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TECHXOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS,

EDITED BY H. TRUEMAN WOOD,

Secretary of the Society of Arts.

COTTON SPINXIXG.

TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS,

COTTON SPINNING:

ITS DEVELOPMENT, PRINCIPLES,
AND PRACTICE.

RICHARD MARSDEN, Memb. Soc. Arts.

Editor of " The Textile Manufacturer.'"

WITH AN

APPENDIX OX STEAM EXGIXES AXD BOILERS.

FOURTH EDITlOy.

LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS,

YOEK STREET, COYENT GARDEN.

1891.

CHISWICK PRESS : — C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT,
CHANCERY LANE.

PREFACE.

THE impetus recently given to technical education in
this country, whilst it has induced a great demand
for books suitable for the use of students in our various
industries, has revealed in our literature a remarkable de-
ficiency of this class of works. A want of this kind, how-
ever, cannot long exist without a supply being forthcoming,
and already there are prospects of its early gratification.

The following little treatise has been written with the
view of providing, partially at least, for the needs of
students of the cotton trade. Until within the past few
years this trade has, with rare exceptions, been so pro-
fitable, that persons having little or no knowledge of it,
who invested capital therein, hardly ever failed to secure
a good return. But this is the case no longer : the growth
of competition, both domestic and foreign, has reduced
profits to such a low point, that to conduct a cotton-spinning
business successfully to-day requires that those having
charge of it should be either themselves, or in the persons
of their trusted servants, thoroughly conversant with both
the principles and details of every process through which
the material must pass to reach the mercantile form. A
correspondingly perfect acquaintance with the market is
also required in order to conduct the commercial section
of the business safely and profitably. The former is neces-
sary in order to enable those in charge to exercise strict
supervision over every employe, to enforce care and

VI PREFACE.

economy in the nse of the materials, and to detect and
rectify any fault that may occur, as only by these qualiti-
cations and this procedure can the best results, from a
productive point of view, be finally assured. It should be
the aim of all practical men having charge of mills to do
this, and their pride to accomplish it. A good article in
yarns can always be sold ; indeed, it has almost become a
proverb that it " will sell itself, and at a profit." The
more thoroughly this practical knowledge is also possessed
by managers, foremen, and operatives, and is carefully and
conscientiously applied by each in the performance of their
duties for the benefit of the establishment, the greater
will be the certainty of success. The recognition of these
truths in connection with cotton spinning, and of corre-
sponding truths in other industries, lies at the basis of the
public anxiety for the inauguration of a general and sound
system of technical instruction, and the favour with which
all efforts to provide one have been regarded.

In undertaking the task of preparing the following
essay, it became necessary to recognize the fact that it
might be called into requisition by various classes of
students and readers, and that as its prescribed limits
would prevent an exhaustive treatment of each portion of
the subject, the best plan to pursue would be that of deal-
ing most fully with the phases of the question that had
been least touched upon by previous writers, or those on
which former notices had become obsolete. Dr. Ure's well-
known work on the cotton trade is by far the most detailed
exposition of the industry that has been published in this
country ; the author, however, was not practically ac-
quainted with his subject, and evidences of this frequently
present themselves to the technical reader. At the time
it was published, however, it was a remarkably valuable
exposition of the rising industry, and may be studied with
advantage even now. It will be obvious, however, that
for most practical purposes the progress of mechanical
invention, and improvement in processes, have long ago

PREFACE. Vll

rendered it quite obsolete. The same remarks will apply
to the treatise of Mr. James Montgomery, only in a less
degree, as his intimate practical acquaintance with the
cotton trade as then conducted, has rendered his observa-
tions permanently valuable, and the student may read
his book with benefit to-day. Since his work appeared,
many others have been published by various writers, but
nearly all have been bald compilations of rules and exam-
ples of calculations generally employed in making changes
in the various processes. As these are easily accessible to
every one, it has not been thought necessary thus to occupy
space in the following pages that might be usefully devoted
to the more neglected aspects of the industry. In men-
tioning the above works, it would be invidious not to refer
to the more recent and valuable treatise of the late Mr.
Evan Leigh, in which much useful information of a prac-
tical character is embodied. Its high price, however,
places it quite beyond the reach of many of those to whom
it might prove useful.

In the following pages tiie writer has endeavoured to
give the reader a concise view of the origin and present
extent of this great trade ; the material it deals with ; the
general principles that contribute to its successful conduct ;
the proper location and construction of a mill, and arrange-
ment of the machinery ; and the various processes of mix-
ing, opening, carding, combing, drawing, roving, spinning,
and, finally, doubling. In connection with these it has been
attempted to trace the development, describe the function
of the leading parts, and show the working of the various
machines employed in the trade. The least consideration
will show that some such course as this was absolutely
necessary, as the machines are so numerous and so ex-
ceedingly complex in their structure, that to begin their
study without a clear and well-defined plan would be to
involve the pupil in a state of confusion from which self-
extrication would be almost impossible. It is hoped that
the course adopted possesses these merits, and that the

7111 PREFACE.

reader, after perusal of the subsequent pages, will have
obtained an approximately exact and succinct view of the
development, leading principles, and present state of
England's greatest mechanical industry.

KM.

Manchester, February, 1884.

COXTEXTS.

Chapter I. Introductory.

PAGE

Importance of the English or modern system of cotton spinning
— Cotton ; origin of its manufacture ; the distaff ; the spin-
ning wheel 5 imperfect development of the Hindoo faculty of
inventiveness — Confinement of the ancient system to India ;
the domestic wheel; the flax wheel — Kay's inventions; Har-
greaves"; ArkwTight's ; influence of these upon other textile
industries — Development of the new system — Its extension
to the United States; the Continent of Europe; Asia; other
parts of the world — Its present magnitude — Abundance and
cheapness of its products — Its early influence upon Lanca-
shu-e ; rapid growth ; decline of the value of its products —
Present condition; official returns, 1880; inadequacy of
these to express its importance — Location and future pro-
spects of the trade — Magnitude as compared with other lead-
ing industries 1-13

Chapter II. Cotton.

Cotton : its order, genus, species, and charactei'istics — Possible
cotton lands ; countries in which it is cultivated — Geo-
graphical names — Suitable soils for growth ; preparation
and sowing ; picking season ; picking ; mechanical picking
not successful — American crop ; area ; cost of production ;
variations in quality and their causes; adulteration — West
Indies— Central and South America; indigenous variety —
Egypt ; extent of crop ; indigenous and exotic varieties ;
characteristics — India; extension of cultivation — Other
Asiatic countries : China ; Japan and Java ; Bokhara and
Turkestan ; Asiatic Turkey ; Syria and Persia ; Cyprus —
European countries : Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain —
Differences of quality — Geographical names the best —
Tabular statement of leading varieties : countries of produc-
tion ; names ; districts where grown ; length of staple and
diameter of fibre ; descriptions ; capabilities and uses — Prin-
ciple of classification ; classification of leading varieties —
Stendard qualities and variations of these — Careful selection
required — Mechanical structure of the cotton fibre : the cotton

X CONTE.N'TS.

PAGE

pod ; stages of growth ; the seed ; the fibre ; growth of the
latter ; causes of its twisted or convolute form ; immature
and undeveloped fibres — Its mechanical structure, the basis
of its usefulness — Recent curious discovery by the mici'oscope
— Cotton fibres compared with the other textile fibres — Im-
portant general principles in spinning and manufacturing
deduced from experience . 14-56

Chapter III. The INIill.

Essentials of successful spinning — Divisions of the trade— Se-
lection of locality ; supply of operatives ; proximity to mar-
kets for purchase of raw materials and disposal of produc-
tions — Site of mill ; sheltered position, humidity, soil, water
— Roads; advantages of proximity to residences of work-
people — Materials decided by circumstances — Systems of
construction — Illusti'ation — Fire-proof mill ; points of impor-
tance in structure — Arrangement of interior — Engines;
transmission of power to machinery; gearing, belting, ropes,
advantages and disadvantages — Arrangement of machinery
— Steam and water power — Boilers and their adjuncts —
Care against corrosion — Incrustations : their variety,
danger, and wastefulness; soda, sometimes a remedy; econo-
mical heating 57-72

Chapter IV. Manipulation op the Material.

Cotton spinning, definition — Processes defined: ginning ; pack-
ing; mixing; willowing; opening; scutching; carding; comb-
ing ; drawing; slubbing ; intermediate; roving; spinning;
doubling — Cotton testing ; test-book ; mixing book— Hand-
labour superseded by machine-labour; the operative a super-
intendent — Cotton spinning : preparatory and constructive
processes — Mixing; preliminary examination and classifica-
tion of the cotton ; large mixings better than small ones ;
importance of securing equal lengths of staples ; process of
mixing ; testing ; mode of using ; prescribing mixings ;
mixing in the lap — Willowing or opening ; general princi-
ples; the Oldham willow, common and improved; the Crigh-
ton opener and its operation ; the porcupine ; the pneumatic
feeding opener ; an American openei* — The purposes of open-
ing — Injuries arising from adulteration — Injuries from ex-
cessive willowing — Imperfections of the willow ; better
principles of the Crighton and the pneumatic feed openers —
Scutching, its purpose ; importance of correct feeding in the
scutching machine ; the scutching machine, hand-fed ; trust-
worthy attendants ; automatic Aveighing — Influence of tem-
perature and atmospheric states on the weight of laps — Lap-
feeding; the piano feed, its action — The finisher lap machine,

C0NTE2?TS. XI

its functions ; description — "Well made laps ; causes of un-
equal laps — A new automatic feed suggested — Clayton's lap
roller — Kemarks : qualities of this class of machines; speeds ;

■107

Chapter V. Carding and Combing.

Carding: its necessity; its importance and purposes — De-
velopment of the modern card, from Paul, Hargreaves, and
Arkwright's impx'ovements — Description of the roller card —
Summarized statement of its functions; how accomplished —
The process examined in its progress — Methods of altering
the work — Extensive use of the roller card — The selt-
stripping flat or WeHman card ; causes of its iuA-ention ;
improvement in this country — Dobson and Barlow's Wellman
card — The revolving flat card ; recent impi-ovements — Com-
bination and other cards — Card clothing ; for licker-in, main
cylinder, rollers, clearers, and doflfer — Location of cards ;
adjustment; setting of rollers and clearers — Double cards —
The Derby doubler — Breaker and finisher cards — Light
carding — Grinding; by hand; by machine — Points of card
teeth: needle point, diamond point, chisel point, and hooked
point ; how to attain the good points and how to avoid the
bad ones — Differing estimates of the qualities of roller, flat,
and revolving flat cards — Cotton injured by overworking —
Severe treatment in the roller card — Combing ; indispensable
for fine counts — Invention of the combing machine ; descrip-
tion ; process of combing — Improvement of the machine in
England ; Dobson and Barlow's improvements — Imbs' comb-
ing machine for short staple cottons ; description . . 1 OS- 145

Chapter VL Drawing, Slubbing, and Roving.

Drawing : definition ; its objects ; doubling or combining
slivers ; minimizing ii'regularities ; theoretical results —
Practical imperfections of doubling in past times ; progres-
sive improvement — Extension of the process ; causes of this
— The drawing frame : description ; speeds of rollers ; theii*
action — Details of construction — Its development — The elec-
tric stop motion — Varieties of cotton — Requirements in the
drawing process — Location of drawing frames ; freedom
from damp and draughts required — Slubbing : definition,
description — Intermediate, or Second Slubbing, a repetition
of the preceding — Roving : definition — Roving frame : de-
scription — Differential motion of the spindles and bobbins in
bobbin- and-fly frames, in the slubbing, intermediate, and
roving frames ; a nice problem in mechanics ; Holdsworth's
solution — The principle explained and illustrated; successive
layers ; the traverse ; winding of each layer ; diminution of

CONTEXTS.

coils— Spindles of the three frames — IMechanism of the
roving frame ; connection between its parts ; description ;
operation ; the driving, roller, spindle, and bobbin shafts ;
jack in the box ; the cones, method of operating them ; the
traverse movement; acceleration of speed — Reversal of
traverse and how obtained — Traverse of the slabbing —
Doffing — Altering draughts — The intermediate, and the
slabbing frames 146-189

Chapter VII. Development of Spinning.

Spinning : its antiquity ; conjectural origin ; the first spindle
— Definition of spinning — The whorl ; tlie distaff — Spinning
as described by ancient historians — Tlae hand wheel ; its first
appearance in Europe ; in India — The Jersey, or common
hand wheel ; its development from the spindle ; the driving
wheel, the wharve — Similarity between the European wheel
and the Indian wheel ; European wheel used for wool and
cotton ; process of spinning upon it — The flax wheel, or the
Brunswick and Saxony wheels ; the fl3^er — The two-handed
wheel ; the traverse — The connection between the old and
the new systems of spinning — Cotton : antiquity of its culti-
vation and manufacture — India, the birthplace of the manu-
facture ; its extensive manufacture in th:it country — Sterility
of Indian invention — Kay's inventions a stimulus to further
improvements — Widespread influence of inventions in the
cotton trade 190-199

Chapter VIII. The Modern System of Spinning.

Commencement of the modern system — Quality of hand-spun
yarn — Kay's inventions, the first impulse to improvement —
Scarcity of yarns — Hargreaves' jenny — Description of the
jenny; its operation — The single-thread hand-spinning wheel
Hargreaves' model — The Saxony wheel probably unknown
to him — Desci'iption of the Saxony wheel, single and two-
thread — Extensive adoption of Hargreaves' invention —
Kichard Arkwright ; the barber's shop a good school; itine-
rant hair-dealing; the Saxony wheel the model of Ark-
wright's invention — Arkwright's claims as an inventor dis-
puted — Arkwright's labours ; his assistants — Description of
his invention — Comparison between the jenny and the water
frame — Paul and Wyatt's labours suggestive to Arkwright
— Arkwright not the inventor of the flyer ; his adoption of
Coniah "Wood's traverse ; the principle of the water frame
adaptable to roving, slubbing, and drawing — The progress
of invention — Haley — Samuel Crompton — His combination
of Hargreaves' and Arkwright's machines, and improve-
ments upon them — The jenny adapted for a slubbing frame;

CONTENTS.

description — Improvement of the roving frames — Baker's
inventions — Hargreaves of Tottington — Kelly's application
of water power to the mule — Wright's improvement ; the
squaring band — Steam power — Kennedy's improvement in
fine spinning mules — Transfer of spinning from females to
males — Manual I'equirements of the mule — Eaton's copping
motion — The self-actor mule — Its requirements — The counter
faller — Differential motion of the spindles — The self-acting
mule a mechanical triumph — Its qualities — Koberts' genius . 200-230

Chapter IX. The Modern Mule.

Present comparative perfection of the mule — The head-stock,
with illustrations — Means of actuating the drawing-rollers,
spindles, and carriage — Stopping the carriage and the revo-
lution of the spindles — Backing off; movement of the faller
— Drawing in of the carriage — AVinding mechanism — Har-
monious operation of the parts in action^ — More detailed
description ; development of the various parts — The faller
wire motion, and its operation — Building the cop — The
counter faller wire — The backing-off mechanism — The wind-
ing quadrant and its function — Recent removal of sevei-al
imperfections — Copping apparatus controlling the backing-
off" movement — The loose incline — Improvement in the
backing-off chain tightening motion ; causes of its require-
ment — Imperfection of the winding apparatus as left by
Roberts — Successive improvements — Messrs. Piatt Bros, and
Co.'s automatic nosing motion — Improvement in the click
wheel — The stretching process in early mules ; succeeded
by the "'gain" — The former plan retained for "medium
fine " and " fine " mules — " The jacking motion,"' and its ad-
juncts, the jacking delivery and the winding delivery motions
of the rollers — Retention of the hand mule for the finest
yarns — Its improvement — Self-acting mule for finest yarns —
Backing off and winding — The quadrant and its improve-
ment — Automatic regulation of the fallers ; the lifting
motion ; IfXiking and unlocking of the faller ; winding ; and
backing off — Speed of the parts ; changes ; replacement —
Threlfall's self-acting mule for high numbers . . . 231-290

Chapter X. Throstle and Ring Spinning. Doubling.

The throstle, an improved form of Arkwright's water frame —
Description — Attempts to improve it — The Danforth throstle
— The Montgomery throstle — Shaw and Cottara's improve-
ment — Doffing, an expensive process; Bernhardt's doffing
arrangement ; the throstle ceased to be constructed — The
Ring Frame ; its popularity — Defects of the throstle, the
origin of the ring frame — The throstle in the United States ;

CONTENTS.

reasons for its prevalence there — Invention of the Eing
Frame — Pnicticai detects in it ; its rejection in England —
Its improvement, and re- introduction — Success as a doubling
frame — Slow acceptance as a spinning frame — The Boot,h-
Sawyer spindle ; the Eabbeth spindle — The ring spinning
frame for warp yarn ; description ; process of spinning ; the
traveller ; the ring; the lifting chain ; the lift of the bobbin
Description of the Rabbeth spindle — Dotfing ; the mechani-
cal doffer — Inclined arrangement of the rollers — Ballooning
— The anti-balloon ring — The traveller clearer — Increasing
popularity of the ring frame — Its use for spinning weft in
the United States ; the weft frame in England and on the
Continent — Doubling — Doubled yarns — The throstle
doubling frame; disadvantages — Improved throstle doubling
frame — Characteristics of throstle-doubled yarns — The
twiner — Yarns from the twiner — The ring doubling frame ;
its popularity — Description — The English and Scotch
systems 291-321

Chapter XI. Miscellanea.

Useful hints — To find the area of the safety valve of a boiler^
To find the pressure upon each square inch of a safety valve —
To find the weight on every square inch of a valve where the
weight is hung to it — To find a weight to hang on a valve to
resist a given p>ressure — Steam oigines — Horse p)Ower — To find
the nominal horsepower of a condensing engine— Of a high
pressure engine — To find the indicated horsepower — To find
the commercial horse power — Shafting — To find speed of second
motion shcft — To find speed of a belt or rope driven power —
Testing cotton — Card clothing ; conditioning — Oil paint to be
avoided — CoA'ering iron cylinders — Twist ; to find the proper
amount — The twist ofslubbings and rovings — Counts of yarn —
Cotton yarn measure — Avoirdupois weight tiscd for cotton yarn
— French system of numbering yams — To reduce English to
French nos. — To reduce French to English nos. — Strength of
yarns ; table showing; means of ascertaining — The strength of
the cotton fibre utilized in yarns ; American cotton yarns ;
Egyptian — Filaments in cross section — Twist for doubling of
yarns 322-336

Appendix.

Clotton mill boilers — Dimensions — Furnaces — Flanging ;
boiler power; evaporative power — To estimate the number of
boilers required — Inspection; cleaning; safety valves : low
water alarms; pipes, feed, and steam connections — Boiler
setting, with illustrations — Engines — Economizers —Feed
water temperatui'e — Position of economizer — Chimney
draught — Oil consumption — Driving — Mechanical stokers . 337-349

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.

1. Gossypium Herhaceum .

2. Magnified cotton fibre. Surat

3. „ „ „ Smj'i-na

4. Gossypium Barbadense .

5. Sea Island plant. Georgia .

6. „ ,, magnified fibre

7. Eeligious cotton, magnified fibre

8. Eelative lengths of cotton fibres

9. Longitudinal section of cotton pod
10. Transverse „ „ „
11-16. Magnified fibres and sections .

17. Very highly magnified fibres and sections

18, Animal fibres and sections

20.
21.
22.
23-4

25-6. Ci'ighton opener. „ ,,
27. Lord's opener, with pneumatic feed
„ piano feed ....
Finisher lap machine .
Eoller card. Section .
TVellman card ....
Eevolving fiat card

Card clothing ....
Heilmann comber section
Imbs' comber, section .
Drawing frame. Back view
„ „ Front view

End view .

Cotton mill ....

„ „ longitudinal sectitn

„ „ cross section
, Oldham willow. Section and plan

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33-5.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42-3.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

5) »>

Eoving frame

Diagram explanatory of winding process
Spindle gearing and bobbin traverse
Differential driving arrangements
„ „ gearing .

55 55 55 • •

Traverse reversing arrangement .

„ „ gear

Cone strap ratchet
Self-acting stopping motion .
Stubbing travei'se motion
Grecian women spinning

PAGE

15
17
17
18
19
21
21
39
41
41
47
51
53
54

to face page 62

101

113

121

123

127

137

143

152

154

157

164

170

174

175

177

179

181

184

186

193

XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIO. PAGE

54. Hindoo women spinning .194

55. The old handwheel spinning 195

56. Hargreaves's jenny 203

57. Bobbin and flyer of Saxony wheel 207

58. Ai'kwright's spinning frame 212

59. ,, ,, „ Section 213

60. The slabbing jenny 220

61. Mule headstock. Side elevation . , . to face ixige 2A0

62. „ ,, Front „ . . . . „ „ >»

63. ,, „ Plan „ . . . . „ >5 m

64. Roberts' faller wire arrangement 245

65. ,, „ backing off ....... 246

66. ,, „ locking of faller to commence winding . . 247

67. Unlocking of faller at end of winding 248

68. Mode of building up cop. Half full size .... 250

69. Extreme inclinations of thread to spindle in spinning. Full

size 252

70. Plan of rim-shaft of headstock 253

71. "Winding quadrant 255

72. Backing-off chain tightening motion 261

73. Automatic nosing motion. General arrangement . . 265

74. Completion of cop bottom 267

75. ,, cop 267

76. Arrangement of click gear 270

77. Quadrant nut. Position at finish of cop bottom . . .271

78. Enlargement of click and click-wheel 271

79. Self-acting mule for finest counts. Improved faller motion . 277

80. Faller lifting motion 283

81. „ „ „ Plan 285

82. Plan of driving pulleys 287

83. Driving pulleys and belts 288

84. Ring frame for warp yarns 301

85. „ „ Section 303

86. Rabbeth spindle for ring frame 305

87. Anti-balloon ring 311

8S. „ „ Plan . . . . . . .311

89. Ring frame for wefts 313

90. Improved throstle doubling spindle 316

91. Ring doubling frame 319

92. ,, ,, ,, Section. Scotch system . . . 320

93. Cix)ss section of boiler and seating 342

94. „ 5, back sectional elevation .... 342
95-6. Horizontal section and plan of seating .... 343

97. Side flue covering 344

98. Back cover blocks for downtake 344

99. Seating blocks 345

100. Section of Cornish boiler and seating 345

lul. Plan of boilers and economizers 345

COTTON SPINNING.

CHAPTER I.

Inteoductory.

Importance of the English or modern system of cotton spinning. —
Cotton ; origin of its manufacture ; the distaff; the spinning wheel j
imperfect development of the Hindoo faculty of inventiveness. — Con-
finement of the ancient system to India; the domestic wheel; the flax
wheel. — Kay's inventions; Hargreaves'; Atkwright's; influence of these
upon other textile industries. — Development of the new system. — Its
extension to the United States; the Continent of Europe; Asia; other
parts of the world. — Its present magnitude.— Abundance and cheapness
of its products. — Its early influence upon Lancashire; rapid growth;
decline of the value of its products. — Present condition ; official returns^
1880; inadequacy of these to express its importance.— Location and
future prospects of the trade. — Magnitude as compared with other lead-
ing industries.

OF the many indnstrial arts whose products minister
to the welfare and happiness of mankind, few have
acquired a more important position than the English, or
modern, system of cotton manufacturing, or have had a
greater influence upon the progress of civilization. The
inventions which inaugurated the present epoch of mecha-
nical discovery, occurred in connection with it ; and this
example in succession spreading to all the other great in-
dustries, has, during the past century and a half, revolu-
tionized the condition of civilized society, and made its in-
fluence felt throughout the world.

Cotton, the raw material with which the manufacture
deals, is the fibrous covering of the seed of the Oosa^ypium

2 COTTON SPINNING.

herbacetmi and kindred plants, which flourish in a state of
nature over the tropical and temperate zones of the earth's
surface. In India and China the plant has been cultivated
for ages, and its fibre utilized in the manufacture of cloth-
ing, and also in several other eastern countries. More
recently it has attracted attention for the same purpose
in the West Indies, the Southern States of the American
Union, Brazil, Egypt, and other lands deemed suitable for
its cultivation. To many of these it has proved a source
of great wealth, and its growth is daily extending, espe-
cially in the United States.

The best evidence yet obtained points to India as the
birth-place of the manufacture. In that country me-
chanical appliances appear to have been first invented in
order to aid in the manufacture of the fibre. At a very
early period the art became a prevalent domestic industry,
and extended over almost the entire peninsula ; at one
time being so general as to employ, more or less entirely,
almost half the population. Cotton was grown in the pre-
cincts of every village; cleaned, spun, and woven on the
spot ; each little community producing enough for its own
consumption. A rudely-constructed roller gin separated
the seed from the fibre, and the latter was cleansed from
leaf, sand, dirt, and knots by the bow. The cotton as left
by this instrument in a light fleecy mass, was then taken,
with little further preparation, and spun by women. The
coarsest yarns were made upon a heavy, clumsily-con-
structed, one-thread wheel, evidently the progenitor of the
domestic wheel long in use in this country, and the Saxony
wheel of a later date. This was unsuited, however, for
the production of the fine yarns used in the manufacture
of the exquisitely beautiful muslins of the country, which
were therefore spun by means of the spindle that had been
in use from time immemorial. A distafi* was sometimes
employed, though quite as often the process was conducted
without. This spindle in the earliest times was composed
of a straight piece of wood, weighted at one end with a

INTRODUCTORY. 3

bit of clay. Subsequently an iron spindle was substituted,
thougb at what date we are without information. It is
also equally impossible now to discover at what period
the crude wheel just mentioned was invented, though
doubtless it was subsequent to the invention of the spindle.
It is strange that the inventive skill of the Hindoo races
never produced anything beyond these rude appliances,
whilst they attained such a high degree of technical skill
in their use. But such is undeniably the fact, for from
the day when these simple devices left the inventor's
hands, they scarcely appear to have been touched, though
ages have passed away since that time, during which they
have been in constant use in the hands of millions of
workers. The same sterility characterized their efforts in
dealing with the machinery they invented for weaving :
nothing mechanical of theirs ever grew by a succession of
improvements to a condition approximately perfect, as in
this country has been the case in almost every instance.
It would appear that the epoch of mechanical invention
was not destined to be inaugurated by or amongst these
peoples.

Cotton manufacturing does not seem to have spread far
from the place of its origin, or to have risen to any degree
of excellence anywhere out of India until quite recent
times. The distaff and spindle, and the rude wheel before
referred to, continued the only instruments by which yam
was produced. About the year 1530 the domestic hand
spinning-wheel appears to have been invented, and for a
long time was the only improvement made. This was
succeeded towards the close of the century by the Saxony
wheel, which, though a great advance upon the preceding,
was a long time in displacing it. This wheel was sup-
plied with a *' flyer," by means of which the twist was
put into the yarn, and the latter wound upon a bobbin.
A traverse movement was afterwards added, enabling the
yarn to be run upon the barrel in even layers. A second
«pindle was subsequently adapted to this wheel, which ob-

4 COTTON SPINNING.

tained for it the denomination of the " two-handed wheel,'*
an expert spinner being thus enabled to spin two threads
at a time. This constituted the climax of hand spinning.
In the fourth decade of the eighteenth century the elder
Kay, of Bury, in Lancashire, invented the picking-stick
for the hand loom, added boxes to its sley, and improved
the shuttle, enabling one weaver to operate a loom where
two were formerly required, the single operative also
doubling the production of cloth as compared with the
amount obtained before. This was the beginning of the
modern epoch of invention, and its first practical result.
The demand for yarn, which was a consequence of the
general adoption of Kay's improvement, greatly stimu-
lated invention, but a considerable time elapsed before any
further real progress was made. Hargreaves, the Black-
burn weaver, was the first to succeed with his spinning-
jenny in 1767, Arkwright following closely after with his
water- frame. On these well-known inventions it is not
necessary to dilate here, as the principles embodied in
them will come under review subsequently. It must
sufi&ce to remark that they form the base of the modern
system of cotton manufacturing, and the important re-
sults that have sprung therefrom. The inflaence exerted
upon all the textile industries by the successful appli-
cation of machinery to the performance of the delicate
processes of the manufacture of cotton, and the adapta-
tion of cotton machinery to the manufacture of wool,
silk, and flax, is a tale which must be relegated to the
histor-an for narration, as also must be the story of the
far-reaching influence of these examples upon other in-
dustries. Industry has put on a new face, and social
conditions have been revolutionized. With philosophers
and statesmen, however, may be left the solution of the
great politico-economical and social problems that have
arisen from the stimulus given to invention by these suc-
cesses, and the consequent universal application of ma-
chinery to industrial purposes, resulting, as it has largely

INTRODUCTORY. 5

done already, and will to a greater extent in the future, in
the supersession of manual labour. On the correct solu-
tion of these problems will depend, to a great extent at
least in the early future, the welfare and happiness of vast
. masses of the human race.

As might naturally be expected, cotton manufacturing
has continued to engross a large share of the attention of
inventors, and their utmost efforts have been expended in
developing and perfecting its appliances. This devotion
has been fully rewarded, as the result of their labours has
proved of inestimable value. The machinery employed in
cotton manufacturing is the result of more mental labour,
and the subject of more improvements and patents than
any other that can be named. Most of these have sprung
from the English manufacturing districts, as was to be ex-
pected from the great concentration of the industry in those
localities, and the knowledge consequently gained of its fur-
ther requirements, and experience of the means by which
defects could be overcome.

Next in the importance of their inventions and improve-
ments to the English districts must be ranked those which
have been brought out in the United States by the emi-
grants from England and their descendants, who carried
the new industry across the Atlantic, and have since kept
it nearly abreast in its developments with that of the home
country. This has been accomplished, firstly, by the con-
tinued importation of skilled workpeople and improved
machinery, and, secondly, by original invention. The new
conditions by which the transplanted industry was sur-
rounded have led to improvements of a special and im-
portant character, and which of late years have obtained,
as they have deserved to do, the careful consideration of
English machinists and spinners.

The attention of the continental nations of Europe was
drawn to the new industry with which England had en-
dowed the world at a very early date ; but owing to ob-
stacles for a time naturally placed in the way to prevent

6 COTTON SPINNING.

them, these comnmnities did not acquire a knowledge of
its appliances quite so soon as did the United States. One
reason for this was, that in the States there was no lingual
difficulty to encounter. All obstacles were, however, even-
tually overcome, and the industry has since been planted
in nearly every country of the Continent. It is, however^
only from France, Switzerland, and Germany that any
contributions in the shape of improvements towards per-
fecting or developing its machinery have been received.
Whether this is owing to a deficiency of the inventive
faculty or not amongst the people of these countries, we
need not try to decide ; but it is a standing ground of
complaint amongst English machinists that their conti-
nental competitors confine their efforts mainly to imitating
the devices and inventions first brought out in this country,
instead of devoting their energies to the origination of
something new. Whether this complaint is just or not,
there is certainly not much original matter relating to im-
provements in cotton machinery that will reward the
labour of the inquirer into the records of continental inven-
tion ; and the little that may be discovered cannot be re-
garded as particularly important.

In the countries of Asia the new system of cotton manu-
facturing has yet obtained no hold, if we except India, into
which it was introduced by English enterprise about thirty
years ago, and where it has continued to make steady pro-
gress, favoured by certain local conditions and the fiscal
policy of the Government. Whether its development will
continue at the same rate now that several of these cir-
cumstances have been modified, is a question that only the
future can solve. China and Japan have recently made
tentative efforts in the direction of introducing this indus-
try amongst their peoples, but as yet not much success
has attended these efforts. It will not be a matter of
surprise should the latter country, however, achieve a con-
siderable degree of success, and that at no distant date.
The strenuous efforts its government has put forth during

INTRODUCTORT. 7

the last ten or twelve years to make its people familiar
with the manufacturing arts of the West, is a phenomenon
of which the latter should not fail to take note, as it may
lead to important consequences which will seriously aflPect
the hold that Western nations now have upon Asiatic
markets.

Iij other parts of the world, such as the western side of
the North American continent, the central portions, and
the southern half of the same continent, the amount of
cotton manufacturing is practically nothing, the wants of
the people in this respect being supplied from other centres
of production. Australia and New Zealand come in the
same category. In the vast continent of Africa the modern
industry is unknown ; the little that is manufactured from
the indigenous cotton plant which grows wild in the in-
terior being wrought up by the most primitive of ap-
pliances that have ever been used.

The present magnitude of the industry will be adequately
represented by the following figures, which form an esti-
mate based upon the most recent information as to the
number of spindles, excluding doubling spindles, in Europe,
the United States, and India, at the present time : —

1883.
Great Britain .... 42,000,000

Continent

United States .

India

Other countries

22,000,000

12,750,000

1,750,000

1,500,000

Total . . . 80,000,000

If, therefore, we take the spindles of the world to amount
in round numbers to 80,000,000, it will not be far from
accuracy. The spinning capacity of these spindles is almost
iuconceivable. Let us assume that they are constantly
working, say, for fifty hours per week, spinning yarn of
an average of thirty hanks of 840 yards each to 1 lb. The

8 COTTON SPINNING.

speeds at whicli the machinery in the great spinning cen-
tres of England are now working is such as to give a pro-
duction of 7 yards of yarn to each spindle per minute, but
this will doubtless be considerably in excess of that in
other localities. It will, therefore, be safer to take 6 yards
as the average production per minute per spindle, or a total
of 18,000 yards of yarn each per week. Those who are
cnrious in figures may pursue this thought at greater
length and in many directions, in all of which the most
interesting results may be attained. Thus much, how-
ever, will suffice to show to what an important extent
mechanical automatic labour has displaced manual indus-
try, and to what an amount the inventions of Hargreaves,
Arkwright, and Cromptonhave alleviated in this one sphere
alone the burden of human labour, or in other words have
extended the blessings implied by the abundance and cheap-
ness of the products of the cotton trade.

The abundance and cheapness of the products of the
cotton manufacture will best be illustrated by a few figures.
According to the estimate of Messrs. Ellison and Co., the
eminent Liverpool cotton brokers, the 42,000,000 spindles
of this country consume 71,000 bales of cotton per week
of an average weight of 400 lbs. per bale. This is equal
to 1,420,000,000 lbs. per year of fifty weeks, two weeks
being allowed for holidays and stoppages. The actual
weight given by the same firm for the season 1881-2
rather exceeds this total, being 1,478,997,000 lbs. This
vast weight of raw material was worked up into yarn and
cloth, and after supplying our domestic requirements, we
exported to foreign countries, including our colonies and
dependencies, in the same season, 244,800,000 lbs. of yarn,
and 4,456,000,000 yards of cotton goods, totals in both
heads rather less than those of the previous year. The
spindles of the Continent spin on an average lower numbers
of yarn, and therefore require a correspondingly larger
supply of the raw material. The consumption of the Con-
tinent for the same season was 1,207,650,000 lbs. The

INTEODUCTORT. 9

total consumption of the American continent may be set
down at 2,000,000 bales per annum, or 960,000,000 lbs.,
which amount is annually increasing. To these vast quan-
tities there is yet to add the amount required by the
Indian spindles, which will be about 140,000,000 lbs.
Taking the consumption of the American continent at
1,000,000,000 lbs., the total of these vast figures amounts
to 3,767,650,000 lbs., or 9,419,125 bales of 400 lbs. each.
This material, estimated on an average at 5cZ. per lb., will
nearly equal a sum of £78,500,000. In the processes of
manufacture this enormous sum is probably quadrupled by
the addition of the skill, labour, and interest of the capital
necessary for the conversion of this amount of cotton into
its various commercial products.

Not less important has been the influence of the rise of
this industry upon the districts in which it is chiefly
carried on. In 1750 the population of Lancashire was
only 297,400, and the manufacture then existing was purely
of a domestic character. Ten years later, the number of
people engaged in the English cotton manufacture was
estimated to be only about 43,000 persons, the product of
whose labour would not equal that of 1,000 persons to-day.
In 1770 the populations of Bolton and Blackburn were re-
spectively about 5,000; at present, both of these towns
exceed 100,000 ; and owe their growth to the develop-
ment of this industry. At the same period, the population
of Manchester was 40,000. The aggregate population of
the group of towns now included under the same designa-
tion is probably fifteen times this number, thus showing a
growth nearly proportionate to that of the smaller towns
just mentioned. The influence of Hargreaves* and Ark-
wright's inventions were just then beginning to be felt in
the great stimulus given to invention and industrial enter-
prise. In 1775 the number of operatives employed in
the trade had increased to 80,000, whilst the amount of
cotton imported had grown to 18,500,000 lbs. The factory
system may be said at this date to have just taken root.

10 COTTON SPINNING.

Twelve years later, or in 1787, the number of factories
had increased to 143, containing 550 mules on Cromp-
ton's principle, and 20,700 jenuies on the plan of Har-
greaves, which by this time had received some important
improvements. The number of water frames on Ark-
wright's principle cannot be ascertained ; but the total
number of spindles at work on the three systems in this year
is estimated at 1,951,000, the cost of which, and of the
auxiliary machinery, together with the buildings in which
they were contained, reached in the aggregate £1.000,000.
The number of operatives directly employed in the industry
was supposed to be 26,000 men, 31,000 women, and
53,000 children, or 110,000 in all. In the subsequent
stages of manufacture the number of persons employed
was similarly estimated to be 133,000 men, 59,000 women,
and 48,000 children. These constituted a grand total of
350,000 persons. In the same year, the raw material
consumed slightly exceeded 22,000,000 lbs. The estimated
annual value of the cotton manuf icture at this time was
£3,304,370, against £600,000 in 1767.

In 1785 Cartwright first invented the power loom, and
in the year under notice, 1787, took out his second patent
for the same machine, which he had greatly improved. In
this year cotton machinery was first introduced into
France, and the first cotton mill was built in the United
States. The systematic cultivation of cotton in Georgia
and Carolina was commenced as a commercial speculation
in 1788. In the year following the first steam engine used
for cotton spinning was erected in the mill of Mr. Driuk-
water, Manchester, by Messrs. Boulton and Watt. The
parish of Oldham, now the greatest spinning centre in the
world, at this time had only a population of 13,916. Pro-
gress after this date was rapid, and need not be traced in
any further detail. A host of inventors were engaged
npon improving the existing, and devising new machinery.
Their efforts in various degrees were successful. Samuel
Slater, an apprentice of Arkwright's, had gone to America,

INTRODUCTORY. 11

and was employed in imitating the macTiinery amongst
which he had been trained. The improved machinery of
Lancashire was smuggled out of the country to the
Continent, in spite of stringent laws to prevent its expor-
tation.

The rapid increase in the productive power of the new
machinery frequently led it to overrun *he distributive
agencies then at work, and gluts succeeded one another
rather frequently. The decline of values consequent on
these conditions stimulated demand, which absorbed sup-
plies, and quickly led to further extensions of machinery.
Repetitions of these occurrences have constituted a great
portion of the history of the trade, from the beginning of
the current century to the present time. The most notable
crisis in its history was the occurrence of the cotton famine
in Lancashire, which arose from the war of Secession in the
United States. This sprang from a movement having in
view the preservation of the institution of negro slavery in
the Southern, or cotton growing, States, which had grown
to enormous proportions with the rise of the cotton trade.
As every one knows, this cherished institution perished in
the war ; and its downfall is now generally regarded, even
in the cotton States themselves, as a satisfactory result.
Since that time there has been little to chequer or retard
the progress of the trade beyond the recurrence of times of
prosperity and depression.

The official returns of 1880 show that in England and
Wales there were at that date 2,579 cotton factories, 2,482
of which were situated in what is known as the manu-
facturing districts of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire, and
Derbyshire, the remaining ninety-seven being scattered
over other parts of the country. Scotland, at the same
time, had eighty-nine mills, and Ireland six, also devoted
to the manufacture of cotton, thus giving a total of 2,674
for the United Kingdom. At that time these mills con-
tained 39,527,920 spinning spindles, 4,678,770 doubling
spindles, and 514,911 power looms. The staff of work-

12 COTTON SPINNINQ.

people was composed of 185,472 males, and 297,431
females. These numbers included 61,923 children under
thirteen years of age, who were " half-timers." The total
number of people thus directly employed in the cotton
trade of this country alone was thus 482,903, which has
probably increased since the date of these returns to
500,000.

The above figures, however, very inadequately express
the magnitude and importance of this gigantic industry,
for they embrace none of the subordinate and dependent
branches. These include that portion of the iron trade
engaged in the production of cotton machinery ; the coal
trade employed in providing fuel to supply its motive
power ; the furnishing trades which provide its numerous
accessories ; the bleaching, finishing, printing, and dyeing
trades, that take its productions as they leave the mill ;
the carrying trades, which transfer its raw materials and
products from one part to another, and finally distribute
them to all parts of the world ; and, lastly, those who take
charge of its merchandise, no insignificant number in
themselves. These vastly increase the aggregate of per-
sons employed, and enlarge the general importance of the
trade.

From this brief description it will be seen that the
growth of this industry is one of the marvels of modern
times. Whether the same rate of progress can be main-
tained or not in the future, as has been shown in the past,
is a question that excites in thoughtful minds a great
amount of interest, but the answer to which must be left
for time to reveal. It may be safely said, however, that
the present centres of the trade are not likely to be easily
deposed from the position of eminence which they have
acquired. Geographical location, climatic influences, and
geological developments are amongst the chief conditions
that control its successful conduct; and the character,
training, and acquired skill of the people who are engaged
in it, are elements that cannot be disregarded. There are

INTRODUCTORY. • 13

comparatively few spots on the earth in which the neces-
sary conditions and advantages exist, combined in the
same degree as they are found in the manufacturing dis-
tricts of England ; hence those interested may look for-
ward with confidence to its maintaining its supremacy.
Buttressed by protective tariffs, manufacturing may be
carried on successfully in other countries not so suitably
adapted to the purpose by natural conditions ; but with
the progress of education which is taking place in all
communities, the impolicy of allowing one section of a
community to grow rich at the expense of the rest, will
become so strongly obvious that the economic fallacy of
protection will perish for want of support.

This short review will show that whether judged by the
amount of capital invested, the number of people employed,
or the area over which it is spread, the cotton trade must
be admitted to have but few rivals, and hardly any equal
in importance, after precedence is given to the great pas-
toral and agricultural industries whose object is to pro-
vide the food supplies of mankind. To those persons,
therefore, whose capital, skill, and life's labour is in-
vested in it, scarcely a more important inquiry can be pre-
sented than one having for its object an elucidation of the
means by which the most satisfactory results may be
attained, and each individual be enabled to direct his efforts
to their accomplishment. To answer such an inquiry is
the object of the following little treatise; and if the writer's
effort be only approximately successful, the end in view will
be attained.

14 COTTON SPINNING.

CHAPTER II.

Cotton.

Cotton : its order, genus, species, and characteristics. — Possible cotton
lands; countries in which it is cultivated. — Geographical names. —Suit-
able soils for gi'owth ; preparation and sowing ; picking season ; picking;
mechanical picking not successful. — American crop ; area ; cost of pro-
duction ; variations in quality and their causes ; adulteration. — West
Indies. — Central and South America; indigenous variety. — Egypt ; ex-
tent of crop ; indigenous and exotic varieties ; characteristics.— India ;
extension of cultivation. — Other Asiatic countries : China ; Japan and
Java; Bokhara and Turkestan; Asiatic Tm-key; Syria and Persia;
Cyprus. — European countries: Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain. —
Differences of quality. — Geographical names the best. — Tabular state-
ment of leading varieties : countries of production ; names ; districts
where grown ; length of staple and diameter of fibre ; descripti(jns ;
capabilities and uses. -Principle of classification; classification of lead-
ing varieties. — Standard qualities and variation of these. — Careful
selection required. — Mechanical structure of the cotton fibre : the cotton
pod ; stages of growth ; the seed ; the fibre ; growth of the latter ; causes
of its twisted or convolute form ; immature and undeveloped fibres. — Its
mechanical structure, the basis of its usefulness. — Eecent curious disco-
very by the microscope. — Cotton fibres compared with the other textile
fibres. — Important general principles in spinning and manufacturing
deduced from experience.

NO plant, considering its importance to mankind, has
received less attention from scientific men than the
cotton plant. This is probably owing to its habitat being
outside the countries where science has been most highly
cultivated. The consequence is that amongst botanists there
prevails considerable difi'erences of opinion concerning the
number of species and varieties that exist. The plant is
classed in the order Malvacece, under the name of Gossypium.
Linnaeus divides the genus into five species ; De Candolle
reckons thirteen ; and other botanists have enlarged this
number. But Dr. Boyle, a most careful investigator, re-

COTTON.

dnces the number to eight, and believes that these can be
brought down to four primary ones, namely, Gossypiwm
herbaceum, arhoreiim, hirsutum, and Barhadense.

The first-mentioned of these species, the Gossypium her-

Fig. 1. G. herbaceum.

baceum, grows from four to six feet high, bearing a yellow
flower. The seeds are covered with a short grey down,
whil-t the fibre it bears is classed short. It is found
native or exotic in Egypt, Asia Minor, Arabia, India, and

16 COTTON SPINNING.

China. The short stapled variety of Egyptian cotton is of
this species. Fig. 1 is a representation of this plant. The
Indian cottons are the product of a variety named by
Lamarck the G. Indicum. This grows from eight to ten
feet high, and, like the allied species generally, bears a
yellow flower, the seeds being downy, and the fibre short-
stapled and very white. Figs. 2 and 3 show the fibres of
these two plants enlarged under the microscope, the first
being Surat and the second Smyrna cotton, shown npon
micrometer lines on glass ^ ^^^ of an inch apart.

The Gossijpiumarboreum, when full grown, attains a height
of from fifteen to twenty feet, from which fact it derives its
name. The flowers are red, the seeds covered with a
greenish-coloured fur, and enveloped in a fine silky wool,
yellowish- white in colour. It is found in Egypt, Arabia,
India, and China.

The G. liirsutum is a shrubby plant, its maximum
height being about six feet. The young pods are hairy,
the seeds numerous, free, and covered with firmly-
adhering green down, under the long white wool. It is
probable that this is the original of the green-seeded
cotton, now cultivated so extensively in the Southern
States of the American Union, and which forms the bulk
of the supply from that source.

The G. Barhadense (Fig. 4) grows to the height of from six
to fifteen feet. Its flowers are yellow, and its seeds black
and smooth, being quite destitute of the hair that dis-
tinguishes several members of the species. As implied by
its name, it is a native of Barbadoes, or has been culti-
vated there for a long time. The cottons most highly
esteemed in commerce belong to this species, having pro-
bably undergone only slight modification as the result of
climatic influences and variations in the method of cultiva-
tion. The Sea Island and Bourbon cottons, from which
the fine yarns used in the manufacture of lace are made,
the long-stapled Egyptian, and several other good varie-
ties, are said by some writers probably to be from this

COTTON.
Fiff. 2. Surat.

COTTON SPINNING.

stock, as they possess many points of identity or resem-
blance. If this is so, it has, however, undergone consider-
able alteration by its transfer to new localities, and changes
in the method of cultivation, as may be seen from the

Fig. 4. Gossypiuni Barbadense.

annexed drawing, Fig. 5. Fig. 6 shows the fibres of the
Sea Island variety as enlarged under the microscope.

A remarkable species or variety, the Gossypium religio-
simij exists in India. It has for ages been devoted to the
manufacture of clothing for the Brahmins, the religious
caste of Hindoo society ; it is arborescent, and carries a

COTTON.

pnrple bloom. The seed is stated to be small, nearly
globular, covered with a greyish- white down and some
hairs, of which those round the point are much longer

Fig. 5. Sea Island plant of Georgia.

than the seed, though few in number. Two varieties are
known — those of Wanquebar and Cambaye. The yield is
very small from both of them, and the filaments being
condensed closely round the seed, renders it unfitted for

20 COTTON SPINNING.

gimimg. It is therefore hand-picked, and takes a woman
from twentj-six to thirty hours to pick one pound of lint.
Formerly it was picked by nnns, whence one of its names,
" nuns' cotton." Fig. 7 shows the fibre enlarged under
the microscope.

It will probably be best to let this general description
of the most strongly-marked species suffice, because
botanists hive never yet agreed about the characteristics
upon which subdivision into varieties should take place,
all the points hitherto selected for this purpose having
proved unsatisfactory.

Whether the cotton plant is a native of India, and from
that country has spread over the localities in which it is now
found, or whether it is indigenous to several of them, is a
moot point amongst authorities, and one which there need
be no attempt made to decide here, as either natural agency
or human instrumentality may be regarded as sufficiently
powerful to have accomplished the result. Those parts of
the world in which cotton is or can be grown constitute a
broad zone extending ^S'' north to 35° south of the
equator. Reference to a map will show that it includes
a space extending from the European shores of the
Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope, from Japan to
Melbourne in Australia, and from Washington in the
United States to Buenos Ayres in South America, with
all the lands intermediate between these several points.
These include the Southern States of the American Union,
from Washington to the Gulf of Mexico, and three-fourths
of South America, the whole of the African continent, and
Southern Asia from the Bosphorus to Pekin in China.
The vast area of Australia is also within the cotton zone,
and the islands lying between that country and Asia. It
will thus be seen that however large the ultimate demand
may become, the supply will not fail for want of land in
Buitable climates on which to produce it.

At present, however, cotton is cultivated over only a-
limitedarea. In many countries it is grownto asmall extent.

COTTON.
Fig. 6. Sea Island cotton.

Fig. 7. Keligious cotton.

22 COTTON SPINNING.

to snpply the requirements of domestic manufacture ; but
these instances are diminishing in both number and extent,
owing to the successful competition of European pro-
ductions, chiefly English. The concentration of cotton-
manufacturing in a few great centres has greatly stimulated
the growth of cotton in a few localities where climate, soil,
and circumstances are most favourable to its successful
cultivation. The principal of these, in the order of their
importance, are as follows — the southern portion of the
United States, India, Egypt, and the Brazils. From these
countries nearly all the cotton consumed for manufacturing
purposes in Europe and America is obtained ; several other
sources, such as the West India Islands, the West Coast
of Africa, and Asia Minor, contribute a small quantity to
the bulk. A large amount is produced in China, but this
is almost, if not entirely, consumed in the native manufac-
tures. Successful attempts have been made to grow cotton
in Natal, New South Wales, and Queensland ; and should
economic circumstances ever favour the cultivation of the
plant in those regions, they will be capable of supplying
a great portion of the world's needs.

In commerce, cottons are not designated by their scien-
tific appellations, but by names derived from the districts
or countries in which they are produced. Thus, " Sea
Island " is chiefly grown on the small islands near the
coast of Georgia and the Carolinas, and upon the coast line
of the mainland. If this variety be cultivated further
away from the sea, it rapidly deteriorates in quality.
" Uplands " cotton is raised in the interior upon the higher
lands of the States ; hence its name. Brazilian, West Indian,
African, and Surats, are geographical adjectives, which
sufficiently reveal the origin of the cottons to which they
are applied.

In all countries cotton is generally grown upon the light
loam or sandy soUs, which, receiving and retaining the
heat, whilst the substratum holds a good supply of
moisture, force the plant into the most luxurious develop-

COTTON. 23

ment. In deep rich soils, it develops too much leaf and
stalk. Cold damp clays are unsuitable for it.

The soil is prepared for the reception of seed by plough-
ing during the winter months ; and sowing takes place in
March, April, and May, according to countries and locali-
ties ; the object being to avoid the exposure of the young
plants to late frosts, which are extremely fatal to it. When
thus caut^ht, it is often necessary to replant the whole
area. The fields having been prepared for the recep-
tion of seed, this, in some cases, is deposited in drills or
furrows, at such distances apart as will allow space for the
proper growth and healthy development of the plants.
Five or six seeds are planted together, and afterwards
thinned out as may be necessary. In other cases, holes
are made in the soil with a stick or dibble, by men,
and the seeds are deposited by women who follow them,
whilst boys and girls come after with light hoes, and
cover them up. The distance between the furrows is gene-
rally about six feet from centre to centre, the space being
left sufficiently wide to allow the labourers to pass
between during the picking season. Large areas are thus
rapidly planted in favourable weather ; when it is wet, the
labour is much greater. Sowing finished, the efforts of
the planter are directed to keeping his fields free from
grass and weeds, which impoveiish the soil, impede the
growth of the plant, and diminish its product. Greaf
care, and often labour, is required in the fields until
the picking season, which commences in the latter part
of July, and lasts until the frosts kill the plant, flower-
ing and fruiting proceeding simultaneously until that
occurs.

The picking season is the busy time on a cotton planta-
tion. All hands are requisitioned, as the quality and clean-
liness of the crop depends, to a large degree, upon its
being quickly gathered after the bolls have opened. Should
it be left on the plant long after opening, it is liable to be
injured by the heat of the sun, which overdries it j or by

24 ' COTTON SPINNING.

rains, wliicli stain it ; or, again, by winds which load it
with sand, or dust and dirt of various kinds.

The cotton fields are so arranged that a section can be
given to each picker, who, provided with a bag tied round
his body, and a sheet or large basket, which he leaves at
the end of his section, passes rapidly between the rows
using both hands, picking the opened bolls on each side,
until he gets to the end, when he empties the contents of
his bag upon the sheet, and recommences his work. Picking
is an operation requiring considerable skill and expertness.
The picker has to seize at the first eff'ort the whole of the
cotton of each boll, and bring it away in his fingers,
taking care also not to bring with it any of the boll leaf
or petals, which is difficult to remove subsequently, and
seriously deteriorates the quality. The average amount
picked by each labourer in ordinary fields is about one
hundred pounds of seed cotton per day, though here, as in
all occupations, there are individuals who pick a weight
considerably beyond this. The pickers go to the fields
with the opening of day, and work, with little intermission
for food or rest, until darkness closes in. Picking is a very
unhealthy occupation in wet seasons, owing to the damp
and rank undergrowth, which gives off", under the influence
of the hot sun, heavy and noxious vapours, the cause of
fevers, agues, and many other diseases. This description
chiefly refers to the culture of American cotton, but it
may also be accepted as typical of that of other countries.

The picked cotton is carried to the store-house of the
plantation or farm, generally at the end of the day's
labours, where it is kept until it can be ginned : that is,
have the seed separated from the fibre. In the prepara-
tion of the finer qualities much more care is exercised than
in the case of medium and low sorts.

The rapid extension of cotton cultivation in the Ameri-
can States has led to numerous attempts to invent a
machine for gathering the crop. As yet these have not
been successful, all revealing such defects in practical work-

COTTON. 25

ing as to prevent their adoption. The cotton crop at the
present time is chiefly limited by the picking capacity, and
should this difficulty be overcome by mechanical appliances,
a revolution and extension of cultivation quite as gTcat as
that which followed the invention of the saw-gin may be
expected to result, followed by a great reduction in price
and increased consumption.

A brief glance may now be given at the specialities of
the different fields of production, and their relative im-
portance.

United States. — The American cotton crop in amount
probably exceeds that of all other countries put together.
The cultivation of the cotton plant in that country has
attained its present magnitude in less than a century, and
is at present expanding more rapidly than at any previous
time. The area of land laid under cotton was in 1881
estimated to be near 18,000,000 acres. In a favour-
able season this would represent a crop of 9,000,000 bales ;
in an unfavourable one only half this amount. Cotton
cultivation in the States has not attained this great posi-
tion without passing through numerous trials that in
the hands of a less enterprising people would have de-
stroyed it. In illustration, we may mention the great
Civil War. The results of that struggle ending in the
abolition of slavery have been important. Free and more
intelligent labour is now employed ; cotton planters, met
by the energetic competition of northern immigrants, who
are now in great numbers settling upon the cotton lands
of the south-western States, are putting forth new energy.
Better systems of cultivation have been introduced ; fer-
tilizers are extensively employed, and the production of
lint per acre, which had fallen to an average of about
150 lbs., has during the past few years been steadily
rising, and now reaches nearly 200 lbs.

Labour and the different materials necessary for raising
cotton being articles of unstable value, the cost of produc-
tion necessarily fluctuates with changes in them. This

COTTON SPINNING

cost has, however, recently been estimated for a farm of
150 acres exclusively devoted to raising cotton, as
follows : —

Interest at 7 per cent, on valne of land $1,500
„ on value of four mules, implements,

&c., $550

Repairs of fencing at 13 cents per acre .
Wages of one white foreman and manager

„ „ three negro ploughmen .
Provisions for four hands . • •

Food for four mules (one year)
Salt and potash for manure @ $1 per acre
Twelve bushels of cotton seed for planting and

manure per acre 1,800 @ 10 cents
Hire of eight extra hoe hands six weeks
Extra labour for picking cotton
Toll of l-15th for ginning
Taxes @ 1^ per cent, on |2,050 .
Aid for sundry incidental expenses
Interest on outlay of $1,700 @ 12 per cent

average time four months .

$150.0()

38.50
19.50
200.00
210.00
100.00
300.00
150.00

180.00
120.00
120.00
195.00
25.12
100.00

68.00

Total expenses $1,831.12

As production varies all the way from 150 lbs. to 260 lbs»
per acre, it will be safe to take a mean of these two
amounts, or 205 lbs., which for 150 acres will give a yield
of 30,750 lbs. at a cost of 5.95 cents per pound. Adding
75 cents for costs of transit, and other charges, from the
interior to the ports, we obtain 6.70 cents, to which must
be added 2.50 for commission, ocean transit, and landing
charges at Liverpool, making the total cost laid down in
that port equivalent to about 4ild. per pound, for a quality
equal to average strict good ordinary. This estimate,
however, does not take into consideration the profit derived
from the sale of the seed, which, during the past few years.

COTTON. 27

otving to its having been extensively used for the extrac-
tion of oil, after which the meal that remains has been
utilized for cattle feeding, has been very considerable.
Assuming the product of lint or fibre to be 200 lbs. per
acre, the cleaned seed will amount to 400 lbs., the propor-
tion in ordinary years being two of seed to one of fibre ;
the yield, therefore, from 1,800 acres would be 320 tons
of seed in addition to the fibre,^ which must be added to
the credit side of the above estimate."

American cottons vary considerably in their charac-
teristics and qualities. Being grown over a wide area, on
different geological formations, at varying altitudes, on up-
lands with thin soils and a scant supply of moisture, and
in river valleys with deep alluvial soils with abundance
of water, there results the natural difierences that might
be expected from these conditions. There are wide varia-
tions in the length and diameter of the fibres ; in the thick-
ness of the walls and the number of the helical t wis tings.
These differences are greatly increased when comparison
is made between cottons grown on plantations or farms
some distance apart. Also the system of cultivation pur-
sued has an important effect on the quality of the crop.
Where the grower trusts entirely to the natural fertility
of the soil, especially in the older settled lands, the quality
of his product will compare badly with that of his neigh-
bour using fertilizers. Those persons whose experience in
using American cotton extends beyond the period of the
Civil War and the destruction of slavery, will remember
the greater uniformity of American cottons at that time.
Then it was possible to purchase repeatedly from the pro-
duction of one plantation, where a large number of bales

• The oil mills pay for seed delivered at a railway station or river
landing $12 per ton, and as in the preceding estimate the cost of seed
has been included, the above may be reckoned available for sale, yield-
ing $3,640.

^ Not more than one-fourth of the seed available is yet utilized ia
this manner.

28 COTTON SPINNING.

had been grown under identical conditions, whicli ensured
uniformity of quality.

Since the fall of slavery and the decay of the planta-
tion system, cotton growing has passed into the hands
of small capitalists and farmers who cultivate the plant
as their intelligence and necessities may dictate, which
is too often in an ignorant and unscientific manner. These
farms are scattered on the banks of navigable streams,
by the side of railways, or near highways, in order to
secure facilities of transit. Their owners send their seed
cotton to gin-houses in the neighbourhood, where but
little care is exercised to keep the lots separate. Here
good, bad, and indifferently grown cotton is often mixed
together to the depreciation of the bulk. Cotton is not
usually baled either at the gin-houses or on the farms, but
is packed loosely in bags. These are purchased by dealers
who travel the country for the purpose, and are collected
and sold to another class of dealers called factors, possess-
ing baling establishments with presses, and who are found
1 )oth at the interior towns and the ports. Here the cotton
gathered from so many sources ought to be carefully
classified or graded before baling, but this is too often
negligently performed. Hence arise the frequent com-
plaints of cotton-spinners about false packing, several
qualities often being found in one bale. The current
crop (1882-3) is much complained of, on account of exces-
sive dampness, which there is too much reason to suppose
has been artificially introduced.

In these establishments there has also sprung up of
late years a vicious system of adulteration, in which
a great deal of rubbish is wilfully introduced into the
bale. The natural variation of the fibre, careless pack-
ing and fraudulent mixtures, render the task of the
cotton buyer exceedingly difficult, and one which requires
the most experienced circumspection and careful discri-
mination if an even quality of yarn has to be produced
from its use. It is no longer safe to entrust the mixing

COTTON. 29

of American cottons to mill labourers, but it is almost
indispensable that the buyer or some qualified person
be present to watch the unpacking of each bale in order
to prevent a low quality of fibre finding its way into a
*' mixing" intended to spin a good yarn. Owing to un-
even growth, irregularity of twisting, and varying diameter
of fibres, the latter do not combine so closely in spinning as
does Egyptian, in which these qualities are more uniform;
hence a soft, bulky, and comparatively weak yarn is pro-
duced. Notwithstanding these serious defects, American
cottons constitute the most important part of the world's
supply, being used for the production of the middle num-
bers of yam, which form by far the greatest portion of
that required.

West Indies. — During the last century England ob-
tained its chief supplies of raw cotton from these countries.
The variety grown was called Anguilla, which was similar
to the present Sea Island, and from which the latter is said
to have been derived. The increased production of sugar
and the abolition of slavery caused the cultivation of
cotton greatly to decline, and at present the total produc-
tion is small.

Central and South America. — Nearly all the countries
embraced under this heading lie within the cotton zone,
and are capable of growing it in abundance, and of good
quality ; but the political disorganization that seems a
chronic condition of most of them, has prevented the de-
velopment of its cultivation to the extent that might have
been expected in view of the great market existing for the
crop in Europe. During the Civil War in the United
States considerable numbers of cotton planters emigrated
to these countries, and the production rose considerably.
Of late years, however, most of these have returned to the
States, and it has again declined nearly to its former level.
It is not probable that under ordinary conditions these
countries will ever become formidable competitors with the
United States.

30 COTTON SPINNING.

An indigenous species of cotton, the G. Peruvianum, is
extensively grown throughout the countries under notice.
It is arborescent, the plant attaining an altitude of from ten
to fifteen feet. It yields good crops for several years in
succession, and is renewed only about once in ten years.
In the mountain districts of the Andes it bears fruit until
the advent of snow and frost. The cottons known in the
market as Pernams, Maranhams, &c., are obtained from
this species. In Brazil the Orleans variety has been intro-
duced and extensively cultivated, and, as modified by the
change of locality, the product appears in the market as
" Santos." The remainder of the Brazilian and Peruvian
varieties as known to commerce are simply described by
geographical adjectives, and are derived from either the
arborescent species or the imported variety. The former
are harsh and wiry in staple, and the latter soft, like the
American kinds from which they spring.

Egypt. — The most important cotton producing country
on the African continent is Egypt. Though the indigenous
variety has been known and cultivated for centuries, it is only
since 1820, when the Brazilian species was introduced, that
the cultivation of cotton has been systematically pursued,
and has become an important industry. The climate and
soil is exceedingly favourable, and the qualities of the
staple are of the highest order. The chief difficulty en-
countered is the deficiency of labour, which greatly impedes
the extension of its growth. The crop is generally equal
to 400,000-500,000 bales of 400 lbs., and has on one excep-
tionally favourable season attained nearly 800,000 bales.
Two or three varieties of exotic cottons are grown ; that
from Sea Island seed, or the G. Ba/rbadense ; the South
American, G. Feruviafnimt; and G. hirsutum. The first
named does not produce a staple quite so good as when
grown in its original habitat. These yield the white
varieties of Egyptian cottons, and in several respects fall
short of the best qualities of the thoroughly acclimated
eorts.

COTTON. 31

The chief characteristics of Egyptian cottons are the
length, strength, and nniformity of their fibres, showing
great equality of growth, probably arising from the remark-
able freedom of the country from extreme changes of
temperature. In these cottons, however, there occurs a
varying quantity of short, hairy, or undeveloped, fibres.
This defective staple is found most abundantly in seasons
when the Nile has not risen to its usual height, and the
plant has therefore been deprived of a sufficiency of mois-
ture to secure full development. The opposite condition
arises when the overflow has been extensive, as then both
a greater quantity and higher quality are secured.

India. — Since the cotton famine in this country, the re-
sult of the American Civil War, India has formed an im-
portant source of cotton supply. The native varieties nearly
all belong to the G. herhaceum, and have been cultivated for
thousands of years for domestic consumption, and to a
limited extent for export. The great demand, and the
high price which prevailed for several years owing to the
above-named event, strongly stimulated production and led
to an improvement of the quality. The rate of progress,
however, has not been fully maintained.

The cottons of India are commercially known as Surats,
and are generally, like most others, characterized by the
names of the localities in which they are produced. The
best known are the Dharwar, Broach, Oomrawuttee, Dhol-
lera, and Hingunghat. The last is the best quality, and is
grown in the Central Provinces and the Berars. Exotic
cottons have not been very successfully cultivated, and
efi'orts have therefore recently been directed to improve the
indigenous kinds.

Other Countries of Asia yield cotton to a more or less
extent, but beyond sufficing for local wants the growth is
not of much importance. A brief enumeration of the dis-
tinctive features of these growths will, therefore, be all that
it is necessary to give in this place.

China produces a large quantity of cotton, but rarely

32 COTTON SPINNINQ.

exports any. During the cotton famine a fair quantity was
sent to England of a fine white clean cotton, not very
strong in staple, and therefore best suited for wefts, for
which it was mostly consumed. Nankin cotton is a variety
of the G. herbaceum.

In Japan, Java, and several other islands in that locality,
an inferior kind of cotton is grown, which is mostly con-
sumed in the same places.

Bokhara and Turkestan in Central Asia produce annu-
ally about 1,000,000 cwts. of a coarse description of cotton,
most of which is carried overland to Russia. In East
Turkestan a better quality is grown, which is capable of
taking the place of American. By stimulating the cul-
tivation of cotton in that district, it is said that Russia
hopes to establish her independence of external sources of
supply. Soil and climate are favourable ; the plant attains
a height of nine feet, and is moderately prolific.

The Asiatic portions of the Turkish empire produce a
fair amount of cotton, but with proper enterprise this could
easily be increased five or ten fold. It is most successfully
cultivated in the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The yield of
these districts amounts to about 75,000 bales annually,
which is mostly exported to the countries of southern
Europe. The varieties are chiefly those of the G.
herhaceum.

Syria and Persia are capable of producing a fair quality
of cotton. The latter country grows a considerable quan-
tity, and the export has formerly, on occasions, amounted
to as much as 100,000 bales.

Cyprus yields cotton of fair staple, and with the intro-
duction of enterprise and capital, might very largely aug-
ment its crop. It is grown in the districts of Larnaka,
Famagusta, Karpas, Lefka, and Kythrea. An average
crop at present does not exceed 2,500 bales.

Europe. — In Europe the countries bordering the Medi-
terranean sea are the only ones capable of producing cotton.
Tarkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain are all possible fields of

COTTOX. 33

culture, but the first three only utilize their capabilities. In
1864, American seed was introduced into Italy, and under
the stimulus of high prices over 200,000 acres were planted,
the crop attaining a total of over 300,000 bales. It is at
present cultivated around Bari and Barletta on the Adriatic,
and in the districts of Salerno, Laron, Castellamare, south
of Naples ; and in several places on the shores of Sicily.
The products are known in the markets as Pugliar, Castel-
lamare, Biancaville, and Terranova. A small quantity is
also grown in Sardinia.

This completes a brief view of the sources of production
that may be regarded as of commercial importance.

