Farming Industries OF CAPE COLONY. BY ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.C.S., F.R.S. Edin., &c. Professor of Agriculture ami Rural Economy in tJie University of Edinburgh ; Aut/wr of " Farm Live Stoc/c 0/ Great Britain;" "Indian Agriculture ;" and " Tlie Agriculture and Rural Economy of A ustralia and New Zealand" &^c. With 81 Full-page Plates, 14 Maps, 6 Plans, and 92 Illustrations in the Text. LONDON: P. S. KING AND SON, 12 & 14 KING STREET, WESTMINSTER, SAV. SOUTH AFRICA: J. C. JuTA AND Co., Capetown, Port Elizabeth, Johannesbukg. 1896. WORKS BY THE AUTHOR OF THIS VOLUME. 1. Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, 3rcl Edition, with 75 full-page plates, 4 maps, and numerous illustrations in the letterpress, I2S. 6d. 2. Indian Agriculture, with 71 full-page jilates, 3 maps, and 10 electrotypes in the letterpress, crown Svo, 362 pages, 2IS. 3. The Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and New Zealand, with 90 full-page plates, 10 maps, and 24 illustrations in the text, Svo, 542 pages, 21s. net. SUBSCRIBED TO THE Right Honourable CECIL JOHN RHODES, M.L.A. PERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. THE distance covered during my South African visit completed the one hundred and fifty thousand miles of foreign travel by land and sea which I have under- taken during the last nine years in the interests of agricul- tural research. During that period I have studied on the spot the agricultural resources of India, Australia and New Zealand, Canada, the United States of America, Greece, Italy, Egypt, and South Africa, and I have published acc'ounts of the results of my investigations. On this occasion my visit was undertaken at the invitation of the Government of Cape Colony. Soon after the appearance of my Australian work in 1 89 1, I was approached on the subject by the late Sir Charles Mills, then Agent-General for the Colony in London, and I have since learned that this was done probably at the sug- gestion of the Hon. J. X. Merriman ; but my existing engage- ments made it impossible to comply with the suggestion till the spring of last year, when, on the completion of the five months' course of lectures in this University in the end of March, six months were left free for the work in hand. The ground it was necessary to cover was so extensive that the four months spent in the country were barely sufficient to do it without more than the usual amount of discomfort and personal fatigue, and the undertaking proved more trying from the physical standpoint than even the journey of thirteen thousand miles which I made by rail in India in the hot weather of 1887. The railway was used where it was possible to do so, but a reference to Maps i and 2 will show that long distances. VI PERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. amounting to over two thousand miles, had to be covered by Cape cart — a vehicle constructed like a dog-cart, but with a pole in place of shafts, and drawn by two horses as shown in Plate 4, or four horses as in Plate 9. The roads were often very rough, being merely tracks on the veld, but no accident occurred sufficient to mar the enjoyment of an almost daily recurrence of sunshine and clear winter weather, or the interest attaching to new experiences which continued to unfold themselves. The sky being clear, the days were generally warm ; but the evenings, which in that latitude and time of year are long, were chilly, and the nights quite cold. I had every reason to be thoroughly satisfied with the treatment I received at the hands of the Department of Agri- culture, as well as from members of the Government Opposi- tion. Everything which could add to my personal comfort was provided. While I was left absolutely free to conduct my investigations according to my own plan, I was supplied with suggestions relative to the best routes to follow, and intro- ductions to leading farmers, as well as with an officer of the Department as guide and companion, when this was con- sidered necessary, which was during the greater part of my sojourn within the borders of Cape Colony. I was particularly fortunate in my travelling companions. At first I was accompanied by Mr Eustace Pillans, a horticultural expert, whose knowledge of the work of his Department was of special value to me in the western fruit- and wine -growing areas. My companion for the greater part of the way, includ- ing the important stock-rearing districts, was Dr Hutcheon, the Colonial Veterinary Surgeon, a Scotsman from the neigh- bourhood of Peterhead, in common with whom I had many kindred associations and national recollections. The Doctor's early boyhood had been spent with an uncle who belonged to the strictest of Calvinistic doctrinaires of the time — now nearly half a century ago — and he had been schooled in a thorough knowledge of the Shorter Catechism, the Psalms of David, and in the historical and other mysteries of the books of the Old and New Testaments. Being possessed of a retentive memory and a decided taste for literature, and PERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. Vll having been an omnivorous reader, he was able, during our long and what might otherwise have been tedious drives, to wile away the hours not devoted to agricultural discussion by literary effusions of a most interesting and varied character. He would tell a humorous story, sing a Scottish ditty, or quote at length from the Bible, Huxley, or Herbert Spencer (two of his favourite authors), with equal aptness and fluency. Among the Boer population his knowledge of Bible history was a valuable supplement to a courteous demeanour in gaining the respect and esteem of those with whom he came personally in contact. It is told of him, soon after his arrival in the Colony, that he met at a place which shall be nameless a body of Boer farmers, with the object of discussing certain questions relating to diseases in live stock. The farmers, full of confidence in their own superior knowledge, derived from per- sonal experience in the Colony, compared with which nothing else could be of any account, were not inclined to look with favour or respect upon the new arrival. The chief spokesman had a long list of what were thought to be unanswerable or difficult queries carefully written out, and each, as he put it, was " clinched with Scripture." The answers were, however, so much to the point, and each Scripture quotation capped with another so appropriately, that long before the end of the list had been reached the Doctor had the meeting enthusiastically on his side, and the unfriendly efforts of the ringleaders entirely collapsed. Another important secret of the success and popularity of the Colonial Veterinary Surgeon was his early training on the old Scottish plan, which was eminently practical. There is no operation of the farm, from the smallest and most insignificant to the most important, that he has not practised to proficiency with his own hands ; and, moreover, in the performance of his official duties, in which he comes much in contact with individuals, he can well claim the dis- tinction of genius, as defined, if I remember aright, by one of our greatest economic philosophers, as " possessing the faculty of taking infinite pains." During the tour of investigation, in conformity with my usual custom, copious notes were daily taken in duplicate, and one copy mailed home each week to form a guarantee of viil I'KKSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. the safety of the information collected, in the event of loss of lugi^as^e, or any mishap occurring; to my note-books. While visitiiiL^ farms, and meeting and talking privately with as many farmers as possible, I make it a rule to reserve the public expression of any definite opinions on agricultural matters until I have completed my investigations, and to avoid public meetings, on account of such being a waste of valuable time, and infinitely more liable to develop heated controversial discussions which convince no one, than to contribute to one's stock of information relative to a new countr}\ I trust that the executive committees of agricultural societies and associa- tions, whose invitations I consequently felt in duty bound to refuse, will understand and appreciate the necessity for my doing so. On my return to Cape Town, it still remained to be decided what form my statement to Government, includ- ing recommendations for improvement in the various branches of the subject, should take, and after full delibera- tion it was agreed that a report in the form of a blue- book would be unattractive, and would probably not be as widely read as a fully illustrated and more popularly written production, and that consequently a volume on the lines of my Indian and Australian works would be preferable, if completed in time to be considered by the Cape Parlia- ment during the current session. As in the case of my investigations, I was left free to express my views on the position of the farming industries, on the agricultural educa- tion of the Colony, and on the constitution of the Agricultural Department of Government, and it is my hope that it will not be thought that I have taken any undue advantage of the confidence placed in me by criticising too severely in those few instances in which I felt it to be my duty to strongly express disapprobation of existing conditions. The arrangements for publication were entrusted to Mr Spencer Todd, C.M.G, the acting Agent-General in London, and myself, and I take this first public opportunity of thank- ing Mr Todd for the personal trouble he took in supplying information, and in furthering in every way the progress of the work. TEKSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. ix The publishers, Messrs P. S. King & Son, working equally in the direction of facilitating progress and minimising the labour and anxiety of the author, accepted the printing tender of the Darien Press, Edinburgh, a firm with whom I have had long and agreeable business relations, and who, if possible, have on this occasion excelled their previous per- formances in the excellence and the expedition of the execution of their share of the work. The blocks for the printing of the full-page plates were the artistic work of Messrs M. & T. Scott, photo-process engravers and zincographers, Edinburgh, and mark a won- derful advance in the development of the appliances for half- tone printing within recent years. The frontispiece and the portrait of Dr Hutcheon were supplied by the same firm, and done by the Scott process, an improvement on the gelatine or collotype process. Many of the text illustrations were drawn by Mr J. T. Murray, artist, Edinburgh. My thanks are also due to my friend, Mr J. G. Bartholo- mew, who took much personal interest in the compilation of an original and instructive series of maps,* with, as a basis, the new and complete map of South Africa drawn in the office of the Surveyor-General in Cape Town, and now being reproduced by Mr E. Stanford with the object of publication. Proofs of three of the four sheets which will form the large new map were supplied by Mr Stanford, but the fourth sheet not being ready as was expected in March, the maps had to be completed from a photograph of the missing part, which entailed additional labour and expense, and delayed the publication of the book for six weeks. This time was, however, not altogether lost, as it enabled me to maintain a standard in the last chapters similar to that originally adopted in the earlier parts of the work. The writing' was begun in the last week of October, and the final chapter was completed on 15th May, within twelve months of the date on which I left Cape Town on the long tour of inspection of the Colony. I have followed the plan adopted by me on previous * The C^eological Map is after E. J. Dunn's map published in 1887, and the Rainfall Charts were taken from those of Gamble issued in 1886. X I''^<:kSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. occasions, and given a brief outline of the route taken, leaving to separate chapters the discussion in detail of the leading subjects of interest. I did not confine my researches or remarks merely to what I saw and learned from farmers and others on the spot, but I utilised to the fullest extent the large mass of reports and blue-book literature with which I was provided by Mr Charles Currey, the Permanent Secretary of the Department of Agri- culture ; and, in addition to others which are mentioned in the text, I also freely employed for purposes of reference, comparison, and illustration, the following standard works: — 1. The voluminous Reports of the Department of Agri- culture, Washington, U.S.A. 2. The local Reports issued by Colleges, Schools, and States in America, especially those of California dealing with fruit culture, salt soils, and irrigation. 3. The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales. 4. The Agricultural Journal of Cape Colony. 5- The South African Agriculturist's Almanac. 6. The Argus Annual. 7. The Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa. 8. Essays, Lectures, and Reports of the South African Exhibition, 1885. 9. Manual of Injurious Insects, &c., by E. A. Ormerod. 10. Veterinary Medicine, by Wm. Williams. 11. Veterinary Surgery, by Wm. Williams. 12. Plant Diseases, by Marshal Ward. 13. Useful Native Plants of Australia, by Maiden. 14. Select Extra-tropical Plants, by Von Mueller. 1 5. The Cambridge Natural History, Insect Vol., by Sharp. 16. The Works on African Hunting, by F. C. Selous. 17. Theal's Histories of South Africa. I have endeavoured to give my authority where a refer- ence or quotation is made, not only with the purpose of ac- knowledgment, but also as a guide to the reader where he may find the subject discussed. I have been specially indebted to the American Government publications for valuable PERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. XI subjects used as text illustrations, and I trust that the appreciation of the value of such work as the Agricultural Department at Washington has done for a number of years, will be still further acknowledged in a realistic and ideal way by the Cape Government adopting the most perfect form of acknowledgment, viz., by imitation of the American methods of pictorial illustration in connection with the production of the future Agricultural Journal of Cape Colony. Owing in a measure to what seemed to be lack of sufficient care on the part of the Eastman Company, in developing the film negatives supplied by the Company, and which I had un- wittingly rather over-exposed in the South African climate, the numbers of photographic subjects of my own taking, available for full-page illustrations, were fewer on this occasion than on any of my former tours. The names of those to whom I have been most indebted for making good the deficiencies are Mr VVm. Roe, Graaff Reinet ; Mr Percy Ashenden, M.I.C.E., Cape Town; Dr Hugo, Worcester; and Messrs Wilson & Co., Aberdeen, N.B., and Pocock, Cape Town. In addition to copious illustration by plates and figures, I have tried to maintain what I have previously endeavoured to establish as characteristic features of my writings — viz., brevity of expression, and the compilation of a vast number of detailed facts, which are meant to be of value to those interested in putting in practice the operations described. In following this course, I have studiously avoided superficial generalisation, which is a thing of air, and usually incapable of being utilised in the construction of a satisfactory working plan of anything. I have also persisted in the unusual course of calling every one merely by his name without the meaning- less prefix Mr, and I did so without intending to display undue familiarity, or to be in any sense discourteous. On the con- trary, I raise the individuals whose names I take the liberty of mentioning from the ordinary rank and file of the number- less misters, and place them on the same platform as long- standing and prominent authorities in science, literature, art, and philosophy. No one would think of doing honour to Newton, to Raphael, to Burns, or to Carlyle, by calling one or all of them Mr! I have, in short, adopted the course Xll I'EKSONAL STATKMKNT AND INTRODUCTION. of saving" printers' ink and the status of my friends in one breath by the disuse of the most flimsy of all courtesy tinselling. It would be impossible, as well as inexpedient, to mention in detail the numerous friends to whom I was indebted for personal attention and hospitality, but I trust they will accept this public acknowledgment — a supplement to my pre- vious individual thanks — as an indication that the courtesies offered have not been forgotten, nor are likely to be so. I have, when occasion offered, acknowledged the sources from which much of the information has been collected and assistance received, but a pleasing duty yet remains for me to perform, viz., to mention specially my esteemed friends, Pro- fessor MacOwan and Dr Hutcheon. I do not exaggerate when I say that but for their help, rendered during the period of my visit to the Colony and throughout the past six months, it would have been quite impossible for me to complete the work in the time, or to make it the book of reference which I trust it will become. I have frequently been asked the questions — Is Cape Colony a great agricultural country ? and is there a hopeful future for the farming industries of South Africa ? But these are not queries that can be answered by a categorical "yes" or " no." I have employed over 500 pages of letterpress to state the position as it stood in 1895, and those who do me the honour of reading these pages will see that with qualifications I repeatedly say "yes" and as frequently say "no" to both queries. I would further add that much in the future prospects of the agriculture of the Colony depends upon outside in- fluences which have nothing to do with the energy or skill of the farmer, and the stock-rearing capacity or the grain-producing power of the soil. I feel convinced after years of careful study of the question, that there is little hope for the agri- culture of the future in Cape Colony, or in any part of the world, so long as the standard of currency remains in the unsatisfactory condition in which it is found to-day. That agriculture will be carried on, and that stock will continue to be reared after a fashion, goes without saying, whether the world be prosperous or not ; but the question which the currency TERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. xiii matter will determine is, whether agriculture is to assume its rightful position as the oldest and most honourable among the arts, and be practised ahd supported, as in the Roman Empire of old, by the best in the land, or be left, as by the Greek philosophers and soldiers, to serfs and slaves. Are the agriculturists of the future to occupy that independent and honourable position among their fellow-workers in other spheres which they have done in times past, or are they to be the hewers of wood and drawers of water to the rest of the community? These are the points which the course taken by the nations in the great problem of the world's currency will settle for the farmer, however skilled or unskilled he may be in his practices. My visit to South Africa was associated with a number of pleasing experiences and incidents of a personal character apart from interests of a purely agricultural nature. From the scientific point of view, perhaps the most gratifying expe- rience was found in the conclusive confirmatory evidence which I have been able to lead, of the universal nature of the phenomenon pointed out in my Indian work relative to the skins of cattle and other animals whose habits lead them to exposure to the influences of tropical sun, being black or dark in colour, although the hair is very frequenth' white. Writing to me on this subject in 1888, the late Professor Huxley said : " The fact you mention is of very great in- terest, as showing a hitherto unsuspected relation between colour and climate." One of the conspicuous advantages of foreign travel, especially if a journey be taken in an official capacity, is the opportunity afforded of meeting, and in so doing taking the measure of, such prominent historical and distinguished per- sonalities as Mr Cecil Rhodes, Mr F. C. Selous, President Kruger, Sir Edgar Vincent, Sir Henry de Villiers, Sir David Tennant, and Sir James SivewTight. In addition to these, but, not individually, may be mentioned the numerous millionaire magnates who have, through a happy combination of ability and good luck, been the architects of handsome fortunes de- rived from the diamond mines of Kimberley, the gold-bearing reefs of Johannesburg, or from the once too well-lined and XIV PERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. open-mouthed pockets of an unsophisticated, over-confident and over-confiding British public and French peasantry. The study of such a heterogeneous multitude is one of infinite variety, but its interest becomes none the less in consequence. Congenial spirits and social pleasures often unexpect- edly present themselves to the traveller when in a mood for their enjoyment, and like an oasis in the desert, are hailed Mine Hdsr of Yellow Wood, I'lioto. I-v the . liitho) with great satisfaction. One of the most pleasing incidents by-the-way which hold a foremost place in the author's recol- lection was the night spent at Yellow Wood, under the roof of Mr H. R. Hazelton, the hospitable landlord, retired sailor, and poet. His good fellowship, his fund of anecdotes, his familiarity with standard literature, his collection of poetic gems, and his own by no means ordinary poetical effusions, PERSONAL STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION. XV formed a complete bill of fare for a nitjht of intellectual revelry. " Mine host " will excuse the reproduction, pro- bably somewhat imperfectly from memory, of his charming Address to a Mosquito,* which on account of truthfulness of description and beauty of poetic expression cannot fail to be appreciated : — "Away, away, thou wily, buzzing pest, Torturing my musings with thy hated hum, Chasing an angel's voice when it would rest, Thou imp! ol^truding, spoiling flowers that come. Surely some fiend hath cast thee from his den To tease, perplex, and worry us at leisure ; And with a Judas kiss steal blood from men, Leaving his venom as you take your pleasure. Away, foul foe, soft beauty's rude destroyer. Hence to some tainted form and revel there. And not on Iseauty's cheek, thou vile annoyer ; If fiend thyself, thou hast no business there." Robert Wallace. Thk University, Edinburch, A/r7f 1896. * Mosquitoes, following the railways, have spread from the coast dis- tricts, and increased much in numbers in the Colony within recent years. HISTORICAL PREFACE By harry STRATFORD CALDECOTT. JOHANNESKURG, March 1896. Dear Professor Wallace, I shall endeavour to relate the story of South African history in broad outline in the shape of a familiar letter rather than in the more ponderous form of a set treatise. I had commenced something in the latter form, when my work was interrupted by the exciting political and other events of the past ten or twelve weeks. I was also becoming afraid that the more ambitious project would have become too bulky for your purpose, and the time in which you required it was too limited to do justice to the whole story in detail. The authorities I chiefly rely on are Theal's " Histories of South Africa," VVilmot's " Expansion of South Africa," Basil Worsfold's " South Africa," Caldecott's " English Colonisation," Scott Keltie's " Partition of Africa," and Lucas's " Historical Geography of the British Colonies " ; and if I sometimes use their ipsissivia verba without special acknowledgment, it is only to save needless elaboration of footnotes. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. For this I am mainly indebted to Mr Worsfold. B.C. 1700. Land of Punt (S.E. Africa) conquered by the Egyptians. B.C. 1000. Solomon's E.xpedition to the land of Ophir (S.E. Africa). B.C. 600. Yoyage of Phcenician seamen (from Red Sea) round Africa. A.D. 35. Sabaen King Kharabit is in possession of the E. coast of Africa. b HISTORICAL PREFACE. Portuguese Period. i486. Discovery of the Cape (Cabo Tormentoso) by Bartholomew Diaz. 1497. Vasco da Gama sails to India by the Cape. 1505. Alvarez de Cahnl occupies Sofala (East Coast). 1580. Sir Francis Drake passes the Cape on his (return) voyage round the world. Dutch Period. 1602. Netherlands East India Company Chartered. 164S. Wreck of the " Haarlem " in Table Bay. 1652. Arrival of expedition under Van Riebeck. Government by the Dutch East India Company. 1657. Nine of the Company's servants settled as "free burghers" at Rondebosch. 1679. Simon van der Stell appointed Commander. 1688-89. Huguenot emigration. 1709. I'he use of French in official communications forbidden. 17 14. Returns show Cape Town has 300 houses, and that the whole population of settlement = free burghers, 647 men, 341 women, 900 children, employing 93 men-servants, and owning 1,178 male, 240 female slaves. 1779. The Franco-Dutch settlers send representatives to Holland praying for reforms. ■ 1783. Birth of Tshaka. ^ 1786. Fish River declared the limit of the Colony, and magistracy established at Graaff Reinet. 1795. British Force (under Admiral Elphinstone and General Craig) take possession of the Cape. 1803. Restoration of the Cape to the Dutch after the Treaty of Amiens. 1806. Surrender of the Cape by General Janssens to Sir David Baird. Period of British Rule. 1806. Population of Colony = 73,663, of whom 26,720 were of European descent ; exports _;^6o,ooo, imports ^^100,000. 1807. Earl of Caledon appointed Governor: postal communica- tion, circuit courts, reuulations for Hottentots. HISTORICAL PREFACE. XIX 1812. Sir John Cradock : "loan-leases" converted into perpetual quit-rent properties — public schools established in country districts. First Kaffir War (181 1-12) : Kaffirs driven back to original Dutch frontier (the Fish River). Foundation of Grahamstown. 1 814. Lord Charles Somerset. I Si 5. The Cape formally ceded to Britain by Holland. (The agreement passed the Cape and other possessions [notably Ceylon] to the British Government in return for Java and a sum of money.) 181 7-19. Second Kaffir War: Defence of Grahamstown by Wiltshire — boundary advanced to Chumie and Keiskamma Rivers — missionaries sent to Gaika tribe. 1820. Albany settlement : arrival of 5,000 British emigrants at Algoa Bay. Foundation of Port Elizabeth. 1824. Natal first colonised by party of British settlers. 1826. General Bourke : ordinance declaring free coloured men equal in law with the whites. Report of Royal Commission : establishment of Executive Council, Supreme Court, Resident Magistrates (in place of Landdrosts), Schools, &c. (conversion of Dutch into British Colony). English ordered to be used as official language. 1833. Abolition Act. 1834. Sir Benjamin D'Urban : Slave Emancipation carried out. 1^34-35. Third Kaffir \\'ar : invasion of Colony by Kaffirs — boundary advanced to Kei River : Lord Glenelg's despatch ordering evacuation of new territory — disaffection of " Boer " popu- lation. 1835-36. Exodus of the " emigrant farmers" into Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal. 1837. Defeat of Moselekutse by Hendrik Potgieter. 1838. Massacre of Retief's party by Dingaan. Pretorius (Andries) is Commandant-General of Boers — defeat of Dingaan (Dec. 10). 1843. British Government established in Natal, and Natal annexed to Cape Colony. 1846-48. Fourth Kaffir War (War of the Axe) : War with the Gaikas terminated by Sir Harry Smith. 1847. Sir Henry Pottinger first Governor and High Commis- sioner. XX HISTORICAL PREFACE 1848. Sir Harry Smith : declaration of British Sovereignty up to the Vaal River and the Drakensberg Mountains. 1849. Convict agitation in Cape Colony. 1851-53. Fifth Kaffir War : Moresh, Basuto chief, submits. 1852. Sand River Convention. Boers beyond the Vaal are absolved from their allegiance, and Pretorius is pardoned. 1853-54. Boers of Orange River sovereignty revolt. Imperial Government decide upon a policy of non-interference — withdraw troops — acknowledge the Orange Free State by the Convention of Bloemfontein. 1853. Representative Government (elective Council and Assembly) granted to Cape Colony. 1854. Sir George Grey. New Kaffir Policy. Transvaal acknow- ledged as a free and independent State. 1856. Natal formed into a separate Colony. 1857. Settlement of Anglo-German legion (2,000) on the Buffalo River (East London founded). 1858. Agricultural German immigration (2,000). 1862. Sir Philip Wodehouse : policy of retrenchment insisted upon by the Imperial Government. 1863. First line of Railway opened — public works policy initiated. 1865. British Kafraria incorporated into the Colony. 1869. Sir Henry Barkly : authorised to bring in Responsible (lovernment. Discovery of diamonds. 187 I. Proclamation of British authority over the diamond fields. 1872. New Constitution (Responsible Government) received Royal Assent : Sir John Molteno first Premier. 1873. Colony divided into legislative districts. 1874. Mr Froude's mission in favour of confederation scheme of Lord Carnarvon. 1877. Sir Bartle Frere : authorised to carry out confederation of South African States as Governor of the Cape Colony and High Commissioner in South Africa (April). Annexation of the Transvaal (April 12). 1877-78. Subjugation of Kreli and Sandele. 1879. The Zulu War. Lord Wolseley, High Commissioner for South-East Africa (June). Administrator of Transvaal. 1850. June 29. Federation Proposals defeated in Cape Parliament. Aug. I. Recall of Sir Bartle Frere. Sir Hercules Robinson succeeds. Boers revolt under Triumvirate — Kruger, Joubert, and Pretorius (Dec. 16). HISTORICAL PREFACE. XXI 1 88 1. Convention of Pretoria (independence of South African Republic [Transvaal] recognised. Suzerain rights of British Government maintained). 1883. Imperial Government takes over Basutoland. 1884. Convention of London (modification of Convention of Pretoria): Bechuanaland Protectorate (Feb. 27). 1885. Sir Charles Warren's Expedition. Extension of Protectorate and formation of Crown Colony. 1886. Discovery of Gold at VVitwatersrand (Johannesburg). 1887. Zululand taken over by Imperial Government, 1888. Treaty with Eobengula and mineral concessions obtained in Mashonaland. 1889. Sir Henry Loch succeeds Sir Hercules Robinson. Customs Union Convention (first step towards federation of South Africa). Charter granted to British South Africa Company. 1890. Cecil Rhodes, Prime Minister. Pioneer Expedition to Salis- bury. 1891. Anglo-Portuguese Convention. 1893. Matabele War, and Responsible Government granted to Natal. 1894. Matabele Settlement. Dr Jameson, Administrator. Glen Grey Act. British South Africa Company undertakes administration of . country north of Zambesi (Nov. 4). Svvazi Convention (Dec. 10). 1895. Sir Hercules Robinson reappointed. Annexation of Pondoland. 1896. Invasion of Transvaal by Dr Jameson with a body of 480 volunteers, for the purpose of assisting the Uitlanders (chiefly British subjects) to obtain redress of grievances. Outbreak of Rinderpest among cattle, sheep, and goats in Bechuanaland, Matabeleland, and the Transvaal. Matabele Rebellion. This brings the history of South Africa down to date. It is a story of constant worry and war — expansion and progress. Mr I.ucas is quite right in saying that the colonisation of South Africa has been no easy task, owing to conflicting interests. The work has been complicated by the presence of Dutch settlers, with long-established claims, and a vast native population, not decaying in numbers but holding their own XXll HISTORICAL PREFACE. with the white man. Consequently the progress of the British power has here been more faltering" than in other parts of the world. Caldecott states that the problems before our South African Colonies are : (i) {a) To arrive at a thoroughly- workable understanding with our Dutch fellow-colonists, and {I)) with such Dutchmen as are still independent neighbours ; and (2) to do the best for the native races, especially by training them to take their place at our side in the formation of a mixed community. In solving the former of these the British and the Dutch have managed to live on, but in a hand-to-mouth fashion, and the Boer War of 1 879 showed how far they were from real and effective harmony after dwelling together for eighty years. The inclusion in our Empire of a large territory to which dis- satisfied Dutchmen had moved across the Vaal River proved to be premature ; we had to fight, and the Boers had the best of it ; and then we decided not to bring our strength to bear, but to give way. The Boers occupy accordingly two very extensive regions, one quite independent, under the name of the Orange Free State ; the other, the relinquished Transvaal, or South African Republic, internally independent, but under our control so far as relations with other States are concerned. The writer I am quoting continues : " But although the actual settlement of this part of the problem is still to be worked out, we can have no doubt what the result will be when we look at the problem in a really comprehensive way. The incor- poration of these countries in a federated South Africa is only a question of time. The Boers, though in the majority in South Africa at present, are not increasing so fast as the British colonists, and no stream of emigration of anything like the volume of the stream from the British Isles can be directed from Holland. Already indeed the British element is becoming unmanageable by the Boer Governments, and such men as go out there are of a temper not to be trifled with whenever they take their affairs heartily into their own hands. Another Imperial war is not likely ; it would be exceedingly unpopular at home, even for the support of fellow-countrymen, and if it came to an actual conflict our colonists would be all the better for depending on them- HISTORICAL PREFACE. xxili selves. ... At present the extensive areas of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State are occupied chiefly for pasture, but their rich mineral resources will soon be tapped. A net- work of railways is being laid down, which will develop a community of interest that must go far to make concord among all Europeans in South Africa both easy and indis- pensable. Mr Worsfold admits that the national difficulty exists, and the native question exists ; but neither of these are insoluble problems. There is no inherent divergency between the Dutch and British character sufficient to prevent the amalgamation of the two peoples. The Dutch in South Africa have won the admiration of authorities as distinguished as the late Mr Froude and Mr Selous. ... At the beginning of the century, when Britain assumed the administration of the Europeans in South Africa, these people had been cut off for more than a hundred years from European influence — that is to say, from civilisation. From that time onwards the quarrel of the Boers has been against the Government as such, and not against individual Britons. As a British colonist, having lived all my life in South Africa, I can personally confirm this opinion and statement of fact. Mr Rhodes has, according to Mr Worsfold, from the commencement of his career grasped the fact that what divides the Europeans in the Cape Colony, and in South Africa generally, is not nationality but education ; and additional merit belongs to his public services, because the appeal for support to carry out his measures has been addressed to all enlightened men, irrespective of nationality." At the present moment, however, when the future destinies of South Africa are in the melting-pot, I am not inclined to pursue the question raised by these writers and the solutions suggested by them, which in every case is federation under the suzerainty of the British flag. The solution will work itself out by the mutual recognition of the common interests, necessities, aspirations, hopes, and fears of the entire European population of South Africa. We only ask not to be made the cockpit of European dissensions. You must understand that one of the most formidable problems that confronts these European populations is what is commonl}' called the " native question." Not to intrude my XXIV HISTORICAL PREFACE. individual opinions upon this question, I quote again from the latest and most thoughtful writer on South African affairs, who puts the matter in this way : — " The question which lay at the root of the original separa- tion of the Europeans in South Africa was the question of slavery. The same cause threatened to rend apart the United States of America, but there its operation was prevented, and the national unity was maintained at the cost of a civil war. The question has disappeared in this acute form, for, apart from the Conventions, no European community could venture to maintain an institution which has been condemned by the moral sense of the whole civilised world. But the question of the treatment of the natives, in the form of the admission or not of the coloured people to political and civil rights, still constitutes the main cause which tends to maintain the separa- tion of the Dutch and British. In the Republics the coloured people are entirely excluded from political, and partially excluded from civil, rights. In the British Colonies the prin- ciple of political equality, irrespective of colour, is established. Nor is the significance of this difference affected by the fact that both in Natal and the Cape Colony limitations have been introduced to prevent the abuse of such privileges, for these limitations are the result of practical experience, and as such they commend themselves to all reasonable persons." Thus the position stands — full charged with dangers and difficulties, and not to be solved by impetuosity, violence, or haste; on the other hand, not to be shirked, evaded, nor trifled with. I do not feel that I can, at this time, add much of value to the discussion of the matters awaiting solution in South Africa. I have indicated the sources of information easily available to the student of South African affairs. I leave the Fates to unravel or cut the Gordian knot in which they are entangled. Believe mc, Dear Professor WALLACE, Yours faithfully, HARRY S. CALDECOTT. CONTENTS. II III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. Personal Statement and Introduction Historical Preface, by H. S. Caldecott Observations on the Route in the Western Province . . . • . . Observations on the Route in the Free State, Transvaal, Natal, and the Eastern Province op^ Cape Colony . . . . . Geolooical, Orooraphical, and Land Surface Features ..... General Floral Features Grass and Green Forage Plants Weeds of Arable Land other than Grasses Forestry ...... Viticulture .... Cape Colony as a Centre for Profitable Fruit Growing and Fruit Export Fruit Growing and Marketing Ostriches and Ostrich Farming The Wild Game of thk Colony Cattle and their Management Diseases of Cattle .... Horses and Mules .... Goats and Goat Farming Sheep and Sheep Farming I'AGR V 50 74 98 114 ri9 134 161 176 219 238 2 C2 274 308 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVIII. Wool and Hair . XIX. Scab or Brand-Ziekte in Sheep XX. Diseases of Sheep and Swine . XXI. Population, Ladour, and Wages XXII. Irrigation .... XXIII. A(;ricultural Implements and Machines XXIV. Field Crops, Rotations, and Manures XXV. Education in Agriculture and Agricultural Schools ..... XXVI. The Agricultural Department of Government Appendices ...... Index ..... I'AGE 359 367 381 395 409 437 447 497 510 520 528 LIST OF PLATES. PLATE The Author ..... Frotttispicce. 1. Cape Town and Table Mountain . . To face paQ;c 2. Botanic Gardens, Cape Town ... 3. Typical Dutch Residence of the Better Class . 4. Typical Boer Farmhouse 5. Mountain Scenery, Worcester 6. View at J. D. Logan's Place at Matjesfontein . 7. Schilderspan, Jackson's Farm, on the Karoo near Brits town ...... 8. A Locust Storm, by J. G. Millais 9. Entrance to Zwaarte Berg Pass going from the North 10. Transport Ox-Waggons approaching the Zwaarte Berj Pass ...... 11. Modern Dutch Farmhouse near Oudtshoorn 12. View of Johannesburg from the North . 13. The Morning Market, Port Elizabeth . 14. Colonial Government Bacteriological Institute, Gra hamstown (E.xterior View) 15. Ross's Farm, Bedford, Located in a Dairying District 16. Alluvial Plain, North of Graaff Reinet— an Old Lake Bottom .... 17. Swimming a River in Flood 18. A Deep Sluit 19. Steam Jumper Drill Bormg for Water 20. WelUvood Farm, in the Mountains North- East of Graaff Reinet ...... 31. A Rollason Wind- Motor .... 22. Mule Train and Convicts -Spreading Town Refuse 23. Arum Lilies ..... 24. A Farm on the Southern Borders of the Great Karoo 25. Kaffirs Cutting the Fleshy Leaves of the Prickly Pear 26. Lucerne Roots grown at Rothamsted in Rich Soil to depth of Two Feet 27. A Road through the Forest 28. Big Yellowwood Trees 29. Typical Bush Forest 30. Avenue of Firs at Rondebosch 31. Park Gate, Mossel Bay . 32. Grape Gathering, Constantia 14 16 17 18 20 21 24 30 31 34 56 58 59 60 61 64 72 79 84 91 108 120 121 123 126 128 136 LIST OF TLATES. I'LA IE 33. The Farmhouse, Groot Constantia (the Government Wine Farm near Cape Town) . . To face page 34. Hermitage Grape Vine . 35. Austrahan Ladybird, Vcdalia cardiitalis 36. Ostrich Camp, Hen and Nest, in the Karoo yj. Prize Cock and Hen Ostriches . 38. Heads and Horns of Three Large Antelopes 39. Eland Antelopes (Females) in a state of Domestication, and a Jersey Cow .... 40. Koodoo Cow, and Rhinoceros Birds feeding upon Ticks and other Skin Parasites 41. Koodoo Antelope Bull, with Rhinoceros Birds givinc an Alarm before leaving 42. Springbuck Feeding .... 43. Imported Friesland Bull .... 44. Friesland Cow, Colonial Bred 45. " Royal Dalesman," Typical Shorthorn P)ull for Breed- ing Milch Cows .... 46A. Dexter-Kerry Bull .... 46B. Dexter-Kerry Cow .... 47 A. Dexter-Shorthorn Bull, " Tiny Tim " . 47B. Dexter-Shorthorn Heifer 48. Jersey Cattle, and Table Mountain from Newlands 49. An Afrikander Cow being Milked by a Kaffir Boy 50. Travelling by Ox -Waggon in South Africa 51. Bullock Waggons Fording a River 52. Dr Hutcheon, Colonial Veterinary Surgeon 53. The Cattle Tick, the Carrier of Texas Fever or South African Red-Water .... 54. A Burchell's Zebra Jack .... 55. Hackney Stallion, "Rifleman IL," 2,242 56. Imported Suffolk Punch Stallion 57. Imported Cleveland Bay Stallion 58. De Beers Horse-Breeding Farm near Kimbcrley 59. Poitou Jack Donkey .... 60A. Maltese Jack Donkey, 14 hands i inch 60P.. Poitou Mule, 17 hands .... 61. Goats Feeding in the Veld 62. Angora Goat, Old Buck, " Prince" 63A. Angora Goat, Young Ewe . . . 631?. Angora Goats, Young Rams, Property of Dr Smartt, Britstown ..... 64. Fat-Tailed Hairy Afrikander Sheep (Rams) 65. Flock of Fat Cross-Bred Merino and Fat-Tailed Sheep 66a. Vermont Merino Ewes, bred in New Zealand 66n. Pure Negretti Merino Ram bred in Australia . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I'LATE 67A. A Cheviot Ram ..... To fac, 671;. Border Leicester Ram .... 68. Boers Resting" at an Outspan 69. Native Quarters ..... 10. Site of a Proposed Irrigation Dam for Oudtshoorn 71. A Selection of Six Evolved Types of Wheat Two Evolved Types of Wheat . An Evolved Wheat Cross Side Views of Two Evolved Types of Wheat with One Parent between .... Kaffir Women Stamping Mealies 76. An Evolved Type of Oats with a Bell-shaped Head only slightly inclining to one side An Evolved Type of One-sided Oats Strawson's Attachable Five-Row Sprayer for Horse and Hand Power, 1896 Ur Edington at Work in the Laboratory of the Bacterio logical Institute, Grahamstown 80. Laboratory of the Bacteriological Institute, (irahams town ...... 72. 73- 74- 75- 11- 78. 79- P^\K 356 356 401 404 424 458 459 460 461 464 470 471 496 514 5'5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT. 1. Lourensford, the Property of Sir James Sivewright, K.C.M.G., Somerset West ...... 2. A Peep at the Drive to Lourensford . ... 3. Glen Heatlie, the Residence of the Hon. T. T. Heatlie, near Worcester ...... 4. Cerastes, or Horned Vipers, in the .Sand (i} nat. size) 5. Karoo and Ant-heaps ..... 6. The Chicago " Aermotor" (16 feet) Pumping Water on a Fixed Steel Tower (50 feet) ..... 7. Sectional Elevation of a 12-feet diameter Rolla§on Wind-Motor 8. Form of Ant-hill so commonly seen in Cape Colony 9. Ants — a number of the more common forms of Termites 10. The Cape Ant-eater, Orycteropus capensis, Geof. 11. Australian Salt Bush, Atriplex nuiiunularia, Lindl. (the Male Plant) ....... 12. Prickly Pear — Leaf-like Fleshy Stem-joint and Fruit . 13. Group of Mares on De Beers Horse-Breeding Farm 14. Diib Grass, Cynodon dactylon, Pers. 15. 'L\icexx\& OY Mi^Ma., Afediccii^^o sativa 16. Nut-Grass or Coco, Cyperus 7'otundus 17. Broken Bush of so-called Mimosa, Acacia Iiorruiu, Willd. 4 5 14 19 49 62 64 66 67 87 89 97 lOI 107 116 125 XXX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1 8. 19. 20. 21. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 33- 34- 35- 36. yi- 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43- 44- 45. 46. 47. 48, 49 50 51 ( )ld Oaks at Lourensford Colonial Wine Measures . The Grape Mill, Foiiloir Ci^rappoir An Attemperator or Must-Cooler, showing the Upright Position of the Coil of Piping through which Cold Water is made to Flow .... " Iron Age" Horse-Hoe . Vermorel's Torpille or Sulphur I5ellows Phylloxera Vastatrix Phylloxera Root Form magnified Phylloxera Mature Wingless Female magnified Section of Vine-Leaf magnified, and Eggs of Phylloxera Vine-Leaf Injured by Phylloxera Grapes {Raisin Blanc) Grown in White Sand on Mowbray Flats in imitation of the Hungarian practice, with the object of securing immunity from Phylloxera Rootlets of Vine magnified, exhibiting Galls produced by Phylloxera . . ... Phylloxera Larva magnified Hungarian and Austrian Methods of Grafting A Colonial Wine Cellar or Store, showing Wine Vats and Riders (or Leaguers) . Two Diagrams illustrating the Rainfall Curve at Cape Town and Grahamstown Raisin Making at Worcester American Blight, Schisoneura lanigcra . Codlin Moth, Carpocapsa ponionella Peach Maggot, Ceratitis citriperda Lemon Blown by Ceratitis Antipest Spraying Machine, .Strawson . The "Progress" Spraying Outfit . The Strawson Horse-power Standard Sprayer The W^olfskill Fumigator . Plucking an Ostrich Cock with a Bag or Hood over his Head to keep him quiet Head of a Steenbok A Wounded Cape Buffalo The Tsetse Fly, Glossina niorsitans, magnified Dam of Stagnant Water on the Karoo . Bots adhering to the Cuticular Lining of the Stomach of a Horse ...... The True Gad-fly of the Ox, Tabanus bovinus, Linn. The Parasitic .Micro-organism found in the Corpuscles of the Blood of an Animal which died of Texas Fever Great Cattle Tick, Amblyomma hebrcEum . Head of the True or Mountain Zebra, Equus zebra I'AGE 131 136 139 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxi lAGK 54. Micro-oryanism of Horse-Sickness .... 320 55. A Lamb of a Merino Ewe, showing marked Indications of Reversion to a Hairy-Sheep Ancestor . . . 332 56. Head of a Baboon ...... 338 57. The Sheep Kade pr Louse-fly, Melophagus ovinus . -343 58. The Sheep Louse, Trichodectcs spharocephalus . . -345 59. Angora Goat Louse, Trichodcctcs liiiihaius, and Common Goat Louse, Trichodectes climax . . . . .347 60. Sectional Side View of a Dipping Tank and Dripper . -351 61. Wool, Hair, and IMohair ...... 360 62. Diagrammatic Illustration showing how Wool Felts . . 361 63. Scab-Mites of Sheep and Goats: Sheep Mites, Boer Goat Mites, Angora Goat .Mites, all greatly magnified . . . 370 64. Mites found in the Manure of Sheep Kraals, and mistaken for Scab Insects ....... 374 65. Common Scab-Mites, Psoroptcs coiiiinunis^ vars. oins and cgui 375 66. The Li\er-Fluke, Distoina hcpaticuin {Fasciola hepaticd) . 384 67. Wire-worm, Strongylits cottforlus, the Twisted Stomach Worm 386 68. The Broad Tape-worm, Tcoiia expansa .... 3S9 69. Any Work, Baas ? ...... 408 70. Oliver's No. 140 X Chilled, Double-Wheel, Walking Plow . 440 71. Oliver's N.D. Steel-Bottom, Two-Furrow, Gang Plow . . 441 72. Common Zigzag Harrow ...... 443 T^. Disc Harrow or Pulveriser ..... 443 74. Cambridge or Ring Roller ..... 445 75. Rust Y\xCi'gw~,,Piicciniaorannnis^o\\\<\\Q-A\. and Barberry Leaves 453 76. Mealies or Indian Corn, Zca inays, L., the Dura Shami of Lower Egypt ....... 463 77. Kaffir Corn or Great Millet, Sorghum vulgarc^ Pers., the Dura Beledi of Upper Egypt ..... 465 78. An Evolved Six-Rowed Barley between Two Parents (natural size) 473 79. Metamorphoses of the W\gYa.\.ory 'Locu?,^ Acridiinn pcregrintun 489 80. The Powerful-Jawed Locust which Ravaged Cape Colony in 1895-96 ........ 491 81. Sand Wasp . . . . . . ^gc 82. Brummer Fly ....... 495 83. Victoria College, Stellenbosch . . . ... ^gg 84. Podaxon carcifiomatis . . . . . .520 85. The Chicago Aermotor . . . . .521 86. Section of Laval's Alpha A I Separator . . '. . 522 87. The Humming-Bird Milk Separator 88. The Thistle Mechanical Milking Machine at Work . • 5:_ 89. Massey-Harris Steel-tined Cultivator . . . -524 90. Oliver's No. 56 X Double-Wheel, Steel Mould-Board, Hillside Plow ■. . . . . . . .525 9i.' Oliver's Chilled-Bottom, "Blue Bell," Gang Plow . . 525 92. Massey-Harris Self-Binder ..... 526 3-J LIST OF MAPS. South Africa (Northern Section), showing Orograpldcal Features and Autliof's Route To face peige i 14. South Africa (Sout'sern Section), showing Oyographical Features and Author's Route . South Africa, showing Geological Features South Africa, showing Land Surface Features . South Africa, showing Distribution of Ostriches South Africa, showing Distribution of Cattle . South Africa, showing Distribution of Norses, Mules, and Asses ...... South Africa, showing Distribution of Goats South Africa, showing Distribution of Sheep . South Africa, showing the probable .T/ifa^ Temperature — {a) for January, {b) for April .... South Africa, showing the probable JAv?;/ Temperature — {a) for July, ib) for October .... South Africa, showing Distribution of Rainfall— {a) for January, (b) for April ..... South Africa, showing Distribution oi Rainfall— {a) for July, {b) for October ..... South Africa, showing — {a) Mean Annual Temperature, (b) J/ean Annual Rainfall .... I 51 75 232 270 316 325 353 526 526 526 526 526 LIST OF PLANS. I'AGE 1. Plan of the Drift-Sands near Port Elizabeth . . . 71 2. Ground Plan of an Australian Wool Shed . . -341 3. Ground Plan of a Sheep Fold, Shedder, and Swimming Bath 348 4. Plan of Scotch Sheep-Folds, including a Dipper and Shedder or Race ...... facing 350 5. Plan of a New Zealand Sheep-Yard on Whakaki .facing 351 6. Plan showing the Egyptian way in which Barren Salt Land is | Laid Out to be Washed to make it Fertile and capable of Growing Crops ...... 4-8 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. CHAPTER I. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. Cape Town and its Vicinity — Somerset West — The Cape Flats — Stellen- bosch District — Boer Houses — Government Trout Hatchery at Jonkershoek — South African Streams — Nooit^redacht Nursery — Rustenburg and Schoongezigty — Proposed Experimental Stations — Paarl and Wellington Districts — Afrikander Custom — Position of Small Holdings — Caledon and Bredasdorp Districts — Sir Lowry's Pass — Wild Birds — Antelope — Swellendam, Robertson, and , Wor-. cester Districts — Montague — Hex River Pass — The Karoo — Matjesfontein — Cape Pheasants and Partridges — Aspect of the Karoo — The Nieuwe Veld — Beaufort West — De Aar and Britstovvn — Bushman Drawings — Caterpillars and Locusts — Kimberley District — Newlands Farm — Snakes — Secretary Bird and other Birds — The Meer-Kat- Oudtshoorn District — Zwaarte Berg Pass — Cango Caves — Irrigation — Railway Communication — Russian Jews — Kocljerg and Malmesbury Districts — Manures. Vicinity of Cape Town. The author landed at Cape Town on 2nd May 1895, and left it on his return voyage on nth September. The inter- vening period of over four months was devoted to a study of the agricultural resources of South Africa in general, but of Cape Colony in particular. As a map of the route taken, showing dates of arrival at the most important places, i.s attached, it will be unnecessary in referring to the various districts to- mention in detail the places visited. The first few days were spent in Cape Town, in making the acquaintance of members of Parliament (which was in A 2 FARMINC INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. session at the time), and officials and others interested in agriculture. The first visits to districts near at hand were undertaken from Cape Town as a centre before the extended tour through the Colony was begun. That to Koeberg oc- curred at the end of the investigation. Cape Town, with a population of about 50,000,* is only interesting from the agricultural point of view as an important market centre for the sale of farm produce. From it, however, one has not far to travel before reaching, in the famous Constantia wine district, much that is interesting and instructive to an agriculturist. The Botanic Garden t has been well described as " one of the prettiest promenades in South Africa." It is more a pleasure-resort than a Botanic Garden properly so called, the' site not having been judiciously chosen for the latter purpose. It has been in existence for about sixty-five years, and until it was taken over in January 1892 by the Municipal Authorities of Cape Town from the Board of Government Commissioners who controlled it there had been an incessant struggle, which ab.sorbed the time and distracted the attention of those in charge from scientific botanical work, to make the enterprise a commercial success. The Government now contributes annually a sum of .1^500 towards its maintenance. Although Cape Town in itself is somewhat bleak and wanting in arboricultural decorations, being swept by the terrible South-Easters, the elongated suburban district lying in the direction of Constantia, and beginning with the village of Mowbray, may be said to have developed, under the sheltering influences of Table Mountain, a grand avenue of trees and other vegetation so luxuriant, so varied, and at times so brilliant, that it would readily pass as semi-tropical. Constantia, in which is situated the Government wine * The population of Cape Town, its suburban residential villages, and rural district, numbered in 1891, the year of the last census, 97,074 — consisting of 48,381 whites, 1,332 aboriginal natives, and 47,361 others. t The garden was well laid out by M 'Gibbon, a Scottish gardener, who occupied the unenviable position of gardener for over thirty years. He was succeeded by Professor MacOwan, now the Government Botanist, and curator of the extensive and valuable Government Herbarium, who was for the last ten years of the old regime curator of the garden, ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 3 farm described at page 138, is favoured by good fortune above most vine-growing areas in the Colony, as it has not yet suffered from the devastations of the phylloxera in the vine- yards. The merits of the disintegrated granite soil of the locality for the production of wines of superior quality have been known for generations, and recent experiments have demonstrated that most of the common fruits, and table grapes for export, can also be grown to perfection. Market gardening naturally finds an important place in the producti\'e industries of the place, owing to the isolated position of CajDie Town, and the limited amount of garden land within easy reach of the city. At Rosebank, on the way back to town, is situated the show ground of the Western Province Agricultural Societ}% ^\'h^ch was laid out in 1893 ^^ a cost of five or six thousand pounds. The annual show to be held in this attractive and well-appointed centre ought to prove one of the best possible means for undermining the stolid indifference of a large section of the farming population to progressive agriculture. A visit to Sir James Sivewright's estate of Lourensford, Somerset West, proved not only interesting but highl}- instructive in the matter of demonstrating what excellent results in orchard culture and landscape gardening mone}' can produce under South African conditions. On the way by train to Somerset West the barren wikler- ness of the Cape Flats is crossed, a worthless stretch of Rhenoster-bush country belonging geologically to the Flats Sandstones in the Tertiary formation, much of which being covered with drift sand, is liable, when cleared for Cultivation, to blow into sand dunes, which shift their position, and form a menace to cultivation or to any property of value that may lie in their immediate neighbourhood. Here the soil is de- fective, and the rainfall abundant. So perverse is Nature at times in the distribution of her gifts, that up country, where the soil is of much better quality, the rainfall is deficient. A few stray specimens of ostriches are to be seen on these flats, but there is too much rain in winter, and the soil is too poor for them to thrive well. Guinea fowl of a darker shade and more uniform colour than those generally seen in Great Britain arc found in this 4 FARMINCi INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY^ part of the country as well as in the Eastern Province, and are increasing in numbers since locusts became more numerous. They prefer those parts where the soil is good, and, being fond of acorns, are partial to the shelter of oak-trees, which grow very rapidly in that region of the Colony which is favoured by the fall of winter rains.* Stellenbosch District. Stellenbosch has been one of the chief wine-growing districts, and recently, since the phylloxera made its appear- ance, it is beginning to acquire a reputation for fruit. In addition to being a great educational centre for the Western Photo, by Dr Hugo. LOURENSFOKD, THE PROPERTY OF SiR JaMES SiVEWRIGHT, K.C.M.G., SOMERSET WeST. Province (having the agricultural school, described in a later chapter, attached to the Victoria College, and a theological seminary as well), Stellenbosch is one of the most picturesque * The crowned guinea fowl, Numida coroftata, Gray, is widely dis- tributed in Southern and Central Africa. It possesses no white feathers in the wings like the domesticated birds in Europe, and the general colour of its plumage is black thickly spotted all over with white. Guinea fowls feed much on berries and roots. They form good eating. A full- grown cock will weigh over 3 lbs. They roost on the branches of trees — by preference those overhanging water for the sake of safety from the wild cats. They are tame for wild birds, and are easily domesticated. ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 5 of South African Boer towns. The old Dutch style of architecture, uninjured by modern innovations, was at one time supreme. The ordinary colonial house consisted of one story and a garret, and was built of stone and lime. The walls, which were frequently whitewashed, carried a' steep roof thickly and uniformly thatched with reeds or rushes, and the gable ends rose well above the thatch. To make a useful general purpose store, and to render the floor of the loft fire- proof, so that the thatch might burn and the dwelling below A Peep at the Drive to Lourensford. Photo, by Di- Hii^o. An Agave or American Aloe is seen in the foreground to the right. remain intact, a covering of brick and clay was laid over the lining of reeds forming the under surface of the floor. So strong and well seasoned were the beams used by the early inhabitants, that many are still to be seen in different parts of the country in a good state of preservation after the lapse of 250 years. The roofs of many Boer houses in the drier regions of •the Colony are flat and almost level. They are covered 6 FAKMIN(; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. with clay and a layer of " brak " earth* spread on the top on account of its well-known property of keeping the rain from penetrating. The edges are raised a few inches above the general level to act as shields from the wind, which would be liable to displace unprotected loose soil; and spouts are intro- duced at intervals to allow the rain-water to escape. Many fires have occurred in Stellenbosch, and some were said to have been incendiary fires, lit by certain coloured people of a vicious type to increase the amount of labour in the place. This has led to the disappearance of many of the old Dutch thatch roofs, and to the substitution, on the plea of greater safety, of probably the least artistic of all possible coverings, corrugated galvanised iron. Even this degrada- tion could not completely neutralise the natural beauty of Stellenbosch, with its broad and regularly laid out streets lined with boulevards of oak-trees, and watered by a network of irrigation channels. The Government trout hatchery at Jonkershoek is situ- ated on the Eerste River (the first river from the mountains emptying into False Bay), from which the water supply of Stellenbosch is taken. Complaint was made that the water was polluted by the fish. If this has been so in the past, there is no necessity for any such pollution in future. Fish exist in large numbers in rivers from which good and pure water supplies are taken in this country, and act more as scavengers of streams than otherwise. Fish kept under control need not pollute a running stream any more than those living under natural conditions. The stagnant water from a pool requiring to be cleaned could be run over a piece of land like irrigation water, and thereby filtered and made sweet and pure. If the area were large enough, none need find its way back into the stream, but remain until removed by evaporation. In view of the existence of many beautiful pebbly but troutless streams flowing to the sea along the southern coast, a visit to the hatchery ought to be a source of genuine interest to all who claim to possess a share of the sporting proclivities which are associated with the name of Izaac Walton. * Earth charged with excess of soda and other salts, brought up in solution to the surface by capillary action and left there, as the water escapes by means of evaporation. ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. J? J. L. Scott, the overseer in chart^e, was trained in an excellent school, viz., the Solway Fishery in the South of Scotland; and the hatchery appliances, so far as completed, are of the most recent and most approved pattern. Glass grilles are used (in place of those made of zinc) to hold the eggs, like trays, so that when the proper time comes the young fish fall through or get carried over the sides. The ova take about eighty days to hatch ; but after forty days, when the eyes develop, the ova may be moved and washed. The water used must be scrupulously clean, and to secure this it is passed through a flannel filter with four screens, in addition to a settling tank outside. Three concrete tanks, four feet each way, fed by water from a large settling tank, arc kept for "full" fish. A number of year-old fish, some of them |- lb. in weight, were seen feeding greedily on chopped liver and lungs and clotted blood. In another pool, two- and three- year-old fish, of 4 lbs. and 5 lbs. weight, were kept apart. During the season it was expected that 200,000 fish would be hatched, and a possible 600,000 may be reached when the hatchery is completed. Spawning occurred in July and August, some fish only a year old producing eggs. In Scotland the spawning season extends from the 14th of October till about Christmas. The best variety was the red- fleshed Loch Leven trout, but the common yellow Scottish burn-trout were also well represented. South African streams, which do not dry up periodically, are not absolutely without fish, as they swarm with the fry of the " springer," a freshwater mullet. Up on the Karoo, where water is at times to be found passing along underground channels, — fissures or " aars " in the rock, — blind fish have repeatedly been found. This may be regarded not only as an indication of extensive water channels under the surface, but also that they have been in existence for a very long period of time. One of the most interesting object-lessons in this district was to be seen on Nooitgedacht — a large mixed wine and corn farm with about thirty acres of nursery garden — five miles to the north of Stellenbosch. The nursery had been established by the Pioneer Fruit Company in anticipa- tion of the demand for fruit-trees resulting from the destruc- 8 FAKMIN(] INDUSTRIES OF CAI'E COLONY. tion of the vines in the district by the phylloxera. The soil of the district being deficient in lime, is more suitable for the growth of fruit-trees or of American vines than of European vines. Apart from a large collection of fruit-trees which had been introduced from Europe and California, the most interest- ing feature was the wonderful influence of thorough cultiva- tion on the soil. Land which had been broken in from a condition as hard and as unsuitable for ]jlant growth as a turnpike road, was kept by frequent cultivation in a beautiful state of tilth, and made to grow plants in splendid condition without the application of irrigation water. As models of public - spirited private enterprise, two contiguous farms — Rustenburg", belonging to Sir Jacob Barry, and Schoongezigty, the property of the Hon. J. X. Merriman — must be mentioned. In the management there was a happy combination of new and progressive ideas toned down by a wealth of colonial experience. Butter and fresh cream of excellent quality and in perfect condition were put up and sent to the Cape Town market. To illustrate, among other things, how very difficult it is to drag people out of old grooves to which they have been for some time accustomed, although Cape Town stood much in need of large supplies of similar produce if it were only to be had, so unapproachable were the consumers that for the time being the possible limits of the little industry were soon felt. Fruit-tree planting was going on apace, and the minor wants of the country in products like sweet violets and tomatoes were being attended to — as many as seven tons of first quality fruit being marketed from one acre. Before Stellenbosch was left, G. du Toit's farm, which it was once proposed Government should buy for an experi- mental station, was visited. It was found in a very bad state from weeds and neglected cultivation, and the opinion was readily formed that it is not suitable for an experimental farm even if it were expedient for Governhient to acquire one. The land lies very level and low, and forms a typical place for the development of rust in wheat. ^^4,000 was said to be the price asked for about 1 50 acres, and £2 000 more would be required to put the holding in repair. In addition to this, an annual expenditure of over ;!