,/ Q: H^-'y,. w^ ^: ??' 7 > j / ■ ,. • c'^ -^ t^^;^/^ KjOy TECHXOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS, EDITED BY H. TRUEMAN WOOD, Secretary of the Society of Arts. COTTON SPINXIXG. TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS, COTTON SPINNING: ITS DEVELOPMENT, PRINCIPLES, AND PRACTICE. RICHARD MARSDEN, Memb. Soc. Arts. Editor of " The Textile Manufacturer.'" WITH AN APPENDIX OX STEAM EXGIXES AXD BOILERS. FOURTH EDITlOy. LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YOEK STREET, COYENT GARDEN. 1891. ^ CHISWICK PRESS : — C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE. PREFACE. THE impetus recently given to technical education in this country, whilst it has induced a great demand for books suitable for the use of students in our various industries, has revealed in our literature a remarkable de- ficiency of this class of works. A want of this kind, how- ever, cannot long exist without a supply being forthcoming, and already there are prospects of its early gratification. The following little treatise has been written with the view of providing, partially at least, for the needs of students of the cotton trade. Until within the past few years this trade has, with rare exceptions, been so pro- fitable, that persons having little or no knowledge of it, who invested capital therein, hardly ever failed to secure a good return. But this is the case no longer : the growth of competition, both domestic and foreign, has reduced profits to such a low point, that to conduct a cotton-spinning business successfully to-day requires that those having charge of it should be either themselves, or in the persons of their trusted servants, thoroughly conversant with both the principles and details of every process through which the material must pass to reach the mercantile form. A correspondingly perfect acquaintance with the market is also required in order to conduct the commercial section of the business safely and profitably. The former is neces- sary in order to enable those in charge to exercise strict supervision over every employe, to enforce care and VI PREFACE. economy in the nse of the materials, and to detect and rectify any fault that may occur, as only by these qualiti- cations and this procedure can the best results, from a productive point of view, be finally assured. It should be the aim of all practical men having charge of mills to do this, and their pride to accomplish it. A good article in yarns can always be sold ; indeed, it has almost become a proverb that it " will sell itself, and at a profit." The more thoroughly this practical knowledge is also possessed by managers, foremen, and operatives, and is carefully and conscientiously applied by each in the performance of their duties for the benefit of the establishment, the greater will be the certainty of success. The recognition of these truths in connection with cotton spinning, and of corre- sponding truths in other industries, lies at the basis of the public anxiety for the inauguration of a general and sound system of technical instruction, and the favour with which all efforts to provide one have been regarded. In undertaking the task of preparing the following essay, it became necessary to recognize the fact that it might be called into requisition by various classes of students and readers, and that as its prescribed limits would prevent an exhaustive treatment of each portion of the subject, the best plan to pursue would be that of deal- ing most fully with the phases of the question that had been least touched upon by previous writers, or those on which former notices had become obsolete. Dr. Ure's well- known work on the cotton trade is by far the most detailed exposition of the industry that has been published in this country ; the author, however, was not practically ac- quainted with his subject, and evidences of this frequently present themselves to the technical reader. At the time it was published, however, it was a remarkably valuable exposition of the rising industry, and may be studied with advantage even now. It will be obvious, however, that for most practical purposes the progress of mechanical invention, and improvement in processes, have long ago PREFACE. Vll rendered it quite obsolete. The same remarks will apply to the treatise of Mr. James Montgomery, only in a less degree, as his intimate practical acquaintance with the cotton trade as then conducted, has rendered his observa- tions permanently valuable, and the student may read his book with benefit to-day. Since his work appeared, many others have been published by various writers, but nearly all have been bald compilations of rules and exam- ples of calculations generally employed in making changes in the various processes. As these are easily accessible to every one, it has not been thought necessary thus to occupy space in the following pages that might be usefully devoted to the more neglected aspects of the industry. In men- tioning the above works, it would be invidious not to refer to the more recent and valuable treatise of the late Mr. Evan Leigh, in which much useful information of a prac- tical character is embodied. Its high price, however, places it quite beyond the reach of many of those to whom it might prove useful. In the following pages tiie writer has endeavoured to give the reader a concise view of the origin and present extent of this great trade ; the material it deals with ; the general principles that contribute to its successful conduct ; the proper location and construction of a mill, and arrange- ment of the machinery ; and the various processes of mix- ing, opening, carding, combing, drawing, roving, spinning, and, finally, doubling. In connection with these it has been attempted to trace the development, describe the function of the leading parts, and show the working of the various machines employed in the trade. The least consideration will show that some such course as this was absolutely necessary, as the machines are so numerous and so ex- ceedingly complex in their structure, that to begin their study without a clear and well-defined plan would be to involve the pupil in a state of confusion from which self- extrication would be almost impossible. It is hoped that the course adopted possesses these merits, and that the 7111 PREFACE. reader, after perusal of the subsequent pages, will have obtained an approximately exact and succinct view of the development, leading principles, and present state of England's greatest mechanical industry. KM. Manchester, February, 1884. COXTEXTS. Chapter I. Introductory. PAGE Importance of the English or modern system of cotton spinning — Cotton ; origin of its manufacture ; the distaff ; the spin- ning wheel 5 imperfect development of the Hindoo faculty of inventiveness — Confinement of the ancient system to India ; the domestic wheel; the flax wheel — Kay's inventions; Har- greaves"; ArkwTight's ; influence of these upon other textile industries — Development of the new system — Its extension to the United States; the Continent of Europe; Asia; other parts of the world — Its present magnitude — Abundance and cheapness of its products — Its early influence upon Lanca- shu-e ; rapid growth ; decline of the value of its products — Present condition; official returns, 1880; inadequacy of these to express its importance — Location and future pro- spects of the trade — Magnitude as compared with other lead- ing industries 1-13 Chapter II. Cotton. Cotton : its order, genus, species, and charactei'istics — Possible cotton lands ; countries in which it is cultivated — Geo- graphical names — Suitable soils for growth ; preparation and sowing ; picking season ; picking ; mechanical picking not successful — American crop ; area ; cost of production ; variations in quality and their causes; adulteration — West Indies— Central and South America; indigenous variety — Egypt ; extent of crop ; indigenous and exotic varieties ; characteristics — India; extension of cultivation — Other Asiatic countries : China ; Japan and Java ; Bokhara and Turkestan ; Asiatic Turkey ; Syria and Persia ; Cyprus — European countries : Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain — Differences of quality — Geographical names the best — Tabular statement of leading varieties : countries of produc- tion ; names ; districts where grown ; length of staple and diameter of fibre ; descriptions ; capabilities and uses — Prin- ciple of classification ; classification of leading varieties — Stendard qualities and variations of these — Careful selection required — Mechanical structure of the cotton fibre : the cotton X CONTE.N'TS. PAGE pod ; stages of growth ; the seed ; the fibre ; growth of the latter ; causes of its twisted or convolute form ; immature and undeveloped fibres — Its mechanical structure, the basis of its usefulness — Recent curious discovery by the mici'oscope — Cotton fibres compared with the other textile fibres — Im- portant general principles in spinning and manufacturing deduced from experience . 14-56 Chapter III. The INIill. Essentials of successful spinning — Divisions of the trade— Se- lection of locality ; supply of operatives ; proximity to mar- kets for purchase of raw materials and disposal of produc- tions — Site of mill ; sheltered position, humidity, soil, water — Roads; advantages of proximity to residences of work- people — Materials decided by circumstances — Systems of construction — Illusti'ation — Fire-proof mill ; points of impor- tance in structure — Arrangement of interior — Engines; transmission of power to machinery; gearing, belting, ropes, advantages and disadvantages — Arrangement of machinery — Steam and water power — Boilers and their adjuncts — Care against corrosion — Incrustations : their variety, danger, and wastefulness; soda, sometimes a remedy; econo- mical heating 57-72 Chapter IV. Manipulation op the Material. Cotton spinning, definition — Processes defined: ginning ; pack- ing; mixing; willowing; opening; scutching; carding; comb- ing ; drawing; slubbing ; intermediate; roving; spinning; doubling — Cotton testing ; test-book ; mixing book— Hand- labour superseded by machine-labour; the operative a super- intendent — Cotton spinning : preparatory and constructive processes — Mixing; preliminary examination and classifica- tion of the cotton ; large mixings better than small ones ; importance of securing equal lengths of staples ; process of mixing ; testing ; mode of using ; prescribing mixings ; mixing in the lap — Willowing or opening ; general princi- ples; the Oldham willow, common and improved; the Crigh- ton opener and its operation ; the porcupine ; the pneumatic feeding opener ; an American openei* — The purposes of open- ing — Injuries arising from adulteration — Injuries from ex- cessive willowing — Imperfections of the willow ; better principles of the Crighton and the pneumatic feed openers — Scutching, its purpose ; importance of correct feeding in the scutching machine ; the scutching machine, hand-fed ; trust- worthy attendants ; automatic Aveighing — Influence of tem- perature and atmospheric states on the weight of laps — Lap- feeding; the piano feed, its action — The finisher lap machine, C0NTE2?TS. XI its functions ; description — "Well made laps ; causes of un- equal laps — A new automatic feed suggested — Clayton's lap roller — Kemarks : qualities of this class of machines; speeds ; ■107 Chapter V. Carding and Combing. Carding: its necessity; its importance and purposes — De- velopment of the modern card, from Paul, Hargreaves, and Arkwright's impx'ovements — Description of the roller card — Summarized statement of its functions; how accomplished — The process examined in its progress — Methods of altering the work — Extensive use of the roller card — The selt- stripping flat or WeHman card ; causes of its iuA-ention ; improvement in this country — Dobson and Barlow's Wellman card — The revolving flat card ; recent impi-ovements — Com- bination and other cards — Card clothing ; for licker-in, main cylinder, rollers, clearers, and doflfer — Location of cards ; adjustment; setting of rollers and clearers — Double cards — The Derby doubler — Breaker and finisher cards — Light carding — Grinding; by hand; by machine — Points of card teeth: needle point, diamond point, chisel point, and hooked point ; how to attain the good points and how to avoid the bad ones — Differing estimates of the qualities of roller, flat, and revolving flat cards — Cotton injured by overworking — Severe treatment in the roller card — Combing ; indispensable for fine counts — Invention of the combing machine ; descrip- tion ; process of combing — Improvement of the machine in England ; Dobson and Barlow's improvements — Imbs' comb- ing machine for short staple cottons ; description . . 1 OS- 145 Chapter VL Drawing, Slubbing, and Roving. Drawing : definition ; its objects ; doubling or combining slivers ; minimizing ii'regularities ; theoretical results — Practical imperfections of doubling in past times ; progres- sive improvement — Extension of the process ; causes of this — The drawing frame : description ; speeds of rollers ; theii* action — Details of construction — Its development — The elec- tric stop motion — Varieties of cotton — Requirements in the drawing process — Location of drawing frames ; freedom from damp and draughts required — Slubbing : definition, description — Intermediate, or Second Slubbing, a repetition of the preceding — Roving : definition — Roving frame : de- scription — Differential motion of the spindles and bobbins in bobbin- and-fly frames, in the slubbing, intermediate, and roving frames ; a nice problem in mechanics ; Holdsworth's solution — The principle explained and illustrated; successive layers ; the traverse ; winding of each layer ; diminution of CONTEXTS. coils— Spindles of the three frames — IMechanism of the roving frame ; connection between its parts ; description ; operation ; the driving, roller, spindle, and bobbin shafts ; jack in the box ; the cones, method of operating them ; the traverse movement; acceleration of speed — Reversal of traverse and how obtained — Traverse of the slabbing — Doffing — Altering draughts — The intermediate, and the slabbing frames 146-189 Chapter VII. Development of Spinning. Spinning : its antiquity ; conjectural origin ; the first spindle — Definition of spinning — The whorl ; tlie distaff — Spinning as described by ancient historians — Tlae hand wheel ; its first appearance in Europe ; in India — The Jersey, or common hand wheel ; its development from the spindle ; the driving wheel, the wharve — Similarity between the European wheel and the Indian wheel ; European wheel used for wool and cotton ; process of spinning upon it — The flax wheel, or the Brunswick and Saxony wheels ; the fl3^er — The two-handed wheel ; the traverse — The connection between the old and the new systems of spinning — Cotton : antiquity of its culti- vation and manufacture — India, the birthplace of the manu- facture ; its extensive manufacture in th:it country — Sterility of Indian invention — Kay's inventions a stimulus to further improvements — Widespread influence of inventions in the cotton trade 190-199 Chapter VIII. The Modern System of Spinning. Commencement of the modern system — Quality of hand-spun yarn — Kay's inventions, the first impulse to improvement — Scarcity of yarns — Hargreaves' jenny — Description of the jenny; its operation — The single-thread hand-spinning wheel Hargreaves' model — The Saxony wheel probably unknown to him — Desci'iption of the Saxony wheel, single and two- thread — Extensive adoption of Hargreaves' invention — Kichard Arkwright ; the barber's shop a good school; itine- rant hair-dealing; the Saxony wheel the model of Ark- wright's invention — Arkwright's claims as an inventor dis- puted — Arkwright's labours ; his assistants — Description of his invention — Comparison between the jenny and the water frame — Paul and Wyatt's labours suggestive to Arkwright — Arkwright not the inventor of the flyer ; his adoption of Coniah "Wood's traverse ; the principle of the water frame adaptable to roving, slubbing, and drawing — The progress of invention — Haley — Samuel Crompton — His combination of Hargreaves' and Arkwright's machines, and improve- ments upon them — The jenny adapted for a slubbing frame; CONTENTS. description — Improvement of the roving frames — Baker's inventions — Hargreaves of Tottington — Kelly's application of water power to the mule — Wright's improvement ; the squaring band — Steam power — Kennedy's improvement in fine spinning mules — Transfer of spinning from females to males — Manual I'equirements of the mule — Eaton's copping motion — The self-actor mule — Its requirements — The counter faller — Differential motion of the spindles — The self-acting mule a mechanical triumph — Its qualities — Koberts' genius . 200-230 Chapter IX. The Modern Mule. Present comparative perfection of the mule — The head-stock, with illustrations — Means of actuating the drawing-rollers, spindles, and carriage — Stopping the carriage and the revo- lution of the spindles — Backing off; movement of the faller — Drawing in of the carriage — AVinding mechanism — Har- monious operation of the parts in action^ — More detailed description ; development of the various parts — The faller wire motion, and its operation — Building the cop — The counter faller wire — The backing-off mechanism — The wind- ing quadrant and its function — Recent removal of sevei-al imperfections — Copping apparatus controlling the backing- off" movement — The loose incline — Improvement in the backing-off chain tightening motion ; causes of its require- ment — Imperfection of the winding apparatus as left by Roberts — Successive improvements — Messrs. Piatt Bros, and Co.'s automatic nosing motion — Improvement in the click wheel — The stretching process in early mules ; succeeded by the "'gain" — The former plan retained for "medium fine " and " fine " mules — " The jacking motion,"' and its ad- juncts, the jacking delivery and the winding delivery motions of the rollers — Retention of the hand mule for the finest yarns — Its improvement — Self-acting mule for finest yarns — Backing off and winding — The quadrant and its improve- ment — Automatic regulation of the fallers ; the lifting motion ; IfXiking and unlocking of the faller ; winding ; and backing off — Speed of the parts ; changes ; replacement — Threlfall's self-acting mule for high numbers . . . 231-290 Chapter X. Throstle and Ring Spinning. Doubling. The throstle, an improved form of Arkwright's water frame — Description — Attempts to improve it — The Danforth throstle — The Montgomery throstle — Shaw and Cottara's improve- ment — Doffing, an expensive process; Bernhardt's doffing arrangement ; the throstle ceased to be constructed — The Ring Frame ; its popularity — Defects of the throstle, the origin of the ring frame — The throstle in the United States ; CONTENTS. reasons for its prevalence there — Invention of the Eing Frame — Pnicticai detects in it ; its rejection in England — Its improvement, and re- introduction — Success as a doubling frame — Slow acceptance as a spinning frame — The Boot,h- Sawyer spindle ; the Eabbeth spindle — The ring spinning frame for warp yarn ; description ; process of spinning ; the traveller ; the ring; the lifting chain ; the lift of the bobbin Description of the Rabbeth spindle — Dotfing ; the mechani- cal doffer — Inclined arrangement of the rollers — Ballooning — The anti-balloon ring — The traveller clearer — Increasing popularity of the ring frame — Its use for spinning weft in the United States ; the weft frame in England and on the Continent — Doubling — Doubled yarns — The throstle doubling frame; disadvantages — Improved throstle doubling frame — Characteristics of throstle-doubled yarns — The twiner — Yarns from the twiner — The ring doubling frame ; its popularity — Description — The English and Scotch systems 291-321 Chapter XI. Miscellanea. Useful hints — To find the area of the safety valve of a boiler^ To find the pressure upon each square inch of a safety valve — To find the weight on every square inch of a valve where the weight is hung to it — To find a weight to hang on a valve to resist a given p>ressure — Steam oigines — Horse p)Ower — To find the nominal horsepower of a condensing engine— Of a high pressure engine — To find the indicated horsepower — To find the commercial horse power — Shafting — To find speed of second motion shcft — To find speed of a belt or rope driven power — Testing cotton — Card clothing ; conditioning — Oil paint to be avoided — CoA'ering iron cylinders — Twist ; to find the proper amount — The twist ofslubbings and rovings — Counts of yarn — Cotton yarn measure — Avoirdupois weight tiscd for cotton yarn — French system of numbering yams — To reduce English to French nos. — To reduce French to English nos. — Strength of yarns ; table showing; means of ascertaining — The strength of the cotton fibre utilized in yarns ; American cotton yarns ; Egyptian — Filaments in cross section — Twist for doubling of yarns 322-336 Appendix. Clotton mill boilers — Dimensions — Furnaces — Flanging ; boiler power; evaporative power — To estimate the number of boilers required — Inspection; cleaning; safety valves : low water alarms; pipes, feed, and steam connections — Boiler setting, with illustrations — Engines — Economizers —Feed water temperatui'e — Position of economizer — Chimney draught — Oil consumption — Driving — Mechanical stokers . 337-349 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 1. Gossypium Herhaceum . 2. Magnified cotton fibre. Surat 3. „ „ „ Smj'i-na 4. Gossypium Barbadense . 5. Sea Island plant. Georgia . 6. „ ,, magnified fibre 7. Eeligious cotton, magnified fibre 8. Eelative lengths of cotton fibres 9. Longitudinal section of cotton pod 10. Transverse „ „ „ 11-16. Magnified fibres and sections . 17. Very highly magnified fibres and sections 18, Animal fibres and sections 20. 21. 22. 23-4 25-6. Ci'ighton opener. „ ,, 27. Lord's opener, with pneumatic feed „ piano feed .... Finisher lap machine . Eoller card. Section . TVellman card .... Eevolving fiat card Card clothing .... Heilmann comber section Imbs' comber, section . Drawing frame. Back view „ „ Front view End view . Cotton mill .... „ „ longitudinal sectitn „ „ cross section , Oldham willow. Section and plan 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33-5. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42-3. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 5) »> Eoving frame Diagram explanatory of winding process Spindle gearing and bobbin traverse Differential driving arrangements „ „ gearing . 55 55 55 • • Traverse reversing arrangement . „ „ gear Cone strap ratchet Self-acting stopping motion . Stubbing travei'se motion Grecian women spinning PAGE 15 17 17 18 19 21 21 39 41 41 47 51 53 54 to face page 62 63 65 84 86 88 99 101 113 121 123 127 137 143 152 154 157 164 170 174 175 177 179 181 184 184 186 186 193 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIO. PAGE 54. Hindoo women spinning .194 55. The old handwheel spinning 195 56. Hargreaves's jenny 203 57. Bobbin and flyer of Saxony wheel 207 58. Ai'kwright's spinning frame 212 59. ,, ,, „ Section 213 60. The slabbing jenny 220 61. Mule headstock. Side elevation . , . to face ixige 2A0 62. „ ,, Front „ . . . . „ „ >» 63. ,, „ Plan „ . . . . „ >5 m 64. Roberts' faller wire arrangement 245 65. ,, „ backing off ....... 246 66. ,, „ locking of faller to commence winding . . 247 67. Unlocking of faller at end of winding 248 68. Mode of building up cop. Half full size .... 250 69. Extreme inclinations of thread to spindle in spinning. Full size 252 70. Plan of rim-shaft of headstock 253 71. "Winding quadrant 255 72. Backing-off chain tightening motion 261 73. Automatic nosing motion. General arrangement . . 265 74. Completion of cop bottom 267 75. ,, cop 267 76. Arrangement of click gear 270 77. Quadrant nut. Position at finish of cop bottom . . .271 78. Enlargement of click and click-wheel 271 79. Self-acting mule for finest counts. Improved faller motion . 277 80. Faller lifting motion 283 81. „ „ „ Plan 285 82. Plan of driving pulleys 287 83. Driving pulleys and belts 288 84. Ring frame for warp yarns 301 85. „ „ Section 303 86. Rabbeth spindle for ring frame 305 87. Anti-balloon ring 311 8S. „ „ Plan . . . . . . .311 89. Ring frame for wefts 313 90. Improved throstle doubling spindle 316 91. Ring doubling frame 319 92. ,, ,, ,, Section. Scotch system . . . 320 93. Cix)ss section of boiler and seating 342 94. „ 5, back sectional elevation .... 342 95-6. Horizontal section and plan of seating .... 343 97. Side flue covering 344 98. Back cover blocks for downtake 344 99. Seating blocks 345 100. Section of Cornish boiler and seating 345 lul. Plan of boilers and economizers 345 COTTON SPINNING. CHAPTER I. Inteoductory. Importance of the English or modern system of cotton spinning. — Cotton ; origin of its manufacture ; the distaff; the spinning wheel j imperfect development of the Hindoo faculty of inventiveness. — Con- finement of the ancient system to India; the domestic wheel; the flax wheel. — Kay's inventions; Hargreaves'; Atkwright's; influence of these upon other textile industries. — Development of the new system. — Its extension to the United States; the Continent of Europe; Asia; other parts of the world. — Its present magnitude.— Abundance and cheapness of its products. — Its early influence upon Lancashire; rapid growth; decline of the value of its products. — Present condition ; official returns^ 1880; inadequacy of these to express its importance.— Location and future prospects of the trade. — Magnitude as compared with other lead- ing industries. OF the many indnstrial arts whose products minister to the welfare and happiness of mankind, few have acquired a more important position than the English, or modern, system of cotton manufacturing, or have had a greater influence upon the progress of civilization. The inventions which inaugurated the present epoch of mecha- nical discovery, occurred in connection with it ; and this example in succession spreading to all the other great in- dustries, has, during the past century and a half, revolu- tionized the condition of civilized society, and made its in- fluence felt throughout the world. Cotton, the raw material with which the manufacture deals, is the fibrous covering of the seed of the Oosa^ypium B 2 COTTON SPINNING. herbacetmi and kindred plants, which flourish in a state of nature over the tropical and temperate zones of the earth's surface. In India and China the plant has been cultivated for ages, and its fibre utilized in the manufacture of cloth- ing, and also in several other eastern countries. More recently it has attracted attention for the same purpose in the West Indies, the Southern States of the American Union, Brazil, Egypt, and other lands deemed suitable for its cultivation. To many of these it has proved a source of great wealth, and its growth is daily extending, espe- cially in the United States. The best evidence yet obtained points to India as the birth-place of the manufacture. In that country me- chanical appliances appear to have been first invented in order to aid in the manufacture of the fibre. At a very early period the art became a prevalent domestic industry, and extended over almost the entire peninsula ; at one time being so general as to employ, more or less entirely, almost half the population. Cotton was grown in the pre- cincts of every village; cleaned, spun, and woven on the spot ; each little community producing enough for its own consumption. A rudely-constructed roller gin separated the seed from the fibre, and the latter was cleansed from leaf, sand, dirt, and knots by the bow. The cotton as left by this instrument in a light fleecy mass, was then taken, with little further preparation, and spun by women. The coarsest yarns were made upon a heavy, clumsily-con- structed, one-thread wheel, evidently the progenitor of the domestic wheel long in use in this country, and the Saxony wheel of a later date. This was unsuited, however, for the production of the fine yarns used in the manufacture of the exquisitely beautiful muslins of the country, which were therefore spun by means of the spindle that had been in use from time immemorial. A distafi* was sometimes employed, though quite as often the process was conducted without. This spindle in the earliest times was composed of a straight piece of wood, weighted at one end with a INTRODUCTORY. 3 bit of clay. Subsequently an iron spindle was substituted, thougb at what date we are without information. It is also equally impossible now to discover at what period the crude wheel just mentioned was invented, though doubtless it was subsequent to the invention of the spindle. It is strange that the inventive skill of the Hindoo races never produced anything beyond these rude appliances, whilst they attained such a high degree of technical skill in their use. But such is undeniably the fact, for from the day when these simple devices left the inventor's hands, they scarcely appear to have been touched, though ages have passed away since that time, during which they have been in constant use in the hands of millions of workers. The same sterility characterized their efforts in dealing with the machinery they invented for weaving : nothing mechanical of theirs ever grew by a succession of improvements to a condition approximately perfect, as in this country has been the case in almost every instance. It would appear that the epoch of mechanical invention was not destined to be inaugurated by or amongst these peoples. Cotton manufacturing does not seem to have spread far from the place of its origin, or to have risen to any degree of excellence anywhere out of India until quite recent times. The distaff and spindle, and the rude wheel before referred to, continued the only instruments by which yam was produced. About the year 1530 the domestic hand spinning-wheel appears to have been invented, and for a long time was the only improvement made. This was succeeded towards the close of the century by the Saxony wheel, which, though a great advance upon the preceding, was a long time in displacing it. This wheel was sup- plied with a *' flyer," by means of which the twist was put into the yarn, and the latter wound upon a bobbin. A traverse movement was afterwards added, enabling the yarn to be run upon the barrel in even layers. A second «pindle was subsequently adapted to this wheel, which ob- 4 COTTON SPINNING. tained for it the denomination of the " two-handed wheel,'* an expert spinner being thus enabled to spin two threads at a time. This constituted the climax of hand spinning. In the fourth decade of the eighteenth century the elder Kay, of Bury, in Lancashire, invented the picking-stick for the hand loom, added boxes to its sley, and improved the shuttle, enabling one weaver to operate a loom where two were formerly required, the single operative also doubling the production of cloth as compared with the amount obtained before. This was the beginning of the modern epoch of invention, and its first practical result. The demand for yarn, which was a consequence of the general adoption of Kay's improvement, greatly stimu- lated invention, but a considerable time elapsed before any further real progress was made. Hargreaves, the Black- burn weaver, was the first to succeed with his spinning- jenny in 1767, Arkwright following closely after with his water- frame. On these well-known inventions it is not necessary to dilate here, as the principles embodied in them will come under review subsequently. It must sufi&ce to remark that they form the base of the modern system of cotton manufacturing, and the important re- sults that have sprung therefrom. The inflaence exerted upon all the textile industries by the successful appli- cation of machinery to the performance of the delicate processes of the manufacture of cotton, and the adapta- tion of cotton machinery to the manufacture of wool, silk, and flax, is a tale which must be relegated to the histor-an for narration, as also must be the story of the far-reaching influence of these examples upon other in- dustries. Industry has put on a new face, and social conditions have been revolutionized. With philosophers and statesmen, however, may be left the solution of the great politico-economical and social problems that have arisen from the stimulus given to invention by these suc- cesses, and the consequent universal application of ma- chinery to industrial purposes, resulting, as it has largely INTRODUCTORY. 5 done already, and will to a greater extent in the future, in the supersession of manual labour. On the correct solu- tion of these problems will depend, to a great extent at least in the early future, the welfare and happiness of vast . masses of the human race. As might naturally be expected, cotton manufacturing has continued to engross a large share of the attention of inventors, and their utmost efforts have been expended in developing and perfecting its appliances. This devotion has been fully rewarded, as the result of their labours has proved of inestimable value. The machinery employed in cotton manufacturing is the result of more mental labour, and the subject of more improvements and patents than any other that can be named. Most of these have sprung from the English manufacturing districts, as was to be ex- pected from the great concentration of the industry in those localities, and the knowledge consequently gained of its fur- ther requirements, and experience of the means by which defects could be overcome. Next in the importance of their inventions and improve- ments to the English districts must be ranked those which have been brought out in the United States by the emi- grants from England and their descendants, who carried the new industry across the Atlantic, and have since kept it nearly abreast in its developments with that of the home country. This has been accomplished, firstly, by the con- tinued importation of skilled workpeople and improved machinery, and, secondly, by original invention. The new conditions by which the transplanted industry was sur- rounded have led to improvements of a special and im- portant character, and which of late years have obtained, as they have deserved to do, the careful consideration of English machinists and spinners. The attention of the continental nations of Europe was drawn to the new industry with which England had en- dowed the world at a very early date ; but owing to ob- stacles for a time naturally placed in the way to prevent 6 COTTON SPINNING. them, these comnmnities did not acquire a knowledge of its appliances quite so soon as did the United States. One reason for this was, that in the States there was no lingual difficulty to encounter. All obstacles were, however, even- tually overcome, and the industry has since been planted in nearly every country of the Continent. It is, however^ only from France, Switzerland, and Germany that any contributions in the shape of improvements towards per- fecting or developing its machinery have been received. Whether this is owing to a deficiency of the inventive faculty or not amongst the people of these countries, we need not try to decide ; but it is a standing ground of complaint amongst English machinists that their conti- nental competitors confine their efforts mainly to imitating the devices and inventions first brought out in this country, instead of devoting their energies to the origination of something new. Whether this complaint is just or not, there is certainly not much original matter relating to im- provements in cotton machinery that will reward the labour of the inquirer into the records of continental inven- tion ; and the little that may be discovered cannot be re- garded as particularly important. In the countries of Asia the new system of cotton manu- facturing has yet obtained no hold, if we except India, into which it was introduced by English enterprise about thirty years ago, and where it has continued to make steady pro- gress, favoured by certain local conditions and the fiscal policy of the Government. Whether its development will continue at the same rate now that several of these cir- cumstances have been modified, is a question that only the future can solve. China and Japan have recently made tentative efforts in the direction of introducing this indus- try amongst their peoples, but as yet not much success has attended these efforts. It will not be a matter of surprise should the latter country, however, achieve a con- siderable degree of success, and that at no distant date. The strenuous efforts its government has put forth during INTRODUCTORT. 7 the last ten or twelve years to make its people familiar with the manufacturing arts of the West, is a phenomenon of which the latter should not fail to take note, as it may lead to important consequences which will seriously aflPect the hold that Western nations now have upon Asiatic markets. Iij other parts of the world, such as the western side of the North American continent, the central portions, and the southern half of the same continent, the amount of cotton manufacturing is practically nothing, the wants of the people in this respect being supplied from other centres of production. Australia and New Zealand come in the same category. In the vast continent of Africa the modern industry is unknown ; the little that is manufactured from the indigenous cotton plant which grows wild in the in- terior being wrought up by the most primitive of ap- pliances that have ever been used. The present magnitude of the industry will be adequately represented by the following figures, which form an esti- mate based upon the most recent information as to the number of spindles, excluding doubling spindles, in Europe, the United States, and India, at the present time : — 1883. Great Britain .... 42,000,000 Continent United States . India Other countries 22,000,000 12,750,000 1,750,000 1,500,000 Total . . . 80,000,000 If, therefore, we take the spindles of the world to amount in round numbers to 80,000,000, it will not be far from accuracy. The spinning capacity of these spindles is almost iuconceivable. Let us assume that they are constantly working, say, for fifty hours per week, spinning yarn of an average of thirty hanks of 840 yards each to 1 lb. The 8 COTTON SPINNING. speeds at whicli the machinery in the great spinning cen- tres of England are now working is such as to give a pro- duction of 7 yards of yarn to each spindle per minute, but this will doubtless be considerably in excess of that in other localities. It will, therefore, be safer to take 6 yards as the average production per minute per spindle, or a total of 18,000 yards of yarn each per week. Those who are cnrious in figures may pursue this thought at greater length and in many directions, in all of which the most interesting results may be attained. Thus much, how- ever, will suffice to show to what an important extent mechanical automatic labour has displaced manual indus- try, and to what an amount the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Cromptonhave alleviated in this one sphere alone the burden of human labour, or in other words have extended the blessings implied by the abundance and cheap- ness of the products of the cotton trade. The abundance and cheapness of the products of the cotton manufacture will best be illustrated by a few figures. According to the estimate of Messrs. Ellison and Co., the eminent Liverpool cotton brokers, the 42,000,000 spindles of this country consume 71,000 bales of cotton per week of an average weight of 400 lbs. per bale. This is equal to 1,420,000,000 lbs. per year of fifty weeks, two weeks being allowed for holidays and stoppages. The actual weight given by the same firm for the season 1881-2 rather exceeds this total, being 1,478,997,000 lbs. This vast weight of raw material was worked up into yarn and cloth, and after supplying our domestic requirements, we exported to foreign countries, including our colonies and dependencies, in the same season, 244,800,000 lbs. of yarn, and 4,456,000,000 yards of cotton goods, totals in both heads rather less than those of the previous year. The spindles of the Continent spin on an average lower numbers of yarn, and therefore require a correspondingly larger supply of the raw material. The consumption of the Con- tinent for the same season was 1,207,650,000 lbs. The INTEODUCTORT. 