As may readily be inferred, cotton from over this wide
area will differ considerably in its characteristics according
to the species and varieties cultivated, and the climate, soil,
and other circumstances. The best staple is produced on
the light sandy alluvial soils of river valleys, where mois-
ture is rarely deficient, and in which the plant can send its
tap root down to and reach the supply in the driest seasons.
These conditions are highly conducive to uniform growth
of fibre in length and diameter, and consequently of its
convolute twistings. Thin soils and deficient and irregu-
lar supplies of moisture interrupt the growth and regular
development of the fibre, and so produce an inferior staple,
irregular in its length, diameter and twistings, not only
when one fibre is compared with another, but in the latter
qualities even in the length of individual fibres. Sea
Islands and Egyptian cottons are the most uniform and
perfectly developed staples, because grown under the most
equable conditions. American varieties came next, and
Indian cottons last in these respects. Of course all these
conditions can be modified by careful cultivation and arti-
ficial aids to nature, especially by manuring and irrigation,
which, however, enhance the cost of production.

As the climate of a district or country is, comparatively
speaking, a fixed element, having an ascertained range of
variation, the differences in the quality of the product

34 COTTON SPINNING.

within a given limit will also be known. Hence it will be
obvions that the geographical designations given to cottons
are the best and most useful that could be devised, because
they afford a clue to the most important circumstances of
its production. The species of cotton cultivated, the natu-
ral conditions surrounding it, the systems followed by the
growers, and the care and conscientiousness, or the absence
of these qualities, bestowed on the cultivation are, in a
^neral manner, revealed by the name of the country in
which the cotton has been produced. If we could wish for
any change in this respect it would be for its further elabo-
ration, in order to describe more definitely the locality of
growth, whether valley or upland, as this would still
farther help the buyer to secure a uniformly grown staple.
In some American qualities this is done. The following
tabular form exhibits these characteristics in detail in the
most important cottons of commerce : —

COTTON.

uitableforthe finest
yarns that are pro-
duced. Has been
spun to over 2,000».

hese qualities may
be spun up to 60'.
when used alone,
but are greatly
improved for the
higher counts by
admixture with
Biazilian or Egyp-
tian.

can or Egyptian,
and will make good
yarns up to 60«. or
70». counts.

3 1)

k J3

T
•s

.d
"S

-a
c

11115

Kill

ilil!

i 2 iT^
S 3-3 o

=5 2 2=1'
•- - '=5 ij

-illi

1 .1

?J So

ifiiifii

-id

o ®

§5:2

f^ H

Mean

dia^
meter

of
fibre.

: :

: ; :

: :

; •

<r>

incvj

lo >« oo o

lO o

«o

MN^S M

•«

'-'

-•

'-'

-.-H

O O

ff-*

C^._,CR-. ^

• •

^ -

■ ■

''"

§^

S^^8 g

■M

-H

'-'

^^^^ _

■-^

B 3

V .

|2g-

O-'S
13 'io *•

•E 4J 5:

." S c

•> d .- <„ .

3"!

o •
QQ

03 *

ly^i

-a

1
5

.=« 03

.*3
<

b ^"

COTTON SPINNING.

o S

^ -vT

T3 «'a

.g|.

^ »

3^g

•3a5

PC4

" H 3

a ™
WW

•sW

12^

< i

a-"
3

d 6

Sal
S-rj 3 S

o) g

Ig a

^- .»-i^J

S 5*3 is ts

I ^1^

■"'2

^11

a a

, O 08 *

^ 4

-I

COTTON.

These cottons cannot
advantageously be
used alone for num-
bers above 288. or
30s., but in conjunc-
tion with American
are available up to
40s., and slightly
higher for wefts.
Exotic varieties can
be used for higher
numbers.

S*^a3;3^ §-3 t»§ 3 a

^S^^ as|g|§

Mean
dia-
meter

of
fibre.

I . : I : : ; : :

5 : : s

"5,

s =

I §S g ^§§S g

o c

2 ;

: : : :

? I

% : : : : : : : :

: : •: •

: : s : s : : : :

•

g'i

rl M -. Jimii

^1.

? 2o a fee '3 2 2

a
•S

6 5

88 COTTON SPINNING.

The details embodied in the foregoing table will, in
combination with the practical experience indispecsably
necessary to safe operations in cotton buying, form a
useful guide to the selection of the class of cotton that may
be desired for any purpose.

Cotton is assorted into classes or qualities to suit it for
different uses, and to meet the wants of consumers in the
most economical manner. It is a leading principle in
spinning and manufacturing, and one that should never
be lost sight of, that the material employed for the produc-
tion of any kind of yarn should be of a quality sufficiently
good to make a satisfactory article without risk of failure ;
but that it should not be better, as all the quality above
that requisite is wasted; on the other hand, it should
never fall below the standard of requirement, as in that
event the loss on depreciation of quality would considerably
exceed any gain from the lower price of the raw material.
This is the principle underlying the classification of cottons.
The qualities chiefly considered in making the assortment
are : length of staple, fineness, strength, colour, smoothness,
and cleanliness.

The cottons produced in the United States are generally
divided into four classes : good ordinary, low middling,
middling, and good middling ; and these again into several
subdivisions. South American sorts form three : middling
fair, good fair, and good. Egyptian two : fair, and good
fair. East Indian three : fair, good fair, and good. The
Liverpool Cotton Brokers' Association possesses standard
samples of these classifications to which reference is made
in case of dispute as to correct classification. The brokers
individually form a set of reference samples by comparison
with the official standards of the sorts of cotton in which
they deal. This is for the purpose of ready comparison
when circumstances call for such a step.

Scarcely two cotton crops, however, are alike in point
of quality, and consequently the standard samples are sub-
ject to variation. According to the relative abundance,

rig. 8.

40 COTTON SPINNING.

scarcity, fulness, or deficiency of particular characteristics,
the different grades are classed up or down from the official
standard as the cases may require. Thus, within a limited
range, there is a constant fluctuation of the standard.

The preceding illustration (Fig. 8) will perhaps convey
a more definite idea of the length of staple in several re-
presentative varieties than can be gathered from a verbal
description, or details in figures : — No. 1 represents Sea
Island, mean length of staple, 1.65 in. ; 2, Egyptian, 1.60
in. ; 3, Pernambuco, 1.25 in. ; 4, American, 1.10 in. ; 5,
Port Natal, 1.10 in. ; 6, Indian, 0.90 in. ; 7, Indian, 0.65
m. The number of these could be largely increased, but the
above specimens will be adequate for the purpose in view.

Practical skill and high discriminative power are needed
to select cotton of the proper quality to make any parti-
cular description of yarn, and these ought to be carefully
exercised in the operation of buying, as mistakes cannot
have their consequences entirely eliminated after the cotton
has passed into consumption.

The Mechanical Structure of the Cotton Fibre. — Of
the various species of cotton, the G. herhaceum is the most
widely distributed, and yields the greatest portion of our
supply. As such, it may be accepted as the representative
plant of the genus. It constitutes a small shrubby bush,
when mature being about the height of a man. Sown in
March, April, and May, it begins to bloom in June and
July, fruiting towards the close of the latter month, and
usually continues to bear fruit until killed by the frost.
The flowers are generally yellow, though a few varieties
have them of a reddish or purplish hue. The pod is pen-
dent from the branches by a small stalk, through which
nutrition from the plant is conveyed. The following illus-
trations. Figs. 9 and 10, and description from the recently
published monograph of Dr. Bowman of Halifax, an accom-
plished scientific inquirer and practical cotton spinner,
conveys a good idea of the cotton pod and the develop-
ment of the fibre.

COTTON.
Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of cotton pod.

— ,B

Fig. 10. Transverse section of cotton pod.

The above figures represent longitudinal and transverse sections of
the Egyptian cotton pod. In each case the letters refer to the same
parts : A, stem ; b, section of calyx ; c, section of carpel ; d, midweb,
with seeds attached ; e, section of seeds ; g, plexus of young cotton
fibres.

" If we examine a cotton pod in tlie earlier stages of its
growth, we find, Fig. 9, that it is attached to the stem, a,

42 COTTON SPINNING.

of the parent tree by a small stalk. Immediately below the
pod itself we have a ring of leaves, four or five in number,
forming what botanists call a polysepalous calyx, and be-
tween which and the seed vessel itself there are the
withered petals of the corolla which formed the coloured
part of the flower of the tree. The pod or capsule itself
is the developed ovary, and consists of a hard outward
sheath, which is divided longitudinally into a series of
valves, differing in number in the different varieties of
cotton (usually three in Egyptian and four or more in
American). These valves have each a rib or septum pro-
jecting inward from the inner surface, and dividing the
capsule into separate compartments, in which the seeds are
confined.

" In the earlier stages of growth the seeds appear to be
attached to the inner margin of the carpilliary septa at
the point of junction of these septa, that is to say, at the
inner side of the carpel, where the two edges of the car-
pilliary septa unite, and they are connected to it by vas-
cular bundles, which proceed from below upwards, traverse
the carpels, and send a branch to each seed. At the same
time there is also a considerable development of cellular
tissue, forming a ridge or placenta on the margins of the
septa to which the seeds are attached. The seeds continue
this attachment until they have attained their full size and
the growth of the hair on the surface of the seed has com-
menced. It then becomes gradually absorbed, and the
seeds themselves are forced into the centres of the cavi-
ties by the gradual development of the hairy covering.
The structure of the cotton pod will be readily understood
by a reference to the annexed drawings, where, in Fig. 9,
we have a longitudinal, and in Fig. 10 a transverse section
of an Egyptian cotton-pod. Here the seed vessel or carpel
is divided into three separate compartments, each contain-
ing a lock of cotton surrounding the seeds which are con«
tained in them. The method of growth of the seed appeari
to be like that of a nut, viz., by the successive deposit of

COTTON. 43

concentric layers on the inner surface of the onter enve-
lope. In a growing seed these successive layers are dis-
tinctly visible even to the naked eye when the seeds are
cut in two, the layers growing less dense as we proceed
inwards, until we come to the oleaginous milky fluid which
fills the centre cavity, and which gets smaller and smaller
as the stage of maturity is reached. The development of
hair commences at the further end of the seed from its
point of attachment, and gradually spreads over the sur-
face as the process of growth continues.

" The first appearance of the cotton fibre itself occurs a
considerable time before the seed has attained its final
growth, and commences by the successive development of
cells from the surface of the seed. These cells appear to
have their origin iu the second layer of cellular tissue, and
force themselves up through the epidermal layer itself,
making good their attachment by the gradual absorption
of the cell walls of the outer layer, which they displace
and form a larger cell, out of which the linear propagation
of cells commence. This point, however, needs further
investigation, as, unfortunately, I have had few oppor-
tunities of watching the method of growth in its earlier
stages.

" These germinal cells are distinguished in their earlier
stages by the thickness of the cell wall in proportion to
the diameter of the cell, and the method of growth is by
the successive linear development of cells, the cell wall at
the point of junction beiag gradually absorbed until an ex-
ceedingly elongated cell is produced, which constitutes the
cotton fibre. During this period of growth the cell walls
are continually becoming more and more attenuated, and
gradually fill up the seed pod with an apparently tangled
plexus of young cotton fibres, whose growth and increase in
the number of fibres as the seed continues to throw them
ofi" tend to assist in bursting open the seed pod when the
time of maturity arrives.

" The length of the hairs varies considerably on different

44 COTTON SPINNING.

parts of the seed, and indeed it appears doubtful whether
they ever attain their full length until after the pod has
fullj opened, and the fibres themselves have been exposed
to the drying and ripening effect of air and sun. As a
rule the longest fibres are those which have grown on the
crown of the seed where the cell development makes its
earliest appearance, and the shortest are always found at
the base of the seed."

The foregoing constitutes a very clear and interesting
description of the cotton pod, the arrangement of the seed,
and the development of the fibre. Some of the conclusions,
however, appear open to question. The description of the
development of fibre from germinal cells in the dermis of
the seed, and which in this respect is remarkably similar to
the growth of hair and wool in animals, the statement of the
method of growth by the successive linear development of
cells at the apex of the fibre, and the description of the
absorption of the dividing walls at the point of contact so
as to form one exceedingly elongated cell, constituting the
cotton fibre, are doubtlessly quite correct, but it may be
permitted respectfully to differ from Dr. Bowman in re-
gard to his description of the concurrent and succeeding
phenomena of growth. It seems highly probable that
the elongated cell walls do not undergo attenuation as
the length of the fibre increases, but the opposite ; length
and diameter increasing together in all but exceptional
and abnormal instances. It is more likely that whilst
gTowth is progressing the fibre preserves a hollow cylin-
drical form, in which the vital fluids of the plant circulate,
conveying to each part the material necessary for growth
and perfect development. In this process the cylinder
walls are constantly growing in thickness by the depo-
sition of material on their inner surfaces. When maturity
has been attained, and the seeds are ready for casting,
the vital fluids cease to be secreted and consequently are
no longer supplied to the fibres. That which the latter con-
tain is either absorbed by the seed or dispersed by dessica-

COTION. 45

tion — we incline to believe the former, the effect being that
a vacuum is formed in the hollow of the fibre. This ab-
sorption of the fluid is not instantaneous, but extends pro-
bably over several, say two or three, days. The apex
extremity of the fibre is a cone of what may be called
almost solid cellulose, which nearer the base gradually opens
into the tubular form, which is continued to the junction of
the fibre with the seed. As the circulatory fluids are
withdrawn, the vacuum is formed in the tube at the point
nearest to the extremity of the fibre, and at which it begins
to collapse owing to the pressure of the atmosphere, the
process closely following the retreating fluid down the
length of the cylinder to its base in the seed. The con-
sequence is that the free end of the fibre is twisted on its
own axis a considerable number of times, and as this is
going on simultaneously in almost every fibre of one pod,
the primary order of arrangement is disturbed to such an
extent that the carpel is burst open and the mass of fibres
is exposed to the dessicating influence of the sun's rays,
which quickly completes the process. The form of the
fibre has now been changed from the hollow cylinder
maintained during growth to that with which we are most
familiar, a twisted ribbon-like figure having corded edges.
This corded form of the edges is caused simply by the
bending of the fibre walls upon themselves in the action of
collapsing and is a necessity of a properly developed fibre.
Such the writer believes is the normal process of develop-
ment in the cotton fibre, which results in a mechanical
configuration that admirably fits it for the purpose which
nature designed, namely, the dispersion of the seed, and
also for the use to which it has been converted by man.

Against this theory it may be urged that in all pods of
cotton short, immature, or undeveloped fibres are always
to be found. In reply to this it will be sufficient to point
out that growth does not commence in all the fibres of one
pod, or indeed of one seed, simultaneously ; hence all da
not reach maturity at the same moment ; neither are all

46 COTTON SPINNING.

the germinal cells of the fibres equally vigorous in secre-
tive or circulative power : hence both length and diameter
of fibres may differ considerably. Neither does the safety
nor natural propagation of the seed require that all the
fibres of each seed should be perfectly developed; it is
sufficient for natural requirements if they form a loose
flossy mass presenting a great surface with little weight
to the action of the winds, which, if not interfered with,
would carry them far and wide in the locality of their
growth. In some instances very thin transparent and
flat fibres are present : possibly owing to the reproductive
power of the cells operating in all their force whilst the
circulation of the vital fluid is weak, impeded, or entirely
obstructed. These undeveloped walls may collapse with-
out producing a single convolution of the fibre ; hence the
ribbon-like, transparent, and apparently structureless cha-
racter of these fibres.

The mechanical structure of the cotton fibre, as the
writer has observed in another place, is such that its per-
fect development has an important bearing upon its quality.
As received in this country mature or ripe cotton fibres
when placed under the microscope present the appearance
of irregularly twisted ribbons with thick rounded edges.
The thickest part is the root end, or base, that which was
attached to the seed. The diameter of the cylinder re-
mains without material change through, probably, three-
fourths of its length, after which it more rapidly tapers to
a point. The accompanying illustrations admit of a compa-
rison of the fibres of cotton at different stages of growth or
development. Figs. 11 and 14 exhibit a portion of mature
fibre and sections magnified. The latter show it to be a
collapsed cylinder, the walls as compared with the bore
being of considerable thickness. The one or two exceptions
to this form are probably instances in which the cylindrical
form has been ruptured. Fibres possessing these character-
istics are considered well developed, being the longest and
strongest. But amongst the perfect fibre there is always

COTTON.

more or less of unripe, imperfectly developed, or dead fibre,
this being lessor more accordingly as the surroundings have
been favourable or unfavourable during the period of

Kg; 11.

Fiff. 12.

Fig. 13. Fig: 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

growth. In commercial- cottons, especially of the lower
grades, the proportion of defective fibre is always largely
increased by the practice common, if not general, amongst
cotton growers of collecting the immature pods on,the cotton

48 COTTON SPINNING.

plant after the latter has been killed by frost, or from ex-
haustion of their vital power have ceased to grow, These
are dried and the lint stripped from them, which is added
to the bulk. The appearance of the unripe fibre is very
different, both longitudinally and in section, from that which
is mature. In Figs. 12 and 15 the half ripe fibre is shown
longitudinally and in section. In this case the ribbon is
flatter, the twists are fewer, and the thickness of the
corded edges is diminished. The sections show the col-
lapse of the tube to be so complete as almost to destroy all
trace of the original cylindrical form. The least ripe fibres
that appear in commercial cottons are illustrated in Figs. 13
and 16. The twisting is further diminished, and the corded
edge disappears altogether. The internal surfaces adhere
so closely that the hollow is quite lost, and the sections
appear like crooked bits of fine wire. This is owing to
the deficient quantity of the cellulose deposited. These
fibres are thin, brittle and weak, and incapable of taking
dye-stuffs in dyeing and printing.

Occasionally these defective fibres are found in greater
abundance than at other times, and more frequently in
irregularly grown cottons, or the cottons of those countries
where the plant is apt to suffer from a deficiency of mois-
ture, as in Indian cottons. When abundantly present they
greatly depreciate the working qualities of the bulk, and it
is an important matter in judging of cotton to be able to
distinguish them. This ability may be acquired by care-
ful observation, and in this the natural sight may be
beneficially aided by a powerful lens.

The mechanical structure of cotton fibres, especially in
having a convolute form and corded edges, peculiarly
adapt them for numerous uses. If they were cylindrical
like the fibres of flax and hemp, they would be too short to
hold together when spun into a thread. When the proper
structure is fully developed, in the twisting process they
become firmly bound together, one fibre folding over and
gripping the corded edge of another, thereby enabling a con-

COTTON. 49

tinuous thread of considerable strength to be made. When
the finest and longest stapled varieties of cotton are used,
this thread is capable of great attenuation. Cotton gathered
from the unopened pod does not possess the perfect convo-
lute form in the fibre ; and, as seen in the illustrations, fibres
that from other causes are imperfectly developed come in
the same category : hence do not possess the same cohesive
power when spun into yarn. When present to any appre-
ciable extent they are the cause of serious defects when
the yarn or cloth containing them has to be dyed or printed.
The convolutions in Egyptian and American cottons are
more regular and the development more perfect than in other
descriptions, which fully accounts for the acknowledged
superiority of these varieties. The naked eye is incapable
of distinguishing these twistings, but the microscope shows
them to amount to from one hundred to three hundred an
inch, and closer investigation would probably show a wider
variation than even this.

It will interest the reader to have placed before him the
results of some very recent researches into the structure of
the cotton fibre. These have been conducted by Mr. John
Butterworth of Shaw, and were first made public in a
paper read before the Oldham Microscopical Society, on
April 10th in the current year (1883), and communicated to
the present writer for publication in the " Textile Manu-
facturer." In the year 1863 Mr. Charles O'Neil of Man-
Chester, well known as a writer on tinctorial matters, had
been conducting some researches in connection with the
cotton fibre and its behaviour under certain chemical
agents. In employing Schweitzer's solution (an ammo-
niacal solution of oxide of copper) for dissolving cotton and
other forms of cellulose, he made numerous experiments
upon the former, watching its action upon the fibre by
means of the microscope. In the course of these he thought
he could discern four distinct parts of the fibre — 1st, the
outside membrane, which did not dissolve in the solution ;
2nd, the real cellulose beneath, which dissolved, first swel-

50 COTTON SPINNING.

ling out enormously and dilating tlie outside membrane ;
3rd, spiral fibres, apparently situated in or close to the
outside membrane, not readily soluble in the copper liquid,
and which were not so elastic as the matter of the outside
membrane, and acting as strictures upon it ; these pro-
duced bead-like swellings of a most interesting appearance ;
and 4th, an insoluble matter occupying the core of the
cotton hair, which very much resembled the shrivelled
matter in the interior of qaills prepared for making pens.
Mr. O'Neil noted at the same time that the outside mem-
brane, which was insoluble in the menstruum and imper-
meable to it, could not be found on cotton which had been
submitted to the usual bleaching process. It had been
dissolved away, or, what seemed more probable, some pro-
tecting resinous varnish had been removed, and then it
became soluble. These conclusions of Mr. O'Neil were
questioned some time afterwards by Mr. Dancer, an eminent
microscopist of Manchester, who repeated Mr. 0' Neil's ex-
periments, and saw what he saw, but concluded that the
spirals seen did not exist in the cotton fibre, but were
formed by the rotating or twisting of the hair under the
influence of the solvent. The disputed point has, however,
recently been further investigated and authoritatively set
at rest by the researches of Mr. Butterworth, who has
strongly confirmed the conclusions of Mr. O'Neil. Mr.
Butterworth carefully observed the behaviour of the fibre
while under the influence of the solvent, with various
powers ranging from 100 to 1,600 diameters, and saw it
clearly as represented in (1) of the annexed illustration.
Fig. 17. The longitudinal stria were scarcely perceptible
at from 300 to 400 diameters. Though the Fig. at d may
be slightly overdrawn, the spiral threads were clearly seen
apparently crossing in the manner shown, as well as being
tightly bound round the fibre at irregular distances, C form-
ing the bead-like swelling referred to by Mr. O'Neil. If
the solution is strong, this swelling of the cellulose is per-
formed so rapidly, as to burst these bands, and the field of

COTTON.

the microscope becomes covered with them in broken cir-
clets. If the solution be only of moderate strength, the
swelliDg of the cellulose goes on slowly, and its striated
appearance comes into view beautifully. When strictures
occur near the end of the fibre the cellulose protrudes from
the end, forming a fan-like appearance, yet retaining its
striated character, as shown at A. The spiral threads
are often seen passing from one stricture to another, as
shown at b, and under a high power it can be seen that the

IC 1
IC2

■^^^^tev

^^'iX .

^p"'"

ffi\"^^ 1

'^^

Fiff. 17/ Magnified view of cotton fibre.

rapid swelling of the cellulose has burst them asunder, the
ends of each thread showing that they have been torn
violently apart, as seen at c. In some instances the solu-
tion is not powerful enough to throw the cellulose into the
bead-like form, but it takes out the natural twist and gives
it a cylindrical form. Under these circumstances the
core of the fibre can be seen having the spiral form, as
shown in 2. Seen in transverse section, the fibres take
the appearance of concentric rings, 3 and 4, a state in
which they have been recorded by Mr. Walter Crura, an

52 COTTON SPINNING.

emment calico printer of Manchester. In referring to the
waxy covering of the fibre which is removed by bleaching,
Mr. Batter worth stated his belief that its scanty or abun-
dant presence would be found materially to affect the work-
ing capabilities of cottons ; also that as long as it is present
a perfect bleach cannot be obtained.

The above is a condensed statement of Mr. Butter worth's
views upon this interesting subject. The illustration, how-
ever, reveals a few additional points and suggests some
further thoughts. The structure of a fibre of cotton is
shown by these drawings to be exceedingly complex, and
it may fairly be inferred that all is even not yet known.
The function or purpose of these curious threads appears
to be to impart strength to the tube or fibre, to preserve it
from rupture during the period of growth, when the vital
circulation of fibre is most active, and the deposited cellu-
lose least consolidated. It may be safely assumed that
the core of the fibre showing a spiral form consists of the
cellulose held in suspension in the circulating fluid, at the
moment circulation and deposition ceases, which is when
maturity is attained. The absorption and dessication of
the fluid leaves the solid cellulose behind in a thin shrivelled
film precisely as pointed out by Mr. O'Xeil in the analogous
phenomenon seen in a dried quill. The transverse sec-
tions, 3 and 4, are exceedingly instructive, and appear to
fully substantiate the argument laid down a few pages
back relating to the phenomenon of growth. The con-
centric circles prove that growth is orderly and progres-
sive, while at the same time it is liable to be affected by
external conditions. Were growth perfectly steady and
at a uniform rate, the deposit of cellulose upon the inter-
nal surface of the fibre would be continuous, and would not
show the laminated form seen in these cases. These divi-
sions register, in all probability, periods of interrupted
growth arising from atmospheric changes, such as falls in
the temperature, great heats, or droughts, all of which so
visibly affect plant life. During these periods of arrested

COTTON.

development the cellulose already deposited has time to
solidify or harden to such an extent, that when growth is
resumed only an imperfect union can be established be-
tween the layer previously deposited and the one which
then commences to be formed. The phenomena revealed
by Messrs. O'N'eil and Butterworth accord in every detail
with those of vegetable life in every other department.
The concentric circles shown in the sections are precisely
like the rinofs exhibited in the cross section of the stem or

Animal fibres and sections.

trunk of a tree, and which mark the season's growths ; the
longitudinal fibres have their analogues in the fibres of the
flax, hemp, jute, and other plants of a kindred nature,
where greater strength is required to enable the plant to
attain to maturity and to propagate itself than could easily
otherwise be attained wiihout the expenditure of additional
material. This would have been a wasteful act, of which
Nature, as the most perfect economist, is never guilty.
Whether the reader agree with these conclusions or not,

COTTON SPINNING.

it will readily be admitted that the phenomena are interest-
ing, and a knowledge of them can hardly fail to be advan-
tageous.

It will interest the student of spinning to see in what
respects the fibre of cotton differs from fibres of animal
origin. The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 18 and 19) of
various classes of wools and hairs afford the means of
making this comparison : A represents a fibre, and longi-

ij^

F G HI

Fig. 19. Animal fibres and sections.

l,i?

cndinal section of another, of merino wool ; b similarly
shows the Southdown wool, one of the finest and shortest
of English wools ; c and d Leicester and Lincoln wools, or
the long wools of this country, one portion of which are
also known as lustre wools, extensively used in the Brad-
ford trade. A common, coarse wool is shown in f ; whilst
G represents goat's hair. H shows a fibre of mohair ; i,
cowhair; and J, human hair. The finest wools are from
^^^ to -5--^ inch in diameter, and contain from 2,600 to

COTTON. bo

2,900 serrations in the inch ; medinm fine wools are from
._^ to y-^-g- inch in diameter, and contain from 2,000 to
2,500 serrations per inch. Coarse wools include all below
.^-L^ in diameter, and a corresponding diminution of the
serrations.

The knowledge acquired during the progress of the art
of cotton manufacturing has resulted in establishing cer-
tain general principles or truths relating to the art which
cannot be disregarded when it is desired that the best
possible results should be the outcome of the operation.
These may be briefly summarized as follows : —

That the selected cotton should be as uniform in quality
as possible — that is, in the length, strength, diameter, and
convolutions of the fibre, — and should be uniform in soft-
ness and colour. When, from economical considerations,
it is advisable to mix different varieties in order to lessen
the cost, regard must still be had to this principle, in order
to secure the most perfect combination of the fibres, the
gi'eatest product in yarn, the least in waste, and the thread
of the yarn uniformly solid, round, even, and strong.

Cotton should be thoroughly " mixed," even when only
one class is used — that is, the contents of the difi'erent
bales should be spread in thin alternate layers upon each
other, in order to modify any accidental difi'erence in the
bales arising from any cause, such, for instance, as care-
less or wilfully false packing. When several varieties are
used, this is absolutely necessary, in order to secure
thorough incorporation, and a uniform condition in the
blend.

The raw material must be thoroughly "opened," and
cleaned from impurities — that is, the matted fibres must be
disentangled, freed from sand, dust, seed, leaf, unripe
fibres, and any extraneous substance that may by accident
or otherwise have been introduced.

The fibres must next be laid in parallel order, and so
conducted through the successive stages of preparation
until that of spinning is reached. This must be accom-

66 COTTOX SPIXXIXG.

plished withont the fibre being strained, doubled, broken,
rolled, or otherwise injured. When cotton is strained, its
convolute form is to a great extent destroyed, the power
of the fibres to interlock with each other when being spun
is greatly diminished, and the strength of the yarn corre-
spondingly lowered.

The strength of a fibre of cotton is measured by the
weight it will raise without breaking. The maximum
possible strength of a yarn is the aggregate strength of
the fibres which compose it, as shown in a section. This,
however, can never be obtained in practice, it being a well-
known fact that torsion does not increase, but greatly
diminishes the strength of fibres to which it is applied.
This fact teaches ns that yarn should not be twisted more
than is necessary to secure the proper cohesion of its fibres
when under tension, if it be desired to obtain its maximum
of strength.

These are the scientific principles of cotton-spinning, as
demonstrated by all past experience, and the highest form
of the art is that in which they are most perfectly em-
bodied in practice. There are, however, few, if any, in-
stances in which the best result attainable is ever directly
sought. The economic question is always intruded, and
the problem resolves itself into one of how to make the
best article possible, consistent with securing a profitable
sale for the product. This, it will be obvious, is a very
different matter from the preceding one ; and as it con-
stantly confronts the practical spinner in the conduct of
his establishment, it ought to be thoroughly comprehended,
and its importance fully appreciated by the student of the
art, and the working men employed in each branch of
the trade.

THE MILL, 57

CHAPTER III.

The Mill.

Essentials of successful spinning — Divisions of the trade. — Selection
of locality ; supply of operatives ; proximity to markets for purchase of
raw materials and disposal of productions. — Site of mill ; sheltered
position, humidity, soil, water. — Roads ; advantages of proximity to
residences of workpeople. — Materials decided by circumstances. — Sys-
tems of construction. — Illustration. Fire-proof mill ; points of impor-
tance in structiu-e. — Arrangement of interior. — Engines ; transmission
of power to machiner}^ ; gearing, belting, ropes, advantages and dis-
advantages. — Arrangement of machinery. — Steam and Avater power. —
Boilers and their adjuncts. — Care against corrosion. — Incrustations ;
their variety, danger, and wastefulness ; soda, sometimes a remedy j
economical heating.

COMPETITION" in the cotton trade is now so severe,
both at home and abroad, that anyone newly adven-
turing therein cannot afford to neglect the slightest matter
that may be conducive to success. If possible the beginner
should start with a sufficiency of capital to secure a perfectly
new establishment, well found in every respect, and have a
balance left large enough to conduct its commercial opera-
tions with advantage. Without a level beginning, the
chances of success are proportionately diminished. The
locality must be well chosen, the site of the mill carefully
selected, the mill well constructed, the machinery must be
of the best for its particular purpose, the management must
be skilful, economical, and thoroughly honest. The mana-
ger must be perfectly versed in the practical details of his
business, and able to manage men as well as machines.
The commercial division of the business must be con-
ducted with skill, prudence, foresight, and a fair share of
enterprise. Old methods of procedure must not be re-

58 COTTON SPINOTNG.

fcained from an excess of conservative sentiment when it is
obvious that they have been superseded by improvements ;
and machinery must not be retained in work, though in-
trinsically in good condition, when mechanical invention
has rendered it virtually obsolete. Anyone not willing
to recognize and act upon these truisms had better not
invest his means in the cotton trade. Technical, scien-
tific and commercial knowledge, combined with steady
industry and prudent enterprise, are required to ensure
success.

The following pages will be devoted to an exposition
of the means whereby, from the materials employed, the
highest quality and the greatest quantity of production
may be obtained at the smallest cost. This task will be
rendered all the more easy by the fact that there is no
antagonism in the methods : what conduces to one result
being equally favourable to the other.

The mechanical treatment of cotton — the processes it
undergoes in its transformation into yarn — take place in
the mill. This, to most readers of the present essay, will
be a familiar edifice, though all may not be acquainted
with the essential qualities of a good or first-class mill, nor
with the conditions by which it should be surrounded.

Cotton-spinning is divisible into three or four branches :
the fine trade, chiefly located in Manchester and immediate
neighbourhood, in which the finest cotton yarns are pro-
duced ; the medium fine trade, of which Bolton is the
great centre, and which is also found to some extent in
Chorley and Preston ; the medium trade, which constitutes
the great bulk of the cotton industry, and is principally
located in South-east Lancashire, and to a considerable
extent in the weaving districts of East Lancashire ; the
coarse trade which has its seat mainly in Oldham, Koch-
dale, Todmorden, and the Eossendale Valley districts, and
the waste trade spinning up the refuse material of the
preceding branches, which is almost concentrated in
Oldham.

THE MILL. 69

Having decided which branch to follow, this will, to
some extent, decide the selection of the locality ; this in
all cases ought to be a place in which an abundant supply
of trained and experienced hands can be had. Consistently
with this, it should be in near proximity to the principal
markets for the purchase of raw materials, and the sale of
the produce ; the cost of carriage inward and outward,
rather than distance merely, being the point on which a
favourable decision should hinge. The first is necessary
to success, as without it the production will be less than it
ought to be, thereby being burdened with a heavier pro-
portion of the fixed expenses of the establishment than is
that which comes from competing mills which yield a
high average ; the quality of the article produced will be
inferior, and will therefore sell for less money ; the amount
of waste will be excessive, and the depreciation of the
working plant unduly rapid. The important character of
these considerations, which relate mainly to the internal
economy of the establishment, will be obvious without
further remark. The second is connected chiefly with the
commercial conduct of the business, and is important, on
the ground that carriage charges for material or product
should not be a tax upon the profits ; but its chief value
consists in affording facile access to the markets in order
that the persons charged with the duty of buying and
selling may always be on the spot to take advantage of
momentary phases of weakness or strength that may pass
over the market : the former offering advantages in buying,
the latter in selling. If other circumstances than these
decide the selection of locality, care should betaken to see
that they fully compensate for the loss that will arise from
the absence of these advantages. The satisfactory deter-
mination of these points is extremely important, because
it can easily be demonstrated that it would be more pro-
fitable to plant a mill in a locality possessing skilled
labour and in proximity to the markets, paying full prices
for buildings and machinery, and providing a sufficiency of

60 COTTON SPINNIXG,

working capital, tlian it would be to accept one of the
same capacity as a free and untrammelled gift, but located
in a place not possessing these advantages. At the end of
a period of fifteen or twenty years the proprietor of the
former would be able to retire with a fortune, whilst the
owner of the second would be penniless, or only the pos-
sessor of a worn-out mill, which it would be folly to work
in competition with such as the first. The truth of this
statement has many times been amply demonstrated.

The locality having been decided upon, an appropriate
site needs to be found. A few practical considerations,
which should always be carefully attended to, will help to
settle this .point. Cotton, it is well known, spins and
weaves best in a warm humid atmosphere. A valley pro-
tected from dry winds and open to moist ones will there-
fore a flPord eligible sites ; in other words, having particular
application to the English manufacturing districts, it should
be sheltered on the east and north, and open to the west
and south. The subsoil should be of stiff impervious clay,
which will afford a solid foundation for the mill, and in
the vicinity retain the rain-fall, as it were, in a subterra-
nean reservoir, evaporation from which in the dryest
seasons will moisten and soften the atmosphere of the
locality — a great advantage at such times.

An abundant and never-failing supply of water is an
essential requisite, otherwise space for an artificial reser-
voir will be required ; the latter will be best and most
economically formed on a clay subsoil.

Good roads giving easy access for cartage jDurposes, and
to and from the residences of the ojoeratives, are impor-
tant. The site should be within such a distance, of the
homes of the latter as would permit all employed to go to
meals and return within the time legally provided for that
purpose. Of course there will always be some exceptions,
in which operatives will come from too great a distance to
permit of this, and provision has then to be made for
allowing food to be taken upon some part of the premises

THE MILL. 61

not amenable to the visits of the factory inspector, or where
the law would be liable to be violated, entailing responsi-
bility upon the owner. This state of matters always en-
tails some extra supervision, and consequently cost andrisk.
A short walk in the open air, such as is had by going
home to food, is always invigorating and promotive of
health amongst the operatives, and ought, in all cases
where practicable, to be encouraged. It refreshes them
and breaks the monotony of their labour, to which they
afterwards return with renewed strength.

The fittest material for the edifice will be decided by
the circumstances of the locality. If stone lies in close
proximity and can be easily quarried, it constitutes an ex-
cellent, durable and cheap material. When stone is not
conveniently near, and the site selected contains clay from
which bricks can be made, these will generally be found
the most economical and suitable article. Should it be
necessary to provide a reservoir for water, any clay exca-
vated for this purpose, and also that obtained from the
foundation trenches, will be available for this use.

The systems of construction are various, and circum-
stances will best decide which shall be adopted. Mills have
ordinarily been erected on the non-fire-proof system, but
this of late years has become almost obsolete. Another
method is the partial fire-proof plan, in which the portion
most liable to destruction by fire — until recently considered
that part of the mill in which the preparatory machinery
is located — is constructed as far as possible without timber.
Of late, however, in consequence of the acceleration of the
speed in every department, and especially in the spinning-
rooms, both for mule, throstle, and ring frames, the risk of
fire has been rendered equally great in these departments.
The experience of the past 'few years, which has afi'orded
many examples of this fact, has established the public pre-
ference for the most modern plan, in which the whole
structure is made as nearly fire-proof as possible.

As an illustration of this system of mill architecture, a

62 COTTON SPINNING.

plan, longitudinal and cross sections (Figs. 20, 21, 22) are
given. These were prepared from drawings kindljfurnished
by A. H. Stott and Sons, mill architects of Manchester and
Oldham, and will adequately represent the method of con-
struction such as now prevails throughout the spinning
districts of South Lancashire.

To facilitate description, let it be assumed to be the plan
of an actually existing mill. On this supposition the
dimensions of the main portion of the structure are
295 ft. X 125 ft. It has four flats and a cellar. The
four flats are of sufficient capacity to contain 75,000 mule
spindles with adequate preparatory machinery. The foun-
dations are of coarse rubble on one foot of mortar concrete.
Those on which the columns immediately rest are of flag-
stones. The walls are composed externally of pressed
brick, and internally of common brick. The window
sashes are glazed in the lower part with rough plate, and
in the upper part with clear glass. The floors are sup-
ported upon cast-iron columns, in which brackets or arms
are cast. To these are secured rolled iron beams, the ob-
ject being to get two arches in place of one. Each pillar
bracket is connected with the next by an arch beam, to
form a complete continuation between the pillars and in
the direction of the brackets. The brick arches are 7 inches
thick at the base, diminishing to 4i- inches at the crown.
They are turned between the beams. Timber joists 2^-
inches deep are laid across the beams, and the space be-
tween filled up with concrete. When this has become
thoroughly dry, the floors are laid with li inch deal boards
nailed to the joists. Boarding is, in many respects, pre-
ferable for all floors except cellars and blowing-room. The
floor of the cellar should be composed of bricks laid on
puddled clay, with passages formed of cement concrete or
flag-stones. The roof is constructed in the same manner
as the floors, but the concrete is laid level, and then covered
with two coats of asphalt, each i. inch thick. These coats
are turned up the wall 18 inches all round, and protected

To face page G2.

Fig. 20. Plan of Cotton Mill. Ground Floor.

To /•ice page G2.

64 COTTON SPINNING.

from the weather by a dwarf brick wall built inside on the
asphalt. Constructed thus, the roof forms a reservoir
capable of containing 6-12 inches water. The object of
this is to render it thoroughly fire-proof. A greater depth
of water is sometimes preserved, and arrangements made
for utilizing it at a moment's notice in the event of fire.
When this is adopted, conduit pipes are laid to and around
the interior of each room, and provided with the necessary
taps. The stair-case is composed of stone treads with
cast-iron risers.

The roof of the engine-house is fire-proof, and supported
on large rolled iron girders ; that of the boiler-house is
of ordinary construction, containing ventilators. The
chimney is planned for an altitude of 210 feet, with an
external diameter of 17 feet, and an internal one of 8 feet,
tapering to an external diameter of 9 feet 10 inches, and
an internal one of 7 feet 6 inches at the top.

The points of chief importance in the construction of a
cotton mill, and which require careful attention in pro-
viding, are a solid bed for foundations, sound bricks or
durable stone, and good mortar. The walls should be
thoroughly true, well set, and quite perpendicular, and of
such strength as to reduce vibrations to a minimum. Win-
dows should be large to secure abundant light. The floors
should be so constructed that no cavities are left in them
to afford lodgment for loose " fly," waste, and similarly dan-
gerous matter, that is liable to spontaneous ignition, and
may result in the burning of the structure. The inner
surfaces of the walls ought to be smooth and even, in order
to prevent " fly " collecting upon the inequalities, whence,
by a sudden inrush of wind on the opening of a door or
window it might be blown upon a gas jet, and a conflagra-
tion ensue. Every care should be adopted to secure im-
munity from the latter contingency, which means the
absolute destruction of so much capital. In many cases
a mistaken notion prevails that a proprietor is recouped
by means of insurance against the danger, but this is not

j : :iUB Qi .. j a

66 COTTON SPINNING.

the case. The insurance premium is a heavy tax upon the
earnings of a mill, but though a wise provision, and one
that ought never to be neglected, it does not diminish the
disaster to the extent of a shilling. A proprietor who has
his mill destroyed after the payment of the first premium,
and receives the full value, has simply received engaged
contributions from the profits of other mills to make good
his loss. If this subject was thoroughly understood and
its importance fully appreciated, it would lead to more pre-
cautions being taken to prevent fire, and to promptly ex-
tinguish it when it has broken out. This might easily be
done at less cost than the amount of one annual premium,
and the liability to destruction be reduced one-half in
consequence, whereby a great reduction in the fire-tax
ought to be obtained.

Returning to the description of the mill : the arrangement
of the interior is as follows : — The ground-floor contains
the blowing-room, carding-room, warehouse, offices, and
entrance lodge. Over the carding-room are three spinning
rooms of equal dimensions. Above the blowing-room and
warehouse are situated the mixing-room for cotton, and
store rooms for sundries. Partially over the mixing-room
is the bale-room, provided with a door opening on the end
of the mill, and fitted with a self-acting hoist. Level with
the bale -room is the reeling-room, and over these is a
twining or doubling-room. The boiler-house at the back
of the mill contains five Lancashire boilers 30 feet long
and 7 feet diameter, each having two circular flues 2 feet
9 inches diameter at the firing end, tapering to 2 feet
4 inches. Behind the fire are inserted six Galloway tubes.
The boilers are fed with water from the hot well of the
engine. Behind each boiler is fixed a fuel economizer of
ten pipes width : in all 360 pipes. Passing through these,
under the waste heat from the furnaces, the feed-water
attains a temperature of 280° F. before reaching the
boilers. The latter are usually worked at a pressure of
90 lbs.

THE MILL. ^7

The engines are of the tandem type, with low pressure
cylinders in front and high pressure behind, on the same
piston ; the former are 40 inches diameter, the latter 21
inches. The stroke is 6 feet. The air-pump is situated
nnder the slides of the piston-rod, and is worked by a bell-
crank lever ; it has a stroke of 3 feet. The condenser
stands by the side of the air-pump. The ordinary vertical
type of the latter is still the most popular amongst prac-
tical men. The fly-wheel is 30 feet diameter ; its periphery
is 5 feet 6 inches broad, and is grooved for the reception
of twenty-three ropes. The grooves are V-shaped, and of
such depth that the ropes do not touch the bottom. The
ropes are of hemp or cotton, the latter proving most dura-
ble in wear ; they are made in different ways. In the
centre of and extending around its periphery are cast a
set of cogs for barring the wheel round ; these can also be
used for moving it by a small bar-and-ratchet arrange-
ment.

Power is transmitted directly from the engine to each
compartment of the mill by means of the above-mentioned
ropes, which are received by a grooved drum fitted upon
shafts that extend throughout the length of the mill. In
the carding-room the central shaft driven from the engine
is turned by five ropes, and makes 220 revolutions a
minute. Two other shafts, one on each side, run parallel
with the central one, and are driven from it by ropes at
the same speed. The shaft nearest the rear of the mill
supplies the motive power to the carding engines ; the
middle shaft to the drawing frames, slubbing frames, and
intermediates ; whilst the one furthest from the engine
drives the roving frames, the willows, and the openers.
In the spinning rooms the shaft driven by the engine ex-
tends the length of the mill, and makes 220 revolutions a
minute. In the top room a shaft is carried over the ware-
house part, and drives the twining-jennies. The bale-
room, which receives the raw cotton as it is hauled in from
the mill yard by means of the automatic hoist, is provided

68 COTTON SPINNING.

with openings in the floor, bound with cast-iron frames,
having covers of the same material. Similar provision is
made in the mixing-room for passing the raw material to
the blowing-room. At the corner of this room nearest the
chimney is a dust-flue for carrying away the dirt and sand,
separated from the cotton by the willows, openers, and
scutchers.

The system of transmitting power by means of ropes is
of quite recent introduction, having been originated, we
believe, in the north of Ireland amongst the flax mills,
whence it was shortly introduced into Scotland, and
thence quickly found its way into the cotton manufactur-
ing districts. When it was comparatively little known
the present writer, through the medium of the Textile
Manufacturerr, drew the attention of the trade to its gieat
advantages. These were so obvious, that in public esti-
mation it has now taken the lead of either the old system
of gearing or the more modern one of belt driving.

In first cost it is fully 30 per cent, less than either ge^ir-
ing or belts ; it is free from the great risk and danger
attending the fracture of gearing, and is clean and noise-
less in operation, adding much to the comfort of the
workers, diminishing the cost of superintendence, and to a
great extent obviating " break-downs," with their desti uc-
tive results and disorganization of business. The ropes
are always suflB.cient in number to allow of one or two
being thrown off, if need be, for replacing when worn, or
tightening when slack, which is done by cutting a portion
out and splicing the ends together. A rope can be thrown
off any meal time, and be got ready for replacing by the
time the next stoppage occurs, the engine running and the
mill working just as usual in the meantime.

The machinery is arranged with a view of rendering the
processes consecutive, and to incurring the least possible
cost for handling the cotton as it passes through. For a
mill of the dimensions indicated, and designed for spinning
what are known as Oldham counts, two willows and two

THE MILL. 69

openers are reqnired to serve twelve single beater scutchers.
These provide laps for fifty-four double carding engines,
50 inches on the wire. Sufficient sliver is produced on
these to supply nine drawing frames of three heads of six
deliveries each, which in their turn serve nine slubbing
frames of eighty spindles each, whilst the latter give full
employment to twelve or thirteen intermediates of 124
spindles each, the production of these being taken by forty
roving frames of 168 spindles each. In a mill spinning
32®. warp yarn and weft to correspond, the above-
named preparatory machinery suffices to supply the com-
plement of spindles, about 70,000. Twining or doubling
is a subsequent process.

In England steam is usually the motive power employed
for driving a mill ; on the continent and in America water-
power obtained from falls and running streams is often
used. The varying quantity and the uncertainty of the
supply, however, renders this an unreliable source of
power. Of recent years, therefore, auxiliary steam power
has frequently been laid down where it was not desirable
that the processes of manufacture should be interrupted.

There are many varieties of boilers, differing in construc-
tion and details according to the views of the respective
makers, but into these the limits of space will not allow us
to enter. The same objection applies to all discussion of
what may be termed the adjuncts of boilers, such as fur-
naces, fuel economizers, injectors, water and steam gauges,
&c. A few general remarks must suffice.

In furnishing a mill the boiler power should be suffi-
ciently ample to leave a good margin beyond all demands,
besides a spare boiler, to be used when the others are being
cleaned, or are undergoing repairs. The best form of
boiler is that whicb will generate steam the most quickly
with the least consumption of fuel. It should be of good
form, so as to possess an equal power at all parts of resisting
pressure. It should be well and equally stayed. All
valves, gauges, &c., should be simple, not liable to get out

70 COTTON SPINNING.

of order, and be easily accessible for inspection and repair ;
every necessary for tbeir safe and proper working should
be provided and be close at hand. The boiler-house should
be rain-proof, and the boiler be carefully guarded against
water in contact with its external surface, by which it might
be corroded and weakened. Internal corrosion, the most
frequent cause of boiler explosions, can be reduced to a
minimum by the use of a good feed-water heater, in which
the supply of water should be raibcd to a temperature of
about 200 degrees before it is injected into the boiler. This
heat expels the atmospheric air, the oxygen of which is
the chief source of corrosion. The best plan of all would
be to render boiler plates incorrodible by the application
of a coating of magnetic oxide, which would increase the
safety and durability of the boilers very greatly. Of late
years great improvements have taken place in the construc-
tion of valves and gauges, and every boiler should be fitted
with the best forms, incorrodible, and secure against being
tampered with. Gauges should be cleared from sediment
by frequent blowing out.

Incrustations in the boiler are a source of expense, trouble,
and great danger. The nature of incrustations differs
according to the nature and quantity of the minerals with
which the water supplied to the boilers may be charged.
This varies in different districts. An enormous waste of
fuel results from the presence of scale or incrustation. A
deposit of -^ in. thick, will require the consumption of 15
per cent, more fuel, and i in. 60 or 70 per cent., whilst
scale of ^in. thickness would require 150 to 170 percent,
more than would be needed to obtain a given pressure of
steam without them. According to experiments that have
been made in the United States steam can be generated to
maintain a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch, with the
water heated to about 320°F., which, with a well-constructed
boiler having -L in. plates, will require a furnace heat of
about 5° over this. When scale is present, however, the
heat required is enormously increased, so that in the pre-

THE MILL. 71

sence of scale i in. thick, the furnace temperature would
require to exceed 700*^. This, of course, no boiler could
be safely put to. From this it would be obvious that for
economical and safe working, boilers ought to be kept care-
fully cleaned. The formation of scale is a great annoyance,
and its removal a source of difficulty and severe labour,
having usually to be chipped oflP by hammer and chisel.
Deposits which do not cake and form scale are much more
easily removed, and the chief objects of anti-incrustation
articles is to secure that all deposits shall be laid in the
form of friable dust which can be blown ofi. Necessarily
the chemicals employed to effect this purpose must be varied
in different districts according to the chemical constituents
of the waters in use. An eminent firm in Manchester has
found an efficient remedy in the addition of a little carbo-
nate of soda or soda ash to the feed water, the water thus
being preserved in an alkaline state. For over fifteen
years this has enabled them to do without chipping any
boiler on their premises.

The construction of the boiler seat should be such as to
utilize the heat of the furnace to the fullest possible extent,
and to prevent all loss by reducing radiation to a minimum.
To secure these ends care must be directed to bringing the
heat from the furnace into contact with the boiler surface
wherever practicable, and that which is unused after pas-
sage through the flues ought to be utilized for heating the
feed water before it escapes up the chimney. All the materials
employed for the lining of the boiler seat ought to be
non-conductors of heat.

A regard for economy, efficiency, and durability should
govern every step decided upon in the arrangement and
construction of a mill from the choice of site, through the
erection, and down to the smallest detail of the mechanism.

The construction of the furnace, the plan of the bars,
and the use of mechanical stokers in order to secure the
perfect combustion of fuel, are matters demanding careful
investigation and consideration. These are, to some ex-

72 COTTON SPINNING.

tent, dependent npon the kind of boiler employed, bnt of
all there are several varieties to select from, and approxi-
mate efficiency can be easily attained.

Engines are obtainable now in almost any conceivable
type to suit requirement, but for turning a cotton mill the
old vertical form, or beam engine, or the more modern
horizontal are generally selected as the most reliable, econo-
mical and durable. In both these makes a high degree of
excellence has been obtained, and the purchaser will have
no difficulty in suiting his requirements.

There are three principal means of transmitting motive
power, by gearing, belting, and ropes. The first i^ the one
which has been in vogue for a long time, and it has until
quite recently maintained the lead in public estimation,
but more from the absence of competitors than from its in-
trinsic merits. It is a crude system, and mechanical
engineers have never been able to eliminate its numerous
defects. It is costly in the first instance, expensive to
maintain, and liable to very destructive breakages. Its
minor evils are that it is dirty, noisy, and incommodious
for examination or repair. Nearly all these evils are
obviated when the plan of driving by belting is adopted.
The first cost, however, is not much reduced, as, owing to
the necessity of employing the best quality of material in
order to secure satisfactory results, and the high price of
leather, the expense closely approximates to that of gearing.
Sometimes cotton belting is substituted with advantage.
Rope-driving is of more recent introduction. This system
possesses advantages over both the preceding: in first cosb,
which is much less, in freedom from liability to break
down, in facility for effecting repairs, and probably, though
on this point the opportunities of satisfactory tests have
hardly yet been afforded owing to its novelty, in durability.

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERUL. 73

CHAPTER IV.

Manipulation of the Material.

Cotton spinning, definition. — Processes defined: ginning; packing;
aiixing ; willowing ; opening ; scutching ; carding ; combing ; drawing ;
slnbbing; intermediate; roving; spinning ; doubling. — Cotton testing;
test-book; mixing book. — Hand-labour superseded by machine-labour;
the operative a superintendent. — Cotton spinning : preparatory and con-
structiA'e processes. — Mixing ; preliminary examination and classification
■of the cotton ; large mixings better than small ones ; importance of secur-
ing equal lengths of staples ; process of mixing ; testing ; mode of using ;
prescribing mixings ; mixing in the lap. — Wiliowing or opening ; gene-
ral principles ; the Oldham willow, common and improved ; the Crighton
ijpener and its operation ; the porcupine ; the pneumatic feeding opener ;
an American opener.— The purposes of opening. — Injuries arising from
adulteration.— Injuries from excessive willowing. — Imperfections of the
willow ; better principles of the Crighton and the pneumatic feed
openers. - Scutching, its purpose ; importance of correct feeding in the
scutching machine ; the scutching machine, hand-fed ; trustworthy at-
tendants ; automatic weighing. — Influence of temperature and atmos-
pheric states on the weight of laps. — Lap-feeding; the piano feed, its
action.— The finisher lap machine, its function ; description. — Well
made laps ; causes of unequal laps. — A new automatic feed suggested.
— Clayton's lap roller. — Remarks : qualities of this class of machines ;
speeds ; construction ; cleansing ; oiling.

THE practical details of the art and the machinery
employed in it now demand consideration.
The manipulation or mechanical treatment of cotton in
all its processes up to the production of a cloth, after gin-
ning and baling in the country of growth, takes place in
the cotton mill. An enumeration and brief definition of
these processes at this point will obviate much repetition.

" Cotton spinning " implies in the aggregate every
operation involved in transforming raw cotton into yarn —

74 COTTON SPINNING.

that is, into a single twisted strand or thread composed of
cotton fibre. *' Spinning " has also a more restricted
signification, being used to denote the concluding process
of the series.

The writer, in another place,^ has defined the processes
of manipulation, mechanical and otherwise, that cotton
undergoes in being converted into yarn from the state in
which it is gathered from the plant, as follows : —

1st, " Ginning.*^ — This is usually performed in the
vicinity of the cotton plantation, the object being to remove
the fibre from the seed of the plant, and partially to cleanse
it from foreign matters.

2nd. ^^ Packing " or ^^ Baling." — After ginning, the lint
is in a loose state, and unfit for convenient transport to
distant markets ; hence it is necessary to compress it into
less space, which is ordinarily performed by means of
hydraulic presses. The package leaves the press in the
well-known form, technically called a bale, in which
state it passes through the markets to the hands of the
spinners.

3rd. " Mixing " is the blending of different varieties of
raw cotton, in order to secure economical production,
uniform quality and colour, and an even thread in any de-
sired degree. Even when using only one class or variety
of cotton, mixing is in a measure imperatively necessary,
in order to neutralize the irregularities of growth and im-
perfect classification found more or less in all grades of
cotton. It is the first operation in a cotton mill.

4th. ^^Willowing.'^ — This is a process of opening and
cleaning cotton which, except in the Oldham district, is
not much in vogue in modern mills, and is retained chiefly
for opening and cleansing low cottons, waste, &c.

5th. ^^ Opening.'' — In consequence of the heavy pressure
to which cotton is subjected in packing, the fibres become
strongly matted together ; the opening process is to

^ Art. " Cotton Manufactures," Spon's " Encyclopaedia of the Indus-
trial Arts, Manui'actures, and Commercial Products,"

MAXIPULATIOX OF THE MATERIAL. 75

loosen them, and to remove the heavier portion of the
foreign sn'bstances that maj be intermixed. It is the present
equivalent of willowing.

6th. ^^ Scutching ^' has a two-fold object, namely, the
further extraction of impurities, and the formation of a
" lap," which is a web or sheet of cotton formed in the
machine, and wound upon a small roller. In this web the
fibres lie in all directions.

7th. " Carding.'' — The foregoing operations have dealt
with cotton in the bulk. In carding, the process of opening-
is continued, but the material is treated in its individual
fibres, which are taken from the lap, further cleansed, and
laid in a position approximately parallel to each other,
forming a thin film, which is afterwards condensed into a
sliver — a round, soft, and untwisted strand of cotton. In
this process all short, broken, and immature fibre is, as far
as possible, removed.

8th. " CuTYibing " is used for the production of fine
yarns, or those of high quality. Its object is to obtain
uniformity in the length of the fibres undergoing prepara-
tion. To accomplish this, all those shorter than the re-
quired standard are combed away and rejected. It is not
ordinarily used for any but the above purposes.

9th. " Drawing y — In this operation, several slivers —
the product of the carding process — are combined, and
attenuated to the dimensions of one of the component
parts. The objects are to render the new sliver more uniform
in thickness, and to place the fibres more perfectly in
parallel order.

10th. ^^ Slabbing " is a process by which a further com-
bination of slivers is effected, and the objects of drawing
are more perfectly accomplished. The drawing or attenua-
tion of the strand is now carried so far that it becomes
necessary to twist it slightly, in order to preserve its
cohesion and rounded form.

11th. ^^ Intermediate^'''' or ^^ Second Sluhhing^'^ is in all
respects a repetition of the above, necessary in cases where

76 COTTON SPINNING.

the most even and clean yarn is required. It is not ordi-
narily used in the production of low numbers.

12th. " Roving^ — This is a continuation of the pre-
ceding, its principal object being to attenuate the sliver
still further. At this point, also, the latter receives addi-
tional twist, to enable it to bear the slight strain necessary
to draw it from the spool or bobbin without the formation
of uneven places.

13th. " Spinning.''^ — The concluding process of the series.
The sliver is here attenuated to the required fineness, and
is given the twist by which the thread is completely
formed.

14th. ^' Doubling, ^^ sometimes a separate business, but
more often an adjunct to the preceding, is a method of
combining two or more threads to form a single cord, and
is adopted in the production of many varieties of yarn
which are used for widely different purposes.

The processes thus briefly defined constitute the opera-
tions of cotton spinning, and carry us as far in the manu-
facture of the fibre as it is designed shall be included in
this treatise. It will be the object of the writer to describe
the best ways and means now in vogue for attaining the
end sought by each process, to point out defects where
such may be obvious, and, if possible, to suggest improve-
ments.

Cotton Testing. — It is a customary and a wise proceed-
ing to test each purchase of cotton to find the average loss
of weight upon the same classes of the material, or upon
the varieties that compose the mixing in use. A small
quantity — say 5 lbs. — is taken from each bale, and passed
in succession through the scutching machinery and the
card, beyond which the test is not carried, as the loss that
occurs after these passages is small, and can be easily esti-
mated. The parcel is carefully weighed after coming out
of each machine, and the particulars entered into a book
kept for the purpose, called the test or loss-book, which
thus becomes a valuable book of reference. The 5 lbs. of

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 77

cotton, on its passage through the opener or willow, pro-
bably loses 3 0Z3., reducing the weight of what remains to
4 lbs. 13 ozs. Its next passage is through the scutcher,
where it loses 2 ozs. more, the balance being 4 lbs. 11 ozs.
The lap machine is the next passage to which it is sub-
mitted, and in this it most likely drops 1 oz. more ;
balance, 4 lbs. 10 ozs. Supposing there to be a finisher
lap machine after the last-named, the loss on its passage
through this will again be 1 oz. more, reducing the bulk
to 4 lbs. 9 ozs., or thus far a loss of 7 ozs. = 8^ per cent.

A second useful book in the cotton room is the mixing-
book, in which are entered the dates of every cotton pur-
chase, the quantity, marks, and numbers of the bales, and
the gross, tare, and net weight of each bale at the time of
receipt. If the cotton is suspected of being damp, each
bale ought to be weighed again just before being used, and
any difference recorded, for which either claims may be
made, or the marks avoided in future purchases. The
price per lb. of each lot should also be attached, as this is
required to ascertain the cost of the mixing. Similar
entries must also be made for any waste that may be intro-
duced. In laying down the mixing, the quantity of each
sort must be carefully noted, the prices attached, and the
calculation extended, the totals added, and the sum divided
by the number of pounds the mixing contains, the result
being the average cost of the mixing put down. The test
sample of the mixing before spoken of will show the per-
centage of loss upon it, after which the cost is easily
calculable.

In the processes of manufacture the human hand, from
which the word is derived, and which formerly performed
nearly all the labour, has been almost entirely superseded
by machinery. Very little is now left for the operative to
perform, his or her task being reduced to one of scarcely
more than continuous supervision. From the mixing of the
cotton to the doffing of the yarn all the labour, strictly
speakmg, is accomplished by mechanical appliances. It

78 COTTOX SPINNING.

is important, however, that each machine should receive
the most careful attention from those in charge of it, other-
wise defects will occnr, and faulty work be the result.

The processes of cotton spinning are naturally divisible
into two portions : 1st. the preparatory ; 2nd. the construc-
tive. The first chiefly consists of the cleansing processes
by which the raw material is freed as far as possible from
sand, dust, seed, and leaf ; and short, immature, and unde-
veloped fibre. These include willowing or opening, scutch-
ing, carding, and sometimes combing. In the second divi-
sion is found carding, combing (where used), drawing,
slubbing, roving, and spinning. Mixing is the first pro-
cess, and does not, strictly speaking, come into either
division. It, however, is the first that requires attention.

Mixing. — The class, quality, and numbers of the yarn it is
intended to make having been decided upon, and purchases
of suitable material made, the first step to be taken is to
make a careful examination of all the stock of cotton pro-
posed to be used for the purpose in view, in order to be
assured that the proper quality has been received, and to
guard against mistakes that may have occurred in delivery,
errors of classification, false packing, and the differences
of quality that is usually found to arise from the contents
of the bales having been gathered at different periods of
growth. It is usually performed by drawing samples from
two or three parts of each bale, comparing these with others,
and classifying or grouping them into lots having similar
characteristics. Cotton gathered prematurely differs from
that which is properly ripe in having fewer convolutions
or " twists " in the fibre, and also in being softer and weaker.
That which has been left too long on the plant, which is, in
fact, over-ripe, is shrivelled by the excessive evaporation of
the natural moisture of the fibre, and is thereby rendered
hard and harsh, and combines badly with the softer and
more pliable fibres of properly ripe cotton. It needs a con-
siderable power of discrimination, which can only be acquired
by experience, to discover these differences. The person

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 79

entrusted witli the duty of classification ought to possess
keenness of sight and great sensitiveness of touch, which
he should carefully cultivate and develop to the highest
8tate of perfection attainable in his case. It is well to
make a mental note of the sensations experienced, and to
associate them with the quality of the result obtained in
the yarn. This examination and classification of cotton is
too often carelessly, perfunctorily, or ineflSciently performed,
and an unsatisfactory product is the result. It is probable
that if better attention was paid to grading the qualities
more perfectly, it would not be found, as now, that in the
best results spinners are only able to utilize about 25 per
cent, of the strength of the fibres entering into the compo-
sition of their yarns.

In order to secure uniformity of quality in the product
of a mill, it is best to lay down a mixing of cotton as large
as means and convenience will permit. One that will last
a month or six months is better than a small one that will
last only a week, as every mixing causes some slight
difference in quality or colour. Where the yarn is sold,
these variations tend to excite suspicion regarding the
good faith of the producer to his customer, and require on
the part of the latter a constant watchfulness in order to
prevent the changes proceeding to such an extent as to
render the purchase unfit for its intended purpose. This
suspicion will place any spinning at a disadvantage in the
market, and tend to reduce the profit of a mill. Good
management requires therefore that it should be avoided
as far as possible. This can only be done in the manner
indicated above.

Where different kinds of cotton are mixed together, the
greatest care should be exercised in the selection of the
staples, so that they may all be of one length, or as nearly
so as possible. If short and long staples are put together,
the result will be excessive waste and poor yarn ; for
rollers cannot be set to work two lengths of staple at one
time with advantaofe. If they are set for the long staple,

80 COTTON SPINNING.

the sliort will fall out and become waste ; if set for the
short, the long will be broken and also fall out ; and weak
and irregular yarn will be made. To combine the highest
quality in the product, with the greatest economy of pro-
duction, requires that long, short, or medium lengths of
staples should each be worked by themselves. When
waste is mixed with the cotton, which is practised in spin-
ning low numbers, or making inferior qualities, it should
be selected in this respect as like the cottons it has to be
worked with as possible.

In laying down or mixing, the cotton should be taken
from the bales and shaken loose upon the floor, covering
an area suitable to the intended size of the mixing. When
a layer of the first description of cotton has been put
down in tbis manner, another from the second kind should
be laid upon it, if the quantities of the sorts are equal,
taking care that they are of the same thickness ; after
this the third sort should be spread upon the top of the
second, and so on until a layer of each lot has been laid,
when the same course should be repeated until all the
cotton has been laid down that it is intended should be
included in the mixing. Sometimes, where only one or
two varieties of cotton are in use, it is taken straight from
the bale and passed through the willow without any pre-
liminary mixing ; but, from what has been already stated
regarding the nature of the fibre and the varying con-
ditions attendant upon its growth, this will be seen to be
exceedingly unadvisable.

Mixing is now occasionally performed by a machine in
the Oldham district, and with satisfactory results.

The magnitude and quality of the mixing having been
satisfactorily settled, the bales are taken from the classified
stock in proper quantities, the coverings removed, and the
cotton passed through the apertures in the floor to the men
in the room below, where it is spread over an area propor-
tionate to the size of the intended mixing. Sometimes
a space is railed off from the remainder of the room, and

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 81

divided into compartments, each of which is capable of
holding one mixing. The doors of those compartments
containing mixings not being used, are kept locked. By
this means they are prevented from being improperly used.
Each bale will form a layer, and the different qualities
included in the mixing will be superimposed in a regular
order, so as to secure the most perfect blending of the mass
in succeeding stages.

When the mixing is completed, it is generally tested
by taking a vertical section of the blend sufficiently large
to put through the different machines, in order to get the
result in yarn, which is carefully examined and compared
with that which is then being made ; or, better still, with
a standard sample of the class and quality it is desired to
maintain. The latter is the best plan, as in the former it
is possible to get far away from the desired quality by the
accumulation of small differences, imperceptible in them-
selves, but which are capable of changing the character
of the yarn when repeated a number of times. When thus
tested by this standard, should the new yarn be found
deficient in strength, cleanliness, or colour, a sufficient
quantity of the cotton possessing the requisite qualities to
bring it right is added to the mixing. In many establish-
ments, especially where high class qualities of yarn are
made, and it is imperative that its reputation should not
be lowered, a second, and even a third, testing will take
place before the result may be accepted as perfectly satis-
factory. Skill, experience, and care, however, often avail
to produce the required result, even without any pre-
liminary test ; but this is where few changes are made in
either the standard of cotton purchased or the counts of
yarn spun. Economical considerations, however, in these
days of keen competition and low profits, often render it
necessary to change the component parts or relative quan-
tities of the mixing ; and, in these cases, the application of
the test ought not to be neglected. Where low qualities
of yarn are spun, and waste is freely used, tests are seldom

82 COTTON SPINNING.

considered necessary ; thongli, if the desire exists, or
economical advantages would result from the production
of a yarn uniform in quality, the plan of testing ought to
be adopted.

The mixing having been found right in all the points
essential to quality, it is ready for use. It will be obvious
that were the supply required to feed the opener taken
from the top of the blend, all the purpose of the mixing
process would be defeated. To avoid this, the required
quantity is carefully and evenly drawn down from the sides
of the pile by a short-pronged rake, which secures a further
intermixture of the mass.