^ 1,000 to meet the deficit in ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 9 the accounts of an experimental station under Government management would no doubt prove to be a minimum estimate. Frank Myburgh's farm, of Elsenburgh, near Mulder's Vlei Station, — lOOO acres in extent,— was also examined, on account of a proposal that the Government should become the purchaser. It was interesting from the point of view that the imagination filling up the blanks could paint a place of much rough country grandeur and prosperity in the old slave days. The mansion and numerous ornamental buildings about were built by slaves as long ago as 1761, and a vine which was planted at the time still covers the courtyard and bears grapes. One hundred slaves were at one time retained and supported on the place. Now fifteen " Cape boys " — the name applied to the " off colour " labourer irrespective of age — are all the men employed regularly. Why the Govern- ment should purchase a farm at all, or why it is usually proposed that it should invest in a property which would involve the expenditure of a large sum of money to put it in repair, and a large sum of money annually to keep it up, are questions which to understand would involve much patient study and research. Paarl and Wellington Districts. Paarl, stretching for seven miles along the foot of a mountain, and beautified for a considerable distance with a central avenue of well-grown fir-trees, is one of the most attractive and most uncommon of Western Province towns. It is the centre of a decaying wine industry and a developing fruit trade. The Government have here a nursery for phyllox- era-proof American vine stock, described in Chapter VIII. The Wellington district next visited, and now specially noted for apricots, is by nature well adapted to fruit growing. A delightful Afrikander custom (for those whose diges- tions are robust enough to endure the treatment) was here first experienced, viz., the offer to a visitor, during the fore- noon, of a cup of tea, with a liberal supply, placed in his saucer, of some beautifully preserved home - made confyt, manufactured by the females of the establishment from orange, lemon, shaddock, or almost any kind of fruit. The jam 10 IARMIN(] INDUSTRIES OF CAPE c:OLONV. iind preserve factories are now attempting t(^ produce it, but they can hardly emulate the skill dis[)layed by the Boer housewives, whose recipes have been handed down in their families for many generations. The wild olive grows freely on the rising ground not capable of cultivation, and oranges grew in great profusion on the richer soils until a large number of the trees were destroyed by the dorthcsia. Some very fine alluvial soils and some very poor decaying granites are to be found. While excellent orchard practice may be seen, some of the poorest and most neglected of small holdings, with six or eight acres of vines and a kw fruit-trees, are too much in evidence. Most farms are mortgaged, but exorbitant rates of interest are not charged. Private individuals getting good security are satisfied with six per cent., while banks generally exact seven or eight per cent. Mortgages were much increased about ten years ago, when the price of wine fell very low. The staying power of the small Afrikander farmer in such a district as this is quite astonishing. While many continue long on the verge of insolvency, few become bankrupt. Their food is simple and inexpensive, consisting largely of coarse bread and treacle (made by boiling grape juice till it is reduced to one-third of its original volume) supplemented by pickled fish, which is very cheap. Caledon and Bredasdorp Districts. The extended tour in the interior of the Colony was begun on 21st May, and the first short stage was by rail to Somerset West, and thereafter by Cape cart through the Sir Lowry's Pass into the Caledon district, and thence to Napier and Bredasdorp through the Ruggens and the districts of Swel- lendam, Robertson, and Worcester. The grandeur of the pass is in marked contrast, in the matter of interest, to the extreme poverty of the scanty covering of soil on the sandstone hills surrounding it, and the sparse and uninteresting vegetation which there maintains a miserable existence. As the lower level is reached on the other side, the Lower Devonian (Table Mountain) sandstone gives place to a shaly or clay rock, belonging to the Lower Silurian or so-called Malmesbury beds, and the soil improves, ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. U although it could not be classed as of good cjuality. A refer- ence to the geological map will show that the journey for a considerable distance was made through country belonging to this formation. Aspinall, the landlord at Houwhoek, had, with marked success, during three years used as manure on this soil considerable quantities of Thomas's phosphate slag powder. The price in England of the last consignment of 50 tons had been £2. los., but the gross cost when delivered on the farm mounted up to £a,. los. per ton. Guano, which had formerly been used, was quite discarded for the slag. Caledon is a large wheat-growing area, but its development is retarded by defective means of transport. A railway was being agitated for, and is certainly needed if the district is to be cultivated at all. It may be an extensive, but it never can be a truly great grain-growing district. The soil is not rich enough, and it is not there in sufficient quantity (often being less than one foot in depth to the hard dense clay), to enable this claim to be fairly made on its behalf Good arable land in the district is worth about 25s. per morgen (rather over two acres), but no one will sell for less than about ^^3 per morgen, unless he happens to come to grief financially. The yield of wheat is about twelve to fifteen fold under favourable circumstances, but the crops suffer severely from rust. The practice, fully described under rotations of crops, is to crop the land with grain for a few years, and when exhausted to let it lie out for four or five years to rest. This is probably the best system of management to adopt under existing circumstances. The soil is not one to which either lucerne or turnips would take kindly. The great misfortune about it is that while it lies out resting it grows little but Rhenoster- bush, and is practically worthless for feeding the sheep and Boer goats which graze in considerable numbers on the ad- joining extensive areas of half "sweet" and half " sour " veld* which have never been broken by the plough. The country is slightly undulating, bleak, and treeless, although both oaks and pines would no doubt pay for planting if there were prospects of means being provided for getting * The terms " sweet' and "sour" veld are explained at pa^c 81. 12 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF GATE COLONY. the produce when ready to market. A few belts of plantation would be a boon as shelter for stock where shelter is much required at times. Government has been with advantage offering encouragement for planting on similar terms to those offered in the United States of America. Wild birds are naturally more plentiful in this grain-growing district than if it were devoted entirely to stock. Turtle- doves are numerous, also bush-doves (which strongly resemble wood-pigeons in everything but colour), and plovers, which the Boers call " keeweets " — a name probably given, like the Scottish " peeweet," in imitation of the well-known call of the green plover. Among the small birds, larks, sparrows, and the little green South African canary are conspicuous. The Bredasdorp district is further noted for a local variety of the Blesbok antelope, called the " Bontebok," of which the chief distinction is that the white about the tail extends above it in the case of the latter variety. A very fine specimen, shot at the time by F. C. Selous on the property of Piet Van der Byl, weighed 200 lbs. Rhebok e.xist in numbers to afford good sport in the season. SWELLENDAM, ROBERTSON, AND WORGESTER DISTRICTS. The country traversed from Swellendam to Worcester was of quite a different nature from that of the districts last described, a fact probably due to some extent to an admixture in the soil of debris from certain richer beds of the Devonian or Table Mountain sandstone rocks which rise along the course indicated, and form a range of mountains, the foot- hills of which may be described as a rich rolling country capable of growing fruit or any ordinary farm crop. Much soil is red in colour, and abundance of water might be caught on the mountains for irrigation purposes, but the locality is not one which absolutely requires irrigation water every year, and in conformity with the preponderating influence of the hopeful side of human nature, little preparation is made against an evil day, the time of whose coming is uncertain, and natural possibilities have not been taken advantage of The southern slopes of the mountains are green and fertile, but on the north side they are rugged and barren. A few ostriches are kept, but it is not a great ostrich ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 1 3 country. Numerous herons are to be seen, and also a small bustard, the knorhaan (scolding-cock),* Eupodotis afra, Lay., which is numerously represented and widely distributed through the Colony, and is regarded as one of the South African game birds, though not of the first rank. The '* hammerkop," or hammer-head, or tufted umbre, Scopus iinibrctta, is another bird of a dull brown colour seen in this and in other districts, which builds an immense nest, in which, like a magpie, it stores lost articles which it picks up. It is a typical African bird, and the sole representative of its family, generally frequenting places where water is found in search of frogs and small fish, of which it is fond. It is harmless, and, though somewhat solitary in its habits, rather tame and domestic for a large wild bird. Montague is a picturesque village, hemmed in on all sides by mountains, so that it can only be approached by a narrow water-worn gorge or pass five miles long, and rugged and grand in appearance. As the chief industry of the place is the production of brandy, its prosperity has not been so great recently as it was a few years ago. Worcester stands near the northern extremity of a con- siderable plain on which little cultivation is practised. A portion of the surface is covered by gravel, \\hich appears to have been washed down from the mountains during flood times, but the great drawback to the extension of cultivation is the system of commonage under \\hich the village cattle graze and occupy the land which might have been utilised in vastly increasing the importance of Worcester as an agri- cultural centre. It is in the power of the local authority to let certain areas for cultivation, but such a tenure is necessarily uncertain, and difficulties arise owing to the power to let resting in the hands of those who are personally interested in maintaining the advantages of having the pasture for the village cattle near at hand. On the way by rail from Worcester to Matjesfontein, the next halting-place, an interesting geological feature, the Hex River Pass, was traversed, and by this a steep and rugged way was found through the first range of mountains to the * The common name is derived from his cry, which " is hke a shrill- voiced woman's nagging heard afar, so that the words are not intelligible." 14 FARMIN(; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. elevated plateau of the Karoo, 3,000 feet above sea-level. The lower valley is decidedly rich from the agricultural point of view, and there the Cape Orchard Company have estab- lished a large fruit farm, on which i 50,000 orchard trees of the best varieties for producing fruit for the London market have been |)lanted, and are beginning to come into bearing. The Karoo. J. Douglas Logan's place at Matjesfontein is like an oasis in the desert. The rainfall there is so scanty that nothing but Karoo bushes would grow without artificial watering. Water is got for railway requirements and for Photo, hy Dr Hugo. Glen Heatlie, Residence of the Hon. T. T. Heatlie, near Worcester. irrigation from springs not far distant on the Karoo. Fruit and forest trees of many varieties have been growing for three or four years, and now, in combination with the taste- ful floral cultivation of the place, make the desert actually blossom like the rose. But the conditions do not impress one with the idea of permanency unless under a system of constant renewal. The soil is very shallow, and the Boer method of irrigation (subsequently described) being adopted, the concomitant evils of brak soil and canker at the roots of the trees begin to show themselves. The death of a number of fir-trees was locally thought to be caused by the roots ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 15 touching the hard rock underlying the shallow soil, and the cankered condition of the lower bark of some of the fruit trees to the presence of lime in the soil. The existence of a water-dam (filled by a windmill ]jum]:») accounted for the appearance of coveys of Cape Pheasants, which only live near water. These are dark grey birds with red legs, in shape more like small guinea-fowl than the British game bird.* The common Cape Partridge resembles the English bird, but it is smaller in size. It may be found anywhere near to or far from water. t The aspect of the country on the way by rail to Beaufort West, through the " Gouph " or hollow of the Karoo, is at the season referred to desert-like and uninteresting in the extreme, with hardly a tree to be seen, and only a scanty covering of dwarfish and closely-eaten Karoo bushes to re- present vegetation. A platelayer's cottage every five miles, and gangs of five men (one per mile of railway), each with a ganger, are about the only indications that the surrounding wilds are not entirely removed from the pale of civilisation. The soil is very shallow, except in the hollows or along the * No true pheasant and no true partridge is found in Africa. The guinea-fowl is the South African bird most nearly related to the pheasant. Several species of francolins belonging to the same family, Pliasianidcr, are known as pheasants. The two most commonly so-called are (i) the noisy Cape francolin, F. capcnsts, Steph., easily recognised among the various species by its large size ; and (2) F. Jiudicollis, Bodd., the red- necked francolin, a bird partial to forest districts like George and Knysna, where it replaces capensis, which it resembles in all its habits. The pheasant of the Matabele-land colonist is Swainson's bare - throated francolin, Pternistes swainsoni^ Smith, a powerful and coarse-looking bird of an umber-brown colour finely dotted with black. Another francolin, called the red-wing, F. levaillajiti, Valen*;., is very generally distributed throughout Cape Colony, the Orange Free State, the Transvaal, and Natal. All these birds prefer to escape by fleetness of foot rather than by flij^ht. They feed largely on the roots of grasses and other plants, includ- ing small bulbs, which they scrape up, but they also eat seeds, berries, and insects. t The grey-winged francolin, Francolintis africaniis^ Steph., is the so-called Cape partridge, a bird which is very widely distributed in Cape Colony and the more northern regions of South Africa. It is a "high- ground bird," but not confined to mountain regions. It possesses a hooked bill, which is useful in digging up bulbs and insects on which it feeds, l6 FARMINC; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. banks of the rivers (at this season only dry channels), having been washed away by the heavy thunder rains of summer. Brak or salt may be seen in hollow places, where it naturally rises readily — the result of the combined action of capillarity in the soil and free evaporation from its surface. In some places lime has come up to the surface by the same agencies through the shattered rock, much of the latter being basaltic and columnar in structure. The surface is not by any means level or plain-like, being generally uneven and rugged, rough, and stony in places. The Nieuwe Veld is a higher plateau running west from near Beaufort West to Fraserburg, and north nearly to Victoria West. The southern and eastern edges of this table-land, as seen from the railway, resemble flat-topped hills. The species of bushes which grow on the Karoo veld are nearly all aromatic, and the best of them specially suited as food for sheep, while on the Nieuwe Veld aromatic bushes are mostly absent, and cattle and horses do better. Beaufort West is situated in a grazing district, but an interesting experiment in cultivation under a system of irri- gation from a large dam* adds an additional interest to the place. A number of small holders of morgen (two-acre) lots do very well, growing a succession of farm crops and vegetables. Oaks do not thrive in the district owing to the presence of brak in the soil, but Robinias and pear-trees do well, the main street in Beaufort West (extending to a mile in length) being lined on each side by a row of pears. A stretch of rich alluvial plain, nearly twenty miles in length, lies to the north- east of Beaufort West in the direction of Nels Poort, where the surface rises and becomes more rugged and like the western part of the plateau of the Great Karoo traversed, but the soil, as one goes north, although still shallow in many places, has not been so much washed away. In some parts it is deep and of good quality, and there is no lack of lime. The country to the west of De Aar (the junction on the Kimberley Railway line for the Eastern Province and the Transvaal) is genuine sweet Karoo, forming excellent pasture for sheep, goats, and ostriches. The two most important * Described in the chapter on irrigation. a I i t I i t> ■ I' ^xi f .^' V '' :i ' '''>'^ ; ^v;t'is»/^ 1 < J I i 1 '>. ' i ,■) ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 17 places visited were the property of the Smartt Syndicate near Britstown, and Jackson's farm, Schilderspan, a good day's journey farther in the direction of Prieska. Most of the limited work of crop growing now practised is done under irri- gation ; but, as will be explained later, both dry-land cultivation and irrigation might be considerably extended. The soil is not too heavy for irrigation purposes, being light, and even liable to blow in places ; but as brak already appears in some parts, the amount of water will require to be skilfully regu- lated. At Tygerpoort, the site of an important irrigation scheme, a very fine assortment of Bushman drawings may be seen, — the figures having been chipped out, by probably a hard piece of stone, on the smooth and polished surfaces of the basaltic boulders covering the sides of the Bushman's Kopje. One easily recognised the outlines of a bushman, baboon, horse, lion, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, buffalo, eland, koodoo, wildebeest, porcupine, and snake. The fact that a horse with a bushy tail is among the figures brings the date of these: rude works of art down till after the im- portation of horses by the early settlers. It is interesting to notice that no attempt to portray a bird has been made, although water- fowl are plentiful in the vleis and other wild birds elsewhere in the district. (See Appendix A.) Some parts of the veld had a few months before been eaten quite bare by vast numbers of black caterpillars (rispers), h inch to i i inch in length, the larva; of a drab or cream-coloured moth. The only personal experience of a swarm of destructive locusts was made while driving from Britstown to De Aar. The swarm was not massed in close order, and the locusts flew about in numbers sufficient to remind one of a fall of broad flakes of snow. KiMBERLEV District. The geological formation being the same all the way from Matjesfontein to Kimberley — viz., the Lower Karoo or Ecca beds— accounts in a great measure for the similarity of the soil, as seen on the course taken through the central jjarts of the Karoo country. Round Kimberley, and for miles in a north-eastern direc- tion, much of the soil is brick-red in appearance, a warmer i; l8 FARMING INDUSTKIICS OF CAI'F COUJNY. and brighter colour than the dull brown of the Karoo soils ; nevertheless, the colour is far from being appreciated, when, during the frequent dust-storms from which both Kimberley and Johannesburg periodically suffer, everything becomes covered with red gritty powder. The red soil is rich in quality, and is characterised by an abundant growth of grass (the Karoo bush having disap- peared), the " Kameel-doorn," Acacia giraffes, the largest of the Cape acacias, and a poisonous bulb, Ornitlwglossum g/aitciiin, Sal., which is known b)' the local name of " Slang- kop." * Lying to the north of Kimberlev is a great alluvial plain, which, like many similar plains in the Colony, once formed the bed of an ancient lake. In this instance, when the water escaped it must have discharged into the Orange River. The De Beers Horse-breeding Farm, and something of the grazing qualities of the district near Kimberley, 4,000 feet above sea-lqvel, are described in Chapter XV. The Orchard of 45 acres of fruit-trees, also belonging to the same Company, is another feature of interest. All the common fruits do well, with the exception of custard-apples, loc}uats, and oranges. There the trees are pruned in the most approved fashion, and irrigated according to a scientific prin- ciple. Perhaps the largest private property examined in the Colony was George Paton's farm of Newlands, situated fifty miles north-west of Kimberley, and extending to about 50,000 acres of well-selected grazing veld. This part of the country is much better adapted for cattle than for sheep, and some 4,000 of the former and only 400 of the latter were kept. The dairy, fitted with modern British appliances, including refrigerating plant worked by the ammonia process, was a recent successful development. About 100 lbs. of butter were made dail}', salted (i oz. to the pound of butter), and sold in Kimberley at 2s. 6d. per lb. Until the refrigerating plant was secured, the great difficulties to contend with in manufacturing the dairy produce were the high temperature of the well-water supply, which registered 72" ¥., and the great heat of summer. * See page 96. ROUTE IN THE WESTERN PROVINCE. 19 The height above sea-level is 3,400 feet, and the average rainfall for ten years amounted to 19.55 inches, which mostly fell during- the summer months — November to April inclusive. Strong winds blow in the latter part of September and in October, bringing up the summer rains from the sea. Crops grow very well under irrigation, but only limited areas can be satisfactorily cultivated, owing to the small amount of irrigation water. Lime is abundant in the soil, and, contrary to the general belief, though this is the case snakes are numerous — the deadly puff-adder, and the Cerastes or " Hornsman " snake, by the Cerastes or Horned Vipers im the Sand, fths Nat. Size. From tlic Royal Natural History. bite of which Cleopatra committed suicide. The horn-like appendages * of this snake come out immediately over the eye, like the horns of the little "shangaan" or Livingstone antelope. Of birds that had not been previously observed, the secre- tary bird, which was recently reported in a sporting British newspaper as extinct, was decidedly the most conspicuous. It * These are curiously modified and enormously enlarged scales, which are shed in the process of desquamation. 20 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. is still present in considerable numbers in the Colony, and widely distributed, being seen near to Port Elizabeth, and also to the north of Kimberley. It is rarely molested, being looked upon by people generally as a friend. It lives on snakes, lizards, insects, and in fact on any living and moving thing which it can find as it stalks majestically over the veld on legs which in length resemble those of the modern game- fowl. (See Plate 42.) The horseshoe plover, named from a marking on its neck, is a small bird which practises the interesting custom of repeatedly jumping upon pats of hard cow-dung to disturb the beetles sheltering underneath. These it very quickly devours as they try to make good their escape. Like the plover, the sand-grouse or Namaqualand partridge is nume- rous in the veld. This is said to belong to the same species as the birds which came from Persia to England a few years ago. The meer-kat, Suricata tetradactyla, of the Colony is wonderfully like the prairie-dog of the Western States of America. They are about the same size, they both take shelter in holes on the open level ground, and sit up on their buttocks by way of elevating themselves to command a longer range of view, but the meer-kat has a long bushy tail, which is wanting in the prairie-dog. OUDTSHOORN DISTRICT. After completing the tour of the Eastern Province, the author made an interesting and instructive detour from the main line of railway at Prince Albert Road Station, with the object of seeing the Oudtshoorn district, and of returning to Cape Town by way of Mossel Bay. The first part of the journey to Prince Albert lay through the plateau of the Great Karoo, which does not differ in general appearance from the Karoo country already described. The range of mountains which separates the Karoo from the bush country, lying at a lower level to the south, was crossed by way of the Zwaarte Berg" Pass, which displays some of the grandest illustrations of stratified rock contortions to be seen in any part of the world. The mountains close by also contain another marxellously ROUTE IN THE WESTERN RROVINCE. 21 interesting feature, from the geological point of view, in the world-famed Cang"o Caves, which no visitor to Cape Colony- should fail to see. The site of the great irrigation scheme which Govern- ment is asked to carry out was examined, and is described in a succeeding chapter on irrigation. Little wonder that extended irrigation should be looked upon by the people of Oudtshoorn as an additional blessing which the Government might be induced to confer upon them, as the prosperity of the community is largely due to the suc- cess of the association of lucerne growing and ostrich farm- ing, which has been made possible by irrigation. Tobacco is one of the minor products grown in the district ; but this and the ostrich and lucerne farming are discussed at length in future chapters. The two desiderata which this prosperous district requires are (i) railway communication to convey produce to market ; and (2) some effective means of exposing and combating the usurious practices of feather pedlars, frequently German, Polish, or Russian Jews of a low type, who swarm about the country as feather bu)'ers. Their method of working is to bewilder the ignorant and imperfectly educated farmers by offering them ready cash, of which they often stand much in need. They buy the feathers on the ostriches months before they are ready to pull, and advance a part or the whole of the price, for which they accept a bill bearing interest at 5 per cent., but not 5 per cent, per annum, as the ignorant people believe, but 5 per cent, (or is. per pound) per month — 60 per cent, per annum ! The}^ not only secure the exorbitant interest, but have security for the money advanced in the feathers they purchase. Another trick they play on isolated people living in a country place is to send relays of buyers, and offer, one after the other, sums much below the market value of the feathers — -probably immediatel}' after a sudden rise in the market has taken place. After three or four buyers have offered probably 30 per cent, less than the real value, one man is instructed to offer 5 per cent, more than the highest of the previous offerers, and he thus secures the purchase at 25 per cent, below its market xalue, and the rogues divide the plunder among them. 22 FARMINC; INL)U.STRIES OF CAE'F COLONY. KOEliERG AND MaLMESBURY DISTRICTS. A short visit was made to the Koeberg district, an important grain-growinc^ area lying thirty miles to the north of Cape Town. The soil, like that of the grain-growing dis- trict of Caledon, is on the Silurian beds, but here there have been granitic intrusions in the geological strata, which pro- bably account to some extent for the soil being very different in character from that of Caledon. The Koeberg soil is shallow, a foot being considered a good depth, and very stiff and heavy to work. In the Tygerberg district it is more open, and the crops come earlier to harvest, although sown at the same time as the crops in Koeberg. All the surface ex- cept stony places is fit to plough, but the depth to which the plough goes is usually not more than four or five inches. It is found more satisfactory to plough in the seed in the hard soil than to trust to covering it with a harrow. The reddish soil forming the tops of the low rounded hills is of better quality than the brown soil of the hollows. The soil cannot be said to be exhausted, although the growing power is now not so good as it used to be thirty years ago. At one time it grew six or seven grain crops in succession ; now only two can be satisfactorily grown without a rest. Land now lies out two or three years. Better results would be got if it were left five years, but the farms are so small that the land cannot be left vacant so long. In this district, under existing conditions, no farm should be less than i,ooo acres in extent. There is no possibility of irrigation, and a good rotation of crops is impracticable, as grass disappears in summer. Guano has been found to lead to the exhaustion of the soil ; but farmers, although they do apply manure to certain crops, are not skilled in the selection of the most suitable manures, and fall into the dangerous and expensive practice of bu\'ing mixed corn manure, for which they pay ;^8 per ton. Owing to high winds, difficulty is experienced in getting concentrated manures uniformly spread over the ground. The Malmesbury grain producing district lying to the north of Koeberg is very much like it, but not quite so good. The farms are larger, the land lies out for four years, and greater numbers of sheep and cattle are kept. CHAPTER II. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROUTE IN THE FREE STATE, TRANSVAAL, NATAL, AND THE EASTERN PROVINCE OF CAPE COLONY. Journey made North of Cape Colony — Surface Appearances of the Orange Free State — Surface Appearances of the South African Repubhc — Trees near Johannesburg — Basuto Land — Irene Model Farm — A Whirlwind — Farm Crops — \'alue of Land — Coach Journey, Johan- nesburg to Standerton — Appearance of the Country — Natal — East London — German Settlers — The Queen's Park — Port Elizabeth — Kragga Kama — Uitenhage — Grahamstown — Albany and Bathurst — Market - Gardening and Fruit-Growing — Poultry — Cook-house — ■ Somerset East — Bedford — Dairying — Winter Food for Cows — Fort Beaufort, Stockenstrom, and Victoria East — Tobacco — Lovedale Mission Station — Cradock — Middelburg and Steynsburg— Irrigation — Albert andWodehouse — Raise Brothers' Farm, Carnarvon — Tenny- son Settlement — High Grass Veld — Burghersdorp — Spreos — Parson Crows — Aliwal North and Barkley East — Five Days' Drive into New England — Queenstown — Winter Food — Cathcart, Stutterhcim, and King William's Town — Forest Station — Kei Road — German Settlers and their Difficulties — Government Aid Necessary. Before beginning his tour of investigation in the Eastern Province, the author made a run through the Orange Free State and the Transvaal as far as Johannesburg" and Pretoria, and returned by way of Natal, taking steamer at Durban for Port Eh'zabeth, and calling at East London in passing. After crossing the Orange River and entering the Free State, the character of the surface rapidly changes from a Karoo-bush to a grass country, although both are at first on the same geological formation ; and so far as appearatice goes there is little difference all the way through the South African Republic to Johannesburg. The grass consists largely of the valuable rooi-grass which was observed to predominate in the grass-veld near Kimberley. At first the formation is rugged and full of 24 I'ARMINC INDUSTRIES OF CAPE C^)L()N^^ kopjes, but it soon opens into extensive plains, on which hu'<^c numbers of cattle, shee[), and horses are found t^razing. One of the finest of these is seen by day from the mail train, extending almost from Bloemfontein, the capital of the Orange Free State, to Winburg Road. The farms are well fenced with wire, on the "Coerimony"* principle, supported by wooden or sometimes stone posts placed thirty feet apart, and bound by five double ties between each pair of posts. The plains arc dotted with numerous ant-hills. The soil is of a light alluvial nature, deeper than in the Colony, and it works into sandy heavy roads under the wheels of the ox-waggons. Near Johannesburg it becomes still deeper, and is of a bright red colour. It is very sandy, and rises with strong winds into disagreeable dust-storms. Crops grow without irrigation, but the soil is poor, and has little staying power unless manure be applied. Trees grow in a marvellous way, but this is not to be wondered at, as their roots can readily penetrate to a good depth, and they require so very little from the soil as compared with a succession of crops. Millions of the Australian " blue- gum " or "fever-tree," Eucalyptus globulus, I.abill., have been planted within a few miles of Johannesburg, in the belief that wood would be rec]uired in large quantities for the mines. These have grown very rapidly, but the deep levels, consisting of very hard rock, are said not to require nearly so much wood as the first mines that were worked. The belief is consequently gaining ground that before many years there will be an over- supply of wood of the inferior kind produced by the blue-gum. Specimens which had been grown along the edges of the plantations, so that they benefited by abundance of air and light, were found one foot in diameter at the base while not more than four years planted. Although no other species of Eucah^ptus grows nearly so rapidly as the blue-gum, some — notably E. aviygdaliua and E. rostrata (the red-gum) — pro- duce wood of superior quality, and grow remarkably well. Basuto-land was not seen, but the evidence was over- whelming that this rugged and mountainous country, inhabited * Named after the farm near Inverness, Scotland, where this form of fence was first erected in Britain. ROUTE IN THE TRANSVAAL. 2$ by one of the most civilised, energetic, industrious, and inde- pendent of the native peoples, is possessed of probabl}- the richest soil and the most suitable climate for crop-growing of any part in Southern Africa. The Irene Estate, ten miles south of Pretoria, has for a number of years been as a model farm one of the show places in South Africa. It has at the same time been a white elephant to its owner, the late A. H. Nelmapius, who bought it for iJ^45,ooo from the original owners, a large and influential family of extensive landowners and cattle farmers named Erasmus. The outlays on improvements raised the capital invested in the property to ;{^i 20,000, and it was reported to have been recently sold by the trustees of the late owner for ^^32,500. It was originally believed that the land would become valuable as building sites for the residential places of wealthy Johannesburg citizens, but anticipations in this direc- tion were not realised, and financial disaster was the con- sequence. The area is about 17,000 acres, but only 600 to 800 acres of alkuial land near the river are under the plough. With the exception of the cultivable land, which does not much exceed 1,000 acres, the quality is only second-rate. As a grazing farm, it is incapable of supporting its ordinary stock of cattle during winter, with the exception of the dairy of seventy Friesland cows which receive artificial feeding. It is favourably situated for the Johannesburg and Pretoria markets, as much as 4s. per lb. being paid all the year round by at least some customers who are supplied with butter. It was not as a grazing farm that Irene was known to the public, but as an extensive flower, vegetable, and fruit garden, and for the perfection of its amenities, 20,000 fruit-trees and 100,000 forest-trees having been planted. Although this part of the concern was an unqualified success as regards practical results, the expenses of production and management were great. As the high prices of the Rand markets are not likely to continue permanenth', it will take very careful and econo- mical management, extending to the stock-rearing as well as to the horticultural part of the business, to prevent the estate continuing as a white elephant even with the enormous reduc- tion of the amount against capital account. The results obtained in connection with this model farm 26 FARMING INDUSTRUCS OF CAPE COLONY. have been more fully stated than the importance of the subject requires, were it not for the necessity of providing an object- lesson to those in Cape Colony who are desirous that Government should embark on a model-farm enterprise at the expense of the State. A few facts relating to a whirlwind which occurred in the neighbourhood of Pretoria in 1893 will give some idea of the intensity of some of the climatic difficulties, fortunately not often occurring, which are met with in South Africa. The great fury of the storm came from the west, and was confined to a narrow belt of a few yards in width. In its course it struck Rietvlei, the residence of S. P. Erasmus. It carried away the corrugated iron roof of the house, and some of the ribbons into which it was torn were dropped five miles away. A number of cattle were dashed together against the walls of a kraal and killed. A Kaffir boy who was in attendance had a marvellous escape, being lifted from his feet and carried several yards, but dropped into the boughs of a tree, which broke his fall. Stones, an inch in diameter, were swept up from the surface of the ground, and dashed against the west and south walls of the house with such force that indentations half an inch deep remain as a memento of the occasion. The mealie or maize crop, the staple food of the black population, is the one which grows best in the Johannesburg and Pretoria district. Kaffir corn, Sorghinn vulgare, Pcrs., does very well on the alluvial soil following the banks of rivers. The common grain crops cannot be safely grown during summer on account of rust and hail. On the high veld not more than one crop in five might be secured, if we e.Kcept oats, which do not suffer quite so badly as barley and wheat. Land suitable for cultivation near Pretoria is worth about £2 per morgen, and grazing land lOs. per morgen, down to 5s. in the heavy bush country lying to the north, to which the cattle arc driven from the grass veld for shelter and better food during the winter season — May to September. The journey of ninety miles, which occupied fourteen hours,* from Johannesburg to Standerton, was done by the * The ticket for one passenger cost ^3. los., and ^i extra was charged for luggage over a very moderate amount. ROUTE IN THE TRANSVAAL. 2/ mail coach, drawn by ten hardy active Httle horses, in good working condition. The start was comfortably made at 4 A.M., when the air was perfectly still ; but a little before, and for a time after daybreak, a keen piercing wind (a common feature of the South African climate), combined with dense clouds of road dust, seriously interfered with the enjoyment of the early part of the journey. Towards the end of 1895, the railway from Natal having been completed, the coach was discontinued, and simple facts now recorded regarding the manner of coach travelling will in a little while acquire an historical interest. The horses, which were yoked in pairs, and changed by relays every ten or twelve miles of the way, were driven at a pace of about eight miles an hour. A Kaffir held the reins, and handled them with ease and dexterity, and a white man, with whom the chief responsibility rested, used the long-thonged bamboo-handled whip, and worked the brake with a powerful foot lever. The country traversed for a good part of the way is hilly, and covered with grass — the familiar rooi-grass pre- dominating. The greater part of the surface consists of a reddish-brown soil. In the hollows, which after rains become charged with moisture during summer, the soil is black, owing to the accumulation of humus from the vegetation, which is there more rank. Homesteads are dotted here and there at wide distances apart, but there is little cultivation, and few cattle are to be seen at this season, owing to their being away in the milder climate of the bush-veld. The wasteful practice of burning off the withered grass during winter is here in fashion. After passing Standerton, wide grazing plains are crossed, but the nature of the country becomes more hilly as the Natal boundary is approached. The hills arc volcanic, and covered by rounded boulders, which in decaying give off a red sandy soil of poor quality. With the increasing humidity of the atmosphere near the coast, an increased area of black soil is found. All the way numerous ant-hills, two to three feet in height, stand up like so many gigantic warts on the surface of the vclcl. There is little of agricultural interest in the surroundings of Pietermaritzburg, the seat of the Natal Government. 28 KARMINC INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. The country is rugged and picturesque, and the climate mild, the elevation being 2,000 feet below Johannesburg. The soil is red and deep, but poor and very hard, partially owing to the presence of too much iron in its composition. Both pine- trees and blue-gums which grow so well near the coast, in Cape Colony, become unhealthy after they arrive at a certain age. Going east towards Durban, the mountain scenery, as the railway zigzags and winds on its way from the high plateau to the sea-level, is very fine. The foot-hills are extensively utilised as market-garden ground, and among a great variety of products grown, the pine-apple appears conspicuously. The aspect of Durban and its immediate surroundings is decidedly tropical or semi - tropical, and the growth of vegetation is as beautiful as it is luxuriant. The great sugar-cane plantations, which form an important feature in the agriculture of Natal, lie along the coast country to the south, but time for their investigation was not available. District of East London. East London only acquired municipal rights in 1880, but the settlement of the district took place immediately after the Crimean War, when the German legion was disbanded. An allotment, varying in size from one acre within the town limits to four-acre and twenty-acre farms situated outside along the coast and up to King William's Town, was given to each German soldier. Although they proved to be excellent settlers, hard working and industrious, the size of their hold- ings was much too small to give scope to their energies, and they have remained poor. With rare exceptions, the few who survive and their descendants might now be classed as " poor whites " but for their industry. The country adjoining the area of small settlements is now occupied by an independent and progressive class of English sheep-farmers. Pending the opening of a contemplated railway from the mouth of St John's River, East London claims the position of being the only important rival to Port Elizabeth as a seaport in the Eastern Province engaged in the landing of goods for the inland trade. In its favour it is claimed that ► ROUTE IN THE EASTERN PROVINCE. 29 the gradients on the railway leading" from it are more easy of ascent than some of those on the Port Elizabeth line, consequently transport up-country should be less costly; yet, nevertheless, it, like many parts in the Colony, connected as well as disconnected with the railway system, possesses a railway grievance. The railway charges are so high, that during dry seasons ox-waggons can successfully compete with the railway for a hundred miles or more inland. This is surely a waste of energy, and must be due to some mistake in governmental policy 1 Although East London, like Port Elizabeth, suffers from a sand-bar at the entrance to the harbour, over which navigation is dangerous or impossible for hours or days during stormy weather, she can justly claim a beautiful river-mouth, suitable alike for shipping purposes or pleasure seeking. The Queen's Park, within the precincts of the town, is a uniquely interesting spot for a lover of botany, as well as a healthful and pleasurable resort for loiterers of all descrip- tions. Under the fostering care of W. H. Wormald, the Town Clerk, who was the author's guide, the park has become not only a beautiful garden, but a rich herbarium of South African and other plants, some of which are seen under the influences of cultivation, and others forming a tangled jungle in conformity with Nature's own inimitable arrangement. Only a very few of the most conspicuous plants or those most interesting for the moment can be mentioned. The Poinscttia or Indian Landmark was there, with its row of bright red leaves surrounding its comparatively insignificant flower ; also Tecovia venusta, a creeper frequently met with in the Colony, with orange-coloured bugle-shaped flowers hanging in bunches ; and Strelitzia, called " wild mealie " by the natives, with an inflorescence resembling the head of a crown crane, all the petals being of a beautiful orange colour with the exception of a purple one, which also differs by projecting like a pointed tongue. A curiosity was present in the shrubby " Papaw-tree," the fruit of which hangs in clusters. A leg of mutton rolled up in its leaves becomes exceptionally tender, and it is said that a stallion tied close to it becomes sexually impotent. The flower on the male tree is beautifully scented, and resembles a waxy primrose. The female flower 30 FARMINC, INDUSTKIKS OF CAl'E COLONY. is much larger. The avocado pear was interesting, the foliage being not unlike that of the orange-tree, although the leaf is longer. Beside it grew the custard-apple, with large mulberry- like apples, and also the large variety of pine-apple culti\'ated in Ceylon. District near Port Elizaiseth. In the neighbourhood of Port Elizabeth the soil is poor, being on the Cape Flats Sandstone and Upper Devonian beds. A drive of thirteen miles west to Kragga Kamma, the property of J. B. Christian, was made through one of the most barren districts seen in the Colony. The character of the country improved near the end of the journey, and near the coast the surface is covered to a considerable extent with a large dense bush. In the case of this betterciuality soil, where cultiva- tion is possible, three grain crops are taken in succession, and then the land is allowed to fall out for three years to rest. Although no pasture seeds are sown, a thick sward of grass and weedy plants soon covers the ground. One of the chief farm products is oat hay, cut while the crop is still slightly green, and sent to the Port Elizabeth market. A common price is 3s. gd. per 100 lbs., but in times of scarcity, such as was experienced throughout the prolonged drought of 1894-95, the price runs up to 9s. The open bush affords excellent grazing for cattle, and bush-buck are numerous in the district. Uitenhage is a picturesque but sleepy village, with an abundant water supply, distributed by open channels along the capacious tree-lined streets. It is an important centre for wool-washing — an operation to be described later. Smith Brothers' nursery garden for fruit-trees forms another local industry, which is on the increase. Districts of Albany and Bathurst. Grahamstown, the site of the recently established Bac- teriological Institute, was, until about thirty years ago, an important military station, and the demands for supplies for the troops and transport riders going up-country stimulated agricultural production in the neighbourhood. Albany is ROUTE IN Till-: EASTERN PROVINCE. 3 1 essentially a rolling grazing country, of sour veld towards the south and sweet \'eld to the north, but the alluvial soil in the valleys is capable of producing" crops without irrigation. The trials to which the farming population in the district of Bathurst have been from time to time subjected are sub- sequently referred to. The agricultural produce of the level alluvial land in the Kowie Valley is .sent to Grahamstown market. Kraal manure is not there thought to be of much value when applied to grain crops. It encourages bulk of straw v.'ithout grain, and produces coarse, inferior fodder. Most probably the manure is deficient in phosphates, like the soil on which it is produced. Bathurst is a straggling village, laid out, like Grahams- town, on the American plan, with wide parallel streets, crossed by others at right angles. It skirts the base of a rounded hill in a well-bushed veld, providing good pasture for cattle. There is abundance of lime in the soil, and consequently in good seasons numerous excellent leguminous plants grow wild. Nevertheless horses always look unthrift)-. Bathurst was settled in 1820 by about seven hundred British emigrants, who mostly received small farms of from 100 acres to 250 acres, a few only being given 500 acres. The tendency now is for the farms to increase in size, and the population to become less numerous. No manure is used, and the arable land has been so long culti\'ated that wheat goes off with a white blight when it ought to begin to fill. The chief industry of the village is market-gardening, including fruit-growing-. All of the seventy families who live there are more or less interested in it, although only three growers, w^ho possess the right to a sufficient supply of irrigation water from a large spring in the village, can grow cabbages or cauliflowers. The others grow mealies, potatoes, and the smaller vegetables. Vines do badly after the second year of bearing. The value of garden land is on the increase. An offer of ^,"500 had been refused by one energetic resident for a fifty-acre lot which six years before cost i,"i20. Part of the increase, it must be admitted, was due to the improvements made by clearing off bush and planting fruit-trees. The red scale on the orange- trees seems to be the chief bugbear of the place. The pro- duce is sold at Grahamstown dail}- market, and at the weekly 32 FARMIN(; INDUSTKIKS OF CAPE COLONV. market at Port Alfred, — cauliHcnvers fetching often 6cl. each ; cabbai^es, 2.s. 6d. to 3.S. per dozen ; and oran_ See also Appendix D. LAND SURFACE FEATURES. 63 than by the entire wheel turning automatically under the in- fluence of the rudcler-vane to face the wind, or to meet it at an angle according to the strength of the air current impinging upon it. The Chicago " Aermotor," illustrated in the accom- panying figure, is an excellent typical example of the class of improved mill referred to. The Rollason Wind-Motor* involves an entirely different principle, but one which appears to be admirably suited to South African conditions. A Rollason motor, 12 feet in diameter, has been for some time in use at Gravesend, draining the rifle butts, under the care of the War Department (Royal Engineers), and doing excellent work by driving a 4-inch double-barrel force pump, which lifts the water from a re- servoir, and forces it through 300 feet of 2-inch pipe in the process of discharging it into the sea. Sizes and Capacities of the Mill. — Wind Velocity it Miles AN Hour. Height of Lift Approximate Amoinit Diameter of Motor. Size of Pump. Suction and Gallons per Hour. Delivery. 8" Stroke, 25 Rev. 8 feet X 5 feet high . . 2" s. 80 feet 125 gallons. 10 „ „ 3lS. 100 ,, ■ 280 „ '2 „ „ 4 s. 150 „ 340 15 ., 21" D. •50 „ 400 „ 17 „ 3;; ^^• •50 „ 570 „ 20 „ „ 4"D. 150 » 1,050 23 ,> 4h"D. 150 „ 1,350 „ 25 „ 5;;^- 150 „ 1,700 „ 27 „ 6 D. •50 „ 2,450 30 „ 5"T. 150 „ 2,750 „ 34 „ 6"T. '50 „ 3,760 40 „ 9"T. 150 „ 7,800 „ S. — Sinole Action. D.— Double. T.— Treble. " If the total amount of lift be reduced, then a larger pump can be used, and more water obtained in proportion. For instance, a lo feet motor, delivering water 50 feet high, would give 560 gallons per hour ; if to be forced higher, then a smaller pump is employed. All sizes can be fitted with automatic arrangements for stopping the pumps (when tanks arc full), and re-starting them." * Address of Company, 13 Berners Street, London, W. 64 I'-ARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. Sectional Elevation of a i2-feet diameter Rollason Wind-Motok. The revolving sails of this motor are placed horizontally, and erected on a tower within a skeleton turret (a). From the top to the bottom of the centre of the turret is a vertical steel shaft or axis (b) having five concave sails (c) attached, which revolve on radius rollers (d) immersed in oil. On these sails are fixed a number of inclined ridges or planes (k), which deflect the force exerted by the wind to their peripheries. Between the sails and the shaft is a considerable open space (f) which allows the Plate 21. — A Roi.lason Wind-Motor. Face fage ts,. LAND SURFACE FEATURES. 6$ It has been suggested that a diamond drill for deep levels of i,ooo to 1,500 feet should be associated with the Geological Survey just beginning, and a bore sunk every hundred miles along a line drawn through the centre of the Colony ; the object being to settle the questions relating to minerals and water, as well as to the geological strata underneath, at one and the same time. That a drill to tackle such difficulties as the geological surface -indications cannot explain may ulti- mately be useful, no one will deny, but the operation is expen- sive, and should not be resorted to until a complete geological survey of the surface rocks has been made and tabulated, and until it is seen what can be absolutely determined by naked- eye observation. A curious feature of the Colony is the occurrence at widely distant centres of warm springs, sometimes of pure unmcdicinal water, and at other times water heavily charged with salts of iron and other soluble salts. On the hillside a little way above Caledon village, a spring registering 120° F. issues from a local formation largely comj)osed of iron, which has been precipitated probably through ages from the water. About ten miles from Worcester, across the Breede River, is a large spring and pool of pure water, so hot that dogs which wind to actuate three sails out of the five, at the same time. Outside the sails is a screen (g), supported by six radial or cross arms (h), bolted to a centre bearing (l) which is free to rotate independently of the sails. From the top of this screen is a second vertical shaft (k) continued through the apex of the turret, and to this is fixed the vane (l), so that when the direction of the wind changes it moves the screen (g) by the arms (o) into the correct position for the concave sides only of the sails to catch the wind. On the top of the sail shaft is a cup (m) containing oil, within which the shaft (k) rotates. The weight of the vane shaft is carried on the roller bearing (n). The whole weight of the sails and framing- supporting the screen is carried on the centre bearing at the bottom of the turret and top of tower, Avhich thus gives to the working part of the motor the desired balance and staljility. There are only four working parts in the motor, three of which move only as the wind changes. The whole of the weight is balanced on the one main working bearing, which rotates on rollers immersed in oil, which may be supplied in sufficient amount to last for several months (thus reducing friction to a minimum), and fitted with covers for protection against dust and rain. The simplicity of construction makes it unlikely to get out of order, and it can be left without attention for lengthened periods. It can work cither in a gale or a light breeze. ]■: 66 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY have unwittingly entered it have become immediately over- powered by the shock to the nervous system, and drowned. Both of these are natural wells that have been in existence for a very long time ; but the hot spring, with a temperature of TOO" F., already mentioned as occurring near Burghersdorp, issued from a 6-inch Government bore-hole, 70 feet deep. The well at Newlands, near Kimberley, had a pretty uniform temperature of 72° F. ; and that at Braam Spruit, near Aliw^al North, ranges between 58" F. and 62° F. A considerable number of brak or saline springs occur in different parts of the Colony. The water they discharge is unsuitable for irrigation, although stock often drink it in pre- ference to pure water. A series of these springs occurs in a line from the Fish River to Koonap. The most curious fact relating to them is that they run most strongly during times of drought, and are weakest after heavy thunder rains, — a phenomenon which has not yet been satisfactorily explained. The so-called white ants, Termites, exist in large numbers throughout nearly the whole of Southern Africa, and exercise a considerable influence upon the land surface features of the continent. Of many species, three or four are well known and easily distinguished by the differences in the form of their Form of Ant-Hill so commonly seen in Cape Colony. hills. The species which is widely distributed through Cape Colony,- Natal, the Free State, and the Transvaal, is Ternies viator, which constructs rounded shapely hills or heaps, like gigantic molehills, about 2 to 3 feet high, which stud the plains like so many cocks in a ha)' meadow. The hills are LAND SURFACE FEATURES. 67 hard exteriorly, and difficult to break down. Inside they are honeycombed with many channels and cells for the accommo- dation of the numerous colonies of inmates. Farther north than the area referred to, T. atrox and T. inordax build cylindrical pillars not quite 3 feet high, furnished with a projecting roof or head shaped like that of a young mushroom. In these parts also T. bellicosiis, named by ^. From Brockliaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1895. 1. Tertiics dims — Male, from above, {a.) Do., side view; (A) Do., head ; (c.) Worker; ((/.) Do., front view ; {c.) Soldier ; {/.) Do., front view. 2. Tcrmes bellicosus — Worker. (.^.) Nymph. 3. Female of Teriiics rc^hta. Fabricius fatalis, forms hills of gigantic size — many being lo and 12 feet, and some even 20 feet in height, or as large as a good-sized Kaffir hut. They are more conical and peaked than the ant-heaps of Cape Colony, and furnished with conical turrets on their sides. Ant-hills are made of earth, cemented together by termite excrement and by secretions from glands existing in the insect 68 FARMIN(; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. for the purpose. The accompanying figures illustrate a number of the more common forms the insect assumes. The wings are used only to enable the surplus members of the community to swarm off like bees, and are very easily and simply shed after a single flight. The true ant is cased in close-fitting and well-jointed armour, whereas the external skeleton in the termites is very imperfectly developed. Young and adult termites alike are naturally soft and "thin-skinned." They are of a peculiar white colour, and look as if they were gorged with milk. They are greedily sought after and devoured by the hymenopterous ants, by birds when they The Cape Ant-Eateh, Orvcteropus capensis, Geof. From Cassclts Natural History. are swarming, and by a large ungainly looking quadruped with a long snout, called the ant-eater or "aard-vark." As human|food they are said by those who have had experience of it to be " delicious and delicate eating." The plan of their domestic economy is akin to that of the honey bee. A termite community possesses its king and queen, and becomes thoroughly demoralised should the. royal pair die without there being " certain ' complementary ' indi- viduals in such a state of advancement as admits of rapid development into royalties." Superfluous individuals swarm LAND SURFACE FEATURES. 69 off on the wing with the object of establishing new colonies in other places. These places do not include the higher mountain ranges, where rainfall is more abundant than on the plains. The work t)f ants in the direction of soil-making is similar to that of earthworms, which are in their element where rainfall is abundant enough to moisten the soil suf- ficiently to enable them to do their work. Reference has already been made to them at pages 43 and 46. The wash- ings from old ant-heaps make the grass round their bases sweet, so that stock eat it more closely than the surround- ing veld. When an ant-heap is broken clown in a young plantation the trees grow stronger and more quickly on the soil which has been top-dressed by the debris, but on land under cultivation the benefit derived is usually only noticeable for one year. When the earthy matter composing the hill is broken down into fine powder and mixed with ox blood, it makes an excellent material with which to plaster native floors. The heaps, owing to their dryness and the large pro- portion of organic matter composing them, together with c^uantities of dry grass frustules collected in some of the galleries, burn readily. The old transport riders (or ox-waggon drivers) used to set one on fire and bake bread in the centre of it. Up-country ant-heaps are still employed for cooking purposes. (See pages 49 and 66, also Appendix B.) Drift sands occur on the Cape Flats, and at certain places along the south coast of Cape Colony, but most conspicuously and extensively on the peninsular area to the west of Port Elizabeth. The position is shown in the accompan}'ing plan.* Drift sands occur when very fine sand lacking co- hesion is cast up on the shore, and dried and blown inland by strong winds. If in considerable quantity, it steadily advances inland, being supported by fresh storms of sand blowing on behind, and in its course covers up fertile soil and ordinary vegetation, and in time a sandy wilderness is produced, the surface of which changes so frequently and to such an extent under the influence of strong winds, that vegetation cannot * Copied from a plan presented by J. S. Lister, Conservator of Forests, Midland Districts, along with a Report on the Drift Sands, submitted to the Harbour Board of Port Elizabeth in September 1890. yo FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. rcatlily establish itself. Drift sand is a danger to property of all kinds located near it — railways, houses, and in the im- portant instance under consideration, even the city and harbour of Port Elizabeth. The area in question extends to upwards of 22 square miles (nearly 2i x 10 miles), or 14,500 acres. The surface has assumed a wavelike appearance, owing to the sand forming in elongated irregular mounds or dunes at right angles more or less to the direction of the prevailing wind, the bottoms of the intervening spaces or valleys being stony beds on which no sand rests. The ridges run nearly north and south, the wind and the moving sand coming from a point south of west. The object in view is not only to fix the sand on the ridges, which extend to about two-thirds of the total area, but to turn it to profitable account by growing trees. Extensive work in this direction has been carried out on the west coast of France between Bayonne and the mouth of the Gironde, where towards the end of last century an area of 300 square miles of country was rendered worthless by the presence of shifting sand. There the sands have been fixed, and successful forests of the cluster or maritime pine, Pinus pinaster, Sol, established. The necessary preliminary or temporary fixing was done by broom, SarotJianimis scopariiis, Wimm., Spartiiun scopariuni, L., which grows rapidly and forms a suitable nurse for the young pines. Sea marram (Gourbet), Animophila arimdhiacea, Host., a reed-like grass, was also planted to bind the Dune Littorale or barrier erected to prevent the ingress of fresh supplies of sand from the shore.* Assistance was sought from the published accounts of these and similar works carried out in Australia and New Zealand, where sands have been successfully fixed by planting marram grass, or AniviopJiila, but pines, excepting the Aleppo pine, P. Hakpensis, have failed, and a more effective and better method of accomplishing the temporary fixing has been adopted. In 1876, 4,000 tons of street sweepings and refuse were * Sand Lyme grass, Elymns arenarius, has been extensively used for a similar purpose in Holland, and also on the Norfolk coast. 72 Fy\RMING INDUSTRIES OF CAl'K COLONY. spread over 80 acres of drift sand on the Cape Flats, and it was clearly demonstrated that no better method than the utilisation of town manure could be adopted for the pre- liminary stafje of the operation. The Port Elizabeth sands are now under the supervision of T. B. B. Hare, District Forest Officer in the Eastern Conservancy. The work was taken over by the Forest Department from the Pl^arbour Board about two years ago. Forty tons of city refuse are delivered daily by rail, for which the Forest Department has to pay 3s. gd. per truck of 4 tons for haulage. This is distributed over the land by means of a light portable railway, each train of three or four trucks being drawn by a team of four mules and worked by con- victs, for whom the convict branch of the Colonial Office receives from the Forest Department the sum of is. per day. Eleven mules and fifty convicts are employed to do the work of hauling and spreading, and the area covered daily is i-| acres. The work might proceed more rapidly but for the extra- ordinary action, or probably more accurately inaction, of the municipal authorities of Port Elizabeth, who permit an additional 20 tons (estimated) of garbage to be deposited at two centres (Brickmakers' and Coopers' Kloofs) within the city, there to form sources of danger to the health of the community. Not only do such putrid heaps of decaying filth pollute the atmosphere by giving off pestilential effluvia, but the soakage of the moisture escaping below, on a slope like that at Port PLlizabeth, poisons both water and soil at a lower level for considerable distances. The work has been begun at the eastern end, and the area reclaimed is steadily extending westward against the wind. To have begun in the west at Governor's Kop, where the sand came in from the sea (until it was stopped by a wattle barrier, gradually raised till it is now 30 feet high), would have been impossible, owing to the sand covering the railway, and the removal of the injury to the harbour would have been delayed for a number of years. Lister calculated that it would take sixteen years to comi)lete the work, and that the capital outlay would amount to ^^^56,400 sterling, which would ulti- mately be recovered mainly by the sale of forest products. LAND SURFACE FEATURES. 