Nicaragua. It has been recently shown, and I think on satisfac- tory evidence, that their idioms contain a large num- ber of Chibcha words, and of such a class that they could scarcely have been merely borrowed, but point to a prolonged admixture of stocks.* Along with these terms are others pointing to a different family of languages, perhaps, as has long been suspected, to some of the Carib dialects ; but up to the present time they must be said not to have been identified. Thus Lucien Adam has pointed out that the two groups of the Guaymi dialects differ as widely, as follows : MtTOI-MUR- VAUENTE- IRE-SAVANERO. GU A YMI-NORTENO . Sun, cut, nono, noana. Moon, dai, so, go. Water, a, ca t no, nu. Man, cuia, ni-togua. Woman, tnoima, ni-uire. Eye, guagava, ogua. Nose, se, chegua, ni-don, domo. Foot, sera, n-goto. * The connection of the Aroac (not Arawak) dialects with the Chibcha was, I believe, first pointed out by Friederich Muller, in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. IV., s. 189, note. The fact was also noted independently by Dr. Max Uhle, who added the Guaymis and Talamancas to the family. (Compte Rendu du Congres Internal, des Amtricanistes, iSSS, p. 466. THE CHIBCHA STOCK. 185 Dr. Max Uhle, in a late essay, has collected nu- merous verbal identities between the various Guaymi and Talamanca dialects on the one hand, and the Aroac and Chibcha on the other, including most of the simple numerals and many words besides those which would be likely to be introduced by commerce. Not stopping with this, he has successfully developed a variety of laws of vowel and consonant changes in the dialects, which bring the resemblance of the two groups into strong relief and do away with much of their seeming diversity. Moreover, he points out that the terminations of the present and imperative are identical, and the placement of words in the sen- tence alike in both. These and his other arguments are sufficient, I think, to establish his thesis ; and I am at greater pains to set it forth, as I regard it as one of unusual importance in its bearing on the relations which existed in pre-historic times between tribes along the boundary of the two con- tinents. As to the course of migration, I do not think that the discussion of the dialectic changes leaves any room for doubt. They all indicate attrition and loss of the original form as we trace them from South into North America ; evidently the wandering hordes moved into the latter from the southern continent. So far, there is no evidence that any North American tribe migrated into South America. To illustrate these points I quote from Uhle's tables the following : 1 86 THE AMERICAN RACE. Comparison of the Chibcha with the (T.=Talamanca. G.= CHIBCHA. Head, Ear, Tongue, Breasts, Navel, Foot, Bird, Fish, Snake, Ant, Maize, Stone, Water, Sun, House, Comb, One, Two, Three, zysqut, cu/iuca, pcua, chue, mue, guihyca t sue, gua, tacbi, *> 1883, pp. 250-2. f Dr. A. Posada-Arango, " Essai Ethnographiquesurles Aborig- enes de 1'Etat d'Antioquia," in the Bulletin de la Societe Anthrop. de Paris, 1871, p. 202. 13 194 THE AMERICAN RACE. thatch. They were cultivators of the soil, skilled in the manufacture of pottery and stone implements, and had as domestic animals parrots and a small species of dog (perros de monte). Their clothing was of cotton, and they were much given to wearing ornaments, many of which were of gold. From the unfortunate absence of linguistic mater- ial, I am unable to classify these interesting peoples. In the valleys of the Sierra south of the Paezes dwelt the Guanucos, described by the first explorers as a warlike people in an advanced stage of culture. Their houses were of stone, roofed with straw. The sun was worshipped with elaborate ceremonies, in- cluding choruses of virgins and the ministration of thousands of priests.* The dead were buried and the funeral solemnities associated with human sacri- fice. At present the neighbors of the Paezes on the western slope of the Cordillera are the Moguexes or Guambianos, partially civilized and carrying on a rude agriculture. They are much given to dissolute dances to the sound of the marimba, and to stupefying themselves with stramonium, which they also use to catch fish.f The informant of the Abbe Hervas, Sefior Velasco, asserted that the Guanucos were a branch of the Coconucos, who dwelt near the foot of the mountain of that name in Popayan, and figure considerably in * Thirty thousand, says Herrera, with the usual extravagance of the early writers (Decadas de Indias, Dec. VII., Lib. IV., cap IV.) f Leon Douay, in Compte Rendn du CongrZs des Americanistes^ 1888, p. 774, who adds a vocabulary of Moguex. The name is de- rived frota Mog, vir. THE COCONUCO STOCK. 195 some of the older histories.* Bollaert learned that some of them still survive, and obtained a few words of their language, which he was also told was the same as that of the Pubenanos.f I have found by comparison that it is identical with that of the Moguexes and Totoros, \ and I am therefore enabled to present the following group as members of what I shall call the * Hervas, Catologo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., p. 279. Father Juan de Ribera translated the Catechism into the Guanuca, but so far as I know, it was not printed. t Bollaert, Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches, etc., pp. 6, 64, etc. The words he gives in Coconuca are : IN MOGUEX. Sun, puitchr, piuchr. Moon, puil, pulue. Stars, sil, ? Chief, cashu, ? Maize, dura, purat. Bollaert probably quoted these without acknowledgment from Gen. Mosquera, Phys. & Polit. Geog. of New Granada, p. 45 (New York, 1853). \ My knowledge of the Totoro is obtained from an anonymous notice published by a missionary in the Revue de Linguistique, July, 1879. Its relationship to the group is at once seen by the following comparison : TOTORO. MOGUEX. Man, tnujel, imick. Woman, ishu, schut. Head, pushu, pusts. Eye, cap-tshal) cap. Mouth, trictrap, chidbchab. Nose, kirn, kind. Arm, qual, cuald. Fingers, cambil, kambild. 196 THE AMERICAN RACE. COCONUCA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Coconucos, at the sources of the Rio Purase. Guanucos, in the Sierra. Guambianos, see Moguexes. Moguexes, on the western slope of the Cordillera. Pubenanos, adjacent to the Coconucos. Mosqueras, sub-tribe of Moguexes. Polindaras, head-waters of Rio Cauca. Tbtoros, in the Sierra between the Magdalena and Cauca. To these should probably be added the Conchucos and Guaycos, who appear to have been adjacent tribes speaking the same tongue, although also being famil- iar with the Kechua language.* In the upper valleys of the rivers Daules, Chone and Tachi, there still survive some families of the " painted Indians," who were referred to by Cieza de Leon as Manivis, now usually called Colorados, but whose own name is Sacchas, men or people. They are naturally of a light yellow hue, some with light hair and eyes, but are accustomed to go naked and cover their skin with a reddish vegetable pigment, which on the face is laid on in decorative lines. Their language,f with which we have some acquaint- ance, appears to belong to the same family as that of the Barbacoas, to whom the Jesuit Father Luca della Cueva went as missionary in 1640, and that of the Is- cuandes and the Telembis, all residing in the forests near the coast, between i and 2 north latitude. *See Herrera, Hist, de las Indias, Dec. VI., Lib. VII., cap. V. |The vocabulary was furnished by Bishop Thiel. It is edited with useful comments by Dr. Edward Seler in Original- Mittheil- ungcn aus der Ethnologischen Abtheilung der Konig. Museen zu Berlin, No. I., s. 44, sq. (Berlin, 1885). THE BARBACOA STOCK. 197 These are described by M. Andr, who visited them in 1880, as of mixed blood and reduced to a few hun- dreds, but still retaining something of their ancient tongue, of which he obtained a vocabulary of 23 words. The Cuaiqueres he reports as also speaking this idiom.* Velasco mentions that the Barbacoas, Telembis and Iscuandes formed a confederation governed by a coun- cil of nine members chosen equally from the three tribes. To the south of the Telembis and adjoining the Kechua-speaking Morropas in the district of La Tola were the Cayapas, of whom some remnants remain, still preserving their native tongue. A vocabulary of it, obtained by H. Wilcszynski, has recently been published. f On comparing it with the Colorado vocabulary secured by Bishop Thiel and edited by * Ed. Andre", in Le Tour dtt Monde, 1883, p. 344. From this very meagre material I offer the following comparison : TELEMBI. COLORADO. Eye, cachu, caco. Nose, quimpu, quinfu. House, yall, ya. Hand, ch'lo, , te-de. Foot, mi-to t ne-de. Mother, acud, ay&. Hair, aichi, apichu. The terminal syllable to in the Telembi words for hand and foot appears to be the Colorado te, branch, which is also found in the Col. te-michti, finger te-chili, arm ornament, and again in the Te- lembi fraill, arm. f In the Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1887, ss. 597-99- 198 THE AMERICAN RACE. Dr. Seler, it is clear that they are dialects of the same stock, as will be seen from these examples : * CAYAPA. COLORADA. Head, mishpuca, michu. Hair, achua, apichu. Eye, capucua, caco. Fingers, Jia-misho, ie-michu. Fire, nin-guma t ni. Water, pi, pi. Rain, skua, chua-ptana. Tree, chi, chi-tue. Night, quepe, quepe. Sister. in-socki, soque. House, ia, ya. White, fiba, fibaga. To sleep, casto, catzoza. To drink, pi-cushno, cuchi. The Cayapas are described as well-built, with oval faces and roman noses.f As the Barbacoas were the first known and prob- ably the most numerous member of this family, I shall select their name to apply to them all, and clas- sify the group as follows: BARBACOA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Barbacoas, on Upper Patia and Telembi. Cayapas, on coast near La Tola. Colorados, on Daule, Chone and Tachi Rivers. Cuaiqueres, on the coast about i N. Lat. * Other analogies are undoubted, though less obvious. Thus in Cayopa, " man " is liu-pula ; " woman," su-pula. In these words, the terminal pula is generic, and the prefixes are the Colorado sona, woman, abbreviated to so in the Colorado itself, (see Dr. Seler's article, p. 55); and the Col. chilla, male, which in the Spanish-American pronunciation, where II y, is close to liu. t Bollaert, Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches, p. 82. THE ANDAQUIS. IQ9 Iscuandes, on Rio Patia. Manivis, head- waters of Rio Telembi. Sacchas, see Colorados. Telembis, on Rio Telembi. I have, in obedience to a sense of caution, treated of this stock as separate from the Cocanuca ; but the fragmentary vocabularies at my command offer a number of resemblances between the two, and I ex- pect that ampler material will show increased analo- gies, probably to the extent of proving them branches of the same family tree. In the roughest part of the Eastern Cordillera, about the head-waters of the two rivers Fragua, (between i and 2 north latitude), live \\ieAndaquis. They are wild and warlike, and are the alleged guardians of the legendary Indeguau, " House of the Sun," a cavern in which, according to local tradition, lies piled the untold gold of the ancient peoples.* At the time of the conquest their ancestors are said to have occupied the fertile lands between the Mag- dalena and Suaza rivers, especially the valley of San Augustin, where they constructed mysterious cyclo- pean edifices and subterranean temples, and carved colossal statues from the living rock. These have been described and portrayed by intelligent travelers, and give us a high opinion of the skill and intelligence of their builders.f The only specimen I have found of the Andaqui * Manuel I. Albis, in Bulletin of the Amer. Ethnol. Soc. t vol. I., P- 52. t A. Codazzi in Felipe Perez, Jeografia del Estado de Tolima, pp. 81 sqq. (Bogota, 1863.) 200 THE AMERICAN RACE. language is the vocabulary collected by the Presbyter Albis. Its words show slight similarities to the Paniquita and the Chibcha,* but apparently it is at bottom an independent stock. The nation was divided into many sub-tribes, living in and along the eastern Cordillera, and on the banks of the rivers Orteguasa, Bodoquera, Pescado, Fragua and San Pedro, all tributaries of the Caqueta. The home of the Mocoas is between i and 2 north lat. along the Rio de los Engafios or Yari, (whence they are sometimes called Engafios or In- ganos), and other tributaries of the Caqueta.f They are partially civilized, and have seven or more vil- lages near the town of Mocoa. They are the first natives encountered in descending the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Unfortunately, we have a very imperfect knowledge of their language, a few words reported by the Presbyter Albis being all I have seen. So many of them are borrowed from the Ke- chua, that I have no means of deciding whether the following list of the stock is correct or not : MOCOA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Almaguerenos. Pastuzos. Enganos or Inganos. Patias (?) Mesayas, Sebondoyes. Mocoas. * As tooth, Andaqui, sicoga ; Chibcha, sica. house, " co-joe ; " jue. t Manuel P. Albis, in Bull, of the Amer. Ethnolog. Soc., Vol. I., PP- 55. sq- See also General T. C. de Mosquera, Memoir on the Physical and Political Geography of New Granada, p. 41 (New York, 1853). THE CAftARIS. 2OI Of these, the Patias dwelt on the lofty and sterile plain between the two chains of the Cordilleras in Popayan. The Sebondoyes had a village on the Putumayo, five leagues south of the Lake of Mocoa (Coleti). The region around the Gulf of Guayaquil was con- quered by the Inca Tupac Yupanqui about 1450.* The accounts say that it had previously been occupied by some five-and-twenty independent tribes, all of whom were brought under the dominion of the Ke- chuas and adopted their language. The most prom- inent of these were the Canaris, whose homes were in the hot valleys near the coast. Before the arrival of the Incas they had a certain degree of cultivation, being skilled in the moulding of copper, which they worked with a different technique from the Kechuas. Many of their copper axes are ornamented with strange figures, perhaps totemic, cut into the metal. As much as five or six hundred pounds' weight of these axes has been taken from one of their tombs. f Some of the most beautiful gold work from the Peru- vian territory has been found in modern times in this province, but was perhaps the work of Kechua rather than of Cafiari artists.:}; The original language of the Cafiaris, if it was other than the Kechua, appears to have been lost. *Garcilasso de la Vega, Commentaries Reales, Lib. VIII., cap. 5. He calls the natives Huancavillcas. fF. G. Saurez, E studio Hi storico sobre los Canaris (Quito, 1878). This author gives cuts of these axes, and their inscribed devices. | For a description, with cuts, see M. L. Heuzey, " Le Trsor de Cuenca," in La Gazette des Beaux-Arts, August, 1870. 202 THE AMERICAN RACE. 2. THE PERUVIAN REGION. The difficulty of a linguistic classification of the tribes of the Peruvian region is presented in very formidable terms by the old writers. Cieza de Leon said of this portion of the continent : " They have such a variety of languages that there is almost a new language at every league in all parts of the country ; " * and Garcilasso de la Vega complains of the " confusion and multitude of languages," which gave the Incas so much trouble, and later so much impeded the labors of the missionaries.! An author- ity is quoted by Bollaert to the effect that in the vice-royalty of Quito alone there were more than forty distinct tongues, spoken in upwards of three hundred different dialects4 Like most such statements, these are gross ex- aggerations. In fact, from all the evidence which I have been able to find, the tribes in the inter-Andean valley, and on the coast, all the way from Quito, under the equator, to the desert of Atacama in 25 south latitude, belonged to probably four or at most five linguistic stocks. These are the Kechua, the Aymara, the Puquina, the Yunca, and the Ataca- mefio. Of these, the first three were known in the early days of the conquest, as " the three general languages " lenguas generates of Peru, on account of their wide distribution. But it is quite likely, as * Cronica del Peru, Pt. I., cap. cxvi. \ Comentarios Reales de los Incas ', Lib. VII., cap. 3. J Antiquarian, Ethnological and other Researches, in New Gra- nada, Ecuador, Peru and Chili, p. 101 (London, 1860). THE PERUVIANS? 203 I shall show later, that the Aymara was a dialect, and not an independent stock. i. The Kechuas. The Kechua in its various dialects, was spoken by an unbroken chain of tribes for nearly two thousand miles from north to south ; that is, from 3 north of the equator to 32 south latitude. Its influence can be traced over a far wider area. In the dialects of Popayan in Ecuador, in those on the Rio Putumayo and Rio Napo, in those on the Ucayali and still further east, on the banks of the Beni and Mamore, in the Moxa of the Bolivian highlands, and southeast quite to the languages of the Pampas, do we find numerous words clearly borrowed from this wide- spread stock. This dissemination was due much more to culture than to conquest. It was a tribute to the intellectual superiority, the higher civilization, of this remark- able people, as is evident by the character of the words borrowed. It is a historic error to suppose that the extension of the Kechua was the result of the victories of the Incas. These occurred but a few centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards, and their influence was not great on the native tongues, as even the panegyrist of the Incas, Garcilasso de la Vega, confesses.* The opinion of Von Tschudi was so positive on this point that he says : " With a few unimportant exceptions, wherever the Kechua was * He complains that the languages which the Incas tried to sup- press, had, since their downfall, arisen as vigorous as ever, Comentarios Reales de los Incas, Lib. VII., cap. 3. 204 THE AMERICAN RACE. spoken at the time of the conquest, it had been spoken thousands of years before the Inca dynasty began." * The assertion of Garcilasso de la Vega, that the Inca gens had a language of its own, has been shown to be an error, f Where should we look for the starting-point, the " cradle," of the far-spread Kechua stock ? The tra- ditions of the Incas pointed to the shores and islands of Lake Titicaca as the birthplace of their remotest ancestors ; but as Markham has abundantly shown, this was a pure myth. He himself is decidedly of the opinion that we must search for the cradle of the stock in the district of Cuzco, perhaps not far from Paucar- tambo, " The House of the Dawning," to which other venerable Incarian legends assigned the scene of the creation of their common ancestors. ^ But there are many reasons, and to me satisfactory ones, for believing that the first Kechuas appeared in South America at the extreme north of the region they later occupied, and that the course of their migration was constantly from north to south. This was also the opinion of the learned Von Tschudi. He traces the early wandering of the Kechua tribes from the vicinity of Quito to the district between the Andes and the upper Marafton, thence in the direc- * Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s. 64 (Leipzig, 1884). t See von Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s. 65. It is to be regretted that in the face of the conclusive proof to the contrary, Dr. Middendorf repeats as correct the statement of Gar- cilasso de la Vega (Ollanta, Einleitung, s. 15, note). t See his Introduction to the Travels of Pedro Cieza de Leon, p. Xxii. (London, 1864). PERUVIAN MIGRATIONS. 2O5 tion of Huaraz, and so gradually southward, follow- ing the inter-Andean plateau, to the northen shore of Lake Titicaca. There they encountered warlike tribes who put a stop to their further progress in that direction until the rise of the Inca dynasty, who pushed their conquests toward the south and west. The grounds for this opinion are largely linguistic.* In his exhaustive analysis of the Kechua language, Von Tschudi found its most archaic forms in the ex- treme north, in the dialects of Quito and Chinchasuyu. This is also my own impression from the comparison of the northern and southern dialects. For instance, in the Chinchaya (northern), the word for water is yacu, while the southern dialects employ yacu in the sense of " flowing water," or river, and for water in general adopted the word unu, apparently from the Arawak stock. Now, as Karl von den Steinen argues in a similar instance, we can understand how a river could be called " water," but not how drinking water could be called " river ; " and therefore we must as- sume that the original sense of yacu was simply " water," and that the tribes who retained this meaning had the more archaic vocabulary.f * See his Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, ss. 64-66. t The Chinchaya dialect is preserved (insufficiently) by Father Juan de Figueredo in an Appendix to Torres-Rubio, Arle de la Lengua Quichua, edition of Lima, 1701. It retained the sounds of g and /, not known in southern Kechua. The differences in the vocabularies of the two are apparent rather than real. Thus the Chin, rupay, sun, is the K. for sun's heat (ardor del sol); Chin. caclla, face, is K. eacclla, cheeks. Markham is decidedly in error in saying that the Chinchaya dialect " differed very considerably from that of the Incas " (Journal Royal Geog. Soc., 1871, p. 316). 206 THE AMERICAN RACE. Mr. Markham indeed says : " In my opinion there is no sufficient evidence that the people of Quito did speak Quichua previous to the Inca conquest ; " and he quotes Cieza de Leon to the effect that at the time of the Spanish conquest they had a tongue of their own.* I have, however, shown how untrustworthy Cieza de Leon's statements are on such subjects ; and what is conclusive, there were Kechua-speaking tribes living at the north who never were subjugated by the Incas. Such for instance were the Malabas, whom Stevenson, when visiting that region in 1815, found living in a wild state on San Miguel river, a branch of the Esmeraldas.f This is also true, ac- cording to the observations of Stiibel, of the natives of Tucas de Santiago in the province of Pasto in Ecuador.^ This opinion is further supported by a strong con- sensus of ancient tradition, which, in spite of its vagueness, certainly carries some weight. Many of the southern Kechua tribes referred for their origin to the extreme northwest as known to them, to the ancient city of Lambayeque on the Pacific coast, a locality which, according to Bastian, held a place in their traditions equivalent to that of Culiacan, " the Home of the Ancestors," in the legendary lore of the Aztecs. * Introduction to his translation of Cieza de Leon, p. xlvii, note. f Bollaert, Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches, p. 81. J Von Tschudi, Organismtis der Khetsua Sprache, s. 66. Hervas was also of the opinion that both Quitu and Scyra were Kechua dialects (Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., p. 276). \ A. Bastian, Die Culturldnder des Alten Americas, Bd. II., s. 93. LEGENDS OF THE QUITUS. 2O/ The legends of the ancient Quitus have been pre- served in the work of Juan de Velasco, and although they are dismissed with small respect by Markham, I am myself of the opinion that there is both external and internal evidence to justify us in accepting them as at least genuine native productions. They relate that at a remote epoch two Kechua-speaking tribes, the Mantas on the south, and the Caras on the north, occupied the coast from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the Esmeraldas River. The Caras were the elder, and its ancestors had reached that part of the coast in rafts and canoes from some more northern home. For many generations they remained a maritime people, but at length followed up the Esmeraldas and its affluents until they reached the vicinity of Quito, where they developed into a powerful nation under the rule of their scyri, or chiefs. Of these they claimed a dynasty of nineteen previous to the con- quest of their territory by the Inca Huayna Capac. They inherited in the male line, and were mono- gamous to the extent that the issue of only one of their wives could be regarded as legal heirs.* They did not bury their dead, as did the southern Kechuas, but placed them on the surface of the soil and con- structed a stone mound or tomb, called tola, over the remains, resembling in this the Aymaras. The extent of the Kechua tongue to the north has * Juan de Velasco, Histoiredu Royaume de Quito, pp. n-2i,sq. (Ed. Ternaux-Compans, Paris, 1840.) But Cieza de Leon's ex- pressions imply the existence of the matriarchal system among them. See Markham's translation, p. 83, note. Some claim that the Quitus were a different, and, in their locality, a more ancient tribe than the Caras. 208 THE AMERICAN RACE. not been accurately defined. Under the name Yum- bos, or Yumbos de Guerra, the old Relations included various tribes in the Quito region who had not been reduced by the Spanish Conquistadores.* A recent traveler, M. Andr, states that the Yumbos belong to the family of the Quitus, and include the tribes of the Cayapas, Colorados and Mangaches.f Of these, the Cayapas and Colorados, as I have shown, belong to the Barbacoa stock, though the term Colorados " painted," is applied to so many tribes that it is not clear which is meant. The geographer Villavicencio observes that " the Napos, Canelos, Intags, Nane- gales and Gualeas, collectively called Yumbos, all speak dialects of the Kechua." The modern Canelos he describes as a cross between the ancient Yumbos and the Jivaros, to whom they are now neighbors, while the modern Quitos adjoin the Zaparos. Their language, however, he asserts, has retained its purity.;}: Whether we should include in this stock the Ma- cas, who dwell on the eastern slope of the Andes a few degrees south of the equator, is not clear, as I have found no vocabularies. Velasco refers to them * Relaciones Geograficas delndias. Peru. Tom. I., p. 19. (Ma- drid, 1881.) t In Le Tour du Monde, 1883, p. 406. The word Yumbo appears to be derived from the Paez yombo, river, and was applied to the down-stream Indians. | " Casi tal come lo ensenaronlos conquistadores. " Manuel Vil- lavicencio, Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador, pp. 168, 354, 413, etc. (New York, 1858. ) According to Dr. Middendorf, the limit of the Incarial power (which, however, is not identical in this region with that of the Kechua tongue), was the Blue river, the Rio Ancasmayu, an affluent of the upper Patia. (Ollanta, Einleitung, s. 5. Berlin, 1890.) LIMITS OF THE KECHUAS. 209 as a part of the Scyra stock, and they are in the Kechua region. Mr. Buckley, who visited them a few years ago, describes them as divided into small tribes, constantly at war with each other. Their weapons are spears and blow-pipes with poisoned arrows. Hunting is their principal business, but they also raise some maize, yucca and tobacco. Polygamy prevails along with the patriarchal system, the son inheriting the property of his father. Some rude pot- tery is manufactured, and their huts of palm leaves are neatly constructed. Like the Jivaros, they prepare the heads of the dead, and sometimes a man will kill one of his wives if he takes a fancy that her head would look particularly ornamental thus preserved.* The southern limit of the Kechua tongue, before the Spanish conquest, has been variously put by different writers ; but I think we can safely adopt Coquimbo, in south latitude 30, as practically the boundary of the stock. We are informed that in 1593 the priests addressed their congregations in Kechua at this place, f and in the same generation the missionary Valdiva names it as the northern limit of the Araucanian4 Doubtless, however, it was spoken by outlying colonies as far south as the river Maule, in south latitude 35, which other writers assign as the limit of the conquests of the Incas. * Mr. C. Buckley, " Notes on the Macas Indians of Ecuador," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1874, pp. 29, sqq. t References in Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker, Bd. III., s. 492. \ Artedela Lcngua C/iilena, Introd. (Lima, 1606). 14 2IO THE AMERICAN RACE. Cieza de Leon and other early Spanish writers frequently refer to the general physical sameness of the Peruvian tribes. They found all of them some- what undersized, brown in color, beardless, and of but moderate muscular force. The craniology of Peru offers peculiar difficulties. It was the policy of the rulers to remove large numbers of conquered tribes to distant portions of the realm in order to render the population more homogeneous. This led to a constant blending of physical traits. Furthermore, nowhere on the continent do we find skulls presenting more grotesque artificial deformities, which render it difficult to decide upon their normal form. When the latter element is carefully excluded, we still find a conflicting diversity in the results of measurements. Of 245 Peruvian crania in the col- lection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel- phia, 168 are brachycephalic, 50 are dolichocephalic, and 27 mesocephalic. Of 13 from near Arica, all but one are dolichocephalic. Of 104 from Pachacamac, 93 are brachycephalic and none dolichocephalic. It is evident that along the coast there lived tribes of contrasted skull forms. From the material at hand I should say that the dividing line was near Pisco, those south of that point having elongated, those north of it rounded heads. The true Kechuas and Aymaras are meso or brachycephalic. The crania from the celebrated cemetery of Ancon, which is situated on the coast near Lima, are mostly de formed, but when obtained in natural form prove the population to have been mesocephalic, with rounded orbits (megasemes) and narrow prominent GOVERNMENT OF THE INCAS. 211 noses (leptorhines). An average of six specimens yielded a cubical capacity of 1335 cub. cent.* The cubical capacity of the Peruvian skulls from the coast generally averages remarkably low lower than that of the Bushmen or Hottentots. Careful measurements give the capacity at 1230 cubic centi- meters, f They almost reach the borders of micro- cephaly, which Broca placed at 1150 cubic centi- meters. Although the Spanish writers speak of the Inca as an autocratic despot, a careful anyalysis of the social organization of ancient Peru places it in the light of a government by a council of the gentes, quite in ac- cordance with the system so familiar elsewhere on the continent. The Inca was a war-chief, elected by the council as an executive officer to carry out its deci- sion, and had practically no initiative of his own. Associated with him, and nearly equal in power, was the huillac liuma, or " speaking head," who acted as president of the tribal council, and was the executive officer in the Inca's absence. The totemic system still controlled the social life of the people, although it is evident that the idea of the family had begun to assert itself. The land continued to be owned by the gens or ayllu, and not by individuals.^: * Paul Topinard, in Revue d'Anthropologie, Tome IV., pp. 65-67. f Lucien Carr, Fourth Report of the Peabody Museum of Archce- ology. t I would especially refer to the admirable analysis of the Peru- vian governmental system by Dr. Gustav Briihl, Die Culturvolker Alt-Amerikas, p. 335, sqq. (Cincinnati, 1887.) I regret that the learned Kechuist, Dr. E. W. Middendorf , had not studied this book 212 THE AMERICAN RACE. Agriculture had reached its highest level in Peru among the native tribes. The soil was artificially enriched with manure and guano brought from the islands ; extensive systems of irrigation were carried out, aJnd implements of bronze, as spades and hoes, took the place of the ruder tools of stone or wood. The crops were maize, potatoes both white and sweet, yucca, peppers, tobacco and cotton. Of domes- tic animals the llama and paco were bred for their hair, for sacrifices and as beasts of burden, but not for draft, for riding nor for milking.* The herds often numbered many thousands. The Inca dog was a de- scendant of the wolf,f and monkeys, birds and guinea pigs were common pets. Cotton and hair of the various species of the llama were spun and woven into a large variety of fabrics, often ornamented with geometric designs in color. The pottery was exceedingly varied in forms. Nat- ural objects were imitated in clay with fidelity and expression, and when a desirable model was not at hand, the potter was an adept in moulding curious trick-jars that would not empty their contents in the expected direction, or would emit a strange note from the gurgling fluid, or such as could be used as whistles, or he could turn out terra-cotta flutes and before he prepared his edition of the Ollanta drama (Berlin, 1890), or he would have modified many of the statements in its Einlcit- ung. *See J. J. von Tschudi, " Das Lama," in Zeitschrift fur Eth- nologie, 1885, s. 93. f Dr. Nehring has shown that all the breeds of Peruvian dogs can be traced back to what is known as the Inca shepherd dog. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic t 1885, s. 520. PERUVIAN CULTURE. 213 the like. Not less adroit were the artists in metal, especially in bronze and in gold and silver. The early writers are filled with expressions of astonish- ment at the amount, variety and beauty of the Incarian gold work. Its amount we may well credit when we are told that the value of the precious metals shipped to Spain within twenty-five years after the conquest was four hundred million ducats of gold. There are specimens enough remaining to judge of its artistic designs. They are quite ingenious and show dexterous manipulation, but rarely hint at a sense of the beautiful. Peruvian architecture was peculiar and imposing. It showed no trace of an inspiration from Yucatan or Mexico. Its special features were cyclopean walls of huge stones fitted together without mortar ; structures of several stories in height, not erected upon tumuli or pyramids ; the doors narrowing in breadth toward the top ; the absence of pillars or arches ; the avoid- ance of exterior and mural decoration ; the artistic disposition of niches in the walls ; and the extreme solidity of the foundations. These points show that Inca architecture was not derived from that north of the isthmus of Panama. In the decorative effects of the art they were deficient ; neither their sculpture in stone nor their mural paintings at all equalled those of Yucatan. The only plan they had devised to record or to re- call ideas was by means of knotted strings of various colors and sizes, called quipus. These could have been nothing more than mere mnemonic aids, highly artificial and limited in their application. 214 THE AMERICAN RACE. The official religion was a worship of the sun ; but along with it were carried the myths of Viracocha, the national hero-god, whom it is not difficult to identify with the personifications of light so common in American religions. The ceremonies of the cult were elaborate, and were not associated with the bloody sacrifices frequent in Yucatan and Mexico. Their mythology was rich, and many legends were current of the white and bearded Viracocha, the cul- ture hero, who gave them their civilization, and of his emergence from the " house of the dawn." Ac- cording to some authorities which appear to be trust- worthy, the more intelligent of the Kechuas appear to have risen above object-worship, and to have advocated the belief in a single and incorporeal divinity. A variety of ancestral worship also prevailed, that of the pacarina, or forefather of the ayllu or gens, idealized as the soul or essence of his descendants. The emblem worshipped was the actual body, called walqui, which was mummied and preserved with reverential care in sacred underground temples. The morality of the Peruvians stood low. Their art relics abound in obscene devices and the portrait- ure of unnatural passions. We can scarcely err in seeing in them a nation which had been deteriorated by a long indulgence in debasing tastes. The Kechua language is one of harsh phonetics, especially in the southern dialects, but of consider- able linguistic development. The modifications of the theme are by means of suffixes, which are so numerous as to give it a flexibility and power of con- KECHUA LITERATURE. 21$ veying slight shades of meaning rare in American tongues, and which Friederich Mtiller compares to that of the Osmanli Turks.* Its literature was by no means despicable. In spite of the absence of a method of writing, there was a large body of songs, legends and dramas preserved by oral communication and the quipus. A number of these have been pub- lished. Among them the drama of Ollanta is the most noteworthy. It appears to be a genuine abo- riginal production, committed to writing soon after the conquest, and bears the marks of an appreciation of literary form higher than we might have ex- pected.f The poems or yaraveys, usually turn on love for a theme, and often contain sentiments of force and delicacy.