The component parts of the mixing will necessarily differ
according to the quality of yarn sought to be produced.
Experience is chiefly relied upon for the result ; and most
spinners of average skill are able to prescribe mixings with
great accuracy that shall answer the problem before them.
Still there is nothing like uniformity amongst them in
this respect, many affecting to keep the particulars secret.
The details given in a previous chapter show, in a general
manner, the adaptability of certain cottons for spinning
different numbers of yarn, and their suitability for admix-
ture with each other.

Some spinners prefer to mix their cottons in the lap,
especially when several varieties are used, and in equal
quantities, or other proportions, such as will easily com-
bine in the lap machine. In this plan it is usual to mix
each kind alone, as already described, and laps are made
from each mixing. Thus one lap each from three different
kinds of cotton may be placed in a single scutcher, and by
it united into one ; or two and one ; two and two, or any
other desired proportions.

WiL LOWING OR Opening. — This is the first of the prepa-
ratory processes. The name " willowing " is derived from
the treatment of cotton in the early days of manufacturing,
when, in order to cleanse the cotton, it was spread upon
an oblong frame, having a fine net of wire or other material

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERUL. 83

upon the bottom, on which the cotton was spread, when the
mass was beaten loose and the dust driven out through
the netting, by means of wands composed of twigs of
willow or osier : hence the name. The latter was retained
to describe the process when the means employed had
altogether changed, and it has also been transferred to
a particular machine now chiefly employed in the Oldham
district. Willowing, therefore, implies at the present time
the opening and cleansing of the raw material by me-
chanical appliances or otherwise. Of course the latter
hardly exists, except in semi-civilized countries, where the
primitive system of manufacturing still survives.

In England and other countries to which the English
system of manufacturing has extended, willowing and
opening is performed by several different machines, the
principle of which, however, is in all cases the same.
These differ only slightly in their arrangements, as all
contain a cylinder denominated the beater, and which is
arranged either horizontally or vertically, and either
parallel with or diagonally to the direction of the passage
of the raw material.

A brief explanation of these will best explain their con-
struction, mode of operation, and their respective merits as
openers and cleaners.

The common or Oldham willow is shown in the follow-
ing Figs. 23 and 24, in section and plan. It consists of a
cylinder, c, about forty inches diameter, and forty inches
wide across the face. This, mounted on a shaft furnished
with driving pulleys, rests in bearings in the framework.
Fitted on, and extending across its periphery, are several
rows of strong teeth or blunt spikes. A semi-circular
casing, internally furnished with rows of spikes similar to
the above, covers the upper part of this cylinder. The
lower portion is enclosed with a wire grid, constructed in
two parts, and hinged together. The back portion of this
grid is fixed to the frame, whilst the front or movable
part is hinged to the fixed part and is balanced by weights

COTTON SPINNING.

suspended by cords or straps which pass over pulleys
at each side, and which are attached to the end of the
grid. It is thus free to move up and down in an opening
in the front of the machine. An exhaust fan, /, is placed
behind the fixed part of the grid.

The operation is as follows : — The grid is let down, and
a quantity of cotton is placed upon it. It is then raised,

Fig. 23. Oldham Willow ; side elevation.

Fig. 24. Oldham V\'illow 5 plan.

and the cotton is thus brought into contact with the spikes
of the revolving cylinder, which dash it against the fixed
spikes on the internal face of the casing, loosening its
matted fibres, and freeing it from sand, dust, and foreign
matters which fall through the grid into the cavity below,
or are drawn away by the operation of the exhaust fan
and discharged through a tube into the air. After the
cotton has been subjected to this operation for a few

MANIPOLATION OF THE MATERIAL. 85'

seconds, the grid is let down, and the cotton discharged ;
the process is then repeated with fresh material. This is
the simplest form of the willow as it exists in use in these
districts.

The willow, however, of late years has undergone great
improvements. It is sometimes made with an automatic
motion to let down the grid when the cotton has been in
the machine for the proper length of time, and which can
be varied according to requirement. At other times it is
made continuous, as shown in the illustrations (Figs. 23,
24), by placing a feed cloth, a, in front, and a lattice
creeper, e, at the back, to carry away the cleansed cotton,
which is then ready for delivery to the scutcher.

A second and favourite machine in the trade is the well-
known Crighton Opener. This is a modification of the
cone willow. The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 25
and 26) show the structure in section and plan. As will
be seen, in the interior of the framework there is fitted a
conical grid, with its apex or small end downwards, and
resting on a cross rail at a short distance from the bottom.
On the top of the frame is fitted a tripod, which forms a
bearing for a vertical shaft carrying driving pulleys, and
descending through the centre of the grid to a footstep in
the cross rail. Mounted on this shaft are a number of
discs, h, the smallest at the bottom, and increasing in size
towards the top. Fixed on these are a series of steel
blades, whose function is the same as that of the spikes on
the cylinder and casing of the willow, to beat the cotton
against the vertical grid. At the top of the grid is an
orifice conducting to the dust cages. The space, c, between
the casing and the grid forms a cavity for the reception of
any foreign matter contained in the cotton. The machine
is fed by means of the tube, a, which may be introduced on
any side away from the attachment. The latter includes
the dust cages, four, /, lattice creeper, c2, and below the
dust cages a pair of small delivery rollers, and an exhaust
fan. The cages are hollow cylindrical wire frames, with

COTTON SPINNING.

the wires set sufficiently close to prevent the entrance of
the fibres of cotton, but wide enough to permit the dust to
be drawn away by the current. Only the portion of the

Fig. 25. Crighton Opener ; elevation.

Fig. 26. Crighton Opener ; plan.

cage opposite the orifice is left open, the remainder being
closed by an internal casing which follows the contour of
the cylinder.

The details of the process in this case are as follow : —

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 87

The cotton is fed into the tube, a, emer^ng therefrom into
the lower portion of the conical grid, where it comes into
contact with the beaters, h, which strike it against the
bars of the conical grid. This action loosens the mass of
fibre, and drives any sand, dust, or seed, and foreign sub-
stances left bj the gin, if not too large, through the grid
into the dust cavity, c, and thence to the bottom, e. The
cotton remains subject to the action of the beaters, until it
is opened sufficiently to admit of its being drawn upwards
and carried away by the suction of the fan, /, through the
orifice. Following the direction of the arrow towards the
dust cage, it is taken on by the rollers, and passed to the
lattice creeper, d, which discharges it upon the floor or into
a receptacle provided.

The porcupine is another opener, whose chief difference
from the willow, as described above, lies in the possession
of two cylinders for opening purposes laid parallel to each
other, the first of which has twelve rows of teeth, and the
second four. It is fed and discharged by lattice creepers,
and exhausted by the usual appliances.

Another opener combines therewith a scutcher and lap
machine. The inventors largely avail themselves of the
pneumatic principle seen in each of the preceding ones,
and use a current of air to bring the cotton along tubes
from any moderate distance. In the annexed illustration,
Fig. 27, the feeding is represented as taking place in
the room above the machine. An endless lattice, a, on
which the cotton is evenly laid, delivers it to two pairs of
rollers, B; the second pair of which revolves more quickly
than the first. These convey it to the tube where it
comes within the influence of the air current. Daring
its passage through this tube, sand, dust, dirt, small
stones, and all heavy or dangerous substances acciden-
tally present with the cotton, are dropped upon the bot-
tom of the tube. In order to secure the abstraction of
these, the inventors devised and patented a grated trunk.
Immediately between the feed table and the opener, several

COTTON SPINNING.

lengths of these grated tubes, c, are inserted. Seen in sec-
tions they are -shaped thus Q. Inside these, at short

distances apart, plates of sheet iron are placed athwart
and slightly inclined against the direction of the air cur-

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 89

rent, and reaching about half way to the crown of the tube.
The spaces between these plates form cells for the recep-
tion of extraneous matter, which, dropping out of the
cotton, is retained in them. It is removed daily through
the bottom of the tube, which is hinged for the purpose,
and opens downwards. These cells prove very efficient
dirt extractors, as is shown by the quantity of dust that
is taken out of those in the front, and its gradual
diminution towards the last, and by the small amount of
foreign matter afterwards thrown off in the opener and
scutcher.

The opener consists of a horizontal shaft, a, carrying a
series of accurately balanced arms, d, arranged radially
on the shaft at several inches apart. These arms are of
cast-iron with steel blades bolted firmly to their extremities.
The length of these arms is at the small end nearest the
tube about eighteen inches. It increases gradually as the
opposite end of the shaft is approached, terminating with
a length of 28 inches. When revolving, the arms describe
the figure of a cone. A conical grid, e, surrounds the beaters,
which is constructed by the junction of two rings of unequal
diameter connected by means of straight steel bars. This
grid can be moved endwise upon the shaft by means of the
wheel beneath the tube at the left extremity of the figure.
The bars are fixed at the delivery end, but are capable of
adjustment at the feed end in order to increase or diminish
the distance from the beater, according to the length of
staple or quality of cotton to be treated. On another
shaft, at the delivery end of the beater, is a powerful
disc fan, whose specific functions are to draw the cotton
from the extremity of the feed-pipe, through the beater,
to the dust-cages//'; after passage tlirough which
the cotton is received by two small rollers that deliver
it to the beater, g, of the scutcher, where it under-
goes further opening and cleansing by a process re-
sembling that received in the willow. It is then formed
into a sheet upon the cages, h h\ compressed between

90 COTTON SPINNING.

the rollers, i, and coiled into a lap in the lap-forming
attachment, H.

There are several other makes of cotton openers, but
almost all of them may be referred to the above in prin-
ciple, and differing only in some minor detail. In one
which stands in some favour in the United States, the
inventor, an Englishman long settled there, has endea-
voured to accomplish bj mechanical means the exact re-
sults achieved by the primitive method of whipping the
cotton with willow wands.

The question now arises which is the best of these
methods of cleansing and opening the raw material ? It
will be well for a moment to revert to the requirements
of the case. Cotton, as has already been made clear,
besides being matted together owing to its severe com-
pression for transit purposes, contains impurities of several
kinds, such as sand, dust, broken leaf, seed shells, and
short and immature fibre. It must not be omitted to recall
the convolute form of the fibre, nor to remark that there is
a soluble gum, which has received the name of cotton- wax,
coating the fibre ; the latter is present to the extent of
from one-third to one-half per cent. The purposes of this
process are to disentangle and separate the fibres from
each other, or to render them so loose as to readily take
up any new position in relation to each other that may
be required in subsequent operations ; and to remove,
without injury to the fibre, as much as possible of the
earthy impurities present, and also those of vegetable
origin. The former being of much greater specific gravity,
when permitted, easily fall away from the cotton ; but the
latter, being more nearly like the fibre, are separated with
difficulty, and only a small quantity can be taken out in
the opening process.

The accidental, or, as may be feared, too often fraudulent,
adulteration of cotton by means of sand has become one of
the most serious evils in connection with the trade. The
presence of sharp, angular particles of flint and other

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 91

matters of which sand is composed, entails not only the
loss of so much weight to the buyer, but it is the cause of
serious injury to the staple. It will be obvious that the
compression to which cotton is subject in the baling process
must, when sand is present, break and lacerate the fibre
by forcing the particles into or through them, thus injuring
the quality to an extent that has rarely been suspected.
Particles also are forced into the substance of the fibre, or
caused to adhere to the cotton-wax in such a manner that
the opening machine cannot clear it out, the effect being
that it is carried along through subsequent stages, to the
great detriment of the rollers of the drawing, slubbing,
intermediate and roving frames, which have their polished
surfaces scratched and roughened, and the leather cover-
ings of the front ones cut and damaged by its presence.
These defects increase the quantity of waste and deteriorate
the quality of the product. These facts ought to be
strongly pressed upon the attention of cotton-growers and
those who have the handling of the raw material before it
reaches the spinner. The removal of sand proves some-
times so difficult that it has been found to have passed
through all the preliminary stages and been discovered em-
bodied in the yarn.

When the convolute form of the fibre is considered, and
its preservation acknowledged to be essential to the pro-
duction of the best quality of yarn, it will be obvious that
all treatment in the opening process beyond that necessary
for the disentanglement of the fibrous mass and the sepa-
ration of the earthy particles must be excessive and inju-
rious to its peculiar structure. It ought, therefore, where-
ever practicable, to be carefully avoided.

The willow, even in its best form, is not quite adapted
to secure this end. It contains no provision for with-
drawing the material at the exact moment when the open-
ing and cleansing has been completed. The result must
depend upon the skill, care, and judgment of the attendant,
and as these are variable factors, liable to still greater

92 COTTON SPINNING.

variation in their exercise, the most perfect work cannot
be guaranteed. No arbitrary rule will meet the exigencies
of the case, and the best judgment will, from necessity,
often be at fault. The material will be either deficiently
or excessively treated in nearly all cases ; the correct mean
being seldom attainable. In the former it will come out
partially matted or clogged; in the latter stringy, and with
its convolute form injured.

The only way by which these evils can be perfectly
obviated is to remove the process from dependence upon
the skill, too often absent ; the care, too often remittent
instead of continuous; and the judgment, generally fallible,
of the attendant. This can only be done by making the
process automatic. The feeding should be uniform and
regular, and no stuffing be allowed. Of the openers now
in the market, perhaps the most perfectly automatic, and
one which meets these requirements most fully is that pre-
viously described (Figs. 25 and 26), which has met with
such extensive approval in the trade, and in which the
beater is arranged vertically. In this machine the cotton
is fed to the bottom of the beater, rising higher and higher
as it gets disentangled and becomes loose, until at the
moment when the work is completed, it passes away from
the range of its action on the current of air developed by
the fan, which places it upon the periphery of the cage,
whence it is received and delivered by a pair of rollers to
the lattice creeper, and thence discharged. There is
another merit in the vertical arrangement of the beater of
the opener, which is this : its strokes being delivered in a
horizontal direction are efficient in clearing the cotton from
foreign substances, as in no case does this matter return
into the cotton, as occurs when the beater is arranged hori-
zontally, and delivers its stroke vertically. In the latter
case, it may return several times before it is cast beyond
the range of the beater blades. This, it is obvious, is a
disadvantage. The provision of a pneumatic feeding tube,
as seen in one instance, is an important improvement, for

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 93

two reasons. The first is, that without any violence the
grosser and heavier impurities are removed without injury
to the staple, and deposited in the dirt cells of the tube,
which preliminary treatment obviates the necessity of sub-
jecting it very long to the action of the beater. The second
reason is, that when, as is far too often the case, espe-
cially with American cotton, the material is damp and
correspondingly heavy, subjection to the beater has a ten-
dency to injure the staple, as from its increased weight and
the force with which it is driven the convolute form of
the fibre will be often impaired, if not destroyed. By the
introduction of the pneumatic tube, and the passage of the
cotton through it, all excess of moisture is removed by the
absorbent power of the air. The material is thus sent for-
ward to the beater partially cleansed, dried, and in the best
state for the operation to which it has to be submitted,
which is thus performed in less time and with a minimum
of injury.

Scutching. — The next process, which is scutching, has a
twofold purpose. The first being to further cleanse and
open the cotton ; the second to make a lap. The latter is a
continuous sheet of cotton about forty inches wide, which is
formed into a roll of convenient length to suit the machi-
nery in the next process. In the lap the fibres lie in all
directions across each other, no attempt having been made
to arrange them in parallel order. If the raw material has
not in the previous stage passed through an opener with
a lap-forming attachment, it arrives at the scutcher in
bulk, and but imperfectly cleansed and opened.

Nearly all openers, however, are now fitted with lap-
forming attachments, because these facilitate the even
feeding of the scutcher or finisher lap machine, and, in ad-
dition, dispense with labour. For some of the lower
counts the laps thus formed are taken straight to the
cards, but this is not often the case, nor is it desirable
unless in rough coarse yarns.

The object sought as the outcome of the processes of

94 COTTON SPINNING.

this division, is to transform tlie fibres of the raw material
into a continuous cylindrical thread ; throughout its length
as equal as possible in its diameter ; otherwise expressed,
perfectly round, clean and even in its dimensions and
strength. This cannot be secured unless sought from the
commencement. If the opener is fitted with lap attach-
ments, the end must be kept in view from that position ; in
all cases it must commence not later than with the scutcher.
The chief point to be regarded is the method of feeding the
cotton to the machine, as upon this depends a satisfactory
result. There are two plans extensively in use ; the one
being hand-feeding, and the other mechanical. Most per-
sons regard the latter as the best plan, as it has been
devised and invented to overcome the difficulties which
a lengthened experience has shown to be inherent in the
manual method. Where the latter is still in use, the cotton
must be carefully weighed and evenly spread over a mea-
sured space of the travelling apron, or "creeper," as it is
sometimes called. Unless this is regularly and conscien-
tiously performed, the result will not please. It is im-
portant, therefore, that a thoroughly trustworthy person
be secured, and placed in charge of this duty. The qualities
required in a lap are an even thickness and width through-
out, so that when delivered to the succeeding stage of
carding no inequalities may be introduced into the sliver,
owing to or arising from irregularities in the amount of
cotton fed to the machine.

The scutcher is simply a repetition of the opener, but in
which the lap-forming attachment is indispensable, whilst
its parts are modified and arranged to do the work more
perfectly, and to complete, in most cases, what the other
has left undone. Like other machines in the cotton trade,
it has undergone many changes before arriving at its
present stage of comparative perfection. Makers now
generally agree as to what should constitute its main
features, difi'ering only on points of detail.

Amongst hand-fed machines the Crighton is a well and

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 95

favourably known scutcher, and will serve for descrip-
tion. It possesses a lattice creeper with measured spaces
on which the cotton, after being weighed, is evenly spread.
A pair of small fluted rollers take the cotton from the
creeper, and by their revolution pass it between them,
when it comes within reach of the arms of a beater having
two blades. This beater is enclosed within a cylinder, a
quarter of the circumference of which, extending from the
feed rollers to the bottom, is composed of a grid. As the
beater revolves at the rate of 1,000 revolutions per minute,
and has two blades, it makes 2,000 strokes per minute
upon the cotton, being slowly delivered to it, and beats
it down with great force from the rollers against this grid,
causing broken leaf, motes, and other impurities to fall
through. Extending along the bottom of the cylinder is
a passage leading to the pair of dust cages, situated at the
back of the machine. The exhaust fans induce a strong
current of air, which carries the cotton from the beater
cylinder to the slowly revolving dust cages, on the exte-
rior of which the " lap " of cotton is deposited. The
bottom of the passage, along which the cotton has thus
been brought, consists of a lattice arranged with its sur-
face open, so that any imparities that may have passed the
first grids may be detected and removed at this point,
falling into the cavities by their greater specific gravities.
The lattice moves over three rollers arranged two above
and one below in this manner — • . The direction of its
traverse is opposite to that of the cotton, which arrange-
ment facilitates the extraction of foreign matter with a
minimum loss of fibre. The lattice discharges the con-
tents of its cavities into the receptacle for dust beneath
the grid. The loose cotton is carried by the current of air
to and evenly distributed upon the wires of the slowly re-
volving dust cages, the interstices between which are
arranged so as to prevent the passage between them of the
fibre, whilst permitting that of the fine particles of dust or
sand that may yet remain in the cotton, or may have come

96 03TT0X SPINNING.

along with it on the current of air. From this part of their
function which, though important, is only a secondary one,
they obtain their name of dust cages. Their primary use
is to receive upon their circumference the cotton floating
upon the current of air induced by the exhaust fans in an
even manner ; by their revolution they join it into one sheet,
which is removed by a pair of small fluted rollers that
carry it to the compression rollers, whence it passes to the
lap roller upon which it is wound. The lap roller rests upon
two fluted rollers, by contact with which the lap roller is
caused to revolve and to wind up the cotton in a continuous
sheet until a thick roll is formed, technically called a lap.

As before remarked, regularity of feeding is of the
highest importance in obtaining a satisfactory result. Too
often, however, this task is relegated to a superannuated
operative, or careless boy or girl, who can be hired for about
ten thillings a week, whilst a trustworthy and conscien-
tious attendant ought to have charge of the duty, and
whose services would be cheaply purchased at an additional
cost of five or six shillings per week. The former plan is,
however, preferred from a mistaken notion of its greater
economy, and reliance is placed upon subsequent processes
for eliminating the irregularities and obviating the mis-
chief to which it inevitably gives rise.

To prevent any tampering with, or loss of the weights
from the scale, it is usual to make the weight end of the scale
in the form of a canister, in which the weights are enclosed
and locked. This is efficient as far as it goes, but it does
not cover carelessness in putting too much or too little
cotton into the scale. Only automatic weighing can obviate
that. This could be accomplished without much difficulty
if thought of sufficient importance. There is next, further,
uneven spreading to be guarded against, and also the pas-
sage of the last portion of the feed of cotton through the
feed rollers before another is supplied, which by inattention
may occur and cause a very thin place, or even a break in
the sheet of cotton forming the lap.

MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL. 97

Besides the formation of an uneven sheet, as the result
of careless or unskilful feeding, it will be found that
laps vary in their weight, some being lighter and others
heavier than what is required, without the cause being
easily ascertainable. Of late years cotton, especially
American, has been so inordinately charged with moisture,
that when passed through the opener or scutcher, the
earlier laps formed from the mixing will weigh more than
those produced afterwards when the mixing has had time
to evaporate a portion of its superfluous, and often fraudu-
lently added water. Again, assuming that the raw mate-
rial is quite dry, it so readily absorbs moisture in damp
weather that, to some extent, a part of the variations
occurring may safely be attributed to this cause, and the
converse of this will be equally true ; in hot dry weather
the atmosphere abstracts moisture from the cotton, and
the laps will weigh correspondingly less, though containing
as much fibre as before.

The method usually adopted of obviating these irregu-
larities is to weigh the laps as they come from the machine
and classify them for the finisher lap machine, in which
three, four, five, or six laps are combined as feed material
from which the last or finished laps are made. The requi-
site number of laps are taken, the united weights of which
shall average that of the new laps into which they have to
be formed. By this combination or doubling, the irregu-
larities of one lap are neutralized or minimized by those of
the others, the outcome being approximately perfect — ac-
cording to the theory ; and which is probably true, even in
fact, where the best attention is given to the feeding pro-
cess by the operative in charge. But where this is not
obtained, the result is not satisfactory.

To secure results as nearly as possible perfect, attempts
have been made to dispense with the human factor in the
problem, and make feeding as nearly as possible automatic.
The lap-forming attachment has been added to the difi'erent
forms of the opener, sometimes called the first scutcher.

98 COTTON SPINNING.

In feeding the opener it is necessary that the cotton should
be evenly spread upon the feed apron, in order not to
gorge the machine ; but it is only seldom that it is deemed
necessary to weigh the cotton and measure off the apron
into yard spaces, as in the second scutcher. Where the
best result, however, is desired, it is certain that this course
would contribute to that end. The laps thus obtained from
the opener, weighed, classified, and averaged for the scutcher,
would yield a sheet far more level and free from defects as
feeding laps than could easily, or possibly at all, be ob-
tained from the hand-feeding described above. As such
the laps obtained from the second scutcher would be as
good in almost every respect as those hitherto obtained
from the finisher lap machine, whilst the last mentioned
being fed with almost perfect laps, would yield one much
superior to anything usually obtained.

There is another method of precluding the defects of
careless feeding and insufficiently opened or matted cotton.
This is known as the lever or piano feed arrangement, so
named from its being in principle similar to, and in its
parts distantly like the arrangement of the keys of a
pianoforte. The following Fig. 28 and brief description
will clearly illustrate its principle.

Instead of the usual pair of feed-rollers for delivering
the cotton to the beater, a, the bottom one is substituted
by a series of bent levers, c, extending across the frame,
and arranged as in the various positions in the diagrams
A, B, C, in Fig. 28. The short ends of these levers are
made different in form according to requirement, which
is dependent upon the class of cotton, whether long or
short staple, to be worked. The extremity of the long
arm, e, of the lever terminates in a hook, by means of
which it is attached to the rod,/. These rods are arranged
vertically, and at the bottom end increase in thickness and
pass between two horizontal bars, which are parallel to
each other. Between the horizontal bars, and in the inter-
stices between the rods, /, small bowls are introduced,

MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL.

shown by the dotted circles, i, in the diagram c. The
rod, /, on the right of this diagram, has a projection cast

ja.

VIZI

upon it, which forms with the other portion a slot for
the reception of a connecting-rod attached to the levers,

■'M\ 'V

100 COTTON SPINNING.

the second of which is connected with the strap lever, p,
seen between the cone drums in Fig. 29. The strap
levers, p p\ are geared together by means of sector wheels ;
whilst q and r in the same Fig. are cone drums, and s is the
strap by which motion is transmitted from one to the other.
The action of the diflferent parts is as follows : — When
the cotton is matted, or unevenly spread upon the lattice,
causing a thick portion to go beneath the roller, 6, the
short end of the lever, c, is pressed down, which raises the
long arm, e, pulling up the rod, /, the thick end of which
coming up between the bowls, ^, presses the rods in the
only direction in which they can move, towards the slotted
rod at the end, which through the connecting rod and
levers described, moves the strap, s, upon the drums, q and
r, and regulates the speed according to requirement —
diminishing it when the layer is thick or matted, and in-
creasing it when thin. The cone drum, r, actuates the
feed-roller through the worm on its shaft. For obviating
irregularity in feeding, whether arising from the atten-
dant's carelessness, want of skill, or other causes, this
arrangement has proved of considerable efficiency, and has
met with a corresponding degree of favour from the trade.
It can be attached to both the first and second scutcher,
and can be easily adapted to the different makes of lap
machines, so that if preference be given to one make over
another on account of general excellence or specialities of
detail, such preference can be gratified, whilst the advan-
tages of this system of feeding is obtained.

The cotton having passed the opener and the first
scutcher, now arrives at the second, otherwise called the
finisher lap machine. The function of this machine is
primarily to complete the cleansing process, so far as free-
ing the cotton from sand, dust, and the heavier forms of
extraneous vegetable matter is concerned ; and, secondly,
to make the lap as even in the sheet as it is possible to
procure from present appliances. The extent to which
this is possible has already been indicated.

MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL.

101

A finisher lap ma-
chine, with the
evener or lever feed-
attachment, is illus-
trated in Fig. 29.
The creel holds from
four to six laps, u,
which bj means of
the lattice apron, x,
•which revolves upon
the rollers at each
extremity of the
creel, deliver a three,
four, or six- fold sheet
of cotton to the roller,
&, and the series of
levers which con-
jointly form the feed-
ing arrangement just
described. This in
turn delivers the
sheet to the beater,
a, at a slow and uni-
form rate. The bot-
tom of the beater-
case, A, contains a
grid, c?, whilst a lon-
gitudinal grid, d\ ex-
tends to the dust
cages, V v'. At c
the casing is usually
glazed, or a door-
way formed, in order
to permii; inspection
of the interior. The former is far the best, as doorways
cannot be made air-tight, and all defects of this kind
interfere with the action of the exhaust draught, causing

102 COTTON SPINNING.

it to deposit the cotton upon the cages in an unequal
manner, so producing an uneven lap. As the cages
revolve together, the cotton gathered upon their respec-
tive surfaces is formed into one sheet, and delivered to
the compression rollers, w, passing which it is wound
upon the lap-roller in the front or headstock, D, of the
machine, and formed into, y, a lap. When the lap is
completed, the machine is automatically stopped, the lap
removed, the roller withdrawn and replaced in the machine
to wind on another lap.

Well-made laps should be even in the sheet, level at the
edges, uniform in length, and equal in weight. Any
divergence from these points must be considered as defects
likely to injuriously affect the final result. Every care
should therefore be taken to see that this end is attained
and carefully preserved.

Besides the points referred to as causing unequal laps,
there are several in connection with the machines. The
finisher machine, according to the received theory, makes
a uniformly level lap from a number which are in that
respect imperfect ; the prevalent idea being that the in-
equalities of one correct those of another, though the
chances are not few that a series of thick places in the
different laps may fall together, and thus instead of correct-
ing may intensify the fault ; and similarly of the thin
places. The majority of the chances, however, are con-
siderably against this result. There is also the pneumatic
factor in the problem to consider, the perfect action of
which has much to do with obtaining satisfactory results.
Should the fans be driven too slowly, the draught is in-
suflBcient to carry the cotton expeditiously to the cages,
and the result is that some portion may be carried out
amongst the dust and refuse which it is desired to remove.
On the contrary, when run too swiftly, the current in-
duced may bring with the cotton the lighter portion of the
leaf, vegetable matter, and dust that ought to be taken
out at this stage. When the proper speed is attained.

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 103

neither of these results can occur, the cotton after passing
the beater beiDg drawn rapidly to the dust cages, upon the
exterior of which it is accumulated, until the layer be-
comes impervious, and the draught ceases to operate at
that point ; the cotton is then diverted to the uncovered
portions of the surface, where it is still exerting its in-
fluence. It will be obvious from this that an even de-
livery of the cotton from the feed rollers will aid, but
will not necessarily secure, the formation of an even
lap, as this will quite as much depend upon the uni-
form strength of the current over the exposed surfaces
of the cages. Should this vary appreciably in any por-
tion from imperfections in the casing, or obstructions to
its course in the interior, it will cause an uneven deposit
upon the cages, and consequently an uneven lap. It is
very important that these defects should not occur in
connection with the finisher lap machine, as the pneumatic
principle being dispensed with after that stage, a remedy
for such faults is not easy to obtain in the subsequent
processes, these only minimizing, but never perfectly re-
moving the errors or defects of the preceding stages of the
preparation.

A perfectly even lap is so desirable, and as yet is
so far from being secured, that it might be useful to
ascertain whether a nearer approximation could not be
obtained by other means. With this consideration in
view, attention may be drawn to an American inven-
tion connected with the woollen trade, which automati-
cally takes up the wool, weighs, and uniformly feeds
the scribbler — the machine in the woollen trade which
corresponds to the lap machine in the cotton trade — in
a perfect manner. That this has gained the highest ap-
proval of the trade is shown by its extensive adoption in
America, and the favour with which it has been received
in this country. It is known as the Bramwell automatic
feed machine. In it the wool is put into a large box or
case having a grating at the bottom for the exit of refuse,

104 COTTON SPINNING.

and an elevating toothed apron in the rear covered with
teeth of a peculiar construction. These raise the material
out of the case until it is brought near the top, where
it comes under the action of an oscillating comb, which
has a slow but long sweep in front of the apron. This
comb is armed with teeth, and operates in such a manner
that the surplus wool is combed off the apron, and the
rest left evenly distributed amongst the teeth of the
latter. On the other side of the toothed apron there is
another and a shorter one, having a more rapid movement.
This is provided with flexible strips of leather, which
sweep off the wool from the teeth of the first apron, and
convey it in connection with a hollow or concave shell or
dish into a weighing scale. This scale is formed of two
curved wings, held together by suitable weights, and the
whole suspended on steel knife edges and balanced with
movable weights, which can be fixed to weigh any amount
desired. When the scale has received the required quan-
tity, it liberates a small trigger, which causes a projection
to catch on one of the teeth of a revolving disc connected
with an automatic clutch, which disengages the driving-
belt operating the toothed apron, thus instantly stopping
further delivery of material to the scale, which now re-
mains at rest. When the proper time arrives the wings of
the scale are opened, and the wool is deposited upon the
feed lattice in a perfectly opened state, and in excellent
condition for the cards. The scale is now closed, and re-
turned for more wool ; at the same moment the toothed
apron is set going, and the delivery is carried on as before.
While the scale is being refilled, the wool just discharged
is carried along on the feed lattice to a fixed distance,
leaving a clear open place for the next weighing to be de-
posited upon. The machine only occupies the same space
as an ordinary feed-table, and while doing its work with
regularity and perfection, dispenses with a great amount
of hired labour.

There is nothing in this arrangement but what, with

MANIPULAIIOX OF THE MATERIAL. 105

proper modification, could be easily adapted to the cotton
opener having a lap attachment, or to the first scutcher,
and with manifest advantage to economy. We throw out
the suggestion for what it is worth, and for the benefit of
the trade, or those who may conclude it worth practical
investigation. It might probably result in getting com-
pletely rid of a considerable difficulty, and even relieve
the cotton of one process of scutching, in all of which it
is severely treated.

When the laps have come from the finisher lap machine
care should be taken that they are not damaged before
being sent to the card. Much difficulty is often experienced
in this respect. When the lap is completed, it is lifted
from the machine, laid aside, and the roller withdrawn
and replaced in the frame to wind on another lap.
The soft mass of cotton forming the lap speedily closes
up the space left by the withdrawal of the roller ; and
ordinarily when the lap has to be skewered again for
the cards difficulty is experienced, time is lost, and con-
siderable waste is made before it can be accomplished.
To obviate these results Mr. H. H. Clayton, of Hyde,
has invented and patented a simple expedient, which is
thoroughly successful. In place of a solid lap-roller, he
substitutes a tube roller, in which he inserts a long
pin having a flat head of greater diameter than the
roller. When the latter is withdrawn the pin is left in
the cavity, retained by the head, thus preserving the bore,
maintaining the form, and facilitating the handling of the
lap, whilst time and labour are economized, and all waste
from the stabbing of the lap prevented.

Remarks. — At this point it may be useful to offer a few
general remarks upon points which do not readily lend
themselves to classification. In these the machinery de-
mands the first attention. In willows, openers, lap, and
finisher machines there are numerous makes, each having
claimed for it some special excellence not possessed by-
its competitors. Into the details of the construction of

106 COTTON SPINNING.

these we cannot entei' except when they serve to illnstrate
some principle. When the latter is the case, and a machine
is more fully noticed on that account, the reader is warned
against drawing the conclusion that any special approval
beyond what may be expressed is given to that particular
make. Spinners in the different sections of the trade
have their preferences for one design of machine over
another, which preference may have a solid foundation or
not according to the careful observation and skill of the
person expressing it, or the uses to which he may put
it. Some machines are better for one class of work
than another, whilst few excel for all sorts. The quali-
ties that ought to be looked for and demanded in all
this class of the preparatory machinery is strength and
simplicity in the working parts, each of which should be
easily accessible for re-arrangement or repair. The blades
of the beater should be so adjusted that they shall strike
the cotton from the delivery rollers without breaking or
otherwise damaging the fibre. The grids under the beater
should have their first four bars placed about three-quar-
ters of an inch apart, and the remainder half an inch. The
beater of a machine working cotton from which it is in-
tended to spin numbers between 12^ to 50^ or 60^ should
makefrom 1,100 to l,500revolutions per minute, the highest
number being for the lowest counts. From 50^ upwards
the speed may be from 800 to 1,100 or 1,200 revolutions.
The different machines should be evenly balanced in
their various parts, all of which should be kept thoroughly
clean and well lubricated in the bearings with good unin-
flammable oil, not subject to becoming viscid or gummy.
All dirt should be removed from under each machine every
day, and the grids and cage wires ought to be kept perfectly
clean, free, and open. The dirt flues and air passages
should be cleaned at least once a week, or oftener when
low dirty cottons are being used ; the same remark also
applies to the dirt chamber, which must be emptied at the
same time.

MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL. 107

The opening and scutching machinery of every mill ought
to be of such proportions that every week it can be stopped,
say at breakfast-time on a Saturday morning, so that the
remainder of the working day, until one o'clock p.m. can
be devoted to a thorough cleaning. Machinery of all kinds
properly cleaned and lubricated requires less power to
drive, yields a better product, and lasts much longer than
that which is neglected in these respects.

108 COTTOX SPLNNINQ.

CHAPTER V.

Carding and Combing.

Carding : its necessity ; its importance and purposes. — Development
of the modern card, from Paul, Hargreaves, and Arkwright's improve-
ments. — Description of the roller card. — Summarized statement of its
functions ; how accomplished. — The process examined in its progress. —
Methods of altering the work. — Extensive use of the roller card. — The
self-stripping flat or Wellman card ; causes of its invention ; improve-
ment in this country. — Dobson and Barlow's Wellman card. — The re-
volving flat card ; recent improvements. — Combination and other cards.
— Card clothing ; for licker-in, main cylinder, rollers, clearers, and
dofitr. — Location of cards ; adjustment ; setting of rollers and clearers.
— Double cards. — The Derby doubler. — Breaker and finisher cards. —
Light carding. — Grinding 5 by hand ; by inachine. — Points of card
teeth : needle point, diamond point, chisel point, and hooked point ; how
to attain the good points and how to avoid the bad ones. — Differing
estimates of the qualities of roller, flat, and revolving flat cards. — Cotton
injured by overworking. — Sevex'e treatment in the roller card. — Combing;
indispensable for fine counts. — Invention of the combing machine ; de-
scription ; process of combing. — Improvement of the machine in Eng-
land ; Dobson and Barlow's improvements. — Imb's combing machine
for short staple cottons ; description.

IN dealing witli the raw material, it will be remembered
that it was shown that along with the perfect fibre
growing from each seed, there was also a considerable pro-
portion of imperfectly developed fibre which in the process
of ginning is detached from the seed and mingles with the
mature and perfect portion. Also from causes which need
not be inquired into in this place, imperfectly developed,
deceased, or insect-damaged seeds are found occurring in
the pods. The fibre upon these will have been arrested in
its growth, and, like the preceding, be deficient in length,
substance, and strength. Instead of being white, cylin-
drical, and possessing the characteristic twist of the mature

CARDING AND COMBING. 109

fibre, it will be transparent, flat, and ribbon-like ; often
short and quite destitute of strength as compared with
the well-grown fibre. The coarse impurities, such as
foreign matter, vegetable substances, and seed, that have
passed the gin, it has been seen, are mostly removed in
the stages just described. These, however, have had but
little efiect upon the class of impurities now requiring no-
tice, and which it is equally imperative to abstract in
order to make good, strong, and even yarn. This is effected
by the operation of carding.

Carding is probably the most important process in cotton
manufacturing. It is the final stage of cleansing, wherein
the minutest impurities foreign to the material, and all
immature fibre, leaf, and broken seed, ought to be removed.
To secure the cleanest yarn, however, requires the selec-
tion of cotton as free as possible from immature seed that
has passed the gin, and which neither the opening nor
scutching process completely abstracts, and which passing
into the card gets broken up, when it becomes almost im-
possible to remove. The particles of these seeds are
carried through the succeeding operations without being
particularly conspicuous until the spinning process is
reached, when in the twining the centrifugal force throws
a portion of them off, whilst the remainder is retained on
the surface of the yarn held by the short fibres upon them
which having been spun into the thread. Sometimes in
careless or defective ginning, when the gin blades rub
against the grate bars, cotton is seriously injured by
becoming " nepped " : that is, the fibres are caught and
rolled into little balls like grains of sand in magnitude,
and which form a great defect in yarns when present in
any quantity. Broken seeds and nepped fibres are difficult
of removal in any stage of man^ifacture. In respect of
these there is still room for the ingenuity of inventors to
effect improvements. In other points, a well-constructed
card is a fairly efficient machine.

The second function of the card, and the one which

110 COTTON SPINNIXa.

ranks first in importance, is that of arranging the fibres of
cotton in approximately parallel order. This is the first
step in the construction of the thread. Up to this point
every process has simply been preparatory, the fibres com-
posing the lap, the product of the last process, lying across
«ach other in a confused mass. But in carding, the sheet
of cotton composing the lap is reduced to a thin cloud-like
film or sheet of fibres arranged in almost perfect parallel
order. This, as it leaves the dofi'er cylinder of the card,
is drawn together, passed through a cone tube, thence
between two pressure rollers, and by means of an ingenious
mechanical arrangement it is received and automatically
coiled in a can, in the form of a round, soft, untwisted
strand of cotton technically called a sliver. It should be
observed here that the coiler imparts to the sliver a very
small amount of twist, but not so much as to appreciably
afiect the correctness of the preceding remark.

The modern card, like most other machines, is the out-
come of the ingenuity of successive inventors. Its origin
must be sought in the remotest times, and in the infancy
of the textile industries. Probably its earliest known pro-
genitor is the hand-card of the wool-comber, or the heckle
of the flax-dresser, both of these probably suggested by the
displayed fingers of the human hand. The growing de-
mand for cotton goods in the early part of the last century
induced several persons to attempt the invention of a more
expeditious system, but little success for a time attended
their efi'orts. Amongst these may be mentioned Lewis
Paul of Birmingham, whose name is of some note as one
of the early conjurors, as the first inventors and improvers
of cotton machinery were in those days called. One of the
most notable names in connection with the first successes
in improvements in carding was that of James Hargreaves
of Blackburn, the inventor of the spinning jenny. He in-
troduced the stock cards used in the woollen trade into
the cotton trade, and improved and adapted them to the
manufacture of cotton. The changes he made consisted in

CARDING AND COMBIN-G. Ill

suspending one of the cards, bj means of a cord passing
over a pulley, from the ceiling of the room in which the
carding process was carried on. This card he balanced by
a weight at the other end of the cord, whilst its fellow he
fixed upon the stock. By this alteration each stock was
made to hold two or three cards, and each carder was
enabled to card a greatly increased quantity of cotton.
Soon after accomplishing this improvement, or about 1762,
Hargreaves was employed by Robert Peel, the founder of
the family which afterwards gave the eminent statesman
of that name to the country, who resided in close proximity
to the inventor at Oswaldtwistle, to make for him a cylin-
drical carding machine ; which he succeeded in doing in a
shurt time. This machine in its structure appears to have
been the true parent of the modern card. In its first form
it had no doff'er arrangement, the carded cotton having to
be taken off the cylinder by the hand-card, women being
employed to perform the work. The inventor afterwards
added a doffer, but it was not a success, consisting merely
of a roller carrying a series of tin plates, which being
made to revolve, scraped the cotton from the cylinder, and
of course injured both the cotton and the cards. Though
for a long time lost sight of, this idea has subsequently
been rendered a practical success, as may be seen in the
revolving doffer, now frequently preferred to the doffer
comb. The invention of the latter is attributed to Ark-
wright. In place of Hargreaves' tin plates and roller, he
substituted a thin blade of iron extending across the face
of the cylinder. The bottom edge of this blade was ser-
I'ated, and by means of a crank or eccentric a vertical
movement of short range was imparted to it by which it
was made to detach the cotton from the cylinder in a uni-
form and continuous fleece. This was the first doffer
comb. In order to preserve the continuity of the fleece
Arkwright invented filleting for card clothing in place of
the sheets which up to then had been in use. The fleece
was then contracted by passing it through a tube, after

112 COTTON SPINNING.

which it was delivered into a can. From this time improve-
ments succeeded one another at greater or less intervals,
but the limits of space will not permit of these being traced
to the present time. The sum of them, however, is the
card as it is known to-daj, and of which there are several
varieties.

The first of these which calls for notice is the roller
card. A section of this card with a portion of the side is
shown in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 30. Its chief
parts are the main cylinder, A, which at work has a surface
speed of about 1,600 feet per minute ; the licker-in, b, so
called from its taking the cotton from the feed roller, c, and
delivering it to the cylinder or swift ; the small cylinder, d,
is the doffer, whose function it is to take the carded cotton
from the swift ; E, the coiler ; F, the sliver can ; G, the lap
resting upon g', the lap roller. Arranged over the main
cylinder, and covering about half its circumference, are a
a number of small rollers, r and s. The former are carding
rollers usually called workers, and the latter strippers or
clearers. It is from these this card derives its name of
the roller card. The licker-in, cylinder, workers, clearers,
and doffer have their surfaces covered with card cloth-
ing, the fineness of which is varied according to the class
of work to be performed.

Here we may briefly summarize the different ends sought
to be obtained by the carding process : —

1st. The removal of all impurities, either natural or
foreign to the cotton, which may have escaped the preceding
processes.

2nd. The extraction of all immature, short, broken or
nepped fibres, the retention of which would weaken or
otherwise depreciate the quality of the yarn.

3rd. To disentangle the confused mass of fibres and
place them side by side, or, in other words, in parallel order.

4th. To attenuate the heavy sheet of cotton forming the
lap into a thin film or fleece, and to contract this into a
ribbon or sliver fitted for the next process.

114 COTTOX SPINNING.

The first object is accomplislied bj the rapid revolution
of the cylinder and rollers, which, striking the dried and
broken leaf, seed-husk, or broken seed, fix and retain them
in the card teeth. From this position they are removed
either by hand or automatic stripping. Fine dust, not
having sufficient material in which to hide away as it were,
is by the centrifugal force exerted by the cylinder, thrown
out, and falls through the grid at the bottom.

The short, broken, nepped, and immature fibres being of
insufficient length to be held by the card teeth, and the
latter being of deficient specific gravity, are driven off as
" fly," and also fall through the grating to the floor.

The third and principal end sought, the arrangement of
the fibres in parallel order, is accomplished by the process
of attenuation and combing of the sheet of cotton forming
the lap by the card teeth, which it undergoes in its passage
through the card, which may now be described.

Reverting to Fig. 30 ; the machine having been sup-
plied with a lap, G, the end is passed under the feed roller,
c, and the machine started. The lap roller, g', slowly re-
volves, unrolling the web from the lap which, by means of
the endless lattice on which it rests, is conveyed to the feed
roller, C ; this carries it within reach of the large roller, b,
called the *'licker-in," which, running at a surface speed
of about 800 feet per minute, strikes the cotton in a down-
ward direction from the feed roller, thus partially comb-
ing the fibres, and by its revolution carrying them to the
large cylinder, a, which revolves at a rate of 1,600 feet sur-
face speed per minute. Owing to this, and to the teeth in
its clothing being bent in the direction of its revolution —
which is upward at the point of contact with the licker-in
— it strips all the cotton from the latter at the position
where their surfaces are near contact. The cylinder
carries the cotton forward to the first roller, which in most
instances is a dirt or cleansing roller, revolving at a slow
rate, say fifteen feet per minute. Its chief function is to
gather from the surface of the cylinder all the rougher and

CARDING AXD COMBING. 115

larger particles of dirt, motes, seed, leaf, husks, and neps
left bj the cotton which has been struck more deeply into
the cards. The du^t which is thus extracted from the cotton
is carried round by the roller and stripped from it by the
attendant, or sometimes by a vibrating comb or stripper
arranged for that purpose. The cylinder carries the cotton
onward to the first roller, r, called a worker. Each of these
workers has a companion roller, s, of smaller dimensions,
called a clearer. These work in pairs. Being set in oppo-
sition to the main cylinder. A, their contact surfaces move in
the same direction, but, as compared with the cylinder, at a
greatly reduced speed. The card teeth of the worker are in-
clined the reverse way to those of the main cylinder, and
owing to its slower surface speed, which is only about twenty
feet per minute, the latter takes any cotton which is still
entangled from it. The worker then carries this cotton
over to the clearer ; this roller running at a surface speed
of about 400 feet per minute, and having its teeth inclined
in the direction of its motion, strips the worker, and re-
turns the cotton to the cylinder. A, which, owing to its
greater speed of 1,600 feet per minute, is enabled to strip
the clearer. The entangled portion thus gets a severe
carding. The teeth of the clearer, it must be remarked, are
inclined in the same direction as those of the main cylinder,
A. Thus the cotton delivered to the cylinder. A, is carried
by the latter in this manner in succession to each pair of
rollers, after passing which, and being thoroughly carded in
the process, it arrives at and is delivered to the small cylin-
der, D, called the dofiPer. This being set in opposition to the
main cylinder, having its teeth inclined from the du'ection
of its revolution, and moving at only a surface speed of sixty
to seventy feet per minute, the latter owing to its greater
speed deposits its cotton upon it. The dofi*er then carries it
round to where its surface is subjected to the action of the
dofifer comb, t, fitted upon vibrating arms, which strips the
thin fleece away. The movement of the doff*er comb de-
scribes a small arc of the circle that would be formed by

116 COTTON SPIX^^IXG.

the revolution of the vibrating arms upon which it is
carried. It strips the doffer cylinder in its descent, and
clears itself when ascending. It makes from 600-1,000
strokes per minute according to requirement, being
actuated by balanced cranks. As the thin film of
cotton leaves the cylinder it passes over a guide-plate
and through a trumpet-shaped tube, in which it is con-
densed into a round untwisted cord. This, in its passage
between the compression rollers of the draw box, is flattened
into a ribbon, thence passes upwards to the coiler, E, and by
an ingenious arrangement is coiled in the can, f, which
stands upon a revolving plate. The cotton thus becomes
a sliver, having its component fibres approximately
parallel.

The attenuation of the sheet of cotton and its transfor-
mation into a sliver is thus completed, and we may pause
a moment to examine the manner in which it has been
accomplished. The lap, G, is unwound at a uniform rate
by the lap roller, g', and is fed to the taker-in by the feed
roller at exactly the same rate, these rollers being actuated
from the same shaft. ISTo difference of speed between these
rollers can be permitted without derangement of work. If
the delivery roller, G, moved with a greater surface speed
than the feed roller, the lap sheet would accumulate in a
heap behind the latter ; were the reverse the case, the lap
would be torn.

The delivery rollers supply the lap sheet to the taker-in
at a given rate, say 1^ revolutions = 9 inches per minute, in
a specified time. The latter roller seizes this with its wire
clothing, and owing to its great circumferential velo-
city, draws or attenuates it fully 1,000 times its first
length. This will be seen from the respective dimensions
and velocities of the rollers. The delivery of the lap sheet
taking place at the rate of 9 inches per minute, and the rate
of revolution of the licker-in giving a surface velocity of
800 feet per minute, this will be found to slightly exceed
that number. It will be obvious that this must produce

CARDING AND COMBING. 117

a great effect upon the previously disordered state of the
fibres forming the lap, and that in the direction of inducing
a parallel arrangement. Still this sheet is far too heavy,
and the cards of the main cylinder, which revolves at double
the circumferential velocity of the taker-in, receive the
cotton from the latter, and double the attenuation to which
it has already been subjected. The cylinder having the
heavier impurities on its surface, has these stripped from
it by the dirt roller. The teeth of the dirt roller meeting
those of the cylinder, and having their inclination against
those of the latter, the impurities are caught and re-
moved, leaving the cotton behind embedded in the cylinder
card.

The cotton is next carried by the cylinder under the
clearer, s, the bend of the clearer teeth not allowing it to
take the cotton up, after which the insufficiently carded
portion is immediately taken by the worker, r, and from
this roller by the clearer just mentioned, by which it is
again returned to the cylinder, having received a severe
carding in its course. Thus the lap sheet is first attenuated
about 1,000 times, the cylinder doubles this, the worker
condenses it, the clearer recommences the attenuation which
the cylinder completes, the next worker again condensing
the film to the degree to which the first worker carried it,
its clearer returning it to the cylinder as before. This
process is repeated as many times as there are workers
and clearers, until the cotton which composed the 9 inches
of lap is all carded, or has its fibres laid parallel, when it
is finally taken from the cylinder by the doffer, d, in a con-
densed form, its surface velocity being only sixty or seventy
feet per minute. This will give a view of the carding or
combing to which the material is subjected.

The doffer cylinder, in turn, is stripped by the doffer
comb, t, whose action has been previously described. The
cotton when combed from this cylinder appears as a thin film,
which should be quite free from motes, broken leaf, seed and
neps. It should also be uniform in its density : that is,

118 COTTON SPINNING.

quite free from all " cloudiness." When tlie card is work-
ing well, and the preliminary stages have been properly-
performed, this will be the case, providing the quality of
the material is of a fair average, say for medium counts
of yarn, which is the class of material we assume to be
under consideration.

The fleece as thus doff'ed is conducted over a guide plate
on which it is condensed, and through a trumpet-shajDcd tube,
and between the calender or compression rollers, c, whence
it is carried up to the coiler and through its rollers. The
sliver between the compression rollers and the coiler is sub-
jected to a slight draught ; that is, the surface velocity of the
latter rollers exceed that of the former, gaining, say, about
twelve inches per minute. This is called the drawbox
draught, and it helps to perfect the parallel arrangement of
the fibres which it has been the chief object of the carding
process to attain.

The sliver now passes through the coiling disc into the
can. This disc possesses a short tube, the upper opening
into which is in the centre of the revolution of the disc,
but which is not the centre of the disc itself, the tube ex-
tending therefrom in an oblique direction to a distance of
about one-fourth the diameter of the sliver can. In its
revolution it therefore describes and deposits the sliver in
a circle between the circumference and the centre of the
sliver can. The can being placed in a revolving dish, is
carried round with the latter, which causes the circles de-
posited by the coiler to extend in a ring of circles, or rather
of figures closely approximating thereto, around the centre
of the can. This coiling also imparts a slight twist to the
sliver, equal to about one turn in twenty-one to twenty-
two inches.

The trumpet tube is fitted with a traverse arrangement,
which moves it from side to side of the compression
rollers in order to prevent the unequal wear of these that
would arise from the sliver strand always entering at one
place.

CARDING AXD COMBING. 113

The work performed in the carding engine can be altered
in two ways ; firstly, by changing the rate at which the
sliver is delivered ; and, secondly, by increasing or dimi-
nishing the draught. The delivery of sliver is dependent
upon the velocity of the calender rollers, and the speed of the
doffer shaft from which the calenders are driven. The
change is efi'ected by means of a pinion upon the doffer
cylinder shaft. Diminishing the number of teeth in this
pinion lessens the delivery of sliver, whilst increasing them
enlarges the length produced. The draught remains as
before, because the feed rollers being connected with the
doffer, any change made in one in a corresponding manner
affects the other. .The draught is similarly changed by
altering the feed roller pinion, a diminution in the number
of teeth lessening the speed of the rollers, and consequently,
increasing the draught ; whilst an increase reverses this.
When the carding engines have been set to supply the
drawing and slubbing frames, the delivery of sliver is
seldom changed, as this would disarrange the relationship
between the card and the machinery in the succeeding pro-
cesses. Neither is the draught generally altered, as the
object this would achieve can be equally well attained by
altering the weight of the lap.

What is technically called " the draught " in the carding
engine, is the difference between the length of the lap
sheet and the length of the sliver formed from it. Thus,
if 1 in. of lap is drawn into 100 in. of sliver, this would
be termed a draught of 100 ; and a lap of 30 yards would,
with this draught, yield a sliver of 108,000 inches.

The roller carding engine is probably the one most
extensively in use, as it is the one best adapted for the pro-
duction of low and medium numbers of yarn. It is com-
paratively simple in construction, easily set, and not liable
to get out of order, whilst in its working capacity it excels
all other forms. The work it performs, however, hardly
equals in quality that obtained from either the Wellman,
or the revolving flat cards.

120 COTTON SPINNING.

The other two cards previously mentioned, the Wellman,
so called from its inventor, and the revolving flat card,
are essentially alike, the difference being one of detail
only, relating to the method of stripping the flats. In both
cases the main cylinder is covered on its upper surface by
a series of bars extending across its face called flats, the
under surfaces of which are covered with card sheets. The
card surface is flat. "When the series are brought together,
they extend half way round the periphery of the cylinder.
When laid in position their function is the same as those
of the workers and clearers in the roller card just described.
Instead, however, of revolving, in the Wellman card they are
fixed in their position, only being occasionally lifted for the
purpose of stripping from them the accumulated impurities.

The flat carding engine is of course one of the earliest
forms of mechanical carding. Until, however, within a com-
paratively recent time, the cards were stripped by hand, this
being an operation requiring both skill and close attention.
With the growth of the trade and increasing scarcity of
labour, a supply of the proper class of men became difficult
to procure. This led to attempts to devise an automatic
plan of stripping the cards, but only a small degree of suc-
cess attended these early efforts. In the United States,
where the pressure was most severely felt, the problem
was approximately solved in the method invented by George
Wellman. Cards, with his automatic stripper attached,
have since been widely adopted in the trade, in which they
are known as the self-stripping or Wellman card. As left
by Wellman, however, it was not free from defects.

On its introduction into this country it was improved
and modified by one of our leading firms of machinists, and
adapted to work either as a first or breaker card, or
finisher. Medium counts, say from 40^ to 100^ in warp
yarns, and from 50^ to 120^ in wefts, require more card-
ing than lower numbers. In many of these cases the
roller card described is used as the first or breaker, and
the Wellman or revolving flat card as the finisher.

122 COTTON SPINNING.

The finisher carding engine on the Wellman principle,
with the automatic stripper, as made by Messrs. Dobson
and Barlow, the eminent machinists of Bolton, is shown in
the annexed illustration. Fig. 31. In its principal parts it
differs little from the roller card just described. The series
of flats, /, which are bent concentrically over the main
cylinder, are fitted upon adjustable brackets, g, and so
arranged as to admit of each flat being set accurately
parallel to the face of the cylinder. These brackets are
carried upon a semicircle of firm, strong material, which
is turned with gi^eat precision to the reqaired shape. The
lever or arm, 7i, moves backwards and forwards over the
semicircle of flats, /, carrying at its extremity the flat lift-
ing and stripping apparatus, which has proved to be a
very ingenious substitute for human attention and labour.
By its means the flats are lifted from their respective
brackets, and turned upward with their face exposed to
the action of the stripper roller, which clears away the
accumulation of waste that has gathered thereon. Imme-
diately this is done the mechanism restores it to its place ;
the arm resumes its movement, traversing the intervening
space until the next flat is reached that requires to be
stripped, when it again pauses, repeats the above perfor-
mance, and so continues until the whole of the flats are
stripped, when operations recommence. The order in
which the flats are stripped varies, those nearest the lap
requiring this attention more frequently than the others.
The number of flats are always such that whatever may be
the order of the arrangement of stripping, each in turn
and proper rotation will come under the action of the
stripper. The brackets, e, over the doffer cylinder and
against the main cylinder, are for the reception of the
grinding roller for grinding the cylinder and doffer with-
out removal from the frame.

The revolving flat card is another form of this machine.
In it. Fig. 32, the flats as seen are arranged in the form of
an endless lattice : those in work rest upon semicircular

124 COTTON SPINNING.

guide rollers, n, carefully set upon the tops of the sides of
the frame. These guides are adjusted by means of the
screws, p. The flats not in action are suspended upon carrier
rollers, g, over which they travel. The series of flats, as
thus arranged, have a slow traverse, not more than one inch
per minute. As they move, each flat in turn comes up to
the stripping roller, h, by which it is cleansed from its ac-
cumulations of dirt. After this it passes upon the guides
to take its place amongst the working flats. The other parts
of the machine are similar to those of the Wellman card
just described.

The three machines noticed represent the principal
forms of the carding engine as now in use in this country.
Besides these, however, there are several others, but which
are mostly modifications wherein the distinctive features
of the Wellman and the roller card are combined. These
are called combination or union cards. The American
cotton trade must be credited vn.th several improvements,
amongst them being the Wellman card and others which
will subsequently come under notice. Within the last two
or three years in that countiy, a new — or what is called a
new — arrangement of the flat carding engine has been in-
troduced to public notice, called the under flat carding
engine, wherein the flats are increased in number to such
an extent as to almost surround the main cylinder. Of
the merits of this arrangement we cannot sjDcak, and trust-
worthy information is difficult to obtain. Its novelty, how-
ever, is disputable, because an arrangement very similar in
principle was tried in England thirty years ago, but was
soon abandoned. The scale, however, on which the Eng-
lish machine was built was too large, making it cumbrous
and unwieldy, and to occupy too much space. The inven-
tors of its successor appear to have avoided this error.
Its construction is, however, theoretically faulty, and in
practice we think it will be found disadvantageous where
the object desired is to obtain a good yarn.

It has been seen that the various rollers and cylinders of

CARDING AND COMBING. 125

the roller carding engine, and tlie flats of the Wellman
and revolving-flat carding machine are covered with card
clothing. This is constructed of bits of fine wire bent into the
required form and inserted into a foundation composed of
leather, cloth, or a composite material formed of two folds
of strong cotton cloth, between which is a layer of india-
rubber. Of late years leather, though perhaps the best
material for the purpose, has, owing to its cost, been, to a
great extent, superseded by the last-named fabric, which
makes an excellent substitute. The wires are either
flattened or round, coarse or fine, according to the purpose
for which they are required. They are generally made in
narrow strips about an inch and a half wide, and of any
length that may be needed. Sometimes they are made in
what is termed sheets, about six inches wide, and of a length
sufficient to extend across the card cylinder. Filleting is
carefully wound in a spiral manner upon the cylinders and
rollers, being made fast at each end. Previously to its
being used it ought to be exposed for several days, or even
a week or two, in a room the temperature of which is uni-
formly equal to that in which it has to work when on the
machine. This will probably be from 65° to 75° F., and
its exposure in this manner will allow it to evaporate all
its moisture, and shrink or expand as the case may be, so
that when it has been wound upon the cylinders and rollers
at a proper tension no further change will take place.
The winding-on of the filleting or clothing of the carding
engine is an operation of nicety, requiring both care and
skill. In many districts there are people who do nothing
else, who are called card clothiers, and go from mill to
mill, wherever their services may be required. Quite
recently, however, a machine has been invented by which
this can be done with great accuracy, the fillet being held
in such a state of tension as efiectually to prevent any
slack places occurring or any change of temperature per-
ceptibly afiecting it afterwards.

In Fig. 33 is shown the first card with which the cotton

12(5 COTTON SPINNING.

on its passage comes into contact, tliat clothing the "licker-
in" roller. This requires to be strong, in order that it
may not be injured in the event of any hard substance
which may have escaped extraction in previous processes
passing between the feed rollers and coming into contact
with it. It is therefore purposely composed of strong
wire ; the kind now generally used being flattened, and at
the points it is cut diagonally at the required angle. This
form of the tooth gives great strength and durability, with
the smallest liability to injury. Its power is such that it
will destroy or strike down almost any hard substance that
may enter with the lap sheet, and that without material
injury to itself, thus preventing damage to the fine cloth-
ing of the cylinder and rollers beyond. The illustration
shows the form of the tooth, the manner of its insertion
in the foundation, and the card curved on a section of the
circumference of the roller, thus exhibiting it as when
ready for work.

The next illustration (Fig. 34) represents the structure
of a card used for the main cylinder when employed for
good staple cottons. Cards are known by counts or num-
bers which are derived from the number of teeth in the
square inch of surface. The drawing shows a card of
100^, and slightly curved as when clothing the large
cylinder and ready for work. The clothing upon the
dofiPer cylinder is nearly always twenty counts finer than
that upon the large cylinder. The dirt roller card (Fig.
35) is of a coarse wire, openly set, so that it will receive
into its interstices the seed, leaf, motes, neps, and other
impurities which the cotton may contain, and which it is
its function to arrest and take out from the surface of the
closely set cards covering the main cylinder. Its cut is
similar in depth to that of the card covering the licker-in
roller. The carding rollers, or workers and clearers, are
both covered with cards of the same fineness, or nearly so,
as those of the main cylinder. This also is shown as when
ready for work.

CARDING AND COMBING.

127

Carding, as previously observed, is one of the most
important processes occurring in the transformation of

cotton into yarn. "Whether this shall be done well or ill
depends to a great extent upon the setting of the carding

128 COTTON SPINNING.

engine. It is meant by this that the carding engine should
be placed upon a solid, or at least upon a firm floor, free
from vibration and perfectly level, so that there may be no
unequal pressure of the working parts upon the bearings
and framework. A ground floor best secures this requisite,
and it is still better if it be a room like a weaving shed,
lighted from the roof. This secures a good north light
upon all the working parts of the card, which, as it is the
first machine in which the cotton is drawn into a sliver, it
is important should be well done. It will also conduce to
this end if there is sufficient room given to allow the
work people to pass all round each machine. The surfaces
of all the rollers should be carefully adjusted to that of
the large cylinder, the cards whilst being set closely and
evenly in each case, should in no instance be allowed to
touch each other. The workers and clearers, in order to
admit of this being done with the most perfect nicety, are
mounted upon brackets on each side of the frame, and
which are adjusted by screws. The flats of the Wellman
card are set in a similar manner ; whilst those of the re-
volving card are mounted upon flexible bends which admit
of a very accurate disposition of the flats. Some persons
set these parts by sight, turning the rollers round, and
carefully observing that they are nowhere in contact.
Others judge by the ear, and prefer this test to the eye, as
the slightest contact can be heard by a quick ear. Others,
again, prefer to set by a fine gauge, and probably this is
the best and surest method that can be used when it is
carefully employed. But all these methods require to be
checked by close observation of results after the card has
commenced to work. This is the best test of all and should
never be neglected. It must always be borne in mind
that the action of the card teeth is not the action of teeth
working into one another, their function being rather to
throw the cotton from the periphery of one roller or
cylinder to another in a single sheet of fibres laid in
parallel order, by means of which they can be stripped in a

CAEDING AND COMBING. 129

continnons web and condensed into a sliver. If the wire
teeth were so set as to work into each other, or even merely
to touch, they would roll the cotton into lumps or neps, as
they are called. This is also seen when a card is being
overworked, or too much material being put through,
which it rolls out in neps, however good the cotton may be.

Some persons prefer to use double carding engines, and
these often very wide on the wire, say up to fifty inches.
In these cards there are two large cylinders, the first
being stripped by a dofi'er cylinder called a slow tummer,
this in turn having the cotton taken from its surface by a
clearer roller which transfers it to the second cylinder, after
which the process is identical with that of the single card.
In this case no second carding is needed. This plan is held
to be economical as far as wages go, but it does not meet
with the approval of many of the most experienced and
skilful of spinners and managers, who prefer two pro-
cesses through two single machines.

Where single cards are used, and the cotton is put
through twice, the first card is called the breaker and the
second the finisher. The sliver as doffed from the breaker
is re-formed into a lap in the Derby doubler, the sliver cans
being taken and placed at the back in sufficient number
when combined to form a lap of the required weight and
width, which is then ready for the finisher card. The
clothing of the finisher card should always be finer than
that of the first card. The first card is sometimes em-
ployed to perform the second operation, but this plan is
not to be commended. This process, it will be obvious,
secures much better than single carding a perfectly even
sliver for the subsequent stages, and finally more even,
uniformly strong, and therefore a yarn commercially more
valuable, by which the extra cost of production will be
more than compensated. Or if it be desired to produce a
yarn not better, but equally good with that from single
carding, it can be accomplished by using a slightly lower
quality of raw material. In this manner compensation

130 COTTON SPINNING.

for the increased cost of production is eqnallj well
attained.

Where this plan of working is adopted, the cards, both
breaker and JBnisher, may be on any of the three principles
already described : that is, both first and second may be
on the roller, Wellman, or revolving flat principle ; or, if de-
sired, any two of them may be combined. In the latter case,
the roller card or the Wellman are best adapted for breakers,
and the revolving flat for finisher. In case the two first
are used, the second shonld occupy the position of finisher.

Whatever class of machines is used, if good work is
wanted, it is essential that they should not be overworked,
that the carding should be what is called light weight.
Where changes are made in the counts, reducing the
numbers and increasing the production, there will as a
consequence be a demand made upon the cards for a
greater production ; when this is the case, it may become
almost imperative to work the cards more heavily. This
condition requires great care from the carder. Light
carding is easy enough, but heavy carding requires the
closest attention of the carder, in order to prevent the
cotton being delivered before it is sufficiently carded, by
which bad work would result ; and, on the other side, to
prevent it remaining in the card a moment longer than
necessary, as this diminishes the product. Cottons differ
in the amount of carding they require, some needing more,
some less ; others, again, contain a larger proportion of
short fibre, and fill the cards sooner, rendering it neces-
sary to strip oftener. On changes being made in these
respects, the carder should give the closest attention to his
cards, in order that he may make any alterations that may
be needed in time and before much imperfect work can
have passed. To keep the product from the cards in the
best condition, it must be kept in mind that when the
weight is increased, it will be necessary to strip and grind
proportionately oftener.