9 total consumption of the American continent may be set down at 2,000,000 bales per annum, or 960,000,000 lbs., which amount is annually increasing. To these vast quan- tities there is yet to add the amount required by the Indian spindles, which will be about 140,000,000 lbs. Taking the consumption of the American continent at 1,000,000,000 lbs., the total of these vast figures amounts to 3,767,650,000 lbs., or 9,419,125 bales of 400 lbs. each. This material, estimated on an average at 5cZ. per lb., will nearly equal a sum of £78,500,000. In the processes of manufacture this enormous sum is probably quadrupled by the addition of the skill, labour, and interest of the capital necessary for the conversion of this amount of cotton into its various commercial products. Not less important has been the influence of the rise of this industry upon the districts in which it is chiefly carried on. In 1750 the population of Lancashire was only 297,400, and the manufacture then existing was purely of a domestic character. Ten years later, the number of people engaged in the English cotton manufacture was estimated to be only about 43,000 persons, the product of whose labour would not equal that of 1,000 persons to-day. In 1770 the populations of Bolton and Blackburn were re- spectively about 5,000; at present, both of these towns exceed 100,000 ; and owe their growth to the develop- ment of this industry. At the same period, the population of Manchester was 40,000. The aggregate population of the group of towns now included under the same designa- tion is probably fifteen times this number, thus showing a growth nearly proportionate to that of the smaller towns just mentioned. The influence of Hargreaves* and Ark- wright's inventions were just then beginning to be felt in the great stimulus given to invention and industrial enter- prise. In 1775 the number of operatives employed in the trade had increased to 80,000, whilst the amount of cotton imported had grown to 18,500,000 lbs. The factory system may be said at this date to have just taken root. 10 COTTON SPINNING. Twelve years later, or in 1787, the number of factories had increased to 143, containing 550 mules on Cromp- ton's principle, and 20,700 jenuies on the plan of Har- greaves, which by this time had received some important improvements. The number of water frames on Ark- wright's principle cannot be ascertained ; but the total number of spindles at work on the three systems in this year is estimated at 1,951,000, the cost of which, and of the auxiliary machinery, together with the buildings in which they were contained, reached in the aggregate £1.000,000. The number of operatives directly employed in the industry was supposed to be 26,000 men, 31,000 women, and 53,000 children, or 110,000 in all. In the subsequent stages of manufacture the number of persons employed was similarly estimated to be 133,000 men, 59,000 women, and 48,000 children. These constituted a grand total of 350,000 persons. In the same year, the raw material consumed slightly exceeded 22,000,000 lbs. The estimated annual value of the cotton manuf icture at this time was £3,304,370, against £600,000 in 1767. In 1785 Cartwright first invented the power loom, and in the year under notice, 1787, took out his second patent for the same machine, which he had greatly improved. In this year cotton machinery was first introduced into France, and the first cotton mill was built in the United States. The systematic cultivation of cotton in Georgia and Carolina was commenced as a commercial speculation in 1788. In the year following the first steam engine used for cotton spinning was erected in the mill of Mr. Driuk- water, Manchester, by Messrs. Boulton and Watt. The parish of Oldham, now the greatest spinning centre in the world, at this time had only a population of 13,916. Pro- gress after this date was rapid, and need not be traced in any further detail. A host of inventors were engaged npon improving the existing, and devising new machinery. Their efforts in various degrees were successful. Samuel Slater, an apprentice of Arkwright's, had gone to America, INTRODUCTORY. 11 and was employed in imitating the macTiinery amongst which he had been trained. The improved machinery of Lancashire was smuggled out of the country to the Continent, in spite of stringent laws to prevent its expor- tation. The rapid increase in the productive power of the new machinery frequently led it to overrun *he distributive agencies then at work, and gluts succeeded one another rather frequently. The decline of values consequent on these conditions stimulated demand, which absorbed sup- plies, and quickly led to further extensions of machinery. Repetitions of these occurrences have constituted a great portion of the history of the trade, from the beginning of the current century to the present time. The most notable crisis in its history was the occurrence of the cotton famine in Lancashire, which arose from the war of Secession in the United States. This sprang from a movement having in view the preservation of the institution of negro slavery in the Southern, or cotton growing, States, which had grown to enormous proportions with the rise of the cotton trade. As every one knows, this cherished institution perished in the war ; and its downfall is now generally regarded, even in the cotton States themselves, as a satisfactory result. Since that time there has been little to chequer or retard the progress of the trade beyond the recurrence of times of prosperity and depression. The official returns of 1880 show that in England and Wales there were at that date 2,579 cotton factories, 2,482 of which were situated in what is known as the manu- facturing districts of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire, the remaining ninety-seven being scattered over other parts of the country. Scotland, at the same time, had eighty-nine mills, and Ireland six, also devoted to the manufacture of cotton, thus giving a total of 2,674 for the United Kingdom. At that time these mills con- tained 39,527,920 spinning spindles, 4,678,770 doubling spindles, and 514,911 power looms. The staff of work- 12 COTTON SPINNINQ. people was composed of 185,472 males, and 297,431 females. These numbers included 61,923 children under thirteen years of age, who were " half-timers." The total number of people thus directly employed in the cotton trade of this country alone was thus 482,903, which has probably increased since the date of these returns to 500,000. The above figures, however, very inadequately express the magnitude and importance of this gigantic industry, for they embrace none of the subordinate and dependent branches. These include that portion of the iron trade engaged in the production of cotton machinery ; the coal trade employed in providing fuel to supply its motive power ; the furnishing trades which provide its numerous accessories ; the bleaching, finishing, printing, and dyeing trades, that take its productions as they leave the mill ; the carrying trades, which transfer its raw materials and products from one part to another, and finally distribute them to all parts of the world ; and, lastly, those who take charge of its merchandise, no insignificant number in themselves. These vastly increase the aggregate of per- sons employed, and enlarge the general importance of the trade. From this brief description it will be seen that the growth of this industry is one of the marvels of modern times. Whether the same rate of progress can be main- tained or not in the future, as has been shown in the past, is a question that excites in thoughtful minds a great amount of interest, but the answer to which must be left for time to reveal. It may be safely said, however, that the present centres of the trade are not likely to be easily deposed from the position of eminence which they have acquired. Geographical location, climatic influences, and geological developments are amongst the chief conditions that control its successful conduct; and the character, training, and acquired skill of the people who are engaged in it, are elements that cannot be disregarded. There are INTRODUCTORY. • 13 comparatively few spots on the earth in which the neces- sary conditions and advantages exist, combined in the same degree as they are found in the manufacturing dis- tricts of England ; hence those interested may look for- ward with confidence to its maintaining its supremacy. Buttressed by protective tariffs, manufacturing may be carried on successfully in other countries not so suitably adapted to the purpose by natural conditions ; but with the progress of education which is taking place in all communities, the impolicy of allowing one section of a community to grow rich at the expense of the rest, will become so strongly obvious that the economic fallacy of protection will perish for want of support. This short review will show that whether judged by the amount of capital invested, the number of people employed, or the area over which it is spread, the cotton trade must be admitted to have but few rivals, and hardly any equal in importance, after precedence is given to the great pas- toral and agricultural industries whose object is to pro- vide the food supplies of mankind. To those persons, therefore, whose capital, skill, and life's labour is in- vested in it, scarcely a more important inquiry can be pre- sented than one having for its object an elucidation of the means by which the most satisfactory results may be attained, and each individual be enabled to direct his efforts to their accomplishment. To answer such an inquiry is the object of the following little treatise; and if the writer's effort be only approximately successful, the end in view will be attained. 14 COTTON SPINNING. CHAPTER II. Cotton. Cotton : its order, genus, species, and characteristics. — Possible cotton lands; countries in which it is cultivated. — Geographical names. —Suit- able soils for gi'owth ; preparation and sowing ; picking season ; picking; mechanical picking not successful. — American crop ; area ; cost of pro- duction ; variations in quality and their causes ; adulteration. — West Indies. — Central and South America; indigenous variety. — Egypt ; ex- tent of crop ; indigenous and exotic varieties ; characteristics.— India ; extension of cultivation. — Other Asiatic countries : China ; Japan and Java; Bokhara and Turkestan; Asiatic Tm-key; Syria and Persia; Cyprus. — European countries: Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain. — Differences of quality. — Geographical names the best. — Tabular state- ment of leading varieties : countries of production ; names ; districts where grown ; length of staple and diameter of fibre ; descripti(jns ; capabilities and uses. -Principle of classification; classification of lead- ing varieties. — Standard qualities and variation of these. — Careful selection required. — Mechanical structure of the cotton fibre : the cotton pod ; stages of growth ; the seed ; the fibre ; growth of the latter ; causes of its twisted or convolute form ; immature and undeveloped fibres. — Its mechanical structure, the basis of its usefulness. — Eecent curious disco- very by the microscope. — Cotton fibres compared with the other textile fibres. — Important general principles in spinning and manufacturing deduced from experience. NO plant, considering its importance to mankind, has received less attention from scientific men than the cotton plant. This is probably owing to its habitat being outside the countries where science has been most highly cultivated. The consequence is that amongst botanists there prevails considerable difi'erences of opinion concerning the number of species and varieties that exist. The plant is classed in the order Malvacece, under the name of Gossypium. Linnaeus divides the genus into five species ; De Candolle reckons thirteen ; and other botanists have enlarged this number. But Dr. Boyle, a most careful investigator, re- COTTON. 15 dnces the number to eight, and believes that these can be brought down to four primary ones, namely, Gossypiwm herbaceum, arhoreiim, hirsutum, and Barhadense. The first-mentioned of these species, the Gossypium her- Fig. 1. G. herbaceum. baceum, grows from four to six feet high, bearing a yellow flower. The seeds are covered with a short grey down, whil-t the fibre it bears is classed short. It is found native or exotic in Egypt, Asia Minor, Arabia, India, and 16 COTTON SPINNING. China. The short stapled variety of Egyptian cotton is of this species. Fig. 1 is a representation of this plant. The Indian cottons are the product of a variety named by Lamarck the G. Indicum. This grows from eight to ten feet high, and, like the allied species generally, bears a yellow flower, the seeds being downy, and the fibre short- stapled and very white. Figs. 2 and 3 show the fibres of these two plants enlarged under the microscope, the first being Surat and the second Smyrna cotton, shown npon micrometer lines on glass ^ ^^^ of an inch apart. The Gossijpiumarboreum, when full grown, attains a height of from fifteen to twenty feet, from which fact it derives its name. The flowers are red, the seeds covered with a greenish-coloured fur, and enveloped in a fine silky wool, yellowish- white in colour. It is found in Egypt, Arabia, India, and China. The G. liirsutum is a shrubby plant, its maximum height being about six feet. The young pods are hairy, the seeds numerous, free, and covered with firmly- adhering green down, under the long white wool. It is probable that this is the original of the green-seeded cotton, now cultivated so extensively in the Southern States of the American Union, and which forms the bulk of the supply from that source. The G. Barhadense (Fig. 4) grows to the height of from six to fifteen feet. Its flowers are yellow, and its seeds black and smooth, being quite destitute of the hair that dis- tinguishes several members of the species. As implied by its name, it is a native of Barbadoes, or has been culti- vated there for a long time. The cottons most highly esteemed in commerce belong to this species, having pro- bably undergone only slight modification as the result of climatic influences and variations in the method of cultiva- tion. The Sea Island and Bourbon cottons, from which the fine yarns used in the manufacture of lace are made, the long-stapled Egyptian, and several other good varie- ties, are said by some writers probably to be from this COTTON. Fiff. 2. Surat. 17 18 COTTON SPINNING. stock, as they possess many points of identity or resem- blance. If this is so, it has, however, undergone consider- able alteration by its transfer to new localities, and changes in the method of cultivation, as may be seen from the Fig. 4. Gossypiuni Barbadense. annexed drawing, Fig. 5. Fig. 6 shows the fibres of the Sea Island variety as enlarged under the microscope. A remarkable species or variety, the Gossypium religio- simij exists in India. It has for ages been devoted to the manufacture of clothing for the Brahmins, the religious caste of Hindoo society ; it is arborescent, and carries a COTTON. 19 pnrple bloom. The seed is stated to be small, nearly globular, covered with a greyish- white down and some hairs, of which those round the point are much longer Fig. 5. Sea Island plant of Georgia. than the seed, though few in number. Two varieties are known — those of Wanquebar and Cambaye. The yield is very small from both of them, and the filaments being condensed closely round the seed, renders it unfitted for 20 COTTON SPINNING. gimimg. It is therefore hand-picked, and takes a woman from twentj-six to thirty hours to pick one pound of lint. Formerly it was picked by nnns, whence one of its names, " nuns' cotton." Fig. 7 shows the fibre enlarged under the microscope. It will probably be best to let this general description of the most strongly-marked species suffice, because botanists hive never yet agreed about the characteristics upon which subdivision into varieties should take place, all the points hitherto selected for this purpose having proved unsatisfactory. Whether the cotton plant is a native of India, and from that country has spread over the localities in which it is now found, or whether it is indigenous to several of them, is a moot point amongst authorities, and one which there need be no attempt made to decide here, as either natural agency or human instrumentality may be regarded as sufficiently powerful to have accomplished the result. Those parts of the world in which cotton is or can be grown constitute a broad zone extending ^S'' north to 35° south of the equator. Reference to a map will show that it includes a space extending from the European shores of the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope, from Japan to Melbourne in Australia, and from Washington in the United States to Buenos Ayres in South America, with all the lands intermediate between these several points. These include the Southern States of the American Union, from Washington to the Gulf of Mexico, and three-fourths of South America, the whole of the African continent, and Southern Asia from the Bosphorus to Pekin in China. The vast area of Australia is also within the cotton zone, and the islands lying between that country and Asia. It will thus be seen that however large the ultimate demand may become, the supply will not fail for want of land in Buitable climates on which to produce it. At present, however, cotton is cultivated over only a- limitedarea. In many countries it is grownto asmall extent. COTTON. Fig. 6. Sea Island cotton. 21 Fig. 7. Keligious cotton. 22 COTTON SPINNING. to snpply the requirements of domestic manufacture ; but these instances are diminishing in both number and extent, owing to the successful competition of European pro- ductions, chiefly English. The concentration of cotton- manufacturing in a few great centres has greatly stimulated the growth of cotton in a few localities where climate, soil, and circumstances are most favourable to its successful cultivation. The principal of these, in the order of their importance, are as follows — the southern portion of the United States, India, Egypt, and the Brazils. From these countries nearly all the cotton consumed for manufacturing purposes in Europe and America is obtained ; several other sources, such as the West India Islands, the West Coast of Africa, and Asia Minor, contribute a small quantity to the bulk. A large amount is produced in China, but this is almost, if not entirely, consumed in the native manufac- tures. Successful attempts have been made to grow cotton in Natal, New South Wales, and Queensland ; and should economic circumstances ever favour the cultivation of the plant in those regions, they will be capable of supplying a great portion of the world's needs. In commerce, cottons are not designated by their scien- tific appellations, but by names derived from the districts or countries in which they are produced. Thus, " Sea Island " is chiefly grown on the small islands near the coast of Georgia and the Carolinas, and upon the coast line of the mainland. If this variety be cultivated further away from the sea, it rapidly deteriorates in quality. " Uplands " cotton is raised in the interior upon the higher lands of the States ; hence its name. Brazilian, West Indian, African, and Surats, are geographical adjectives, which sufficiently reveal the origin of the cottons to which they are applied. In all countries cotton is generally grown upon the light loam or sandy soUs, which, receiving and retaining the heat, whilst the substratum holds a good supply of moisture, force the plant into the most luxurious develop- COTTON. 23 ment. In deep rich soils, it develops too much leaf and stalk. Cold damp clays are unsuitable for it. The soil is prepared for the reception of seed by plough- ing during the winter months ; and sowing takes place in March, April, and May, according to countries and locali- ties ; the object being to avoid the exposure of the young plants to late frosts, which are extremely fatal to it. When thus caut^ht, it is often necessary to replant the whole area. The fields having been prepared for the recep- tion of seed, this, in some cases, is deposited in drills or furrows, at such distances apart as will allow space for the proper growth and healthy development of the plants. Five or six seeds are planted together, and afterwards thinned out as may be necessary. In other cases, holes are made in the soil with a stick or dibble, by men, and the seeds are deposited by women who follow them, whilst boys and girls come after with light hoes, and cover them up. The distance between the furrows is gene- rally about six feet from centre to centre, the space being left sufficiently wide to allow the labourers to pass between during the picking season. Large areas are thus rapidly planted in favourable weather ; when it is wet, the labour is much greater. Sowing finished, the efforts of the planter are directed to keeping his fields free from grass and weeds, which impoveiish the soil, impede the growth of the plant, and diminish its product. Greaf care, and often labour, is required in the fields until the picking season, which commences in the latter part of July, and lasts until the frosts kill the plant, flower- ing and fruiting proceeding simultaneously until that occurs. The picking season is the busy time on a cotton planta- tion. All hands are requisitioned, as the quality and clean- liness of the crop depends, to a large degree, upon its being quickly gathered after the bolls have opened. Should it be left on the plant long after opening, it is liable to be injured by the heat of the sun, which overdries it j or by 24 ' COTTON SPINNING. rains, wliicli stain it ; or, again, by winds which load it with sand, or dust and dirt of various kinds. The cotton fields are so arranged that a section can be given to each picker, who, provided with a bag tied round his body, and a sheet or large basket, which he leaves at the end of his section, passes rapidly between the rows using both hands, picking the opened bolls on each side, until he gets to the end, when he empties the contents of his bag upon the sheet, and recommences his work. Picking is an operation requiring considerable skill and expertness. The picker has to seize at the first eff'ort the whole of the cotton of each boll, and bring it away in his fingers, taking care also not to bring with it any of the boll leaf or petals, which is difficult to remove subsequently, and seriously deteriorates the quality. The average amount picked by each labourer in ordinary fields is about one hundred pounds of seed cotton per day, though here, as in all occupations, there are individuals who pick a weight considerably beyond this. The pickers go to the fields with the opening of day, and work, with little intermission for food or rest, until darkness closes in. Picking is a very unhealthy occupation in wet seasons, owing to the damp and rank undergrowth, which gives off", under the influence of the hot sun, heavy and noxious vapours, the cause of fevers, agues, and many other diseases. This description chiefly refers to the culture of American cotton, but it may also be accepted as typical of that of other countries. The picked cotton is carried to the store-house of the plantation or farm, generally at the end of the day's labours, where it is kept until it can be ginned : that is, have the seed separated from the fibre. In the prepara- tion of the finer qualities much more care is exercised than in the case of medium and low sorts. The rapid extension of cotton cultivation in the Ameri- can States has led to numerous attempts to invent a machine for gathering the crop. As yet these have not been successful, all revealing such defects in practical work- COTTON. 25 ing as to prevent their adoption. The cotton crop at the present time is chiefly limited by the picking capacity, and should this difficulty be overcome by mechanical appliances, a revolution and extension of cultivation quite as gTcat as that which followed the invention of the saw-gin may be expected to result, followed by a great reduction in price and increased consumption. A brief glance may now be given at the specialities of the different fields of production, and their relative im- portance. United States. — The American cotton crop in amount probably exceeds that of all other countries put together. The cultivation of the cotton plant in that country has attained its present magnitude in less than a century, and is at present expanding more rapidly than at any previous time. The area of land laid under cotton was in 1881 estimated to be near 18,000,000 acres. In a favour- able season this would represent a crop of 9,000,000 bales ; in an unfavourable one only half this amount. Cotton cultivation in the States has not attained this great posi- tion without passing through numerous trials that in the hands of a less enterprising people would have de- stroyed it. In illustration, we may mention the great Civil War. The results of that struggle ending in the abolition of slavery have been important. Free and more intelligent labour is now employed ; cotton planters, met by the energetic competition of northern immigrants, who are now in great numbers settling upon the cotton lands of the south-western States, are putting forth new energy. Better systems of cultivation have been introduced ; fer- tilizers are extensively employed, and the production of lint per acre, which had fallen to an average of about 150 lbs., has during the past few years been steadily rising, and now reaches nearly 200 lbs. Labour and the different materials necessary for raising cotton being articles of unstable value, the cost of produc- tion necessarily fluctuates with changes in them. This 26 COTTON SPINNING cost has, however, recently been estimated for a farm of 150 acres exclusively devoted to raising cotton, as follows : — Interest at 7 per cent, on valne of land $1,500 „ on value of four mules, implements, &c., $550 Repairs of fencing at 13 cents per acre . Wages of one white foreman and manager „ „ three negro ploughmen . Provisions for four hands . • • Food for four mules (one year) Salt and potash for manure @ $1 per acre Twelve bushels of cotton seed for planting and manure per acre 1,800 @ 10 cents Hire of eight extra hoe hands six weeks Extra labour for picking cotton Toll of l-15th for ginning Taxes @ 1^ per cent, on |2,050 . Aid for sundry incidental expenses Interest on outlay of $1,700 @ 12 per cent average time four months . $150.0() 38.50 19.50 200.00 210.00 100.00 300.00 150.00 180.00 120.00 120.00 195.00 25.12 100.00 68.00 Total expenses $1,831.12 As production varies all the way from 150 lbs. to 260 lbs» per acre, it will be safe to take a mean of these two amounts, or 205 lbs., which for 150 acres will give a yield of 30,750 lbs. at a cost of 5.95 cents per pound. Adding 75 cents for costs of transit, and other charges, from the interior to the ports, we obtain 6.70 cents, to which must be added 2.50 for commission, ocean transit, and landing charges at Liverpool, making the total cost laid down in that port equivalent to about 4ild. per pound, for a quality equal to average strict good ordinary. This estimate, however, does not take into consideration the profit derived from the sale of the seed, which, during the past few years. COTTON. 27 otving to its having been extensively used for the extrac- tion of oil, after which the meal that remains has been utilized for cattle feeding, has been very considerable. Assuming the product of lint or fibre to be 200 lbs. per acre, the cleaned seed will amount to 400 lbs., the propor- tion in ordinary years being two of seed to one of fibre ; the yield, therefore, from 1,800 acres would be 320 tons of seed in addition to the fibre,^ which must be added to the credit side of the above estimate." American cottons vary considerably in their charac- teristics and qualities. Being grown over a wide area, on different geological formations, at varying altitudes, on up- lands with thin soils and a scant supply of moisture, and in river valleys with deep alluvial soils with abundance of water, there results the natural difierences that might be expected from these conditions. There are wide varia- tions in the length and diameter of the fibres ; in the thick- ness of the walls and the number of the helical t wis tings. These differences are greatly increased when comparison is made between cottons grown on plantations or farms some distance apart. Also the system of cultivation pur- sued has an important effect on the quality of the crop. Where the grower trusts entirely to the natural fertility of the soil, especially in the older settled lands, the quality of his product will compare badly with that of his neigh- bour using fertilizers. Those persons whose experience in using American cotton extends beyond the period of the Civil War and the destruction of slavery, will remember the greater uniformity of American cottons at that time. Then it was possible to purchase repeatedly from the pro- duction of one plantation, where a large number of bales • The oil mills pay for seed delivered at a railway station or river landing $12 per ton, and as in the preceding estimate the cost of seed has been included, the above may be reckoned available for sale, yield- ing $3,640. ^ Not more than one-fourth of the seed available is yet utilized ia this manner. 28 COTTON SPINNING. had been grown under identical conditions, whicli ensured uniformity of quality. Since the fall of slavery and the decay of the planta- tion system, cotton growing has passed into the hands of small capitalists and farmers who cultivate the plant as their intelligence and necessities may dictate, which is too often in an ignorant and unscientific manner. These farms are scattered on the banks of navigable streams, by the side of railways, or near highways, in order to secure facilities of transit. Their owners send their seed cotton to gin-houses in the neighbourhood, where but little care is exercised to keep the lots separate. Here good, bad, and indifferently grown cotton is often mixed together to the depreciation of the bulk. Cotton is not usually baled either at the gin-houses or on the farms, but is packed loosely in bags. These are purchased by dealers who travel the country for the purpose, and are collected and sold to another class of dealers called factors, possess- ing baling establishments with presses, and who are found 1 )oth at the interior towns and the ports. Here the cotton gathered from so many sources ought to be carefully classified or graded before baling, but this is too often negligently performed. Hence arise the frequent com- plaints of cotton-spinners about false packing, several qualities often being found in one bale. The current crop (1882-3) is much complained of, on account of exces- sive dampness, which there is too much reason to suppose has been artificially introduced. In these establishments there has also sprung up of late years a vicious system of adulteration, in which a great deal of rubbish is wilfully introduced into the bale. The natural variation of the fibre, careless pack- ing and fraudulent mixtures, render the task of the cotton buyer exceedingly difficult, and one which requires the most experienced circumspection and careful discri- mination if an even quality of yarn has to be produced from its use. It is no longer safe to entrust the mixing COTTON. 29 of American cottons to mill labourers, but it is almost indispensable that the buyer or some qualified person be present to watch the unpacking of each bale in order to prevent a low quality of fibre finding its way into a *' mixing" intended to spin a good yarn. Owing to un- even growth, irregularity of twisting, and varying diameter of fibres, the latter do not combine so closely in spinning as does Egyptian, in which these qualities are more uniform; hence a soft, bulky, and comparatively weak yarn is pro- duced. Notwithstanding these serious defects, American cottons constitute the most important part of the world's supply, being used for the production of the middle num- bers of yam, which form by far the greatest portion of that required. West Indies. — During the last century England ob- tained its chief supplies of raw cotton from these countries. The variety grown was called Anguilla, which was similar to the present Sea Island, and from which the latter is said to have been derived. The increased production of sugar and the abolition of slavery caused the cultivation of cotton greatly to decline, and at present the total produc- tion is small. Central and South America. — Nearly all the countries embraced under this heading lie within the cotton zone, and are capable of growing it in abundance, and of good quality ; but the political disorganization that seems a chronic condition of most of them, has prevented the de- velopment of its cultivation to the extent that might have been expected in view of the great market existing for the crop in Europe. During the Civil War in the United States considerable numbers of cotton planters emigrated to these countries, and the production rose considerably. Of late years, however, most of these have returned to the States, and it has again declined nearly to its former level. It is not probable that under ordinary conditions these countries will ever become formidable competitors with the United States. 30 COTTON SPINNING. An indigenous species of cotton, the G. Peruvianum, is extensively grown throughout the countries under notice. It is arborescent, the plant attaining an altitude of from ten to fifteen feet. It yields good crops for several years in succession, and is renewed only about once in ten years. In the mountain districts of the Andes it bears fruit until the advent of snow and frost. The cottons known in the market as Pernams, Maranhams, &c., are obtained from this species. In Brazil the Orleans variety has been intro- duced and extensively cultivated, and, as modified by the change of locality, the product appears in the market as " Santos." The remainder of the Brazilian and Peruvian varieties as known to commerce are simply described by geographical adjectives, and are derived from either the arborescent species or the imported variety. The former are harsh and wiry in staple, and the latter soft, like the American kinds from which they spring. Egypt. — The most important cotton producing country on the African continent is Egypt. Though the indigenous variety has been known and cultivated for centuries, it is only since 1820, when the Brazilian species was introduced, that the cultivation of cotton has been systematically pursued, and has become an important industry. The climate and soil is exceedingly favourable, and the qualities of the staple are of the highest order. The chief difficulty en- countered is the deficiency of labour, which greatly impedes the extension of its growth. The crop is generally equal to 400,000-500,000 bales of 400 lbs., and has on one excep- tionally favourable season attained nearly 800,000 bales. Two or three varieties of exotic cottons are grown ; that from Sea Island seed, or the G. Ba/rbadense ; the South American, G. Feruviafnimt; and G. hirsutum. The first named does not produce a staple quite so good as when grown in its original habitat. These yield the white varieties of Egyptian cottons, and in several respects fall short of the best qualities of the thoroughly acclimated eorts. COTTON. 31 The chief characteristics of Egyptian cottons are the length, strength, and nniformity of their fibres, showing great equality of growth, probably arising from the remark- able freedom of the country from extreme changes of temperature. In these cottons, however, there occurs a varying quantity of short, hairy, or undeveloped, fibres. This defective staple is found most abundantly in seasons when the Nile has not risen to its usual height, and the plant has therefore been deprived of a sufficiency of mois- ture to secure full development. The opposite condition arises when the overflow has been extensive, as then both a greater quantity and higher quality are secured. India. — Since the cotton famine in this country, the re- sult of the American Civil War, India has formed an im- portant source of cotton supply. The native varieties nearly all belong to the G. herhaceum, and have been cultivated for thousands of years for domestic consumption, and to a limited extent for export. The great demand, and the high price which prevailed for several years owing to the above-named event, strongly stimulated production and led to an improvement of the quality. The rate of progress, however, has not been fully maintained. The cottons of India are commercially known as Surats, and are generally, like most others, characterized by the names of the localities in which they are produced. The best known are the Dharwar, Broach, Oomrawuttee, Dhol- lera, and Hingunghat. The last is the best quality, and is grown in the Central Provinces and the Berars. Exotic cottons have not been very successfully cultivated, and efi'orts have therefore recently been directed to improve the indigenous kinds. Other Countries of Asia yield cotton to a more or less extent, but beyond sufficing for local wants the growth is not of much importance. A brief enumeration of the dis- tinctive features of these growths will, therefore, be all that it is necessary to give in this place. China produces a large quantity of cotton, but rarely 32 COTTON SPINNINQ. exports any. During the cotton famine a fair quantity was sent to England of a fine white clean cotton, not very strong in staple, and therefore best suited for wefts, for which it was mostly consumed. Nankin cotton is a variety of the G. herbaceum. In Japan, Java, and several other islands in that locality, an inferior kind of cotton is grown, which is mostly con- sumed in the same places. Bokhara and Turkestan in Central Asia produce annu- ally about 1,000,000 cwts. of a coarse description of cotton, most of which is carried overland to Russia. In East Turkestan a better quality is grown, which is capable of taking the place of American. By stimulating the cul- tivation of cotton in that district, it is said that Russia hopes to establish her independence of external sources of supply. Soil and climate are favourable ; the plant attains a height of nine feet, and is moderately prolific. The Asiatic portions of the Turkish empire produce a fair amount of cotton, but with proper enterprise this could easily be increased five or ten fold. It is most successfully cultivated in the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The yield of these districts amounts to about 75,000 bales annually, which is mostly exported to the countries of southern Europe. The varieties are chiefly those of the G. herhaceum. Syria and Persia are capable of producing a fair quality of cotton. The latter country grows a considerable quan- tity, and the export has formerly, on occasions, amounted to as much as 100,000 bales. Cyprus yields cotton of fair staple, and with the intro- duction of enterprise and capital, might very largely aug- ment its crop. It is grown in the districts of Larnaka, Famagusta, Karpas, Lefka, and Kythrea. An average crop at present does not exceed 2,500 bales. Europe. — In Europe the countries bordering the Medi- terranean sea are the only ones capable of producing cotton. Tarkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain are all possible fields of COTTOX. 33 culture, but the first three only utilize their capabilities. In 1864, American seed was introduced into Italy, and under the stimulus of high prices over 200,000 acres were planted, the crop attaining a total of over 300,000 bales. It is at present cultivated around Bari and Barletta on the Adriatic, and in the districts of Salerno, Laron, Castellamare, south of Naples ; and in several places on the shores of Sicily. The products are known in the markets as Pugliar, Castel- lamare, Biancaville, and Terranova. A small quantity is also grown in Sardinia. This completes a brief view of the sources of production that may be regarded as of commercial importance. As may readily be inferred, cotton from over this wide area will differ considerably in its characteristics according to the species and varieties cultivated, and the climate, soil, and other circumstances. The best staple is produced on the light sandy alluvial soils of river valleys, where mois- ture is rarely deficient, and in which the plant can send its tap root down to and reach the supply in the driest seasons. These conditions are highly conducive to uniform growth of fibre in length and diameter, and consequently of its convolute twistings. Thin soils and deficient and irregu- lar supplies of moisture interrupt the growth and regular development of the fibre, and so produce an inferior staple, irregular in its length, diameter and twistings, not only when one fibre is compared with another, but in the latter qualities even in the length of individual fibres. Sea Islands and Egyptian cottons are the most uniform and perfectly developed staples, because grown under the most equable conditions. American varieties came next, and Indian cottons last in these respects. Of course all these conditions can be modified by careful cultivation and arti- ficial aids to nature, especially by manuring and irrigation, which, however, enhance the cost of production. As the climate of a district or country is, comparatively speaking, a fixed element, having an ascertained range of variation, the differences in the quality of the product D 34 COTTON SPINNING. within a given limit will also be known. Hence it will be obvions that the geographical designations given to cottons are the best and most useful that could be devised, because they afford a clue to the most important circumstances of its production. The species of cotton cultivated, the natu- ral conditions surrounding it, the systems followed by the growers, and the care and conscientiousness, or the absence of these qualities, bestowed on the cultivation are, in a ^neral manner, revealed by the name of the country in which the cotton has been produced. If we could wish for any change in this respect it would be for its further elabo- ration, in order to describe more definitely the locality of growth, whether valley or upland, as this would still farther help the buyer to secure a uniformly grown staple. In some American qualities this is done. The following tabular form exhibits these characteristics in detail in the most important cottons of commerce : — COTTON. 