^ Several excellent grammatical studies of the Kechua have appeared in recent years. KECHUA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Ayahucas, south of Quitu. Canas, east of the Vilcaneta Pass. Caras, on the coast from Charapoto to Cape San Francisco. Casamarcas, on the head-waters of the Maranon. Chachapuyas, on the right bank of the Maranon. *Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Abth. I., 370. t A careful edition is that of G. Pacheco Zegarra, Ollantai ; Drame en Vers Quechuas du temps des Incas (Paris, 1878); an English translation, quite faulty, was given by C. G. Markham (London, 1871); one in Kechua and German by Von Tschudi, and recently (1890) Dr. Middendorf's edition claims greater accuracy than its predecessors. s. **' $ Espada, Yaravies Quitenos. (Madrid, 1881.) $ J. J. Von Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua Sprache (Leipzig, 1884) ; Dr. E. W. Middendorf, Das Runa Simi, oder die Keshua Sprache. (Leipzig, 1890.) 2l6 THE AMERICAN RACE. Chancas, near Huanta, in department Ayacucho. Chichasttyus, in the inter-Andean valley, from I^oxa to Cerro de Pasco. Conchucus, near Huaraz. Huacrachucus, on both banks of the gorge of the Maranon. HuamachucuS) on the upper Maranon. Huancapampas, near Juan de Bracamoros. Huancas, in the valley of Sausa. Huancavillcas, on and near the river Guayaquil. ffuanucus, near Tiahuanuco. Incas, between Rio Apurimac and Paucartampu. Iquichanos, near Huanta. Kechuas, from Lake Apurimac to the Pampas. Lamanos or Lamistas, about Truxillo. Malabas, on Rio San Miguel (a branch of the Esmeraldas). Manias, on the coast north of the Gulf of Guayaquil. Morochucos, in the department of Ayacucho. Omapachas, adjacent to the Rucanas. Quitus, near Quito. Rucanas, near the coast, about lat. 15. Yauyos > near Canete.* 2. The Aymaras. I have thought it best to treat of the Aymara as a distinct linguistic stock, although the evidence is steadily accumulating that it is, if not merely a dialect of the Kechua, then a jargon made up of the Kechua and other stocks. In the first place, the name "Aymara" appears to have been a misnomer, or, as Markham strongly puts it, a " deplorable blun- der," of the Jesuit missionaries stationed at Juli.f The true Aymaras were an unimportant ayllu or gens * The Yauyos spoke the Cauqui dialect, which was somewhat akin to Aymara. t See Markham's paper in Journal of the Royal Geogra phical Society, 1871, p. 309. THE AYMARA LANGUAGE. of the Kechuas, and lived in the valley of the Abancay, hundreds of miles from Juli. A number of them had been transported to Juli to work in the mines, and there had intermarried with women of the Colla and Lupaca tribes, native to that locality. The corrupt dialect of the children of these Aymara colonists was that to which the Jesuit, Ludovico Ber- tonio, gave the name Aymara, and in it, Markham claims, he wrote his grammar and dictionary.* Its grammar and phonetics are closely analogous to those of the southern Kechua dialects, and about one- fourth of its vocabulary is clearly traceable to Kechua radicals. Moreover, the Colla, Lupaca, Pacasa and allied dialects of that region are considered by various authorities as derived from the Kechua. For these reasons, Markham, Von Tschudi, and later, Professor Steinthal, have pronounced in favor of the opinion that the so-called Aymara is a member of the Kechua linguistic stock.f On the other hand, the decided majority of its radicals have no affinity with Kechua, and betray a preponderating influence of some other stock. What this may have been must be left for future investiga- * Arte de la Lengua Aymara, Roma, 1603 ; Vocabulario de la Lengua Aymara, Juli, 1612. Both have been republished by Jul- ius Platzmann, Leipzig, 1879. fSee Steinthal, " Das Verhaltniss zwischen dem Ketschua und Aimara," in Compte-Rcndu du Congres International des Anieri- canistes, 1888, p. 462. David Forbes reverses the ordinary view, and considers the Kechua language and culture as mixed and late products derived from an older Aymara civilization. See his article on the Aymara Indians in Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, 1870, p. 270, sqq. 2l8 THE AMERICAN RACE. tion. It does not seem to have been the Puquina ; for although that tongue borrowed from both the Aymara and the pure Kechua dialects, its numerals indicate a stock radically apart from either of them. The Aymara was spoken with the greatest purity and precision by the Pacasas ; and next to these, by the Lupacas ; and it was especially on these two dialects that Bertonio founded his Grammar, and not upon the mongrel dialect of the imported laborers, as Markham would have us believe.* The physical traits of the Aymara Indians offer some pecularities. These consist mainly in an un- usual length of the trunk in proportion to the height, in a surprising development of the chest, and short extremities. The proportion of the thigh to the leg in length is under the average. The leg and calf are well developed, and the general muscular force good. The hands and feet are smaller even than is common in the American race. The skull has a tendency to dolichocephaly.f The unusual thoracic development is plainly attributable to the tenuity of the atmosphere breathed by these residents of heights varying from 4,000 to 17,000 feet above sea level. Making allow- ances for the results of this exposure, they do not differ materially from the general physical habits of the Kechuas. * " Principalmente se ensena en este Arte la lengua Lupaca, la qual no es inferior a la Pacasa, que entre todas las lenguas Aymar- icas tiene el primer lugar." Bertonio, Arte de la Lengua Aymara, p. 10. t For measurements, etc., see David Forbes, in Journal of the London Ethnological Society, October, 1870. AY MARA CULTURE. 219 The location they occupied was generally to the south and east of the Kechuas, upon the plateau and western slopes of the Andes, from south latitude 15 to 20, and through about six degrees of longitude. It may be said roughly to have been three hundred miles from north to south, and four hundred from east to west. The total native population of this area to-day is about six hundred thousand, two-thirds of whom are of pure blood, and the remainder mixed. Some of them dwell along the sea coast, but the majority are on the Bolivian plateau, the average al- titude of which is more than twelve thousand feet above sea level. The old writers furnish us very little information about the Aymaras. At the time of the discovery they were subject to the Kechuas and had long been thus dependent. Many, however, believe that they were the creators or inspirers of the civilization which the Kechuas extended so widely over the western coast. Certain it is that the traditions of the latter relate that their first king and the founder of their higher culture, Manco Capac, journeyed northward from his home on the shores of Lake Titicaca, which was situated in Aymara territory. From the white foam of this inland sea rose the Kechua culture-hero Viracocha, who brought them the knowledge of use- ful arts and the mysteries of their cult. On the cold plain, higher than the summit of the Jungfrau, which borders this elevated sea are also found the enigmatical ruins of Tiahuanaco, much the most remarkable of any in America. They are the remains of imposing edifices of stone, the cycle- 220 THE AMERICAN RACE. pean blocks polished and adjusted so nicely one to the other that a knife-blade cannot be inserted in the joint.* In architectural character they differ widely from the remains of Incarian structures. The walls are decorated with bas-reliefs, there are remains of columns, the doors have parallel and not sloping sides, all angles are right angles, and large statues in basalt were part of the ornamentation. In these re- spects we recognize a different inspiration from that which governed the architecture of the Kechuas.f No tradition records the builders of these strange structures. No one occupied them at the time of the conquest. When first heard of, they were lonely ruins as they are to-day, whose designers and whose purposes were alike unknown. The sepulchral structures of the Aymaras also differed from those of the Incas. They were not underground vaults, but stone structures erected on the surface, with small doors through which the corpse was placed in the tomb. They were called chulpas, and in construc- tion resembled the tolas of the Quitus. Sometimes they are in large groups, as the Pataca Chulpa, " field of a hundred tombs," in the province of Carancas4 * One of the most satisfactory descriptions of them is by E. G. Squier, Travels in Peru, Chaps. XV., XVI. (New York, 1877). f The observations of David Forbes on the present architecture of the Aymaras lend strong support to his theory that the struc- tures of Tiahuanuco, if not projected by that nation, were carried out by Aymara architects and workmen. See his remarks in Jour, of the London Ethnol. Soc., 1870, p. 259. f D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tome I., p. 309. PERUVIAN TRIBES. 221 AYMARA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Canas, in the Sierra of the province so-called, east of Cuzco. Canchis, in the lowlands of the province of Canas. Carancas, south of Lake Titicaca. C/tarcas, between Lakes Aullaga and Paria. Collas, or Collaguas> north of Lake Titicaca. Lupacas, west of Lake Titicaca, extending to Rio Desaguadero. Pacasas, occupied the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca. Quillaguas, on part of the southern shore of Lake Titicaca. j. The Puquinas. The Puquinas are also known under the names Urus or Uros, Hunos and Ochozomas. They for- merly lived on the islands and shores of Lake Titi- caca, in the neighborhood of Pucarini, and in several villages of the diocese of Lima. Oliva avers that some of them were found on the coast near Lambaye- que.* If this is correct, they had doubtless been transported there by either the Incas or the Spanish authorities. They are uniformily spoken of as low in culture, shy of strangers and dull in intelligence. Acosta pretends that they were so brutish that they did not claim to be men.f Garcilasso de la Vega calls them rude and stupid. Alcedo, writing in the latter half of the eighteenth century, states that those on the islands had, against their will, been removed to the mainland, where they dwelt in gloomy caves and in holes in the ground covered with reeds, and depended on fishing for a subsistence. * Quoted by A. Bastian. t " Son estos Uros tan brutales que ellos mistnos nose tienen por hombres." Acosta, Historia de las Indias, p. 62 (Ed. 1591). t "Los Indios Puquinas . . . son rudos y torpes." La Vega, Comentarios Reales de los Incas, Lib. VII., cap. 4. 222 THE AMERICAN RACE. They are alleged to have been jealous about their language, and unwilling for any stranger to learn it. Their religious exercises were conducted in Kechua, with which they were all more or less acquainted. The only specimen of their tongue in modern trea- tises is the Lord's Prayer, printed by Hervas and copied by Adelung.* On it Hervas based the opinion that the Puquina was an independent stock. The editors of the " Mithridates" seemed to incline to the belief that it "was related to the Aymara, and this opinion was fully adopted by Clement L. Markham, who pronounced it "a very rude dialect of the Lu- paca," f in which he was followed by the learned Von TschudL$ None of these authorities had other material than the Pater Noster referred to. Hervas credits it to a work of the missionary Geronimo de Ore, which it is evident that neither he nor any of the other writers named had ever seen, as they all speak of the speci- men as the only printed example of the tongue. This work is the Rituale sen Manuale Peruamtm, published at Naples in 1607. It contains about thirty pages in the Puquina tongue, with translations into Aymara, Kechua, Spanish and Latin, and thus forms a mine of material for the student. Though rare, a copy of it is in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, and is thus readily accessible. I have pub- lished a number of extracts from its Puquina render- * Mithridates, Theil III., Abth. II., ss. 548-550. t In the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1871, p. 305. \ In his Organismus der Ketschua Sprache, s. 76 (Leipzig, 1884). THE PUQUINAS. 223 ings in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for 1890. They are sufficient to show that while this language borrowed many terms, especially those referring to religion and culture, from the neighboring Kechua and Aymara dialects, these were but additions to a primitive stock fundamentally dif- ferent from either of them. The dissimilarity of the three tongues is well seen in their numerals, which are as follows : KECHUA. AYMARA. PUQUINA, One, hue, mayni, pesc. Two, iscay, pani, so. Three, quimsa, quimsa, capa. Four, tahua, pusi, sper. Five, pichka, pisca, tacpa. Six, soccta, chocta, chichun. Seven, canchis, pa-calico, stu. Eight, pusacc. quimsa-callco, quina. Nine, iscon, llalla-tunca, checa. Ten, chunca, tunca, scata. In these lists the Aymara numerals, one, two and four are independent ; three, five, six and ten are taken from the Kechua ; and the remaining three are compound, pa-calico, being 2+5 ; quimsa-callco, 3+5 ; and llalla-tunca meaning " less than ten." Calico is derived from the word for " foot," the counting being with the toes. On the other hand, there is not a single numeral in the Puquina which can be derived from either Kechua or Aymara ; and what is more remarkable, there is apparently not one which is compounded. It remains puzzling to me why the Puquina, which seems to have been spoken only by a few wretched 224 THE AMERICAN RACE. villagers about Lake Titicaca, should have been classed by writers in the sixteenth century as one of the Icnguas generates of Peru. Not only does Ore refer to it by this term, but in one of the official Relaciones Geograficas written in 1582, it is men- tioned as " one of the three general languages of this kingdom." * This would seem to indicate that at that period it had a wider extension than we can now trace. ^. The Yuncas. The Yuncas occupied the hot valleys near the sea between south latitude 5 and 10, their capital being in the vicinity of the present city of Truxillo. Their tongue belongs to an entirely different stock from the Kechua, and was not influenced by it. It still sur- vives in a few sequestered valleys. The extreme diffi- culty of its phonetics aided to prevent its extension.f There is little doubt but that the Yuncas immi- grated to their locality at some not very distant period before the conquest. According to their own traditions their ancestors journeyed down the coast in their canoes from a home to the north, until they reached the port of Truxillo.:}: Here they settled and in later years constructed the enormous palace known as the Gran Chimu, whose massive brick walls, spacious terraces, vast galleries and fronts * Relaciones Geograficas de Indias, Peru, Tom. I., p. 82. (Ma- drid, 1881.) t Fernando de la Carrera, Arte de la Lengua Yunga. (Lima, 1644, reprint, Lima, 1880. ) \ See Von Tschudi, Die Kechua Sprache, p. 83, 84. PERUVIAN TRIBES. 225 decorated with bas-reliefs and rich frescoes, are still the wonder and admiration of travelers.* Near by, in the valley of Chicama and vicinity, they constructed capacious reservoirs and canals for irriga- tion which watered their well-tilled fields, and were so solidly constructed that some of them have been utilized by enterprising planters in this generation. Doubtless some of these were the work of the Incas after their conquest of this valley by the Inca Pacha- cutec, as is related by Garcilasso de la Vega,f but the fact that the Chimus were even before that date famed for their expertness in the working of metals and the fashioning of jewels and vases in silver and gold,:}: proves that they did net owe their culture to the instruction of the Quichuas. Ths term yunca-cuna is a generic one in the Ke- chua language, and means simply " dwellers in the warm country," the ticrra caliente, near the sea coast. It was more particularly applied to the Chi- mus near Truxillo, but included a number of other tribes, all of whom, it is said, spoke related dialects. Of the list which I append we are sure of the Mochi- cas or Chinchas, as the Yunca portion of Geronimo de Ore's work is in this dialect ; of the Estenes, Bastian has printed quite a full vocabulary which is nearly identical with the Yunca of Carrera ; \ Mr. * Charles Wiener, Perou et Bolivie, p. 98, seq. (Paris, 1880.) f Commentaries Reales, Lib. VI., cap. 32. J See the chapter on "The Art, Customs and Religion of the Chimus," in E. G. Squier's Peru, p. 170, sq. (New York, 1877.) ? "En la lengua Mochica de los Yungas." Geronimo de Ore, Rituale scu Manuale Peruanum. (Neapoli, 1607.) || A. Bastian, Die Culturldnder Alt-A-mer. Bd. II. IS 226 THE AMERICAN RACE. Spruce obtained in 1863 a vocabulary of forty words from the Sechuras, proving them to belong to this stock ; * but the dialects of the Colanes and Catacoas are said by the same authority to be now extinct. According to the information obtained by the Abbe Hervas, the " Colorados of Angamarca " also spoke a Yunca dialect, f but I have been unable to identify this particular tribe of " painted " Indians. The location of the stock at the conquest may be said to have been from south lat. 4 to 10 ; and to have included the three departments of modern Peru called Ancachs, Libertad, and Piura. YUNCA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Catacaos, on the upper Rio Piura. Chancos t on the coast south of the Mochicas. Chimus, near Truxillo. Chinchas, see Mochicas. Colanes, on Rio Chiura, north of Payta. Etenes, in the valleys south of Lainbayeque. Mochicas, at Mochi, near Truxillo. Morropes, north of Lambayeque. Sechuras, on Rio Piura. 5. The Atacameiios and Changes. In the valley of the river Loa, about 2O-23 south latitude, and in the vicinity of Atacama, there still survive remnants of a tribe called Atacameiios by the Spaniards, but by themselves Lican-Antais, peo- ple of the villages. Their language appears to be of * In C. R. Markham's translation of Ciezade Leon, Introduction, p. xlii. (London, 1864.) f Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tome I., p. 274. THE ATACAMENOS. 22/ an independent stock, equally remote from that of the Kechuas and the Aymaras. Vocabularies of it have been preserved by various travelers, and the out- lines of its grammar have been recently published by San-Roman.* From two of its numerals and some other indications Dr. Darapsky has connected it with the Aymara, which is also spoken in that vicinity. f The relationship, however, cannot be considered es- tablished, and the latest researches tend to sharpen the contrast between the Cunza, as it is sometimes called, and the Aymara. The Lican-antais are fishermen and live in a con- dition of destitution. The aridity of the climate is unfavorable to agriculture. In physical habitus they are short, with dark complexions, flat broad noses and low foreheads. D'Orbigny identifies the Lican-Antais with the Olipes, Lipes or Llipis of the older writers ^ (Garci- lasso, etc). This, however, is open to doubt. Von Tschudi hazarded the opinion that the Atacamefios were a remnant of the Calchaquis of Tucuman, who * Dr. R. A. Philippi, Reise durch die Wuste Alacama, s. 66. (Halle, 1860.) J. J. von Tschudi, Reisen durch Slid- Amerika, Bd. V., s. 82-84. T. H. Moore, Compte-Rendu du Congres Internal, des Americanistes, 1877, Vol. II., p. 44, sq. Francisco J. San- Roman, La Lengua Cunza de los Naturales de Atacama (Santiago de Chile, 1890). The word cunza in this tongue is the pronoun "our," the natives speak of lengua cunza, "our language." Tschudi gives the only text I know two versions of the Lord's Prayer. f " Con la nacion Aymara esta visiblimente emparentada la Ata- camena." Dr. L. Darapsky, " Estudios L/inguisticos Americanos, " in the Bulletin del Institute Geog. Argentina \ 1890, p. 96. % L'Homme Americain, Toin. II., p. 330. 228 THE AMERICAN RACE. had sought refuge from the Spaniards in this remote oasis on the coast.* I can find no positive support for this view, as we have no specimens of the lan- guage of the Calchaquis. Immediately to the south of the Atacamefios, bor- dering upon the sterile sands of the desert of Ata- cama, between south latitude 22 and 24, are the Cliangos. In their country it never rains, and for food they depend entirely on the yield of the sea, fish, Crustacea and edible algae. Like the Bushmen of the Kalihari desert, and doubtless for the same reason of insufficient nutrition, they are undersized, as a tribe perhaps of the shortest stature of any on the conti- nent. The average of the males is four feet nine inches, and very few reach five feet.f They are, how- ever, solidly built and vigorous. The color is dark, the nose straight and the eyes horizontal. Nothing satisfactory is reported about their lan- guage, which is asserted to be different from the Aymara or any other stock. The tribe has been con- founded by some writers with the Atacamefios, and the Spaniards apparently included both under the term Changes ; which is at present used as a term of depreciation. But both in location and appearance they are diverse. Whether this extends also to lan- guage, as is alleged, I have not the material to deter- mine, and probably the tongue is extinct.^; * Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s. 71, and Reisen, Bd. V., s. 84. t Alcide D'Orbigny, L'Hoinme Americain, Tome I., p. 334. (Paris, 1839.) \ " Entre los Changes no se conserva vestigiode lengua indijena alguna." F. J. San-Roman, La Lengua Cunza, p. 4. II. THE SOUTH ATLANTIC GROUP. I. THE AMAZONIAN REGION. two mighty rivers, the Amazon and the Orinoco, belong to one hydrographic system, the upper affluents of the latter pouring their waters for six months of the year into the majestic expanse of the former. Together they drain over three mil- lion square miles of land,* clothed throughout with lush tropical vegetation and seamed by innumerable streams, offering natural and facile paths of inter- communication. It is not surprising, therefore, that we find linguistic stocks extended most widely over this vast area, each counting numerous members. Of them the most widely disseminated were the Tupi, the Tapuya, the Carib and the Arawak families, and to these I shall first give attention. i. The Tupis. Along the coast of Brazil and up the Amazon there is current a more or less corrupted native tongue called the " common language," lingua geral. It is derived mainly from the idiom of the Tupis, whose * Wallace estimates the area of the Amazon basin alone, not in- cluding that of the Rio Tocantins, which he regards as a different system, at 2,300,000 square miles. ( Travels en the Amazon and Rio Negro, p. 526.) (22 9 ) 230 THE AMERICAN RACE. villages were found by the first discoverers along the seaboard, from the mouth of the La Plata to the Amazon and far up the stream of the latter. Accord- ing to their traditions, which are supported by a comparison of their dialects, the Tupis wandered up the coast from the south. Their earlier home was between the Parana river and the Atlantic. There they called themselves Carai, the astute, a term they afterwards applied to the Spaniards, but later were given the name Guaram's, meaning warriors, by which they are generally known. They must have been very numerous, as a careful estimate made in 1612 computed those then living in the modern states of Corrientes and Uruguay at 365,000; a census which could not have been much exaggerated, as about a century later the Jesuits claimed to have over three hundred thousand Christianized and living in their " reductions ;"* even to-day ninety percent, of the population of Uruguay have Guarani blood in their veins. The inroads of the Spaniards from the south and of the kidnapping Portuguese from the east, reduced their number greatly, and many bands sought safety in distant removals ; thus the Chiriguanos moved far to the west and settled on the highlands of Bolivia, where they have increased their stock from four or five thousand to triple that number.f extending as * See authorities in Von Martius, Ethnographie und Sprachen- kunde Ametikas, Bd. I., s. 185. (Leipzig, 1867.) f The origin of the Chiriguanos is related from authentic tradi- tions by Nicolas del Techo, Historia Provinciae Paraguariae, Lib. XI., Cap. 2. The name Chiriguano means " cold," from the tem- perature of the upland region to which they removed. THE TUPI STOCK. 231 far south as the Pilcomayo river. On the upper waters of the Parana were the Tapes, a nation so called from the name of their principal village. It is another form of Tupi, and means " town." They received the early missionaries willingly, and are complimented by these as being the most docile and intelligent of any of the nations of South America.* The Tupi tribes did not extend north of the imme- diate banks of the Amazon, nor south of the Rio de la Plata. It would appear not improbable that they started from the central highlands where the Tapajoz on the north and the Paraguay on the south have their sources. Their main body followed the latter to the Atlantic, where the Tupis proper separated and moved up the coast of Brazil. This latter mi- gration is believed to have been as late as a few hun- dred years before the discovery. f Like the Tapuyas, the Tupis have a tendency to dolicocephaly, but it is less pronounced. They are less prognathic, the forehead is fuller and the color of the skin brighter. The hair is generally straight, but Poppig saw many among the Cocamas of pure blood with wavy and even curly hair4 I have no hesitation in including in the Tupi family the Mundurucus, or Paris, on the upper Tapajoz. Their relationship was fully recognized by Professor * " Nullam gen tern Christianis moribus capessendis autretiendis aptiorem in austral! hoc America fuisse repertam. " Nicolas del Techo, loc. cit., Lib. X., Cap. 9. fCotnp. von Martius, u. s., s. 179. t Reise in Chile und Peru, Bd. II., s. 450. 232 THE AMERICAN RACE. Hartt, who was well acquainted with both dialects.* They are a superior stamp of men, tall, of athletic figures, light in color, their naked bodies artistically tattooed. Their women are skilled in weaving cot- ton hammocks, and the men pursue some agriculture, and manufacture handsome feather ornaments. To the same family belong the Muras and Turas, in the swampy valley of the Madeira in its middle course, " an amphibious race of ichthyophagi," as they are called by Martius, savage and hostile, and depraved by the use of the parica, a narcotic, intoxicating snuff prepared from the dried seeds of the Mimosa acacioides. At the beginning of this century they were estimated at 12,000 bowmen ; but this was doubt- less a great exaggeration. Though their dialect dif- fers widely from the lingua geral, the majority of their words are from Tupi roots. f Others are related to the language of the Moxos, and in the last century certain of their tribes lived in the immediate vicinity of these, and were brought into the " reductions " of the Moxos Indians by the Jesuit missionaries.^ The tendency of their migrations has been down the Madeira. * "Though widely different from the Tupi, ancient or modern, I am satisfied that the Mundurucu belongs to the same family. " C. F. Hartt, in Trans, of the Amer. Philological Association, 1872, p. 75- fVon Martius, Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, Bd. I., s. 412. A specimen of their vocalic and sonorous language is given by E. Teza, Saggi Inediti di Lingue Americane, p. 43. (Pisa, 1868.) J G. Coleti, Dizionario S'orico-Geografico dell 1 America Meri- dionals, Tom. II., p. 38. (Venezia, 1771.) THE TUPI STOCK. 233 The tribes of this lineage in the extreme south of Brazil were numerous. The Guachaguis, corres- ponding apparently to the modern Guachis, are said by Lozano to speak a corrupt Guarani.* Vocabu- laries have been obtained by Castelnau and Natterer, which indicate only a remote resemblance. Accord- ing to their own tradition, they migrated from near the Moxos in the Bolivian highlands. The Gualachos, who spread from the river Iguaza to the sea coast, spoke a Guarani dialect in which the sounds of f, j and / were present, which, in pure Guarani, are absent. They built thatched houses divided into several rooms, and raised abundant har- vests.f The Omaguas and Cocamas, the most western of the Tupis, dwelling within the limits of Ecuador, had evidently profited by their contiguity to the civi- lization of Peru, as they are described by early trav- elers as familiar with gold, silver and copper, living in permanent villages connected by good roads, and cultivating large fields of cotton, maize and various food-plants. The art-forms which they produced and the prevalence of sun-worship, with rites similar to those of Peru, indicate the source of their more ad- vanced culture. By some authors the Omaguas are stated to have migrated down the Rio Yupara from Popayan in New Granada, where a tribe speaking their dialect, the Mesayas are alleged still to reside.^: * Lozano, Hist, de la Conquista de Paraguay, pp. 415, 416. t Lozano, Ibid., pp. 422-425. J Paul Marcoy, Voyage trovers VAmeriqne du Slid, Tome II., p. 241 ; comp. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker t Bd. III., s. 427- 234 THE AMERICAN RACE. The peculiar " mitred " skulls of the Omaguas are an artificial deformity prized by them as a beauty. The Tupi is rich in mythological tales which have been collected by several competent students of their tongue. (Hartt, Magalhaes, etc.) Their religion is a simple animistic nature-worship. The dead were buried in large urns, usually in lo- calities set aside for the purpose. One such on the island Maraho, near the mouth of the Amazon, has yielded a rich harvest to archaeologists. The general culture of the Tupis was superior to that of any other Brazilian tribes, but much inferior to that of the Incas. They were to a slight extent agricultural, raising maize, manioc, tobacco, which they smoked in pipes, and several vegetables. Some fowls, monkeys and peccaries were tamed and used as food. Their houses were of straw, lattice work and leaves, sometimes plastered with mud. The com- munal system prevailed, twenty or thirty families occupying one residence. A number of such houses would be erected on some favorable site and sur- rounded by a palisade of strong poles. These towns were, however, not permanent, and nearly half the year was spent in hunting and fishing expeditions along the streams. They went entirely naked, but wove excellent hammocks from the bark of trees and other vegetable fibres. Devoid of a knowledge of metals, they were in the height of the age of polished stone, many of their products in this direction being celebrated for symmetry and delicacy.* The art of * The "Amazon-stones," muira-kitan, are ornaments of hard stone, as jade or quartz. LANGUAGE OF THE TUPI. 235 the potter was also well developed, and the vases from the Amazon, called igasauas, rank both in symmetry, decoration and fine workmanship among the most creditable specimens of American ceramics. The language which characterizes this widely dis- tributed stock is polysynthetic and incorporating, with the flexibility peculiar to this class of tongues. It has been the subject of a number of works, but still lacks a thorough comparative treatment. The Jesuit missionaries adopted the Guarani dialect throughout their extensive " reductions," and translated into it a variety of works for the instruction of their acolytes, some of which have been printed. TUPI LINGUISTIC STOCK. Ababas, in Bolivia. Amazonas, on lower Amazon. Anambes, on Rio Tocantins. Apiacas, near Rio Arinps and upper Tapajoz. Araguagus, on lower Paru. Bororos, near Rio Paraguay. Camaguras, in province Matogrosso. Cambevas, see Omaguas. Cambocas* mouth of Rio Tocantin. Caracatas, on upper Uruguay and Parana. Cayovas, on Rio Tapajoz. Chaneses, in Bolivia. Chiriguanos, in Bolivia. Chogurus, on Rio Pajehu. Cocamas, near Rio Nauta (upper Amazon) and Rio Ucayali. Cocamillas, near the Cocamas. Cuchiuaras, on Rio Tocantins. Guaranis, in Uruguay. Guarayos, in Bolivia. Guayanas, in Uruguay. Gujajaras, on Rio Maranhas. Jacundas, on Rio Tocantins. 236 THE AMERICAN RACE. Jantudas, in province Pard. Mattes, on the Amazon. Mbeguas, on Rio Parana. Manitsauas, on upper Schingu. Mitandues, near Rio Tapajoz. Mnndrucus, on Rio Tapajoz. Muras, on Rio Madeira. Omaguas, on lower lea. Oyampis, on upper Oyapok. Pacajas, on lower Amazon. Parentintims, in province Amazonas. Paris, see Mnndrncus. Piturunas, on Rio Curitiba. Sirionos, on Rio Paray, Bolivia. Tamoyos, near San Vincente, Brazil (extinct). Tapaunas, on Rio Tocantins. Tapirapes, in province Goyaz. Tapes, on Rio Uruguay. Turns, on lower Rio Madeira. Uyapas, on Rio Arinos. y^lr^lnas t on Rio Schingu, from 4 to 8. 2. The Tapuyas. The Tapuya stock is at once the most ancient and the most extensive now living on the soil of Brazil. Its various tribes are found from s. lat. 5 to s. lat. 20, and from the Atlantic to the Schingu river. The name Tainiya was applied to them by the Tupis, and means " enemies " or " strangers " two ideas which are always synonymous in primitive life. They are also called Crens or Guerens, the Old Ones or Ancient People. This seems to have reference to their pos- session of the coast before the arrival of the Tupi hordes from the south. By some writers they are believed to have been the earliest constructors of the sambaquis, the shell-heaps THE TAPUYAS. , 237 or kitchen-middens, which are of great size and nu- merous, along the Atlantic and its bays. These are supposed to indicate an antiquity of 2,000 years ; * but the Tapuyas can lay claim to a title to their land far older than that. The skulls and human bones which were discovered by Dr. Lund in the caves of Lagoa Santa in immediate juxtaposition to those of animals now extinct, came from a region occupied by the Tap- uyas, and are in all respects parallel to those of the tribe to-day. This would assign them a residence on the spot far back in the present geologic period. Their appearance is that of an antique race of men. They are of middle height, with long upper and short lower extremities. The face is broad, the eyes small and under prominent ridges, the forehead low and re- treating ; the sutures are simple, the face prognathic, and the skull decidedly dolichocephalic (73), but of good capacity (1470 cub. cent.), and leptorhinic ; the mouth is large and the nose prominent. In color they present a variety of shades of reddish-brown, and their hair, which is coarse, verges rather on the dark-brown than the black.f They are not ugly, and the expression of the face, especially in the young, is often attractive. Those of them, however, who distend the lowef lip with the large labret or botoque (from which the Botocudos derive their name), cannot be other than hideous to European eyes. * H. Miiller, in Contpte Rendue duCongrts Internal, des Am6ri- canistes, 1888, p. 461. fDr. P. M. Rey, Etude Anthropologique sur les Botocudos, p. 51 and passim. (Paris, 1880.) Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, " Ueber die Botocudos," in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 1887, Heft I. 238 THE AMERICAN RACE. In culture the Tapuyas are reported to stand on the lowest scale. When free in their native woods they go absolutely naked ; they have no other houses than temporary shelters of leaves and branches; they man- ufacture no pottery, build no canoes, and do not know how to swim. When first in contact with the whites they had no dogs, knew nothing of the use of tobacco or salt, and were common cannibals. They have no tribal organizations and no definite religious rites. To counterbalance all these negatives, I hasten to add that they are hunters of singular skill, using strong bows with long arrows, manufacture polished stone axes and weave baskets of reeds, and, what is rare among the Indians, use tapers made from wild bees-wax and bark fibre.* Their marriages are mo- nogamous, though rarely permanent, and they are not devoid of family affection.f Though lacking definite religious ideas, they are careful to bury the dead, and have a belief that the spirit of the departed survives and wanders about at night, for which reason they are loth to move in the dark. The soul of a chief may take the form of a jaguar. During a thunder storm they shake a burning brand and shoot arrows toward the sky, to appease by imitation the powers of the storm ; and they are much given to semi-religious * Von Tschudi, Reise in Sud Amerika, Bd. II., p. 281. If this is one of their ancient arts, it is the only instance of the invention of an artificial light south of the Eskimos in America. t Dr. P. M. Rey states that the custom of kissing is known to them both as a sign of peace between men, and of affection from mothers to children. (Et de Anthropologique sur les Botocudos, p. 74, Paris, 1880.) This is unusual, and indeed I know no other native tribe who employed this sign of friendship. THE TAPUYAS. 239 dances, in which their motions are to the sound of a native flute, which is played with the nose.