Considered in relation to good carding, grinding the

CARDING AND COMBING. 131

cards is a most important duty. To secure the best results
the cards must be kept very sharp and free from all turn-
ing up at the points, by which " hooks " are formed. The
best point for carding purposes is the diamond point, so
called from its form. This is produced most successfully,
and, indeed, only in perfection, by skilful hand-grinding
with the flexible strickle. The form of this tooth is well
known. No mechanical grinding has yet been able to
equal the perfectness with which it can be obtained by the
hand ; nor has any other form of tooth been discovered
which is so suitable for its purpose. Mechanical grinding
with a roller extending across the face of the cylinder is
objectionable because its abrading action is all brought to
bear upon the back of the card-tooth, the effect being to
produce what is called a chisel-point, that is, a wide flat
point like that of the instrument from which it has been
named. It will be seen that a fixed roller of this kind can
have no other action, and consequently no other effect
than to produce a point of this description. This is par-
tially obviated, however, by the form of the grains of
emery covering the grinding roller, and further by giving
the latter a short lateral traverse. What is required
is that the sides of the teeth shall be ground as well as
the back, by which a true point will be at least approxi-
mately attained. The needle point would be the most
perfect form of the tooth, but this it is well nigh impos-
sible to obtain after the cards have their first or new point
worn down. The needle point is produced by the revolu-
tion of the needle on its own axis when it is held against
the abrading surface in an oblique line. This cannot pos-
sibly be done in cards after the clothing has been made.
All that remains is to come as nearly to it as circumstances
will permit. Skilful hand-grinding can come very near to
it, as a careful and clever operator, fully knowing what is
wanted, will grind round seven-eights of the circumference
of the wire forming the points of the teeth. This yields a
point which is a little nearer theoretical perfection than

132 COTTON SPINNING.

the diamond-point, though it is usually given that name.
The Horsfall mechanical grinder, with its traversing disc,
is the most successful invention yet introduced in attain-
ing the end sought. This grinds the teeth not only from
the back like the long roller, but also on each of the two
sides. But the quarter of the circumference forming the
front, and which in the revolution of the cylinders and
rollers forms the face of the teeth, it cannot touch. Thus
the diamond point is formed by grinding three-quarters of
the circumference of the wire, the abrading surface having
a three-fold action. But even this grinder, as usually con-
structed, is defective and imperfect, inasmuch as the width
of the revolving strickle or disc on each side of the cylin-
ders and rollers is imperfectly ground, or less perfectly so
than the portion over which its traverse is complete. This
arises from the fact that the strickle does not pass from the
surface of the cylinder or roller before it commences its re-
turn, thus leaving the outer side of the tooth unground,
'which reduces the surface acted upon to one half of the
circumference of the wire point. On the opposite side the
reverse half is left untouched. With hand-grinding this
does not occur. The reason why the front of the tooth
cannot be ground, we ought to have observed before, is
because of the angle at which it is bent. Were the teeth
quite vertical, no difficulty would be experienced, as then the
direction of its revolution could be reversed. It is, how-
ever, superfluous to say that were they set in this manner
they would not be capable of doing the required work.

Practical men differ in their estimates of the value of
cards built upon the foregoing plans, some maintaining
that the roller card is the best, others strongly affirming
the Wellman to be better, whilst others again claim that
the revolving flat card is the best of all. It is not all
practical men even who are best qualified to express an
opinion on these points, as often their experience is not
wide enough to enable them to judge of the merits of more
than one of the three. Again, satisfied with what they

CARDING AND COMBING. 133

are doing, they have never inquired what is being done by
others, and whether or not their own results are not sur-
passed elsewhere. During the past ten years, in which
competition has become unusually severe, more attention
than previously has been directed to secure the best results
in quality and the highest economy in working, the effect
being that opinion on this and several other matters has
become more clearly defined. That this has caused the
revolving flat card to grow in favour, as compared with its
competitors, is indisputable, and there is little doubt but
that this conclusion is a correct one.

It has been previously observed that cotton is injured
by any overworking in the respective processes, and the
fact cannot be too carefully borne in mind that it is im-
proper and injurious to allow it to remain under treatment
a moment longer than is necessary to effect the object of
each particular process. It will be obvious also that the
machine which accomplished this end the soonest and with
the least amount of treatment of the fibres, will leave them
in the best condition for subsequent processes, that is, with
their natural structure and strength unimpaired.

To stand beside a roller card at work and watch its
operations will convince almost any observer that the treat-
ment to which the raw material is subjected is exceedingly
severe, whatever may be the end to be attained ; whilst the
practical observer, knowing exactly what is desired, is
driven to conclude that the violence is in excess of all re-
quirement. The object sought being, in the first place, the
extraction of all impurities, which consist mainly, if not
altogether, of particles of dust, seed, leaf, and of short, un-
ripe, imperfectly developed, and damaged fibres ; and in
the second, the arrangement of the fibres in parallel order ;
it would seem that neither of these can be effected in the
most satisfactory manner by this card. Owing to the
rollers being set as closely as possible to the cylinder with-
out actual contact, the heavier impurities that are carried
in with the lap, and thrown by the licker-in roller upon the

134 COTTOX SPIXXIXG.

main cylinder, if not immediately taken off by the dirt
roller in its revolution, are liable to, and actually are, cut
to pieces by the succeeding rollers and clearers. When
this is done, it becomes exceedingly difficult, if not impos-
sible, to remove them afterwards ; especially if they are the
fragments of immature or imperfect seeds called "bearded
motes." Great quantities of these are carried forward
through all the succeeding stages to the spinning process,
where they are spun into the yarn, being held by the short
fibres upon them, whilst the specks of seed forming the base
are thrown upon the surface of the thread in the manner pre-
viously described, disfiguring and deteriorating the quality
of the yarn. This result is often seen where the roller
card is employed, and its action in this respect is simply
representative of what occurs in connection with other im-
purities in which the results are not quite so conspicuous »
But the manner in which it performs the second function
of the card, that of laying the fibres in parallel order, is
not so perfect as is desirable. The transfer of the fibres
from cylinder to worker, from worker to clearer, and from
the latter again to the cylinder, and so on through the whole
series to the doffer, from which it is taken by the vibrating
comb, is not favourable to the disposition of the fibres in
the desired parallel order. The alternations of surface
velocity will have something more than a tendency to fold
the fibres back upon themselves, and each roller, as it de-
livers its carded portion to the cylinder, will lay them in
lines often not parallel to those of their proper direction.
The best result, therefore, is only an indifferent approxima-
tion to the condition required. This necessitates consi-
derable doubling, and especially drawing, which, in its turn,
tends to destroy the natural convolute or twisted form of
the fibres, which greatly weakens the yarn, because instead
of firmly cohering when twisted together, a slight strain
causes the fibres to glide over one another, the resistance
offered to breakage being only that of about one-third or
one-fourth of the fibres in the strand of yarn which happen

CARDING AND COMBING. 135

not to have been injured. That it has hitherto been im-
possible to utilize the full strength of the material employed
is proved by the breaking strain of the best yarns that are
produced falling far below the aggregate strength of the
individual fibres they contain.

Combing. — Combing may be described as the most highly
perfected application of the principle of carding. Its chief
purpose is to separate from the material all the fibres that
are in length below the standard it has been decided to use.
In addition, it efi^ectually clears the cotton from vegetable
and other impurities that may have escaped the carding
process through which the cotton has first been put.

Combing is now indispensable in the preparation of
cotton for spinning the higher qualities, and counts of yarn
known as " high numbers," and which range from 80^ to
250^ and upwards. It is, however, only used in the pre-
paration of low or medium counts, say from 20^ to 60^ in
cases where a high quality is desired. Manchester and
Bolton are the principal localities in which the combing
machine is in use, though a few other establishments
making specialities in yarn and using this process are
scattered over other parts of the country. The large
sewing cotton manufacturers use combed yarns in making
their better qualities of sewings.

The combing machine was designed and invented by
M. Heilmann of Mulhausen, one of the Continental centres
of the cotton trade. This was a few years before 1851.
It was probably an outgrowth of the same inventor's wool-
combing machine. The cotton-comber, however, only
drew public favour to itself very slowly. The inventor
took the opportunity ofi'ered by the International Exhibi-
tion of 1851 in this country, to introduce it to the notice
of English spinners. These gentlemen, or rather those of
them spinning fine yarns, were not slow to perceive its
value to their branch of the trade. A syndicate was
formed to acquire the right to its exclusive use in England,
and the patent was purchased for the sum of £30,000.

136 COTTON SPINNING.

Its construction was placed in the hands of an eminent
firm of machinists in Manchester, whilst its use was re-
stricted to the members of the syndicate. After they had
been fully supplied, and had enjoyed the advantages of its
exclusive use for some time, it was permitted to be sold to
the public under the imposition of a royalty of £300 per
machine, which, with the cost of construction, brought the
charge up to the considerable amount of £500 per machine.
As the patent approached expiration this charge was re-
duced. The machine, however, was maintained at a high
price, and the patent virtually prolonged, through the same
process of protection being resorted to for securing the im-
provements that experience had dictated, and which, indeed,
were almost indispensable to make it a thorough success.

The invention and adoption of this machine has had a
highly important influence upon the fine spinning branch
of the cotton trade. It has rendered feasible the use of
cottons formerly regarded as quite unsuited for the pro-
duction of fine yarns. By thus increasing the bulk of the
material, and widening the area of selection, it has done
much to reduce the prices of fine yarns to a lower level
than before, thereby extending their application and in-
creasing their consumption.

In the Heilmann "comber," of which Fig. 36 is a sec-
tional view, the lap, cj, was placed upon the rollers, h, which
by their revolution unrolled the fleece when it passed down
an inclined guide plate, c, to a pair of steel feed rollers,
d d\ the lower of which was fluted, whilst the upper was
covered with leather. These rollers had an intermittent
movement obtained through peculiar gearing, by means of
which they were turned one-sixteenth to one-twelfth of a
revolution at a time. They delivered the cotton to a pair of
nippers which opened to allow its passage. These nippers
were composed of two parts, the blade, e, and the cushion,
pivoted upon e\ the latter being covered with leather. The
blade, e, received its movement from a cam at the gearing end
of the machine. The motion was transmitted through two

138 COTTON SPINNING.

levers, a connecting rod, e^ and a shaft. The blade had a
greater movement than was required to bring it into
contact with the cushion plate, and the latter being hung
upon a pivot, and held forward by a spring, was pushed
backward by the pressure of the blade into a position
which subjected the cotton to the action of the combing
cylinder, /. A reverse movement then took place, which
permitted the cushion plate and nipper blade to advance
with the cotton in their grip to a point where, when the
nipper blade, e, rose, the fibres were taken hold of by a de-
taching roller, g^, and a fluted segment on the combing
cylinder, /\ The surface of this cylinder, opposite to the
fluted segment, carried a series of seventeen combs, /^,
graduated in fineness from thirty to ninety teeth in the inch.
Between the fluted segment and the combs was a plain
space at each side, during the passage of which in the re-
volution of the cylinder, time was afi'orded for making the
required changes between the combs ceasing to act and
the fluted segment coming into work, and vice versa, the
cylinder revolving continuously. The top comb was fitted
above the cylinder, its function being to comb the ends of
the fibres, and to prevent any being drawn forward except
those that had been combed and cleaned by the cylinder.
The top comb had only a vertical movement, being lifted
out of the way of the cylinder comb when the latter was
passing underneath. The detaching roller, g, and its
leather covered fellow, g^, with the accessory roller, ^%
received their motion from a cam which was arranged to
turn the roller, g, one-third of a revolution backward ;
then, reversing, two-thirds forwards, when it stopped
until the cylinder combs had prepared another length of
fibre. The reverse movement was given to the roller, g^
for the purpose of taking back the rear end of the pre-
viously combed fibre, so as to place them under and attach
them to the fibres coming from the combs, whereby the
whole were formed into a contiuuous sliver or ribbon, it
being necessary to detach the fibres under operation from

CARDING Am) COMBING. 139

the remainder of the fleece as fed in, and also from the
fibres already combed. The attachment being made, the
roller, </, was reversed, and removed the next length of
fibres out of the way of the combs. In order to ensure a
a proper hold being obtained of the partially combed
fibres, the top roller, g^, was made to move round the axis of
the roller, g, into contact with the fluted segment, f^, of
the cylinder, thus forming a revolving nipper. The top
roller, g^, was brought into contact by the lever, g^, and
its connections by means of a cam at the gearing end of
the machine. It was in contact with the fluted segment,
/\ of the cylinder, /, for only a portion of the time that
the roller, g, was making the partial revolution forward,
but it was always in contact with the roller g.

The process of combing being thus completed by these
operations, the ribbon of combed cotton passed to the
rollers, i t\ through a trumpet tube which pressed it to-
gether to form a round sliver. The slivers from the six
heads were then united, passed through the drawing head
at the end of the machine, and coiled into a can.

The combing process having for its primary object the
removal of the short fibres contained in the cotton, and,
incidentally, dirt, leaf, and neps, it may be interesting to
inquire how these were then disposed of by the machine.
When the roller, g^, and the fluted segment, /\ of the
cylinder had got hold of the front ends of the half-combed
fibres, the top comb fell a little in front of the part upon
which the cylinder combs had previously operated. The
roller, g^, and the fluted segment of the cylinder then
drew the fibres forward, the top comb preventing anything
advancing, except the long fibres protruding through the
teeth of the comb. The short fibres were thus left in the
portion of the teeth from which the long ones had been
drawn, and on the rollers, dd^, delivering a fresh length
through the nippers, e e\ the combs, /", on the cylinder,
/, passed through the projecting part of the fleece, and
separated from it the neps, dirt, and all the fibres not long

140 COTTON SPINNING.

enough to be firmly held. They thus took the waste from
the front ends of the fibre, and that which was left by the
top comb. As the cylinder revolved the waste was
cleaned out by the action of the revolving brush, g, which
had a quicker revolution than the cylinder. The brush
then threw the rejected fibres upon a doffing cylinder
covered with card clothing, which in turn was stripped by
an oscillating comb, when the waste dropped into a
receptacle prepared for its reception at the back of the
machine.

The short fibre and waste thus produced was subse-
quently used in the spinning of low and coarse descriptions
of yarns, in which cleanliness was not an essential
quality.

The Heilmann comber was left by the inventor as thus
described, and in that condition at the time was regarded
as one of the greatest triumphs of mechanical skill and
ingenuity to be found in connection with the machinery of
the cotton trade. Yet when put to work it was discovered
that its numerous parts rendered it intricate, liable to get
out of order, and difficult to set right. Many improve-
ments, therefore, in the way of simplifying and perfecting
its details were introduced during the course of the time
covered by the patent. As these details were also succes-
sively patented, the protection originally granted was vir-
tually prolonged. The original invention, however, became
public property, and was adopted as a base from which to
start afresh. Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, well known as
eminent makers of machinery for spinning fine yarns, know-
injDf the combing machine to have become an important,
indeed indispensable adjunct or part necessary to complete
their system of machines, took this in hand for purposes of
improvement. Their establishment being situated in the
midst of the fine spinning district of this country, they had
the best opportunities of becoming acquainted with both its
merits and defects. The latter it has been their study to
remove. lu the comber, as we have described it above,

CARDING AND COMBING. 141

there were in each set of six nippers no less than 564
pieces, including those belonging to their fixings. From
this an idea may be formed as to its complicated character.
These parts have been reduced to 216, showing a dimiuu-
tion of no less than 348 parts. In Heilmann's machines it
took ten hours to set the nippers, which was a delicate
operation, demanding the exercise of both care and skill.
By the changes that have been made, this can now be
performed in half an hour, and is so simple that any carder
can easily and quickly be made to comprehend the method
of doing it. The nipper has been reconstructed and made
to hold the cotton to be combed against the fluted feed
roller, thus dispensing with the cushion plate. The cotton
is drawn into the top comb by detaching rollers, which
draw it in a straight line from the grip of the feed rollers,
thus combining great simplicity with efficiency. The
working of the detaching rollers has been simplified, so
that they can be stopped with greater accuracy, thereby
ensuring a more equal delivery at each stroke. When
changing the staple of cotton in the original machine, it
was necessary to have two new large cams and a notch
wheel. In the improved form, the makers have managed
to dispense with these objections altogether. Combs must
be perfect to do good work, and as they are liable to
damage, great facilities should exist for replacing them
quickly and easily ; the latter have been much increased
by the changes introduced. The different parts, formerly
incapable of it, are now made adjustable, so that they can
now be more nicely regulated, and all wear be taken up
with facility. The connecting rods and half the joints have
been dispensed with altogether, whilst two rollers can be
set with one screw in front.

Instead of the waste, as formerly, being discharged
behind into a receptacle, it is now deposited upon a travel-
ling lattice, which conveys it to two calender rollers,
whence it passes into a coiler at the end of the machine.
These slivers are subsequently made into a lap, and used

142 .COTTON SPINNING.

in the ordinary way for spinning coarse counts. The
improved comber can be adapted to work good American
cottons, all kinds of Egyptian, Fijian, Sea Island, and all
kinds of long stapled varieties.

But with all the improvements that have been effected,
the comber on the Heilmann model remained rather limited
in the extent or range of its use. It is only fitted for the
longer stapled cottons, such as have been indicated. A
want has, however, long been experienced for a machine
of this sort, that should be capable of dealing with
a greater variety, including those of short staple, and
capable of doing a larger quantity of work. The want
may be described as being for a comber that should take
and do the work now performed by the finisher card, but
in a better manner. Owing to the class of work which the
Continental manufacturers are engaged upon, this want
has been more strongly felt by them than by ours, and
accordingly we find that attempts have been made to supply
the requirement. The most successful of these efforts is
that shown in a machine exhibited at Paris in 1878, which
is the invention of M. J. Imbs. This, it is said, has met
with extensive adoption on the Continent, amongst the
manufacturers of France, Alsace, and Italy.

In the following. Fig. 37, a sectional view of this machine
is given. The two rollers, A, have the lap, B, containing
its rollers, placed in the position as shown, where it is re-
tained by two stands. The revolution of these rollers
uncoils the lap, the sheet then being conducted to the feed
rollers, C C, and over the fixed rail, D, and thence between
the nipper jaws, e, f, and the fluted rails, G, H. The parts,
E, G, F, are connected with each other, and form the re-
ceiving and combing nippers, which are opened and closed
at the proper moment by the action of the cams, k', and
the rods, i, the jaws of the nipper, G, H, being attached to
the latter. The cams, K, act upon the rods, J, to which all
parts of the nippers are attached, and by this means the
rod is moved backward or forward, or kept at rest, as

144 COTTON SMNNING.

required; the springs, w, pull this rod back, whilst the
shafts, o', make the same number of revolutions. The
part, E, is covered with cloth and leather, and the jaws,
G and H, are acted upon by the springs placed above
them.

The two jaws, E r', compose the delivering nippers, and
are respectively connected with two large levers, x x',
which turn on their fulcrum, x, moved by the cams on the
shaft, 0, which act upon the friction bowls, v, attached to
the levers, x x^ After the action of the cam has been
completed, the spring, m, returns the levers, x x', to their
first position. The nipper jaw, r', is fixed to the lever, x,
whilst the jaw, r, can slide up the rod, i\ when the
nippers are required to open, and descend again when they
are to close. The delivery nippers are actuated by the
cam, T, fixed on the shaft, o^, which turns on the bar, u.
The shaft, 0^, in its action makes the same and corre-
sponding revolutions to the shafts, o o'.

The comb rod, p, is placed between the delivery and re-
ceiving nippers, and has an ascending and descending
motion, pausing at the extremity of each. It is actuated
by the cam, m, and the frame, L, which slides in the guide
bars, N. The comb rod, P, contains from two to four rows
of combs, which may be arranged to operate either together
or in succession.

All arrangements being complete for work, the opera-
tion of the machine is as follows : — the delivery nippers,
R r', seize and pull through the combs a certain quantity
of cotton, which then passes on to the brush segment, s, of
0^, and is passed by its revolution to the dofier, T. The
latter is arranged to oscillate, so as to receive the portions
of cotton deposited upon it at regular and stated intervals.
The receiving jaws in going back comb a length of cotton.
When the combs descend they are cleaned by the revolving
brush, Q, which takes and deposits the waste upon the re-
volving roller, q'. During the descent of the combs, the
receiving jaws descend with the sliver to the central line.

CARDING AND COMBING. 145

and the delivering jaws return to the same position open^
again seizing and closing upon the proffered cotton ; the
receiving jaws are then opened, and recede in order to be
fed anew. The combs next rise and again pass through
the sliver, when the preceding operations are repeated.
The vibrating combs, z z\ detach first the combed cotton,
and second, the waste ; thefirst named is formed into a sliver,
and conducted between the four pairs of draw rollers, a a
a a, and the delivery rollers, h 6, thence to the coiler for
deposit in the sliver can.

It is asserted that this machine does its work very well,
both when dealing with long and short stapled cotton,
getting through a great quantity, making a small amount
uf waste, and needing but little attention, — in these respects
comparing favourably with the finisher carding engine.

146 COTTOH SPINNING.

CHAPTER VI.
Drawing, Slubbing, and Roving.

Drawing: definition; its objects; doubling or combining sli-vers,
minimizing irregularities; theoretical results. — Practical imperfections
of doubling in past times ; progressive improvement. — Extension of the
process ; causes of this. — The drawing frame : description ; speeds of
rollers; their action. — Details of construction. — Its development. — The
electi'ic stop motion. — Varieties of cotton. — Requirements in the draw-
ing process. — Location of drawing frames; freedom from damp and
draughts required. — Slubbtxg : definition ; description. — Intermediate,
or Second Slubbing, a repetition of the preceding. — Roving : definition.
— Roving frame : description. — Differential motion of the spindles and
bobbins in bobbin-and-tly frames, in the slubbing, intermediate, and
roving fi'ames; a nice problem in mechaiiics ; Holdswnrth's solution. —
The principle explained and illustrated ; successive layers ; the traverse ;
winding of each layer ; diminution of coiis. — Spindles of the thi-ee
frames. — Mechanism of the roving frame ; connection between its parts ;
description; operation; the driving, roller, spindle, and bobbin shafts;
jack in the box ; the cones, method of operating them : the traverse
movement ; acceleration of speed. — Reversal of traverse and how
obtained. — Traverse of the slubbing. — Doffing. — Altering draughts.
— The intermediate, and the slubbing frames.

A S previoHply defined, in the process of drawing, several
/~\_ slivers, the product of the card, are combined and
attenuated to the dimensions of one. Every step in cotton
spinning has a twofold object — the first being to carry the
material a little further in the constructive process ; the
second, to eliminate or minimize the defects of the pre-
ceding stages. The constructive part of drawing is to
further perfect the parallel arrangement of the fibres con-
tained in the sliver, which is accomplished by the difierent
velocities at which the rollers revolve, and the proportion
of which will be seen subsequently ; the second is to render
the sliver more perfectly uniform in its dimensions, or in

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. 147

the number of fibres contained in a cross section, tban it is
when delivered from the card. As shown in the preceding
pages, there are various causes tending to produce irregu-
larities, not only between one lap as compared with
another, but also in the sheet of an individual lap. In the
one case there are dififerences of weight — some being too
heavy, others too light, whilst a third part may be correct;
in the other, the sheet will, or may, be in one portion too
thin, in another too thick, and, again, may be of the proper
texture. A small irregularity in the lap will be increased in
the sliver coming from the card just in the ratio of the
draft. Thus, suppose that one foot of the lap sheet,
through some defect in the working of the lap machine or
neglect of the attendant, contains only two-thirds of the
proper quantity of cotton, this in the card will be drawn
out to, say, one hundred feet of sliver, which will only be
of two-thirds the proper weight. Were this to be carried
through the succeeding processes, until the yarn should be
completed, the fault would increase with every successive
draft or attenuation of the material, though the relative
proportion would not be altered. If we assume that the
design be to produce a 40^ yarn, under this supposition the
resulting part containing the fault would be 60^ thus
presenting the serious difference of twenty hanks. Error
on the opposite side, in which the lap is too heavy, would
produce defects quite as serious in making the yarn too
coarse. This, however, rarely or never occurs in actual
working, as experience has long ago demonstrated the
necessity of doubling and drawing, by which its possibility
is prevented. The parallel arrangement of the fibres in the
sliver as it comes from the card is very imperfect, and
must be improved. This could not be accomplished satis-
factorily were the single sliver to be drawn, as the attenua-
tion or reduction of " the grist," as the dimension is called,
would be far too rapid, and the object would be unaccom-
plished when the sliver had been reduced to a fine roving.
Therefore it is that doubling is resorted to, which enables

148 COTTON SPINNING.

it to be completed in a satisfactor j manner, and tlie proper
weight of the sliver to be preserved. But the second ad-
vantage, no less important, is gained bj the almost entire
elimination of the irregularities of the sliver, the necessity
of which has been pointed out above. It will be obvious
that the chances of irregularities falling together in a
number of slivers are reduced in proportion to the increase
of the number. And, similarly, an irregularity in one
sliver, when combined with seven others which it may be
assumed are perfect, will be reduced to only 12| percent,
of its original dimensions in its first passage through the
drawing frame ; in its second passage, this will be further
diminished to 1^ per cent. ; whilst, in the third, it is prac-
tically obliterated. This process of doubling, looked at
from a theoretical point of view, will yield a perfectly even
sliver from the last head or passage ; and this process is
really the basis of the wonderful perfection attained in the
production of an even thread, regular in dimension and
strength.

When, however, doubling is looked at from a practical
side, there are several imperfections discoverable which
tend to prevent the attainment of theoretical perfection.
In the earlier days of the modern system of cotton spinning,
spinners were often troubled with the presence of "single '^
or weak lengths in the threads of yarn, which careful
observation soon led them to discover was owing to the
faults pointed out above. The cure was at once suggested,
and doubling increased. The sliver, or rather the carded
material from the hand-card in the days of hand-spinning,
was always used with little preparation in the shape of
drawing or doubling, all the process of attenuating and
equalizing the mass of fibres being performed by the fin-
gers of the spinner. A coarse rove was first made from
the carded cotton, and this by a second process was re-
duced and spun into yarn. The roundness and evenness
of the thread thus formed was a test of the qualifications
of the spinner, whose productions commanded a corre-

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. liO

spondingly good price, or otherwise, as these points were
more nearly or distantly approached. On the displace-
ment of manual spinning by that of machines, it was
found that the latter, not possessing human sensitiveness,
had no power to correct any irregularities in the sliver, but
that they attenuated them in exactly the same proportions
as those of the draughts, whether the faults were an
excess or insuflSciency of weight, and that the yarns thus
produced were considerably inferior to those obtained from
good hand-spinning. It was therefore a happy thought
to correct the inequalities of the slivers by putting two
of them together, and drawing them into one, for the prac-
tical development of which plan the trade is indebted to
Arkwright. It was a natural outcome of his realization
of Paul's great conception of attenuating the roving by
mechanical means before twisting it into a thread. The
result was a great improvement, which showed that this
was the way to comparative perfection, and it was quickly
followed. Putting up two slivers, and drawing them into
one, was literally " doubling," from which the name of the
process has been derived. Though very satisfactory, this
left much to be desired. Three slivers were afterwards
treated in the same way with advantage, which were sub-
sequently increased, until, as now, six to eight were put up
in the first passage through the drawing frame.

Whilst these changes were in process, the passages
were at the same time being increased, until the material
was put through the drawing frame three times, as is now
the case ; but, after all this, it was found that imperfections
yet remained to .be remedied. The drawing heads de-
livered the slivers into cans placed beneath, which were
neither supplied with coilers nor pressers. The conse-
quence was, that the slivers were quickly overflowing if
neglected for a moment or two by the attendant. The duty
of the latter was to keep constantly on the move from ono
machine to another, supplying fresh sliver cans to the back
of the frame as those already there became exhausted, and

150 COTTON SPINNING.

pressing the sliver down in the receiving cans at the front
until thej were properly filled. This system not only
entailed much waste, but, as will be obvious, led to fre-
quent damages of the sliver. Careless and thoughtless
attendants, in pressing it into the cans, had little regard
to avoid dragging it, thus making thin places, or breaking
it, and making bad piecings. Too often, also, one or more
of the sliver cans were permitted to become exhausted, and
the end to pass through, perhaps a long distance, before its
exhaustion was observed. This weakened the new sliver
to the extent of one-eighth, or other proportion, of its
strength, and sometimes even more. The defective por-
tion was then either allowed to pass, or was pulled from
the cans, and made into waste. Many of the elder em-
ployers and operatives of the present generation will re-
member this state of matters generally prevailing. Whilst
spinning and manufacturing were combined in one esta-
blishment, not much importance was attached to the de-
fects in yarn arising from these sources. When, however, the
two branches began to separate into two distinct busi-
nesses — the spinner having to sell his yarn, and the
manufacturer to purchase it — the latter lodged complaints
when the defects became unduly numerous, and sometimes
adopted more stringent measures to obtain redress, such
as claiming compensation for inferiority of quality, reject-
ing deliveries, cancelling contracts, or severely leaving
alone an inferior spinning. These courses of action quickly
stimulated spinners to investigate the causes of defects,
and to take steps to improve the quality of their yarns, as
by so doing they enhanced their reputation and obtained
better prices. It is to promptings from this source that
the trade is indebted for many of the improvements that in
their aggregate efi'ect have carried the art of cotton spin-
ning a long way towards perfection. The automatic
presser, which gently presses the sliver, without injury,
into the cans ; the coiler, which causes it to be deposited
in a beautiful order that precludes its entanglement ; and

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. 151

the automatic stop-motion, that immediately on the ex-
haustion or breakage of a sliver, and before the end can
pass between the back rollers, and injure the new sliver
being made, stops the machine, and refuses to pex^mit work
to be resumed until a new sliver is put up, owe their origin
to this cause. A stop-motion in front also exercises similar
care in the prevention of overflowings of the can, thereby
avoiding the making of waste. As long as the drawing-
frame is kept in good condition, and not otherwise tam-
pered with in the stage of perfection to which it has
attained, it automatically makes almost perfect work.
That it should accomplish what we have stated proves it
to be one of the triumphs of mechanical skill, and shows
to what a wonderful extent inert matter can be endowed
with what might almost pass for the reasoning faculty,
the highest attribute of the human mind.

Though the merits of the drawing-frame entitle it to be
spoken of thus highly, yet it is one of the simplest
machines employed in cotton spinning. It is the first,
however, in which is introduced the important principle of
drawing or attenuating the sliver by means of rollers. The
size of these machines is usually indicated by the number
of heads or deliveries they contain, as they are made in
different dimensions, according to the requirements of in-
dividual spinners. One head or delivery constitutes a
perfect machine ; but the usual custom is to combine three
heads in one frame, when it is called a drawing-frame of
three deliveries. As will be seen from the accompanying
illustrations (Figs. 38, 39, 40), which show the front and
back elevation and section, it consists of an oblong
frame, in which is mounted a roller beam, carrying four
rollers, extending the length of the frame. These are the
bottom rollers, and contain twice as many fluted bosses as
there are heads to the frame. The top rollers are short
ones, though double bossed, being of a length to serve one
head onU . They are mounted in the same bearings, and
rest upon the bottom ones. The top rollers are all plain,

152 COTTON SPINNING.

unlike those on which they rest, and have their bosses
covered either with flannel or leather. Formerly the first
and second top rollers from the back were corrugated, but
this plan has been very generally abandoned. A top and
a bottom roller form a pair. The upper rollers are driven
by contact with the lower ones, which is maintained by
saddles or hooks, from which weights, v, are pendent. A
light wood clearer-roller rests upon the top of each pair of
rollers, whose function is to take up any loose fibre or
broken sliver, to prevent it running round the rollers, the
diameter of which it would quickly increase at the point,
and so prevent the roller drawing properly in any other part
of its length. Waste can be stripped from the clearer
rollers with more facility than from the drawing rollers.

The speed of each pair of rollers diff'ers from the other,
being graduated from the back to the front. The usual
speeds are in the following ratio : the back pair or taking-in
rollers, I'OO ; second pair, 1*25 ; third pair, 175 ; fourth, or
front pair, 2"75. It will thus be seen that the acceleration
is not in an equal ratio, the second pair revolving at a rate
only once and a quarter as fast as the first, or taking-in
rollers, whilst the third pair gain half a revolution upon the
second. It is between the last two pairs in the series — that
is, the third and fourth pairs — that the chief draught takes
place. The difference between the speed of the third and
the fourth pairs is considerable, the acceleration of the latter
being more than one-half. Thus the real work of this ma-
chine is done by the second, third, and fourth pairs of rol-
lers, the first pair being conductors, taking the sliver into
the machine, and retaining it for a little preparatory draw-
ing by the second pair. The latter hold the material, whilst
the third pair attenuate the sliver still further, the operation
being concluded by the last pair. The top rollers not being
fluted, but covered with leather or flannel, give the surface
a chance of sliding over the portion of the material that may
be too firmly held to be drawn from the preceding rollers.
This to some extent prevents the breakage of the longer

154 COTTON SPINNING.

fibres that occur in the material. In all cottons there is a
variation in the length of the fibres, some exceeding and
some falling below the average. The rollers are always set
to work the average length, whilst that portion which much
exceeds it gets broken in the drawing, or escapes such a fate
in the manner indicated. The draught upon the cotton in
this position is such that the fibres are not only changed in
their relationship to each other, but their arrangement in
parallel order is greatly advanced. The front or fourth
pair of rollers having only a very slight gain upon the
speed of the third pair have as their function little more to
do than take hold of, and conduct the sliver to the point at
which it is delivered. After the sharp action involved in
drawing there is a crispness or tendency to curl in the
fibre, and the delivery rollers exercise a useful function in
slightly calendering the sliver, thereby preventing it from
flying from the position into which it has been the object
of the process to place it. This brief description will fully
explain the principle of the machine, and the purpose for
which it is introduced into the series necessary for trans-
forming cotton into yarn.

It will now be proper to give a more detailed descrip-
tion of this machine, as illustrated in the accompanyins:
drawings, Figs. 38, 39, 40. The sliver cans from the card
are arranged behind, as shown in Fig. 38. The slivers,
I, from them are passed upwards throuo^h guide holes, i',
extending the length of the frame. The function of this is
to prevent the sliver being drawn into the rollers in knots,
kinks, or an otherwise entangled condition. Emerging
from here they pass over the polished convex surface of a
guide-plate, i!\ to the spoon levers, J, which form a portion
of the ingenious arrangement for stopping the machine
when a sliver breaks or becomes exhausted. The opposite
end of this lever in some machines extends backward be-
neath the convex guide-plate just mentioned, and has a
pendant or tail-piece jointed to it. The whole is then
nicely balanced in the centre on a pivot, or, as in more

15G COTTON SPINNING.

recent macliiTies, on a knife edge, which is more sensitive,
with the inclination slightly on the side of the tail-piece.
The illustration is of a machine of the latter kind. In
actual work, the passage of the sliver through the spoon
forming the head rather more than counterbalances the
slight difference of weight in favour of the rear end of the
lever, and holds it up. When, however, it breaks or be-
comes exhausted, the latter drops, and the tail-piece falls
into a position where it arrests the oscillation of the shaft,
F, causing the lever, d, to lift from the fulcrum point, e',
into a fresh position, from which it swivels the tumbler
catch, G, into the position shown by the dotted line, which
releases the strap fork rod, and stops the frame, which
cannot be started until the sliver is pieced, or another
supplied. Leaving the spoon the sliver passes over
another guide-plate on its passage to the rollers whose
functions have already been described. Emerging from
these, it passes between a pair of calender rollers, which
compress it into a ribbon form, and deliver it to the
revolving head of the coiler, such as described in con-
nection with the card, by which it is neatly deposited in
the slowly revolving can. The back stop-motion is to
prevent the formation of single in the sliver ; but there is
also one in front by which waste is prevented. In ordi-
nary machines, before passing the calender rollers, the
sliver is conducted over the head of a double lever, the
rear part of which extends to the back of the machine.
This part is fitted with a movable weight, that can be set
at any desired point, which enables the lever to be easily
arranged in such a position that the passage of the sliver
over the opposite end shall elevate the weighted end.
The breakage or removal of the sliver therefrom at once
allows the latter to drop, when its extremity falls into a
like position to that of the pendent bar of the back stop-
motion, and arrests the revolution of the same shaft with
a similar effect. In the one under illustration this end is
obtained by a different arrangement, as will be obvious

DKA\VING, SLUBBIXG, AXD ROVING.

157

from the following brief details of its general mechanism
and operation. The first motion shaft carries the pulley,
A, bj which it is driven from the line shaft. A strap upon
the pulley, a', extends upwards, and drives the fast pulley,
a'^, upon the fluted roller. This roller carries a pinion,
which gears into and drives the first of a trnin of wheels,
B (Fig. 40), actuating the eccentric wheel, b', to which is
attached the connecting rod, c, coupled to the lever, J), the
latter being in turn connected with the motion box, E, by

Fig. 40. Drawing frame end.

means of the stud, e', the box being keyed on the shaft, F.
One end of the tumbler catch, G, extends to and rests upon
one end of the lever, d, whilst the opposite rests in a notch
in the strap fork rod, H. "When the sliver breaks at the
lever spoon, L^, it falls, and acting through a connecting
bar and lever, stops the shaft, F, as in the previous case.

The drawing frame has attained its present degree of
perfection very slowly. For a long time it was impossible
to overcome the difficulties above described regarding the
occurrence of " single," though on every side numerous

158 COTTON SPINNING.

attempts were being made. James Smith of Deanston, in
Scotland, well-known in his day as a skilful spinner and
a successful inventor, was the first to secure a measure of
success by the invention of the stopping arrangement
just described. It has been improved and perfected in
several details by succeeding machinists, who have now
obtained with it a very sensitive action. In the case of the
machine which the accompanying drawings illustrate, the
spoon levers are balanced on what is technically called
by mechanics a " knife edge," which secures a remark-
ably quick action and a prompt stoppage of the machine.

Messrs. Howard and BuUough, Accrington, have intro-
duced an electrical stop-motion, which has been success-
fully applied to the drawing, slubbing, and intermediate
roving frame. Its application to the carding engine and
the final roving frame has not been so satisfactory, and the
makers do not recommend it in these cases. Briefly stated,
the invention consists of the introduction of a small
magneto-electric machine, which is driven by a band or
belt from the shafting driving the machinery. It is very
small, and requires little power to drive it. Two rods
convey electricity from the generating machine to the
frame, to each of which certain parts of the machine are
connected ; but the circuit is not completed. The drawing
frame requires to be stopped on the breakage of the sliver
at any part, or its exhaustion, on its lapping around the
rollers, or on the can becoming full. The insertion of the
sliver between the rollers slightly elevates the top roller,
and prevents the completion of the electrical circuit.
Should breakage or exhaustion of the sliver occur, the
slight space separating the two parts is immediately closed,
the circuit completed, and the machine stopped. In the
event of the sliver lapping around the rollers, either top or
bottom, the top roller is raised, and brought into contact
with a screw, which also completes the circuit, and stops the
machine. On the can having become full, and risk occur-
ring of the sliver running to waste, the latter is prevented

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. 159

by an arrangement which allows the accumulating slivei
to lift the tube or coiler-wheel, until it comes into contact
with a projection from the calender roller cover, which
again completes the circuit, and stops the machine. These
stoppages are effected by the introduction of a small
magnet, arranged near a small pendent lever, whose func-
tion is similar to that of the tail-piece of the spoon-lever
stopping arrangement. This magnet does not become
operative until the completion of the electrical circuit,
when it attracts the pendent lever towards itself, which
brinsrs the lower extremity into contact with the notched
revolving shaft, and through the arrangements already
described in connection with that part, stops the machine.
The introduction of this subtle agent into mechanical
industry places a new power in the hands of our ma-
chinists, which may help in the earlyt^uture to solve some
difficult problems.

The varieties of cotton differ greatly in their nature,
some being harsh and intractable, yielding only slowly to
the necessities of manufacture. Others, again, are soft,
silky, and very flexible, and are easily brought into an
orderly condition. The former require the most drawing,
and even after such treatment do not often yield a solid,
strong yarn. Their intractable nature indicates the use to
which it is best they should be put, and that is for the
production of weft yarns, or warp yarns that are to be
suVvjected to heavy sizing. They make a soft, spongy
yarn, not well consolidated, very suitable for weft, which is
required to give a full and substantial appearance to fabrics
technically called "cover," and which can be obtained
more easily and cheaply by the employment of a full-
looking weft than one in which the fibres are more tractable,
and the thread more nearly solid. This is a useful quality,
again, in warp yarns which are designed for heavy sizing,
as when the thread is wanting in solidity, the materials
employed for sizing can easily penetrate and fill the inter-
stices, whereby the yarn is strengthened. The nature of

160 COTTON SPINNING.

the soft and silky varieties equally correctly designates tlie
use to which they should be put, which is to make warp
yarns in which solidity and strength, rather than bulk, is
required ; and in wefts which are needed to be round, fine,
and strong, for fabrics which are to be light and clear in
texture, or very close and solid, such as are usually woven
with wet weft.

In this stage, therefore, the number of times the mate-
rial should be drawn and doubled depends mainly upon the
class of cotton in use, and, secondly, upon the purpose for
which it is intended. The object sought to be attained
being to draw the fibres into parallel order, any manipula-
tion beyond this is unnecessary, wasteful, and injurious —
wasteful, because the time, power, and supervision em-
ployed is spent to no good result, and the cost of it lost;
and injurious, because the fibre is damaged and injured
for subsequent stages. Cotton which is drawn too much
makes a weak yarn, as the fibres are strained until the
natural convolutions shown in the illustrations of the
magnified fibres are destroyed or injured to such an extent
that they will slide over, instead of interlocking with each
other, when the thread is subjected to a strain. For the
soft kinds of cotton, when intended for numbers not ex-
ceeding 32', its passage through two heads of drawings
of eight ends each, equal to sixty- four doublings, will often
be found sufficient. If more be needed, three passages are
given of 8 X 6 X 6 = 288 ; if still more be required, eight
ends are put up through each head, when the number of
doublings stand thus, 8 x 8 x 8 = 512. Sometimes, though
but rarely, this number is exceeded. The number of
doublings, however, always, to a more or less extent,
depends upon the personal opinion of the spinner, which
is often affected by incidents of individual experience.

An even temperature should if possible be preserved in
the rooms containing the drawing machinery, and espe-
cially should extremes of dampness and dryness be avoided,
as the former causes the rollers to " lick" the fibre around

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AXD ROVING. 161

them, making a great quantity of waste, and weakening
the yarn through its loss, whilst excessive dryness of the
atmosphere, as experienced in dry hot days in summer, or
during the prevalence of dry east winds at other seasons,
causes the fibre to curl and fly off, owing to the friction of
the fibres over one another developing a perceptible
amount of electricity. Drawing frames should, therefore,
never be placed in damp rooms ; and ground floors, unless
well drained, and rendered quite dry, are unsuitable. The
ventilation should be arranged so that currents of air shall
not impinge upon the machinery, especially the working
parts through which the cotton is passing.

Slubbing. — This process is closely akin to the former.
There is, however, no doubling in it. It consists of the
drawing or attenuation of the sliver as delivered from the
last frame into one of much smaller dimensions, called a
slubbing. Instead of six or eight slivers, however, being
combined into one as before, only one is put up, and
which, passing through a series of three pairs of rollers,
similar to those of the drawing frame, is attenuated in any
required degree. Instead of being coiled in a can as in
the drawing frame, by means of a flyer carried on a re-
volving spindle, it is wound upon a bobbin. This is the
first machine of the series called bobbin-and-fly frames.
The machines included under this name consist of the
following : slubbing, intermediate, roving, throstle-spin-
ning, and throstle-doubling frames, w^hich are all identical
in principle, though differing considerably in detail.

The slubbing frame is generally constructed with about
sixty to eighty spindles, the latter usually being a maxi-
mum number. These are of a size to fit them for the re-
ception of bobbins or tubes, ten to twelve inches in height.
The winding-rail has a correspondingly extensive traverse.
In this passage, the cotton is first twisted, the sliver
having been attenuated to such an extent that its cohe-
rence without it vrould not, in the subsequent process, be
sufficient to pull the bobbin round when being drawn off.

162 COTTOX SPIXNINO.

But as the stra,nd of fibres has to be still further at*
tenuated, and much twist would prevent this, no more is
put in than is necessary to accomplish this purpose. As
this and the two following machines are much alike, and
constructed on the same principles, thej may be grouped
together when a description of one will serve for all.

Intermediate or Second Slubbixg. — This is in all
essential respects a repetition of the last process, though
the machine contains rather more spindles, say from eighty
to one hundred, the bobbins also being smaller, from eight
to nine in. lift, and of a proportionate diameter. The
intermediate frame is not often employed in the production
of counts below 20^, unless of a very good quality. As
the slubbing from the preceding machine has been reduced
or attenuated, as far as in this stage is desirable, two
strands of slubbing are put up, and by a draught of two
are united into one. This reduces any irregularity that
yet remains to one-half of its former dimensions, in which
state it may be regarded as practically reduced to nothing.
There is, however, another risk introduced. The slubbing
bobbins are placed in a creel at the back of the frame, and
in number are double thocs- of the spindles in the front. As
two slubbing strands go to form the intermediate slubbing,
it is obvious that, on the breakage or exhaustion of one,
the other may continue working with the draught as
before, and yield a slubbing only half as thick as required.
In this condition it is called "single," and whenever pre-
sent to any considerable extent, constitutes a serious
defect.

Roving. — The roving frame is the succeeding frame to
the intermediate slubbing, and the process itself is the
terminal one of the preparatory stages previous to the
final one of spinning. Here the strand of cotton is re-
duced to such proportions that, under ordinary circum-
stances, it can easily be draughted in the process of spin-
ning to the required dimensions. In the case of spinning
the finer counts, however, another frame is introduced.

DEAWEN'G, SLUBBIXG, AND EOVING. 163

called the jack frame, by which the roving is reduced con-
siderably further to render the work of the mule easier in
the final draught.

As before observed, the roving frame is one of the series
of bobbin-and-fly frames, and the opportunity may be taken
of describing it as the representative machine of the series.
In its details it is smaller than either of the preceding
machines. The sizes of the spindles and bobbins are de-
creased, whilst the number are increased, ranging from 100
to 140, the lift of the bobbin being reduced to from five to
seven inches. Unlike the slubbing frame, which draws
its supply of raw material from the sliver cans, it is fitted
with a creel or frame, a. Fig. 41, for the reception of the bob-
bins from the slubbing or the intermediate frame, which
ever may immediately precede it. These creels contain the
tubes holding the attenuated sliver, now called slubbing.
The tubes are arranged vertically, with two rows, h &, in
a tier. They are retained in position by pegs, on which
they revolve. These pegs were formerly made from lance-
wood, but now are constructed of cheaper material, having
hardwood tips inserted at the bottom. This lessens their
cost, without diminishing their durability. On these pegs
the bobbins easily revolve, the pull necessary to cause the
delivery of the rove being so slight as not to strain it. In
the slubbing frame there are four pairs of rollers, but in
the intermediate and roving frames there are only three.
These rollers extend across the frame from c c'. The bottom
rollers are fluted, whilst the top ones are plain, and covered
with leather. The top rollers are now generally made
with loose bosses — an improvement due to the late Evan
Leigh, and one which has proved of great value. The
rollers are mounted on a beam, technically called the
roller-beam, extending the length of the frame, and fixed
between the creel and the spindles. Metallic plates, called
caps, cover the rollers, and serve to protect them from
dust, foreign substances, or accidental injury. The spindles
are arranged in two rows, one behind the other, but alter-

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND EOYING. 165

nating in position, as seen at d, in order to economize
siDPiCe. Each spindle is mounted with a flyer, fixed
upon the top. The slabbing, intermediate, and roving
frame-fljers are each furnished with a " presser," or pres-
sure finger, e, which by its action compresses the material
upon the bobbins or tubes upon which it is being wound,
thereby enabling a much larger quantity to be put upon
them than would otherwise be the case. Before the apjDli-
cation of these, the bobbins were filled very quickly, and
the operation of " dofling " — that is, removing the filled
bobbins, and supplying the frame with empty ones — was
necessary three or four times where once is now quite
sufficient. Whilst this was being performed the machine
of necessity was stopped, and much valuable time lost.
This loss is now reduced fully 75 per cent., the time
gained being economized for productive purposes. A cor-
responding advantage also results in the spinning depart-
ment from the same change, the bobbins lasting four times as
long as previously before becoming exhausted, thus econo-
mizing labour, increasing the production, and improving
the quality. Formerly the bobbins had large flanged heads,
in order to retain the slubbing or rove upon the barrel ;
but these are now dispensed with, the material as it is
w^ound upon the tubes now being coned at both extremi-
ties. By these improvements the economy effected in the
wear and tear of bobbins has been very large. The arms
of the flyer — to one of which the presser is fitted — are
tubular ; and the presser is interchangeable, being made
to fit both legs. As the spindles revolve at a high speed,
it will be obvious that, to prevent injurious oscillation and
great wear and tear of the spindles and bolsters, the flyer
should be nicely adjusted, and perfectly balanced in its
position, otherwise numerous evils will result. Two hori-
zontal shafts extend throughout the length of the machine,
under each of the series of plates marked //' and g g'. The
lower pair carry the bevel wheels that gear into smaller
ones upon the spindles by which the latter are driven.

166 COTTON SPINNING.

Similar gearing npon the upper shaft drives the bobbin, in
connection with a differential motion, at a slower or quicker
speed, as may be arranged, accordingly as the bobbin may
be desired to lead or follow the spindle in the rate of its
revolution. It has until recently been generally thought
desirable that the bobbin should follow and not lead or
run in advance of the flyer. Latterly, however, opinion
on this point has undergone a considerable change, and
corresponding alterations have taken place. The cause of
this is chiefly the fact that the spindles always commence
their movement before the bobbin, because of their con-
nection with the first motion or driving shaft of the ma-
chine being positive by means of gearing ; whilst the
bobbins are driven through a differential arrangement
which includes the cone pulleys and their connecting
strap, and which therefore do not start so promptly. Owing
to this fact, when the flyer leads, a slight stretching of
the rove takes place, which injures it. When the bobbin
is arranged to lead, this is avoided, as the roving is mo-
mentarily slackened, though this is immediately taken up
when the different parts have got properly at work.

The proper driving of the spindles and bobbins of a fly
frame, especially in the slubbing, intermediate and roving
frames in which the driving is required to be positive, in-
volves one of the nicest problems in mechanics. The
strand of cotton is attenuated in the slubbing frame to
such an extent as to require a slight amount of twist to
secure its cohesion. In the intermediate frame the same
thing takes place, and is again repeated in the roving
frame. But the total amount of twist put into the rove,
after its passage through the three machines, is only very
small, not often exceeding two or three turns per inch.
The exact "twist" depends upon the quality of the material
in use. The attenuation of the sliver may have been carried
from half-hank to four, five, or six-hank in the roving. It
will be obvious that when the strand of cotton has been
attenuated to this degree, and not having received more

DK AWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. 1G7

than two or three turns of twist per inch, its cohesive power
is of the smallest degree, and that the most perfect adjust-
ment of the winding process to the delivery of rove by the
front rollers is necessary in order to prevent strain or
breakage. The rate of delivery by these rollers is con-
stant ; and the revolution of the spindles in putting in a
given quantity of twist requires to be constant also. Wero
the rove, after being twisted by the spindles, delivered into
a fixed receptacle, or, say, a sliver can, there would be no
difficulty in the matter. But as for facility of handling in
subsequent processes, preservation from injury, and the
prevention of waste, it is necessary to wind it upon tubes
or bobbins, this introduces the complications that consti-
tute the problem referred to above. At the first glance,
this winding would appear to be equally easy of accom-
plishment with the preceding, merely requiring a propor-
tionate rate of revolution of the bobbin. But the difficulty
lies in the proportionate rate being a variable, instead of a
fixed one, for the diameter of the surface upon which the
rove is wound increases with every layer wound upon it.
This rate of increase is a calculable one, and it requires a
proportionate acceleration of the speed of the bobbin when,
as we assume, the latter follows the flyer. The solution
of this problem quite baffled the skill and ingenuity of
Arkwright, and was not satisfactorily solved until the in-
vention of the well-known diS'erential arrangement of
Holdsworth, the principle at least of which is now univer-
sally in use to-day. The winding commences with the
bobbin at a minimum of speed, the acceleration taking place
on the completion of each layer, and, therefore, with each
change of movement of the traverse rail, whether commen-
cing at the bottom or top. It attains its maximum rate
with the winding-on of the last layer, when the bobbin is
filled. The speed of the bobbin is, however, a constant
quality during the winding-on of each layer. When however
the newer arrangement referred to above is adopted, and
the bobbin arranged to precede the flyer, the former com-

168 COTTON SPIXXIXG.

mences the ■winding process at its maximum rate of revo-
lution, the changes that take place being a succession of
alterations each of which retards its speed.

The principle of increasing the speed of the bobbin just
outlined, and which is technically known as the " differ en-
tial motion," is often a puzzle to students commencing the
study of cotton spinning and the cognate industries. It
•will, therefore, be advisable to dwell somewhat longer on
the subject, in order to more fully elucidate it. Suppose
the front rollers of a roving frame deliver GOO inches per
minute of rove, which has to receive three turns of twist
per inch, the spindles will require to make 1,800 revolu-
tions per minute, to put into the rove the amount of twist
desired. It will be obvious that the rove when twisted
must be got out of the way, which is accomplished by
winding it upon the bobbin. To illustrate this, let us sup-
pose two points separated from each other, yet connected
by a line, A e "^"^ O b, the first, A, indicating the bobbin,
and the second, b, the spindle. It is essential to maintain
the connection, represented by the line, between them. If
it be necessary for B to move forward 1,800 inches in the
direction of the arrow, the line being inelastic, and break-
age not permissible, A must follow an equal distance, the
result being that the relationship between the two points
is unchanged. But if the line can be extended, or, to use
a nautical phrase, payed out by B to the extent of 600
inches during its movement of 1,800 inches, it will only be
necessary for A to follow a distance of 1,200 inches in order
to maintain the link. This will show the intimate con-
nection that subsists between the bobbin and flyer, which
is not affected by the fact that their movements are circu-
lar, instead of, as here suj^posed, horizontal. But this by
no means exhausts the phenomena : a step further must
now be taken.

Instead of placing the two points as before, and giving
them movement in a horizontal direction, let them be put
in the position which will more nearly represent the facts

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND EOVING. 169'

of the case. The following figures represent plan views
of the spindle, bobbin, flyer, and rove in different positions.
In each diagram let the central point represent the spindle,
the small circle the bobbin, a, and the outer ring the circle
described bj the point, B, which will stand for the foot of
the flyer, whilst the line, C, connecting the bobbin with the
flyer, will represent the rove. As in the supposition above,
if the foot of the flyer, b, makes 1,800 revolutions whilst
connected by c with a, the latter must make the same
number of revolutions to prevent the line, c, being either
broken or strained. Revolving in concentric circles around
a common axis, the greater distances travelled by the
point, B, and the point of the bobbin, A, to which the line, C,
is attached, will not affect their relationship. But taking
the second part of the above supposition, allowing b to
pay out to A 600 inches of rove during the time it is
making 1,800 revolutions, it will be obvious that the bobbin,
A, can have its speed reduced, and indeed must have it re-
duced, in order to prevent entanglement of the rove, to
such an extent as to allow b to w^rap or wind the 600
inches of rove around it. The illustration up to this point
shows that the winding of the rove upon the bobbin or
tube is accomplished by the greater speed of the revolu-
tion of the flyer over that of the bobbin, and that the
amount of winding will always be represented by the diffe-
rence between their rates of revolution.

The illustrations. Figs. 42, 43, will make these points quite
clear. Let the diagram A, Fig. 42, represent the position of
bobbin and flyer at the time of starting, a being the flyer,
and h the point of the bobbin to w^hich the rove is attached.
In the second diagram, b, it wdll be seen that the flyer, a,
has made one revolution, and has returned to its former
position. In order to simplify the illustration, let us
assume that the projDortionate rates of revolution of the
flyer and bobbin are as three to two. It will thus be seen
that whilst the flyer has performed one complete circuit,
the bobbin has only made two-thirds of a revolution.

170 COTTON SPINNING.

which has allowed the flyer to wind the rove round one-
third of its circumference. Thus, if the bobbin be 3 inches
in circumference, it will have traversed 2 inches, while the
flyer has made a complete revolution, and has given out
1 inch of rove which has thus been wound upon the
bobbin. The diagram c shows that the flyer has com-
pleted a second revolution, the bobbin having fallen another
one-third of a revolution behind, and a second inch of rove
having been wound upon it. The next, d, illustrates the

Fig. 42.

V ^ /' \ / V

~g"

Diagrams explanatory of winding process.

completion of the third revolution of the flyer, and the
second of the bobbin, whilst the third inch of rove has
been added upon the latter, thereby completing the first
round of 3 inches.

In each of the foregoing diagrams the flyer is shown
after each revolution as having returned to the point from
which it started. In Fig. 43 the bobbin is dealt with in
the same manner, which enables the advance of the flyer
to be more clearly shown. In the first. A, the positions

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AXD ROVING. 171

are as shown in the preceding diagram at starting, whilst
in B the bobbin has completed one revolution = 1-L flyer,
therefore the flyer is half a revolution in advance of the
bobbin, the rove wound up being = half the circumference
of the bobbin, or Ij- inch. In diagram C the bobbin has
returned a second time to the point whence it started,
whilst the flyer has completed three revolutions, and has
given out 3 inches of rove, which it has wound around the
bobbin, completing its encirclement for the first time. This
process is repeated until the whole length of the bobbin
intended for the reception of rove is covered by a first
layer, the winding of one fold upon another being pre-
vented by the gradual elevation of the bobbin upon the
spindle between the legs of the flyer, which brings an
uncovered portion of the barrel opposite the eye of the
flyer. Throughout this traverse the speeds of the flyer
and the bobbin in their relation to one another have been
uniform and unchanged.

By the deposit upon the tube or bobbin of the first layer
of rove, the surface upon which the winding must now
take place has been enlarged. As the diameter of the
tube was one inch, it is now one inch plus the diameter
of the two plies of rove which a line drawn through
the middle of the tube from one outside of the layer
of rove to its opposite, would bisect. It is usual to
find the diameter of one ply of rove by carefully measuring
the diameter of a full bobbin, subtracting that of the
empty one from it, and dividing the difi'erence by the
number of layers upon it, which gives the diameter of two
plies, there being, as we have seen, two plies in the
diameter of each circuit ; this divided by two, gives the
diameter of each ply. Let us assume that the diameter of
the bobbin when empty is 1 inch, and when full 3 inches,
the difference will be 2 inches. Suppose the full bobbin to
contain twenty-four layers of rove, this number must be
used as a divisor of the 2 inches, when the position may
be stated thus : —

172 COTTON SPIXXIXG.

2 -- 24 = -0833 -^ 2 = -04166, the diameter of one ply
of rove. As the bobbin or tube, to begin with, is 1 inch
in diameter, the first layer will add -0833, the diameter of two
plies of the rove, making the result, 1 + -0833 = 1*0833, the
new diameter. The circumference of any circle being
S-1415 times its diameter, the former can always readily
be found by using this figure as a multiplier. Every suc-
cessive layer of rove, therefore, will increase the diameter
by the diameter of two plies of the rove, the same as
before, and each new diameter multiplied by 3-1415 will
give the new winding surface of the bobbin in process of
being filled. Paying regard to this principle, we shall find
the following to be the result in the case under sup-
position : —

1 in. diameter of bobbin.

1st layer 1 -f '0833 = 1-0833.

2nd „ 1-0833 + -0833 = 1-1666.

3rd „ 1-1666 + -0833 = 1-2499.

4th „ 1-2499 + -0833 = 1-3332.

5th „ 1-3332 + -0833 = 1-4165.
10th „ 1-7497 + -0833 = 1-8830.
15th „ 2-1662 + -0833 = 2-2495.
20th „ 2-5827 + -0833 = 2-6660.
25th „ 2-9992 + -0833 = 3-0825.

The rove is delivered from the flyer in a cylindrical
form, but, when wound upon the bobbin, contact with the
barrel and compression by the presser transforms it into
an ellipse; the same change also occurs in the rove of each
successive layer. This, however, does not affect the cal-
culation when the diameter is obtained as above, because
it is taken after the rove has been thus compressed.

The rove is wound helically upon the tube by means of
an arrangement called the traverse, which consists in
making the bolster rail move upward and downward,
sliding the bobbin up and down the spindle at such a rate
as to allow the coils of the rove to be laid contiguously to

DRAWING, SLUBBIXG, AND ROVING. 17 S

ench other upon the barrel. When the traverse is com-
pleted, the movement of the rail is reversed, and at the
same moment the speed of the bobbin is accelerated, and a
second layer is laid npon the first ; the bobbin, if before
ascending, now descending, or contrariwise. After the
second layer is completed the bobbin again turns back,
receiving at the same instant a further acceleration of
speed. This takes place at the completion of every layer.

With the increasing diameter of the bobbin a fewer
number of turns are required to take up the rove delivered.
This enables the lift or traverse to be diminished by about
the amount of one coil per traverse, and as this diminution
takes place at both ends, the effect is that the rove at the
extremities of the bobbin is built upon it in the form of
cones, the lower one of which is inverted, as will be seen
from Fig. 44^, in which two bobbins are shown upon the
spindles, one being empty, and the other full. It may be
necessary to observe that the arrangement here described
of the differential motion, and its application to both the
speed of the bobbin and the lifting of the traverse rail,
necessitates the uniform filling of one " side " of bobbins at
a time, and a similar order of doffing; not permitting, as-
in the flyer spinning frame, the doffing of one bobbin at a
time if it is thought desirable.

The spindles of the slubbing, the intermediate, and the
roving frame are constructed alike, and with only slight
variations in detail by the different makers. The follow-
ing Fig. 44, exhibits a detailed view. The spindles, x x,
are mounted in the frame as shown, one behind the other,
and are driven by the shafts, B b^, by means of the bevelled
gearing, a^ a\ Ths flyers, a;\ are securely mounted upon
the spindle tops at x"^ so as to partake of their rotatory
motion. The flyer consists of a tube, a;^, and two hollow
legs, x^ X*, to which the pressure fingers, z 2, are affixed at
2". The latter turn freely on their bearings at z^, the
pressure upon the bobbin being induced by the quick
rotation of the spindle and the resistance of the air against

174

COTTON SPINNING.

the bobbin. The slabbing, after being delivered by the
rollers, is conducted into the tube of the fljer at x"^. and
comes out of it at o ; it then enters one of the tubular
legs at z\ from which it emerges at 2^, when it is coiled
several times round the presser, z, which assists to con-
solidate it, and then passes through the hole, 2^, upon the

Fig. 44. Slubbing Frame. Spindle gearing and bobbin traverse.

bobbin, y. The bobbins receive their motion from similar
shafts, G g', and gearing, e^° e^\ to those of the spindles. As
the two shafts driving the spindles of the front and back
row are actuated by a common driver, they necessarily re-
volve in opposite directions ; in order, therefore, to secure
the revolution of both lines of spindles in one way, one row is
placed to the left and the other to the right of the driving

tnnMM^

176 COTTON SPINXIXG.

shafts. A similar arrangement prevails with regard to
the driving of the bobbins, as will be seen from Fig. 44-,

These complex yet harmonious movements are produced
by some very ingenious mechanical arrangements which
now require description. The following illustrations, re-
presenting the mechanism of a roving frame in the order of
its parts, will be of assistance to a thorough comprehen-
sion of its structure and working. Being different pre-
sentations of the same mechanism, the respective parts, as
they appear in each drawing, are marked with the same
reference letters.

The driving shaft, A, Figs. 45 and 46, is usually fitted with
12 in. fast and loose pulleys. A wheel, a, upon this shaft
works into a carrier wheel, a 1, which actuates another
wheel, a 2, upon, and by which, the spindle shaft, b, is driven.
This wheel gears into a similar wheel, a 3, upon the spindle
shaft, B 1, which being of the same size, both shafts revolve
at the same speed. These shafts, b, b 1, carry the bevel
gearing driving the spindles, and which has been previously
described.

The shaft, a, first mentioned, also carries a pinion, h, Fig.
45, working into a carrier wheel, h 1, which again actuates
another wheel, h 2, on the shaft, C, of the driving cone. Upon
the latter shaft there is a wheel, c, gearing into a second, c 1,
actuating the front roller shaft, d. A pinion, c 2, Fig. 47,
upon this shaft drives a wheel, c 3, on the axis of which is
a pinion, c 4, gearing into another wheel, c 5, which drives
the back roller, d 2. Upon the back roller is a pinion, c 6,
actuating a carrier wheel, c 7, driving a pinion, c 8, upon the
centre roller, d 1.

As remarked before, the arrangement of the rollers is
such that only a very small draught occurs between the
back and middle roller, nearly the whole of the latter
occurring between the middle and the front rollers. The
rollers are usually set by means of a gauge, the distance
from centre to centre of the front and back roller being
such as not to exceed, or fall short of the length of staple

DKAWIXG, SLUBBING, AND ROVING.

177

of the cotton in use. The three bottom rollers are fluted,
and also the top back roller, but the middle and front top
rollers are covered with leather. The top rollers rest upon
the bottom ones, and are moved bj contact with the latter.
This is preserved by means of weights suspended on
hooks.

The differential driving of the bobbins yet remains to be
explained. The shaft, a, besides the wheel, a, driving the
spindles through the train of gearing as described, carries

rig. 46. Eoving Frame. Differential driving gearing.

a second wheel, e, which is shown broken upon the shaft, A,
in Fig. 45, and more distinctly, but without its connected
train, in Fig. 46. The bobbins receive their motion from
this wheel, the revolutions of which are required to increase
by a constant number, as each added layer of rove enlarges
the diameter of the bobbin. This acceleration of the revo-
lution of this wheel is produced by a cone driving-motion
connected with a differential wheel-motion, commonly called
a "jack in the box " motion. The cone, t 1, is driven by a

178 COTTON SPIXXIXG.

strap from the cone, t. In form, the latter is slightly con-
cave, and the former slightly convex. These cones require
to be made with great accuracy, so that the revolutions of
the shaft, e, which is driven by the cone, f, shall increase
in exact proportion, according to the space the strap is
traversed towards the largest diameter of the cone, T. The
shaft, E, at its extremity carries a bevelled pinion, cZ, gearing
into a wheel, d 1, of the same description upon the vertical
shaft, F. On the top of the shaft, f, there is a bevelled
pinion, cZ 2, working into the wheel, el. The differential
mechanism is constructed as follows : the wheel, e 3, is fixed
upon the shaft, A ; the upper and the lower wheels, marked
e 2, gearing with e 3 on one side, and e4 on the other,
have their bearings in the body of the wheel, e 1. The
wheel, e 4, is cast in one piece with the wheel, e, and both
this double wheel, e, e 4, and e 1, are loose on the shaft, A.
It will be obvious from the arrangement shown in the figure
that the wheels, e 2, are of necessity alike, as are also e 3
and e 4. If the wheel, el, is kept stationary, and e3 is
turned round once in the direction of the arrow, the wheel,
e 4, w411 also be turned once round through the wheels, e 2,
gearing simultaneously with the wheels, e 3 and e 4. The
movement of this wheel, however, will be in the contrary
direction to that of e 3. By this action the wheel, e, is made
to revolve at the same rate as the shaft, a, though the
direction of its revolution is reversed. If, on the contrary,
the wheel, e 3, is drawn back, and if the two wheels, e 2, are
fixed in their places so that they cannot move, then, on
turning the wheel, e 1, once round in the direction of the
arrow, the wheel, e 4, will also be turned once round the
teeth of one of the wheels, e 2, just engaged with e 4, acting
as a driver and turning the latter in the same direction as
el. If the wheel, e 3, be brought in gear again, and kept
stationary, but the wheels, e2, be permitted to revolve
freely round their axles, then for one revolution of the
wheel, e 1, in the direction of the arrow, the wheels, e 2,
will roll once round e 3, and, as this is kept stationary, the

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. 179

wheels, e 2, tarn round upon their axles, turning the wheel,
€ 4. One revolution of the wheel, e 1, causes two revolu-
tions of the wheel, e4, in a direction opposite to that
caused by turning the wheel, e 3. This shows the prin-
ciple of its action, from which it will appear that when in
work the actual number of revolutions of the wheel, e 4,
are equal to the number of revolutions of the wheel, e 3,
less the double number of revolutions of e 1.

The wheel, e, drives by two carrier wheels, e 5 and e 6,

(I B \

:p) i!

.^'-™ ^A 111

\oO )] li

^^^'

Fig. 47. Driving Gearing.