73 Experience has shown that the time required will be longer, and the amount of outlay probably considerably less. The system of working" is extremely sim[jle. A mixture of suitable seeds of trees is sown broadcast, after being put into boiling water and allowed to stand for forty-eight hours during winter or three or four hours during summer, to encourage germination, and the refuse is spread over it to a depth of about half an inch (see the accompanying plate). The sowing of grass seeds and of common rye has been discontinued, as they tended to choke the young trees, and it was found that enough oats in the horse manure in the refuse grew to accomplish the object aimed at. The rush-triticum, TriticiLvi juncetim, Linn., grows well near the gulch at high- water mark, but neither this, the French marram grass, nor pype grass, Erharta gigantca, are now sown. The trees which have given the best results so far are the broad-leaved wattle, Acacia pycnantha, Benth.; the Port Jackson \v^X.\\q., A. saligna, Benth.; the pseudo or mock q.cb.c\3., Robiin'a pseudoacacia ; and the tamarisk, Tainarix gallica, L., the latter growing very well from cuttings. Brushwood is laid on the surface at exposed places, the stems towards the prevailing wind. It is also stuck up on end like a fence, with openings left so that the sand passes through and lodges on the other side. Some of the older inhabitants in Port Elizabeth remember when there was no drift sand at the place where the reclama- tion work is going on, and a hundred years ago the whole area was a dense bush. The sand area, which began in the west, spread eastward owing to the bakers and lime-burners, soon after the middle of this century, cutting the bush for firewood, and leaving the surface unprotected. I CHAPTER IV. - GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. Main Particulars for which the Cape is Conspicuous — Four Distinct Floral Regions: (i) The South-Western, (2) The Semi-Tropical, (3) The Karoo, (4) The Kalahari — Diversity of Vegetation — Rela- tionship of the Cape and the Australian Floras — Botanical Winter at the Cape — Devices by which Plants Resist Drought — Conspicuous Orders of Plants — Aromatic Character of Karoo Bushes — Rhenoster Bush — Sweet and Sour Veld — Silage — Tendency of Soil to Wash Away — Irrigating the Veld with Summer Flood Waters, and its Results — MacOvvan on Stock-Food Plants — Petttsui — Diplopappits — Sclago — Salt Bushes — Spek-boom — Prickly Pear ^ Aloes — Agave or American Aloe — The Harpuis Plant — More Worthless and Poisonous Plants — Preservation and Restoration of the Veld. There are {qw regions of the globe which can be pointed to as providing such a wide and varied field of interest to the student of science as South Africa. The hidden treasures, geological and mineral, are vast and various, and the surface features present a wealth of variety which is quite unique. The flora of Cape Colony, with the exception of the tropical division, is to the ordinary observer conspicuous in at least four main particulars — its deficiency in trees ; its want of luxuriance in growth ; the dull and sombre shade of the foliage ; and the brilliancy and diversity of successive crops of flowers of numerous species. The wonderful variety re- presented in the flora is due to an aggregation of a number of novel and interesting circumstances. (i.) It is believed that Cape Colony has fallen heir to representatives of the floras of two or possibly three great epochs in the world's botanical history. When most other parts of the earth's crust have been submerged in the great process of sedimentary rock formation, since the upheavals which followed the Devonian geological age, when the sandstones of Table Mountain were formed into solid rock, for some reason which has not vet been ¥ GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 75 revealed, South Africa has been saved, and the flora with it. (2.) There is great diversity in the character of the soil, and this is made still more conspicuous by marked differences in elevation above the sea. (3.) The climate also varies to such an extent that it is impossible to consider the flora of Cape Colony as a whole. It has been found necessary to divide the country into at least four areas, which differ so much from one another that they require to be considered separately.* (i.) The South- Western Region, forming a belt averag- ing about fifty miles wide, extending round the elbow of the west and south coasts, from Olifants River to within a (ew miles of Port Elizabeth, is a comparatively low-lying country, which is more or less irregularly and unequally supplied by winter rains, — a privilege denied to the greater part of the Colony. (2.) The Tropical or Semi-Tropical Region is a spur or continuation of land growing vegetation similar to that in the area of the tropics of the geographer, which extends in a belt of nearly twice the breadth of the western region from the Natal border to Port Elizabeth. Its inland boundary is a chain of high mountains, rising from 5,000 to 10,000 feet in height, from the base of which the country slopes gradually to the sea. The surplus of the rainfall of about twenty-six inches is drained off by numerous rivers, which develop at times (during summer, when the rain mostly falls) into torrents which have cut for themselves deep channels, and given the surface a broken appearance. The vegetation there possesses more of the shade of green familiar to Europe than the other parts of the Colony. The surface of the ground is divided between grassy downs and bush, which varies much in size and density in different parts. (3.) The Karoo Region forms the central area of Cape Colony, being shut in from the sea by the two belts already mentioned, with the exception of the west coast from the Olifants River to the Orange River. The elevation is much * For admirable accounts of the botanical position of the country, see a chapter on "The Flora of South Africa," by H. Bohis, in the Official Handbook of Cape Colony, and a pamphlet on " The Cape Flora as it strikes a Stranger," by P. MacOvvan, to both of which the author acknowledges indebtedness. 76 FARMIN(; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. higher than the coast country. The northern portion, which is sometimes separately classed as the Region of Composites, lies to the north of the second great chain of mountains, and at an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. It drains towards the north, in virtue of a gradual slope towards the Orange River. The predominating and constantly prevailing aspect of the country is that of a heathy tract, or dry elevated moorland, covered with small shrublets of a dull-green hue, the few intervening plants of different growth which occur being too small or too few to alter or modify the general appearance. The Karoo country is dependent exclusively upon summer rains, which are so light that only plants possessing special adaptability to semi-desert conditions can survive the annual period of drought. (4.) The Kalahari Region lies mostly to the north of the Colony, and extends in that direction till it reaches the tropics. Its central southern border runs considerably to the south of the Orange River, until the meridian of longitude on which Kimberley stands is reached. There it recedes to the north of the river. The surface of the soil is mostly sandy, and surface water is extremely scarce. The rainfall is confined to summer showers, and is not so inconsiderable as the want of water on the surface would indicate. The nature of the soil permits of the rain sinking in rather than running off, as it does in the Karoo, where the surface becomes baked and hard. The Kalahari is essentially a grass country, interspersed with isolated shrubs or trees. Thick bushes, and even dense forests, lie to the north. The south consists of open plains. Grass does not grow into a close mat as in Great Britain, but in tufts, leaving bare spaces between, "twa-gras," a species of Aristida, being the most common. The wonderful diversity of conditions which are to be found in these various divisions throughout the year leads to the maintenance of a unique diversity of vegetable forms. Of the 200 natural orders into which, following Bentham and Hooker, the plants of the w^orld have been divided, 142 are represented in South Africa ; while Australia, which is five times the area of extra-tropical South Africa, has only ten additional orders, or 152 in. all. The number of endemic genera in South Africa is 446, while in Australia there are 520. GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. yj k ^ The distant relationship of the flora of the south-western region of Cape Colony to that of South-Western Austraha is very striking, the natural orders being very much the same. There are, however, very few identical genera in the floras of the two countries, and no identical species. Sir Joseph Hooker accounted for this rather surprising state of matters, seeing the climatic and other conditions of the two continents have so much in common, by conjecturing that at some very remote time Australia and South Africa belonged to a great Southern or Antarctic Continent, the central part of which has become submerged — a time so vast that most of the genera, and all of the species, have become materially modified, although they may yet be classed under natural orders common to the two countries. The adaptability of the indigenous flora to South African conditions may be illustrated by the slow progress which has been made by about 200 species of plants belonging to foreign vegetation, which have been introduced. Most lurk by roadsides, or near human habitations. Few are found in the open country, or making headway against the indigenous flora. The prickly pear, Opiintm, is a striking exception to this general rule. It is natural for plants as well as animals to have periods of activity and periods of quiescence or rest. In cold localities the period of rest is winter, when of the requisites for plant growth a sufficient degree of warmth is not obtainable. The South African botanical winter is not due to cold, but to deficiency of moisture. In the south-western district the period of rest is during the droughts of November till May — a time of great heat and brilliant sunshine, which, if associated with humidity, would produce a most luxuriant tropical vegetation. In the drier districts the period of rest is longer, and conforms more to what we Europeans regard as the natural order of things, owing to the absence of winter rains. The rainfall is so deficient and uncertain, as a whole, that vegetation has developed various means by which long periods of dry and scorching weather may be endured without serious consequences, and provided resources which can be drawn upon at the shortest notice, to enable the plant to fulfil its procreative functions during a brief period of prosperity. One means of self-preservation is by restricting the expansion 78 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. of tlie foliage. This applies to the great majority of Australian and Cape plants. The leaves of some genera are merely green needles, with a hard cuticle almost incapable of exhalation ; others, including the heaths, have each leaf rolled backwards upon itself, so that it becomes cylindrical, and protects the stomata or breathing pores. Another great family, the Mesevibriacca, including much of the succulent flora of the Karoo, accomplish a similar object by developing" fleshy leaves, an admirable provision of Nature in the interests of herbivorous animals, which not only find in these attractive and nourishing food, but in some of them a sufficient amount of juice to enable them to exist without water in regions in w'hich it is impossible to procure it. Others, again, lay up stores of plant food and moisture in the form of bulblets, callosities or enlargements, great and small, on their fibrous roots. The numerous species of Oxalidcs are good representatives of this class, the store of nourishment laid up in this way from the accumulations of the previous season making the plant independent of everything but the early winter rains, which are necessary merely to soften the surface soil. It is in virtue of those devices of Nature, by which the scarcity of one year or season is supplied from the bounty of the preceding one, that the desert aspect which the Colony periodically assumes is almost like magic changed into that of a flower garden within a comparatively short time. The numerous species of bulbous plants contribute largely to the condition of things just referred to, AinaryllidecE and Irideci; particularly, Babimia, Monvcc, Ixue, Gladioli, and among LiliaceiB the LachenalicB and Oniitliogala being liberally re- presented. Some bulbs grow to an enormous size, that of Brunsvigia JosephiJKr, Jacq., weighing 15 lbs. to 18 lbs. For fifty years, embracing the end of the last and the beginning of this century, there was a rage in Europe for Cape bulbs and Cape plants of many species — pelargoniums, heaths, proteas, &c. Subsequently came the horticultural fashion of palm and orchid culture. The hot moist atmo- sphere of the tropical conservatory was incompatible with the life-conditions of the temperate Cape flora, and b}' degrees the old - fashioned " Cape house," with its proteas, heaths, diosmas, oxalises, and irids, disappeared. The rising school GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 79 of gardeners demanded something tropically gorgeous, and a thermometer up to 80°. By this freak of fashion hundreds of lovely Cape plants became lost to European gardens. It is only within the last eighteen or twenty years, mainly by the collecting efforts of the staff of the Cape Town Botanic Garden, that the Cape bulbs and plants have come again into notice and culture, and have gained part of their former popularity through their reappearance at Kew, and the estab- lishments of Max Leichtlin of Baden, Krelage of Haarlem, and De Graaf at Leyden. Of the gay plants not yet mentioned, the numerous species of terrestrial orchids take a foremost place in the gorges of the western mountains. Conspicuous among these is the Disa grandifiora, the finest representative of the genus in the southern hemisphere. Among the various species, the most delicate shades of blue, brilliant orange, golden yellow, and white are liberally represented. The so-called "arum lily," Richardia africana, with its pure white bugle-shaped s[)athc, is the most conspicuous adornment of low-lying moist land. And on the slopes of the poor sandy mountain-sides, near Sir Lowry's Pass, the showy white everlasting flower, HelicJirysum vcstituvi, with narrow velvety leaxcs, decorates the landscape, in its season, as if a shower of snow had fallen. As much as 200,000 lbs. weight of dry flower-heads has been sent from Caledon district in one season. In 1895 the price was 9d., and the year before is. 6d. per lb., but it has dropped as low as 4id. The flower-heads are collected by children, and all sorts of frail and needy people, from September till the end of December, and about 2,000 flowers go to the pound weight of the product ready for market. They are used largely for church decorations and immortelle wreaths. In Russia they are much patronised by the Greek Church. The great European markets are London and Hamburg, from \\hich they are distributed to all parts of the Continent. Following soon after tlie appearance of the bulbous plants comes an endless variety of heaths, but mostly confined to the south-western district of the Colony. " Of 784 Ericacccc described by Bentham in the Prodromus, 455 belong to the Cape," but "only about half-a-dozen representatives are found east of the meridian of Port Elizabeth." In a few localities, 8o FARMINO INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. " on isolated mountain tops," nearly up, to the tropics, lingering species of heath may be found in the central upland plateau. Proteaceae exist in three types — a large and a small type of those which exhibit the characteristics which are generally associated with the name of Protea ; and a third, in which the famous silver tree, Leiicadendroii argc/itcinn, of the Cape peninsula appears. A peculiarity of the South African flora is the large number of the slower-growing trees and bushes which are protected by numerous hard sharp thorns. If not protected by some means, they would be seriously injured by the animals living too freely upon them during times of scarcity. Other means of protection are employed in rare instances. A wild variety of the water-melon, Citrnllus vulgaris, Schrad., seen lying about on the veld is quite safe from extinction, owing to being intensely bitter. There is, however, another variety, indistinguishable in appearance, but with perfectly tasteless pulp, found abundantly in the northern Karoo, and through- out the Kalihari. Without its service, that waterless tract would be for part of the year quite impassable for a waggon- span. The oxen eat the watery pulp, and sufficiently quench their thirst. Most of the valuable Karoo bushes give off a sweet aromatic perfume when bruised between the fingers, and the flavour appears to be agreeable to the palates of herbivorous animals. The mild degree of bitterness which characterises the extractive matter of some plants is rather appreciated than objected to by them. The plants which animals neglect are deficient in these characteristics. The most conspicuous worthless plant of the " Boschjes- veld " (bush country), which has been called the curse of the Western Province, is the rhenoster {r/iinoccros) bush, Elytro- pappiis rliinoccrotis, Less. The soils on which it flourishes are not the richest, although its growth is considered to be an indication that the soil is suitable for cropping with grain in such districts as the Ruggens of Caledon and Bredasdorp. It does not take kindly to the rich vine soils, such as the Constantia red soils or the soils of the foot-hills about Worcester, Montague, and Robertson, where salt bushes begin to appear. There the melk-bosch (milkbush). Euphorbia^ GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 8 1 takes its place, and 'occupies the surface that would probably otherwise be vacant. Alont^ with it, growing freely in the veld, is associated the boter-bosch, Cotyledon fascicularis. Ait., with a thickish and bright-green leaf, and a stalk like a large geranium. Animals, and also Hottentots, draw a portion of their food supply from it. The rhenoster bush has spread more widely and more quickly than e.xotic plants generally do, on account of its having been carried through the Colony by the brandy dis- tilling Boers of old time, who used it as dunnage in packing the casks on their waggons. The Government was at one time urged to bring in legislation to eradicate it. This would have proved an impossible task had it been tried, as the plant seeds freely, and, as is the case of many other weedy j^lants, much of the seed remains in the ground in a dormant state for years. Its presence is not an unmixed evil. Where it supplants valuable fodder-plants it is most objectionable, but where it occupies a surface which would otherwise be bare it is productive of good. It prevents the washing and blowing away of loose surface soil ; it gives shade and shelter to grasses and other useful minor plants, while all the time it is adding to the accumulation of valuable plant residue in the soil. Important points in its favour when regarded as a weed in cultivated land are that it is extremely easily uprooted when the ground is first ploughed, and it gives no further trouble during the period that the land is in crop. The veld is familiarly classified into sweet (zoet) or good veld, sour Tzuur) or poor veld, and half and half (gebroken) veld, occupying an intermediate position in the matter of quality. To a stranger it is a little difficult at first to realise what guides an observer in classifying a given area. These terms refer to the nature and quality of the natural plant growth, with which probably the climate has something to do, excessive heat and want of moisture hastening the develop- ment into indigestible woody fibres of tissues which under favourable circumstances would have remained longer suc- culent. On deep rich alluvial soils, or on land of good quality, generally " good veld " predominates, and food plants are suc- culent and palatable. Plant growth is inferior on thin or poor soil — defective in some essential plant-ash constituent, particu- F 82 FARMING TNI )U.STKII';S OF CAPE COLONY. larly bonc-carth (phosphate of limcj, which is very generally deficient in the soils of the Cape Colony. The heaths, for example, which, unlike the common heather, Calluna vulgaris, of the Scottish Highlands, are of no value as food, are charac- teristic of sour veld. The quantity is not deficient, but, on the contrary, rank in many parts. Grass grows woody, long, and straggling, and is unattractive to stock. There is a want of the close, dense mat which is characteristic of good British pasture. Apart from its naked-eye aspect, sour veld betrays itself by the influence it exerts upon live stock. Animals brought from sweet veld suffer from what is termed veld sickness, which results from insufficient nutrition and the hard and irritating nature of the food consumed. Animals reared on sour veld thrive after a fashion, but are liable to suffer from what is known as lam-ziekte (lame-sickness), which results from the want of enough lime-phosphate in their food to make their bones strong and healthy. They lie down, and cannot be induced to rise. They may be kept alive for weeks if food be brought to them. It is unfortunate that a widespread impres- sion prevails that lam-ziekte is produced by some poisonous plant, at the identity of which many wild guesses are made. Where the food is very coarse and inferior, the incisor teeth wear quickly, and not onl)- do they become short, but the spaces between them widen and they become pointed. At certain seasons, too, they loosen, and the animals cannot feed properly. The worst of the sour grass veld, situated within a range of about forty miles from the coast, is regularly burnt off to clear the surface of the remains of the previous year's growth before the spring grass appears, and sheep farmers say it would be impossible to keep sheep if the pasture were not treated in this w^ay. It may be perfectly true that burn- ing improves the quality of the early grass, but it is certain at the same time to encourage the growth of woody, in- ferior foliage towards the end of the season and to aggravate the condition which it was expected to remedy. Over a con- siderable area, at least, a more profitable and at the same time more satisfactory way of disposing of the excess of vegetable growth of one year before the next begins to spring, would be to make it into silage. It ought to be cut while green, before it becomes woody, and put into good GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 83 large circular stacks, twenty feet in diameter, the building being carried on for a number of days to permit of the stack settling down after a temperature of about 130° F. has been reached, so that sweet and not sour silage may be the result- ing product. With a stack of this size the material itself does the work of weighting for all but the top layer, and a few stones thrown on without planking are sufficient to prevent serious loss. When small quantities are to be preserved, it is necessary to sink a pit or silo in the ground. If possible it should be on a steep bank, so that the green material may be carted to the top of the upper wall and tipped over without being lifted, as is necessary when a stack is made. The natural descent of the ground permits of the silage being removed by an opening in the opposite wall, and of being carried away also without requiring to be raised the height of the wall. When silos are only twelve feet in diameter, and of similar depth (the minimum size a silo should be made under any circumstances), even although the sides be made per- pendicular and smooth, and the material be rammed well at the edges and trodden as completely as possible, it is necessary to weight the top to the extent of 100 lbs. per square foot of surface to prevent moulding and decay. Sour veld, such as is seen in the Maclear district, is im- proved by the trampling" of stock and by close grazing, results which follow fencing into moderate-sized camps. The trampling is similar to but not so effective as the influence which would be exercised by cutting at the proper season for the making of silage. Silage, given in moderate quantities (40 lbs. to 50 lbs. a day to a horse or an ox), is a safe and palatable food for all classes of farm animals, and being of a succulent nature, it is of special value during periods of drought, par- ticularly to she-goats, ewes, and cows giving milk. It has a decided pull over roots and the common green forage crops, in that it will remain good for a number of years if not wanted, and frost cannot injure it. It must not be supposed that by being made into silage inferior grass is improved in quality, for that is not so. Though animals decline to eat the coar.se grass when old and woody on such land as we are now con- sidering, they would be only too pleased to find it in an earlier and softer green stage during the months fo winter scarcity. 84 FARM1N(J INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. One of the li^reat defects of the vegetation of Cape Colony is that it does not fully occupy the surface of the soil with a close and dense cover, — a condition so familiar to every one in Great Britain. Even in the districts where grass grows it is found in tufts with intervening spaces of bare soil. This un- covered and unprotected condition permits the washing away of the surface soil, and is largely responsible for the unusual nakedness, so to say, of the rocks of South Africa. The periodical burning of grass and bush rather aggravates the consecjuences of the wasteful process of denudation. Sheep, goats, and cattle following each other in line as they do, make roads through the veld which, under the potent influence of heavy thunder rain, soon wear into drains and finally into sluits, and even large river beds (page 59). This ultimately leads to the loss of the finest portions of the soil carried off by the rivers, which assume the colour of pea soup. The land so affected tends to become too dry, not only through water escaping readily in place of sinking into the land, but the subsoil moisture is also reduced through the lowering of the water table. Much can be done to prevent the rain forming a head of water by a little labour expended on stopping channels im- mediately they begin to form by means of banks of sods. The water thus brought to rest soaks into the ground, and adds to the store of moisture, which is drawn from during the rainless season. The work of checking the too rapid flow of water is contributed to by the roots of the shrublet Lasiocorys capensis, Benth., belonging to the order Labiate^, and thus related to mint, thyme, lavender, and sage. This plant possesses a strong tap root and numerous side roots, and it grows into a bush from a foot to two feet and a half high. It springs up luxuriantly in the washed shingly debris of waterways, and its roots hold what soil remains and collect fresh silt, which ulti- mately raises- the surface and impedes the course of the water. The foliage is slightly bitter, so that it is left untouched by animals until the end of the season, when the more attractive food is exhausted. It is then freely consumed, but the plant benefits by the absence of injury during the period of its growth. There is no way by which the veld can be so inexpensively and effectively improved in grazing qualities as by allowing the flood waters, charged with fine sedimentary matter, from GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 85 higher elevations to flow over it. Excellent examples of the results of this practice were seen on Culmstock, Charles Southey's place, and at Varkens Kop, belonging to William Southey, in the Middelburg" district. These are merely illustrations of man}' properties favourably situated for irrigation along the foot-hills of the range of mountains which there runs east and west. At Varkens Kop the summer flood water of the Great Brak River was diverted from its course by a masonry dam, with a drop of about ten feet deep on the lower side. It is most important that the high flood water which falls over the weir should descend upon a rocky bottom, if such is to be found in a convenient situation, as the great volume and force of the water are certain, sooner or later, to give trouble by forming a pool and undermining the wall, if a concrete or other artificial floor has to be resorted to. The dam and channel in question cost about iJ^200, and the water spreads for a distance of five miles over the flat country below. In short, the conditions were restored which existed before the Great Brak River was formed, and that not so long ago. This recent formation of a river is no soHtar}' instance, but a state of things extremely common throughout Cape Colony. The other Brak River, which flows between De Aar and Britstown,* has been entirely formed within the last forty years. At the poir^t referred to the water flows between banks about 15 feet deep and from 100 feet to 1 50 feet apart. The results of the flooding are that the Karoo bushes die off, and in about three years a dense cover of fine nutritious grass springs up, mostly consisting of blaauw seed grass. Land which in its original state fed one sheep on three acres will, after flooding, keep seven or eight sheep on the same area. In carrying out this important improvement it will be necessary to guard against contamination of the land by liver-fluke, which gives rise to "rot" in sheep. If water drains from hollow marshy places, and is permitted to stagnate in depressions or hollows in the veld, then liver-fluke is certain * This is stated on the authority of Hans Brits, after whom the latter place was named. 86 FARMINf; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. to appear in the sheep stock. The means of prevention by drainage are discussed under " rot " in sheep. The work of watering the land in this way has only recently been insti- tuted by English farmers who have come to the districts where it is possible to carry it out. Many farms capable of similar improvement are likely to remain in a state of nature while their present old-fashioned Dutch owners continue to occupy them. In his excellent brochure on " Plants that furnish Stock Food at the Cape,"* Professor MacOwan, in discussing the most useful shrubby plants for sheep, places first in his list in order of merit^-( I ) Pentzia virgata, Less.; (2) AdenacJicena parvifolia, DC. ; (3) Diplopappus filifolius, DC, not only on account of their good qualities as food, but also because of their abundance and distribution over wide areas. The pentzia, which is familiarly known as "good karoo," tends to grow socially, and sometimes so luxuriantly as to cause the partial or complete exclusion of other boscage. The soils of rich argillaceous flats, not deficient in lime, favour its growth. Diplopappus, the " draai-bo.sje," takes its place on thin stony ridges or hillsides, and grows best on a southern ex- posure. This bush gives a " strong aromatic taste and smell " to the flesh of animals which are fed upon it, but the bitter and objectionable flavour can be got rid of by keeping the sheep upon other food for a fortnight. Both plants produce abundance of seed, which grows freely, but the pentzia also extends by natural layering, the longer shoots bending down till they reach the soil, and then throwing out roots at the tips. When the veld is overstocked, and the bushes are eaten back, they are unable to extend by either method of propaga- tion, and will decrease rather than increase in number. Where growing and extending naturally, they form a useful check to the surface erosion aggravated by the trampling of sheep, and still more of goats, by throwing their trailing branches over and shutting up the roads made round and among the bushes by the animals as they go in search of food. * A reprint (to which the author gratefully acknowledges indebted- ness) from " The South African Agriculturist's Almanac." GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 87 The aarbosje, or " water - finder," Selago leptostachya, E. Mey., is a useful forage plant for goats, being a stand-by in times of drought. It is found generally on gebroken veld, and is the only one of the common Selagos that is of value as food. Two of the most valuable salt bushes of Australia, Ati'iplex tmmJHulan'a, Lindl, and A. haliuioides, Lindl., have been successfully grown in Cape Colony by E. G. Alston, who first cultivated them on the salt or brak lands surrounding Van Wyk's Vlei, and then distributed the seed at his own charges to numerous farmers in different parts of the Colony. The colonial species, A. Iia limns, L., var. cap- en sis, "vaal bosje," or grey bush, compares favourably with the imported species, although it is more salt than they are, and stock can in consequence eat less of it. Goats browsing do it much more injury than sheep, as, stand- ing on their hind legs to reach the tender topmost shoots, the}- trample down and break the brittle side branches, which is much more injurious than nib- bling the shoots. The Australian salt bushes are decreasing rapidly in Aus- tralia through too close inju- dicious pasturing with sheep, while they are extending and establishing themselves at the Cape. Seed has actually been sent to Australia from the Cape by special request. Salt bushes are particularly valu- able under conditions such as prevail in the Karoo. They not only grow in soil impregnated with soda salts, on which few useful plants can establish themseh'es, but the}- thri\e AUBTRAUAN SaLT BoSH. A. nummularia, Zindi. — (The Male Plant). 88 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. where the climate is too dry for grass to live, and transform districts that would be worthless desert into good stock country. Few sheep can be kept, probably one to twelve acres, but they do well, and, contrary to the general belief that there is safety in numbers, in the matter of parasites at least, safety to stock comes from their limitation. MacOwan mentions in order of merit the following plants as growing along with the vaal bosje, and being eaten by sheep : — KocJiia piibescens, Moq. ; Caroxylon Salsola, Thunb. ; Tetragonia arbusaila, Fenzl. ; Exoinis axyrioides, FenzL, and several species of Glimis and Galenia. The vaal bosje is the only one which can be readily propagated artificially. Several species of Meseinbriantheiinnn, which are distin- guished by glittering pimples dotted over the leaves and stems, mingle with the salt bushes and aid in furnishing the surface. All are, however, not confined to really brak land, as the grand purple-flowered M. floribitnduin, Haw., and M. obliquuin. Haw., yield excellent pasturage for ewes and lambs upon flats where the soil shows only traces of soda salts. Spek-boom, Portnlacaria afra, Jacq., is a fleshy, rounded- leaved, scrubby, soft-wooded tree or bush, which is recognised as a very valuable food plant for sheep, cattle, and even horses. Successful efforts have been made to grow it in Namaqualand from cuttings. As these are liable to rot when put in green and newly severed, they should be spread out for a fortnight to allow the wounds to dry. Where animals are well fed and pampered, they sometimes lose taste for this excellent natural food. In the neighbourhood of Oudtshoorn, on a farm where, in the spring of 1895, ostriches were dying in hundreds, clumps of spek-boom were within ea.sy reach, but the birds would not touch it, having been accustomed to feed on lucerne. Never- theless, when birds are brought up to eat it they thrive well, and seem fond of it. The spek-boom is a bush which recovers rapidly from the injury done by too close browsing by stock, if a season's respite be granted to it. When spek-boom and the MesevibriaiitJieinmn floribiindiini are present, stock care but little about their daily visits to the water-vlei. The prickly pear, Opuntia Ttina, has become one of the curses of large areas of grazing land, particularly the midland and south-eastern districts. The Report of a Select Com- (;enf,ral floral features. 89 A Species of Prickly Pear— Leaf-like Fleshy Stem-joint and Fruit. Reproduced front U.S.A. Agricultural Report 1SS7. 90 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF GATE COLONY. mittee of the House of Assembly, dated 1891, estimated the annual loss in money, from farm animals dying through eating the leaves and fruit, at iJ^200,000. There are two varieties, the kaalhlad and the doornblad — the latter covered by large numbers of strong, j^ointed thorns, and the other almost thorn- less. It probably would be more accurate to say that from seeds of the same fruit at times both thorny and thornless specimens spring. The prickly form is by far the more abundant. Nearly all graminivorous animals eat opuntia greedily when relieved of its natural thorny defence, and the naked variety is thus destroyed wholesale while young. The kaalblad opuntia is the true cochineal cactus, and specimens of the insect may be seen living upon it in the Cape Town Botanic Garden. In spite of all that may be said in favour of the prickly pear, there is no doubt the injury done by it is so great that it would be well for the Colony to get rid of it entirely, even at a considerable pecuniary sacrifice. Rut it has now spread so widely, and established itself so completely, that extermina- tion would be a matter of great difficulty if not impossibility. Its pear-like fruit — from which it derives its name — is sweet and attractive. Great numbers of birds and beasts eat it freely, and drop the seeds in their solid excrement all over the district. It also grows readily if a small piece of the leaf-like fleshy stem-joints is left about on the surface of the ground. The fruit is covered with multitudes of minute hard sharp- pointed prickles, which produce violent inflammation and swelling in the tongue, throat, and whole intestinal tract of animals consuming it in the natural state. Cattle get so fond of it, even when suffering, acutely from the injury it produces, that they have been known to remain beside a pear-tree with the tongue hanging out, and to continue to eat the fruit until they actually died of the effects. The Kaffirs get over the difficulty of the prickles by rolling or rubbing the pears backwards and for\vards in the dust under- neath the hardened sole of their foot. Perhaps the most serious drawback to the Colony is the demoralisation this fruit gives rise to among the native population. They \\\\\ do little or no work for the three months — February, March, and April — the time the fruit is at = o - c ^ i. GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 9 1 its best. This is a specially serious matter with the tobacco- grower and the wine-grower, as these are busy months with both. They also manufacture a spirit from the fruit of the prickly-pear, which they drink in large quantities at the season, making any return to work impossible while its influence lasts. During periods of drought, the fleshy suc- culent prickly-pear leaves have occasionally been utilised by being deprived of their spines by scorching over a fire and by cutting up the mass with a sheer resembling a turnip-cutter. Then the food may be given with safety to all sorts of farm stock. Cattle will eat 40 lbs. per day of the pulp, and it proved a useful stand-bv' in the drought of 1895 ^O'' feeding ostriches. It should be mixed, however, with some nourishing concentrated food, like beans or grains of sorts, as it does not contain sufficient nourishment in itself to support animals, especially if they have got into low condition. Given alone and in large quantity, it is liable to induce scour. The plant was first spread in the colony by transport riders, or " togt-gangers," who, both intentionall}' and also inadvertentl)-, dropped the seeds at outspans, from which they have extended. Government has taken neither of the steps urged upon them, viz., the compulsory eradication of the plant, nor the subsi- dising of those who undertake the work, probably because the opinions of Members of Parliament were too much di\idcd as to the practicability of the scheme submitted. Government has, however, supplied a large quantity of a so-called scrub exterminator — consisting of arsenic dissolved by boiling with soda, which has been doing good work in the hands of a few individuals who have tried it It is said to act when applied to living plants during winter, when the sap is not running, but to ascertain this condition would require more than the usual intelligence displaj'ed by native workmen in its application. It serves the purpose admirably when the plants are cut close to the ground and thrown into heaps. A spray of the exter- minator so browns the surface and shrivels the plant that it can be burnt in heaps, and all traces of it destroyed. The aloes plant. Aloe ferox, L., belonging to the natural order LiiiacecF, possesses an arborescent trunk, sometimes twelve to fifteen feet high. It is often found growing on poor rocky places, from which the soil has been, to a large extent, washed 92 FARMINC; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. away. The appearance presented by a number of aloes plants growing at a distance is so much like Kaffirs standing, that during the Kaffir wars false alarm was not infrequently experienced by the Colonial troops on suddenly coming upon a stretch of aloe-bearing veld, until the sight became familiar. The plant has a strong resemblance to the leafy parts of a large pine-apple, and the leaves, which, as time goes on, tend to grow in a bunch at the top, are protected by claw-shaped spines, like those of the brier. It is sometimes planted to form a kraal fence, and, being a perennial plant, it flowers annually, and does not die off after maturing its seed, like the so-called American aloe. Its beautiful bright-red flowering spikes, three or four in number on each head, lend beauty to the landscape, which at that particular season is otherwise unadorned. The aloes harvest takes place during August and September. A hollow is scooped out in the earth, about the size of a shallow hand- basin, and round this the leaves which have been cut off are built, with the wounded ends inwards, in such a fashion that the juice as it runs out falls into the hollow. The sun's heat during a couple of weeks hastens the flow of sap, and dries it up into a cake, which is ultimately removed, the adhering earth brushed off, and in fragments it is packed in boxes, and sold for about 4|d. to 5d. per lb. In some districts a goat- skin is put in to form a lining to the pit, and the juice is removed in a viscous condition and boiled, but so unskilfull}' is the work executed, that the power to crystallise like hoar frost (after being dissolved in alcohol, and exposed to admit of evaporation) is lost, and the market price thereby lowered to less than one-fifth of the price of Barbadoes aloes in the London market. Aloes is used for staining leather harness and for making into horse physic balls, and also, it is said, in the manufacture of Mother Seigel's Syrup. The amount exported, as given in the last available returns, was under 400,000 lbs., considerably below the half of the amount ex ported in 1885. The American aloe, above referred to. Agave ajnericajia, is not a true aloe, but more nearly related to the fibre plant Fourcroya, grown in Mauritius, and to New Zealand flax, P]ioriiii?iiii tenax. It is a strong, vigorous plant, which grows well in all parts of the Colony, including the Karoo. As in GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 93 India, it is found to be a valuable plant to j^row in rows to form fences. The sharp pointed and rigid leaves stand out like so many spears, and, when the plants grow up so that they close in the rows, make it quite impossible for stock to get through. Excellent shelter for stock is afforded in high and exposed veld by agaves planted in two rows to form a cross, so that from whatever direction the wind blows', the animals can always find a sheltered corner in one or other of the four angles. The great drawback to the agave as a fencing plant is that, after a few years it throws up a tall flower-bearing stem, and after ripening its seed it dies, leaving an opening in the fence. Ultimately the blanks are closed up by numerous small plants growing from suckers, but the fence is defective for a time. The tendency to seeding can be checked, it was said, by setting the plants more closely together in the rows than the usual three feet, and at the same time laying them at an angle of 45° In times of drought and scarcity of food the leaves of the agave have been cut up into small pieces by a chaff-cutting machine, or by hand knives if only on a small scale, and given to cattle, ostriches, or, in fact, to any farm stock. In addition to the fibre, which is used both in America and India for rope- making, &c., there is a large quantity of succulent matter in the leaves, particularly near the base, and this forms excellent food for stock, which eat it readily and thrive upon it. It does not contain such a large percentage of water as prickly pear, and it is not so liable, when given in quantity, to induce scour in animals feeding on it. The black population use the leaves for fuel after they have been exposed for four or five months to dry thoroughly. The seed is excellent food for ostriches, and cattle find it out and eat it greedily when it falls beside a fence. The seed-bearing stems, after they become withered, can be used for light temporary fencing" posts, and will last for six or seven years. Altogether, the agave is a most useful plant, a good stand- by for the farmer in seasons of scarcity, and being so easily propagated, it is a marvel that it is not grown to a greater extent in the Colony. :^^ The harpuis (resin-pimple) plant is a species of Euryops, a showy composite with gay yellow blooms and a foliage not 94 FAKMIN(] INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLOJSIY. unlike that of a soft, rapidly grown, bushy, young pine-tree. In certain areas near Oueenstown it threatened to take possession of the entire surface, to the exclusion of valuable forage plants. It should be remembered that its only im- portant use is the supply of brushwood. When it seemed as if large tracts of country were about to be given over to this worthless weed, a scale insect made its appearance. It has multiplied so rapidly, and done its work so thoroughly, that in many of the worst centres harpuis is almost totally destroyed, — a work which has well-nigh rivalled the feat of the Vedalia and Rodolia ladybirds in devouring the DortJiesia or Icerya, as it is now called— the Australian "bug" — on orange-trees. It is possible that this is not the first time the harpuis has thrown its unwelcome mantle over certain areas favourable for its growth, nor yet the first time that the scale insect has done its work. History in plant life, as in other matters, often repeats itself. The fact that a few old plants were to be seen among a comparatively young growth rather indicates that they formed centres of distribu- tion or re-infestation, and were probably the remnants of a former growth. After Nature has done her share in the destruction, all stray plants that have escaped the scale insect should be carefully destroyed. Though the last-mentioned plant is objectionable enough to the stock farmer, it is so in a negative way. Its short- comings lie in monopolising the land Which might with advantage have grown useful food plants. It differs from another class of plants, which not only occupy the surface, but are actively injurious in one or other of several ways. To the latter belongs the bitter Karoo bosje, Chrysoconia teniii- folia, Berg., which fortunately is only eaten in times of scarcity, as it produces stomach and biliary disorders. It is extending largely, like another w^orthless bush, Relhania gen- istcefolia, L'Her, when the veld is overstocked. There is a thorny fig, MesembriaiitJieniuiii spinosiii/i, L., of the Karoo, the flowering branchlets of which harden into sharp hard spines, which effectually prevent stock from browsing upon it. Another very thorny plant. Asparagus stipiilaceiis. Lam., is a source of annoyance and loss to Angora goat breeders. The withered thorny branchlets break off in winter with a mere GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 95 touch, and adhering- to the hair of the goats, reduce it seriously in vahie. Burweed, XantJiimn spiiiosmn, is another plant well known to cause injury to the wool of sheep, by adhering to it and felting" it together, and subsequently giving con- siderable trouble during the process of manufacture. Many leguminous plants are known to be poisonous * to animals at certain seasons, producing paralysis of the limbs, due to cerebro-spinal pressure, and at times giddiness and sleepiness or death. The injury is believed to be brought about by certain alkaloids, which arc, however, not present in injurious amounts in all the species of the order, as quite a number of well-known legumes may be used as food for man and beast with perfect safety. The Cape is not without its poisonous legume any more than India, Australia, or America. The t'nenta, Lesserlia annularis, Burch., is an insignificant purplish -flowered species, at times seen in c^uantity in the gebroken veld, where, if consumed, it poisons goats and sheep. A somewhat similar condition of helplessness from intoxi- cation, or semi-paralysis, results when cattle feed upon dronk grass, Me/ tea dendroides, Lehm. All species of farm live stock are not liable to suffer in the same degree from vegetable poisoning. The leaves and bark of the wild tobacco tree, Nicotiana giaiica, may be eaten by goats without serious consequences, while the bark and seeds are most poisonous to young ostriches — one seed is said to be certain death to a chick up till a month old. Perhaps the most widely distributed and deadly origin of stock poisoning to be found in South Africa, is the tall, handsome " tulp - bloem," or Cape tulp (the Dutch for tulip), Morcea po/yanthos, Thunb. This contains a " virulent irritant," which, if taken in sufficient quantity, induces violent inflammation of the stomach and bowels, and in serious cases, of the liver also, giving rise to biliary hepatitis, and usually death within twenty-four hours. One species of tulp, under * See a valuable contribution to the bibliography of this subject by R. S. M'Dougall, M. A., B.Sc, entitled, "Z^?//yr//i- Safivits, the Vetchling, with a Comparative Review of the Poisonous Properties of some Allied Leguminous Plants." — Transactions Botanical Society of Edinburgh, December 1894. 96 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COEONY. the name of " slancjkop " (snake head), or poison onion, OrnitJioglossuvi glaucmn, Sal., which comes up in September and cHsappears in December, is particularly prevalent and destructive in the vicinity of Mafckin<^. It is also to be seen near Kimberley, on the red sandy soils on which the kamccl thorn. Acacia giraffce, finds a natural habitat. Cattle bred on the ground do not eat tulp unless they are very hungry. Then they are not safe. Cattle that have not been accustomed to it, and oxen turned out from the yoke after dark, are most liable to suffer. There is a sudden formation of gases in the stomach, and the animal becomes hoven. Relief is got through the administration of stimu- lants and astringents, or repeated doses of milk consisting of a bottle at a time. Some farmers boil " besom-riet," Rcstio scopariits, Th., and administer the decoction. It has no medi- cinal value. A more reasonable treatment is to give a quart of strong decoction of the astringent bark of the " doorn- boom," Acacia Jiorrida, W., and this sometimes relieves the intestinal irritation. If an ox eats only a little and recovers he will most probably suffer from an acute attack of diarrhoea. Sheep cannot be kept during the tulp season on land on which tulp grows freel}^ The introduction of live stock to the " Roschjesveld" (bush country) has destroyed the old balance of nature, and by the persistent eating back of the good bushes (frequently by a larger number of animals than a given area could pro- perly support) their expansion has been checked, and they tend to decrease in numbers as well as in bulk. At the same time the worthless plants seed freely, and being un- molested by animals, increase both in size and in numbers. Much injury has already been done in this direction, and if it be permitted to go on, many of the most valuable Karoo bushes are liable, like the Australian salt bushes and kangaroo grass, AntJiistiria ciliata, Linn., to extinction on the veld, and to be left merely as botanical curiosities in protected corners. Fencing" into moderate-sized camps, to give control over the animals, is the first essential in any system of restoration. Different descriptions of stock should be grazed in successive seasons. If sheep and goats are in occupation this year, horned cattle should follow them next season, and at intervals, GENERAL FLORAL FEATURES. 97 according- to the condition of the growth of the good species of plants, a year of complete rest should occur, to enable the bushes that have been browsed closely to recover their foliage and to mature their seed. During this period, or, in fact, at any time, an incessant war ought to be waged against injurious and worthless plants of all kinds with the available surplus labour which on a large farm is frequently considerable. At the same time a few seeds of valuable plants, which spring up readily like Pentzia, may be scattered where the sur- face of the soil has been moved. It has not been the practice to farm veld in this way, but rather to leave it to nature ; but nature is all against the farmer, and in favour of weedy plants under circumstances such as have been described. As the natural influence at work is accumulative, the time seems near at hand when the treatment of the veld will require to be as much the care of the farmer as the crops of arable cultivation. There has been a cry that the land is overstocked, and the numbers of stock have certainly been shrinking in recent years. No doubt it is true, even in places where, under more enlightened management, a larger number and in better condition could have been kept. Grout of Mares on De Beers Horse-Breeding Farm. (i CHAPTER V. GRASS AND GREEN FORAGE PLANTS. Position occupied by Grass in the Veld — Rooi-Grass — Steek-Grass— Bolus's Enumeration of Common Species — MacOwan on Poisonous Grasses — Couch Grasses — Copper-Wire Grass — Para Grass — Posi- tion of British Grasses — Red Clover — Erodium — Green Barley — Green Rye — Ergot — Lucerne — Dodder — Tree Lucerne — Stink- Clover — Yellow Boer Clover — Bur Clover. Although South Africa is not poor in numbers of species of grasses, having, according to Bolus, fifty-seven genera and seventy-eight species in the grassy uplands of the composite section of the Karoo division, yet grass is not, on by far the greater area of Cape Colony, a conspicuous feature of the covering of the landscape. It is conspicuous in the humid eastern coast districts, and again up-country at a considerable elevation above the sea, as in the Kalahari region and the so-called " new veld," where summer rains are most abundant, but in the Karoo districts proper it appears in sparsely scattered tufts among the bushes, consisting to a large extent of annual grasses which spring and fructify in a comparatively short time, and are ready to die after having fulfilled the reproductive function. The most valuable indigenous grass is generally acknow- ledged to be the glaucous bluish AntJiisth'ia ciliata, Retz — a grass of large size, with abundant leaf foliage of superior quality, but a wiry stem and a hard flower head as it reaches maturity. It takes on a brownish-red colour in winter, when all grasses growing on dry veld wither and become brown, arid has in consequence earned the name of " rooi-grass " or red grass. It is a valuable pasture grass, makes into excellent hay, and is equally well suited for preservation as silage. A dwarf rooi-grass, which yields sweeter pasture, appears in certain parts. Grass is often of good quality where mimosa GRASS AND GREEN FORAGE PLANTS. 99 is abundant, and it is frequently specially sweet, i.e.^ less hard and fibrous, where the bushes are large. " Steek-grass " is the colonial name applied to a number of species of the natural order Gi'ainine(r, having long sharp awns attached to their seeds, b}' which they adhere to the wool of sheep. The hard, bristle-like appendages (often associated with so-called " carrot-seed," Tragiis raconosus, the saw-toothed glumes of which have great holding power) mat the wool into a condition resembling felt, and reduce its market value materially. The most baneful influence, how- ever, to the interests of the stock-farmer is due to the irritation produced by the sharp points of the seeds, which, aided and directed by the awns, find their way to the skin, most abundantly about the neck and shoulders, and produce irritation and discomfort, and frequently death. The awns in most cases are rough, and gradually work in as the sheep moves, but some acquire a twisting motion with the alterna- tions of dr}' and moist atmosphere, and have thus an additional boring action given to them. In Australia much damage of a similar kind is done to sheep and to their wool by the seeds of a wild geranium, G. disscctuDi, L. (an excellent food plant while green, and abun- dant in some pastures), and the " three-awned spear-grass," Aristida I'avwsa, R. Br. The two grasses which so far have been observed to do most injury in Cape Colony are Aristida congesta, R. and S., which mats the wool, and Andropogon contortus, Willd., the sharp seeds of which, with their twisted awns, easily pierce the skin. As the seeds when ripe do not readily fall off, they remain on the stalks in a favourable position for becoming attached to the wool of passing sheep, being carried and dropped in the veld. Plants which possess such special advantages over other plants as to means of distribution are usually annual in their habit of growth, and produce well-matured, vigorous seed, as everything depends upon it for the existence of the species. Remedial treatment should consequently be directed against the plant in the early stages of its growth. The swarms of locusts have taught the stock-owners a useful lesson in this respect. By devouring the steek-grass before it produces its ICXD P^ARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. seed they free the pasture of the pest for a time, although it asserts itself once more within a few years. Something can be done to check the increase of steek- grass, and to minimise its injury, by the method of depasturing. Those portions of the veld most liable to steek-grass should be closely eaten down early in the season by sheep, and the flocks removed before the seeds ripen. Burning the full- grown grass before the seed falls is another successful method of reducing its amount. A species oi Aristida, " twa-gras," is the most abundant grass, so far as is known, in the Kalahari region and in the upper region of the Karoo, 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, distinguished as abounding in composites. Bolus says that in the parts he has visited " those most abundant in individuals appear to be Andropogon marginattis, Anthistiria ciliata, Aristida vestita, DnntJioiiia disticJia, D. villosa, Era- grostis brisoides, E. striata, Festuca scabra, and Melica den- droidcs, Lehm. — the ' dronk-gras ' of the colonists." MacOwan* contributes an interesting note on the poison- ous nature of some grasses at certain stages of their growth. It would appear that the giddiness and intoxication, described by one farmer as a " wild delirium," from which animals suffer after eating dronk-gras, is similar to the effects produced after the seeds of darnel rye-grass, Loliuni teiimlentuni, L., have been consumed. These do not stand alone. Festuca qiiadrivalvis, a Peruvian grass, is deadly poisonous to cattle ; Stipa viridula, var. j'obusta, is the " sleepy grass " of New Mexico, which induces profound slumber for twenty-four hours in cattle incautious enough to eat it. Another species of Stipa in Mongolia intoxicates horses ; and even the blow grass of the Scottish hills, Molinia avrulea, when in flo\\er, is reported to be dangerous to horses, and Broimis catJiarticus derives its name from its purgative qualities. The grass which forms the closest covering in the veld, although it is by no means so largely represented as the rooi- grass, is the small couch grass or quick, of light cultivated soils — the dub grass of India, Cynodoji dactyloii, Pers., called Bermuda grass in Australia. It is supposed to have been * At p. 1 17, vol. v., of the Agricitltural Jourjtal^ Cape Town. DiiB Grass— Cynodon dactylon, Pers. I02 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. introduced into South Africa, althoutjh its cosmopolitan character makes the tradition doubtful. It is of a decidedly stoloniferous habit, and does not spread .so much by seed as by creeping stems, which root at every joint and make it a troublesome weed in cultivated land. If the soil be thoroughly turned up to the summer's sun or to the winter's frost, couch grass can be pretty easily killed, but the work- ing of the land under any other conditions simply tends to increase the amount by breaking the underground stems, and thereby increasing the numbers of centres from which future development takes place. In the Oudtshoorn dis- trict, where quick is troublesome in the lucerne camps, it is readily disposed of by first ploughing in May or June and sowing a grain crop, which is reaped in December. After watering the field, which is then hard and dry, to make it possible to plough and to cultivate, there is time to summer- fallow and thoroughly clean the land before the next sowing season. Both the stems referred to and the aboveground development supply excellent food for stock. In those regions where there is sufficient moisture for grass to grow, but sub- ject to periodical droughts, couch grass occupies an important place in permanent pasture, having great power of main- taining itself It is in such places that its cultivation ought to be encouraged. It is improved rather than injured by trampling and close grazing. On account of the seeds being so unreliable, the most successful method of propagating it in a small way, as in the formation of a lawn, is to bury in shallow furrows about four inches apart pieces of the plant chopped up into short lengths, but moisture must be available for the first few days after planting, either supplied by rain or by artificial means, else the chips die as the plant dies during the fallowing process. A troublesome couch grass in some soils is the buffalo grass, Stenotaphmm glabruvi, Trin., a much stronger plant than dub. The stems are also prostrate, but a greater pro- portion remains on the surface. Both of these couches are excellent lawn gras.ses, and are employed in the Colony as such, each forming a dense mat under foot. Fiorin or white bent grass, Agrostz's alba, L., var. stoloni- fera, has been naturalised in the humid district near George, Crass and green forage plants. 