35 1 1 uitableforthe finest yarns that are pro- duced. Has been spun to over 2,000». hese qualities may be spun up to 60'. when used alone, but are greatly improved for the higher counts by admixture with Biazilian or Egyp- tian. 1 can or Egyptian, and will make good yarns up to 60«. or 70». counts. " H A g , 1 a, la 3 1) If i s g k J3 T •s .d "S -a c (A 11115 Kill ilil! i 2 iT^ S 3-3 o =5 2 2=1' •- - '=5 ij -illi 1 .1 ?J So ifiiifii s -id o ® §5:2 lO incvj o lo >« oo o o lO o 1 «o 9 MN^S M •« '-' -• ^ '-' -.-H a s o oo o O O ff-* » ^^ 9 C^._,CR-. ^ • • oS ^ -^ ^ ^ - ■ ■ ''" -^ s § S o §^ § S^^8 g ■M ^s § -H '-' -^ ^ -^ ^^^^ _ ■-^ ^^ S s 1 B 3 i 3 « V . II 1- 6 d |2g- Hi dJ i s 3 hi O-'S 13 'io *• •E 4J 5: ." S c •> d .- <„ . in 3"! o • QQ 03 * ly^i 1 -a 1 o no 1 J « OB 1 5 c9 B 0^ .=« 03 .*3 < s cS .d b ^" a 1" o 1 .2 4 36 COTTON SPINNING. o S ^ -vT T3 «'a .g|. ^ » 3^g •3a5 PC4 " H 3 a ™ WW IS •sW 12^ < i ^1 a-" 3 d 6 Sal S-rj 3 S o) g Ig a ^- .»-i^J S 5*3 is ts I ^1^ ■"'2 ^11 a a , O 08 * as ^ 4 I -I COTTON. 37 1 i These cottons cannot advantageously be used alone for num- bers above 288. or 30s., but in conjunc- tion with American are available up to 40s., and slightly higher for wefts. Exotic varieties can be used for higher numbers. 1 1 S*^a3;3^ §-3 t»§ 3 a ^S^^ as|g|§ ^ Mean dia- meter of fibre. I . : I : : ; : : : 5 : : s "5, s = I §S g ^§§S g « .S o c 2 ; :> : : : : : 1 ? I % : : : : : : : : : : : •: • 1 w i : : s : s : : : : • m g'i rl M -. Jimii ^1. 1 1 1^ ? 2o a fee '3 2 2 a •S H il 6 5 , 1 1 <5 88 COTTON SPINNING. The details embodied in the foregoing table will, in combination with the practical experience indispecsably necessary to safe operations in cotton buying, form a useful guide to the selection of the class of cotton that may be desired for any purpose. Cotton is assorted into classes or qualities to suit it for different uses, and to meet the wants of consumers in the most economical manner. It is a leading principle in spinning and manufacturing, and one that should never be lost sight of, that the material employed for the produc- tion of any kind of yarn should be of a quality sufficiently good to make a satisfactory article without risk of failure ; but that it should not be better, as all the quality above that requisite is wasted; on the other hand, it should never fall below the standard of requirement, as in that event the loss on depreciation of quality would considerably exceed any gain from the lower price of the raw material. This is the principle underlying the classification of cottons. The qualities chiefly considered in making the assortment are : length of staple, fineness, strength, colour, smoothness, and cleanliness. The cottons produced in the United States are generally divided into four classes : good ordinary, low middling, middling, and good middling ; and these again into several subdivisions. South American sorts form three : middling fair, good fair, and good. Egyptian two : fair, and good fair. East Indian three : fair, good fair, and good. The Liverpool Cotton Brokers' Association possesses standard samples of these classifications to which reference is made in case of dispute as to correct classification. The brokers individually form a set of reference samples by comparison with the official standards of the sorts of cotton in which they deal. This is for the purpose of ready comparison when circumstances call for such a step. Scarcely two cotton crops, however, are alike in point of quality, and consequently the standard samples are sub- ject to variation. According to the relative abundance, rig. 8. 40 COTTON SPINNING. scarcity, fulness, or deficiency of particular characteristics, the different grades are classed up or down from the official standard as the cases may require. Thus, within a limited range, there is a constant fluctuation of the standard. The preceding illustration (Fig. 8) will perhaps convey a more definite idea of the length of staple in several re- presentative varieties than can be gathered from a verbal description, or details in figures : — No. 1 represents Sea Island, mean length of staple, 1.65 in. ; 2, Egyptian, 1.60 in. ; 3, Pernambuco, 1.25 in. ; 4, American, 1.10 in. ; 5, Port Natal, 1.10 in. ; 6, Indian, 0.90 in. ; 7, Indian, 0.65 m. The number of these could be largely increased, but the above specimens will be adequate for the purpose in view. Practical skill and high discriminative power are needed to select cotton of the proper quality to make any parti- cular description of yarn, and these ought to be carefully exercised in the operation of buying, as mistakes cannot have their consequences entirely eliminated after the cotton has passed into consumption. The Mechanical Structure of the Cotton Fibre. — Of the various species of cotton, the G. herhaceum is the most widely distributed, and yields the greatest portion of our supply. As such, it may be accepted as the representative plant of the genus. It constitutes a small shrubby bush, when mature being about the height of a man. Sown in March, April, and May, it begins to bloom in June and July, fruiting towards the close of the latter month, and usually continues to bear fruit until killed by the frost. The flowers are generally yellow, though a few varieties have them of a reddish or purplish hue. The pod is pen- dent from the branches by a small stalk, through which nutrition from the plant is conveyed. The following illus- trations. Figs. 9 and 10, and description from the recently published monograph of Dr. Bowman of Halifax, an accom- plished scientific inquirer and practical cotton spinner, conveys a good idea of the cotton pod and the develop- ment of the fibre. COTTON. Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of cotton pod. 41 — ,B Fig. 10. Transverse section of cotton pod. The above figures represent longitudinal and transverse sections of the Egyptian cotton pod. In each case the letters refer to the same parts : A, stem ; b, section of calyx ; c, section of carpel ; d, midweb, with seeds attached ; e, section of seeds ; g, plexus of young cotton fibres. " If we examine a cotton pod in tlie earlier stages of its growth, we find, Fig. 9, that it is attached to the stem, a, 42 COTTON SPINNING. of the parent tree by a small stalk. Immediately below the pod itself we have a ring of leaves, four or five in number, forming what botanists call a polysepalous calyx, and be- tween which and the seed vessel itself there are the withered petals of the corolla which formed the coloured part of the flower of the tree. The pod or capsule itself is the developed ovary, and consists of a hard outward sheath, which is divided longitudinally into a series of valves, differing in number in the different varieties of cotton (usually three in Egyptian and four or more in American). These valves have each a rib or septum pro- jecting inward from the inner surface, and dividing the capsule into separate compartments, in which the seeds are confined. " In the earlier stages of growth the seeds appear to be attached to the inner margin of the carpilliary septa at the point of junction of these septa, that is to say, at the inner side of the carpel, where the two edges of the car- pilliary septa unite, and they are connected to it by vas- cular bundles, which proceed from below upwards, traverse the carpels, and send a branch to each seed. At the same time there is also a considerable development of cellular tissue, forming a ridge or placenta on the margins of the septa to which the seeds are attached. The seeds continue this attachment until they have attained their full size and the growth of the hair on the surface of the seed has com- menced. It then becomes gradually absorbed, and the seeds themselves are forced into the centres of the cavi- ties by the gradual development of the hairy covering. The structure of the cotton pod will be readily understood by a reference to the annexed drawings, where, in Fig. 9, we have a longitudinal, and in Fig. 10 a transverse section of an Egyptian cotton-pod. Here the seed vessel or carpel is divided into three separate compartments, each contain- ing a lock of cotton surrounding the seeds which are con« tained in them. The method of growth of the seed appeari to be like that of a nut, viz., by the successive deposit of COTTON. 43 concentric layers on the inner surface of the onter enve- lope. In a growing seed these successive layers are dis- tinctly visible even to the naked eye when the seeds are cut in two, the layers growing less dense as we proceed inwards, until we come to the oleaginous milky fluid which fills the centre cavity, and which gets smaller and smaller as the stage of maturity is reached. The development of hair commences at the further end of the seed from its point of attachment, and gradually spreads over the sur- face as the process of growth continues. " The first appearance of the cotton fibre itself occurs a considerable time before the seed has attained its final growth, and commences by the successive development of cells from the surface of the seed. These cells appear to have their origin iu the second layer of cellular tissue, and force themselves up through the epidermal layer itself, making good their attachment by the gradual absorption of the cell walls of the outer layer, which they displace and form a larger cell, out of which the linear propagation of cells commence. This point, however, needs further investigation, as, unfortunately, I have had few oppor- tunities of watching the method of growth in its earlier stages. " These germinal cells are distinguished in their earlier stages by the thickness of the cell wall in proportion to the diameter of the cell, and the method of growth is by the successive linear development of cells, the cell wall at the point of junction beiag gradually absorbed until an ex- ceedingly elongated cell is produced, which constitutes the cotton fibre. During this period of growth the cell walls are continually becoming more and more attenuated, and gradually fill up the seed pod with an apparently tangled plexus of young cotton fibres, whose growth and increase in the number of fibres as the seed continues to throw them ofi" tend to assist in bursting open the seed pod when the time of maturity arrives. " The length of the hairs varies considerably on different 44 COTTON SPINNING. parts of the seed, and indeed it appears doubtful whether they ever attain their full length until after the pod has fullj opened, and the fibres themselves have been exposed to the drying and ripening effect of air and sun. As a rule the longest fibres are those which have grown on the crown of the seed where the cell development makes its earliest appearance, and the shortest are always found at the base of the seed." The foregoing constitutes a very clear and interesting description of the cotton pod, the arrangement of the seed, and the development of the fibre. Some of the conclusions, however, appear open to question. The description of the development of fibre from germinal cells in the dermis of the seed, and which in this respect is remarkably similar to the growth of hair and wool in animals, the statement of the method of growth by the successive linear development of cells at the apex of the fibre, and the description of the absorption of the dividing walls at the point of contact so as to form one exceedingly elongated cell, constituting the cotton fibre, are doubtlessly quite correct, but it may be permitted respectfully to differ from Dr. Bowman in re- gard to his description of the concurrent and succeeding phenomena of growth. It seems highly probable that the elongated cell walls do not undergo attenuation as the length of the fibre increases, but the opposite ; length and diameter increasing together in all but exceptional and abnormal instances. It is more likely that whilst gTowth is progressing the fibre preserves a hollow cylin- drical form, in which the vital fluids of the plant circulate, conveying to each part the material necessary for growth and perfect development. In this process the cylinder walls are constantly growing in thickness by the depo- sition of material on their inner surfaces. When maturity has been attained, and the seeds are ready for casting, the vital fluids cease to be secreted and consequently are no longer supplied to the fibres. That which the latter con- tain is either absorbed by the seed or dispersed by dessica- COTION. 45 tion — we incline to believe the former, the effect being that a vacuum is formed in the hollow of the fibre. This ab- sorption of the fluid is not instantaneous, but extends pro- bably over several, say two or three, days. The apex extremity of the fibre is a cone of what may be called almost solid cellulose, which nearer the base gradually opens into the tubular form, which is continued to the junction of the fibre with the seed. As the circulatory fluids are withdrawn, the vacuum is formed in the tube at the point nearest to the extremity of the fibre, and at which it begins to collapse owing to the pressure of the atmosphere, the process closely following the retreating fluid down the length of the cylinder to its base in the seed. The con- sequence is that the free end of the fibre is twisted on its own axis a considerable number of times, and as this is going on simultaneously in almost every fibre of one pod, the primary order of arrangement is disturbed to such an extent that the carpel is burst open and the mass of fibres is exposed to the dessicating influence of the sun's rays, which quickly completes the process. The form of the fibre has now been changed from the hollow cylinder maintained during growth to that with which we are most familiar, a twisted ribbon-like figure having corded edges. This corded form of the edges is caused simply by the bending of the fibre walls upon themselves in the action of collapsing and is a necessity of a properly developed fibre. Such the writer believes is the normal process of develop- ment in the cotton fibre, which results in a mechanical configuration that admirably fits it for the purpose which nature designed, namely, the dispersion of the seed, and also for the use to which it has been converted by man. Against this theory it may be urged that in all pods of cotton short, immature, or undeveloped fibres are always to be found. In reply to this it will be sufficient to point out that growth does not commence in all the fibres of one pod, or indeed of one seed, simultaneously ; hence all da not reach maturity at the same moment ; neither are all 46 COTTON SPINNING. the germinal cells of the fibres equally vigorous in secre- tive or circulative power : hence both length and diameter of fibres may differ considerably. Neither does the safety nor natural propagation of the seed require that all the fibres of each seed should be perfectly developed; it is sufficient for natural requirements if they form a loose flossy mass presenting a great surface with little weight to the action of the winds, which, if not interfered with, would carry them far and wide in the locality of their growth. In some instances very thin transparent and flat fibres are present : possibly owing to the reproductive power of the cells operating in all their force whilst the circulation of the vital fluid is weak, impeded, or entirely obstructed. These undeveloped walls may collapse with- out producing a single convolution of the fibre ; hence the ribbon-like, transparent, and apparently structureless cha- racter of these fibres. The mechanical structure of the cotton fibre, as the writer has observed in another place, is such that its per- fect development has an important bearing upon its quality. As received in this country mature or ripe cotton fibres when placed under the microscope present the appearance of irregularly twisted ribbons with thick rounded edges. The thickest part is the root end, or base, that which was attached to the seed. The diameter of the cylinder re- mains without material change through, probably, three- fourths of its length, after which it more rapidly tapers to a point. The accompanying illustrations admit of a compa- rison of the fibres of cotton at different stages of growth or development. Figs. 11 and 14 exhibit a portion of mature fibre and sections magnified. The latter show it to be a collapsed cylinder, the walls as compared with the bore being of considerable thickness. The one or two exceptions to this form are probably instances in which the cylindrical form has been ruptured. Fibres possessing these character- istics are considered well developed, being the longest and strongest. But amongst the perfect fibre there is always COTTON. 47 more or less of unripe, imperfectly developed, or dead fibre, this being lessor more accordingly as the surroundings have been favourable or unfavourable during the period of Kg; 11. Fiff. 12. Fig. 13. Fig: 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. growth. In commercial- cottons, especially of the lower grades, the proportion of defective fibre is always largely increased by the practice common, if not general, amongst cotton growers of collecting the immature pods on,the cotton 48 COTTON SPINNING. plant after the latter has been killed by frost, or from ex- haustion of their vital power have ceased to grow, These are dried and the lint stripped from them, which is added to the bulk. The appearance of the unripe fibre is very different, both longitudinally and in section, from that which is mature. In Figs. 12 and 15 the half ripe fibre is shown longitudinally and in section. In this case the ribbon is flatter, the twists are fewer, and the thickness of the corded edges is diminished. The sections show the col- lapse of the tube to be so complete as almost to destroy all trace of the original cylindrical form. The least ripe fibres that appear in commercial cottons are illustrated in Figs. 13 and 16. The twisting is further diminished, and the corded edge disappears altogether. The internal surfaces adhere so closely that the hollow is quite lost, and the sections appear like crooked bits of fine wire. This is owing to the deficient quantity of the cellulose deposited. These fibres are thin, brittle and weak, and incapable of taking dye-stuffs in dyeing and printing. Occasionally these defective fibres are found in greater abundance than at other times, and more frequently in irregularly grown cottons, or the cottons of those countries where the plant is apt to suffer from a deficiency of mois- ture, as in Indian cottons. When abundantly present they greatly depreciate the working qualities of the bulk, and it is an important matter in judging of cotton to be able to distinguish them. This ability may be acquired by care- ful observation, and in this the natural sight may be beneficially aided by a powerful lens. The mechanical structure of cotton fibres, especially in having a convolute form and corded edges, peculiarly adapt them for numerous uses. If they were cylindrical like the fibres of flax and hemp, they would be too short to hold together when spun into a thread. When the proper structure is fully developed, in the twisting process they become firmly bound together, one fibre folding over and gripping the corded edge of another, thereby enabling a con- COTTON. 49 tinuous thread of considerable strength to be made. When the finest and longest stapled varieties of cotton are used, this thread is capable of great attenuation. Cotton gathered from the unopened pod does not possess the perfect convo- lute form in the fibre ; and, as seen in the illustrations, fibres that from other causes are imperfectly developed come in the same category : hence do not possess the same cohesive power when spun into yarn. When present to any appre- ciable extent they are the cause of serious defects when the yarn or cloth containing them has to be dyed or printed. The convolutions in Egyptian and American cottons are more regular and the development more perfect than in other descriptions, which fully accounts for the acknowledged superiority of these varieties. The naked eye is incapable of distinguishing these twistings, but the microscope shows them to amount to from one hundred to three hundred an inch, and closer investigation would probably show a wider variation than even this. It will interest the reader to have placed before him the results of some very recent researches into the structure of the cotton fibre. These have been conducted by Mr. John Butterworth of Shaw, and were first made public in a paper read before the Oldham Microscopical Society, on April 10th in the current year (1883), and communicated to the present writer for publication in the " Textile Manu- facturer." In the year 1863 Mr. Charles O'Neil of Man- Chester, well known as a writer on tinctorial matters, had been conducting some researches in connection with the cotton fibre and its behaviour under certain chemical agents. In employing Schweitzer's solution (an ammo- niacal solution of oxide of copper) for dissolving cotton and other forms of cellulose, he made numerous experiments upon the former, watching its action upon the fibre by means of the microscope. In the course of these he thought he could discern four distinct parts of the fibre — 1st, the outside membrane, which did not dissolve in the solution ; 2nd, the real cellulose beneath, which dissolved, first swel- s 50 COTTON SPINNING. ling out enormously and dilating tlie outside membrane ; 3rd, spiral fibres, apparently situated in or close to the outside membrane, not readily soluble in the copper liquid, and which were not so elastic as the matter of the outside membrane, and acting as strictures upon it ; these pro- duced bead-like swellings of a most interesting appearance ; and 4th, an insoluble matter occupying the core of the cotton hair, which very much resembled the shrivelled matter in the interior of qaills prepared for making pens. Mr. O'Neil noted at the same time that the outside mem- brane, which was insoluble in the menstruum and imper- meable to it, could not be found on cotton which had been submitted to the usual bleaching process. It had been dissolved away, or, what seemed more probable, some pro- tecting resinous varnish had been removed, and then it became soluble. These conclusions of Mr. O'Neil were questioned some time afterwards by Mr. Dancer, an eminent microscopist of Manchester, who repeated Mr. 0' Neil's ex- periments, and saw what he saw, but concluded that the spirals seen did not exist in the cotton fibre, but were formed by the rotating or twisting of the hair under the influence of the solvent. The disputed point has, however, recently been further investigated and authoritatively set at rest by the researches of Mr. Butterworth, who has strongly confirmed the conclusions of Mr. O'Neil. Mr. Butterworth carefully observed the behaviour of the fibre while under the influence of the solvent, with various powers ranging from 100 to 1,600 diameters, and saw it clearly as represented in (1) of the annexed illustration. Fig. 17. The longitudinal stria were scarcely perceptible at from 300 to 400 diameters. Though the Fig. at d may be slightly overdrawn, the spiral threads were clearly seen apparently crossing in the manner shown, as well as being tightly bound round the fibre at irregular distances, C form- ing the bead-like swelling referred to by Mr. O'Neil. If the solution is strong, this swelling of the cellulose is per- formed so rapidly, as to burst these bands, and the field of COTTON. 51 the microscope becomes covered with them in broken cir- clets. If the solution be only of moderate strength, the swelliDg of the cellulose goes on slowly, and its striated appearance comes into view beautifully. When strictures occur near the end of the fibre the cellulose protrudes from the end, forming a fan-like appearance, yet retaining its striated character, as shown at A. The spiral threads are often seen passing from one stricture to another, as shown at b, and under a high power it can be seen that the 1 IC 1 IC2 # ^ ■^^^^tev im ^^'iX . ^p"'" If ffi\"^^ 1 ' ^ '^^ Fiff. 17/ Magnified view of cotton fibre. rapid swelling of the cellulose has burst them asunder, the ends of each thread showing that they have been torn violently apart, as seen at c. In some instances the solu- tion is not powerful enough to throw the cellulose into the bead-like form, but it takes out the natural twist and gives it a cylindrical form. Under these circumstances the core of the fibre can be seen having the spiral form, as shown in 2. Seen in transverse section, the fibres take the appearance of concentric rings, 3 and 4, a state in which they have been recorded by Mr. Walter Crura, an 52 COTTON SPINNING. emment calico printer of Manchester. In referring to the waxy covering of the fibre which is removed by bleaching, Mr. Batter worth stated his belief that its scanty or abun- dant presence would be found materially to affect the work- ing capabilities of cottons ; also that as long as it is present a perfect bleach cannot be obtained. The above is a condensed statement of Mr. Butter worth's views upon this interesting subject. The illustration, how- ever, reveals a few additional points and suggests some further thoughts. The structure of a fibre of cotton is shown by these drawings to be exceedingly complex, and it may fairly be inferred that all is even not yet known. The function or purpose of these curious threads appears to be to impart strength to the tube or fibre, to preserve it from rupture during the period of growth, when the vital circulation of fibre is most active, and the deposited cellu- lose least consolidated. It may be safely assumed that the core of the fibre showing a spiral form consists of the cellulose held in suspension in the circulating fluid, at the moment circulation and deposition ceases, which is when maturity is attained. The absorption and dessication of the fluid leaves the solid cellulose behind in a thin shrivelled film precisely as pointed out by Mr. O'Xeil in the analogous phenomenon seen in a dried quill. The transverse sec- tions, 3 and 4, are exceedingly instructive, and appear to fully substantiate the argument laid down a few pages back relating to the phenomenon of growth. The con- centric circles prove that growth is orderly and progres- sive, while at the same time it is liable to be affected by external conditions. Were growth perfectly steady and at a uniform rate, the deposit of cellulose upon the inter- nal surface of the fibre would be continuous, and would not show the laminated form seen in these cases. These divi- sions register, in all probability, periods of interrupted growth arising from atmospheric changes, such as falls in the temperature, great heats, or droughts, all of which so visibly affect plant life. During these periods of arrested COTTON. 53 development the cellulose already deposited has time to solidify or harden to such an extent, that when growth is resumed only an imperfect union can be established be- tween the layer previously deposited and the one which then commences to be formed. The phenomena revealed by Messrs. O'N'eil and Butterworth accord in every detail with those of vegetable life in every other department. The concentric circles shown in the sections are precisely like the rinofs exhibited in the cross section of the stem or Animal fibres and sections. trunk of a tree, and which mark the season's growths ; the longitudinal fibres have their analogues in the fibres of the flax, hemp, jute, and other plants of a kindred nature, where greater strength is required to enable the plant to attain to maturity and to propagate itself than could easily otherwise be attained wiihout the expenditure of additional material. This would have been a wasteful act, of which Nature, as the most perfect economist, is never guilty. Whether the reader agree with these conclusions or not, 54 COTTON SPINNING. it will readily be admitted that the phenomena are interest- ing, and a knowledge of them can hardly fail to be advan- tageous. It will interest the student of spinning to see in what respects the fibre of cotton differs from fibres of animal origin. The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 18 and 19) of various classes of wools and hairs afford the means of making this comparison : A represents a fibre, and longi- ij^ M F G HI Fig. 19. Animal fibres and sections. i l,i? cndinal section of another, of merino wool ; b similarly shows the Southdown wool, one of the finest and shortest of English wools ; c and d Leicester and Lincoln wools, or the long wools of this country, one portion of which are also known as lustre wools, extensively used in the Brad- ford trade. A common, coarse wool is shown in f ; whilst G represents goat's hair. H shows a fibre of mohair ; i, cowhair; and J, human hair. The finest wools are from ^^^ to -5--^ inch in diameter, and contain from 2,600 to COTTON. bo 2,900 serrations in the inch ; medinm fine wools are from ._^ to y-^-g- inch in diameter, and contain from 2,000 to 2,500 serrations per inch. Coarse wools include all below .^-L^ in diameter, and a corresponding diminution of the serrations. The knowledge acquired during the progress of the art of cotton manufacturing has resulted in establishing cer- tain general principles or truths relating to the art which cannot be disregarded when it is desired that the best possible results should be the outcome of the operation. These may be briefly summarized as follows : — That the selected cotton should be as uniform in quality as possible — that is, in the length, strength, diameter, and convolutions of the fibre, — and should be uniform in soft- ness and colour. When, from economical considerations, it is advisable to mix different varieties in order to lessen the cost, regard must still be had to this principle, in order to secure the most perfect combination of the fibres, the gi'eatest product in yarn, the least in waste, and the thread of the yarn uniformly solid, round, even, and strong. Cotton should be thoroughly " mixed," even when only one class is used — that is, the contents of the difi'erent bales should be spread in thin alternate layers upon each other, in order to modify any accidental difi'erence in the bales arising from any cause, such, for instance, as care- less or wilfully false packing. When several varieties are used, this is absolutely necessary, in order to secure thorough incorporation, and a uniform condition in the blend. The raw material must be thoroughly "opened," and cleaned from impurities — that is, the matted fibres must be disentangled, freed from sand, dust, seed, leaf, unripe fibres, and any extraneous substance that may by accident or otherwise have been introduced. The fibres must next be laid in parallel order, and so conducted through the successive stages of preparation until that of spinning is reached. This must be accom- 66 COTTOX SPIXXIXG. plished withont the fibre being strained, doubled, broken, rolled, or otherwise injured. When cotton is strained, its convolute form is to a great extent destroyed, the power of the fibres to interlock with each other when being spun is greatly diminished, and the strength of the yarn corre- spondingly lowered. The strength of a fibre of cotton is measured by the weight it will raise without breaking. The maximum possible strength of a yarn is the aggregate strength of the fibres which compose it, as shown in a section. This, however, can never be obtained in practice, it being a well- known fact that torsion does not increase, but greatly diminishes the strength of fibres to which it is applied. This fact teaches ns that yarn should not be twisted more than is necessary to secure the proper cohesion of its fibres when under tension, if it be desired to obtain its maximum of strength. These are the scientific principles of cotton-spinning, as demonstrated by all past experience, and the highest form of the art is that in which they are most perfectly em- bodied in practice. There are, however, few, if any, in- stances in which the best result attainable is ever directly sought. The economic question is always intruded, and the problem resolves itself into one of how to make the best article possible, consistent with securing a profitable sale for the product. This, it will be obvious, is a very different matter from the preceding one ; and as it con- stantly confronts the practical spinner in the conduct of his establishment, it ought to be thoroughly comprehended, and its importance fully appreciated by the student of the art, and the working men employed in each branch of the trade. THE MILL, 57 CHAPTER III. The Mill. Essentials of successful spinning — Divisions of the trade. — Selection of locality ; supply of operatives ; proximity to markets for purchase of raw materials and disposal of productions. — Site of mill ; sheltered position, humidity, soil, water. — Roads ; advantages of proximity to residences of workpeople. — Materials decided by circumstances. — Sys- tems of construction. — Illustration. Fire-proof mill ; points of impor- tance in structiu-e. — Arrangement of interior. — Engines ; transmission of power to machiner}^ ; gearing, belting, ropes, advantages and dis- advantages. — Arrangement of machinery. — Steam and Avater power. — Boilers and their adjuncts. — Care against corrosion. — Incrustations ; their variety, danger, and wastefulness ; soda, sometimes a remedy j economical heating. COMPETITION" in the cotton trade is now so severe, both at home and abroad, that anyone newly adven- turing therein cannot afford to neglect the slightest matter that may be conducive to success. If possible the beginner should start with a sufficiency of capital to secure a perfectly new establishment, well found in every respect, and have a balance left large enough to conduct its commercial opera- tions with advantage. Without a level beginning, the chances of success are proportionately diminished. The locality must be well chosen, the site of the mill carefully selected, the mill well constructed, the machinery must be of the best for its particular purpose, the management must be skilful, economical, and thoroughly honest. The mana- ger must be perfectly versed in the practical details of his business, and able to manage men as well as machines. The commercial division of the business must be con- ducted with skill, prudence, foresight, and a fair share of enterprise. Old methods of procedure must not be re- 58 COTTON SPINOTNG. fcained from an excess of conservative sentiment when it is obvious that they have been superseded by improvements ; and machinery must not be retained in work, though in- trinsically in good condition, when mechanical invention has rendered it virtually obsolete. Anyone not willing to recognize and act upon these truisms had better not invest his means in the cotton trade. Technical, scien- tific and commercial knowledge, combined with steady industry and prudent enterprise, are required to ensure success. The following pages will be devoted to an exposition of the means whereby, from the materials employed, the highest quality and the greatest quantity of production may be obtained at the smallest cost. This task will be rendered all the more easy by the fact that there is no antagonism in the methods : what conduces to one result being equally favourable to the other. The mechanical treatment of cotton — the processes it undergoes in its transformation into yarn — take place in the mill. This, to most readers of the present essay, will be a familiar edifice, though all may not be acquainted with the essential qualities of a good or first-class mill, nor with the conditions by which it should be surrounded. Cotton-spinning is divisible into three or four branches : the fine trade, chiefly located in Manchester and immediate neighbourhood, in which the finest cotton yarns are pro- duced ; the medium fine trade, of which Bolton is the great centre, and which is also found to some extent in Chorley and Preston ; the medium trade, which constitutes the great bulk of the cotton industry, and is principally located in South-east Lancashire, and to a considerable extent in the weaving districts of East Lancashire ; the coarse trade which has its seat mainly in Oldham, Koch- dale, Todmorden, and the Eossendale Valley districts, and the waste trade spinning up the refuse material of the preceding branches, which is almost concentrated in Oldham. THE MILL. 69 Having decided which branch to follow, this will, to some extent, decide the selection of the locality ; this in all cases ought to be a place in which an abundant supply of trained and experienced hands can be had. Consistently with this, it should be in near proximity to the principal markets for the purchase of raw materials, and the sale of the produce ; the cost of carriage inward and outward, rather than distance merely, being the point on which a favourable decision should hinge. The first is necessary to success, as without it the production will be less than it ought to be, thereby being burdened with a heavier pro- portion of the fixed expenses of the establishment than is that which comes from competing mills which yield a high average ; the quality of the article produced will be inferior, and will therefore sell for less money ; the amount of waste will be excessive, and the depreciation of the working plant unduly rapid. The important character of these considerations, which relate mainly to the internal economy of the establishment, will be obvious without further remark. The second is connected chiefly with the commercial conduct of the business, and is important, on the ground that carriage charges for material or product should not be a tax upon the profits ; but its chief value consists in affording facile access to the markets in order that the persons charged with the duty of buying and selling may always be on the spot to take advantage of momentary phases of weakness or strength that may pass over the market : the former offering advantages in buying, the latter in selling. If other circumstances than these decide the selection of locality, care should betaken to see that they fully compensate for the loss that will arise from the absence of these advantages. The satisfactory deter- mination of these points is extremely important, because it can easily be demonstrated that it would be more pro- fitable to plant a mill in a locality possessing skilled labour and in proximity to the markets, paying full prices for buildings and machinery, and providing a sufficiency of 60 COTTON SPINNIXG, working capital, tlian it would be to accept one of the same capacity as a free and untrammelled gift, but located in a place not possessing these advantages. At the end of a period of fifteen or twenty years the proprietor of the former would be able to retire with a fortune, whilst the owner of the second would be penniless, or only the pos- sessor of a worn-out mill, which it would be folly to work in competition with such as the first. The truth of this statement has many times been amply demonstrated. The locality having been decided upon, an appropriate site needs to be found. A few practical considerations, which should always be carefully attended to, will help to settle this .point. Cotton, it is well known, spins and weaves best in a warm humid atmosphere. A valley pro- tected from dry winds and open to moist ones will there- fore a flPord eligible sites ; in other words, having particular application to the English manufacturing districts, it should be sheltered on the east and north, and open to the west and south. The subsoil should be of stiff impervious clay, which will afford a solid foundation for the mill, and in the vicinity retain the rain-fall, as it were, in a subterra- nean reservoir, evaporation from which in the dryest seasons will moisten and soften the atmosphere of the locality — a great advantage at such times. An abundant and never-failing supply of water is an essential requisite, otherwise space for an artificial reser- voir will be required ; the latter will be best and most economically formed on a clay subsoil. Good roads giving easy access for cartage jDurposes, and to and from the residences of the ojoeratives, are impor- tant. The site should be within such a distance, of the homes of the latter as would permit all employed to go to meals and return within the time legally provided for that purpose. Of course there will always be some exceptions, in which operatives will come from too great a distance to permit of this, and provision has then to be made for allowing food to be taken upon some part of the premises THE MILL. 61 not amenable to the visits of the factory inspector, or where the law would be liable to be violated, entailing responsi- bility upon the owner. This state of matters always en- tails some extra supervision, and consequently cost andrisk. A short walk in the open air, such as is had by going home to food, is always invigorating and promotive of health amongst the operatives, and ought, in all cases where practicable, to be encouraged. It refreshes them and breaks the monotony of their labour, to which they afterwards return with renewed strength. The fittest material for the edifice will be decided by the circumstances of the locality. If stone lies in close proximity and can be easily quarried, it constitutes an ex- cellent, durable and cheap material. When stone is not conveniently near, and the site selected contains clay from which bricks can be made, these will generally be found the most economical and suitable article. Should it be necessary to provide a reservoir for water, any clay exca- vated for this purpose, and also that obtained from the foundation trenches, will be available for this use. The systems of construction are various, and circum- stances will best decide which shall be adopted. Mills have ordinarily been erected on the non-fire-proof system, but this of late years has become almost obsolete. Another method is the partial fire-proof plan, in which the portion most liable to destruction by fire — until recently considered that part of the mill in which the preparatory machinery is located — is constructed as far as possible without timber. Of late, however, in consequence of the acceleration of the speed in every department, and especially in the spinning- rooms, both for mule, throstle, and ring frames, the risk of fire has been rendered equally great in these departments. The experience of the past 'few years, which has afi'orded many examples of this fact, has established the public pre- ference for the most modern plan, in which the whole structure is made as nearly fire-proof as possible. As an illustration of this system of mill architecture, a 62 COTTON SPINNING. plan, longitudinal and cross sections (Figs. 20, 21, 22) are given. These were prepared from drawings kindljfurnished by A. H. Stott and Sons, mill architects of Manchester and Oldham, and will adequately represent the method of con- struction such as now prevails throughout the spinning districts of South Lancashire. To facilitate description, let it be assumed to be the plan of an actually existing mill. On this supposition the dimensions of the main portion of the structure are 295 ft. X 125 ft. It has four flats and a cellar. The four flats are of sufficient capacity to contain 75,000 mule spindles with adequate preparatory machinery. The foun- dations are of coarse rubble on one foot of mortar concrete. Those on which the columns immediately rest are of flag- stones. The walls are composed externally of pressed brick, and internally of common brick. The window sashes are glazed in the lower part with rough plate, and in the upper part with clear glass. The floors are sup- ported upon cast-iron columns, in which brackets or arms are cast. To these are secured rolled iron beams, the ob- ject being to get two arches in place of one. Each pillar bracket is connected with the next by an arch beam, to form a complete continuation between the pillars and in the direction of the brackets. The brick arches are 7 inches thick at the base, diminishing to 4i- inches at the crown. They are turned between the beams. Timber joists 2^- inches deep are laid across the beams, and the space be- tween filled up with concrete. When this has become thoroughly dry, the floors are laid with li inch deal boards nailed to the joists. Boarding is, in many respects, pre- ferable for all floors except cellars and blowing-room. The floor of the cellar should be composed of bricks laid on puddled clay, with passages formed of cement concrete or flag-stones. The roof is constructed in the same manner as the floors, but the concrete is laid level, and then covered with two coats of asphalt, each i. inch thick. These coats are turned up the wall 18 inches all round, and protected To face page G2. Fig. 20. Plan of Cotton Mill. Ground Floor. To /•ice page G2. 