* Their language is difficult in its phonetics, and presents a contrast to most American tongues by its tendency toward the isolating form, with slight agglu- tination. A carefully prepared vocabulary of it has recently been published by Dr. Paul Ehrenreich,f whose studies on this stock have been peculiarly valuable. TAPUYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Apina-gs, north of Rio Tocantins. Aponegi-crens, in south of province Marinhao. Acroas, near Rio Tocantins. Aimores, see Botocudos. Botocudos, in Sierra dos Aimures. Carahos, on Rio Tocantins. Camacans, near Rio Pardo. Cayapos, north of Rio Pardo. Chavantes, near Rio Maranhao. Cherentes, near Rio Tocantins. Chicriabas, near Rio de San Francisco. Coretus, on Rio Yupura. Cotoxos, near Rio Doce. Cumanachos, in province Goyaz. Crens, see Botocudos. Gs, in province Goyaz. GoyotacciS) in province Goyaz (see below). Malalalis, near Rio Doce. Malalis, in province Goyaz. Masacaras, in province Goyaz. Pancas, on Rio das Pancas. Potis (Poton], on upper Mucuri. Puris, near Rio Paraiba. Suyas, on upper Schihgu. *Dr. Rey, loc. cit., p. 78, 79. f In the Zeitschriftfur Ethnologic, 1887, s. 49. 240 THE AMERICAN RACE. The Goyotacas in the province of Goyaz and the regions adjacent include a large number of tribes which Von Martius has shown to have sufficient lin- guistic affinity among themselves to unite in one group, and connections enough with the Tapuya stem to be regarded as one of its sub-stocks.* GOYOTACA SUB-STOCK. Capochos, in the sierra between Minas Geraes and Porto Seguro. Coropos, on the Rio da Pomba. Cumanachos, adjacent to the Capochos. Machacalis, on and near Rio Mucury. Macunis, between Minas Geraes and Porto Seguro. Monoxos, adjacent to the Macuris. Panhames, on head-waters of Rio Mucury. Palachos, on head-waters of Rio de Porto Seguro. Another group believed by Martius to be a mixed off-shoot of the Tapuya family belong to what I may call the TUCANO SUB-STOCK. Cobeus, on Rio Uaupes. Dace, on Rio Uaupes. Jupua, on upper Yupura. Jauna, on Rio Uaupes. Tucano, on Rio Uaupes. All these tribes are found in the vicinity of the river Uaupes, and are distinguished by three vertical lines tattooed or incised on the cheeks. They take their name, as do some other Brazilian tribes not re- lated to them, from the beautiful toucan bird, which * A comparative vocabulary of these dialects is given by Von Martius, Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, Bd. I., s. 310. THE ARAWAK STOCK. 241 is frequently held sacred among them, and is some- times chosen as the totem of a gens. I also attach to this stock the Carnijos or Fornio, a vocabulary of whose language has been published by Professor John C. Branner, and which hitherto has not been identified.* The following comparison be- tween it and the Tapuya dialects will show the af- finity: CARNIJOS. TAPUYA. Fire, toch, tiakoh. Eye, i-to, ainthd, kitho. Nose, d-ereta t d'asigri. Tooth, i-axi, aiqud, daguoi. j. The Araivaks. The Arawak stock of languages is the most widely disseminated of any in South America. It begins at the south with the Guanas, on the head-waters of the river Paraguay, and with the Baures and Moxos on the highlands of southern Bolivia, and thence extends almost in continuity to the Goajiros peninsula, the most northern land of the continent. Nor did it cease there. All the Antilles, both Greater and Less, were originally occupied by its members, and so were the Bahama Islands, f thus extending its dialects to within a short distance of the mainland of the northern con- * In the Transactions of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, 1886, p. 329. The terms for comparison are borrowed from Von den Steinen's Comparative Vocabulary of the Tapuya Dialects. t See D. G. Brinton, " The Arawack Language of Guiana in its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations, " in Trans, of the Amer. Phil. Sot., 1871. 16 242 THE AMERICAN RACE. tinent, and over forty-five degrees of latitude. Its tribes probably at one time occupied the most of the lowlands of Venezuela, whence they were driven not long before the discovery by the Caribs, as they also were from many of the southern islands of the West Indian archipelago. The latter event was then of such recent occurrence that the women of the Island Caribs, most of whom had been captured from the Arawaks, still spoke that tongue. They were thus the first of the natives of the New World to receive the visitors from European climes, and the words picked up by Columbus and his suc- cessors on the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti, are readily explained by the modern dialects of this stock. No other nation was found on any part of the archipelago except the two I have mentioned. The whole of the coast between the mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon appears to have been in their possession at or a short time before the epoch of the discovery. The Antis or Campas, who perhaps occupy the original home of the stock, own as the centre of their domain the table-land known as El Gran Pajonal, or the Great Grass Field, bounded by the rivers Ucayali, Pachitea and Perene. Their hue is a bistre and their habits wild ; some slight tillage is carried on, and the women spin and weave the wild cotton into coarse garments. The taming of animals is one of their arts, and around their huts are seen monkeys, parrots, pec- caries and tapirs.* It is noteworthy that some of them are skilful blacksmiths, smelting the metal * Olivier Ordinaire, " Les Sauvages du Perou," iu Revue d* Eth- nographic, 1887, p. 282. THE ARAWAK STOCK. 243 from the native ores, and working it into axes, knives, spear points, etc., of excellent quality.* The names Campas and Antis were used as generic terms, the latter applied to the tribes on the slopes of the Cordilleras and the former to those on the plains. A large number of sub-tribes are named by the older writers, the principal of which were the Choseosos, Machigangas, Pilcosumis and Sepaunabos. The Ma- chigangas lived on the Pilcopata and Vilcanota, and their language has been erroneously stated by Von Tschudi to be an independent stock.f The Chunchas and Cholones are by some classed with the Campas, and they are said to have been the possessors of the famous Cerro de Sal, or Salt Mountain, to which the neighboring tribes repaired in great numbers to ob- tain supplies of this useful article. The Guanas are a nation who have long lived on the upper Paraguay, in the province Mato Grosso on the river Mambaya, and vicinity. D'Orbigny be- lieved that they were a member of the Mataco group, ^ but they are now recognized as belonging to the Arawak stock. They are noteworthy for their peace- ful disposition and unusual intelligence. Hervas speaks of them as the most able nation visited by the missionaries in the whole of America. The traveler * C. Greiffenstein, in Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1878, s. 137. t Von Tschudi, Organismus der Kechua Sprache, p. 67. For other members of the Campas see Hervas, Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., p. 262 ; Amich, Compendia Historico de la Ser- afica Religion, p. 35, and Scottish Geog. Journal, Feb., 1890. \ D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tom. II., p. 104, note. $ " I v os Guanas son la mejor nacion de las barbaras hasta ahora descubiertas en America. ' ' Hervas, Catalogo de las Lenguas Cono- cidas, Tom. I., p. 189. 244 THE AMERICAN RACE. Castelnau confirmed this good opinion. He found them living in neat houses and cultivating the land with skill and industry. They raised not only the ordinary food plants, but cotton and sugar cane, pressing the sap from the latter by machinery of their own devising, and moulding the sugar into loaves. Their cotton cloth, died of various colors, was highly esteemed for its texture. Castelnau describes them as occupying four settle- ments near Albuquerque and Miranda, and compris- ing the Chualas or Guanas proper, the Terenos, the Laianas, and the Quiniquinaos.* Later investigations have shown that of these the Terenos and Quiniqui- naos are members of the Guaycuru stock of the Chaco, and that the Chualas and Laianas alone belong to the true Guanas.f The Paiconecas or Paunacas were attached to the mission of the Conception in Bolivia, in 16 south lat- itude. They numbered about 500 in 1831. In cus- toms and appearance they approached the Chiquitos. Their former home was between the sources of the Rio Blanco and Rio Verde. The Saravecas, three or four hundred in number in 1831, were attached to the mission of Santa Anna, in Bolivia, and were its handsomest members. Their former homes were in the eastern hills of the Cordil- lera, about 16 south latitude. Although these are classed as irreducible stocks by D'Orbigny and others who have followed him, * Expedition dans V Amerique du Sud, Tome II., p. 480. f Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internal, des Americanisies t 1888, p. 510. THE ARAWAK STOCK. 245 they are both clearly branches of the Arawak stem, as will be seen by a brief comparison.* PAICONECA. SARAVECA. ARAWAK STOCK. Sun, isese, caame, sese, catnu, Moon, kejere, cache, kejeres, kashi. Fire, chaki, tikai, yaki, ikii. Water, ina, une, ine t une. Eye, ihuikis, not, nohlo, ikise. Others could readily be added, but the above are sufficient. Another important tribe of this stock in this region were the Piros, otherwise called Chuntaquiros and Simirenchis, whose home was about the junction of the Ucayali and Apurimac, and thence along both these rivers. The vocabularies of their tongue OD - D tained by Castelnau and Paul Marcoy leave no doubt of their affiliations. They were largely converted by the Jesuits between 1683 and 1727. The Wapisianas, or Wapianas in British Guiana, with their sub-tribe the Atorai (Tauri or Dauri), are stated by Im Thurn to speak a tongue wholly differ- ent from the Arawak ; but an analysis of its expression and an extended comparison place it beyond doubt in this stock.f The Tarumas and Maopityans, who now live in * The words from the Paiconeca and Saraveca are from D'Or- bigny, L'Homme Americain, Tome I., p. 165 ; those from the Ara- wak stock from the table in Von den Steinen, Durch Central-Bra- silien, s. 294. flm Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 165. Comp. Von den Steinen, Durch Central Brasilien, ss. 295, 307. THE AMERICAN RACE. southern British Guiana, but are said to have origi- nally come from the Rio Negro, speak related dialects. They enjoy a rather high degree of culture, being celebrated for the manufacture of cassava graters, for the hunting dogs which they breed and train, and for the fine pottery they manufacture. Both Schomburgk and Im Thurn regard them as an independent stock; but from a comparison of the fifteen nouns given by the former in their language,* I infer that they are an Arawak tribe, speaking a dialect mixed with some Carib and Tupi words, and with frequent vowel elision. TARUMA. (auvan-ialu, Paravilhana) . (pia, Baniva, piua, Ouaye'oue'). (hua-to, Carib). (fund, Carib). (no-totia, Bard). (a-kussi, Arawak). {ulle-rukuhu, Arawak). (issi-rihi, Arawak). (kx-aua, Bakairi). (upu, Galibi). (takou, Carib.) (uinari, Bard). This comparison leaves little doubt but that this mixed dialect is chiefly of Arawak lineage. The Arawaks wandered as far east as the upper Schingu river, where Von den Steinen found the Kustenau, a distant member of the stem, with various * Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, in Report of the Brit. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1848, pp. 96-98. See also Im Thurn, u. s., pp. 163, 272 ; Martius, Ethnographic, Bd. I., s. 683. Sun, ouang, Moon, piwa, Fire, hua } Water, tza, Head, my, a-tta, Eye, my, a-tzi, Mouth, me-ruku-kanna, Nose, assa, Hand, ahu, Foot, appa, Bow, tzeika, Star, uingra, THE ARAWAK STOCK. 247 minor tribes, as the Vauras, Mehinacus, etc. Along the river Ventuari the populous tribe of the Maipures have taken a conspicuous place in the annals of the missions. Indeed, the whole stock is sometimes called by their name ; * but it is well to retain the better known Arawak, which is the appellation of that portion of the tribe in Guiana between the Corentin and Pomeroon rivers. It means " meal-eaters," and was first ap- plied to them in derision on account of their large consumption of cassava bread. There is a prevailing similarity in their physical type. The adults are slightly undersized, rarely reaching above five feet six inches, with low foreheads and straight narrow noses. The form of the skull is short and the jaws are not protruding orthognathic and brachycephalic.f The physical force averages less than that of the European, and there is decidedly less power of resisting disease.^ The Jesuit Eder men- tions a peculiarity among the Peruvian Arawaks, (Moxos, Baures). It is that the end of the little fin- ger does not reach to the last joint of the third finger. The absence of this peculiarity he states will reveal a mixture of Spanish blood to the third generation. * Lucien Adam, Compte-Rendu du Congres Internal. d'Ameri- canistes, 1888, p. 492. t " All the numerous branches of this stem," says Virchow, "present the same type of skull." Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1886, s. 695. J Everard F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 189. (London, 1883.) I F. X. Eder, Descriptio Provintice Moxitarum, p. 217. (Budae, 1791. ) Dr. Washington Matthews has kindly made for me a num- ber of observations upon Navajo Indians with reference to this an- atomical peculiarity. It is not markedly present among them. 248 THE AMERICAN RACE. It would be interesting to learn how widely this is noticeable. The culture of the Arawak stock was generally somewhat above the stage of savagery. On the West Indian islands Columbus found them cultivating maize, potatoes, manioc, yams and cotton. They were the first to introduce to Europeans the wondrous art of tobacco smoking. They wove cotton into gar- ments, and were skilful in polishing stone. They hammered the native gold into ornaments, carved curious masks of wood, blocked rude idols out of large stones, and hollowed the trunks of trees to construct what they called canoes. Such is approximately the culture of the existing tribes of the stock. The Arawaks of Guiana also raise cassava and maize, though they depend largely on hunting and fishing. Like the northern tribes, they have well-developed gentile or totemic systems, with descent in the female line.* Marriages are by pur- chase, and the strange custom of the convade obtains ; that is, at the period of parturition the husband takes to his hammock, and is waited on as if he was the sick one. Their houses are usually single, not communal, and are furnished with swinging hammocks, mats, basket-work and pottery. The Haytian mythology was quite extensive, and the legends of the Arawaks of Guiana have been col- lected, and are also rich. In all the tribes the dead were generally buried, and often the house of the de- ceased was destroyed or the spot deserted. * For particulars see Im Thurn, ubi supra, Chap. VII. THE ARAWAKS. 249 ARAWAK LINGUISTIC STOCK. Amarapas, in British Guiana. Antis or Campas, on Rio Apurimac. Araicus, on Rio Jatahy. Arawaks, on coast of Guiana. Atorais, on the upper Essequibo. Banivas, on Rio Atahuapo and Rio launa. Barts, on Rio Negro. Baures, on Rio de los Baures. Campas, see Antis. Canamirim, on Rio Jurua. Cariayos, on Rio Negro. Cauixanas, on Rio Jupura. Chontaquiros, see/Yrar. Goajiros, on Goajiro peninsula. Guanas, on Rio Paraguay. Guinaus, on upper Orinoco. Haitians, on island of Hayti. Jabaanas, on Rio Marauia. Jucunas, on Rio Jupura. Jumanas, near Rio Jupura. Juris, on Rio Solimoes. Knstenaus, on Rio Schingu. Manaos, near Rio Negro. Manatenerys, on Rio Purus. Manivas, see Banivas. Maipures, on Rios Ventuari and Orinoco. ' Maranhos, on Rio Jatahy. Mariates, on Rio Iza. Mawakwas, on upper Orinoco. Moxos, on head-waters of Rio Mamore. Paiconecas, on Rio Blanco. Pareni, on Rio Orinoco. Parisis, in province Mato Grosso. Passes, on lower Jupura. Piapocos, on Rio Guaviare. Piros, on Rio Ucayali. Saravecas, near Santa Ana, Bolivia. Simirencis, see Piros. Tainos, see Haitians. 25O THE AMERICAN RACE. Tarianas, on Rio Negro. Tarumas, in British and Dutch Guiana. Uainambeus, on Rio Jupura. Uainumas, on Rio Jupura. Uirinas, on Rio Marari. Wapisianas, in Guiana. West Indians, on Bahamas and Antilles. Yuris, see Juris. The Bars are now found along the banks of the Casaquiare and the Guainia, the Felipe, the Atabapo and some portions of the Rio Negro. They belong to the Arawak stock, their dialect being related to those of the Banivas and Maipures. About the mid- dle of this century the traveller Richard Spruce found them in the regions assigned by Gilii to other tribes, indicating a displacement of the population. He col- lected a number of vocabularies, offering sufficient evidence in his opinion to establish the relationship of the following bands : * BARI5 FAMII/VT OF THE ARAWAK STOCK. Harts, or Barrts, on Rio Negro, etc. Cunipusanas, on Rio Casaquiare. Guariquenas, on Rio Casaquiare. Jabaanas, on Rio Pacimoni. Mandauacas, on Rio Casaquiare and Siapa. Masacas, on Rio Masaca and Siapa. Pacimonarias, on Rio Casaquiare. Tarianas, on Rio Yupura. To these I would add the Uirinas of the Rio Marari, on the strength of a vocabulary collected by Natterer. * Von Martius, Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, Bd. I., s. 625-626. THE CARIB STOCK. 2$ I 4. The Caribs. The Carib stock is one of the most extensively dis- tributed in the southern continent. At the discovery its dialects were found on the Lesser Antilles, the Caribby Islands, and on the mainland from the mouth of the Essequibo River to the Gulf of Maracaibo. West of the latter it did not reach the coast, nor has any positive traces of its introduction above the straits of Panama earlier than the conquest been found, in spite of frequent assertions to the contrary. Inland from the Aravvaks on the shore of Guiana are a num- ber of Carib tribes, as the Macusi and Wapiana, so numerous that this region has been thought by some to have been the original home of the stock ; but the discovery by Dr. Karl von den Steinen of a tribe, the Bakairi, on the head-waters of the Schingu River, speaking a very pure form of the language,* and the recognition of the Carib affinities of the Palmellas on the Rio dos Baures, throw another light on the trend of Carib migrations, strongly supported by a series of other considerations. Thus, it has been satisfactorily shown by Im Thurn that the Caribs in Guiana wan- dered thither from the Orinoco district, some inland and some along the coast, and probably from the large islands adjacent to the coasts.f These islands in turn were peopled from the main- land to the east, as I have already shown, their earlier population having been Arawak. All the Island, Orinoco and Guiana Caribs can thus be traced back * Karl von den Steinen, Durch Central-Brasilien, Cap. XXI., " Die Heimat der Karibeu." f Im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 171-3. 2$2 THE AMERICAN RACE. to the mainland of northern Venezuela. In this vicinity was spoken the Cumanagoto dialect, in the province of Cumana or New Andalusia. According to the early missionaries, it was current along the coast for more than a hundred leagues, extending into the province of Caracas and beyond. The tribes who spoke it were the Chaymas, the Cores, the Cumanas, the Quacas, the Farias, the Palenques, the Varri- gones, and others.* Other dialects to the west are the Opone and Carare, specimens of which were obtained by Lengerke in the vicinity of Bucaramanga, pro- vince of Santander.f The sierra which divides the head-waters of the Caura from those of the Rio Branco and other streams flowing into the Rio Negro and Amazon, are peopled on both slopes by wandering tribes of the Carib stock. Near the sources of the Caura, Chaffanjon found the once formidable Guaharibos, now naked and wretched fugitives, fearing the white far more than they are feared by him.ij: On the southern slope, along the Rio Jauapery and neighboring streams, are bands of Crichanas, Ipurucotos (Purigotos), Macuchis, and Jauamerys (Waimiris), all speaking nearly related dialects of the Carib tongue. Dr. Barboza Rodrigues has given a touching picture of their recent struggles with the whites of the adjacent settlements, and the miserable condition to which they are reduced. We * See Francisco de Tauste, Arte, Bocabulario, y Catecismo de la Lengua de Cumana, p. i (Ed. Julius Platzmann). fThey are printed in the Berlin Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1878. % Chaffanjon, L'Orenoquc ct le Caura, p. 308 (Paris, 1889). THE CARIB STOCK. 253 owe to the same sympathetic naturalist an interesting description of their customs and language.* The hill tribes of French Guiana are known as Roucouyennes, from the roucou, a vegetable color- ing matter with which they paint their skins. They exhale a peculiar odor like that of new leather, prob- ably from the action of the tannin in the roucou on the skin. Naturally they are light in color, and at birth almost white. f Marriages of father and daugh- ter, or brother and sister, are not rare among them4 A connecting link between these Caribs of Guiana and the Bakairis of the south is supplied by the Apiacas of the Rio Tocantins, who speak a pure dialect of the stock, midway in character between those of the two extremes named. The Arubas, who occupied the island of that name off the coast of Venezuela, and whose mixed descend- ants now speak the Papamiento jargon, are no doubt correctly assigned to this stock by M. Pinart. They were skillful potters, and buried their dead in large * Joao Barboza Rodrigues, Pacificafdo dos Crichanas, (Rio de Janeiro, 1885). Dr. Rodrigues was Director of the Botanical Mu- seum of the Amazons. His work contains careful vocabularies of over 700 words in the Macuchi, Ipurucoto and Crichana dialects. His journeys to the Rio Jauapery were undertaken chiefly from phil- anthropic motives, which unfortunately did not bear the fruit they merited. t " D'un blanc presque pur." Dr. J. Crevaux, Voyages dans PAmMque du Slid, p. in (Paris, 1883). \ Dr. Crevaux, Ibid., p. 304. ? See Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1888, p. 549. These are not to be confounded with the Apiacas of the Rio Arinos, who are of Tupi stock. The word apiaca or apijiba in Tupi means simply " men." 254 THE AMERICAN RACE. urns. The numerous polychromatic petroglyphs they have left and their peculiar character are especially noteworthy.* Sir Robert H. Schomburgk classifies the Carib stock in Guiana as follows, giving a short specimen of each dialect, which differ, he says, among them- selves about as much as French and Italian. f CARIB SUB-STOCK IN GUIANA. Accawai. Mazvakwa. Arecuna. Pianochotto. Caribisi, Soerigong. Guianau. Tiverighotto. Macusi. Waiyamara. Maiongkong. Woyawoi. The Guaques, who live on the head-waters of the Caqueta or Yapura river, have not been heretofore identified as Caribs; but their dialect, as collected by Presbyter Mannel P. Albis in 1853, leaves no doubt as to its relationship. He describes them as intelligent and kindly, but incorrigible and dexterous thieves, skillful in the collection of wax and the preparation of poisons. Nowhere is the couvade with its associate superstitions more rigidly observed. No woman must be seen by men during her catamenia, and at child- birth she must separate from the household for three months. During all that time her husband strictly observes a diet and seclusion. :{: * A. S. Pinart, Aperfu sur d'ile d'Aruba, ses Habitants, ses An- tiquites, ses Pctroglyphes (folio, Paris, 1890;. t Report of the Brit. Assoc.for the Adv. of Science, 1848, p. 96. % Bulletin of the Amer. Ethnolog. Society, Vol. I., p. 59. THE CARIB STOCK. 255 The lower Orinoco basin was for a long time the center of distribution of the stock ; they probably had driven from it nations of Arawak lineage, some of whom, as the Goajiros, they pushed to the west, where they were in contact with the Carib Motilones,* and others to the islands and the shores to the east. The Carijonas and Guaques on the head-waters of the Yapura or Caqueta are now their most western hordes, and the Pimenteras on the Rio Paruahyba are their most eastern. We can thus trace their scattered bands over thirty-five degrees of latitude and thirty of longitude. The earliest center of distribution which best satisfies all the conditions of the problem would be located in the Bolivian highlands, not remote from that I have assigned to the Arawaks. The physical features of the Caribs assimilate closely to those of the Arawaks. They are taller in the average and more vigorous, but their skulls are equally brachycephalic and orthognathic. They are beardless, and have the same variability in color of skin. As good specimens of the modern Caribs we may take the tribes of Venezuela. These are spoken of as " the strongest, handsomest and most intelligent of any of the natives in northern South America."f They are tall, straight and symmetrical, the women not less muscular than the men. The hair is some- times slightly wavy, as Von den Steinen saw among the Bakairi. * The identification of the Motilones as Caribs we owe to Dr. Ernst, Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 1887, s. 296. t "La mas bella, la mas robusta y la mas intelligente," etc- F. Michelena y Rojas, Exploration Official de la America del Sur, p. 54 (Brusselas, 1867). 256 THE AMERICAN RACE. The Caribs have had a bad reputation as to culture on account of their anthropophagous tendencies. Indeed, the word cannibal is a mispronunciation of their proper name, Karina. But they were quite on a par with their neighbors, the Arawaks, and in some respects superior to them. For instance, their canoes were larger and finer, and they had invented the de- vice of the sail, which seems to have been unknown to all the other tribes on the continent. To some ex- tent they were agricultural, and their pottery was of superior quality. The beginnings of picture-writing were in use among them, and the remarkable rock inscriptions still visible on the Orinoco and the Essiquibo are at- tributable to them, and were probably intended as conjurations to the supernatural powers, similar to others which remain in St. Vincent and other islands from the date of the Carib occupation.* Their family life was not usually communal, but each household occupied its own dwelling. In some parts, as in the deltas of the Essiquibo and Orinoco, and even on the dry savannas, their huts were built on a substructure of piles which lifted them five or six feet from the ground or the water, as the case might be. The religious rites they observed were often elabo- rate. Their principal divinities are said to have been the sun, moon and earth, the latter of which was spoken of as the mother of the race. They practiced the couvadc y and their priests, called piaye, exercised unlimited power, and were correspondingly feared. * See D. G. Brinton, " On a Petroglyph from the Island of St. Vincent," in Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Phila- delphia, 1889, p. 417. THE CARIB STOCK. 257 It was the opinion of Von Martius that the Carib, the Tupi-Guarani and the Aravvak stocks are trace- able to some very ancient common tongue. This view is at first sight strengthened by a wide compari- son of vocabularies, but is weakened by an examina- tion of the grammars of the three families, especially their pronominal elements. It is probable that the three ancestral tribes had early and close communica- tion, but not original identity. The seeming relationship has been rendered more prominent in certain instances by free later borrow- ings. M. Adam has shown that some of the northern dialects are in the condition of jargons, their gram- mar on the Carib model, their words drawn from various stocks. Such are the " Island Carib," which is largely Arawak, and the Boni-Ouyana, described by Dr. Crevaux.* CARIB LINGUISTIC STOCK. Akavais, or Accowoios, in southern British Guiana. Apalais, on the lower Paru. Apiacas, on the lower Tocantins. Arecunas, on Rio Branco. Aricoris> see Yaos. Bakairis, on the Upper Schingu. Caribisis, in Guiana. Carijonas, head-waters of the Caqueta. Cariniacos, on lower Orinoco. Chaimas, in ancient province of Cutnana. Cumanagotos, in ancient province of Cumana. Galibis, in French Guiana. Guaques, on the upper Caqueta. * Also the Ouaye'oue', of which a short vocabulary is given by M. Coudreau in the Archives de la Socittt Americaine de France, 1886. 17 THE AMERICAN RACE. Guaharibos, on the upper Caura. Guayqueris, in province of Cuinana. Jauamerys, on Rio Jauapery. Macusis, on Rio Negro. Maqueritaris, on Rio Branco. Motilones, near R. Zulia in Venezuela. Palmellas, on Rio Paruahyba. Paramonas, sub-tribe of Akavais. Pianagotos, on Rio Branco. Paravilhanas, on Rio Branco. Pimenteiras, on Rio Paruahyba. Purigotos, on Rio Jauapery. Rocotiyennes, in French Guiana. Tamanacas, on Rio Cuccivero. Tiverigotos, on Rio Branco. Trios, on upper Corentyn. VaiyamaraS) on Rio Branco. Voyavais, on Rio Branco. v. Yaos, in Guiana. Zurumutas, sub-tribe of Macusis. (The Orinoco sub-stock will be described later.) 5. The Cariris. In his enumeration of the tribes of Central Brazil, Von Martius brings together a large number who once dwelt in the provinces of Bahia and Pernam- buco, under the general title, " the Guck or Coco stem," so called from the word which in many of them means " the paternal uncle." * This division has not been endorsed by later research, and it is evident that Von Martius included several quite dif- ferent stocks under this appellation. Among these, the most prominent were the Cariris or Kiriri. They are now reduced to about 600 souls, * Martius, Ethnographic, Bd. I., s. 346, sq. The word may mean either maternal or paternal uncle, V. d. Steinen, s. 292. BRAZILIAN TRIBES 259 but at one time were a powerful nation, and in 1699 the Jesuit Mamiani published a grammar and other works in their tongue.* They were among the more cultivated of the Brazilian tribes, given to agricul- ture, skilled in dyeing and weaving cotton, employ- ing a primitive spindle and loom, with weapons of several kinds and of superior finish. The Sabuyas, who dwell near them, speak a closely related dialect ; but further affinities have not been verified. They have, indeed, many loan words from the Tupi, and some from the Carib stock, but the ground-work of these tongues is different. Von den Steinen offers some reasons for believing that they moved down the Amazon from a far western resi- dence.f 6. The Coroados, Carajas ana others. The Coroados derive their name from the Portu- guese word coroa, a crown, the term " crowned " being applied to several native tribes who wore their hair in a peculiar manner. It is not at all an ethnic designation, and I use it to bring into relief the need of some term of greater precision. Thus, there are the Coroados who are neighbors and linguistically related to the Puris, dwelling on the Parahyba river. By some they have been included among the Tapuyas * Luiz Vincencio Mamiani, Arte de la Lingua Kiriri, and his Catechismo na Lingua da nctfao Kiriri. The former has been re- published (1877), and also translated into German by Von der Gabelentz (1852). t Durch Central- Brasilien, s. 303. This writer looks upon the Cariris as a remote off -shoot from the Carib stock. 260 THE AMERICAN RACE. as alleged relatives of the Botocudos. But not only is there no relationship of language, but physically they are widely apart. The Puris-Coroados are a dark yellow brown, with mesocephalic heads, dark brown oblique eyes, large mouths and thick lips nowise the type of the Botocudo. They are moreover agricultural in habits, and farther advanced in the arts.* There are other Coroados in the extreme south of Brazil, in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, whither they are said to have wandered from the north. These do not appear to be Botocudos either. They have round heads, dark brown eyes, low foreheads, and are of a light coffee color. They are noticeable for their clean and ornamental huts, and for their skill in hunting, in which they employ arrows five feet in length, with bone points. They pray to cer- tain stars as protective divinities, and like some northern tribes, clean and preserve the bones of the dead.f The Carajas belong to a stock who dwell on the affluents of the river Araguay, in the province of Goyas in southern Brazil. The traveler Castelnau \ penetrated to them, and was our earliest source of in- formation about them. They are wild and warlike, with a bad reputation among their neighbors. ITe *See Von den Steinen, Durch Central-Brasilien, s. 320 ; Paul Ehrenreich, Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1886, s. 184. fReinhold Hcnsel, " Die Coroados der Provinz Rio Grande do Sul," \x\. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, Bd. II., s. 195. \ F. de Castelnau, Expedition dans PAni&rique du Sud, Tom. I., p. 446. BRAZILIAN TRIBES. 261 was told they had no religion and no rites, but also that they were strictly monogamous and singularly firm moralists, punishing libertinage with the death of both parties ; statements which do not accord. Their method of burial was curious. The corpse was interred in an upright position, the head out of the ground. An ample stock of bananas and other food was placed near it, and renewed from time to time. This clearly indicates a belief in life after death. The pure Carajas are markedly dolichoceph- alic. The Caraja language is known too imperfectly to permit a proper study of its relationship. It is com- plex and difficult, and spoken differently by the men and the women. From the scant material at hand I perceive lexical relationship in some important words to the Tapuya stock,* but a wide divergence in phonetics and apparently in construction. Its mem- bers are as follows : * For instance : CARAJA. BOTOCUDO. Woman, awkeu, joku-nang. Sun, tiou, taru. Head, w-oara t curu. Tooth, wa-djon, yune. Hand, wa-depo, nipo. Fire, eaotou, pott. Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, who has a mass of unpublished material about the Caraja language, says it is wholly unconnected with the Carib group. Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1888, P- 548. 262 THE AMERICAN RACE. CARAJA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Carajahis, about Salinas. Carajas, on the Rio Araguay. Chimbioas, on the eastern affluents of lower Araguay. Javahais, on upper Araguay and island of Banaual. Ximbioas, see Chimbioas. A certain number of vocabularies have been ob- tained by travelers in Brazil from mixed-blood tribes, who spoke dialects sometimes compounded of several native tongues, sometimes of these mingled with Portuguese or negro elements. Such is the dialect of the Meniens, who lived in eastern Brazil near the Villa Belmonte, whose speech was a jargon of the Tapuya and negro languages ; and that of the Games in the interior of San Paulo, who also made use of a barbarous dialect, compounded of the African idioms of runaway slaves, and that of the Botocudos. The Catoquina, a specimen of which was obtained by Spix from a band on the affluent of the Jurua, and the Catoxa or Cotoxo of the Rio Parda, are other examples.* 7. The Orinoco Basin ; Carib Sub-Stock ; Salivas; Ar- awak Sub-Stock; Otomacas ; Guamas ; Guayoas ; Garuoas ; Guaraunos ; Betoyas ; Piaroas, etc. The Llanos of Venezuela coincide with the former " Territory of Caqueta," and embrace a region about forty thousand square miles in extent, covered either with grass and rushes or with dense forests. In the * Vocabularies of these are collected by Von Martius in his Eth- nographic und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, Bd. II., ss. 155, 156, 161, 212, etc. TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 263 wet season it is a vast marsh, in the dry it is scorched by a burning sun, raising the thermometer daily to over 100 in the shade. Yet the Llanos are but a part of the vast upper water-shed of the northern affluents of the Amazon and those of the Orinoco, which together O drain a country larger than the whole of France. This wide expanse is thinly populated with bands of savages, gaining their subsistence chiefly from the rivers, few of them brought within the range of civi- lized influences. Linguistically the majority belong to the Arawak and the Carib stocks ; but there are numbers of tribes whose affinities are uncertain, or who are apparently of quite another lineage. Scores of names are found in the records of the missions and on the pages of travelers, of peoples who have disap- peared or are now known by other designations. Alex- ander von Humboldt named and located 186 tribes on the Orinoco and its affluents alone ; but renounced as hopeless the attempt to give them a linguistic classification.* I shall not attempt to unravel the tangled ethnography of this region farther than to mention those tribes concerning whom specimens of language or the statements of European visitors per- mit a reasonable guess as to their affinities. Something over a century ago, when Father Gilii wrote, largely from personal knowledge, his descrip- tion of the tribes on the Orinoco and its affluents, he believed they could be included in nine linguistic stocks, f as follows : * The list is given in his Personal Narrative of a Joiimey in the Equinoctial Regions of America, Vol. VI., pp. 354~358, of the English translation (London, 1826). |F. S. Gilii, Saggio di Storia Americana, Tom. III., Lib. III., 264 THE AMERICAN RACE. 1. The Carib in a number of dialects, as the Tam- anaca, the Paiura, the Quiri-Quiripa, the Mapuya, the Guanero, the Guayquira, the Palenque, the Ma- quiritare, the Oje, the Mucuru, and others. 