103 and found to be a troublesome weed in cultivated land, but an excellent pasture grass for the encouragement of milk secre- tion in cows. It is' unfortunately, although in all respects a grass of good cjuality for grazing and fodder purposes, one of the grasses most liable to be attacked by ergot, and its inclusion among British permanent pasture mixtures has in recent years been discontinued to a large extent in conse- quence. MacOwan states he has observed ergot on eight species of South African grasses, but most prominently on Gynino- thrix Jiordeifonnis, Nees, a strong grass, with a long cylin- drical spike of florets, growing frequently beside streams and vleis. Although there may not be enough ergot in the pastures to induce the worst forms of ergot poisoning, still when ergot is about there is every chance of it giving rise to abortion in cattle, sheep, and horses. The only effective prevention is to cut over the flowering culms of the coarse grasses which would run to seed. " Koper-draad," or copper-wire grass, Andropogon exca- vatiis, becomes so hard and bristh- as it matures that it has been favourably mentioned as a suitable material from which to manufacture paper, yet in the early stages of its growth it is of great value as a pasture grass. It was observed on the grassy veld near Queenstown on 15th August, coming up the first of all the various species represented, and the succulent young leaves were being greedily pulled four to six inches long from their sheaths by the sheep after the withered growth of the past season had been cleared off by burning. Bi'ojims Schraderi, Kth., is the so-called Australian prairie grass or Bromiis wiioloides, a robust annual, with great power in developing seed and establishing itself in land under cultiva- tion. It came originally via California and Australia from the seaport of Para, in tropical South America, and it has been conjectured that the title Prairie grass, and, directly or indirectly, also the Boer names Para, Paarde, Perde, Pere, &c., have been corrupted from the word Para. It requires too much moisture to suit the drier parts of the Colony, but it grows well in the New England district at high elevations, where the rainfall is comparatively heavy. It is sweet and tender, and greedily consumed by stock, and in composition I04 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. it is a grass of the first quality, containing 12.45 Pcr cent, of albuminoids and an ash rich in phosphates. It produces a large and conspicuous seed, which weighs about 16 lbs. to the bushel. The seed stems stand up three feet high, and the root leaves are numerous and broad. The seeds of a worthless annual weed, Broimis mollis, or the "goose grass" of the rye-grass field in Great Britain, have been sold in the Cape as the valuable prairie grass. It also seeds freely, and has great power of maintaining itself, but it is deficient in root leaves and is unattractive to stock. It is only on the high plateaus approaching 5,000 feet above the sea that the best British grasses could have any chance of growing unless under irrigation. Both of the rye-grasses, Loliiun perenne and Loliuni italiciun, were seen doing well at Southey's farm in the Middelburg district, but the experience at Oudtshoorn with these and with Timothy, Phleum pratense, was that the produce became hard and unattractive to animals unless water were available at all times. In the same district red clover, Trifolium prateiise, did not compare at all favourably with lucerne, not only on account of its liability to suffer from drought, but owing to the seed being so much smaller that it had greater difficulty in becoming estab- lished as a crop. Experiences in different parts were not by any means uniform. On William Frame's farm, near Queens- town, red clover and also perennial rye -grass were found growing apparently as perennial plants on a rich moist piece of meadow land, which could be put under irrigation at any time. Nevertheless, red clover is not to be compared to lucerne in the matter of suitability to South African con- ditions. A wild colonist from Europe, allied to Geraniiiin, Erodiuin inoschatitni, Willd., of large size and succulent habit of growth, is regarded in the cultivated districts of Koeberg and Malmes- bury as the sweetest and most valuable plant in the temporary pasture of rich well-manured soils, where it springs spontane- ously. All herbivorous animals are very fond of it while it is young. If cut when in flower, it makes excellent hay, and it is also well suited for storing in silo. The seeds are troublesome if they are permitted to mature. On handling, an elongated awn is observed to twist spirally like a corkscrew, and then GRASS AND GREEN FORAGE I'LANTS. IO5 it measures along with the seed nearly one inch in length. This motion is undoubtedly intended to plant the seed as it falls ; and to retain it in its position a number of hairs project like bristles from the seed, with an inclination towards the awn and away from the boring point, which touches the ground first as the seed drops. The seeds have proved a source of loss to the Cape farmer by becoming fixed in the wool, and they also get into the eyes of sheep, where they give rise to serious irritation. Forage Crops. Green barley is extensively grown in the Colony in winter, as a green forage crop for the use of all species of herbivorous live stock. Wherever irrigation is possible and feasible, the climate is never too cold to prevent the growth of barley, which is considered the best winter forage crop in South Africa. It is often sown about the first week of February, and it occupies the position as a winter food which roots do in Great Britain ; but with one important disadvan- tage, that the yield per acre is far inferior to that given by roots. Apart from the smaller yield per acre, there are pro- portionately fewer animals of all classes artificially provided for during winter in the Cape than in Great Britain, a con- dition of things which will probably change as systems of management develop and improve. The species most extensively cultivated is Scotch " bere " or " bigg," Hordeiini viilgare ; but the so-called " barley-wheat," a naked variety of common barley, H. distichiLiii, is increasing in favour with those who have had experience of it. It not only gives a larger yield, but it can be eaten later in the season than the common Cape barley without injuring the mouths of sheep feeding upon it, owing to its not becoming hard and woody so soon as the other. It is given with excellent results to ewes with early lambs, and to milch cattle. Even horses, which are more ticklish to manage than other stock in the matter of food, thrive well when fed largely if not entirely on green barley. If subjected to much road work in a Cape cart, horses thus fed are liable to become loose in the bowels, but those at work on the farm and running on the veld do admirably. Io6 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. Rye, Sccale ccreale, as a forage crop might be grown much more extensively for green winter food than it is. It is a hardier plant than barley under adverse conditions of growth, and locusts do not so easily injure its roots permanently. It possesses another advantage in the case of stock not wholly dependent upon green food. If animals require to run on the dried and withered veld in spring, and only get the green grain as a supplement to their natural food, they are less liable to be unsettled by rye than by barley, and they take more kindly to the veld on being turned out from a rye-field than from a barley one. A giant variety, called Saldana-Bay rye, is in favour on deep rich soils. It is most prolific, yielding fifty-fold, and growing five and even seven feet high. Probably rye might be more grown but for the colonial prejudice against giving rye-grain to horses unless when mixed with oats. Rye and a number of colonial grasses are subject to the attack of a fungus, Claviceps purpurea, Tul., the resting form or sclerotium stage of which is called ergot. Ikit it does not appear to produce in the Colony the serious consequences of ergot poisoning in cattle and sheep which have been experienced in Kansas, in New Zealand, and in Ireland. Lucerne, Medicago sativa, or the alfalfa of the United States of America, is without exception the most valuable of all green forage plants in dry and sunny climates liable to suffer from drought. It was cultivated by the ancients, and it is grown at the present time in all parts of the world. In the climate of Great Britain clovers grow so remarkably well that they successfully compete with lucerne, and there it does not assume the place of importance which is almost invariably given to it in warmer climates. It grows on a great many varieties of soil, provided there be present a good supply of lime, and not an excess of dense impervious clay. Fully 50 per cent, of the ash of lucerne is lime. Potash and phosphoric acid are the next best represented constituents, there being about 14 per cent, of each. It has great power of resisting the effects of drought, as has been demonstrated at Rothamsted, by Sir J. B. Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert, in virtue of its strong vigorous tap roots, often as thick as a man's wrist when the plant is of mature growth, going down in search of moisture. If a natural water supply be found percolating Lucerne ok Alfalfa, Meuicago sativa. U.S.A. Bulletin Nik /, i8 108 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. throui^h a porous stratum, at a depth of six or eight feet from the surface, no artificial watering is necessary. The roots sink to fifteen feet, and even twenty feet, under favourable circum- stances. However excellent lucerne is as a drought-resister, the area in South Africa is insignificant where irrigation is not necessary for the existence of the plant, or to secure a satisfactory yield. There is no crop which more freely responds to careful cultivation and judicious watering ; and although it is harmful to irrigate so that the surface soil runs together and becomes hard, yet the strength of lucerne roots makes it better able than most crops to withstand the pressure of the soil as it contracts and cracks on drying. It is not so with the young plant soon after germination, and in Cape Colony the seed ought to be sown at a time when the necessary moisture is likely to be provided by rains, and the application of irriga- tion water to the surface delayed as long as possible. The amount of seed sown per acre in the Colony varies between 7 lbs. and 20 lbs. per acre, an unusually wide margin. Not only the surface soil, but also the subsoil, should be in a loose condition, to encourage the descent of the tap roots. A good development of root growth implies a large amount of manurial root residue for the use of the succeeding crop, as well as power for growth in the existing one. Immense crops of green food can be got from lucerne when it is cut five or six, or even as many as eight or nine, times during one season. Three cuttings may be obtained the first season, yielding four tons of hay ; but under favourable conditions, ten and even twelve tons of hay may be gathered per acre, when the roots are at their most vigorous stage of growth. As the plants become old, some die, and there is a natural tendency for the crop to become thin upon the ground, although on rich soil, under favourable circumstances, lucerne growing in rows will spread naturally, and cover the intervening spaces for a time. Lucerne is best cut the first year to allow the plant to grow undisturbed by animals grazing, and to develop its roots. It is a general rule that this development is in proportion to the bulk of growth aboveground. When grazed, it is best to eat it off within a comparatively short time, when it has reached a good size, and then lay it in to rest and GRASS AND GREEN FORAGE PLANTS. IO9 sprout afresh, while the animals are moved on to other areas. In this way a number of animals may be kept in three paddocks, all at different stages of growth, and moved periodi- cally in rotation from one to the other. More satisfactory results are thus obtained than by pasturing stock all the while on the same area. Lucerne is equally well adapted for making into sweet silage or into hay, both products being highly appreciated by all sorts of herbivorous animals. Care has to be taken not to lose the leaves, which, freely exposed to the sun, become hard and brittle, and liable to break off and get lost. If the crop be handled in the early morning, while the leaves are flexible with the moisture from dew deposits, no loss need result, although the length of the work- ing day for lucerne is thereby made very short. A satisfac- tory method of saving the leaves has been introduced with decided success in some parts of Australia. The crop is put without much delay into small cocks in the field, and left there without being moved till it is ready to carry. Baling machines on wheels are brought alongside, and the cocks carefully lifted into the baling presses, and compacted by horse- or hand-levers into bales of convenient dimensions for handling, weighing i| cwts. to 2 cwts. each. Various species of dodder, Cnscnta, attach themselves by twining round the plant, and suck the juices from it ; but if milled or husked seed be used, and attention be paid to the cleaning of it, no loss from this cau.se need be sustained, as dodder seed is small, and can easil}' be removed in the process of cleaning. A parasitic fungus, Rhkoctonia medicaghiis, which attacks the root stock, and kills the plant, has done much injury to lucerne crops on the Continent of Europe, A dressing of five or six tons per acre of slaked lime, in the condition of a finely divided powder, is the most effective remedy, to- gether with changing the crop on the affected ground for a few years. The cultivation of lucerne may be said to be merely in its infancy in Cape Colony. It is true that most satisfactory results on a large scale have been secured in the district of Oudtshoorn, largely associated with the feeding of ostriches in small lucerne camps, described in Chapter XI, But the farmers throughout a large area of the Colony, suitable for no FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. lucerne cultivation, are not yet aware of its merits as a pasture and forage plant. The one important drawback to lucerne as a green fodder plant is that its roots remain dormant during winter, while green barley makes steady progress. Its growth is, however, all the more rapid and luxuriant in spring, and its yield being so much more abundant than that of any grain crop, the defect mentioned can be more than made up for, in competi- tion with other fodder crops, by storing it in silo during the summer months. As irrigation extends, the importance, or rather the indispensable character, of lucerne as a fodder producer and as a soil restorer will gradually be realised. Although it was grown in Grahamstown in a small way by a good many people as early as i860, it was only intro- duced into Oudtshoorn, where it was first grown on a large scale, about 1870, and at first the price of the seed was 2s. per lb., but now 3 id. to 46. per lb. will purchase it. Richard Gavin, one of the most extensive and most successful advocates of lucerne culture, believes in a liberal allowance of seed — as much as 20 lbs. per acre, on account of the tendency of quick grass, Cynodon dactylon, to oust it. For a number of years after its introduction large profits were made by growing seed, but the best land in the district, with the accumulated fertility resulting from the decaying roots, and the manure of the large numbers of stock kept, has become too rich to produce seed. The plants develop herbaceous tendencies rather than seed- producing properties. The seed is sown in spring between 15th May and 15th June, and water is not led on to the land until the beginning of August, when the plant is big and strong. A wheat crop, thinly seeded and planted on a well-worked soil, proves an excellent nurse for the young lucerne plant. It is necessary to break up lucerne leas when the plants become thin on the ground, as they naturally tend to do, and all the more rapidh' so when the soil is not in every way suitable. Restoration in this fashion is necessary every seven years in many countries where lucerne grows satisfactorily. The suitability of the Oudtshoorn district to this crop may be learned from the fact that lucerne is still growing which was sown in 1879. In California a common method of restoring the waning GRASS AND GREEN FORAGE PLANTS. Ill strength of a field of old lucerne beginning to get thin on the ground is by ploughing or cutting up the surface sod, to divide the roots, and then rolling and irrigating it. With so much quick or couch grass as exists in the Colony, this method would not in most places prove satisfactory, as the creeping stems of the dub would be cut up and planted at the same time. The hay harvest begins 25th September, and goes on till February or March. The crops are cut as the flower begins to open wide. The lucerne cut one day, if heavy, is merely turned over the following morning, beginning at 4 a.m., and ending before the dew lifts, and it is ready to stack next morning. In place of turning, if the crop be thin, the swathes are gathered into little cocks to prevent the excessive action of the sun, which is injurious. If the crop be cut at the proper time, lucerne hay can be put in with a greater percentage of moisture in it than most fodder crops, without injury from heating or fermentation. A gentle sweat is- thought by some to improve the quality by softening the stalk, but if fermentation fully develops, and the temperature rises much, the quality is reduced. When the crop is cut too green, it is liable to go wrong in this way, and after cooling down, to become dry and hard. Lucerne grows excellently in the limestone soils near Worcester and Robertson, as many as nine cuttings being sometimes taken in one season. To the south of the first range of mountains there are few places where lucerne will grow, unless where limestone appears in the formation, as in the vicinity of Mossel Bay. It refuses to grow in the Ruggens, near Caledon, after the second year, except in the ostrich camps in which the birds have been supplied with broken bones. In the Bedford district there is ample scope for the cultivation of lucerne on lands that can be irrigated, as with the rapid extension of the dairy industry, lucerne will become invaluable both as a winter and a summer food for cows. In the district of Stellenbosch, .sowing is done in September in preference to May, as the land is found to be too wet during winter for the young plant. In Aliwal North, and in the Middelburg district, where the soil is often 112 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. more dense and intractable to manage, becoming hard and brick - like after being irrigated, lucerne is best sown in Februar}% so that the summer rains keep it going without surface watering till the roots get down and become estab- lished. The great difficulty is experienced in getting the plant to start, after that the dangers are not great. Another reason why sowing is not done in spring is that annual weeds come up in some places in such abundance at that season, that it is found best to move the surface to encourage the weeds to germinate, to clean the land when the weeds are young, and to sow in the latter part of summer A\'hen the weedy growth is not active. Sown for this reason in February, there is yet time to grow a crop to cut before winter. On the Irene Estate, a little to the south of Pretoria, in the Transvaal, lucerne was found doing remarkably well on rich alluvial soil. Irrigation is not there necessary in summer, as rain is sufficiently abundant, but it is watered in August after frost has disappeared. Cutting is done eight times during the season. Lucerne being a leguminous plant, has the power, through the medium of wartlike processes or callosities on the fibres of the roots, of fixing the free nitrogen of the air, and taking it into its own circulation in virtue of some symbiotic action existing between the organism which does the work of com- bination within the warts and the circulation of the plant itself (see Plate 26). Such a quantity of nitrogen is thus stored up in the roots of lucerne, that the land under this crop steadily becomes richer, although the entire growth which shows above- ground may have been removed in successive seasons. Tagasaste or tree lucerne, Cytisiis pToliferus, Van, from the high mountain slopes of Palma in the Canaries, has been tried as a forage plant in Cape Colony, but the climate is too dry. It is poisonous to horses, inducing similar symp- toms to those occurring from poisoning by the allied Cytisus l(xbuninin. With a crop which grows so well as common lucerne this plant is not required in Cape Colony. The so-called stink clover, Melilotus officinalis, a connec- tion of Bokhara clover, M. alba, gives a sweet scent to newly mown hay, but is not eaten by cattle except when it is very young, or if the animals are starving. It is an annual and an GRASS AND GREEN EOKAGE PLANTS. I I objectionable weed in arable land, unless in a vineyard where it acts the part of a fixer of free nitrogen, and can be destroyed at any time by the horse-hoe when its services are no longer rec]uircd. It is usually to be distinguished from Boer clover b}' a puri:)lish stripe up the centre of the leaflet. Yellow Boer clover, Medicago nigra, is sometimes called the old Dutch clover or Cape clover. The flowers are single, while the stink clover possesses a spray of flowers. The pod of Boer clover forms a spiral bur which adheres to the wool of sheep and lessens its value. Animals are fond of it, and ostriches are liable to eat it out of a pasture. This plant grows naturally, and the seed is not sown. Bur clover, Medicago denticulata, does not stand so erect as Boer clover. It produces e.xcellent food for stock, but it is not cultivated owing to the injur)' produced b}- the bur adhering to the wool of sheep. It should not be forgotten that all the various clovers, and nearl)' all the other plants of the natural order Leguminosa; — whatever their merits may be as food — are more than plants of other natural orders productive of soil fertility, owing to the power which they possess of utilising the free nitrogen of the air, and leaving it stored in their roots for the uses of succeeding generations of crops. Official Return of Crops Cut Creen. — 1893-4—94-5. Amount in Transkei Total in Whole Colony. Names of Crops. Muids*— Colony Proper. and Walfish Bay. 1894-5 Wheat . Bundles 116,654 20,805 137,459 1893-4 „ (Figures Imperfect) ,, 1894-5 Barley . Ikindles 2,413,257 53,444 2,466,701 1893-4 )) 5> 1,812,000 52,531 1,864,531 1894-5 Oat hay „ 393,020 118,530 511,550 1893-4 )) 784,259 97,872 822,131 1894-5 Rye . ■t 212,642 1,525 214,167 1893-4 It „ 201,944 10,600 212,544 1894-5 Mealies )J 248,667 35,496 284,163 1893-4 ,, >, 173,851 44,350 218,201 1894-5 Kaffir corn „ 8,310 10 8,320 1893-4 ), " 4,155 5,900 10,055 * 1 l\Iuid = 3 Bushels H CHAPTER VI. WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND OTHER THAN GRASSES. Thistles — Sorrels — Coco or Nut Grass — Dubbletje — Cockscomb — Stra- monium — Irrigation — Bur-weed — Charlock — Fathen — Wild Oat — Wild Vetch — Dagga or Indian Hemp — Goudsbloem. The Texas poppy, Argcinone mexicaiia, L., is popularly reckoned amon^^ thistles at the Cape. It has a pretty yellowish flower, but is a very objectionable weed which no stock will eat. The Canada thistle of America, C. arvense, is also present in the Colon)', and is productive of a consider- able amount of inconvenience at times. Its history is some- what unique. In certain seasons no thistles appear. In other years, when untimely rains fall, the plant sometimes takes the upper hand in arable land — for example, in the Caledon dis- trict — and for three years nothing^ else can grow. At the end of that time it dwindles or disappears. This is a parallel to the state of things which exists upon strong bush land in New Zealand, if recently felled and burnt off, and the sowing of grass seeds not done at once. On land which is permitted to fall back into the natural state of the veld, the growth of a dense crop of thistles is pro- ductive of good rather than of injury. Of the numerous sorrels for which Cape Colony is re- nowned, a number are objectionable weeds in garden cultiva- tion, growing and seeding freely, and, owing to the presence of their corm-bearing roots, being impossible to eradicate. Two species may be mentioned that are particularly troublesome — one with a very pretty pale yellow flower, Oxalis cer?iiia, and another with a red flower, O. purpurea, L. The sorrels are quite different in every respect from the common dock sorrel, Rumcx acetocella, with the one exception that it also is a troublesome weed. Its seed is frequently distributed in horse manure, having passed through the alimentary canal of some WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND. II5 animal without suffering injury, and probably prepared, during its passage, for speedy germination. Coco or nut grass, Cyperus rotundus, Kth., sometimes erroneously called Indian quick grass, is one of the most uni- versal and most objectionable weeds of cultivation. It seems to thrive best on the heavier classes of land, and where crops are irrigated. Efforts to eradicate it, directed frequently, too, 'during winter against the corm, which so far resembles a young onion, have proved unsuccessful, chiefly owing to the fact that the plant propagates its species much more readily by seed than by the budding of the tuber. The successive steps in the process of extermination are to prevent the plant seeding, to encourage the germination of the seeds already in the ground by frequent hoeing or moving of the surfjice, and to get rid of the bulbs themselves by turning them up to the sun during the summer season. By these means land can be effectively cleared of the pest in one or at most in two years. As the seeds pass uninjured through the digestive system of the horse, manure made by animals eating nut-grass hay should not be applied to land until it has been frec^uently turned and well rotted. The dubbletje, Eiiiex ceiitropodiiini, Meisn., is excessively troublesome as a weed when once established in arable land. In appearance the foliage strongly resembles that of dock- sorrel. Ostriches are particularly fond of its young and tender shoots. It produces an extremely prickly, fleshy bur, which, on becoming dry and hard, is most troublesome to the bare feet of Kaffirs and of dogs. Fathen, or mealy goose-foot, Chenopodmni album, L., is also a troublesome annual when it gets established in quantity on arable land. It must be destroyed before shedding its seed, else a fresh crop will come up annually for years afterwards. Cockscomb, Aniaranthus hypocJiondriaciis, L., like the poisonous stramonium, is to be seen springing on the manure of old cattle kraals, as well as in cultivated fields. It derives its plebeian name from the dense red inflorescencewhich ultimately produces little black seeds. Frost kills the plant, but the seeds remain for years in the ground. When a seed germinates late in the season, and there is a danger of frost coming, the plant, as if to dodge the danger, seeds when it is yet quite small. Nut-Grass or Coco, Cvferus rotundus. 2. A String of Tu' ers. 3. A Flower Magnified. Copied frjiii U.S.A. AgrictiHur.il Report 18S7 — reduced onc-fourlh. WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND. I 17 The stramonium just mentioned, "stink blaar," Datura tatitla, L., grows a large fruit capsule. If eaten freely, it brings on paralysis in young ostriches. This is somewhat like the effects produced upon poultry and even upon ostriches which have eaten freely of pumpkin pips. They become crazy and paralysed in the use of their limbs for a time. Once they acquire the bad habit of eatmg pips it is difficult to break them from it. The juice of the leaf is used as a remedy for sore eyes in sheep. Irrigation is a fruitful source of the distribution of weeds when weeds are permitted to grow on the banks of supply watercourses. The seeds of the bur-weed, Xantliiuin spinosuni, is frequently so distributed, and once permitted to shed seed on land, a crop of young plants will spring up under favourable circumstances any time during at least the following five years. Charlock, wild mustard, or " romincs," Sinapis arvensis, L., is a widely prevalent weed of the corn-fields of Cape Colony. It is also noted for the length of time its seeds remain in the soil without germinating. The wild oat, Avena fatna, tends to increase in quantity on lands which are too frequently cropped and are becoming poorer, as for example in the Koeberg district. In some parts of the Western Province the wild oat comes up so abundantly that it is cut for hay, and as in California it produces fodder of good quality if its cutting is not too long delayed. If permitted to become ripe, it is liable to irritate the mouths of horses consuming it. A wild purple-flowered vetch, Vicia sativa, L., var., which twines round and binds the common grain crops — oats, wheat, and barley — into a dense mat, is considered one of the worst weeds of cultivation in the Queenstown district. Although its appearance in quantity is ruinous to the crops mentioned, it has a few redeeming qualities. It does not come up with the mealie crop. Stock are fond of it while it is young and succulent, but as it approaches maturity its stems become hard and woody, and it does not make into good hay. Although destructive to the crops among which it grows, it is an active agent in the valuable work of the fixation of free nitrogen by means of numerous elongated paplike warts, purplish in colour, Il8 FARMINC. INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. and clustered often in twos and threes, and most abundant on the larije fibrous lateral roots, not many appearing on the tap root. The seeds lie in the ground for years, and a fresh crop of vetches comes up each season even when the plant is not allowed to seed. It can only be got rid of by two or three years of bare fallowing, although heavy kraal manuring checks its growth considerably. Dagga, or Indian hemp, Cannabis sativa, L., the " has- hish " of the Egyptian fellah, is a weed allied to flax which grows in gardens. It is collected, dried, and smoked by the lower classes of Hottentots, who are rendered stupid and incapable of connected work while under the influence of it. There are various methods of smoking it, but probably the most elaborate is that in which it is placed in a hole in the ground, and the smoke is drawn up while water is held in the mouth. This is run out along a straw held by the lips, and the bubbles of air and smoke break off like little beads as the descent of the straw is made. The goudsbloem, or Cape weed of Australia, Crypto- stemma calendulaceuin, R. Br., with a yellow flower somewhat like a dandelion, but with a dark centre, is one of the most conspicuous plants in arable land lying down to pasture. As in Australia, it is most relished by animals after the leaves, which also somewhat resemble those of the dandelion, become dried up in the sun. CHAPTER VII. FORESTRY. Three Kinds of Forest Growth in Cape Colony — Forests of Knysna and Amatola Mountains — Forest .Scenery — Most Important Indigenous Timl)er Trees — Yellow-wood — .Stink wood — .Sneezewood — Iron wood — Assegai Wood — Sciul) Forests — Mimosa Thorn — Forest Aspects near Cape Town — The Oak — Cluster and Stone Pines — White Poplar — List of Naturalised Trees — Species of Eucalyptus — Beefwood — Australian Wattles — The Forest Department — Schedule of Reserved Indigenous Timber Trees. The wooded area of Cape Colony includes three distinctly different kinds of forest growth, (i.) The remains of the primeval evergreen forests of South Africa, which at one time covered much of the surface of the country now bare and barren. This consists of high, heavy timber trees, and is now confined to sections of the mountain ranges near the sea-coast, and always facing southward. (2.) The coast scrub of indigenous small timber trees and bush. (3.) The areas, like the Cape Peninsula, and many small centres throughout the Colony, where imported species of trees have been planted. In addition to these three very different combinations of tree growth, the so-called "mimosa thorn," Acacia Jiorridtu and a few other less numerous species, mostly acacia, clot the land- scape in certain areas where sufficient subsoil moisture exists for their growth, and even form clumps of bush. According to the Cape Official Handbook published in 1893, the indigenous heavy timber forest area of the Colony which had then been surveyed extended to 550 square miles of country. Since the passing of the Forest Act in 1888, this has become public property, controlled by the Forest Department of the Colonial Government. The area is gradu- ally extending as the work of demarcation goes on from year to year. The two main centres in which it is represented, and which differ very considerably in some respects, are (i) I20 FARMINC. INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. Knysna, in a central coast district of the Colony ; and (2) the Amatola Mountains, north of King Williamstown, in the Eastern Province. It appears in smaller areas to the north- east in the Transkei. It is also present in Natal and in the regions farther north-east. At Knysna the forest grows at sea-level, and up to fully 2,000 feet abo\'e it. The main portion, at an elevation of about 600 feet, forms a belt ten miles broad to the south of the Outeniqua Mountains, stretching eastward from George for over one hundred miles. The soil in the tree-covered area is " extremely fertile," owing to the accumulation of humus and to the forest-cover- ing preventing the washing awa}' of the soluble mineral and finely divided earthy matter from the surface. A great con- trast exists between this and the soil of the barren country lying outside the forest area. The region is humid. The rainfall, which varies from 20 inches to 40 inches, is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year, and it helps to regulate the temperature, which in consequence ranges between the mean temperatures of the South of England and the South of France — viz., from a little over 50' F. to a little over 60" F. The Amatola forests are farther inland, and are on the whole about 2,000 feet above those of Knysna, running from 2,000 feet to 4,000 feet above sea-level. On the Drakensberg, still farther north-east, the elevation reached by heavy timber goes up to 4,000 and even 6,000 feet. As the distance from Knysna increases in this direction, the winters become more and more dry until winter rains disappear. The Amatola forests contain more heavy timber, and are also more open than the Knysna forests, areas not covered with trees growing good grass for grazing purposes. Though the two forests are in man}' respects similar, " a distinct change of trees occurs with the change of climate to dr\' winters. The stinkwood, essenwood, quar and wit els of Knysna disap[)ear, and are replaced in the Amatola forests by sneezewood, Kaffir-plum, white ironwood, Kafifir- boom, and wild lemoen." The natural forest scenery of South Africa is very grand and beautiful. A ])rofusion of interstitial decoration, consist- Plaie 27. — a Roau thruugh the Forest. Face /'age 120. Plaie 2S. — Dig \ , Face page 121. FORESTRY. 121 ing of tree ferns and gigantic creepers, which latter droop to the ground from the tops of the highest trees, together with " masses of gorgeous flowers, such as the Calodeiidron in the eastern forests and the more richly beautiful and scented vlier at Knysna." The following are the most important of the indigenous timber trees of South Africa : * — Common Name. Botanical Name. Stink wood . . . Ocotea biillata {¥.. Mey.) Sneeze wood . . . Pfei-oxyloii utile (Y.. Si Z.) True Yellow- wood . . J^docarpiis T/iimhergii (Wook.) Outeniqua Yellow-wood Podocarpus elongata (L'Herit. ) Black Ironwood . . Olea laurtfolia {'La.mk.) . White Iron wood . . Toddalia lanceolata {\ja.vi\V.) Wild Olive . . . Oka vernuosa \X^\\^.) . Assegai . . Curtisiafaghiea (Ait.) . White Pear . . . A/>odyies dimidia/a {Y-. 'Mey.) Kersewood . . . Ptcrorclastrzis variabilis (Son(\.) Wit Els . . . . Platylophus trifoliatus (X>o\\.) Sartraan . . . . Elaodendo/t a-oceiiiii (DC) ^^lier .... Nuxiafloribtiuda (Benth.) Red Els. . . . Cwionia Capensis (L.) . Essenwood . . Ekebergia Capensis {?i^Axxm.) . Hard Pear . . . Olinia cymosa [T\\\inh.) . Buckenhoiit (Cape Beech) Myrsine melanophlceos (R. Br.) Kamassi . . . Goniovia Kaiiiassi {E. Mey.) . Mountain Pear . . Cathastriiiii Capensc [Twrcz.) . Cape Chestnut . . Calodcudron Capcnse (Thunb.) Kaffir-l^oom . . . Etythrina caffra \^\m\\\.i.) Kaffir-Plum . . . Harpcphyllum caffru/ti [V,e\v\-\.) Weight of a Cubic Foot (dry) in lbs. 49 37 29 6i 57 71 58 52 52 38 54 47 47 40 68 45 58 56 39 16 39 Yellow- wood forms " about eight-tenths of all the large timber in the forests " of Cape Colony, and " in the best forests about one-half of all the trees are yellow-wood.'' There are two varieties — the Outeniqua, common or bastard yellow - wood, of large size, and the true yellow - wood, which is a much smaller tree, with wood of a shorter fibre and closer grain, although very much like the other in general appearance. Some of the Outeniqua trees grow to very large dimensions, " one known as the ' Eastern Monarch ' measuring 23 feet in girth and 80 feet in height." The wood, * Taken from the chapter on " Woods and Forests," by D. E. Hutchins, in the " Official Handbook of the Cape, &c.," to which the author is further laryelv indebted. 122 FARMINC; INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. which is of a light-yellow colour, makes excellent joisting and flooring. It is also used for railway sleepers after being creosoted. The mature wood is becoming fashionable for furniture making, as it stains and poli.shes well, and can be made to imitate walnut, mahogany, and ebony, and some specimens taken from old trees are naturally dark and orna- mental. Unless the timber is felled at the right season — May, June, and July — and allowed to lie under shelter for a year to season, it is liable to decay rapidly from dry-rot. Stinkwood or laurelwood derives the first and more common of these names from the offensive smell given off by the timber when newly cut. The smell, however, soon goes off. The laurel-like leaf is "spicy and aromatic, and tastes like cinnamon when chewed." The wood is almost equiva- lent in strength and durability to teak, and being also beautiful in appearance — white, mottled, and black— it is held equally in high esteem by cabinet-makers and waggon- makers. It is good enough to export, but the supply is limited in amount. It forms only about 9 per cent, of the timber in the Knysna forests. The habit of growth of the tree is very peculiar and interesting. The seed is seldom fertile, and the growth of wood is mostly the product of coppice shoots. " The main trunk of the tree dies from the top downwards, and from the base is produced a sheaf of young shoots round the dead trunk." If the old trunk remains standing while decay goes on, as it tends naturally to do, " the young shoots put out roots which run down the parent trunk and eventually reach the ground, where they take root." Sneezewood is classed with jarrah and greenheart as one of the most imperishable and valuable timbers grown in South Africa or in any country. The length of time required to induce decay in the heartwood is not yet determined. It is invaluable for fencing posts, as it has not been known to rot, although in use since the early days of the Colony. It is not attacked by the white ant of the tropics nor by marine borers. It owes its safety and its durable qualities to the presence of a pungent essential oil, which also gave origin to the name of " sneezewood," as it sets up irritation in the nostrils, followed by " \-iolcnt fits of sneezing," when fine saw- FORESTRY. 1 23 dust is accidentally taken into them during the operation of cutting it up. As machine bearings, it is superior to ligjinm vike, and it wears longer than either brass or iron. If it has a defect, it is in its being so hard and difficult to work. It makes excellent furniture with a " mottled curly grain resembling satinwood." The tree is not one of the largest of the heavy timber trees. It does not grow in Knysna, but belongs to the Eastern Province, where it was used in large quantities as firewood until its real value was demonstrated. Now it is not only a scarce but a dear commodity. The heartwood of ironwood is almost as imperishable as that of sneezewood. It is much used for making the frame- works of ox-waggons, and in spite of the difficulty entailed in working, it is considered excellent for cabinet-making pur- poses. The tree grows a long straight bole 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and 20 to 60 feet high, terminated by a spreading crown of numerous branches. It is abundant in Knysna and in the Amatola forests. Assegai wood is the most valuable of the waggon woods for making spokes and felloes. It is " extremely tough and strong, heavy and elastic, close-grained and durable, if exposed to only moderate damp." The colour is bright red, but it soon fades if exposed to the air. The tree is becoming scarce at Knysna, but in the Amatolas, trees of 40 to 70 feet high, and 2 to 3, and even 4 feet in diameter, may be found. The scrub forests, such as the Addo Bush, near Port Elizabeth, arc of little value except as fuel copses. Although occupying the largest forest area along the eastern coast-line of the Colony, and lining the valleys of the rivers, they are not worth the expense of surveying and management on the Con- tinental plan, such as that adopted by the Forest Depart- ment in connection with the management of the heavily timbered country. They are not liable to the wholesale destruction by fire which is the terror of the forest depart- ments of most countries in which there are very dry seasons. The mimosa thorn or " doornboom," Acacia Jiorrida, Willd., is the most common scrubby-tree or bush marking the course of the Karoo rivers, and on the open veld main- 124 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CARE COLONY. taitiing its existence in virtue of its numerous strong white thorns. Its wood is hard and durable, and useful for minor farm purposes. The leaves as well as the pods afford food for goats and sheep in times of drought and scarcity. It has been explained in another place that it periodically suffers from a scale insect. It serves as a host for species of Loranthus and mistletoe, very abundant in some districts. It is from several species of Acacia,* chiefly y^. saligna, growing in Central Africa, that the commercial g"um - arable is derived. The brown colour of some gums is due to the presence of a fungus which can be artificially cultivated in the laboratory, and Dr Edington's researches point in the direction of certain organisms which injuriously affect the animals of the farm being found in a similar condition in Cape gum. Another species, A. caffra, Willd., mingles with mimosa, and resembles it in habit of growth and general appearance, but it is not so numerously represented, nor docs it extend so far as Jiorrida from river banks. The camel thorn, A. giraffes^ Burch., grows to a tree of considerable size, with a clean upright bole and spreading head. It is seen in the north of the Colony, and forms a conspicuous feature in some of the heavy bush country lying still nearer the equator. In the neighbourhood of Kimberley, where at one time it was abundant on the bright red sandy soils that appear in that district, it has been almost destroyed by cutters of firewood. With a little care and protection the " kameel-doorn," which is a handsome as well as a valuable addition to the natural adornments of a level and monotonous landscape, would yet re-establish itself in soil suitable to its growth. The stranger who lands at Cape Town sees little of the two forest areas described, as the indigenous trees which at one time covered the slopes of Table Mountain and the adjoining mountains have been destroyed, with the exception of a remnant of large timber-trees left in the deepest gorges where forest fires cannot penetrate, and from which it would be difficult and expensive to remove timber. The Forest * Acacia verek, Guill., gives the best white Egyptian gum of commerce. A. stcnocarpa, Hochst., gives the brownish gum of Nubia and the east coast. A. guvnnifera., W., gives BarlDary gum, &c. FORESTRY. 125 Department has done much to provide a new and modern European covering of tree-growth, although its operations are, in spite of all precautions, liable to be retarded by fires, which there is too good reason to believe are at times the work of native incendiaries. The three trees which have been introduced with greatest success in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town are the oak, Qiierciis pedniiailata, the cluster pine, Pinus pinaster, and the stone pine, P. pinea. Oaks shed their leaves during winter. Broken Bush of so-called Mimosa, Acacia horrida, Willd.* but only for a few weeks. The growing season is in conse- quence longer than in Europe, and the growth is almost twice as rapid. The wood of the conifers under the circumstances is naturally inferior, and the bark is deeply indented, and presents an exceptionally rough appearance to the eye. The oak has been naturalised at Cape Town for upwards of two hundred years. It grows with astonishing vigour and *The most numerously and most widely represented tree in Cape Colony. The thorny spines which serve to protect it from destruction by the browsing of animals during times of drought and scarcity, and the seed pods which supply nutritious food for live stock, are both clearly illustrated. 126 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. rapidity in the western area, in which winter rains fall. It grows freely in South Africa generally, even where winter rains do not occur, except, of course, on the dry Karoo. The foliage pro- duced is dense, and the fruit exceptionally large and well matured. The appearance and also the market value of a vast number of the oaks near Cape Town have been injured by the objectionable practice of planting the young trees at too late a period, and " cutting their heads off as if they were truncheons." The cluster pine is a more recent importation than the oak. It, like the stone pine, produces seed freely and in abundance, and is spreading rapidly on Table Mountain and on the worthless Cape Flats. The wood is coarse, and requires to be protected by creosote to preserve it from rapid decay when used for outside purposes. The stone pine is liable to the attacks of a fungoid disease, which is a serious drawback to its usefulness. The wood, though slightly more durable, does not grow so quickly as that of the cluster pine. The white poplar, Popnlus alba, also grows well in the Cape Peninsula, particularly on black soil flats, where it acts as a check to forest fires. Although the four naturalised trees mentioned are the most abundant and the most in evidence, many other well-known European and Australasian species have been successfully introduced. The following list is made up of the names, selected from a list of over one hundred and fifty, of the species most in demand which have been sold or supplied from the Tokai and the Kluitjes Kraal nursery plantations to the public : — Botanical Name. Aberia caffra Acacid deal bat a . ,, dccurrcjis „ pyciia7itha „ saligna . Casuarina qiiadrh'alvis ,, suberosa . Ciipressus niacrocarpa „ pyraiiddalis „ senipervirens ,, torulosa Eucalyptus ainyi^daluia ,, cormita . Common Name. Kei Apple. Black Wattle. Pycnantha Wattle. Suberosa Beefwood. Cypress, macrocarpa. „ pyramidalis. „ Common. ,, Twisted. Giant Gum. Cornuta Gum. Photo, hy Wilson, Aberdeen, X.H. Plate 30. — Avenue of Firs at Rondecosch. J- ace page 12 FORESTRY, 127 Piotanical Nciinc. Eucalyptus citriodora „ calopJiylla ■ „ corynocalyx „ dh'crsicolor „ eiigcnioides „ i^Iobulus . „ go )iio calyx „ Gininii „ longifolia „ Icucoxylon „ microcorys „ marginata „ melliodora „ obliqua „ rcsitiifcra „ folnesla „ rostrata . „ siderophloia „ tcrcticoruis „ vimi7talis Hakca suaveolens Leptosperinum Iccvigaiuin Lyciuni horridum Pinus Canaricnsis ,, Halcpcnsis ,, insignis . „ Pinaster . Populiis inoiiilifera „ fastigiata Qucrciis peduncidata . Robinia pseudoacacia . Salix vimmalis . Tamarix orientalts Conimoii Name. Scented Gum. Calophylla Gum. Sugar Gum. Diversicolor Gum. Blue Gum. Longifolia Gum. Leucoxylon Gum. Microcorys „ Jarrah (true) „ Melliodora Robusta „ Rostrata „ Tereticornis „ V'iminalis „ Common Hakea. Australian Myrtle. Cape Box-Thorn. Canary Island Pine. Jerusalem Pine. Insignis „ Cluster „ Cottonwood. Lombardy Poplar. Common Oak. Robinia. Common Osier. Tamarisk. Many species of Eucalyptus have been successfully grown in Cape Colon}', in Natal, and in the Transvaal. The wonderful results in tree growing obtained near Johannesburg have already been referred to in Chapter II. Of all the species of Eucalyptus which appear in the foregoing list, the blue-gum, E. globulus, introduced in 1828, is the one of largest and most rapid growth. After the first crop has been cut it springs quickly as coppice shoots, and under favour- able circumstances yields at the rate of ten tons of dry wood per acre annually, the second growth frequently being better than the first. The wood is mostly used for pit props and I2cS FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CARE COLONY. firewood. Much of it has been sent frcjm the Government plantations at Worcester to the Kimberley diamond mines. The wood, when dry, is difficult to work, and it is extremely liable to split while seasoning, especially if it be not cut at the proper season, but when this danger is avoided it forms useful tough wood for waggon work and other purposes. Now that the first planting rush is past, and people are becoming less anxious for rapid growth of trees when secured at the sacrifice of the quality of the timber, the following species of Eucalyptus are most rapidly supplanting the blue- gum in public favour — E. rostrata, E. coniuia, E. inargiii- ata (jarrah), E. amygdixlina (giant gum), and E. robnsta. Near Johannesburg gum-trees were mostly planted in rows at a distance of 3 feet and 4 feet apart each way, but this was found to be much too close to secure quick returns, and probably 6 feet, or even 9 feet, according to Sutton of Natal, would be a much more satisfaclor)- width between the rows^ Young gums are liable to be killed by the frost which occurs in the higher regions of South Africa, but after they have been established for a few years they become hardy and able to resist it. Although gum-trees are generally successful, there are places where they do not thrive. At Pietermaritzburg- they die off after coming to a good height, and on the hard irony soil near Port Elizabeth gums do badly. The trees which seem best able to overcome the soil disadvantages of that portion of the Colony are species of cypress and the Norfolk Island pine. A species of beefwood, Casuarhia equisetifolia , Forst., with erect, short, needle-like leaves jointed like an equisetum, produces a red wood (resembling beef), which, when carefully seasoned, is useful for many farm purposes. The wood of the long pendent leaved species, C. quadrivalvis^ Lab., which also grows well in the Colony as an ornamental tree, is worthless. The Australian wattles have acclimatised readil}', and are represented by a good many species. The common wattle of Westralia, Acacia saligiia, i.'fof those useful for the produc- tion of tan bark, the one which thrives best. It grows better FORESTRY. 1 29 than either the A. decurreiis, var. mollis, or A. pycnantha, which in their native places yield the largest percentage of tan. The price of bark remains about £a^ per ton, and at that figure it does not leave a satisfactory return for its collec- tion, the cost of which averages about 2s. 6d. per 100 lbs. The "hardy Port Jackson \N2iXX[Q, A. falcata^zwd. A. cyclopis, grow freely anywhere in South Africa." For the purposes of forest management the Colony is divided into four conservancies, each placed under a con- servator, who annually reports to Government through the Department of Agriculture. The following is a list of the divisions referred to, with the last published annual statement of the receipts from forest produce, and expenditure of each conservancy attached : — Conservancies. The Western The Midland The Eastern The Transkei Total . . . .£18,683 ^29,832 Total adverse balance for one year ;/^i 1,149 The excess of expenditure over receipts must not be looked upon as loss, but as an investment by Government of capital of a substantial and useful kind, which will in due time yield satisfactory returns. The system of forestry adopted in Cape Colony is fashioned after the most scientific Indian and Continental methods, which involve protection against fire and other sources of preventable injury ; the survey of areas under control, and the subdivision of these into sections, so that a regular working plan or succession of crops, extending over a lengthened period of years, may be adopted. The felling of timber is not now wasteful, indiscriminate, and general as it used to be, but is confined to certain areas, which in turn are reconstituted by resowing or replanting. Resowing is in favour, owing to being so much less expensive than replanting Revenue. Expenditure £5,892 £13,339 4,664 7,785 5,779 3,966* 2,348t 4,742 * Exclusive of expenditure on drift sand reclamation, t Includes £339 from fines imposed. I 130 FARMINCi INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. — the figures in one return made in connection with work clone at Kluitjes Kraal in 1894 being for sowing 126 acres of cluster pine £]. ys. 6d. per acre, and for planting a similar area ;^8. 17s. 8d. per acre. The broadcasting' of seed gives, owing to the rough nature of the ground, better results than drilling', although if, by the use of better drills or other means, this difficulty could be overcome, a great saving of seed would be made by the use of the drill ; and, moreover, the luxuriant weedy growth which at present absorbs so much of the energy of the Forest Department to keep it in check would be more easily combated. The Forest Department is only in its infancy, and once it has got into better working order, a greater return than at present for money expended may be confidently anticipated. Home-grown seed is being collected at a reasonable cost, of better quality than seed that at one time had to be imported at very high prices. Seed of Acacia pyctiantha, which cost to import 5s. per lb., is now sold by Government at 3d. per lb. Private enterprise in the growth of trees is encouraged by the public being able to purchase from the Forest Nur- series, such as those at Tokai and Kluitjes Kraal, in the Western Province, a suitable selection of species for any locality at the moderate average cost of Sd. each ; and it is satisfactory to know that the demand in this direction has rapidly increased during recent years. The natural aspirations of the Department are to provide in the first instance such timber as is suitable for home con- sumption, in place of consumers having to depend upon the imports, which are larger than they ought to be if the home product had a fair chance in the market, and ultimately to develop an export trade in certain forest products, for the growth of which colonial conditions are specially adapted. With a view to these ends, it is to be hoped that Government will make no unnecessary delay in providing timber stores, such as is advocated by the conservator of the Western Conser- vancy, in which colonial grown timber may be kept and seasoned, so that when supplied to the public it may be delivered in a condition which will give general satisfaction. To settle all points of uncertainty about the time and method of handling and seasoning the timber, an extensive series of FORESTRY. 131 experiments would require to be carried out. Owing to the nature of the cHmate the greatest care will be necessary in the seasoning of the wood, to retain its keeping power, and to ])revent the formation of cracks, which render wood valueless for many purposes. The Department is already well supported by an admirable Forest Act — that of 1888 — and it only now wants a little time and the means of putting its products on the market in the best possible condition to enable it to become, as is the case with the Indian Forest Department, a source of revenue rather than a burden to the Exchequer. / 'iioto. by Dr Hugo. > C« ., w - r , <^ ":5 til <^"::; S o p c^' c •-i ^ C rt > cr t/) cr ,:_; ir.n idpdpd::^ aj > r! a ^5 c s . " PS p OOPO^ P pppppp ^ .Spp p pp ^ ^ • c« 2^ rt o pCHgax-nS c og °4: 8 g o S ^o > > > /I > OJ p • 'C • c rt >, . C - rt • bJ3 (U C ^ c 4:: rt rt 0^ (U ^^ r- C3 wood Peach, N lerland's c OJ ^ ■J x-< C3 u OJ 1 • ■ J^ • .; 3 N N c ■ • S cj c ^ >- • ■ '^ 13 o • • ^ . SSiS-^J^c.^^t* c/^jf -p"^". >S'^ ^Is1_^l-i2°i^c.ag-|o_^|^s^-o = |a |3 |,|1^i||- N ^ ^ o 5 c tl) p p cr p G S = 3 != S S S^ D^::i 3- ;:p^DD : 9 : : : : : o p ,-._*- ^ _qj e Zwa enhou le I'ee choul :jasl ai e Els liout O 2 ti (u S: C Regt Olyv Man Stinl Berg ■*-• .£"'3 ■^^■^o 0^'r4 — • ^ O O :/■- 3 C ^ ^ rt - -r" c ^ :^ 5 ^ i « ^ 5>-2^ rtScS> -; rt Is ^ n rt o -^ O r1 3 5" IS o 5 ■o go ^ 1> u O d so O 3 rt — O ^-^ >-ri rt -P rt ;h_ ; — cS orn anc ( Knysn (East) kwood C3 — _a; o ii -a O . — o .J i. c^ ^o ^ % rt :?- §^g§5 "rt ^ ? ^ ___ -d a; S = '- tjoi^ i; U o 5 -5 > _^ J^ i, :£ a ^ o "-; ■? -3 s >; -s 1^1 S -.3 2 2 ^ ^ i ^ ^ J5 -p ^'^ :£ p S o !£ t.^ 5 ~1^ - c „>^ ■ -S I- ni ; 5 "T ^ '^ t: "c ~ '3 i/i .^ ra X cd if- 3 2 -^ ^-. ^ X2 ^ t; u ^£ !A r^ M H is £ 3 i5 „'-^ -S .j2 "3 -P '::; -S -S • " to <^ LO ^^ "So-c _2 CHAPTER VIII. VITICULTURE. Introduction of Vines and Winemaking — Census Returns, 1891 — Wine- growing Centres — Yields of Wine — Government Efforts to Introduce Improvements — Baron von Babo's Teaching and its Consequences — Groot Constantia Wine Farm — Selected Levures — Regulation of Temperatures — The Orchard — Farmers' Visits — The Wines Made — Cultivation of the Vine — Planting — Pruning — Horse-Hoeing — Topping — Manuring —Sulphuring — Calander— Phylloxera — Grafting upon Resistant American Stocks — Government Plantations — Ways of Grafting — Varieties of Grapes Grown — Sweet Wines — Dry Wines — Fruit Acid — Sugar — Prices of Fustage — Wine versus Brandy — Manufacture of Cognac — Cape Brandy. Vines seem to have been introduced into Cape Colony by the early settlers, who, going from European wine districts, naturally took with them vine-sticks with other household gods, and in less than thirty years the number of vines planted exceeded half a million. Though wine and brandy had both been made years before the arrival of the Huguenots in 1688, they are entitled to the credit of inti'oducing greater skill in the art of wine making, and of increasing the varieties of vines of superior quality. Coming largely from the south of France, where the heavier classes of wine are made, the grapes they produced were naturally rich in sugar.* In this way the Cape became famous for its sweet wines, and at one period of its history sweet Constantia was regarded as one of the greatest delicacies of the London season. It is only re- cently that some of the less sweet northern French varieties from which light wines are made have been introduced.! * The 'climatic conditions, which resemble those of the south of Spain, and also the system of short pruning, en gobelct, have no doubt a certain amount of influence in developing sugar. t "Steen" and "Groen Uruif," or Green Grape, besides several Chasselas varieties, the commonest of which is known as " French VITICULTURE. 135 Light wine has come into favour, and as the happy combina- tion of soil and climate for growing suitable grapes for its manufacture is only realised in certain favoured spots of the world, this branch of the industry is at a premium. Early in the eighteenth century shipments of wine began to be made to Europe and to the East, where the Dutch had a large trading connection, and the industry rapidly grew into one of the most important in the colony. At the census of 1891 the vines in Cape Colony numbered 78,574,124, yielding 4,964,616 gallons of white wine, 1,047,906 gallons of red wine, and 1,423,043 gallons of distilled brandy, in addition to more than a million and a half lbs. of raisins. The corresponding figures for the year 1894-95, considerably affected by the ravages of the phylloxera, are — Vine stocks, 86,858,008; white and red wine together, 5,389,727 gallons (against 6,012,522 gallons in 1891); brandy, 1,376,013 gallons; and raisins, 2,603,684 lbs. The well-known wine-growing centres are in the Western Province, the climatic conditions of the Eastern Province being less favourable for the growth and matura- tion of wine-producing grapes. The chief wine districts are situated in the divisions of The Cape, Stellenbosch, Paarl, Robertson, Worcester, Oudtshoorn, and Ladismith.* The first three are classified as the coast districts, and the re- mainder as the inland districts. Within these divisions there are marked differences in results, owing to differences of soil, climate, and exposure. The Cape peninsula, with its insular climate, is specially favoured, and the length of the ripening period is prolonged to the advantage of the wine as compared with conditions existing at the Paarl. The grapes begin to colour at the same time, but the Paarl grapes ripen nearly a month earlier. With a southern exposure the grapes ripen more slowly and more perfectly than when the vineyard Grape," were among the earliest introductions. They have always, till comparatively recently, been used for sherries, and demanded heavy fortifyhig with spirit to ensure keeping, and to meet the prevailing taste for something strong. * Caledon, Malmesbury, and Prince Albert are sometimes mentioned at the end of the above list, which is given in order of importance, but Caledon makes only a little brandy, scarcely any wine, and the wine product of the other two places is insignificant. 136 FARMIN(] INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. faces the north, and it has been remarked that the best of the vineyards in the coast group are found on soils formed of decomposing granitic rocks. The average annual yield of wine in the coast chstrict group is li- leaguers per 1,000 vines. In Robertson, Worcester, and Oudtshoorn districts the yield is nearly double this amount. While these figures represent averages, individual growers have at times produced in the Cape peninsula 4 leaguers,* and in the inland districts as much as 5 leaguers per 1,000 vines. The least of the Colonial Measures. I I, J Leaguek, or about 63 Imperial Gallons; 2, An Aum, or 32 Gallons; 3, i Aum, OR 15 Gallons; 4, An Anker, or 7j Gallons; s, A Keg or 5 Anker, 4 Gallons. (A/i in round numbers.) average figures quoted are a long way more than double the corresponding figures in any or all of the wine-growing dis- tricts of Europe, which gives the colonial farmer an immense initial advantage. It only remains now for him to improve the methods of manufacture, so that larger quantities of wine of good quality and uniform character may be put on the market. There is undoubtedly much wine of excellent quality made in Cape Colony, but in small quantities by individual * A leaguer is a measure containing about 1265 Imperial gallons, or 2 hogsheads. ^ SIT -^HHS^ "^ . 4 ^j.iV^'t ' ""Jag - ^SK, ill* '-i\ * -w^ "■■^4 ■ fe. c i VITICULTURE. 1 37 growers, each working" according- to a system of his own, or, more correctly, of his forefathers. Dealers buy up such wines and mix them, but however skilfully this ma}- be done, the mixture is looked upon as a doctored article, and the charm of getting a special brand of a well-known sound wine is dissipated ; moreover, the middleman retains a substantial margin of profit to work upon. Government has not been blind to the importance of aiding the wine growers in attempting to find means by which a higher standard of quality and greater uniformity of char- acter might be secured in the colonial product, but official efforts in this direction, until quite recently, ha\e not only been grievously unfortunate, but even calamitous to the industry. In 1884 the Government secured as "colonial viti- culturist" Baron A. von Babo, the son of the late distinguished and venerable author of the standard work on viticulture in Europe, and head of the Austrian Proof Station at Klosterneu- burg. Down till 1892 this expert, as head of the Viticultural School at Groot Constantia, taught a new doctrine of wine making, and in doing so no doubt demonstrated the absolute necessity of cleanliness in everything associated with wine pro- duction, and so far did much good ; but it is evident from the story of his career in South Africa that he lamentably lacked the practical experience and scientific knowledge which were necessary to success, and inaugurated injudicious experiments which were not only ruinous to the individual victims involved, but to the credit in Europe of the wine industry of the Colony. His fundamental blunder was persisting in his attempt to make low percentage beverage wines like French vin ordinaire and Rhein wines out of the heavily sugared Cape grapes in an unripe state and at the high temperature experienced in South Africa. Although he preached the doctrine of cleanliness, he had not grasped the importance of regulating the temperature of the fermentation vats and of the wine cellar. The resulting product was not able to endure the tropical heat when crossing the equator on its way to Europe, secondary injurious fermenta- tions taking place. This was the fate of the wine consigned for competition to the Paris Exhibition in 1889, which did untold injury to the fair name of Cape Colony as a wine- producing country. The evil influences of this failure are 138 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. to some extent evident in the Colony to-day in the dogged opposition, or indifference, on the part of farmers to introduc- ing changes in their antiquated systems of working, and the misfortune is that the distrust fostered by the Government effort in this special case is liable to extend to efforts for improvement in other directions. As the Groot Constantia Wine Farm, though not now a Viticultural School with resident students, is still a centre where every one interested in grape growing may go to see new processes in operation, a brief statement of the results of management under the staff of German experts up till June 1893 will form a basis of comparison with things as they now are. The farm, which had acquired a foremost reputation in the history of Cape wine production, was purchased in 1885 at fully ;^5,ooo. The expenditure on buildings increased the capital outlay to £7,6^0. Other items, including the con- spicuous sum of (in round numbers) ;^8,8oo (or ^1,100 per annum) for salaries and wages, brought the grand total of outlays for the period of eight years up to ;^24,48o, from which, however, there stands to be deducted ^4,600, the amount of receipts, to leave a net balance of ^19,880 against the farm. Their financial statement does not go far to condone the viticultural results which have already been discussed. Under the new arrangement, which has been in existence for nearly three years, the whole aspect of the situation has been changed. The practical management is now in the hands of J. P. de Waal, a young man of colonial birth and training. The salaries and wages have been reduced to i^350, or less than one-third of the former annual amount. The wine is no longer undrinkable, but is able to rank with the best wines of the Colony, and to be spoken of in comparison with \\ines of former palmy days. Above all, the farm is now a financial success, and is rapidly becoming a centre of instruction in new and improved methods of working. The Groot Constantia Government Wine Farm is situated about half-an-hour from Wynberg Station. The area ex- tends to about 150 morgen, or 300 English acres. Fifty acres are under vines, and about thirty other acres are under general cultivation. A flock of goats and a small herd of milch cows are kept to aid in providing manure for the vine- VITICULTURE. 