64 COTTON SPINNING. from the weather by a dwarf brick wall built inside on the asphalt. Constructed thus, the roof forms a reservoir capable of containing 6-12 inches water. The object of this is to render it thoroughly fire-proof. A greater depth of water is sometimes preserved, and arrangements made for utilizing it at a moment's notice in the event of fire. When this is adopted, conduit pipes are laid to and around the interior of each room, and provided with the necessary taps. The stair-case is composed of stone treads with cast-iron risers. The roof of the engine-house is fire-proof, and supported on large rolled iron girders ; that of the boiler-house is of ordinary construction, containing ventilators. The chimney is planned for an altitude of 210 feet, with an external diameter of 17 feet, and an internal one of 8 feet, tapering to an external diameter of 9 feet 10 inches, and an internal one of 7 feet 6 inches at the top. The points of chief importance in the construction of a cotton mill, and which require careful attention in pro- viding, are a solid bed for foundations, sound bricks or durable stone, and good mortar. The walls should be thoroughly true, well set, and quite perpendicular, and of such strength as to reduce vibrations to a minimum. Win- dows should be large to secure abundant light. The floors should be so constructed that no cavities are left in them to afford lodgment for loose " fly," waste, and similarly dan- gerous matter, that is liable to spontaneous ignition, and may result in the burning of the structure. The inner surfaces of the walls ought to be smooth and even, in order to prevent " fly " collecting upon the inequalities, whence, by a sudden inrush of wind on the opening of a door or window it might be blown upon a gas jet, and a conflagra- tion ensue. Every care should be adopted to secure im- munity from the latter contingency, which means the absolute destruction of so much capital. In many cases a mistaken notion prevails that a proprietor is recouped by means of insurance against the danger, but this is not be "^ j : :iUB Qi .. j a 66 COTTON SPINNING. the case. The insurance premium is a heavy tax upon the earnings of a mill, but though a wise provision, and one that ought never to be neglected, it does not diminish the disaster to the extent of a shilling. A proprietor who has his mill destroyed after the payment of the first premium, and receives the full value, has simply received engaged contributions from the profits of other mills to make good his loss. If this subject was thoroughly understood and its importance fully appreciated, it would lead to more pre- cautions being taken to prevent fire, and to promptly ex- tinguish it when it has broken out. This might easily be done at less cost than the amount of one annual premium, and the liability to destruction be reduced one-half in consequence, whereby a great reduction in the fire-tax ought to be obtained. Returning to the description of the mill : the arrangement of the interior is as follows : — The ground-floor contains the blowing-room, carding-room, warehouse, offices, and entrance lodge. Over the carding-room are three spinning rooms of equal dimensions. Above the blowing-room and warehouse are situated the mixing-room for cotton, and store rooms for sundries. Partially over the mixing-room is the bale-room, provided with a door opening on the end of the mill, and fitted with a self-acting hoist. Level with the bale -room is the reeling-room, and over these is a twining or doubling-room. The boiler-house at the back of the mill contains five Lancashire boilers 30 feet long and 7 feet diameter, each having two circular flues 2 feet 9 inches diameter at the firing end, tapering to 2 feet 4 inches. Behind the fire are inserted six Galloway tubes. The boilers are fed with water from the hot well of the engine. Behind each boiler is fixed a fuel economizer of ten pipes width : in all 360 pipes. Passing through these, under the waste heat from the furnaces, the feed-water attains a temperature of 280° F. before reaching the boilers. The latter are usually worked at a pressure of 90 lbs. THE MILL. ^7 The engines are of the tandem type, with low pressure cylinders in front and high pressure behind, on the same piston ; the former are 40 inches diameter, the latter 21 inches. The stroke is 6 feet. The air-pump is situated nnder the slides of the piston-rod, and is worked by a bell- crank lever ; it has a stroke of 3 feet. The condenser stands by the side of the air-pump. The ordinary vertical type of the latter is still the most popular amongst prac- tical men. The fly-wheel is 30 feet diameter ; its periphery is 5 feet 6 inches broad, and is grooved for the reception of twenty-three ropes. The grooves are V-shaped, and of such depth that the ropes do not touch the bottom. The ropes are of hemp or cotton, the latter proving most dura- ble in wear ; they are made in different ways. In the centre of and extending around its periphery are cast a set of cogs for barring the wheel round ; these can also be used for moving it by a small bar-and-ratchet arrange- ment. Power is transmitted directly from the engine to each compartment of the mill by means of the above-mentioned ropes, which are received by a grooved drum fitted upon shafts that extend throughout the length of the mill. In the carding-room the central shaft driven from the engine is turned by five ropes, and makes 220 revolutions a minute. Two other shafts, one on each side, run parallel with the central one, and are driven from it by ropes at the same speed. The shaft nearest the rear of the mill supplies the motive power to the carding engines ; the middle shaft to the drawing frames, slubbing frames, and intermediates ; whilst the one furthest from the engine drives the roving frames, the willows, and the openers. In the spinning rooms the shaft driven by the engine ex- tends the length of the mill, and makes 220 revolutions a minute. In the top room a shaft is carried over the ware- house part, and drives the twining-jennies. The bale- room, which receives the raw cotton as it is hauled in from the mill yard by means of the automatic hoist, is provided 68 COTTON SPINNING. with openings in the floor, bound with cast-iron frames, having covers of the same material. Similar provision is made in the mixing-room for passing the raw material to the blowing-room. At the corner of this room nearest the chimney is a dust-flue for carrying away the dirt and sand, separated from the cotton by the willows, openers, and scutchers. The system of transmitting power by means of ropes is of quite recent introduction, having been originated, we believe, in the north of Ireland amongst the flax mills, whence it was shortly introduced into Scotland, and thence quickly found its way into the cotton manufactur- ing districts. When it was comparatively little known the present writer, through the medium of the Textile Manufacturerr, drew the attention of the trade to its gieat advantages. These were so obvious, that in public esti- mation it has now taken the lead of either the old system of gearing or the more modern one of belt driving. In first cost it is fully 30 per cent, less than either ge^ir- ing or belts ; it is free from the great risk and danger attending the fracture of gearing, and is clean and noise- less in operation, adding much to the comfort of the workers, diminishing the cost of superintendence, and to a great extent obviating " break-downs," with their desti uc- tive results and disorganization of business. The ropes are always suflB.cient in number to allow of one or two being thrown off, if need be, for replacing when worn, or tightening when slack, which is done by cutting a portion out and splicing the ends together. A rope can be thrown off any meal time, and be got ready for replacing by the time the next stoppage occurs, the engine running and the mill working just as usual in the meantime. The machinery is arranged with a view of rendering the processes consecutive, and to incurring the least possible cost for handling the cotton as it passes through. For a mill of the dimensions indicated, and designed for spinning what are known as Oldham counts, two willows and two THE MILL. 69 openers are reqnired to serve twelve single beater scutchers. These provide laps for fifty-four double carding engines, 50 inches on the wire. Sufficient sliver is produced on these to supply nine drawing frames of three heads of six deliveries each, which in their turn serve nine slubbing frames of eighty spindles each, whilst the latter give full employment to twelve or thirteen intermediates of 124 spindles each, the production of these being taken by forty roving frames of 168 spindles each. In a mill spinning 32®. warp yarn and weft to correspond, the above- named preparatory machinery suffices to supply the com- plement of spindles, about 70,000. Twining or doubling is a subsequent process. In England steam is usually the motive power employed for driving a mill ; on the continent and in America water- power obtained from falls and running streams is often used. The varying quantity and the uncertainty of the supply, however, renders this an unreliable source of power. Of recent years, therefore, auxiliary steam power has frequently been laid down where it was not desirable that the processes of manufacture should be interrupted. There are many varieties of boilers, differing in construc- tion and details according to the views of the respective makers, but into these the limits of space will not allow us to enter. The same objection applies to all discussion of what may be termed the adjuncts of boilers, such as fur- naces, fuel economizers, injectors, water and steam gauges, &c. A few general remarks must suffice. In furnishing a mill the boiler power should be suffi- ciently ample to leave a good margin beyond all demands, besides a spare boiler, to be used when the others are being cleaned, or are undergoing repairs. The best form of boiler is that whicb will generate steam the most quickly with the least consumption of fuel. It should be of good form, so as to possess an equal power at all parts of resisting pressure. It should be well and equally stayed. All valves, gauges, &c., should be simple, not liable to get out 70 COTTON SPINNING. of order, and be easily accessible for inspection and repair ; every necessary for tbeir safe and proper working should be provided and be close at hand. The boiler-house should be rain-proof, and the boiler be carefully guarded against water in contact with its external surface, by which it might be corroded and weakened. Internal corrosion, the most frequent cause of boiler explosions, can be reduced to a minimum by the use of a good feed-water heater, in which the supply of water should be raibcd to a temperature of about 200 degrees before it is injected into the boiler. This heat expels the atmospheric air, the oxygen of which is the chief source of corrosion. The best plan of all would be to render boiler plates incorrodible by the application of a coating of magnetic oxide, which would increase the safety and durability of the boilers very greatly. Of late years great improvements have taken place in the construc- tion of valves and gauges, and every boiler should be fitted with the best forms, incorrodible, and secure against being tampered with. Gauges should be cleared from sediment by frequent blowing out. Incrustations in the boiler are a source of expense, trouble, and great danger. The nature of incrustations differs according to the nature and quantity of the minerals with which the water supplied to the boilers may be charged. This varies in different districts. An enormous waste of fuel results from the presence of scale or incrustation. A deposit of -^ in. thick, will require the consumption of 15 per cent, more fuel, and i in. 60 or 70 per cent., whilst scale of ^in. thickness would require 150 to 170 percent, more than would be needed to obtain a given pressure of steam without them. According to experiments that have been made in the United States steam can be generated to maintain a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch, with the water heated to about 320°F., which, with a well-constructed boiler having -L in. plates, will require a furnace heat of about 5° over this. When scale is present, however, the heat required is enormously increased, so that in the pre- THE MILL. 71 sence of scale i in. thick, the furnace temperature would require to exceed 700*^. This, of course, no boiler could be safely put to. From this it would be obvious that for economical and safe working, boilers ought to be kept care- fully cleaned. The formation of scale is a great annoyance, and its removal a source of difficulty and severe labour, having usually to be chipped oflP by hammer and chisel. Deposits which do not cake and form scale are much more easily removed, and the chief objects of anti-incrustation articles is to secure that all deposits shall be laid in the form of friable dust which can be blown ofi. Necessarily the chemicals employed to effect this purpose must be varied in different districts according to the chemical constituents of the waters in use. An eminent firm in Manchester has found an efficient remedy in the addition of a little carbo- nate of soda or soda ash to the feed water, the water thus being preserved in an alkaline state. For over fifteen years this has enabled them to do without chipping any boiler on their premises. The construction of the boiler seat should be such as to utilize the heat of the furnace to the fullest possible extent, and to prevent all loss by reducing radiation to a minimum. To secure these ends care must be directed to bringing the heat from the furnace into contact with the boiler surface wherever practicable, and that which is unused after pas- sage through the flues ought to be utilized for heating the feed water before it escapes up the chimney. All the materials employed for the lining of the boiler seat ought to be non-conductors of heat. A regard for economy, efficiency, and durability should govern every step decided upon in the arrangement and construction of a mill from the choice of site, through the erection, and down to the smallest detail of the mechanism. The construction of the furnace, the plan of the bars, and the use of mechanical stokers in order to secure the perfect combustion of fuel, are matters demanding careful investigation and consideration. These are, to some ex- 72 COTTON SPINNING. tent, dependent npon the kind of boiler employed, bnt of all there are several varieties to select from, and approxi- mate efficiency can be easily attained. Engines are obtainable now in almost any conceivable type to suit requirement, but for turning a cotton mill the old vertical form, or beam engine, or the more modern horizontal are generally selected as the most reliable, econo- mical and durable. In both these makes a high degree of excellence has been obtained, and the purchaser will have no difficulty in suiting his requirements. There are three principal means of transmitting motive power, by gearing, belting, and ropes. The first i^ the one which has been in vogue for a long time, and it has until quite recently maintained the lead in public estimation, but more from the absence of competitors than from its in- trinsic merits. It is a crude system, and mechanical engineers have never been able to eliminate its numerous defects. It is costly in the first instance, expensive to maintain, and liable to very destructive breakages. Its minor evils are that it is dirty, noisy, and incommodious for examination or repair. Nearly all these evils are obviated when the plan of driving by belting is adopted. The first cost, however, is not much reduced, as, owing to the necessity of employing the best quality of material in order to secure satisfactory results, and the high price of leather, the expense closely approximates to that of gearing. Sometimes cotton belting is substituted with advantage. Rope-driving is of more recent introduction. This system possesses advantages over both the preceding: in first cosb, which is much less, in freedom from liability to break down, in facility for effecting repairs, and probably, though on this point the opportunities of satisfactory tests have hardly yet been afforded owing to its novelty, in durability. MANIPULATION OF THE MATERUL. 73 CHAPTER IV. Manipulation of the Material. Cotton spinning, definition. — Processes defined: ginning; packing; aiixing ; willowing ; opening ; scutching ; carding ; combing ; drawing ; slnbbing; intermediate; roving; spinning ; doubling. — Cotton testing; test-book; mixing book. — Hand-labour superseded by machine-labour; the operative a superintendent. — Cotton spinning : preparatory and con- structiA'e processes. — Mixing ; preliminary examination and classification ■of the cotton ; large mixings better than small ones ; importance of secur- ing equal lengths of staples ; process of mixing ; testing ; mode of using ; prescribing mixings ; mixing in the lap. — Wiliowing or opening ; gene- ral principles ; the Oldham willow, common and improved ; the Crighton ijpener and its operation ; the porcupine ; the pneumatic feeding opener ; an American opener.— The purposes of opening. — Injuries arising from adulteration.— Injuries from excessive willowing. — Imperfections of the willow ; better principles of the Crighton and the pneumatic feed openers. - Scutching, its purpose ; importance of correct feeding in the scutching machine ; the scutching machine, hand-fed ; trustworthy at- tendants ; automatic weighing. — Influence of temperature and atmos- pheric states on the weight of laps. — Lap-feeding; the piano feed, its action.— The finisher lap machine, its function ; description. — Well made laps ; causes of unequal laps. — A new automatic feed suggested. — Clayton's lap roller. — Remarks : qualities of this class of machines ; speeds ; construction ; cleansing ; oiling. THE practical details of the art and the machinery employed in it now demand consideration. The manipulation or mechanical treatment of cotton in all its processes up to the production of a cloth, after gin- ning and baling in the country of growth, takes place in the cotton mill. An enumeration and brief definition of these processes at this point will obviate much repetition. " Cotton spinning " implies in the aggregate every operation involved in transforming raw cotton into yarn — 74 COTTON SPINNING. that is, into a single twisted strand or thread composed of cotton fibre. *' Spinning " has also a more restricted signification, being used to denote the concluding process of the series. The writer, in another place,^ has defined the processes of manipulation, mechanical and otherwise, that cotton undergoes in being converted into yarn from the state in which it is gathered from the plant, as follows : — 1st, " Ginning.*^ — This is usually performed in the vicinity of the cotton plantation, the object being to remove the fibre from the seed of the plant, and partially to cleanse it from foreign matters. 2nd. ^^ Packing " or ^^ Baling." — After ginning, the lint is in a loose state, and unfit for convenient transport to distant markets ; hence it is necessary to compress it into less space, which is ordinarily performed by means of hydraulic presses. The package leaves the press in the well-known form, technically called a bale, in which state it passes through the markets to the hands of the spinners. 3rd. " Mixing " is the blending of different varieties of raw cotton, in order to secure economical production, uniform quality and colour, and an even thread in any de- sired degree. Even when using only one class or variety of cotton, mixing is in a measure imperatively necessary, in order to neutralize the irregularities of growth and im- perfect classification found more or less in all grades of cotton. It is the first operation in a cotton mill. 4th. ^^Willowing.'^ — This is a process of opening and cleaning cotton which, except in the Oldham district, is not much in vogue in modern mills, and is retained chiefly for opening and cleansing low cottons, waste, &c. 5th. ^^ Opening.'' — In consequence of the heavy pressure to which cotton is subjected in packing, the fibres become strongly matted together ; the opening process is to ^ Art. " Cotton Manufactures," Spon's " Encyclopaedia of the Indus- trial Arts, Manui'actures, and Commercial Products," MAXIPULATIOX OF THE MATERIAL. 75 loosen them, and to remove the heavier portion of the foreign sn'bstances that maj be intermixed. It is the present equivalent of willowing. 6th. ^^ Scutching ^' has a two-fold object, namely, the further extraction of impurities, and the formation of a " lap," which is a web or sheet of cotton formed in the machine, and wound upon a small roller. In this web the fibres lie in all directions. 7th. " Carding.'' — The foregoing operations have dealt with cotton in the bulk. In carding, the process of opening- is continued, but the material is treated in its individual fibres, which are taken from the lap, further cleansed, and laid in a position approximately parallel to each other, forming a thin film, which is afterwards condensed into a sliver — a round, soft, and untwisted strand of cotton. In this process all short, broken, and immature fibre is, as far as possible, removed. 8th. " CuTYibing " is used for the production of fine yarns, or those of high quality. Its object is to obtain uniformity in the length of the fibres undergoing prepara- tion. To accomplish this, all those shorter than the re- quired standard are combed away and rejected. It is not ordinarily used for any but the above purposes. 9th. " Drawing y — In this operation, several slivers — the product of the carding process — are combined, and attenuated to the dimensions of one of the component parts. The objects are to render the new sliver more uniform in thickness, and to place the fibres more perfectly in parallel order. 10th. ^^ Slabbing " is a process by which a further com- bination of slivers is effected, and the objects of drawing are more perfectly accomplished. The drawing or attenua- tion of the strand is now carried so far that it becomes necessary to twist it slightly, in order to preserve its cohesion and rounded form. 11th. ^^ Intermediate^'''' or ^^ Second Sluhhing^'^ is in all respects a repetition of the above, necessary in cases where 76 COTTON SPINNING. the most even and clean yarn is required. It is not ordi- narily used in the production of low numbers. 12th. " Roving^ — This is a continuation of the pre- ceding, its principal object being to attenuate the sliver still further. At this point, also, the latter receives addi- tional twist, to enable it to bear the slight strain necessary to draw it from the spool or bobbin without the formation of uneven places. 13th. " Spinning.''^ — The concluding process of the series. The sliver is here attenuated to the required fineness, and is given the twist by which the thread is completely formed. 14th. ^' Doubling, ^^ sometimes a separate business, but more often an adjunct to the preceding, is a method of combining two or more threads to form a single cord, and is adopted in the production of many varieties of yarn which are used for widely different purposes. The processes thus briefly defined constitute the opera- tions of cotton spinning, and carry us as far in the manu- facture of the fibre as it is designed shall be included in this treatise. It will be the object of the writer to describe the best ways and means now in vogue for attaining the end sought by each process, to point out defects where such may be obvious, and, if possible, to suggest improve- ments. Cotton Testing. — It is a customary and a wise proceed- ing to test each purchase of cotton to find the average loss of weight upon the same classes of the material, or upon the varieties that compose the mixing in use. A small quantity — say 5 lbs. — is taken from each bale, and passed in succession through the scutching machinery and the card, beyond which the test is not carried, as the loss that occurs after these passages is small, and can be easily esti- mated. The parcel is carefully weighed after coming out of each machine, and the particulars entered into a book kept for the purpose, called the test or loss-book, which thus becomes a valuable book of reference. The 5 lbs. of MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 77 cotton, on its passage through the opener or willow, pro- bably loses 3 0Z3., reducing the weight of what remains to 4 lbs. 13 ozs. Its next passage is through the scutcher, where it loses 2 ozs. more, the balance being 4 lbs. 11 ozs. The lap machine is the next passage to which it is sub- mitted, and in this it most likely drops 1 oz. more ; balance, 4 lbs. 10 ozs. Supposing there to be a finisher lap machine after the last-named, the loss on its passage through this will again be 1 oz. more, reducing the bulk to 4 lbs. 9 ozs., or thus far a loss of 7 ozs. = 8^ per cent. A second useful book in the cotton room is the mixing- book, in which are entered the dates of every cotton pur- chase, the quantity, marks, and numbers of the bales, and the gross, tare, and net weight of each bale at the time of receipt. If the cotton is suspected of being damp, each bale ought to be weighed again just before being used, and any difference recorded, for which either claims may be made, or the marks avoided in future purchases. The price per lb. of each lot should also be attached, as this is required to ascertain the cost of the mixing. Similar entries must also be made for any waste that may be intro- duced. In laying down the mixing, the quantity of each sort must be carefully noted, the prices attached, and the calculation extended, the totals added, and the sum divided by the number of pounds the mixing contains, the result being the average cost of the mixing put down. The test sample of the mixing before spoken of will show the per- centage of loss upon it, after which the cost is easily calculable. In the processes of manufacture the human hand, from which the word is derived, and which formerly performed nearly all the labour, has been almost entirely superseded by machinery. Very little is now left for the operative to perform, his or her task being reduced to one of scarcely more than continuous supervision. From the mixing of the cotton to the doffing of the yarn all the labour, strictly speakmg, is accomplished by mechanical appliances. It 78 COTTOX SPINNING. is important, however, that each machine should receive the most careful attention from those in charge of it, other- wise defects will occnr, and faulty work be the result. The processes of cotton spinning are naturally divisible into two portions : 1st. the preparatory ; 2nd. the construc- tive. The first chiefly consists of the cleansing processes by which the raw material is freed as far as possible from sand, dust, seed, and leaf ; and short, immature, and unde- veloped fibre. These include willowing or opening, scutch- ing, carding, and sometimes combing. In the second divi- sion is found carding, combing (where used), drawing, slubbing, roving, and spinning. Mixing is the first pro- cess, and does not, strictly speaking, come into either division. It, however, is the first that requires attention. Mixing. — The class, quality, and numbers of the yarn it is intended to make having been decided upon, and purchases of suitable material made, the first step to be taken is to make a careful examination of all the stock of cotton pro- posed to be used for the purpose in view, in order to be assured that the proper quality has been received, and to guard against mistakes that may have occurred in delivery, errors of classification, false packing, and the differences of quality that is usually found to arise from the contents of the bales having been gathered at different periods of growth. It is usually performed by drawing samples from two or three parts of each bale, comparing these with others, and classifying or grouping them into lots having similar characteristics. Cotton gathered prematurely differs from that which is properly ripe in having fewer convolutions or " twists " in the fibre, and also in being softer and weaker. That which has been left too long on the plant, which is, in fact, over-ripe, is shrivelled by the excessive evaporation of the natural moisture of the fibre, and is thereby rendered hard and harsh, and combines badly with the softer and more pliable fibres of properly ripe cotton. It needs a con- siderable power of discrimination, which can only be acquired by experience, to discover these differences. The person MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 79 entrusted witli the duty of classification ought to possess keenness of sight and great sensitiveness of touch, which he should carefully cultivate and develop to the highest 8tate of perfection attainable in his case. It is well to make a mental note of the sensations experienced, and to associate them with the quality of the result obtained in the yarn. This examination and classification of cotton is too often carelessly, perfunctorily, or ineflSciently performed, and an unsatisfactory product is the result. It is probable that if better attention was paid to grading the qualities more perfectly, it would not be found, as now, that in the best results spinners are only able to utilize about 25 per cent, of the strength of the fibres entering into the compo- sition of their yarns. In order to secure uniformity of quality in the product of a mill, it is best to lay down a mixing of cotton as large as means and convenience will permit. One that will last a month or six months is better than a small one that will last only a week, as every mixing causes some slight difference in quality or colour. Where the yarn is sold, these variations tend to excite suspicion regarding the good faith of the producer to his customer, and require on the part of the latter a constant watchfulness in order to prevent the changes proceeding to such an extent as to render the purchase unfit for its intended purpose. This suspicion will place any spinning at a disadvantage in the market, and tend to reduce the profit of a mill. Good management requires therefore that it should be avoided as far as possible. This can only be done in the manner indicated above. Where different kinds of cotton are mixed together, the greatest care should be exercised in the selection of the staples, so that they may all be of one length, or as nearly so as possible. If short and long staples are put together, the result will be excessive waste and poor yarn ; for rollers cannot be set to work two lengths of staple at one time with advantaofe. If they are set for the long staple, 80 COTTON SPINNING. the sliort will fall out and become waste ; if set for the short, the long will be broken and also fall out ; and weak and irregular yarn will be made. To combine the highest quality in the product, with the greatest economy of pro- duction, requires that long, short, or medium lengths of staples should each be worked by themselves. When waste is mixed with the cotton, which is practised in spin- ning low numbers, or making inferior qualities, it should be selected in this respect as like the cottons it has to be worked with as possible. In laying down or mixing, the cotton should be taken from the bales and shaken loose upon the floor, covering an area suitable to the intended size of the mixing. When a layer of the first description of cotton has been put down in tbis manner, another from the second kind should be laid upon it, if the quantities of the sorts are equal, taking care that they are of the same thickness ; after this the third sort should be spread upon the top of the second, and so on until a layer of each lot has been laid, when the same course should be repeated until all the cotton has been laid down that it is intended should be included in the mixing. Sometimes, where only one or two varieties of cotton are in use, it is taken straight from the bale and passed through the willow without any pre- liminary mixing ; but, from what has been already stated regarding the nature of the fibre and the varying con- ditions attendant upon its growth, this will be seen to be exceedingly unadvisable. Mixing is now occasionally performed by a machine in the Oldham district, and with satisfactory results. The magnitude and quality of the mixing having been satisfactorily settled, the bales are taken from the classified stock in proper quantities, the coverings removed, and the cotton passed through the apertures in the floor to the men in the room below, where it is spread over an area propor- tionate to the size of the intended mixing. Sometimes a space is railed off from the remainder of the room, and MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 81 divided into compartments, each of which is capable of holding one mixing. The doors of those compartments containing mixings not being used, are kept locked. By this means they are prevented from being improperly used. Each bale will form a layer, and the different qualities included in the mixing will be superimposed in a regular order, so as to secure the most perfect blending of the mass in succeeding stages. When the mixing is completed, it is generally tested by taking a vertical section of the blend sufficiently large to put through the different machines, in order to get the result in yarn, which is carefully examined and compared with that which is then being made ; or, better still, with a standard sample of the class and quality it is desired to maintain. The latter is the best plan, as in the former it is possible to get far away from the desired quality by the accumulation of small differences, imperceptible in them- selves, but which are capable of changing the character of the yarn when repeated a number of times. When thus tested by this standard, should the new yarn be found deficient in strength, cleanliness, or colour, a sufficient quantity of the cotton possessing the requisite qualities to bring it right is added to the mixing. In many establish- ments, especially where high class qualities of yarn are made, and it is imperative that its reputation should not be lowered, a second, and even a third, testing will take place before the result may be accepted as perfectly satis- factory. Skill, experience, and care, however, often avail to produce the required result, even without any pre- liminary test ; but this is where few changes are made in either the standard of cotton purchased or the counts of yarn spun. Economical considerations, however, in these days of keen competition and low profits, often render it necessary to change the component parts or relative quan- tities of the mixing ; and, in these cases, the application of the test ought not to be neglected. Where low qualities of yarn are spun, and waste is freely used, tests are seldom Q 82 COTTON SPINNING. considered necessary ; thongli, if the desire exists, or economical advantages would result from the production of a yarn uniform in quality, the plan of testing ought to be adopted. The mixing having been found right in all the points essential to quality, it is ready for use. It will be obvious that were the supply required to feed the opener taken from the top of the blend, all the purpose of the mixing process would be defeated. To avoid this, the required quantity is carefully and evenly drawn down from the sides of the pile by a short-pronged rake, which secures a further intermixture of the mass. The component parts of the mixing will necessarily differ according to the quality of yarn sought to be produced. Experience is chiefly relied upon for the result ; and most spinners of average skill are able to prescribe mixings with great accuracy that shall answer the problem before them. Still there is nothing like uniformity amongst them in this respect, many affecting to keep the particulars secret. The details given in a previous chapter show, in a general manner, the adaptability of certain cottons for spinning different numbers of yarn, and their suitability for admix- ture with each other. Some spinners prefer to mix their cottons in the lap, especially when several varieties are used, and in equal quantities, or other proportions, such as will easily com- bine in the lap machine. In this plan it is usual to mix each kind alone, as already described, and laps are made from each mixing. Thus one lap each from three different kinds of cotton may be placed in a single scutcher, and by it united into one ; or two and one ; two and two, or any other desired proportions. WiL LOWING OR Opening. — This is the first of the prepa- ratory processes. The name " willowing " is derived from the treatment of cotton in the early days of manufacturing, when, in order to cleanse the cotton, it was spread upon an oblong frame, having a fine net of wire or other material MANIPULATION OF THE MATERUL. 83 upon the bottom, on which the cotton was spread, when the mass was beaten loose and the dust driven out through the netting, by means of wands composed of twigs of willow or osier : hence the name. The latter was retained to describe the process when the means employed had altogether changed, and it has also been transferred to a particular machine now chiefly employed in the Oldham district. Willowing, therefore, implies at the present time the opening and cleansing of the raw material by me- chanical appliances or otherwise. Of course the latter hardly exists, except in semi-civilized countries, where the primitive system of manufacturing still survives. In England and other countries to which the English system of manufacturing has extended, willowing and opening is performed by several different machines, the principle of which, however, is in all cases the same. These differ only slightly in their arrangements, as all contain a cylinder denominated the beater, and which is arranged either horizontally or vertically, and either parallel with or diagonally to the direction of the passage of the raw material. A brief explanation of these will best explain their con- struction, mode of operation, and their respective merits as openers and cleaners. The common or Oldham willow is shown in the follow- ing Figs. 23 and 24, in section and plan. It consists of a cylinder, c, about forty inches diameter, and forty inches wide across the face. This, mounted on a shaft furnished with driving pulleys, rests in bearings in the framework. Fitted on, and extending across its periphery, are several rows of strong teeth or blunt spikes. A semi-circular casing, internally furnished with rows of spikes similar to the above, covers the upper part of this cylinder. The lower portion is enclosed with a wire grid, constructed in two parts, and hinged together. The back portion of this grid is fixed to the frame, whilst the front or movable part is hinged to the fixed part and is balanced by weights 84 COTTON SPINNING. suspended by cords or straps which pass over pulleys at each side, and which are attached to the end of the grid. It is thus free to move up and down in an opening in the front of the machine. An exhaust fan, /, is placed behind the fixed part of the grid. The operation is as follows : — The grid is let down, and a quantity of cotton is placed upon it. It is then raised, Fig. 23. Oldham Willow ; side elevation. Fig. 24. Oldham V\'illow 5 plan. and the cotton is thus brought into contact with the spikes of the revolving cylinder, which dash it against the fixed spikes on the internal face of the casing, loosening its matted fibres, and freeing it from sand, dust, and foreign matters which fall through the grid into the cavity below, or are drawn away by the operation of the exhaust fan and discharged through a tube into the air. After the cotton has been subjected to this operation for a few MANIPOLATION OF THE MATERIAL. 