2. The Saliva, to which he assigned the dialects Ature, Piaroa and Quaqua. 3. The Maipure (Arawak), in its dialects Avane, Meepure, Cavere, Parene, Guipunave, and Chirupa. 4. The Otomaca, with one dialect, the Tarapita. 5. The Guama, with its dialect, the Quaquaro. 6. The Guayba, related to the Chiricoa. 7. The Jaruri ( Yarura). 8. The Guarauna. 9. The Aruaca. This classification can stand as only approximately accurate, but it serves as an excellent starting point. Beginning with the Carib stock, and basing my list on the works of Codazzi and more recent travelers, especially CreVaux, Coudreau and Chaffanjon, I offer the following as the tribes which may be definitely located as its members : CARIB SUB-STOCK IN THE ORINOCO REGION. Amarizonas (Amarisanes) , near the Rio Guaviare and Rios Etari and Ayrico. ArecunaSy on head-waters of the Rio Caroni. Ariguas, near the Rio Tauca. Cabiunes, on the Rio Apoporis. Carataimas, on the Rio Cauca. Chaymas, on the Rio Guarapiche. cap. 12 (Roma, 1782). In speaking of lengue tnatrici, he says positively, " In tutta 1'estensione del grande Orinoco non ve ne so no che nove," p. 204. TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 265 Cucciveros, on the Rio Cauca. Cuneguaras, on the Rio Maturin. Enaguas, on the Rio Agua Branca. Giiarives, on the Rio Ufiare. Maquiritares, on the Orinoco, near Lake Carida and Rio Ven- tuari. Matanos, on Rio Caura. Mucos, on Rio Apoporis. Panares, on Rio Caura. Parecas, on the lower Orinoco. Paudacotos, near the Rio Caura. Quiri-Quiripas, On the lower Orinoco. Quivas, on the Orinoco near the confluence of the Meta. Tamanacas, on lower Orinoco. Tuapocos, on the Rio Maturin. Vayamanos, on the Rio Paragua. Yaos, on the Rio de la Trinidad. Yocunos, on the Rio Apoporis. Even when Codazzi collected his material, more than half a century ago, the once powerful Tamana- cas had entirely disappeared, and no tribe of the name existed in the region.* The process of dissolution and destruction has gone on since his day with in- creasing rapidity, so that when Chaffanjon visited the Orinoco and Caura in 1884, he found that immense and fertile region almost uninhabited, the ancient tribes scattered and disappeared, or existing only in wretched remnants, mistrables ctibris, of their former selves. f The opportunity is forever lost, therefore, to define the ethnography of this region by original observation, and we are thrown back on the collec- tions and statements of former observers. The Maquiri tares, however, still remain as one of *Aug. Codazzi, Geografia de Venezuela,^. 247, 248 (Paris, 1841). fj. Chaffanjon, L ' Orhioque et la Caura, p. 247 (Paris, 1889). 266 THE AMERICAN RACE. the handsomest peoples on the Orinoco, and remark- able for the skill with which they manufacture canoes sixty or seventy feet long from the trunk of a single tree.* On the river Uaupes, an affluent of the Rio Negro M. Coudreau encountered various tribes, such as the Tarianos or Javis and the Nnehengatus, of whose tongues he obtained brief vocabularies. They indi- cate a distant influence of the Carib stock, especially the latter, but they seem mixed largely with elements from other sources.f They dwell adjacent to the Tucanos, to whom I have already referred as assigned by some to the Tapuyas. (See above, p. 240.) Gilii's second group, the Salivas, offers difficulties. There appears to be none of them under that name at present on the Orinoco. Chaffanjon states that the Atures have become extinct.:}: The Piaroas survive, but the tribe so-called to-day speak a tongue wholly unlike the Saliva, and unconnected, apparently, with any other stock ; and the modern Quaquas(Guagues) speak a dialect of the Arawak. Yet a hundred and fifty years ago the missionaries estimated the Silavas at four thousand souls. They lived principally on the river Cinareuco, below the Meta, and also on the Rio Etari, where they were in contact with the Carib Amarisanes. They are described as of a kindly and * Michelena y Rojas, Exploration Oficial de la America delSur, p. 344 (Bruselas, 1867). f A. Coudreau, Archives de la SocietZ Americaine de France, 1885, p. 281. % L'Orenoque et le Caura, p. 183. 8 See the Vocabularies. TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 267 gentle disposition, well-made in body and willing scholars of their spiritual masters. In their heathen- dom they had the unique custom of disinterring the bones of their dead after the expiration of a year, burning them, and then collecting the ashes to mix with their drinking water. * Their language, which was vocalic and nasal, has been preserved in sufficient specimens to serve for comparison. According to Vergara y Vergara, it is still spoken on the banks of the Meta,f and Hartmann includes in those who em- ploy it, the Quevacus and Maritzis, at the head of the Ventauri, and the Mayongcong on the Merevari. ^ The Arawak stock, which Gilii calls the Maipure, had numerous branches in this region. They occu- pied much of the Orinoco in its middle and upper course, as well as the valleys of its affluents. Gumilla speaks of one of its members, the Caveres, as savage and inhuman warriors, but as the only nation which had been able to repulse the attacks of the down-river Caribs, who were accustomed to ascend the stream in fleets of eighty to a hundred canoes, destroying every village on its banks. * Consult J. Cassani, Historia de la Provincia de la Compania de Jesus del Nuevo Reyno de Granada, fol. 170, 227 (Madrid, 1741) ; and Joseph Gumilla, El Orinoco Ilustrado y Defendido, p. 65 (Madrid, 1745). t Quoted by Aristides Rojas, Estudios Indigenas, p. 183 (Caracas, 1878). This work contains much useful information on the Ven- ezuelan languages. J Jorge S. Hartmann, " Indianerstamme von Venezuela," in Orig. Mittheil. aus der Ethnol. Abtheil. der Konig. Museen zu Berlin, 1886, s. 162. Joseph Gumilla, El Orinoco, p. 66. 268 THE AMERICAN RACE. The same authority mentions the Achaguas as pos- sessing the most agreeable and cultured dialect, though he is in doubt whether it is strictly related to the Maipure. This nation, quite prominent in the older annals, still existed in the middle of this cen- tury to the number of five hundred on the Rio Muco. They were not civilized, and practiced the customs of polyandry and the destruction of female infants.* Cassani refers to them as on the river Ele, and de- scribes them as tattooed and painted, with well-formed bodies and taking great pride in preserving and dress- ing their magnificent hair.f From a variety of sources at my disposition I have prepared the following list of the ARAWAK SUB-STOCK IN THE ORINOCO REGION. Achaguas, on Rio Ele and Rio Muco. Amoruas, on Rio Vichada. Avanenis, on Rio Guainia. Banivas, see Manivas. Bares, on Rios Baria and Guainia. Cabacabas, between Rios Yapura and Apoporis. Cafuanas, on Rio Yapura. Carusanas, on the Guainia and Inirida. Cauiris, right bank of Rio Guaviare. Caveres (Cabres), on Rio Zarna and Orinoco near it. Chirupas, on the Rio Zama. Guaripenis, on Rio Guainia. Gnaypunavis (Guipunavis) , on Lake Inirida. Macuenis, on Rio Guainia. Manivas (Banivas, Manitivas~), on Rio Guaviare and Rio Negr and their affluents. * Felipe Perez, Geografia del Estado de Cundinamarca, p. 109. t Histona de la Proinncia de Granada, pp. 87, 93. He cal' them a " nacion suave y racional." TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 269 Maipures, on middle Orinoco. Moroquenis, on Rio Yapura. Mituas, on Lake Inirida. Moruas, on Rio Yapura. Parenes, on middle Orinoco. Piapocos, near mouth of Rio Guaviare. Uaupes, on Rio Uaupes (?). YavitertS) on Rio Atabapo. The Otomacos remain, as Gilii placed them, an in- dependent stock, with their single dialect, the Tara- pita. The Jesuits first encountered them in 1732, amid the forests south of the Orinoco, between the Paos and the Jaruros. In later years they are de- scribed as a low grade of savages, given to the eating of earth. They are also said to be monogamous, and the women among them enjoy an unusual .degree of consideration, being permitted to take equal part in the public games.* Their present locality appears to be on or near the river Meta. The tribes whom Gilii mentions as the Guamas and Ouaquaros lived on the banks of the Rio Apure, and in his day had the reputation of " a numerous and valorous people/'f They were not unacquainted with some of the arts, and were particularly skillful in the manufacture of small figures in terra cotta, many of which are to be picked up on the sites of their ancient villages. Now, however, they have been smitten with the fate of their race, and are re- duced to a few miserable vagrants, destined to disap- pear wholly in a few years. Their arts are lost, and * Felipe Perez, Geografia del Estado de Boyuca, p. 136. t G. D. Coleti, Dizionario Storico-Geografico dell 1 America Me- ridionale, Toui. I., p. 164 (Venezia, 1772). 2/0 THE AMERICAN RACE. the oppression of the whites has driven from them all hopes of bettering their condition.* Of their language I have no specimens. According to Felipe Perez, it is related to the Omagua, and hence should be included in the Tupi stock ; but this writer is not always dependable. The Guaybas (Guahibos) and Chiricoas dwelt origi- nally on the broad plains between the Casanare and Meta rivers ; but a number of them were converted in the latter half of the seventeenth century and per- suaded to come to the missions. They soon returned to their roving life. Cassani speaks of them as of mild and friendly disposition, but incorrigible vaga- bonds, " the gypsies of the Indies," constantly mi- grating from place to place. f They have never lost their love of the wilderness, and it has been their sal- vation, for they still survive quite a numerous people on the left bank of the Orinoco, from the Rio Meta to the Vichada. They are rebellious to all attempts at civilization, and the white man is not safe who ventures into their territory. \ Humboldt, in his discussion of the tribes of the Orinoco, refers to the Guahibos as white in color, and founds some speculations on this fact. Their hue is indeed light, at times what may fairly be *J. Chaffanjon, L'Orenoque et le Caura, p. 121. f " Los Gitanos de las Indias, todo parecido en costumbres y modo de vivir de nuestros Gitanos. " Cassani, Hist, de la Prov. de Granada, p. in. Gumilla remarks : " De la Guajiva salen varias ramas entre la gran variedad de Chiricoas." (El Orinoco Ilus- trado, etc. Tom. II. p. 38.) JChaffanjon, L' Orenoque et le Caura, pp. 177, 183, 187, 197. TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 2/1 called a dirty white ; but in this respect we are assured by recent and competent authority they do not differ from their neighbors, the Maquiritares and Piaroas. It is not a question of descent, but of climatic surround- ings and mode of life.* The home of the Jaruris, Yaruros, or, as they called themselves, Japurin, was on and near the Orinoco, between the rivers Meta and Capanapaco. They depended on hunting and fishing, and were indolent and averse to agriculture. They had few arts, but were friendly in disposition, not given to drunken- ness, and usually monogamous. At present they number scarcely a hundred individuals, badly formed, afflicted with contagious disease, and rapidly on the road to extinction. They have lost their trait of sobriety, and a man will readily offer his wife or daughter in exchange for a bottle of brandy. (Chaf- fanjon.) The Guaranties, called by the English Warraus y continue to live in considerable numbers some say about fifteen thousand in and near the delta of the Orinoco. They are a thrifty, healthy people, build- ing their houses ingeniously upon piles to protect them from the periodical overflows of the stream. This method of construction, however, was adopted only when they sought as refuge marshy and lonely spots to escape their enemies. Contrary to the state- ments of most travelers, those who know them best report them as preferring dry uplands, where they * The subject is fully discussed from long personal observation by Michelena y Rojas, Exploration Oftcial dc la America del Sur, p. 346. 2/2 THE AMERICAN RACE. make clearings, plantations and houses with singular industry and skill. The favorite wood used in such construction is the temicJie (not the moriche) palm, which they call, from its magnificent fronds, " the feathers of the sun," yajuji* Humboldt placed their number at the beginning of the century at about six thousand, which is doubtless more correct than the later estimates. He adds that the Guayquiries, who inhabited the peninsula of Araya and the adjacent islands of Margarita, " admit the relationship of their language with that of the Guaraunos."f At the beginning of the last century Gumilla found them living on the south bank of the Orinoco in a most wretched condition and nearly an- nihilated by their merciless enemies, the Caribs. It is probable, therefore, that they removed from that loca- tion to the coast. ^ No other dialect of the tongue, so far as I know, has been discovered, and it seems an in- dependent stock. In appearance they are dark in hue, of muscular build, hair black, abundant and very fine, noses * See the observations of I/evel in Michelena y Rojas, Explora- tion Oficial de la America del Sur, p. 148, sq. The Guaraunos are also well described by Crevaux, Voyages dans V Amerique du Sud, p. 600, sqq. (Paris, 1883), and J. Chaffanjon, Archives de la Societe Americaine de France, 1887, p. 189. Im Thurn draws a very unfavorable picture of them in his Indians of British Guiana, p. 167. t A. Von Humboldt, Personal Narrative, Vol. III., p. 216 (Eng. trans. London, 1826). J Joseph Gumilla, Z. 1 'Orinoco Ilustrado, Tom. II., p. 66. They spoke Carib to him, but that was the lengua general of the lower river. TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 2/3 straight and well-shaped, skull brachycephalic, stature below medium. The Aruaca mentioned by Gilii were some tribes of the Arawaks who occasionally visited the southern bank of the Orinoco, and whose relations to the May- pures were not known to him. They are also men- tioned by other authors. Having thus reviewed the linguistic stocks named by Gilii, I shall proceed to mention some which escaped his attention. One of the most interesting of these is the Betoi, or Betoya. This tongue derived its name from a tribe dwelling at the foot of the mountains of Bogota, be- tween the rivers Apure and Tame, and are therefore included by some among the Indians of New Gra- nada. From a number of authorities I find the follow- ing members are attributed to the BETOYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Airicos, on head-waters of the Manacacia, the Ble and Guainia. Amaguages, near Rio Caqueta. Anibalis, on Rio Apure. Betois, on and near Rio Casanare, about north latitude 5. Correguages, on Rio Yari and head-waters of Caqueta. Jamas, on Rio Manacacia. Macaguages, on Rios Caucaya, Mecaya and Sensella. Piojes, on Rio Putumayo, and on the Napo and Caucaya (Cocayu). Quilifayes, on Rio Apure. Situfas, on Rio Casanare. Tamas, on the Rio Yari and Rio Caguo. Tunebos, in the Cordillera, adjacent to the Betois. Of these, the Piojes and Correguages, of which we have vocabularies, do not show close resemblance to 18 2/4 THE AMERICAN RACE. the Betoya, yet undoubtedly some ; * so I place them in this stock partly in deference to old authorities. The Piojes derive their name from the particle of negation in their language, this being their usual re- ply to all inquiries by traders or travelers. They are divided into two bands, speaking the same dialect, one on the Napo and one on the Putumayo, neither knowing anything of the other. Some of their cus- toms are peculiar. For instance, it is their rule that a widow shall take her son, a widower his daughter, to replace the deceased consort. f They are somewhat agricultural, and are skillful boatmen. The Tamas formerly lived on the river Aguarico (Coleti). Dr. Crevaux found them on the Caguo, a branch of the Yapura, and obtained from them a short vocabulary, but enough to mark them as mem- bers of the stock. There are also some on the Rio Meta who speak Spanish only. (Perez.) The Betoya has impressed me as showing some dis- tant affinity to the Choco stock, and it may be that ampler resources on both sides would lead to the es- tablishment of an original identity. The following words from the very scanty number which I have for comparison are noteworthy : * A description of the Correguages and a vocabulary of their dia- lect are given by the Presbyter Manuel M. Albis, in Bulletin of the Amer. Ethnol. Soc., Vol. I., p. 55. f Arthur Simpson, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador, p. 196 (Lon- don, 1886). In his appendix the author gives a vocabulary of the Pioje (and also one of the Zaparo). t Printed in the Bibliotheque Linguistique Americaine, by M. L. Adam, Tome VIII. , p. 52. TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 275 CHOCO STOCK. BETOYA STOCK. Man, uma-china, uma-soi, emi-ud. Woman, uerd, ro. Fire, t&joor, toa-tui. Ear, juru, ca-joro-so. Nose, jun, ju-saca,jin-quepui. The Choco do, river, seems related to the Betoya ocu-du, water. The Macaguages are industrious and agricultural. Both sexes dress alike in cotton tunics dyed in vio- let color, and suspend bright feathers and strings of beads in ears, nose and lips.* A singular question has arisen as to the relationship of the Betoya and the Yarura languages. Their near connection was affirmed by the early missionaries. In fact, the history of the conversion of the Betoyas turns upon the identity of the two tongues. It was brought about in 1701 by a Yarura Indian, a convert to Christianity, who accidentally discovered that he was understood by the Betoyas. In spite of this detail, it is evident from an inspec- tion of the vocabularies, that there is absolutely no relationship between the two idioms. I can only ex- plain the contradiction as arising from some ambigu- ity or similarity of names. The two tribes lived to- gether in the time of Gumilla, making up about three thousand souls, f * Manuel P. Albis, \nBull. of the Amer. Ethnol. Society, Vol. L, P- 55- f See the account in the interesting work of Father Cassani, His- toria de la Provincia de la Campania de Jesus del Nuevo Reyno de Granada, pp. 231, 232, 257, etc. (Madrid, 1741). He describes the Jiraras as having the same rites, customs and language as the Airi- 276 THE AMERICAN RACE. About the middle of this century some six hundred of the Betoyas dwelt on the head-waters of the river Manacacia.* In the territory of St. Martin, above the falls of the Guaviare and along the Rio Guejar and the Meta, are several tribes asserted to speak related dialects, but of which I have little information. The principal one is that of the Churoyas, of whom Professor Nicolas Saenz has given an interesting sketch and a short vocabulary, f They are very ugly, with broad faces, low foreheads, small and oblique eyes, and in color like dried tobacco. Nudity is their usual garb, and the skin is decorated with tattoo marks instead of clothing. According to Perez they number about 12004 Following him and other authorities, I may enumerate the following members of the CHUROYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Bisaniguas, on the Rio Guejar. Choroyas, on the Rio Guejar. Cofanes, on the Rio Aguarico. Guayues, on the Rio Caqueta. Macos, on the Rio Aguarico. Whether the Cofanes here named are those of the cos on the river Ele, p. 96. Gumilla makes the following doubt- ful statement: " De la lengua Betoya y Jirara, que aunque esta gasta pocas erres, y aquella demasiadas, ambas quieren ser matri- ces, se derivan las lenguas Situfa, Ayrica, Ele, Luculia, Jabue, Arauca, Quilifay, Anaboli, Lolaca, y Atabaca." (El Orinoco II us- trado y Defendido, Tom. II., p. 38, Madrid, 1745.) * Felipe Perez, Geografia del Estado de Cundinamarca, p. 113. f In the Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1876, s. 336, sq. J Geografia del Eslado de Cundinamarca, p. 114 (Bogota, 1863). TRIBES OF THE ORINOCO. 277 Province of Quitu who murdered the Jesuit missionary, Raphael Ferrer, in 1602, I have not discovered. Perez describes them as still warlike and seclusive, living in the terminal hills of the Cordillera, and avoiding traf- fic with the tribes of the lower river.* An examination of the vocabulary furnished by Saenz inclines me to think that the Churoya may be a mongrel dialect, or at least has borrowed freely from neighboring stocks. I subjoin the principal words from his short vocabulary, with some compari- sons : Sun, mshojaint. Moon, juimit (oantito, Guahibo). Fire, hijit (chichi, = sun, Carib). Water, minta. Bow, piranso (paria, Roucouyenne). Arrow, funait. Tobacco, joo. Plantain, parasa. Dog, uilg. Tortoise, ainjachie. Wind, che. Skin, begt. The Piaroas are mentioned by Gilii as a branch of the Salivas, but their language reveals no such con- nection. They are still found on both banks of the Orinoco above the confluence of the Vichada and near the mouth of the Mataveni. They are savage and superstitious, avoiding contact with the whites; they have had good reason to be extremely distrustful of the advances of their civilized neighbors. They are much given to nocturnal ceremonies, and enter- * Ibid., Geografia del Estado de Cauca, p. 313. 2/8 THE AMERICAN RACE. tain a great respect for the tapir, who is their reputed ancestor, and also the form which is taken by the souls of the departed.* The Puinavis dwell on the Inirida, an affluent of the Guaviare. A tribe, the Guipunabis, is mentioned by Gilii as belonging to the Maipure (Arawak) stock ; but it cannot be the same with the one under considera- tion, the language of which appears to be without affinities. Latham identified them with the Poignavis of the older writers, and on slight linguistic evidence, believed them connected with the Banivas.f My own comparisons do not justify this opinion. 8. The Upper Amazonian Basin. No portion of the linguistic field of South America offers greater confusion than that of the western Amazonian region. The statements are so conflict- ing, and the tribal changes apparently so rapid, that we are at a loss to bring modern observations into accord with older statements. Thus, I am entirely unable to accept the linguistic classification of Hervas, which certainly was based on the best information of his day. As a matter of comparison I give it. * ChafTanjon, ubi supra, p. 203. f He gives oueni, water, zenquerot, moon, as identical in the Pu- inavi and Baniva. The first may pass, but the second is incorrect. See his remarks in A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, p. 528 (London, 1853). A vocabulary of 53 Puinavi words is furnished from Dr. CreVaux's notes in Vol. VIII. of the Biblio- theque Linguistique Americaine (Paris, 1882). TRIBES OF THE UPPER AMAZON. 279 List of Languages in the Governments of Maynas and the Maranon (Hervas). STOCKS. DIALECTS. STOCKS. DIALECTS. ' Araro. f Chapo. Chuudavino. 1 Coronado. Gae. 8. MAINA. "j Humurano. Guazago. [ Roamaino. I. ANDOA. - Murato. Pabo. 9. MUNICHE. j Muchimo - I Otanabe. Pinche. Simigae. ( Iltipo. 10. PANA. ( Pelada. Bobonazo. ' Amjemhuaco. Curano. Manua. iCusitinavo. Manatinavo. TJpatarinavo. 2. CAMPA. . Nanerua. f Arazo. Nesahuaco. Ijinori. Sepaunabo. 12. SIMIGAE. \ Nevo. - Tasio. Oa. 3- CHAYA- f Cahuapano. [ Zaparro. VITA. I paranaruro. f Ginua. (Putumayo. Yete. Inuaco. Ceoqueyo. 4. COMABA. { _, , , Ruanababo. f Barbudo. [ Zepo. (Manamabobo. Itucale. 14. URARINA. j Mayorufio . Mananama- [^ Musimo. bua. {Atnaono. Guajoyo. Guencoyo. Nahuapo. Napeano. 6. ENCABEL- Neocoyo. Masamae. I.ADA. I Zaparro, or r Acamaori. Encabellado. Camacori. I Ziecoyo. 16. JINORI. \ Iqueconejori. 7. IKBERA. / Tiputini. 1 Tibilo. Panajori. [ Tremojori. A slight examination of this classification suffices to reveal its general inaccuracy. The Zaparos arc 280 THE AMERICAN RACE. included in both the Encabellada and the Simigae stocks. The latter is given both as a stock and as a dialect of the Andoa. In fact, all three of the stocks named belong together as dialects of one. The Pano stock, as we now know it, appears scattered under Cuniba, Urarina and Pana ; and the arrangement is incorrect in many other points. While it has a value in preserving the names of some now missing tribes, as a linguistic scheme it is wholly unsafe. The Zaparos constitute one of the most extended and numerous nations in the upper valley of the Amazon. They dwell near or adjacent to the Jivaros on the south, and as their name is variously spelled Zaparos, Xeberos and Jeberos, they have at times been confounded with them. They differ, however, not only in language, but in appearance and temperament. The Zaparos are lighter in color, smaller in stature, with oblique eyes, large mouths, and expanded nos- trils.* Their disposition is indolent and easy tem- pered, and their abilities inferior. This is seen in the construction of their houses and the appearance of their fields, which do not compare advantageously with those of the Jivaros; but they display some in- genuity in manufacturing clothing from the bark of a species of Ochroma, and they are skillful in concocting the urara poison, in making blow-pipes, and are daring boatmen. In 1632 they lived near the Omaguas, on the river Curary, and their number was estimated by the mis- *Ed. Andre, in Le Tour du Monde, 1883, p. 406. But Osculati describes them as tall and fine-looking, with small mustaches. Esplorazione delle Regioni Equatorial, p. 164, sq. (Milano, 1850). TRIBES OF THE UPPER AMAZON. 28 1 sionaries at 10,000. At present their main body dwells between the rivers Pastaza and Napo and along the Maraflon between the rivers Zamora and Morona. In 1850 Osculati estimated their number at over 20,000, which is certainly in excess of their present representatives. The many small tribes into which they are divided, and the confused orthography of the names applied to them, render it difficult to offer a satisfactory list. It seems tolerably certain that the ancient " Andoas " were the Zaparos of the upper Pastaza,* and equally sure that the Encabel- lada, the lebera, the Simigae and the Jinori lan- guages, all supposed by Hervas to be independent stocks, f were spoken by members of the Zaparo family. The Iquitos are another populous branch, sometimes supposed to be distinct. The Zaparo language is agreeable to the ear, par- taking of the phonetic character of the Brazilian idioms. The Italian traveler, Osculati, has furnished a very satisfactory account of it, both grammatical and lexicographical,^: and there are vocabularies by other voyagers. I offer the following alphabetic list of the sub-tribes * This opinion is supported by Kamy, Villavicencio, and other good authorities. f Hervas, Catal. de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., p. 262. The term Encabellados was applied to the tribe from their custom of allowing the hair to grow to their waist. (Leltres Edifientes, Tom. II., p. 112). The Pater Noster in the Encabellada dialect is printed by E. Teza in his Saggi Inediti di Lingue Americans, p. 53 (Pisa, 1868). J la the closing chapters of his Esplotaziom, above quoted. 282 THE AMERICAN RACE. of the Zaparos, without attempting to define their several positions in the general district referred to : ZAPARO LINGUISTIC STOCK. Achuales. Curyies. Macavinas. Putumayos. Agapicos. Curarayes. Mautas. Quirivinas. Aicores. Custimanos. Moronas. Rotunos. Andoas. Cutinanas. Mueganos. Semigaes. Anguteris. Encabellados. Muratos. Shiripunas. Antires. Eriteynes. Napotoas, Tabalosos. Araros, or Frascavinos. Neocoyos. Tiputinis. Arazos. Gaes. Nepas. Tivilos. Ayacares. Ginoris. Nerecamues. Tremajoris. Bobonazos, Gualaquizas. Nushinis. Yasunis. Cahuaches. Guazacas. Oas. Yegtteyos. Chudavinos. Himuetacas. Panajoris. Yetes. Churitunas. Huasimoas. Paranapuras. Zamoros. Comacoris. Ibanomas. Pastazas. Zapaos. Conejoris. Incuris. Pavos. Copatasas. Itremajoris, Pindis. On the mountain slope of the Cordillera, north of the Zaparos and east of the Caftaris, are the Jiva- ros (Givaros, Xivaros), a wild, warlike tribe, never subjugated either by the Kechuas or the Spaniards. Their homes are about the head-waters of the rivers Pastaza, Santiago, and other affluents of the Maraflon. They are rather tall, of light color, with thin lips, aquiline noses, straight eyes, prognathic jaws, hair black or with a reddish tinge. Some say their various bands number as many as four hundred, named from the streams on which they live. Most of them depend upon hunting and fishing, others pursue agriculture and breed pigs. Their weapons are the sarbacane, the lance, the bow and the shield. They have developed a system of sound- THE JIVAROS. 283 signalling or telegraphy by means of large wooden drums placed at certain distances apart, by beating on which in a peculiar manner the advent of an enemy, his number and direction, can be heralded over hundreds of square miles in a few hours. The Jivaros are celebrated for the preparation of human heads by a process of boiling and drying so as to pre- serve the hair and soft parts. Many of these trophy heads have been brought to Europe, and their pur- pose has led to some discussion. It appears that they are prepared both as trophies of victory and out of reverence to departed chiefs.* Their houses are built solidly of wood, with wooden doors. They sleep upon wooden frames, and construct tools of the same material.f The principal event in their history was their re- volt against the Spanish authorities in the year 1599. They destroyed many settlements and the entire city of Logrofio, carrying the women into captivity. Many of them had already been converted to Chris- tianity, and their rites are said still to preserve some reminiscences of such teachings. In recent years many of them have been civilized through the efforts of Italian missionaries. The language of this important nation, although early studied, has as yet no printed literature. I have found of it only the first five numerals, which do not * An excellent article on the ethnography of this tribe is the " Osservazioni Ethnografiche sui Givari," by G. A. Colini in Real. Accad. dei Lincei, Roma, 1883. See also Alfred Simpson, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador, p. 91, sq. (London, 1886). f Ed. Andre", in Le Tour du Monde, 1883, p. 406. 284 THE AMERICAN RACE. seem to have connection with any other tongue. They are as follows : I. Alza ; 2. catuta ; 3. kala ; 4. ingatu ; 5. aley- ticlon* From a study of proper names and ethnographic traits, Dr. Hamy has expressed himself with great as- surance that the Jivaros belong to the Guarani group of the Tupi stock ; f but the above numerals do not indicate such relationship, nor do I think that his other arguments establish it. For the present they must be considered an independent stock. JIVARO LINGUISTIC STOCK. Antipas, above the Pongo de Manseriche. Aguarunas, below the mouth of the Rio Nieva and Rio Huallaga. Ayulis, on the Rio Morono. Cherembos, left bank of Maranon. Chirapas. Huambisas, on Maranon above the Pongo de Manseriche. Lojanos. Muratos, below mouth of the Rio Pastaza. Pautis. Uambisas, south of the Maranon. Zamoras. The eastern neighbors of the Jivaros are the scat- tered bands of the Maynas, separated by Hervas into two stocks, the Maina and the Chayavita, but so far as I can learn, without sufficient reason. The lan- *Prof. Raimondi, in the Anthropological Review > Vol. I., p. 33- sq- f " La comunaute" d'origine entre les Jivaros et les tribus du grand groupe guaranien se trouvera etablie avec assurance." Dr. Hamy, " Nouveaux Renseignements sur les Indiens Jivaros," in the Revue d'Anthropologie, 1873, p. 390. TRIBES OF THE MARAftON. 285 guage is or was spoken at the mission of the Concep- tion on the upper Maraflon and in the uplands around Cerros de Mainas. It is singularly harsh and difficult. The natives were wild, and lived by hunting and fish- ing. Their earlier home was on the upper waters of the Morona and Pastaza rivers. The following bands are embraced in the MAINA LINGUISTIC STOCK.* Cahuapanas. Chayavitas, Humuranos. Roantainas. Chapos. Coronados. Mainas. On the Rio Javary there seem to be several inde- pendent stocks. One of these is that of the Yatneos y who are found in the lower course of the river and also further up the Marafton, near Nauta, and on the Huallaga, where they are called Llameos, Yameos, Lamas, or Lamistas. Formerly they were a numer- ous and warlike nation, sharply divided into gentile organizations, and carefully refraining from inter- marriage in the gens. At an early date we hear of them between the Rio Tigre and the Napo. (Mark- ham.) The following sub-tribes are stated by various writers to belong to the LAMA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Aguanos. Cahuaches. Nahuapos. Yarrapos. Alabonos. Massamaes Napeanos. Amaonos. Miquianos. Parranos. *The Mithridates (Bd. III., Ab. II., s. 592) gives from Hervas the Pater Noster in the Maina dialect. Professor Teza (Saggi in- edltidi Lingue Americane, pp. 54-57) has published the Pater Noster, Ave, Credo and Salve in the Cahuapana dialect. They differ but little. 286 THE AMERICAN RACE. Poeppig describes them as agricultural and indus- trious, and much given to trade and travel. In appearance, they are small, dirty and Mongoloid, sharply contrasting with the Indians of the Huallaga, who are all tall, strong and well built, with good feat- ures.* In conformity to old authorities, Markham classes the Ardas as a sub-tribe of the Yameos. Their home was between the rivers Napo and Masso. On the latter they were in immediate contiguity to the Massamaes (Coleti). There has been published a Doctrina in their language, from which the Lord's Prayer is quoted by Ludevvig.f This version has no resemblance to the Pater in Yamea contained in the Mithridates ; so for the present I leave the Ardas un- classified. Higher up the river Javary are a number of tribes speaking related dialects of what I shall call the Peba stock, though there are some reasons to consider it a corrupt dialect of the Omagua, and hence related to the Tupi. PEBA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Caumaris. Cauwachis. Pacayas. Pebas. To this list I add the Yeguas, Yaguas or Yahuas, found in the same vicinity, and remarkable for their fine personal appearance, " the most perfect physical type," says M. Ordinaire, " of all the Indian races." ^ * See E. Poeppig, " Die Indiervolker des obern Huallaga," in his Reise in Chile und Peru, Bd. II., ss. 320, 321, 400, etc. f Literature of American Aboriginal Languages, p. 12. \ Olivier Ordinaire, " Les Sauvages du Perou," in the Revue d'Ethnologie, 1887, p. 320. TRIBES OF THE MARAfiON. 287 The vocabulary of their language obtained by Castel- nau shows unmistakable affinities to that of the Pebas.* On the Rio Chambira, adjacent to the Yameos and Omaguas, dwelt in the early part of the last century the Itucales and Varinas or Uarunas, who, according to Coleti, spoke allied dialects. The Itucales were noteworthy as the aptest and most biddable converts obtained by the missionaries on the river. They were agricultural and monogamous, f Hervas classes them with the Musimos, the Mayorunas and the Barbudos, under the Urarina language ; but the last two are members of the Pano stock. The Ticunas (Tecunas, Tucunas) are found along the lower Javary and the Solimoes, adjacent to the Pebas. They wander about in a state of nakedness, depending on hunting and fishing, and under a loose control of the Brazilian government. Many of them can converse in Kechua, though their own tongue is of a different group. They are given to dances of a sacred character, in which the actors appear in masks. * For example : YAHTJA. PEBA. Bow, cano, canou. Ear, on-tisiu, mi-tiwi. Hair, rinoncay, rainosay. Head, fi-rignio, raino. Heart, hu-iachai, ca-iishi. Forehead, uno, nimo. Nose, unirou, vinerro. Woman, huata, uatoa. The Yahua has more Kechua elements than the Peba. t Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, Tome II., p. 112. 288 THE AMERICAN RACE. An operation allied to circumcision is practiced on infants of both sexes at the time of assigning them names.* One of the several tribes called " Orejones " is thought by Poeppig to belong to the Ticunas.f The tribes in the valley of the Huallaga were first visited by Franciscan missionaries in 1676. In that year Father Jose de Araujo converted a number of the Hibitos (Xibitos) in the Upper Huallaga, and wrote an arte of their language. He found it the same as that of the Chunchos in the Sierra. Their neighbors further down the river, the Cholones, speaking a dif- ferent idiom, were brought under the instruction of Father Francisco Gutierrez, who composed a work on their tongue. A century later we find these two na- tions living together at the mission, counting 4800 souls, and occupying that portion of the province of Cajamarquilla between 7 and 8 30' s. lat. They were peaceable and agricultural, with fields of cotton and food plants. \ This fair scene disappeared in the turbulent life of the next generation, and when the traveler Poeppig visited the Huallaga in 1834 he found the mission in decay, and the natives, much reduced in numbers, had resumed their wild life and again become sav- ages. At present, along the main stream to the *Von Martius, Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde Amerikas> Bd. I., s. 445. t Reisein Chile und Peru, Bd. II., s. 415. J Jose Amich, Compendia Historico de la Serafica Religion, etc., pp. 77, 78. % E. Poeppig, Reise in Chile und Peru, Bd. II., s. 328 (Leipzig, 1836). THE PANOS. 