Fig. 46, the wheel, e 7, upon the shaft, G, and e 7 gearing
into e 8, actuates the shaft, G 1, driving the second line of
bobbins. As e 7 and e 8 have the same number of teeth
as e, the revolutions of the two shafts, g, g 1, are eqiial to
the revolutions of the wheel, e. The bobbins are driven
by the wheels, e 9, e 10, geared into ell, as previously
described. On the boss of the wheel, e 11, there are slight
projections that fit into grooves cut in the bottom of the
bobbin, by which arrangement the bobbins are carried

180 COTTON SPIN.MNU.

round. Tiiiej are required to fit loosely upon the spindle
to permit of doffing with facility.

The vertical traverse of the bobbin, as well as the accele-
ration of its speed, is obtained from the cone motion. The
vertical shaft, p. Fig. 45, near its bottom carries a pinion, /,
gearing into the bevel wheel, /I, on the shaft, G 0, Figs. 45,
46, which carries the pinion,/ 3, working into/ 4, Fig. 46, on
the axle of which is the pinion, / 5, driving by a carrier
wheel, / 6, the wheel,/ 7, upon the shaft, h, which it turns.
On this shaft, H, are a number of pinions working into
racks having a proportionate number of teeth. The latter,
J, are fixed to the bobbin carriage, i. Fig. 44, which moves
up and down on slides. The shafts, G and G 1, Fig. 46, are
contained in this carriage, and necessarily also the bevel
gearing upon them working into the pinions, e 11, by which
the bobbins are driven. It will now be obvious that the
shafts, G, g1, and the gearing and the bobbins, ascend and
descend with the traverse of the carriage. Winding is
commenced with the strap on the extremity of the cones,
which gives the longest vertical traverse to the carriage,
and the lowest rate of revolution to the bobbin. The ex-
treme position on the opposite side, shown in Fig. 45, gives
the maximum rate of revolution to the bobbin, and the
shortest traverse to the carriage.

On the shaft, g, Fig. 45, there is a second wheel, / 2, ex-
actly like /I. This shaft has a vertical motion of small
extent, the efiect of which is to alternately engage the
wheels, /I,/ 2, with the pinion,/, which reverses the direc-
tion of revolution of the shaft, h. Fig. 46 ; thus, when the
pinion is working into /I, the bobbins descend, on the com-
pletion of which movement the pinion,/, begins to work
into / 2, when the revolution of the shaft is reversed and
they begin their ascent. It will be plain that a difficulty
would be experienced in adapting geared wheels to work
together when the distances of their axis from each other
is continually changing. This has been overcome in this
case by placing the bearings of the two wheels, e 5, e 6, in

DRAWING, SLUBBIXG, AND ROVING.

181

two links, oscillating on the two shafts, A and G, in such a
manner that when the shaft, G, is at half of its ascent, the
axis of e 5 lies vertically under the shaft. A, and when at
the bottom this axis again assumes the position shown in
Fig. 46. The axis of e 5 oscillates upon a, having its dis-
tance from G maintained uniform.

The reversing of the carriage traverse and the changes
which that implies are accomplished by the arrangements
now to be described : — m. Figs. 45 and 43^ is a fixed pin on

rig. 48. Traverse reversing arrangement.

which the pieces, ll and lIlI, turn freely, the latter
carrying a pin, N, the range of its oscillation being limited
by the fork, n 1. The piece, L 1, has on the top a round
projection forming two lugs, ^ 2 j:) 2. The levers, P and p 1,
oscillate upon fixed points, 'pY 'p\^ whilst their ends, p^;,
corresponding with j9 2^ 2, are connected by a spiral spring,
_p 3, which presses them against L 1.

The beam, o, is suspended by the rods, o 1, o2, both of
which pass through l 3, and terminate in hooks, o 6, o 7,
which obstruct any downward movement of the rods.

182 COTTON SPINNING.

These hooks are attached to the chains, o 3, o 4, which
themselves are fastened, at Z, 1 1, to the piece, l.

Let the piece, l, be turned to the right, round M, and I
will rise, whilst 1 1 will be depressed ; o 2 will be elevated
and 3 lowered. This will cause the rod, o 2, to be pulled,
and as the hook, o 7, lies against L 1, the latter will also be
turned to the right. The pin, n, is thus brought against
the left side of the fork, n1, and N is prevented from
turning any further in the same direction, so that should
the point, o 2, be raised further, that of o 3 will remain
unmoved. This further lift takes place, the consequence
being that the beam, o, turns upon o 3, lifting o 4, and
bringing an increase of tension upon the spiral spring,
1 ; 2 approaches l 1, and the point, L 3, because the latter
does not change its position, o 6 as a consequence being
lifted off L 1. Let the fork, n 1, now be removed, and the
beam, o, and the spring, ol, will return to their former
position of equilibrium, the point, o 4, again becoming the
fulcrum of the beam, o. The point, o 2, however, cannot
fall, consequently o3 and o4 are lowered, o2 becoming
the fulcrum of the movement. As the point, o 3, falls, the
hook, 7, turns the piece, L 1, round upon the pin, m, so that
the point, L 3, makes an upward movement. By the
sudden contraction of the spring, the last-named point is
also led to make a sudden movement in an almost vertical
direction.

The turning of the piece, L, is effected by the following
means : — q 2, Fig. 45, is a pair of horizontal slides fixed to
the frame of the carriage, and sharing in its vertic&l
movement. As shown in Fig. 45, it is in the highest posi-
tion, as at the moment when the downward movement of
the carriage begins. These slide bars are adjustable, and
must be so set that in the position given here, the ver-
tical distance of the centre line from the point, m, must be
equal to half the lift of the carriage, or after making half
of its downward traverse, their centre line must lie in the
same horizontal plane with m. Its extreme position is

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND EOVIXG. 183

therefore determined by the length of the bobbin to be
covered. Q is a bar put through two lugs on l, and rest-
ing with a pin, Q 1, between the slide bars. If Q 2 is lowered,
the piece, l, is turned round M, by Q.

In the position of Q 2, in Fig. 45, the end, p, of the lever, p 1,
is in contact with the corner,^; 2, and n is in contact with the
right side of the fork, x 1. The point, o 3, is in its highesc
position, 2 a little above its lowest, consequently o 4 is
also lifted a little, and there is a slight amount of tension
placed upon the spring, o 1. If, now, the downward motion
of Q 2, and the turning of L round m begins, the hook, o 7,
is first brought to bear against L 1, while the chain, o 3, is
straightened. By this o 3 is enabled to sink o 2 with-
out changing its position ; o 4 is lowered, and the tension
of the spring ceases in consequence of the movement of o
round o2. As the turning of L continues, the rod, o 1,
and chain, o 3, are pulled, whereby the hook, o 6, is lifted
off L 1 ; the point, o 3, cannot fall lower, therefore turns
round o 3 as fulcrum, and the spring is again loaded.
This tension increases until the stud, 1 2, presses upon the
lever, p 1, and thereby disengages jj and i? 2. The spring
now partially contracts L 1, turns suddenly round 3i till
the pin, x, strikes against the left side of the fork, x 1,
and the point, l3, suddenly moves upward. At the same
time the spring, p 3, forces the end of the lever, p, into the
corner, p2, and the pin, x, is thereby retained in this po-
sition. The upward traverse of the bobbin carriage now
commences. In a manner similar to that just described, the
point, L 3, suddenly moves downwards after the carriage
has finished its upward traverse, and the operations
re-commence.

In L 3 a pin is fixed sliding in a slot of the bell crank
lever, r r 1, Fig. 45. This lever has its fulcrum in the pin,
r, and therefore an upward movement of l 3 produces a
movement of the rod, r2, in the direction of the arrow.
On the rod, r 2, there is firstly a fork, R 3, Fig. 45, clipping
the boss of the wheel, / 2, which is shown more clearly in

184

COTTON SPINNING.

Fig. 49, consequently a rapid motion of the rod, e 2, in thfe
direction of the arrow brings the wheels, /2, and/, into
gear. The wheels, /2 and/1, being connected, /I is at the
same time disengaged. Both wheels are loose on G 0, but
the sheave, /O, is fixed on it. This sheave reaches by means
of two studs through the body of the wheel, / 1, so that in
this manner the motion of /I or /2 is communicated to
the shaft, g 0. The direction in which the shaft, g 0, and
with it / 3 and / 8, Fig. 46, revolve, is therefore alternating.
The rod, e 2, carries a boss, u, Fig. 50, upon which are
two catches, ^l and u 1, kept together by the spring, u 2.
During the downward movement of the bobbin, the catch,

Fig. 49. Traverse reversing gear. Fig. 50. Cone strap ratchet.

ih, is in gear with the ratchet wheel, u 3 ; by the move-
ment of the rod, E 2, reversing the traverse to the upward
direction, the catch, u, is disengaged, and n 1 brought into
gear. On the shaft, u 1, Fig. 45, which carries this ratchet
wheel is fixed a drum, u 2, on which a cord is wound which
passes over a grooved pulley, u 8, and has a weight, u 4,
attached to its extremity. AVhen the catch, u, is disen-
gaged by the movement of the rod, e 2, the shaft, u 1, is
caused to revolve by the action of the weight, and con-
tinues its movement until arrested by u 1. The catches
are so arranged that the wheel, uS, is turned half a tooth
at each movement of the rod, e 2, and as it has twenty-
three teeth, the shaft, u 1, is turned once round for every

DRAWING, SLUBBIXG, AXD ROVING. 185

fortj-six reversions of the rod, e 2. The shaft, u 1, also
carries the wheel, u 4, working into the rack, u 5, which is
connected with the strap gaide for the two cones. This
rack contains fortv-eight teeth for each 12|- inches of its
length, so that after fortj-six reversions the strap will be
found to have moved along the cones 12|- inches, or for
each reversion, ^^'^^^ ^ =0-269. The cone having a length
of 30 inches, ^\^z=i\l\ reversions will take place, repre-
senting 111 layers of rove wound on when the strap has
finished its traverse upon the cones from one end to the
other. The shaft, u 1, carries another wheel, u 5, with
sixteen teeth working the rack, u 6, which has sixteen teeth
in 3|- inches, and therefore moves during forty-six rever-
sions of the shaft, R 2, 3|- inches, or for 111 layers a length
of III ^3.6^s -g.747 or for one reversion 14^ _ 0-0788

4-6 ' 4 6

inches. Connected with this rack is the sliding pin, Q 1, to
which the rod, Q, is attached. The distance of Q 1 from m,
or the effective length of the rod, Q, is altered by the rack.
If the length of the vertical movement of Q 2 remained the
same, shortening the rod, Q, would cause the oscillation of
the piece, L, round M, to increase. But as the levers, P P 1,
do not alter their position, this quicker oscillation of the
piece, L, causes the reversion to take place sooner, and the
length of the vertical movement of Q 2 is reduced in the
same proportion as the length of Q diminishes. Thus it is
that the rove is wound upon the barrel in the form shown
in Fig. 44 making conical ends.

• The self-acting stopping arrangement may be briefly de-
scribed at this point. Fig. 51 shows the details of its
arrangement. The rod, s4, is connected to the strap
guide for the driving pulleys. The bell crank lever, .<? 3,
s 1, ie fixed upon this rod and oscillates upon the pin, u 3,
of the pulley for the weight, u 4. This lever has a projec-
tion, s 2, at the end of the part, si. A rod, s, is con-
nected to the point, l 3, in such a manner as to share its
movements, s 5 being a spring whose function is to pre-
vent the rod, s, striking against the projection, s 2. The

183

COTTON SPINNING.

rack, u 5, carries a pin, s, which when the strap has passed
to the end of the driving cone, presses the rod, s, against
the spring, s 5, and overcomes its resistance. When in
this position, if the rod, s, is moved upward, it comes against
the projection, s2, elevating the lever, s 1, causing the arm,
s 3, to move the rod, s 4, in the direction of the arrow, by
which the strap, w, is moved from the fast to the loose
pulley, and stopping the machine.

In order to secure an even distribution of the wear upon

'S'C

Fie:. 51.

Self-acting stopping motion. Fig, 52. Slabbing traverse

motion.

the rollers, a lateral traverse is imparted to the slubbing
when it enters the back rollers. Fig. 52 shows the means
by which this is accomplished. A bar, v, contains holes,
V V, each of which receives two threads from an equal num-
ber of slubbing bobbins, on their passage to the back
rollers, determining the place at which they enter the rollers.
This bar is guided horizontally by the lever, v 1, which has
its fulcrum at M, and is connected with L, sharing in the
oscillation of the latter. Near the fulcrum, M, is a stud,

DRAWING, SLUBBING, AND ROVING. 187

V 1, whilst a similar stud, v 3, is fixed in the bar, y. Both
of these studs slide in short slots of the lever, v 2, whilst
the latter swivels on the pin, v 2. Through this connection
the bar, v, is made to share the lateral movement of v 1,
multiplied by the ratio of its leverage, moving horizontally
through being guided. By this means the slubbing is
moved to and fro between the rollers, by which the wear is
evenly distributed over a considerable portion of their
surface, thus insuring their greater durability.

The process of doffing, or removing the bobbins when
fall, is performed by turning the spindles backward by
means of the wheel, w 2, on the driving shaft. The bear-
ing for the top of the driving cone is next lifted by a lever
which causes the strap to become slack. The shaft, u 1, is
is then turned backward by the wheel, u 8, which action
winds up the weight, u 4 ; the cone strap being by this
means returned to the base of the driving cone, and Q 1
brought back into its first position as shoTVTi in Fig. 1. The
spindles are again filled with empty bobbins, when the
machine is ready to re-commence operations.

To make the roving finer or coarser, the draught of the
rollers has to be altered, which is efl'ected by changing the
wheels, c 2, and c 4, Fig. 47. In proportion as the number
of teeth in these wheels are increased, the amount of slub-
bing taken in will be greater, and the rove coarser in the
hank. With a diminution the opposite efi'ect will result.
With lower counts, the diameter of the rove being increased,
a fewer number of coils are required to form a layer ; this
necessitates an increase of the speed of the vertical tra-
verse of the bobbin carriage, which is obtained by chang-
ing the pinion, /5, Fig. 46, for one having more teeth.
When a finer rove has to be made, the substitute must be
one of fewer teeth. With the production of a coarser rove,
the velocity of the revolution of the spindles, and conse-
quently, of the bobbins, must be increased, because the
diameter of the layer of rove then put upon the bobbin
being greater, its winding surface is increased, and therefore

188 COTTON SPINNING.

the rate at which it will take up the rove will be such as
to break the latter were it cot counteracted by an accele-
ration of the speed in like proportion. Changing the
ratchet-wheel, u 8, for one having a fewer number of teeth,
secures this result ; correspondingly, a finer rove requires
a diminished number of revolutions of spindle, and a
ratchet wheel of more teeth.

Such are the details of the roving frame. The interme-
diate frame which precedes it in the order of arrangement
difiiers from it only in having its parts larger and corre-
spondingly stronger. This difference necessitates a slower
speed of the various parts, the proportion being when no
wheels have been changed as five in the intermediate frame
is to seven in the roving frame in all the revolving parts.
As the rove produced on the intermediate frame is much
thicker than that from the former, to prevent too frequent
doffing and the loss of time consequent upon it, the bobbins
are made larger, which necessitates stronger spindles and
slower speeds to prevent excessive vibration. The dia-
meter of the bobbin is increased, so that the winding on pro-
ceeds at the same rate as in the roving frame.

The slubbing frame compares with the intermediate, as
the latter with the roving frame, the parts being propor-
tionately larger and stronger. The speeds also are corre-
sjDondingly slower; where the driving shaft of the former
makes 250 revolutions, that of the latter only makes 220,
the speed of the spindles being diminished in the same
proportion. Often, however, the dimensions are the same,
the differences being in these cases one of speed. The di-
mensions of the bobbins then are the same, though the
coarser slubbing requires a ratchet wheel of less teeth in
order to secure a corresponding acceleration of the spindle.

The slubbing frame is fed from cans of sliver from the
card, whilst the intermediate and the roving frame receive
iheir supply of material from slubbing and intermediate
frame bobbins respectively, which are contained in creels.

The foregoing illustrations of the roving frame we have

DRAWING, SLUBBIXG, AND ROVING. 189

reproduced from a small work on " The mule spinning pro-
cess, and ihe machinery employed in it," from which also
the description has been condensed, the algebraical formula
being omitted as unsuitable to a great extent for the
present treatise.

190 COTTON SPINNING.

CHAPTER YII.

Development of Spinning.

Spinning : its antiquity ; conjectural origin ; the first spindle. —
Definition of spinning. — The whorl; the distaif, — Spinning as described
by ancient historians. — The hand wheel ; its first appearance in Europe ;
in India. — The Jersey, or common hand wheel ; its development from
the spindle; the driving wheel, the wharve. — Similarity between the
European wheel and the Indian wheel ; European wheel used for wool
and cotton ; process of spinning upon it. — The flax wheel, or the Bruns-
wick and Saxony wheels; the flyer. — The two-handed wheel; the
traverse. — The connection between the old and the new systems of
spinning. — Cotton : antiquity of its cultivation and manufacture, — India,
the birthplace of the manufacture ; its extensive manufacture in that
country. — Sterility of Indian invention. — Kay's inventions a stimulus
to further improvements. — Widespread influence of inventions in the
cotton trade,

SPINXIXG is one of the most ancient arts, and in its
beneficial influences, one of the most important. It
is diflBcult to conceive what would now be the condition of
mankind had this art not been invented. Nothing is
known of its origin, for the earliest records in which it is
mentioned, show it in the condition of advancement in
which, after it became known, it remained, withont further
progress, for many centuries. Thus it may have had its
birth centuries previously to its first mention in history.
Only conjectures can be offered regarding its beginning,
and these may be either far from or near to the facts. The
same difficulty meets the investigator in connection with
the material which formed the basis of the first experiments
a,nd earliest operations of the art. The writer, in another
place, has ventured to suggest that the first spinner was a
shepherd-boy, and the material nsed a few locks of wool.
Keclininor under the shade of a tree whilst his flock was

DEVELOPMENT OF SPINNING. 191

feeding around him, it might easily happen to a playful
youth to have his attention attracted by a small portion of
a cast fleece lying near, to which he would stretch forth
his hand. Toying and amusing himself with this to relieve
the tedium of the hours, it might quite as easily happen
that he should twist its fibres together between his fingers,
and surprised at the ease with which they combined, draw
them from the mass ; this process, repeated so as to obtain
a thread exceeding the length of the original fibres, would
give the first woollen thread. Whether the importance
of his discovery vaguely dawned upon the mind of this
hypothetical shepherd-boy or not, cannot now be told ;
neither can it be known whether he carried his spinning
operations beyond the first stretch or not. But clearly a
time would come when this would be done, and as a greater
length of yarn was produced, to prevent its entanglement
would involve winding it upon a twig. Here comes into
view the beginning of the spindle ; as yet, however, not
yet used for its present purpose, or even such a purpose
divined. But this in due course would grow out of the
former. In order to prevent the unwinding of the yarn
from the twig, in the event, say, of its falling from the
hands of the spinner, the thread would be secured in a
cleft made for the purpose at one end of the twig. Now
further suppose, for there is nothing else available, that
the spinner, after laboriously twining a length of yarn,
instead of winding it upon the twig as usual, rises to his
or her feet and allows the latter to dangle from the hand
suspended by the length of yarn just spun, a new pheno-
menon occurs. The twig begins to revolve, slowly at first,
but with an increasing velocity, until suddenly, whilst the
spinner is contemplating this vagary, the thread breaks,
and the twig drops to the ground. The spinner then finds
that all the twist has been taken out of the fibres. The
rapidity with which the fibres would be untwisted com-
pared with the time it had taken the operator to twist them,
could hardly fail to be recognized. Slowly it would break

192 COTTON SPINNIXa.

npon his or her understanding, that if this revolving twig
could thus take twist out by a reversion of its move-
ment, it could be made to put it in. The mental sugges-
tion would be acted on, and the trial that would follow
would succeed. It can easily be imagined how that spinner
would exclaim " Eureka ! Eureka ! " that is, if Greek
happened to be one of his accomplishments, which is not
probable ; there would remain, however, its equivalent in
his mother-tongue. This would be the first spinning
spindle : that is, if our conjecture has been fortunate
enough to hit the mark. All steps between this rude dis-
covery and the perfect form of the spinning machine with
which the world is now acquainted, consist of a series of
improvements upon the original form.

As will have already been gathered from the above,
spinning is the art of twisting together a number of fila-
ments or fibres upon their own axis in succession, and in
such a manner that a thread or line of greater length than
the single fibres of which it is composed is produced.
Spinning is thus something more than twisting, which is
the twining of two or more threads together to form one,
the length of which, however, never exceeds that of its
component parts.

The first improvement that experience would dictate,
and that at a very early time, would be the addition of a
whorl to the bottom of the spindle. This would be
suggested by the fact that a loaded spindle containing a
quantity of yarn would rotate more easily, steadily, and
continue longer than an empty one, or one not containing
much yarn. It would therefore be easy to secure the best
action by weighting its extremity with a piece of clay,
wood, stone, or metal. This developed into the fixed
whorl in process of time, and after many centuries, became
the basis of another great step in advance. Concurrently
with the invention of the whorl would be that of the distafi" :
this was simply a short staff on one end of which the raw
material was placed, whilst the other was held under the

DEVELOPMENT OF SPINNING.

193

arm, thus leaving the hands at liberty, one to draw the
material, and the other to manage the spindle.

With the invention of the whorl, and the introduction
of the distaff, the inventive faculty seemed to have reached
the limit of its power, as no further improvement appears
to have been made until the hand wheel was invented.

Herodotus, Ovid, and Catullus, classic historians, all
refer to, and at more or less length describe, the process of

rig. 53. Greek Women spinning..

spinning as existing in the times in which they wrote.
The following is the substance of their descriptions : —

"The spindle was a stick, ten or twelve inches long,,
having at the top a slit or catch in which the thread was
fixed, so that the weight of the spindle might continually
carry down the thread as it was formed. Its lower extre-
mity was inserted into a small wheel called the whorl"
(vorticellum), made of wood, stone, or metal, the use o£

194

COTTON SPIXXIXG.

■which was to keep the spindle more steady, and to promote
its rotation ; for the spinner, who was commonly a female,
every now and then twirled the spindle with her right
hand, so as to twist the thread still more completely ; and
whenever by its continual prolongation it let down the
spindle to the ground, she took it out of the slit, wound it
upon the spindle, and having replaced it in the slit, drew
out and twisted another length." ^ The preceding illustra-
tion, Fig. 53, which is a representation of ancient distaff

^2zr.^

Fig. 54. Indian Girl spinning.

spinsters, admirably illustrates these remarks. Let the
reader note the vertical position of the spindle when in
operation.

At what time the hand spinning wheel, which is a great
improvement upon the distaff and spindle, was invented,
does not appear ; but from the absence of all reference to
it in any records entitled to be regarded as ancient, it is
fair to infer that it is comparatively a modern invention.

' Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," art.
" Fusum."

DEVELOPMENT OF SPINNING.

195

ThG probabilities are that it made its appearance in Europe
towards the close of the fifteenth or early in the sixteenth
century. The illustration, Fig, 54, which exhibits the
rude wheel of the natives of India, may be the progenitor
of the common wheel of Europe, as intercourse between

'.aO^

Fig. 55. Single thread spinning.

the East and the West began to increase considerably
about the timo of the appearance of the hand wheel
in Europe. It is desirable to point out that this par-
ticular illustration, which has appeared in many works
treating of this subject, is erroneous, probably owing to an

196 COTTON SPINXIXG,

imperfect comprehension of the matter on the part of the
first artist who sketched it, maybe from description, and
whose error has been copied by those who have repro-
duced it. A thread never was and never could be spun
by such an arrangement as figured here. The spindle
ought to be placed with its axis parallel to the axis of the
driving wheel, and not as here, at right angles. The cor-
rect arrangement of this part is shown in Fig. 55, repre-
senting the Jersey, or common spinning-wheel of Europe.

Whatever may have been the period at or the country
in which the hand spinning wheel was invented, is not
now of much moment to discover. The internal evidence
of its parentage, however, showing it to be an outgrowth
of the older spindle, is very strong. The spindle of the
distafi" spinner in coming to the ground, when a length of
yarn had been spun, would often, after falling into a hori-
zontal position, turn upon the whorl, thus showing a form
of revolution in a strange position. Ultimately, after this
had occurred, perhaps hundreds of thousands of times, it
might suggest the thought to some operator that, by fixing
the spindle in a horizontal position, and using the whorl as
an arrangement of levers, a continuous revolution of the
spindle could be maintained. How to apply the motive
power would be the next question that would suggest
itself. For a time, probably, the whorl would be beaten
round by the hand. The invention of the driving wheel
and the transmission therefrom of power by means of a
band would next follow ; and the discovery of a method of
securing an increase of velocity when a small wheel was
driven from a large one, would, in that early time, be as
great a feat as Arkwright's discovery, at a later date, of
the system of drawing by rollers. It is thus probably
that the whorl of the old spindle became the wharve or
small grooved pulley of the new or horizontal spindle of
the hand wheel. It is almost a pity that history has not
preserved the name of this inventor.

The general similarity of the European hand wheel to

DEVELOPMENT OF SPINNING. 197

the primitive wheel of India will be obvious when com-
pjirison is made between the two illustrations, Figs. 54,
hb, care being taken to allow for the error in the former,
as previously pointed out. The wheel represented in Fig.
55 was used for spinning wool, and subsequently cotton,
until the invention of Hargreaves superseded it. In the
drawing the hand cards by which the wool and cotton was
prepared, are shown at A. After the material had been
carded, it was spun into a thick, soft rove, having very
little twist in it, such as is seen at B. This rove was then
further drawn, in the next process, to the requisite dimen-
sions to form yarn, fully twisted and wound upon the
spindle, which generally contained a spool or pirn bobbin.
This wheel was an intermittent spinning wheel, spinning a
*' draw " or " stretch," so called, probably, from its being the
length obtainable by the outstretching of the spinster's arm.
In 1533 the flax spinning wheel was invented, it is said
by a citizen of Brunswick, and for its particular purpose
was an improvement upon the preceding. It was worked
by means of a treadle, by the foot of the spinster operating
a crank turning the driving wheel. In a comparatively
short time afterwards this was superseded by a still more
perfect machine called the Saxony wheel, also for spinning
flax. This wheel is remarkable as being the first in which
the flyer was introduced, and a differential driving for the
bobbin. Further, it was also a continuous spinning wheel
as distinguished from the intermittent wheel just described.
Owing to the nature of the fibres, the system of spinning
by the distaff and spindle held its ground firmly against
both forms of the spinning wheel in both the woollen and
linen trades, until towards the latter half of the seven-
teenth century, when the superior merits of the wheels
began to be generally acknowledged. The intermittent
spinning wheel was taken for woollen and cotton, whilst
the Saxony wheel was widely adopted for spinning flax.
This wheel was extensively used for flax spinning in Scot-
land even up to 1830, if not later. About the time that

198 COTTON SPINNING.

Hargreaves invented his jenny, it was farther improved by
the addition of a second spindle, transforming it into
what was called a "two-handed wheel," by which an
expert spinster could spin two threads at once.

Describing this wheel, Mr. A. J. Warden, author of
'* The Linen Trade, Ancient and Modern," says : — " The
frame of the machine stood on three feet, on the right of
which, facing the spinner, was a spoked wheel about two
feet in diameter, with the rim slightly hollowed outside.
Rapid motion was given to the wheel by a wooden rod or
crank, connecting the axle of the wheel to the treadle or
footboard, and moved at will by the foot of the operator,
much in the same way as a foot-turning lathe is moved.
On the left were two pirns or spindles, one for each hand,
for receiving the yarn as it was spun, driven by means of
bands of gut, or cords of flax or woollen yarn, highly
twisted, passing round the rim of the wheel and their
axles. Each pirn or spindle had a flyer for twisting and
guiding the thread before it was wound upon the bobbin,
which was a hollow reed slipped over the axle and fitting
rather closely to it. The fly went round with great
rapidity, whilst the bobbin, being kept back by the strain
of the thread turned round upon the axle, only as fast as
it was let out by the spinner. This depended on the
degree of twist intended to be given to the thread, and the
expertness of the spinner. The rock or distaff with the
flax wound round it in the manner best adapted for admit-
ting of the filaments being readily drawn out by the spinner,
was placed above the pirns, and both hands were employed
in drawing out the fibres and forming the threads. The
threads, after being carried through a throttle or opening*
in the end of the spindle, were from time to time shifted
along the flyer by means of small pieces of bent wire
attached to it for the purpose of filling the bobbin regu-
larly with the yarn as it was spun. During the operation,
the spinner moistened the threads regularly with saliva,
the better to unite the fibres and improve the appearance

DEVELOPMENT OF SPINNING. 199

of the yarn." The same writer says that "the last im-
provement on the Saxony or flax wheel was the applica-
tion of Arkwright's principle by rendering the flyer auto-
matic in spreading the yarn on the bobbin, which saved
the time necessary in moving the thread from one of the
small bent wires on the flyer, to another, and at the same
time performed the operation more equally."

The above brief sketch of the early history of spinning
is introduced to show the connection of the modern system
with its predecessor ; in fact to show the continuity and
essential oneness of the two systems, notwithstanding their
apparent radical difi'erences. They stand in relationship
to each other as the child to the man. Though the outline
of the sketch is to a considerable extent conjectural, it will
fall sufficiently near the facts as, in the main, not to trans-
gress the probabilities of the case. This course has been
adopted and will be carried through the remaining portion
of this essay, because it is believed that an exposition of
the growth of the system, showing the defects successively
encountered and the means adopted for their removal,
will greatly help the reader to comprehend the purpose
and functions of each machine and its several parts. To a
student approaching the subject for the first time, the innu-
merable parts, and the complexity of their movements,
present an almost incomprehensible and insoluble problem
to his mind. Beginning the study, however, with the
simplest manifestation of the art, and tracing it upwards
to its highest or present development, its difficulties to a
large extent disappear ; the reason of every change is
rendered apparent, and the functions of the added parts
made clear ; thus showing, when the termination of the
investigation is reached, a beautifully ordered system whose
complex movements constitute one harmonious whole,
that must command the highest admiration from any mind
capable of appreciating a display of the results of mechanical
skill and genius, such as the world in its history cannot
elsewhere display.

200 COTTON SPIXNING.

CHAPTER YIII.

The Modern System of Spinning.

Commencement of the modern system. — Quality of hand-spun yarn. —
Kay's inventions, the first impulse to improvement. — Scarcity of yarns.
— Hargreaves' jenny. — Description of the jenny; its operation. — The
single-thread hand-spinning -wheel Hargreaves' model. — The Saxony
wheel probably unknown to him. — Description of the Saxony wheel,
single and two-thread. — Extensive adoption of Hargreaves' invention. —
Richard ArkwTight ; the barber's shop a good school ; itinerant hair-
dealing ; the Saxony wheel the model of Arkwright's invention. — Ark-
wright's claims as an inA'entor disputed. — Arkwright's labours ; his
assistants. — Description of his invention. — Comparison between the
jenny and the water frame. — Paul and Wyatt's labours suggestive to
Arkwright. — Arkwright not the iuA'entor of the fiyev ; his adoption of
Coniah Wood's traverse ; the principle of the water frame adaptable to
roving, slubbing, and drawing. — The progress of invention. — Haley. —
Samuel Crompton. — His combination of Hargreaves' and Arkwright's
inA'entions, and improvements upon them. — The jenny adapted for a
slubbing frame; description. — Improvement of the roving frames. —
Baker's inventions. — Hargreaves of Tottington. — Kelly's application of
water power to the mule. — Wright's improvement; the squaring band.
— Steam power. — Kennedy's improvement in fine spinning mules. —
Transfer of spinning from females to males. — jNIanual requirements of
the mule. — Eaton's copping motion. — The self-actor mule. — Its require-
ments. — The counter faller. — Differential motion of the spindles. — The
self-acting mule a mechanical triumph. — Its qualities. — Eoberts' genius.

THE modern or meclianical system of spinning properly
commences with the invention of the jenny by James
Hargreaves of Blackburn. The distaff and spindle had
long been superseded by the hand or Jersey wheel, which
had been brought to this country from the contiuent.
Hand spinning attained its pprfection with this wheel, as
though an improvement upon it was invented by which
two threads could be spun at one time, this was not ex-
tensively adopted, except in the flax-spinning districts,
probably because it required the exercise of a greater

IHE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 201

degree of skill and expertness tlian most of the spinners of
the day could acquire, and possibly more difficulty also
was experienced in dealing with cotton than the larger
fibres of flax and wool. The single thread wheel in its
simplest form had long been in use for spinning wool and
flax, when the introduction of Indian muslins and other
cotton fabrics to Western Europe, and the quick popu-
larity these attained, suggested its adaptation to cotton
spinning for the manufacture of imitations of the Indian
cloths. It was soon, however, discovered that the new
fibre was so radically difi'erent from those already in use that
any hopes of success that might have been entertained of
making warp yarns of cotton were quickly abandoned.
Experiments, however, showed that a thread could be spun
that would serve for weft, or filling, for warps of flax.
The union fabrics thus produced were very good imitations
of calicos, the heavier classes of Indian fabrics, so named
from the district of Calicut, from which they were brought.
The linen warp made the imitations actually more durable,
and gave them a hold upon public favour which they re-
tained until the progress of invention led the way to greater
successes, and the ultimate defeat of the Indian spinners
and weavers upon their own fields.

The hand spinners acquired a considerable degree of
skill in spinning cotton wefts, making a round, solid, and
even thread — regard being had in making this statement to
the simple appliances used in the production. As might
be expected, however, all degrees of excellence were found
amongst them. The means by which these good results
were secured has not often been noted by writers upon the
subject. This was the passage of the yarn being spun
between the surfaces of the finger and thumb of the
spinner, by which the fibres as they were being twisted
were consolidated by the slight pressure to which they
were subjected, whilst the surface of the thread was ren-
dered smooth by the extremities of the fibres being forced
down upon the surface of, or into the body of the thread.

202 COTTON SPINNING.

It has often been pointed out that the invention of tLe
picking stick, and the addition of shuttle boxes to the lathe
of the hand loom, by Kay of Bury, not only dispensed
with one weaver in the production of wide cloths, but also
enabled every single weaver to more than double his pro-
duction of work immediately. The effect was such as
might easily have been anticipated. The industry was to
a great extent disorganized ; and spinning, from being a
branch subordinate in importance to that of weaving, be-
came the best paid division of the trade. The scarcity of
weft everywhere experienced gave a great stimulus to in-
vention in connection with spinning ; but for a long time
very little success attended the efforts made to effect im-
provements.

The extending commerce, the growing wealth, and the
increasing population of the country during the eighteenth
century prevented any readjustment of the relations of the
spinning to the weaving branch, or return to the former
conditions of equilibrium. Weavers were unemployed a
great part of every day, the time being spent in wandering
over the country seeking weft amongst the spinners ;
whilst the latter, though there was a considerable increase
in their numbers, owing to the comparatively large sums
they were enabled to earn, scarcely cared to work more
than half their time. It was in this state of the trade
that Hargr eaves' invention appeared, promising relief
from the most pressing difficulty of the trade. The story
of the persecution encountered by this genius in humble
life, whose inventions entitle him to be regarded as one of
the greatest benefactors of mankind that ever lived, do
not properly come within our cognizance in this place ; but
a brief description of his jenny will be useful to the
inquirer, not only because of its being the first departure
of importance from the single thread wheel, but because it
will show its intimate relationship to the system which it
superseded, and also the close adherence of successive
inventors to the type of the machine he constructed.

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING.

20-5

The illustration (Fig. 56) shows the jenny in probably
the most perfect form it attained before it was superseded

in its tnm by Crompton's mule. As represented, it con«
tains several improvements not of Hargraves' invention.
The mechanism is contained within the oblong frame, a^

204 COTTON SPIXXIXG.

and is exceedingly simple, consisting of the large grooved
driving wheel, b, turned by the handle upon its axle, from
which power is transmitted by the rope or band, 1, to the
tin cylinder, 2, extending horizontally across the frame.
From this cylinder endless bands are passed round the
wharves upon the spindles, 3, arranged in vertical order
at the extremity of the frame, A. A creel, 4, to contain
the rove, was fixed inside the frame at such an angle of
inclination as to deliver the material with facility to the
carriage, according to requirement. This carriage was
composed of two cross rails, one placed beneath the other,
and resting upon the blocks, c c. These were mounted
upon two wheels each, which ran upon rails fixed upon the
tops of the parallel sides of the frame. This arrangement
allowed the carriage a horizontal traverse from the tips of
the spindles, of five, six, or seven feet, according to the size
of the frame. The upper of the two cross rails, 16, forming
the body of the carriage, had its under side gTooved in
the direction of its width for the reception of the plies of
rove. The lower piece had corresponding projections upon
its upper surface, which fit into the grooves just men-
tioned, and prevented any further delivery of rove after
the quantity requisite for a " draw," or one traverse of the
carriage had been given out. Small cords attached to a
handle placed upon the middle of the upper surface of the
top piece, and underneath the arched bar which extends
across it, thence passing over sank pulleys, connected the
upper and the lower bars. Pressure upon this handle
from the left hand of the spinner raised the lower rail into
the position to retain the rove, whilst a spring catch held
it there until it was released to deliver more. At the
rear of the frame, and over the tops of the spindles, was a
horizontal rail, which had its pivots in the frame on which
it was arranged to turn. It had a flange at each side, one
of which, 11, was grooved, thereby forming a pulley.
Into these flanges a wire, 12, was fixed, at a short dis-
tance from the edge, which extended from side to side.

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINXIXG. 205

This was the original of the present faller wire, whose
function is to guide the threads upon the spindle, and to
build them into the form of a cop. It was operated by
means of the cord, 7, which extended from the front of the
frame over the pulley.

The jenny was worked by one person, who took up his
position in front of the frame. The rovings were then
drawn between the "clove " or clasp bars of the carriage,
and attached to the spindles, the carriage having first been
placed in position for commencing work that was at the
end of its traverse, nearest the spindles. The bottom bar
having been lowered, the carriage was drawn away from
its position, until a proper quantity of rove to form one
" draw," or length of yarn, had been given out, which w^s
regulated by a mark upon the side of the frame. The
lower bar was then raised, the rove held, and the spindles
set in motion by the spinner turning the wheel, b, at the
same time commencing to draw the carriage further out
from its position near the spindles. Thus the attenuation
and twisting of the rove went on simultaneously, until the
requisite degree of fineness was attained, when the outward
traverse of the carriage was stopped, the spindles being
kept in operation for a short time longer, in order to im-
part sufficient twist to the thread. In the yarns intended
for warps this was much more than for wefts, in which the
same degree of strength was not required. When this
twining had been completed, the carriage was slightly
backed, the guide or faller wire, 12, was gently brought
down upon the threads, by means of the cord, 7, depressing
them to the required level ; the wheel, B, was then turned
slowly round, causing the spindles to wind up the thread
as the carriage returned to its first position. This com-
pleted the first series of operations, and by their repetition
the cops were formed.

It will be obvious from this description that Hargreaves
followed the operations of his model, the hand spinner
upon the single thread wheel, as literally as possible, whilst

206 COTTON SPIXXING.

substituting a meclianical for the manual process. The
spindles were fixed in a frame, were turned by a large
hand wheel, and the rove attenuated by the draught of the
retiring carriage, the equivalent of the hand of the spinner.
The winding was equally an imitation, the returning car-
riage bringing in the spun threads in a manner analogous
to the movement of the spinner's hand. These remarks
are by no means intended to be depreciatory ; on the con-
trary, they are really laudatory. This illiterate peasant,
living on the moorlands in the neighbourhood of Black-
burn, in a time anterior to railways, or even good roads,
and when almost the only means of communication between
one district and another was by saddle and pack-horses,
and when newspapers were a development of civilization
yet in the future, could have few facilities for acquiring
mechanical or any other kind of knowledge. The un-
eventful tenour of the lives led by the peasantry in these
districts would rarely be suggestive of original thought or
enterprise. That Hargreaves should in these circum-
stances have succeeded in solving a problem which had
hardly even been suggested before, is highly creditable to
him, and stamps him as a man of genius of a very high
order. Though the jenny was his chief work, as has been
intimated previously, it was not his only achievement in
improving the rude machinery employed in the manufac-
turing processes of his day. By some writers Hargreaves'
arrangement of the spindles in a vertical position is re-
garded as perhaps the greatest part of his invention. It
cannot, however, be fairly regarded in this light, as this
disposition of the spindle is simply an unconscious rever-
sion to the position of the spindle in its earliest form, as
shown in Fig. 53.

It is probable that the single thread spinning wheel was
the only one familiar to Hargreaves. Had he been prac-
tically acquainted with the domestic flax wheel, otherwise
called the Saxony or Leipsic wheel, in which great improve-
ments over the single thread wheei in common use had

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNIlsG.

207

been effected, it is more than probable that he would have
made that the basis of his efforts. In the flax wheel,
bj the introduction of a bobbin and fljer (Fig. 57),
the twisting of ths thread and its winding on the bobbin
proceeded simultaneously and continuously, instead of in-
termittently, as in the common wheel, and Hargreaves'
development of it, the jenny.

The driving wheel of the Saxony spinning frame was
worked by a pedal or foot-lever, with connecting rod and
crank, and was grooved for the reception of two endless
bands, one of which drove the spindle, and the other the
bobbin. The following (Fig. 57) shows that the bobbin and

Fig. 57. Spindle, fljer, and bobbin.

flyer of this machine was almost identical with that now
in use in the best frames of to-day. The spindle, a h,
carries a large wharve, 2^, on its lower part, and on its top
or extremity the flyer, g Jcf, is mounted. Flyer and spindle,
of course, move at one velocity. The bobbin, h, has its
lower flange grooved, forming the wharve, q, by which it
is driven. This wharve, q, being of less diameter than the
wharve, j9, upon the spindle, the bobbin revolves at a
higher speed. The flyer was tubular at the end, b, the
tube terminating in a small orifice at i, which permitted
the thread to emerge, and be thence carried over a tooth
of the heck of the flyer, of which the leg, g, was composed.
In operation the pedal was acted on by the foot rotating

208 COTTON SPIXXIXG.

the driving wheel, the bands from which transmitted the
motion to both spindle and bobbin, the former making
about six revolutions to the latter's eight, both these result-
ing from one revolution of the driving wheel. The rove was
fed to the revolving spindle at h hj the spinner, from the
rock or distaff, whilst it was twisted as fast as it left her
hands, entering the tube at 6, emerging again at ?', whence
it was conducted around one tooth of the heck at h, thence
over another at ^, after which it passed upon the barrel of
the bobbin at li. It will be seen that there was no
arrangement for traversing the bobbin upon the spindle,
by which a succession of even layers could be put upon the
bobbin. The traverse motion was not yet invented, con-
sequently when a given amount had been wound upon the
barrel at h, the thread was moved over another tooth of
the heck, thereby filling another portion. Sometimes this
frame had two spindles, by which an expert spinner was
enabled to spin two threads at a time, as both her hands
were left at liberty to draw the rove from the distaff. The
spindles were arranged horizontally, as in the common
wheel. This wheel may yet be seen in many country dis-
tricts of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and sometimes,
though rarely, in England. In all these places it is now
mostly used for spinning wool for hosiery purposes and
domestic use.

After the first fever of excitement resulting from the
invention of Hargreaves' jenny had subsided, it was
quickly adopted, as it was found that one person could
spin as much as ten, fifteen, or even twenty persons using
the old method. But even this amount was not sufficient
to meet requirements — the yarn obtained from the jenny
only formed indifferent warp yarn, though serving very
well for weft. There was consequently room for the in-
vention of a machine capable of spinning a strong, solid
cotton warp yam. This was the chief requirement now
needing to be satisfied to enable the English spinners,
weavers, and merchants to successfully compete with the

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 209

cotton productions of India, whicli were bein^ introduced
into this country in large quantities by the East India Com-
pany. Such was the state of matters when the attention
of Richard Arkwright, the Preston barber, was directed to
the subject then occupying almost all men's minds, namely,
the improvement of spinning and weaving machinery.

Arkwright's business of a barber was highly favourable
to his success in the new pursuits in which he was about
to engage, and was even probably the cause of his turning
his attention to them. In his day a barber's shop was a
reservoir of news, and from which also intelligence of every
new event was disseminated throughout the district.
Here he could not fail to learn of the invention of the
Blackburn weaver, and the excitement it had produced, as
the locality in which it had occurred was only ten or
twelve miles away. But the barber's shop was also a
capital school in which to study human nature ; and here,
doubtless, was developed that extraordinary shrewdness
which served him so well in after life, and enabled him to
amass a colossal fortune where his contemporaries, from
equally great, if not greater inventions, reaped only disap-
pointment, vexation, and misery. The then prevalent
fashion of wearing wigs gave Arkwright an opportunity of
enlarging the sphere of his observations and increasing his
knowledge. As he was a wigmaker and a dealer in human
hair, he occasionally travelled over Lancashire and the
adjoining counties, purchasing the raw material for this
brauch of his business. This gave him some experience
of buying and selling, — in fact, gave him what Hargreaves
and Crompton entirely lacked, a commercial training
which was another prominent factor in contributing to his
subsequent success. His birth and residence at Preston,
then a centre of the linen manufacture, during the early
years of his life, doubtless afforded him an opportunity
of becoming acquainted with the Saxony spinning wheel,
which he would be shrewd enough to see afforded a
much better basis on which to commence operations for

210 COTTON SPINNING.

improvement and invention than the one selected by
Hargreaves. In the first place it was a continuous
spinning wheel, not having to stop to wind np the spun
lengths of yarn. In the second the thread it produced
was rounder, firmer, and the fibres composing it more con-
solidated than could be obtained either from the common
hand wheel or Hargreaves' jenny. This was owing to the
thread being passed through the tube and around the heck
wires of the flyer, which greatly helped to make the thread
both dense and smooth : the very qualities that were
wanted in warp yarns. He could hardly fail to see these
advantageous points, and make his decision accordingly.

Thus we arrive at the sources of the two principal types
of modern spinning machines : intermittent, represented by
the mule, which has its origin in the common hand wheel ;
and the continuous spinning frame as now existing in the
throstle and the ring frame, whose progenitor is the Saxony
or hand flax wheel.

Arkwright's claims as an inventor have been strongly
disputed, it being alleged against him that he purloined and
utilized the ideas of better men than himself, and un-
doubtedly the evidence strongly favours that view of the
case. It is well known thab he employed several people
to aid him in his investigations, and whether the inventions
which he ultimately secured and reaped the profits of were
the outcome of his own or his employes' ingenuity cannot now
be known. Certain, however, it is that the results achieved
were obtained under his guidance and at his expense.

It is not probable that Arkwright was engaged upon his
celebrated spinning machine more than two years before he
had, with the aid he employed, so far perfected it as to
secure a patent for it in 1769. This would show that the
tumults and excitement springing out of Hargreaves' in-
vention were the exciting cause of his thoughts being
turned to the subject. King, the watchmaker, made for
him his first rude model in 1767. Hargreaves had in-
vented his jenny in 1764, and the tumult and rioting, com-

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 211

menced in 1767, continuing for some time, cansing him to
leave the county in 1768. Arkwrlght, afraid of meeting
with the same sort of treatment, followed Hargreaves to
Nottingham, along with a friend who, for some time, had
been aiding him with capital. This friend was John
Smalley of Preston, who advanced nearly all the money
required for the experiments, until his means becoming ex-
hausted it became necessary to obtain other aid. Smalley,
after leaving Arkwright in 1775, started a cotton mill at
Holywell in North Wales. At Nottingham, in a small
factory in Woolpack Lane, with the help of Messrs. Need
and Strutt, who afterwards became his partners, Arkwright
so far perfected his device as to obtain a patent for it at the
date mentioned above. The machine thus protected was
the parent of the second type of our spinning machines,
namely, the modern throstle and ring spinning frames.
As such it is deserving of detailed notice.

The following Fig. 58 is from Arkwright's specifi-
cation of 1769, and probably represents the machine in the
condition to which he had brought it up to that date. It was
constructed to be turned by horse power. The description is
also from the specification. " A is the cog wheel and shaft,
which receive their motion from a horse. B, the drum or
wheel which turns, c, a belt of leather, and gives motion to
the whole machine. D, a lead weight which keeps, f, the
small drum, steady to, E, the forcing wheel. G, the shaft
of wood which gives motion to the wheel, H, and continues
it to, I, four pairs of rollers (the forms of which are drawn
in the margin), which act by tooth and pinion made of
brass and steel nuts fixed in two iron plates, K. That part
-of the roller which the cotton runs through is covered
with wood, the top roller with leather, and the bottom one
fluted, which lets the cotton, &c., through it ; by one pair
of rollers moving quicker than the other, draws it finer for
twisting, which is performed by the spindles, T. K, the two
iron plates described above. L, four large bobbins with
■cotton rovings, are conducted between rollers at the back.

212

OOTTON SPINNING.

M, the four threads carried to the bobbins and spindles by
four small wires fixed across the frame in the slip of wood,
V. N, iron levers with small lead weights hanging to the
rollers by pulleys, which keep the rollers close to each other.
0, a cross piece of wood to which the levers are fixed, p,
the bobbins and spindles, q, flyers made of wood with
small wires on the sides, which lead the thread to the

Fig. 58. Arkwright's Spinning Frame.

bobbins, r, small worsted bands put about the whirl of
the bobbins, the screwing of which tight or easy causes the
bobbins to wind up the thread faster or slower, s, the four
whirls of the spindles. T, the four spindles, which run in
iron plates, v, explained in letter M. w, a wooden frame
of the whole machine." Such is the great inventor's de-
scription and illustration of his spinning machine ; it is not
very lucid, and a further description may be permitted.

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING.

213

Fig. 59 is a section of the machine when it had pro-
bably been further improved. The fonr pairs of rollers,
A, A, by which the sliver was drawn or attennated, were
composed of brass and steel, and connected by small
pinions ; the bottom ones were covered with wood and

Fig. 59. Arkwright's Spinning Frame. Section.

Anted, and the top ones were covered with leather, as is
the custom at the present day. The npper rollers were
kept in contact with the lower ones by means of the
weighted cords and pulleys, B, B. As the sliver was de-
livered from the rollers it was twisted into a thread by

214 COTTON SPINNING.

fche fljer, C, upon the spindle, and wound upon the bobbin, d.
The bobbin was fitted loosely upon the f^pindle, and its
revolution retarded by a friction band working upon the
bottom flange, F, and which was brought to the requisite
state of tension by a screw pin to which the end was
attached. This also caused the yarn to be wound upon
the bobbin tightly. One leg of the flyer, c, had pins in-
serted in it to guide the yarn upon the barrel, this being
in fact the actual method employed in the fl-ix wheel, as
already seen. The yarn was thus wound upon the bobbin
in successive stages, the bobbin being stopped to effect the
transfer of the thread from one position to the other.

A few words of comment and comparison between this
machine and that of Hargreaves may be permitted. In
the first place allowances must be made for the crnde-
ness of the drawing, which does not do justice to the
invention, and which incidentally shows what has since
been called mechanical drawing in a very early stage of
its development. Hargreaves found the spindle in the
hand wheel arranged in a horizontal position, as shown
in both forms of that machine. One of the great merits
and distinctions of his invention is that he changed this
to a vertical position. Arkwright, who followed him,
clearly borrowed and adopted this arrangement in his
frame. Hargreaves in attenuating the rove adhered to the
principle employed in hand spinning ; namely, drawing it
by the recession of the carriage from the spindles. Whether
he had ever or not heard of the attempts of Paul and
Wyatt to accomplish this by means of rollers does not
appear, but undoubtedly Arkwright had obtained a know-
ledge of it, and must, at the same time, have learned of its
failure. What led the latter to renew the attempt cannot
now be known, but he appears to have pressed the matter
upon the attention of the mechanics he employed, and it is
probably owing to his persistence that success was ulti-
mately achieved. It is not clear whether he himself solved
the problem, or owed it to his assistants, or whether it was

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 215

the result of their joint efforts. This, however, is now a
matter of no importance, the world havinp;- secured the
benefit of the realized idea, which is one of the greatest in-
ventions of the age; and though it had been previously sug-
gested, it was first practically embodied in Arkwright's
spinning frame. The presumption, therefore, is almost
entirely in his favour, and for his solution of the problem
the world can hardly award him too much honour.

Eoller drawing is the distinctive feature of his machine,
and this has since been introduced into every other form of
cotton spinning frames, and into many of those for dealing
with other fibres. The rove in both thenewforms of spinning
machines was arranged in creels, Hargreaves' being placed
inside the frame and Arkwright's superimposed upon it.
In winding the spun yarn upon the spindle, Hargreaves
adopted a guide wire, the parent of the modern faller, and
the equivalent of the guiding fingers of the hand spinner ;
practically a multiple of them. Arkwright again utilized
the best and most advanced form of achieving the same
end, which he found existing in the differential speeds of
the bobbin and flyer of the Saxony wheel. Arkwrighthas
sometimes been credited with the invention of the flyer,
but this is a mistake, it having been invented long before
his birth. There exists in the library of the English
Patent Office a small work written by Thomas Firmin, on
" The Employment of the Poor," the frontispiece to which
is a figure of a girl at a spinning wheel, the spindle of which
carries a flyer, one leg of which forms a heck composed of
guide pins for directing the thread upon the bobbin. When
the mill at Cromford was started, the spinning frames
Arkwright put into that place showed a great advance
upon those first constructed, the winding being accom-
plished by the drag or frictional retardation of the bobbin,
which was not driven by a band as in the Saxony wheel,
but left to be drawn round by the yarn. The winding-
was also improved, the heck upon the flyer having been
dispensed with, and a traverse rail introduced which

216 COTTON SPINNING.

carried the bobbins up and down upon the spindles within
the arms of the flyers, which thus automatically depo-
sited the yarn in even layers upon the bobbins. Coniah
Wood, who patented a spinning frame in 1772, was the
first to introduce the traverse rail for the winding, and to
dispense with the heck upon the flyer. Arkwri^ht, whom
Wood had for a considerable time assisted in his pursuits, as
usual with him, quickly adopted this idea, adding an impor-
tant improvement in a heart-shaped cam which rendered its
action automatic, which it was not in Wood's invention.
Hargreaves' jenny, even after its combination with the
water frame of Arkwright in the mule by Samuel Crompton,
in which it has been brought to the most wonderful degree
of perfection, has remained essentially what it was in its
original form, a spinning frame, with the insignificant ex-
ceptions of the slubbing " billies " and jack frames. One
great merit of Arkwright's machine was its adaptability,
with slight modifications, to use in several stages in the
preparation of cotton for spinning. We find it first in the
drawing frame, and afterwards in the whole series of the
bobbin and fly frames: the slubbing, intermediate, and
roving frame ; and again, but without its distinctive fea-
ture, the drawing rollers, in the throstle doubling frame.
To Arkwright must be awarded the credit of these ad^ipta-
tions, though he left much to do in perfecting the details
of each machine to succeeding inventors.

As it does not fall within the scope of this short treatise
to trace in detail the progress of mechanical invention —
though the task would undoubtedly prove both interesting
and instructive — by which the present stage of comparative
perfection has been attained, haste must be made to deal
with the facts and conditions of to-day. In the transit
from the earliest days of the modern system to the pre-
sent time, it may, however, prove useful to the student
desiring fuller information to give the names of the succes-
sive inventors, and to outline the nature of the contribu-
tions each individually made to the sum of present results.

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 217

Hargreaves' invention had not been long at work before
it was considerably improved by the introduction of the
horizontal cylinder, 2, to drive the spindles and the grooved
wheel B (Fig. 56), which were not originally in the jenny.
They were invented and added by a man in a similar
position of life, named Haley, residing at Hoghton, near
Blackburn. The important part played by the cylinder
for the transmission of motion to the spindles only needs
mentioning to be appreciated.

But incomparably higher than all his contemporaries after
Hargreaves and Arkwright stands the name and services
of Samuel Crompton, whose invention of the mule spinning
frame has proved of such vast importance to the world. The
solution of the problem, if not the inception of the idea of
spinning more than two threads at a time, as we have seen,
belongs to Hargreaves ; the realization of the attenuation
of the rove by means of drawing rollers, by which these
spindles could be supplied with the requisite material with
facility and in the best form, must be credited to Ark-
wright ; whilst the combination in one spinning frame of
the best points of both of these inventors' machines is due
to Crompton. But he was not merely a person who utilized
the fruit of other men's labour, he was also a great inventor,
as he showed by fixing his creel of rovings in the frame of
his machine, and transferring his spindles to a moving
carriage. This combination, along with his own improve-
ments, made his frame immensely superior to either the
jenny or water frame. In the first the attenuation of the
rove could not be secured with the evenness that was de-
sirable, and generally the outward traverse of the carriage
was completed before iiTegularities could be removed by
the process of stretching the thread. In introducing the
roller system of drawing the rove, Crompton secured the
best known means of accomplishing that object, whilst he
retained the outward traverse of the jenny carriage as a
reserve power wherewith to overcome the defects or irre-
gularities that might remain in the rove after drawing by

218 COTTON SPINNING.

the new system. The defective state of the means for
preparing cotton in the preliminary stages left much to be
done in the final process in the way of perfecting results.
The water frame contained no means of overcoming these'
defects, bnt the mule was enabled to take out irregulari-^
ties by means of the " stretch." This defect of the water
frame was recognized by its inventor himself, and was th&
cause of the great devotion he paid to perfecting the pre-
paration, and for his improvements in which the trade is
deeply indebted to him. But all his labour in this direc-
tion was equally advantageous for his great rival's machine,
the mule. The more perfect the rove, proportionately the
more perfect would be the thread from the water frame,
whilst in the mule it would be this plus the improvement
obtained by the stretch. Hence the enormous success of
the mule frame, which, when Arkwright's patents were set
aside or expired, leaving it practicable to use his rollers and
preparatory machinery, distanced its competitor on every
side. It was only as further improvements in details took
place, that the distance in merit between the two machines
or systems of spinning began to diminish, and the water
frame, which afterwards became the throstle frame, ap-
proached more nearly abreast with the mule. Within the
past few years only has the contest become nearly level in
spinning the lower ranges of numbers as to quantity and
quality of production.

There is evidence sufficient to lead to a fair conclusion
that Crompton independently invented the system of draw-
ing the rove by means of rollers. In his first machines
they were of wood, and of so crude a form and structure,
that had he seen or even heard of Arkwright's method, he
could hardly have failed to have made a better beginning.
Crompton's rollers in this respect were speedily improved
upon by Henry Stones, a mechanic of Horwich, near
Bolton, who had probably enjoyed the advantage, denied
to Crompton, of seeing Arkwright's water frame. Stones
therefore introduced the metallic rollers of Arkwright's

COTTON SPINNING. 21^

frame into Crompton's mule, thns contributing greatly ta
its improvement. The same person also effected other im-
provements in the mnle.

About this time Hargreaves' jenny was adapted to
another purpose, that of preparing slubbings or rovings
for spinning, which adaptation is illustrated in Fig. 60.
This was accomplished by a person at Stockport, who
mounted his spindles in a carriage like Crompton, which
he placed to run upon the lower cross piece of the frame, A,
instead of the toprail as in the jenny. Haley's cylinder, F,
was used for driving the spindles, and Hargreaves' faller
wire, 8, assumed a better form, and was placed in a more
convenient position. The driving-wheel, e, was mounted
upon standards fixed to the carriage, and was operated as
in the jenny by the winch attached to the end of the axle.
The strips of carded cotton were placed side by side upon an
endless sheet revolving upon two rollers, and which carried
them upwards to and beneath the roller, c, a light wood
pressure roller called the billy roller, and which attracted
some attention at the time. The frame containing these
rollers occupied the position of the spindles in the jenny.
The card ends passed between two bars, equivalent to the
" clove " of the jenny. The upper of these bars, G, was
raised to allow of their passage. When a sufficient length
had been drawn through, the bars were closed again, and
the portion of rove thus drawn off was attenuated as re-
quired, slightly twisted, and then wound upon the spindles.
When the carriage was returned home in the winding pro-
cess, a wheel, 5, ran under the lever, 6, which raised the
sliding wires, 7, upon which the bar, G, was mounted, thus
opening the clasp for the draught of another length of the
carded cotton.

This illustration will serve to show how the component
parts of every invention in the early days of the industry
were transposed and interchanged from one to another, as
the variations gave promise of improvement. The slubbing
billy was a useful machine in its day, and maintained &

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 221

position in the cotton trade alongside Ark wright's slubbing
and roving frames, antil, bj the invention of a more per-
fect system of differential driving of the spindle and
bobbin in the fly frames, the latter were so much im-
proved as to render their superiority incontestable. Then
the slubbing billy disappeared entirely from the cotton
manufacture, but in a modified and improved form it still
exists in the woollen trade.

The difficulty of constructing the tin cylinders with ac-
curacy, when it was desired to increase the length of the
mules, was, for a short time, an obstacle to their further
extension of size. This was, however, overcome by the
invention of small cylinders, called drums, by a person
named Baker, of Bury, which were arranged vertically
in the carriage of the mule, and were driven by a stout
band from a grooved wheel in the head stock. This ad-
mitted of the length of the carriage again being greatly
extended. Success has, however, finally rewarded the
efforts that have been devoted to the construction of
cylinders, and these can now be made of any length ; as a
consequence this method of driving the spindles has again
been reverted to, and Baker's drums have disappeared.
Baker also invented the diagonal shaft, by which motion
was transmitted to the rollers from the rim. This shaft
dropped out of gear at the rim when the rollers were to
stop. The introduction of this shaft was a great improve-
ment, enabling much more accuracy to be obtained in the
working of the parts, and giving opportunity for the yarn
to be more highly perfected in the final stretch.

As yet the carriage had been brought out from the
roller beam by various appliances, all more or less imper-
fect in their nature and action, and most of which left
" the stretch " or second draw to be completed by the hand
of the spinner. The stretch was longer or shorter accord-
ing to the quality of the material and the counts of yarn
being spun. The first appearance of the germ of the more
perfect system of bringing out the carriage, which has

222 COTTON SPINNING.

now been so long in vogue, was in tlie invention of a
parallel scroll with a small conical one attached, by James
Hargreaves, of Tottington, near Bury. " Hargreaves " is
a common name in Lancashire, and though this inventor
bore the same name and surname as the inventor of the
jenny, and though only about nine miles of wild moorland
separates Stanhill, the residence of the last-named, and
Tottington, there is no reason to suppose that any family
relationship existed between them.

The mule up to 1790 was purely a manual machine,
operated by the hand of the spinner. Though the spin-
dles were gradually increasing in number, yet they were
few compared to what they became shortly after they were
adapted for being driven by animal and water power. Mr.
Kelly, of Glasgow, formerly of the Lanark mills, was the
first person to accomplish this latter improvement. The
way in which he effected this, was by means of a loose
pulley carrying a catch, which at pleasure could be made
to seize another catch fixed upon the axle. On this axle
was a screw which worked into a wheel, and the number
of teeth in which governed the number of revolutions of
the rim by disengaging the rope from the fast to the loose
pulley. The new arrangement enabled the mule to be
largely increased in size.

This invention had hardly got to work before Mr. Wright,
a Manchester mechanic, and formerly an apprentice of Sir
Richard Arkwright, doubled the dimensions of the mule
at once by placing the head stock, or rim, as it was then
called, in the middle of the length of the frame or roller
beam. The widening of the mule also brought another
difficulty to the front. The carriage became of such a
length that when being drawn out the extremities were
apt to lag behind the centre portions unless the frame
was made of great rigidity and strength, in which case it
became too heavy to operate with facility. The conse-
quence was that good work could not be made, and any
kind was almost impracticable. This obstacle to efficiency

THE MODEKX SYSTEM OF SPINXING. 223

■was overcome by the invention of the " squaring " band,
which enabled the carriage to be brought out on a per-
fectly straight line, like the two sides of a parallel ruler.

Kelly's substitute for manual power was water, but with
the enlargement of themule,and the erec don of special build-
ings or factories for containing them, eligible sites became
difficult to obtain, and were often far from centres of popu-
lation. Steam power began to be welcomed and extensively
adopted, but it is curious now to note that the steam engine
was first employed to lift water in order to pour it upon
a water wheel, which turned the machinery, as this was
thought to be the only reliable source of steady driving,
and perhaps correctly so, in the infancy of the steam engine.
It was not long, however, before such improvements took
place in the latter as to dispense with the necessity
of taking power from it by this roundabout method. Its
direct application enabled mills to be brought to the
centres of population, with which facilities, and a growing
demand for yarns, spindles rapidly increased in number.

Up to 1793 no attempts were made to spin the finer
yarns, say from 100^ and upwards, upon the machinery
driven by water or steam power. At that time these
higher counts began to be attempted by the more skilful
spinners. Mr. Kennedy, one of the earliest of the Man-
chester machinists, and from whose paper on the life of
Samuel Crompton some of the foregoing particulars have
been gleaned, was a careful observer of the difficulties en-
countered in these attempts, and set himself to invent a
remedy. One of these was the slow speed at which it was
necessary the mules should work when spinning, say. 200%
and which reduced the production to a small quantity.
The rollers in this case could only make about twenty-five
revolutions per minute and the spindles about twelve hun-
dred. But when a sufficient length of roving had been
drawn out for one length or traverse of the carriage, the
rollers stopped, and the spindles were accelerated during
the second draw or stretch. This acceleration of speed was

224 COTTON SPINNING.

put in by tlie manual labour of the spinner. Mr. Kennedy^
however, devised a plan by which it was automatically ac-
complished by the mule. His first idea was to adapt the
principle of the arrangement of wheels termed the sun and
planet motion, which was suggested to him by seeing it in
Watts' steam engine. The low state of mechanical skill,
and the consequent difficulties to be encountered in making
the parts at that time, however, deterred him from the
attempt, and he chose the simpler method of an arrange-
ment of four wheels of unequal sizes for producing the
same effect. This plan was partially successful, and by
repeated improvements, made according to the suggestions
of several persons interested, became approximately perfect.
The wheels were first lifted in and out of gear with each
other ; afterwards a clutch box was employed, which im-
proved upon the previous arrangement considerably ; then
Mr. Kennedy introduced the plan of three pulleys, one fixed
on the small wheel, another on the larger one, and a loose one.
By removing the driving strap from the loose pulley when
the wheel was at rest, to the pulley on the smaller wheel,
the rollers were set to work, and next to the pulley on the
larger wheel, which accelerated the speed of the rim and
the spindles until the thread was stretched and fully
twisted, when the strap was again removed to the loose
pulley, the machine coming to rest in order to allow the
draw or length of yarn just finished to be wound upon the
spindles, after which operations recommenced. Mr. Ken-
nedy subsequently introduced his original idea of accom-
plishing this end by the sun and planet motion, which was
regarded as a further improvement.

Spinning in the early days of the modern system was
an occupation requiring great skill and care. In ancient
times, when the instruments in use were the distaff and
spindle and the old hand wheel, its pursuit was confined
almost exclusively to the female sex, and during the first
part of the transition period but little change took place.
Hargreaves' jennies were generally worked by women and

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 225

children, as also were Arkwright's water frames. The
successive improvements and enlargements, however, began
to make them too complicated and cumbrous for females
to handle, and hence necessitated a change in this respect.
Another reason which expedited the transfer of this occu-
pation to the hands of men was that with the increased
production resulting from the use of the new machines,
and the rapidly growing demand for yarns, it became a
more profitable occupation than weaving, which began to
fall more generally than before into the hands of women.
Thus an industrial revolution which overturned a relation-
ship of the two sexes that had existed for ages was quietly
established.

The great skill and care needed on the part of the opera-
tive to produce good yarns arose from the fact that the
principal movements in Crompton*s mule, which had been
quickly recognized as by far the best spinning frame, still
required to be performed by the hand of the spinner, not-
withstanding the improvements that had been effected. The
building of the cop upon the spindle was the work of the
attendant ; the backing-off previously to winding was done
by hand, as was also the regulation of the speed of the
spindles during the latter operation, so that the winding
should take place upon the different diameters of the cop
without breaking the threads. The paucity of this skill
caused steady progress to be made in the direction of ren-
dering the mule more and more automatic. With the single
faller wire it was found impossible to prevent the yarn
running into snarls when the backing-off took place, and
tnese could not afterwards be taken out. A simple device,
the counter faller, remedied this. It was placed under the
threads, and was raised at the moment of backing-off in
order to take up the slack, and thus prevent the formation
of snarls. In this it was to a great extent a success, but
complicated the mule still further, and added another
difficulty to its management.