85' seconds, the grid is let down, and the cotton discharged ; the process is then repeated with fresh material. This is the simplest form of the willow as it exists in use in these districts. The willow, however, of late years has undergone great improvements. It is sometimes made with an automatic motion to let down the grid when the cotton has been in the machine for the proper length of time, and which can be varied according to requirement. At other times it is made continuous, as shown in the illustrations (Figs. 23, 24), by placing a feed cloth, a, in front, and a lattice creeper, e, at the back, to carry away the cleansed cotton, which is then ready for delivery to the scutcher. A second and favourite machine in the trade is the well- known Crighton Opener. This is a modification of the cone willow. The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 25 and 26) show the structure in section and plan. As will be seen, in the interior of the framework there is fitted a conical grid, with its apex or small end downwards, and resting on a cross rail at a short distance from the bottom. On the top of the frame is fitted a tripod, which forms a bearing for a vertical shaft carrying driving pulleys, and descending through the centre of the grid to a footstep in the cross rail. Mounted on this shaft are a number of discs, h, the smallest at the bottom, and increasing in size towards the top. Fixed on these are a series of steel blades, whose function is the same as that of the spikes on the cylinder and casing of the willow, to beat the cotton against the vertical grid. At the top of the grid is an orifice conducting to the dust cages. The space, c, between the casing and the grid forms a cavity for the reception of any foreign matter contained in the cotton. The machine is fed by means of the tube, a, which may be introduced on any side away from the attachment. The latter includes the dust cages, four, /, lattice creeper, c2, and below the dust cages a pair of small delivery rollers, and an exhaust fan. The cages are hollow cylindrical wire frames, with 86 COTTON SPINNING. the wires set sufficiently close to prevent the entrance of the fibres of cotton, but wide enough to permit the dust to be drawn away by the current. Only the portion of the Fig. 25. Crighton Opener ; elevation. Fig. 26. Crighton Opener ; plan. cage opposite the orifice is left open, the remainder being closed by an internal casing which follows the contour of the cylinder. The details of the process in this case are as follow : — MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 87 The cotton is fed into the tube, a, emer^ng therefrom into the lower portion of the conical grid, where it comes into contact with the beaters, h, which strike it against the bars of the conical grid. This action loosens the mass of fibre, and drives any sand, dust, or seed, and foreign sub- stances left bj the gin, if not too large, through the grid into the dust cavity, c, and thence to the bottom, e. The cotton remains subject to the action of the beaters, until it is opened sufficiently to admit of its being drawn upwards and carried away by the suction of the fan, /, through the orifice. Following the direction of the arrow towards the dust cage, it is taken on by the rollers, and passed to the lattice creeper, d, which discharges it upon the floor or into a receptacle provided. The porcupine is another opener, whose chief difference from the willow, as described above, lies in the possession of two cylinders for opening purposes laid parallel to each other, the first of which has twelve rows of teeth, and the second four. It is fed and discharged by lattice creepers, and exhausted by the usual appliances. Another opener combines therewith a scutcher and lap machine. The inventors largely avail themselves of the pneumatic principle seen in each of the preceding ones, and use a current of air to bring the cotton along tubes from any moderate distance. In the annexed illustration, Fig. 27, the feeding is represented as taking place in the room above the machine. An endless lattice, a, on which the cotton is evenly laid, delivers it to two pairs of rollers, B; the second pair of which revolves more quickly than the first. These convey it to the tube where it comes within the influence of the air current. Daring its passage through this tube, sand, dust, dirt, small stones, and all heavy or dangerous substances acciden- tally present with the cotton, are dropped upon the bot- tom of the tube. In order to secure the abstraction of these, the inventors devised and patented a grated trunk. Immediately between the feed table and the opener, several COTTON SPINNING. lengths of these grated tubes, c, are inserted. Seen in sec- tions they are -shaped thus Q. Inside these, at short o distances apart, plates of sheet iron are placed athwart and slightly inclined against the direction of the air cur- MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 89 rent, and reaching about half way to the crown of the tube. The spaces between these plates form cells for the recep- tion of extraneous matter, which, dropping out of the cotton, is retained in them. It is removed daily through the bottom of the tube, which is hinged for the purpose, and opens downwards. These cells prove very efficient dirt extractors, as is shown by the quantity of dust that is taken out of those in the front, and its gradual diminution towards the last, and by the small amount of foreign matter afterwards thrown off in the opener and scutcher. The opener consists of a horizontal shaft, a, carrying a series of accurately balanced arms, d, arranged radially on the shaft at several inches apart. These arms are of cast-iron with steel blades bolted firmly to their extremities. The length of these arms is at the small end nearest the tube about eighteen inches. It increases gradually as the opposite end of the shaft is approached, terminating with a length of 28 inches. When revolving, the arms describe the figure of a cone. A conical grid, e, surrounds the beaters, which is constructed by the junction of two rings of unequal diameter connected by means of straight steel bars. This grid can be moved endwise upon the shaft by means of the wheel beneath the tube at the left extremity of the figure. The bars are fixed at the delivery end, but are capable of adjustment at the feed end in order to increase or diminish the distance from the beater, according to the length of staple or quality of cotton to be treated. On another shaft, at the delivery end of the beater, is a powerful disc fan, whose specific functions are to draw the cotton from the extremity of the feed-pipe, through the beater, to the dust-cages//'; after passage tlirough which the cotton is received by two small rollers that deliver it to the beater, g, of the scutcher, where it under- goes further opening and cleansing by a process re- sembling that received in the willow. It is then formed into a sheet upon the cages, h h\ compressed between 90 COTTON SPINNING. the rollers, i, and coiled into a lap in the lap-forming attachment, H. There are several other makes of cotton openers, but almost all of them may be referred to the above in prin- ciple, and differing only in some minor detail. In one which stands in some favour in the United States, the inventor, an Englishman long settled there, has endea- voured to accomplish bj mechanical means the exact re- sults achieved by the primitive method of whipping the cotton with willow wands. The question now arises which is the best of these methods of cleansing and opening the raw material ? It will be well for a moment to revert to the requirements of the case. Cotton, as has already been made clear, besides being matted together owing to its severe com- pression for transit purposes, contains impurities of several kinds, such as sand, dust, broken leaf, seed shells, and short and immature fibre. It must not be omitted to recall the convolute form of the fibre, nor to remark that there is a soluble gum, which has received the name of cotton- wax, coating the fibre ; the latter is present to the extent of from one-third to one-half per cent. The purposes of this process are to disentangle and separate the fibres from each other, or to render them so loose as to readily take up any new position in relation to each other that may be required in subsequent operations ; and to remove, without injury to the fibre, as much as possible of the earthy impurities present, and also those of vegetable origin. The former being of much greater specific gravity, when permitted, easily fall away from the cotton ; but the latter, being more nearly like the fibre, are separated with difficulty, and only a small quantity can be taken out in the opening process. The accidental, or, as may be feared, too often fraudulent, adulteration of cotton by means of sand has become one of the most serious evils in connection with the trade. The presence of sharp, angular particles of flint and other MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 91 matters of which sand is composed, entails not only the loss of so much weight to the buyer, but it is the cause of serious injury to the staple. It will be obvious that the compression to which cotton is subject in the baling process must, when sand is present, break and lacerate the fibre by forcing the particles into or through them, thus injuring the quality to an extent that has rarely been suspected. Particles also are forced into the substance of the fibre, or caused to adhere to the cotton-wax in such a manner that the opening machine cannot clear it out, the effect being that it is carried along through subsequent stages, to the great detriment of the rollers of the drawing, slubbing, intermediate and roving frames, which have their polished surfaces scratched and roughened, and the leather cover- ings of the front ones cut and damaged by its presence. These defects increase the quantity of waste and deteriorate the quality of the product. These facts ought to be strongly pressed upon the attention of cotton-growers and those who have the handling of the raw material before it reaches the spinner. The removal of sand proves some- times so difficult that it has been found to have passed through all the preliminary stages and been discovered em- bodied in the yarn. When the convolute form of the fibre is considered, and its preservation acknowledged to be essential to the pro- duction of the best quality of yarn, it will be obvious that all treatment in the opening process beyond that necessary for the disentanglement of the fibrous mass and the sepa- ration of the earthy particles must be excessive and inju- rious to its peculiar structure. It ought, therefore, where- ever practicable, to be carefully avoided. The willow, even in its best form, is not quite adapted to secure this end. It contains no provision for with- drawing the material at the exact moment when the open- ing and cleansing has been completed. The result must depend upon the skill, care, and judgment of the attendant, and as these are variable factors, liable to still greater 92 COTTON SPINNING. variation in their exercise, the most perfect work cannot be guaranteed. No arbitrary rule will meet the exigencies of the case, and the best judgment will, from necessity, often be at fault. The material will be either deficiently or excessively treated in nearly all cases ; the correct mean being seldom attainable. In the former it will come out partially matted or clogged; in the latter stringy, and with its convolute form injured. The only way by which these evils can be perfectly obviated is to remove the process from dependence upon the skill, too often absent ; the care, too often remittent instead of continuous; and the judgment, generally fallible, of the attendant. This can only be done by making the process automatic. The feeding should be uniform and regular, and no stuffing be allowed. Of the openers now in the market, perhaps the most perfectly automatic, and one which meets these requirements most fully is that pre- viously described (Figs. 25 and 26), which has met with such extensive approval in the trade, and in which the beater is arranged vertically. In this machine the cotton is fed to the bottom of the beater, rising higher and higher as it gets disentangled and becomes loose, until at the moment when the work is completed, it passes away from the range of its action on the current of air developed by the fan, which places it upon the periphery of the cage, whence it is received and delivered by a pair of rollers to the lattice creeper, and thence discharged. There is another merit in the vertical arrangement of the beater of the opener, which is this : its strokes being delivered in a horizontal direction are efficient in clearing the cotton from foreign substances, as in no case does this matter return into the cotton, as occurs when the beater is arranged hori- zontally, and delivers its stroke vertically. In the latter case, it may return several times before it is cast beyond the range of the beater blades. This, it is obvious, is a disadvantage. The provision of a pneumatic feeding tube, as seen in one instance, is an important improvement, for MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 93 two reasons. The first is, that without any violence the grosser and heavier impurities are removed without injury to the staple, and deposited in the dirt cells of the tube, which preliminary treatment obviates the necessity of sub- jecting it very long to the action of the beater. The second reason is, that when, as is far too often the case, espe- cially with American cotton, the material is damp and correspondingly heavy, subjection to the beater has a ten- dency to injure the staple, as from its increased weight and the force with which it is driven the convolute form of the fibre will be often impaired, if not destroyed. By the introduction of the pneumatic tube, and the passage of the cotton through it, all excess of moisture is removed by the absorbent power of the air. The material is thus sent for- ward to the beater partially cleansed, dried, and in the best state for the operation to which it has to be submitted, which is thus performed in less time and with a minimum of injury. Scutching. — The next process, which is scutching, has a twofold purpose. The first being to further cleanse and open the cotton ; the second to make a lap. The latter is a continuous sheet of cotton about forty inches wide, which is formed into a roll of convenient length to suit the machi- nery in the next process. In the lap the fibres lie in all directions across each other, no attempt having been made to arrange them in parallel order. If the raw material has not in the previous stage passed through an opener with a lap-forming attachment, it arrives at the scutcher in bulk, and but imperfectly cleansed and opened. Nearly all openers, however, are now fitted with lap- forming attachments, because these facilitate the even feeding of the scutcher or finisher lap machine, and, in ad- dition, dispense with labour. For some of the lower counts the laps thus formed are taken straight to the cards, but this is not often the case, nor is it desirable unless in rough coarse yarns. The object sought as the outcome of the processes of 94 COTTON SPINNING. this division, is to transform tlie fibres of the raw material into a continuous cylindrical thread ; throughout its length as equal as possible in its diameter ; otherwise expressed, perfectly round, clean and even in its dimensions and strength. This cannot be secured unless sought from the commencement. If the opener is fitted with lap attach- ments, the end must be kept in view from that position ; in all cases it must commence not later than with the scutcher. The chief point to be regarded is the method of feeding the cotton to the machine, as upon this depends a satisfactory result. There are two plans extensively in use ; the one being hand-feeding, and the other mechanical. Most per- sons regard the latter as the best plan, as it has been devised and invented to overcome the difficulties which a lengthened experience has shown to be inherent in the manual method. Where the latter is still in use, the cotton must be carefully weighed and evenly spread over a mea- sured space of the travelling apron, or "creeper," as it is sometimes called. Unless this is regularly and conscien- tiously performed, the result will not please. It is im- portant, therefore, that a thoroughly trustworthy person be secured, and placed in charge of this duty. The qualities required in a lap are an even thickness and width through- out, so that when delivered to the succeeding stage of carding no inequalities may be introduced into the sliver, owing to or arising from irregularities in the amount of cotton fed to the machine. The scutcher is simply a repetition of the opener, but in which the lap-forming attachment is indispensable, whilst its parts are modified and arranged to do the work more perfectly, and to complete, in most cases, what the other has left undone. Like other machines in the cotton trade, it has undergone many changes before arriving at its present stage of comparative perfection. Makers now generally agree as to what should constitute its main features, difi'ering only on points of detail. Amongst hand-fed machines the Crighton is a well and MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 95 favourably known scutcher, and will serve for descrip- tion. It possesses a lattice creeper with measured spaces on which the cotton, after being weighed, is evenly spread. A pair of small fluted rollers take the cotton from the creeper, and by their revolution pass it between them, when it comes within reach of the arms of a beater having two blades. This beater is enclosed within a cylinder, a quarter of the circumference of which, extending from the feed rollers to the bottom, is composed of a grid. As the beater revolves at the rate of 1,000 revolutions per minute, and has two blades, it makes 2,000 strokes per minute upon the cotton, being slowly delivered to it, and beats it down with great force from the rollers against this grid, causing broken leaf, motes, and other impurities to fall through. Extending along the bottom of the cylinder is a passage leading to the pair of dust cages, situated at the back of the machine. The exhaust fans induce a strong current of air, which carries the cotton from the beater cylinder to the slowly revolving dust cages, on the exte- rior of which the " lap " of cotton is deposited. The bottom of the passage, along which the cotton has thus been brought, consists of a lattice arranged with its sur- face open, so that any imparities that may have passed the first grids may be detected and removed at this point, falling into the cavities by their greater specific gravities. The lattice moves over three rollers arranged two above and one below in this manner — • . The direction of its traverse is opposite to that of the cotton, which arrange- ment facilitates the extraction of foreign matter with a minimum loss of fibre. The lattice discharges the con- tents of its cavities into the receptacle for dust beneath the grid. The loose cotton is carried by the current of air to and evenly distributed upon the wires of the slowly re- volving dust cages, the interstices between which are arranged so as to prevent the passage between them of the fibre, whilst permitting that of the fine particles of dust or sand that may yet remain in the cotton, or may have come 96 03TT0X SPINNING. along with it on the current of air. From this part of their function which, though important, is only a secondary one, they obtain their name of dust cages. Their primary use is to receive upon their circumference the cotton floating upon the current of air induced by the exhaust fans in an even manner ; by their revolution they join it into one sheet, which is removed by a pair of small fluted rollers that carry it to the compression rollers, whence it passes to the lap roller upon which it is wound. The lap roller rests upon two fluted rollers, by contact with which the lap roller is caused to revolve and to wind up the cotton in a continuous sheet until a thick roll is formed, technically called a lap. As before remarked, regularity of feeding is of the highest importance in obtaining a satisfactory result. Too often, however, this task is relegated to a superannuated operative, or careless boy or girl, who can be hired for about ten thillings a week, whilst a trustworthy and conscien- tious attendant ought to have charge of the duty, and whose services would be cheaply purchased at an additional cost of five or six shillings per week. The former plan is, however, preferred from a mistaken notion of its greater economy, and reliance is placed upon subsequent processes for eliminating the irregularities and obviating the mis- chief to which it inevitably gives rise. To prevent any tampering with, or loss of the weights from the scale, it is usual to make the weight end of the scale in the form of a canister, in which the weights are enclosed and locked. This is efficient as far as it goes, but it does not cover carelessness in putting too much or too little cotton into the scale. Only automatic weighing can obviate that. This could be accomplished without much difficulty if thought of sufficient importance. There is next, further, uneven spreading to be guarded against, and also the pas- sage of the last portion of the feed of cotton through the feed rollers before another is supplied, which by inattention may occur and cause a very thin place, or even a break in the sheet of cotton forming the lap. MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL. 97 Besides the formation of an uneven sheet, as the result of careless or unskilful feeding, it will be found that laps vary in their weight, some being lighter and others heavier than what is required, without the cause being easily ascertainable. Of late years cotton, especially American, has been so inordinately charged with moisture, that when passed through the opener or scutcher, the earlier laps formed from the mixing will weigh more than those produced afterwards when the mixing has had time to evaporate a portion of its superfluous, and often fraudu- lently added water. Again, assuming that the raw mate- rial is quite dry, it so readily absorbs moisture in damp weather that, to some extent, a part of the variations occurring may safely be attributed to this cause, and the converse of this will be equally true ; in hot dry weather the atmosphere abstracts moisture from the cotton, and the laps will weigh correspondingly less, though containing as much fibre as before. The method usually adopted of obviating these irregu- larities is to weigh the laps as they come from the machine and classify them for the finisher lap machine, in which three, four, five, or six laps are combined as feed material from which the last or finished laps are made. The requi- site number of laps are taken, the united weights of which shall average that of the new laps into which they have to be formed. By this combination or doubling, the irregu- larities of one lap are neutralized or minimized by those of the others, the outcome being approximately perfect — ac- cording to the theory ; and which is probably true, even in fact, where the best attention is given to the feeding pro- cess by the operative in charge. But where this is not obtained, the result is not satisfactory. To secure results as nearly as possible perfect, attempts have been made to dispense with the human factor in the problem, and make feeding as nearly as possible automatic. The lap-forming attachment has been added to the difi'erent forms of the opener, sometimes called the first scutcher. 98 COTTON SPINNING. In feeding the opener it is necessary that the cotton should be evenly spread upon the feed apron, in order not to gorge the machine ; but it is only seldom that it is deemed necessary to weigh the cotton and measure off the apron into yard spaces, as in the second scutcher. Where the best result, however, is desired, it is certain that this course would contribute to that end. The laps thus obtained from the opener, weighed, classified, and averaged for the scutcher, would yield a sheet far more level and free from defects as feeding laps than could easily, or possibly at all, be ob- tained from the hand-feeding described above. As such the laps obtained from the second scutcher would be as good in almost every respect as those hitherto obtained from the finisher lap machine, whilst the last mentioned being fed with almost perfect laps, would yield one much superior to anything usually obtained. There is another method of precluding the defects of careless feeding and insufficiently opened or matted cotton. This is known as the lever or piano feed arrangement, so named from its being in principle similar to, and in its parts distantly like the arrangement of the keys of a pianoforte. The following Fig. 28 and brief description will clearly illustrate its principle. Instead of the usual pair of feed-rollers for delivering the cotton to the beater, a, the bottom one is substituted by a series of bent levers, c, extending across the frame, and arranged as in the various positions in the diagrams A, B, C, in Fig. 28. The short ends of these levers are made different in form according to requirement, which is dependent upon the class of cotton, whether long or short staple, to be worked. The extremity of the long arm, e, of the lever terminates in a hook, by means of which it is attached to the rod,/. These rods are arranged vertically, and at the bottom end increase in thickness and pass between two horizontal bars, which are parallel to each other. Between the horizontal bars, and in the inter- stices between the rods, /, small bowls are introduced, MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL. 99 shown by the dotted circles, i, in the diagram c. The rod, /, on the right of this diagram, has a projection cast ja. ^ ^ m: VIZI upon it, which forms with the other portion a slot for the reception of a connecting-rod attached to the levers, ■'M\ 'V 100 COTTON SPINNING. the second of which is connected with the strap lever, p, seen between the cone drums in Fig. 29. The strap levers, p p\ are geared together by means of sector wheels ; whilst q and r in the same Fig. are cone drums, and s is the strap by which motion is transmitted from one to the other. The action of the diflferent parts is as follows : — When the cotton is matted, or unevenly spread upon the lattice, causing a thick portion to go beneath the roller, 6, the short end of the lever, c, is pressed down, which raises the long arm, e, pulling up the rod, /, the thick end of which coming up between the bowls, ^, presses the rods in the only direction in which they can move, towards the slotted rod at the end, which through the connecting rod and levers described, moves the strap, s, upon the drums, q and r, and regulates the speed according to requirement — diminishing it when the layer is thick or matted, and in- creasing it when thin. The cone drum, r, actuates the feed-roller through the worm on its shaft. For obviating irregularity in feeding, whether arising from the atten- dant's carelessness, want of skill, or other causes, this arrangement has proved of considerable efficiency, and has met with a corresponding degree of favour from the trade. It can be attached to both the first and second scutcher, and can be easily adapted to the different makes of lap machines, so that if preference be given to one make over another on account of general excellence or specialities of detail, such preference can be gratified, whilst the advan- tages of this system of feeding is obtained. The cotton having passed the opener and the first scutcher, now arrives at the second, otherwise called the finisher lap machine. The function of this machine is primarily to complete the cleansing process, so far as free- ing the cotton from sand, dust, and the heavier forms of extraneous vegetable matter is concerned ; and, secondly, to make the lap as even in the sheet as it is possible to procure from present appliances. The extent to which this is possible has already been indicated. MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL. 101 A finisher lap ma- chine, with the evener or lever feed- attachment, is illus- trated in Fig. 29. The creel holds from four to six laps, u, which bj means of the lattice apron, x, •which revolves upon the rollers at each extremity of the creel, deliver a three, four, or six- fold sheet of cotton to the roller, &, and the series of levers which con- jointly form the feed- ing arrangement just described. This in turn delivers the sheet to the beater, a, at a slow and uni- form rate. The bot- tom of the beater- case, A, contains a grid, c?, whilst a lon- gitudinal grid, d\ ex- tends to the dust cages, V v'. At c the casing is usually glazed, or a door- way formed, in order to permii; inspection of the interior. The former is far the best, as doorways cannot be made air-tight, and all defects of this kind interfere with the action of the exhaust draught, causing h3 102 COTTON SPINNING. it to deposit the cotton upon the cages in an unequal manner, so producing an uneven lap. As the cages revolve together, the cotton gathered upon their respec- tive surfaces is formed into one sheet, and delivered to the compression rollers, w, passing which it is wound upon the lap-roller in the front or headstock, D, of the machine, and formed into, y, a lap. When the lap is completed, the machine is automatically stopped, the lap removed, the roller withdrawn and replaced in the machine to wind on another lap. Well-made laps should be even in the sheet, level at the edges, uniform in length, and equal in weight. Any divergence from these points must be considered as defects likely to injuriously affect the final result. Every care should therefore be taken to see that this end is attained and carefully preserved. Besides the points referred to as causing unequal laps, there are several in connection with the machines. The finisher machine, according to the received theory, makes a uniformly level lap from a number which are in that respect imperfect ; the prevalent idea being that the in- equalities of one correct those of another, though the chances are not few that a series of thick places in the different laps may fall together, and thus instead of correct- ing may intensify the fault ; and similarly of the thin places. The majority of the chances, however, are con- siderably against this result. There is also the pneumatic factor in the problem to consider, the perfect action of which has much to do with obtaining satisfactory results. Should the fans be driven too slowly, the draught is in- suflBcient to carry the cotton expeditiously to the cages, and the result is that some portion may be carried out amongst the dust and refuse which it is desired to remove. On the contrary, when run too swiftly, the current in- duced may bring with the cotton the lighter portion of the leaf, vegetable matter, and dust that ought to be taken out at this stage. When the proper speed is attained. MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL. 103 neither of these results can occur, the cotton after passing the beater beiDg drawn rapidly to the dust cages, upon the exterior of which it is accumulated, until the layer be- comes impervious, and the draught ceases to operate at that point ; the cotton is then diverted to the uncovered portions of the surface, where it is still exerting its in- fluence. It will be obvious from this that an even de- livery of the cotton from the feed rollers will aid, but will not necessarily secure, the formation of an even lap, as this will quite as much depend upon the uni- form strength of the current over the exposed surfaces of the cages. Should this vary appreciably in any por- tion from imperfections in the casing, or obstructions to its course in the interior, it will cause an uneven deposit upon the cages, and consequently an uneven lap. It is very important that these defects should not occur in connection with the finisher lap machine, as the pneumatic principle being dispensed with after that stage, a remedy for such faults is not easy to obtain in the subsequent processes, these only minimizing, but never perfectly re- moving the errors or defects of the preceding stages of the preparation. A perfectly even lap is so desirable, and as yet is so far from being secured, that it might be useful to ascertain whether a nearer approximation could not be obtained by other means. With this consideration in view, attention may be drawn to an American inven- tion connected with the woollen trade, which automati- cally takes up the wool, weighs, and uniformly feeds the scribbler — the machine in the woollen trade which corresponds to the lap machine in the cotton trade — in a perfect manner. That this has gained the highest ap- proval of the trade is shown by its extensive adoption in America, and the favour with which it has been received in this country. It is known as the Bramwell automatic feed machine. In it the wool is put into a large box or case having a grating at the bottom for the exit of refuse, 104 COTTON SPINNING. and an elevating toothed apron in the rear covered with teeth of a peculiar construction. These raise the material out of the case until it is brought near the top, where it comes under the action of an oscillating comb, which has a slow but long sweep in front of the apron. This comb is armed with teeth, and operates in such a manner that the surplus wool is combed off the apron, and the rest left evenly distributed amongst the teeth of the latter. On the other side of the toothed apron there is another and a shorter one, having a more rapid movement. This is provided with flexible strips of leather, which sweep off the wool from the teeth of the first apron, and convey it in connection with a hollow or concave shell or dish into a weighing scale. This scale is formed of two curved wings, held together by suitable weights, and the whole suspended on steel knife edges and balanced with movable weights, which can be fixed to weigh any amount desired. When the scale has received the required quan- tity, it liberates a small trigger, which causes a projection to catch on one of the teeth of a revolving disc connected with an automatic clutch, which disengages the driving- belt operating the toothed apron, thus instantly stopping further delivery of material to the scale, which now re- mains at rest. When the proper time arrives the wings of the scale are opened, and the wool is deposited upon the feed lattice in a perfectly opened state, and in excellent condition for the cards. The scale is now closed, and re- turned for more wool ; at the same moment the toothed apron is set going, and the delivery is carried on as before. While the scale is being refilled, the wool just discharged is carried along on the feed lattice to a fixed distance, leaving a clear open place for the next weighing to be de- posited upon. The machine only occupies the same space as an ordinary feed-table, and while doing its work with regularity and perfection, dispenses with a great amount of hired labour. There is nothing in this arrangement but what, with MANIPULAIIOX OF THE MATERIAL. 105 proper modification, could be easily adapted to the cotton opener having a lap attachment, or to the first scutcher, and with manifest advantage to economy. We throw out the suggestion for what it is worth, and for the benefit of the trade, or those who may conclude it worth practical investigation. It might probably result in getting com- pletely rid of a considerable difficulty, and even relieve the cotton of one process of scutching, in all of which it is severely treated. When the laps have come from the finisher lap machine care should be taken that they are not damaged before being sent to the card. Much difficulty is often experienced in this respect. When the lap is completed, it is lifted from the machine, laid aside, and the roller withdrawn and replaced in the frame to wind on another lap. The soft mass of cotton forming the lap speedily closes up the space left by the withdrawal of the roller ; and ordinarily when the lap has to be skewered again for the cards difficulty is experienced, time is lost, and con- siderable waste is made before it can be accomplished. To obviate these results Mr. H. H. Clayton, of Hyde, has invented and patented a simple expedient, which is thoroughly successful. In place of a solid lap-roller, he substitutes a tube roller, in which he inserts a long pin having a flat head of greater diameter than the roller. When the latter is withdrawn the pin is left in the cavity, retained by the head, thus preserving the bore, maintaining the form, and facilitating the handling of the lap, whilst time and labour are economized, and all waste from the stabbing of the lap prevented. Remarks. — At this point it may be useful to offer a few general remarks upon points which do not readily lend themselves to classification. In these the machinery de- mands the first attention. In willows, openers, lap, and finisher machines there are numerous makes, each having claimed for it some special excellence not possessed by- its competitors. Into the details of the construction of 106 COTTON SPINNING. these we cannot entei' except when they serve to illnstrate some principle. When the latter is the case, and a machine is more fully noticed on that account, the reader is warned against drawing the conclusion that any special approval beyond what may be expressed is given to that particular make. Spinners in the different sections of the trade have their preferences for one design of machine over another, which preference may have a solid foundation or not according to the careful observation and skill of the person expressing it, or the uses to which he may put it. Some machines are better for one class of work than another, whilst few excel for all sorts. The quali- ties that ought to be looked for and demanded in all this class of the preparatory machinery is strength and simplicity in the working parts, each of which should be easily accessible for re-arrangement or repair. The blades of the beater should be so adjusted that they shall strike the cotton from the delivery rollers without breaking or otherwise damaging the fibre. The grids under the beater should have their first four bars placed about three-quar- ters of an inch apart, and the remainder half an inch. The beater of a machine working cotton from which it is in- tended to spin numbers between 12^ to 50^ or 60^ should makefrom 1,100 to l,500revolutions per minute, the highest number being for the lowest counts. From 50^ upwards the speed may be from 800 to 1,100 or 1,200 revolutions. The different machines should be evenly balanced in their various parts, all of which should be kept thoroughly clean and well lubricated in the bearings with good unin- flammable oil, not subject to becoming viscid or gummy. All dirt should be removed from under each machine every day, and the grids and cage wires ought to be kept perfectly clean, free, and open. The dirt flues and air passages should be cleaned at least once a week, or oftener when low dirty cottons are being used ; the same remark also applies to the dirt chamber, which must be emptied at the same time. MANIPULATION OP THE MATERIAL. 107 The opening and scutching machinery of every mill ought to be of such proportions that every week it can be stopped, say at breakfast-time on a Saturday morning, so that the remainder of the working day, until one o'clock p.m. can be devoted to a thorough cleaning. Machinery of all kinds properly cleaned and lubricated requires less power to drive, yields a better product, and lasts much longer than that which is neglected in these respects. 