289 north, are the Cocamillas, the Aguanteas, and the Puinahuas. All these appear to be of the Tupi stock, with dialects akin to the Cocama and Oma- gua.* The Panos. When the missionaries first crossed the Cordillera and explored the upper Ucayali river, they found a number of related tribes, the principal of whom were the Panos. By their traditions they had moved from near the equator at the north. They differed little in culture from their neighbors, and are now nearly extinct. By the earlier writers they were placed in relation to the Omaguas as members of the Tupi stock,f but the researches of M. Raoul de la Grasserie have vindicated for them an independent po- sition.^; They are said to have possessed a form of hieroglyphic writing, which they painted on a sort of paper manufactured from vegetable fibre. Some of the Mayorunas are reported as having thick beards and white skins (Martius), but these pe- culiarities are probably attributable to early admix- tures with the white race. The largest of these tribes at present is that of the Conibos, who constitute now the greater part of the natives the traveler encounters on the Ucayali. In appearance they have some resemblance to the Peru- vians. The nose is aquiline and prominent, the fore- head broad, the eye large, and the cheek bones not * Cf. Olivier Ordinaire, " Les Sauvages du Perou," in Revue d' 'Ethnologic, 1887, pp. 316, 317. f Von Martius, Ethnog. und Sprach. Amerikas, Bd. I., s. 435. t Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internal, des Americanistes, 1888, p. 438. 19 THE AMERICAN RACE. prominent. In intelligence they are superior to their neighbors, learning the Spanish language readily, and proving themselves valuable house-servants. They are apathetic, however, and none of the Panos have shown any earnest desire to adopt a civilized life* The Cashibos are the most savage tribe on the Ucayali or its affluents, and are said to have the ugly custom of eating their relations when they die, and if this event is long delayed, the old men are killed. But such is the power of ideas, that one of the obsta- cles to their conversion is that they so much prefer their bodies to become food for their relatives than a feast for worms ! f The Pacaguaras or Pacavaras, on the rivers Beni and Mamore, classed by D'Orbigny as a separate stock, belong among the Panos, as is clearly seen by the vocabulary furnished by that traveler, and later that by Mr. Heath. :}: The easternmost branch of the stock (not noted by M. de la Grasserie), are the Canawarys (Canamarys), who live on the banks of the Purus. Mr. Chandless heard that they were related to the Conibos, and the few words he ob- tained of their language prove the statement correct. * See Dr. L. F. Gait, " The Indians of Peru," in Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1877, p. 308, sq. f Professor Antonio Raimondi, Apuntes sobre la Provinda de Loreto (Lima, 1862), trans, by Bollaert, in Jour. Anthrop. Insti- tute. He states that they speak a dialect of Pano. \ D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tome II., p. 262. \ W. Chandless, in Jour, of the RoyalGeog. Soc., Vol. XXXIX., p. 302 ; Vol. XXXVI., p. n8. UPPER AMAZONIAN TRIBES. 29! PANO. PACAGUARA. CANAWARY. Sun, bari t uari, wari. Fire, chi, chi-i, chi-i, Water, uaca, waka. Mr. Chandless also says, " The Conibos are of the same tribe as the Manitenerys of the river Purus," which would bring these latter also into the Pano stock. The short vocabulary of their language which he supplies does not bear out this assertion. Mr. Rich- ard Spruce considered that it proved them to be of the Carib stock;* but to me it seems unmistakably a member of the Arawak family, as will be seen from the following analysis : MANITENERY. ARAWAK STOCK. Sun, cashi, catche. Moon, siri, casiri. Fire, chi-chi, chichi. Water, huni, uni. From the above considerations I offer the following names as comprising the PANO LINGUISTIC STOCK. Barbudos, on the Maranon. Callisecas, on upper Ucayali.f Canawarys, on Rio Purus. * Ibid., Vol. XXXVI., p. 123, note. f The Callisecas are now no longer known by that name ; but J. Amich has given sufficient reasons to identify them as the ancestors of the tribe later known as the Setibos. See his Compendia His- torico de la Serafica Religion en las Montanas de los Andes, p. 29 (Paris, 1854). Lieutenant Herndon, however, who describes them as wearing beards, believed they were the ancient Cashibos (Ex- ploration of the Valley of the Amazon, p. 209. Washington, 1853). 292 THE AMERICAN RACE. Caripunas, near cataracts of Rio Madeira. Cashibos, on Rio Pachitea and Aguaitia. Chamicttros, on west bank of the Rio Huallaga.* Cochivuinas, a sub-tribe of Mayorunas. Conibos, on upper Ucayali. Culinos, on Rio Juvary. Jaunavos, see Caripunas. Mayorunas, on Rio Tapichi and Rio Yavari. Maxorunas, near Rio Tapichi. Panos, on upper Ucayali. Pacaguaras, on Rio Beni. Remos, on Ucayali, from Abayan to Chanchaguaya. Sends, right bank of Ucayali above Saraycu. Setibos (Setevos), on upper Ucayali.f Sipibos, on upper Ucayali. Mr. Chandless met on the rivers Purus and Jurua tribes of a stock whose tongue I have not been able to connect with any other. They are represented on the former stream by the Pammanas or Pam- marys (pama-ouiri, eaters of the pama, a kind of berry), or Puru-purus (piru-poru, name of a skin disease which prevails there), whose name has been transferred to the river. These are believed by Mar- tius to be the same or allied to the Pamas, a tribe who formerly lived on the Madeira, but were driven thence by the Caripunas. On the Jurua are the * According to Veigl. See Miihridates, III., II. 580, 581, 583. f Called also Mananaguas, "mountaineers," and believed by Waitz to have been the Manoas among whom an old missionary found an elder of the tribe rehearsing thejannals of the nation from a hieroglyphic scroll (Anthropologie der Naturvolker, Bd. III., s. 541). The real Manoas or Manaos belong to the Arawak stock. | W. Chandless, in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ', Vol. XXXVI., p. 118 ; Vol. XXXIX., p. 311. \ Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde> Bd. I., s. 414. UPPER AMAZONIAN TRIBES. 293 apparently related Arauas and Araicus. All these de- pend on hunting and fishing, and are of migratory habits. Some of the Pammanas are reported as light in hue, with blue eyes and brown hair.* Many tribes with names differing from the above are recorded by the older writers as resident on these rivers, but owing to the absence of linguistic material, no identification is possible. The close relationship of the Pammarys of the Purus and the Arauas of the Jurua is shown by the following comparison : PAMMARY. ARAUA. Moon, massicu, massicu. Fire, siju, sihu. Water, paha, paha. Dog, djuimahi, jumayhi. So far as known, I would place the following tribes in the ARAUA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Arauas (Ara6}, on the lower Jurua. Pamas, formerly on the Madeira. Pammarys, on the Rio Purus. Puru-purus, on the Rio Purus. The jargon of the Yaguas, on the Amazon between Nauta and Pebas, seems to have borrowed from this stock ; as : YAGUA. PAMMARY. Sun, ini, saf-iny. Water, haha, paha. The neighbors of the Arauas on the river Purus * Von Martius, Ibid., p. 422, 294 THE AMERICAN RACE. are the Hypurinas (better Jupurinas) of whose lan- guage Mr. Chandless also supplies a short vocabu- lary. It contains a few words in common with the Pammary, but probably only borrowed by both from the Arawak. The following will illustrate the two tongues : PAMMARY. JTJPURINA. Sun, safiny, atocanti. Moon, massicu, cassiri. Fire, siju, chamina. Water, paha, iborahai. River, wainy, weni. Dog, djuimahi, anguity. Tortoise, u-jur&, chetuyu. Tapir, dama, chama. The Hypurinas on the Rio Acre (or Aquiri) belong to the same tribe. They are said to be related to the Chacobos and the Piros of the Ucayali. They are without civilization. The women go naked, but the men wear long purple robes, and both sexes pierce the lips and nose. Some agriculture is carried on, but hunting and fishing are the main sources of the food supply.* The total number of natives on the Purus and its affluents was estimated by Colonel Labre, in 1885, at 40,000, " speaking forty or more different languages ; " but this last assertion we may take with large allow- ance. Probably not over four or five stocks are rep- resented. The same explorer names nine tribes vis- ited by him on the river Ituxy. They are the : i, Caccharari ; 2, Canamary ; 3, Catauxi ; 4, Guarayo ; * Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1890, p. 242. THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. 295 5, Huatanary; 6, Hypurina ; 7, Hyuma ; 8, Pamana ; and 9, Pamary tribes.* In this list, as elsewhere, the term Guarayos has no ethnic significance. It is a Tupi word applied in this Spanish form to various wild, uncivilized tribes. p. The Bolivian Highlands : the Chiquitos, Yuru- cares, Mosetenas, Tacanas, Samucus, Canichanas and others. On the Atlantic face of the Cordillera, in the east- ernmost portion of Bolivia, where the head-waters of the Madeira are known by the names of the Mamore, the Guapai and the Beni, there is an astonishing va- riety of linguistic stocks. It would seem that the broken remnants of many diverse nations had sought refuge in the deep vales and dense forests of this region. We have already seen that the Caribs were repre- sented here by the Palmellas, and the Arawaks by the Moxos and Baures. South of the Moxos was the extensive region of the Chiquitos, stretching between south latitude 16 and 18, and from the upper affluents of the Paraguay river to the summit of the Cordillera. On the south it adjoined the Gran Chaco, and on the west the territory of the Kechuas. They were a medium-sized, mild-mannered people, mostly of little culture, depending on the chase for food, but willingly adopting the agricul- tural life recommended to them by the missionaries. They were divided into a vast number of small rov- ing bands, the most important group of which were * Proceedings of the Royal Geog. Society, 1889, p. 501. 296 THE AMERICAN RACE. the Manacicas, whose homes were near Lake Xaray, about the head-waters of the Paraguay. Their myths relating to a male and female deity and their son reminded the Jesuits of the Christian Trinity.* The Manacicas were agriculturists and remarkably skilful potters. The villages they constructed were surrounded with palisades and divided by broad streets. The corpses of the dead were deposited in underground vaults, and both property and rank passed in the male line to the sons of the deceased. The Chiquito language is interesting for its scope and flexibility, being chiefly made up of generic par- ticles capable of indefinite combination. f It is sin- gular in having no numerals, not even as far as three. Its four principal dialects were those of the Taos, the Piflocos, the Manacicas and the Penoquies. ^ It was selected by the missionaries as the medium of instruc- tion for a number of the neighboring tribes. Of such tribes there were many, widely different in speech, manners and appearance from the Chiquitos. Some of them are particularly noteworthy for their un-Indian type. Thus, to the west of the Chiquitos, on the banks of the rivers Mamore and Chavari, were * Muratori, // Cristianesimo Felice, p. 27 (Venezia, 1743). Father Fernandez gives the names of 69 bands of the Manacicas (Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, Tom. II., p. 174). f A grammar of it has been edited by MM. Adam and Henry, Arte de la lengua Chiquita, Paris, 1880. (Bibliotheque Linguis- tique Americaine, Tom. VI.) The sub-divisions of the Chiquitos are so numerous that I refrain from encumbering my pages with them. See D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tom. II., p. 154, and authorities there quoted. J Hervas, Catalogo de las Lenguas Conoddas, Tom. I., p. 159. THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. 297 the Yurucares, the Tacanas and the Mosetenas, all neighbors, and though not of one tongue, yet alike in possessing a singularly white skin and fine feat- ures. Their color is as light and as really white as many southern Europeans, the face is oval, the nose straight, fine, and often aquiline, the lips thin, the cheek-bones not prominent, the eyes small, dark and horizontal, the expression free and noble. They are of pure blood, and the most important tribe of them derived their name, Yurucares, white men, from their Kechua neighbors before the conquest. They are usually uncommonly tall (i. 75), bold warriors, lovers of freedom and given to a hunting life. The women are often even taller and handsomer than the men. The traveler D'Orbigny suggested that this light color arose from their residence under the shade of dense forests in a hot and humid atmosphere. He observed that many of them had large patches of albinism on their persons.* The branches of these stocks may be classed as follows: * Alcide D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Vol. I., p. 356, sq. Among the D'Orbigny MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, I found an inedited grammar and dictionary of the Yurucari language. It would be very desirable to have this published, as our present knowledge of the tongue rests on a few imperfect vocabularies. The work is doubtless that by P. la Cueva, mentioned in H. Lude- wig, Lit. of Amer. Aborig. Languages, p. 206 ; but the author and editor of that work were in error in classing the Tacana and Maropa as members of the Yurucari stock. They belong to a different family. 298 THE AMERICAN RACE. YURUCARI LINGUISTIC STOCK. Conis. Enetes. Mansinos. Solostos. Cuchis Mages. Oromos. MOSETENA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Chimanis. Maniquies. Muchanis. Tucupis. Magdalenos. The Toromonas occupy the tract between the Madre de Dios and the Madidi, from 12 to 13 south latitude. According to D'Orbigny they are, together with the Atenes, Cavinas, Tumupasas and Isuiamas, members of one stock, speaking dialects of the Tacana language. He was unable to procure a vocabulary of it, and only learned that it was exceedingly guttural and harsh.* From their position and their Kechua name (tuyii), low or swamp land, I am inclined to identify the Toromonas with the Tuyumiris or Puka- pakaris, who are stated formerly to have dwelt on the Madre de Dios and east of the Rio Urubamba, and to have been driven thence by the Sirineris (Tschudi). According to recent authorities the Cavinas speak the same tongue as the Araunas on the Madre de Dios, which are separated from the Pacaguaras by the small river Genichiquia ; f and as the language of the Toromonas is called in the earlier accounts of the missions Macarani, I may make out the following list of the members of the TACANA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Araunas. Atenes. Cavinas. Equaris. Isuiamas. Lecos. Macaranis. Maropas. Pukapakaris. Sapiboconas. Tacanas. Toromonas. Tumupasas. Tuyumiris. * L'f/omme Americain, Tom. I., p. 374. t Scottish Geogtaphical Magazine > 1890. ! THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. 299 The Araunas are savage, and according to Heath " cannibals beyond a doubt." He describes them as " gaunt, ugly, and ill formed," wearing the hair long and going naked.* Colonel Labre, however, who visited several of their villages in 1885, found them sedentary and agricultural, with temples and idols, the latter being geometrical figures of polished wood and stone. Women were considered impure, were not allowed to know even the names of the gods, and were excluded from religious rites.f The Cavinas, on the other hand, are described by early writers as constructing houses of stone. :{: The Maro- pas, on the east side of the river Beni near the little town of Reyes, speak a dialect of Tacana as close to it as Portuguese to Spanish. They are erroneously classed as a distinct nation by D'Orbigny, who ob- tained only a few words of their tongue. The Sapibo- conas, who lived at the Moxos Mission, and of whose dialect Hervas supplies a vocabulary, are also a near branch of the stock. We now have sufficient material to bring these tribes into relation. With them I locate the Lecos, the tribe who occupied the mission of Aten, and are therefore called also Atenianos. At present some civilized Lecos live at the mission of * B. Heath, Kansas City Review, April, 1883. He gives vocabu- laries of Tacana and Maropa. A devotional work has been printed in Tacana. f Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889, p. 498. \ De Laet, quoted in Mithridates, Th. III., Ab. II., s. 577. \ " En Aten se habla la Leca por ser este pueblo de Indies Lecos." Description de las Misiones de Apolobamba (Lima, 1771). 300 THE AMERICAN RACE. Guanay, between the Beni and Titicaca ; but we have nothing of their language.* The Tacana dialects present a number of verbal analogies to Kechua and Aymara ; so many in fact that they testify to long inter-communion between the stocks, though I think not to a radical identity. I present a few : TACANA. KECHUA. Man, reand, runa. Water, jene, una. Hand, ma, maqui. Foot, quatri, chaqui. House, etai, uta (Aymara). Stone, tutnu, rumt. Star, etnata, tnatti. lightning, ilapa, illapa. Year, mara, mara. Three, qidmisha t quimsa. Four, puschi, fusi (Aymara). Five, pischica, pichka. The numerals above "two" have clearly been bor- rowed from the Kechua-Aymara. There are also a large number of verbal coinci- dences between the Tacana and the Pano groups, but not enough to allow us to suppose an original unity. The Samucus (Zamucas) embraced a number of sub-tribes dwelling on the northern border of the Chaco, between 18 and 20 south latitude, and about the river Oxuquis. They did not resemble the Chaco stocks, as they were not vagrant hunters, but dwelt * Weddell, Voyage dans la Bolivie, p. 453 (quoted by Waitz). THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. 30! in fixed villages, and pursued an agricultural life.* Their language was singularly sweet in sound, and was called by D'Orbigny " the Italian of the forest." They included the following members: SAMUCU LINGUISTIC STOCK. Careras. Cuculados. Morotocos. Tapios. Cayporotades. Guaranocas. Potureros. Ugaronos. Coroinos. Ibirayas. Satienos. Among these the Morotocos are said to have offered the rare spectacle of a primitive gynocracy. The women ruled the tribe, and obliged the men to perform the drudgery of house-work. The latter were by no means weaklings, but tall and robust, and daring tiger- hunters. The married women refused to have more than two children, and did others come they were strangled. On the river Mamore, between 13 and 14 of south latitude, were the numerous villages of the Canichanas or Canisianas. They were unusually dark in complexion and ugly of features ; nor did this unprepossessing exterior belie their habits or tem- perament. They were morose, quarrelsome, tricky and brutal cannibals, preferring theft to agriculture, and prone to drunkenness; but ingenious and not deficient in warlike arts, constructing strong fortifi- cations around their villages, from which they would sally forth to harass and plunder their peaceable * Most of the Samucus were gathered at the mission of St. Igna- tius. Father Chome* remarks, " Les Zamucos, Cuculados, Tapios et (Jgaronos parlent a pen pre"s la meme langue." Lettres Edifi- antes, Tome II., p. 191. See also D'Orbigny, L'ffomnie Ameri- cain t Tom. II., p. 142. 302 THE AMERICAN RACE. neighbors. By a singular anomaly, this unpromising tribe became willing converts to the teachings of the Jesuits, and of their own accord gathered into large villages in order to secure the presence of a mission- ary.* Their language has no known affinities. It is musical, with strong consonantal sounds, and like some of the northern tongues, makes a distinction between animate and inanimate objects, or those so considered, f Between 13 and 14 of south latitude, on the west bank of the Rio Mamore, were the Caynbabas or Cayuvavas, speaking a language without known affin- ities, though containing words from a number of con- tiguous tongues. \ The men are tall and robust, with regular features and a pleasant expression. The mis- sionaries found no difficulty in bringing them into the fold, but they obstinately retained some of their curious ancient superstitions, as, for instance, that a man should do no kind of work while his wife had her monthly illness ; and should she die, he would under- take no enterprise of importance so long as he re- mained a widower. Brief notices will suffice of the various other tribes, many of them now extinct, who centered around the missions of the Chiquitos and Moxos early in this century. *D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tome II., p. 247. t Professor E. Teza gives some texts in his Saggi Inediti di Lin- gue Americans, pp. 40, 41 ; and Mr. E. Heath has supplied a careful vocabulary of recent date (Kansas City Review, April, 1883). J Texts of the Pater, Ave and Credo are given by E. Teza, Saggi Inediti di Lingue Americane, p. 51. \ D'Orbigny, V Homnte Americain, Tme II., p. 257. THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. 303 The Apolistas took their name from the river Apolo, an affluent of the Beni, about south latitude 15. They were contiguous to the Aymaras, and had some physical resemblance to them. From their position, I suspect they belong in the Tacana group. The Chapacuras, or more properly Tapacuras, were on the Rio Blanco or Baures in the province of Moxos. They called themselves Huachis, and the Quitemocas are mentioned as one of their sub-tribes. Von Martius thinks they were connected with the Guaches of Para- guay, a mixed tribe allied to the Guaycuru stock of the Chaco. The resemblance is very slight. The Covarecas were a small band at the mission of Santa Anna, about south latitude 17. Their language was practically extinct in 1831. The Curaves and the Curuminacas, the former on the Rio Tucubaca and the latter north of them near the Brazil line, were said to have independent lan- guages ; but both were extinct at the time of D'Or- bigny's visit in 1831. The same was true of the Cora- be cas and Curiicanccas. The Ites or Itenes were upon the river Iten, an af- fluent of the Mamore about 12 south latitude. They were sometimes improperly called Guarayos, a term which, like Guaycurus, Aucas, Yumbos and others, was frequently applied in a generic sense by the Spanish Americans to any native tribe who continued to live in a savage condition. The Mommas (Mobimas) occupied the shores of the Rio Yacuma, and Rio Mamore about 14 south lati- tude. In character and appearance they were similar to the Moxos, but of finer physique, " seldom ever 304 THE AMERICAN RACE. under six feet," says Mr. Heath. They are now civil- ized, and very cleanly in their habits. The vocab- ularies of their language show but faint resemblances with any other. The Otuguis, who in 1831 did not number over 150 persons, lived in the northeast part of the province of Chiquitos near the Brazilian line. Their language was nearly extinct at that time. The short vocabulary of it preserved by D'Orbigny does not disclose connec- tions with other stocks, unless it be a distant affinity with the Tacana group. This may be illustrated by the following words : OTUQUI. TACANA DIALECTS. Man, vuani, reanci. Woman, vuaneti, anu. Sun, neri, ireti. Moon, art, bari. Water, uru, yuvi. Head, ikitao, ekuya. It was the policy of the Jesuits in their missions in this district to gather the tribes from the forest and mountain into permanent settlements, and reduce as far as possible the number of languages and dialects, so as to facilitate instruction in religious teaching. Shortly after this Order was expelled from their mis- sions (1767), an official report on their "reductions" was printed in Peru, giving a list of the tribes at each station, and the languages in use for instruction.* * Description de las Misiones del Alto Peru, i2mo, Lima, 1771. The only copy of this work which I have seen, and that an imper- fect one, is in the Collection Angrand, in the Bibliotheque Nation- ale, Paris. Among the MSS. of this great library is a Confession- THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. 305 From this scarce work I extract a few interesting particulars. The province of Apolobamba is described as ex- tending about eighty leagues northeast-southwest, east of the Cordillera, and west of the Rio Beni. The languages adopted in it were the Leca, spoken by the Lecos Indians at the mission of Aten, and the Mara- cani, at the mission of Tumupasa, on the Rio Beni. Fojt^doilie__natiQLlis are named as belonging to the mission of the Chiquitos, each of whom is stated to have spoken a different language or dialect, though all were instructed in their religious duties in Chi- quito. At the mission of Moxos twenty-nine tribes are named as in attendance, but it had not been found possible, such was the difference of their speech, to manage with less than nine languages, to wit, the Moxa, the Baure, the Mure, the Mobima, the Ocorona, the Cayubaba, the Itonama and the Maracani.* Of these tongues I have classed the Leca and Mara- cani as dialects of the Takana, not from comparison of vocabularies, for I have seen none of either, but from the locations of the tribes speaking them. The Moxa and Baure are dialects of the Arawak stock. The Mura is a branch of the Tupi, spoken by the powerful tribe of the Muras on the Medeira and Ama- ario in Itonama, which should be published as perhaps the only text of the language extant. Some remarks on its phonetics may be found in D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tome II., p. 239. * According to Father Fernandez there were, in 1726, 30,000 con- verts under the care of the Moxos Mission, and fifteen different languages were spoken, " qui ne se ressemblent nullement." Let- tres Edifizr.te!:, Tom. II., p. 161. 306 THE AMERICAN RACE. zon, who distinctly recalled in tradition their ances- tral home in the west.* The Chiquito, the Mobima, the Caniciana(Canichana), the Cayubaba, the Itonaina and the Ocorona remain so far irreducible stocks. Vocabularies of the first five have been preserved, but nothing of the Ocorona. It is probably identical with the Rocorona, in which Professor Teza has published some texts.f I have not been able to identify it with any other tongue. Hervas unites both with the Herisebocona as a single stock. ^ 2. THE PAMPEAN REGION. South of the dividing upland which separates the waters of the Amazon from those which find their way to the Rio de la Plata, the continent extends in broad level tracts, watered by numerous navigable streams and rich in game and fish. Its chief phys- ical features are the wooded and rolling Chaco in the north, the treeless and grassy Pampas to the south, and the sterile rocky plains of Patagonia still further toward the region of cold. In the west the chain of the Cordilleras continues to lift its summits to an in- accessible height until they enter Patagonia, when they gradually diminish to a range of hills. The tribes of all this territory, both east and west * See von Martius, Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde, Bd. I., s. 412. Professor Teza gives the Pater, Ave and Credo in the Mura dialect of Bolivia (Saggi inediti di Lingue Americane, p. 43). f A Pater, an Ave and a Credo. Saggi inediti di LingueAmeri- cane, pp. 48, 49. The author of the Description, however, dis- tinguishes between the Ocoronos and the Rotoronos, both at the Moxos Mission. J See Mithridates, Th. II., s. 577. THE PAMPEAN REGION. 307 of the Andes, belong ethnographically together, and not with the Peruvian stocks. What affinities they present to others to the north are with those of the Amazonian regions. i. The Gran CJiaco and its Stocks. The Guaycurus, Lules, Matacos and Payaguas. The Charruas, Guatos, Calchaquis, etc. The great streams of the Parana and Paraguay offer a natural boundary between the mountainous country of southern Brazil and the vast plains of the Pampas formation. In their upper course these rivers form extensive marshes, which in the wet season are trans- formed into lakes on which tangled masses of reeds and brushwood, knitted together by a lush growth of vines, swim in the lazy currents as floating islands. These were the homes of some wild tribes who there found a secure refuge, the principal of whom were the Caracaras, who came from the lower Parana, and were one of the southernmost offshoots of theTupi family.* For five hundred, miles west of the Parana and ex- tending nearly as far from north to south, is a wide, rolling country, well watered, and usually covered with dense forests, called El Gran Chaco.f Three noble rivers, the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo and the Salado, intersect it in almost parallel courses from northwest to southeast. * The Capesacos and Menepes were others. Nicolas del Techo, Historia Provinces Paraquariee, Lib. XII., cap. 33. f The word chaco, properly chacu, in Kechua is applied to game driven into pens. Lozano says it was used metaphorically in ref- erence to the numerous tribes driven from their homes into the forests (Descrip. Chornograph. del Gran Chaco, p. i). 308 THE AMERICAN RACE. Abounding in fish and game and with a mild climate, the Chaco has always been densely peopled, and even to-day its native population is estimated at over twenty thousand. But the ethnology of these numerous tribes is most obscure. The Jesuit mis- sionaries asserted that they found eight totally differ- ent languages on the Rio Vermejo alone,"* and the names of the tribes run up into the hundreds. As is generally the case with such statements, dis- tant dialects of the same stock were doubtless mis- taken for radically distinct tongues. From all the material which is accessible, I do not think that the Chaco tribes number more than five stocks, even in- cluding those who spoke idioms related to the Guar- ani or Tupi. The remainder are the Guaycuru, the Mataco, the Lule and the Payagua. This conclusion is identical with that reached by the Argentine writer, Don Luis J. Fontana, except that he considers the Chunipi independent, while I consider that it is a member of the Mataco stock. One of the best known members of the Guaycuru stock was the tribe of the Abipones, whose manners and customs were rendered familiar in the last century through the genial work of the Styrian missionary, Martin Dobrizhoffer.f They were an equestrian peo- ple, proud of their horsemanship and their herds, and at that time dwelt on the Paraguay river, but by tradition had migrated from the north. The Guaycurus proper were divided into three * Del Techo, ubi suprd, Lib. I., cap. 41. t Historia de Abiponibus, Vienna, 1784. An English transla- tion, London, 1822. THE GRAN CHACO. 309 gentes (parcialidadcs) located with reference to the cardinal points. On the north were the Epicua- yiqui ; on the west the Napin-yiqui, and on the south the Taqui-yiqui. Their original home was on the Rio Paraguay, two hundred leagues from its mouth, but later they removed to the banks of the Pilcomayo. Their system was patriarchal, the sons in- heriting direct from the father, and they were divided into hereditary castes, from which it was difficult to emerge. These were distinguished by different colors employed in painting the skin. The highest caste, the nabbidigan, were distinguished by black.* The Abipones were almost entirely destroyed early in this century by the Tobas and Mbocobis,f and probably at present they are quite extinct. The Tobas are now the most numerous tribe in the Chaco, and their language the most extended.^ They re- main savage and untamable, and it was to their fe- rocity that Dr. Crvaux, the eminent French geog- rapher and anthropologist, fell a victim in recent years. The dialects of the Abipones, Mbocobis and Tobas were " as much alike as Spanish and Portu- guese " (Dobrizhoffer). The Guachis speak a rather remote dialect of the stock, but undoubtedly connected with the main * Pedro Lozano, Description del Gran Chaco, pp. 62-65. f " C'est ^peine s'il en reste aujourd hui trois ou quatre indi- vidus." D'Orbigny MS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale. This was written about 1834. t A. J. Carranza, Expedition al Chaco Austral, p. 422 (Buenos Aires, 1884). This author gives a useful vocabulary of the Toba, together with a number of familiar phrases. 310 THE AMERICAN RACE. stem. According to the analogy of many of their words and the tenor of tradition, they at one time lived in the Bolivian highlands, in the vicinity of the Moxos and Chiquitos. It is probable that they are now nearly extinct, as for several generations infanti- cide has been much in vogue among them, prompted, it is said, by superstitious motives. Forty years ago an inconspicuous remnant of them were seen by Cas- telnau and Natterer in the vicinity of Miranda.* The Malbalas, who were a sub-tribe of the Mbo- cobis, dwelling on the Rio Vermejo, are described as light in color, with symmetrical figures and of kindly and faithful disposition. Like most of the Chaco tribes, they were monogamous, and true to their wives.f The Terenos and the Cadiodos still survive on the upper Paraguay, and are in a comparatively civilized condition. The latter manufacture a pottery of un- usually excellent quality.:}: On the authority of Father Lozano I include in this stock the Chichas-Orejones, the Churumatas, that branch of the Mataguayos called Mataguayos Churumatas (from the frequent repetition of the syl- lable cJiu in their dialect), the Mbocobies and Yapi- talaguas, whose tongues were all closely related to * A comparison of their tongue is instituted by Martins, Ethno- graphie und Sprachenkunde, Bd. II., s. 131. See also Ibid., Bd. I., s. 244. t Lozano, Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco, p. 83. % Richard Rohde, in Orig. Mitt, Eth. Abth. Konig. Mus., 1885, s. 13. Von Martius identified the Cadioe'os with the Cadigues of the Payaguas, which is open to doubt (Ethnographie, Bd. I., 226). THE GRAN CHACO. 31 1 the Toba ; * while Dr. Joao Severiano da Fonseca has recently shown that the Quiniquinaux is also a branch of this stock.f The Lules are a nation which has been a puzzle for students of the ethnography of the Chaco. They were partly converted by the celebrated Jesuit mis- sionary and eminent linguist, Father Alonso de Bar- cena, in 1690, who wrote a grammar of their lan- guage, which he called the Tonicote. The Jesuit historian of Paraguay, Del Techo, states that three languages were spoken among them, the Tonicote, the Kechua and the Cacana, which last is a Kechua term from caca, mountain, and in this connection means the dialect of the mountaineers. Barcena's converts soon became discontented and fled to the forests, where they disappeared for thirty years or more. About 1730, a number of them reappeared near the Jesuit mission of the Chaco, and settled several towns on the rivers Valbuena and Salado. There their language was studied by the missionaries. A grammar of it was composed by Machoni,^: and a vo- cabulary collected by the Abb6 Ferragut. Mean- while the work of Barcena had disappeared, and the Abb Hervas expressed a doubt whether the Lule of Machoni was the same as that of his predecessor. He advanced the opinion that the ancient Lule was * Description del Gran Chaco, pp. 73, 76, 77. t Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internal, des Americanistes, 1888, p. 510, quoted by M. Lucien Adam. \Arte y Vocabulario de la Lengua Lule y Tonicote (Madrid, 1732)- \ Printed in Gilii, Saggio di Storia Americana, Tom. III., p. 363. 312 THE AMERICAN RACE. the Cacana ; that the modern were not the descendants of the ancient Lules, and that the Mataras of the Chaco were the Tonicotes to whom Barcena was apostle.* The missionary Lozano to some extent clears up this difficulty. He states that the Lules or Tonicotes were divided into the greater and lesser Lules, and it is only the latter to which the name properly be- longed. The former were divided into three bands, the Isistines, the Oristines, and the Toquistines.f None of these latter existed under these names at the close of the last century, and at present no tribe speaking the Lule of Machoni is known in the Chaco. The language has evident affinities both with the Vilela and the Mataco,^: but also presents many inde- pendent elements. The statement of Hervas, copied by various subsequent writers, that the ancient or greater Lules spoke the Cacana, and that this was a different stock from the Lule of Machoni, lacks proof, as we have no specimen of the Cacana, and not even indirect knowledge of its character. Indeed, Del Techo says definitely that the missionaries of the earliest period, who were familiar with the Lule of that time, had to employ interpreters in ministering to the Cacanas.|| * Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., pp. 165-173. f Pedro Lozano, Description Chorographica del Gran Chaco, pp. 94-97 (Cordoba, 1733). i As shown by Adelung, Mithridates, Bd. II., s. 508. \ S. A. L. Quevede has undertaken to show that the real Lule were the hill tribes of the Anconquija range and their tongue the Cacana {American Anthropologist, 1890, p. 64). || Del Techo, Historia Provincice Paraquarice, Lib. II., cap. 20. CHACO STOCKS. 313 The modern Vilelas live on the Rio Salado, be- tween 25 and 26 south latitude. I find in it so many words of such character that I am inclined to take it as the modern representative of the Lule of Machoni, though corrupted by much borrowing. When we have a grammar of it, the obscurity will be cleared up. VILEI.A. Tongue, lequy, lequip. Tooth, llu, ' lupe. Hand, ys, ysip. House, enii, quanL A comparison of the Vilela with the Chunipi, (Chumipy, Sinipi or Ciulipi,) proves that they are rather closely related, and that the Chunipi is not an independent tongue as has often been stated. In view of this, I include it in the Lule dialects. The third important stock is that of the Matacos. It is still in extensive use on the Rio Vermejo, and we have a recent and genial description of these peo- ple and their language from the pen of the Italian traveler, Giovanni Pelleschi.* They are somewhat small in size, differing from the Guaycurus in this respect, who are tall. Their homes are low huts made of bushes, but they are possessed of many small arts, are industrious, and soon become conversant with the use of tools. Their hair is occasionally wavy, and in children under twelve, it is often reddish. The eyes are slightly oblique, the nose large, straight and low. Like all the Chaco Indians, they do not care for agriculture, preferring a subsist- * Otto Mesi net Gran Ciacco (Firenze, iSSi). 314 THE AMERICAN RACE. ence from hunting and fishing, and from the product of their horses and cattle. What few traditions they have indicate a migration from the east. The term Mataguayos was applied to some of this stock as well as to some of the Guaycurus. The former included the Agoyas, the Inimacas or Imacos, and the Palomos, to whom the Jesuit Joseph Araoz went as missionary, and composed a grammar and dictionary of their dialect. He describes them as ex- ceedingly barbarous and intractable.* The Tayunis had at one time 188 towns, and the Teutas 46 towns. This was in the palmy days of the Jesuit reductions.! Both these extensive tribes are classed by D'Orbigny with the Matacos. According to the older writers the Payaguas lived on the river Paraguay, and spoke their tongue in two dialects, the Payagua and the Sarigue. Von Martius, however, denies there ever was such a distinct people. The word payagua, he remarks, was a generic term for " enemies," and was applied indiscriminately to roving hordes of Guaycurus, Mbayas, etc4 The Payaguas, however, are mentioned distinctly by the early missionaries as a nation with peculiar language and habits. They differed from their neigh- bors as being aquatic, not equestrian. They were singularly skilful boatmen and had a mythology apart from the other tribes, " worshipping the devil under the figure of a great bird." There is also a * " Nacion la mas vil del Chaco." Hervas, Catalogo de las Len- guas Conocidas, Tom. I., p. 164. f Lozano, Description del Gran Chaco, pp. 75, 76. \ Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde, Bd. I., s. 225-6. g Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, Tome II., pp. 96, 97. CHACO STOCKS. 315 manuscript in the Library of the American Philo- sophical Society, written in the middle of the last century, describing the visit of a missionary to the Payaguas, at that time resident near Santa 6 in Paraguay. He accuses them as given to revolting vices and utterly barbarous.* The statement of Von Martius that the nation has entirely disappeared is incorrect, as quite recently a vocabulary of it has been obtained by Don Luis de Fontana, which shows it to be distinct both from the Guaycuru and any other known stock.f LINGUISTIC STOCKS OF THE GRAN CHACO, Guaycuru Stock : Abipones, in the central Chaco. Aguilotes, sub-tribe of the Mbocobis. Bocobis, see Mbocobis. Cadioeos, near Fort Olimpo on the Paraguay. Chichas Orejones. Churumatas. Guachis, on Rio Mondego. Guaycurus, on the middle Paraguay. Malbalais, on the Rio Vermejo. Matagayos-Churumatas. Mbayas, on Rio Xerui. Mbocobis, on the Rio Vermejo, Pitilagas, see Yapitilaguas. Quiniquinaux, northeast of Albuquerque. Tobas, north of the Mbocobis. Terenos, on the Rio de Miranda. Yapitalaguas, on the Rio Vermejo. * Wage del P. F. Pedro Parras desde Aragon & Indias en 1748, MS. f Printed in the Revista de la Sociedad Geografica Argentina, 1887, p. 352. I have compared this with the Payaguatext given in the Mithridates, Bd. III., 490, but the latter is so obscure that I derived no data for a decision as to the identity of the dialects. 316 THE AMERICAN RACE. Lule Stock : Chunipis, on Rio Vermejo. Juris, on Rio Salado. Lules, near Rio Vermejo. Mataras, on Rio Pilcomayo. Oris tines, on Rio Pilcomayo. Sinipis, see Chunipis. Tonocotes, on Rio Pilcomayo. Toquistines, on Rio Pilcomayo. Vilelas, north of the Rio Vermejo. Ysistines, on the Pilcomayo. Mataco Stock : Agoyas, on Rio Vermejo. Atalalas, on Rio Vermejo. Enimagas or Imacos, on east bank of Pilcomayo. Matacos, on Rio Verde. Mataguayos, north of Rio Vermejo. Ocoles, south of Rio Vermejo. Palomos, on Rio Vermejo. Taunies, on Rio Vermejo. Teutas, on Rio Vermejo. Vejosos, on Rio Vermejo. ' Xolotes, on Rio Vermejo. Yoes, on Rio Vermejo. Payagua Stock : Agaces, on Rio Paraguay. Payaguas, near Santa Fe". Sarigues, on middle Paraguay. Among the independent Chaco stocks, D'Orbigny classes the Lenguas, who in 1828 lived, about 300 in number, near Corrientes.* Von Martius believed they were a branch of the Guaycurus.f There is ample evidence, however, that they were a wander- ing branch of the Chiquitos of Bolivia. The mis- * L* Homme Americain, Tom. II., p. 116. t Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde, Bd. I., 226. CHACO STOCKS. 317 sionary, J. P. Fernandez, who visited them about a century before D'Orbigny, says expressly that they spoke the same tongue as the Chiquitos ; * and the statement of Hervas that the similarities of their words to the Chiquito arose from borrowed expres- sions is not well founded. f The Charruas were a barbarous nation living in the extensive plains which stretch from the banks of the Parana to the sea coast. They were savage and coura- geous, without fixed homes, and skilled in the use of the bola. One of their customs was to cut off a joint of a finger on the death of a relative, and there were few of the adults that were not thus maimed. + In appear- ance they were usually large in size, heavily built, with big heads and broad faces, narrow noses, small eyes and large mouths. Their color was dark. The members of this family as recorded by the early writers, especially Hervas, are as follows: CHARRUA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Bohanes, on the Paraguay near the Rio Negro (extinct). Chanes, adjacent to the Bohanes. Charruas, on the coast east of the Rio Uruguay. Guenoas, east of the Uruguay. Martidanes, east of the Uruguay. Minuanes, between the Uruguay and Parana. Yaros, on east bank of Uruguay (extinct). Dr. Paul Ehrenreich describes them as they are to- * Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, Tome II., p. 165. t Catalogo de las Lenguas, Tom. I., p. 185. J Pedro Lozano, Historia de la Conquista de Paraguay, Tom. I., p. 407 (Ed. Buenos Aires, 1873). \ D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain, Tom. II., p. 83. 318 THE AMERICAN RACE. day, splendid riders and daring soldiers, but faithless and tricky ; * so they have not much improved since Father Chome in 1730 stigmatized them as francs volcurs de grand chcmin.\ The Gnatos or Vuatos were accolents of the upper Paraguay and Araguay, and had fixed settlements near Albuquerque. Travelers report them as an unusually handsome people. They are well-built, light in hue, with Roman noses and regular features, and the men with a well-developed beard on lip and chin. This appearance does not belie their intelligence, which is above the average. Polygamy prevails to an uncom- mon extent. Von Martius thought that they were of a northeastern origin, connected perhaps with the Malalis of Bahia, who are a Tapuya people. \ There may have been some admixture, as from a small vo- cabulary I quote the following resemblances : GUATO. TAPUYA. Water, maguen, tnagnan. Head, doken, dicran. Hand, ida, danicra. Foot, apoo, po, ipaa. Tooth, magua, aiqua. Tongue, chagi t dageuto. A recent writer does not give so favorable an opin- ion of this people. He found them living about the junction of the Rio San Lorenzo with the Rio Para- * Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1889, s. 658. f Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, Tome II., p. 107. J Ethnographie ^lnd Sprachenkunde, Bd. I., s. 245, 246. A good vocabulary is supplied by Castelnau, Expedition, Tome V., Ap- pendix. CHACO STOCKS. 319 guay, and in a depraved condition. Girls who were not more than five or six years old were used by the men as wives. Sterility and premature decrepitude were the natural consequences.* On the western border of the Chaco, in the provinces of Tucuman and Catamarca, resided the Calchaquis, a tribe interesting as the only one in the South Atlantic Group who constructed walls of cut stone. At least, such are found in their country, as for instance, one about thirty miles from Andalgala, where there is a well-constructed dry wall about ten feet high, enclos- ing a space nearly a mile in diameter, evidently once a walled city. Stone built tombs are also frequent, from which the rifler is rewarded with mummies, ornaments of impure gold, and small idols of copper. But I doubt if the Calchaquis developed any such ripe arts as these. History tells us that they voluntarily ac- cepted the rule of the Incas about the middle of the fifteenth century, and that their land became part of the Collasuyu or southern district of the empire. All these remains have a distinct impress of Kechua art, and we may be sure that their inspiration was through- out Peruvian. f The earliest missionaries depict the Calchaquis with curious usages and with a certain barbaric splendor. A widow became the wife of her husband's brother, as of old in Israel. So long as she was a virgin, a girl could dress in the gaudiest colors, but * Richard Rohde, in the Orig. Mittheil. der Ethnol. Abtheil d. Mus. zu Berlin, 1885, s. 15. t On the ruins of their fortresses and tombs, see Vincente G. Quesada, Estndios Historicos, pp. 45-48 (Buenos Aires, 1864). 320 THE AMERICAN RACE. once prostrato pudore, as the monk delicately puts it, she must change to sober weeds. Their ornaments were of silver and copper, and the nobles wore a cir- clet of gold and brilliant feathers. Their seasons of mourning were accompanied with the most violent orgies. Over the dead they raised heaps of stones, and held that the souls became stars.* We have no specimen of the language of the Cal- chaquis, although a grammar of it was written by the Jesuit, Alonso de Barcena, and perhaps published. It is called the Katamarefio or Cacana tongue, terms de- rived from the Kechua. The proper names, however, which have been preserved in it indicate that it was different from the Kechua. f I have already referred (page 227) to Von Tschudi's suggestion that it survives in the modern Atacamefto. From the few specimens of skulls which have been examined, the Calchaquis appear allied to the Auca- nian stock,:}: and it may be that further research will prove them a branch of the Araucanians. The following tribes are mentioned by old writers as members of the CATAMARENA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Acalianes. Catamarcas. Tamanos. Cacas or Cacanas. Diagitas or Drachitas. Calchaquis. Quilmes. * Nicolas del Techo, Hist. Prov. Par aquaria, Lib. V., cap. 23. fSee Von Tschudi, in Verhand. der Berlin. Anthrop. Gesell., 1885, s. 184, sqq. This traveler could find no relics of the tongue in the ancient Calchaqui district, which he visited in 1858. The only languages then were Spanish and Kechua {Rcisen, Bd. V., s. 84). J Virchow, in Verhand. der Berlin. Anthrop. Gesell., 1884, s. 375. PAMPEAN STOCKS. 321 1 The learned Barcena also prepared a grammar of the Natixana or Mogana language, spoken by the Naticas, whom we find mentioned by later authori- ties as neighbors of the Calchaquis in the government of Santa Fe.* They apparently belonged among the Chaco tribes. Barcena adds that nine different tongues were spoken in the district of Cordova, among which were the Sanavirona and Indama, which had not been learned by the missionaries.! 2. The Pampeans and Araucanians. South of the Gran Chaco, say from south latitude 35, begins the true Pampas formation. This, ac- cording to the geologist Burmeister, is not a marine deposit, but the result of fluvial overflows and dust storms. It is diluvial and quaternary, and overlies the Patagonian formation, which is marine and early Pleistocene. The pampas are in parts wide grassy plains, like the prairies of the upper Mississippi valley ; in parts they are salt deserts, in parts more or less wooded. With little variety, this scenery reaches from the Chaco to the Rio Negro, S. lat. 40. Nearly the whole of this territory was occupied by one linguistic stock. It is the same which is found in Chili, where its most prominent members are the Araucanians. Which was the course of migration, whether from the Pacific coast to the Pampean plains or the reverse, is not positively decided, but I am inclined to believe it was the latter. The ancestors of the Araucanians * D'Orbigny, L'Homme Am&ricain, Vol. II., p. n. f Barcena's report is published in the Relaciones Geograficas de Indias, Peru, Tom. II. 21 322 THE AMERICAN RACE. i would not willingly have crossed the barren wastes of the desert of Atacama ; there are evidences of a different people inhabiting Chili before they possessed it, and we have traces that they had not obtained full possession of that country at its discovery. This view does not deny subsequent migrations of the Araucanians into the Pampas under the pressure of the Spanish invasion.* In such moving they were simply returning to the traditional homes of their ancestors. As the name of the whole stock, I adopt the word Aucanian, from the Araucanian verb aucani, to be wild, indomitable, from which are derived the tribal names Aucanos and Aucas, occurring on both sides of the Andes.f The Pampeans are principally nomadic hordes wan- dering from pasture to pasture with their horses, cattle and sheep. Their transitory encampments, called tolderias, are pitched by the side of some pond or stream. There their low tents made of dried horse skins are grouped confusedly, one to each family. Their food is chiefly horse flesh and mutton, often eaten raw. They raise no vegetables, and dislike agriculture. They carry on, however, many small industries, tan and dye leather, which they work up into boots and horse furniture, and forge with skill * Dr. Darapsky remarks that the Araucanians first crossed the Andes into the Pampas about 300 years ago (La Lengua Araucana, p. 4, Santiago de Chile, 1888). This is true, but the tribes they found there were members of their own stock. f Some have derived these names from the Kechua, aucca, en- emy ; but I am convinced by the examples of Federico Barbara, Manuel de la Lengua Pampa, p. 6 (Buenos Aires, 1879), that at any rate the same root belongs to the Araucanian. PAMPEAN STOCKS. 323 iron heads for their long lances, and knives for the chase, while the women trim the ostrich skins into rugs, and weave wool into blankets and ponchos, highly prized for their serviceable qualities.* These products are bought up by the merchants in the cities, and thus the tribe is supplied with what it most prizes from European markets. These roving hordes have no particular names. They are referred to as the northern, eastern or west- ern peoples by the Aucanian terms having these sig- nifications, Puelches, Moluches, Huilliches. Besides these, there are the Ranqueles on the Rio Quinto, directly west of Buenos Ayres, who are said to have immigrated from Chili,f and the Querandies, now probably extinct, who once dwelt near that city. Those living on the eastern slopes of the Andes, about the city of Mendoza, and in the ancient prov- ince of Cuyo, are described as taller and stronger than the Araucanians of Chili, and as claiming descent from the Pampean tribes.:}: They were locally known as Guarpes, and spoke dialects called the Allentiac and the Milcocayac, not distant from the Pampean proper, concerning which some grammati- cal description has been preserved. * Dr. Martin de Moussy gives an interesting sketch of these people in the Annuaire du Comite d* Archceologie Americaine, 1865, p. 218, sq. t The chief source of information on this tribe is Col. Lucio de Mansilla, Una Escursion & los Indios Ranqueles, Vol. II. (Buenos Aires, 1870). The name Ranqueles means " thistle people," from the abundance of that plant in their country. \ G. Coleti, Dizionario deW America Meridionale, s. v., Cuyo. \ Valdivia, Arte de la Lengua Chilena. Ed. L,ima, 1607. 324 THE AMERICAN RACE. Few of the Pampean tribes have been induced to accept civilization or Christianity. They still believe in their good spirit, Chachoa, and in one of evil or misfortune, GualicJio ; they continue to obey their priests or medicine men ; and the resting places of the dead are regarded with superstitious awe. Marriage among them, while it has the appearance of violence, is really carried out with the consent of the girl and her parents, for a sum agreed upon. The Molu-Che or Manzaneros are said to be the best of the Pampeans. They are sedentary and have ex- tensive orchards of apples and flocks of sheep to the north of the Rio Limay. They have well-cut feat- ures, fresh light complexion, black fine hair, and their women are considered really handsome.* The Araucanians of Chili, known as singularly bold warriors who defied successfully the Incas, and gave the Spaniards the greatest trouble, occupy the Pacific coast from south latitude 25 to about 43, and num- ber about 20,000. In physical appearance they re- semble the Pampeans, and present marked differences from both the Kechuas of Peru and the Tapuyas of Brazil, having high, brachycephalic skulls,f and a clear copper color of skin. They are of moderate stature, but muscular, with black hair, round faces, small eyes, and small feet and hands. They are di- vided locally into northern and southern tribes, but * Lt. Musters, " On the Races of Patagonia," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. I., p. 205. f Paolo Riccardi, in Memorie delta Soc. Ethnograf. di Firenze, 1879, p. 139 ; also the estimable work of Jose T. Medina, Los Aborijenesde Chile (Santiago, 1882). PAMPEAN STOCKS. 325 there is little difference in dialects. Their tongue, the Chilidungu, has been extravagantly lauded by some who have studied it, and one worthy missionary was so enamored with it that he published a grammar and dictionary of it in Europe, that it might be in- troduced as the learned language there, to supersede the Latin : * it certainly is harmonious and flexible. The Araucanians did not at any time rise in cul- ture above the level of the Iroquois and Algonquins in the northern continent. , It is true that in the tombs in their country we discover fine specimens of pottery, some good work in bronze, gold, copper and silver, and beautiful specimens of polished stone im- plements.f But if one examines closely the art-forms of these relics, he can not fail to recognize in them the potent inspiration of the Inca civilization ; and we may be sure that if they were not directly booty from that nation, they were the products of its trained workmen, and are not to be put to the credit of Aucanian industry. AUCANIAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. Araucanos, in northern and central Chili. Aucanos or Aucas, in the central Pampas. Chauques, in the Archipelago of Chiloe. Chonos, (?) on Pacific, south of Chiloe. Cuncos, in Chili, south of Rio Valdivia. Divie-ches, on Rio Colorado. Guarpes, near Mendoza. Huiliches (southern people), tribes to the south. * Bernard Havestadt, Chilidugu, sive Res Chilenses (Westphalia, 1777. Reprint by Julius Platzmann, Leipzig, 1883). t Many of these are portrayed in the work of Medina, Los Abo~ rijenes de Chile, above referred to. 326 THE AMERICAN RACE. Molu-ches (western people or warriors) , on Pacific coast. Pehuen-ches (pine-forest people), east of Cordillera, north of Rio Colorado. Picun-ches (northern people), north of Pehuenches. Puel-ches (eastern people), on both banks of Rio Negro. Querandies, near site of Buenos Ayres. Ranqueles, between Rio Quarto and Rio Quinto. The Pacific coast of Patagonia, gashed by ancient glaciers into deep fiords and rocky islands, harbors various tribes whose affinities are uncertain. The most curious of them would seem to be the Chonos or Chunos, or Cuncones. They lived south of the archi- pelago of Chiloe, and are described as having red hair, a light olive complexion, and of mild and friendly manners. They raised a breed of dogs (perhaps gua- nacos), and wove their clothing from its coarse long hair. This account comes to us from as far back as 1619, when the first missionaries visited them,* and these traits cannot therefore be attributed to inter- mixture with Europeans. They are not peculiar in these respects. Similar traits are reported of the Boroas, a tribe in one of the valleys of central Chili ; f and I have already referred to the red hair of the boys among the Matacos of the Gran Chaco. Perhaps it was not unusual among these nations, as I can in no other way explain the strange idea of the poet Ercilla * Nicolas del Techo, Historia Provintice Paraquarice, Lib. VI., Cap. IX. f The Boroas live on the Tolten river, and have blue eyes, a fair complexion, and aquiline noses. Pablo Treutcr, La Provincia de Valdivia y los Araucanos, p. 52, note (Santiago de Chile, 1861). E. Poeppig, Reise in Chili und Peru, Bd. I., s. 463 (Leipzig, 1836). THE PATAGONIANS. 327 the Homer of the Araucanian Conquest, that these people were descendants of the Frisians of North Holland ! * The language of the Chonos is said to be quite dif- ferent from that of the Araucanians. Poeppig be- lieved it to be a distant dialect of the same stock. Some recent travelers assert that they are now ex- tinct, but Dr. C. Martin informs us that the original inhabitants of the Chonos Islands, who were the " Huaihuenes " Indians, were transported in 1765 to the island of Chaulaflec, where their posterity still survive.f j. The Patagonians and Fuegians. The Patagonians call themselves Chonek or Tzon- eca, or Inaken (men, people), and by their Pampean neighbors are referred to as Tehuel-Che, southerners. They do not, however, belong to the Aucanian stock, nor do they resemble the Pampeans physically. They are celebrated for their stature, many of them reach- ing from six to six feet four inches in height, and * " Mi nombre es Glaura, en fuerte hora nacida, Hija de* en cacique Quilacura, De la s e de Frisio esclarecida. " Alonso de Ercilla, La Araucana, Canto XXVIII. Faulkner and others refer to these as the Cessares (Description of Patagonia, p. 113, Hereford, 1774). There was such a tribe, and it was made the subject of a Utopian sketch, An Account of the Cessares, London, 1764. t See Petermann's Mittheilungen, 1883, s. 404, and compare the same, 1878, s. 465. Dr. Martin elsewhere gives a vocabulary of the Chauques of Chiloe. It is pure Araucanian (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1877, s. 168^. 328 THE AMERICAN RACE. built in proportion.* In color they are a reddish brown, and have aquiline noses and good foreheads. They care little for a sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as the Rio Negro. They are not without some religious rites, and are accustomed to salute the new moon, and at the beginning of any solemn undertaking to puff the smoke of their pipes to the four cardinal points, just as did the Algonquins and Iroquois.f Their language differs wholly from the Araucanian, though it has borrowed many words from it. An in- teresting fact illustrating its stability in spite of their roving life has been brought out by Ramon Lista. He has compared its present form with the vocabu- lary of it given by Pigafetta in his voyage in 1520, and shows that in the intervening generations it has un- dergone scarcely any change.:}: Von Martius believed that a connection between the Patagonian and the Tapuya stocks could be shown, and gives a tabular comparison of the two. I have extended this by means of Ramon Lista's vocabulary of the former and Dr. Ehrenreich's cor- rected forms of the Tapuya, and conclude that the resemblances are illusory, depending on incorrect orthography of the sounds. * On the stature of the Patagonians, see the very complete study of D'Orbigny, L 1 Homme Americain, Vol. II., pp. 26-70. t Lt. Musters, " On the Races of Patagonia," u. s., p. 194, sq. \ Ramon Lista, Mis Esploradones y Descubrimientos en Pata- gonia, p. 116 (Buenos Aires, 1880). This author gives, pp. 125- 130, a full vocabulary of the " Choonke " as it is in use to-day. \ Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde, Bd. I., s. 313. THE FUEGIANS. 329 About the beginning of the last century the tribes known as Poyas (Pey-yuy) and Reyes (Rey-yuy) were collected at a Mission established on Lake Nahuel- huapi, about south latitude 42. Hervas reports them as speaking a language radically different from the Araucanian, and probably they should be classed with the Tzonecas.* On the inhospitable shores of Tierra del Fuego there dwell three nations of diverse stock, but on about the same plane of culture. One of these is the Yahgans or Yapoos, on the Beagle canal ; the second is the Onas or Aonik, to the north and east of these ; and the third the Aliciilufs, to the north and west. Of these the Yahgans are the best known, through the efforts of the English missionaries who have re- duced their language to writing. It is a polysyllabic, agglutinative tongue, with both pre- and suffixes, and is extremely rich in expressions for the ordinary needs of their life. The verb has four numbers, a singular, dual, trial and plural. It does not seem in any way related to the Aucanian stock, f The tongue of the Onas, who are known as the Yakanna-Cunni, is apparently connected with the Tsoneca or Patagonian, which people they also re- semble in stature and physical traits. \ * Lettres Ed. et Curieuses, Tome II., p. 88 ; Hervas, Catalogo de las Lenguas, Tom. I., p. 136. f See Lucien Adam, Grammaire de la Langue Jagane (Paris, 1885). Dr. Darapsky thinks this tongue reveals a common point of divergence with " los idiomas meso-Andinos. " Boletin del Institute Geog. Argentina, 1889, p. 287. | See Dr. Hyades, in Revue d* Ethnographic, Tome IV., No. VI., and the chapter " I/ Ethnographic des Fuegiens," in I/. F. Martial, 33O THE AMERICAN RACE. The Fuegians are generally quoted as a people on the lowest round of the ladder of culture ; and so they are painted by many observers. They have no gov- ernment, they can count only to three, ordinary family affection is not observable, and even mothers manifest a lack of love for their offspring. Their shelters are wretched, and they go almost naked in a climate which is both cold and damp. On the other hand, they display singular ingenuity in their utensils for hunting and fishing ; they use the sling, the club, the bow, the bola and the lance ; the women weave reed baskets so firmly that they will hold water, and their bark canoes are light and seaworthy. In hunting they have the service of a native dog which they have trained, and whose welfare they look after with sedulous attention. Though devoid of idols and external rites of worship, they manifest in many ways a sense of religion. Thus the relations of the sexes are surrounded with ceremonies of fast- ing and bathing, to neglect which would entail mis- fortunes, and the name of the dead is not pronounced out of superstitious awe. The songs and legends of the Yahgans show some imaginative power. Many of them relate to the marvelous achievements of the national hero, Umoara, who appears to be a wholly mythical individual. Their strongest passion would seem to be for personal adornment, and for this pur- pose shells, vegetable beads, bright pebbles and varie- gated feathers, are called into requisition.* Mission Scientifique du Cap-Horn, Tome L, Chap. VI. (Paris, 1888). Yakana-cunni means " foot people," as they did not use horses. * Dr. Domenico Lovisato, in Cosmos, 1884, fas. IV. THE FUEGIANS. 331 These traits are not those of an enfeebled intellect, and an examination of their physical powers supports a favorable opinion of their capacities. Some of them are unusually tall and strong, especially those on the east coast. Their skulls are mesocephalic and prog- nathic, and their brains, which have been examined most carefully by a German anatomist, show not a single point of inferiority to the average European brain.* From examinations which have been carried on in the numerous shell-heaps which line the shores, there is no evidence that any other people ever occupied the islands. Skulls and relics are such as those of the present inhabitants, f The total number of these is about 8000, nearly equally divided between the tribes named. The classification of the smaller tribes under the above stocks is not yet complete. So far as I can make it out, it is as follows : LINGUISTIC STOCK. Alikulufs, on the western end of the Beagle Channel, Karaikas, south of the Alikulufs. ONA LINGUISTIC STOCK. Aoniks or Onas, on Magellan Strait, both shores. Huemuls, near Skyring and Otway Bays. frees, see Pescherees. Oensmen, see Aoniks. Pescherees, on central portions of the Strait. Yacanas, see Aoniks. * Dr. JohannSeitz, in Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1886, pp. 267, 268. f Domenico Lovisato, ubi suprd. 332 THE AMERICAN RACE. YAHGAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. Kennekas, see Takanikas. Takanikas, on both shores of the Beagle Channel. Yahgans, see Yapoos. Yapoos, on the central Beagle Channel. The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker of Paris,* that the Fuegians represent the oldest type or variety of the American race. He believes that at one time this type occupied the whole of South America south of the Amazon, and that the Tapuyas of Brazil and the Fuegians are its surviving members. This interesting theory demands still further evidence before it can be accepted. It is not confirmed by such linguistic comparisons as I have been able to institute. * At the Congres des Americanistes, Paris, 1890. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX linguistic classification of the American tribes is at present imperfect in many regions on ac- count of the incomplete information about their tongues. A proper comparison of languages or dia- lects includes not merely the vocabulary, but the grammatical forms and the phonetic variations which the vocal elements undergo in passing from one form of speech to another. In some respects, the morphol- ogy is more indicative of relationship than the lex- icon of tongues ; and it is in these grammatical aspects that we are peculiarly poorly off when we ap- proach American dialects. Yet it is also likely that the tendency of late years has been to underestimate the significance of merely lexical analogies. The vocabulary, after all, must be our main stand-by in such an undertaking. For that reason I have thought it worth while to bring together a short list of common words and show their renderings in a number of American tongues. Inasmuch as the languages north of Mex- ico those in the United States and Canada have been frequently studied and are readily accessible in published books, I have confined my specimens to" the tongues of the central and southern regions of the continent. (333) 334 THE AMERICAN RACE. The words I have selected for the vocabulary are those which I think would be most likely to indicate relationship, when such existed. But as every com- parative linguist is aware, neither these nor any words are free from the risk of ambiguity and equivo- cation. Thus, in many languages there are two or three different terms for " man," as homo, vir or male; "woman" is wife or female; "sun" and " moon " are often merely descriptive terms or syn- onyms of day, light, night and darkness ; the parts of the body have in American tongues the personal possessive noun prefixed or suffixed ; what is worse, the terms for such may differ with the person, as in Kechua, where the word for " eye," " arm," etc., differ as it is my or thy eye, etc. " Hand " and "arm," "foot" and "leg," are frequently not dis- criminated, the corresponding words meaning prop- erly " upper extremity," " lower extremity," etc. ; and so on for almost every word that could be chosen. The proper inference to draw from these facts is, not that a comparison of vocabularies is worthless or nearly so, but just the contrary. Where we find that a short vocabulary, imperfect for the above reasons, and still more so for the general ignorance of lin- guistics on the part of collectors, and the varying values they give to the alphabets employed, yet re- veals identities with others, we are justly authorized to consider such analogies as highly significant and suggestive of profounder comparisons. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 335 YUMA DIALECTS NEAR THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. Cochimi. Guaicuru. Seri. Yuma. Man, uami, tama, e"tc, //. ti, eketam, hamuk. Woman, wakoe, wuetu, anai, ekemam, hanya. Sun, ibo, ibunga, uiitairi, shaa, rahj, inyaa. Moon, gamma, isah, kilshia. Fire, usi, amak, aua. Water, kahal, ahj, ax, aha. Head, agoppi, ihlit, ilta, Eye, ayibika, ito, ido. Ear, istla, ismahlka. Mouth, aha, iten, ya-a. Nose, nainu, ife, ihu. Tongue, ip*l, ehpelh. Teeth, itast, ehdoh. Hand, neganna, titshuketa, intlash, israhl. Foot, . agannapa, itova, ime. House, ajihuenen, ambuja, aki, ava. i, teguep, tashjo, sitik. 2, goguo, kamoe, ko-ok*, o'ak. 3, kombio, meakunju, ka-pka, hamok. 4, magacubugua, kshu^kua, hoba. 5, naganna tegueo, ko-o^tom, harabk. The above vocabularies illustrate the extension of the Yuma stock to the southward. The Cochimi and Guaircuru are remote dialects, but of positive affinities. The Yuma words which I have added for comparison are principally from the Mohave dialect, and are taken from the vocabularies published by the " U. S. Geograph- ical Surveys west of the rooth Meridian." The Seri words are chiefly from the satisfactory vocabulary ob- tained by the late John Russell Bartlett. The relationship of the dialect to the Yuma stock is evident 336 THE AMERICAN RACE. DIALECTS OF THE UTO-AZTECAN STOCK. Tarahuntara. Pima. Nahuatl. Ute. Man, tehoje, tinot, tlacatl, tawatz. Woman, muki, upi, uba, cihuatl, oubea. Sun, taica, tash, tonatiuh, tabi. Moon, maitsaca, f maskat, metztli, mytoge\ massar, / Fire, naiki, tletl, te vua, M. Water, /shontik, \ atl, pah. * sueti, / Head, moola, nemoah, totzontecon, totsein. Eye, pusiki, ixtololotli, puevi. Ear, nechcala, naank, nacaztli, nangk. Mouth, camatl, temb. Nose, jachcala, yacatl. yaga, M. Tongue, tenila, nenepilli, lengi, M. Tooth, ptahan, tlantli, tahwan. . Hand, noh, maitl, mou, makhde. Foot, tala, icxitl, igug. House, f nip-ki, tki, J calli, kahan. I, yumako, ce, shui. 2, oca, guoca, kuak, ome, wyune. 3, vaik, yey, pay. 4, ki-ak, nahui, vachue. 5, huitas, macuilli, manuy. The eight dialects which I give from the extensive Uto-Aztecan stock will illustrate the relationship of its members. The words marked M. in the Ute or Shoshonian vocabulary belong to the Moqui dialect, which appears to approach nearer the Aztecan branch than the speech of the northern tribes. The Tepehuana words are from the vocabulary obtained by M. Tarayre, and pub- lished in his Explorations (see ante, p. 136). I have placed the geographical extremes, the Nahuatl and the Ute, side by side, to illustrate the really striking similarity of these dialects, the one LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 337 DIALECTS OF THE UTO-AZTECAN STOCK. (Continued.) Heve. Tepehuana. Opata. Cora. Man, dor, chiuaitcam, uri, teuit, tedta. ( hub. i Woman, J I Ihoquis, / osi, pi. nau, uita. Sun, tuui, tanaol, tat, xeucat. Moon, metzat, maasol, metza, anahupi. Fire, te, tay, thai, teujcuarit. Water, bat, suudai, vat, ahti. Head, zonit, maao, muuti. Eye, vusit, bopoe, maua, hiuziti. Ear, nacat, naxaihti. Mouth, tenit, intrigni. Nose, dacat, yak. Tongue, nenet, nuin, nanuriti. Tooth, tanus, tatama. Hand, mamat, ingnaono, Foot, tarat, incaiao, moamati. House, quit, vaak, kit chapoariti. I, sei, homad, se. 2, goduni, gaok, hualpoa, 3, veidum, baech, vaide. 