One of the most important steps in advance was the in-
Q

226 COTTON SPINNING.

vention in 1818 of a copping motion by Mr. William Eaton,
which took the entire operation of manipnlating the wind-
ing of the threads from the hand of the spinner, rendering
it automatic. More is implied in this than may appear at
the first view. It necessitated in the first place a self-
ctcting method of performing the backing-ofi* at the finish
of each outward traverse of the carriage, and before the
winding commenced ; secondly, an automatic action of the
two faller wires, the ascent of the counter faller, and the
descent of the winding faller, or guide ; and, thirdly, a self-
acting arrangement regulating the speed of the spindles
according to the increasing size of the winding surfaces of
the cop. Great credit is due to Mr. Eaton for the ingennity
displayed in this invention, as in many respects his methods
of achieving these ends have formed the basis of the im-
provements that have led to the present more perfect plans.

The labours of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton
had not long been presented to the public before the con-
ception was formed that it was quite practicable to make
purely automatic spinning machines which, without human
aid, should perform all the operations involved in the pro-
duction of yarn, and which should require nothing more
than general superintendence. Having secured a steady,
reliable, and untiring motor in the steam engine, these
day-dreams could hardly be regarded as beyond the pos-
sibility of realization. The Rev. Dr. Cartwright, the in-
ventor of the power loom, was the first who attempted to
realize the vague ideas prevalent on this subject. His
device was ingenious and highly creditable, but, as might
be anticipated, was a failure. He was followed, with more
approximation to success, by Messrs. Eaton, of Wiln, in
Derbyshire, Mr. De Jongh, of Warrington, Mr. Buchanan,
of the Catrine mills in Scotland, and Mr. Smith, of Deans-
ton. An American inventor, Dr. Brewster, was also in
the field in pursuit of the same object.

But the merit of solving this difficult problem belongs
almost entirely to Mr. Richard Roberts, of Manchester,

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINNING. 227

who had for some time also been devoting his attention to
the matter. His first patent was taken out in 1825, and
a second for extensive improvements in 1830. Roberts'
mnle was so distinctly superior to those of all competitors
that it quickly secured a large amount of favour from the
trade. But this was not until after the improvements
covered by the second patent had been made.

The mule, as already shown, had been brought to a high
stateof development as a machine which yetrequired manual
assistance in its operation. The problems, therefore, which
confronted the inventor in his efforts to dispense with the
latter necessity were : first, the construction of a reversing
arrangement which should unwind the spiral of yarn upon
the top of the spindle previously to commencing the wind-
ing of each stretch ; secondly, the invention of an arrange-
ment or mechanical appliance which should govern the
movement of the falter wire so as to build the yarn upon
the spindle in the form best suited for subsequent pro-
cesses, which had already been established as the cop —
a cylindrical figure coned at each end. This was also
required to be firmly constructed, of good shape, and cor-
rect proportion. And, thirdly, an appliance was required
that should vary the speed or rate of revolution of the
spindle according to the enlarging diameter of the winding
surface of the cop. When it is considered that not only
were these intricate problems to be separately solved, but
that, when this had been accomplished, the different pieces
of mechanism had to be combined in one machine in such
a manner as to work in perfect harmony in relation to one
another, some idea of the intricacy and delicacy of the
task may be formed.

The invention of the counter f aller was the first great
st/cp towards the solution of the problem of winding. This,
like the ordinary faller, was a horizontal wire extending
the length of the spindle carriage, but, unlike the other,
it was placed beneath the threads, and about two or three
inches from the tops of the spindles. Its function, now so

228 COTTON SPINNING.

well known, was to rise and take up the slack in the yarn
caused by the " backing-off " or unwinding of the spiral of
yarn upon the uncovered portion of the spindle, as previously
referred to, and to retain the yarn in such a state of ten-
sion as to prevent it from running into snarls until the
winding process had taken it up. During the progress of
the latter the top faller would gradually rise, and the
counter faller descend, until the winding was completed,
when each would have regained their original position,
there to rest until another draw or outward traverse of
the carriage, forming another length of threads, had been
completed. The top faller was actuated by means of com-
pound levers, acted upon by rotary cams, which brought
it down upon the threads, after which its movements were
governed by a lever and friction roller, which traversed
an inclined plane called " the shaper." This acted upon
the faller, through the lever, in a different manner at
every stretch, by which the successive layers were built up
in such a manner as to form a well-shaped and firm cop,
in many respects superior to the best that could be pro-
duced by hand.

The variable revolution of the spindles during winding
was effected by a small drum placed at the end of the
carriage near the headstock, to which the ends of two cords
were attached, and coiled round it in opposite directions so
that when one was being wound on the other was uncoil-
ing. One cord was extended to the back of the headstock.
and to its extremity a weight was suspended to act as a
counterpoise, drawing the cord off the drum as the carriage
drew away from the rollers, during which time the other
cord was being wound up. This drum was also connected
with some toothed wheels which were brought into gear
with that part of the mechanism that operated the spindles
during the time the yarn was being backed-off' preparatory
to winding on the spindle. The cord which caused the
winding-on drum to revolve during the running in of the
carriage had one end attached to the radial arm of a

THE MODERN SYSTEM OF SPINIflNG. 229

quadrant which described an arc whilst the winding-on
drum was receding from the point of attachment in a
straight line. As the carriage receded the cord was un-
coiled, causing the drum to revolve and thence the spindles.
The amount of rotation of the spindles was regulated bj
the length of rope to be uncoiled. Assuming that all the
parts were arranged for the commencement of work, and
the spindles bare, the maximum number of revolutions
would be required to wind on the length of a stretch or
draw, but for winding the next a diminished number of
revolutions would be required, owing to the winding surface
having been increased by the previous layer. This was
repeated with each succeeding layer until the bottom or
base cone of the cop was completed. After this the move-
ment was uniform until the completion of the cop or set.
An accurate differential motion analogous to, but in its
details radically different from that already described in
connection with the roving frame, was therefore required
and found in this arrangement. In this case the decrease
of motion in the spindles was obtained by lessening the
length of cord to be uncoiled from the winding-on drum.
This was effected by making the point of the radial arm
change its position with the addition to the cop of every
stretch, so as to effect the required diminution in the
length of the rope.

The first self-acting mule was one of the greatest
triumphs of mechanical genius that has ever been achieved,
and as a display of the power of the inventive faculty in
man's nature surpassed anything accomplished up to that
time. This statement hardly requires even that limited
qualification, as though great advances have since been
made in many branches of mechanical industry, nothing
yet surpasses the spinning mule in the number and
variability of its actions, the admirable concert of its parts,
or the excellent results achieved by it.

The new machine was a perfect spinner; that is, it
accomplished every part of the process without manual

230 COTTON SPINNING.

help. Hargreaves' jenny and Crompton's mnle required
the aid of the operative to perform several processes.
The inventor of the new mule dispensed with all necessity
for this help, and transformed the operative spinner into a
superintendent merely. Its chief features of difference from
Crompton's mule, as improved up to that time, were : — 1st,
in the mechanism by which the faller and counterfaller were
respectively depressed and elevated in backing-off and wind-
ing ; 2nd, the regulation of the movements of these wires so
as to make a well-formed cop ; 3rd, the arrest of the twisting
revolution of the spindles, reversing them for backing-off,
the stoppage of this movement also, and a second reversal
of the direction of the revolution of the spindles, with a
slow and differential movement for winding up the yarn ;
and 4th, when all these were successively completed, the
means by which they were automatically started anew.

The amount of inventiveness embodied in the new mule
considerably exceeded tnat shown in the jenny or Cromp-
ton's machine, great as this was in each instance. Ark-
wright, as we have seen, was only to a limited extent a
true inventor, being more distinguished for his ability to
utilize the inventive faculty and labours of others, so that
he can hardly be brought into the comparison. It must,
however, be said in favour of Hargreaves and Crompton,
that Ptoberts had facilities placed within his reach by the
progress of mechanical science, and the improvement of
machine construction, many advantages from which they
were debarred. His genius was therefore comparatively
unfettered, and hence achieved superior results. The
value of his invention, however, can hardly be regarded as
so great to the world as that of his predecessors, though
the inventive skill manifested in it was superior. Har-
greaves showed mankind how to do something essentially
new and unthought-of before ; Crompton wonderfully im-
proved upon Hargreaves' plan, both in the manner of its
action and the extent of its results ; Roberts made a great
step forward on the labours of both.

THE MODERN MULE. 231

CHAPTER IX.

The Modern Mule.

Present comparative perfection of the mule.— The head-stock, with
illustrations. — Means of actuating the di'awiiig rollers, spindles, and car-
riage. — Stopping the carriage and the revolution of the spindles. — Back-
ing off; movement of the faller. — Drawing in t)f the carriage. — Winding
mechanism. — Harmonious operation of the parts in action. — More de-
tailed description ; development of the various parts. — The faller wire
motion, and its operation. — Building the cop. — The counter faller wire.
— The backing-off mechanism. — The winding quadrant and its function.
— Recent removal of several imperfections. — Copping apparatus con-
trolling the backing- oft movement. — The loose incline. — Improvement
in the backing-oflF chain tightening motion ; causes of its requirement. —
Imperfection of the windmg apparatus as left by Roberts. — Successive
improvements. — Messrs. Piatt Bros, and Co.'s automatic nosing motion.
— Improvement in the click wheel. — The stretching process in early
mules ; succeeded by the " gain." — 1'he former jilan retained for " me-
dium fine" and "fine" mules. — •' The jacking motion," and its adjuncts,
the jacking delivery and the winding delivery motions of the rollers. — •
Eeteniion of the hand mule for the finest yarns. — Its improvement. —
Self-acting mwle f >r finest yarns. — Backing-off and winding. — The quad-
rant and its improvement. — Automatic regulation of the fallers ; the
lifting motion ; locking and unlocking of the faller ; winding ; and
backing off". — Speed of the parts ; changes ; replacement.

THE brief review just given of the development of our
principal spinning machine brings us to the period in
■which it is found with the essential prmciples and general
structure and form it has since retained. All subsequent
improvements, though considerable, have been in details.
These have been perfected almost to the highest degree
possible, and it would seem that little remains for succeed-
ing inventors to accomplish in its further improvement,
and this idea appears to be confirmed by the fact that of
late years attention has been greatly diverted to the im-
provement of the flyer frame, in both its old form, and as

232 COTTON SPINNING.

modified in tlie ring spinning frame. As, however, the
mule is, and must long remain the most important spin-
ning frame of the series, it will be well to examine it in
detail before proceeding to the consideration of the claims
of its rivals.

The following illustrations and description are reproduced
from the article on "Cotton Manufactures," bj the present
writer, in Messrs. Spons' " Encyclopaedia of Manufactures
and Raw Materials," referred to previously: —

Fig. 61 represents a side elevation of the naule head-
stock, with the transverse section of the carriage, shown as
running in, and in the act of winding. The drawing-rollers
and roller-beam are also seen in section. Fig. 62 is a
front view. In Fig. 63 is seen a corresponding plan of
the mule, showing the head-stock in the middle, and having
spindles working on each side.

The driving power is communicated to the machine
through the horizontal first-motion shaft, on which are the
fast and loose strap pulleys ab.

When the carriage M has run in to the roller-beam, or
drawing-rollers, the front of which series is seen at c^, the
driving strap is on the fast-pulley A, though a portion ex-
tends to the loose-pulley b. Motion is communicated to
the drawing-rollers by the small change bevel-wheel C,
driving the large bevel-wheel c\ running loose on the
horizontal shaft c, and connected with the front line of
drawing-rollers.

The spindles are also driven from the chief motor
shaft by the double-grooved cord-pulley, or rim, A", on
the extremity of the shaft, carrying the bevel-wheel C.
From this pulley, an endless cord a passes downwards,
beneath the guide-pulley a\ thence to the oblique cord-
pulley a", as seen in the carriage m, and to and around
the tin roller o.^, kejed on the horizontal shaft J, which
carries the tin cylinders j^ used for driving the spindles.
Thence it passes forward, and around the carrier-pa Hey
<x*, fixed to the front of the frame, then along the floor to

THE MODERN MULE. 233

the guide-pulley a^ at the back of the headstock, and
thence to the rim-pulley A'. This completes the circuit
of movement by which the spindles are operated.

Whilst these movements for the spindles and drawing-
rollers are going on, the small spur-pinion c'\ keyed on the
front roller c, drives the spur-carrier-wheel c^, which drives
the spur-change-wheel c'\ fixed on the boss of the smaller
spur-wheel c^ ; the last-named c^ and c* run loose on studs,
fixed to the movable weight-lever c^ hinged on the front
roller-shaft c, the spur-wheel c^ gearing into the spur-
wheel c\ which is keyed on the shaft h, called the back,
<jr drawing-out shaft, running the full length of the mule,
and upon which are fixed three scroll-pulleys, one being
seen at c' , and one at each end of the shaft. These pulleys
have a rope attached to and wound upon them, the other
part being passed round the guide-pulleys, turned back,
and attached to the carriage, for the purpose of traversing
it outwards as the yarn is spun.

When the carriage arrives at the extent of its stretch, i.e.
is at the point of its traverse the furthest from the front
drawing-rollers, the faller-shaft comes into contact with
the incline e^ fixed on one end of the beam-lever e, pressing
it down, so that it turns on its fixed centre e^. On the
opposite end, is a similar incline E^, also a stud e*, on
which hangs the pendent cam-plate, the back of which
bears against the fixed bracket. At the lower end of this
bar, is an oblong slot, through which the cam-shaft passes.
This slot is of sufficient length to allow of the free vertical
movement of the cam-plate. At each end of this slot,
concentric with its centre, and projecting from the face of
the cam-plate, are two circular inclines, one of which is
seen at e", commencing its rise, and terminating diame-
trically opposite, being half a revolution. One end of a
steel pin abuts against the top of this incline, and passing
in a horizontal direction through the catch-box d\ presses
with its opposite end against the other half of the catch -
box, holding it out of gear until acted upon. This half of

234 COTTON SPINNING.

the catch-box slides freely upon a key, fixed on the cam-
shaft. A spiral spring E*^, one end of which presses against
its boss, and the other against a stop-hoop, which is ad-
justable to regulate the tension of the spring e^, is fixed
with a set-screw to the shaft. This cam-shaft next passes
through the tubular cam-shaft D, to the back of the head-
stock, where it has the wheel d^ keyed upon it. When the
end of the beam-lever e is pressed down, so that it turns
on its fixed centre E^, moving its opposite end upwards,
it carries the pendent cam-plate, with its circular incline,
away from the steel pin ; the new position allows the steel
spring E^ to act upon the catch-box, putting it into gear
with the catch-box D^, which it carries round half a revo-
lution, when the steel pin which is brought with it comes
into contact with the second incline, puts it out of gear,
and causes all motion to cease.

The tubular cam-shaft d runs in bearings, one at each
end, projected from the frame side, and supports the last-
mentioned shaft. The catch-box d^ is keyed on one end,
to give it motion. The cam 4, which acts on the lever 6,
is also fast. The lever 6, passing upwards, extends to the
catch-box e on the front roller c, and is carried by a stud
in the frame, the centre of which is seen in the plan. The
helical spring 7 is attached to this lever, and thereby
holds the catch-box in gear. The partial revolution of the
cam-shaft d is effected by the revolving bevel-wheel h,
fixed on the boss of the loose-pulley b, on the first-motion
shaft, which gears into another wheel &\ keyed on the top
of the upright shaft F, which passes down to the scroll-
shaft. Another bevel- wheel &' on the same vertical shaft
gears into the large backing-off bevel-wheel If, shown
by dotted lines in the drawing, cast in one piece with the
spur-wheel D^ and which runs loose on the journal of the
main driving-shaft, and gears into the spur-wheel d^,
on the end of the cam-shaft from which it receives motion.
When the carriage arrives at the boundary of its stretch,
the first movement of the cam-shaft d, actuated in the

THE MODERN MULE. 235

raanner explained, is to throw out of gear the catch-box e
on the front roller-shaft, thus stopping the motion of the
drawing-rollers and carriage. This is accomplished bj
the cams 4 and 5 ; the cam 4, coming round, presses against
the projection on the lower end of the forked lever 6,
working in the ring-groove in the projecting boss of the
catch-box on the front roller-shaft. The cam 5 presses
down one end of a beam-lever, the centre of which is seen
at the opposite end, lifting the vertical bar, the top of
which bears against the lower surface of the movable
weight-lever c^ and disconnects the spur-wheel c^ and the
wheel c', thus stopping the carriage.

The next operation is stopping the motion of the spindles.
This is effected by the worm d on the first- aiotion shaft,
gearing with the worm-wheel d} on the end of a short
shaft cZ", which passes through the bracket, fixed to the
headstock ; the opposite end of this shaft carries a cam (i^,
which acts at the proper time upon the end of the catch
d^, hooking on the end of the bracket. The opposite end
of this catch is joined to the strap-lever cZ', which carries
the fork to guide the strap. When the catch d'^ is hooked
on the bracket, it retains the strap on the fast-pulley a.
As the shaft makes one revolution during each stretch of
the carriage, the cam ^ is so adjusted as to act at the
proper time upon the catch d^, liberating it from the
bracket, when a helical spring is made to act upon the
strap-lever dj\ shifting the strap on to the loose-pulley b,
thus stopping the spindle.

The next movement is that of backing-off. The lower
end of the strap-lever hinges on a stud, fixed in the
frame side, and, at this point, it branches off for a short
distance, in a horizontal direction, towards the back of
the frame, passing under a short projection from the back-
ing-off lever cf. This projection rests upon the branch of
the strap-lever ; its office is to prevent a shock when put-
ting the backing-off cones into gear as the strap leaves the
fast-pulley. The backing-off lever oscillates on a stud

236 CO'iTON SPINNING.

fixed in the frame. On the upward branch of the lever is
■SL loose stud cf, which is secured to one end of a screwed
rod, by means of two nuts, so as to be adjustable ; the other
-end is attached, by means of a small stud, to one end of
the horizontal lever <f, the middle portion of which fits the
ring-groove on the boss of the conical friction-pulley, by
means of which the latter is brought into frictional contact
with the internal cone of the backing-off wheel 6^, on the
main driving-shaft, and is thus made to revolve in an
opposite direction to the main driving-shaft, by the bevel-
wheel, on the boss of the loose-pulley b, as before shown.
Thus, when the friction-cones are brought into contact,
combined with the motion of the pulley a' and the main
driving-shaft, the change reverses the revolution of the
spindles.

The depression of the faller-wire follows next. As
soon as the backing-off commences, the ratchet-wheel j,
which is keyed fast on the tin roller-shaft, is carried
round with it. On the boss of this wheel, a ring-groove
is turned, which is clipped by a bent spring j^, and
the latter being carried round with it by frictional
contact, its free end bears against the tail of a catch r,
pressing it into gear with the ratchet-wheel J, which carries
the last-named catch and its stud with it. This stud is
fixed in the disc 3, which runs loose on the tin roller-shaft J.
The boss of the disc is formed into a spiral groove, in-
creasing in diameter as it approaches the flange. A chain
j^ is attached to this boss, and, winding round the spiral
groove, passes horizontally towards the front of the
carriage, partially round a flanged carrier -pulley, fixed on
the top end of the lever p'\ then up to and over a short
bent lever p^, and is fixed on the faller-shaft p, being
attached by means of a screw and wing nut, to adjust its
length. This short lever pulls down the faller-wire to the
apex of the cop. A lever p^ is fixed on the faller, and, at
its free end, is a stud, on which hangs the pendent bar p^.
By the time the faller-wire s has attained the level of the

THE MODERN MULE. 26i

points of the cops in process of formation, the foot of the
pendent bar is drawn upon the top of the slide, with its
anti-friction bowl resting on the cop-shaper K. A stud is
fixed in the pendent bar, to which the adjustable rod p^ is
connected, the other end being attached to the upper extre-
mity of a short lever, placed just within the carriage. The
opposite end of this lever is connected with a short shaft,
at the extremity of which is fixed another lever p", which
passes downwards beneath the carriage. The free end of
this lever is formed into a double or forked incline, suffi-
ciently wide to fit the anti-friction pulley p^, which runs
loose on a stud, fixed into the end of the lever p'. This
fork presses down the friction-pulley, which carries with
it the lever p", the lower end of which is secured to the
end of a short shaft, passing through a bracket, fixed to
the lower portion of the frame. On the opposite end of
this shaft, is fixed the boss of the lever p)^-, to which, at its
lower extremity, is secured a stud ; to this stud is attached
one end of a long rod p^, which passes to the back of the
headstock. Near to its extremity, is a stop-hoop, against
which one end of a helical spring 2^^° abuts, the opposite
end pressing against the lower end of the backing-off lever
d^, where the rod passes freely through, compressing the
spiral spring j;^^. At its extremity, is fixed a second stop-
hoop, which is fixed on the rod with set screws, being
adjustable. The office of this stop-hoop is to disconnect
the backing-off" cones. The inward movement of the pen-
dent bar stops the further descent of the faller-wire, and
locks the faller to the shaper. The chain j^, being still in
tension, draws the chain-pulley inwards ; acting upon the
upper end of the lever _p', and upon the lower end of the
lever _p', move the long rod p^ and stop-hoop 2^^\ carry-
ing with them the backing-off" lever cZ^, which puts out of
contact the conical friction-pulley, when the backing-off'
ceases.

The drawing-in of the carriage is accomplished as
follows : — On the upright shaft F, at the back of the

238 COTTON SPINNING.

headstock, is a cone friction -pulley r\ one half of whicli
slides on a key, fixed in the shaft ; on its boss is a
ring-groove. The other half rnns loose upon the shaft,
and, keyed upon its boss, is a bevel-wheel, which gears
into a similar wheel on the scroll-shaft p^, which ex-
tends for some distance on each side of the headstock.
Two scrolls are fixed on this shaft, one of which is
shown at F^. A stout rope h, made fast to the boss, is
then wound round the scroll attached by its end to the
carriage, and thus pulls it in. A second rope is attached
to the other end of the scroll, and is wound round in an
opposite direction, passing off at the under side, and along
the floor to the front of the headstock, where it passes over
a carrier-pulley, fixed to the frame, and then back to the
front of the carriage to which it is attached. At the lower
extremity of the lever p" is fixed a stud, carrying an anti-
friction bowl, on which the lever Z rests while the backing-
ofi" is in progress ; the boss of this is attached to the shaft
Z\ which passes along the floor to the back of the headstock.
On this, is a second lever, having at its free end a fixed
stud, on which is placed one end of a vertical rod Z^ which
is attached to the forked lever Z^, the free end of which
works in the ring-groove, on the boss of the loose half of
the frictional cone-pulley f\ holding it out of contact.
When the lever j;' drops down, taking with it the lever Z,
it allows its shaft to rock, which causes the lever at the
back end of the shaft to fall, bringing the cone friction-
pulleys into contact, which gives motion to the bevel-wheels
and scroll-shaft, and " puts up," or draws in the carriage.
The following are the details of the winding arrange-
ment. At the moment that the cone-friction is in gear, the
mitre-wheel G on the back shaft H, gears into the mitre-
wheel G^ on the side shaft G^. At the opposite extremity
of the shaft, is a second pair of mitre-wheels, giving mo-
tion to the shaft G^, on the other end of which is keyed the
spur-pinion I, gearing into the spur quadrant- wheel i^,
which forms a portion of the radial arm i\ oscillating on a

THE MODERN MULE. 239

stud fixed in the frame. A coarse-threaded screw t is
mounted npon this arm, and on it is fitted a nnt #, free to
move np and down. To this nut, is attached a chain t,
which, passing down, is wound upon the chain-drum i\ and
made fast. The chain-drum ^^ is cast in one piece with
the spur-wheel i^ and keyed on a short shaft, gearing into
a ppur-pinion ^^ on the boss of the disc ^*, which runs loose
on the tin roller-shaft J. A stud is fixed in the disc, which
bears a catch i^ that takes hold of the teeth in the ratchet-
wheel i®, fixed on the tin roller-shaft J. A bent spring
clips into the ring-groove, in the end of the journal i", and
its free end rests on the small catch i^, thus completing the
connection between the quadrant and the tin-roller, by
means of which the yarn is wound upon the spindles.

When the backing-off is completed, and the faller-wire
is down at the apex of the cop, the anti-friction bowl at
the foot of the pendent bar p^ is resting on the lower part
of the short incline, at the front of the shaper R. As the
carri;ige, on running in, commences to wind the yarn on
the cop, the bowl ascends the incline, further depressing
the faller-wire to the base of the upper cone. The action
of the parts is to uncoil the cham from the winding barrel,
which give motion, through the spur and ratchet-wheels,
to the tin rollers, and thence to the spindles. The quad-
rant moves round its centre i rev., and gives less chain,
which increases the speed of the spindles, as the threads
approach the apex of the cone of the cops.

When the building of the cop commences, the above-
mentioned nut stands at the bottom of the screw, at the
centre of oscillation. On the extremity of this screw, is a
bevel-wheel t\ gearing into a similar wheel on the boss of
a spiral wheel t'^ running on a fixed stud. This spiral wheel
gears into a second spiral wheel T^ on the shaft T* ; on the
same shaft, is fixed the spiral roller t\ At this point the
bowl begins to descend tlie longer incline of the shaper,
which allows the faller-wire gradually to rise, guiding the
thread to the apex of the cone of the cop, as the spindle

240 COTTON SHNNIXG.

winds it on. For a short distance, at both ends of the
shaft T*, is cut a screw-thread, which passes through a
fixed nut bearing the shaft up. As the latter turns round,
the spiral roller is taken towards the back, which gives
less motion to the nut in the radial arm ; this continues
till the bottom of the cop is completed, when the spiral
roller passes out of range, and its action ceases.

Bj means of this arrangement, when the yarn becomes
too tight in winding on, the counter-faller o is depressed ;
a lever under the carriage, which is attached to the counter-
faller by a chain, is lowered until it comes into contact
with the spiral roller, to which it gives motion ; by this
means, the screw in the radial arm is turned round, work-
ing the nut upwards, until the yarn is slackened so much
as to permit the counter-faller to rise, and to disengage the
lever from the spiral grooves in the roller.

When the winding of the yarn upon the spindle is com-
pleted, and the carriage arrives at the drawing rollers, the
fallers are disengaged by the pendent bar striking a fixed
stop in the frame, pushing it outwards, and disengaging it
from the slide, when the fallers rise by the action of their
springs. When the carriage has been put up, and has
arrived within a few inches of the roller beam, the faller-
shaft comes into contact with the incline e'"^, pressing down
the end of the long beam lever e, and forcing the pendent
bar, with its circular incline, away from the steel pin,
which allows the catch-box d^ to turn the cam-shaft i
rev. when it puts the strap upon the fast-pulley, and all
the other motions into their original positions, where they
are ready to recommence spinning.

The operation of this complex arrangement of shafts,
wheels, levers, pulleys, ropes, and springs, may be briefly
>'ecapitulated as follows : — The creel having been supplied
with bobbins containing rovings, the ends of the latter are
passed through small guide-wires, and between the three
pairs of drawing-rollers c. The function of the back pair
— that first taking hold of the roving — is simply to draw

To J ace -page 240.

h'ig.r,\. Mule Hearlstock. Side elev.ati(

To Jiii'r pa</e 240.

VMM

^VvV^^w

To face 'page 2-40.

Fig. 02. Mule Headstook. Front elevation.

To face page liO.

To face 'page 240.

Fig. 63. Mule Headstock. Plan, showing part of carriages on each sii

To face page 240.

THE MODERN MULE. 241

the latter from the bobbin, and deliver it to the next
pair. The motion of the middle pair is slightly quicker
than the first, but only sufficiently so to keep the roving
uniformly tense, in order that when delivered to the
next, or front pair, running much more quickly, the
" drawing," or attenuation of the roving may be equal
throughout. Connection is then established between the
attenuated rovings and the spindles. When the latter
are bare, as in a new mule, the spindle-driving motion
is put into gear, and the attendants wind upon each
spindle a short length of yarn from a cop held in the
hand. This done, the drawing-roller motion is placed in
gear, and the rollers soon present the attenuated roving in
front, to which the threads on the spindles are then at-
tached, by simply placing them in contact with the un-
twisted roving. The difi'erent parts of the machine are
next simultaneously started, when the whole works in
harmony together, the back rollers pulling the sliver from
the bobbins, and passing it to the succeeding pairs, whose
differential speeds attenuate it to the required degree of
fineness. As it is delivered in front, the spindles, revolving
at a rate of 6,000-9,000 rev. a minute, twist the hitherto
loose fibres together, thus forming a thread. Whilst this
is going on, the spindle carriage is being drawn away from
the rollers, at a pace very slightly exceeding the rate at
which the roving is coming forth. This is called the " gain "
of the carriage, its purpose being to eliminate all irregu-
larities in the fineness of the thread. Should a thick place
in the roving come through the rollers, it would resist the
efforts of the spindle to twist it ; and, if passed in this con-
dition, it would seriously deteriorate the quality of the yarn,
and impede subsequent operations. As, however, the twist,
spreading itself over the level thread, gives firmness to
this portion, the thick and untwisted part yields to the
draught of the spindle, and, as it approaches the tenuity
of the remainder, it receives the twist it had hitherto re-
fused to take. The carriage, which is borne upon wheels,

242 COTTON spiNxixa.

continnes its outward progress, until it reaches the ex-
tremity of its traverse, which is G3 inches from the roller
beam, when the revolution of the spindles ceases, the
drawing rollers stop, and the backing-oflP commences.
This process is the unwinding of the several turns of the
yarn, extending from the top of the cop in process of for-
mation to the summit of the spindle. As this proceeds,
the faller-wire, which is placed over and guides the threads
upon the cop, is depressed ; the counter-faller at the same
time rising, the slack unwound from the spindles is taken
up, and the threads are prevented from running into
snarls. When the backing-off is completed, the carriage
commences to run inwards — that is, towards the roller-
beam — the spindles winding on the yarn at a uniform rate,
but by means of a varying speed in their revolution, as the
faller is guiding the thread upon the larger or smaller
diameter of the cone of the cop. Immediately the winding
is finished, the depressed faller rises, the counter-faller is
put down, and the former actions recommence in the order
described, and are repeated until the " set " is completed —
that is, the cops on each spindle are perfectly formed. In
modern mules, when the set is finished, a stop-motion
paralyzes every action of the machine, rendering it neces-
sary to " doff," or strip the spindles, and to commence
anew. Doffing is performed by the attendants raising the
cops partially up the spindles, whilst the carriage is out ;
then depressing the faller, so far as to guide the threads
upon the bare spindle below. A few turns are wound on,
to fix the threads to the spindles for a new set, and then
the cops are removed, being collected into cans or baskets,
and subsequently delivered to the warehouse. The re-
mainder of the "draw" or "stretch," as the length of
spun yarn is called when the carriage is out, is then
wound upon the spindles by the carriage being run up to
the roller beam. Work then commences anew.

This description of the operation of the parts composing
that complex portion of the mule known as the headstock,

THE MODERN MULE. 243

and wbich we may observe in passing is based npon the
mule as constructed by Messrs. Curtis, Sons, and Co. of
Manchester, does not show the number and intricacy of
the problems it was necessary to solve before satisfactory
results were attained. In view of the desirability of
securing a fuller comprehension of these, and the means
by which they were reached, it will be useful to enter into
a little detail regarding them.

It has been shown that drawing rollers are common to
all spinning frames, whether of the continuous or inter-
mittent class ; the latter differ from the former only in the
means by which they are operated and their intermittent
action secured. The drawing out of the carriage from the
roller beam is the first distinctive action of the mule. This,
as pointed out in connection with the jenny and Crompton's
mule, was at first dependent upon the strength of the
spinner, and its perfect manipulation upon his care and
skill. The substitution of mechanism for performing this
task was one of the earliest improvements. Until the in-
vention of this " drawing-out apparatus," there was a limit
to the elongation of the carriage, and consequently to the
increase in the number of spindles. A difficulty encoun-
tered by the earlier inventors was to get the carriage to
advance from the roller beam in a parallel line, when it
was extended beyond a length that now would be regarded
as exceedingly short. This drawing-out apparatus, the in-
vention and operation of which has already been described,
almost perfectly obviated that trouble for a time, but only
for a time. Enlargements were carried so far, and speed
increased to such a degree that an amount of vibration
and unsteadiness, seriously detrimental to good work, was
induced. This has again been obviated by the introduc-
tion of a "middle drawing-out apparatus," which consists
of two additional scrolls placed on the back shaft, one in
the middle of each half of the carriage. These scrolls are
operated precisely as the others, except that the bands for
•convenience are made to pass under the carriage. The

244 COTTON SPINNING.

carriage is thus governed at five points in its length ; the
centre, the middle of each half, and the extremities. By
this change the carriage in coming out is again brought
perfectly under control, and the tendency for each half to
bend inwards at the centre forming a slightly concave line,
is corrected, whilst the vibration resulting, when it is put
up, is more quickly checked. It is largely owing to this
that the high speeds now in vogae in our principal mills
are rendered possible.

A similar difiiculty was also formerly experienced in re-
turning the carriage to the roller beam, when a stretch had
been completed. The carriage was drawn in from the
headstock which is its centre, and as its length was in-
creased it was found that it could not be kept parallel
when being returned home. This was obviated for a time
by the invention of " the squaring-band," which was found
to be a great improvement, though it left much to be de-
sired. A successful endeavour was therefore made to
obtain more power for, and a steadier return of, the car-
riage, which was accomplished by effecting a connection
between the drawing-out or back shaft, and the taking-in
shaft, which, by means of extra scrolls and bands, is thus
converted into a taking-in as well as a drawing-out shaft.
By this addition to its first function, the traverse of the
carriage is rendered much more steady, the controlling
bands being now six instead of two, as in former times.

The development of the faller wire has already been
traced from Hargreaves' jenny to Roberts' self-acting mule,
in which it assumed a form leaving little to be done by
subsequent inventors, save in perfecting its details. In
this respect much has since been accomplished, and it is
doubtful whether any further advance can easily be made.
The faller wire motion as extensively in use at the present
time, and which difi'ers only in small details in the mules
of different makers, is described and illustrated as made
by Messrs. Piatt Bros, and Company, of Oldham, in a
paper read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,

COTTON SPINNING.

by the late Mr. John Piatt, on " Machinery for Preparing
and Spinning Cotton." Figs. 6-i, 65, 66, 67, show the de-
tails, and the following is the accompanying description,
which permission has kindly been granted the writer to re-
produce. Speaking of the faller-wire arrangement, Mr.
Piatt says : —

Fig. 65. Putting down Faller during backing-off.

*' The top faller arm, a. is made of the sickle shape shown in
the drawing, for the purpose of enabling it to put down the
faller wire to the bottom of the cops, j, without the arm itself
being required to pass do^m between the cops, so as to save
room in the length of the mule. On the front of the faller
shaft, I, is keyed the sector, c, and a chain, d, attached to it,
passes round the pulley, e, to a snail, r, upon the shaft of the

THE MODERN MULE.

247

tin roller, which by a series of bands drives the row of spindles,
T. The snail is geared to the tin roller by a ratchet clutch,
having its teeth set so as to engage only when the tin roller is
driven the reverse way for backing off, as shown by the arroAV
in Fig. 65. Whilst the tin roller is running forwards daring the
spinning, and again during the winding, in the direction shown

BlgJl S)

Fig. C6. Locking ofFaller previous to winding.

by the arrow in Fig. 64, the snail, f, is not in action ; but as soon
as the carriage, g, of the mule has run out to the end of the
stretch, as shown in Fig. 65, the tin roller is turned through part
of a revolution in the reverse dh-ection, as indicated by the arrow,
sufficiently for unwinding the coils in backing off; the snail, f,
then comes into action, and winds up the chain, d, thereby bring-
ing the top faller wire, a, down upon the threads, w, and depress-

248

COTTON SPINNING.

ing them towards the bottom of tha cops. On the back of the
faller shaft, i, is fixed the curved arm, b, against which bears the
locking bar, h ; and when the arm, b, is lifted by the depression
of the faller, a, its extremity is caught by the recess in the bar,
H, which is tlu'own forwards by the bell-crank lever, k, as shown

Unlocking Faller at the end of windin":.

in Fig. 66 ; the tail of this lever having been brought by the out-
ward traverse of the carriage, g, under the corresponding bell-crank,
L, fixed in the end frame of the mule, has previously extended
the spiral spring attached to the bell-crank, l. Fig. 65, the recoil
of which throws the locking bar, h, forwards as soon as the arm,
B, is sufficiently raised (Fig. 66). The pulley, e, is carried on a

THE MODERN MULE. 249

rocking lever, r, the tail of whicli presses against tlie stop, s, in
the end frame of the mule during the time that the chain, d, is
depressing the faller (Fig. 65) ; but at the moment when the
locking-bar, h, is thrown forwards to lock the faUer-arm, b, the
stop, s, is lowered, as shown in Fig. 66, clear of the tail of the
lever, r, allowing the pullej, e, to yield to the further pull of the
chain, d, until the reverse motion of the tin roller in backing-off
is stopped ; by this means the snail, f (Fig. 65), is prevented
from depressing the faller wu-e, a, beyond the required distance
down the height of the cop.

" The faller being thus locked, the carriage, c, begins to run
in the opposite dii-ection to that indicated by the arrows in
Fig. 64 ; and while the spindles wind up the threads on the cops,
the faller wire is gradually allowed to rise by the locking-bar, h,
running down the inclined copping rail, m, the curved arm, b,
being kept constantly pressed home in the notch of the locking-
bar by a counter-balance weight or spring acting on the back of
the faller shaft, i, to raise the faller, a. The length of the stretch
or run-in of the carriaire, g, is 63 inches, which is there-
fore the length of the thread to be wound upon the cop, j, at
each time of winding ; and this whole length of 63 inches of spun
thread is wound upon the cop during each stroke of the faller wire.

" The mode of building up the cop in successive stages is shown
in Fig. 68, and in order to allow for the increasing diameter of
the cop, the successive layers of thread are wound upon it in
more open coils as the size increases, as indicated by the dotted
lines, which is effected by gradually increasing the range of the
faller wire ; at the same time the ends of the cop are made of
the conical form shown in the drawing. The length of the range
ior " chase " of the faller wire at the commencement of the cop
upon the bare spindles is only from a to b, but this is gradually
increased until the cop has attained its full diameter at c, c, when
the length of range is from c to d ; after which it is slightly
diminished again to the length, e, f, in finishing the cop. For
the purpose of obtaining the requisite motion of the faller wire
for giving these successive shapes to the cop during the winding,
the extremities of the copping rail, m (Fig. 64), are supported
on the two sliding wedges, n and o, which are kept at an in-
variable distance apart by a connecting-rod. In commencing

250

COTTON SPINNING.

the winding of a set of cops upon the bare spindles, as shown at
A, B (Fig. 68), the copping rail is set at the top of the wedges,
and is at its smallest inclination ; and after each successive layer
has been Avomid on, the two wedges are slided from mider the

Fig. 68. Mode of building up cops; half full siz-s,

rail by a traversing screw worked by a ratchet wheel, which is
advanced one or more teeth during each run out of the carriage,
G (Fig. 64). By this means the copping rail, m, is gradually
lowered at both ends, and, at the same time, its inclination is in-

THE MODEEN MULE. 251

creased by the outer wedge, n, being made -svith a rather smaller
angle at the top than the inner Avedge, o, for the purpose of
forming the cop with a more gradual taper at the top than at the
bottom, as shown in Fig. 68. This increase of inclination con-
tinues until the cop has attained its full diameter, c, c, and has
assumed the shape, a, c, d ; after which the inclination slightly
decreases again until the cop is completed to the finished shape,
A, c, E, F, by the latter part of the outer wedge, ^', being made
slightly steeper than the corresponding portion of the inner
wedge, o, as shown in Fig. 64. The inner end of the copping
rail being the lowest, the winding of each stretch leaves off at
the top ; and at the commencement of winding each stretch the
faller wire puts down the tliread to the point at which the wind-
ing of the new layer is to be started, about three coils being
wound on during the descent of the faller, as indicated by the
spiral dotted line from f to e in Fig. 69, and the remainder
during the rise of the faller. When the spindles arrive at the
rollers, p, as shown in Fig. 67, having wound up the 63 inches
stretch of threads, the stop, u, pushes back the locking bar, h,
thereby releasing the faller, a, which immediately rises clear of
the threads, w.

The counter faller wire is carried by the arm, v, from a se«ond
shaft behind the top faller shaft, i, and during the winding it
bears up constantly against the under side of the threads, w, as
shown in Figs. 65 and 66, with a slight pressure fi'om a counter-
balance weight or spring acting on the shaft, so as to ensure
keeping the threads in proper tension ; during the spinning the
counter faller is held up just beneath the threads, but without
touching them, as shown in Fig. 64. The arm, v, of the counter
faller is ciurved, as shown in the drawing, so as to reach over the
shaft, I, of the top faller, and also to avoid passing down between
the cops ; and the curved arm, b, on the back of the top-faller
shaft, I, is shaped so as to clear the shaft of the coiuiter faller.
The height of the counter faller wu-e is employed as a means of
regulating the speed of the spindles in winding in the manner
afterwards explained, so as to avoid the occurrence of anv slack
in the threads."

The mechanism of the faller wire having been thus de-
scribed, the next portion for detailed notice is the arrange-

252

COTTOX SPINXIXG.

ment for backing ofiP. The following is the description
and plan (Fig. 70) of the arrangement of the main driving
or rim shaft of the headstock, as given in the same paper.

" The rim shaft, a, carries the large rim wheel, z, or double-

Fig. 69. Extreme inclination of thread to spindle in spinning.

grooved pulley, driving the whole of the mule spindles bj ths
endless cords, x, x (Fig. G4), passing round the pulleys, t, y.
On the boss of the loose pulley, b, is a pinion, c, which, through
a train of intermediate wheels, d, d, drives in the reverse direc-
tion, and at the required slower speed, the spur wheel and

THE MODERN MULE.

253

•fiiction cone, e, also running loose upon the shaft, a, and
slidmg longitudinally upon it. This friction cone engages in a
corresponding hollow cone inside the fast pulley, f, to the loose
pulley, B, for the purpose of backing off, the friction cone is also
brought up against the fast pulley, thereby first arresting by fric-
tion the forward motion of the driving-shaft, a, and then giving
it the reverse motion for backing off."

The details of the winding quadrant for regulating the
winding of the threads, by diminishing the speed of the

Plan of backing-o£f motion.

spindles, in proportion to the increase of the diameter of
the cops, is shown in Fig. 71. This arrangement, the in-
vention of Richard Roberts, formed an important part of
his self-acting mule, and has continued to the present
time its distinguishing feature. Few, if any, mules of
this class are ever made without it.

"The quadrant, A, turns upon a fixed centre, c, in the frame;
and a pinion, b, gears into it, which is driven by a band and
pulley, receiving motion from the traverse of the carriage, g, the

254 COTTON spixNixa.

arrows indieatins: the direction of motion during the run-in of
the carriage. The grooved arm, i>, of the quadrant contains a
double-threaded screw, by which the sliding nut, e, is traversed
outwards from the centre of motion, c, towards the extremity of
the arm, j>. When the carriage is at the outer end of its stretch,
the arm, d, stands inclined 12° outwards from the vertical, as
shown by the dotted Imes ; and during the run-in of the carriage,
it turns inwards through an arc of 90°. A chain, f, attached to
the nut, E, is coiled round a drum, h, inside the carriage, g;
and as the carriage recedes fi-om the quadrant arm during the
run-in, the chain thus causes the drum t© rotate, and thereby
drives the spindles, t, through the intervention of the tin roller,
I, geared to the drum, h. At the commencement of a set of
cops, the nut, e, is at the bottom of the quadrant arm, d, nearest
to the centre of motion, c, as shown dotted ; and the number of
revolutions then given to the drum, h, by the uncoiling of the
chain dui'ing the run-in of the carriage is nearly as many as if
the end of the chain at the nut were held stationary, and is
sufficient t© wind up on the bare spindles the length of threads
fepun in one stretch."

" As the cops increase in diameter from their original size,
A, B, to their full diameter, c, c (Fig. 68), the nut, e, is gradually
advanced outwards along the quadrant-arm, d (Fig. 71), so as to
increase its arc of motion, and thereby diminish the number of
revolutions of the drum, h, and the speed of the spindles, t.
This advance of the nut is obtained from the counter-faller, v,
bearing against the underside of the threads, w, during the
winding. The depression of the counter-faller towards the lower
part of the cop, j, brings down the end of a governing lever
upon a horizontal strap, which passes round a pulley, upon the
headstock of the mule, and round another on the centre shaft, c,
of the quadrant ; and on the shaft is a bevel pinion gearing into
a seeond bevel pinion on the end of the double-threaded travers-
ing screw in the arm, d ; so that when the governing lever is de-
pressed upon the strap of the counter-faller, the forward motion
of the lever, as the carriage runs in, drags the strap along with
it by friction, and turns the shaft, c, forwards, sliding the nut,
E, outwards towards the circumference of the quadrant. At the
moment when the backing-off motion has ceased, and the carriage

256 COTTON SPINNING.

begins to run in for winding up the stretch of the thread spun,
as shown in Fig. 66, the counter-faller wire, v, is at its highest
working position, compensating for the additional length of thread
that has been uncoiled from the top of the spindle in backing oft
after the spinning of the stretch was completed. The nut, e,
however (Fig. 71), is still at the same distance from the centre,
c, of the quadrant, as it was at the conclusion of winding the
previous stretch ; and, therefore, as the diameter of the cop is
now greater by winding the last new layer of thread outside the
previous one, the winding of the new stretch commences rather
too fast, and begins at once to take up the length of thread given
out in the backing off. The counter-faller, v, is thus depressed,
and, by means of the governing lever, slides the nut, e, further
out from the centre, c, until the speed of the winding is suffi-
ciently diminished to allow the counter-faller to rise again high
enough for lifting the governing lever off the strap. It will be
seen that, in consequence of the arm, d, describing the quadrant
of a cii"cle, the horizontal motion of the nut, e, in the winding ot
each stretch is greatest at the commencement of the winding,
and gradually diminishes as the carriage runs in ; and the effect
of this is that the speed of the winding is gradually increased
towards the end of each stretch. By this means the threads are
wound uniformly upon the cops, with an equal degree of tightness
throughout."

Such vras the self-acting mnle until within a few years
ago. It was not quite perfect, inasmuch as though per-
forming the principal operations automatically, and with a
considerable degree of accuracy, it was still dependent
upon the skill of the superintending operative for the per-
formance of some of its minor operations. Several of those
that were automatically performed, were also imperfect in
more than one respect. The governing arrangement of
the quadrant nut was neither sufficiently sensitive nor re-
liable for the performance of good work. In both these
respects it has been greatly improved, and has been ren-
dered adaptable for a much wider range of work than pre-
viously. The backing-off" motion was also defective in its
arrangement, and this often caused " snarls " or kinks to

THE MODERN MULE. 257

be produced in tbe yarn, a fault which it was highly desi-
rable should be avoided if possible, as it seriously depre-
ciated the value of the yarn. This has been accomplished.
A defect in the winding motion, arising from the pecu-
liar form of the spindle, was a long-standing trouble to
spinners, and an almost insurmountable difficulty to in-
ventors. The quadrant winding apparatus was constructed
to form a cop on a spindle equal in its dimensions from the
bottom to the top, and on which the winding throughout
would be equally good. But in this construction the im-
portant fact was ignored — probably at the time regarded
as too small for notice — that the spindle is not of equal
thickness throughout its length, but is tapered, the thickest
part being the base. If the winding was arranged cor-;
rectly for the spindle at the base of the cop, there was a
steadily increasing departure from this point during its
building up, so that towards its completion the winding be-
came so slack as to lead to the entanglement, "halching"
it was called, of the thread at the " nose " or apex of the
cop, which caused a great amount of waste in the subse-
quent process of winding the yarn upon bobbins, or in
reeling it for bundling. This difficulty, too, has been
overcome, and the aggregate result is a great improvement
in the quality of the work produced from the mule as now
made in the best form. As these involve some of the
nicest problems yet encountered in connection with the
mule, a description of the means by which they have been
solved will not fail to be instructive. In giving this I can-
not do better than avail myself of the description of the means
adopted by Messrs. Piatt Bros, and Co., Oldham. This was
given in detail in a paper by Mr. Eli Spencer, read before
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, previously men-
tioned, in which he reviewed the progress that had taken
place since the subject was brought under notice in the
paper by Mr. Piatt, and from which the preceding quota-
tions have been made. This was illustrated by drawings,
which permission has been given to reproduce.

258 COTTON SPI^'NING.

" The backing-off motion has been perfected, its operation
being regulated automatically to suit the position of the cops at
every stage of their progress, from the commencement of wind-
ing to the completed full cop. Formerly this apparatus was
imperfectly manipulated by the minder. The copping apparatus
is now used as the controlling agent for regulating this motion.
This is shown in Fig. 72. It is made with a separate front incline,
D, which is loose, and is governed by an additional front copping
plate, E. Formerly only two points in the copping rail, a, were
capable of being adjusted to the exact positions required;
whereas by the use of the loose incline, d, all the positions are
now regulated. The advantage gained by this latter arrange-
ment is the power of regulating the precise position of the faller
wire when the faller is locked — a very important consideration.
In the hand mule, when the spindle had depressed the faller wire
to the proper position for winding, and uncoiled the exact
amount of yarn from the bare spindles, he arrested the operation
of backing-off and commenced the wiading on. In the self-
acting mule with the copping rail in one solid piece, this impor-
tant object could not be attained. The amount of inclination in
the front was determined by the conditions required to commence
the cop on the bare spindles. At the commencement it was very
important to keep the ' chase ' of the cop, or the height of the
cone, as shown at a, b. Fig. 68, as short as possible, in order to pre-
vent waste in unwinding in the subsequent processes. When the
copping rail was set at the commencement of the cop, the posi-
tion of the faller wire was determined, and set to suit the re-
quirements of the operation ; but as soon as the winding part of
the copping rail assumed the more inclined position to enable
it to wind a longer chase, then the front incline assumed a less
inclined position, leaving the faller wire at the time of the faller
locking in a worse position at each successive draw, until the
chase had attained its maximum at c, d, Fig. 68, and had begun
to be gradually shortened again. This was in reality a complete
reversal of the practice of the hand-spinner's operations. For
many years this method was considered quite satisfactory, but
the demand for longer cops, built more firmly, gave the impulse
to the present improvement. The front incline being now made
movable, its position can be regulated so that the operation will

THE MODERN MULE. 259

be an exact counterpart of the hand-spinner's work, when he
made his best cop. and by the use of an apparatus for tighten-
ing the backing-off chain, in connection with the loose incline,

D, on the copping rail, the amount of yarn uncoiled from the
spindles is regulated to suit the position of the faller wire at the
termination of the backing-off. When once set this appai-atus
needs no attention from the minder."

'• As the copping motion has been previously explained, it is
only necessary here to describe what relates to the loose incline
shown in Fig. 72. The copping rail, a, a, rests at one end on the
front copping plate, c. One end of the loose front incline, d, is
jointed to the ridge of the copping rail by the pin, f, and its
front end rests on the additional copping plate, e, which is
fastened to the copping plate, b, in such a manner that it
can be adjusted to suit the requii-ements of the loose incline, d.
By varying the form and position of the additional copping plate,

E, the loose incline, d, can be regulated to give any requu-ed
results."

'• The diagram shows the faller locking arrangements, with
the lock at the bottom of the lever, r (Fig. 72), instead of as in the
former arrangement at the top. The principle is the same in
both systems, the alteration being made to suit the requirements
of other parts of the head stock connected principally with what
are technically called the ' changes.' "

The means hj which the defects of the quadrant arising
from the tapered form of the spindle, have been overcome,
is an improvement in the backing-off-chain tightening
motion. A little further explanation of whj this is required
may be desirable.

" When the carriage, g (Fig. 72), is making its outward run, the
front or winding faller wii'e is generally about 1^ inch above the
points of the spindles, s. This is also the position of the parts in
ordinary mules, immediately before the operation of backing-off
the spiral of yarn that is coiled upon the bare spindles above
the top of the cop. As is well understood, the reversal of the
tin roller causes it to uncoil this yam from the spindles and
also brings into action the parts which pull the faller wire down.
In all cases the spindles begin to uncoil before the faller wii-e

260 COTTON SPINNlNy.

begins to move, because tlie tin roller must make some little
movement before the backing-off click or pawl can take hold of
the ratchet wheel. In addition to this the spindles continue to
uncoil the yarn during the time the faller wire is moving from its
position above the spindle points, until it touches the yarn.
From this it will be seen that a considerable length of yarn will
be uncoiled from the spindles before the faller wire can overtake
the yarn. The spindles thus have the start very considerably,
and at the completion of a set of cops this loss of motion of the
faller wire produces the worst results. In the case of a cop with
its nose or point only -f- inch from the spindle points, the loss is
nearly one-half the entire motion of the faller wii-e, which moves
as far before it touches the yarn as it does after. To overcome
this difficulty it is necessary to have the backing-off chain tight,
so that it may act on the faller as early as possible ; and the
backing-off snail is made as large as possible and of the proper
form, so that the faller wire may act on the yarn at the earliest
moment.

" At the commencement of a set of cops, the conditions are
very much more favourable ; for, although the space actually
passed through by the faller wire before it touches the yarn re-
mains constant, it bears at the commencement a very much
smaller proportion to the entire distance passed through by the
wire before the faller locks, than it does at the completion of the
set of cops. Consequently the backing-off chain has to be slack
at the beginning of a set of cops, otherwise the speed of the
faller Avire would force the yarn down the spindles faster than it
would uncoil, and would thereby break the thread. Hence the
backing-off chain having been adjusted to the proper length for
backing-off nicely at the commencement of the set of cops, it is
desirable gradually to tighten or shorten it as the cop increases
in length, until at the completion of the cop, the chain is almost
tight. By this means the backing-off can be adjusted all through
the set, so that it corresponds at every stage with the exact re-
quirements of the case ; the nose of the cop is preserved in a
properly firm condition, and neither too much nor too little yam
is uncoiled. Kext to winding the yarn properly on the cop, this
is the most essential condition in making a good cop. Where
the apparatus now to be described, which effects this automati-

262 COTTON SPIXNIXG.

cally, is at work, it is found that very mucli fewer noses or
points of cops are ' halched ' or entangled.

" Referring to Fig. 72, the winding faller shaft, i, has keyed
upon it the backing-oflf finger, h ; the backing-off chain, j, is
fastened at one end to the finger, h, and, at the other end, to
the backing-off snail, k, which is mounted with a ratchet clutch
upon the tin roller shaft. The backing-off tightening-chain, l,
has one end fastened to the boss of the snail, k, and the other
end to the bell-crank lever, m, the tail of which is shown rest-
ing on an incline, n. This incline slides upon a plate fastened
to the floor ; and an arm upon the front end of the incline grips
the copping plate connecting rod, p, by set screws, the incline,
N, is caused to move backwards with the backward motion of the
rod during the formation of the cop.

" In Fig. 72 are shown the positions of the carriage, g, and the
various parts just previous to the time of the backing-off taking
place at the commencement of a set of cops. The backing-off
chain, j, having been adjusted to the proper length for backing
off on the bare spindle, the copping plates, b and c, with the
connecting rod, p, will gradually move inwards or backwards, in
the direction of the arrow, as the cop progresses, and will carry
the incline, n, with them in the same direction. This movement
gradually brings the higher part of the incline, n, under the tail
of the lever, m, causes it to turn in the direction of the arrow,
and so pulls the chain, l, which, in turn, acting on the snail, k,
takes up the slack of the backing-off chain, j. The incline, n,
is so made that it can be varied to suit the particular require-
ments of various kinds of mules. The absolute amount of
tightening depends upon the setting of the incline, or upon the
differences of level between its two extremities ; and the rate of
tightening at different parts of the incline depends upon the form
of its outline. By varying the form of the incline, the action on
the chain can be varied to suit any circumstances. When once
set, the apparatus needs no farther attention. At the commence-
ment of a new set of cops, the copping plates, b, e, c, are
wound forwards again, into the position shown in Fig. 72, the in-
cline, N, goes with them, and the backing-off chain, j, is restored
to its normal slackness."

It has already been sufficiently explained, that Roberts'

THE MODERN MULS. 263

quadrant winding apparatus admitted of no variation be-
yond the gradual outward traverse of the quadrant nut to
suit the increasing diameter of the cop until the maximum
was attained, after which no further modification took
place. This, however, did not fully meet the requirements
of the case, as no provision was made for the tapered form
of the spindle. Had the spindle been uniform in its dia-
meter, the quadrant in the form Roberts left it would have
been comparatively perfect, but this was not so, and the
increase of the length of the spindle that of late years has
taken place, required to meet the demand for higher speeds
and larger cops, has intensified the evil experienced. The
diameter of the blade, or winding part of the spindle, has
grown to i inch in its largest part, whilst it tapers down
to -jig- inch at the top. It will be seen from this that the
speed, or rate of revolution, of the spindle, when " nosing " or
winding on the bare portion of the spindle at the early part
of a set will require to be very much less than when at the
finish, and that the acceleration will require to be gradual
throughout the set in order that the nose of the cop may be
tightly and firmly wound throughout. This acceleration
of speed, which usually takes place when the carriage in its
inward run is closely approaching the roller beam, requires
to be in a ratio exactly corresponding to the diminution of
the diameter of the spindle. Also its commencement
must be a little earlier with each succeeding draw, so that
at the finish of a set it will commence five or six inches
away from the termination of the inward run of the car-
riage. It is necessary that the time of its commencement
should be nicely adjusted to the position of the faller wire,
as should it begin too early the yarn will be rapidly wound
upon a portion of the top cone of the cop that will take it
up too fast, and so strain or break it, in either of which
cases it will be greatly injured. In fact, yarn was in-
jured in this manner until within a comparatively recent
time. Many contrivances were designed for obtaining this
necessary acceleration of the spindle's velocity, but they

264 COTTON SPINNING.

almost all failed either in obtaining the right degree or in
commencing at the right moment.

" The one most generally in use is that called the ' Nose Peg.'
This peg, acting on the winding chain, f (Fig. 73), deflects it from
a straight line into a bent line, causing additional chain to be un-
coiled from the winding-on drum, h, and consequently increasing
the velocity of the spindles. This, although an improvement,
imparts but little acceleration ; and the little it does begins too
early — say, about 18 in. from the end of the inward run of the
carriage. Various forms have been given to the peg, but all
amount to the same thing in practice."

Subsequently, in 1863, the nose-peg bracket was con-
verted into a swing lever, which was mounted on the
quadrant. Both this and the successive modifications of
it, until the invention of the scroll-drum nosing motion
(the description of which follows), were merely varia-
tions of means to deflect the winding-on chain. None of
these, however, satisfactorily answered requirements. The
quality desired, and which was essential to a perfect ap-
pliance, was a progressive acceleration of the revolution
of the spindle in a ratio equivalent to the diminution of
its diameter, so that a given length of thread should be
wound upon a smaller circumference in the same time.
The problem, in fact, was an inverse form of that encoun-
tered in the slubbing and roving frames, and which in
those instances was solved by the diff'erential motion of
Holdsworth. The difficulty of solving the problem, how-
ever, was complicated by its requirement of an inter-
mittent action of short duration. The last invention
relating to this, and which seems to answer all needs, is
the automatic nosing motion brought out by Messrs.
Platts, and which consists of a scroll placed upon the
end of the winding-on drum, H (Fig. 73). The following
is a description from the paper previously referred to : —

" When the cop has attained its full diameter, c, c, Fig. 68, the
scroll-drum, h, should be in the position shown in Fig. 74, on the

Mlg^

26(5 COTTON SPINNING.

completion of the inward run of the carriage, g. As the cop be-
comes gradually built up higher on the taper spindle, more wind-
ing chain ought to be uncoiled from the scroll, until, at the
completion of the cop, the chain should be wholly uncoiled, as
shown in Fig. 75. It will be understood that the velocity of the
winding increases in the same ratio as the diameter decreases of
the scroll, h, from which the chain is uncoiled. The amount of
acceleration thus given depends on the quantity used of the scroll
winding-drum, and the character of the acceleration on the form
of the scroll end of the winding-drum. Its range of acceleration
is very much greater than that of any other apparatus yet
invented. Fig. 73 shows the position in which the parts should be
placed to commence with. The quadrant is shown in the posi-
tion in which it stands when the bowl is on the ridge of the
copping rail. The carriage, g, is shown in the position, when it
has made about 12 in. of its inward run. Fig. 77 shows the
quadrant nut, e, with the parts on it in the same position as
shown in Fig. 74 — that is, when the cop bottom has just been
completed. The carriage, g (Fig. 74), is shown close up to the
back stops. The quadrant, e, is in its final or extreme outer-
most position for making the rest of the cop. The arrow across
the winding- on drum, h, is in the same position as shown in
Fig. 73 — that is, the chain, f, has been uncoiled from the cylin-
drical part of the winding-on drum, until it is on the point of
uncoiling from the scroU part. The arrow-head crosses the
drum where the cylindrical concentric part ends and the scroll
begins. Fig. 75 shows the position of the parts on the comple-
tion of a set of cops. It will be observed that the winding
chain, r, is here uncoiling from the small end of the scroll, h.

" The end of the winding chain, f (Fig. 73), instead of being
merely attached, as formerly, to the quadrant nut, e, is now
wound upon the body of a ratchet wheel, a, on the shaft of
which is also fixed a scroU, i. Another chain, c, coiling on this
scroll, passes thence under and over the stationary puUeys, b and
D, and under the swinging pulley, k, and its end is fastened to
the sliding bracket, l, which slides on the shaper screw, m, of
the copping motion. The pull of the chain, c, causes this sliding
bracket, l, to press outwards against the front ring of the shaper
frame, which carries the shaper screw, m. The shaper screw is

THE MODERN MULE.

267

turned as usual by the ratchet wheel, r, which is moved through
one tooth at each lift of the quadrant by the wire, q. The nut,
N, travelling in towards r, along the shaper screw, comes into
contact with an inner arm on the bracket, l, as shown in Fig. 74,

and causes it to slide inwards with the inward movement of the
nut, and so gradually pulls the chain, c, in the same direction.
The inner arm on the bracket, l, is made adjustible for the pur-*
pose of regulating the time when the nut, n, of the shaper screw

2G8 COTTON SPINNING.

shall come into contact witli it. The swinging pulley, k, is carried
at the bottom extremity of the lever, p, suspended from the
centre, d ; and on the lever is centered an arm, s, fr-ee to turn
upwards, but not downwards. A bracket, t, upon the quadrant
is capable of pushing outwards the lever, p, by means of the
arm, s, when the quadrant is rotating outwards. The steel end
of the winding chain, f, which goes into the quadrant nut, e, is
about 3 feet long. The remainder, or curb part of the chain,
will therefore be shorter than usual, and does not enter into the
quadrant nut at all, and thus escapes the wear it would other-
wise incur in passing round the small anti-friction pulley at the
bottom of the nut, e."

*' The parts being properly adjusted, the mode of working is
as follows : — After the first stretch, the governor motion from
time to time moves the quadrant nut, e, further out from the
centre of the quadrant, so as to adjust the winding to the in-
creasing size of the cop. By this movement of the quadrant
nut the slack in the chain, c, is soon taken up, and after the
slack is taken up, the further outward movement of the quadrant
nut causes the chain, c, to pull the bottom of the lever, p, in-
wards. On the return or outward run of the carriage, the
bracket, t, acting on the arm, s, forces the lever, p, outwards
again ; and in so doing pulls a length of chain, c, from the scroU,
I, thereby causing it to turn on its axis and wind upon the
ratchet w^heel, a, a length of wdnding chain, f, which would
otherwise remain coiled upon the winding-on drum, h ; the
ratchet wheel is caught by one or other of two detent catches,
which enter into its teeth. In consequence of the ratchet wheel
in the quadrant nut thus taking up at intervals a length of wind-
ing chain about equal to the increasing distance of the nut from
the quadrant centre, b, the length of chain left coiled on the
winding drum, h, at the end of each inward run of the carriage
■will remain nearly the same, until the cop has attained its full
diameter, when the parts should be in the position shown in
Fig. 74, the nut, e, having then reached the farthest extremity
of its travel along the quadrant arm. Till this stage, the sliding
bracket, l (Fig. 73), will still remain pressed outwards against the
front rmg of the shaper frame. About this time the nut, n, on
the shaper screw will come into contact with the sliding bracket,

THE MODEEN MULE, 269

as in Fig. 74, and -will gradually draw the bracket inwards, to-
gether with the chain, c, and lever, p ; it will thus draw a
further length of chain, c, from the scroll, i, wind up a further
length of winding chain, f, upon the ratchet wheel, a, and cause
the chain, f, now to unwind not onlv from the cylindrical, but
also from a portion of the scroll part of the winding-on drum, h.
The repetition of this action gradually brings more and more of
the scroll part of the winding-on drum, h, into operation, until at
the completion of the set of cops (Fig. 75), as much of the scroll
part has been brought into action as the circumstances of the
case require. By causing the nut, n, of the shaper screw to
act sooner or later on the sliding bracket, l, a greater or less
amount of the scroll on the winding-on drum, h, may be brought
into use. By these arrangements, the winding can be accom-
modated to any form of spindles. On the completion of a set of
cops, the scroll, i, on the quadrant nut, e, should be in the
position shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 73, at the top extremity
of the quacbant ann. Before beginning a fresh set of cops, the
winding chain, f, must be uncoiled from the ratchet wheel, a, in
the quadrant nut."

It will be obvious from this explanation, that this inven-
tion is an important one, doing much to remedy the evils
springing from slack winding, arising from the confignra-
tion of the spindle. These were not confined to the
entanglement or " halching " of the yarn on the nose of the
cop, bnt also included the running of the yarn into snarls
or kinks as before stated. These caused a further fault,
as the " twist " in the fibres had a tendency to run together
into these snarls, leaving other portions comparatively
without, which, were therefore rendered " soft ; " that is,
the fibres no longer being held together by the twist, had
no coherence when subjected to even the slightest strain.
The presence of these faults was a great drawback to the
quality of any yarn. The automatic nosing motion, how-
ever, did not entirely obviate this defect, as a contributory
to its production was found in another portion of the
machine. In the same paper relating to this matter, the
writer continuing says : —

270

COTTON SPINNING.

"A further improTement in the winding motion has been
effected by a change in the manner of engaging the click with
the click-wheel on the shaft of the tin roller, k (Fig. 76).
Formerly the movement of the carriage, g, at the commencement

of its inward run, by means of the winding chain, r, drum, h, and
spur-wheel and pinion, caused the loose click-plate carrying the
click-catch to turn on the shaft, and by means of the click- spring
to make the click-catch engage the teeth of the click-wheel.

THE MODERN MULE.

271

But as the carriage moved inwards on some occasions a littie
further than on others before the click-catch could engage the
teeth (owing to the teeth not being always in the same relative
position to the click), this caused the winding to commence in some
runs later than in others ; and as the winding always finishes at
the same time, less yarn was wound upon the spindles in some
runs than in others. This was very objectionable, because the
yarn was liable to form into snarls when the winding commenced
later than it should have done."

Tis. 77.

Fig. 78. Enlargement of click and click wheel.