139 yards and thereby to reduce the manure bill. Although not extravagantly managed or kept in the " swept and garnished " style of a model farm, it is nevertheless intended to be a show place of the best and most approved systems of manage- ment, not only in the vineyard but in the cellars. The practice of planting vines wider apart than the old wine- growers did, is favoured, together with the extensive use of a light horse-hoe as a supplement to the scuffling-spade. In the process of wine-making scrupulous cleanliness is observed. The grapes are not now trodden under the feet of naked The Grai'E Mill {Fouloir egrappoir) strips off the Grapes from the Stalks or " Rakle," and Pulps them without crushing the Pips. black " boys," from whose skins streams of perspiration used to drop into the grape juice, but a Fouloir egrappoir, or grape crusher and stalker, is employed, and " the crushed grapes are delivered into the kuip or fermenting tub free from the ob- jectionable stalk, and with such rapidity that an entire charge can be made in a very short time, the levures added, and the process of fermentation begun without delay and without piecemeal additions of other must." Pure selected levures or wine yeasts were brought to the notice of the Cape Government by George Payne, a I40 KAKAIING INDUSTRIES OF CAI'E COLONY. connoisseur in wine, who recently visited the wine districts of the Colony, and who, it may be mentioned in passing, was much taken by the native quahties of well-made Constantia wine. Selected levures may be defined as concentrated forms of the fermentative principles of various well-known European wines ; and the idea in using them is to get the process of fermentation more completely under control than is the case when dependent upon the native organisms present on the skins and stalks of the fresh grapes. It is also believed that greater uniformity in wines of different characters will be got by the employment of these regulating media, which may be compared in their action to that of yeast in brewing beer. Little more can be said than that levures are on their trial, that so far they have not been shown to do harm, that they have in certain cases influenced the nature of the bouquet, generally beneficially, and, most important feature of all, that they have been known to " accelerate the fermentation, and consequently the maturing of the wine." It still remains doubtful whether the general introduction of the system would be beneficial to the Colony, or possible on a large scale. The importance of a uniform temperature for fermenta- tion is recognised — the most favourable for the development of Saccharoinyces ellipsoideus or the yeast plant of uine fermenta- tion, being about 80° F., but in practice, if the temperature is within the range from 80° to 90° F., it is regarded as satisfac- tory. The attemperator or cooling worm, consisting of a coil of I i-inch tinned copper piping, through which cold water is circulated, has been introduced into the fermenting vat. The temperature of the fermenting room is kept down as nearly as possible to 70" F., and never permitted to exceed 74° F., by free ventilation, while the concrete floor, with a fall from the centre ridge towards each side, is flushed at intervals with water. The cellar proper (which should always be separate if possible) is kept about 60° F. by closing the doors and windows by day and opening them at night. In the vineyard are demonstrated the advantages of grafting" the best varieties of European vines (which are all liable to suffer from the Phylloxera) upon American stocks, which do not succumb to the evil influences of the insect, even when their roots are attacked by them. The benefits of VITICULTURE. 141 shelter to young vines have also been shown by planting narrow strips of common rye, as zvind-scJiaiizen, about 25 yards apart, at right angles to the line of the prevailing winds. An orchard is being improved and extended, which aims at collecting and maintaining, for reference and determina- tion of nomenclature, types of all the varieties of fruit-trees suitable for the colon}'. Farmers are encouraged to visit the farm and cellars, with the object of seeing personally the methods of working An Attemi>ekat(ir ok Must Cooler, showing the upright position of the coil of piping through which cold water is made to flow. adopted, and of learning what are the advantages to be derived from the new modes of management. While such object- lessons may continue to do much good to those who ha\e considerable practical experience of the industr}', and who only require hints. or "tips" from time to time, the farm might with advantage be used as a school, in which advanced students of agriculture might be periodically brought for a short course of theoretical and practical training. Certain specialised branches of the rural economy industry can be 142 FARMING INDUSTRIRS OF CAI'E COLONY. tautrht efficiently in this way. Dairying and viticulture are two of these in which Cape Colony is specially interested.* The wines made are six in number — Sauvignon blanc, and Stein, representing white wines ; Pontac and Hermitage, red wines ; sweet Constantia and Constantia Berg, sweet wines. A portion of the vintage, which by the last report amounted to about lOO leaguers, is offered to the public, in small or sample quantities, at prices ranging from lOs. 6d. up to 14s. per dozen bottles. The remainder has been stored, and some of the best, ready for drinking, has been valued at ;^30 per leaguer — an immense improvement upon ^5 and £6 per leaguer, which were common prices for good sound wine in the Colony in 1893, or £4, which is now reckoned a fair average price through a series of years. About ten years ago the price of wine of similar quality went down to 20s. and 30s. a leaguer, and led to numerous mortgages being given on properties, which have never been cleared off To those desirous of learning the details of the wine in- dustry of Cape Colony, a brief account of approved methods of cultivation of the vine should not prove uninteresting. The greatest amount of planting is done in July. The soil requires to be trenched to a depth of 2 to 3 feet, and manured. Stirring the subsoil when it is rather poor is fre- (luently a better practice than mixing it with top soil. Ploughs and subsoil stirrers are at times called in to do the work in place of the spade. The best results are obtained when the soil is left to settle and to aerate for a few months before plant- ing takes place. Unless there be a good development of deep roots, which this preliminary preparation of the soil is meant to encourage, the crop is liable to suffer from drought during the frequently recurring periods of deficient rainfall. The sticks, 18 inches in length, are separated from the parent vine by a clean oblique cut made immediately below an eye or bud, the upper end being dressed in like manner by a cut made immediately above an eye. Close planting was the approved practice till recently — 3 feet or 3I feet apart each way — and on poor soils and in hot * This suliject is more exhaustively treated in Chapter XXV., which deals with Agricultural Colleges and Schools. VITICULTURE. I43 localities and places exposed to the influences of strong- winds, this is still considered the best width. On good soils, and with the additional vigour given to the European vines by grafting upon American stocks, better results are got by increasing the distance between the plants. Widths of 4 feet by 4 feet, 5 feet by 5 feet, and 4 feet by 6 feet, have each their special advocates. In the case of the latter, for example, two turns of the horse or mule hoe one way, and one turn the other way, move nearly the whole surface, with little overlapping, at an extremely small outlay, and leave only little areas near the roots of the vines to be worked by the scufifling-spade. The saving of expense, and the facility with which the vineyards can be kept clean, are probably not the greatest advantages to be claimed for this comparatively, for the Cape, new method of working. The fine tilth, which is formed by the regular use of the horse-hoe every ten days during summer, is the greatest safeguard against drought, and has enabled farmers to plant vineyards successfully on light and dry soils, which, under the old system, when spade-work had to be solely depended on, were regarded as unsuitable for the purpose. Grapes will not shrivel, even with a three months' drought, if the surface be thoroughly cultivated. The growing of field or garden crops between the young vines, until they come to fruit-bearing, is not looked upon with favour by those who follow the best practice, unless the crop be used as green manure for the land. Crop growing im- poverishes the soil, and retards the development of the young vine, which ought to be encouraged to grow as strongly as possible both below and above ground. For this reason pruning- is not done for the first year, or two years. The low gooseberry bush shape, adopted in France, and known as eti gobelet, to preserve the grapes from chills at night, is that seen in the Colony, the prevailing high winds making trellises and other high methods of training vines, dangerous. In pruning for the first time, three to four arms are left springing as closely as possible to one another from the top of a single trunk or stalk, so that the vine may be led to develop into the shape of a wine-glass, having a hollow in the centre to admit the sun and air. In subsequent prunings, a strong gardener's pruning - knife being generally used, the 144 FARMINr) INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. bearers of the current year's growth are cut back to two eyes each. This keeps the branches from growing too high, and it maintains their strength, while it also adds to the longevity of the vine. Vines are to be seen at Paarl in full bearing, which were planted in 1707. Pruning is carried out at two periods. A first or early pruning — the removal of all superfluous shoots and suckers — is done as soon as convenient after the grape harvest, usually in April (the second month in autumn, corresponding to the European October), but not later than 15th May, otherwise the wound dies in, and does not heal, as it ought to do. After early pruning, the activity left in the plant leads to the formation of sufficient callus-tissue to protect the wound. The second, or fruit pruning", is done as soon as the vines show a tendency to run — usually in August or at the end of July. To prune earlier would encourage earlier growth, and lead to the exposure of the young shoots to the inclement weather of spring. The loosening of the soil during early winter, which was once performed by digging, can now be accomplished by the horse-hoe, throwing up the soil into ridges betw^een the rows and drawing it away from the stems of the vines about the end of April after the early rains ; at the same time accomplishing the secondary purpose of exposing the trunk roots to the air as a preventive of fungoid attack. The levelling of the ridges after the period of rest is over is also easily accomplished by the hoe in question — the two in greatest favour being patterns known as the " Iron Age" and " Planet Junior." In addition to this systematic pruning, topping, sometimes called summer pruning, is done three or four times during the season by aid of little sticks with sharp edges used to chip off the young tender shoots by a sharp horizontal stroke, to check the development of long trailing bines. In the practice of manuring, recent developments are in- troducing new methods and new materials. Green manuring by sowing lupins or vetches in May and ploughing them down in July has been shown to increase the vigour of the vine and the yield of grapes, although no improvement in quality has been recorded. Some gro\\'ers favour the practice of spreading the manure on the surface and burying it by working the soil. This must have a tendency to develop surface roots which VITICULTURE. 145 must be a drawback in times of drought. The two methods by which the manure is deposited at a considerable depth are no doubt suitable to the combination of conditions relating to -soil and climate in most parts of the colony. The more recently introduced practice, which has come in with the tendency to substitute horse or mule labour for spade labour, is the burying of the manure at the bottom of furrows 18 inches deep, usuall)^ during May and June. In the case of table or export grapes the alternate rovv^s are manured every second year, but wine grapes are only manured e\er\' three or four years. The old practice of digging- a pit from 12 inches to 22 inches deep for every four vines every second "Ikon Ace" Hdhsk-TIof. year, and burying in it from half a basket to a bushel of well- rotted compost manure, still finds many advocates. In this way only one-fourth of the vine roots are disturbed every second year, so that eight years are taken to get over the whole ground. When properly carried out there is little to be said against the practice other than that, owing to the employ- ment of spade labour, it is expensive and may have to yield to a system which calls in the aid of machiner}-. The roots become very numerous and active in the vicinity of the supply of manure, and of course if the " boys " make mistakes and dig the holes in the wrong places, much damage may be done to the crop. The points of importance to stud}- are to have the work done early, and to leave the pits partial!)' open during K 146 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. winter by covering the manure with a thin layer of earth so that they remain receptacles for rainwater which might other- wise run off. *•: Some wine growers confine themselves to vegetable compost, and object to apply animal manure to wine grapes on the plea that it injures the flavour of the wine, but this appears only to apply to undecomposed manure. Complaints have been made against an earthy flavour in some Cape wines similar to the earthy flavour of Australian wines. The application of fresh animal manure strengthens this flavour or is credited at times with giving origin to it by stimulating the development of an excess of albuminoids. Tannic acid is employed during the first fermentation to precipitate the excess of albumen. It is derived from a natural source by adding a varying proportion of skins accord- ing to circumstances, including the variety of wine being made.* It is now pretty generally believed that solid and liquid animal excrement improves the quality of the compost, pro- vided it is well decomposed. Prunings kept till they are dry and brittle and easily broken down, and all sorts of vegetable refuse from the vineyards and sweepings from about the farm, are put into the Hve.-stock kraals, where they are trodden aad well mixed in a compost heap, and allowed to lie for a year and more. The mass is usually applied in the form of a loose dark powder. The mixing or making of the manure frequently takes place in a heap which is built of layers of different materials in a hollow place, and at intervals is turned over and watered to promote decay. Potash is also applied to the surface in the shape of the ash from vine cuttings. This is particularly necessary in the growing of the two best export grapes, viz., Barbarossa and red * It has been stated that " the addition of a little galHc acid to a sample of clean sherry will immediately produce the so-called gout di( terroir, or earthy flavour. Tannin easily changes under given circum- stances into gallic acid. It is therefore very probable that the objection- able taste referred to is caused by conversion of the tannin derived from the stalks and skins of the grape into gallic acid, through assumption of a molecule of water. This would be in accordance with Schiff's researches on the constitution of the bodies in question." VITICULTURE. 147 Haanepoot.* In some places cows and pigs are permitted the free run of the vineyard after fruit gathering until pruning begins in July. Cattle are fond of Haanepoot leaves, but not of the bright-red leaves of Pontac. Sulphuring is a most essential operation as a safeguard against oidium and all forms of fungoid attack so ruinous to the vine plant as well as its fruit. The work must be done in dry weather, and the finely divided flowers of sulphur blown in at the base of the vine by a labourer working a pair of bellows with the nozzle turned up so that a regular coating is dis- Vermorei.'s ToKPii.i.K OR SuLi'HUR Bellows. (See Appendix C.) tributed over the entire surface of the plant. This is a great improvement on the gunny shake-bag, which wastes 30 per cent, of the sulphur as it is being dusted on ; but the latter has still to be used where, by the carelessness or stupidity of the " boys " entrusted with the work, the powder-bellows cannot be kept in working order. The first dressing should take place when the shoots are six inches long, and regular dress- ings every ten days should follow until the grape is coloured. No injury need be feared from an over-dose, whereas the con- * The latter vine is the muscat of Alexandria, and its Dutch name, which means cock's-foot, is taken from the palmate shape of the leaf. 148 FARMING INDUSTRIKS OF CAPF COLONY. sequences of a deficiency in the amcnint applied may be serious. The insect pest of the vineyard known by the name of the calander, Plilyctimes callosiis, has been successfully checked at Groot Constantia by the application of a moderate dressing of lime to the soil, which seems to have had the double effect PllVLI.OXERA VASTATRIX, J. E. PlANCHON. Female specimens and their eggs, a and a, antennje ; b and h, horns or suckers ; c, egg plainly visible in the boily of the insect; /, the egg;y", winged form of insect. All greally magnified. Co/'icdfypin the laic //'. Thomson s " Tivaiise on G7a/>c Vine," loth ed. PlIVII-OXERA R(5(>T Fl MAGNIl-Uil). Phyli.oxf.ha Mature Wingless Female Magnified. of destroying the insect at that stage when it takes shelter in the ground and of increasing the vigour of the vines, so that they are the better enabled to resist parasitic attack. The dread enemy of the grape vine, Phylloxera vastatt'ix, has become thoroughly established in Cape Colony. It first appeared in 1885, and in spite of all efforts to check its pro- VITICULTURE. 1 49 gress it has penetrated into almost every vine district of the Colony, and it is only a matter of time till it will be found in every vineyard. The Cape peninsula, owing to its isolated position, and to the prevailing strong winds coming from the sea, and not over phylloxera-infested country, is, with a few more or less isolated centres, at present free from its ravages. Some females are winged (see accompanying figure), and easily carried by the wind. This accounts for the rapidity with which infected areas expand, and also for the difficulty of effectively checking its advance. When a vineyard is attacked, patches from which the leaves begin to fall off early are seen, and when investigation is made the yield of grapes will be found to have decreased. The heavier parts of the L-sS**'''^ Section of Vine-Leaf Magnified, and Eggs of Phylloxera. Vine-Leaf injured by Phylloxera. soil, from which the largest crops used to be obtained, generally suffer first and most seriously. In such places cracks open to a considerable depth in dry weather, through the shrinkage of the clay, and the insects dropped by the winds find by them a much more easy entrance to the roots than on light soils that do not open. It is probable that, apart from this, heavy soils form the more agreeable habitat for the pest. The fact of its preference for heavy soils is now so well recognised that in Hungary vineyards are being planted as a matter of safety on sandy soils which were formerly regarded as not good enough for the purpose. The frequent use of the horse-hoe, with the object of maintaining a tilthy surface, is probably the best mechanical means of prevention. This recommendation 150 FARMINC; INDUSTKIKS OV CAPE COLONY. is made in full knowledge o( the fact that the phylloxera insect has never been found on the ground surface. When affected spots a])pcar in a field the insects can be killed by injecting into the soil small doses of bisulphide of carbon (not enough to destroy the roots of the vine), or by using the sulpho-car- bonate of potash in solution, but the cost of either remedy is prohibitive if carried out on an extensive scale, and repeated after every new infestation. A young Dutchman, Charles Neethling, at Stellenbosch, had practised successfully an in- genious plan of retarding" the extension of infected areas for a considerable period, but the labour and expense involved Gnapes (Raisin Blanc) Grown in White Sand on Mowbray Flats in imitation of the Hungarian practice, with the object of securing immunity from phylloxera. made it impossible for adoption on a large scale. A trench is dug round an infected spot, well back among the uninfected vines, and for a time kept full of water by day. The earth is scraped back to the depth of a few inches round the base of the stalk of each vine, and a layer of sand is deposited in the hollow and covered with manure, surface soil, and soil from the trench. New roots develop near the surface, protected from the ascent of the phylloxera by the layer of sand, and these feed the vine and keep up the yield of grapes while the deep roots are being destroyed. All European varieties of vines succumb readily to the injurious action of phylloxera insects li\'ing on the bark of their VITICULTURK. I51 roots. Many American vines, which have had longer to con- tend with this pest of American origin, grow without seeming to suffer from its presence. The bark with them is thicker and more robust, the result, no doubt, of natural selection — a case of the survival of the fittest. As the real injury is done to the roots of the plant, it has been demonstrated in Europe, Aus- tralia, and in Cape Colony that the most susceptible of choice European vines can grow with perfect safety, and without injury to the quality of the fruit or the wine, if grafted on the resistant American stocks. Of a large number that have been tried the Riparia and the Rupestris have j)roved the most suitable for Colonial conditions. The Riparia is ■r Phylloxeka Lakva Magniiheu. Rootlets of Vine Magnified, Exhibiting Galls produced BY Phylloxera. a trailing and climbing plant with large leaves, suitable for deep and heavy soils. Rupestris, which has had the greatest success, is smaller and better fitted for loamy and light soils. It grows more in the form of a bush, and the leaves are small and resemble those of the apricot. Solonis, the third most successful resistant stock, is a small-leaved variety of Riparia.* In addition to conferring immunity from the ravages of phylloxera, grafting on American stocks increases the vigour of the resulting plant. Not only do the roots and stem grow larger, but bearing commences the second year after grafting, and the yielding power is decidedly greater than * The resistance of Solonis is only 15 as against 19 in the cases of Riparia and Rupestris, 20 being immunity. 152 lAkMlXt; INDUSTRIKS OF CAIT: COUJNY. in the case of unc^rafted \ine.s. The stem above the t^raft j^rows thicker than that beUjw, owini^ to the greater stren<^th of the colonial or European \ine, and also o\\ing to roots springing from the base of the colonial graft, it having been covered by soil used to protect the graft from drought until united. In December the earth is drawn back, and these roots are cut. If done earlier a second crop of adventitious roots would probably form. The relative thinness of the American vine stock entails no disadvantage on the graft. The Government has established a number of nurseries or plantations for the rearing of American phylloxera-proof vines for distribution in the colony — two in Stellenbosch district, two in Paarl, and one in Worcester, but the results attained cannot be pronounced to be entirely satisfactory. The Colony does not seem to have thoroughly grasped the overwhelmingly serious nature of the consequences of the spread of phylloxera ; yet most assuredly it is only a matter of time, and that not very long either, when the whole wine- growing industry of South Africa must become involved. Eight millions of vines have been destroyed out of seventy- eight and a half millions (1891 return), at a moderately esti- mated annual loss of ^32,000, and yet little more than 1,250,000 American stocks have been planted. One of the greatest industries of the Colony is threatened with sudden destruction, and no adequate attempt is being made to apply the well-known simple and only remedy. The cost of replant- ing the vines is a serious task in itself, in\"olving an enormous expenditure of money — estimated at as much as ^30 per acre when well executed, and when everything is paid for at market rates. But the Government offer to vine-growers, if they choose to take advantage of it, phylloxera - proof plants at IS. per 100, carriage free to the nearest railway station. To encourage the development of private enterprise and self-help, the number of vines that may be supplied to each individual have been limited to 500. So long as all vineyards are not affected by phylloxera, it is quite natural that many farmers will be chary about taking even resistant vine stocks from nurseries situated in infected districts. The stake at issue is much too important to permit of the course being followed of leaving to private individuals the dut}' of taking the initiati\'e in providing viticulturp:. 153 means to combat the evil, although the Government ought to be ready to retire from the work as soon as it is shown that commercial enterprise is willing to take it up. If the wine trade connection be lost, the Colony may be long before she recovers from the consequences. An immediate and strenu- ous effort should be made to produce American resistant stocks by the million, and to this end a working gardener who is not afraid to take off his coat should be placed in charge of each station, and every encouragement given to him to become totally absorbed in the work. Something more might be done to induce farmers to purchase American grafted vines at the low price fixed by Government, and they might also be instructed how to form nurseries of American vines in their own vineyards. Complaints were made that farmers planted out for bearing the few American stocks which they secured, in place of attempting to use them for the production of scions ; but this is no excuse for the lack of provision to meet an urgent demand which is sure to come sooner or later. A quarantine station for imported vine stocks has been established at Fort Cunynghame, in the Eastern Province, six hundred miles away from the vine-growing centre of the Colony, with the object of preventing the introduction of Pcrotiospora viticola, and other fungoid diseases not yet proved to exist in the colony, and 525,000 imported cuttings of xA.merican vines were planted there in 1892-94. The addi- tional precautions are practised of having all the cuttings dipped in lime and sulphate of copper solution (Bordeaux mixture) before leaving Europe, and of having them re- peatedly sprayed with the same after planting. The sites for nurseries have, unfortunately, not always been well chosen. Parijs station, near Paarl, is on one of the poorest soils that could be found, and located so that the wind sweeps it from end to end ; while close at hand, near the base of the Paarl mountains, soil of the most excellent description for vine-growing and well sheltered could have been obtained. The blunder made in the selection of this station is one of the best possible illustrations of the necessity for the establishment of a Department of Agriculture on the lines laid down in a later chapter. The interests of the Colony should be safeguarded by the Department being able to call 154 FARMING INUUSTRIKS OF CAI'F COLONY. for and willing to act upon the best expert evidence, from officers in its own cmpk^ymcnt, on this or any subject coming within its spliere of influence. There are four ways of grafting practised in the Colony. 1st, Grafting on rooted cuttings during winter, and planting again in the nursery, which is the most approved method. 2nd, Grafting similarly, but on plain cuttings which have no roots, so that on planting, the grafting and rooting take place simul- F/G.A F/G,a r/G,C /r/G,/^ Green Grafting. — I. Hungarian Method. — In Fig. a the internode ab, between the third and fourth leaf-buds of the American stock, is cut horizontally one inch above the node b^ and split. Fig. ii, the scion or graft cut into the shape of a wedge, less than half an inch long, at the lower end, two buds, c and d, being left uninjured. After being placed in position, the two wounded surfaces are held together by an indiarubber band, and the whole of the parts involved are protected from the sun by paper tied on below the joint, as seen in Fig. c. In the II., Austrian Method, two slanting cuts are made, the scion and the shoot to which it is to be joined being about the same thickness, and the joint made as seen in Figs, c and D. taneously. 3rd, Grafting in the field on to growing vines which have been planted out the year before. This is a favourite practice with farmers, although the results are fre- quently very unsatisfactory, especially on heavy soil. It is necessary to throw up the earth in ridges to cover the bases of the scions, and protect the grafts from drought. The heavy soil dries and cracks, and the i^raft suffers from the want of VITICULTURE. 1 55 protection. The grafts are sent out from the Government nurseries before grafting time, and have to be buried in bundles for a month until August arrives, when the variations in the temperature are not so extreme, at least for so many- days, as during the preceding two months. Then the land is in better condition for working and the September spring growth is nearer at hand. 4th, Green grafting on the parent plants from early in October till the beginning of December, when the tender shoots are growing vigorously. The parts are held by thin elastic bands which decay and fall off, and shade is given by little pieces of paper tied over the junction with woollen thread. Of the varieties of grapes grown Cube met- Sauvignon )'ields the best Cape claret ; Hermitage, which is much more widely cultivated, makes also a good claret. Smivignon blanc }'ields a light sauterne or chablis. Stein produces a light sherry, or a heavy wine if fortified b}^ alcohol or if the grapes are left till they are fully ripe. Pontac makes Cape port, a dry wine of good medicinal qualities, equal to the best European port if kept for eight years. From Riesling hock is obtained ; and light white wine from the Green Grape, or " Groen Druif," a sort of CJiasselas.* The finest sweet wines are still made in Constantia district, from Pontac, Frontignac, Muscadel (red and white), and Haanepoot, besides several other varieties of great merit. Fashion is rather against sweet wines at present, although many of them are most seductive and highly prized by ladies who do not care for fashionable wines. They are not regarded as wholesome to drink, unless in very limited amounts. Cer- tain growers who have made sweet wines for years still continue to do so, but the margin of profit is less than in the case of other wines, unless the quality is very superior. The expense is greater, and only one leaguer of sweet \\'ine can be got from grapes which would produce three leaguers of dry wine. In olden times, when sweet wine was made thicker than it is now, the proportion was one to four. To secure a large * For an account of the processes of fermentation in wines, see the chapter on " Wine Production " in the author's work on " The Rural Economy and Agriculture of Austraha and New Zealand." Sampson Low, Marston, & Co., London. 156 lARMlNG IXnUSTKIKS OK CAPE COLONY. percentage of sugar the grapes are not gathered till quite ripe, and they are partially sun-dried before the process of wine- making begins. In the manufacture of dry wines the question of the amount of sugar is an important one, and the grapes must have reached a certain degree of ripeness if the formation of acetic acid (vinegar) is to be avoided during the process of fermentation. It is in the determination of such points that jDractical experience and sound judgment are of so much importance as guides to success. In a very dry season there is an excess of fruit acid, and with more than 0.5 per cent, of fruit acid the wine will be coarser than desirable — the saccharometer showing 18 per cent, of sugar. By letting the grape get riper the sugar is increased to say 19 per cent., and the fruit acid is relatively reduced, so that a softer wine is the result. Fruit acid never disappears from wine at any stage, although acetic acid can be got rid of by treatment with gypsum (sulphate of lime) ; but the product is then more suitable for the brandy-still than to be drunk as wine. In making white wines with over 20 per cent, of sugar in the grape the glycerine is lost to a large extent, and the wine becomes less soft and round. With 26 to 27 per cent, of sugar, softness due to the sugar is obtained instead of through the glycerine, which is the softening medium in dry wines. Owing to climatic differences, the rate at which fermenta- tion proceeds in the Colony is more rapid than in Europe. This not only increases the difficulties and dangers in the process of wine-making generally, but it renders the production of light wine similar to the lightest of French wines practically impossible. Such difficulties make it all the more necessary that the process of wine-making should be well under control. To this end the close fermentation vat must ultimately wholly replace the old-fashioned tub \\ith an open mouth, so that nothing but filtered air free from the germs of injurious fermentations may find access. Prices of " fustage " ha\ing much decreased, do not form an insurmountable barrier to the necessary change. " Stuk-vats," or the large vats, made of American oak, and good to last for a hundred years, with a capacity of five to seven leaguers, in which wine is stored in the cellar, can now be bought for ;^30 in place of iJ^50, the former 158 FARMING INDUSTRIKS OF CAPE COLONY. price. They can be secured in good condition, second-hand for i,'i2 to £iS- New seven-leaguer fermentation vats can be got for httle more than the latter sum. One of the chief aims of the Agriculture Department of Government should be the regeneration of the vineyard and the encouragement of the production of wine rather than . of brandy. Nations which use light wine freely as a beverage are never ^\'hat may be termed drunken, and the same may be said of wine makers. The brandy industry is from every point of view the most unsatisfactory in the Colony. The margin of profit to the producer has practically disappeared, and much brandy is now actually being produced at a loss. The far-reaching immoral influences which it originates are much to be deplored. In place of Cape brandy those who prefer to make a distilled spirit rather than wine, might, with advantage to themselves and to the Colony, be induced to take up the manufacture of " Cognac." There is an increas- ing and practically unlimited demand for it in Europe for making champagnes and for other purposes at three times the price now got for Cape brandy. It is made from wine heated by a jet of steam driven directly into it in place of from the outside of the vessel. When Cape brandy is stilled, fusel oil and the higher alcohols come over as well as ethylic alcohol, and remaining in the product, take years to mature, before it can be drunk with safety. The profit meanwhile disappears. It will probably take some time and trouble to convince the British buyers that Cognac is made from wine and not from brandy. The delicate ethers which have so much to do with producing a full aroma remain in Cognac, but are not to be found in Cape brandy with the fusel oil distilled out of it. The ordinary simple brandy stills are of no value in the making of Cognac. Expensive plant, involving an outlay of iS^500 or £600, is necessary, so that it is not for the average wine-grower to attempt single handed the making of Cognac. It is yet to be settled whether the work of the distiller should not be entirely separated from that of the grape grower, or whether it will be possible to get farmers to combine in the distilling part of the business. An admirable Austrian ap- paratus for the purpose was found in the possession of one VITICULTURE. 1 59 cultivator, P. Rabie, near Worcester, but full advantage was not taken of its working capacit}'. Brandy, dop or Cape smoke, is a product derived from Cape wines, in the making of which the grape stalks are removed. When new it is a crude and noxious spirit, containing large quantities of fusel oil and a number of other deleterious products of similar type. It is prepared in the commonest form of still by farmers in all the \ine- growing districts. When kept in cask until it is old and mellow it becomes excellent, the fusel oil having changed, as in the case of malt whisky, into what may be regarded as the finest ingredient present. The industry is in a most unfortunate position from whatever point of view it is looked at. The farmers lose by it at current prices, and the drink- ing of it in the raw and fiery condition in which it is mostly consumed is ruinous to the working population, black and white, who indulge in it. It injures the digestion and it exercises a maddening influence on the brains of those who imbibe it freely. It is an untaxed article in the market of the Colony, and its price is so low that there are few who are so poor that they cannot secure it in injurious quantities to drink. In some districts two-thirds of the wages of a large part of the working population are spent upon brandy of the worst kind, and the drinkers may regard themselves fortunate if some poisonous abomination has not been mixed with it. Needless to say this not only entails an immense amount of immediate misery upon those who drink but, what is still more to be regretted, upon their families. Legislation with regard to brandy is entirely on wrong lines, and calls more loudly for adjustment than any other defective product of the legislative machine. It passes into consumption free of duty. ^15 per leaguer, which is now above the average price, is only 2s. 4d. per gallon, or 4|d. per bottle, and it is frequently got from producers at this and even lower prices by a number clubbing together to take the minimum quantity a farmer is permitted to sell. Even retail it is sold after being doctored, and not thereby improved as a safe and wholesome beverage, as low as 6d. to is. per bottle. Children of ten years of age used till quite recently to buy and drink it freely. The law has made a slight improvement in this respect, but much of l6o FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. importance yet remains to be done. Immature brandy i.s the curse of the Colony. No country in which grain is taxed and brandy is permitted to go free can ever hope to prosper or to take a first rank among civiHsed nations. Not only should the traffic in strong drink be controlled by well-conceived regulations under which it is sold, but a check ought to be put to excessive consumption by raising the price, not to go into the producer's pocket to stimulate further production, but to the funds of the national exchecjuer. This rise of price would fall mainly upon the consumer and not on the producer as is erroneously believed in the Colony. There ought to be an excise duty of at least half-a-crown per gallon on all brandy consumed in the Colony, and every farmer should be bound to take out a license for the sale of liquor, even when trading in wholesale cjuantities, unless he confines his transactions to dealing with men who pay licenses. Morality is becoming more and more loose among the white as well as among the black po]:)ulation. Young men marry girls who have been at service in the large centres of population, and are possessed of some\\'hat extravagant ideas, which might, however, in favour- able environments tone do^\'n in time. But as a result of drinking Cape smoke which helps to aggravate other un- settling influences, many a one goes off to the mining centres in the north, leaving a wife and two or three children destitute or to the charity of some friendly society. CHAPTER IX. CAPE COLONY AS A CENTRE FOR PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND FRUIT EXPORT. Introductory Remarks — Erroneous Ideas of Cape Colony Fifty Years Ago and their Influences — Kimberley and Johannesburg Markets for Agricultural and. Horticultural Products — Backward Position of the Fruit-Growing Industry — Advantages due to Seasons of Cape Fruit in the European Markets — Times of Maturity of the Common Fruits — Orchard Stock-Supply — Prospects for Skilled Gardeners as Emigrants — Table of Fruits Exported from the Colony and their Values. This chapter, written by a British resident of thirty years' experience, contains so many interesting, historical, and other general references, that the author has adopted it as an appro- priate introduction to his own chapter on the same subject. There are some countries which do not seem to have made a successful draw out of the lucky-bag. They have a share of blessings, and apparently excellent conditions for success in the neck-and-neck race after wealth and prosperity, but somehow the advantages fail to work, and are more or less negatived by disadvantages which often are very difficult to define, and whose retarding power can no more be eliminated than can the inevitable constant of friction in a machine. It is thus with the Cape. There is no lovelier climate on earth. All the fruits and crops of the warmer tem- perate zone grow there to perfection. Health seems almost a matter of course. The laws sit easy on the shoulders of the subject. Yet with all these favourable conditions it has never appeared a desirable country of refuge to the European agriculturist when things went badly with his special industry at home. There are a good many reasons for this. Exploited originally by its former masters, the Dutch East India Com- pany, not on its own merits, and not with a view to its individua prosperity, but solely as a tool required in the management of tropical Dutch colonies farther east, the country was practically closed to the outer world for a couple of centuries. It exported little or nothing, and therefore had to stand aside while the roaring stream of traffic rushed on to other lands. Besides, even long after its transfer to England, its acquired habit of self-containedness and easy laisscz-aller were very little interfered with, and the Colonial Office, while not preventing enterprise, L 1 62 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. did next to nothing to call it forth locally or introduce it from abroad. It was a land for the more adventurous class of tourists, the sportsman, and the missionary. The notion which the average Englishman, a generation ago, had of the Cape, was truly curious when considered in the light which gold and diamonds have cast upon it of late years. The inhabitants were supposed to be all Boers, dressed in fustian if they were fairly well off, in leather crackers and batjes if less well to do, shod with veldschootis, and armed with a large waggon whip in one hand and a sjambok in the other. They all lived in the Karoo, which was everywhere outside Cape Town. The people who were not Boers were Hottentots, and this servile race spoke kitchen Dutch, wore nothing but a skin kaross, and rubbed them- selves all over with sheep-tail fat and bfichu. Nobody but the Hottento.ts did any work, nobody ever bothered to grow anything for sale, pay any taxes, make anything, do anything, be anything, save give orders to the schepsels, sleep through the hot noon, smoke pipes and drink coffee. Every man had a plaafs, which grew as much grain as he wanted, as many grapes as he cared to make into wine of a sort, as many fruit-trees as he had sowed pips, and the rest of the place was in a state of nature, unenclosed bare veld, not even fenced off from his neighbours, and given over to as many native sheep and goats as would keep him in milk and mutton, with perhaps a couple of dozen oxen. Did he desire to go on a journey, say to the Orange River, six hundred miles away, he loaded up a sack of meal and some coffee, a gridiron, a cooking pot and a kettle, spanned in his oxen, and started with a " Trek-jou " and a crack of the huge whip. He crept along, road or no road, some twenty miles at most, day after day, stopping whenever and wherever he pleased, quite at home everywhere, and victualled by his marksman skill — for was not the veld alive with springbucks, koodoos, and elands, to say nothing of elephants and zee-koes .'' There was no such thing as trespass, for the woon/adzen were about one to a dozen square miles, and when the country was so vast and the population so small what was the good of keeping people off your great wilderness of desert veld? So in three or four months he reached his destination, and when he chose went home again, just in the same easy-going way, a bit at a time. But one never worked hard, never had any definite object in life, never tried to take a new line in anything, but simply lived, enjoying the bright sun and genial climate, and letting things manage themselves. Something of this sort used to be the prevalent and ludicrous con- ception of the Cape fifty years ago in the average Enghshman's mind, when recalling what he had read in books of. travel and sport. A land of pleasing drowsyhead it was, a country where it was always afternoon. Even now, after the changes of the last half-century, Johnny Newcomes are sometimes to be found landing with such Munchausen traditions, and are very much surprised to find that the upper and nether millstones of necessity are set pretty close together here, and grind exceeding small. All this long prevailing impression of the easy-going life lived at the Cape, and the belief in the utter fecklessness and lack of enterprise PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 163 among its inhabitants, did the country incalculable injury. It never seemed to loom in the far distance as a land of promise, or to beckon to the crowds of emigrants passing westward to the New World. Even the great Irish exodus sent few new-comers hither. What opening could there be in a land already parcelled out, and where it was supposed every man had his huge slice, and got out of it all he wanted by the labour of native serfs ? And under this idea the outgoing English and Irish labourers trooped away to the States, to Canada, to Australia, and to New Zealand, where a free grant of land awaited them, and where they knew that each would get his slice on the sole condition of tillino- it for his own profit. There certainly was a spasmodic effort in 1820 to fill up a part of the country by immigration from certain English manufacturing counties, just at the period when the inevitable struggle between old-established hand-labour and the new-fangled machine pro- duction was commencing, with its inevitable concomitants of falling wages and personal distress. True also that with the rank and file of weavers and pin-makers (a crowd exceptionally ill-suited for pioneering as agri- culturists in a new land) there came out a contingent of better men, with traditions of the English country life in place of that of the factory, and also with some little capital. And but for the unhappy series of wars on the frontier, brought about by a one-sided false philanthropy here and the densest ignorance at home, the Cape East might then, that is fifty years ago, have started to the front as a progressive colony. But things have moved very slowly, and it has been left to the long-hidden mineral treasures beneath the soil to do for South Africa what neither Govern- ments nor local enterprise nor happy climatic conditions have been able to achieve. First the discovery of diamonds on the northern frontier, then later the totally unexpected gold production in the Transvaal, revived the memory of the great exodus to the sister colony in 1850-51. There is one thing to be borne in mind concerning these unexpected blessings. They have been earned by our exceptional luck, certainly not by our exceptional desert. We neither toiled nor spun for them. They have dropped into our lap, instead of being won by our industr}' and enterprise.' The position of the Cape to-day is somewhat remarkable. There are the two great foci of enterprise northwards. The one, the close corpora- tion of the diamond industry ; the other, the open arena of gold production at Johannesburg. Towards these two points tend almost all the local enterprise of the country, and instead of the Colony having solely to look after its own maintenance, it has become the pui-veyor to an immense industrial population beyond its borders. The yellow harvests of the corn districts go thither. Thither go the slaughter-cattle in ever multi- plying troops. The fishermen on the coast now send the major portion of their haul up-country in ice. The smaller industries of the farm have received a like impetus, as butter, poultry, eggs, and fruit of every kind, all go to satisfy the daily demands of the Transvaal mining population. It follows that at the present moment there are in every direction openings for enterprise in various kinds of petite culture, openings such 164 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. as have never existed here within the memory of man. It is not as if one had to speculate upon the chances of perishable produce being got across the line and placed upon English markets in saleable condition, when, for everything that a man can grow to a moderate degree of per- fection, there is an unfailing market just some forty or fifty hours distant from the coast, and the rail to expedite it all the way. It is said to be well for a man to have two strings to his bow. The up-country market is the Cape growers' first string, the export trade in fruit is the other. All the special appliances required for both lines of the enterprise are already provided. The steamship companies supply cold-storage on their vessels.' A local firm has prepared refrigerating chambers for goods awaiting shipment. It would seem, therefore, that the only element required is an increase in the number of intelligent and practised growers. We want them from England, from the States, from California, in fact from anywhere where the skill and experience required has run for years into everyday practice. This is the immigration wanted just now at the Cape, to catch at the opportunity of the moment, and to turn skilled fruit- growing into gold. No question but that success awaits the man who knows how to deal with fruit-trees, to break his ground up properly, to drain, to prune, to gather, to pack for market up-country, or for market in Covent Garden, and who has the well-founded contempt for the slovenly style of letting things grow themselves, and taking as a crop what chance sends and insect plagues leave. Then you will say. Are there no growers at the Cape ? Truly ver}' few : here one, there one, but by no means sufficient to give a character to this magnificent country as a home of fruit-growing, — not sufficient even to lead by example the prevailing carelessness into better ways. The growth of fruit here has been almost always a by-thing, or what we might call a toy pursuit of the landowner. A few trees, mainly seedlings grown from pips and fruit-stones, planted in holes dug in the hard untrenched earth, unpruned and untended, except for an occasional drenching from the furrow, used, generally speaking, to constitute a Cape orchard. So long as the owner had fruit for his own table during the season he was satisfied. The idea of growing fine choice fruits of named pedigree sorts in order to send them to market, attractively packed, so as to suit the dessert tables of well-to-do townsfolk who had no gardens, never entered his mind. Did you want fruit of him ? Then you must buy it as a favour, and he would "spare it to you," and you certainly could not expect to get it twice, much less regularly through the season. Yet he would take the money, showing that the commercial instinct was not dead. The wonder is that so few ever turned to with a will, and put into fruit-culture the labour, energy, and forethought that goes to make a successful business. Things are a little better now. There are a few men, three times as many as there used to be, who now grow fruit to the perfection possible in this perfect climate, and all they send to market is eagerly bought up either for local consumption among the higher classes or for export to England. But they may be counted on one's fingers, in place of being numbered by hundreds, and scattered all over the country. PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 165 Then you will say, With what is the ordinary market supplied ? Truly with fruit of the poorest quality — the product of seedlings instead of grafted trees — bastard refuse, without a name and without a single quality to recommend it. It looks as if it had grown itself, and this it mostly has. The ruling condition of the fruit, such as it is, is made worse by utter ignorance of proper packing and transit. Much of it is shaken down and tumbled into old paraffin cases and jolted to market in a springless waggon. Hence it must be picked only three-quarters ripe, so as to bear the rough usage without being turned to unsaleable pulp. One would think that the example of the few leading men aforesaid, and the high prices they pull off for their exceptional samples, would be sufficient to start a reform, but there are several causes operating in the other direction. There are the antiquated conservative ways of the small farmer at the Cape, arising out of the comparative isolation in which he lives, and which only has been broken in upon this last year or two by the establishment of Fruit-Growers' Associations in their very midst, through which an effective interchange of ideas has been brought about, and information given upon the subject of their special industry. Till these excellent associations sprung up, mainly through individual activity and personal influence, it was difficult to find a market-gardener who took in a garden periodical, or cared to learn what was done in other countries. Another cause materially checking the desire to improve the output is the immense demand that exists for cheap coarse fruit and windfall rubbish among the coloured populace of Cape Town. To them, so that the fruit is dirt cheap, it does not matter how dirty it is, nor are they disgusted at seeing the same baskets which brought the fruit to town piled up among the stable manure the cart takes back in the after- noon. In no other public of fruit consumers is quality so little thought of, and hence the producer has been satisfied to grow crops from seedling trees which are only fit for stocks. They sell somehow, so why should he trouble himself to produce a better article ? However, things are on the mend. It may be a long time before really good or even middling fruit reaches the level of the street hawker, but the simple fact that the great market of Johannesburg discriminates keenly between good and bad, and pays accordingly, must inevitably react on the pro- ducer, and even more directly persuasive are the perpetual calls of the fruit agent concerned in export to Covent Garden. He knows good fruit at sight if any one does, and his determination to have it grown clean, ripened exactly to the export point, gathered delicately, and graded to size, will do more towards teaching fruit-culture than a legion of experts. It is therefore just at this critical stage of matters that the English fruit-grower who now despairs of making profits at home is invited to come to the Cape and take his opportunity by the forelock. It is a pity too that the foreign capital which comes Capewards goes mostly into mining stock. It were well if some of it were invested in the healthier industry of fruit-culture. Perhaps ere long the one or two companies which have already got into working order will form an example to other 1 66 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. companies and friendly competitors in a trade which is practically illimitable. We have said that all the material appliances for a growing export fruit trade have been initiated here. It is not therefore as if new-comers, throwing their practical knowledge and their little capital into Cape fruit- growing, would find difficulties in the outlet for their produce. Let it be remembered that the Cape has one signal advantage for fruit supply to European markets which is not conceded to the clever and enterprising American grower. The seasons fall conversely with those of England. Consequently the only competitors in our special line and special time of exporting will be the Australians, who, however, are heavily handicapped by a one-third greater distance from England. Their seasons certainly do correspond with ours. The best way of making the comparison with the northern hemisphere quite clear will be by the following tabular arrangement : — Cape. Europe. December January February \ V ■ . Summer . (■June lAugust March April May \ ■ . Autumn . /■September . \ October (November June ) i December . ■ January ' February July August . Winter . September October November }• • . Spring . ( March . ] April I May This general arrangement must not be taken too absolutely. The seasons on the two sides of the Colony, west and east, are differentiated much as are those of India, by the rainfall occurring conversely. In fact the Cape is a monsoon country, the west having its maximum rainfall in winter, while the east has it in the warmer months. There is this peculiarity also in the ea'^t, that there are two wet seasons, namely, the November or spring rains, and the autumn rains in February. Nothing can show this peculiarity of west and east better than the two diagrams here given, which show the rainfall curve for the year at Cape Town and Grahamstown respectively. From these peculiarities arise important results in fruit-growing. The most striking is the limitation of uniformly profitable wine, grape, and raisin production to the Western Province, which possesses the necessary hot and dry summers for the proper ripening of the fruit of the vine. In the east, with its dispensation of summer showers and frequent hailstorms, with much heavy rain in February, viticulture is reduced to a branch of gardening, and it is questionable if anything more than table- grapes for local consumption, such as the Crystal and Sweetwater, can PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 167 be successfully managed. Of course this is a general statement, subject to here and there an exception, dependent upon climatic conditions. For example, good results have been obtained in the somewhat inter- mediate climate of the Karoo, particularly at Graaf Reinet and its neighbourhood. The total rainfall throughout the Karoo averages low, say 16 to 19 inches annually, as compared with 28 to 30 inches in the normal eastern region. But the rule holds good in a general way, and a glance at Gamble's diagrams of rainfall, where the curve is plotted for a large number of places, so as to be readily comparable by the eye, will enable one to determine where viticulture on a large scale is climatically Note. — The distances of the dots in each diagram from its zero line give the average rainfall in inches for each month. The slant lines between the dots are intended to guide the eye from one month to the next. (See also the Rainfall Maps, after Gamble, Nos. 12, 13, and 14, at the end of the vol.) favoured, and where it will present special difficulties. In the former case the rain curve for January, February, and March— the ripening and vintage months — keeps at or below i inch ; in the latter it runs up to the monthly maximum for the year, say 3.5 to 4 inches. The Sundays River valley upwards from the Addo, and also perhaps the hot sheltered environs of Uitenhage, are the best examples of local eastern exceptions to the general rule. But even here grapes will have to be tended with very much greater care and intelligence than seems to be necessary farther west. The great difficulty will assuredly be the general prevalence of anthracnose, or black-spot^ as it is sometimes called {Sphaceloma ampe- l68 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. Itnidii, De By.). This plague, though far from being comparable in mischief to the Peronospora of the vine, which luckily we have not yet imported, is still an enemy to be reckoned with, and it will be necessary that all eastern vineyards be assiduously treated by spraying with Bordeaux mixture as a j)reventive of the scourge. There is little doubt that success will attend the proper application of this remedy, just as has been proved to be the case in Europe. But the additional charges for skilled labour in its use will heavily handicap the eastern producer, especially if he should incautiously cultivate the more delicate varieties of vine, say, for instance, the Cape western Haanepoot, known elsewhere as Muscat of Alexandria, a sort which is particularly liable to the attacks of anthracnose. New-comers to a country' who have been accustomed to the class of grape which is seen upon English dessert tables, will be surprised to find that nothing has ever been done at the Cape at all comparable to the minute care which grapes receive at home under glass at the hands of skilled gardeners, who have made this fruit a special study. As we have them, the grapes are fairly good, and up to size on the outside of the bunch, but, by carelessness and want of proper thinning, they are not half- grown or half-coloured in the middle. The plan has been to grow grapes for wine and for the table in the same vineyard, and with the same low average of attention. That is to say, the table grapes have practically grown themselves, instead of each bunch having been the subject of individual inspection and treatment with the thinning scissors. Perhaps some skilled gardener, who knows what a dessert bunch of grapes should look like, may find it worth while to show what can be done in this country, where the climate renders his glass-house and hot-water pipes unnecessary. Certain it is there is no lack of wealthy folk here who will buy grapes of English hot-house type at their full value. Mutatis 7nutandis, much the same thing may be said of other fruits — peaches and pears particularly. Our growers have had no high standard to work up to, and have been too easily satisfied. The comments of Covent Garden salesmen upon picked Cape samples have certainly opened their eyes somewhat, and given them to see that the fruit which has been taken as first-rate, levels down to scarce a second place when put beside first-class produce skilfully grown at home. We have taken things too easily, and left too much to nature, forgetting that the finest type of fruit is decidedly a product of art, for which nature provides only the raw materials. In western markets, January gives the last of the strawberries and apricots which have been to hand for some five or six weeks previously. The earlier sorts of grapes, pears, and apples according to kind, also the earlier peaches, plums, and figs, fill up the list. From the conditions of the climate it is rather a cultural mistake to try and hurry things by planting what are known in Europe as early-fruit sorts. Cape conditions, at least in such parts of the country as lie upon the first plateau reaching inland all round the coast, are much more favourable to perfection in the later kinds. Farther up-country on the narrow second and the immense third plateau, which reaches a level of approximately 4,000 to 5,000 feet. PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 169 the conditions are considerably altered. But the gain expected from the growth of early sorts at this level is practically interfered with by the tardier approach of spring and persistence of a dry winter's cold. The results of the most experienced cultivators is decidedly against experi- menting with early sorts in the hope of catching the high prices asked in an early market. In February, the better sorts of apples, peaches, and nectarines come forward ; and a glance at these will show conclusively that they are mainly late European varieties, and accentuate the caution we have given against early sorts, at least for market supply on the large scale. Grapes and melons are becoming plentiful, and begin to acquire their proper dis- tinctive flavour, unless they have, as is often the case, been spoiled by injudicious irrigation. The fruits of keeping quality are now approaching the season for picking. As a rule they are left too long upon the tree for lack of two things, — first, want of practical knowledge of the precise degree of growth at which to take them, so that they shall best develop the richness and flavour that come by keeping ; and second, want of something like a reasonable fruit-store, where they can be laid out properly, inspected daily, and kept at even temperature. It is pitiable to see good keeping sorts huddled up in boxes, a bushel or more together, in a galvanised iron shed open to the light and the weather, and varying in temperature daily from 80" to 90° at noon to 48° or 50° at night. This is another matter in which we want some gardening missionary to come over and teach us a gospel of better things. In this month and in March begins the first drying season, — that is to say, fruit-drying in the sun, as opposed to fruit-evaporating, the more practical, more cleanly, manageable, and time-saving plan. Already very fair work of this kind has been done, and the Wellington dried fruits have quite reached up to the already high standard of the raisins produced in the Worcester district. The only reason why these products are un- known outside the boundaries of the Colony is that the amount produced does not bulk large enough, and that it is almost entirely consumed locally in the Colony. The output is not a hundredth part of what it should be, or what could readily be absorbed by the Cape consumer. Hence in this case, as in so many others, we stand in the somewhat absurd plight of possessing the finest country in the world for production, and yet are content to allow ourselves to be served by manufacturers and dealers who grow and fetch and carry for us away on the other side of the world. How long this anomaly is to last, and how long a Cape rural population is to think it no shame to have on their tables American dried apples and peaches, and positively to import American fruit pulp where- with to make " Cape jams," rests with the coming race of fruit-growers whom we hope to attract to the country and help us to put a little life and stimulus into our easy-going, lotus-eating lives. Do not for a moment suppose the thing is here put sarcastically, or in an exaggerated manner. The whole output of first-class Worcester raisins was last year bought up, as a matter of course, by two rctailc7's in Cape Town. The year before the same buyers collared it all. Is it not clear that our pro- I70 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. duction has yet to expand itself into wholesale proportions ? Another retailer, on examining an exceptionally good sample of.dried figs that ran the imported " Elemi " article very close, offered the producer an Elemi price. Picture his disgust on being advised that the total stock produced that year amounted to only six boxes. And so with the prunes, for we are content to buy Continental jars of "Prunes d'Agen" and "Prunes d'Ente" year after year, forgetting that no better prune-growing land than this exists on the face of the earth. Truly, in face of such facts as these, one 1 S£- .; &^-' ^Kb ^ , ^9fl rv^ mM ^ ' *• '^fi*™ i ^g!»