4, nausi, maukao, nago. 5, marqui, chetam, marizi. current on the Columbia river, the other extending to Chiriqui lagoon, near the Isthmus of Panama. Buschmann, in his works already referred to (ante, p. 119), cities numerous other examples. Still more substantial proof of the unity of this stock is furnished by the comparative grammar of its different members. These present various phases of morphological development, but always on the same lines. The Nahuatl is much the higher of them all, and in some of its forms attains to a truly inflectional character, as has been shown by Professor Steinthal. 12 338 THE AMERICAN RACE. CENTRA!, STOCKS, Totonaco. Tarasco. Otomi. Upper. Lower. Man, tziuereti, n'yoh. Woman, chajat, tac, taco, cucha, cuxareti, datsu, sitzu, Sun, co, chichini, huriata, 'hiadi. Moon, papa, malcoyo, cutzi, rzana. Fire, turiri, tzibi. Water, chochot, xcan, itsi, dehe. Head, ayxaca, ehpu, na. Eye, lacaztaponitni,lacacholna, eskua, da. Ear, tangan, cacaxcolna, kutsikua, gu- Meuth, quilni, quelpaja, haramekua, ne. Nose, quincan, quin, tz-ure, siu. Tongue, katamba, qhane. Tooth , tatzanitni, taizalatna, sini, ttzi. Hand, macanitni, macatatna, haqui, 'ye. Foot, tohuan, tojolat, gua. House, quahta, ngu. I, torn, omollana, ma, 'ne, r'e. 2, toy, toy, tziman, yoho. 3, toto, toton, tanimo, hiu. 4, tat, tamu, gooho. 5, quitziz, yumu, cqtta. The Totonaco is spoken in two diverse dialects by the inhabitants of the plains and the uplands. The difference is not so great as appears in the written tongue, as they are mutually intelligible. A number of works on the Tarascan language have recently been edited or written by Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Morelia, Michoacan, so that there is abundant material for the study of the tongue. The Otomi presents so many sounds unfamiliar to the European ear that the attempt to represent it by our alphabets can be only remotely accurate. I have a very extensive MS. dictionary of the tongue, based on the Vocabulario Mexicano of Molina. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. CENTRAL STOCKS. 339 Zoque. Mixe. Zapotec. Mixtec. Man, puen, yai-tohk, beni niguio, yee. Woman, yoma, toix, beni gonaa, nahadzehe. Sun, hama, xeuh, ( chii. ( gobiche. Moon, poya, xapa, xona xibeo. Fire, hucata, xoon, guii. Water, na, noo, niza. Head, copac, cobaac, icqui, dzini. Eye, vitem, huin, bizaloo, tenu. Ear, tatzec, tatzc, tiaga, tutnu, dzoho. Mouth, angnaca, au, rua, rohua, yuhu. Nose, quina, hop, xii, dzitui. Tongue, totz, yen, luuchi, yaa. Tooth, tetz, totz, chitalaaga, noho. Hand, tzamguica, coo, naa, daha. Foot, manguica, teic, nii, House, toe, tenk, yuu, lichi, huahi. It tuina, tuuc, tubi, ek. 2, metza, nietzc, tiopa, uvui. 3, tucay, tucoc, chona, uni. 4. macscuy, mactaxc, tapa, kmi. ' 5, mosay, mocoxc, guayo, hoho. In the above vocabularies the relation of the Zoque to the Mixe is more clearly shown than that of the Zapotec to the Mixtec. A more extended comparison of the two latter has been instituted by Pimentel in his work on the languages of Mexico, which appears to strengthen the belief that they belong to the same stock. Prof. Friedrich Miiller, however, continues to regard them as separate stocks (Grundriss der Sprachwissenscha.fi, Bd. II., Ab. I., s. 298, sq.). The question is discussed with fullness in the introduction, by Dr. Nicholas Leon, to the Arte del Idioma Zapoteco, of Juan de Cordova (ed. Morelia, 1886), to which the student is referred. I think the evidence is sufficient to regard them as allied idioms. The Zapotec of the mountains, Zapoteco serrano, differs consider- ably from that which is given above. 340 THE AMERICAN RACE. CENTRAL STOCKS. Chinantec. Huave. Maya. Chapanec. ( cha, \ nuh, > nashui, uinic, dipaju, naha. mui, ( naptah, ( nostah, j ixal, nafui. manui, noet, kin, napiju, nyumbu. zei, cabau, u, yuju. nigei, kaak, niiyu. mui, ha, nimbu. gui, pol, hoi, tkima. nianihi, uich, nate. xicin, nyujmi. cuhaha, chi, duui, nunsu. ni, nyungu. uak, baelu, griji. CO, niji. nquaha, cab, dila, diro. nni, uoc, oc, laku, gura. nu, piem, otoch, nangu. cna, anop, hun, tike, ticao. tno, epoem, ca, jomi, h&o. nne. erof-poef, ox, jami, haui. quiu, apukif, can, haha. na, akukif, ho, haomo. The Chinantec is included in the Zapotec stock by Pimentel, who follows the dictum of Hervas, confessedly without examination (Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico, Tom. III., cap. 37). This was not the opinion of Dr. Berendt, who has compared both tongues, and a comparison of the short vocabularies which I give shows only one word, that for "foot," which is identical in both. The Huaves, who claim a migration from the south, do not re- veal a connection in their language with any of the southern stocks. The Maya of the Vocabulary is the pure tongue as spoken in Yu- catan. Its various dialects have been carefully studied by Berendt, Stoll and others. The most corrupt is probably the Chaneabal of Chiapas, of which I gave a short analysis in the American Anthro~ pologist, Jan., 1888. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 341 INTER-ISTHMIAN STOCKS. Musquito. Lenca. Xicaque. Ulva. Man, waikna, amashe, jome, all. Woman, mairen, mapu, pitme", yall. Sun, lapta, gasi, behapoi, moa. Moon, kati, numui, uaigo. Fire, pauta, uga, inqueamoos, ku. Water, H, giias, sur, uas. Head, lei, toro, laipuco, tunik. Eye, nakro, saring, non, miniktaka. Ear, kiama, yang, fora, tabaki. Mouth, bila, ingori, nraipane, dinibas. Nose, kakma, napse, meguin, nangitak. Tongue, twisa, navel, rin, tuki. Tooth, napa, nagha, quir, anaki. Hand, mita, gulala, mor, tumi. Foot, mena, giiagl. san, kalkibas. House, watla, tahu, chef, u. Zi kumi, ita, pani, ( aslar. ( aloslag. 2, wal, na, matis, muye bu. 3. niupa, lagua, contis, muye bas. 4, walwal, aria, urupan, muya runca. 5, matasip, saihe, casanpani, muye sinca. The above four vocabularies are taken from MS. material in my possession collected by E. G. Squier and Dr. C. H. Berendt. They do not appear to indicate the slightest relationship either between themselves, or with any other known stocks. The careful re- searches of Lucien Adam on the Musquito grammar do not bring it into connection either with the Carib or the Chibcha families, with which it has sometimes been supposed to be affined. The Lenca dialects, of four of which I have vocabularies, do not differ materially, but the exact distribution of the stock at the period of the conquest is uncertain. 342 THE AMERICAN RACE. INTER-ISTHMIAN STOCKS. (Continued.) Guatuso. Subtiaba. Matagalpan. Xinca. Man, ochapa, rabu, misa, jumu, jurac. Woman, curijuri, rabaku, y ueiya, ayala. Sun, toji, daska, lal, pan. Moon, ziji, dukku, aiko, ahua. Fire, cuepala, agu, lauale, ura. Water, ti, iia, H, ui. Head, machia, edi, ekxu, ma'ike, gesalia. Eye, mafi zicu, siktu, kunke, yurati. Ear, nato coto, nyahu, topalke, mami. Mouth, macoquica, daghu, tauake, xajac. Nose, natain, dakko, namke, jutu narin. Tongue, macu, duhun, tomamke, eilan. Tooth, oca, sinnyu, ninike, jari xajan. Hand, macu quichia, nyau, panake, pum, pu. Foot, naho quichia, nasku, napake, guapan. House, uh, gu, u, macu. i, anacachumaru, imba, bas, ica. 2, ponca, pangi, apu, buyo, ti, piar. 3, assu, guatba, uala. 4, paque, posai, asku, bota'jio, iria. 5. uissu, pijar. The Guatuso is taken from the vocabularies collected by Bishop Thiel, and several times republished. The remaining three are from MS. materials collected by Dr. C. H. Berendt. The Xinca I have previously published, with a general discussion of the tribe, in the Proc. of the Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1885. The Matagalpan or " Chontal of Nicaragua " (see ante, p. 149), is from the vocabulary collected by the Rev. Victor Noguera. It appears to stand quite alone. A few remote resemblances to the Talamanca dialects of Costa Rica seem to exist, which, if real, would connect the Matagalpan with South American stocks. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 343 Cuna. COLUMBIAN STOCKS. Changuina. Andaqui. Tucura. Man, mastule, taro, himbera. Woman, puna, bia. Sun, ipe, querele, caqui, ahumautu. Moon, ni, sirala, mitae, jedeco. Fire, chau, quebu, jifi (=candle). Water, ti, si, ti, yi, jiji. pania. Head, chag'la, ( duku, ( quinunuma, | quinaji, poru. Eye, ibia, oko, sifi, tabu. Ear, ugua, kuga, sunguajo, quiburi. Mouth, kagya, caga, , ite". Nose, uchue, neko, quifi, kaimbu, Tongue, guapina, cuba, sonae. Tooth, nugada, zuu, sicoga. Hand, changa, kulosol, sacad, juwajimi. Foot, nacamali, ser, soguapana, jenu. House, neca, hu, cojoo, t<. it quenchigue, que, aba. 2, pogua, como, unme\ 3, pagua, calabach, unpia. 4, paquegua, calacapa, kimare. 5, atale, calamale, cuesume. The Cuna and the Changuina or Dorasque are from M. Alph. Pinart's various publications on these dialects ; the Andaqui from the collections of the Presbyter Albis ; and the Tucura, a Choco dialect, from the report of Dr. A. Ernst (Zeitschrift fur Ethnol- ogic, 1887, 302). The last mentioned was obtained on the upper Sinu river, near the junction of the Rio Verde. It is not of the San Bias (Cuna) family, but clearly Choco. I have already referred (p. 200) to some slight similarity of the Andaqui to the Chibcha ; but until we have more extensive mater- ial of the former, the question must be left open. 344 THE AMERICAN RACE. DIALECTS OF THE CHOCO STOCK. Noanama. Tado'. Chami. Sambo or Choco. Man, emokoyda, umujina, muguira, ( umachin-a. ( muguira. Woman, uida, uena, huera, auera. Sun, edau, pesia, utnata, pisia, imuanba. Moon, edau, jedego, tedeco, jedec6. Fire, igdn, tibua, tibuzhia, tujoor. Water, du, panea, pania, ( pania. ( do=river. Head, piidu, paru', boro, poro. Eye, dau, i tau, tao, tau. Ear, cachi, ktiru', guru, juru. Mouth, i, itai', gu, ji, itai. Nose, keun, kung, y, cung, jun. ' Tongue, meujina, kinotne, guiranee, quirame. Tooth, hierra, kida', guida, tida. Hand, hua, hua', tua, jua. Foot, bopidi, jinuga', tiui, jinu. House, di, tee', te, dhe. , i, aba, aba, aba, aba. 2, nu, ume, ube, ome. 3, tanjupa, kimaris, umpea, ompea. 4, jay upa, guasurna, guimare, quimari. 5, juambo, kisona, guasome, guasoma. j The Choco family had probably at one time a much wider ex- tension than we are familiar with in historic times. I have sug- gested (ant, pp. 274, 275), that even the sparse material for com- parison as yet available seems to indicate an affinity with the Betoya stock. As our knowledge of the Orinoco and the Colum- bian region extends, probably other tribes will be discovered speaking related dialects. The four vocabularies which I give above serve to illustrate the comparatively slight differences of the phonetics. Another dialect, the Tucara (see ante, p. 176, is given on the preceding page. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 345 DIALECTS OF THE CHIBCHA STOCK. Chibcha, Aroac. Chimila. Guaymi. Man, muysca, sokue, sookue", nitocua. Woman, ti-giii, yun-kue, yuunkue", ineri. Sun, sua, yuia, neiin-a, ninguane. Moon, chie, tii, tii, s6. Fire, gata, gue*. mine", nocua. Water, sie, yira, niitake, si, na. Head, zysqui, zankalla, ookrd, thokua. Eye, upcua, uba, uaakua, ocua. Ear, cuhuca, kuhcua, kuusaka, olo. Mouth, quihica, kohka, kookua, cada. Nose, saca, niksain, naanakra, secua. Tongue, pcua, kuca, kua tudra. Tooth, sica, kohka (?), n, tu. Hand, yta, atta-kra, aattakra, cuse. Foot, quihicha, ksa, pukre", pookre", ngoto. House, giie, hui, adtaka, J6. i, ata, kute", kute", kr-ati. 2, boza, moga, muuhna, kro-bu. 3, mica, maigua, teieme', kro-mai. 4, muihica, muriele", murieie", kro-boko. 5, hisca, achigua, ( kutendeu- ) rehattagra, I kro-rigua. The relations of the Chibcha dialects are so important in their bearings on the question of the migrations from South into North America, that in addition to the specific comparisons on page 186, I here add vocabularies of six dialects ; three, the Chibcha, Aroac and Chimila, from south of the Isthmus, and three, the Guaymi, Talamanca and Boruca, from north of it. The Chibcha proper is a language of extremely difficult phonet- ics for a European, and doubtless the Spanish orthography, in which it is rendered, is far from accurate. The fundamental identity of the dialects of the stock becomes much more apparent after a study of their laws of phonetic varia- tion, as set forth by Dr. Max Uhle (ant, p. 185). THE AMERICAN RACE. CHIBCHA STOCK. COLUMBIAN STOCKS. f Talamanca. Boruca. Paniquita. "% Timote. vipa, con-rokh, piz, petam, ( mayoi. \ kak, nachu. ardcra, kam-rokh, neyo, cuenas, ( kursum. } naktun. divu, kak, itaqui, mpu. turu, tebe, ate. yuk, dukra, ipi, chirip, fu. di, di, yo. chimpue". tsuko, sagra, dicte", kicham. vubra, caix, yafi. cucxih, cuaga, t6gnue, timabum. ( macab6. sacu, casa, yugue, ( karichnuck. chi'scah, xiska, inz. ku, tone, chiqui vu. aka, quith. ura, dijurre, cose. iucra, di-krescua, chinda, kuju. huh, yath, nakot. et, yas, vitech, kari. tug, enz, gem. mang, tec, sut, hisjut. keng, panz, pit. skera, taz, ( caboc. ( mubes. Man, Woman, Sun, Moon, Fire, Water, Head, Eye, Ear, Mouth, Nose, Tongue, Tooth, Hand, Foot, House, 2, 3, 4. The Talamanca and Boruca are Chibcha dialects (see preceding page). The Paniquita (see ante, pp. 190-192) has no positive affin- ities with its neighbors. The grammatical character of its Paez dialect has been analyzed by Fr. Miiller (Grundriss der Sprach- wissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. L, p. 356). He points out some similar- ity in the numerals to the Kechua and Goajiro. But this is not significant. The various vocabularies of the Timote stock differ considerably, and none of them is at all complete. 1INGUISTIC APPENDIX. 347 DIALECTS OF THE BARBACOA STOCK. DIALECTS OF THE COCANUCO STOCK. Man, Woman, Sun, Moon, Fire, Water, Head, Eye, Ear, Mouth, Nose, Tongue, Teeth, Hand, Foot, Home, i, 2, 3. 4, 5. Colorado. Cayapa. Moguex. Totoro. zachi, unilla, liu-pula, muck, mujel. sona, sonala, su-pula, schut, ishu. i6, pacta, puizarum. pe, macara, puil. ni, ninguma, ipt. pi. pi. pii. muchfi, mishpuca, pusro, pushu. cac6, capucua, cap, captchul. pungui, calo. fiquiforo, tipaqui, chidbchad, trictrap. quinfu, kijo, kind, kim. nigca, nile. tesco, tchugul. tede, fia-papa, coze, cambil. nede, ne-papa, kadzigd. ia, y a . yaatk, ia. manga, kanendova. paluga, pubuin. paimun, puinbun. humbalu!6, pipuin. manta. tchajpun. A comparison of the above vocabularies will probably strengthen the supposition I have advanced (ant, p. 199), that these two stocks were originally branches of one and the same. The material on all the dialects is scanty, and for a proper grammatical collation is quite wanting. As they are yet living idioms, it is to be hoped that some energetic traveler will supply the facts to solve the question. The sources of the vocabularies are indicated in the text 348 THE AMERICAN RACE. PERUVIAN STOCKS. Kechua. Aymara, Yunca. Atacameno. Man, runa, hague, chacha, nofoen, sima. Woman, huarmi, marmi, mecherrcec, licau. Sun, inti, inti, villca, xllang, capim. Moon, quilla, phakhsi, jamur. Fire, iiina, nina, humur. Water, una, yacu, uma, la, leng, puri. Head, uma, ppekena, lecq, hlacsi. Eye, iiuui, nayra, locq, kjepi. Ear, rincri, hinchu, medeng, aike. Mouth, si mi, lacca, ssap, khaipe. Nose, sencca, nasa, fon, misi, sipe. Tongue, ccallu, lakhra, ed, lasi. Tooth, quiru, lacca, cchacca, cecquang, quenne. Hand, inaqui, ampara, moecqua, suyi. Foot, chaqui, cayu, loc, khoche. House, huasi, uta, enec, lee, an, turi. I, hue, mayni, maya, onoc, na, sema. 2, iscay, pani, paya, atput, pac, poya. 3, quimsa, quimsa, copaet, goc, palama. 4, tahua, pusi, nopoet, noc, chalpa. 5> pichka, pisca, exllmatzh, mutsma The wide differences between the four main Peruvian stocks are seen in the above vocabularies. The Kechua and Aymara alone have anything in common. The Yunca is presented in the Mochica dialect, which is that adopted by Carrera in his Grammar. The vocabulary of the Etenes, as furnished by Bastian, differs from it only in the word for "eye," tassack, and " head," chdtz, which is remarkable, considering the extreme dime- Ity of the Yunca pho- netics. The grammars of these three tongues are carefully ana- lyzed by Fr. Miiller. The Atacameno words are from the authorities quoted on p. 227. Of its grammar we have only the imperfect account furnished by San Roman, which seems to remove it from the character of the Kechua and Aymara. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 349 SOUTH ATLANTIC LINGUISTIC STOCKS. Arawak. Tapuya. Tupi. Kiriri. kloh. kiitsi. utschih. cayacu. issuh. dzu. tzambu. po-nubi. benjen. oriza. nambih. nunuh. dza. Man, wadili ( samnaha, ( waha, > apyaba, Woman, hiaeru, zokna, cunha, Sun, haddali, taru te mu, curasse, Moon, katti, kmuniak, jaci, Fire, hikkihi, chompek, tata, Water, wuini, munia, hy, Head, krain, canga, Eye, akussi, ketom, tesa, Ear, adikkehi, nunk-hon, namby, Mouth, uelleru kuhu , nima, juru, Nose, issirihi, kigin, iting, Tongue, uejehi, kzigiok, japecong, Tooth, an, ( zhun, ( yune, > ainha, Hand, uekabbu, po, ypo. Foot, ukutti, po, py. House, bahii, kjiemm, oka, I, abba, pogik, jebe, 2, biama, nom, mucuing, 3. kabbuhin, tscho caorhu, musapui, 4, bibiti, iapes chacoron , erundi. 5, abbatekabbe, nonhoron. mnssang. bouih. era, bate. bihe. wachani. wachani dikie. The four chief stocks of the eastern Amazon region present a fundamental diversity both in vocabulary and grammar. The Ara- \vak is shown as it is, as current in Guiana and along the northern affluents of the Amazon ; the Tapuya is in the dialect of the Boto- cudos, as presented by Dr. Paul Ehrenreich ; the Tupi is the "lingua geral " of Brazil; and the Kiriri is from the Arte of Mamiani. In most of the South Atlantic stocks the numerals are imper- fectly developed, all quantities above three being usually expressed by compound words. 350 THE AMERICAN RACE. DIALECTS OF THE ARAWAK STOCK. Chontaquiro. Baniva. Piapoco. Guana. Man, geji, enami, ima, j hapohitai. ] tahanan. Woman, sichune", neyau, inanahi, zeeno. Sun, intiti, amorci, ureri, kat-hai. Moon, cachiri, \ pia> . ( achita, | keri, kohaivai. Fire, chichi, arsi, kitsai, incu. Water, une", ueni, huni, houna. Head, huejijua, \ ibupi, ( nombo, [ ivita, kombaipoi. Eye, huijarsaje", nu puri, nouto ui, onguei. Ear, huijepe, notarifara, gua-wui, guaihaino. Mouth, huespe", e-noma, wa-numa, baho. Nose, huisiri, pe-yapa, nouiacou, agueiri. Tongue, guene, n-hotare, wa-nimi, nahaiuai. Tooth, huise, na-si, yai, onhai. Hand, huamianuta, capi, ha- capi, no. Foot, huisiqui, itsipara, ouabari, djahavai. House, panchi, panisi, capi, maihaino. I, suriti, abehita, poikoja. 2, apiri, pucheibata, pid-djaho. 3. noquiri, maisibba, mopoa. 4, ticti, bainoco, honaton. 5, tictisiri, abemo hacapi, houakoo. These four vocabularies of some dialects of the Arawak stock, from localities wide apart, disclose extensive variations from the standard tongue. They are, however, rather apparent than real, and often depend on either variations in orthography, or the sub- stitution of synonymous or allied words. This is well seen in the comparative table of thirty-six Arawak dialects presented in tabu- lar form by Karl von den Steinen in his Durch Central- Brasilieii, s. 294. Neither he nor Adam includes the Chontaquiro in the Arawak stock, but a comparison of vocabularies leaves no doubt about it. The Chontaquiro prefix h ue is the Piapoco.g-wa, = ' ' thy. ' ' LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 351 DIALECTS OF THE CARIB STOCK. JBakairi. Motilone. Guaque. Tamanaca. Man, uguruto, yaTtano, guire, nuani. Woman, pekoto, esate, guerechi, aica. Sun, tsisi, giiicho, uehi. Moon, nuna, kuna, nuna. Fire, pS'to, giiesta, majoto. Water, paru, kuna-siase, tuna. Head, kjinara^ru, jutuye, prutpe. Eye, k*anu', anu, emuru, januru. Ear, k^i uanata', pana, janari, panari. Mouth, kji ta'A, indare. Nose, k^ana'/l, ona, onari. Tongue, lax u'lu, inico, num. Tooth, k* ie'a, kiyuko, yeri. Hand, k ama'/l, oma, ninare, jamgnari. Foot, k^ u^uA, pisa, iyu puru, ptari. House, 6td, pesoa, migna. i, tokalole, tukum-arko, ovin. 2, asage, kos-arko, oco. 3, asage-tokalo, koser-arko, orva. 4, asage-asage, kosaj-taka. 5, oma (hand). The oldest existing forms of the Carib stock are believed by Von den Steinen to be preserved in the Bakairi, which I have accord- ingly placed first in the vocabularies of this family. The Motilone, which is placed beside it, is one of the most northwestern dialects, and shows singular tenacity of the radicals of the language. The Guaque, which is substantially the same as the Carijona, is the extreme western member of the family, but presents unmis- takably the physiognomy of the stock. Of the Tamanaca I have seen but incomplete specimens, but on account of its former importance, I insert it in this connection. 352 THE AMERICAN RACE. DIALECTS OF THE CARIB STOCK. Continued. Roucouyenne. Macuchi. Maquiritare. Cumanagoto. Man, okiri, uratae, rahuwari, guarayto. Woman, oli, nery, wiri, guariche. Sun, chichi, uci, oudi, chi, sis. Moon, nunu, capoui, nonna, nuna. Fire, uapot, apo, guahato. Water, tuna, tuna, tona, tuna. Head, itepuru, popahy, iyoha, putpo. Eye, yanuru, ye'nu, tenu, yenur, ono. Ear, panari, panure, ihanarri, panar. Mouth, uaiamu, unta, intarri, umptar. Nose, yemna, yuna, yonari, ona. Tongue, nulu, unurn, iwini, nuri. Tooth, ye" re", piriabura, adderri, yer. Hand, yamuru, yanda, arra mori, yemiar. Foot, pupuru, uta, ohorro, putar. House, pacolo, euete, ahute, pata. i, auini, tiuim, toni, tibin. 2, uake'ne', sagane", hake, achac. 3, eleuau, siruane", arrowawa, achoroao. 4, sacrere", hake kiema, yzpe. 5, matiquim, petpe. The Roucouyenne and Macuchi are dialects on either slope of the sierra south of Guyana. Both appear to have been affected by their proximity to the Arawak stock. The Maquiritare of the Orinoco and the Cumanagoto of the northern portion of Venezuela are comparatively closely related, and both present few foreign elements. We may expect a thorough treatment of the comparative gram- mar of the Carib dialects from M. Lucien Adam, who is engaged in this study at the present time. A large amount of material has been collected by Von den Steinen, of which but a small portion has been published. It re- lates principally to the southern Carib dialects. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN. 353 Of one and Peba. Yahua. Saliva. Catare. Man, comoley, huano, cocco. Woman, watoa, huaturuna, gnacu. Sun, bueno, wana, hini, mumeseche- ( cocco. Moon, cano, remelane, arimaney, vexio. Fire, fot6, feula, jigney, egussa. Water, tuna, ain, aah, cagua. Head, iube, siyoco, raino, firignio. Eye, ieu, yeo, vinimichi, huiranca, pacute". Ear, itana, stana, mituva, ontisiui, aicupana. Mouth, rito, huicama, aaja. Nose, iena, yena, vinerro, unirou, incuu. Tongue, inu, syno. Tooth, viala. Hand, iaso, iyaso, vi-nitaily, hui janpana, immom6. Foot, idebu, stuyo, vi nimotay, muniumatu, caabapa. House, mune, lowarrey, rore. i, tomeulay, tekini. 2, nomoira, nanojui. 3, tamoimansa, munua. 4, namerayo, nairojuino. 5, taonella, tenaja. The Opone and the Carare have evidently been subjected to foreign influences, but still retain the characteristics of the Carib dialects. The Peba and the Yahua are not attached to the Carib family. They, however, reveal the traces of its influence, and appear to have adopted many words from it. Probably they are largely jar- gons, and between themselves indicate a rather close relationship. Of the Saliva, which seems to stand alone, the materials are in- adequate. Some texts, with an effort at a grammatical analysis, are given in the Mithridaies, III., s. 625. 23 354 THE AMERICAN RACE. LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN. (Continued.) Otomaca. Piaroa. Guaraouna. Guahiba. Man, andoua, ovo, guarao, pebi. Woman, ondoua, ysaho, -< ibama, tira, petiriba, C. pihaoua. Sun, noua, morho, hoke, wameto, C. icatia, isota. Moon, oura, chawa, guanica, oamito. Fire, noua, ocoura, hecouno, isoto. Water, ia, ahiia, ho, mera. Head, chu. { pemoto hocota, C., ibun. Eye, chiahere, yto huto. Ear, cacoco, -| pemohuyo roto, C., nu tanipara. Mouth, chaha, doco, pinpierda. Nose, chihino, ca-icari, pepomuteito. Tongue, chame, peeberta. Tooth, chacou, ca-ycay, bono. Hand, chumu, ca-mahu, napi. Foot, chinepo, omu, petahu. House, hanouco, ta-habo (my). r, enga, itchaca, cahene. 2, de, manamo, nawanube. 3, yakia, dianamo, acueyani. 4, depitade, urabocaya, penaya autsiva. 5, ionga pinibo, uabachi, cahecobe. The above four lengue matrice were among the most important on the Orinoco. The Guaraouna or Warrau was, and continues to be, spoken by the tribes of the delta, who are numerous and in- telligent, when they have a fair chance to live undisturbed. Of the Otomaca only the merest fragments have been published, and my vocabulary is nearly empty. Several recent travelers have brought back information about the Piaroa and Guahiba, some of which may be found in the eighth volume of the Bibliothkque Linguistiqwe AmZricaine (Paris, 1882), with observations by M. Adam. C. refers to Chaffanjon. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 355 LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN. (Continued.) Omagua. Yarura. Betoya. Correguaje. Man, ava, mena, pume, umasoi, emiud, pai. Woman, huaina, cunia, ibi, ain, ro. Sun, huarassi, do, teo-umasoi, ense. Moon, yase, goppe, teo-ro, paimia. Fire, tata, conde 1 , futui. Water, uni, uui, ocudu, oc5. Head, yacue, pacchd, rosaca, si j ope. Eye, zaicana, j batchioo, C., ( jonde, \ ufoniba, nancoca. Ear, nami, cajoroso. Mouth, yuru, yaoo, C. Nose, ti, nappe, jusaca, jinquepui. ( hilm, C., ) Tongue, cumuera, ( toppono, > ineca, chimenu. Tooth, say, hundee, C., cojini. Hand, pua, icchi, rum-cosi, jete. Foot, pueta, tahoo, C., rem-oca, coapi. House, vica, guce. I, uyepe, caname, edojojoi. 2, nmcuica, ( adotchami, ( fioeni, 1 edoi. 3, iruaca, tarani, ibutu. 4, adoitchemi. 5, canikiro. The Omagua is a well-marked Tupi dialect. Adam has shown the grammatical concordances clearly (Compte-Rendu du Cong, des Amcr., 1888, p. 496). The Yarura and Betoya reveal faint resemblances in the words for " sun " and " tongue " ; but not enough to justify assuming a relationship. Their grammars are quite unlike, that of the Yarura preceding by suffixes, that of the Betoya by prefixes (see Miiller, Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. I., s. 361). The Correguaje shows less analogy to the Betoya in the above vocabulary than in a more extended comparison. The word for water, oco, reappears in a number of dialects not akin to this stock, and is perhaps allied to the Chinchasuyujflcw (seeaw^, p. 205). 356 THE AMERICAN RACE. DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN. Pano. Culino. Bar. Puinavi. Man, buene, huebo, nukung, ehinari. Woman, avio, yusabu, auy, hinatape. Sun, bari, wari, camuhu, iama. Moon, usde, osi, ozii, ki, heboet. Fire, si, yuai, cameni. Water, uaca, unpas, uaka, huni, u, eti. Head, macho, mapo, mazu, dosia, ahouiat. Eye, buero, wiirru, iwiti, ambic. Ear, pauke", tsaybynky, idatini, about. Mouth, uscha, ibi, ecuacha, inuma, aye". Nose, desan, riiky, itti, mohec. Tongue, ana, anu, inene, arok. Tooth, seta, sena, sita, heheyi. Hand-, maku, nucobi, arap. Foot, tacu, taru, whyta, isi, asim. House, subo, subu. I, paju, uiity, bacanacari, atam. 2, dabui, ruba, rabii, bicunama, ahao. 3, muken aute, takuma, kirikunama, apaoui. 4, akaouno. 5, dap tan. The grammatical and phonetic relations of the Pano stock have been judiciously analyzed by M. Raoul de la Grasserie (Compte- Rendu du Cong, des Amer., 1888, p. 438, sq.)- The Pano and Culino are seen to be closely connected, those who use the one doubtless understanding the other. The Bare, which is an Arawak dialect, I have inserted here for the sake of convenience. The Puinavi is unclassified (see ant, p. 278). In the few words above given, those for "sun," "water, "and " foot " appear to have affinities to the Bar. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 357 DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN (Continued.) BASIN. Catoquina. Ticuna. Zaparo. Tucano. Man, eu, iyate, taucuo, euma, mina. Woman, aina, niai, itiumu, numea. Sun, tscha, ehajeh, yano'cua, muipu. Moon, wahlya, cashi'cua, mama nunpo. Fire, ychta, ejheh, anarais-hu'cua, pecame"e. Water, uata-hy, aaitchu, muricha, oc6. Head, ghy, nahairu, a'naca, dipua. Eye, ygho, nehaai, namijia, caperi. Ear, masaehta, nachiuai, taure, umepero. Mouth, nunaghv, naha, atupa'ma, sero. Nose, opaghp6, naran, najucua, eke"d. Tongue, nogho, kohny, ririccia, ye'me'n6. Tooth, y, taputa, icare, upiry. Hand, paghy, tapamai, ichiosa, amupamd. Foot, achtnan, nacoutai, inocua, dipoca. House, ih, hi, itia, uiy'. i, heghykty, hucih, nucua'qui, nekeu. 2, upaua, tarepueh, anamis-hinaqui , piana. 3. tupaua, tomepueh, aimucuraque, itiana. 4, hoyhan, ague mouji, \ huet sara maja itiaca, [ bapalitina. 5, hueamepueh, nianucua, nicumakina. The Catoquina and Ticuna are mixed dialects or jargons, but clearly related to each other. Martius hesitated whether to assign them to his " Guck " or his " Ges " stem. They both contain ele- ments of the Arawak, probably by borrowing. Locally they are neighbors. The vocabulary of Ticuna is from Paul Marcoy's work. The Tucano, which is in the form obtained by Coudreau, shows elements of Betoya and Arawak. Its relationship to the Tapuya is not fully established. The Zaparo from the Putumayo is from the collection of Oscu- lati. It does not seem in any way related to the great stocks of the Amazonian region. 358 THE AMERICAN RACE. DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN. (Continued.) Tacana. Maropa. Sapibocona. Araua. Man, deja, dreja, reanci, maquida. Woman, ano, anu, anu, waidaua. Sun, ireti, isjeti, mahi. Moon, ban, bantri, bari, massicu. Fire, quati, cuati, cuati, sihu. Water, - eave, jene, j-yuvi, eubi, paha. Head, echu, echuja, echuja. Eye, etra drun dru, eta chundru , etua churu. Ear, edaja, eshacuena. Mouth, equatri, equatra. Nose, evieni, evi, evi. Tongue, eana, eana, eana. Tooth, etre, etre. Hand, ema, erne, eme, usafa. Foot, equatri, evatri, ebbachi, otama. House, ejtej, etai, zami. i, pea, pembive. carata, \varihi. 2, beta, beta, mitia, famihi. 3, quimisha, camisha, curapa, arishafahs 4, puchi, puschi. 5, puchica, pischica. The interesting group of the Tacana stock is illustrated above by three of its dialects. I regret that the recent publication on the Arauna by Rev. Nicolas Armentia (Navegacion del Rio Madre de Dios) has not been accessible to me. The scanty vocabulary of the Araua does not permit any ex- tended study of its relations. I call attention to the numerals of the Sapibocona and Cayubaba as given above and on page 360. Prof. Fr. Miiller has transposed the two in his lists of examples (Sfirachzvissenschaft, II., I., p. 438. Compare Mithridates, III., p. 576). LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 359 LANGUAGES OF THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. Yurucare. Itene. Satnucu. Chiquito. Man, sufie, huatiki, f vairigue, Inani, H., | nofiich. Woman, yee, tana, f yacotea, tcheke, H., | paich. Sun, puine, mapito, yede, anene, zuuch. Moon, subi, panevo, etosia, vaach, paas. Fire, aima, iche, pioc, pee. Water, sama, como, yod, tuuch. Head, dala, mahui, yatodo, taanys. Eye, tanti, taute\ to, yedoy, nosuto. Ear, meye, iniri, yagorone, f nonemasu. \ umapus. Mouth, pile, ai. Nose, unte, yacunachu, ina. Tongue, otu. Tooth, sansa, 00. Hand, bana, uru, ymanaetio, f panaucos. lees, H. Foot, te farafka, irie, pope. House, ( vive, techte, ' \ siba, \ poo. I, lecia, lecca, chomara, etama. 2, lasie, gar. 3, libi, gaddioc. 4, lapsa. 5, cheti. The variety of stocks on the Bolivian highlands is clearly shown by the vocabularies on this and the following page. I have taken them from the D'Orbigny MSS., in the Bibliothe'que Nationale, Paris, the collections of Hervas, and the papers of E. Heath in the Kansas City Review, 1883. I have not been able to connect any one of the eight tongues with any other, although each has some words which have been borrowed from others or from some com- mon stock. Thus, the Yurucare sufie, man, Mosetena zoni, Chi- quito fionich, are too similar not to be from the same radical. It must be remembered that the Chiquito was adopted by the mis- 360 THE AMERICAN RACE. LANGUAGES OF THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. (Continued.) Canichana. Mosetena, Cayubaba. Mobima. Man, -< hiochama, enacu, D., [ zoni, meye"se, iti-laqua. Woman, huiquigaue, phen, tenani, j cue'ya, ( cue ya, H. Sun, ni-cojli, tsun, itoco, jtino. ( mossi, H. Moon, ni-milaue, yvua, irara, yeche. Fire, ni-chuco, tsi, idore, vuee. Water, nih-tji, ozni, ikita, to'mi. Head, ni-mucukh, hutchi, guana-quana, ba-quaqua. Eye, eu-tokhe, ve, />/., vein, en-chaco, tsora. Ear, eu-comeh, chon, ena-jengicui, lototo. Mouth, eu-chene, choo, en-diachi, cuana. Nose, e-ebje", hey, ena-hauve"o, j ba-chi. j chini, H. Tongue, eu-tschdva, nem, ena-yi, j ruchlan, ( rulcua, H. Tooth, | eu-huti, eu-cuti, D., ) monyin J (//), 1 soichlan. Hand, eu-tehli, un, en-dadra, j chopan. ( zoipok, H. Foot, eu-ajts, y u . en-arje, risan. House, nit-cojl, aca, droya, asna. i, mereca, zrit, pebbi. 2, caadita, pana, bbeta. 3, caarjata, chibbin, kimisa. 4, tsis. 5, canam. sionaries as the general language for instruction, and other tribes were persuaded to learn it whenever possible. Thus some of its words came to be substituted for those originally familiar to the speakers. The Chiquito and the Yurucare are the only tongues of the eight given of which I have found satisfactorj' grammatical notices ; and that of the latter is still unpublished (see ante, p. 297). LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 361 LANGUAGES OF THE CHACO TRIBES. Guaycuru. Guaycuru. Toba. Payagua. Man, conailaigo, sellarnicke, iale, yraic, D., pichires. Woman, ivuavo, alucke, a!6, elommi. Sun, ali jega, nalacke, la la, ij cabala. Moon, aipainahi, auriucke, karoic, apajsa. Fire, noolai, nodecke, nodec, anorec, D. Water, niogo, estract, netrat, guayaque. Head, lacaicke, lakaic, caracaic, D., yamagra. Eye, cogaicoguo, laicte, hait, yacte, D., yatiqui. Ear, conapajoti, teld, tela, yaiguala. Mouth, coniola, halap, ayap, D. Nose, codeimie, lunuke, lomi, imic, D., iyocque. Tongue, codocaiti, lacharat. Tooth, codoai, hu<, lu<, yohua, D. Hand, cobahaga, yagata, pokena, inagchiac. Foot, codohoua, lapia, lapid, ypia, D., ybagro. House, dimi, lumackd, nollic, nnoic, D., yaggo. i, nathedac, 2, cacayni or nivoco. 3, cacaynilia. 4, nalotapegat. 5. , nivoca-cacaynilia. ) The three dialects of the Guaycuru stock above given show con- siderable diversity. The first is from Castelnau, the second from Fontana, the third (Toba) from Carranza and de Angelis. The Payagua is also from Fontana (Revista de la Soc. Geog. Argentina, 1887, p. 352, sq.). All the Chaco tribes are singularly defective in numeration. Pelleschi says that intelligent chiefs among them cannot count the fingers of one hand. Above the two numerals are generally com- pound words and have not fixed forms. 362 THE AMERICAN RACE. Man, pete, nitemoi, Woman, uacal, quisle, Sun, yny, o!6, Moon, alit, copi, Fire, ycud, nie, Water, to, fo, ma, Head, toc6, niscone, Eye, zu, chu, toqud, Ear, cusancp, maslup, Mouth, ca, yep, Nose, nus, limic, Tongue, lequy, lequip. Tooth, llu, lupe. Hand, ys, isip, Foot, ellu, ape, House, uya, enu, guane, I, alapea, agit, 2, tamop, uke, 3, tamlip, nipetuei, 4, locuep, yepkatalet, 5, SiCO TRIBES. (Continued.') Chiinupi. Mataco. nitepac, j paire". { inoon, D. jiole", chiegua. o!6, iguala. cocpi, huela. nic", etog. mad, ( elot. ( guag, D. niscan, litec, D. tacqui, teloy. mas leguep, kiotei. notagni, D. niji veppe, nognes. ysivep, nog-guez. huopep, kalay'. huane, j guoslo. ( lubuque, D. j hotequachi. [ efagla, D. ( hotequoasi. ( tacuas, D. . j lach tdi qua jel. 1 ( tacuya, D. j tdi-qua less-hichi. ( nocuepogec, D. ype befagla, D. The near relationship of the L,ule, Vilela and Chunupi appears clear from the above comparison. The Chunupi words are taken from Fontana (ubi sttprd) , the Vilela from the vocabulary of Gilii's Storia Americana, and the L,ule from Machoni's Grammar. The Mataco is also from Fontana, and represents the dialect as spoken to-day. The words marked D. are from the D'Orbigny MSS. LINGUISTIC APPENDIX. 363 LANGUAGES OF THE LA PLATA BASIN AND PAMPAS. Guachi. Guato. Caraja. Araucanian, Man, chacup, matai, abou, che. Woman, outie', mouhaja, awkeu, domo. Sun, 6-es, nouveai, tisu, antu. Moon, o-alete, upina, aadou, endo, cuyen. Fire, mata, eastou, cuthal. Water, euak, maguen, be-ai, CO. Head, iotapa, dokeu, woara, Ion co. Eye, iataya, marei, waa-rouwai, ge. Ear, irtanme'te', mavi, wana-outai, pilun. Mouth, iape, dijio, wa-a-rou, uun. Nose, ia-note, taga, wa-day-asan, yu. Tongue, iteche, chagi, \va-cla-rato, que-uun. Tooth, iava, maqua, wa-a-djon, voro. Hand, iolai-mason, ida, wa-debo, cuu. Foot, iacalep, apoo, wa-a-wa, namun. House, poecha, mucu, aeto, ruca. i, tamak, tchenai, wadewo, quifie. 2, eu-echo, du-uni, wadebo-thoa, epu. 3, eu-echo-kailau, tchum, wadeboa-heodo, cula. 4, eu-echo-way, dekai, wadebo-jeodo, meli. 5, localau, toera, wade wa-j ouclay , quechu. The vocabularies of the Guachis, Guatos and Carajas are from the collections of Castelnau {Expedition, Tome V., Appendix); that of the Araucanian from Febres" Diccionario. The Guachis are classed as belonging to the Guaranis (Tupi stock), and by tradition came from the west (see ant, p. 233). A comparison with the Samucu vocabulary (page 359) seems to me to suggest several resemblances which would be worth further study on more extended material. The Guatos may be a mixed offshoot of the Tapuya stock, as has been suggested (ant, p. 318). Of the Caraja, we must await the publication of the abundant material collected by Dr. Paul Ehren- reich. 