108 COTTOX SPLNNINQ. CHAPTER V. Carding and Combing. Carding : its necessity ; its importance and purposes. — Development of the modern card, from Paul, Hargreaves, and Arkwright's improve- ments. — Description of the roller card. — Summarized statement of its functions ; how accomplished. — The process examined in its progress. — Methods of altering the work. — Extensive use of the roller card. — The self-stripping flat or Wellman card ; causes of its invention ; improve- ment in this country. — Dobson and Barlow's Wellman card. — The re- volving flat card ; recent improvements. — Combination and other cards. — Card clothing ; for licker-in, main cylinder, rollers, clearers, and dofitr. — Location of cards ; adjustment ; setting of rollers and clearers. — Double cards. — The Derby doubler. — Breaker and finisher cards. — Light carding. — Grinding 5 by hand ; by inachine. — Points of card teeth : needle point, diamond point, chisel point, and hooked point ; how to attain the good points and how to avoid the bad ones. — Differing estimates of the qualities of roller, flat, and revolving flat cards. — Cotton injured by overworking. — Sevex'e treatment in the roller card. — Combing; indispensable for fine counts. — Invention of the combing machine ; de- scription ; process of combing. — Improvement of the machine in Eng- land ; Dobson and Barlow's improvements. — Imb's combing machine for short staple cottons ; description. IN dealing witli the raw material, it will be remembered that it was shown that along with the perfect fibre growing from each seed, there was also a considerable pro- portion of imperfectly developed fibre which in the process of ginning is detached from the seed and mingles with the mature and perfect portion. Also from causes which need not be inquired into in this place, imperfectly developed, deceased, or insect-damaged seeds are found occurring in the pods. The fibre upon these will have been arrested in its growth, and, like the preceding, be deficient in length, substance, and strength. Instead of being white, cylin- drical, and possessing the characteristic twist of the mature CARDING AND COMBING. 109 fibre, it will be transparent, flat, and ribbon-like ; often short and quite destitute of strength as compared with the well-grown fibre. The coarse impurities, such as foreign matter, vegetable substances, and seed, that have passed the gin, it has been seen, are mostly removed in the stages just described. These, however, have had but little efiect upon the class of impurities now requiring no- tice, and which it is equally imperative to abstract in order to make good, strong, and even yarn. This is effected by the operation of carding. Carding is probably the most important process in cotton manufacturing. It is the final stage of cleansing, wherein the minutest impurities foreign to the material, and all immature fibre, leaf, and broken seed, ought to be removed. To secure the cleanest yarn, however, requires the selec- tion of cotton as free as possible from immature seed that has passed the gin, and which neither the opening nor scutching process completely abstracts, and which passing into the card gets broken up, when it becomes almost im- possible to remove. The particles of these seeds are carried through the succeeding operations without being particularly conspicuous until the spinning process is reached, when in the twining the centrifugal force throws a portion of them off, whilst the remainder is retained on the surface of the yarn held by the short fibres upon them which having been spun into the thread. Sometimes in careless or defective ginning, when the gin blades rub against the grate bars, cotton is seriously injured by becoming " nepped " : that is, the fibres are caught and rolled into little balls like grains of sand in magnitude, and which form a great defect in yarns when present in any quantity. Broken seeds and nepped fibres are difficult of removal in any stage of man^ifacture. In respect of these there is still room for the ingenuity of inventors to effect improvements. In other points, a well-constructed card is a fairly efficient machine. The second function of the card, and the one which 110 COTTON SPINNIXa. ranks first in importance, is that of arranging the fibres of cotton in approximately parallel order. This is the first step in the construction of the thread. Up to this point every process has simply been preparatory, the fibres com- posing the lap, the product of the last process, lying across «ach other in a confused mass. But in carding, the sheet of cotton composing the lap is reduced to a thin cloud-like film or sheet of fibres arranged in almost perfect parallel order. This, as it leaves the dofi'er cylinder of the card, is drawn together, passed through a cone tube, thence between two pressure rollers, and by means of an ingenious mechanical arrangement it is received and automatically coiled in a can, in the form of a round, soft, untwisted strand of cotton technically called a sliver. It should be observed here that the coiler imparts to the sliver a very small amount of twist, but not so much as to appreciably afiect the correctness of the preceding remark. The modern card, like most other machines, is the out- come of the ingenuity of successive inventors. Its origin must be sought in the remotest times, and in the infancy of the textile industries. Probably its earliest known pro- genitor is the hand-card of the wool-comber, or the heckle of the flax-dresser, both of these probably suggested by the displayed fingers of the human hand. The growing de- mand for cotton goods in the early part of the last century induced several persons to attempt the invention of a more expeditious system, but little success for a time attended their efi'orts. Amongst these may be mentioned Lewis Paul of Birmingham, whose name is of some note as one of the early conjurors, as the first inventors and improvers of cotton machinery were in those days called. One of the most notable names in connection with the first successes in improvements in carding was that of James Hargreaves of Blackburn, the inventor of the spinning jenny. He in- troduced the stock cards used in the woollen trade into the cotton trade, and improved and adapted them to the manufacture of cotton. The changes he made consisted in CARDING AND COMBIN-G. Ill suspending one of the cards, bj means of a cord passing over a pulley, from the ceiling of the room in which the carding process was carried on. This card he balanced by a weight at the other end of the cord, whilst its fellow he fixed upon the stock. By this alteration each stock was made to hold two or three cards, and each carder was enabled to card a greatly increased quantity of cotton. Soon after accomplishing this improvement, or about 1762, Hargreaves was employed by Robert Peel, the founder of the family which afterwards gave the eminent statesman of that name to the country, who resided in close proximity to the inventor at Oswaldtwistle, to make for him a cylin- drical carding machine ; which he succeeded in doing in a shurt time. This machine in its structure appears to have been the true parent of the modern card. In its first form it had no doff'er arrangement, the carded cotton having to be taken off the cylinder by the hand-card, women being employed to perform the work. The inventor afterwards added a doffer, but it was not a success, consisting merely of a roller carrying a series of tin plates, which being made to revolve, scraped the cotton from the cylinder, and of course injured both the cotton and the cards. Though for a long time lost sight of, this idea has subsequently been rendered a practical success, as may be seen in the revolving doffer, now frequently preferred to the doffer comb. The invention of the latter is attributed to Ark- wright. In place of Hargreaves' tin plates and roller, he substituted a thin blade of iron extending across the face of the cylinder. The bottom edge of this blade was ser- I'ated, and by means of a crank or eccentric a vertical movement of short range was imparted to it by which it was made to detach the cotton from the cylinder in a uni- form and continuous fleece. This was the first doffer comb. In order to preserve the continuity of the fleece Arkwright invented filleting for card clothing in place of the sheets which up to then had been in use. The fleece was then contracted by passing it through a tube, after 112 COTTON SPINNING. which it was delivered into a can. From this time improve- ments succeeded one another at greater or less intervals, but the limits of space will not permit of these being traced to the present time. The sum of them, however, is the card as it is known to-daj, and of which there are several varieties. The first of these which calls for notice is the roller card. A section of this card with a portion of the side is shown in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 30. Its chief parts are the main cylinder, A, which at work has a surface speed of about 1,600 feet per minute ; the licker-in, b, so called from its taking the cotton from the feed roller, c, and delivering it to the cylinder or swift ; the small cylinder, d, is the doffer, whose function it is to take the carded cotton from the swift ; E, the coiler ; F, the sliver can ; G, the lap resting upon g', the lap roller. Arranged over the main cylinder, and covering about half its circumference, are a a number of small rollers, r and s. The former are carding rollers usually called workers, and the latter strippers or clearers. It is from these this card derives its name of the roller card. The licker-in, cylinder, workers, clearers, and doffer have their surfaces covered with card cloth- ing, the fineness of which is varied according to the class of work to be performed. Here we may briefly summarize the different ends sought to be obtained by the carding process : — 1st. The removal of all impurities, either natural or foreign to the cotton, which may have escaped the preceding processes. 2nd. The extraction of all immature, short, broken or nepped fibres, the retention of which would weaken or otherwise depreciate the quality of the yarn. 3rd. To disentangle the confused mass of fibres and place them side by side, or, in other words, in parallel order. 4th. To attenuate the heavy sheet of cotton forming the lap into a thin film or fleece, and to contract this into a ribbon or sliver fitted for the next process. to 114 COTTOX SPINNING. The first object is accomplislied bj the rapid revolution of the cylinder and rollers, which, striking the dried and broken leaf, seed-husk, or broken seed, fix and retain them in the card teeth. From this position they are removed either by hand or automatic stripping. Fine dust, not having sufficient material in which to hide away as it were, is by the centrifugal force exerted by the cylinder, thrown out, and falls through the grid at the bottom. The short, broken, nepped, and immature fibres being of insufficient length to be held by the card teeth, and the latter being of deficient specific gravity, are driven off as " fly," and also fall through the grating to the floor. The third and principal end sought, the arrangement of the fibres in parallel order, is accomplished by the process of attenuation and combing of the sheet of cotton forming the lap by the card teeth, which it undergoes in its passage through the card, which may now be described. Reverting to Fig. 30 ; the machine having been sup- plied with a lap, G, the end is passed under the feed roller, c, and the machine started. The lap roller, g', slowly re- volves, unrolling the web from the lap which, by means of the endless lattice on which it rests, is conveyed to the feed roller, C ; this carries it within reach of the large roller, b, called the *'licker-in," which, running at a surface speed of about 800 feet per minute, strikes the cotton in a down- ward direction from the feed roller, thus partially comb- ing the fibres, and by its revolution carrying them to the large cylinder, a, which revolves at a rate of 1,600 feet sur- face speed per minute. Owing to this, and to the teeth in its clothing being bent in the direction of its revolution — which is upward at the point of contact with the licker-in — it strips all the cotton from the latter at the position where their surfaces are near contact. The cylinder carries the cotton forward to the first roller, which in most instances is a dirt or cleansing roller, revolving at a slow rate, say fifteen feet per minute. Its chief function is to gather from the surface of the cylinder all the rougher and CARDING AXD COMBING. 115 larger particles of dirt, motes, seed, leaf, husks, and neps left bj the cotton which has been struck more deeply into the cards. The du^t which is thus extracted from the cotton is carried round by the roller and stripped from it by the attendant, or sometimes by a vibrating comb or stripper arranged for that purpose. The cylinder carries the cotton onward to the first roller, r, called a worker. Each of these workers has a companion roller, s, of smaller dimensions, called a clearer. These work in pairs. Being set in oppo- sition to the main cylinder. A, their contact surfaces move in the same direction, but, as compared with the cylinder, at a greatly reduced speed. The card teeth of the worker are in- clined the reverse way to those of the main cylinder, and owing to its slower surface speed, which is only about twenty feet per minute, the latter takes any cotton which is still entangled from it. The worker then carries this cotton over to the clearer ; this roller running at a surface speed of about 400 feet per minute, and having its teeth inclined in the direction of its motion, strips the worker, and re- turns the cotton to the cylinder. A, which, owing to its greater speed of 1,600 feet per minute, is enabled to strip the clearer. The entangled portion thus gets a severe carding. The teeth of the clearer, it must be remarked, are inclined in the same direction as those of the main cylinder, A. Thus the cotton delivered to the cylinder. A, is carried by the latter in this manner in succession to each pair of rollers, after passing which, and being thoroughly carded in the process, it arrives at and is delivered to the small cylin- der, D, called the dofiPer. This being set in opposition to the main cylinder, having its teeth inclined from the du'ection of its revolution, and moving at only a surface speed of sixty to seventy feet per minute, the latter owing to its greater speed deposits its cotton upon it. The dofi*er then carries it round to where its surface is subjected to the action of the dofifer comb, t, fitted upon vibrating arms, which strips the thin fleece away. The movement of the doff*er comb de- scribes a small arc of the circle that would be formed by 116 COTTON SPIX^^IXG. the revolution of the vibrating arms upon which it is carried. It strips the doffer cylinder in its descent, and clears itself when ascending. It makes from 600-1,000 strokes per minute according to requirement, being actuated by balanced cranks. As the thin film of cotton leaves the cylinder it passes over a guide-plate and through a trumpet-shaped tube, in which it is con- densed into a round untwisted cord. This, in its passage between the compression rollers of the draw box, is flattened into a ribbon, thence passes upwards to the coiler, E, and by an ingenious arrangement is coiled in the can, f, which stands upon a revolving plate. The cotton thus becomes a sliver, having its component fibres approximately parallel. The attenuation of the sheet of cotton and its transfor- mation into a sliver is thus completed, and we may pause a moment to examine the manner in which it has been accomplished. The lap, G, is unwound at a uniform rate by the lap roller, g', and is fed to the taker-in by the feed roller at exactly the same rate, these rollers being actuated from the same shaft. ISTo difference of speed between these rollers can be permitted without derangement of work. If the delivery roller, G, moved with a greater surface speed than the feed roller, the lap sheet would accumulate in a heap behind the latter ; were the reverse the case, the lap would be torn. The delivery rollers supply the lap sheet to the taker-in at a given rate, say 1^ revolutions = 9 inches per minute, in a specified time. The latter roller seizes this with its wire clothing, and owing to its great circumferential velo- city, draws or attenuates it fully 1,000 times its first length. This will be seen from the respective dimensions and velocities of the rollers. The delivery of the lap sheet taking place at the rate of 9 inches per minute, and the rate of revolution of the licker-in giving a surface velocity of 800 feet per minute, this will be found to slightly exceed that number. It will be obvious that this must produce CARDING AND COMBING. 117 a great effect upon the previously disordered state of the fibres forming the lap, and that in the direction of inducing a parallel arrangement. Still this sheet is far too heavy, and the cards of the main cylinder, which revolves at double the circumferential velocity of the taker-in, receive the cotton from the latter, and double the attenuation to which it has already been subjected. The cylinder having the heavier impurities on its surface, has these stripped from it by the dirt roller. The teeth of the dirt roller meeting those of the cylinder, and having their inclination against those of the latter, the impurities are caught and re- moved, leaving the cotton behind embedded in the cylinder card. The cotton is next carried by the cylinder under the clearer, s, the bend of the clearer teeth not allowing it to take the cotton up, after which the insufficiently carded portion is immediately taken by the worker, r, and from this roller by the clearer just mentioned, by which it is again returned to the cylinder, having received a severe carding in its course. Thus the lap sheet is first attenuated about 1,000 times, the cylinder doubles this, the worker condenses it, the clearer recommences the attenuation which the cylinder completes, the next worker again condensing the film to the degree to which the first worker carried it, its clearer returning it to the cylinder as before. This process is repeated as many times as there are workers and clearers, until the cotton which composed the 9 inches of lap is all carded, or has its fibres laid parallel, when it is finally taken from the cylinder by the doffer, d, in a con- densed form, its surface velocity being only sixty or seventy feet per minute. This will give a view of the carding or combing to which the material is subjected. The doffer cylinder, in turn, is stripped by the doffer comb, t, whose action has been previously described. The cotton when combed from this cylinder appears as a thin film, which should be quite free from motes, broken leaf, seed and neps. It should also be uniform in its density : that is, 118 COTTON SPINNING. quite free from all " cloudiness." When tlie card is work- ing well, and the preliminary stages have been properly- performed, this will be the case, providing the quality of the material is of a fair average, say for medium counts of yarn, which is the class of material we assume to be under consideration. The fleece as thus doff'ed is conducted over a guide plate on which it is condensed, and through a trumpet-shajDcd tube, and between the calender or compression rollers, c, whence it is carried up to the coiler and through its rollers. The sliver between the compression rollers and the coiler is sub- jected to a slight draught ; that is, the surface velocity of the latter rollers exceed that of the former, gaining, say, about twelve inches per minute. This is called the drawbox draught, and it helps to perfect the parallel arrangement of the fibres which it has been the chief object of the carding process to attain. The sliver now passes through the coiling disc into the can. This disc possesses a short tube, the upper opening into which is in the centre of the revolution of the disc, but which is not the centre of the disc itself, the tube ex- tending therefrom in an oblique direction to a distance of about one-fourth the diameter of the sliver can. In its revolution it therefore describes and deposits the sliver in a circle between the circumference and the centre of the sliver can. The can being placed in a revolving dish, is carried round with the latter, which causes the circles de- posited by the coiler to extend in a ring of circles, or rather of figures closely approximating thereto, around the centre of the can. This coiling also imparts a slight twist to the sliver, equal to about one turn in twenty-one to twenty- two inches. The trumpet tube is fitted with a traverse arrangement, which moves it from side to side of the compression rollers in order to prevent the unequal wear of these that would arise from the sliver strand always entering at one place. CARDING AXD COMBING. 113 The work performed in the carding engine can be altered in two ways ; firstly, by changing the rate at which the sliver is delivered ; and, secondly, by increasing or dimi- nishing the draught. The delivery of sliver is dependent upon the velocity of the calender rollers, and the speed of the doffer shaft from which the calenders are driven. The change is efi'ected by means of a pinion upon the doffer cylinder shaft. Diminishing the number of teeth in this pinion lessens the delivery of sliver, whilst increasing them enlarges the length produced. The draught remains as before, because the feed rollers being connected with the doffer, any change made in one in a corresponding manner affects the other. .The draught is similarly changed by altering the feed roller pinion, a diminution in the number of teeth lessening the speed of the rollers, and consequently, increasing the draught ; whilst an increase reverses this. When the carding engines have been set to supply the drawing and slubbing frames, the delivery of sliver is seldom changed, as this would disarrange the relationship between the card and the machinery in the succeeding pro- cesses. Neither is the draught generally altered, as the object this would achieve can be equally well attained by altering the weight of the lap. What is technically called " the draught " in the carding engine, is the difference between the length of the lap sheet and the length of the sliver formed from it. Thus, if 1 in. of lap is drawn into 100 in. of sliver, this would be termed a draught of 100 ; and a lap of 30 yards would, with this draught, yield a sliver of 108,000 inches. The roller carding engine is probably the one most extensively in use, as it is the one best adapted for the pro- duction of low and medium numbers of yarn. It is com- paratively simple in construction, easily set, and not liable to get out of order, whilst in its working capacity it excels all other forms. The work it performs, however, hardly equals in quality that obtained from either the Wellman, or the revolving flat cards. 120 COTTON SPINNING. The other two cards previously mentioned, the Wellman, so called from its inventor, and the revolving flat card, are essentially alike, the difference being one of detail only, relating to the method of stripping the flats. In both cases the main cylinder is covered on its upper surface by a series of bars extending across its face called flats, the under surfaces of which are covered with card sheets. The card surface is flat. "When the series are brought together, they extend half way round the periphery of the cylinder. When laid in position their function is the same as those of the workers and clearers in the roller card just described. Instead, however, of revolving, in the Wellman card they are fixed in their position, only being occasionally lifted for the purpose of stripping from them the accumulated impurities. The flat carding engine is of course one of the earliest forms of mechanical carding. Until, however, within a com- paratively recent time, the cards were stripped by hand, this being an operation requiring both skill and close attention. With the growth of the trade and increasing scarcity of labour, a supply of the proper class of men became difficult to procure. This led to attempts to devise an automatic plan of stripping the cards, but only a small degree of suc- cess attended these early efforts. In the United States, where the pressure was most severely felt, the problem was approximately solved in the method invented by George Wellman. Cards, with his automatic stripper attached, have since been widely adopted in the trade, in which they are known as the self-stripping or Wellman card. As left by Wellman, however, it was not free from defects. On its introduction into this country it was improved and modified by one of our leading firms of machinists, and adapted to work either as a first or breaker card, or finisher. Medium counts, say from 40^ to 100^ in warp yarns, and from 50^ to 120^ in wefts, require more card- ing than lower numbers. In many of these cases the roller card described is used as the first or breaker, and the Wellman or revolving flat card as the finisher. 122 COTTON SPINNING. The finisher carding engine on the Wellman principle, with the automatic stripper, as made by Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, the eminent machinists of Bolton, is shown in the annexed illustration. Fig. 31. In its principal parts it differs little from the roller card just described. The series of flats, /, which are bent concentrically over the main cylinder, are fitted upon adjustable brackets, g, and so arranged as to admit of each flat being set accurately parallel to the face of the cylinder. These brackets are carried upon a semicircle of firm, strong material, which is turned with gi^eat precision to the reqaired shape. The lever or arm, 7i, moves backwards and forwards over the semicircle of flats, /, carrying at its extremity the flat lift- ing and stripping apparatus, which has proved to be a very ingenious substitute for human attention and labour. By its means the flats are lifted from their respective brackets, and turned upward with their face exposed to the action of the stripper roller, which clears away the accumulation of waste that has gathered thereon. Imme- diately this is done the mechanism restores it to its place ; the arm resumes its movement, traversing the intervening space until the next flat is reached that requires to be stripped, when it again pauses, repeats the above perfor- mance, and so continues until the whole of the flats are stripped, when operations recommence. The order in which the flats are stripped varies, those nearest the lap requiring this attention more frequently than the others. The number of flats are always such that whatever may be the order of the arrangement of stripping, each in turn and proper rotation will come under the action of the stripper. The brackets, e, over the doffer cylinder and against the main cylinder, are for the reception of the grinding roller for grinding the cylinder and doffer with- out removal from the frame. The revolving flat card is another form of this machine. In it. Fig. 32, the flats as seen are arranged in the form of an endless lattice : those in work rest upon semicircular 124 COTTON SPINNING. guide rollers, n, carefully set upon the tops of the sides of the frame. These guides are adjusted by means of the screws, p. The flats not in action are suspended upon carrier rollers, g, over which they travel. The series of flats, as thus arranged, have a slow traverse, not more than one inch per minute. As they move, each flat in turn comes up to the stripping roller, h, by which it is cleansed from its ac- cumulations of dirt. After this it passes upon the guides to take its place amongst the working flats. The other parts of the machine are similar to those of the Wellman card just described. The three machines noticed represent the principal forms of the carding engine as now in use in this country. Besides these, however, there are several others, but which are mostly modifications wherein the distinctive features of the Wellman and the roller card are combined. These are called combination or union cards. The American cotton trade must be credited vn.th several improvements, amongst them being the Wellman card and others which will subsequently come under notice. Within the last two or three years in that countiy, a new — or what is called a new — arrangement of the flat carding engine has been in- troduced to public notice, called the under flat carding engine, wherein the flats are increased in number to such an extent as to almost surround the main cylinder. Of the merits of this arrangement we cannot sjDcak, and trust- worthy information is difficult to obtain. Its novelty, how- ever, is disputable, because an arrangement very similar in principle was tried in England thirty years ago, but was soon abandoned. The scale, however, on which the Eng- lish machine was built was too large, making it cumbrous and unwieldy, and to occupy too much space. The inven- tors of its successor appear to have avoided this error. Its construction is, however, theoretically faulty, and in practice we think it will be found disadvantageous where the object desired is to obtain a good yarn. It has been seen that the various rollers and cylinders of CARDING AND COMBING. 125 the roller carding engine, and tlie flats of the Wellman and revolving-flat carding machine are covered with card clothing. This is constructed of bits of fine wire bent into the required form and inserted into a foundation composed of leather, cloth, or a composite material formed of two folds of strong cotton cloth, between which is a layer of india- rubber. Of late years leather, though perhaps the best material for the purpose, has, owing to its cost, been, to a great extent, superseded by the last-named fabric, which makes an excellent substitute. The wires are either flattened or round, coarse or fine, according to the purpose for which they are required. They are generally made in narrow strips about an inch and a half wide, and of any length that may be needed. Sometimes they are made in what is termed sheets, about six inches wide, and of a length sufficient to extend across the card cylinder. Filleting is carefully wound in a spiral manner upon the cylinders and rollers, being made fast at each end. Previously to its being used it ought to be exposed for several days, or even a week or two, in a room the temperature of which is uni- formly equal to that in which it has to work when on the machine. This will probably be from 65° to 75° F., and its exposure in this manner will allow it to evaporate all its moisture, and shrink or expand as the case may be, so that when it has been wound upon the cylinders and rollers at a proper tension no further change will take place. The winding-on of the filleting or clothing of the carding engine is an operation of nicety, requiring both care and skill. In many districts there are people who do nothing else, who are called card clothiers, and go from mill to mill, wherever their services may be required. Quite recently, however, a machine has been invented by which this can be done with great accuracy, the fillet being held in such a state of tension as efiectually to prevent any slack places occurring or any change of temperature per- ceptibly afiecting it afterwards. In Fig. 33 is shown the first card with which the cotton 12(5 COTTON SPINNING. on its passage comes into contact, tliat clothing the "licker- in" roller. This requires to be strong, in order that it may not be injured in the event of any hard substance which may have escaped extraction in previous processes passing between the feed rollers and coming into contact with it. It is therefore purposely composed of strong wire ; the kind now generally used being flattened, and at the points it is cut diagonally at the required angle. This form of the tooth gives great strength and durability, with the smallest liability to injury. Its power is such that it will destroy or strike down almost any hard substance that may enter with the lap sheet, and that without material injury to itself, thus preventing damage to the fine cloth- ing of the cylinder and rollers beyond. The illustration shows the form of the tooth, the manner of its insertion in the foundation, and the card curved on a section of the circumference of the roller, thus exhibiting it as when ready for work. The next illustration (Fig. 34) represents the structure of a card used for the main cylinder when employed for good staple cottons. Cards are known by counts or num- bers which are derived from the number of teeth in the square inch of surface. The drawing shows a card of 100^, and slightly curved as when clothing the large cylinder and ready for work. The clothing upon the dofiPer cylinder is nearly always twenty counts finer than that upon the large cylinder. The dirt roller card (Fig. 35) is of a coarse wire, openly set, so that it will receive into its interstices the seed, leaf, motes, neps, and other impurities which the cotton may contain, and which it is its function to arrest and take out from the surface of the closely set cards covering the main cylinder. Its cut is similar in depth to that of the card covering the licker-in roller. The carding rollers, or workers and clearers, are both covered with cards of the same fineness, or nearly so, as those of the main cylinder. This also is shown as when ready for work. CARDING AND COMBING. 127 Carding, as previously observed, is one of the most important processes occurring in the transformation of cotton into yarn. "Whether this shall be done well or ill depends to a great extent upon the setting of the carding 128 COTTON SPINNING. engine. It is meant by this that the carding engine should be placed upon a solid, or at least upon a firm floor, free from vibration and perfectly level, so that there may be no unequal pressure of the working parts upon the bearings and framework. A ground floor best secures this requisite, and it is still better if it be a room like a weaving shed, lighted from the roof. This secures a good north light upon all the working parts of the card, which, as it is the first machine in which the cotton is drawn into a sliver, it is important should be well done. It will also conduce to this end if there is sufficient room given to allow the work people to pass all round each machine. The surfaces of all the rollers should be carefully adjusted to that of the large cylinder, the cards whilst being set closely and evenly in each case, should in no instance be allowed to touch each other. The workers and clearers, in order to admit of this being done with the most perfect nicety, are mounted upon brackets on each side of the frame, and which are adjusted by screws. The flats of the Wellman card are set in a similar manner ; whilst those of the re- volving card are mounted upon flexible bends which admit of a very accurate disposition of the flats. Some persons set these parts by sight, turning the rollers round, and carefully observing that they are nowhere in contact. Others judge by the ear, and prefer this test to the eye, as the slightest contact can be heard by a quick ear. Others, again, prefer to set by a fine gauge, and probably this is the best and surest method that can be used when it is carefully employed. But all these methods require to be checked by close observation of results after the card has commenced to work. This is the best test of all and should never be neglected. It must always be borne in mind that the action of the card teeth is not the action of teeth working into one another, their function being rather to throw the cotton from the periphery of one roller or cylinder to another in a single sheet of fibres laid in parallel order, by means of which they can be stripped in a CAEDING AND COMBING. 129 continnons web and condensed into a sliver. If the wire teeth were so set as to work into each other, or even merely to touch, they would roll the cotton into lumps or neps, as they are called. This is also seen when a card is being overworked, or too much material being put through, which it rolls out in neps, however good the cotton may be. Some persons prefer to use double carding engines, and these often very wide on the wire, say up to fifty inches. In these cards there are two large cylinders, the first being stripped by a dofi'er cylinder called a slow tummer, this in turn having the cotton taken from its surface by a clearer roller which transfers it to the second cylinder, after which the process is identical with that of the single card. In this case no second carding is needed. This plan is held to be economical as far as wages go, but it does not meet with the approval of many of the most experienced and skilful of spinners and managers, who prefer two pro- cesses through two single machines. Where single cards are used, and the cotton is put through twice, the first card is called the breaker and the second the finisher. The sliver as doffed from the breaker is re-formed into a lap in the Derby doubler, the sliver cans being taken and placed at the back in sufficient number when combined to form a lap of the required weight and width, which is then ready for the finisher card. The clothing of the finisher card should always be finer than that of the first card. The first card is sometimes em- ployed to perform the second operation, but this plan is not to be commended. This process, it will be obvious, secures much better than single carding a perfectly even sliver for the subsequent stages, and finally more even, uniformly strong, and therefore a yarn commercially more valuable, by which the extra cost of production will be more than compensated. Or if it be desired to produce a yarn not better, but equally good with that from single carding, it can be accomplished by using a slightly lower quality of raw material. In this manner compensation E 130 COTTON SPINNING. for the increased cost of production is eqnallj well attained. Where this plan of working is adopted, the cards, both breaker and JBnisher, may be on any of the three principles already described : that is, both first and second may be on the roller, Wellman, or revolving flat principle ; or, if de- sired, any two of them may be combined. In the latter case, the roller card or the Wellman are best adapted for breakers, and the revolving flat for finisher. In case the two first are used, the second shonld occupy the position of finisher. Whatever class of machines is used, if good work is wanted, it is essential that they should not be overworked, that the carding should be what is called light weight. Where changes are made in the counts, reducing the numbers and increasing the production, there will as a consequence be a demand made upon the cards for a greater production ; when this is the case, it may become almost imperative to work the cards more heavily. This condition requires great care from the carder. Light carding is easy enough, but heavy carding requires the closest attention of the carder, in order to prevent the cotton being delivered before it is sufficiently carded, by which bad work would result ; and, on the other side, to prevent it remaining in the card a moment longer than necessary, as this diminishes the product. Cottons differ in the amount of carding they require, some needing more, some less ; others, again, contain a larger proportion of short fibre, and fill the cards sooner, rendering it neces- sary to strip oftener. On changes being made in these respects, the carder should give the closest attention to his cards, in order that he may make any alterations that may be needed in time and before much imperfect work can have passed. To keep the product from the cards in the best condition, it must be kept in mind that when the weight is increased, it will be necessary to strip and grind proportionately oftener. Considered in relation to good carding, grinding the CARDING AND COMBING. 