" To remedy this defect, the click, i (Figs. 76, 78), can now be
engaged before the carriage, g, actually begins its inward run,
by a very simple contrivance ; consequently the same amount of
motion is imparted to the spindles in each inward run after the
cop has attained its full thickness, except what is gained by the
acceleration due to the nosing motion already explained. In
the old arrangement the click was engaged by the click moving
round the click-spring, which at the moment was stationary. In
the new arrangement the spring is put in motion whilst the click
is stationary, one arrangement being thus the converse of the
other. For this purpose, the pivot round which the click-
spring rotates, instead of being as hitherto a portion of a fixed
bracket, is now the centre boss of a lever, i, which swings
loosely on the shaft of the tin roller, k, through a small arc.
This lever is actuated at the proper time by a finger, fixed in the
connecting rod, r, which lifts the " holding-out catch," c. This
rod receives its motion from the " taking-in lever," as it puts
the taking-in friction into gear ; and by means of the lever and

272 COTTON SPINNING.

spring puts the click into gear witli tlie click-wheel ; this stops
the click, and on the carriage moving inwards the winding-on
commences. By this means the winding is more uniform in its
action, the yarn is subjected to less strain, and it is kept freer
from snarls."

Any person who can recall to mind the quality of the
yarn produced about twenty or twenty-five years ago, and
has the opportunity of comparing it with that of the present
day, will be able to estimate the extent of the improvement
that has been made. This has all been accomplished by
the perfecting of details, which looking insignificant in
themselves, in their aggregate have been of the greatest
importance.

The mules just described are for spinning medium counts
of yarns, say from 24's to 50's. It has been seen that in
Hargreaves' jenny one of the leading principles was to
deliver a certain quantity of rove from the " clove " or
clasp when the carriage was " in," and that this was
attenuated by drawing out the carriage, the spindles twist-
ing the threads during its ontward run. It has been seen,
too, that Arkwright's leading and important feature was
to secure this attenuation, or drawing, by means of rollers.
The defects of both of these methods, and the great im-
provement that was efi'ected by Crompton when he com-
bined the two principles in one machine, have been shown.
As he constructed his mule, the rollers were made to
deliver rove during a large portion of the outward run of
the carriage, but before it was completed, say about 3 or
4 inches, these were stopped, and the carriage left to
finish the remainder of the run by stretching the threads.
By this means all the thick and untwisted parts of the
latter were drawn, and rendered approximately even with
the remainder of the draw. The advantage of Hargreaves*
jenny was thus combined with Arkwright's water frame,
and a more perfect thread produced from the mule than
could be obtained from either of the preceding: machines.
At the commencement of the second draw or " stretch,"

THE MODEPwN MULE. 273

— the few inches referred to above — the revolution of
the spindles was considerably accelerated, in order to
put into the yarn the requisite amount of twist. This,
however, could not usually be accomplished by the time
the outward run of the carriage was completed, so the
spindles were kept revolving for a short time longer.
As the processes of preparation were gradually perfected,
this " stretch " was diminished, and the speed of the
spindles accelerated during the outward run, so as to
lessen the final pause of the carriage. Subsequently the
desire to increase production led to the invention of
means by which this pause was abolished in mules spin-
ning low and medium counts, while to a considerable
extent the advantage of the " stretch " was preserved.
This was accomplished by further accelerating the revolu-
tion of the spindles, and increasing the speed of the out-
ward run of the carriage, as compared with the rate of
the revolution of the drawing rollers. Let us suppose the
length of a "draw" or distance traversed in the outward
run of the carriage to be 63 inches, this length of thread
will extend from the tip of the spindles to the front rollers.
To spin this length of thread, however, the rollers will
only deliver say 60 inches of rove, but instead of the rollers
being arrested in the delivery of rove as before, they con-
tinue at work until the carriage has completed its outward
run of 63 inches, both operations ceasing together, on which
the carriage immediately commences its inward run, winding
the yarn as it proceeds, thus accomplishing the movement
without any loss of time. The accelerated speed of the
carriage by which it traverses a distance of 63 inches, whilst
the rollers deliver only 60 inches of rove, is termed " the
gain " of the carriage ; and by the introduction of this
change a considerable increase of production was obtained.
In spinning the next higher range of counts, or those
known as medium fine numbers ranging from 50's to 90's,
the above system has not been found to act satisfactorily.
This is probably owing to the yarn being less solidly con-

274 COTTON SPINNIXG.

structed by the new plan as compared with that in which
"the second draw" or "stretch," as previously described,
is retained. The stretch has the effect of interlocking the
fibres more perfectly than can be otherwise accomplished ;
and as in the finer counts of yarn there are fewer fibres
than in the lower numbers it is also the more necessary that
this plan should be retained, which it is, in medium fine
and fine spinning.

The mule of Messrs. Platts, above described, which is
constructed for medium counts, is also used for spinning
medium fine counts. In order to do this it is fitted with
a "jacking motion " and a roller delivery motion, by which
the rollers are stopped at a certain and regulated stage of
the draw, whilst the former continues the action of the
spindles, and the outward run of the carriage by which the
final twisting and stretching of each draw is accomplished.
As previously explained, the primary use of the stretching
is to draw down or attenuate those portions of the thread
that may be thicker than they ought to be. These are
easily attenuated, as they do not take the twist readily
until their diameter is reduced to the proper dimensions ;
the second object of the stretch, as just previously intimated,
is to interlock the fibres more perfectly than can be accom-
plished without this process. The necessity for this will
be obvious when the configuration of the fibres is borne in
mind. The length of this stretching, or "jacking," as it
is technically called, varies according to the kind ahd
quality of the yarn being produced, from nothing up to 4
or 5 inches. It is least in the cases where the cotton is of
short staple, and greatest where the fibre is of the longest
and most even kind, which is the case where it is intended
to be spun into the finest yarns. Practical men prefer an
aiTangement for accomplishing this purpose known as the
sun and planet system, holding it to be the best amongst
several competing plans.

Where the system of jacking is adopted, the amount of
twist put into the thread during the outward run of the

THE MODERN MULE. *2.1 b

carriage is reduced to the lowest point, in order to admit
of the more perfect performance of the jacking process.
When this point is reached the speed of the spindles is
greatly accelerated, which has the effect of contracting the
thread in the direction of its length, this being a well-known
effect of twisting. With the stretch, and the contraction
of spinning, there is, therefore, a risk that the yarn may be
overdrawn and broken ; to provide against this an arrange-
ment has been introduced to set the rollers again in motion
and make them deliver very slowly a small portion of
roving, by which the danger of breakage and other in-
jury to the yarn, is avoided. This arrangement is known
as " the jacking delivery motion of the rollers." There is
still another arrangement by which the rollers are started
a second time and made to deliver a small amount of
roving during the inward movement of the carriage, when
the spindles are winding up the spun length of the threads.
This is known as "the winding delivery motion of the rollers."
The amount of roving delivered can be regulated according
to desire ; it is usually 3 or 4 inches. Whatever the length
may be, it increases the length of the draw by an equiva-
lent amount, and thus adds to the production. This
system is found very beneficial in spinning fine yarns, and
is in general use.

For spinning the next class of yarns, otherwise the finest
numbers, ranging from 80's warp yarn upwards, and 90's
weft upwards, the hand mule has been retained to a great
extent. Though, however, this is the case, owing to the
numerous improvements that have been introduced, the
name itself has become almost a misnomer. Great pro-
gress has been made in rendering its various movements
automatic, or self-acting, to the fullest extent allowable
where it was still essential to retain the sensitive touch or
control of the hand of the human operative. But this
necessity is becoming less and less absolute, as mechanical
invention conquers one problem after another, and arrange-
ments are devised that perform with equal skill and greater

276 COTTON SPINNING.

reliability the delicate operations that have hitherto needed
the keenest observation, and -the trained hand of the ac-
complished spinner. The appliances thus introduced for
attaining these ends differ in the machines of various
makers, but as all substantially serve the same purpose
the description of one will be sufficient. In giving this,
several reasons dictate the selection of the one made by
Messrs. Piatt Bros., described in Mr. Spencer's paper read
before the Society of Mechanical Engineers, and previously
quoted from. In his description of the mule for spinning
fine counts, Mr. Spencer says : —

" The hand-spinner, when backing-off, brings the faller down
upon the yarn before he reverses the spindles, so as to uncoil the
yam from them ; and the moment the faller touches the yarn
both motions act together. To obtain this result with the self-
actor, the winding faller, i, is depressed by the arm, h, and in-
cline, T (Fig. 79), just before the carriage, g, completes its out-
ward run. At the same time the slack in the backing-off chain,
J, caused by this movement is taken up by a modification of the
apparatus used for regulating the backing-off chain in the self-
acting mule for medium counts previously described. The back-
ing-off snail, K, chains j and l, and bell crank lever, m, remain as
shown in Fig. 72. But instead of the tail of the lever, m, bearing
as before upon the slide of the lever, n, it is here made to bear
upon an inclined arm, u, hinged to a stationary bracket and it is
the free extremity of this arm which bears upon the sliding in-
cline, N. The elevation of the arm, u, is thus gradually increased
as the incline, v, is traversed inwards by the copping plate con-
necting rod, p, so that it may give the exact amount of tighten-
ing motion required for the backing-off chain, j, at each stage of
the cop's progress. In order further to modify the backing-off
so that it may be suited to the form of the spindles, the eccentric
pulley, V, is introduced, and the backing-off chain, j, is divided
into two half lengths : the upper half coils upon the boss of the
pulley, V, while the other half, attached to the backing-off snail,
K, coils upon the eccentric rim. The depression of the winding
faller, i, is uniform all through the formation of the set of
cops ; but the position of the locking lever, e, and its parts is

THE MODERN MULE.

277

constantly varying within small limits, and the compensation re-
quired to meet the variations is provided for by this modification
of the motion previously described. By these means a -sery

delicate action in the backing-off is obtained. The fiper the
counts of yarn to be spun the slower is the velocity of the
spindles when backing-off.
' " The yarn having been backed-off from the spindle and the

278 COTTON SPINNING.

faller, i, locked, it is now necessary to wind tbe yam on t"he cop,
beginning at the point, or nose, and winding it down to the base
of the cone, in preparation for winding upward from the base of
the cone to its point. A special apparatus has been introduced
into the quadrant motion, to perform this operation in the fine
spinning mule. It must be explained that fine yarns are
generally doubled after being spun; and for this purpose the
cop is mounted on a steel skewer, and placed in the creel of a
doubler in a slightly inclined position, free to turn in the creel
and allow the yam to be uncoiled from the skewer. When the
yarn is unwinding from the small part of the cop down to its fuU
diameter, the action goes on all right, because there are many
turns of yarn to uncoil, and the cop gradually turns on its axis
more slowly as the diameter increases. About fifty inches of
yarn are uncoiled by the time the full diameter is reached ; but
in uncoiling the next ten inches of yarn there is a rapid increase
in the speed of the cop in consequence of returning so quickly
in a few coils from the full diameter to the small diameter at the
nose of the cop. This causes the cop to be jerked round too
quickly : it then overruns itself and is very, liable to break the
yam. The hand-spinner can regulate the number of coils at
pleasure, and in practice it is found that about six coils in the
height of the cone are sufficient to prevent the cop being jerked
round too quickly when afterwards unwinding in the doubler ;
but to obtain this result by self-acting means is very difficult ;
and only one solution has been found for it.

" The quadrant motion as originally used is capable of giving an
accelerating motion only ; but the true requirements of the case
demand that it shall be first a diminishing and then an accelerat-
ing one, because the winding in each stretch commences on the
smallest diameter, then winds down to the largest diameter or
base of the cone, and then upwards again with close coils to the
smallest diameter, or nose. In practice, however, this has never
been fully attained. It is found that by the yielding of the
counter faller a compromise is made between the demands of the
small and large diameters when winding down to the base of the
cone, and as this is only the initial stage of the winding, no harm
is done, because there is compensation enough in the rest of the
winding, which is regulated to suit the exact requirements of

THE MODERN MULE. 279

each stretch. But bv the ordinary arrangement of quadi-ant,
after the cop has attained its full diameter, it is impossible to
wind more than four and a half coils of yarn upon the spindle,
during the time it is winding from the point of the cop down to
the base of the cone. The front incline of the copping rail, a,
(Fig. 72) has been lengthened to 15 inches, and in some cases to
18 inches (the inclination being diminished, so as to preserve the
same absolute rise in the longer incline), under the impression
that a greater length of yarn would thereby be wound on the
spindles during the putting down of the winding faller. It is not
from this, however, that the defect arises ; but simply from the
want of a sufficient number of turns in the spindles. If a long
incline is used the result is simply that the counter faller rises
very high and takes up the slack vara that ought to have been
coiled upon the spindles ; but when the spindles receive the
necessary amount of motion it is found that ten or twelve inches,
length of incline is sufficient for enabling six or seven turns of
yarn to be coiled on the spiudles during the putting down of the
faller.

The quadrant is governed by a grooved rope drum, u (Fig. 73),
on the quadrant shaft, this drum receiving its motion from the
travel of the carriage, g. Ordinarily this drum is a concentric
cylinder, so that if the motion of the carriage is uniform, the
rotation of the quadrant shaft is uniform, and the angular motion
of the quadrant is uniform also. If, at the commencement of
the inward run of the carriage, the relative speed of the quad-
rant in the same direction be reduced, it is evident that more
of the chain, r, will be uncoiled from the winding-on drum, h,
and more motion will be given to the spindles. This is accom-
plished by altering each end of the cylindrical drum into a
variable scroll of considerably larger radius than the middle
portion of the drum which remains cylindrical as before. When
the carriage begins to move inwards, it uncoils the rope from
the larger radius of the scroll, and consequently imparts a slower
motion to the quadi-ant shaft, and to the quadrant ; hence the
spindles revolve quicker, and the necessary number of coils of
yai'n can easily be coiled on them during the putting down of
the winding faller. In Fig. 72 the ropes are shown, not upon the
scroll part, but upon the cylindrical part, in order to correspond

280 COTTON SPINNING.

with the position of the carriage. Bj the time the large diameter
of the cop is reached the rope begins to uncoil from the cylin-
drical part of the drum, and no further modification of the wind-
ing motion takes place until the nosing motion comes into opera-
tion. When once adjusted no further attention is required from
the spinner. Old spinners long declared it impossible to attain
this result by automatic means.

To enable the counter faller to act quickly without straining
the yarn, its shaft is now mounted on anti-friction pulleys, and
this is found to work advantageously. The hand-spinner could
-wind the yarn upon the cop without moving the counter faller ;
but for reasons already explained, this is impossible in the self-
actor, the counter faller playing a very important part in the wind-
ing, &c. Special arrangements are used in the couplings of the
winding faller and counter faller, and in the position of the
counter faller relative to the winding faller, but these cannot be
dwelt upon here."

In spinning all classes of yarns, the regulation of the
two faller wires is of the greatest importance in the pro-
duction of good work. Should their action not be exactly
opportune or harmonious, the yarn is either strained,
broken, or left slack, when it runs into snarls, all of which
are serious defects, and detract very greatly from the value
of the yarn. The automatic regulation of the fallers in
all their positions has proved a problem of the greatest
difficulty, which it has tasked the ingenuity of inventors
to the utmost to solve. The imperfect manner in which it
was accomplished rendered it impossible to spin finer yarns
than the lower or medium counts upon the self-acting mule
for a long time after its invention. Its gradual improve-
ment, however, in this respect has enabled this mule to be
successively adapted to higher and higher counts, until it
is becoming a formidable rival to the hand-spinner in the
higher numbers. The statement of the problem as it
affects fine spinning and the means by which it has been
solved are given as follow, by Mr. Spencer, in the paper
above referred to: —

THE MODERN MULE. 281

" The winding 'faller lifting motion. — The carriage having
arrived at the termination of its inward run, it is necessary to
lift the winding faller, and then to coil the remainder of the
unwound yam upon the bare spindle, preparatory to commencing
the spinning again in the outward run. This is the most impor-
tant operation performed by the spinner. He allows the carriage
to arrive at the end of its inward run before he begins to lift the
faller; the spindles are then in their nearest position to the
rollers, consequently there is the shortest length of yarn left to
be coiled upon the spindles. The relative position of the
gpindles and rollers, as well as the inclination of the spindles to
the rollers, varies with the counts spun, within well-defined
limits ; the finer the counts the greater the inclination of the
spindles to the rollers, and the more obtuse, therefore, the angle
made by the spindle and thread just at the commencement of the
outward run of the carriage.

" The winding on of the yam during the run-in of the carriage
requires to be regulated so that at the end of the run-in just
Bufficient yam is left to coil on the bare tops of the spindles,
without either stretching the yam or leaving it slack to run into
snarls. This is the problem to solve. The spinner having
regulated the vrinding during the run-in so that the proper
amount of yam was left to coil upon the bare spindles, brought
the carriage to a stand-still, and then slowly lifted the winding
faller, while at the same time he regulated the winding so that
the yam was coiled on the taper spindles. As soon as the faller
was free from the yam, he allowed the carriage to start on its
outward run for another stretch. He performed these operations
with more or less rapidity according to the counts of yam to be
spun. On the medium counts the movements follow each other
with almost the same rapidity and regularity as in the ordinary
self-acting mule ; but as the counts become finer, the division of
the operations becomes more marked and deliberate. This is
especially so in the ' Box Organ Hand Mide,' in which the
spinning does not commence until it is set in motion after the
completion of the faller lifting. The momentum of the various
parts is completely under the control of the spinner, and is
practically destroyed.

" In ordinary self-actors the unlocking of the faller takes place

282 COTTON SPINNING.

during the run-in of the carriage, but at as late a period as
possible. The carriage when near the termination of its inward
run, brings the end of the locking lever in contact with the
fixed unlocking bracket, and forces the locking lever out of con-
tact with the copping parts of the mule. After the faller is thus
imlocked the copping rail has no further control over it. It will
be understood from the preceding explanation that the unlock-
ing must be completed before the termination of the inward run
of the carriage. In determining how late it is safe to unlock the
faller, allowance has to be made for the variations in the speed
with which the carriage runs in, owing to the variation in the
speeds of the engines and to the condition of the taking-in bands,
which affect the momentum of the various parts, causing the
carriage sometimes to strike against the backstops very heavily,
and at other times to scarcely touch them. This variation affects
the unlocking very materially, and causes the faller to be un-
locked irregularly. In well constructed mules these variations
are reduced to a minimum, but they are never entirely eliminated.
The result is, that more slack yarn is left unwound than is
required for coiling on the spindles.

" In the apparatus shown in Fig. 80 the operation is effected in
the following way. Instead of the unlocking bracket, a, being a
fixture, as ordinarily used, it is here mounted on a sliding-bar,
which is hinged to the weighted bell-crank lever, b, tending
always to throw the stop, a, forwards into the position shown full.
Suitable arrangements are made for restoring this apparatus to
its normal position, shown dotted, after it has unlocked the
faller, i. When in position for unlocking, as shown dotted, it is
held back by a catch, c, also of bell-crank shape ; this catch is
liberated by the carriage, g, striking against its tail at the proper
time, but always near the termination of the inward run. The
locking lever, r, and its connected parts remain as usual. The
unlocking stop, a, is set back, as shown dotted, so that the
carriage can go close up to the back stops without unlocking the
faller : but the carriage directly forces the unlocking. On the
carriage liberating the catch, c, which holds back the unlock-
ing stop. A, the weighted lever, b, falls, and throws the stop for-
wards against the tail of the locking lever, r, and thus unlocks it
just as the carriage completes its inward run. By setting the

THE MODERN MULE.

283

catch, c, to be liberated sooner or later by the carriage, the
taller can be unlocked at the proper time. In practice it is
found that the roller and carriage motions are engaged, ready^
for another stretch, before the faller, i, has lifted clear of the
yarn as it is coiling up to the point of the bare spindle. By
these means the winding on of the yarn upon the cops is pro-

Fig. 80. Faller lifting motion.

longed to the latest period preparatory to coiling the remainder
of the yam on the bare spindle.

" In the ordinary self-actor as soon as the faller is unlocked
the yarn is allowed to be coiled on the bare spindle by the mo-
mentum acquired by the spindles during the run-in of the
carriage, the faller wire being raised quickly out of the way by
the lifting springs. The results are very irregular ; sometimes

284 COTTON SPINNING.

snarls are wound on, and sometimes the yarn is stretched or
" cut " as it is called. In the arrangements illustrated in Fig. 80,
the tin roller, k, which drives the spindles, s, is connected with
the faller shaft, j, positively, by a train of gearing, so that the
tin roller controls the motion of the faller during its rise. The
relative motions of the tin roller and faller are not always the
same. The motion of the tin roller being assumed as uniform,
the motion imparted to the spindles will be uniform also ; but in
order that the yarn may be guided so as to coil nicely on the
bare spindle above the cop, it is obvious that the faller ^vire
must rise most quickly when winding on the largest diameter of
the spindle, and the rate of rising must gradually diminish as the
spindle decreases in diameter towards the top, thus producing a
tapering spiral of yarn on the spindle. To obtain this result a
pair of volute wheels are employed, which convert the uniform
motion of the tin roller, k, into a variable motion of the faller
shaft, J. This connection of the tin roller and faller shaft must,
however, be continued only during the lift of the faller, because
the tin roller first set in motion to turn the spindles for lifting
the faller, continues in motion during the whole of the outward
run, and until the backing-off takes place, whereas the faller
must stop rising almost immediately it has coiled the yarn up to
the top of the bare spindle.

" The following is accordingly the mode of action. A hollow
friction cone, d (Fig. 81), is keyed fast on the shaft of the tin
roller, k. Loose on the same shaft is a solid friction cone,
covered as usual with leather, and capable of being slid along
the shaft into and out of gear with the fast cone. Cast to the
loose cone is a pinion, j, gearing into the carrier wheel, e, and
having a deep flange cast on its outer end; its teeth are also
wider than the teeth of the carrier wheel, e, to allow of its
sliding far enough for disengaging the loose cone from the fast
one. On the outer side of the carrier-wheel rim is cast an in-
clined cheek, t, capable of bearing against the inside of the
flange on the pinion, j, and so di-awing the loose cone out of
gear. This pinion has also a groove cut into its boss, into
which fits the fork of the engaging lever, r, weighted with a
counter-weight, which always tends to sHde the loose cone into
contact with the fast one, and so engage them together. Kow

THE MODERN MULE.

285

it will be obvious that the lifting motion should be brought into
action immediately the faller has been unlocked. If it were put
into action too soon, one motion would be acting against the
other, and a breakdown would be the result, and if too late it
would be useless. To insure both motions working in harmony,
the unlocking of the faller is made to liberate the weighted en-
gaging lever, f, and thus allow it to put the friction cones into
gear. This is accomplished by means of the connecting rod, h,
M'hich forms a lock for the end of the connecting rod, l, the
latter being coupled to the weighted engaging lever, f. The

Fig. 81. Faller lifting motion ; plan.

two rods work at right angles to each other. On the unlocking
of the faller at the end of the inward run, the connecting rod, h,
which is Avorked from the faller lever, r, is pulled forward in the
direction of the arrow, until it releases the stud on the other
connecting rod, l, and so liberates this rod and the weighted
lever, f, which at once throws the friction cones into gear. As
soon as the friction cones are in gear, the faller, i, begins to be
lifted, motion being communicated to it in the proper ratio from
the tin roller shaft, k, by the volute axes, n, n. By the time
the faller is lifted clear of the yarn and its work done, the in-
clined cheek, t, on the side of the carrier wheel, e, has be^un to

286 COTTON SPINNING.

bear against tlie flange of the pinion, j, and forcing it outwards
by its wedge action, di'aws tlie friction cones asunder, and thus
severs the motion from the tin roller to the faller. This action is a
very beautiful one. Self-stopping couplings to the cam shaft
are common, but these stop during less than a revolution of the
shaft. For the above purpose the stopping must be effected any-
where between a part of a revolution, and three revolutions or
more ; no two di-aws are alike, since as the cop is built up, less
and less of the spindle is left bare, and therefore the faller has
to be lifted less, and the lifting motion must be disengaged
earlier. By setting the inclined disengaging check, t, of the
carrier wheel, e, so that the disengagement takes place imme-
diately the faller has risen clear of the yarn, it is idways safe.
The arc through which the faller has to be lifted iz compara-
tively small, say about 80°, when beginning a set of cops, and
becomes gradually less until it is only about 30° on the comple-
tion of the cops.

" When the spindles are backing-off*, the putting down of the
winding faller by the backing-off" chain reverses the train of
gearing, and removes the inclined disengaging cheek of the
carrier wheel, e, from contact with the flange of the pinion, j.
This action would allow the friction cones to be thrown into
gear again by the w^eighted lever, f. The carriage, g, when
near the termination of its outward run, brings a part of the
lever, f, against the stop, so as to be held by it. The greater
the arc of motion of the faller during the backing-off, the greater
is the motion of the carrier wheel, e, the further is the inclined
check, T, upon it removed from the flange of pinion, j, and the
more revolutions are made by the pinion. Whether the faller,
I, moves through a large or small arc, therefore, it is always
liberated from the control of the tin roller at the proper time.
The whole operation only occupies about one second. It is the
short tune allowed which forms one of the di/hculties of this
diflicult problem.

" The stop, M (Fig. 80), which keeps the friction cones, d, out
of gear during the backing-off, keeps them so until the lock, r,
of the faller, sliding the connecting rod, h, inwards, locks the
connecting rod, l, as explained before, and so holds up the weighted
engaging lever, f.

THE MODERN MULE.

287

" Another important feature of this operation is the speed at
which the parts are allowed to work. The speed of the spindles,
at the termination of the outward run, is too quick to allow of
the use of the positive gearing already described, as it is found
impossible to engage the parts sufficiently quickly. This difficulty
is further increased by the spindles being quickened to the
spinning speed directly the carriage finishes its inward run ; for
it is impossible to rely upon the momentum of the spindles for
continuing their rotation during the lifting of the faller, the
results being too variable. To overcome this difficulty, an extra
di-iving belt, called the taking-in belt, is used for driving the
.<5elf-acting pulley. This belt has generally about half the speed
of the main rim-shaft belt, both belts working on pulleys of the

Plan of driving pulleys.

same diameter on the rim-shaft. Fig. 82 is a plan of the head-
stock carrying the main driAing or rim-shaft, r. The quick
driving-belt runs on the fast pulley, a, and the loose pulley, b,
whilst c and d are the fast and loose pulleys for the slower belt.
Both belts receive their motion from the counter shaft, s
(Fig. 83).

" The cam shaft has three changes in this mule. When the
carriage is making its outward run, the quick belt is on its fast
pulley, A, and the slow belt on its loose pulley, d. At the proper
time, the cam shaft makes its first change, the rollers are stopped,
and, when the proper amount of twist has been put into the
yarn, the twist motion disengages the catch, which holds the
c^uick belt on the fast pulley, a, ond allows a spring to shift it

288

COTTON SPINNING.

upon the loose pulley, b. This allows the backing-off to take
place in the usual way ; after which the carriage is caused to
make its inward run, and, just before the termination, causes the
cam shaft to make a second change, and shift the slow taking-in
belt upon its fast pulley, c, whereby the rim-wheel, w, is then
driven at a comparatively slow rate. It is whilst this slower
speed has the control of the mule that the lifting apparatus does

rig. 83. Driving belts and pulleys.

its work. The slower belt, when first shifted to its fast pulley,
acts as a kind of brake on the momentum of the rim-shaft, b,
and can be relied upon to give the same retardation in every
stretch. When the winding faller has lifted nearly clear of the
yarn, a finger on it comes into contact with the cam-shaft escape-
ment, and allows the cam shaft to make a third change, which
shifts the slow belt back from its fast pulley, c, to its loose
pulley, D, and then shifts the quick belt on to its fast pulley, a,

THE MODERN MULE. 289

causing the spinning to go on at the proper speed. So rapidly is
the whole operation performed that it is impossible to see the
change in speed from the slow to the quick belt, though, of
course, it is easy to see the movement of the belts from one
pulley to the other. The slower the operation, the more per-
fectly is it done ; but it is found to be well done with spindles
running at 1,500 revolutions per minute.

" During the outward run of the carriage, the various parts are
replaced in their proper positions for repeating these operations.
An apparatus is also used by which the winding faller, during
the time it is being lifted, is enabled to govern the counter
faller in such a manner that the counter faller is free to take up
the slack yarn, if any, made during the rise of the winding
faller, and is depressed below the yarn as usual, before the
spinning commences again. Double speed motions are still
used for the finest counts ; but as this element would render the
previous explanations more complex, it has been purposely
omitted."

The preceding description of the parts of this wonder-
ful machine, and of the function of each part, is so clear and
full, that the student carefully reading it cannot fail to
easily comprehend it ; and the firm from which it emanates
stands so high in the trade that it may be accepted as of
indisputable authority.

A few remarks on fine spinning on the self-acting mule
will appropriately close this chapter. Until within about ten
years ago the prevailing opinion appeared to be that, how-
ever perfectly the self-acting mule might do its work in low
and medium numbers, it could never be adapted to the pro-
duction of very fine counts. The purely mechanical and
infiexible nature of its movements would prevent its yield-
ing in the slightest degree when, as was often the case in
fine spinning, conditions required that this should be done.
In the self-acting mule experience had shown that the
carriage terminated its inward run towards the roller beam
at such varying rates of speed that sometimes the back-
stops would hardly be touched, whilst at other times they
would be struck with such force as to cause great vibra-

290 ■ COTTON SPINNING.

tion throtighont both carriage and roller beam. This
would break down every thread were high numbers
being spun. With hand spinning, on the contrary, the
spinner could conduct the carriage home so gently as to
avoid the final concussion, whilst even if it did occur he
could wait until all vibration ceased before re-commencing,
by which breakages would be obviated. The self-acting
mule, however, being mechanical, could take no cognizance
of this varying requirement. Again, the management of
the faller wires by a good hand spinner was such as to
prevent the breakage of the threads, but against the me-
chanical action of the faller in the self-actor, the resistance
that could be ofi'ered by the threads, though suflScient in
low and medium counts, would be quite insignificant in
the highest counts. Experience for a long time seemed to
justify these conclusions. The nice balancing of parts
necessary to secure this sensitiveness in the machine, and
its accurate performance of the various changes required
to be made, were held to be points unattainable in the
requisite degree of perfection in the self-actor. In spite,
however, of this general opinion, these difficulties have
been overcome, and to-day self-acting mules are at work
spinning yarns as high in number as 350^ and which, with
the requisite improvement in the preparatory processes,
there is no reason to think will not be capable of spinning
the highest numbers required. An old-established and
eminent firm of machinists in Bolton, Messrs. Threlfall and
Co., who have long made a speciality of fine mules, have
succeeded in overcoming all the obstacles encountered, and
have machinery from their establishment at work both in
Lancashire and on the Continent producing as good or
better work in the highest numbers than can be obtained
from the hand mule. Thus the old organ-mule, which
has so long held its ground as the best for this purpose, is
being superseded, and will probably soon have disappeared.

THE THROSTLE FRAME. 291

CHAPTER X.

Throstle and Eing Spinning. Doubling.

The throstle, an improved form of Arkwright's water frame. — De-
scription. — Attempts to improve it. — The Danforth throstle. — The
Montgomery throstle. — Shaw and Cottam's improvement. — Doffing, an
expensive process ; Bernhardt's doffing arrangement ; the throstle ceased
to be constructed. — The Ring Frame ; its popularity. — Defects of the
throstle, the origin of the ring frame. — The throstle in the United
States ; reasons for its prevalence there. — Invention of the Ring Frame.
— Practical defects in it ; its rejection in England. — Its improvement,
and re- introduction. — Success as a doubling frame. — Slow acceptance
as a spinning frame. — The Booth-Sawyer spindle ; the Rabbeth spindle.
— The ring spinning ft-ame for warp yarn ; description ; process of
spinning ; the traveller ; the ring ; the lifting chain ; the lift of the bobbin,
— Description of the Rabbeth spindle. — Doffing ; the mechanical doffer.
— Inclined arrangement of the rollers. — Ballooning. — The anti-balloon
ring. — The traveller clearer. — Increasing popularity of the ring frame.
— Its use for spinning weft in the United States ; the weft frame in
England and on the Continent. — Doubling. — Doubled yarns. — The
thi'ostle doubling frame; disadvantages. — Improved throstle doubling
frame. — Chai'acteristics of throstle-doubled yarns. — The twiner. —
Yarns from the twiner. — The ring doubling frame; its popularity. —
Description. — The English and Scotch systems.

THE throstle is the second of the mechanical spinning
frames calling for notice. As, however, in its principal
form it seems likely to be superseded at an early date, a
brief description will suffice.

This frame is simply an improved form of the water
frame of Arkwright, and a gradual development from it.
Compared with the latter, the changes introduced were
that all the rollers upon each side were connected and
actuated by a train of wheels driven from its first motion
shaft. The method of driving the spindles was also im-
proved by the introduction of the horizontal cylinder,
which, as already pointed out, was one of the first im-
provements made in Hargreaves' jenny. The spindles

292 COTTON SPINNING.

were furnislied witli small pulleys or wharves, accordingly
as tapes or bands were employed for driving them. The
latter in construction were precisely similar to those of the
spindle of the single thread spinning wheel, and which
Hargreaves had adopted in his machine. Arkwrighfc
adopted the wider pulley, in order to obtain more perfect
driving. The flyer of the throstle was constructed as in
the later form of the water frame, fitted for winding with
a traverse arrangement or lifting rail. The legs were solid,
with curled or twisted extremities. A piece of wire twisted
somewhat like the curl of the leg was mounted on the top,
to serve for the eye. From this eye the thread descended,
passing around the leg in its course to the curl on its ex-
tremity, and thence upon the bobbin. The bobbin was not
driven positively, as in the bobbin and fly frames already
described, but was fitted loosely upon the spindle, and
pulled round by the thread, which, owing to the greater
amount of twist put into it, was strong enough for the
task. The winding was accomplished by placing the
bobbin to rest upon the traverse or lifting rail, and retard-
ing its movement by means of cloth washers. This caused
its rate of revolution to fall behind that of the spindle
just to the extent that the attenuated rove was supplied by
the front or delivery rollers to the spindle. The alternate
ascent and descent of the traverse rail filled the bobbin
with a succession of even layers. The traverse of this rail
was eSected by means of a heart-shaped cam, with cranks
and levers, an arrangement then and since known as the
heart motion. Such was the throstle frame in its earlier
form. Subsequently numerous improvementfi of details
took place in its construction, which, as in the case of the
mule, brought it to a high degree of perfection some time
ago. The old name of water frame, which had been con-
ferred upon Ark Wright's machine, was superseded early
in the present century by the new one of throstle, at or
about the time when the steam engine displaced the water
wheel as a motor.

THi: THROSTLE FRAME. 293

In this state the improved macliine was adopted and
extensively employed by the trade for the production of
special classes of yarns required in both the home trade
and for export, and in which solidity and strength were
essential qualities. In its best form, as constructed at
present, it is very suitable for this purpose. In appear-
ance it differs little from the roving frame, except that its
parts are smaller, and its spindles more numerous. The
latter have usually had a velocity of 3,000 to 5,000 revolu-
tions per minute ; though of late years this has been ex-
ceeded, the rate attained having latterly been from 5,000
to 7,000 revolutions. It is, however, questionable whether
this higher velocity is not, when considered from an
economical point of view, and in relation to its un-
improved form, an impracticable rate. In the older form
of the frame the spindles were driven from a central shaft
placed within, and extending the length of the frame, and
which carried a driving pulley at one extremity. This
shaft was fitted with a tin cylinder, from which motion
was transmitted by means of endless cotton bands to the
spindles. Each spindle carries a small wharve, and is
supplied with a flannel, leather, or cloth washer, which is
put upon it, and passed down to the top of the traverse
rail. The flyer is mounted upon the top of the spindle.
When ready for work, a bobbin — a small, short tube,
flanged at each end — is placed upon each spindle. These
flanges are respectively called the head and bottom of the
bobbin, and differ in shape, the top one being slightly
convex, and the bottom one concave on their outer sur-
faces. The concave form of the bottom causes the bobbin
as it were to stand upon a ring coincident in its dimension
with the circumference of the flange. It is constructed
thus in order to diminish the friction surface, and so lessen
the strain upon the yarn. The bobbin fits loosely upon
the spindle, and rests upon the cloth washer. The bolster
rail, in many cases, also constitutes the traverse rail ; in
others, there is an independent traverse rail. The fuuc-

294 COTTON SPINNING.

tion of tlie traverse rail is to carry the bobbin up and
down the blade of the spindle, the length of its tube, or
rather the space between the top and bottom flanges, in
order to wind the yarn in even layers upon the barrel.
This is called its "lift," and its dimensions differ accord-
ing to the nature of the requirement. This method of
building up the yarn is known as the cylinder build, as
distinguished from the conical build seen in the construc-
tion of the cop upon the mule. The traverse is uniform
in its length. The twist is put into the attenuated rove,
as it leaves the delivery rollers, by the revolution of the
spindle and flyer, the thread passing through the top of the
latter, and thence around its leg and to the bobbin. The
latter being in only slight contact with the spindle has a
constant tendency to fall behind it in speed, were it not
pulled along by the attached thread. As, however, the
latter is being delivered by the rollers, the bobbin drops
behind to such a distance as to take up the yarn as spun.
When filled, the set is doffed, and the frame again supplied
with empty bobbins. In performing this operation the
flyers have to be removed from the tops of the spindles,
the full bobbins replaced by empty ones, the yarn to be
attached to the latter, the flyers replaced, and the frame re-
started. In an ordinary size of frame dof&ng occupies
from four to five minutes.

Few of the numerous attempts that have been made to
improve the throstle have been successful to any impor-
tant extent, and its present state of perfection is more the
result of improved construction of its parts than of any
thorough change of principle. The Danforth throstle, an
American invention, in which some radical changes were
introduced, was brought before the notice of the trade
about the year 1828, but a short experience soon revealed
the fact that these were not improvements. Mr. Henry
Gore's improvement was the next that demanded public
attention, but the advantages claimed from this were soon
found to be more apparent than real. Axon's and Brown

THE THROSTLE FEAME. 295

and Powell's followed next in attracting notice, but both
were soon disregarded as not approaching in practice the
claims made on their behalf.

The Glasgow or Montgomery patent throstle was, like
the Danforth, of American origin, though considerably
improved by Mr. Robert Montgomery, who patented it,
and by whose name it was usually known in this country.
Great expectations were also entertained of this invention
for some time, but they were destined to remain un-
fulfilled. Its speed was greater, and its production much
larger than that of the common throstle. Its chief
features were a dead spindle and a rapidly revolving flyer,
which had the further peculiarity of being closed. The
common throstle bobbin was used in one arrangement,
whilst in another, in which the spindle was made to re-
volve, it wound the yarn upon a tube in the form of a cop.

Many other inventors attempted improvements in this
machine, but with small results, until Messrs. Shaw and
Cottam of Manchester, in 1848, introduced the plan of
driving the spindles by means of two tin rollers in place of
one — a plan which prevails to the present day. This was
a great improvement, as by its means the bands were
enabled to be brought upon the spindle in a horizontal
line, instead of at a great angle as before. A further ad-
vantage w^as that the machine, which had hitherto been
made of great width, in order to diminish this angle, could
be contracted in this respect. This plan has to a great
extent superseded " tape " driving.

Doffing, which occupies four or five minutes, and occur-
ring frequently entails a great loss of time, is an expensive
process. Efforts, therefore, have often been made to invent
a mechanical doffer ; but the only one which has been ap-
proximately successful is a doffing motion invented by Mr.
Bernhardt of Radcliffe, by which the process is accom-
plished in less than a minute. This plan, however, has
not been extensively adapted to the common throstle, per-
haps owing to the great importance the system of ring

296 COTTON SPINNING.

spinning began to assume soon after the former invention
was introduced to public notice. The principle of this
doffer has^ however, been adapted to the ring frame by
Mr. S. Brooks, who has acquired Mr. Bernhardt's interest
in the patent. The most recent improvement in the
throstle frame is that which is known as the Ash worth long
collar, from the name of the inventor. This has been ex-
tensively adopted, many frames of the old kind having
been altered thereto. During the past four or five years
few, if any, of the ordinary throstles have been constructed,
the attention of the trade having been concentrated upon
the ring frame.

The Ring Spinning Frame. — During the past few years
this frame has become exceedingly popular, owing to the
spread of knowledge concerning its principles and capacity
of production, and the great improvements that have been
introduced into its details. As it stands now it is pro-
bably for the lower ranges of number — say from 10^ to 32® —
the most productive spinning machine in the market. Like
the throstle frame, it is a continuous spinner, and is un-
doubtedly derived from the latter, though it differs from it
in important details.

An examination of any one of the series of bobbin and
fly frames will render it obvious that, so far as regards the
rate of speed, the limit must soon be reached. The centri-
fugal force developed by the rapid revolution of a spindle
carrying a flyer was such as to cause the legs of the latter
to fly open, and so to come into contact with one another,
to their mutual destruction. To construct them stronger,
in order to counteract this tendency, was to load the
spindle with a heavier burden, and so to diminish the
speed of its revolution, or to expend a greater amount of
power in its attainment. In either case, beyond a certain
limit, high speed was not an economical success. Hence
the production of yarn from a throstle frame, though a
continuous spinning machine, did not materially exceed
that from the mule, notwithstanding that, spindle for

THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 297

spindle, the ontlay in capital and labour, or the cost of
production, was greater for the former. The mule also, for
a long time, until the preparation machinery was rendered
approximately perfect, had a great advantage in the
*' stretching " action or " the gain " of the carriage in its
outward traverse over the length of rove delivered from
the rollers, this enabling it to produce a better quality of
yam than could be obtained from the same material and
the same amount of preparation in the throstle. It was
owing to these facts that the mule maintained its prece-
dence as a spinning machine over the latter.

The mule, since its growth in magnitude, has required
the services of male adults to work it, as it soon passed
beyond the capacity of female strength to perform the
manual operations required. It may come as information
to many persons engaged in cotton mills to-day to hear that
women spun upon the mules of about thirty-five or forty
years ago, and preceding that time; but the older members
of the present generation will be aware of the fact. The
difficulties induced by this transition from female to male
labour were considerable; but, though the latter was much
more costly, it was, on the whole, considerably more
economical, when the production from the enlarged ma-
chines were considered. In the United States, no such
change could be made; masculine labour could not be had,
owing to the attractions of the other occupations and pur-
suits ofiered by that naturally rich country. It is owing
to this fact most probably that the world is indebted for
the ring spinning frame. In spite of its disadvantages it
was necessary to retain the throstle frame ; so the best
thing to be done was to improve it, which the mechanicians
of the United States set about to do.

Accordingly it is from the States we first hear of the
ring frame. The Danforth throstle was one of the first
outcomes of these efforts, being invented about 1828 by a
mechanic, after whom it was named. Great expectations
were induced by this invention ; but after a short time they

298 COTTON SPINNING.

were all disappointed, as it was found impossible to pre-
vent the yarn being snarled every time the frame was stopped
to relieve the spindle. The burden of the flyer caused the
spindle to vibrate excessively, and soon destroyed it. It
was necessary, therefore, to remove it, and it Avas seen
that if a fixed ring could be constructed to take the place
of that described by the legs of the flyer, when revolving,
the flyer might be dispensed with. The Danforth throstle
was an approach to this object, but, springing from an im-
perfect conception, was a failure. The ring frame ap-
peared immediately afterwards, but its success was preju-
diced by the preceding failure of the last-named invention.
Its scientific merits, however, prevented it from passing
into oblivion, and efi'orts were steadily made to improve it
It appears to have been invented about 1832 or 1833 by a
Mr. Jencks of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, and was intro
duced into this country within a year or two afterwards.
In its first form, as introduced at this time, it consisted of
a flat thin ring of the form of a washer, with a hole in it
large enough for the bobbin to pass freely through. This
was fixed on a rail, so that one ring should be centrically
over each spindle ; on the inner edge of each ring was a
small bead. A small loop made of spring steel, somewhat
in this form O, was placed on the inner edge of the ring,
the loop being opened to pass over it, after which it closed
so far as to prevent it from slipping off", but not so closely
as to impede its revolution freely around the inner edge.
The spindle was short and light, and was operated as in
the common throstle. It had a fixed wharve, upon which
the bobbin rested, and was secured so as to revolve with
it. Such was the ring frame on its first appearance ; and
the process of spinning being precisely as at present, the
revolution of the traveller being opposed by friction and
the resistance of the atmosphere to such an extent as to
produce the amount of drag necessary for winding pur-
poses. It required little power to drive it at a high speed,
and was said to be capable of spinning 80* yarns of good

THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 2c»'.'

qnality. The speed recommended by those who tried it
was from 110 to 120 revolutions of the front roller of 1 in.
diameter for spinning No. 20^ The yarns produced from
this machine were at the time highly spoken of for theii-
excellence of quality in every respect.

It will appear strange at this date to read of the intro-
duction of this machine in such a comparatively perfect
state, and yet that almost half a century should elapse
before it should win public favour for itself in this country.
But the fact was that, though the principle was theoreti-
cally sound, there were many practical diflaculties encoun-
tered which could not be overcome. One of these was
the clogging of the traveller with loose fibre, which in-
creased its weight, and finally broke down the threads.
Another was the impossibility, with the then mechanical ap-
pliances, of so constructing the ring rail that the spindles
should be exactly in the centre. Many others were met
with which need not be enumerated. The consequence,
however, was that its use was abandoned in England,
and for many years its existence was almost forgotten.

The means by which it was re-introduced to the notice
of the English cotton trade, briefly stated, were as fol-
lows : — Mr. Samuel Brooks, machine maker, of West
Gorton, Manchester, having sent his representative, Mr.
Jas. Blakey, to the United States on a busiuess tour, the
latter had his attention attracted to the ring spinning
system, and found that it had been so far perfected that it
gave promise of soon becoming a formidable rival to the
English mule. This led him to inquire exhaustively into
the matter, and to examine the merits of the various
spindles and machines then competing for the favour of
the cotton trade of New England, to which at that time
the cotton manufacture was almost confined. Mr. Blakey
returned with a report of the thorough success of the
system, and brought with him specimens of spindles, rings,
cops of yarn, cloth, and everything necessary to illustrate
his statements, and to enable him to give full details of the

SOO Cotton spinning.

construction of the frames. This evidence thoroughly con-
vinced Mr. Brooks of the advantages of the system, and
of its certainty of superseding the mule for many descrip-
tions of yarn as soon as the prejudices of spinners could
be overcome. He, therefore, determined thenceforward to
devote his energies to the development of the system and
its introduction to the English trade. The doubling frame
was the one to which he first gave his attention ; and by
persistent experiment, and the construction of special tools
to ensure accuracy of workmanship, he succeeded in reme-
dying the defects that had been discovered in this frame,
and making it highly satisfactory to the trade. The fact
that he has since supplied 180,000 spindles to one of the
most eminent sewing cotton manufacturing firms in the
kingdom, and large numbers to others, is a proof of the
success attending his eff'orts, and of the peculiar value of
this system of doubling to the leading sections of that
branch of trade, and those making twisted yarns for
warps, lace, sewing cottons, crochet, mendings, knittings,
and heald yarns. This system has almost superseded the
use of the flyer doubling machine, except for very fine or
very coarse counts.

Whilst Mr. Brooks was thus perfecting this branch of
the ring system, he carried on at the same time a series
of costly experiments to perfect the spinning frames, be-
cause, though much had been done in the States towards
making the ring spinning frame a thoroughly good ma-
chine, yet, when it was brought into competition with the
highly developed mule of England, it was found that much
remained to be done before it could be said to equal, much
less to surpass it. For five years not much success at-
tended his efforts in this direction. The difficulties en-
countered were chiefly in connection with the construction
of the spindle.

In the meantime other firms had had their attention at-
tracted to the same field, and ring spinning frames con-
taining the Booth-Sawyer spindle achieved a qualified

302 COTTON SPINNING.

success, and succeeded in engaging the attention of the
trade. The E-abbeth spindle was soon after introduced bj
Messrs. Howard and Bullough of Accrington with great
success. This mvention having become an open one, has
since been taken up by most of our machinists, who are
now constructing it, with or without specialities of their
own.

A view in perspective of the warp ring spinning frame,
with a two-height creel, as constructed bj Mr. S. Brooks,
is afforded by the illustration, Fig. 84. Fig. 85 is a cross
section of the same machine, showing a section of the
roller stand, mounted on the beam, with rollers and system
of weighting ; the arrangement of the thread board, and
the spindle and bobbin fitted into rail complete ; also ring
rail, in which is fitted the ring, with travellers complete.
A detailed description will be useful to the student. The
beam, a, carries the roller stands, b &, which are so con-
structed that they give an inclined position to the rollers,
c, d, e, which are weighted by means of saddles, hangers,
levers, wires, and weights, //. The weight upon the
rollers can be varied according to requirement. The under-
clearers are usually of wood covered with cloth, and keep
the front bottom roller clean. The thread rail, h, is
attached to the shafts, h\ extending the length of the
frame on each side, and coupled together by connecting
rods and cross shafts, /i^, h^. By means of a small handle
placed upon the extremity of the shaft at one end of the
frame, all the thread boards with the guide wires are
turned up out of the way for doffing purposes. Each
thread board, h, is also separately hinged to the thread
rail, to permit of any one spindle being attended to for
piecing the thread when broken. The ring plate, 2, carries
the rings, y, which are firmly fixed therein, and on the
latter is sprung the traveller, k. The bobbin, I, is placed
upon the spindle, m, which is securely fastened in the
spindle rail by a nut underneath.

The creel having been supplied with roving bobbins, the

Fig. 85. Ring frame, bectiou.

304 COTTON SPINNING.

ends of the rove are passed through the guide wires ou the
traverse rod, n, and thence between the three pairs of
drawing rollers, c, c2, e, which act upon it as follows : the
first or back pair, ee, simply take hold of the roving, draw
it from the bobbin, and pass it to the second pair, d d. The
latter, revolving a little more quickly than the first pair,
slightly stretch the roving, conducting it to the third or
front pair, c c, which, running much more rapidly — say^
making five or six revolutions for the second pair one —
attenuate the roving to the required thickness for the
counts to be spun. The attenuated rove is then passed
through the guide wire, which is placed over the centre
of the spindle top, thence down to the ring, and through
the traveller to the bobbin, Z, upon the spindle, m. The
latter, revolving at from 7,000 to 8,000 revolutions per
minute, imparts the required twist to the rove, as it is
being delivered from the front rollers, c, and when thus
spun, it is wound upon the bobbins. The top of the ring,
j, forms a flange, upon which is placed the traveller, h, pre-
viously described, to form a drag upon the yarn, and thus
wind it upon the bobbin.

The size and weight of the traveller requires to be
varied according to the counts of the yarn being spun —
low numbers requiring the heaviest, and fine ones the
lightest. Being made from fine drawn steel wire, the
weight of each can be made uniform, and regularity of
drag ensured. This is a great advantage over the flyer
frame, as in the latter the drag is constantly changing from
a minimum weight, when the bobbin is empty, to its
maximum, when it is full. The traveller has another func-
tion also — that of guiding the thread upon the bobbin,
like the curl of the flyer leg in the throstle frame and the
faller wire in the mule.

The ring around which the traveller revolves is fixed in
the lifting rail, which has a traverse of about 1|- inches,
guiding the yarn upon the bobbin in a cop shape, as in the
mule, which, it will be remembered, difi^ers from the cylin-

THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 305

drical build of the layers of the bobbins in the bobbin and
fly frames. At the same time the main chain of the lift-
ing rail is being gradually taken up, thereby giving an
additional lift to the rail, by which means, though the
copping traverse of the rail remains the same, it passes over
a continuously different length of the spindle blade or
bobbin upon it, and in this way the copped bobbins of yarn
are built up.

The rate at which the lifting chain is taken up is regu-
lated by change wheels, so as to make the bobbin larger or
smaller according to the size of ring and counts of yarn
being spun. The diameter of ring and length of bobbin
varies in each frame according to the range of yarns in-
tended to be spun upon it. The following particulars will
illustrate this : —

For 8^ to 12S a 2" ring and 6" lift of bobbin should be used.
16 » 20 li „ 6
24 „ 28 li. „ 5
30 „ 36 li „ 5
40 „ 50 If „ 5

Owing to the high speed of spindles obtained in the rmg
frame, it has been found that the design, dimensions, con-
struction, and quality of material are points of vital
importance. The spindle most generally in use is the
" Rabbeth," of which the following is a description : — Upon
the steel spindle, a. Fig. 86, is firmly placed a cast-iron sleeve,
B, so as to revolve perfectly true. This sleeve has the lower
part turned, to form the wharve, C, for the reception of
the band to drive the spindle. The tubular bolster, d,
which is a combination of bolster and footstep, is made to
receive the spindle ; and in the upper part is inserted a
tube, E, of metal, which forms the upper bolster bearing of
the spindle. This is placed so as to form a reservoir for
the oil above it, which it prevents from flowing over the
top of the bolster, d, which it would otherwise be liable to
do, owing to its being carried upwards by the capillary

306

COTTOX SPIXXIXG.

action of the spindle when revolving. This tube is made
from phosphor bronze, a metal that contains no acid or
matter that can chemically affect the oil, or impair its
lubricating properties, even after several months working.
It will be seen that when the spindle is inserted into its
position in the bolster, it revolves in the chamber, H, which

L_2.

Fig. 86. Rabbetli spindle for ring frame.

is filled with oil, in order to ensure perfect lubrication to
its frictional parts. The results of experience show that
this method of lubrication is quite effective for a period of
about three months. The oil is preserved from all dirt
and loose fibre, and is prevented coming into contact with,
^nd staining, the yarn on the bobbin, owing to the mode of

THE EING SPIXXIXG FRAME. 307

construction of the spindle. The brass cup, f, is securely
fastened upon the top of the wharve, c, and receives the
bottom of the bobbin, holding it firm and true in its
position. It also forms an important feature in the doffing
of the bobbin, G.

The doffing or changing of the full bobbin for the empty
one is of great importance, as it necessitates upon the
common throstle the employment of a special staff of
operatives — usually boys, whose sole duties are to perform
this operation, the time occupied being a considerable pro-
portion of the whole, and the cost great. The advantages
of the ring frame over the flyer frame in this respect is
very great, as the doffers are to a great extent dispensed
with, and tying by hand of the thread round the empty
bobbin is obviated, this being done by means of the brass
cup, F. With the mechanical doffer, when the bobbins are
full, the attendant, by means of the lifting motion, winds
down the ring rails to the bottom of the bobbin, and at the
same time stops the frame ; then, by means of the shaft to
which the thread boards are attached, the latter are turned
up at once, leaving all clear for the removal of the bob-
bins, the doing of which coils the threads around the
sleeve. When the empty bobbin is placed upon the
spindle, it presses down the thread, wedging it between
the bobbin and the brass cup, thus holding it securely, and
forming a connection between the rollers and the spindle,
so that when the frame is started, the yarn is wound upon
the bobbin without any loss of time being incurred in
tying up the threads to the bobbins. When the frame has
been thus supplied with bobbins, the thread boards are all
lowered again into position, and the frame is re-started.
The time occupied in doffing a frame of 250 spindles is only
about thirty to thirty-five seconds. The bolster is fastened
in position by the nut, K ; and the vertical wire bent at the
top is for the purpose of holding the spindle in position in
the bolster when the bobbin is taken off. Improvements
in arranging these wires have, however, been patented, by

308 COTTON SPINNING.

whicli all the spindles in a frame can be released at one
time for cleaning, oiling, &g.

One great difficulty encountered in tlie ring system of
spinning has been the impossibility of spinning yarn with
a " soft " or limited quantity of twist, otherwise very few
turns per inch. On the ordinary throstle, the leg of the
flyer has intervened to relieve the drag or strain upon the
yarn between the roller and the bobbin ; and in the mule,
the yarn being twisted before the operation of winding on
the spindle commences, the difficulty has not existed. On
the ring frame, however, the processes of twisting and
winding go on simultaneously ; and the tender roving,
which is delivered from the rollers without twist, is imme-
diately subjected to the full strain of the drag, which fre-
quently causes the yarn to break. The rollers have up to
quite recently been mounted horizontally in the stands, and
the attenuated rove has remained in contact with the
bottom roller nearly three-eighths of an inch below the
nip between it and the top roller; thus preventing the
twist put into the yarn by the revolving spindle from
running directly up to the point of contact between the
rollers, which is essential to good spinning. This has led
to the adoption of an inclined position for the rollers, as
shown in the section, Fig. 85. The new position allows
the twine to run directly into the rove immediately it issues
from the rollers, thus making a stronger and better twisted
yarn, and obviating the difficulty referred to above, in
producing a soft twisted yarn, when such is required.

The development of this machine has forced several im-
portant problems upon the notice of mechanicians, the correct
solution of which have been necessary to make it a success.
The increase of speed caused a great amount of vibration
of the spindle, and consequently heavy wear and tear. This
necessitated a close study of the form and structure of the
spindle, the footstep, and the bolster, and their relationship
to each other ; also, of the best means of lubrication of the
friction surfaces. It was a long time before these were

THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 809

surmounted, but the task was finally accomplisliecl, and
the rate of speed greatly accelerated. A second series of
difficulties now demanded attention ; these related to the
ring and the traveller. It was found that when the speed
exceeded a given rate, at a certain portion of the traverse
the threads broke down in an excessive proportion, greatly
impeding work, and diminishing both quantity and quality
of production. The centrifugal force generated by the
rapid revolution of the spindle caused the threads to bulge
outwards from the vertical position, otherwise to describe
the figure of an inverted balloon, from which the name of
" ballooning " has been given. When this was at its
maximum, the threads came into contact with one another,
and were thus broken down. A heavier ring was tried,
which had the eff'ect of partially preventing the fault ; but
speed was reduced, and the consumption of power was
increased. Certain counts, it was also found, would not
carry above a given weight of traveller at a specified rate
of speed, the drag breaking them down. To avoid lower-
ing the rate of speed, and diminishing the production,
thread guards or protectors were devised, which were
either plates or rods put into such a position that the
threads, in their revolution, should impinge against them,
by which the tendency to form the balloon figure above
referred to should be held in restraint. These different
devices were only partially successful, and the limit of
speed, and consequently of production, or of the fineness
of the yarn spun, was too soon attained.

Another step forward has, however, been made, and the
writer has quite recently had the privilege of inspecting
an invention which completely solves these difficulties.
This is a little contrivance which he described in " The
Textile Manufacturer " of September 15th this year (1883).
It is the joint invention of Messrs. Furniss and Young, the
manager and spinning-master respectively of Mellor Bot-
toms Mill, Derbyshire. It is called the anti-balloon ring,
and consists of a ring affixed to the traverse, or ring raS,

310 COTTON SPINNING.

by vertical brackets, carrying the bar, b, shown in the
elevation and plan views, Figs. 87 and 88, to which the
ring is affixed by a small set screw. For facility in work-
ing, the bars, B, are made of a length sufficient to hold
about twelve rings, which are adjusted to the proper spindle
gauge, passed upon the spindles, and attached to the rail
as indicated. It will be observed that the ring is not a
closed one, but that its ends, c, d, are set apart, d being
below, and projecting beneath the end of C. This com-
pletes the ring-like form, whilst the breach easily admits
the thread after being pieced up. It will be obvious that
the thread will be controlled at every part of its revolution
by means of this ring, and that consequently a lighter
traveller can be used, higher speeds can be attained, finer
yarns be spun, and a greater production obtained.

The traveller, it was found by experience, gathered
around itself a quantity of cotton fibre, most probably from
its friction upon the thread passing through it, and a small
portion perhaps from that floating in the atmosphere
through which it was rapidly passing. As this fibre accu-
mulated, it so much increased the bulk and weight of the
traveller as to greatly increase the drag, which broke
down the threads. This was an impediment to the success
of the ring frame that entailed a good deal of trouble to
remove. Again, however, persevering labour was re-
warded by success, by the invention of what is denomi-
nated a traveller clearer. This is a small piece of metal
of appropriate shape for the purpose, which is fixed between
two rings, and so near to each that the travellers upon
them, in passing, go so near to contact that, whilst not
touching, they yet are cleared from loose fibre. Thus
was accomplished another improvement in detail essential
to success.

The recent rapid increase in the adoption of the ring
spinning frame for low and medium counts shows that it is
now a practically perfect and commercially successful
machine. It is undoubtedly now ^ formidable rival to the

Fig. 88. Anti-balloon. Plan.

Fig. 87. Anti-balloon ring.

312 COTTON SPINXIXG. *

mule, and in a very few years tlie contest for superiority
between the two systems will show to which side the vic-
tory will finally incline. There is no likelihood, however,
that whatever the ring frame may be rendered capable of
doing in competition with the mule in low medium and
the lower ranges of the fine numbers of yarn, that it will
ever displace the mule for fine counts — say, from 80^ and
upwards in warp yarns, and 60^ and upwards in weft yarns.
The necessarily less twist put into the latter class of yarns
will render them unable to carry a ring traveller without
such breakages as would greatly interfere with both quality
and quantity of production.

In the United States, where, as has been shown, the use
of the ring frame is a necessity arising mainly from its
social conditions, it is used extensively for the production
of weft yarns, but certainly not economically ; and were
it not for the highly protective tarifi* in force in that
country, it is probable that for this purpose it would have
to give way to the European productions of the mule. In
this field it holds its own simply by virtue of the protection
accorded to it.

Being in existence and use as a weft-producing machine,
it necessarily engages attention, and mechanicians are
labouring continuously to improve it. In the States, the
sub- division of the cotton trade into two branches — spin-
ning and manufacturing — as here, has not taken place ;
yarn is spun and consumed in one establishment, and the
difficulties of dealing with the tare and return carriage of
empty tubes or bobbins does not arise. Here, with the
spinning carried on in one part of the country, and the
manufacturing processes in another, distant ten, twenty,
thirty, or even more miles away, and by other firms, these
are insuperable ; and unless the machine can be modified,
so as to produce yarns that can be handled and trans-
mitted from place to place with the same facility and cost
as mule wefts, its field for spinning this class of yarn in
this country will remain a limited one. Mr. Samuel

314 COTTO?r SPINNING.

Brooks, so far as we are aware, is the only machinist in
this country who has devoted much effort to accomplish
this purpose. His labours have met with a fair measure
of success. Fig. 89 shows this machine as constructed by
him for spinning wefts. It differs little from the warp
yarn frame, except in such details as the gauge and size of
the spindles and rings, and the substitution of paper tubes
for the wooden pirns of the latter. It is meeting with
much acceptance on the Continent, where the conditions
of the trade are more nearly like those of the States than
of this country. Some spinners also in this country, who
weave their own productions of yarn, have also adopted it,
and its future is regarded as being of a hopeful character.
The persistent endeavours made to render it a practicable
machine for its designed purpose certainly deserve to be
successful.

Doubling. — This is a process by which two or more
threads are twisted together to form a stronger thread.
Such threads are termed 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 6-fold,
8-fold, or 12-fold yarns, according to the number of single
threads each may contain. When described commercially,
the count of the single yarn is first expressed thus : 12*
2-fold, IG^ 4-fold ; these are usually written thus : 12^2,
16Y4. Yarns of this kind are much used in manufac-
turing, and are also extensively applied to many other pur-
poses. They form the warps for numerous descriptions
of silk, cotton, worsted, woollen, linen, and other fabrics
both light and heavy, including Kidderminster, tapestry,
Brussels, and other carpets ; they are also employed ex-
tensively in the lace and hosiery trade, and for knitting,
netting, sewing, crochet, and many fancy purposes. Thus
it will be seen that the doubling branch of the cotton
trade forms an important portion. It is so extensive, in-
deed, as to have developed the tendency to become an
independent section of the trade, and many establishments
exist in which doubling alone is carried on. In others,
again, it forms a portion of the spinning division, whether
this is on the mule, throstle, or ring principle.

DOUBLixa. 315

Doubling is chiefly performed on three different ma-
chines, all of which are respectively modifications of spin-
ning machines. The first that should be named is the
doubling throstle frame, which is the throstle frame modi-
fied by the arrangement of the creel for the reception of
yarns, and the substitution of the drawing rollers by a single
pair of rollers of considerably increased diameter. These
rollers in wet doubling are covered with thin sheet brass
to prevent corrosion. When delivered from the creel, the
yarn passes through water contained in a zinc trough,
heated by a steam pipe passing through it, and thence
between the pair of rollers which press out the superfluous
water it may have taken up. It next passes to the flyer
and upon the bobbin. Care is always taken that the
twisting it receives shall be in the direction opposite to
that of the single thread. The flyers are so constructed
that the curls on the legs can be renewed when worn out»
In other respects the throstle doubler is simply a counter-
part of the spinning frame of that name.

In doubling fine numbers on the throstle several serious
disadvantages are encountered. One of these is that after
doflang it is necessary to oil the spindles in order to secure
that the bobbin shall " slip " and wind properly, so as not
to break the threads. The consequence is that many
bobbins soon become saturated with oil, the dry porous
wood readily absorbing it, whereby the weight of the
bobbin is greatly increased, and the drag is rendered un-
equal as compared with that of bobbins not yet saturated
with oil. The result is an irregular yarn. Another evil
is that a large number of bobbins are rendered useless.
The saturated bobbins also stain the yarn wound upon
them, and greatly depreciate its value. Often when a
frame has been replenished with bobbins it is found that
several will not slip, and the threads after breaking and
being pieced several times are rendered unfit for their in-
tended use. These are then stripped with a knife, and the
yarn, worth, perhaps, from Is. to os. per lb., is reduced to
waste, valued at only a few pence per lb. In numerous

816

COTTON SPINNING.

other ways yarn is damaged by saturated bobbins. A
great quantity of oil is consumed in the lubrication of the
spindles, and a heavy loss is entailed by the necessity of
throwing out as unfit for use a great number of the
saturated bobbins.

These evils have to a great extent been obviated by an

J w ([

Fig. 90. Impixtved throstle doubling spindle.

invention perfected and patented by Messrs. Taylor and
Ramsden of Bolton, and which is illustrated in Fig. 90. The
flyer,/, is removed from the summit of the spindle — the
position it occupies in the ordinary throstle — inverted, and
relegated to the place formerly occupied by the bobbin, h.
Instead of being made fast as before, it has a boss, 1" , fixed
to it, and is placed loose upon the spindle, resting upon the
bolster rail, r, with only the ordinary leather washer inter-

DOUBLING. 317

vening. The bobbin, h, being placed upon the spindle,
descends to a position in -which it is firmly held. It will
thus be seen that with the inversion of their relative po-
sitions their functions are also changed, — the drag being
obtained from the flyer instead of the bobbin as before.
By this change the spindle is reduced one-third in length,
and nearly two-thirds in weight, and the flyer one-half.
The traverse has been lessened, whilst the diameter of the
bobbin has been increased. In this form the spindles can
be easily driven at 7,000 revolutions per minute. The ad-
vantages are obvious, and will commend themselves to
every one practically acquainted with the matter. The
bobbin is placed quite away from contact with oil, and
revolves with the spindle ; consequently, no bobbins are
saturated, and no yarn is oil-stained. The flyers not being
to take off", doffing can be performed by the minder a
spindle at a time, without stopping the frame. This in-
creases production and diminishes expense, dispensing with
doffers' wages. The space between the arms of the flyer,
which allows the diameter of the bobbin to be increased,
rendering it capable of holding more yarn, thus reduces
the number of knots made in the winding room, an impor-
tant advantage in the matter of quality. Bobbins can be
used until broken, and a great saving is obtained from this
source. There is no waste of yarn from its snarling upon
the spindle top as in the ordinary arrangement. A mode-
rate estimate of the gain resulting from this improve-
ment in a mill of say 65,000 to 70,000 spindles will be
£1,500 per annum.

Tarn doubled upon this frame, like that of the throstle
spinning frame, possesses somewhat similar characteristics.
By its passage around the leg of the flyer it becomes more
perfectly consolidated, and the loose fibres that centrifugal
action would bring to the surface are thoroughly laid by
frictional contact, whilst the thread is to a certain extent
p(>lished by the same means. Thus it is that a solid,
wiiy, and glossy thread is obtained which has long been

■318 COTTON SPINNING.

regarded as the best result of the doubling process, and
consequently has stood correspondingly high in the estima-
tion of producers.