3^4 THE AMERICAN RACE. PATAGONIAN AND FUEGIAN STOCKS. Tsoneca, i. Tsoneca, 2. Yahgan. Alikuluf. Man, nuken, chonik, oha, ub'n, ack'inish. Woman. nacuna, karken, kepa, shepush , ack'hanash. Sun, chuina, gengenko, lum, lum. Moon, chuina, showan, han'nuka, cuunequa. Fire, ma-ja, yaik, pushaky, tStal. Water, karra, ley, shamea, chanash. Head, guil. kittar, lukabe, of chocka. Eye, gottel, g-otl, delta, telkh. Ear, shene, shaa, ufkhea, teldil. Mouth, shahan, yeak, uffeare. Nose, oo, tchal, or, cushush, nohl. Tongue, del, tal, lun, luckin. Teeth, curr, oer, orre, tu'un, cauwash. Hand, ore, fan, tsicc'r, J josch, >- yuccaba. ( marpo, ) Foot, keal, j shankence, alj, [ c5eea\ cutliculcul. Home, cocha, kou, uk kral, hut. i, cheuquen, chuche, ocoale, tow quid ow. 2, xeukay, houke, combabe, telkeow. 3, keash, \ aa's, kaash, [ muttta, cup'eb. 4, kekaguy, ] carge, kague, j-carga, inadaba. 5, keytzum, ktsin, cup'aspa. The vocabularies of the Tsoneca, Tehuelhet or Patagonian differ considerably in the various writers. No. i is from Von Martins, completed from D'Orbigny's lists. No. 2 is based on Lt. Muster's examples, supplemented from the vocabularies in Ramon L,ista's Exploraciones . The Yahgan and Alikuluf pass for independent stocks. Yet in a number of words they resemble each other, and in a few, for ex- ample, those for " eye," " woman," " moon," " man," there seems more than a chance similarity. ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. P. 24. AURIFEROUS GRAVELS OF CALIFORNIA. The principal reference is J. D. Whitney, The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California, pp. 258-288 (Cambridge, Mass., 1879). Pro- fessor Whitney believes that the evidence is sufficient to attribute the mortars, pestles, beads, etc., found in the auriferous gravels to late pliocene man. But Dr. Joseph Leidy describes equine skulls, molars, incisors, etc., found in these gravels, thirty-five to forty feet below the surface, " not differing in any respect from those of the modern horse," and " unchanged in texture " (see ibid., p. 257). Dr. Leidy informs me personally that for such reasons he gravely doubts the antiquity of the formation, and distrusts the great age of the human relics it contains. P. 27. PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. Reports of the discovery of very large numbers of supposed palaeolithic implements in various parts of the United States have been collected and published by Mr. Thomas Wilson in the Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1887-88, pp. 677-702. These implements, however, are called palaeolithic from their form and workmanship only, and not from the stratigraphic relations in which they were found. As palaeo- lithic forms often survived in the riper culture of the neolithic age, the only positive proof of their older origin must be that they are found in undisturbed relation to older strata. P. 33. REMAINS OF MAN IN THE EQUUS BEDS. What Amer- ican geologists call the Equus Beds are those which yield in abun- dance the bones of various species of fossil horse, as E. major, oc- cidentalis, excelsus, barcencei, fratemus, crenidens, etc., most of which have been determined by Dr. Joseph Leidy and Prof. E. D. Cope. The principal localities of these beds are: i. The Oregon Desert ; 2. The country of the Nueces, in southwestern Texas ; and 3. The valley of Mexico. The horizon to which these beds should be referred was considered by Prof. King to be the Upper (365) 366 THE AMERICAN RACE. Pliocene ; but by Prof. G. K. Gilbert, Dr. Joseph Leidy, and I think, by Prof. Cope, it is rather held to be pleistocene or early quaternary, probably as old as the great glacial phenomena of the Continent. According to Cope and Gilbert, rude stone implements have undoubtedly been found in place in the Equus beds of Ne- vada, California and Southwestern Texas. See the American Naturalist, 1889, p. 165 ; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila., 1883, p. 134, sq. Pp. 106, 108. KWAKIUTI, AND NooKTA STOCKS. After the pages referred to had been printed, I received, through the kind- ness of Mr. Horatio Hale, advance sheets of the Sixth Annual Re- port of the Committee of the British Association on the tribes of the Northwest Coast, prepared by Dr. Franz Boas, with an intro- duction by Mr. Hale, and including eighteen vocabularies. Dr. Boas' researches furnish clear evidence of a connection between the Kwakiutl and the Nootka tongues, and there is little doubt that they are distantly related . An instructive article on the physical characteristics of the Indians of the North Pacific coast is contrib- uted by Dr. Boas to the American Anthropologist for January, 1891. His conclusion is : " Each tribe appears composed of many types, but in each we find a marked prevalence of a certain type." P. 123. SUPPOSED CONNECTION OF SONORAN LANGUAGES WITH THE MAYA STOCK. In his Etudes Azteques, published in the Museon, 1890, p. 506, M. W. Baligny endeavors to show a connec- tion between the vocabularies of Sonoran languages and the Maya dialects. His strong points are some of the numerals and the per- sonal pronouns of the first and second person. I have elsewhere given good reasons for not depending on these pronominal anal- ogies in American languages (see Essays of an Americanist, p. 396) . And as to the numerals, ' ' dont la ressemblance est e*vidente ' ' (according to him), when the Sonoran tongues disagree with the Nahuatl, they have almost always clearly borrowed from the Yuma stem, as in "two," guoca, kuak (see Vocabs., ante, pp. 335, 336). P. 163. LANGUAGE OF THE RAMAS. Since my negative obser- vations about the Ramas were in type, I have received a short vo- cabulary of their language from the Rev. W. Siebarger, Moravian missionary on the Musquito coast. The orthography is German. ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 367 Rama. Rama. Man, nikikna, Tongue, kup. Woman, kuma, Tooth, siik. Sun, nunik, Hand, kuik. Moon, tukan, Foot, kaat. Fire, abung, House, knu. Water, sii, i, saiming. Head, kiing, 2, puk sak. Eye, up, 3, pang sak. Ear, kuka, 4, kun kun beiso. Mouth, kaka, 5, kwik astar. Nose, talk. My informant writes me that the Ramas are about 250 in num- ber, and are all Christians and able to speak and write English, ex- cept a few very old persons. Their language will probably be extinct in a few years. They are confined to their island in Blue- fields L/agoon. It is particularly interesting, therefore, to fix their affinities before the opportunity passes. From the above vocabu- lary I think there is little doubt but that they are a branch of the Changuina or Dorasque stock, described pp. 174, 175. The follow- ing words attest this, the Changuina forms being from A. L. Pi- nart's Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasqtie, Dialectos C/tumulu, Gua- laca y Clianguine, (Paris, 1890) : Rama. Ckanguina. Sun, riunik, kelik u. Fire, abung, kebug-al (fire-brand). Watet\ sii, si. Head, kiing, kitt-unuma. Ear, kuka, kuga. Mouth> kaka, kaga. Nose, taik, flakai. Tongue, kup, kuba. Tooth, siik, su. Hand, kuik, kula k House, knu, ku. The numerals For " two " and " three, " puk sak, pang Sak, are doubtless the Cuna pocua, pagua. The Ramas, therefore, belong to the Isthmiafc tribes, and formed the vanguard of the South 368 THE AMERICAN RACE. American immigration into North America. What time they moved northward and possessed themselves of their small island is unknown, but it was probably after the conquest. Mr. Sie- barger writes me : " They were always kept under, even ill-treated, by the Musquito Indians, and are still very submissive and teach- able." The following errata should be noted : P. 69, line 3 ; for Nehaunies read Nahaunies. Pp. 89, 95, 98 and 101, the numbers of the sections should read 7, 8, 9, 10, instead of 5, 6, 7, 8. P. 169, line 17, for maternal read paternal. P. 197, for Morropas read Malabas. P. 251, line n, for Wapiana read Woyawoi. I. INDEX OF AUTHORS. Abbott, C. C., 27, 77. Acosta, J., 172, 178, 187, 191. Acosta, Jos., 221. Adair, J., 18. Adelung, J. C., 165, 312. Adam, L,., 56, 90, 146, 163, 169, 170, 184, 247, 257, 274, 296, 311, 329, 341, 350, 352, 354- Albis, M. I., 199, 200, 254, 274, 275, 343- Alcedo, A., 182, 221. Ameghino, F., 28. Amich, J., 243, 288, 291. Andre", E., 197, 208, 280, 283. Angelis, P. de, 361. Angrand, I,., 304. Anthony, A. S., 79. Araoz, J., 314. Araujo, J., 288. Armentia, N., 358. Aughey, Prof. 26. Babbitt, F., 25. Baegert, J., 112. , Balbi, A., 165. Baligny, W., 366. Bancroft, H. H., 138. Bandelier, A. F., 45, 72, 116, 141. Barbara, F., 322. Barber, E. A., 114. Barcena, A. de, 170, 311, 320, 321. Barcena, M., 27. 24 Barnard, J. G., 143. Barreda, P., 144. Bartlett, J. R., Ilr . Bartram, W., 87. Bastian, A., 206, 221, 225, 348. Bates, H. W., 35. Beaumont, P. 138. Berendt, C. H., 144, 149, 151, 152, 186, 340-2. Beristain y Souza, 147. Bertonio, I/., 217, 218. Bliss, J. P., 148. Boas, F., 47, 60, 104, 106, 366. Bollaert, W., 195, 198, 202, 206, 290. Bourke, J. G., 71, 115, 123, 125. Brackett, A. G., 120. Branner, J. C., 241. Bransford, J. F., 164. Brasseur de Bourbourg, 156, 158. Brinton, D. G., 17, 24, 38, 45, 78, 79, 88, 91, 135, 158, 161, 166, 241, 256. Briihl, G., 45, 132, 211. Buckley, C., 209. Buelna, E., 127. Burmeister, 28, 321. Buschmann, J. C. E., 68, 116, 119, 128, 130, 337. Carr, I,., 39, 75, 211. Carranza, A. J., 309, 361. (369) 370 THE AMERICAN RACE. Carranza, D., 147. Carrera, F., 224, 348. Carver, J., 99. Cassani, J., 182, 267, 268, 270, 275- Castelnau, F., 244, 245, 260, 287, 310, 318. Castillo y Orozco, E., 192. Catlin, G., 98. Caledon, R., 183. Chaffanjon, J., 252, 264, 265, 266, 270, 272. Chandless, W., 290-3. Chargncey, H. de, 136. Chome", P., 301, 318. Clark, W. P., 102, 121, 122. Codazzi, V., 199, 264, 265. Coleti, G., 180, 181, 202, 232, 269, 287, 323. Colini, G. A., 283. Collinson, J., 163. Cope, E. D., 366. Corbusier, W. H., 49, no. Cordova, J., 339. Coudreau, M., 257, 264, 266. Cresson, H. P., 25. Crevaux, J., 253, 257, 264, 272, 274, 278, 309. Croll, J., 28, 30. Cueva, P. la, 297. Dall, W. H., 20, 61, 65, 66. Dana, J. D., 22, 23. Darapsky, L., 227, 322, 329. Darwin, C., 28, 47. Dawson, G. M., 22, 71, 106. Deniker, Dr., 332. D'Etre", G., 170. Dobrizhoffer, M., 308. D'Orbigny, A. de, 40, 166, 167 220, 227, 243, 244, 245, 290, 297, 302, 309, 316, 328, 359, 364. Dorsey, J. O., 98. Douay, L,., 194. Dunbar, J. B., 95, 97. Eastman, Mary, 100. Eder, F. X., 247. Ehrenreich, P., 237, 239, 253, 260, 261, 317, 328, 349. Enciso, M. F., 178. Ercilla, A. de, 327. Ernst, A., 176, 178, 179, 255, 343. Espada, 215. Ewbank, 102, in. Faulkner, T., 327. Faraud, F., 70. Fernandez, B., 151. Fernandez, J. P., 296, 305, 317. Fernandez, L., 164. Ferragut, P., 311. Figueredo, J., 205. Fletcher, Alice, 49. Fonseca, J. S., 311. Fontana, L. J., 308, 315. Forbes, D., 217, 218, 220. Forstemann, E., 157. Fritsch, H. 40. Gabelentz, von, F., 259. Gagern, C. de, 55. Gait, Iv. F., 290. Garcia, B., 93. Garcia, G., 142, 145- Gatschet, A. S., 68, 90, 113. Geikie, J., 29. Gibbs, G., 121. Gilbert, G. K., 26, 32. Gilii, F. S., 250, 263-278, 311. Gilnian, H., 37. INDEX OF AUTHORS. 371 Gonzaga, P., 150. Grasserie, R. de la, 90, 289, 290, 356. Greiffenstein, C., 175, 243. Grossman, F. E., 124. Gumilla, J., 267, 270, 272. Gutierrez, P\, 288. Habenicht, H., 29. Hale, H., 41, 79, 83, 84, 98, 107. Hamy, Dr., 281, 284. Harisse, H., 151. Hartmann, J., 267. Hartt, C. P., 232. Havestadt, B., 325. Hayden, T., 97. Heath, E., 290, 299, 302, 304. Henderson, A., 162. Henry, V., 296. Hensel, R., 260. Hensell, Dr., 39. Hernandez, M., 187. Herndon, Lt., 40, 291. Herrera, A., 40, 140, 143, 145, 148, 154, 172, 183, 191, 194, 196. Hervas, L., 165, 194, 195, 222, 226, 243, 278-280, 287, 296, 306, 311, 314, 317, 340. Heuzey, L., 201. Hoernes, R., 28. Hoffman, \V. J., 62. Holm, G., 6 1, 63. Holmes, W. H., 25, 154, 186. Humboldt, A. von, 43, 165, 263, 270, 272. Humboldt, W. von, 56, 166. Hyades, Dr., 329. Im Thurn, E. P., 35, 245-48. 251, 272. Icazbalceta, J. G., 151. Juarros, D., 152. Jukes-Browne, A. J., 31. Kingsborough, Lord, 18. Kelly, J. W., 65. Kollmann, J., 35, 36. Krause, A., 106. Labre", Col., 294, 299. Laet, de, J., 150, 299. Landa, D., 156. Lares, J. I., 178, 179, 180. Latham, R. G., 278. Leconte, J. L M 104. Lengerke, H., 252. Leon, C. de, 202, 206, 207, 210. Leon, N., 137, 138, 338, 339. Level, M., 272. Lista, R., 328, 364. Lovisato, D., 330,331. Lozano, P., 233, 307, 310, 312, 3M- 317. Ludewig, H., 286, 297. Lund, Dr., 237. MacCauley, C., 89. McGee, W. J., 26, 34. Machoni, A., 311. Matniani, L. V., 259, 349. Mansilla, L., 323. Marcano, G., 180. Marcoy, P., 233, 245. Markham, C. G., 65, 204, 205, 206, 207, 215, 216, 217, 222, 226, 286. Martin, C., 327. Martial, L. P., 329. Martius, C. P., von, 46, 168, 169, 230, 232, 240, 246, 250, 257, 258, 262, 288, 289, 293, 310, 314, 3i6, 318, 328. 372 THE AMERICAN RACE. Matthews, W., 38, 71, 73, 247. Medina, J. T., 324, 325. Meigs, J. A., 36, 37, 82. Mendieta, G., 150. Michelena y Rojas, F., 255, 266, 271, 272. Middendorf, Dr., 204, 208, 211, 215. Molina, A., 130. Moore, T. H., 227. Morgan, L. H., 45, 83, 99, 149. Mortillet, G. de, 19, 27, 30. Morton, S. G., 36. Mosquera, Gen., 195, 200. Moure, A., 42, 49. Moussy, M., 323. Miiller, Fr., 56, 146, 184, 215, 339. 346, 348. Miiller, H., 237. Muratori, P., 296. Murdoch, J., 60. Musters, Lt., 324, 328, 364. Natterer, J., 170, 250, 310. Navarette, 178. Navas, F., 150. Nehring, Dr., 212. Noguera, V., 149, 342. Ojeda, A. de, 178. Ordinaire, O., 242, 286, 289. Ore, G., 222, 224. Orozco y Berra, 69, 93, 94, 130, 148, 152. Osculati, 280, 281. Oviedo y Bafios, 177. Oviedo, 145. Pajeken, C. A., in, 126. Parker, O. J., 164. Parras, P., 315. Payne, F. F., 61. Pector, D., 149. Pelleschi, G., 313. Peralta, M. de, 146. Perez, F., 175, 193, 199, 268, 269, 276. Perez, J.T., 183. Petitot, E., 70, 73. Petroff, I., 61, 66, 67. Pfizmaier, A., 64, 65, 66. Philippi, R. A., 227. Piedrahita, 191. Pimentel, F., 93, 94, 140. Pinart, A., 66, 115, 127, 174, 185, 253, 254, 343- Platzmann, J., 325. Ploix, C., 19. Posado-Arango, Dr., 193. Poppig, E., 231, 286, 288, 326, 327- Powell, J. W.,45, 83. Powers, S., 73. Prestwich, J., 22. Quatrefages, de, 19, 32. Quesada, V. G., 319. Quetelet, 75. Quevede, A. L,., 312. Ragueneau, P., 49. Raimondi, Prof., 284, 290. Rev, P. M., 237-239. Ribas, P., 119, 125-127. Ribera, J. de, 195. Riccardi, P. , 324. Rink, H., 30, 60. Rodrigues, J. B., 252-3. Rohde, R., 310, 319. Rojas, A., 177, 267. Roldan, P., 151. INDEX OF AUTHORS. 373 Rosny, I,, de, 157. Rosse, I. C., 21. Saenz, N., 276, 277. Sahagun, B., 128, 132, 135, 136, 139, 142, 154. Sanborn, J. W., 48. San-Roman, J., 227, 228. Schellhas, Dr., 157. Scherzer, J., 153. Schlosser, Max, 50. Schomburgk, R. F., 246, 254. Schweinitz, de, 64. Seitz, J., 331. Seler, E., 157, 196, 198. Simpson, A., 274, 283. Spencer, J. W., 30. Spix, Von, 262. Spruce, R., 169, 226, 250, 291. Squier, E. G., 149, 152, 159, 160, 220, 225, 341. Steinen, K. von den, 169, 205, 241, 245, 258, 259, 260, 350, 35i- Steinthal, H., 217. Stoll, O., 152, 340. Strebel, H., 140. Stubel, Dr., 206. Suarez, F. G., 201. Tarayre, E. G., 136, 336. Tauste, F., 252. Techo, N., 230, 231, 307, 311, 320, 326. Ten-Kate, Dr., no, 113. Teza, E., 232, 281, 285, 302, 306. Thiel, B. A., 164, 196, 197, 342. Thomas, C., 157. Tolmie, C., 106. Topinard, P., 39, 211. Toral, P., 150, 151. Torquemada, 126. Torres-Rubio, 205. Treuter, P., 326. Tschudi, J. J. von, 51, 168, 170, 203, 204, 205, 206, 212, 215, 222, 224, 227, 238, 243, 320. Turner, 102, in. Uhde, A., 93, 94. Uhle, M., 174, 184, 185. Uricoechea, E., 192. Valdivia, 209, 323. Vega, G. dela, 201, 202, 203, 204, 221, 225, 227. Veigl, 292. Velasco, J. de, 207. Vergara y Vergara, 267. Villavicencio, M., 208, 281. Virchow, R., 36, 103, 121, 247, 320. Vinson, J., 90. Wagner, M., 48. Waitz, T., 209, 233, 292, 300. Wallace, A. R., 229, 278. Weddell, 300. Whipple, Lt., 102, in. White, R. B., 193. Wiener, C., 225. Wilcszynski, H., 197. Wilson, J. S., 25. Winkler, H., 66. Wright, G. F., 27, 29, 30, 31. Zegarra, G. P., 215. II. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Ababas, 235. Abipones, 308, 309, 315. Abnakis, 74, 80. Acaliands, 320. Acaxees, 127, 134. Accawai, 254. & Catoquina, 262, 357. Catoxa, 262. Cauiris, 268. Cauixanas, 249. Caumaris, 286. > Cauqui dialect, 216. Cauwachis, 286. Caveres, 264, 267, 268. Cavinas, 298. Cayapas, 197-8, 208, 347. Cayapos, 239. Cayovas, 235. Caypotorades, 301. Cayubabas, 302, 360. Cempoalla, 139. Cenis, 97. Ceris, no, 113. Cerro de Sal, 243. Cessares, 327. Chachapuyas, 215. Chaco, the, 307. Chaco tribes, 49, 307, sq. Chacobos, 294. Chagaragotos, 177. Chagres, 187. Chahta-Muskokis, 85-89. Chalivas, 175. Chamas, 180. Chaniicuros, 292. Chamis, 175, 176, 344. Champlain period, 23. Chancas, 216. Chancos, 226. Chaneabals, 158, 340. Chanes, 317. Chaneses, 235. Changes, 226-227. Changuinas, 174, 343, 367. Chapacuras, 303. Chapanecs, 143, 145, 340. Chapos, 285. Charcas, 221. Charrua stock, 317. Chatinos, 142. Chauques, 325, 327. Chavantes, 239. Chayavitas, 279, 284, 285. Chaymas, 252, 264. Chemehuevis, 133. Chepewyans, 68, 73. Cherembos, 284. Cherentes, 239. Cherokees, 81-85. Chetimachas, 91. Cheyennes, 80. Chiamus, 176. Chiapas, 143, 340. Chibchas, 181, sq., 345, 346. Chicamochas, 189. Chichas Orejones, 310, 315. Chichimecs, 129. Chicomoztoc, 142. Chicriabas, 239. Chiglit dialect, 60. 378 THE AMERICAN RACE. Chikasaws, 86-89. Chilan Balam, 158. Chinantecos, 158, 340. Chimakuan, 108. Chimalapas, 144. Chimanis, 298. Chimarikan, 109. Chimbioas, 262. Chimilas, 182, 183, 189, 345. Chimmessyan, 108. Chimus, 225. Chinantecs, 144. Chinchasuyu dialect, 205. Chinchas, 226. Chinooks, 106, 107, 108. Chipeways, 74, 80. Chiquitos, 244, 295, 305, 316. Chirapas, 284. Chiracahuas, 73. Chiricoas, 264, 270. Chirigotos, 177. Chiriqui, 129, 148, 186-187. Chiriquanos, 230, 235. Chirupas, 264, 268. Chitas, 182, 189. Choco affinities, 274-275, 344. Chocos, 175, 343, 344. Choctaws, 85, sq. Chogurus, 235. Choles, 158. Cholones, 243, 288. Chonos, 326. Chontals, 112, 146, sq., 342. Chontal-lencas, 149. Chontaquiro, see Chuntaquiros. Choonke, 328. Chorotegans, 145, 160. Choroyas, 276. Chord, 149. Choseosos, 243. Chualas, 244. Chuchonas, 142, 151. Chucunacos, 173. Chudavinos, 282. Chukchis, 64, 65. Chuniashan, 109. Chumulus, 175. Chunchas, 243, 288. Chunipi, 308, 362. Chuntaquiros, 245, 249, 350. Churitunas, 282. Churoya stock, 276. Chururnatas, 310, 315. Citaraes, 176. Ciulipis, 313. Cliff -houses, 115. Coahuiltecan, 93. Coaquilenes, 94. Cobeus, 240. Cocamas, 231-235. Cocamillas, 235, 289. Cochimis, 112, 113,335. Cochivuinas, 292. Coconucos, 194-196, 347. Cocopas, 113. Coco-Maricopas, 113. Coco stem, 258. Cocos, 162. Cofanes, 276. Colanes, 226. Colimas, 190. Collas, 217, 221. Color, 39. Colorados, 196, 208, 226, 347. Columbian gravels, 25. region, 172. stocks, 346. Comaba, 279. Comacoris, 282. Comanches, 101, 118, 120, sq., 133- Comecrudos, 94. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 379 Comeyas, 113. Comoparis, 127. Conchucos, 196, 216. Conejoris, 282. Conestogas, 81, 83. Conibos, 289, 290, 291, 292. Coninos, 113. Conis, 298. Copan, 153, 155. Copatasas, 282. Copehan, 109. Corabecas, 303. Coras, 126, 134, 337 Cores, 252. Coroados, 39, 259, 260. Coretus, 239. Coroinos, 301. Coronados, 285. Coromachos, 178. Coropos, 240. Correguages, 273, 355. Coshattas, 89. Costanoan, 109. Cothos, 187. Cotonames, 94. Cotoxos, 237, 262. Couvade, the, 248, 256. Covarecas, 303. Coviscas, 151. Coybas, 173. Coyoteros, 73. Cranial capacity, 39. Craniology, 36, 37. Creeks, 86, sq. Crees, 74, 80. Crens, 236. Crichanas, 252. Cross, the, 54. Crows, 98, 100. Cuaiqueres, 197. Cucciveros, 265. Cuchan, 109, 113. Cuchis, 298. Cuchiuaras, 235. Cuculados, 301. Cuenca, 201. Cuevas, 173. Cuicatecos, 142. Cuitlatecos, 128, 130, 134, 152. Cukras, 162. Culinos, 292, 362. Cumanachos, 239, 2401 Cumanagoto, 252, 352. Cumanas, 252. Cunacunas, 173. Cunas, 173, 178, 343. Cuncos, 325, 326. Cuneguaras, 265. Cuniba, 279, 280. Cunipusanas, 250. Cunza language, 227. Curarayes, 282. Curaves, 303. Curucanecas, 303 Curuminacas, 303. Curyies, 282. , Custimanos, 282. Cutinanas, 282. Dace, 240. Dakotas, 98, sq. Darien Indians, 173, . Dauri, 245. Delawares, 80. Diagitas, 320. Dieguenos, 213. Dirians, 146. Divieches, 325. Dogs, 51, 2iz Dolegas, 187. THE AMERICAN RACE. Dorasques, 174, 175, 187, 343. Drachitas, 320. Duits, 189. Dures, 187. Echemins, 74. Ehnek, 109. Ele, 276. Enaguas, 265. Encabellados, 279, 281, 282. Enetes, 298. Enganos, 200. Enimagas, 316. Equaris, 298. Eries, 81. Eriteynes, 282. Escagueyes, 180. Eskimos, 38, 49, 59-67, 74, 238. Esmeraldas river, 24. Esselenian, 109. Etenes, 225, 348. Eurafrica, 32. Eudeves or Heves, 134, 337. Five Nations, 47, 81-85. Fornio, 241. Frascavinos, 282. Fuegians, 329, sq. Fu-sang, 19. Gaes, 282. Galibis, 257. Gentile system, 45. Ges, 239. Ginoris, 282. Givaros, 282. Glacial Epoch, 21-23, 3- Goajiros, 178, 249, 255, 346. Gohunes, 113. Goyotacos, 239, 240. Gran Chimu, 224. Greenlanders, 61. Guachaguis, 233. Guaches, 303. Guachicliiles, 129. Guachis, 233, 309, 315, 363. Guacicas, 182, 189. Guagues, 266. Guaharibos, 252, 258. Guahibos, 270, 354. Guaicurus, 112, 113, 335. Guajiqueros, 160. Gualacas, 175. Gualachos, 233. Gualaquizas, 282. Gualeas, 208. Guamacas, 189. Guamas, 264, 269. Guamautnas, 129. Guambianos, 196. Guanas, 241, 243, 249, 350. Guaneros, 264. Guanucos, 194-6. Guaques, 254, 257, 351. Guaquis, 180. Guaranis, 230, sq., 363. Guaranocas, 301. Guaraques, 180. Guaraunos, 264, 271, 354. Guarayos, 40, 235, 294-5. Guaripenis, 268. Guariquenas, 250. Guarives, 265. Guarpes, 323, 325. Guatos, 318, 363. Guatusos, 163, 342. Guayanas, 235. Guaybas, 264, 270. Guaycos, 196. Guaycurus, 244, 303, 308, 315, 361. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 381 Guaymas, 127, 134. Guaymies, 164. Guaymis, 173, 184, 189, 345. Guaypunavis, 268. Guayqueris, 258. Guayquiras, 264. Guayquiries, 272. Guayues, 276. Guazacas, 282. Guazapares, 127. " Guck " nations, 169, 258, 363. Guenoas, 317. Guerens, 236. Guetares, 146. Guianaus, 254. Guinans, 249. Guipunavis, 268. Gujajaras, 235. Haidahs, 77, 106, 108. Hair, 39, 40. Haytians, 248, 249. Heiltsuks, 47, 108. Henienway expedition, 123, 125. Hero-gods, 52, 53. Herisebocona, 306. Heves, see Eudeves. Hiawatha, 82. Hibitos, 288. Himuetacas, 282. Hitchitees, 89. Horse, American, 50. Huachis, 303. Huacrachucus, 216. Huaihuenes, 327. Hualapais, 113. Huamachucus, 216. Huambisas, 284. Huancapampas, 216. Huancas, 216. Huancavillcas, 216. Huanucus, 216. Huasimoas, 282. Huastecs, 135, 140, 153, sq. Huatanarys, 295. Huatusos, 163. Huaves, 159, 340. Huecos, 95. Huemuls, 331. Huiliches, 323, 325. Humuranos, 285. Hunos, 221. Hupas, 69, 73. Hurons, 48, 49, 81, 82, 85. Hypurinas, 294-5. Hyumas, 295. Ibanotnas, 282. Ibirayas, 301. Ice Age, 21-23, 3. 3L lebera, 279. Iguifios, 179. Illinois, 80. Imacos, 314, 316. Inaken, 327. Incas, 216. Incorporation, 56. Incuris, 282. Indama dialect, 321. Inganos, 200. Inimacas, 314. Innies, 97. Innuit, 20, 59-66. Insumubies, 179. Intags, 208. Interglacial period, 25. Intipuca, 152. lowas, 101. Ipuricotos, 252. Iquichanos, 216. , 382 THE AMERICAN RACE. Trees, 331. Iroquois, 42, 81-85. Irriacos, 173. Iscuandies, 196-9. Isistines, 312, 316. Island Caribs, 242, 257. Isuiamas, 298. Itenes, 303, 359. Ites, 303. Itonama, 305. Itremajoris, 282. Itucales, 287. Ixils, 159. Jabaanas, 249, 2501 Jabue, 276. Jacundas, 235. Jade, 65. Jajies, 179. Jamas, 273. Jamudas, 236. Janeros, 69. Janos, 69, 73. ' Japurin, 271. Jaruris, 264. Jauamerys, 252. Jauna, 240. Jaunavos, 292. Javahais, 262. Javis, 266. Jeberos, 280. Jemez, 117. Jicarillas, 73. Jinori, 279, 281. Jivaros, 208, 280, 282-4. Jonaz, 136. Jucunas, 249. Jumanas, 249. Jupua, 240. Jupurinas, 294. Juris, 249, 316. Kadjak dialect, 60. Kalapooian, 108. Kansas, 98, 101. Karaikas, 331. Karifs, 162. Karina, 256. Kaskaskias, 80. Katamareiio, 320. Katchan, 109. Katun, 157. Kauvuyas, 133. Kawitschin, 108. Kayaks, 62. Kechuas, 43, 203, sq., 348. Kenais, 69, 73, 79. Kennekas, 332. Keras, 116, 117. Kikapoos, 80. Kioways, 101. Kiriri, 258, 349. Kissing, 238. Kitunahan, 108. Kizh, 123, 133. Klikatats, 108. Koggabas, 183, 189. Kolosch, 39, 49, 104, 108. Kuchins, 69, 71, 73. Kulanapan, 109. Kusan, 108. Kustenaus, 246, 249. Kutenay, 108. Kwakiutls, 47, 106, 108, 366. Lacandons, 153, 159, 161. L,agoa Santa, 237. L,aguna, 117. Laianas, 244. L,ama, the, 51. L,ama stock, 285. L/amanos, 216. L,amas, 285. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 383 Lambayeque, 206. Lamistas, 216, 285. Lamps, 238. Languages, American, 55-57. Lecos, 298-9, 305. Lenapes, 47, 75, 76, 79, 80. Lencas, 149, 152, 160, 341. Lenguas, 316. Lican-antais, 226-7. Light-myths, 78. Lineal measures, 51. Lingua geral, 229, 349. Linguistic stocks, 57. Lipans, 69, 73. Lipes, 227. Llameos, 285. Llanos, the, 262. Llipis, 227. Lojanos, 284. Lolaca, 276. Loucheux, 73. Luculia, 276. Lucumbia, 279. Lules, 311, 316, 362. Lummi, 108. Lupaca dialect, 218, 222. Lupacas, 217, 221. Lutuamian, 109. Macaguages, 273, 275. Macarani, 298, 305. Macas, 208. Macavinas, 282. Machacalis, 240. Machigangas, 243. Macos, 276. Macuchis, 252, 352. Macuenis, 268. Macunis, 240. Macusis, 251, 254, 258. Magdalenos, 598. Mages, 298. Maidu, 109, 216. Maiongkong, 254. Maipures, 247, 250, 264, 267. Malabas, 206. Malalalis, 239. Malalis, 239, 318. Malbalas, 310, 315. Mams, 153-8. Manacicas, 296. Mananaguas, 262. Manaos, 249. Manatanerys, 249. Mandauacas, 250. Mandans, 98-101. Mandingas, 173. Mangaches, 208. Mangues, 145. Manhattans, 80. Maniguies, 298. Manipos, 190. Manitenerys, 291. Manitivas, 268. Manitsauas, 236. Manivas, 249, 268. Manivis, 196-8. Manoas, 292. Mansinos, 298. Mantas, 207. Manzaneros, 324. Maopityans, 245. Mapuyas, 264. Maquiritares, 264, 265, 352. Maranhos, 249. Maratins, 94. Mariates, 249. Maribois, 160. Mariches, 180. Maricopas, in, 113. 384 THE AMERICAN RACE. Mariposan, 109. Maritzis, 267. Maropas, 298, 299, 358. Marriage, 46, 47, 48. Martidanes, 317. Masacaras, 239. Masacas, 250. Massamaes, 285, 286. Massets, 108. Matacos, 313, 316, 326, 362. Matagalpan, 149, 342. Mataguayos, 310, 315. Matanos, 265. Mataras, 316. Matlatzincos, 136. Maues, 236. Mautas, 282. Mawakwas, 249, 254. Maxorunas, 292. Maya stock, 140. Mayas, ISS-^S, 34. Maynas, 279, 284. Mayongcong, 267. Mayorunas, 289, 292. Mayos, 125, 134. Mazahuas, 136. Mazatecos, 142. v M'Mats, 113. Mbayas, 315. Mbeguas, 236. Mbocobis, 309, 315. Mecos, 136. Medicine men, 55. Meepure, 264. Mehinacus, 247. Melchoras, 163. Meliseets, 80. Menepes, 307. Meniens, 262. Menomonees, 80. Merigotos, 180. Mesayas, 200, 233. Mescaleros, 69, 74. Mexicans, 134. Meztitlantecas, 134. Miamis, 80. Michoacan, 137. Micmacs, 74, 80. Micos, 162. Miguries, 179. Milcocayac dialect, 323. Minnetarees, 99. Minuanes, 317. Miquianos, 285. Mirripuyas, 180. Mitandues, 236. Mitla, 141. Mituas, 269. Mixes, 40, 143, 339. Mixtecs, 140, sq., 142, 339. Mochicas, 225, 348. Mocoas, 200. Mocochies, 179-180. Mocombos, 180. Mocotos, 1 80. Modocs, 109. Mogana dialect, 321. Moguexes, 195, 347. Mohaves, in, 113. Mohawks, 82. Mohegans, 74, 75, 80. Moluches, 323, 326. Mombunes, 179. Mongoloid type, 37. Monoxos, 240. Montagnais, 74. Mopans, 159. Moquelumnian, 109. Moquis, 116, 120, 123, 133. Morcotes, 182, 189. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 385 Morochucos, 216. Moronas, 282. Moroquenis, 269. Morotocos, 301. Morropas, 197. Moruas, 269. Mosetenas, 297-9, 360. Mosqueras, 196. Motilones, 178, 255, 258, 351. Mound-Builders, 88. Movimas, 303, 305, 360. Moxa dialect, 305. Moxos, 232, 233, 247, 249, 295. Mozcas, see Muyscas. Muchanis, 298. Mucos, 265. Mucunchies, 179. Mucurabaes, 179. Mucurus, 264. Mucutuyes, 180. Mueganos, 282. Mummies, 54. Mundurucus, 231-236. Muniche, 279. Muois, 184, 189. Muras, 232, 236, 305. Muratos, 282, 284. Mure, 305, 306. Murendoes, 176. Murires, 184, 189. Muskokis, 85-89. Musimos, 287. Musos, 190, 191. Musquitos, 162, 341, 367. Mutsun, 109. Muyscas, 181, 189. Nachitoches, 97. Nagrandans, 159. Nahaunies, 69, 74. 2S Nahuapos, 285. Nahuas, 118, 128, sq., 135. Nahuatl language, 119, 152, 336. Namollos, 64. Nauegales, 208. Nani waya, 85. Nanticokes, 75, 80. Napeanos, 285. Napos, 208. Napotoas, 282. Nasqua, 108. Natacos, 97. Natchez, 90. Natixana dialect, 321. Nauras, 190. Navajos, 69, 71, 72, 74, 115, 117, 247. Nayerits, 126. Necodades, 176. Nepas, 282. Nerecamues, 282. Nescoyas, 282. Netela, 123, 133. Neutral nation, 81. Nevomes, 125. Newfoundland Indians, 67. Nez Perec's, 107, 108. Niagara river, 26, 31. Nicaragua, 24, 145. Nicaraos, 128, 134. Niquirans, 134. Nnehengatus, 266. Noanamas, 176, 344. Nozi, 109. Nushinis, 282. Nutabes, 193. Nutka, 108, 366. Oas, 282. Oaxaca, 140, 144. 386 THE AMERICAN RACE. Ochozomas, 221. Ocoles, 316. Ocorona, 305, 306. Ogallalas, 101. Ojes, 264. Ojibways, 75. Olipes, 227. Olmecan, 144. Oluta, 151. Omagua dialect, 286, 355. Omaguas, 233-6, 269, 280, Omahas, 98, 101. Omapachas, 216. Onas, 329, 331. Oneidas, 82. Onotes, 177. Opatas, 125, 134, 337. Opelousas, 99. Opone, 252, 353. Orejones, 94, 288. Orinoco basin, 262. stocks, 264, 553 Oristines, 312, 316. Oromos, 298. Orotinans, 146. Osages, 98, 101. Os incae, 38. Otomacos, 264, 269, 354. Otomis, 135, 338. Otuquis, 304. Ottawas, 74, 80. Ottoes, 101. Ouaye'oue*, 257. Oyampis, 236. Pacaguaras, 290, 292, 298. Pacajus, 236. Pacaos, 94. Pacasas, 217-221. Pacavaras, 290. Pacajas, 286. Paezes, 189, sq. Pacimonarias, 250. Paiconecas, 167, 244, 249. Paiuras, 264. Pakawas, 94. Palaeoliths, 27, 33, 365. Palaihnihan, 108. Palenque, 153, 155. Palenques, 252, 264. Palmellas, 251, 258, 295. Palomos, 316. Pamas, 292. Pames, 129, 136. Pammarys, 292, sq. Pampas, the, 321. Pampticokes, 75, 80. Pana, 279, 280. Panajoris, 282. Panares, 265. Pancas, 239. Panches, 190, 191. Panhames, 240. Pani stock, 95. Paniquitas, 189, sq., 346. Panos, 289, sq., 356. Pantagoros, 190, 191. Pantasmas, 163. Paos, 269. Papabucos, 142. Papamiento, 253. Paparos, 176. Papayos, 134. Paramonas, 258. Paranapuras, 282. Paravilhanas, 258. Parecas, 265. Parenes, 269. Pareni, 249. Paretintims, 236. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 387 Farias, 252. Paris, 231. Parisis, 249. Parranos, 285. Parrastahs, 163. Pascagoulas, 99. Passamaquoddies, 80. Passes, 249. Pastazas, 282. Patachos, 240. Patagonians, 327, 364. Patias, 200, 201. Patoes, 176. Paudacotos, 265. Paunacas, 244. Pautis, 284. Pa-vants, 133. Pavos, 282. Pawnees, 95, sq. Payaguas, 314, 316, 361. Payas, 163. Pebas, 286, 353. Pehuenches, 326. Penoquies, 296. Pericus, 112, 113. Peruvians, 38. Pescherees, 331. Peten, lake, 153. Phratries, 46. Pianagotos, 258. Piankishaws, 80. Pianochotto, 254. Piapocos, 269, 350. Piaroas, 264, 266, 354. Pictography, 62. Piegans, 79, 80. Pijaos, 190, 191. Pilcosumis, 243. Pimas, 117, 123, sq., 134, 336. Pindis, 282. Pinocos, 296. Piojes, 273, 274. Pipiles, 128, 134, 160. Pira, 279. Pirindas, 136. Piros, 117, 245, 249, 294. Pitilagas, 315. Pituranas, 236. Pi-utes, 134. Poignavis, 278. Pokomams, 159. Pokonchis, 159. Polindaras, 196. Porno, 109. Poncas, 98, lor. Popolocas, 146, sq. Popol Vuh, 158. Potes, 239. Poton, 239. Pottawattomies, 80. Potureros, 301. Poyas, 329. Pubenanos, 195. Pueblo Indians, 113-117. Pueblos, 47. Puelches, 323, 326. Puinahuas, 289. Puinavis, 278, 356. Pujunan, 109. Pukapakaris, 298. Puquinas, 221, sq. Purigotos, 252, 258. Puris, 239, 259. Puru-purus, 292-3. Purus, 292, 294. Pustuzos, 200. Putumayos, 282. Quacas, 252. Quaisla, 108. 388 THE AMERICAN RACE. Quapaws, 98, 101. Quaquaras, 264, 269. Quaquas, 264, 266. Quechkis, 159. Querandies, 323, 326. Queres, 117. Quevacus, 267. Quiches, 153-8. Quilifay, 273, 276. Quillaguas, 221. Quilmes, 320. Quinequinaux, 244, 311, 315. Quinos, 1 80. Quiri-quiripas, 264, 265. Quirivinas, 282. Quiroraes, 180. Quitus, 207, 216. Quivas, 265. Quoratean, 109. Ramas, 163, 366. Ranqueles, 323, 326. Red Indians, 67. Remos, 292. Reyes, 329. Rio Verdes, 176. Roamainas, 285. Rocorona, 306. Rotoronos, 306. Rotunos, 282. Roucouyennes, 253, 258, 352. Rucanas, 216. Rurok, 109. Ryo-ba, 141. Sabaguis, 124, 134. Sabuyas, 259. Sacchas, 196-8. Sacs and Foxes, 80. Sahaptins, 107, 108. Salinan, 109. Salish, 106, 107, 108. Salivas, 264, 266, 353. Sanibaquis, 236. Sambos, 177, 344. Sarnie, 108. Samucus, 300, sq., 359, 363. Sanavirona dialect, 321. San Bias Indians, 173. Sapiboconas, 298, 299, 358. Saravecas, 167, 244, 249. Sarcees, 69, 71, 72, 74. Sarigues, 314, 316. Saskatchewan, R., 69. Sastean, 109. Satienos, 301. Sauteux, 80. Scyra dialect, 206. Sebondoyes, 200, 201. Sechuras, 226. Secoffies, 80. Seguas, 128, 134. Semigaes, 282. Seminoles, 86-89. Sencis, 292. Senecas, 82. Sepaunabos, 243. Sens, 1 10, 113, 127, 335. Setibos, 222. Shasta, 109. Shawnees, 75, 80. Shiripunas, 282. Shoshonees, 116, 118, 120, 134. Sicaunies, 74. Simigae, 279, 280. Simirenchis, 245, 249. Sinipis, 313, 316. Sinsigas, 189. Sioux, 98. Sipibos, 292. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 389 Siquias, 163. Sirineris, 298. Siquisiques, 183. Sirionos, 236. Sisikas, 79. Situfas, 273, 276. Six Nations, 81. '-idegates, 106, 108. Ume Indians, 71, 74. Uyajs, 162. Snak-, s, 120, 122. Sobaypuris, 124. Soerigong, 254. Solostos, 298. Soltecos, 142. Subironas, 163. Subtiabas, 159, 342. Sun worship, 72. Susquehannocks, 81. Suyas, 239. Tabalosos, 282. Tabayones, 179. Tacanas, 297-299, 303, 304, 358. Tados, 177, 344. Taensas, 90. Tahamies, 193. Tainos, 249. Takanikas, 332. Takilman, 108. Takullies, 69, 70, 74. Talamancas, 164, 183-189, 346. Tamanacas, 258, 264, 265, 351. Tamanos, 320. Tamas, 273, 274. Tamayos, 236. Tanos, 117. Taos, 117, 296. Tapacuras, 303. Tapaunas, 236. Taparros, 179, 180. Tapes, 231, 236. Tapijulapanes, 144. Tapios, 301. Tapirapes, 236. Tapuyas, 38, 236, 259, 262, 266, 3i8, 324, 328, 332, 349, 357. Tarahumaras, 125, 134, 336. Tarapita, 264, 269. Tarascos, 136, sq., 338. Tarianas, 250, 266. Tarumas, 245-250. Tatche, 109. Tatuyes, 179. Tauri, 245. Tauaconies, 97. Tayronas, 182, 183, 189. Tayunis, 314, 316. T'ho, 155. Tecamachcalco. 150. Tecoripas, 134. Tecos, 128, 151. Tecunas, 287. Tehuas, 116, 117. Tehuecos, 125, 134. Tehuel-che, 327, 364. Telame, 109. Telembis, 196-9. Teluskies, 175. Tenez, 145. Tenochtitlan, 128. Teotihuacan, 139. Tepeaca, 151. Tepehuanas, 126, 134, 337. Tepuzcolola, 151. Tequistlatecas, 112, 148. Terenos, 244, 310, 315. Terrabas, 189. Tetons, 101. Teutas, 314, 316. 39 THE AMERICAN RACE. Teutecas, 145. Texas, 97. Tezcucans, 43, 128. Tiahuanuco, 219. Ticunas, 287, 357. Tiguinos, 179. Timotes, 178, 179, 346. Timucuas, 90. Tinne", 68, 74, no. Tiputinis, 282. Tirribis, 189. Tirripis, 178. Tiverighotto, 254, 258. Tivilos, 282. Tlacopan, 128. Tlapanecos, 151. Tlascaltecs, 128, 134. Tlinkit, 104, 108. Tobas, 309, 315, 361. Tobosos, 69. Toltecs, 129. Tonicas, 91. Tonicotes, 311, 316. Tonkaways, 92. Tontos, in, 113. Toquistines, 312, 316. Toromonas, 288. Totems, 45, 78. Totonacos, 139, 338. Totoros, 195, 347. Tonachies, 97. Tremajoris, 282. Tricaguas, 180. Trios, 258. Triquis, 148. Tshimshians, 106, 108. Tsoneca, 364. Tuapocos, 265. Tubares, 126. Tucanos, 240, 266, 357. Tucas, 206. Tucunas, 287. Tucupis, 298. Tucuras, 176, 177, 343. Tucurriques, 189. Tucutis, 173. Tula, 129. Tules, 173. Tumupasas, 298. Tunebos, 182, 189, 273. Tunglas, 162. Tupi-Guarani, 257. Tupis, 229-236, 286, 307, 308, 349. Turas, 232, 236. Turbacos, 178. Tuscaroras, 81, 82. Tuski, 65. Tuteloes, 98. Tzutuhils, 159. Tututenas, 69, 71, 14. Tuyumiris, 298. Twakas, 163. Tzendals, 149, 153-8. Tze-tinne, 115, 124. Tzintzuntan, 137. Tzonteca, 327. Tzotzils, 153-8. Uainambeus, 250. Uainumas, 250. Uambisas, 284. Uarunas, 287. Uaupes, 240, 269. Uchees, see Yuchis. Ugaronos, 301. Uirinas, 250. Ulvas, 150, 161-163, 341. Unalashkan, 66. Unangan, 66. Uraba, Gulf, 173. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 391 Urarina, 279, 280. Urus, 221. Uspantecas, 159. Utelaes, 187. Utes, 118, 120, sq., 134, 336. Utlateca, 159. Uto-Aztecan stock, 44, 118, sq., 336. Umpquas, 69, 71, 74. Uyapas, 236. Vaiyamaras, 258. Valientes, 164, 182, 189. Varinas, 287. Varogios, 127. Varrigones, 252. Vauras, 247. Vayamanos, 265. Vejosos, 316. Vilelas, 313, 316, 362. Viracocha, 214. Voyavois, 258. Vuatos, 318. Waimiris, 252. Waiyamaras, 257, see Vayamara, Wakash, 108. Wallawallas, 108. Walum Olum, the, 78. Wapisianas, 245, 250. Warraus, 271, 354- Wayilaptu, 108. Weas, 80. Weitspekan, 109. West Indians, 250. Wichitas, 95. Wihinashts, 134. Winnebagoes, 98-101. Wintuns, 109. Wishokan, 109. Woolwas, 163. Woyawoi, 254, see Voyavoi. Wyandots, 83. Xeberos, 280. Xibitos, 288. Xicaques, 161, 341. Ximbioas, 262. Xincas, 160, 342. Xivaros, 282. Xolotes, 316. Vacates, 137. Yaguas, 286, 293, 353. Yahgans, 329, 332, 364. Yahua, see Yaguas. Yakama, 108. Yakanna-cunni, 329. Yakonan, 108. Yamacies, 193. Yamassees, 89. Yameos, 279, 285. Yanan, 109. Yanktons, 101. Yaos, 258, 265. Yapitlaguas, 310, 315. Yapoos, 329-332. Yaquis, 125, 134. Yaros, 317. Yarrapos, 285. Yarura language, 275, 355. Yaruras, 264, 271. Yasunis, 282. Yatasses, 97. Yauyos, 216. Yavapais, no, 113. Yaviteris, 269. Yeguas, 286. Yegueyos, 282. 392 THE AMERICAN RACE. Yetes, 282. Yocunos, 265. Yoes, 316. Yokuts, 109. Yopes, 151. Yuchis, 89. Yuits, 64. Yukian, 109. Yumas, 38, 49, 109, sq., 148, 335. Yumbos, 208, 303. Yunca-cuna, 225. Yuncas, 224, sq., 348. Yuris, 250. Yurunas, 236. Yurucares, 39, 297-299. Zamoros, 282, 284. Zamucas, 300. Zaparas, 180. Zaparos, 208, 279, 280, sq. Zapotecs, 43, 64, 140 sq., 339. Zaribas, 187. Zoques, 143 sq., 339. Zuaques, 125. Zunes, 187. Zunis, 116, 117. Zurumutas, 258. 3 1158 00143 9172 AA 000160439 6