* \ ' *'■,' 1 1 WW^^ 4-..'.- •._ , j^ C\ I't ///r Raisin Making, Worcester. does not know whether to laugh, to cry, or to swear. But one thing is certain, that with present conditions at the Cape, with family grocers buying up all the raisins that a whole district produces, with farmers content with a dried fig crop which a man could carry on his shoulder, there must be a good many very fair fortunes lying about loose at the Cape, and only waiting for people with moderate commercial instincts, industry, and business capacity to come over and appropriate them to themselves. March, of all the months of the year, shows the barest fruit market, at PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 171 least in the way of fresh kinds putting in an appearance then. The supplies are chiefly late apples and pears of the keeping sorts, and these, when they come to sale, bear plentiful testimony to the rough way in which they have been handled and stored. The outside skin is scratched, discoloured, and far from appetising. Ere long the dealers will learn that fruit ripened in the store-house must receive attention and handling somewhat different from that which is accorded to the year's crop of potatoes. A few peaches of late kinds come in and generally secure good prices. For the most part these are seedlings that have originated here many years ago, and, though fairly good, belong unfortunately to the series of clingstones. There is an opening for considerable improvement by selection of the improved modern late freestones. In all these fruits the variety of sorts presented on the market is very limited, and the knowledge of named kinds is generally absent. It is impossible to go to any retail dealer and ask for a Bo7i Chretien or Ribstoii Pippin apple. The seller would simply gaze at you in astonishment as if you were speak- ing a foreign language. All this will have to be changed, and no doubt with a continued demand for fruits by name the dealers will gradually learn something more about the details of their trade than at present they seem to think at all necessary. The month closes with the last of the grapes. April, May, and June present few novelties. The guavas of many seedling kinds fill up a place which is hardly warranted by the intrinsic value of the fruit as at present grown. We have them from the insig- nificant bulk of a gooseberry to that of middle-sized apples. But very little attention has been given to culture, and still less to improvement of sorts. It may be said that the guava, as grown here, is often practically a wilding, and it would be well if nineteen out of twenty of them were destroyed, and selected grafted plants put in to take their place. Some day we shall get rid of the mass of bony seeds which fill up the centre of the market guava, and shall aim at making it a more presentable fruit. Walnuts and chestnuts now make their appearance. The former have not received fair play. They, too, have been propagated in our careless Cape way by seedlings, and it is only within the last twenty months or so that the fine imported sorts, in which the French growers have had such success, have been brought into the country. The remainder of the supply of these months is from Natal, whence our market is flooded with small pine-apples and bananas. The former are remarkable for being nearly all outside. Of late, a slight improvement has been observable in the quality of these fruits ; and when the matter comes to be inquired into, it is found that nearly all the finest fruit, classed roughly in the popular idea as Natalian, turns out to be the product of a few recently established plantations along our own eastern coast. There can be little doubt that this industry will increase year by year to very considerable dimensions. The growers have begun in the proper way, namely, JDy dis- carding the small, hard-skinned, and half-grown wilding pine, that has so long been foisted upon us, and going to Ceylon and the West Indies for the very best sorts procurable. From this source, too, will be obtained 172 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. large supplies of the Cape gooseberry {PhysaHs)^ which is perhaps the most delicious fruit for canning and preserves that the whole world has to show. We have been accustomed to despise it, simply because it grows wild without care or culture. The jam factories are, however, already increasing their output of it, and making it worth while for people to undertake its production as a. petite culture. With the last days of June and the first of July come in the whole tribe of citrus fruits, orange, lemon, naartje or tangerine, and pample- mousse. From the variations of climate and altitude which have been signalised at the beginning of this chapter, it follows that these fruits hold their place on the market continuously till December, their peculiar external character and power of ripening up after gathering rendering them comparatively easy of transport from long distances. The locally grown fruit is perhaps at its -best in October, — that is to say, it can then be picked and marketed perfectly ripe, instead of gathering it green and trusting it to slow ripening in the store-room. Perhaps in the case of no fruit more than these has the public mind been so thoroughly awakened to the necessity of improvement, and of discarding the wretched seedling rubbish, full of pips and cased in the thickest of skins, which has for many years encumbered our markets. The importations of good grafted trees of the best sorts have been very numerous; and if the cultural conscience can only be aroused to the necessity of a vigorous crusade against the scale-insects, which up till now have had it all their own way, and also to the necessity of giving orchard trees something like fair play and reason- able care, there will be amongst us quite a new era of citrus fruit-growing. The great desideratum is that the spirited proprietor shall himself grow the oranges, instead of leaving them to grow themselves. At present our largest supply, in Cape Town at least, comes from Natal, and it is not particularly good. The best Cape grown oranges are from the district of Clanwilliam. October brings with it the Japanese loquat, another fruit which calls for selective improvement. There is as yet far too much pip and too little flesh upon the ordinary loquat. Yet there have arisen in several private gardens seminal varieties showing a commencement of better things. These should certainly be increased by grafting, as far as possible, instead of reverting to the chance seedling mode of getting new trees. With November come in the earlier figs and the strawberry. There is a future for the fig, and its selected Cape home and centre of drying for commercial purposes will probably be somewhere in the Karoo. It is true that we have not, native, any insects similar to the Blastop/iaga^ which assists in the perfecting of the celebrated Smyrna fig. But in these days of quick steam communication it does not seem impossible to introduce this useful insect, just as we have successfully acclimatised the Vedalia. As to strawberries, the selection of sorts, grown chiefly at Stellenbosch, is very limited, and modes of culture anything but modern. As a rule, the beds are allowed to continue producing for far too many seasons, and the fruit consequently deteriorates in both size and succulence. New blood PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 1 73 < and new ideas, with the habit of modern practice in strawberry-growing, as it is done in Kent and Surrey for the great London markets, is very much wanted at the Cape. The demand for the fruit is practically unlimited. The month closes with the early apricots, and this delicious fruit queens it right through December. If our growers would only learn the first principles of pruning this far too generously growing fruit-tree, keep its bountiful nature well under control, and thin its bearing to something like one-half, then truly would the Cape have such apricots as no other place in the world could show. Whoe\er reads this little resume, and begins to turn over in his mind the idea of coming out to the Cape to utilise there his practical knowledge of European fruit-growing, will naturally ask what conveniences already exist in the way of a supply of orchard stock. Every practical man would hesitate to bring out with him a lot of grafted trees, selected as best he could, for a country he had not even seen, and of whose climate and soil he had had no experience. But very recently there have been introduced into the Colony large numbers of the very best modern fruit-sorts of all kinds, by men who have themselves practically learned the capacity and conditions of the Cape as a fruit-growing country, and it is not too much to say that, by their industrious multiplication of these picked kinds, the market for first-class orchard stuff is now amply supplied. There is no reason now for continuing the old system of seedlings, unless out of pure wrong-headedness and refusal to take up with improved methods. So friendly is the climate here to the skilled manipulations of the nursery- man, that first-class grafted yearlings, thoroughly reliable to name and graft-stock, can be obtained at prices not greater than those ruling in Eng- land. To import for oneself on coming out to the Cape would certainly involve the loss of a season, to say nothing of difficulties in the way of immediately finding ground wherein to set out the consignment. Immigrants of the kind one would so gladly see spreading themselves over the best districts of the Colony, each with his market-orchard grown and tended in the way that means business and sound profits, would be wise not to start at once, but to spy out the country first for themselves, and for themselves see what our grapes of Eshcol are like, take stock of us and our little old-fashioned ways and conservative habits of working, and then only, when the land was no longer strange, and the altered climatic conditions have become familiar, to exploit their capital on some selected fertile piece of land, and add to the wealth of their adopted country — this goes without saying — by adding to their own. A brief memorandum like the present cannot by any means give all the information that an English fruit-grower would find useful when he is thinking of looking out for fresh fields and pastures new. It would be well to note carefully the details to be found in the "Illustrated Handbook of the Cape." But perhaps the best idea of the way cultural matters go on here, and the peculiar conditions of Cape rural life, would be obtained by consulting the issues of the Cape Agricultural Journal, now in its ninth volume. At the basis of all calculations lies the fact that the Government, unlike those of Australia and New Zealand, have no available acreage 174 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. out of which they can make free grants to new-comers, and this is simply because the Colony dates back some two centuries before the time when the sister colonies began to be exploited by the intrusive European. All available land, at least within colonial boundaries, has long ago been taken up, and is in private possession. Purchase or tenancy at a mode- rate rent is therefore a prime factor in all forecasts of new cultural ventures. Suitable land, even such as has never felt the plough, but is simply sat upon by the proprietor, and goes with his pasture area, would sell at about ^lo per morgen of two acres, provided it were within easy reacii of a market by railway. The rent would perhaps be los. to 12s. per morgen. Mere wheatlands would fetch very much less, and ■ if distant from the railway might perhaps be valued at 12s. to 20s. per morgen. Mashonaland certainly offers unlimited scope, but its market is yet to be made. Also it is only near the larger centres of population in the south-west that labourers can be found who have even a small degree of skill in the ruder operations of cultural work. Coloured men, the descendants of the old slave population, with a considerable amount of miscegenation, can be relied upon to trench, dig, and hoe orchard and vineyard, to plough and harrow, and to give the vines their annual prunings, and some of them have even recently learnt to graft with fair success. Of course all this is subject to a vigilant supervision, and subject also to the fact that the labourer's wants are so very few as to make him somewhat independent. He therefore favours his employer by working, when he is in the mind, at half-a-crown per day. The better men readily get another shilling, and are a good deal sought after. Mere farm labourers receive 25s. per month, with rations for self and family. As a rule these last are perfectly unreliable, and are unacquainted with the use of other than the simplest hand tools. In conclusion, it is highly advisable for any one intending to try fruit- culture at the Cape to bank his capital on arrival, and arrange to receive the colonial rate of interest, meanwhile seeking out a situation with some one who is already owner of the land upon which he lives. This would be the best course, even if no salary and nothing but board were offered in the way of remuneration for services rendered. In a short time experience in Cape ways and Cape seasons would thus be gained, and the land spied out. It is much after this fashion that the best and wealthiest farmers among us have worked their way in and up. The European coming from an English farm and making a beginning without local knowledge, has much to learn and unlearn, or he will inevitably come to grief in a few years. And what is true of the larger venture of farming, is even more certain with the somewhat more refined economy of the orchard. The following details as to the export of fruit from the port of Cape Town during the season of 1894 is drawn from the Customs returns. It is impossible to say accurately what proportion this bears to the quantity sent up to the ever-ready market of the Transvaal, but in the opinion of those qualified to judge it has already been tripled or quadrupled. PROFITABLE FRUIT GROWING AND EXPORT. 175 Record of the Cape of Good Hope day of small tJtiiigs, soon to be enlarged. Return of Fruits exported during the Season 1893-94. Sorts of Fruits. December. January. February-. March. April. Total. Apples Apricots . Gooseberries 12 12 89 I 41 50 180 24 I Grapes Grenadillas 443 I 3.139 1,800 901 6,283- I Melons 4 113 117 Nectarines 4 19 23 Pears Peaches . Pine-apples Plums 530 46 I 164 7 43 382 576 7 I Quinces . Tomatoes . 13 43 30 I I 31 57 Total packages . 12 1,007 3,626 2,043 995 7,683 Declared valu€ . ^4 ;^i82/7/6^784/9/o ^476/6/3 ;^274 £l,^2l|2|9 CHAPTER X. ■ FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. New Departures in the Fruit Industry — Home and Foreign Markets — Advantages of Cape Colony — Fruits Grown and Time of Ripening — Lessons from Foreign Experience — Points to Keep in View — Prac- tices in Planting Orchards — Irrigation Systems Old and New — Peach Yellows— System of Thorough Cultivation — Injury from Hail — Apples — Pruning of Deciduous Fruit - Trees — American Blight — Codlin Moth — Pears — Peaches — Peach Maggot, or Orange Fly — Apricots — Quinces — Pomegranates — Plums — Figs — Oranges — Canker at the Root — Soot Fungus — The Australian Bug — Pine- apples — Bananas — Loquats — Cape Gooseberry — Packing and Transport of Fruit — Imagined Boycotting of Cape Fruit — The Real Defects — Conditions Experienced on the Voyage and before Shipment — Successful Shippers — Means and Methods of Packing — Fruits Sent — Unique Flavour of Cape Grapes — Californian Fruit — Prospect of the Cape Fruit Industry — Necessary Improvement in Accommodation and Transport of Fruit — Methods of Spraying Fruit-Trees — Knapsack Hand-power Machines — The Strawsonizer — Biting and Sucking Insects — Materials Used for Spraying — Formulae for Making Insecticide Fluids — Hydric Cyanide as a Means for Destroying Scale on Citrus Fruit Trees — The Wolfskill Fumigator- — Fruit Growing in Wellington District — The Pioneer Fruit Driers' Company — The Wellington Fruit Growers' Association — A Horti- cultural Board versus A South African Fruit Growers' Union. The fruit industry is one which has recently attracted a considerable amount of interest in Cape Colony. The unre- miinerative character of the Cape brandy production, and the low price of Cape wines, together with the havoc worked by rust in the wheat crops, and by phylloxera in the vineyards, have made it necessary for cultivators to turn from their ancient practices to something which holds out better prospects of remuneration. Not a few enterprising farmers are rooting out the dead vine stumps, and in place of replanting with vines grafted on phylloxera-proof American stocks, arc occupying the ground FRUIT GROWING AND iM ARRETING. 1 77 ,with choice varieties of fruit-trees. Excellent selections of' the finest varieties of Europe, America, and Australasia are to be had grafted, on suitable stocks, from such places as the Nooitgedacht Nurseries of the Pioneer Orchard Company, near Stellenbosch ; the nurseries of the Cape Orchard Company, in the Hex-river Valley ; Pickstone's Nursery, near Welling- ton ; Nelson's Nurseries, near East London, and others ; or they may be imported directly from Tasmania and Australia at rates which tend to keep the Colony prices moderate. A general price — one year from the bud and two years from the seed — is is. 6d. each for all sorts sold in large numbers, up to 2s. when the quantities taken are small. Although there is a local market for fresh, dried, and pre- served fruit, which can be encouraged and greatly extended, yet for the double purpose of increasing the industry and main- taining stability of prices, the great hope of the colonial grower is directed to the foreign markets — chiefly at pre- sent the European markets, but later on those of America as well. To establish a footing in these centres, very different methods of working must be adopted in the future than have prevailed in the past in Cape Colony. The fruit must not only be of excellent quality (common fruit not being worth the cost of its carriage to pAU'opc), but it should belong to varieties which are already known in the market. It should also be sent in prime condition, and in large quantities of uniform quality. These may be regarded essentials to suc- cess in developing an export fruit industry. That South Africa possesses exceptional advantages for such a trade is being more and more realised, (i.) It is on the other side of the Equator from either Europe or North America, and fruits ripen at seasons of scarcity in these northern parts. The Cape supply may therefore be regarded as coming in to fill a blank in the markets rather than as in competition with any but Australasian fruits. In such a competition, the Cape, being so much nearer the markets, should have an immense pull over Australia. The full measure of the advan- tage will only appear, however, when trade is established on a large scale. (2.) Another decided advantage, although at the first blush the statement of it may seem paradoxical, is that fungoid and insect pests are so universally prevalent, that M 17^ FARMINC; INDUSTRIES OF CAI'E COLONY. it will be absolutely necessary for successful fruit-growers to acquaint themselves with the best of the preventive as well as of the remedial measures to be employed and to practise such, systematically. There would have been less hope for the de- velopment of the fruit trade had these pests only appeared at intervals of a few years, as no one would, under these circum- stances, care to gain the knowledge and experience necessary to combat them, and wholesale destruction of certain crops would probably occur every now and then, and confer upon more wary competitors m irkct advantages, which might become permanent. It is the fact that individual fungoid and insect ravages are by no means uniform from year to year, but are cyclical in their times of attack — one year serious, and a few years trifling — the result mainly of varying ciirrjatic circumstances, which are at one time favourable, and at other times unfavourable to the increase of the numbers of the pest, whatever it may be. But the colonial fruit-grower may rest assured that if one pest is not on the war-path, .so to say, for a season or two, he is almost certain to be favoured with a visitation of one or more of the other plagues. (3.) The next great advantage is that most of the hardy European fruits, and many of the sub-tropical, Asiatic, and American fruits grow remarkably well in South Africa. The following are a few, mentioned at random, of the commoner species grown, with the dates of the ripening of the fruit, in the Western Province : — 1. Apples — January till August. 2. Pears — December till July. 3. Nectarines — Jan. and Feb. 4. Peaches — Jan., Feb., and Mar. 5. Plums — Dec, Jan., and Feb. 6. Grapes — Jan., Feb., Mar., and April. 7. Almonds — Feb. and Mar. 8. Walnuts — March and April. 9. Olives from the latter half of April till the end of May. 10. Chestnuts — -April and May. 11. Oranges — June till October inclusive. 12. Loquats — Sept. and Oct. 13. Figs — 1st crop, December; 2nd crop, February. 14. Cherries — Nov. and into Dec 15. Strawberries — Nov. and Dec. 16. Apricots — The latter half of Nov. till the middle of Jan. 17. Guavas — All the year round. The colonial fruit-grower ought to derive valuable infor- mation and aid from the published experiences of Californian and Australasian fruit-growers, as the climate of South Africa resembles the climates of these distant parts more than that FRUIT (IKOWING AND MARKETING. 1 79 of Europe. He will find also, if he has been at work for some time, and has been following old methods, that many of his favourite practices will require to be discarded. To secure a large quantity of fruit of uniform quality, it is necessary not to plant too many varieties of the same species of tree, while to keep up a steady supply of a given fruit during the season, it is necessary to select varieties which ripen their fruit in succession throughout the period. Different districts exhibit special suitability for different kinds of fruits, and although several fruits may grow well in one district, and even in one garden, certain areas will naturally become famous for special products, — for example, Constantia for wines and export grapes ; Ceres and the lacustrine formation about Worcester and Robertson, apples, pears, and walnuts ; Wellington, apricots, pears, and plums ; Stellenbosch and Paarl, peaches, pears, and plums ; Bathurst, pine-apples, custard apples, and bananas ; the Gamtoos River Valley, citrus fruits and walnuts. The grower must not only study the characteristics of his locality, but within possible limits prepare to take advantage of the most remunerative of a number of different means for the disposal of his produce. The best returns are, as a rule", to be looked for from the shipment of fresh fruit for the table. If the fruit be over-ripe, and of a variety suitable for the pur- pose, it can go for canning ; while, if the canning or jam fac- tories are overstocked, it may be dried in trays at a minimum cost. Deep subsoil stirring, or even trenching three feet deep and manuring with broken bones, when the planter can afford the additional outlay, is an excellent preliminary preparation to planting an orchard. The colonial method is usually not on such an extensive or thorough plan. To dig pits three to four feet wide, and about two to two and a half feet deep, in which to plant the young trees, is generally thought to be sufficient. This is done regardless of the facts that pits dug in a hard soil are likely to curb the development of root growth, and to hold stagnant water either after excessive rains, or after the soil has been irrigated, both conditions being inimical to healthy and vigorous plant growth. If the whole of the land, from want of funds or other cause, cannot be l8o l-AKMINC INDUSTRIKS OF CAPE COLONY. uiiifoiinly moved, to dig a trench a few feet wide in the hne which the pits would have occupied (running right down the hill, or in the direction of the natural drainage inclination of the surface if nearly level), overcomes the most serious objec- tions to the pit practice. Drainage is thereby improved, and the root growth is not then cramped in every direction. The usual distance between the rows and between the trees in the row is fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five feet, the intermediate width being probably the most satisfactory for most of the common fruits, except on very rich soil, in sheltered places, where trees grow large and more air space is necessary. The walnut is an exception. It ought to have distances of forty feet each way, with at first a plum, a peach, or an orange- tree planted half-way between. In the climate of South Africa the temptation to use irrigation water to excess is great, and particularly so when cultivators are ignorant of alternative methods of working which secure the advantages derived from irrigation without their concomitant disadvantages. It is not uncommon to find men who water their fruit-trees every eight or ten days throughout the summer season, and are not .quite certain that they have irrigated sufficiently, when in reality, with thorough cultivation, the yield of fruit would be greater and the health of the trees better without the application of water at all. Not only is the amount of water supplied usually excessive, but it is generally applied on a system which is altogether objectionable, and contrary to the best order of things. There is no other part of the soil so dry under natural circumstances as that in which the butt or bole of a tree stands, and through which the trunk-roots spread to the surrounding moister feeding ground, where the great supply of root fibres, ramifying from, and terminating the thick branches, are at work. Yet can it be believed, that the common, almost universal practice, is to dig a depression or hollow closely round the tree, and fill this with water, which soaks in at the one place where it is not wanted, and where it is liable to do positive injury by inducing canker in the roots ? Once the soil has been thoroughly saturated a few times, it runs together into a dense condition, and on drying, becomes extremely hard and unsuitable for \egetation of any kind to exist in. It is then FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. l8l almost absolutely necessary to keep wetting- it again and again to soften it, if growth is to be made possible. One unique advantage claimed for this system of watering is in the case of fruit-trees which are liable to come into flower too early, so that the blooms are destroyed by late frosts. By exposing the thick roots of a tree through scraping back the soil, and then running cold water into the hole for a few days in spring, the growth of the tree is checked, and its flowering delayed. A modified form of the common system of irrigation is sometimes practised with orange-trees. A ring of earth is built round the bole to keep the water from actually touching the bark after the tree is a year or two old, but this does not prevent the main roots being steeped in too much moisture. The unhealthy appearance of the fruit-trees, during recent years, in various parts of the Colony — at first generally believed to be due to the infectious American blight, known as peach yellows — has been satisfactorily demonstrated by MacOwan and Pillans of the Agricultural Department to bean unhealthy state, induced mainly by excessive supplies of water on the stiffer classes of soils. While the American peach yellows confines its attack to stone fruit, and never relents after making its appearance in an orchard, the colonial plague involves the orange, the apple, the pear, and the quince as well, and it sometimes disappears after a year, the leaves losing the brown abnormal colour, and resuming the natural one. The latter characteristic is satisfactory proof, whether the belief of MacOwan and Pillans be right as regards all cases, that the derangement is not the true peach yellows. The Californian method of applying water in moderate quantities at the place where it is wanted, and in such a manner that the soil is not injuriously affected, must sooner or later assert itself in those parts, where it is found that trees do not bear to the best advantage without an allowance of more water than the rain supplies. The water is led on usually in three narrow channels or plough furrows running alongside each other, and parallel with the row of trees to be irrigated, but at a distance of probably six feet or more from the bases of the trees. The soil being well cultivated and open, the water sinks immediately in the region of active root growth. Little of the 1 82 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. surface is flooded, and the drying, hardening, and cracking, which might take place in and close to the channels, is pre- vented by a cultivator or harrow being drawn along after the water has thoroughly soaked into the ground. The channels are by this means obliterated, the hollows being filled with the pulverulent dry earth from the surrounding surface, which acts as a protection to the moist soil underneath. Orchards were visited in the Western Province which were giving splendid returns of fruit without being irrigated, and some of these had previously been deluged unsatisfactorily for a generation or two, under the belief that it was impossible to grow fruit without abundance of water. In these orchards a thorough system of cultivation is now carried out in an un- tiring manner. One good deep ploughing is necessary annually, at a time when root growth is quiescent (except in the case of surface-rooted trees like those bearing stone fruits), and during the heat of summer the surface must be horse-hoed every eight or ten days. Some fruit-growers object to ploughing on account of a certain amount of injury being done to the surface roots, but the full effects of surface cultivation cannot be secured without the use at intervals of an effective plough. The marvellous influence of frequent surface cultivation in preserving moisture, by checking the capillary action near the surface, and thus lessening the amount of loss by evaporation during hot weather, is not generally or sufficiently appreciated in South Africa. In many parts of the Western Province, fruit with an excellent bloom, and free from an excess of acidity, can be grown under this system, even in seasons when there is no rainfall the whole summer. Perhaps one of the most striking illustrations of the system of thorough working was witnessed at Johannesburg, in Nelson's Nursery Grounds. No irrigation was practised, and only the seed-germinating beds were watered. Soil dug up in a dry and pulverulent con- dition, then left for a (ew weeks and dug over a second time, absorbed so much moisture from the air, and attracted it from the soil below, that it came into excellent condition to receive seeds or young plants without rain having fallen. No one will deny the advantage to be derived in the dry parts of the climate of Cape Colony from watering immediately after planting young fruit-trees, by way of consolidating the FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. 1 83 soil about their roots and preventing the plants withering, but this may be accomph'shed without leaving a water-washed surface to become hard and road-like. A good deal has been done in the way of demonstrating the best methods and the benefits of pruning, a practice which was almost unknown among the old Dutch population. Owing to the strong winds that periodically prevail in the Colony, the training of trees to grow high is objectionable,unless in certain sheltered and consequently favoured spots. Also, by way of protection against the wind, and more particularly the sun, the centres of the deciduous trees should, as a rule, be well cleared of surplus wood, to encourage the fruit to grow inside. Although a good amount of wood should be cut away, trees can easily be over-pruned ; with the result that two or three very hot days come, as they frequently do, and there being an insufficient shade of leaves, the bark becomes scorched. Also, with the object of protection against the sun, trees should not grow on long standard trunks, but the branches should spring out near to the ground. There is always a saving of labour in the management of trees of moderate dimensions, unless they grow so low that horse labour cannot be employed in cultivating the soil. Some orchardists strongly prefer the pruning-knife to the secateurs, on account of its making a clean cut, without bruising the wood in the neighbourhood of the wound left on the tree, although using the secateurs is easier work than pruning with a knife. Hail is one of the most relentless enemies of fruit cultiva- tion in South Africa. Not only is a crop of fruit ruined in a few minutes by a hailstorm, but the bark of the trees gets cut through and scarred. in such a manner that the marks of the wounds remain for years. Although no section of South Africa is totally exempt from hail, that area in the Western Province which receives its maximum rainfall in winter, and has a comparatively very dry summer, is not so frequently or so destructively afflicted by it. The most serious accounts of injuries from hail during the fruit season of 1894-95 were received at the De Beers Nursery, near Kimberley. The heavy fall of hailstones, some measuring \\ inch in diameter, lasted only twenty minutes, but in that time the entire crop 184 l-ARMINC; INDUSTRIKS OF CAPE COLONY. was destroyed, and tons of fruit were washed miles away in the flood. The apple, belonging to the class of hardy fruits which naturally rest during a period of cold or a period of drought, does not thrive well in the semi-tropical regions of the Colony, although the tree grows vigorously and produces an abundant crop of fruit in the colder districts. Grafting" is the common method of propagation, upon stocks grown from seed ; but owing to the prevalence of American blight, which harbours in the bark of Paradise and many of the old favourite stocks, it is now necessary to graft choice varieties upon disease-proof stocks, such as the Northern Sp)'. A good many excellent apples are to be met with which have been grown in the Colony for years, such as the large green American apple, Gloria Mundi, the Golden Reinette, and the Ribston Pippin, &c., while many of the best sorts have been destroyed by the blight. Their places can readily be filled by selections from the nurserymen's lists, which contain such well- known varieties as the Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Bramley's Seedling, Warner's King, and many others. It is good practice to rear stocks for grafting from seed. The method of rearing fruit-bearing trees from seed is as disap- pointing in the case of the apple as in that of other fruits of which there are numerous choice and common \-arieties. Deciduous fruit-trees which are to be trained on the low- head system should have the main stem cut over at planting to a height of about eighteen inches at most. The lateral shoots, which are thereb}' strengthened in growth, are kept low, and are made to spread by leaving the last bud always on the outer side. Much of the luxuriant growth of young wood which comes after close cutting back requires to be removed the second year, but a satisfactory shape is secured, and the subsequent annual pruning will consist of cutting back and thinning out, new or bearing wood being left evenly distributed over the tree, so that the fruit ma}' also be properly distributed. The side buds in groups of three, or the lateral one of two, is the fruit bud. The terminal bud is that from which the next year's growth of wood is about to spring. There is a strong objection in the Colony to pruning or removing branches from apple-trees, as the wounded parts are so liable to become FRUIT GROWING AND MARKKTINC. i8s affected by the American blight, and no doubt there is a good deal of sense in the objection ; but pruning cannot be omitted if the best results are to be obtained. The selection of so- called blight-proof varieties does not overcome this difficulty, as the resistance only extends to the subterranean form of the ScJiisoneura. Plenty of space must be provided within the main upright-growing branches for the development of spurs thrown out from the old wood, as it is on these the fruit grows. If too long, they must be cut back ; but Pickstone is of opinion that a greater number of buds should be spared in the Colony than the solitary two left in English practice. American Blight (Woolly Aphis), Schizoneura lanigf.ra, Hausm. Woolly aphis ; infested apple-spray, nat. size ; wingless viviparous female and young clothed with cottony fibres above, and small egg-bearing female beneath the spray ; pupae with little cottony growth ; all magnified. ^^^^^ Buckton and Orn,erod. American Blight. — The apple-bark* plant-lou.se or woolly aphis, Schizoneura lanigera, Hausm., is easily distinguished b}- the cottony-like growth which projects from the insect, and readily betrays its presence. It is generally located in crevices, also where the tree has been wounded, and young bark has been recently formed in the vicinity of old or dead bark, under which the insect takes shelter, one chief attraction being the vulnerable condition of the part to the sucker of the aphis. * One form of the insect attacks the roots and ori:_;inates the develop- ment of warts of different shapes. 1 86 KARMING INDUSTRIP:S OF CAPE COLONY. The injury produced is not only due to the quantity of sap abstracted, but also to the diseased growth which is set up. The tender woody layers underneath the bark become soft, pulpy, and abnormally enlarged. The bark over the swelling ultimately splits open, and exposes the tissue to further attack. At the end of summer these unhealthy growths dry up and die and form deep cracks. The efforts of Nature to repair the injury in the following season leads to the development of more young bark and soft tissue, which readily yields to the attack of an increasing number of insects. In this way " a constantly increasing diseased mass arises, which shelters the insects in its crannies, and finds food for them in its hyper- trophied formations." Underneath the wool the insects are mostly of a yellowish or reddish plum-colour. The winged specimens are described as " pitchy between the wings and green, or with the abdomen of a chocolate brown. The wingless females may be found packed closely together in the cottony masses, with the pale reddish young moving about amongst them." Effectual sprayings with one or other of the solutions recommended later are the chief preventive and remedial means employed, together with the scraping away of all loose bark likely to form shelter for the pest. The codlin moth, Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn., is the dread enemy of the apple-grower. The diseased condition known as " worm-eaten " is brought about by the caterpillar of this moth gnawing a passage from a discoloured spot on the skin to the middle of the fruit. One o.^'g is deposited usually in the eye of the apple in the early stage of its growth. On hatch- ing out, the young larva moves at first in the direction of the outside of the apple, as injury to the core at this time would be fatal alike to the apple and the insect. Only " when it is nearly full grown does it pierce the core, and feed exclusively on the pips." In consequence the apple falls, and the cater- pillar leaves it and crawls to some convenient shelter, frequently up the tree, where in a crevice in the bark it spins a white web to cover itself, and to rest in for a few days, or it may be several weeks, till it assumes the form of a chrysalis. Some chrysalids develop into moths the same season, others remain in that state till the followinij summer. FRUIT GROWINC; AND MARKETING. 187 The habits of the insect make it possible to successfully combat its attack by the timely use of one or more of the fol- lowing preventive measures : — (i.) Banding the trunks of the trees about six inches from the ground with old sacking, woollen or other cloth, or even brown paper two or three inches broad, smeared with tar or grease to trap the caterpillars, and prevent them ascending. At first the smear was put on the bark of the trees, but this practice was speedily discontinued on account CoDLiN Moth, Cari'ocai'sa i'omonella, Linn.^ (a) Shows the burrowings of the larva ; (/') the point at the blossom end of the apple where it enters ; (f) the larva full grown ; (/i) the anterior part of the body, magnified ; (d) the chr>-- salis ; (?") the cocoon ; (y") the moth with closed wings ; and (^) the same with expanded wings. A. The blossom end where the larva is supposed to enter the fruit. B. Empty space where the she'l'containing the seeds was located before the entrance of the larva. C. The burrow or outlet through which the larva makes its escape. D. Young larva in burrow. E. Young larva approaching maturity and nearing the core. Report 0/ State Boa7-d of HortictiUure, California, 1889. of injury being done to the parts. (2.) Scraping annually in early winter, removing all loose bark of apple, pear, and quince trees in an infected orchard, and carefully collecting and * " The caterpillar is about half-an-inch long, and slightly hairy, with three pairs of claw feet, four pairs of sucker feet beneath the body, and another pair at the end of the tail ; whitish, with a brown or black head, and dark markings on the next ring, and about eight dots on the others. The food canal sometimes shows as a dark line along the back. The moth is about three-quarters of an inch in the spread of the fore wings. These have a light-grey or ashy-brown ground, with delicate streaks and broad markings of a dark tint, giving a kind of damasked appearance ; and at the hinder corner is a large spot of a brownish-red or gold colour, with paler markings on it, and a border of coppery or golden colour around it. The hinder wings are blackish." — Miss Ormerod. 1 88 FARMING INIJUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. burning the scrapings. (3.) Washing or spraying the bark of the trees with one of the mixtures subsequently recommended. (4.) Spraying with Paris-green two or three times in early summer, at intervals often clays, beginning immediately " after the bloom has fallen, and finishing before the calyx end of the fruit has turned downwards. After the apples have changed their position, and the stem end is upward, the poison is liable to collect in the cavity about the stem, and render the use of the fruit dangerous to human life." (5.) Gathering infested fruit, and picking up all windfalls for immediate consumption or destruction. (6.) Disinfecting fruit-cases or hampers when re- turned from market by scalding, or by washing, or by dipping for two minutes in a lye of caustic soda, i oz. to 3 gallons of water.* The pear-tree practically disappears in the semi-tropical area, except along the coast belt where the altitude is not more than 100 or 150 feet. The apple, on the other hand, begins to hold its own in this region at an elevation of 900 to 1,000 feet and upwards. In the inland colder parts pears grow admir- ably, and if a fresh-fruit trade is to be satisfactorily established with Europe, the pear holds out good hopes of forming one of the most important features of it ; but this can only be under a .system of skilled management, including the j)lanting of the choicest of grafted French and American varieties. A few of those have already been successfully grown in the Colony, such as Williams's Bon Chretien, or the American Bartlett pear, a well-flavoured, juicy pear, excellent for cither export or canning ; but there are others in the nurseries of colonial nurserymen, which arc worthy of attention, viz.. Souvenir du Congres, Beurre Superfine, Beurre Bosc, Beurre Clairgeau, Pitmaston Duchesse, Easter Beurre, &c. Propagation is accomplished by grafting on pear suckers, or on quince stock when dwarf trees are wanted to bear early. Pears can be grafted on apple stocks and vice iwrsa, but the resulting trees are not healthy or long-lived. The soil on which pears are intended to grow should be trenched at least three feet deep, and well worked to a good depth afterwards. After young trees are planted it is admissible to grow market * See Miss Ormerod's "Manual of Injurious Insects" (.Simpkin, Marshall, & Co.) ; and Frazer S. Crawford's " Report on the Codlin Moth" (Government Printer, Adelaide, South Australia, 1886). FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. 1 89 garden produce in the vacant spaces between the rows for a few years, a practice which cannot be too strongly condemned in the case of stone fruits, which grow their roots so near the surface that cuhivation should not as a rule go deeper than three inches. The varieties of the peach usually grown in the Colony by all but the few who have made fruit culture a special study are seedlings, and the fruit is of inferior quality, quite unsuitable for any branch of the export trade. Much discussion has taken place as to whether or not the Colony could produce peaches good enough to send as table fruit to the London market. Those who have adhered to the side which said no, based their opinion chiefly on the character of the seedling- fruit, and on the destruction caused by the peach maggot. On the other hand, peaches of excellent quality have been landed and sold in London. Of free-stone peaches there is no lack of variety in the Colony, from which growers are free to make selections, the Royal George, Belle de Douay, Grosse Mignonne, Exquisite, Early Rivers, Palmerston, Prince of Wales, Muir, Early Crawford, h'oster, and many others being offered for sale by nurserymen. Probably the yellow St Helena is the best self stock to graft on. Peaches do not thrive either in the highest and coldest parts, or on the hot and humid semi-tropical belt along the East Coast. The peach maggots, probably better known as the grub of the light yellow-brown two-winged orange fly, Ceratitis citri- perda, MacL., spread in 1895 to many parts of the Western Province, which had before that time been-free from its attack. It is not a native of South Africa, and there is no conclusive proof that it attacks any indigenous Cape fruit. S. D. Bairstow, who wrote an interesting communication* on this pest, says he has personally known it for thirteen years in the Eastern Province, and that " Bishop Ricards remembered the maggot doing damage to fruit over forty years ago." Westwood describes the larva as " a white fleshy grub, destitute of legs, and possessing two small black contiguous hooks, which it alternately protrudes and retracts, thereby tearing the delicate membranes in which the juice is contained ;" and the pupa * Agricultural Journal^ 4th May 1893, and republished, with other information, in pamphlet form by the Government. 190 FARMING INDUSTKIKS OF CAPE COLONY. as " a small, hard, brown, oval body, the outer surface scarcely indicating any trace of articulation, being the dried skin of the larva, within which the real pupa is enclosed." The fly is now generally believed to be identical with C. capitata, Wied., and C. hispanica, which stamps it as one of cosmopolitan character. America is free from it, but the East Indies, the Azores, Bermuda, Madagascar, Mauritius, Madeira, St Helena, and the citrus-growing regions about the Mediter- ranean all suffer seriously from its ravages. The area of infestation is extended so far as great distances are concerned by fruit containing the maggots being carried and distributed as fresh fruit. Once introduced it is difficult to keep under control, and no means has yet been found for its complete destruction, although it disappears naturally in FIG I l^l&.2 FIG. 5 Peach Maggot, Ceratitis citriperda, MacL. Fig. I. — Maggot Stage and Male Fly, Natural Size. Fig. 2. — Male Fly, Enlarged. Fig. 3. — Female, Enlarged. districts in which the fruit is periodically destroyed by frost. The female, when engaged in laying her eggs, which she plants by means of a powerful ovipositor, pierces the skin of the fruit usually, though not invariably, as it begins to get ripe and sweet, to a depth of over three millimetres, and in about fourteen days mature larva; appear. In two days more the pupa stage is reached, and shelter found on the surface of the ground. Sixteen days later the perfect insect develops. The larva, after forsaking the fruit, can spring like a cheese maggot a distance of from three to fourteen inches. There is a succession of broods during the summer season, and in winter the insect hibernates and the immature forms are checked in their development, and those not destroyed remain dormant. It is not supposed that very large numbers survive the winter, but the\' rapidly increase during the warm fruit- FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. 191 ripening season, each succeeding brood becoming stronger and more numerous. No properly effective remedy has yet been found to cope with the ravages of the insect. Spraying is of no avail, owing to the eggs being buried out of its reach in the fruit, and the laying season lasts so long that one would almost require to spray daily, an impossible task, to prevent the female settling. As the fly does not confine itself to one or to a few varieties of fruit, but freely attacks, in addition to peaches, all the citrus fruits, pears, apricots, figs, plums, &c., and even, it is said, pumpkins and water-melons, the maggots cannot fail to find abundance of food during the whole of the season of active growth. The appetite for so many varieties of fruit is of recent development, and not confined to South Lemon blown by Ceratitis. Africa. In Ligurian Italy, Dr Penzig points out that citrus fruits have been forsaken by it for peaches, the Surinam cherry, and the loqiiat. The only hope of completeh^ coping with the pest is by finding and introducing an ichneumon fly to play the part which the ladybird did so effectively with the cotton scale. Meanwhile something may be done to reduce the numbers by collecting and destro}'ing all fallen and injured fruit, and by regularly cultivating the surface of the soil to disturb the larvae and pupa;. Pigs and poultry might also be kept much more extensivel)' in orchards than at present, and be sources of profit in addition to the benefits to be derived from their consumption of maggoty fruit and injurious insects. Con- certed action on the part of the fruit-growers of a district 192 FARMING INDUSTRIES (JF CAPE COLONY. would be of great importance in such an attempt, but failing this, an energetic orchardist need not despair of deriving some benefit from his own individual effort, as the strength of flight of the fly is not so great or so extended, even when aided by the wind, that it is likely to travel far by this means. The peach is pruned much after the fashion adopted in the case of the apjjle and pear, the long laterals from which the fruit-buds sj^ring being shortened. As pruning involves the cutting of the bearing wood, it is necessary to observe the position of the fruit-buds ; and when these are located near the top of a branch it must be spared, so that an abundance of fruit may be secured. Summer pruning of the peach, as of most trees, is not permissible, as it encourages an additional and excessive growth of new and inferior wood. New wood, if well matured, springing from the main stem, and also encouraged to grow by the process of cutting back and thinning out of the main branches, is preserved as far as is necessary for bearing wood, but it is of a different character from that resulting from summer pruning. The home of the apricot is usually credited to France, although there is little doubt it originally came to Europe from Persia. The trees growing in the Colony have mostly sprung from seeds, and the most of the produce, although very abundant, is inferior — little better than wild fruit. Of the selected or improved varieties there are a New — as well as Old— Large Early and a Large Late Apricot, and sorts like Oullin's Early, Powell's Late, Blenheim or Shipley, Royal, and the St Ambroise, and others, to choose from. For preserving, the Breda, a small, deep orange-coloured, but very prolific peach, well known in the Colony, should be mentioned. The choice varieties grown in the Colony are usually budded on hardy apricot or peach stock, but in Great Britain plum stock is found to do well for this purpose. The pruning of the apricot is quite different from that practised on the peach. The great object is to keep the fruit as near the main stems as possible by pinching off the terminal bud of the short fruit- bearing spurs, or cutting short the long ones, which all spring directly from the main stems. All dead fruit spurs require to be removed to encourage the development of latent buds near their bases. Fruit growth is strengthened by cleaning away FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. I93 all but a sufficient number of main limbs to make the tree symmetrical, and by checking the excessive ri^e of sap by topping these. In very rich soil, where woody growth is gross and excessive, the topping of the main stems leads to the development of brushes of soft new wood, and to the production of foliage in place of fruit. Root-pruning, done by digging down and severing a number of the main roots, is the best remedy against excessive luxuriance of growth. The quince is probably more widely distributed through- out the Colony than any other fruit-tree. It grows readily from cuttings, and owing to the rigid character of its boughs, forms an excellent, closely-knit, useful garden fence, and pro- duces an abundant crop at the same time. There are two common varieties — one of a yellow-flesh colour, and the other of a reddish hue. Both are in favour for making jelly and preserves. The pomegranate is also used as a fence plant, but it forms a poor, thin, non-resisting fence as compared with quince. Although it grows very well, it does not occupy an important position among the fruits of the Colony. The plum is represented by a large number of excellent varieties, from the cherry plum, which ripens earliest, or about the New Year, to Coe's Golden Drop and Blue Imperial, which come in at the end of the season. The gages are well repre- sented by green, golden, transparent. Imperial, and Brahy's varieties. The Grand Duke, Large Black Imperial, Victoria, Washington, Jefferson, Diamond, Simon, Belgian Purple, and Blue Imperatrice are mentioned at random from among a number of others equally well worthy of cultivation. Plums generally give the best results when budded on peach stocks, or on stocks of the myrobolan, which belongs to a different early flowering and early maturing species from the common plum. The fruit is borne on the old wood on short spurs of an inch, more or less, in length, growing on laterals six inches to two feet long coming from the main stems. If the young perpendicular branches are cut back sufficiently during the early stages of their growth to keep the tree within bounds, the annual pruning will in a great measure be confined to shortening the laterals, always keeping in mind that sufficient room must be left inside to prevent crowding. The fig grows freely except where it is subjected to severe N 194 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. frosts. Most varieties represented in the Colony produce two crops in the year — a summer and an autumn crop — the latter, however, being inferior in size and quality to the former. Figs grow readily from grafts, from cuttings, or from suckers, which often spring in such numbers that they become a nuisance. Golding * mentions four common varieties grown in Cape Colony — the common brown fig, a small black early fig, a very sweet early green fig, and the large late Adam fig. Many other excellent varieties have since become well known — for example, the Castle Kennedy, a very large and luscious fig, the first fruit of which sells at 3d. each in the larger centres of population. The Brown Turkey, an early variety, the Bruns- wick, and the large white Italian, all figs for the table also the white Marseilles, a drying fig, are steadily making their way into public favour. A scale insect has in recent years attacked the fig simultaneously with many other fruit-trees, much to their detriment. The orange is extensively grown in the milder districts of Cape Colony. Although it is a tropical or semi-tropical tree, after the first few years are past it can withstand a few degrees of frost during the winter season. In some of the colder up- land districts young trees require to be protected by branches, or by Spanish reeds set up on end, to form a covering like a conical tent. The lime that grows in the Colony is not quite so hardy as the orange, but the naartje is hardier than either. A few orchardists have gone in for choice varieties, and the following have given excellent results : — The Bahia orange — called Navel owing to the extraordinary depression at one end, and characteristically re-baptized in the United States as the "Washington Navel" — is a well-known and extensively cul- tivated variety. There are also the Nipple, the Joppa, the Malta blood, and the St Michael's varieties. The naartje or mandarin is a small sweet orange with a thin skin, which is often loosely attached to the fruit. The trees are smaller than those of the common orange, but are most prolific. * In an Essay on " Fruits and Fruit-Trees of the Colony," published in connection with the South African Exhibition, Port Elizabeth, 1885, to which the author is specially indebted for references to many of the common fruits. FRUIT GROWING AND MARKETING. 1 95 It is astonishing how far behind the times the great majority of the Cape orange growers are in their systems of management. Most of the trees are seecUings, and the fruit is in consequence, though wonderfully sweet and juicy when pulled ripe, inferior in quality to the fruit of the cul- tivated varieties of the Mediterranean and America. It is argued that for the local market, which is by far the most important at present, the size and not the quality governs the price, and no advantage would be gained by taking the trouble (it is more a matter of trouble than expense) to secure finer sorts. But even on this low platform the argument is fallacious as seedlings are long in coming into bearing. At least two years might be saved, as compared with the present condition of things, by a proper system of cultivation, including the bud- ding (which is the most approved plan of propagation in the case of the orange), of the best varieties of oranges upon hardy native stocks. At one time the supply of oranges was much greater than at present, and the price went down to about IS. 6d. per lOO. Now 3s. and 3s. 6d. per 100, and up to 6s. and 15s. for out of season fruit (gathered about Christmas), may readily be got, unless where the relations of supply to demand are somewhat dislocated. The change was brought about by the Dorthesia or Australian bug completely destroying so many trees before its ravages were checked, and also to the injury done by canker at the roots, but the existing condition of things affords ample opportunity for adopting better methods of cultivation, and also encouragement to do so. The natural shape of the orange-tree is conical, and it thrives and yields best when the branches come down pretty low, to shade the stem from the scorching influence of the sun, and to prevent the excessive evaporation of moisture from the earth in which the roots are distributed. A few growers, to protect the roots still further, and to retain more of the rainfall than would remain on a dry and hard surface, mulch the area under the trees with branches, weeds, or any refuse vegetable matter. On decaying, this accumulation is dug in as manure. The practice, although good in some respects, is open to objection. The most important of the objects aimed at, viz., the preservation of soil moisture and the conser- vation of rain water, would be secured by frequent surface 196 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. working with the horse-hoe, and the excellent harbour provided by the litter for weeds, for insects, and for larger vermin would be dispensed with. The importance of this suggestion may be taken into consideration in connection with the description of the habits of the orange-fly given at page 190. Many orange-trees have during recent years been destroyed by the red scale, Aspidiotus aiirantii. This is one of the small hard scales which adhere closely to the surfaces of the bark and leaves, and at the same time extract the juices of the tree, and in vast numbers close up the breathing pores, so that fruit-bearing very soon becomes impossible, and the tree itself is after a time destroyed. So closely do the scales attach themselves to the bark that ordinary soap and quassia dress- ings are of little avail. Repeated dressings of sulphur and lime wash (6 lbs. of each boiled together and mixed in 20 gallons of water), put on very carefully by a spraying machine, have been found successful ; but the most effective and speedy remedy is to fumigate the trees (placed when not too large under cover of a gas-tight canvas tent), by enveloping them in an atmosphere of prussic acid gas. (See page 216.) Two local remedies which have proved efficacious on a small scale are (i) washing the tree with butter-milk; and, as will subsequently be explained, (2) stripping off the leaves during winter, and rubbing the branches with anti-friction grease. A black aphis, Myrjus persicce, Salz., which in- creases in myriads on the orange foliage, is frequently a fore- runner of an attack of orange scale. It weakens the vital powers of the plant sufficiently to make the establishment of the scale an easy matter. Orange-trees badly attacked by scale are sometimes cut back and allowed to spring from the stump ; but apart from the danger of killing old trees by this treatment, it is neither an effectual nor an advisable remedy. Unless all the trees in the neighbourhood were treated in the same way, the scale adhering to the feet of birds would find its way on to the young shoots, even if a few specimens of the insect were not left on the stump to form a still more direct and immediate source of reinfestation. The canker at the collar, or gum disease, of the orange. v^ BgNo.ll Fig. No! 6^'^ LARVA ENLAROEO Cali/ornian Horticultural Report, iSBg. Face page T97. Plate 35. — Australian Ladviiu., ii^ of a tin as sold). Common soap . . 2 lbs. (about I5 bars). Water . . . i| gallon. Cut up the soap into small bits, add it to the water, and Isoil till per- fectly dissolved by the heat and stirring. Then beat into it the paraffin oil, little by little, using the dasher briskly. This stock will keep, and is * Fuller information may be got in " The Spraying of Plants." By E. G. Lodcman. One of The Rural .Science Series. Macmillan & Co., 1896. FRUIT c;r(j\ving and marketing. 213 used by mixiny i gallon of it to 7 gallons of hot water, and spraying it on as hot as the hand can bear. Paraffin Emulsion. — Hubljard's formula for orange scale : — Paraffin oil . . 2 gallons (z.