131 cards is a most important duty. To secure the best results the cards must be kept very sharp and free from all turn- ing up at the points, by which " hooks " are formed. The best point for carding purposes is the diamond point, so called from its form. This is produced most successfully, and, indeed, only in perfection, by skilful hand-grinding with the flexible strickle. The form of this tooth is well known. No mechanical grinding has yet been able to equal the perfectness with which it can be obtained by the hand ; nor has any other form of tooth been discovered which is so suitable for its purpose. Mechanical grinding with a roller extending across the face of the cylinder is objectionable because its abrading action is all brought to bear upon the back of the card-tooth, the effect being to produce what is called a chisel-point, that is, a wide flat point like that of the instrument from which it has been named. It will be seen that a fixed roller of this kind can have no other action, and consequently no other effect than to produce a point of this description. This is par- tially obviated, however, by the form of the grains of emery covering the grinding roller, and further by giving the latter a short lateral traverse. What is required is that the sides of the teeth shall be ground as well as the back, by which a true point will be at least approxi- mately attained. The needle point would be the most perfect form of the tooth, but this it is well nigh impos- sible to obtain after the cards have their first or new point worn down. The needle point is produced by the revolu- tion of the needle on its own axis when it is held against the abrading surface in an oblique line. This cannot pos- sibly be done in cards after the clothing has been made. All that remains is to come as nearly to it as circumstances will permit. Skilful hand-grinding can come very near to it, as a careful and clever operator, fully knowing what is wanted, will grind round seven-eights of the circumference of the wire forming the points of the teeth. This yields a point which is a little nearer theoretical perfection than 132 COTTON SPINNING. the diamond-point, though it is usually given that name. The Horsfall mechanical grinder, with its traversing disc, is the most successful invention yet introduced in attain- ing the end sought. This grinds the teeth not only from the back like the long roller, but also on each of the two sides. But the quarter of the circumference forming the front, and which in the revolution of the cylinders and rollers forms the face of the teeth, it cannot touch. Thus the diamond point is formed by grinding three-quarters of the circumference of the wire, the abrading surface having a three-fold action. But even this grinder, as usually con- structed, is defective and imperfect, inasmuch as the width of the revolving strickle or disc on each side of the cylin- ders and rollers is imperfectly ground, or less perfectly so than the portion over which its traverse is complete. This arises from the fact that the strickle does not pass from the surface of the cylinder or roller before it commences its re- turn, thus leaving the outer side of the tooth unground, 'which reduces the surface acted upon to one half of the circumference of the wire point. On the opposite side the reverse half is left untouched. With hand-grinding this does not occur. The reason why the front of the tooth cannot be ground, we ought to have observed before, is because of the angle at which it is bent. Were the teeth quite vertical, no difficulty would be experienced, as then the direction of its revolution could be reversed. It is, how- ever, superfluous to say that were they set in this manner they would not be capable of doing the required work. Practical men differ in their estimates of the value of cards built upon the foregoing plans, some maintaining that the roller card is the best, others strongly affirming the Wellman to be better, whilst others again claim that the revolving flat card is the best of all. It is not all practical men even who are best qualified to express an opinion on these points, as often their experience is not wide enough to enable them to judge of the merits of more than one of the three. Again, satisfied with what they CARDING AND COMBING. 133 are doing, they have never inquired what is being done by others, and whether or not their own results are not sur- passed elsewhere. During the past ten years, in which competition has become unusually severe, more attention than previously has been directed to secure the best results in quality and the highest economy in working, the effect being that opinion on this and several other matters has become more clearly defined. That this has caused the revolving flat card to grow in favour, as compared with its competitors, is indisputable, and there is little doubt but that this conclusion is a correct one. It has been previously observed that cotton is injured by any overworking in the respective processes, and the fact cannot be too carefully borne in mind that it is im- proper and injurious to allow it to remain under treatment a moment longer than is necessary to effect the object of each particular process. It will be obvious also that the machine which accomplished this end the soonest and with the least amount of treatment of the fibres, will leave them in the best condition for subsequent processes, that is, with their natural structure and strength unimpaired. To stand beside a roller card at work and watch its operations will convince almost any observer that the treat- ment to which the raw material is subjected is exceedingly severe, whatever may be the end to be attained ; whilst the practical observer, knowing exactly what is desired, is driven to conclude that the violence is in excess of all re- quirement. The object sought being, in the first place, the extraction of all impurities, which consist mainly, if not altogether, of particles of dust, seed, leaf, and of short, un- ripe, imperfectly developed, and damaged fibres ; and in the second, the arrangement of the fibres in parallel order ; it would seem that neither of these can be effected in the most satisfactory manner by this card. Owing to the rollers being set as closely as possible to the cylinder with- out actual contact, the heavier impurities that are carried in with the lap, and thrown by the licker-in roller upon the 134 COTTOX SPIXXIXG. main cylinder, if not immediately taken off by the dirt roller in its revolution, are liable to, and actually are, cut to pieces by the succeeding rollers and clearers. When this is done, it becomes exceedingly difficult, if not impos- sible, to remove them afterwards ; especially if they are the fragments of immature or imperfect seeds called "bearded motes." Great quantities of these are carried forward through all the succeeding stages to the spinning process, where they are spun into the yarn, being held by the short fibres upon them, whilst the specks of seed forming the base are thrown upon the surface of the thread in the manner pre- viously described, disfiguring and deteriorating the quality of the yarn. This result is often seen where the roller card is employed, and its action in this respect is simply representative of what occurs in connection with other im- purities in which the results are not quite so conspicuous » But the manner in which it performs the second function of the card, that of laying the fibres in parallel order, is not so perfect as is desirable. The transfer of the fibres from cylinder to worker, from worker to clearer, and from the latter again to the cylinder, and so on through the whole series to the doffer, from which it is taken by the vibrating comb, is not favourable to the disposition of the fibres in the desired parallel order. The alternations of surface velocity will have something more than a tendency to fold the fibres back upon themselves, and each roller, as it de- livers its carded portion to the cylinder, will lay them in lines often not parallel to those of their proper direction. The best result, therefore, is only an indifferent approxima- tion to the condition required. This necessitates consi- derable doubling, and especially drawing, which, in its turn, tends to destroy the natural convolute or twisted form of the fibres, which greatly weakens the yarn, because instead of firmly cohering when twisted together, a slight strain causes the fibres to glide over one another, the resistance offered to breakage being only that of about one-third or one-fourth of the fibres in the strand of yarn which happen CARDING AND COMBING. 135 not to have been injured. That it has hitherto been im- possible to utilize the full strength of the material employed is proved by the breaking strain of the best yarns that are produced falling far below the aggregate strength of the individual fibres they contain. Combing. — Combing may be described as the most highly perfected application of the principle of carding. Its chief purpose is to separate from the material all the fibres that are in length below the standard it has been decided to use. In addition, it efi^ectually clears the cotton from vegetable and other impurities that may have escaped the carding process through which the cotton has first been put. Combing is now indispensable in the preparation of cotton for spinning the higher qualities, and counts of yarn known as " high numbers," and which range from 80^ to 250^ and upwards. It is, however, only used in the pre- paration of low or medium counts, say from 20^ to 60^ in cases where a high quality is desired. Manchester and Bolton are the principal localities in which the combing machine is in use, though a few other establishments making specialities in yarn and using this process are scattered over other parts of the country. The large sewing cotton manufacturers use combed yarns in making their better qualities of sewings. The combing machine was designed and invented by M. Heilmann of Mulhausen, one of the Continental centres of the cotton trade. This was a few years before 1851. It was probably an outgrowth of the same inventor's wool- combing machine. The cotton-comber, however, only drew public favour to itself very slowly. The inventor took the opportunity ofi'ered by the International Exhibi- tion of 1851 in this country, to introduce it to the notice of English spinners. These gentlemen, or rather those of them spinning fine yarns, were not slow to perceive its value to their branch of the trade. A syndicate was formed to acquire the right to its exclusive use in England, and the patent was purchased for the sum of £30,000. 136 COTTON SPINNING. Its construction was placed in the hands of an eminent firm of machinists in Manchester, whilst its use was re- stricted to the members of the syndicate. After they had been fully supplied, and had enjoyed the advantages of its exclusive use for some time, it was permitted to be sold to the public under the imposition of a royalty of £300 per machine, which, with the cost of construction, brought the charge up to the considerable amount of £500 per machine. As the patent approached expiration this charge was re- duced. The machine, however, was maintained at a high price, and the patent virtually prolonged, through the same process of protection being resorted to for securing the im- provements that experience had dictated, and which, indeed, were almost indispensable to make it a thorough success. The invention and adoption of this machine has had a highly important influence upon the fine spinning branch of the cotton trade. It has rendered feasible the use of cottons formerly regarded as quite unsuited for the pro- duction of fine yarns. By thus increasing the bulk of the material, and widening the area of selection, it has done much to reduce the prices of fine yarns to a lower level than before, thereby extending their application and in- creasing their consumption. In the Heilmann "comber," of which Fig. 36 is a sec- tional view, the lap, cj, was placed upon the rollers, h, which by their revolution unrolled the fleece when it passed down an inclined guide plate, c, to a pair of steel feed rollers, d d\ the lower of which was fluted, whilst the upper was covered with leather. These rollers had an intermittent movement obtained through peculiar gearing, by means of which they were turned one-sixteenth to one-twelfth of a revolution at a time. They delivered the cotton to a pair of nippers which opened to allow its passage. These nippers were composed of two parts, the blade, e, and the cushion, pivoted upon e\ the latter being covered with leather. The blade, e, received its movement from a cam at the gearing end of the machine. The motion was transmitted through two 138 COTTON SPINNING. levers, a connecting rod, e^ and a shaft. The blade had a greater movement than was required to bring it into contact with the cushion plate, and the latter being hung upon a pivot, and held forward by a spring, was pushed backward by the pressure of the blade into a position which subjected the cotton to the action of the combing cylinder, /. A reverse movement then took place, which permitted the cushion plate and nipper blade to advance with the cotton in their grip to a point where, when the nipper blade, e, rose, the fibres were taken hold of by a de- taching roller, g^, and a fluted segment on the combing cylinder, /\ The surface of this cylinder, opposite to the fluted segment, carried a series of seventeen combs, /^, graduated in fineness from thirty to ninety teeth in the inch. Between the fluted segment and the combs was a plain space at each side, during the passage of which in the re- volution of the cylinder, time was afi'orded for making the required changes between the combs ceasing to act and the fluted segment coming into work, and vice versa, the cylinder revolving continuously. The top comb was fitted above the cylinder, its function being to comb the ends of the fibres, and to prevent any being drawn forward except those that had been combed and cleaned by the cylinder. The top comb had only a vertical movement, being lifted out of the way of the cylinder comb when the latter was passing underneath. The detaching roller, g, and its leather covered fellow, g^, with the accessory roller, ^% received their motion from a cam which was arranged to turn the roller, g, one-third of a revolution backward ; then, reversing, two-thirds forwards, when it stopped until the cylinder combs had prepared another length of fibre. The reverse movement was given to the roller, g^ for the purpose of taking back the rear end of the pre- viously combed fibre, so as to place them under and attach them to the fibres coming from the combs, whereby the whole were formed into a contiuuous sliver or ribbon, it being necessary to detach the fibres under operation from CARDING Am) COMBING. 139 the remainder of the fleece as fed in, and also from the fibres already combed. The attachment being made, the roller, r finest yarns. — Backing-off and winding. — The quad- rant and its improvement. — Automatic regulation of the fallers ; the lifting motion ; locking and unlocking of the faller ; winding ; and backing off". — Speed of the parts ; changes ; replacement. THE brief review just given of the development of our principal spinning machine brings us to the period in ■which it is found with the essential prmciples and general structure and form it has since retained. All subsequent improvements, though considerable, have been in details. These have been perfected almost to the highest degree possible, and it would seem that little remains for succeed- ing inventors to accomplish in its further improvement, and this idea appears to be confirmed by the fact that of late years attention has been greatly diverted to the im- provement of the flyer frame, in both its old form, and as 232 COTTON SPINNING. modified in tlie ring spinning frame. As, however, the mule is, and must long remain the most important spin- ning frame of the series, it will be well to examine it in detail before proceeding to the consideration of the claims of its rivals. The following illustrations and description are reproduced from the article on "Cotton Manufactures," bj the present writer, in Messrs. Spons' " Encyclopaedia of Manufactures and Raw Materials," referred to previously: — Fig. 61 represents a side elevation of the naule head- stock, with the transverse section of the carriage, shown as running in, and in the act of winding. The drawing-rollers and roller-beam are also seen in section. Fig. 62 is a front view. In Fig. 63 is seen a corresponding plan of the mule, showing the head-stock in the middle, and having spindles working on each side. The driving power is communicated to the machine through the horizontal first-motion shaft, on which are the fast and loose strap pulleys ab. When the carriage M has run in to the roller-beam, or drawing-rollers, the front of which series is seen at c^, the driving strap is on the fast-pulley A, though a portion ex- tends to the loose-pulley b. Motion is communicated to the drawing-rollers by the small change bevel-wheel C, driving the large bevel-wheel c\ running loose on the horizontal shaft c, and connected with the front line of drawing-rollers. The spindles are also driven from the chief motor shaft by the double-grooved cord-pulley, or rim, A", on the extremity of the shaft, carrying the bevel-wheel C. From this pulley, an endless cord a passes downwards, beneath the guide-pulley a\ thence to the oblique cord- pulley a", as seen in the carriage m, and to and around the tin roller o.^, kejed on the horizontal shaft J, which carries the tin cylinders j^ used for driving the spindles. Thence it passes forward, and around the carrier-pa Hey 'ecapitulated as follows : — The creel having been supplied with bobbins containing rovings, the ends of the latter are passed through small guide-wires, and between the three pairs of drawing-rollers c. The function of the back pair — that first taking hold of the roving — is simply to draw To J ace -page 240. h'ig.r,\. Mule Hearlstock. Side elev.ati( To Jiii'r pa, of the quadrant contains a double-threaded screw, by which the sliding nut, e, is traversed outwards from the centre of motion, c, towards the extremity of the arm, j>. When the carriage is at the outer end of its stretch, the arm, d, stands inclined 12° outwards from the vertical, as shown by the dotted Imes ; and during the run-in of the carriage, it turns inwards through an arc of 90°. A chain, f, attached to the nut, E, is coiled round a drum, h, inside the carriage, g; and as the carriage recedes fi-om the quadrant arm during the run-in, the chain thus causes the drum t© rotate, and thereby drives the spindles, t, through the intervention of the tin roller, I, geared to the drum, h. At the commencement of a set of cops, the nut, e, is at the bottom of the quadrant arm, d, nearest to the centre of motion, c, as shown dotted ; and the number of revolutions then given to the drum, h, by the uncoiling of the chain dui'ing the run-in of the carriage is nearly as many as if the end of the chain at the nut were held stationary, and is sufficient t© wind up on the bare spindles the length of threads fepun in one stretch." " As the cops increase in diameter from their original size, A, B, to their full diameter, c, c (Fig. 68), the nut, e, is gradually advanced outwards along the quadrant-arm, d (Fig. 71), so as to increase its arc of motion, and thereby diminish the number of revolutions of the drum, h, and the speed of the spindles, t. This advance of the nut is obtained from the counter-faller, v, bearing against the underside of the threads, w, during the winding. The depression of the counter-faller towards the lower part of the cop, j, brings down the end of a governing lever upon a horizontal strap, which passes round a pulley, upon the headstock of the mule, and round another on the centre shaft, c, of the quadrant ; and on the shaft is a bevel pinion gearing into a seeond bevel pinion on the end of the double-threaded travers- ing screw in the arm, d ; so that when the governing lever is de- pressed upon the strap of the counter-faller, the forward motion of the lever, as the carriage runs in, drags the strap along with it by friction, and turns the shaft, c, forwards, sliding the nut, E, outwards towards the circumference of the quadrant. At the moment when the backing-off motion has ceased, and the carriage 256 COTTON SPINNING. begins to run in for winding up the stretch of the thread spun, as shown in Fig. 66, the counter-faller wire, v, is at its highest working position, compensating for the additional length of thread that has been uncoiled from the top of the spindle in backing oft after the spinning of the stretch was completed. The nut, e, however (Fig. 71), is still at the same distance from the centre, c, of the quadrant, as it was at the conclusion of winding the previous stretch ; and, therefore, as the diameter of the cop is now greater by winding the last new layer of thread outside the previous one, the winding of the new stretch commences rather too fast, and begins at once to take up the length of thread given out in the backing off. The counter-faller, v, is thus depressed, and, by means of the governing lever, slides the nut, e, further out from the centre, c, until the speed of the winding is suffi- ciently diminished to allow the counter-faller to rise again high enough for lifting the governing lever off the strap. It will be seen that, in consequence of the arm, d, describing the quadrant of a cii"cle, the horizontal motion of the nut, e, in the winding ot each stretch is greatest at the commencement of the winding, and gradually diminishes as the carriage runs in ; and the effect of this is that the speed of the winding is gradually increased towards the end of each stretch. By this means the threads are wound uniformly upon the cops, with an equal degree of tightness throughout." Such vras the self-acting mnle until within a few years ago. It was not quite perfect, inasmuch as though per- forming the principal operations automatically, and with a considerable degree of accuracy, it was still dependent upon the skill of the superintending operative for the per- formance of some of its minor operations. Several of those that were automatically performed, were also imperfect in more than one respect. The governing arrangement of the quadrant nut was neither sufficiently sensitive nor re- liable for the performance of good work. In both these respects it has been greatly improved, and has been ren- dered adaptable for a much wider range of work than pre- viously. The backing-off" motion was also defective in its arrangement, and this often caused " snarls " or kinks to THE MODERN MULE. 257 be produced in tbe yarn, a fault which it was highly desi- rable should be avoided if possible, as it seriously depre- ciated the value of the yarn. This has been accomplished. A defect in the winding motion, arising from the pecu- liar form of the spindle, was a long-standing trouble to spinners, and an almost insurmountable difficulty to in- ventors. The quadrant winding apparatus was constructed to form a cop on a spindle equal in its dimensions from the bottom to the top, and on which the winding throughout would be equally good. But in this construction the im- portant fact was ignored — probably at the time regarded as too small for notice — that the spindle is not of equal thickness throughout its length, but is tapered, the thickest part being the base. If the winding was arranged cor-; rectly for the spindle at the base of the cop, there was a steadily increasing departure from this point during its building up, so that towards its completion the winding be- came so slack as to lead to the entanglement, "halching" it was called, of the thread at the " nose " or apex of the cop, which caused a great amount of waste in the subse- quent process of winding the yarn upon bobbins, or in reeling it for bundling. This difficulty, too, has been overcome, and the aggregate result is a great improvement in the quality of the work produced from the mule as now made in the best form. As these involve some of the nicest problems yet encountered in connection with the mule, a description of the means by which they have been solved will not fail to be instructive. In giving this I can- not do better than avail myself of the description of the means adopted by Messrs. Piatt Bros, and Co., Oldham. This was given in detail in a paper by Mr. Eli Spencer, read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, previously men- tioned, in which he reviewed the progress that had taken place since the subject was brought under notice in the paper by Mr. Piatt, and from which the preceding quota- tions have been made. This was illustrated by drawings, which permission has been given to reproduce. s 258 COTTON SPI^'NING. " The backing-off motion has been perfected, its operation being regulated automatically to suit the position of the cops at every stage of their progress, from the commencement of wind- ing to the completed full cop. Formerly this apparatus was imperfectly manipulated by the minder. The copping apparatus is now used as the controlling agent for regulating this motion. This is shown in Fig. 72. It is made with a separate front incline, D, which is loose, and is governed by an additional front copping plate, E. Formerly only two points in the copping rail, a, were capable of being adjusted to the exact positions required; whereas by the use of the loose incline, d, all the positions are now regulated. The advantage gained by this latter arrange- ment is the power of regulating the precise position of the faller wire when the faller is locked — a very important consideration. In the hand mule, when the spindle had depressed the faller wire to the proper position for winding, and uncoiled the exact amount of yarn from the bare spindles, he arrested the operation of backing-off and commenced the wiading on. In the self- acting mule with the copping rail in one solid piece, this impor- tant object could not be attained. The amount of inclination in the front was determined by the conditions required to commence the cop on the bare spindles. At the commencement it was very important to keep the ' chase ' of the cop, or the height of the cone, as shown at a, b. Fig. 68, as short as possible, in order to pre- vent waste in unwinding in the subsequent processes. When the copping rail was set at the commencement of the cop, the posi- tion of the faller wire was determined, and set to suit the re- quirements of the operation ; but as soon as the winding part of the copping rail assumed the more inclined position to enable it to wind a longer chase, then the front incline assumed a less inclined position, leaving the faller wire at the time of the faller locking in a worse position at each successive draw, until the chase had attained its maximum at c, d, Fig. 68, and had begun to be gradually shortened again. This was in reality a complete reversal of the practice of the hand-spinner's operations. For many years this method was considered quite satisfactory, but the demand for longer cops, built more firmly, gave the impulse to the present improvement. The front incline being now made movable, its position can be regulated so that the operation will THE MODERN MULE. 259 be an exact counterpart of the hand-spinner's work, when he made his best cop. and by the use of an apparatus for tighten- ing the backing-off chain, in connection with the loose incline, D, on the copping rail, the amount of yarn uncoiled from the spindles is regulated to suit the position of the faller wire at the termination of the backing-off. When once set this appai-atus needs no attention from the minder." '• As the copping motion has been previously explained, it is only necessary here to describe what relates to the loose incline shown in Fig. 72. The copping rail, a, a, rests at one end on the front copping plate, c. One end of the loose front incline, d, is jointed to the ridge of the copping rail by the pin, f, and its front end rests on the additional copping plate, e, which is fastened to the copping plate, b, in such a manner that it can be adjusted to suit the requii-ements of the loose incline, d. By varying the form and position of the additional copping plate, E, the loose incline, d, can be regulated to give any requu-ed results." '• The diagram shows the faller locking arrangements, with the lock at the bottom of the lever, r (Fig. 72), instead of as in the former arrangement at the top. The principle is the same in both systems, the alteration being made to suit the requirements of other parts of the head stock connected principally with what are technically called the ' changes.' " The means hj which the defects of the quadrant arising from the tapered form of the spindle, have been overcome, is an improvement in the backing-off-chain tightening motion. A little further explanation of whj this is required may be desirable. " When the carriage, g (Fig. 72), is making its outward run, the front or winding faller wii'e is generally about 1^ inch above the points of the spindles, s. This is also the position of the parts in ordinary mules, immediately before the operation of backing-off the spiral of yarn that is coiled upon the bare spindles above the top of the cop. As is well understood, the reversal of the tin roller causes it to uncoil this yam from the spindles and also brings into action the parts which pull the faller wire down. In all cases the spindles begin to uncoil before the faller wii-e 260 COTTON SPINNlNy. begins to move, because tlie tin roller must make some little movement before the backing-off click or pawl can take hold of the ratchet wheel. In addition to this the spindles continue to uncoil the yarn during the time the faller wire is moving from its position above the spindle points, until it touches the yarn. From this it will be seen that a considerable length of yarn will be uncoiled from the spindles before the faller wire can overtake the yarn. The spindles thus have the start very considerably, and at the completion of a set of cops this loss of motion of the faller wire produces the worst results. In the case of a cop with its nose or point only -f- inch from the spindle points, the loss is nearly one-half the entire motion of the faller wii-e, which moves as far before it touches the yarn as it does after. To overcome this difficulty it is necessary to have the backing-off chain tight, so that it may act on the faller as early as possible ; and the backing-off snail is made as large as possible and of the proper form, so that the faller wire may act on the yarn at the earliest moment. " At the commencement of a set of cops, the conditions are very much more favourable ; for, although the space actually passed through by the faller wire before it touches the yarn re- mains constant, it bears at the commencement a very much smaller proportion to the entire distance passed through by the wire before the faller locks, than it does at the completion of the set of cops. Consequently the backing-off chain has to be slack at the beginning of a set of cops, otherwise the speed of the faller Avire would force the yarn down the spindles faster than it would uncoil, and would thereby break the thread. Hence the backing-off chain having been adjusted to the proper length for backing-off nicely at the commencement of the set of cops, it is desirable gradually to tighten or shorten it as the cop increases in length, until at the completion of the cop, the chain is almost tight. By this means the backing-off can be adjusted all through the set, so that it corresponds at every stage with the exact re- quirements of the case ; the nose of the cop is preserved in a properly firm condition, and neither too much nor too little yam is uncoiled. Kext to winding the yarn properly on the cop, this is the most essential condition in making a good cop. Where the apparatus now to be described, which effects this automati- 262 COTTON SPIXNIXG. cally, is at work, it is found that very mucli fewer noses or points of cops are ' halched ' or entangled. " Referring to Fig. 72, the winding faller shaft, i, has keyed upon it the backing-oflf finger, h ; the backing-off chain, j, is fastened at one end to the finger, h, and, at the other end, to the backing-off snail, k, which is mounted with a ratchet clutch upon the tin roller shaft. The backing-off tightening-chain, l, has one end fastened to the boss of the snail, k, and the other end to the bell-crank lever, m, the tail of which is shown rest- ing on an incline, n. This incline slides upon a plate fastened to the floor ; and an arm upon the front end of the incline grips the copping plate connecting rod, p, by set screws, the incline, N, is caused to move backwards with the backward motion of the rod during the formation of the cop. " In Fig. 72 are shown the positions of the carriage, g, and the various parts just previous to the time of the backing-off taking place at the commencement of a set of cops. The backing-off chain, j, having been adjusted to the proper length for backing off on the bare spindle, the copping plates, b and c, with the connecting rod, p, will gradually move inwards or backwards, in the direction of the arrow, as the cop progresses, and will carry the incline, n, with them in the same direction. This movement gradually brings the higher part of the incline, n, under the tail of the lever, m, causes it to turn in the direction of the arrow, and so pulls the chain, l, which, in turn, acting on the snail, k, takes up the slack of the backing-off chain, j. The incline, n, is so made that it can be varied to suit the particular require- ments of various kinds of mules. The absolute amount of tightening depends upon the setting of the incline, or upon the differences of level between its two extremities ; and the rate of tightening at different parts of the incline depends upon the form of its outline. By varying the form of the incline, the action on the chain can be varied to suit any circumstances. When once set, the apparatus needs no farther attention. At the commence- ment of a new set of cops, the copping plates, b, e, c, are wound forwards again, into the position shown in Fig. 72, the in- cline, N, goes with them, and the backing-off chain, j, is restored to its normal slackness." It has already been sufficiently explained, that Roberts' THE MODERN MULS. 263 quadrant winding apparatus admitted of no variation be- yond the gradual outward traverse of the quadrant nut to suit the increasing diameter of the cop until the maximum was attained, after which no further modification took place. This, however, did not fully meet the requirements of the case, as no provision was made for the tapered form of the spindle. Had the spindle been uniform in its dia- meter, the quadrant in the form Roberts left it would have been comparatively perfect, but this was not so, and the increase of the length of the spindle that of late years has taken place, required to meet the demand for higher speeds and larger cops, has intensified the evil experienced. The diameter of the blade, or winding part of the spindle, has grown to i inch in its largest part, whilst it tapers down to -jig- inch at the top. It will be seen from this that the speed, or rate of revolution, of the spindle, when " nosing " or winding on the bare portion of the spindle at the early part of a set will require to be very much less than when at the finish, and that the acceleration will require to be gradual throughout the set in order that the nose of the cop may be tightly and firmly wound throughout. This acceleration of speed, which usually takes place when the carriage in its inward run is closely approaching the roller beam, requires to be in a ratio exactly corresponding to the diminution of the diameter of the spindle. Also its commencement must be a little earlier with each succeeding draw, so that at the finish of a set it will commence five or six inches away from the termination of the inward run of the car- riage. It is necessary that the time of its commencement should be nicely adjusted to the position of the faller wire, as should it begin too early the yarn will be rapidly wound upon a portion of the top cone of the cop that will take it up too fast, and so strain or break it, in either of which cases it will be greatly injured. In fact, yarn was in- jured in this manner until within a comparatively recent time. Many contrivances were designed for obtaining this necessary acceleration of the spindle's velocity, but they 264 COTTON SPINNING. almost all failed either in obtaining the right degree or in commencing at the right moment. " The one most generally in use is that called the ' Nose Peg.' This peg, acting on the winding chain, f (Fig. 73), deflects it from a straight line into a bent line, causing additional chain to be un- coiled from the winding-on drum, h, and consequently increasing the velocity of the spindles. This, although an improvement, imparts but little acceleration ; and the little it does begins too early — say, about 18 in. from the end of the inward run of the carriage. Various forms have been given to the peg, but all amount to the same thing in practice." Subsequently, in 1863, the nose-peg bracket was con- verted into a swing lever, which was mounted on the quadrant. Both this and the successive modifications of it, until the invention of the scroll-drum nosing motion (the description of which follows), were merely varia- tions of means to deflect the winding-on chain. None of these, however, satisfactorily answered requirements. The quality desired, and which was essential to a perfect ap- pliance, was a progressive acceleration of the revolution of the spindle in a ratio equivalent to the diminution of its diameter, so that a given length of thread should be wound upon a smaller circumference in the same time. The problem, in fact, was an inverse form of that encoun- tered in the slubbing and roving frames, and which in those instances was solved by the diff'erential motion of Holdsworth. The difficulty of solving the problem, how- ever, was complicated by its requirement of an inter- mittent action of short duration. The last invention relating to this, and which seems to answer all needs, is the automatic nosing motion brought out by Messrs. Platts, and which consists of a scroll placed upon the end of the winding-on drum, H (Fig. 73). The following is a description from the paper previously referred to : — " When the cop has attained its full diameter, c, c, Fig. 68, the scroll-drum, h, should be in the position shown in Fig. 74, on the Mlg^ 26(5 COTTON SPINNING. completion of the inward run of the carriage, g. As the cop be- comes gradually built up higher on the taper spindle, more wind- ing chain ought to be uncoiled from the scroll, until, at the completion of the cop, the chain should be wholly uncoiled, as shown in Fig. 75. It will be understood that the velocity of the winding increases in the same ratio as the diameter decreases of the scroll, h, from which the chain is uncoiled. The amount of acceleration thus given depends on the quantity used of the scroll winding-drum, and the character of the acceleration on the form of the scroll end of the winding-drum. Its range of acceleration is very much greater than that of any other apparatus yet invented. Fig. 73 shows the position in which the parts should be placed to commence with. The quadrant is shown in the posi- tion in which it stands when the bowl is on the ridge of the copping rail. The carriage, g, is shown in the position, when it has made about 12 in. of its inward run. Fig. 77 shows the quadrant nut, e, with the parts on it in the same position as shown in Fig. 74 — that is, when the cop bottom has just been completed. The carriage, g (Fig. 74), is shown close up to the back stops. The quadrant, e, is in its final or extreme outer- most position for making the rest of the cop. The arrow across the winding- on drum, h, is in the same position as shown in Fig. 73 — that is, the chain, f, has been uncoiled from the cylin- drical part of the winding-on drum, until it is on the point of uncoiling from the scroU part. The arrow-head crosses the drum where the cylindrical concentric part ends and the scroll begins. Fig. 75 shows the position of the parts on the comple- tion of a set of cops. It will be observed that the winding chain, r, is here uncoiling from the small end of the scroll, h. " The end of the winding chain, f (Fig. 73), instead of being merely attached, as formerly, to the quadrant nut, e, is now wound upon the body of a ratchet wheel, a, on the shaft of which is also fixed a scroU, i. Another chain, c, coiling on this scroll, passes thence under and over the stationary puUeys, b and D, and under the swinging pulley, k, and its end is fastened to the sliding bracket, l, which slides on the shaper screw, m, of the copping motion. The pull of the chain, c, causes this sliding bracket, l, to press outwards against the front ring of the shaper frame, which carries the shaper screw, m. The shaper screw is THE MODERN MULE. 267 turned as usual by the ratchet wheel, r, which is moved through one tooth at each lift of the quadrant by the wire, q. The nut, N, travelling in towards r, along the shaper screw, comes into contact with an inner arm on the bracket, l, as shown in Fig. 74, and causes it to slide inwards with the inward movement of the nut, and so gradually pulls the chain, c, in the same direction. The inner arm on the bracket, l, is made adjustible for the pur-* pose of regulating the time when the nut, n, of the shaper screw 2G8 COTTON SPINNING. shall come into contact witli it. The swinging pulley, k, is carried at the bottom extremity of the lever, p, suspended from the centre, d ; and on the lever is centered an arm, s, fr-ee to turn upwards, but not downwards. A bracket, t, upon the quadrant is capable of pushing outwards the lever, p, by means of the arm, s, when the quadrant is rotating outwards. The steel end of the winding chain, f, which goes into the quadrant nut, e, is about 3 feet long. The remainder, or curb part of the chain, will therefore be shorter than usual, and does not enter into the quadrant nut at all, and thus escapes the wear it would other- wise incur in passing round the small anti-friction pulley at the bottom of the nut, e." *' The parts being properly adjusted, the mode of working is as follows : — After the first stretch, the governor motion from time to time moves the quadrant nut, e, further out from the centre of the quadrant, so as to adjust the winding to the in- creasing size of the cop. By this movement of the quadrant nut the slack in the chain, c, is soon taken up, and after the slack is taken up, the further outward movement of the quadrant nut causes the chain, c, to pull the bottom of the lever, p, in- wards. On the return or outward run of the carriage, the bracket, t, acting on the arm, s, forces the lever, p, outwards again ; and in so doing pulls a length of chain, c, from the scroU, I, thereby causing it to turn on its axis and wind upon the ratchet w^heel, a, a length of wdnding chain, f, which would otherwise remain coiled upon the winding-on drum, h ; the ratchet wheel is caught by one or other of two detent catches, which enter into its teeth. In consequence of the ratchet wheel in the quadrant nut thus taking up at intervals a length of wind- ing chain about equal to the increasing distance of the nut from the quadrant centre, b, the length of chain left coiled on the winding drum, h, at the end of each inward run of the carriage ■will remain nearly the same, until the cop has