The twiner is the next machine that calls for notice.
This is a modification of the mule, or more accurately, a
return to the principles of Hargreaves' jenny. The twist-
ing spindles are fitted in a bank or fixed carriage, whilst
the creel containing the threads to be twisted consists of a
traversing carriage which retires from the spindle bank
whilst the length of yarn to the extent of its traverse is
being twisted. When this is completed, it returns to its
first position, the length of yarn being wound upon the
spindles in the bank by means of a faller guide wire.
There is also another kind of twiner more closely related
to the mule, in which the position of the creel and spindles
is reversed, the latter being in the traversing carriage.
This form is, however, only found when the frame has been
transformed from a mule, which is sometimes done when
the latter is advanced in wear, but is still too good to
break up. Twiners are mostly used for dry doubling.

The yarns produced on both these forms of twiners are
not so dense as those from the throstle, not having the
advantage of the polishing and consolidating influence of
the flyer. Like the single yarn from the mule, its sur-
face is more hairy, the fibre being thrown out by centri-
fugal action during the twisting process.

The ring doubling frame is the latest competitor for pub-
lic favour in this section of the trade, and the only remain-
ing one to which attention need be drawn, as the few other
machines on which doubling has been, or is yet occasion-
ally jDerformed, are unimportant. Owing to its greater pro-
ductiveness and other merits, it has sprung to the front
of its competitors in public favour, and therefore demands a
little more notice. The ring doubling frame, like the others,
is simply modified in a similar manner from its parent, the
ring spinning frame. Fig. 91 is a perspective view of this
important frame as constructed by Mr. Samuel Brooks, and

Tig. 92. King doubling frame. Scotch system.

DOUBLING. 321

of which he has supplied nearly 200,000 spindles to the
eminent firm of sewing cotton manufacturers, Messrs.
J. P. Coats and Co., Ferguslie, Paislej, and also large
quantities to other leading firms engaged in the manufac-
ture of twisted yarns for the same class of trade. In this
branch the ring doubling frame has almost superseded the
flyer frame, except for the finest or the coarsest counts of
yarns. This, Fig. 91, represents the frame as arranged to
work on what is known as the English principle, which
diflPers in its details from the Scotch system. Here the
yarn-bobbins are arranged horizontally in the creel, a,
whence the threads descend to the trough, pass through
the water, and come over the rollers at 6, thence through
the guide wires on the thread board at c, and down to the
ring rail at c?, and, exactly as in spinning, pass through the
traveller to the bobbin. The section. Fig. 92, shows the
same frame as arranged on the Scotch system. This, it
will be observed, difi*ers from the English plan in having the
yarn as it comes from the spinning frame first wound upon
large bobbins in a winding frame. These large bobbins
necessitate a difierent arrangement of the creel. The
threads are conducted down to the trough in which the
pair of rollers are arranged, the lower one forming an
immersion roller, beneath and around which the threads
are conducted, and thence around the upper one to the
thread guides and the spindles as before. It will thus be
seen that the rollers serve the double purpose of immer-
sing the yarn in the water, and expressing any superfluous
quantity of water it may have taken up. As compared
with the English plan, where the yarn usually passes under
a glass rod in the water, it remains a longer time in the
latter, and hence is thought to get more thoroughly satu-
rated. It would be difficult, however, to demonstrate that
any particular advantage will be secured by the adoption
of one plan as compared with the other ; and it may safely
be said that the custom of each district is at the founda-
tion of any preference that may be shown.

322 COTTON SPINNING.

CHAPTER XL

Miscellanea.

Useful hints. — To find the area of the safety valve of a boiler. — To find
the pressure upon each square inch of a safety valve. — To find the weight
on every square inch of a valve where the weight is hung to it. — To find a
weight to hang on a valve to resist a given pressure. — Steam engines. —
Horse 'power. — To fijid the nominal horse power of a condensing engine. —
Of a high pressure engine.— To find the indicated horse power. — To find
the commercial horse power. — Shafting. — To find speed of second motion
shaft. — To fijid speed of a belt or rope driven power. — Testing cotton. —
Card clothing ; conflitioning — Oil paint to be avoided. — Covering iron
cylinders. — Twist; to find the proper amount. — The twist of sluhhings
and ravings. — Counts of yarn. — Cotton yarn measure. — Avoirdupois
weight used for cotton yam. — French system of numb' ring yarns. — To
reduce English to French nos. — To reduce French to English nos. — Strength
of yarns ; table showing; means of ascertaining. — The strength of the
cotton fibre utilized in yarns ; American cotton yarns ; Egyptian. — fila-
ments in ci'oss section. — Twist for doubling of yarns.

AS the presoribed limits of this work have already been
considerably exceeded, only a few useful hints can
be given upon matters that could not easily be incorporated
under any particular heading in the previous chapters, or
that were overlooked at the time. These consist mainly
of practical rules or directions that will be found useful
in the various departments of the mill. No pretence
whatever is made of covering the whole ground, nor indeed
of doing more in this respect than briefly supplementing
the deficiencies of professedly practical essays treating of
cotton spinning. For calculations and practical rules regard-
ing the various changes in the different departments, the
reader is referred to one or other of the numerous treatit;es
already well known.

To find the area of the safety valve of a holler, — Multiply
the square of the diameter of the valve by '*lSb4i.

MISCELLANEA. 323

To fitid the pressure upon each square inch of a safety
valve. — Multiply the area of the valve by the length in
inches of the short end of the lever for a divisor ; the
total length in inches of the lever, multiplied by the
weight upon it in pounds, will give a nnmber which,
divided by the first, will yield a quotient showing the
pounds pressure upon each square inch. This rule pre-
sumes that the valve and lever are balanced by a counter-
poise, and that the only acting weight is that upon the end
of the lever. When the valve and lever are not balanced,
but contribute their weight to press against the steam, to
find if the pressure upon the valve is equal to the pressure
of steam against : multiply the area of the valve by the
pounds pressure per square inch in the boiler, and the pro-
duct will be the pressure of steam against the valve ; then
multiply the pounds weight upon the lever by its length
in inches to the fulcrum, and divide the product by the
number of inches in the short arm ; to the quotient ob-
tained add the weight required to balance the lever, and
the sum will show that the pressure upon the valve and
the pressure against it are in equilibrium. The weight to
balance the lever may be found by applying a spring
balance to the lever at the point where it presses on, or is
jointed to, the valve. The actual weight of the valve must
be added ; or if it is attached by a joint to the lever, it will
be weighed at the same time as the lever.

To find the weight on every square inch of a valve lohere
the weight is hung to it. — Divide the weight by the area of
the valve, and the quotient will be the weight upon every
square inch of the valve.

To find a iveight to hang on the valve to resist a given
pressure. — Multiply the pressure per square inch by the
area of the valve, and the product will be the weight
required.

Steam engines. — The capabilities of steam engines are
measured by a standard, the limit of which is a horse
power. This is a force capable of raising 33,000 pounds

324 COTTON SPIXNIXG.

one foot high in one minute ; or 1,000 pounds thirty- three
feet high in one minute ; or, again, the exertion of a force
of 33,000 " foot-pounds " per minute.

Horse power. — There are three forms in which this is
expressed : nominal, indicated, and commercial. Nominal
horse power is the oldest form, and is now rapidly becoming
obsolete. It is based upon the area of the cylinder, but
takes no cognizance of the steam pressure and speed of
piston. It is derived from data met with in the experience
of Watt and his immediate successors the early engineers.

To find the tiominal horse povjer of a condensing engine^
— Square the diameter of the cylinder in inches, and mul-
tiply this by '7854, and the product will be the area.
Divide this by 22, the number of inches area for one
horse power, and the quotient will be the nominal horse
power of the engine.

To find, the nominal Iwrse poiver of a high pressure
engine. — Find the area of the cylinder as before, and
divide by 11, and the quotient will be the horse power.

To find the indicated horse power. — The area of the
cylinder, the number of pounds pressure per square inch
on the piston, and the speed of the latter, or the distance
it -travels per minute, multiplied together for a dividend,
and divided by 33,000, will give for quotient the indi-
cated horse power the engine is exerting.

To find the commercial horse pov)er. — Deduct one-third
from the indicated horse power for friction of the engine
and shafting, and the remainder will be the commercial
horse power available.

Shafting. To find speed of second motion shaft. — Mul-
tiply the number of teeth in the spur wheel of the engine
by the number of revolutions it makes per minute for a
dividend, and for a divisor take the number of teeth in the
driven wheel upon the second motion shaft ; the quotient
will be the revolutions per minute of the latter.

To find the speed of a belt or rope driven pulley. — Multiply
the number of revolutions of the driver by its diameter^

MISCELLANEA. 325

and divide the product by the diameter of the driven pulley.
The quotient is the number of the revolutions of the driven
pulley.

Testing cotton. — Of late years cotton has been greatly
adulterated, and spinners have suffered correspondingly
heavy losses from this cause. Sand and water are the two
chief ingredients used for this purpose, either separately
or in combination, and it is therefore desirable to ascertain
the specific amount of each adulterant. Nearly all the
former is left in the opener, intermediate, and finisher lap
machine, but the latter evaporates, and hence has received
the name of the invisible loss. It is too often, however,
confounded with the former. In testing, therefore, let the
parcel of cotton, after being carefully weighed, first be
exposed for several hours spread open in a room the tem-
perature of which is equal to the maximum temperature
of the rooms through which it will have to pass in the
working processes. Weigh again, and the loss will be the
weight of water that has been evaporated. Next proceed
as directed in a previous chapter.

Card clothing. — It has long been a recognized fact that
the quality of yarn produced in a cotton mill depends more
upon the proper treatment of the material in the carding
process than in any other. The most conscientious care
is required in this department, and the process of carding
should also be guided by an intelligent conception of its
requirements. The cotton may be good, and the carding
engines the best, yet the product may be quite unsatisfac-
tory. In such cases it will often be found to originate in
a defective condition of the card clothing arising from its
unintelligent treatment. Cylinders and rollers are often
covered with cards that have not been properly conditioned,
when, though put on tightly, they soon become flabby and
loose. This is owing to the temperature of the room in
which they work being so much higher than that from
which they were brought. In order to prevent this occur-
ring, all cards should be exposed for several days and

326 COTTOX SPIXNI^'G.

nights in a room the temperature of which is equal to or
slightly higher than that of the room in which thej will
have to work. They should not be taken from here until
wanted for use. India-rubber card clothing has to a great
extent superseded leather, and this sort requires special
treatment. When kept in stock, exposed to a low tempe-
rature, it becomes stiff and hard, and if examined would be
found to have shrunk considerably. If a cylinder fillet
be measured in this condition by stretching it over a long
table with a considerable strain to get the fullest possible
length out of it, and the same be conditioned and measured
again, it will be found to have become practically two or
even more feet longer. Were such a fillet put on in its
unconditioned state, however tightly it might have been
wrapped, the change of temperature would give it the
extra length, which would go to slackness, and thus induce
endless trouble and bad work. The proper way to deal
with cards of this description is to condition them in a
room where the temperature is five to ten degrees higher
than the room in which they will have to work, by which
they will become perfectly flexible and soft. N'ext, before
using, let them be exposed for three or four hours in a
temperature the same as that in which they will work.
They should then be wound on the cylinders or rollers
under a moderate and perfectly uniform strain ; and after
having been fastened at each end they should be left for
an hour or two before the intermediate nailing is proceeded
with, in which time the card will have settled or bedded
itself into its ultimate position. After this has been done,
there will be a slight and uniform contraction, which will
bring the card into the best condition for producing high-
class work and ensuring durability.

No oil paint of any kind, in any way, or under any
circumstances, should be laid on the cylinders before nail-
ing on the clothing. The application of oil paint to
cylinders before nailing is a highly dangerous practice^
and where india-rubber cards are in question cannot be

MISCELLANEA. 327

too strongly condemned. Oil paints now nsuallj contain
petroleum, which is practically non-drying, and when used
for this purpose the free portion is absorbed by the india-
rubber cloth forming the card's foundation, which is thus
quickly decomposed or rendered rotten. Should the founda-
tion be dry, but not perfectly hard, the crowns of the teeth
sink into the yielding substance, become rigidly fettered,
and consequently broken.

In covering iron cylinaers, the best and safest covering
will be found to be stout calico, laid on with freshly made
flour paste. This, before being covered, should be thoroughly
dry. Calico thus applied constitutes a non-conductor be-
tween the cold iron and the india-rubber, and thus tends
greatly to the preservation of the latter. Considerable
alternations of temperature are highly injurious to india-
rubber, destroying it in a short time ; whilst where it is
strictly preserved from paint, grease, and these changes in
a reasonable manner, the cards will last almost as long as
the machine itself. It has not unfrequently occurred in the
experience of the best card-makers that their cards have
worked for twenty years when properly cared for in these
several respects, whilst, when neglected, they have been
destroyed in four or five years.

When cards are mounted on the bare iron, the surface
of the latter should be made thoroughly clean. Care should
be taken where the traversing grinder is used, that oil does
not drop from it upon the cards. Much mischief often
arises from the use of unsuitable hand-strippers, which, if
too strong and unyielding, are the cause of rapid and irre-
parable damage to the cards. " A little extra labour be-
stowed upon the mounting of the cards," say Messrs. James
Walton and Sons, the eminent card-makers of Denton near
Manchester, in a circular of instructions upon the treatment
of cards, and from which we have condensed most of the
above remarks, " will save endless trouble and disappoint-
ment afterwards."

Twist. — In order to find the proper amount of twist per

*628 COTTON SPINNING.

inch to put into any counts of yam spun on mules, the rule
is to multiply the square root of the counts by 3-1, when
the yarn is intended for warps ; when for weft, the square
root is multiplied by 3^. These numbers are what are
called standard numbers, and the twist thus obtained is
found to be such that the yarn will set without running
into kinks. More twist might make a stronger yarn, bat
other inconveniences are introduced when that obtained by
the above means is exceeded. Warp yarns require spinning
comparatively hard and firm, in order the better to bear the
strain and friction of subsequent operations. Weft yarns,
on the contrary, need to be spun with less twine, as it is
desirable, for several reasons, that the latter should break
at a less strain than the warp yarn into which they have
to be inserted. Also being less consolidated, they give
greater fulness in appearance, and a better feeling to the
cloths. For yarns in the lower ranges of numbers spun
from American cotton, and higher counts from Egyptian or
Sea Island, the above rule will apply very well, but for
counts higher than 32s. in American some spinners prefer
for warp yarn to multiply the square root of the coant by
4, and for wefts by 3^. In Surat yarns, even this is
slightly exceeded. The twine thus obtained is of course
what is called an average or medium amount ; there are
special classes of yarn called " soft spun," in which the
twine is less ; and, again, other descriptions called hard
spun, in which the average is exceeded more or less accord-
ing to requirement. Yarns spun on the throstle or ring
frame have usually from i-turn per inch in the lower
numbers to 1^ in medium counts more than mule spun
yams.

The twist of sluhhings and rovings. — The late Mr. Evan
Leigh, in his work on cotton spinning, gives the following
as " a secret worth knowmg." " It is," says he, "a com-
mon thing to turn the spindles of slubbing, intermediate,
and roving frames all to the right or twist way. The effect
of this may be best illustrated by endeavouring to make a

MISCELLANEA. 329

rope of many strands twisted all one way. The tendency
of such a rope would be to curl up and untwist itself; but
if the strands are twisted one way when single, and the
contrary way when doubled together, the rope will lie
straight with the twist in it. Suppose, then, it is required
to spin twist (warp yarns) from double rovings, and there
are slubbing, intermediate, and roving frames, with the
ends or bobbins doubled behind the intermediate and roving
frames as well as in the mules, the proper thing to do is to
twist the slubbing to the left, the intermediate to the righi,
the roving to the left, and the mule to the right. The effect
of this is to a certain extent to make the yarn like a cable,
the fibres of the cotton being interwoven together. Both
the intermediate and the roving frames would work better,
and the mules spin better, and the yarn would be sounder
and freer from crackers or weak places. More twist may
also be got into it, and there will be less disposition to
curl." When it is required to spin weftwise, or to the
left, with double roving in the mule, this proceeding must
be reversed. " It must be distinctly understood that it is
of no use to reverse the spindles, except ivhere a doubliiig
takes idlace at the hack ; otherwise it is twofold loss of the
twist in the roving." " Attention to the above cannot be
too strongly impressed upon spinners, as the advantage to
be derived from it is very great."

Counts of yarn. — The denomination of yarns in this and
other countries where the English system prevails is ob-
tained from the number of hanks of 840 yards each in the
1 lb. Troy. Thus, of 20s. there are twenty hanks, of 30s.
thirty hanks in 1 lb., and similarly with other counts.

Cotton Yarn Measure.

54 inches = 1 thread (or circumference of wrap reel)
4,320 „ = 80 threads = 1 lea.
30,240 „ =560 „ = 7 leas ==1 hank, or 840 yds.

330 COTTON SPINNING.

A'moirdupois Weight used for Cotton Yarns.

24 grains = 1 dwt.
109|- „ = 41-°^ dwts. = -^ oz.
218|: „ = 9ii „ == i „
437i „ =: 18i.i- „ = 1 „
7,000 „ = 291^ „ =16 „ = 1 lb.

French System of Nwmbering Yarn.

1,000 metres weighing 500 grammes ... is No. 1,

1,000 „ „ 250 „ ... is No. 2.

1,000 „ „ 50 „ ... is No. 10.

1,000 „ „ 25 „ ... is No. 20.

Rnle : Divide the number of metres reeled by twice the
weight in grammes.

French No. 1 = English No. 1-18.

To Reduce English to French Numbers, divide by 1*18.
To Reduce French to English, multiply by 1-18.

Strength of yarns. — The following figures showing the
strength of different counts and qualities of yarns are
abstracted from the tables recording the results of a series
of valuable experiments made by Dr. Bowman, of Halifax,
and given in his recent excellent work, the " Structure of
the Cotton Fibre," a perusal of which is strongly recom-
mended to the reader : —

MISCELLANEA.

331

Breaking

Average

Sam-

Description and quality of yarn.

weight

Actual

ples.

per lea
in lbs.

per lea
in grains.

counts.

20» single, mule spun. All Ame-

rican cotton ....

: 78.8

49.514

20.19

2tj» single, mule spun. American

and Egyptian cotton .

102.2

50.531

19.795

20» single, water twist. All Ame-

ricau cotton

79.5

48.904

20.445

32' single, mule spun. All Ame-

rican Cotton

54.7

31.629

31.63

40* single, super Bolton mule

yarn.

All Egyptian cotton . .

54.4

25.259

39.585

50* single, super Bolton mule

yarn.

■

All Egyptian cotton . .

35.2

19.974

50.06

60* single, super Bolton mule

yarn.

All Egyptian cotton . .

32.3

16.934

59.06

60» single, super combedmulejarn.

All Egvptian cotton . .

33.4

17-036

58.70

40«2-f.ild full twist Twiner

yam.

All American cotton . .

101.8

52.077

19.19

40* 2-fold full twist Twiner

yarn.

All Egyptian cotton . .

107.4

C2.230

19.14

40» 2-fold super frame yarn

All

Egvptian cotton

108.9

49.891

20.04

38* 2-fold super frame yarn

Ali

Egyptian cotton . . .

131.

52.581

19.01

60* 2-fold super frame yarn

All

Egyptian cotton . . .

73.8

33.177

30.14

60* 2-fold Twiner yam.

*Ali

Egvptian cotton

85.5

33.090

30.22

80* 2-told Twiner yarn.

Ali

Egyptian cotton

61.

25.878

38.64

120* 2-fold frame yam.

*Aii

Egyptian

51.4

16750

59.70

120* 2-told super combed frame.

All Sea-Island

63.6

16.715

59.82

In each case the above particulars represent the average
of twenty tests made with four separate samples of each
yarn, five tests from each thread. They may thus be re-
garded as fairly exhaustive.

The samples represented various spinnings, and were
not picked ones, but all were from good makers. The

332 COTTON SPINNING.

Toom in which the tests were made was kept at a uniform
temperature by a steam stove, and all the samples of yarn
were exposed for twenty-four hours before testing in order
to secure the same conditions of temperature and moisture,
Avhich it is well known affect the strength of yarns. The
tests were made by the most perfect appliances in use for
the purpose, consisting of a reel fitted with a traversing
motion, and an arrangement to secure a uniform tension
on the threads during the reeling operation. The scales
used for weighing the leas were a chemical balance which
turned readily with the .^ ppoth part of a grain when the
scale ends were loaded with 500 grains each. The
strength-testing machine was of the ordinary form in use,
but instead of being operated by hand power, which varies
and appreciably affects the result, it was worked by a
band, transmitting power from a shaft driven by the
engines of Union Mills, Halifax, belonging to Messrs.
Bowman Brothers, and which, for all practical purposes,
were perfectly uniform and steady. In the samples A, the
greatest variation in strength was from 73 to 86 lbs.
= 16'5 per cent. ; in weight it was from 47-83 grains to
52'31 or 4-48 grains, about 9 per cent. This was regarded
as a good commercial yarn. Sample B was more uniform,
extreme variation in both strength and weight being only
8 per cent. A first-class yarn. The next, c, a good using
yarn, varied about 11 per cent, in strength and 6'4 per
cent, in weight. The next specimen, d, was of a favourite
Lancashire yarn which in its extreme varied 18*2 per cent,
in breaking strain, and rather less than 10 per cent, in
weight. Sample E, a first-class 40^ spun down from 60'
rovings, shows no more than 7*3 per cent, variation in
strength, and less than 2 per cent, in weight. Sample F,
from the same roving, does not give as good a result,
strength varying 22 per cent., and weight 6*5 per cent.
G was a first-class carded yarn, which varied at its highest
15 per cent, in its strength, and 6 in its weight. The
next, H, was a super combed yarn, one of the best in the

MISCELLANEA.

333

market, and its greatest variation in strength was 12 per
cent., and in weight 6 per cent. The remainder are " two-
folds," and exhibit, generally speaking, similar results,
though the variations are not quite so extreme in either
strength or weight.

The strength of the cotton Jibre utilized in yarns. — Another
most interesting inquiry undertaken by Dr. Bowman, and
the details of which are given in his work, was as to how
far in the manufacture of yarns the natural strength of
the cotton fibre is utilized. The first step in this search
was to ascertain the weight the individual fibre will carry
without breaking ; next to count the number of fibres in
the cross section of a yarn ; multiply the former by the
latter, and the theoretical weight that the yarn should lift
is obtained. A comparison of the latter with the actual
strength, as tested by experiment, gives the percentage of
the natural strength utilized. The following tables, which we
extract from Dr. Bowman's work, are very instructive and
interesting regarding this point. Of course an approxi-
mately correct result is only possible, as in the first place
the assumption, as observed by Dr. Bowman, that the se-
parate fibres are of uniform strength, is not well founded.
Several other circumstances also militate against a correct
result being easily obtained.

American Cotton.

Average

Calculated

Observed

Per-

Connts and description.

of fibres

in iToss

section of

thread.

strength
per lea
in lbs.

strength
per iea
in lbs.

of tntnl

strength
utilized.

of total

Strength

lost.

208 water twist . .

230

388

20.6

79.4

32» mule twist . .

144

240

20.8

79.2

40» „ „ • .

120

194

20.6

79.4

50' „ „ . .

155

19.3

80.7

30» two-fold . . .

300

500

130

26.0

74.0

40« „ ...

225

380

100

26.3

73.7

50* „ ...

180

300

25.0

75.0

.3134

cotton spinning.
Egyptian Cotton.

Average
number

Calculated

Observed

Per-

Counts and description.

of fibres

in cross

section of

thread.

strength
per lea
in lbs.

centage
of total
strength
ntilized.

centage

of total

strength

lost.

40' single mule . .

161

234

21.3

78.7

50» „

129

188

20.2

79.8

60* „ „

107

156

19.2

80.8

40* two-fold .

320

450

120

26.6

73.4

5o; „ .

240

360

26.6

73.4

6o; „ .

I 200

300

27.6

72.4

70, „

1 180

255

27.4

72.6

80. „ .

160

220

27.2

72.8

90 „ .

140

200

25.0

75.0

The number of filaments in the cross section of threads
of the same counts is not always alike, this depending upon
the nature of the cotton used. In the above calculations
Dr. . Bowman took the average when Middling Memphis
cotton with staple and fully good fair Egyptian was used.
The calculation assumes that all the fibres are sufficiently
twisted into the thread to prevent slipping or drawing out
without breaking when strain is applied, but as this is
never perfectly accomplished in practice, a considerable
allowance must be made on this account, especially in
slack-twisted yarns. Indeed, it will probably be found
that it is here where the great loss which appears between
the theoretical and the actual strength of yarns arises. In
the tables, however, no such allowance has been made, as
it was found practically impossible to fix any satisfactory
data on which to make it. Much also depends on the
amount of twist put into the yarn for preventing the slip-
ping of the fibres. The investigation, however, was made
with yarns containing the standard twist per inch obtained
by multiplying the square root of the counts by o*75, as
has been stated previously. It is curious to see that
Tvhether the yarns are made from American or Egyptian

MISCELLANEA. 335

cotton, very little more than 20 per cent, in single yams
of the theoretical strength of the fibres is ntilized. In
two-fold yarns a better result by about 6 per cent, is ob-
tained. The percentage of loss increases in both cases ss
the yarns become finer. In making these tests yarns were
in all cases used, spun down from the highest counts in
order to obtain them from the same cotton : that is to say,
the American single yarns were spun down from 50*
rovings, and the Egyptian singles from 60' rovings ; and
similarly in the two-folds, all the Egyptians being from
the same rovings and cotton as the 90^2. The result
shows that there is room for further improvement.

Twist for doubling of yarns. — Yarns after their first
spinning are often twisted tos ether again in two, three,
four and many other folds for various requirements. This
process is technically called " doubling," a name which it
is obvious only very imperfectly describes it. Several
strands thus produced from two or more threads are fre-
quently again put together, making a cord of any number
of threads according to requirement. The amount of twist
or twine to put into the article at the respective doublings
is often a difficulty to those having charge of the opera-
tions, especially as practical men differ about the matter.
The consequence is, that yarn is sometimes spoiled in the
endeavour to feel the way to a proper result. The best
practice is to follow the principle laid down for obtaining
the twist in spinning single yarns. Yarns doubled on that
principle will lie straight as in the single state. Suppose
100' has to be doubled into two-fold ; two threads of 100'
put together, the joint thread would be 50', the square
root of this number is 7*05, which multiplied by 3|-, or
thus, 3*75 gives 26*43 for twist. If the doubled yarn be
wanted of a soft texture, then the square root as obtained
above should be multiplied by 3^-, when the twist will be
such as will set without curl. When curl is required, an
additional percentatje to the above twist must be put in.
In all cases the twist should be put in in the direction

336 COTTON SPINNING.

opposite to that of the last preceding process. Suppose
now three strands of this 100/2 fold be laid together, and
it is wanted to know the proper twist to put into the six
cord which it has thus become. Let it be assumed that
the operation was commenced with yarn of true counts ^
that is 100^ the doubling makes this into 100^ two-fold, or
counted singly 50*. But if measured and weighed out this
yarn would not contain more than 48 hanks to the pound,
and the reason of this is that the twining of the threads
together reduces the length by about two hanks. Hence
it is necessary, when a true length is required, to start with
yarns higher in the actual than the nominal count. The three
strands of the twofold 100* having, as we have seen, be-
come, not 50* but 48*, three of these laid together now
reduce the counts to 16* ; the square root of this number is
4, which multiplied by 3*75 gives 15, the number of turns
per inch required at this stage. This process followed
throughout will give satisfactory results. ^\Tien the yarn
is wanted to curl, it is usual to add about 20 per cent, to
the twine obtained by this principle. For knitting yarns
three folds, which are required to be soft, a rule in exten-
sive use is to multiply the square roots of the yarns (single)
by 2i, and the result is the turns required. Crochet
yarns follow the same rule, but require 2 for a multiplier.
Embroidery cottons (four-folds) use the same standard
number, 2, as the last-named.

APPENDIX

ON STEAM BOILERS AND ENGINES.

APPENIiII. 3a9

APPENDIX.

On Steam Boilers and Engines,

Cotton mill boilers. — Dimensions. — Furnaces. — Flanging; boiler
power 5 evaporative power. — To estimate the number of boilers required,
— Inspection; cleaning; safety valves ; low water alarms; pipes, feed,
and steam connections. — Boiler setting, with illustrations. — Engines. —
Economizers. — Feed water temperature. — Position of economizer. —
Chimney draught. — Oil consumption. — Driving. — Mechanical stokers.

THE author is indebted to Mr. W. H. Booth, of the
"Mechanical World," and formerly of the Man-
chester Steam Users' Association, for the following re-
marks npon steam boilers, engines, &c., in connection with
which ho has had an extensive experience. Acknowledg-
ment ic also made to the proprietors of the above journal
for the accompanying illustrations.

The boilers used to raise steam for either motive power
or other purposes in the cotton trade are so universally
of the Lancashire or internally-jBred two-flued type, that
we shall confine our remarks wholly to that type of
boiler.

The making of boilers now ranks equal with, if not supe-
rior to the manufacture of steam-engines, and great care and
skill are brought to bear upon their construction. The
chief centres of the boiler-making trade in the cotton dis-
tricts are Manchester, Hyde, Dukiafield, Blackburn, Bolton,
and Preston. For some years past the standard size of
Lancashire boiler has been 27 or 28 feet in length, with a
diameter of 7 feet ; and such a boiler, if double riveted,
would be made from -^^ths iron to stand 75 lbs. pressure,
but during the three years ending December, 1883, the use
of steam of 100 lbs. has become more common, and steel

340 APPENDIX.

has become the material of construction, while at the same
time the diameter has been made 7 feet 6 inches, and the
thickness of steel plates for 100 lbs. will be half an inch,
and the boiler may be worked to 105 lbs. safely.

Furnaces, also, are made of steel, and should not exceed
|-ths in thickness of plate, indeed -j^^-ths is not an uncom-
mon dimension.

Resistance to collapse is best obtained by means of the
flanged seam, and in the writer's opinion it is desirable that
the flanges should be turned upon a properly-shaped block
by means of wooden mallets, as the flanging-machine is
very severe upon plates, though, perhaps, cheaper • than
hand flanging. Hydraulic pressure is also suitable as a
flanging agency, and preferable to a roller flanging machine.
Boilers are now almost invariably made with flat ends,
which require to be about -j^th inch thicker than the
plates of the shell. These flat ends are attached to the
shell by a circumferential flange or angle iron, as shown
in Fig. 95, and they are stayed by means of five gusset
plates at each end above the furnace tubes, and by two at
the front and one at the back end below the tubes. There
should be at least a distance of 10 inches between the
circle of rivets attaching the tubes to the end plates and
the lowest of the rivets attaching the gusset stay angle
irons. If longitudinal stay rods are inserted, they should
not be drawn tight, but should be slack enough to easily
vibrate sideways 4 inches, and should be attached to the
end plates by an inside and outside nut and washer. The
distance apart of the stay bolts, which are two in number,
should not exceed about 14 inches. In fact they should
be placed as near together as the centre gusset will
allow.

All manhole and mudhole mouthpieces, and the blocks
for the attachment of the steam, safety valves, and other
branches, should be of wrought iron or steel ; cast iron is
quite inadmissible above 76 lbs. pressure.

The strengths given as safe to adopt are, of course, on

APPENDIX. 34)1

the assnmption that materials and workmanship are of
the best.

With a standard 7 feet diameter boiler, there would be
two furnaces 2 feet 9 inches diameter. The fire-grates would
be 6 feet long, thus giving 33 square feet of grate surface.
Such a boiler would be easily worked at fifteen tons per
week of coal. It would burn eighteen tons comfortably,
and twenty-one tons is a frequent rate of consumption, but
it is not advisable to exceed twenty-five tons per week ;
though at times of cleaning one of a pair of boilers, the
writer has known thirty tons to be the rate of con-
sumption in the boiler at work, but it is not economical
to burn at such a rate. Two ordinary standard 7 feet
6 in. Lancashire boilers may be considered fully equal to
supplying steam for 500 indicated horse-power in engines
burning 2-L lbs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour,
the coal consumed per week being under sixteen tons per
boiler. With modern engines of good design the con-
sumption of coal per indicated horse-power may be taken
at about 2i- lbs.- per hour. If the boilers evaporate an
average of 8 lbs. of water per pound of coal, this is equal
to 20 lbs. of water per indicated horse-power per hour, and
on this basis may be calculated the boiler power required.
Thus, if we know that our mill of 70,000 spindles will re-
quire 900 horse-power to drive it, we may say that it will
require 900 x 20 = 18,000 lbs. of water per hour.
Dividing this by 8 gives 2,250 lbs. of coal, which in a
week of fifty-six hours will amount to fully fifty-six tons.
Reckoning to work our boilers at fifteen tons each, gives
four boilers, to which it is good economy to add a spare
boiler, making five in all.

In estimating the number of boilers required, the follow-
ing formula may be used : — Where I. H. P. equals number
of indicated horse-power required, and N equals number

T TT p

of boilers, N = 1 + \^' ', This allows for a spare
boiler, and easy working.

342 APPENDIX.

It is advisable to have boilers periodically inspected. To
secure satisfactory inspection, which should be thoroughly
effected every year, the boiler should be emptied and
cleaned out, and all scale removed.

The flues should be thoroughly svrept, and the fire-bars
and bridges wholly removed. Care should be exercised in
using disincrustant compositions, and, on the whole, there
is nothing better than common soda or soda ash, and the
blow-out tap should be used two or three times per day to
remove deposit.

Safety valves should be made to blow slightly by lifting
them every day at least, and gauge-cocks should be tested
frequently every day, and especially first thing in the
morning.

Low-water alarms should give warning when the depth
of water over the crowns of the furnaces is not less than
4i inches, and 5i would be better, and it is advisable
to test them occasionally by lowering the water to the
blow-off level. Dinner-hour is convenient for this, as the
boiler may be filled up, and steam got up again before
starting time.

It is specially important that all steam -pipes, feed, and
steam connections, and blow-out pipes should not be bound
in brickwork or so arranged as not to admit of free
movement and expansion, as fractures from pipes being
bound fast frequently occur, often disastrously to the
attendants. The following figures represent the mode of
setting the Lancashire boiler, so as to facilitate cleaning
and inspection. The dimensions of flues here given should
not, if possible, be made less.

Fig. 93 is a cross-section of the boiler and flues, and
Fig. 94 a sectional elevation of the back end of the boiler,
the section passing clear of the end plate, as shown in
Fig. 95, which is a longitudinal section of boiler and
seating ; Fig. 96 shows the plan of the brickwork. Figs,
97, 98, and 99 show various blocks for covering flues, &c.
At Fig. 100 is given a section of the seating of the single-

APPENDIX.

343

flaed, or Cornish boiler, and details are ^ven of the fire-
clny cover and seating blocks to a larger scale in isome-
trical perspective. Fig. 101 shows a general arrangement,

"5 ' ~^

Fig. 93. Cross-section of boiler and seating.

ill plan, of boilers, economizer, &c., for a mill of 70,000 or
80,000 spindles.

The method of settino: out the flues of both the double

Secttoro trv CD

Fijj;. 94. Back sectional elevation.

and single flue boilers by the agency of a simple 30 and
60 deg. set square is too plain to require explanation.
Stea/m engines. — In regard to the question of steam

WM^/Mi^M/M//M/yyyM/;///j///M

APPENDIX.

345

engines, it may be said that fashion largely prevails in this
matter. At one time nothing would do but beam-engines,
now horizontal engines are almost universally employed.

SixLe FhL&

CcverirLc/s

Fig. 97.

BoLch Cover Blocks
for cLoyvrUjoJce

27 RojoU

Fig. 98.

In the experience of the writer, taking into consideration
large numbers of engines, the balance of economy in fuel
consumption is on the side of the " McNaughted," or

» --2 -> '^ S.

SeaXirt^ Blocks

Fig. 99.

Fig. 100. Section of Cornish boiler and seating.

Fig. 101. Plan of boilers and economizer.

APPENDIX. 3 4-7

componnd beam-engine, with the exception of compound
horizontal engines, with at least the small cylinder properly
steam-jacketed ; and it is reasonable to suppose that the
most economical engine would be the compound beam, with
a satisfactory jacketing, and it should be more generally
known that to jacket efficiently, steam of a higher pressure
than that used in the engine must of necessity be employed ;
and, further, the working steam itself ought to be super-
heated to a moderate extent.

Cylinders must of necessity work more freely when
vertical than when horizontal, and there is no reason why
a properly constructed beam-engine should be either more
expensive to construct, or more liable to break down than
an horizonal engine ; nor is there any reason why equally
high piston speeds should not be attained, though it is clear
that cast iron should not be employed in many situations
that have hitherto been filled by it.

A good deal of misapprehension exists in regard to the
engine question, and the writer does not expect to influence
the fashion in the matter, but gives simply the result of a
long series of observations.

Economizers. — The fuel economizer, to absorb much of
the heat of the products of combustion between the boiler
and chimney, is almost universal. An economizer of the
standard or Green type consists of a series of vertical pipes
9 feet long and 3J inches internal diameter, arranged in
rows to the number of 6, 8, or 10 pipes per row, and these
individual rows of pipes are placed side by side to any
required number, as many as 320 pipes existing in some
sets, a convenient number of pipes being from sixty-four
to ninety-six per boiler.

The temperature of the gases entering the economizer is
commonly found between the limits 700*^ F. and 450°,
being usually about 600°. In passing through the
apparatus the gases impart heat to the feed-water in the
pipes, and pass away to the chimney, reduced from 100*
to 250° in temperature, commonly falling to about 400°.

o48 APPEXDIX

The averages of a large number of tests gives an inlet
temperature of 555°, an outlet temperature of 37 7^*,
equal to a fall of 178" ; but this average includes many-
cases of insufficiency of pipes. The rise of temperature of
the water passing through the pipes at the same time
averaged 106°, the greatest noted temperature being 285°,
a rise of 187° from feed-water supplied at 98°.

In modern mills the economizer is usually placed at the
back end of the boiler-house, transversely to the boilers.
The main flue, which receives the ends of the boiler side
flues, running between the back ends of the boilers and the
economizer, and suitable provision being made to connect
the main flue direct to the chimney, cutting the econo-
mizer out of the circuit for purposes of repair or cleaning.
Economizers require cleaning and inspecting equally with
boilers, and should not be neglected.

For a chimney draught, an economical temperature
for the smoke is about 300°, and this may in time be
generally obtained by a more rational arrangement of
economizer than that generally made, which, though very
good in practical use, is not a scientifically- arranged
apparatus, and by many engineers is considered open to
improvement.

Oil consumjjtion. — In regard to the consumption of oil
by engines, it has been found that one pint of oil will
suffice for each indicated horse-power as many as 5,000
hours in favourable cases, the best results being obtained
from beam-engines ; 2,000 to 3,000 hours being a fair
average duration of a pint per horse-power, the expendi-
ture of tallow per horse-power at the same time being at
the rate of a pound in about a third to a fifth of the same
time.

Driving. — The method of driving by ropes appears to be
likely to prove permanent, at least for some time. The
capacity of a rope to drive is directly dependent upon its
velocity : at 4,000 feet per minute, a two-inch cotton rope
is considered equal to fifty horse-power.

APPENLIX. 349

Mechanical stoTcers. — The question of stoking by ma-
chinery is an open one. The writer knows of many suc-
cessful stokers, and also of many the very reverse, and
would not like to express any general opinion on the
matter. So much depends on environment in this matter
that nothing but an inspection of the whole surroundings
of a boiler to which it is proposed to apply stokers will
suffice to arrive at a proper conclusion.

INDEX

Adulteration of cotton in packing,
28 ; with sand, 90, 325 ; with
water, 325.

Africa, cotton cultivation in, 22.

America. See United States,
."x)uth America, American, &c.

American cotton, 29, 33, 58, 40,
328, 331, 333. See also United
States, South America, Central |
America, &c.

inventions. See American

machinery. Inventions, &c.

ma'-hinery, 124, 226, 297.

throstle machines, 294, 295.

Anguilla cotton, 29.

Animal fibres and those of cotton
compared, 53, 54.

Anti-balloon ring, Fumiss and
Young's, 309.

Arkwright, K., and his inventions,
209, 217 ; his claims as an in-
ventor, 210 ; his patent of 1769,
i6. ; King's assistance to him,
ib. ; his improvements, 196;
his apprentice, Wright, 222.

Arkwright's doflfer comb machine,
HI.

machine, 4, 10, 149, 196,

211, 214, 225, 230, 291; com-
pared with Hargreaves', 214;
when the Arkwright water-
frame became the throstle, 291.

water-frame. See Ark-
wright's machine.

Ashworth's improvement in the
throstle machine, 296.

Asia, the cottons of, 31 ; the cotton

industry there, 6, 22.
Asia Minor, cotton cultivation

there, 22.
Atmospheric effects upon cotton

in the mill, 97.
Australia, the cotton industry in,

7. See also Natal, &c.
Author, the, his aim in the present

work, 13, 76.
Automatic machines, the earliest,

226.
Axon's improvement in the thros-
tle machine, 294.

" Backing-off," described by Mr.
John Piatt, 252 ; Mr. Eli Spen-
cer on, 258.

Baker's cylinders, 221.

Baling cotton, 28, 74 ; false baling,
28. See also Packing, and Adul-
teration.

" Ballooning," 309.

Barbadoes cotton, 16.

Belt driving, 68, 72.

Bernhardt, Mr., his doffing motion,
295.

Biancaville cotton, 33.

Blackburn, the cotton industry in,
9.

Blakey, James, his report of the
merits of the ring machine, 299.

Bobbin, the, 169, 207.

Bobbin-and-fly machines, 161,216;
their speed, 296.

Boiler-making trade, the, 339.

352

INDEX.

Boilers, engine, 339 ; cleaning,
&c. , 342 ; corrosion of boilers,
and the remedies, 71, 342 ; to
estimate the number of boilers
required, 341 ; evaporative
power of boilers, ih. ; flanging,
340 5 low-water alarms, 342 ;
pipes of boilers, ib. ; power of
boilei'S,341 ; pressure on boilers,
339 ; management of safet}'
valves, 322, 323, 342; setting
boilers, 342 ; size of boilers,
339. See also Furnaces, Safety
valves, &c.

of engines and the boiler-
house, 69, 70.

steam, and engines, W. H.

Booth on, 339.

Bokhara cotton, 32.

Bolton, the cotton industry in, 9 ;
the medium-fine cotton trade
of, 58.

mule yarn, 331.

Booth, W. H., on steam boilers
and engines, 339.

Booth -Sawyer spindle, the, 300

Boulton and Watt's steam engine
applied to cotton spinning, 10.

Bourbon cotton, 16.

Bow, the, cleansing by, in India, 2.

Bowman, Dr., his inquiries into
the development of cotton fibres,
40, et seq. j his " Structure of
Cotton Fibre," and tables from
it, 330-4.

Brahmins, cotton used for their
clothing, 18.

Bramwell's wool feeding machine
might be applied to cotton,
103-5.

Brazil, cotton cultivation, 22, and
industry there, 2.

Brewster, Dr. , his automatic ma-
chine, 226.

Broach cotton, 31.

Brooks, S., his doffing motion,
296.

his doubling frame, 300.

his warp ring machine, 302.

Brooks, S., his weft spinning ma-
chine, 314.

Br-ioks and Blakey's re-introduc-
tiun of the ring machine to
England, 299.

Brown and Powell's improved
throstle machine, 295.

Brunswick flax spinning wheel,
the, 197.

Buchanan's automatic machine,
226.

Butterworth, Mr. J., his micro-
scopic examinations of cotton
fibre, 49-52.

Buying cotton, guide to, 38.

Calicos, the, of Calicut, their im-
portation to England before the
invention of spinning machinery,
201.

Card clothing, 325 ; temperature
in relation to, ih. ; india-rubber
card clothing and its manage-
ment, 326 ; oil paint should not
be used on the cylinders, ih.
covering iron cylinders, 327
unsuitable hand-strippers, ih.
Walton and Sons' circular on
mounting cards, ih.

Card clothiers, 125.

teeth, points of, 131.

Carding, 75, 325 ; light carding,
130.

machines, 110, et seq. ; a new

American machine,124; breaker
and finisher cards, 130 ; double
carding machines, 129 ; the
Derby doubler, 129 ; " the
draught" in carding, 119; re-
volving flat card machines, 119,
122 ; Howard's electrical stop-
motion, 158 ; the roller machine,
112 ; Wellman's cards, and the
improvements upon them, 119,
et seq.

and combing, 1 08-45.

Cards, grinding the, 130 ; me-
chanical and hand grinding,
131.

IXDEX.

353

Cards, hand, used with the old spin-
ning wheels, 197.

leather and india-rubber,

326.

Carolina, U.S., early cultivation
of cotton there, 10. See also
United States, &c.

Cartwright, the Rev. Dr., his
power loom, 1785, 10, 226; his
automatic machine, 226.

Castellamare cotton, 33.

Cheshire, the cotton industry in,
11.

China, the cottons of, 31 ; cotton
cultivation, 22, and industry
there, 2, 6.

Clayton's tube lap-roller, 105.

Click gear, 270.

Coal consumption in boiler fur-
naces. 341.

Coats, J. P., and Co., of Paisley,
321.

Combing, 75, 135, et seq. See also
Carding.

machines, 135, et seq. ; Heil-

mann's, and its improvements,
135.

Competition in the cotton trade,
57.

Continent, the, cotton industry on,
6, 7.

Copping apparatus, 226, 239.

Corrosion of boilers, 71, 342.

Cotton, the plant, and its botani-
cal classification, 1, 14, 16, 20.

its fibre, &c., 40, et seq. See

also Pibre.

commercial designations and

varieties of, 22, 35, etseq., 142,
159 ; standards of cotton at
Liverpool, 38-40. See also Yarn.

its cultivation and manufac-
ture in different parts of the
world, 1, 23, et seq. ; when pre-
maturely gathered, and when
over-ripe, 78 ; soils fit for grow-
ing, 22.

districts in England, the, 9,

13,58.

Cotton, examination and testing of,
76, et seq., 325. See also Test-
ing, Adulteration, &c.

the manufacture of, its scien-
tific principles, 55, 56. See also
under the various processes, &c.

mill, the. See Mill, cotton.

seed. See Seed.

trade, present magnitude of

the industry throughout the
wt)rld, 7, 8 ; in England, 1 ;
gluts and crises in the trade,
11 ; the Lancashire cotton
famine, ib. ; statistics of facto-
ries, &c., in the United King-
dom, ib. ; the Doubling branch
of the trade, 314 ; trades bene-
fited by the cotton industry, 12;
its future, ib. ; advice on enter-
ing the business, 57 ; buying
cotton, guide to, 38 ; the pro-
cesses of spinning, 58 ; branches
of the trade, where located, ib.
See also under Spinning, Ma-
chinery, &c.

Counts of yarn, 329. See also
Yarn, Twist, &c.

Crighton's opening machine, 85,
92.

scutching machine, 94.

Crises and gluts in the cotton
trade, 11.

Ci-ochet yarns, 336.

Crompton, Samuel, 209.

his mule, 10, 203, 216, et seq.,

230; his machine in 1787, 10;
improvements upon it, 217, et
seq. ; his roller system, 218. See
also Mule machine.

Crum, Mr. Walter, his observa-
tions of cotton fibre, 51.

Cultivation of cotton, the process
23, et seq.

Curtis and Sons' mule, 24^.

Cyprus cotton, 32.

Damp cotton, 77, 97.
Dancer, ^Ir., his microscopic ex-
aminations of cotton fibre, 50.

A A

354

INDEX.

Dunforth throstle machine, the,

294, 297.
De Jongh's automatic machine,
■ 226.
Derbyshii'e, the cotton industry in,

11.
Dharwar cotton, 31.
Dhollera cotton. 31.
"Differential motion" in the roving

process, 168, 264.
Distaff, the, 2, 192, 200 ; early use

in India, 2.
Dobson and Barlow's improve-
ments on Heilmann's comber,

140; Imb's ditto, 142.
Doffer comb. See Combing and

Carding.
Doffing, 165, 187, 295, 307; un-

provements in, 308.

motions of Messrs. Bern-
hardt and Brooks, 295-6.

Doubling, 76, 147, 314 ; dry
doubling, 318 ; the Doubling
branch of the cotton trade, its
productions and importance,
314.

machines, 315-18; Brooks'

ring, 318; the throstle, 315;
the twiner, 318.

" Draught, the," in carding, 119.

Drawing, 75, 146, 215.

■ machines, 151, 216; James

Smith's, 158 ; Howard and Bul-
lough's electrical stop motion, ib.

rollers, 243.

"Drawing-out, Middle," appara-
tus, 243.

Drinkwater, Mr., and the first
employment of steam power,
10.

Driving:, by I'ope, by belt, &c., 68,
72, 348.

Eaton, "W., his copping motion,
1818, 226.

Eaton's automatic machine, 226.

Egyptian cotton, 16, 29, 30, 33,
38, 40, 328, 331, 333 ; the long-
stapled sorts, 16; cotton culti-

vatinn, 22, and manufacture in

Egypt, 2.

Ellison and Co.'s estimates of pro-
duction and consumption in the
cotttm trades, 8.

Embroidery cottons, 336.

Engines for cotton mills, 67 ; bean
and horizontal engines, 345 ;
the McNaughted beam engine,
ib. ; capabilities of engines, 323 ;
chimney draught for, 348 ;
economizers of fuel, 347-8 ; feed-
water temperature, 348 ; horse-
power of engines, nominal, indi-
cated, and commercial, 324 ; to
find the power of engines, ib. ;
mechanical stokers, 349 ; oil
consumption of engines, 348 ;
rope and belt driving, 68, 72,
348. See also Furnaces, Boilers,
&c.

England, the cotton industry in,
statistics of, &c., 7, 11, 13.

the cotton districts of, their

growth, 9.

Europe, continental, its cotton in-
dustry, 6, 7.

Factories, people employed in,
statistics, &c., 12.

Factory s3-stem, beginning of it,
about 1770, 9.

Faller wire, the, and the counter
faller, 225, 22V.

motion, 280, 28 Ijf^Jsfg.;

the same described by Mr. John
Piatt, 244, et seq.

Feeding, 97 ; cheap labour at, de-
precated, 96.

machine, the lever, or piano

arrangement, 98.

Fibre, cotton, structure of, and its
bearing upon quality, 46, et seq.-,
tables from Di*. Bowman's
" Structure of Cotton Fibre,"
330-4 ; microscopic observations
by Messrs. O'Neil, Dancer, and
Butterworth, 49-52 ; compari-
son of the fibres of cotton, wool,

INDEX.

355

and hair, 53, 54 ; imperfectly
developed fibres in the mill, 108.

Fire, precautions against, and in-
surance of mill property, 66.

Firmin's " Employment of the
Pcor," referred to, 215.

Flax-dresser's heckle, the, 110.

Flax spinning wheel, the Bruns-
wick, of 1533, 197 ; the Saxony,
ib.

" Fly," cotton, 114.

Flyer, the, 169, 198, 207, 215.

France, the cotton industry in, 6 ;
machinery introduced there,
1787, 10.

French weights and measures of
yarns. See \yeights, &c.

Fuel, economizers of, 347.

Furnacesof engines, 71, 340; coal
consumption of, 341.

i'urniss and Young's anti-balloon
ring, 309.

Gearing, 68, 72.

Georgra, U.S., early cultivation of
cotton there, 10. See also
United States, &c.

Germany, the cotton industry in,
6.

Ginning, cotton, 24, 74, 109.

Glasgow, the, or Montgomery
throstle machine, 295.

Gluts, cotton, 11.

Gore, Mr. H.,his improved throstle
machine, 294.

Gossypium (cotton), the four pri-
mary varieties, 14, 15.

Greece, growth of cotton in, 32.

Green-seeded cotton, 16.

Grinding the cards. See Cards,
&c.

" Grist," the, 147.

Growing, cotton, estimates of cost,
26. SVe also under Cotton, cul-
tivation of.

Hair, fibres of, compared Avith

cotton fibres, 53, 54.
Haley's horizontal cylinder, 217.

Hand-card of the wool-coniber,
110.

Hand-cards. See Cards.

Hand labour versus macliine
labour, 77, 96, 97. See also
Hand- spinning.

Hand-spinning, 201.

and machine spinning of fine

yarns, 281, et siq.

Hargreaves, James, of Blackburn,
and his spinning-jenny, 4, 10,
110, 197, 198, 200, 202, 206,
209, 210, 216, 225, 230; rela-
tive qualities of his, Arkwrighi"s,
and Crompton's machines, 214,
272 ; his carding machine, made
for Mr. Robert Teel, 110, HI ;
improvements of his jenny, 217,
219.

James, of Tottington, his in-
ventions, 222.

Headstock, the mule, 240.

Heating, economical, 71.

Heckle, the, of the fiax-dresser,
110.

Heilmann's combing machine,
135.

Hindoos, lack of inventiveness
among them, 3.

Hingunghat cotton, 31.

Hints, useful, in cotton spinning,
322.

Holdsworth's solution of the " dif-
ferential motion" problem, 168,
264.

Horse-power of engines. See
Engines.

Horsfall mechanical grinder, the,
132.

Howard and Bullough's electrical
stop-motion, 158; their Rabbeth
spindle, 302.

India, calicos, &c., of, 201.

the cottons of, 16, 18, 31, 33,

38, 40 ; cultivation of cotton
there, 22 ; the birthplace of the
cotton manufacture, 2 ; the trade
there since, 2, 7, 209.

35G

INDEX.

Insurance of mills, and precautions
against fire^ 66.

Intermediate, &c., frames, the
twist of, Mr. Evan Leigh on,
328.

and roving machines, 75,

158, 161, 162, 188,216.

Inventiveness of the Hindoo races,
imperfect development of, 3.

Inventors of spinning machinery,
relative merits of the fourgi'eat-
est, Hargreaves, Arkwright,
Crompton, and Roberts, 214,
230, 272.

of spinning machinery, suc-
cession of, and their works, 217,
et seq. See also Spinning, &c.

Ireland, the cotton industry in,
11.

Italy, growth of cotton in, 32.

Jacking, or stretching, 272.

Japan, the cotton of, 32 ; the cot-
ton industry there, 6.

Java cotton, 32.

Jencks, the supposed inventor of
the ring frame, 298.

Jenny, the spinning. See Har-
greaves' machine, &c.

Jersey, the, or common spinning
wheel of Europe, 196, 200.

Kay, of Bury, and his inventions,
4, 202 J his picking stick, &c.,
202.

Kelly's improvements upon Cromp-
ton's machine, 222.

Kennedy's improvements upon
Crompton's machine, 223.

King, the watchmaker, his assis-
tance to Arkwright, 210.

Knitting yarns, 336.

Labour saved by cotton machinery,
8.

skilled, 59.

slave. See Slavery.

Labour, the transition fron:i female
to male labour in cotton spin-
ning, 224, 297 ; male and fe-
male spinners in America, 297.

Lancashire, the cotton industry in,
9, 11.

south east and east, the me-

dium-iine cotton trade there,
58.

Lap, the, 93.

finisher machines, 101, 105.

machines, 87, 105.

Lap-roller, tubular, Clayton's, 105.

Leigh, Mr. Evan, his improvement
in the roving machine, 163 ;
his " secret worth knowing" on
the twist of slubbing, roving,
and intermediate frames, 328.

Leipsic wheel, the, 206. See also
Saxony wheel.

Liverpool Cotton Brokers' Asso-
ciation, its cotton standards,

Machinery, cotton, 73, 77, 105,
2 10 ; introduced into France and
United States, 1787, 10; Boul-
ton and Watt's first steam
spinner, 1789, 10; the begin-
ning of the modern machinery,
4 ; American improvements in,
124. See also under the names
of the various machines and pro-
cesses.

discoveries in, due to the

cotton industries, 1.

labour saved by, 8.

Machines, should not be over-
worked, 130 ; oiling and clean-
ing them, 107.

Manchester, the cotton industry
in, 9 ; the fine cotton trade of,
58.

Maranham cotton, 30.

Markets, cotton, 59.

McNaughted beam-engine, the,
345.

Measures and weights of cotton.
See Weights, &c.

INDEX.

367

Mechanical World, the, 339.

Memphis (middling) cotton, 334.

Middle drawing-out apparatus,
243.

Mill, the cotton, fitting localit}',
site, building, and appoint-
ments for, 57-72 ; Stott and
Sons' plan of a mill, 62 ; useful
hints for various parts of, 322,
et seg.

Miscellaneous hints, 322, et seg.

Mixing cotton, 74, 78, et seq.

Mixing-book, the, 77.

Montgomery, the, or Glasgow
throstle machine, 295.

Mounting cards. See Card cloth-
ing, &c.

Mule headstock, the, 240.

Mule machine, the. 210. See also
Crompton's machine.

the modern, and its latest

improvements, 231-90.

and throstle machines com-
pared, 297.

and throstle spinning, the

competition between, 310.

" Mule Spinning Process, The,"
quoted, 189.

Mulhausen, a continental centre
of the cotton trade, 135.

Nankin cotton, 32.

Natal, cotton cultivation in, 22.

Need and Strutt, Arkwright's
partners, 211.

New South Wales, cotton cultiva-
tion in, 22.

New Zealand, the cotton industry
in, 7.

Nose peg, the, and Piatt's auto-
matic nosing motion, 264.

"Nuns' cotton," 20.

Oil consumption of engines, 348.

from cotton seeds, 27.

Oldham, the cotton industry in,
10; the coarse cotton trade of,
58 ; the waste cotton trade of,
ib.

O'Neil, Mr. Charles, his micro-
scopic examinations of cotton
fibre, 49-51.

Oomrawuttee cotton, 31.

Opening, 74. See also Willow-
ing.

machines, 85, 87, 90, 92 ;

the Crighton, 85, 92 ; the Por-
cupine, 87.

Orleans cotton, 30.

Organ hand-mule, the, 281, 290.

Packing, or baling cotton, 28, 74.

Paint, oil, for card cylinders, con-
demned, 326.

Paul's early carding machine, 1 10 j
his plan for roving. 149.

Paul and Wyatt's roller improve-
ments, 214.

Peel, Mr. Robert, employs Har-
greaves to make a carding ma-
chine, 1762, 110, 111.

Pernambuco cotton, 40.

" Pernams " cotton, 30.

Persia, cotton cultivation in, 32.

Peruvian cotton, 30.

Picking cotton, 23.

Picking-stick, &c., Kay's, 4, 202.

Planting cotton, 23.

Piatt, Mr. John, his paper on
" Cotton Spinning " quoted,
244, 252.

Platts, Messrs., their automatic
nosing motion, 264.

machines for fine yarn, 274,

et seq.

Pod, cotton, the, stages of growth,
&c., 40, et seq.

Porcupine opener, the, 87.

Port Natal cotton, 40. See also
Natal.

Power transmitted by ropes, belts,
or gearing, 67, 68, 72, 348.

Pressure of boilers. See Boiler,
Valves, &c.

Processes of cotton spinning, the,
73, et seq. See also the various
processes by name.

"Protection,"' the fallacy of, 13:

A A 2

358

INDEX.

effects of, in the United States
cotton trade, 312.
Pugliar cotton, 33.

Queensland, cotton cultivation
there, 22.

Rabbeth spindle, the, 305 ; ]\Iessrs.
Howard's, 302.

Ring machine, the. and ring spin-
ning, 210, 211, 291-321.

and mule spinning, the com-
petition between, 310.

doubling machine. Brook's,

318 ;ring doubling on the Scotch
system, 321.

Rioting consequent upon the in-
vention of the spinning jenny,
1767,210.

Roberts, Richard, his machine,
and its improvements, 1825-
1830, 227, et seq., 253, 262.

Rochdale, the coarse cotton trade
of, 58.

Roller drawing, 215. See also
Drawing.

improvements upon Har-

greaves' machine, 214.

Ropes preferable to belts for trans-
mitting power, 68, 72, 348.

Rossendale Valley districts, the
coarse cotton trade of, 58.

Roving, 76, 162, tt seq. -, "diffe-
rential motion " in the process,
and Hoklsworth's solution of its
problem, 168, et seq.

machines, 158, 161, 162, 2I65

Evan Leigh's improvement, 1 63 ;
the self-acting stopping arrange-
ment, 185.

Rovings and slubbings, the twist
of, Mr. Evan Leigh on, 328.

Royle, Dr., his classification of the
cotton plant, 14.

Russian promotion of cotton culti-
vation in Turkestan, 32.

Safety valvee of boilers. See
Valves.

Sand, adulteration of cotton with,

90, 325.
*•' Santos " cottons, 30.
Saw-gin, the, 25.
Saxony spinning-wheel, the, 3,

197, 206,209, 210, 215.
Scale in boilers, and the remedy for

it, 71.
Scotch ring doubling system, the,

321.
Scotland, the cotton industry in,

11.
Scribbler machine, the, in woollen

manufacture, 103.
Scutching, 75, 93.

machines, 87, 94.

Sea Island cotton, 16, 22, 29, 33,

40, 328, 331.
Secession war. See L'nited. States,

and War.
Seed, cotton, use of, for extraction

of oil, and for cattle feeding, 26 ;

in the pod, &c., 40, et seq.
Sewing cotton, combing for, 135.
Shafting, to find the speed in,

324.
Shaw and Cottam's improvement

in the throstle machine, 295.
Shuttle, the, Kay's improvements

in, 4.
Slater, Samuel, Arkwright's ap-
prentice, 10.
Slavery in the United States,

effects of its aboUtion on the cot-
ton trade, 11, 25, 27, 28.
Sliver, the, irregularities of, 147,

et seq.

cans, the, 188.

Slubbing, 75, 161. See also Inter-
mediate or second slubbing.

billy, the, 219.

machines, 158, 161, 162, 188.

216.
Slubbings and rovings, twist of,

Mr. Evan Leigh on, 328.
Smalley, John, ArkwTight's capi-

tahst, 211.
Smith, of Deanston, his automatic

machine, 226.

INDEX,

319

Smyrna cotton, 16, 32.

Soils for cotton growing, 22, 33.

South American cotton, 29, 38.
Se^ also Brazil, &c.

Spain an unutilized field for cotton
growing, 32.

Speed of the bobbin-and-fly ma-
chines, 296.

in shafting, 324 ; speed of a

belt or rope driven pulley, ib.

of the throstle machines, 293.

Spencer, Mi\ Eli, his paper on re-
cent improvements in cotton
machinery, 257, 276.

Spindle, the, 169; early spindles,
2, 200.

the Booth-Sawyer, 300.

Spinning, cotton, 76 ; definition,
73, 192 ; possible origin of, 190;
its history, 190, et scq. ; de-
scribed by ancient writers, 193 ;
the connection between the old
and the new systems of spinning,
199 ; the transit from the early
to modern system, 216 ; labour
transferred from females to
males, 224, 297 ; application of
steam power, 223 ; the modern
system of spinning, 200, et seq. ;
spinning processes, 73, et seq.

See also under Cotton, Ma-
chinery, and under the names of
the various machines and pro-
cesses, also under Hand- spin-
ning, &c.

and the weaving trades, 202.

Spinning-jenny. See Spinning-
wheel, Hargreavesj &c.

Spinning-wheel, the, early one-
thread wheels of India, kc, 2,
194, 195; the hand wheel of
1530, 3; the Saxony wheel, ib.,
215 ; the " two-handed" wheel,
4, 198 ; the Jersey wheel, 196 ;
Hargreaves' spinning-jenny,
1767, 4. See also under Ma-
chinery, Hargreaves, Arkwright,
&c. &c.

Spinsters with the distaff, 194.

Spon's "Encyclopaedia of the Indus-
trial Arts," 74, 232.

Standards of cotton, 38-40.

Staple, length of, in several varie-
ties of cotton, 39, 40.

Statistics of the cotton industry
throughout the world, 7, 8.

Steam power, 69, 292.

applicationof, to spinning ma-
chinery, 223 ; the first steam
spinner at Drinkwater's factory,
1789, 10.

engines. See Engines.

Stokers, mechanical, 349.

Stones, H. , his improvement of
Crompton's rollers, 218.

Stott and Sons' plan of a cotton
mill, 62. et seq.

Strength of yams and cotton fibres.
See Yam, Cotton, and Fibre.

Stretching, or jacking, 272.

Sural cotton, 16, 328.

Switzerland, the cotton industry
in, 6.

Syria, cotton cultivation in, 32.

Taylor and Eamsden's improved
throstle doubling spindle, 316.

Temperature, effects of, on cotton
in the mill, 97, 160; tempera-
ture in relation to card clothing,
325.

Terranova cotton, 33.

Test or loss-book, the, 76.

Testing, cotton, 76, et seq., 325.
See also Adulteration.

Textile Mamcfacturer, the, 68,
309.

ThrelfaU, Messrs., their fine mules,
290.

Throstle spinning, 291-6.

doubling machines, 161,216,

315 ; improvements in. 316.

machines, 116, 210, 218,

291-6.

and mule machines compared,

297.

Todmorden, the coarse cotton trade
of. 58.

360

INDEX.

Traveller clearer, the, 310.

Traverse rail invented by Coniah
Wood, 1772, 216.

Turkestan cotton, 32.

Turkey, cotton grown in, 32.

Twiner doubling machines, 318.

yarn, 331.

Twist for doubling of yarns, 335 ;
how to find the proper amount
of twist, 327 ; Mr. Evan Leigh
en the twist of slubbings and
rovings, 328.

United States of America, the
cottons of, 16, 27, et seq. ; those
produced before, and those after,
the abolition of slavery, 27, 28 ;
cotton cultivation there, 22 ; the
Secession war, and the resulting
cotton famine in Lancashire, 1 1 ;
statistics of production, 7, 8,25 ;
false baling and adulteration
there, 28 ; cotton manufacture
there, 2, 5-7, 312; the first
cotton mill there, 1787, 10;
machinery there, and improve-
ments in it, 5-7, 10, 312 ; effects
of " protection " there, 312. See
also America, Carolina, Ma-
chinery, &c.

" Uplands " cotton, 22.

Valves, safety, of boilers, manage-
ment of, 323, 342 ; to find the
area of the valve, ih. ; to find
the pressure, 323 ; to find the
weight on the square inch, ib. ;
to find a weight to resist pres-
sure, ib.

Walton and Sons, Messrs. James,
their circular on card mounting,
327.

War, civil, in the United States,
its effects on the cotton trade,
11, 25.

Warden, A. J., on the " two-
handed" spinning wheel, 198.

Water, adulteration of cotton with,
325.

Water-frame, the, 4. See also
Arkwright's machine, &c.

Water power for machinery, 69 ;
it displaced by steam, 292.

Watt. See Boulton and Watt.

Weaving, early, in India, 3.

the, and the spinning trade*},

202, 225.

Weft spinning, 313 ; Brooks' ma-
chine, 314.

Weights and measures of cottons,
yarns, &c., English and French,
329, 330 ; rules for converting
the one measure to the other,
ib.

Wellman's carding machines, and
improvements, 119, et seq.

West Indies, the cotton of, 29 ;
cotton cultivation there, 22 ; the
cotton industry there, 2.

Wharve, the, 196, 207.

Whorl, the, and the distaff, 192.

Willowing, 72, 82, etseq., 105. See
also Opening.

machine, the Oldham, 83.

Winding arrangement, details of
the, 238.

difficulty, the, 226, 227 ;

Eaton's invention, ib.

quadrant, the, 253, 262.

Wood, Coniah, his invention of the

traverse rail, 216.

Wool-comber, the, and its hand-
card, 110.

Wool fibres compared with those
of cotton, 53, 54.

Wright, Arkwright's apprentice,
his improvements upon Cromp-
ton, 222.

Wyatt and Paul's roller improve-
ments, 214.

Yarn, 74; Bolton mule yarn, 331 ;
the production of fine yarn, 274,
et seq. ; hand-spun yarn, 201 ;
quality of, late improvement in,
272 ; twiner yarn, 331.

INDEX.

oGl

Yarn, counts of, 329. See also
Twist, &c.

Yarns commercially described,
314 ; their denominations,
weights, and measures, English
and French, 329, 330.

qualities producible by the

ring and mule machines respec-
tively, 312.

Yarns, strength of. Dr. Bowman's

tables, 330-4.

twist for doubling, 335.