^?., | of a tin). Common soap . . ^ lb. Water . . . i gallon. The soap is to be cut up and dissolved as before, then added, boiling hot, to the paraffin with brisk agitation with the dasher. The creamy liquid then formed is diluted with nine times its bulk of water. This formula makes 3 gallons of emulsion, giving, when diluted down, 30 gallons of spraying wash. Apply on cloudy days or in the evening. Milk Emulsion of Paraffin. H ubbard's formula : — Equal Ijulks of milk and paraffin are measured off, and the former heated to the boiling-point. The two are then mixed and violently churned. After ten minutes the emulsion is formed quite suddenly, like the coming of butter, and as it cools forms an ivory-white glistening paste or jelly. If the churning has Ijcen continued long enough, the product is quite permanent when kept free from exposure to the air. It may be diluted to any extent with warm water, added gradually. One part to ten of water makes an effective wash. The power of all petroleum hydrocarbons or their emulsions to spread filmwise over a smooth surface is the secret of the measure of success that has attended spraying for scale. They, in short, possess the power of overcoming the resistance of the ever-present film of adherent air which interposes and delays the actual contact and spread of fluids on the smooth surfaces of solid bodies. Few other fluids so readily wet the surfaces to which they are applied. Rosin-Soap Wash. — Koebcle's formula: — Rosin can be saponified just like ordinary fat if certain precautions are taken. Caustic soda* . . . . i lb. Black rosin ..... 8 lbs. Water 32 gallons. The caustic soda is turned out of the tin, broken up, and dissolved in about a gallon of the water at boiling heat. Half the solution is then taken out and set aside, and the rosin is slowly added in powder to the remainder, which is boiled and stirred till complete solution is effected. Then the other half of the soda solution is added very gradually with constant stirring, and the boiling kept up until a little of the mixture is found to mix with water like milk. Any water added to keep up the bulk must be hoi, otherwise the rosin will be thrown down, and will be very difficult to dissolve. Similarly, when the dilution to 32 gallons is effected, it must be made with hot water. The above wash is perhaps somewhat troublesome to prepare, but Craw says of it : " When properly prepared, this remedy will be found one of the best for citrus trees, both from its effect on the tree and as an insecticide. It assimilates perfectly with water, making a milky solution * This is sold in air-tight tins, and is quite a different thing from the Scotch soda used for washing purposes. The latter is of no use for this formula. 214 i<'ARMIN(; INDUSTRIKS OF CAl'K r(JL(^NV. that will adhere to both the foliaye and the wood, forming a thin varnish- like covering that completely excludes air from the scale insects and sufifocates them. For the fluffy insects {DortJiesia and Dactylopius, or mealy-bug) it has proved the most penetrating of all washes, sealing up the eggs in a mass and preventing them from hatching. As far as my experience goes, we have no wash that is equally effective upon such scales as are located on the fruit itself. In the case of most other washes, the oil in the rind of the orange and lemon appears to prevent the adhesion of the wash to the surface." The formula has been varied for use on the larger scale, thus : — Caustic soda ..... 6 lbs. Black rosin ..... 20 lbs. Fish oil ...... 3 lbs. Water to make ultimately 100 gallons. Twenty gallons of the water are brought to the boiling heat, and the soda then dissolved in it. The oil and powdered rosin are next added slowly, with constant stirring to mix and prevent burning, and the boiling continued for at least three hours. Hot water is then added up to 50 gallons, a little at a time. This mixture may then be run into a 100 gallon tank, and diluted to make up the full amount. No cold water must be added during the boiling, otherwise the rosin will precipitate. Lime and Sulphur Wash. — This is something like the common sheep dip, and is effective both for insects and fungi. The effectiveness of it depends a good deal on the quality of the lime. Unslaked lime ..... 40 lbs. Sulphur ...... 20 lbs. Common salt . . . . -15 lbs. Water ultimately to 60 gallons. Ten lbs. of lime and the 20 lbs. of sulphur are boiled briskly in 20 gallons of the water for at least an hour and a half. By that time the sulphur will be dissolved, and the solution will have a brownish-amber colour. Thirty pounds of lime are put into a cask, and on it enough water to slake it and dissolve the salt which is then added. This mixture is run into the boiler with the dissolved sulphur, and boiled for half an hour, adding sufficient water ultimately to make up the 60 gallons. The solu- tion should be strained through a fine brass sieve, and be stirred when in use. It should also be kept covered up from the air, if not all used at once. There is a good deal of wear and tear of the brass nozzles with this wash, from the friction of the particles of lime. Fungicide Spraying Formulae. — There are only four mixtures which with small variations are the proper remedies against fungous parasites, and they all depend on the destructive power of salts of copper. The following are taken from the U.S.A. Departmental Farmers' Bulletin, No. 7 (1892). Bordeaux Mixture, or Boiiillic Boi-delaise. — In a barrel of 45 gallons capacity dissolve 6 lbs. of best copper sulphate (blue-stone) in about 10 gallons of water, by placing the salt in a gunny-bag suspended just under the surface. This is better than using hot water boiled in an iron FRUIT CROWING AND MARKETING. 21 5 vessel, for the iron inevitably brought away as rust alters the copper salt. In another tub slake 4 lbs. of quicklime, and add enough water to make a creamy whitewash. Put a fine sieve or a gunny-bag over the copper sulphate solution, and pour the lime-milk slowly in, stirring with a dasher. Then fill up to 45 gallons, churn it up well, and it is ready for the spray pump. If the copper sulphate be powdered, it will dissolve more rapidly. The lime must be of the very best, and fresh, to ensure which one should get it in the "quick" form and slake it for oneself. Note that the older formula for this mixture made it 50 per cent, stronger, but experiments have shown that results from the proportions given here were quite equal to those from the higher strength. If required frequently it is an advantage to prepare stock solutions for the Bordeaux mixture, rather than to make it each time it is used. Fifty pounds of sulphate of copper c:in be kept dissolved in 50 gallons of water, so that its strength is known ; and, by covering to prevent evaporation and chemical change, the lime can be kept preserved in the creamy condition, ready to be stirred and mixed with the copper solution, which should first be made up with sufficient additional water to satisfy the formula. No mistake must be made by way of adding too little lime, as a slight excess of lime is a guarantee of the safety of the mixture. A still more simple method is to use " Strawsonite," put up in bags of 10, 20, 40, and 112 lbs., and costing respectively 3s. 6d., 6s. 8d., 13s., and 36s. each. A measure dish with directions is placed in the mouth of each bag. The danger of making a mistake is thereby reduced to a minimum, as all the work necessary is to measure out the Strawsonite, mi.x it with water, and pour it through the strainer before introducing it into the spraying apparatus. Copper Ammonia Carbonate. — Dissolve 3 lbs. copper sulphate in 2 gallons of hot water. Similarly dissolve 3I lbs. of washing soda in i gallon of water. Pour the soda solution slowly into the first, and when all action has ceased, bring up the whole to 10 gallons, and stir thoroughly. Pour away the clear water when the sediment has quite settled. Pour on fresh water and stir up again. This is done three times in all, till the blue sediment, which is copper carbonate, is quite washed, and the clear water has no salt taste. You will then have about i^ lbs. of copper carbonate in a paste. Dissolve it in 2 gallons of ammonia, or less if the sample you get is strong enough to dissolve all. The solution is then stored in well- corked bottles, and when wanted i pint is diluted down with 12 gallons of water for spraying." Eau Celeste.— Dissolve 2 lbs. copper sulphate in 8 gallons of water. When solution is complete, add 3 pints of strong ammonia, and subse- quently water to make up 45 gallons. Modified Eau Celeste.— Dissolve 4 lbs. copper sulphate in 12 gallons of water, and stir in 5 lbs. of washing soda in powder till dissolved, to * Note that all ammonia solutions must be kept in a cool place. If they are exposed to heat— as, for instance, being set out in the sun— the escape of ammonia may drive the stopper out, or even burst the bottle. 2l6 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAl'F COLONY. precipitate the copper as green carljonate. Then add 3 pints strong ammonia, and dilute to 45 gallons This is a rather slovenly formula, and the sulphate of soda formed in the reaction is not an advantage. These copper solutions are designed to kill the fungi of the potato disease, and those that produce the apple scab, the pear scab, pear cracking, and pear-leaf blight — classified as Fusicladhun and Entomo- sporitint. In every case, the operator must licar in mind two things besides the killing the insects or the fungi. First, with the arsenious and copper washes, he must be particularly careful that the poisonous spray does not accidentally get carried over himself or his assistants ; with the others the spray is not poisonous, but is offensive. Secondly, on finishing work the spray pump must be scrupulously cleaned by pumping fresh water through it — the suction and delivery hose unscrewed and drained, and the last contents of the pump got rid of by lifting the valve with the finger. Then, after drying the pump as far as possible, it is to be carefully oiled, and the plunger worked a little, so as to spread the lubricant over it. Neatsfoot oil is the best, paraffin oil next, vegetable oils the worst. Within the decade gas has been shown to be the most effective means for the destruction of scale insects on citrus fruit-trees. Paraffin emulsions and rosin-soap sohitions, especially when combined with arsenic, have been used with a considerable measure of success in the destruction of scale insects on orange-trees in America; but however well the work may be executed, a few of the insects or their eggs are sure to escape even repeated sprayings, and lead to renewed outbreaks of the pest at a later period. A most effective and complete remedy has been found in the use of hydrocyanic acid gas, or hydric cyanide, prussic acid — one of the most poisonous bodies known to chemistry. This fact necessitates great care in handling it, not only to prevent injury to the tree, but on account of the possible injury to the operator. The gas is readily made by the action of sulphuric acid upon potassium cyanide; and the proper means of using it to accom- plish the desired effect upon the insects without injuring the foliage have been demonstrated by Professor D. W. Coquillett. Two dangers require to be avoided, (i.) The gas must be used dry, a condition which can be secured by passing it over strong sulphuric acid, or some other drying material, such as slaked lime or calcium chloride, contained in one of the two chambers of the leaden generating apparatus. If this is not attended to, and vapour permitted to rise with the gas and settle on the leaves, the moisture attracts and dissolves a FRUIT GROWINC; AND MARKETING. 17 The Woi.fskill Fumigator. 2l8 FAK.\I1N(; INDUSTklKS OF CAI'K COL(JNV. portion of the gas, which in that condition is most injurious to vegetation. (2.) The second danger, although not so serious in its consequences as the first, consists in a certain amount of the fine particles of the cyanide being carried up and lodged upon the leaves, when acid is applied directly to the dry pulverised cyanide. In the proper method of preparation — "The cyanide is dissolved by boiling in water for a few minutes, taking t gallon for 5 lbs. weight. For every ounce of this solution use half a fluid ounce of sulphuric acid. It should flow into the cyanide in a very fine stream. The action is violent, and the gas comes off in the form of a dense white fog, resembling smoke. After passing through the drier or purifier, it becomes transparent and as invisible as air." The poisonous gas is confined and diffused through the tree being operated upon, so that it envelops the scale insects, by letting down to cover the tree a gas-tight tent of thin oiled ticking, which is made fast round the edge, touching the ground by an upcast of earth. The gas is introduced by means of a hose-pipe let through the tent by an indiarubber mouth sewed into its side. Of many forms of simple and complicated apparatus for adjusting the tent over the tree, the Wolfskin has been selected to represent a successful mechanism for the purpose when large trees require to be treated. The smaller the tree, the more simple does the appa- ratus and also the operation become. CHAPTER XL OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. Genera of Struthious Birds : Ostrich, Emu, Cassowary, and Rhea — Natural Habitat of the Ostrich — Introduction of Ostrich Farming — Parts most Suitable — Artificial Food — Water Supply — Fences — Area re- quired per Bird — Jumping Powers — Richard Gavin's Farm — Num- bers of Eggs — Incubation — The Nest — Danger of Birds Kicking — Distinguishing Characteristics of Birds of Different Ages— Health of Ostriches — Internal and External Parasites — Dipping — Sulphur taken Internally — Plucking the Feathers — Profits and Prices of Birds — Improvement by Selection — Points- Sorting of Feathers — Marketing — Numbers and Position of Ostriches in the Colony — Weights and Values of Feathers Exported — Value per lb. of Ostrich P^eathers in Quinquennial Periods since 1850 — The Home Market — The Plucking of Live Geese. The African and Arabian ostrich, Struthio camclus, is by far the most valuable species of the four genera of the struthious or running birds forming the sub-class Ratitce. All have three toes, except the true ostrich, which possesses only two— a large central and a small exterior lateral one. The emu, Dronicens (in two species), the purely Australian representative of the sub-class, is covered, male and female alike, with brown hair-like feathers. The feathers are not sent as such to the London market, but emu skins come, a few hundreds at a time, and sell at 3s., 5s., and 6s. each, and are utilised in the making up of many fancy-feather patterns. The cassowary, Casiiarhis, of which there are no less than nine species, is found in the north of Australia, the Malay Archipelago, and the islands of the South Pacific. It most resembles the emu in its plumage and size, and stands about 5 feet high. It is entirely without wings, and possesses a large horny, brightly-coloured helmet on its head. A number of the species have wattles hanging from the neck. The rhea, or nandu, of South America, possessing three species, is covered with feathers similar to the chicken feathers of the African ostrich, but the tail is absent. 220 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. The ostrich, like the other species of the tribe, p(jssesses only rudimentary wing's, and is incapable of flight, but the great speed and staying power of the bird in running render this form of progression unnecessary in its case. The wings, in addition to being ornamental to a degree, are useful to the bird in turning, and while practising the gyrations for which it is distinguished. The breast is rounded and full, and not of the narrow, keel-like form that prevails among birds which fly ; and the barbs of the feathers are equally balanced on the two sides of the quill. The ostrich is nearly double the weight of any of the other three genera named. Its head and neck are bare of feathers, and in its natural state it is extremely shy. iVlthough the proportion by weight of its brain to its body is remarkably small, )'et it is not the stupid bird which it is generally supposed to be. Its natural habitat is the desert or semi-desert Karoo, to which, when left by man to its own devices, it had retired for safety from the numerous enemies which beset it in the more productive parts of the continent. Although ostrich farming is a large and important industry in Cape Colony, its introduction is of comparatively recent date. It was long believed impossible to tame the ostrich, and that if individual specimens were tamed, they would not bre:d in captivity. The first official record of domesticated ostriches being farmed occurs in 1865, when eighty were entered in the annual returns of live stock, and the yield of feathers from them at 120 lbs. Between 1857 and 1864 encouraging experiments had been made in capturing and taming wild ostrich chicks, but it was not until Arthur Douglass of Heatherton Towers, in the Albany district, had in 1869 perfected and made known an incubator for artifi- cially hatching large numbers of eggs, that ostrich farming extended generally, and the birds became thoroughly domesti- cated through constant association with the attendants recjuired in the work of artificial rearing. Even now, when birds are permitted to hatch their eggs, the chicks require to be brought to the homestead on the third day, and a Kaffir boy must during daytime be in constant attendance upon the young brood, else they grow up wild, and remain unmanageable, and consequently valueless, unless for shooting like wild birds for ¥ OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 221 the plumage of a single season. Since the decline in value of ostrich feathers, which has taken place in common with the decline in the general level of prices of commodities in other parts of the world, and the consequent narrowing of the margin of profits accruing to the ostrich farmer, artificial incubation has gone out of fashion. It is also thought that, owing to the ample measure of exercise which the old birds give their young, and that with liver disease and so many parasites about, it is safer to adopt the natural method of rearing. Ostriches do not thrive well under conditions of extreme cold or of heavy rainfall, and even on land suitable to them they soon do badly if overcrowded. On grass of strong growth, particularly that close to the coast-line on the sour veld where it becomes hard and indigestible, ostriches are not so successful as when fed on sweet Karoo bushes, although there are few parts in the Colony where they cannot be kept. One advantage which a dusty bush country possesses over a grass country lies in the feathers being preserved in better condition where the birds can take a dust bath than where they roll about in early morning on the dewy grass. They are fond of all sorts of bushes which sheep eat, and when the country is devastated by swarms of locusts, ostriches, like most animals, consume locusts, but they are not, as a rule, insect feeders. They do not suffer from the attacks of ticks so much as four-footed animals, for the)^ remove them from all parts of the body, which the)^ can reach with their bills, leaving only the head, upper neck, and under the thigh assailable. There is no contagious disease from which ostriches suffer, and the heart-water of sheep, or the various common bovine diseases, are unknown among them, although, as will be explained later, they are most susceptible, especially when young, to the attacks of internal parasites. These they pick up with their food from the veld, or take in with impure drinking water. Since ostriches have increased in numbers, certain worm parasites have spread to districts in which the}' were formerly unknown. Young chicks feed at first on the solid excrement of the old birds, and they thrive particularly well when thc\' have access to the residential quarters of the Kaffir population. 222 PVVRMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. To supply a sufficient amount of bone-earth to satisfy the demands made on the system for material to form the skeleton, it is necessary in many parts of the Colony where phosphate of lime is deficient in the soil, to provide broken bones for the consumption of the birds, and on sour veld salt should also be given. Ostriches do well when permitted to run over arable fields while out of cultivation, as they are fond of the numerous succulent weeds that are 'found in such places. Like pigs, they are particularly fond of arum lilies, which grow in great profusion in some parts of the Colony. Young birds are some- times poisoned by eating " stink kruid," but old ones are more wary, and avoid it. Ostriches of any age will eat pumpkin pips, which, when taken in quantity, paralyse the limbs for a time. During prolonged periods of drought, when the natural food becomes exhausted, it is necessary to supply the whole stock with some form of succulent food to prevent them dying of starvation, or suffering from stop-sickness or consti- pation. The power of digestion of an ostrich is proverbial, even to the digestion of horse nails and pieces of wood, but this vigour need not be looked for unless the bird be in good health and living on suitable food. The succulent branches of the prickly pear or the leaves of the American aloe (agave), chopped into small pieces, serve the purpose admirably, and birds can be successfully carried through a period of scarcity on this food, supplemented by an allowance of i lb. of mealies daily. In the drought of 1895 some large owners (of 2,000 birds) were said to lo.se about one-fourth of the number, owing to their not making provision for feeding in good time. Ostriches are much like sheep in the matter of acquiring a taste for certain foods, and in refusing, when in very poor condition, to eat even good food with which they are not familiar. An ostrich which has been accustomed to live exclusively upon lucerne will die of star- vation in a camp where spek-boom is abundant, although naturally the rounded succulent leaves of this bush are highly prized by ostriches reared on the veld. In those districts where lucerne is extensively grown under irrigation, the ostrich farmer is independent of difficulties aris- T?:?^ ^v v. B >;'*' * OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARM INC. 223 ing from climatic irregularities. Two hens and a cock can be kept during summer in a lucerne camp of less than half an acre, and are not able to consume the whole produce. Ostriches thrive admirably on green lucerne during the growing season, and in winter time on lucerne hay cut into short lengths, and well wetted the day before it is to be consumed. A daily allowance of 3I lbs. of hay, when birds are running on bare veld, will keep them in good condition. Oat hay treated similarly is found to be constipating, but this defect would be easily remedied by showering the hay-chaff with treacle water from a rose can — a dressing which would also make the hay more palatable. Birds fed during a period of drought are liable to injure their feathers by rushing against each other. Chick ostriches at all times, and old birds when on dry food, require to be supplied wath water ; but the latter do not absolutely need to drink if they be feeding on green herbage. There ought to be no muddy dams in an ostrich camp, as the birds get into them in hot weather to roll, and thus destroy their feathers. Ostriches require to be enclosed in camps, and con- sequently the development of the ostrich industry led to the fencing of large areas of the Colony, and, returns from feathers, eggs, and birds sold being good, it also supplied the funds necessary to meet the outlay. Wire fences form by far the most available means to this desirable end, although, owing to their invisible nature, they are a serious source of clanger to birds, until they become accustomed to them. A single wire fence of four or five wires (galvanised, in preference to annealed, so that they may be the more readily seen), 5 feet high, serves the purpose well, when birds are in camps on the veld, as the cocks soon find out which one is master, and the weaker ones keep out of his reach ; but where birds are kept on lucerne on areas of less than an acre, it is necessary to i:)lace two fences a few feet apart from each other to divide the camps, so that the birds cannot get at each other. On good Karoo-bush veld one bird should not be allowed less than 1 5 acres. Camps of 30 acres, or even 40 acres, for the accommodation of a pair of breeding birds, do very well, and it is most advantaereous both to the veld and to the 224 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. ostriches if some other description of stock be pastured in alternate years. The bushes which ostriches eat closely then get a chance of growing, and cattle, sheep, and goats keep down other bushes that tend to grow too rank. Moreover, some of the parasites which attack ostriches disappear, or become reduced in numbers, during the period that the birds are- on other veld. Cattle do well when pastured throughout the season on the same veld with ostriches, but under similar circumstances sheep and goats thrive badly. Although it is a common practice to place two hens with one cock, it is best to have only a pair of birds together, if the cock be quiet. If he teases the hen mercilessly it is necessary to give him two, or even three, hens, to divide his attention, and prevent him actually killing the one. The idea which generally prevailed, only a few years ago, in this country, that anything in the shape of a fence, even a low bank, would turn an ostrich, not that it could not get over it, but that it would not attempt to do so, is quite erroneous. The author was shown at Richard Gavin's farm, near Oudts- hoorn, the scene of two marvellous jumps made by birds from a kraal where they were being plucked. One was a standing jump made by a young cock under two years old. The distance was 5| feet over a wire fence 4^ feet high. The other was a running jump made by an old cock over a 6- foot clay wall. The toe of one foot rested on the top of the wall, and the toe of the other about 9 inches down on the side from which he sprang. The usual way for a bird to get over a wall, if he be in no great haste, is to breast it and roll over. On Gavin's farm of 200 acres, the wonderful results which can be achieved by growing lucerne under irrigation were amply illustrated. Ostriches formed the main permanent stock, and numbered 550. During the season previous to the author's visit, in- addition to the birds, 117 oxen had been bought in, fattened, and sold off, between the ist of August and the middle of the following June; and 50 sheep, 15 young cattle, and 10 horses had been kept all the year round. The produce of the farm included 40 tons of hay, or sufficient to feed the ostriches for about fift}- da}s during winter, before the lucerne bei^ins to erow. OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 225 The hen ostrich lays from 12 to 17 eggs of a yellowish- white colour, weighing, on an average, about 3 lbs. each. When two or three dummy eggs are left in the nest, and the real eggs are regularly removed, a hen will lay as many as thirty before stopping. When more than one hen claims the same nest, and laying continues after one pair of birds has begun to sit, the eggs belonging to the setting are marked, so that newly-laid eggs may be recognised, and removed before they begin to hatch. Although elliptical, they are more rounded than a hen's egg. The period of incubation is six weeks, and the hen sits during the day, while the cock re- mains on guard in the vicinity, and takes her place at night. Some birds remain off the eggs only for a few minutes, while others will leave them to cool for an hour or more. At times the cock drives back the hen somewhat roughly to her domestic duties when it appears to him that she has been too long away. The eggs may become quite cold to the touch, and not suffer in consequence, and when birds are not molested they usually bring out a chick for each egg, chipping the hard shells with their beaks at the proper time, to liberate those that have difficulty in escaping. In well-managed camps, a proper place is prepared for the nest, after three or four eggs have been laid, by digging a hole 6 feet wide by 2 feet deep beside the original nest, and filling it with gravel, to secure drainage in the event of heavy rains occurring while the birds are sitting. After the birds become familiar with the alterations, the eggs are moved on to the place prepared for them. Birds that are well fed and attended to may have as many as three nests in one year ; and two nests are quite common. The breeding season for ordinary stock is from the end of May till September. To ensure the safety of the young chicks from jackals and wild cats, which are still numerous in certain parts of the Colony, meat, in which strychnine has been inserted, is left about on the veld to poison them. After the hen commences to lay, the cock bird becomes unsafe to approach, unless one be armed with a long thorny mimosa branch, which, on being held out in the line of his eyes, will stop the charge of the most savage bird. The ostrich kicks forward and downward — in short, with his great V 226 FARMING IXDUSTRIKS OF CAPE COLONY. toes he attempts to rip open liis opponent, after the fashion of an "old man" kangaroo defending liimself against a dog. There is Httle chance when attacked of taking safety in flight if the sheher of a bush close at hand cannot be gained. A man well mounted on horseback can be easily overtaken, and instances have been recorded of old cocks kicking so high, and with such effect, as to break a man's thigh and the ribs { of the horse underneath him with one blow. The only chance of escape when overtaken in the open without any suitable means of defence is to lie down flat, and even then some birds can administer a kick as they pass over a person. In such a case the bird is most likely to lie down and roll on the top of his victim, and no one need expect to escape without a thorough bruising. When caught by the neck an ostrich becomes helpless and amenable to treatment, but it is no easy matter to reach the neck of a bird actively engaged in an attack, and ready to kick the moment one rises from the horizontal position. When a person gets close to the nest, the bird seems to be afraid of injuring the eggs, and will not venture an attack, but as soon as retreat i.s begun one may expect to be followed. ■ The hen, which throughout the early period of hatching remained quite harmless and safe to approach, becomes even more savage than the cock as soon as she hears the chicks ] chirp in the shell. Ostriches are encouraged to attack people, in fact, tempted to do so, by men approaching them without suitable means of defence, and then having to run for a fence or dodge behind a bush. If ostriches are accustomed to turn for a thorn bush, they will almost invariably do so when a walking stick is held up,^although it would be of little value in the case of a genuine charge. Ostriches are spoken of as chicks as long as they retain their first feathers, i.e., up to seven or eight months old. After this, till they are twelve months old. they are designated young birds. They are plucking or feather birds from one till they are four years old, and then they become four- or five- year-old birds. At four years old they come to maturit}-, and are camped off for breeding. The distinguishing character- istics of the different ages, which, however, do not follow an absolute rule in all birds, are given by Douglass as follows: — ti vfr ■i7*Y^ iiKW x * . OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 22/ At six and a half months old the quill feathers will be ready to cut ; some of the body feathers will have begun to change ; some of the cocks will show yellow in the front of the legs. At a year old the second growth of quill feathers should be showing ; some of the cocks should begin to show black feathers ; all cocks should show white on legs and bill. At two years old all the chicken feathers should have gone from the back, and the cocks should show quite black, or nearly so. Most of the little white belly feathers should have been replaced by blacks or drabs, accord- ing to sex. [Exclusive of the white plumes, black is the mature colour of the male, and drab or dark grey that of the female and young male.] At three years old there should not be a single chicken feather to be found on the body ; the last place from which they disappear is where the neck joins the body. Every vestige of the white belly feathers has gone. The bird's plumage has reached perfection ; some of the cocks will be red in front of the leg and on the bill. At four years old the birds have reached maturity and the breeding organs are fully developed ; the cocks in season will have the back sinews of the leg pink, the front of the leg and the bill scarlet, and much of the fineness of the feet, the leg, and the lines of the body will have gone. At five years old and upwards the only distinguishing marks we know are a generally coarser look of the limbs and body, and an increased coarseness of the scaling in front of the legs and feet.* The ostrich is generally supposed to live for a very long time, even a. hundred years has been mentioned; but the industry in South Africa has not been long enough in exist- ence to furnish reliable data. The author saw one bird which was over twenty years of age, and which showed no signs of failing strength or vigour. Old birds are hardy and healthy when properly attended to, but there is great mortality among young- birds. Until they pass three years of age they suffer much from internal parasites, especially during periods of scarcity of food. Tape-worms of several species, but most frequently the broad one, are almost universally present in young birds of two and a half to three months old and upwards. They may be kept under control by the administration every three weeks of ^ oz. to i-i- oz. of turpentine, according to the size of the * " Ostrich Farming in South Africa," by Arthur Douglass (Cassell, Fetter, Galpin, & Co., London, Paris, and New York), to which interest- ing publication the present writer acknowledges indebtedness, as well as to a visit to its author's property, Heatherton Towers, and lengthened discussions on ostriches and their management with his sons. 228 FARMING INDUSTRIP:S OF CAPE COLONY. birds, while they are between the ages of four months and fourteen months ; but it is now impossible to stamp out the pest, as knorhaans, paauws, guinea-fowls, and domesticated fowls are all liable to the attack, and have spread tapeworms every- where. The worms are located in the small intestines, and are often present in large numbers. When ostriches come to maturity the worms generally disappear. Their presence is indicated by the feathers not lying as closely as they ought to do when birds are thriving, and the skin losing the greenish- yellow tint due to a thin layer of fat immediately under it, and indicative of high condition. Another injurious parasite is the Strongylus douglassii, a minute, white, round worm, not more than a fourth of an inch long when full grown, which buries its head in the mucous membrane of the stomach and produces irritation and redness of the parts affected. The lowering of the digestive functions which follow^s leads to the bird's death from extreme poverty. The moving worm is easily detected if a piece of the stomach be held up to strong sunlight. It has thus been identified in chicks of six weeks old. No means have yet been found by which the worms can be killed, but a few doses of turpentine and extract of male fern will relieve the bird from the reducing influence of tape-worm, and by liberal feeding its system may be built up so that the injury done by the strongylus can be reduced to a minimum. A swamp in the neighbourhood of an ostrich camp is ruinous to the industry, as mosquitoes breed in large numbers in such places, and the birds pull their feathers to pieces in trying to defend themselves against their attack. A disease known as yellow liver carries off many young birds of one or two months old. It generally occurs on land which has been long stocked with ostriches. A change of pasture, Hberal feeding, and careful treatment seem to be the most that can be done when an outbreak occurs, yet it must be admitted that little is known of the nature or cause of the complaint. It is thought by some to be due to the poisonous influences of a louse, with a blue body and red legs, which adheres to the body of the bird, and takes shelter in its ears. This is a belief similar to one which is held in some districts of this country, viz., that in some way or OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 229 another the worms which produce gapes in chickens are intimately associated with ticks which fasten themselves to the combs of barndoor fowls. With the important association before us of ticks with Texas fever, it would be short-sighted to disregard such beliefs until it has been demonstrated that they are unfounded. When birds get down in condition, lice are liable to become numerous among the feathers. They may be kept in check by providing dust-baths in which sulphur has been mixed, or by dipping with sulphur and lime. This is a practice which has come in recently, with the object of checking another external pest, the ostrich fly, Hippobosca strutJiionis, A. E. Janson, which strongly resembles the tsetse fly, Glossina inorsitans, only the former is smaller, darker, and the more wary of the two. On lifting the wing of a bird five or six hundred of these may be seen to fly off. It is only recently that they have been introduced into the Eastern Province, where they are now universal. They came from the north by way of Colesberg, and are most detrimental to the interests of the ostrich farmer, on account of the injury they do, especially to old birds sitting on eggs, by unsettling them. Dipping is done with birds of all ages in a tank 7 feet deep and 40 feet long, so that they must swim. The best time for the work is immediately after plucking. The materials used are sulphur and lime, i lb. of each, being well mixed and boiled with water, for every 6 gallons of solution. The bath .should be used at a temperature of 90" to 100° F., immediately after being prepared, and when quite clear, so that no injury can result to the feathers. The smell of the sulphur remains for months on the feathers, and keeps the flies from settling on the birds. Flowers of sulphur administered internally, in doses of a table-spoonful daily for a week, and every alternate day thereafter for a time, has been found valuable as a protec- tion against both internal and external parasites. Great cS.re is necessary while lowering a bird into the dipping tank not to rub the scales from the hocks or legs, because any injury to these parts is liable to be followed by acute inflammation, and the death of the bird. Skin or flesh wounds on the body of an ostrich are easily healed, but any accident to the limbs is generally fatal. 230 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. Plucking the feathers of birds that run on natural veld is done for the first time when the bird is about seven months old, by clipping the quills when these have become dry, so that no blood will come, and at the same time the tail feathers and drabs, two rows of body feathers from the upper side of the wing, and two rows below it, termed " onder-baatje,"* are pulled. Two months later, the stumps, then quite ripe for removal, are drawn by means of small forceps. Six months after the first drawing of stumps the second plucking takes place, followed by stump-extracting at the end of eight months, Plucking an Ostrich Cock with a Bag or Hood over his Head to keep him quiet. and so on, a crop of feathers being secured every eight months, or three crops in two years. The relative values of the pluckings are as follows, although the actual figures fluctuate with the prices in the market. If the first crop be worth 4s. to 6s., the second will fetch 15s. to 20s., the third £1. 5s. to £2, and the fourth, which is the most valuable of all, £T). ios. to £4. When the author landed in the Colony, the return from a troop of ostriches kept naturally on the veld was generally estimated at about ^^"2. los. per plucking; but owing to the rise * The under-coat or waistcoat. OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 23 1 in the price of feathers before his departure from the Colony, £2)- I OS. had been touched. When birds are fed on rich food, as on kicerne, a crop of feathers may be got in seven months. Cutting of both the tail and quill feathers is done at six months, and the stumps and short feathers are removed a month later. The high feeding tends to make, the quills stronger, and as regards the finest plumes not worth so much per pound, but the quantity of produce is greater, and the total value per bird more. At Oudtshoorn 2 lbs. of blacks and drabs may be got from one plucking, while in the Eastern Province, where the .system of management is not so intensive, the weight might probably not exceed r| lbs. from a bird. At Graaff Reinet it was reported that the practice is to take only one crop of feathers in the year, the stumps being left for six months to give the bird a rest from feather produc- tion. This course is also followed by some farmers in the case of show birds, so that greater length and luxuriance of plumage, like that found on wild birds, may be secured. The profits from ostrich farming, even in the earl}- part of 1895, were more remunerative than in the case of sheep- farming, considering the capital invested. A troop of ostriches such as one would see on an ordinary farm ^^'ould then be worth probably ^5 each all over. At one time prices were very different. Richard Gavin on one occasion sold twent}' birds at ^17. los. each. Eggs were worth £10 each, and a six weeks old bird was worth from £1^ up to ^30. These -figures relate to the ordinary stock of a farm, not to specially selected fanc}- birds, the price of which at times went up to i.' 1,000. Much can be done by way of improving the quality of a breeding stock of birds by careful selection of those of best form \\"hich produce the finest qualit}' of feathers, and by discarding those that are inferior in those respects. At one time there was a run upon light-coloured hens, which possessed more white feathers than dark hens, without sufficient care being bestowed in selecting for quality of feather. It is now found that dark hens of good feather exercise a beneficial influence upon their cock progeny, and quality has conse- quently taken precedence of lightness of colour. The cock must be depended upon to produce the best white plumes, as 232 FARMINC. INDUSTRIKS OF CAPK COLONY. ■the L^ioss of the female feathers is not so good. It is also ^ important to select birds descended from parents which Jiave 1 been successful breeders. Douglass says, in writing of the points to take into consideration : " They should have a well- developed, muscular frame, large feet, thick powerful-looking legs, with great depth of girth, and a prominent bold eye. On no account have anything to do with a herring-gutted, fly-away looking bird. A bird, if in good condition, should be broad across the back, with a furrow running down the middle. The tamer and more domesticated they are the better, but by tameness is not meant want of pugnacity. The body feathers should be curly, rich in colour, with a shiny . gloss on them. The great complaint against Cape feathers is a want of fulness, closeness, and breadth of fluff of the lower part, as well as a want of width at the crown." These defects can no doubt be got rid of by careful breeding, as many parcels of Cape feathers can compare favourably with the best Barbary feathers. Feathers require to be sorted with infinite care into bundles, which are mostly sold by auction — Port Elizabeth and Grahamstown being the great markets for the Eastern Province. Reference has formerly been made to the part jDlaycd by Jews in Oudtshoorn district. The system of selling the feathers on the birds before plucking-time, apart from the objections already pointed out, leads to careless management and less careful handling of the birds in plucking. The ostriches in the Colony, by the returns taken 31st May 1895, number 253,463 — an increase of over 21,000 within two years. Ostrich farming in South Africa is nearly all con- fined to Cape Colony. The chief ostrich farming divisional areas are mentioned in the order of their importance, with the number of birds stated in each case : — No. of Birds. 10,820 10,283 9,298 6,082 premier position, with more than three times the number of birds posses.sed by any other division in the Colony, to the success of the cultivation of lucerne under irrisjation. Uivision. No. of Birds. Division. Oudtshoorn . • 54,663 Willowmore . Albany . 17,190 GraafF Reinet Somerset East • 16,745 Cradock Uitenhage 12,650 Bedford Oudtshoorn is indebted f( ir the premi OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARM INC. !33 The subjoined table, extracted from the Statistical Register of Cape Colony, shows the amounts of feathers exported and the declared value in alternate years : — Year. Weight in lbs. Declared Value. 1882* .... 253,954 -£1,093,989 1884 232,411 966,479 1886 288,568 546,230 1888 259,967 347,992 1890 212,276 563,948 1892 257,027 517,009 1894 350,404 477,414 1895 353,626 527,742 The next table t shows the value per lb. of ostrich feathers exported from the Cape, given in quinquennial periods. i\ll kinds of ostrich feathers, including " Dark Chicks," worth 2s. per lb., and " Prime Whites," worth many pounds sterling per lb., are included, so the figures are only valuable as guides to the relative values from \'ear to year : — Year. Average per lb. Year. Average per 11 1850 . ■ £3 iS 1875 • ■ £(^ 3 1855 . 600 1880 . . 5 8 i860 . . 880 1885 . . 268 1865 . • 3 14 1890 2 13 It 1870 . ■ 3 I 1S94 • ■ I 7 3 The London Feather Auction Sales take place bi- monthly, and usually last three or four days, buyers from Germany, France, and America entering into competition with those in the home trade. The dates at which the six sales were held in 1895 were — 4th February, ist April, loth June, 1 2th August, 7th October, and 9th December. A price list of one of the leading firms of sworn brokers on the London market has been reproduced below, with the object of introducing the reader to the phraseology of the London feather trade, and of giving some idea of the numerous classes into which ostrich feathers are sorted to attract different buyers ; as well as of showing the relative values per lb. of feathers of different descriptions. * This was the year of the highest prices, and also the year which reached the highest record value in total. t Taken from the chapter on " Ostrich Farming " in the Official Hnnd- liook of the Cape and .South Africa, but brought down to date. 234 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. Current prices of ostrich feathers, from Cape, Natal, &c. [a few days after the author's return to London], loth October 1895:- 4 White primes and bloods, superior cut or light quills Do. ists Do. 2nds . Do. 3rds . . 20 Do. stalky and inferior i 10 White femina tipped Femina, light istsand 2nds, good Do., do. ordinary or defective Do., dark, ordinary to good . Do., 3rds or defective Byocks Black, long and medium Prices per lb. Oct. 1895. ^6 10 o to/9 10 5 o o ,, 6 10 o „ ^10 o o 10 o o 2 10 I O 3 15 o o o o o 5 o 2 O 7 o 6 10 4 o 5 o 6 5 8 10 (i lot/; 1 1.) Do., medium good to fine 2 10 o to 5 15 (iioti;8.) Do., do. ordinary i o o to i 5 Do., medium and short o 15 o ,, i 10 Do., inferior or very short o 6 o „ 10 Drab, long and medium 2 5 o „ 310 Do., medium . . i 5 o ,, 3 10 Do., medium and short 0100,, 1 5 Do., do. inferior or very short . o 2 o ,, o g Floss, black and drab medium . i o o „ 1 12 Do., black and drab medium and short 012 6 ,, i Spadonas, white and light i 50,, 3 Do., femina . o 10 o ,, i Do., drab . . o i o ,, o Boos white . . 2 o o „ 2 o o o o 5 o 5 o 10 o Prices per lb Dec. i8 5 o o 3 10 2 o I 10 ^ 10 o to /lO o 7 6 10 o o o o o o o o o o o 200,, 200,, o 10 o „ 3 10 o „ 200,, (I lot ^8.) 3 10 o to 60 4 o 2 o 6 o 6 10 1 o o „ 300 015 o „ 115 o 5 o „ o 12 6 2 10 o „ 3 10 o (j\oi£s-) 1 5 o to 215 o o 10 o „ 100 016,, 090 12 6 „ I 50 040,, o 10 o 1 10 o „ 3 10 o o 10 o „ 150 I o „ 050 1 17 6 „ 250 Few super, lots £2. ys. 6d. and £2. los. I 7 6 to I 12 6 100,, 176 o I T o „ 110 (i lot £2. 15s.) Do. femina . . i 10 o to 2 o o Do. do. black butts 019 o „ i 4 o Do. femina and drab 100,, 176 "The sales commenced on 7th inst.,and concluded to-day. In all, 3,146 cases Cape were offered, of which 3,140 cases were sold ; and 39 cases Egyptian, of which 36 cases were sold. The weight of feathers offered was 60,365 lbs., against 66,700 lbs. in August. The sales opened rather flatly, but a better tone prevailed as they progressed, and with a generally good demand nearly the whole quantity offered was disposed of. White feathers were generally steady, occasionally the best lines were a little OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 235 weaker, but 3rds and medium feathers were fully 15 per cent, higher. White and Liyht Femina were very firm for good and medium, and common 10 per cent, dearer. Dark Femina, 5s. and los. per lb. higher. Byocks steady. Spadonas brought full prices. Boos of all kinds were in good demand, and generally 5s. per lb. higher for all kinds except Black Butts, which were 2s. per lb. dearer. Black were very irregular, and although some lines brought up to last sales, rates on the average declined — long and medium, los. to 15s. per lb., and medium and medium short about 15 per cent. Drab, long', and medium were about I OS. per lb. lower, medium were irregular at steady prices to los. per lb. decline, and medium short 10 per cent, easier. Floss in good demand, especially shorter lines, which advanced 5s. to 7s. 6d. per lb. The quantity sold realised ^i 13,000." Large consignments are now sent to London from North Africa — Tripoli, Mogador, and Egypt — and still more were sent when the Soudan was open. Very few ostrich feathers come from Australia and South America, and still fewer from California — the supply from that quarter being dispo.sed of in tlic United States of America. The term " White " refers to the long pure wing feathers of the male bird, ** Femina " indicating the corresponding plumage of the female, hence the name. " Byock," said to be a corruption of a foreign word for black and white, denotes the parti-coloured feathers from the wing of the male ; onl}^ a few are found on each bird. " Boos" is used to distinguish the short and stumpy tail feathers of both birds — white from the male, and drab from the female. " Spadonas" refers to the im- perfectly developed first year's crop from young birds. These feathers are pointed like a sword, hence the name, which comes from the Italian. " Black" is the long growth on the part of the wing near to the junction with the body of the male, the short and medium are the body feathers ; and " Drab" is the corresponding growth on the female. " Floss" is derived mostly from the under-wing coverts of the birds, both male and female, and is of a soft nature. The variation in prices which occurred between the end of 1894 and the end of 1895 ^^'11 indicate the tendency of the fashion of the day. The rise in some classes was to a certain extent due to a revival in the feather trade with America, which had been at a very low ebb for some time. The largest and finest feathers, which were at one time all the rage, are now very much at a discount. Prices of these have 236 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. consequently declined, while prices of infericjr " lines " have L^one up. The feathers used for trimming hats are not now the long flowing " whites," sweeping gracefully in a horizontal position, but groups of small feathers standing up after the fashion of the Prince of Wales plume. The less expensive varieties of feathers are extensively used in the toilet of ladies for mantle and dress trimmings, boas, and muffs, and to wear in the hair, while the finest feathers of medium length are mainly seen in fans used in the ball-room and at the opera.* The prices of ostrich feathers, being dependent upon the whims of fashion, which is liable to change, must remain somewhat uncertain. This should lead a farmer to provide more than one string to his bow, and adopt ostrich farming as one branch of his industry, not as the sole means of livelihood. Apart from this being a judicious and safe course to follow by a person desirous of eliminating from the business of his everyday life all excessive market fluctuations, which lead to the introduction of something not far removed from gambling, w^e have already seen that decided advantages result from the annual change of stock on the natural veld, and we may therefore conclude that the profit per bird will be greatest when ostriches do not exceed a certain, and not an excessive, proportion of the stock upon a farm."^ Feather-beds are regarded as luxurious by the house- wives in the rural districts of the Colony, and it is a common practice on a farm to keep a number of geese, and to pluck a considerable proportion of the breast and belly feathers five or six times annually, or every six weeks during summer. In some places the ganders are plucked even in winter, which appears to be an aggravation of what must be regarded as a painful if not in the eyes of the law a cruel practice, judging from the loud protestations of the creatures, and the rate at which they make their escape from their tormentors after the * The author is indebted for much information relating to the London Ostrich Feather Market to Hendrey & Martin, Colonial Brokers, 9 Mincing Lane, E.G. t See also " Ostriches and Ostrich Farming," by Mosenthal and Harting. Trubner, 1879. OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING. 237 operation is over. Six or seven geese furnish i lb. of feathers at one phicking, worth on an average about is. 6d. One informant declared that she plucked 12 lbs. of feathers from 58 geese, and sold them at 2s. 6d. to 3s. per lb., but as regards recent times these may safely be taken as record or maximum figures. Some birds live till they are thirteen years old. Many die during seasons of drought from stop- sickness, induced by their picking up too much sand with the roots of grasses on which they feed at such times. To give a few mealies or a little barley is a good safeguard against the most serious consequences of drought or winter scarcity. CHAPTER XII. THE WILD GAME OF THE COLONY. Migratory and Non-Migratory Species — Fact of Antiquarian Interest — Destruction of Game— Murrain of Cattle Spread to Game — The Eland — The Koodoo — Rhinoceros Birds — Black Skins of Antelopes and Large Game Generally — The Gemsbok — The Blue Wildebeest — The Hartebeest — The Springbuck — Blesbok and Bontebok — Small Antelopes — The Elephant — The Buffalo — Tsetse-Fly — List of Predatory Animals and Rewards offered for their Destruction. Ir is impo.ssible to make a definite statement as to the geographical position of much of the game of South Africa, as about four-fifths of it are migratory in habits. Not very long ago the black wildebeest or gnu, the blesbok,* the quagga, and the springbuck, grazed on the open plains of the Midland Karoo, the Free State, and the upper portion of Natal. As the pasture became exhausted, from overstock- ing or drought, they shifted their ground periodically from their favourite haunts, growing the sweet grass and bush of the Kai"oo, to the sour grass in such areas as are found on the borders of the Free State and Natal. The great con- sideration was an open outlook, unencumbered by bush. The gnu, blesbok, and quagga did not extend far north of the Vaal River. The springbuck was more generally dis- tributed, although most plentiful towards the west. The blesbok is still to be found carefully preserved in the Free State and in the Colony. The true quagga has altogether disappeared, and the gnu, Connoc/ustes giui, with the excep- tion of a small troop in the Free State, is extinct. The gnu is interesting, on account of the extraordinary combination of characteristics, usually found in widely diverging species of animals, exhibited by it. It forms a connecting link between the antelope and the bovine families. The head is distinctly bovine in appearance, the mane and tail resemble '" " Bok" is the Dutch for "buck," and the two words are used indis- criminately in this chapter. THE WILD GAME. 239 the corresponding appendages of the horse, and the hmbs those of the stag, while the horns are Hke the horns of the buffalo. The horns in both male and female curve from their broad bases, first down and forward, the terminations being directed upward and backward. The size of the animal corresponds to that of a large pony. There are still many troops of springbuck, the variety known as the " trek-bok " occurring in very large numbers in the direction of Namaqualand. These were the most conspicuous of the migratory species of game. The practically non-migratory species were the eland, hartebeest, and koodoo. These included in their grazing grounds the bush veld, river banks, and broken coun- try, where shelter and grazing suited them. An excellent instance of the sharp division of the two varieties of game could be seen to the east of Kimberley. There a range of hills divides the black country, " swart veld," from the bush veld. On the eastern side the migratory game was for- merly to be seen in countless thousands,, while to the west the hartebeest and koodoo used to consort with the eland, the elephant, and the giraffe. An interesting fact, from the antiquarian point of view, is that where the migratory game prevailed the stone weapons found consist of small arrow and spear heads, with rough flakes, sharp enough to be used at one time to skin and cut up bucks. In the bush veld or big-game country are found small arrow heads and battle-axes. The latter, about the size and shape of an open hand, would make formidable weapons when mounted on handles. They consist chiefly of Lydian stone and jasper very rudely fashioned, the makers evidently being unaware of the ingenious yet simple mechanical contrivance used by the North American Indians in turning out their beautifully finished weapons. A good general idea of the game, which originally belonged to a certain district of the country, can be got by examining the cave drawings and so-called " bushman drawings " or figures Calready referred to in the opening chapter) chipped out on the hard smooth surfaces of rounded basaltic boulders on the tops of the look-out hills. The latter were probably executed while the aborigines were watching the movements of the vast herds of game on the plains below. 240 FARMING IN' DUSTKIlvS OF CAPE COLONY. It seems marvellous how such enormous numbers of animals should have been all but exterminated within a few years. But the flesh could be turned to profitable account, being dried in the sun to form " biltong," an invaluable adjunct to the commissariat of the hunter or wayfarer on the •veld. It is not bulky, and it is light to carry. It requires no cooking, and when cut into thin slices made across the line of the fibre of the meat it is tasty, easily digested, and strengthen- ing, and forms the great stand-by of the African traveller. The skins were easily dried and exported, or prepared by the African method of " braying " for nearly all sorts of purposes for which hempen twine and rope and even in some instances iron chains are used in this country. The former settlers in the outlying districts gave the creatures no quarter, and the very shyness and wariness of their dispositions led to their speedy destruction. The system followed by the hunter was to race on horseback after a mixed troop, jump off and shoot at a distance of from 300' to 800 yards into the "brown," and pro- bably not one in ten of those mortally wounded was bagged. The number of cartridges carried by a man was generally fifty, and it was no uncommon thing for a sportsman (l) to return empty-handed. With the game, the vultures are also disappearing, but this matter has been discussed in connection with other considerations. The non-migratory game have had a better chance of escape. They were in smaller troops, and had, when dis- turbed, better opportunities for getting out of sight than those in the open country. Another untoward circumstance is likely to militate against any attempt at the rehabilitation of wild game, and will pro- bably lead to a further decrease in numbers. The murrain of cattle, described by Joseph Thomson, has spread to the wild animals. In some places the buffaloes have died out on account of it, and pigs and many antelopes, exclusive, however, of the hartebeest, have succumbed, to it. The eland, Oreas cajiiia, H. Smith, in the wild state is generally supposed to be " extinct in Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange Free State, Griqualand West, and the Transvaal, and almost so in all the countries watered by the tributaries of the < X 5 H ~ a 5 5 K ■5 K = ^k a. THE WILD GAME. 241 Limpopo to the west of the Matabele country," but it is reported to exist in Griqualand East, on the spur of the Drakensberg Mountains. It has been domesticated in Cape Colony, as may be seen from the accompanying plate (showing a group of five tame cows). Up-country elands are still plentiful north of the Zambesi River, and in the Kalahari Desert where they attain their greatest size and are devoid of the characteristic white stripes which are common to both males and females belonging to other districts. The eland is the largest and most useful of the antelope family, and its members are ox-like in general proportions and appearance. The finest specimens stand 6 feet high at the withers, and measure 9 feet from the nose to the root of the tail. F. C. Selous records the girth of the specimen in the British Museum at 8 feet 2 inches, and the neck measurement midway between the jaw and the shoulder at 5 feet i inch. They become very heavy, weighing 1,500 to 2,000 lbs., and fatter than any other large game. The flesh resembles beef in grain and in colour, but in flavour it is not equal to that of the buffalo, giraffe, or hippopotamus, and its good qualities have been rather exaggerated by early hunters and writers on large game. It roams in herds, preferring dry and often sandy plains, although it does not shun thickly wooded country. It is slow in movement, and can generally be overtaken by a man mounted on a good horse. Cows possess greater speed and staying power than bulls, and " when pursued they often bound high into the air, higher than the backs of their fellows." The eland is gentle in disposition, as is evident from its " soft brown eye," and there are few wild animals which hold out more encouragement for their domestication. The horns of well-developed males approach 2 feet 6 inches in length, and a cow's horns have been measured 2 feef 10 inches long. In form they are straight and erect, and each is conspicuously adorned with a spiral wreath, extending well up towards the tip in the case of the male. In the female this feature is but slender. The animal is distinguished by a prominent dewlap, fringed with long hair ; a black mark above the knee inside each fore-leg ; a black line up the centre of the back and tail ; O 242 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. the body hair short, except on the ridge of the back, and of a reddish Hght fawn colour above, shading off to white beneath (or according to Selous, writing of an eland cow, " a hght-red colour fading into a creamy-yellow shade"); eight or nine well- defined narrow white stripes falling from the backbone down each side, reddish bands taking their places over the neck ; the tail thin and whiplike, terminating in a black tuft of hair ; fine clean-cut limbs ; and a small game-looking head, with in the male a dense dark brush of hair on the forehead and face. Selous says : " What a grand-looking beast an eland bull is ! He is one of those stately creatures that few reflecting men can slay without regret;" — and of calves a few days old : " Beautiful little creatures of a reddish fawn colour, profusely banded with perpendicular white stripes." The koodoo, Strepsiceros kudu, Gray, one of the largest and perhaps the most handsome of all the antelopes, calls for little description with two such illustrations as the accompanying plates. These are reduced copies from J. G. Millais's new work, " A Breath from the Veldt," * and represent in a lifelike manner both the male and the female. Plate 40 also shows rhinoceros birds, BnpJiaga erytJiro- rJiyncha, or " rhenoster vogels," feeding on the koodoo cow. The attitudes of the rhinoceros birds were drawn, by the aid of a telescope, direct from nature, and show a party of these birds relieving an animal of ticks and other parasites. The birds possess tails of horny feathers and claws of extraordinary strength and sharpness, by which they can cling securely. They can hop backwards cjuite as well as forwards, and they often make long drops from the shoulder to the fore-leg or down the side of the animal. Among wild beasts their attention is chiefly devoted to the rhinoceros, the Cape buffalo, the sable antelope, and the wart-hog ; whilst among domestic animals horses and oxen are their favourites. It is no uncommon sight to see an ox lying stretched on the ground on his back, exposing the under parts of his body to them. The flight of the rhinoceros bird strongly resembles that of our fieldfare, and its jarring cry of alarm is like that of the common starling when its nest is being robbed. All the birds utter it together when they wish to warn an animal of approaching danger, sitting in a line along its back and stretching .their necks upwards preparatory to taking flight. It is only wild animals that they warn of the approach of danger ; when feeding on domesticated animals they are comparatively tame, and suffer the close approach ol x\\7m.— Condensed from ''A Breath from the Veldt:' _ * Published (1895) hy Henry Sothern & Co., London, at ^3. 3s. \ ^1 * "^-,'. ^ * 1 \ \ » -w • -x" /^ 1 •*-^^ -^--i*' ■"' ^.^ '^,F '#¥ THE WILD GAME. 243 The koodoo is still found in Cape Colony (although not in large numbers), in the vicinity of Uitenhage, Beaufort West, Fraserburg, Prieska, and in Griqualand West. It is more solitary in its habits, and not found so much in herds as the eland. It is " usually partial to hilly country, covered with dense thickets," but it is also common in thick bush by the banks of rivers, and in the wait-a-bit thorn-jungle on the edge of the flat and sandy Kalahari Desert. The horns, only present in the male, are cylindrical and twisted spirally, and have been seen as long as 3 feet 8! inches in a straight line from top to base, which is equivalent to more than 5 feet along the curves. A long beard adorns the throat, and a mane the back of the neck. Selous says : " The ground colour of female koodoos and young males is - reddish or greyish brown, with eight or nine white stripes " (which are even more distinct than those of the eland) " down each side. But the old males become a deep blue-grey, which is owing, I think, as in the case of the eland, to the colour of the skin showing through the scanty hair." In writing of the eland he also says : " Old eland bulls, as well as old cows, have very little hair on their skins, and look a dark slaty-blue colour," also attributed by him to the same influence as that just stated in connection with the koodoo. These simple statements open up a wide field of interest in connection with the colour of the skins of antelopes and other wild animals in Central and Southern Africa. The hair of a large number of species of antelope is light rather than dark in colour, with a tinge of red or russet brown ; but it has probably not occurred to any one that underneath this light exterior hairy covering. Nature has for special reasons of her own placed a dark skin. In short, the colour of the skins of the animals in tropical regions seems to follow the same law as that of the skins of the aboriginal inhabitants, and to be almost invariably black or dark in colour. During the author's visit to India in 1887 he made the dis- covery, from the European point of view, that underneath the white or light-grey hair of the zebu cattle was to be found, in all but a small percentage of cases, a jet black or a dark skin. It is interesting to recognise the similarity in the matter of colour in tropical Africa, and to find that, on such undoubted authority as that of F. C. Selous, the two largest antelopes are 244 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. black skinned ; and further, that all the species of smaller antelopes which the author had the jDrivilege of examininc,% are amenable to the same hidden influence. The rule docs not hold good in the case of feline animals, which prowl at night and find shelter by day from the direct rays of the sun, but of those that feed by day, the buffalo, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the zebra, and many others are dark skinner] . The fact that the skin of the zebra is uniformly dark in spite of the existence of numerous bands of white hair is peculiar])- interesting, because with British cattle and horses a white spot of hair generally implies, though not invariably, a white spot underneath. The secret of the matter is that a dark skin is not injured by sun burning and blistering, as a light- coloured skin usually is, and the law of the survival of the fittest has done its work so well through past generations, that the beneficial condition of blackness is now all but uniform in tropical areas.* The lesson for the South African farmer to learn is to select dark-coloured cattle, so that they may benefit by securing immunity from sun-blistering, and its injurious consequences on the animal's health and condition. Although Cape Colony is not tropical, yet, owing to the cloudless nature of the sky, the sun's influence is powerful. In dealing with the various breeds of cattle, reference is made from time to time to the importance of the consideration of colour. The gemsbok antelope, 07yx gazclla, belongs almost exclusively to the deserts of South -Western Africa. In Griqualand West and the Kalahari Desert to the west of that area, as well as in Namaqualand, it is still "fairly plentiful." It is usually very wild and prefers open country, or that which is merely covered with stunted bush. The body is heavy though symmetrical, and the tail long and bushy. The colour of the face, limbs, and belly is broken, and beautifully marked in a manner peculiar to this species, and the horns are very long, straight and slender, frequently longer in the female than in the male. Selous gives 3 feet 6 inches as the greatest * The subject of black skins in cattle is treated at some length in the author's work on " Indian Agriculture," published at ^i. is. by Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. THE WILD GAME. 245 length in his experience in the latter, and 3 feet loi inches in the former case. The blue or bastard wildebeest, or brindled gnu, Conno- cluEtes taurina, a species included in the same genus with the almost extinct true gnu, is to be found on the western border of Griqualand West, along the eastern edge of the Kalahari Desert, and all over South Central Africa. Selous says: " It congregates in immense herds on the Mababe flats during the dry season. It is partial to open downs devoid of bush, or open glades in the forest, and is never met with in hilly country." It is very swift of foot and enduring. The hartebeest, AlcdapJms caania, is one of the fleetest and longest-winded of South African antelopes. Its natural habitat is very similar to that of the gemsbok and blue wilde- beest. It is still "fairly plentiful " in Griqualand West. The springbuck, Gazella euc/iore, or " springer " antelope, named from the habit it possesses of bounding high into the air, meanwhile assuming many most extraordinary positions, which have been beautifully portrayed in J. G. Millais's artistic work, previously referred to (from which, by per- mission, the accompanying plate representing springbucks, secretary birds, and a \'ulture has been copied). The animal stands higher and is somewhat larger than a fallow deer. The greater part of the body is of a light fawn colour, but the belly and a narrow ridge running up to the middle of the back is white, and furnished with white hair, which stands up along the line of the back-bone. The horns are " simple and annulate, and curved to form a l}Te-shaped figure." Springbucks are plentiful in many parts of the Karoo country, and in total numbers in the Colony they far ex- ceed all other species of antelope. They tend to increase since the institution by Government of a close time against killing them. Millais says that " the true home of the springbuck is now found in the Kalahari, Damaraland, Ovampoland, and Great Namaqualand," from which latter place come many beautiful " karosses," or skin rugs, made by the Hottentot women, who preserve and soften the skins and sew them most neatly and strongly together with pieces of thin thread-like thong. Springbucks graze together in large herds of hundreds or even 246 FARMING INDUSTRIES OK CAPE COLONY. thousands. They have great power of scent and observation, and, except when " trekking " in large numbers, so that they crowd each other, they are difficult to approach unless a man be well mounted on horseback. Shooting springbucks is done by riding after the troops, now very frequently confined in large camps within wire fences, and trying to cut them off by taking advantage of shelter to make a short cut in the direction in which the leading members of the troop are heading. Head of a Steeniiok. PJwto. by Percy Ashendcn, Civil Engineer. The blesbok, Alcclapluis albifrons, and the bontebok, A. pygarga, are both allied to the springbuck. The latter has already been referred to in Chapter I. The blesbok is larger than the springbuck, and it inhabits similar country to this more widely represented rival. It is so fleet of foot that no dog can catch it. There are several other small antelopes, as, for example, the steenbok, rhebok, and bushbuck, which are holding their own and rather tending to increase since a close time has been instituted. THE WILD CAME. 247 The elephant and the buffalo are still found in consider- able if not in large numbers, in the forests of Knysna and Humansdorp, and in the Addo Bush. The African elephant, Elephas africauus, has not been subjected to the influences of domestication since the time of the Romans. It is a taller animal than the Asiatic species, but it does not stand more than 1 1 feet at the shoulder. It exhibits prominent differences in certain details of structure. The forehead is convex in place of flat, and the back con- cave rather than slightly arched. The ears are enormously large, completely covering the shoulders when thrown back, sometimes even 3^ feet long by 2% feet broad. The tusks are heavy, and particularly so in the male, and they are freely used for digging up the roots of trees for food, in which service one tusk is generally much more worn than the other. The Cape buffalo, Bubalus cajfer, is nearly as large as and fully stronger and bolder than the Indian species, although it is not so dangerous as is generally supposed, except when wounded. The horns are broad and thick at the base, where they come closely together and form a most effective pro- tective covering for the crown and upper part of the forehead. In this respect, and also in the way the flattened horns incline backwards and downwards, and finally sweep round to form graceful curves before the terminations occur, at a distance of about four feet apart from each other, the animal strongly re- sembles the Indian Jafarabadi variety of buffalo, which is above the average size. The cows are well known to possess superior milking qualities. The black skin, which is so thick and tough that in the early days it was made by natives into shields capable of turning musket bullets, is only indifferently pro- vided with hair, and old animals become almost destitute of this covering. South African buffaloes have never been domesticated. They get into shallow, muddy pools, and carry away thin coatings of mud, w^hich protect them at the same time from the attacks of gadflies, and from the direct influence of the noonday sun. They also participate in the pleasures derived from the friendly offices of rhinoceros birds. The tsetse fly, Glossma niorsitans, belonging to the sub- family MuscincB, and closely allied to Stomoxys, is the fatal pest which destroys the horses of big-game hunters, and the 24H FARMING INDUSTRIES OK CAI'E COLONY. oxen of up-country transport riders, when they unwittingly come within the fly-infested country, which is generally in such a place as buffaloes prefer, viz., country covered with bush and near a river. It is believed that this fly follows the buffalo, and disappears from a district when the buffaloes are killed out or are driven away. It is most numerously represented and A Wounded Cafe Buffalo. After Selous. most injurious in its action in certain areas in the basin of the Limpopo River. It is present in Zululand between the coast and the mountains down to the 28th degree of south latitude, but it does not appear in Cape Colony, unless it be in the harmless form in which the species is represented in Australia. The body is not much larger than that of the common house-fly, which it also resembles in appearance. When THE WILD GAME. 249 at rest, the wings, being longer, overlap at the tips and pro- ject posteriorly, giving it an elongated character like that of the common grey horse-fly, but with what may be described as a broad-shouldered appearance. It is of -a "dull greyish colour, with bars of a pinky tinge across the body." Its proboscis is long enough to penetrate readily a thick flannel shirt, and the poison is supposed to be " contained in a dilated horny bulb" at its base. It is generally believed that man possesses immunity from the poisonous influences of its bite, and it is certain that it does not have the same effect on him TnK TsrCTSF. Fi,Y, Gi.ossina MORSii'ANS, Magnified. as on the lower animals that suffer from its attentions ; never- theless it has been asserted that it is cjuite possible the fly is the direct cause of certain derangements commonly ascribed to fever. Certain constitutions are very differently affected as compared with others by the sting of the bee and the bite of the common horse-fly, and it seems cjuite possible that some men might suffer from the bite of the fly in the manner indicated, while others might escape. The bite alone is a source of in- tense annoyance to the traveller, and, contrary to the general belief, where flies are in large numbers, they do not desist during night — at least while the moon is bright. The bite of 250 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. the fly, though innocuous to every species of game, is fatal to all domestic animals, including the donkey, the dog, and the goat, which were once thought to be exceptions to the rule. In the matter of results something depends upon the number of flies that bite an animal, or in other words, the amount of poison that the flies succeed in introducing into its system. A few animals, not very severely bitten, have been known to develop the symptoms and afterwards recover, but no remedial or preventive medicinal treatment, not even inoculation, has proved of any avail to an animal which has been severely bitten. The natives living in the fly country own dogs and goats, but the ancestors of these have been bred there for generations, and have become acclimatised. In a litter even of acclimatised puppies some always die of " fly " symptoms. Selous says that if a goat or a dog which has been bred and reared outside the " fly " country is taken in, " it will die in nine cases out of ten, and the original progenitors of the animals the natives now possess were no doubt such exceptions to the general rule." Cattle and horses that have been bitten during the dry season, usually die soon after the commencement of the rains. The poison may begin to show its effects in a few days, or it may take months to develop. The usual visible symptoms are "swelling under the jaw and round the navel." The eyes and nose run, and the animal becomes steadily more emaciated, and ultimately dies of exhaustion, aggravated in the end by diarrhfjea. By post-mortem examination it is found that the muscles of the body and heart are soft and. flabby ; the lungs and li\'er are both affected. The fat is oily and of a greenish-yellow colour, and the blood thin and deficient in quantity. The symptoms are those of a persistent progressive anaemia, the poison, whatever it may be, acting by destroying the red corpuscles in the circulating blood, while concurrently there is an increase of the white corpuscles. Since the foregoing was written, a report on the fly, by Surgeon- Major David Bruce, has been presented to the Governor of Natal. Doubts of the bite being poisonous, unless the fly had previously fed upon a diseased animal, are THE WILD GAME. 25 I expressed, but no conclusive evidence is advanced to over- throw the accepted theory in this matter. The fact that flies, Hving on the healthy blood of immune game, can poison domestic animals, is against the new suggestion that the " fly is merely a carrier of the disease from affected to healthy animals." The only important advance recorded is' the dis- covery of a blood parasite, a Haviatozoon, which ought to make it possible to adopt inoculation as a means of securing immunity. Protection can be secured in a rough and ready way while passing through a fly country by smearing the skins of the animals liable to be attacked with a mixture of cow-dung and milk or with lion's fat. Although the tsetse fly has been generally condemned and looked upon as an enemy of civilisation, it has in recent N'cars proved to be the salvation of the remnant of large game yet remaining in Southern Africa. The wholesale slaughter which has been going on for 3^ears in most parts of the country is effectually checked in the fly-infected areas, owing to the difficulties which are associated with the absence of hunting horses and trek oxen. To this fly, which has been so universally maligned, the hunter of the future will be indebted for the preservation of numerous species of game, which, but for its good offices, would undoubtedly have become extinct before the arm of civilisation had reached far enough to establish close seasons, and regulate the times and manner in which legitimate sport might be indulged. The following list of predatory animals (which appeared in a Government notice in August 1895, offering rewards for the destruction of vermin) indicates the species which still linger in Cape Colony in mountainous and little frequented areas where natural shelter is to be found : — Wild dog Tiger . Leopard Hyena . Maanhaar jackal Common red jackal Baboon . Payable by Government. .V. d. Payable from Local Sources. i. d. 8 2 5 5 5 3 3 1 6 CHAPTER XIII. CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. Native Cattle — The Hottentot Ox — The Afrikander Breed — Lake'Ngami Cattle — The Cape Cow — Damaraland Cattle — Polled Cattle — Zulu Cattle — Dutch and Shorthorn Cattle — The Ayrshire — The Devon — The Hereford — The Dexter-Kerry — The Dexter- Shorthorn — The Channel Islands Breeds —Milking Native Cattle — Hay Making — Village Cattle — Kaffir Servants' Cattle — Transport Oxen — Farming, Bathurst District — Transport Riding — Dairying. Large numbers of cattle were found in the possession of the Hottentots when the first European discoverers landed at the Cape towards the end of the fifteenth century. They possessed, in addition, goats, sheep, clogs, and poultry. The horse they were ignorant of, and the ostrich had not been domesticated. The Hottentot ox has been described as " a gaunt bony creature, with immense horns and long legs, but hardy, and well adapted to the wants of its owner, and corresponding somewhat to the appearance of the larger of the native cattle in Namaqualand and Damaraland at the present day." As these characteristics are greatly due to the nature of the climate and other natural circumstances, which so materially modify the different species of animals that live for generations under their influences, it is believed that in the east of the Colony, where the conditions were more favourable for the development of superior forms of bovine life, the cattle were of better quality from the European point of view. The natives used their oxen for riding, for carrying pack loads, and for racing. They even trained them as war oxen, and guided them in battle against their enemies by calls from a distance. Both Kaffirs and Hottentots exhibit great attachment to their cattle, and, observing with the greatest accuracy and minuteness the habits of the animals, acquire wonderful skill in their management. The Hottentots and Kaffirs are supposed to have gradually CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 253 found their way from North Africa, and to have brought their cattle with them. It is consequently not to be wondered at that these cattle belong to the same species as European cattle, and strongly resemble some of the types which are most directly representative of the original Bos urns of Caesar, viz., the Spanish and Portuguese cattle, and the descendants of those breeds which arc found roaming on the plains of Mexico and the ranches of the Western States of America. There they are bred under conditions not very dissimilar to those under which large numbers of cattle are kept in South Africa. The success in crossing with the native cattle, which followed the introduction of Portuguese cattle by the first settlers, is another strong argument in favour of their close relationship. The Afrikander breed, which is regarded as the most direct descendant of the native cattle, crossed by imported Por- tuguese animals, is supposed to have derived the best of its foundation stock from superior cows captured from Bushmen in the neighbourhood of Mossel Bay in 1668. The breed might easily pass as indigenous, having so thoroughly adapted itself to conditions of soil and climate. None of the breeds now imported from Europe can compare with it in maintain- ing condition or even existence in the recurring periods of drought and scarcity of food to which the Colony, more par- ticularly in the Karoo country, is subject. It is a slow-maturity breed, as may be inferred from the last-mentioned character- istic, and the crossed progeny by a Friesland or a shorthorn bull possesses greater size and increased aptitude to fatten, but while gaining in this direction loses in constitutional power to withstand the exigencies of the climate. The crosses pro- duce more powerful draught oxen, but they are too heavy, and go back in condition, and cannot endure the hardships by the way like the pure Afrikander. While the veld-fed cross-bred bullocks rising four years old will yield 850 lbs. of dressed beef,* the Afrikander bullock will yield 600 lbs. to 700 lbs. The introduction of either shorthorn or Friesland blood greatly improves the milking qualities of an Afrikander herd, but this must not be carried too far if the cattle have to depend * ^i per 100 lbs. of dressed beef is considered a good average paying price for the farmer to receive away from large centres of ]iopulation. 254 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAFE COLONY. entirely upon what the veld provides, unless in those districts where the land is of superior quality, and in that case it would probably be better to maintain the purity of European herds. Near Kimberley, cross-bred heifers of two years old realised, in 1895, £6 per head, or almost as much as oxen of twice the age. The typical Afrikander animal is of a rich dark-red colour, with gay upstanding horns, characteristics which have led some people into the belief that the breed must have had a cross of the English Devon during the process of its forma- tion, but no satisfactory historical records exist in confirmation of the fact, although the traditional belief is widespread. One point against the truth of the tradition is that the type of the Afrikander is very different from that of the Devon. The cows are permitted to suckle their calves, and, like the calves of breeds that are treated similarly in Great Britain, they grow up more timid and less amenable to gentle control than animals reared under a more domestic system. This does not pre- vent their being broken in to work in a waggon or on the farm, but they are always more dangerous when roused to anger, and then they will charge recklessly and furiously like a wild animal. The cows also hide their calves for the first week or so, like the wild White Park cattle of Great Britain and the West Highland breed, and go to them from time to time to let them suck. The Afrikander is a compact, sym- metrical animal, having well-developed fore-quarters, and a considerable elevation on the neck immediately in front of the withers, with an appearance strongly resembling a hump, but it is only a muscular enlargement, not a fleshy protuber- ance like the hump of the Indian zebu. There is one serious shortcoming when measured by a British standard, viz., the light, short, and drooping hindquarters and thin thighs. Splendid legs and feet for travelling, activity, strength, power of endurance, and constitutional vigour, are all conspicuous qualities. In a mixed lot of cattle living on the veld during winter, the pure Afrikander will generally be the one in best condition and with the sleekest coat. Excellent specimens of the breed may be found in the possession of up-country Boer farmers, who are slow to introduce new blood, and are in no haste for early development, or anxious for a cow to give more milk than her calf can readily consume. A few CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 255 herds are to be found which give more than an average amount of milk. These are supposed to have been dashed with a strain of blood from the Cape cow, sufficient to im- prove the milking qualities, but not enough to make any- material alteration on the external form or appearance. The breed has a fixed type which distinguishes it readily from the thick-horned Kaffir cattle, which in comparison with it are broken in colour, and lack style and uniformity. In some strains of native cattle in South Africa there is a strong tendency to the growth of large horns. The Lake 'Ngami breed possesses horns of such enormous dimensions and weight that one would imagine they would prove a detri- ment to the well-being of the animals. Selous states that he personally measured a pair of horns 13 feet in length from tip to tip, but even a better record than this by i foot 2 inches is recorded in " Big Game Shooting" in the Badminton Library, 1895.* The bases of the horns in these cases are almost as thick as a man's thigh, and the muscular effort in carrying them must be enormous. The Cape cow, bred in the Cape Peninsula, belongs to a mixed breed famous for milking qualities, and though smaller in size, it retains a strong resemblance to the Dutch breed, which contributed largely to its formation. Evidences are also to be seen in certain specimens of the use of Channel Island, Kerry, and Ayrshire bulls. The merit of good per- formance is in this instance more in favour than purity of * W. Cotton Oswell, in chapter v., "With Livingstone in South Africa," says : " By the shores of Lake 'Ngami a gigantic long-horned breed is found, stolen in a raid from the Ba-Wangketsi thirty years before our visit. They were originally remarkable for their heads, but in four or five generations, from feeding on silicious-coated reeds and suc- culent grasses near the lake, had developed wonderfully in horn and height. Through Livingstone I obtained one 6 feet 2 inches high, with horns measuring from tip to tip 8 feet 7 inches and 14 feet 2 inches round from one point to the other taking in the base of the skull. This animal had to be shot when he came into a region where the grass was short, as his horns coming to the ground before his nose prevented him feeding." The same writer mentions a miniature breed of cattle owned by a Kaffir chief, Sebitoani. He says : "They were most remarkably small things, like sturdy Durham oxen, 3 feet high. There was not the least difficulty in carrying them about bodily. Pretty little gentle beasts, when the men milked them they held them by the hind leg as you would a goat." 256 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. blood — a condition of things which has been previously observed in other parts of the world — New South Wales, for example — in connection with the breeding of dairy cattle. Damaraland cattle are the best of animals for light bullock traffic. They are light and active, and their feet arc hard and specially well adapted to work on the road. The horns are elevated and handsome. All ordinary combinations of colour of hair are represented, but black and tan, with a tan muzzle, is the most common and most characteristic colour. One section of the Pondo breed is hornless, with a high projecting poll, and in common with polled breeds it has generally great potency in conferring this characteristic on its progeny. Even when crossed with the shorthorn, most of the calves are polled. The hornless condition is now considered a decided advantage, as animals without horns can get their heads into the thick bush and find food in times of scarcity in a way that horned cattle cannot. They consequently maintain their condition better. So much is this believed, that an increasing number of cattle are annually dishorned by placing a few drops of caustic potash on the budding horns when the calf is only a few days old. This is a simple, effective, and humane practice, as horned cattle are ready at all times to inflict injury on their weaker neighbours, and the operation of dishorning not only deprives them of the weapons of offence, but also of the inclination to use them. Zulu cattle are diminutive, but hardy, active, and useful animals, working frequently under very trying circumstances. The Zulu country is within the area which is so much infested with ticks. At times the ears are reduced to mere stumps by the biting of the ticks and the after-effects that arise. The ticks break the skin inside the ear and give rise to suppuration. The injured part becomes fly-blown and mag- gots develop, which at times cause death by finding their way through the ear into the brain. In hot districts the smell which is meanwhile produced is like that of Kipling's camel, " most awful vile." The Cattle of English East Africa and Urundi.* — The cattle met with on my journey were not specially studied, and therefore my im- * By G. F. Scott Elliot, F\L.S., F.R.G.S., author of " Naturalist in Mid Africa." CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 257 pressions are to be considered simply as the observations of a passin"- traveller much occupied with other matters. Before I returned and consulted any authorities on the subject, it seemed to me perfectly clear that there were in English East Africa and Urundi two distinct races. One of these is seen in its greatest purity close to the east coast, and is apparently a Zebu race. According to Mr Hall, of Kikuyu, who has trained the cattle of that district, they are in many ways much like the little Zulu breed which produces some of the best draught o.xen in Southern Africa, but to my mind they seemed more like the true Indian Zebu than any of the southern breeds. This race is, however, certainly not in most cases the regular Indian form, though whether the differences are due to crossing, or to having been separated and reared under different climatic conditions, is far too difficult a cjuestion for me to hazard an opinion on. The other race I found in its greatest purity in the mountains of Urundi, at a height of some 6,000 to 7,000 feet. Dr Baumann, who traversed this country, has given a photograph of one of these animals ("Zum Nilquelle"), and investigated their origin at great length. There is a figure, Tab. viii., in Stuhlmann's "Mit Emin Pascha," which pur- ports to be one of this race. To my eyes it is not nearly so good an illustration of the pure race as I saw it in Urundi, but far more probably a cross with distinct Zebu traces. The race in Urundi agrees very closely with the description given in Brace's " Travels in Abyssinia," and it seems to me quite certain that it represents the original cattle brought by the Wahuma when they first came down from Abyssinia. They are usually reddish-brown, somewhat slim and narrow, and with relatively longer legs and a more slender build than the Zebu. Their horns are truly astonishing in size, and some I saw must have been fully three feet six inches long, and nearly as far apart at the tips. The following observation, whatever may be its value, is exactly according to my experience. The cattle are kept at night within the villages, and driven out every day to feed. On those paths which they traverse daily, the ground is a series of little ridges and furrows at right angles to the direction of the path. These ridg'es are about nine inches high and a foot broadj and I ha\e on no cattle-tracks elsewhere seen anything to correspond with them. They appeared to me to show that the hooves were all placed on nearly the same spot, instead of as usual at different intervals as on an ordinary cattle-track, which becomes poached up into an intricate honeycomb of steps. Probably this springs from their legs being much longer relatively to the body.* Starting from these two extreme forms, one finds in Ankole, Karagwe, (Sec, animals much more like the Urundi breed, and I have seen even in Buddu an enormous beast with huge horns, but still with a distinct hump and obvious Zebu affinities. * The conditions ilescribed are sometimes to be observed in Great Britain, when cows which naturally walk slowly are permitted to spread in many directions from a given centre on soil which is deep, and after rain, somewhat soft under foot. When the soil is hard, or when the animals follow each other in a line, they are more liable to form narrow paths in the direction of their course than the cross ridges described, — R. W. R 258 FARMING INDUSTRIES OV CAI'E COLONY. On the other hand, the Masai cattle, though much like the Zebu in many respects, differ from the cattle of the Wakamba, and tend towards the type found in Uganda, which latter appears to me a distinct blend of these two extreme races, and shows the extreme variety which one would expect. Heads very much like those of the Guernsey breed are very common in Uganda, but there is plenty of white in most herds, though perhaps less than one finds in Masailand. Dr Stuhlmann seems to agree with me that these two races, one along the eastern coast and pretty close to it, and the other extending south from Abyssinia as far as Urundi, are all that is necessary to explain the cattle which I met with. One Usogawco accompanied me from Kampala to Ruwenzori and Tanganyika, and was a most gentle and intelligent beast. The two most popular European breeds are the Holstein, Dutch or Friesland, and the shorthorn — the first introduced during the Dutch occupation, and still largely imported and highly prized. The second is of more recent British introduc- tion. There exists great rivalry between the supporters of the two breeds as to which is the better of the two. The question resolves itself pretty much into one dependent upon local circumstances. On fine rich land, where there is a good climate, the shorthorn can usually take the lead as a general purpose farmer's animal in the production of meat and milk, but where dairying is the chief object, or if there be a certain amount of struggling to be done against the influences of the climate and a restricted supply of food, or food which is not of the best quality, the Dutch cow will give a better account of herself than the shorthorn. In some localities where both breeds do well — the district of Bedford, for example — the advocates on each side are pretty equally matched in enthusiasm if not in numbers. The fact should never be lost sight of, that welhbred cattle, like well-bred farm animals of almost any species from Europe, have been brought into their present state of advancement towards perfection without being subjected to the struggles for existence which country cattle go through, and this having gone on for generations, the instinct as well as the power of self-help has become to some extent lost. The incapacity of well- bred animals to struggle for themselves amounts to more than this. There is a connection, or, more correctly, a repulsion between early maturity and constitutional vigour exhibited in the direction referred to. As the quality of early 3 hC I o CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEiMENT. 259 maturity advances, so must greater care and a better supply of food be provided for the animal, otherwise with ordinary treatment and ordinary food the results will become more and more unsatisfactory. Where the system of management is good, cows are supplied during winter wilh green barley or rye sown as a forage crop, or from the growth resulting from shaken wheat, the land being ploughed immediately after harvest. To this custom should be added the system of ensilaging green food during the period of the year when it is most abundant. The most highly bred cattle, being in-bred, also suffer most from disease, a fact which reaches its full measure of significance in Cape Colony, where diseases are so numerous and so insidious. Dutch cattle at the Cape are black and white, this colour being in fashion with breeders, although in Holland many pure-bred animals are fallow-coloured, red, and red and white. There are several strains of the breed in the home country, both large and small, due to the nature of the land on which they have been kept for many generations. Professor Overman claims that they have existed as a pure breed since about the time of Cctsar. The larger variety is the one in favour in Cape Colony, as it combines in quite an unusual way the qualities of both milk and meat production. The body is massive, but in symmetry the true type of the milking animal is seen, the forequarters being light and the hindcjuarters large and capacious. The horn is short and springs horizontally usually assuming a downw^ard inclination, especially in the bi !1. The average annual amount of milk given by good cows properly treated amounts to over 750 gallons, but records of 1,000 gallons and more have often been made. The quantity being so great, the average quality is below that of the milk of most of the British milking breeds, nevertheless 3 to ^h per cent, of butter fat is present. The calves when dropped are of im- mense size, weighing sometimes over 100 lbs at birth, and their buttocks are so large that they frequently give trouble at calving time. When heifers are well fed, they take the bull at fifteen or sixteen months old, and calve when about two years of age. If they are poorly fed, they do not come into profit till they are a year older. 26o FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. The Shorthorn.* — " In colour the breed is represented by roans and reds of various shades, light and dark, and also by red and white as well as wholly white specimens. The latter, and also the light or yellowish-light reds, are out of fashion with American buyers, who, on account of their numbers, tend to regulate custom in such things. Brindled colours are not seen in pure-bred shorthorns, and the same may be said of black. The skin, including that of the inner ears, is of a creamy-white or yellow colour. The nose, palate, lips, and eyelids should be flesh-coloured, and free from dark markings. A bright red nose is indicative of delicacy, just as black is considered to denote impurity — this, too, in spite of the acknowledged fact that black or dark noses existed in some of the best strains of blood mentioned in the early records of the breed. "The characteristic horns are short and blunt, more or less curved in a downward direction, of a waxy yellow throughout (free from black tips), laterally flattened, and set on wide apart. It is essential that the masculine or the feminine characteristics should be naturally represented in individual specimens of each sex. Shorthorns are descended from the old North-East of England breed, variously desig- nated the ' Durham,' ' Tees-Water,' ' Yorkshire,' or ' Holder- ness.' It was probably originally formed several centuries ago by crossing the aboriginal British cows with large-framed bulls imported from the Continent — Holland and Denmark. The dark noses referred to were no doubt due to their relation- ship with the ancient white cattle. Early shorthorns were good milkers, and it may be presumed they in part inherited that quality along with the shortness of horn from their Continental ancestors." The drawbacks to the shorthorn as a milking animal are its tendency to run to flesh, and its substantial forequarters, which are not typical of milking characteristics ; but certain strains produce much better dairy catLlc ihiin the great majority of the breed, and it is this class of animal which the colonial importer should be careful to select in view of the * Quoted from the author's work on " The Farm Live Stock of Great Britain," published by Crosby Lockwood & Son, London. CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 26 1 progressive development of dairying. Useful yearling bulls suitable for the purpose of breeding good n:iilking stock by colonial-bred cows can be bought in England and Scotland for £2^ to ;^30 each. The cost of shipping being £-}^o each unfortunately increases the capital expenditure very materially. Another important matter which should not escape considera- tion is the colour. European cattle which possess white hair have usually white or fleshy-coloured skins underneath it, a shade which is less able than the darker colours of skin, which are generally correlated with brown or dark-coloured hair, to withstand the influences of the sun. It is a significant fact that dark brown is the favourite colour for native cattle among the Boer farmers, although probably it has not been previously pointed out that a light shade of skin is liable under South African conditions to be scorched by the sun while a dark skin would escape. It was known, however, that the tan- coloured teats of brown cattle are not so liable to crack and become sore under the influence of a hot sun as white teats are. Brown or dark roan shorthorns should certainly be pre- ferred to light roans or whites. White cattle have long been in disfavour with American bu)'ers, and they may be trusted to recognise what class of animal best suits their purposes and climatic conditions. The subject of colour of skin has been fully discussed at page 243. The Ayrshire breed is not largely represented in the Colony, but in view of the fact that dairying is rapidly on the increase, and that this is perhaps the most perfect dairy cow among the smaller breeds, both in symmetry and per- formances, the points of the Ayrshire cow and their value in judging in the show-ring are given from a report by a committee of the Ayrshire Herd Book Society : — " I. Head ■s\\ox\. ; forehead wide ; nose fine between the muzzle .and eyes ; muzzle large ; eyes full and lively ; horns wide set on, inclining upwards, . . . . . . . . .10 2. Neck moderately long, and straight from the head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under side, fine at its junction with the head, and enlarging symmetrically towards the shoulders, . . . . . . . .5 3. Forequariers — shoulders sloping ; withers fine ; chest sufii- ciently broad and deep to ensure constitution ; brisket and whole foreciuarters light ; the cow gradually increasing in depth and width backwards, . . . . . . .5 262 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. 4. Back short and straight ; spine well defined, especially at the shoulders ; ribs short and arched ; body deep at the flanks, . 10 5. Hindquarters long, broad, and straight ; hook-bones ,wide apart, and not overlaid with fat; thighs deep and broad" [but thin of flesh on the inner thigh or twist]; "tail long, slender, and set on level with the back, . . . . . . .8 6. Udder capacious, and not fleshy, hinderpart broad" [and rounded like the side of a cheese]. "The whole firmly attached to the body ; the sole nearly level, and extending well forward ; milk veins well developed ; teats from 2 to i\ in. long, equal in thickness, and hanging perpendicularly ; distance apart, at the sides, equal to one-third of the length of the vessel, and across to about one-half of the breadth, ...... 33" [Small teats are now considered most objectionable, both in the market and the show-ring.] " 7. Legs short in proportion to size ; bones fine, and joints finn, . . . . . . . . .3 8. Skin soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close, woolly hair, ......... 5 9. Colour red, of any shade, brown, or white, or a mixture of these — each colour being distinctly defined Brindle or black and white is not in favour, . . . . . .3 10. Ar'craffc live weii^ht in full milk about loj cwts., . . 8 11. General styiish appearance diwA \'\'\o\'Qvc\&r\\, . . .10 Perfection, 100" One great drawback to the breed for the hot sunny climate of Cape Colony is the preponderating number of very light-coloured and almost white animals. Care would require to be taken not to select any for importation but those of dark colour. The Devon breed is another which crosses remarkably well with Afrikander stock, and is in high favour in the comparatively limited number of places where it is known, it is the present-da}' representative of a breed of cattle that has long been noted for producing draught animals. In size it is greatly inferior to the Dutch and the shorthorn, but for activity and durability it more nearly approaches the Afrikander breed. The North Devon is the original hardy type belong- ing to the elevated region in the north of Devonshire. As represented by the best specimens, this division of the breed is unsurpassed for compactness and symmetry of form. It is smaller than the Hereford or the Sussex, two CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 263 breeds to which it is allied. The colour of hair is a deep blood-red, and of the skin orange-yellow ; inside the ears it is orange-red. The yellow is specially noticeable by its appearance round the eyes and muzzle. A small patch of white hair is a common marking on the belly in front of the udder of the cow or the scrotum of the bull. At times it extends till it reaches the forelegs, and by this it may be recognised as corresponding in a limited extent to the white under-line of the distantly related Hereford. The white hairs, sometimes mixed with the natural red brush of the tail, and also in patches on the body, are further proofs of the tendency to develop white markings. The head is adorned, in the case of the female, with particularly elegant, creamy-white, sharp-pointed, black-tipped horns of medium length, having a good elevation at the junction with the head, and curving upwards. In the bull, as compared with the cow, they are shorter in proportion to thickness, straighter, and less raised. The shoulder is specially neat and well formed, the barrel joining on behind, with scarcely a depression at the region of the heart-girth — a defective point in many breeds. The quality of the beef is excellent. Hereford bulls cross well with native cows. As with the Devon breed, the red colour is favoured, and the white face is an attraction. It is, moreover, a larger animal than the Devon, and equally tractable in the yoke. It is next to the shorthorn the most widely distributed British breed of cattle, as it has a wonderful power of adaptability to varying sur- roundings. Neither the Devon nor the Hereford is fam.ous as a milk-producer, although in recent years a decided im- provement has taken place in this direction in both breeds. The points of special and peculiar interest in the Here- ford are, that the face, forward part of the back, as well as the throat, belly, inside and lower parts of the legs, and the tip of the tail are white, the greater part of the body being red or brown, varying from a light to a dark shade. The shoulder is particularly neat, and well covered with flesh, and the twist is also good. The great defect of the Here- ford breed is its want of internal fat in proportion to its external appearance when ready for the butcher, e.g., it is defective in internal " making-up." The setting on of the 264 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. tail is also frequently defective as compared with that of the shorthorn. The muzzle is flesh-coloured, and the horns are black tipped, of medium length, and in the female they incline slightly upwards. The Dexter- Kerry, generally spoken of in the Colony as the Kerry, is to be seen in considerable numbers, not in herds, but as milch cows, where only one, or at most a limited number, is kept. The crosses for at least two generations retain several of the unique characteristics of the pure Kerry, and are usually spoken of as Kerrys. The pure Dexter-Kerry is a compact, substantial, low-set animal. It turns its toes in after a peculiar fashion, and it tends to walk over the outer digits, especially in the case of the hind feet. The breed and its crosses are famous for their good milking properties, in the matter of quality as well as quantity, even under circum- stances which cannot be regarded as favourable for milk production. The oxen are too small and short in the leg for effective transport cattle, but they fatten readily and yield the finest quality of beef The Dexter-Shorthorn is a recently formed hardy breed of cattle, which has been reared on Major Barton's Straffan estate in Ireland. It combines in a marvellous way some of the most valuable characteristics of the two distinct and very different breeds which were employed in its formation. The stature and the milking properties — cows yielding 18 to 22 quarts of very rich milk per day — are those of the Kerry, but the marvellous substance and the faculty for beef production are decidedly of shorthorn origin. The colour is also that of the darker shades of the shorthorn breed — the black of the Kerry, on the one hand, and the white of certain strains of shorthorn on the other, being both absent. Should the breed progress as it promises to do, it will prove a valuable addi- tion to the European breeds already represented in Cape Colony — its chief characteristics, even to the matter of colour, being suitable to South African conditions. The work of forming the breed was begun by accident rather than by intent about thirty-five years ago, when a Dexter-Kerry heifer was put to a shorthorn bull. The invariable practice for many }'cars was to castrate all the bull-calves, and to use well-bred shorthorn bulls on the Plate 46A. — Dexter-Kerry Bull. From the Herd of R. Robertson, The Firs, Warwick, England. -^-■-^^i I'laie 40L;. — Ulxil:: Ki_ki;\ Ll Plate 47A.— Dexter Shorthorn Bull, "Tiny Tim." Fifth Cross by Shorthorn Bulls from a Dexter Cow. Height at Shoulder, 4 feet J inch ; Length, Shoulder-top to Tail-head, 4 feet 3 inches; Girth, 7 feet 3 inches ; Dewlap, 13 inches from the ground. Pl.ate 47B. — Dexter-Shorthorn Heifer Face />ace 26s Three j-ears old, Five Crosses, from a De.xter Cow by Shorthorn Bulls. CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 265 Dexter-Shorthorn crosses. In spite of the fact that the cows in recent years have been working up to the possession of five and six pure shorthorn crosses in them, they tended in each succeeding generation to become shorter in the leg and more like the Dexter-Kerry in size. This tendency was encouraged by the selection of short-legged compact shorthorn bulls to use on the Dexter cows. With the object of fixing the new- type, the old practice of using shorthorn bulls has recently been discontinued, and Dexter-Shorthorns, male and female, with five and six crosses of pure shorthorn blood in them, have been mated together. So far the first results arc satis- factory, but the experiment has not yet gone beyond the stage of the first time of mating the Dexter -Shorthorns together. With so much shorthorn blood, and with such marked tendencies to retain the Kerry size and the Kerry milk-producing properties, little fear need be entertained of the ultimate results. The only other cattle which it is necessary to mention are the Channel Islands breeds — the Jersey and the Guernsey, which usually go by the name of Alderneys. They occupy a similar position to that held by Island cattle in this country, being the cows of the men of means, who can afford to provide the attention necessary for their somewhat tender constitutions, and who wish to be provided with good supplies of milk, cream, and butter of a deep rich yellow colour. The Jersey is the smaller of the two, and also the more handsome and deer-like, though when bred in the Colony the repre- sentatives of the breeds become coarser and heavier, as they do when bred in England, but at the same time hardier than Island-bred cattle. The symmetry' strongly resembles that of the Ayrshire, and the points, with the following exceptions, may be described in similar language : — Muzzle dark and encircled by short hair of a light colour ; horns small, crumpled, yellow, with black tips ; ears small and thin, and of a deep yellow colour inside ; chest broad and deep ; hide thin and mellow, and of a yello\\- colour ; teats }-ellow ; hair fine and soft, and of various, usually though not in- variably, whole colours — fawn, silver-grc}-, dun, cream, or white, in addition to rare specimens, which arc more or less black, 266 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. j i The Guernsey is a larger, stronger-boned, and coarser animal in appearance than the Jersey. Its outlines are not so regular or symmetrical, but in addition to good milking ? qualities — the sole possession of the Jersey beyond its good looks — the Guernsey adds no mean capacity for beef pro- duction when not giving milk. The meat is not of first-rate quality, being yellow in the fat like that of the Jersey. The colours of Guernsey cattle are more " broken " than those of the Jersey, patches of white appearing on the predominating light-yellow, brown, or fa\\'n. The muzzle is flesh-coloured. Management of Cattle. When cows are milked while running in the veld, where they sometimes travel as much as seven miles daily to feed and back again for water, they are brought up by boys in small clumps to the kraal, and milked once a day, the calves getting their only suck at the same time. The calves are kept apart from the mothers, and as each cow is tied up to a post in turn her name is called out, and a Kafiir boy, knowing each cow's calf at sight, cuts out the calf wanted from the mob of calves, freely using a long whip to facilitate matters. The calf is permitted to take the first milk, and when the cow has settled down to parting freely with it the calf is driven back by the liberal use of a light " knob-kerry," and the milker takes the middle portion of the milk, leaving the last for the calf to finish. It is generally believed that a native cow will not give her milk if the calf be not present, and when a calf dies a dummy has to be made by stuffing its skin, to prevent the cow going dry altogether. This is no doubt the result of training, as has been proved to be the case in India and in Egypt, and even in Scotland, where not so long since the dummy calf or "tulchan"* was in common use. The native boys who do the work have their own methods and ways of working, and it is almost impossible to introduce any modi- fication of the system, which appears to have become a part of themselves. It would be practically impossible to get * Cnrlyle in " Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches," in discussing the "Tulchan-Bishops," gives an interesting account of the term, which was derived from the dummy calf. The word survives only in legal literature. CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 267 them to let the calf have its share first, and, as a matter of economy, to milk the latter or richest portion which is left in the udder. A Kaffir would do it if you^ told him and stood by till he finished, but he would not comprehend the meaning of it, and would return to his own old wa}^ again next day. The Kaffirs do not drink sweet milk, as it is considered indigestible, and liable to pass too rapidly through the alimentary system without gix'ing nourishment, but they put it for a few days in a gourd-calabash until it sours and becomes in warm weather a most palatable and refreshing beverage. It is a usual practice in some parts of the bare, open grass-country during winter time to send the cattle to farms where there is tall bush. There grass and leguminous plants are protected by the overhanging bush, and supply the neces- sary winter food, but in spite of all this cattle become very poor at this season, and the time will come when a portion of the luxuriant growth of grass which cannot be used up in summer will be cut and made into hay of excellent quality for the use of cattle and other farm stock. This practice has already been successfully tried on an extensive scale at the De Beers stock farm, near Kimberley. The grass is cut down b}- mowing machines, which work well enough on selected places in the veld, and the weather is such at the time that all further working consists in simply raking the hay together within the next day or two and building it into stacks — 200 tons being put up in the summer of 1894-95 at an outlay for extra labour of only £^6. Owing to the drought it was worth £2) per ton, or ^600, in Kimberley market the following winter. The teeth of sheep and cattle often get loose in winter when the}- arc in poor condition, owing to the want of soft green food and to a scarcity of salt. Village cattle are usually provided with a common grazing ground, and are attended in a lot, each owner con- tributing a small sum towards the wages of a herd, and also in certain cases paying a nominal rent to the municipal or other local authority, under whose regulations the cattle are kept. In such a place as Worcester it was interesting to see the commonage herd, amounting to a few hundreds, brought 268 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. home at five o'clock, and each animal wending its way unattended through the streets to its own stable.* It is a common practice to allow Kaffir servants to gra/ a few cattle — ten or even twenty each — as a portion of their remuneration, and on large grazing farms up-country, in the Transvaal, the Kaffirs' cattle at times rival the master's in numbers. One old Kaffir, who has been all his life on a farm near Pretoria, owns 500 head of cattle. Until the railways were made nearly the whole haulage of the Colony was done by transport oxen, and the main thoroughfares of traffic followed unmade roads, or simply tracks in the veld, so numerous that they formed a regular network all through the country. This state of matters is largely accountable for the rapid rate at which all forms of contagious disease among cattle used to spread, and it also made it extremely difficult to enforce regulations with the object of checking the spread of disease. Interference with the movements of cattle not only meant inconvenience to stock farmers and butchers, but a dislocation of the carrying trade as well, and consequent dissatisfaction and opposition. Young farmers in certain districts laid themselves out to do transport work, and not only neglected their farming opera- tions, but got into indolent habits, so that when the railway supplanted the ox-waggon they, not having acquired a taste for agriculture, or experience of manual labour of this kind, could not or would not work on the farm. Transport riding, although a hard life, is a free and easy, hanging-on, and lazy one. The remuneration was tempting in the early days of the diamond fields — as much as 25s. and even higher rates were paid per 100 lbs. for carriage from Grahamstown to Kimberley. The farming in the Bathurst district has suffered from the influences alluded to. It is also a district in which the farmers have had exceptional trials and difficulties, and have been driven or induced to change their systems too rapidly. It was at one time an excellent sheep country, but the heart-water disease made it impossible to farm sheep at a j:)rofit, and cattle were resorted to. A period of prosperity * A similar condition of things is characteristic of the famous town of Erzeroum, and on a small scale may be seen at Newcastleton and certain other rural villatres in Scotland. CATTLE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 269 followed, as breeding oxen required little supervision or outlay, and yielded large prices for transport purposes, while the transport work itself brought much money into the district. The collapse of the transport trade, followed by serious losses of cattle from red-water, simultaneously with losses from horse-sickness, has effectually depleted the coiTers of many farmers not well trained to turn to agricultural pursuits ; nor do the prices of agricultural produce offer much inducement for them to do so even if they were willing. The development of a dairying industry, which had begun, has been checked for a time at least by the ravages of red-water, and notln'ng is left for the moment capable of being carried out on a large scale except fruit culture, which, however, seems to be promising. Experienced transport riders do the most of their work at night, and thereby prevent much death among their oxen from chills, and from the general exhaustion which would follow continuous struggling in the hot sun. Natives, much to their advantage, are now following this example. The practice is to inspan.an hour before sunset, and to go on till say eleven o'clock, then outspan for a few hours, tying up the cattle in the yoke where they lie. A start is again made in the early morning — probably about three o'clock — in time to have the oxen in motion before the occurrence of the period of cold which precedes the dawn. By this means chills are avoided, as the sun is well up and the air warm before the next outspan is made. The cattle are then allowed to disperse on the veld to feed and drink. While resting at night they get an opportunity of chewing the cud. They at times do this on the road if they are not pulling hard, and if the neck-strap of the yoke is not exercising pressure on the gullet. Sixteen is the usual number of a span of oxen, though on very heavy roads twenty may be yoked together. Up-country in wet weather as many as five spans are sometimes yoked to a waggon to get it out of the mud. The " voor-ossen " and " achter-ossen," or the first and last pair, being picked specimens, used to be worth in the good old early days as much a.s £16 each, and the whole span would average about £12. Now good transport oxen are only worth £6 or £y each. Oxen are broken in to work at 270 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. two or three years old, and are now sold to the butcher at six or ei\^ht years of age. In the busy times they were worked as long as their teeth remained good enough to enable them to cat to keep themselves in working condition. Though the numbers of cattle have not fallen off so much as those of horses and swine, there has been a considerable decrease in recent years, a tendency which is altogether in the wrong direction in a Colony which has such extensive possibilities as a stock-rearing country. The numbers of cattle taken during the census of 1891 were 1,557,166; in 1892-93 the estimate was 1,313,298; in 1893-94, 1,299,291; and in 1894-95, 1,290,461. Dairying. The dairy industry has grown in a most satisfactory manner within recent years. Encouraged by the success of Victoria in developing a large export trade in butter to Great Britain, the Cape Government in 1892 sent Alexander Mac- donald, the Agricultural Assistant stationed at Grahamstown, to Europe to inquire into the most recent advances in the dairy world, and to procure the most approved modern appli- ances. As a result of this action, two travelling dairies have been fitted out, one in the Eastern Province and the other in the Western Province, and instruction not only in the theory but also in the best practices of butter- and cheese-making- has been provided for farmers within easy reach of their homes. This has proved perhaps the most succe.'^sful effort, so far as it has gone, ever made by the Cape Government in the interests of agricultural improvement. The Boer, as well as the English farmers and their wives and daughters, have taken to the work with so much success that it may be said an important industry, capable of great extension, is being developed in the Colony. The butter which was made before this time could not be put on the market in large samples of uniform quality, and the market rate was governed by local derhand. In seasons of plenty it went down in price until it fell below a figure that left a profit to the farmer — as low as 6d. and 9d. per lb. in out-of-the-way places. Experiments in the storing of butter in refrig-erating- chambers during the period of plentiful supply, and keeping it for sale at a later / CATTLE AND Til KIR MANAGEMENT. 27I period, were reported in 1895 by the Agricultural Assistant at Grahamstown. The butter was sold at is. iid. per lb., which left 5d. per lb. of profit after all expenses of storing were deducted — /.^., from about lid. to 3d. per lb., according to the length of time — two or four months — the cold chamber was in requisition. The interest in butter-making has been successfully fos- tered by Government giving prizes of £2. los. to £\Q) at butter-making' competitions at agricultural shows, and also large money prizes f(jr butter exhibited after having been kept for a week without being previously salted. By the last published statistical returns 1,782,464 lbs. of butter and margarine, valued at i^8 5,246, were imported into the Colony within the year, although an import duty of 3d. per lb. on butter and 12 per cent, of the value of margarine is charged. The money paid for margarine amounted to ^25,000, or nearly one-third of the whole. In a stock country like Cape Colony, there is no insurmountable reason why it should not in time be an exporter rather than an importer of butter, following the excellent example set by the Australasian colonies — the development of who.se butter trade with Europe within the last eight years has been phenomenal. And it would not be contrary to the prevailing South African opinion of the duty which Government owes to a new industry if Government bounties were offered for a few years, on lines somewhat similar to those adopted in Victoria, to encourage exportation. The great advantage of an export connection to the farming community does not lie in a high price for produce shipped abroad, for such prices are usually moderate, but in maintaining a more uniform market at home by providing a ready means for the disposal of surplus produce. Export encourages the extension of production, and enables a farmer to produce on a wholesale scale at wholesale [i.e., moderate) rates of expenditure, so that he is in a better position on the whole with a larger growing business than if he were working merely for a local and limited market, and receiving a higher return per unit. The success of the new dairy industry prominently in the Bedford district is a hopeful indication of the future possi- 272 FARMING INDUSTRIES OF CAPE COLONY. bilitics of an cxjx)rt trade to be established after the advan- tat,^es of co-operative dairying have been fully realised. One defect of the creamery system adopted in the Bedford district is that it is not on the true co-operative plan, under which each man concerned participates in the profits in proportion to the amount of his milk supply, and only milk producers who send milk are permitted to be members of the company. This arrangement entirely eliminates conflicting interests, and encourages all to work in the interests of the common good, as they are identical with their own. No doubt the arrange- ments in the neighbourhood of Bedford, in the numerous creameries which have been there established in recent years, have been productive of good, but they lack the important element of finality and stability which could be better asso- ciated with genuine co-operation. The practice is for the farmer to run the milk warm from the cow through a centrifugal separator, so that the separated milk may remain on the farm for the feeding of calves and pigs, and for consumption by the native population, who prefer it to ordinary si