attained its full diameter, when the parts should be in the position shown in Fig. 74, the nut, e, having then reached the farthest extremity of its travel along the quadrant arm. Till this stage, the sliding bracket, l (Fig. 73), will still remain pressed outwards against the front rmg of the shaper frame. About this time the nut, n, on the shaper screw will come into contact with the sliding bracket, THE MODEEN MULE, 269 as in Fig. 74, and -will gradually draw the bracket inwards, to- gether with the chain, c, and lever, p ; it will thus draw a further length of chain, c, from the scroll, i, wind up a further length of winding chain, f, upon the ratchet wheel, a, and cause the chain, f, now to unwind not onlv from the cylindrical, but also from a portion of the scroll part of the winding-on drum, h. The repetition of this action gradually brings more and more of the scroll part of the winding-on drum, h, into operation, until at the completion of the set of cops (Fig. 75), as much of the scroll part has been brought into action as the circumstances of the case require. By causing the nut, n, of the shaper screw to act sooner or later on the sliding bracket, l, a greater or less amount of the scroll on the winding-on drum, h, may be brought into use. By these arrangements, the winding can be accom- modated to any form of spindles. On the completion of a set of cops, the scroll, i, on the quadrant nut, e, should be in the position shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 73, at the top extremity of the quacbant ann. Before beginning a fresh set of cops, the winding chain, f, must be uncoiled from the ratchet wheel, a, in the quadrant nut." It will be obvious from this explanation, that this inven- tion is an important one, doing much to remedy the evils springing from slack winding, arising from the confignra- tion of the spindle. These were not confined to the entanglement or " halching " of the yarn on the nose of the cop, bnt also included the running of the yarn into snarls or kinks as before stated. These caused a further fault, as the " twist " in the fibres had a tendency to run together into these snarls, leaving other portions comparatively without, which, were therefore rendered " soft ; " that is, the fibres no longer being held together by the twist, had no coherence when subjected to even the slightest strain. The presence of these faults was a great drawback to the quality of any yarn. The automatic nosing motion, how- ever, did not entirely obviate this defect, as a contributory to its production was found in another portion of the machine. In the same paper relating to this matter, the writer continuing says : — 270 COTTON SPINNING. "A further improTement in the winding motion has been effected by a change in the manner of engaging the click with the click-wheel on the shaft of the tin roller, k (Fig. 76). Formerly the movement of the carriage, g, at the commencement of its inward run, by means of the winding chain, r, drum, h, and spur-wheel and pinion, caused the loose click-plate carrying the click-catch to turn on the shaft, and by means of the click- spring to make the click-catch engage the teeth of the click-wheel. THE MODERN MULE. 271 But as the carriage moved inwards on some occasions a littie further than on others before the click-catch could engage the teeth (owing to the teeth not being always in the same relative position to the click), this caused the winding to commence in some runs later than in others ; and as the winding always finishes at the same time, less yarn was wound upon the spindles in some runs than in others. This was very objectionable, because the yarn was liable to form into snarls when the winding commenced later than it should have done." Tis. 77. Fig. 78. Enlargement of click and click wheel. " To remedy this defect, the click, i (Figs. 76, 78), can now be engaged before the carriage, g, actually begins its inward run, by a very simple contrivance ; consequently the same amount of motion is imparted to the spindles in each inward run after the cop has attained its full thickness, except what is gained by the acceleration due to the nosing motion already explained. In the old arrangement the click was engaged by the click moving round the click-spring, which at the moment was stationary. In the new arrangement the spring is put in motion whilst the click is stationary, one arrangement being thus the converse of the other. For this purpose, the pivot round which the click- spring rotates, instead of being as hitherto a portion of a fixed bracket, is now the centre boss of a lever, i, which swings loosely on the shaft of the tin roller, k, through a small arc. This lever is actuated at the proper time by a finger, fixed in the connecting rod, r, which lifts the " holding-out catch," c. This rod receives its motion from the " taking-in lever," as it puts the taking-in friction into gear ; and by means of the lever and 272 COTTON SPINNING. spring puts the click into gear witli tlie click-wheel ; this stops the click, and on the carriage moving inwards the winding-on commences. By this means the winding is more uniform in its action, the yarn is subjected to less strain, and it is kept freer from snarls." Any person who can recall to mind the quality of the yarn produced about twenty or twenty-five years ago, and has the opportunity of comparing it with that of the present day, will be able to estimate the extent of the improvement that has been made. This has all been accomplished by the perfecting of details, which looking insignificant in themselves, in their aggregate have been of the greatest importance. The mules just described are for spinning medium counts of yarns, say from 24's to 50's. It has been seen that in Hargreaves' jenny one of the leading principles was to deliver a certain quantity of rove from the " clove " or clasp when the carriage was " in," and that this was attenuated by drawing out the carriage, the spindles twist- ing the threads during its ontward run. It has been seen, too, that Arkwright's leading and important feature was to secure this attenuation, or drawing, by means of rollers. The defects of both of these methods, and the great im- provement that was efi'ected by Crompton when he com- bined the two principles in one machine, have been shown. As he constructed his mule, the rollers were made to deliver rove during a large portion of the outward run of the carriage, but before it was completed, say about 3 or 4 inches, these were stopped, and the carriage left to finish the remainder of the run by stretching the threads. By this means all the thick and untwisted parts of the latter were drawn, and rendered approximately even with the remainder of the draw. The advantage of Hargreaves* jenny was thus combined with Arkwright's water frame, and a more perfect thread produced from the mule than could be obtained from either of the preceding: machines. At the commencement of the second draw or " stretch," THE MODEPwN MULE. 273 — the few inches referred to above — the revolution of the spindles was considerably accelerated, in order to put into the yarn the requisite amount of twist. This, however, could not usually be accomplished by the time the outward run of the carriage was completed, so the spindles were kept revolving for a short time longer. As the processes of preparation were gradually perfected, this " stretch " was diminished, and the speed of the spindles accelerated during the outward run, so as to lessen the final pause of the carriage. Subsequently the desire to increase production led to the invention of means by which this pause was abolished in mules spin- ning low and medium counts, while to a considerable extent the advantage of the " stretch " was preserved. This was accomplished by further accelerating the revolu- tion of the spindles, and increasing the speed of the out- ward run of the carriage, as compared with the rate of the revolution of the drawing rollers. Let us suppose the length of a "draw" or distance traversed in the outward run of the carriage to be 63 inches, this length of thread will extend from the tip of the spindles to the front rollers. To spin this length of thread, however, the rollers will only deliver say 60 inches of rove, but instead of the rollers being arrested in the delivery of rove as before, they con- tinue at work until the carriage has completed its outward run of 63 inches, both operations ceasing together, on which the carriage immediately commences its inward run, winding the yarn as it proceeds, thus accomplishing the movement without any loss of time. The accelerated speed of the carriage by which it traverses a distance of 63 inches, whilst the rollers deliver only 60 inches of rove, is termed " the gain " of the carriage ; and by the introduction of this change a considerable increase of production was obtained. In spinning the next higher range of counts, or those known as medium fine numbers ranging from 50's to 90's, the above system has not been found to act satisfactorily. This is probably owing to the yarn being less solidly con- T 274 COTTON SPINNIXG. structed by the new plan as compared with that in which "the second draw" or "stretch," as previously described, is retained. The stretch has the effect of interlocking the fibres more perfectly than can be otherwise accomplished ; and as in the finer counts of yarn there are fewer fibres than in the lower numbers it is also the more necessary that this plan should be retained, which it is, in medium fine and fine spinning. The mule of Messrs. Platts, above described, which is constructed for medium counts, is also used for spinning medium fine counts. In order to do this it is fitted with a "jacking motion " and a roller delivery motion, by which the rollers are stopped at a certain and regulated stage of the draw, whilst the former continues the action of the spindles, and the outward run of the carriage by which the final twisting and stretching of each draw is accomplished. As previously explained, the primary use of the stretching is to draw down or attenuate those portions of the thread that may be thicker than they ought to be. These are easily attenuated, as they do not take the twist readily until their diameter is reduced to the proper dimensions ; the second object of the stretch, as just previously intimated, is to interlock the fibres more perfectly than can be accom- plished without this process. The necessity for this will be obvious when the configuration of the fibres is borne in mind. The length of this stretching, or "jacking," as it is technically called, varies according to the kind ahd quality of the yarn being produced, from nothing up to 4 or 5 inches. It is least in the cases where the cotton is of short staple, and greatest where the fibre is of the longest and most even kind, which is the case where it is intended to be spun into the finest yarns. Practical men prefer an aiTangement for accomplishing this purpose known as the sun and planet system, holding it to be the best amongst several competing plans. Where the system of jacking is adopted, the amount of twist put into the thread during the outward run of the THE MODERN MULE. *2.1 b carriage is reduced to the lowest point, in order to admit of the more perfect performance of the jacking process. When this point is reached the speed of the spindles is greatly accelerated, which has the effect of contracting the thread in the direction of its length, this being a well-known effect of twisting. With the stretch, and the contraction of spinning, there is, therefore, a risk that the yarn may be overdrawn and broken ; to provide against this an arrange- ment has been introduced to set the rollers again in motion and make them deliver very slowly a small portion of roving, by which the danger of breakage and other in- jury to the yarn, is avoided. This arrangement is known as " the jacking delivery motion of the rollers." There is still another arrangement by which the rollers are started a second time and made to deliver a small amount of roving during the inward movement of the carriage, when the spindles are winding up the spun length of the threads. This is known as "the winding delivery motion of the rollers." The amount of roving delivered can be regulated according to desire ; it is usually 3 or 4 inches. Whatever the length may be, it increases the length of the draw by an equiva- lent amount, and thus adds to the production. This system is found very beneficial in spinning fine yarns, and is in general use. For spinning the next class of yarns, otherwise the finest numbers, ranging from 80's warp yarn upwards, and 90's weft upwards, the hand mule has been retained to a great extent. Though, however, this is the case, owing to the numerous improvements that have been introduced, the name itself has become almost a misnomer. Great pro- gress has been made in rendering its various movements automatic, or self-acting, to the fullest extent allowable where it was still essential to retain the sensitive touch or control of the hand of the human operative. But this necessity is becoming less and less absolute, as mechanical invention conquers one problem after another, and arrange- ments are devised that perform with equal skill and greater 276 COTTON SPINNING. reliability the delicate operations that have hitherto needed the keenest observation, and -the trained hand of the ac- complished spinner. The appliances thus introduced for attaining these ends differ in the machines of various makers, but as all substantially serve the same purpose the description of one will be sufficient. In giving this, several reasons dictate the selection of the one made by Messrs. Piatt Bros., described in Mr. Spencer's paper read before the Society of Mechanical Engineers, and previously quoted from. In his description of the mule for spinning fine counts, Mr. Spencer says : — " The hand-spinner, when backing-off, brings the faller down upon the yarn before he reverses the spindles, so as to uncoil the yam from them ; and the moment the faller touches the yarn both motions act together. To obtain this result with the self- actor, the winding faller, i, is depressed by the arm, h, and in- cline, T (Fig. 79), just before the carriage, g, completes its out- ward run. At the same time the slack in the backing-off chain, J, caused by this movement is taken up by a modification of the apparatus used for regulating the backing-off chain in the self- acting mule for medium counts previously described. The back- ing-off snail, K, chains j and l, and bell crank lever, m, remain as shown in Fig. 72. But instead of the tail of the lever, m, bearing as before upon the slide of the lever, n, it is here made to bear upon an inclined arm, u, hinged to a stationary bracket and it is the free extremity of this arm which bears upon the sliding in- cline, N. The elevation of the arm, u, is thus gradually increased as the incline, v, is traversed inwards by the copping plate con- necting rod, p, so that it may give the exact amount of tighten- ing motion required for the backing-off chain, j, at each stage of the cop's progress. In order further to modify the backing-off so that it may be suited to the form of the spindles, the eccentric pulley, V, is introduced, and the backing-off chain, j, is divided into two half lengths : the upper half coils upon the boss of the pulley, V, while the other half, attached to the backing-off snail, K, coils upon the eccentric rim. The depression of the winding faller, i, is uniform all through the formation of the set of cops ; but the position of the locking lever, e, and its parts is THE MODERN MULE. 277 constantly varying within small limits, and the compensation re- quired to meet the variations is provided for by this modification of the motion previously described. By these means a -sery delicate action in the backing-off is obtained. The fiper the counts of yarn to be spun the slower is the velocity of the spindles when backing-off. ' " The yarn having been backed-off from the spindle and the 278 COTTON SPINNING. faller, i, locked, it is now necessary to wind tbe yam on t"he cop, beginning at the point, or nose, and winding it down to the base of the cone, in preparation for winding upward from the base of the cone to its point. A special apparatus has been introduced into the quadrant motion, to perform this operation in the fine spinning mule. It must be explained that fine yarns are generally doubled after being spun; and for this purpose the cop is mounted on a steel skewer, and placed in the creel of a doubler in a slightly inclined position, free to turn in the creel and allow the yam to be uncoiled from the skewer. When the yarn is unwinding from the small part of the cop down to its fuU diameter, the action goes on all right, because there are many turns of yarn to uncoil, and the cop gradually turns on its axis more slowly as the diameter increases. About fifty inches of yarn are uncoiled by the time the full diameter is reached ; but in uncoiling the next ten inches of yarn there is a rapid increase in the speed of the cop in consequence of returning so quickly in a few coils from the full diameter to the small diameter at the nose of the cop. This causes the cop to be jerked round too quickly : it then overruns itself and is very, liable to break the yam. The hand-spinner can regulate the number of coils at pleasure, and in practice it is found that about six coils in the height of the cone are sufficient to prevent the cop being jerked round too quickly when afterwards unwinding in the doubler ; but to obtain this result by self-acting means is very difficult ; and only one solution has been found for it. " The quadrant motion as originally used is capable of giving an accelerating motion only ; but the true requirements of the case demand that it shall be first a diminishing and then an accelerat- ing one, because the winding in each stretch commences on the smallest diameter, then winds down to the largest diameter or base of the cone, and then upwards again with close coils to the smallest diameter, or nose. In practice, however, this has never been fully attained. It is found that by the yielding of the counter faller a compromise is made between the demands of the small and large diameters when winding down to the base of the cone, and as this is only the initial stage of the winding, no harm is done, because there is compensation enough in the rest of the winding, which is regulated to suit the exact requirements of THE MODERN MULE. 279 each stretch. But bv the ordinary arrangement of quadi-ant, after the cop has attained its full diameter, it is impossible to wind more than four and a half coils of yarn upon the spindle, during the time it is winding from the point of the cop down to the base of the cone. The front incline of the copping rail, a, (Fig. 72) has been lengthened to 15 inches, and in some cases to 18 inches (the inclination being diminished, so as to preserve the same absolute rise in the longer incline), under the impression that a greater length of yarn would thereby be wound on the spindles during the putting down of the winding faller. It is not from this, however, that the defect arises ; but simply from the want of a sufficient number of turns in the spindles. If a long incline is used the result is simply that the counter faller rises very high and takes up the slack vara that ought to have been coiled upon the spindles ; but when the spindles receive the necessary amount of motion it is found that ten or twelve inches, length of incline is sufficient for enabling six or seven turns of yarn to be coiled on the spiudles during the putting down of the faller. The quadrant is governed by a grooved rope drum, u (Fig. 73), on the quadrant shaft, this drum receiving its motion from the travel of the carriage, g. Ordinarily this drum is a concentric cylinder, so that if the motion of the carriage is uniform, the rotation of the quadrant shaft is uniform, and the angular motion of the quadrant is uniform also. If, at the commencement of the inward run of the carriage, the relative speed of the quad- rant in the same direction be reduced, it is evident that more of the chain, r, will be uncoiled from the winding-on drum, h, and more motion will be given to the spindles. This is accom- plished by altering each end of the cylindrical drum into a variable scroll of considerably larger radius than the middle portion of the drum which remains cylindrical as before. When the carriage begins to move inwards, it uncoils the rope from the larger radius of the scroll, and consequently imparts a slower motion to the quadi-ant shaft, and to the quadrant ; hence the spindles revolve quicker, and the necessary number of coils of yai'n can easily be coiled on them during the putting down of the winding faller. In Fig. 72 the ropes are shown, not upon the scroll part, but upon the cylindrical part, in order to correspond 280 COTTON SPINNING. with the position of the carriage. Bj the time the large diameter of the cop is reached the rope begins to uncoil from the cylin- drical part of the drum, and no further modification of the wind- ing motion takes place until the nosing motion comes into opera- tion. When once adjusted no further attention is required from the spinner. Old spinners long declared it impossible to attain this result by automatic means. To enable the counter faller to act quickly without straining the yarn, its shaft is now mounted on anti-friction pulleys, and this is found to work advantageously. The hand-spinner could -wind the yarn upon the cop without moving the counter faller ; but for reasons already explained, this is impossible in the self- actor, the counter faller playing a very important part in the wind- ing, &c. Special arrangements are used in the couplings of the winding faller and counter faller, and in the position of the counter faller relative to the winding faller, but these cannot be dwelt upon here." In spinning all classes of yarns, the regulation of the two faller wires is of the greatest importance in the pro- duction of good work. Should their action not be exactly opportune or harmonious, the yarn is either strained, broken, or left slack, when it runs into snarls, all of which are serious defects, and detract very greatly from the value of the yarn. The automatic regulation of the fallers in all their positions has proved a problem of the greatest difficulty, which it has tasked the ingenuity of inventors to the utmost to solve. The imperfect manner in which it was accomplished rendered it impossible to spin finer yarns than the lower or medium counts upon the self-acting mule for a long time after its invention. Its gradual improve- ment, however, in this respect has enabled this mule to be successively adapted to higher and higher counts, until it is becoming a formidable rival to the hand-spinner in the higher numbers. The statement of the problem as it affects fine spinning and the means by which it has been solved are given as follow, by Mr. Spencer, in the paper above referred to: — THE MODERN MULE. 281 " The winding 'faller lifting motion. — The carriage having arrived at the termination of its inward run, it is necessary to lift the winding faller, and then to coil the remainder of the unwound yam upon the bare spindle, preparatory to commencing the spinning again in the outward run. This is the most impor- tant operation performed by the spinner. He allows the carriage to arrive at the end of its inward run before he begins to lift the faller; the spindles are then in their nearest position to the rollers, consequently there is the shortest length of yarn left to be coiled upon the spindles. The relative position of the gpindles and rollers, as well as the inclination of the spindles to the rollers, varies with the counts spun, within well-defined limits ; the finer the counts the greater the inclination of the spindles to the rollers, and the more obtuse, therefore, the angle made by the spindle and thread just at the commencement of the outward run of the carriage. " The winding on of the yam during the run-in of the carriage requires to be regulated so that at the end of the run-in just Bufficient yam is left to coil on the bare tops of the spindles, without either stretching the yam or leaving it slack to run into snarls. This is the problem to solve. The spinner having regulated the vrinding during the run-in so that the proper amount of yam was left to coil upon the bare spindles, brought the carriage to a stand-still, and then slowly lifted the winding faller, while at the same time he regulated the winding so that the yam was coiled on the taper spindles. As soon as the faller was free from the yam, he allowed the carriage to start on its outward run for another stretch. He performed these operations with more or less rapidity according to the counts of yam to be spun. On the medium counts the movements follow each other with almost the same rapidity and regularity as in the ordinary self-acting mule ; but as the counts become finer, the division of the operations becomes more marked and deliberate. This is especially so in the ' Box Organ Hand Mide,' in which the spinning does not commence until it is set in motion after the completion of the faller lifting. The momentum of the various parts is completely under the control of the spinner, and is practically destroyed. " In ordinary self-actors the unlocking of the faller takes place 282 COTTON SPINNING. during the run-in of the carriage, but at as late a period as possible. The carriage when near the termination of its inward run, brings the end of the locking lever in contact with the fixed unlocking bracket, and forces the locking lever out of con- tact with the copping parts of the mule. After the faller is thus imlocked the copping rail has no further control over it. It will be understood from the preceding explanation that the unlock- ing must be completed before the termination of the inward run of the carriage. In determining how late it is safe to unlock the faller, allowance has to be made for the variations in the speed with which the carriage runs in, owing to the variation in the speeds of the engines and to the condition of the taking-in bands, which affect the momentum of the various parts, causing the carriage sometimes to strike against the backstops very heavily, and at other times to scarcely touch them. This variation affects the unlocking very materially, and causes the faller to be un- locked irregularly. In well constructed mules these variations are reduced to a minimum, but they are never entirely eliminated. The result is, that more slack yarn is left unwound than is required for coiling on the spindles. " In the apparatus shown in Fig. 80 the operation is effected in the following way. Instead of the unlocking bracket, a, being a fixture, as ordinarily used, it is here mounted on a sliding-bar, which is hinged to the weighted bell-crank lever, b, tending always to throw the stop, a, forwards into the position shown full. Suitable arrangements are made for restoring this apparatus to its normal position, shown dotted, after it has unlocked the faller, i. When in position for unlocking, as shown dotted, it is held back by a catch, c, also of bell-crank shape ; this catch is liberated by the carriage, g, striking against its tail at the proper time, but always near the termination of the inward run. The locking lever, r, and its connected parts remain as usual. The unlocking stop, a, is set back, as shown dotted, so that the carriage can go close up to the back stops without unlocking the faller : but the carriage directly forces the unlocking. On the carriage liberating the catch, c, which holds back the unlock- ing stop. A, the weighted lever, b, falls, and throws the stop for- wards against the tail of the locking lever, r, and thus unlocks it just as the carriage completes its inward run. By setting the THE MODERN MULE. 283 catch, c, to be liberated sooner or later by the carriage, the taller can be unlocked at the proper time. In practice it is found that the roller and carriage motions are engaged, ready^ for another stretch, before the faller, i, has lifted clear of the yarn as it is coiling up to the point of the bare spindle. By these means the winding on of the yarn upon the cops is pro- Fig. 80. Faller lifting motion. longed to the latest period preparatory to coiling the remainder of the yam on the bare spindle. " In the ordinary self-actor as soon as the faller is unlocked the yarn is allowed to be coiled on the bare spindle by the mo- mentum acquired by the spindles during the run-in of the carriage, the faller wire being raised quickly out of the way by the lifting springs. The results are very irregular ; sometimes 284 COTTON SPINNING. snarls are wound on, and sometimes the yarn is stretched or " cut " as it is called. In the arrangements illustrated in Fig. 80, the tin roller, k, which drives the spindles, s, is connected with the faller shaft, j, positively, by a train of gearing, so that the tin roller controls the motion of the faller during its rise. The relative motions of the tin roller and faller are not always the same. The motion of the tin roller being assumed as uniform, the motion imparted to the spindles will be uniform also ; but in order that the yarn may be guided so as to coil nicely on the bare spindle above the cop, it is obvious that the faller ^vire must rise most quickly when winding on the largest diameter of the spindle, and the rate of rising must gradually diminish as the spindle decreases in diameter towards the top, thus producing a tapering spiral of yarn on the spindle. To obtain this result a pair of volute wheels are employed, which convert the uniform motion of the tin roller, k, into a variable motion of the faller shaft, J. This connection of the tin roller and faller shaft must, however, be continued only during the lift of the faller, because the tin roller first set in motion to turn the spindles for lifting the faller, continues in motion during the whole of the outward run, and until the backing-off takes place, whereas the faller must stop rising almost immediately it has coiled the yarn up to the top of the bare spindle. " The following is accordingly the mode of action. A hollow friction cone, d (Fig. 81), is keyed fast on the shaft of the tin roller, k. Loose on the same shaft is a solid friction cone, covered as usual with leather, and capable of being slid along the shaft into and out of gear with the fast cone. Cast to the loose cone is a pinion, j, gearing into the carrier wheel, e, and having a deep flange cast on its outer end; its teeth are also wider than the teeth of the carrier wheel, e, to allow of its sliding far enough for disengaging the loose cone from the fast one. On the outer side of the carrier-wheel rim is cast an in- clined cheek, t, capable of bearing against the inside of the flange on the pinion, j, and so di-awing the loose cone out of gear. This pinion has also a groove cut into its boss, into which fits the fork of the engaging lever, r, weighted with a counter-weight, which always tends to sHde the loose cone into contact with the fast one, and so engage them together. Kow THE MODERN MULE. 285 it will be obvious that the lifting motion should be brought into action immediately the faller has been unlocked. If it were put into action too soon, one motion would be acting against the other, and a breakdown would be the result, and if too late it would be useless. To insure both motions working in harmony, the unlocking of the faller is made to liberate the weighted en- gaging lever, f, and thus allow it to put the friction cones into gear. This is accomplished by means of the connecting rod, h, M'hich forms a lock for the end of the connecting rod, l, the latter being coupled to the weighted engaging lever, f. The Fig. 81. Faller lifting motion ; plan. two rods work at right angles to each other. On the unlocking of the faller at the end of the inward run, the connecting rod, h, which is Avorked from the faller lever, r, is pulled forward in the direction of the arrow, until it releases the stud on the other connecting rod, l, and so liberates this rod and the weighted lever, f, which at once throws the friction cones into gear. As soon as the friction cones are in gear, the faller, i, begins to be lifted, motion being communicated to it in the proper ratio from the tin roller shaft, k, by the volute axes, n, n. By the time the faller is lifted clear of the yarn and its work done, the in- clined cheek, t, on the side of the carrier wheel, e, has be^un to 286 COTTON SPINNING. bear against tlie flange of the pinion, j, and forcing it outwards by its wedge action, di'aws tlie friction cones asunder, and thus severs the motion from the tin roller to the faller. This action is a very beautiful one. Self-stopping couplings to the cam shaft are common, but these stop during less than a revolution of the shaft. For the above purpose the stopping must be effected any- where between a part of a revolution, and three revolutions or more ; no two di-aws are alike, since as the cop is built up, less and less of the spindle is left bare, and therefore the faller has to be lifted less, and the lifting motion must be disengaged earlier. By setting the inclined disengaging check, t, of the carrier wheel, e, so that the disengagement takes place imme- diately the faller has risen clear of the yarn, it is idways safe. The arc through which the faller has to be lifted iz compara- tively small, say about 80°, when beginning a set of cops, and becomes gradually less until it is only about 30° on the comple- tion of the cops. " When the spindles are backing-off*, the putting down of the winding faller by the backing-off" chain reverses the train of gearing, and removes the inclined disengaging cheek of the carrier wheel, e, from contact with the flange of the pinion, j. This action would allow the friction cones to be thrown into gear again by the w^eighted lever, f. The carriage, g, when near the termination of its outward run, brings a part of the lever, f, against the stop, so as to be held by it. The greater the arc of motion of the faller during the backing-off, the greater is the motion of the carrier wheel, e, the further is the inclined check, T, upon it removed from the flange of pinion, j, and the more revolutions are made by the pinion. Whether the faller, I, moves through a large or small arc, therefore, it is always liberated from the control of the tin roller at the proper time. The whole operation only occupies about one second. It is the short tune allowed which forms one of the di/hculties of this diflicult problem. " The stop, M (Fig. 80), which keeps the friction cones, d, out of gear during the backing-off, keeps them so until the lock, r, of the faller, sliding the connecting rod, h, inwards, locks the connecting rod, l, as explained before, and so holds up the weighted engaging lever, f. THE MODERN MULE. 287 " Another important feature of this operation is the speed at which the parts are allowed to work. The speed of the spindles, at the termination of the outward run, is too quick to allow of the use of the positive gearing already described, as it is found impossible to engage the parts sufficiently quickly. This difficulty is further increased by the spindles being quickened to the spinning speed directly the carriage finishes its inward run ; for it is impossible to rely upon the momentum of the spindles for continuing their rotation during the lifting of the faller, the results being too variable. To overcome this difficulty, an extra di-iving belt, called the taking-in belt, is used for driving the .<5elf-acting pulley. This belt has generally about half the speed of the main rim-shaft belt, both belts working on pulleys of the Plan of driving pulleys. same diameter on the rim-shaft. Fig. 82 is a plan of the head- stock carrying the main driAing or rim-shaft, r. The quick driving-belt runs on the fast pulley, a, and the loose pulley, b, whilst c and d are the fast and loose pulleys for the slower belt. Both belts receive their motion from the counter shaft, s (Fig. 83). " The cam shaft has three changes in this mule. When the carriage is making its outward run, the quick belt is on its fast pulley, A, and the slow belt on its loose pulley, d. At the proper time, the cam shaft makes its first change, the rollers are stopped, and, when the proper amount of twist has been put into the yarn, the twist motion disengages the catch, which holds the c^uick belt on the fast pulley, a, ond allows a spring to shift it 288 COTTON SPINNING. upon the loose pulley, b. This allows the backing-off to take place in the usual way ; after which the carriage is caused to make its inward run, and, just before the termination, causes the cam shaft to make a second change, and shift the slow taking-in belt upon its fast pulley, c, whereby the rim-wheel, w, is then driven at a comparatively slow rate. It is whilst this slower speed has the control of the mule that the lifting apparatus does rig. 83. Driving belts and pulleys. its work. The slower belt, when first shifted to its fast pulley, acts as a kind of brake on the momentum of the rim-shaft, b, and can be relied upon to give the same retardation in every stretch. When the winding faller has lifted nearly clear of the yarn, a finger on it comes into contact with the cam-shaft escape- ment, and allows the cam shaft to make a third change, which shifts the slow belt back from its fast pulley, c, to its loose pulley, D, and then shifts the quick belt on to its fast pulley, a, THE MODERN MULE. 289 causing the spinning to go on at the proper speed. So rapidly is the whole operation performed that it is impossible to see the change in speed from the slow to the quick belt, though, of course, it is easy to see the movement of the belts from one pulley to the other. The slower the operation, the more per- fectly is it done ; but it is found to be well done with spindles running at 1,500 revolutions per minute. " During the outward run of the carriage, the various parts are replaced in their proper positions for repeating these operations. An apparatus is also used by which the winding faller, during the time it is being lifted, is enabled to govern the counter faller in such a manner that the counter faller is free to take up the slack yarn, if any, made during the rise of the winding faller, and is depressed below the yarn as usual, before the spinning commences again. Double speed motions are still used for the finest counts ; but as this element would render the previous explanations more complex, it has been purposely omitted." The preceding description of the parts of this wonder- ful machine, and of the function of each part, is so clear and full, that the student carefully reading it cannot fail to easily comprehend it ; and the firm from which it emanates stands so high in the trade that it may be accepted as of indisputable authority. A few remarks on fine spinning on the self-acting mule will appropriately close this chapter. Until within about ten years ago the prevailing opinion appeared to be that, how- ever perfectly the self-acting mule might do its work in low and medium numbers, it could never be adapted to the pro- duction of very fine counts. The purely mechanical and infiexible nature of its movements would prevent its yield- ing in the slightest degree when, as was often the case in fine spinning, conditions required that this should be done. In the self-acting mule experience had shown that the carriage terminated its inward run towards the roller beam at such varying rates of speed that sometimes the back- stops would hardly be touched, whilst at other times they would be struck with such force as to cause great vibra- 290 ■ COTTON SPINNING. tion throtighont both carriage and roller beam. This would break down every thread were high numbers being spun. With hand spinning, on the contrary, the spinner could conduct the carriage home so gently as to avoid the final concussion, whilst even if it did occur he could wait until all vibration ceased before re-commencing, by which breakages would be obviated. The self-acting mule, however, being mechanical, could take no cognizance of this varying requirement. Again, the management of the faller wires by a good hand spinner was such as to prevent the breakage of the threads, but against the me- chanical action of the faller in the self-actor, the resistance that could be ofi'ered by the threads, though suflScient in low and medium counts, would be quite insignificant in the highest counts. Experience for a long time seemed to justify these conclusions. The nice balancing of parts necessary to secure this sensitiveness in the machine, and its accurate performance of the various changes required to be made, were held to be points unattainable in the requisite degree of perfection in the self-actor. In spite, however, of this general opinion, these difficulties have been overcome, and to-day self-acting mules are at work spinning yarns as high in number as 350^ and which, with the requisite improvement in the preparatory processes, there is no reason to think will not be capable of spinning the highest numbers required. An old-established and eminent firm of machinists in Bolton, Messrs. Threlfall and Co., who have long made a speciality of fine mules, have succeeded in overcoming all the obstacles encountered, and have machinery from their establishment at work both in Lancashire and on the Continent producing as good or better work in the highest numbers than can be obtained from the hand mule. Thus the old organ-mule, which has so long held its ground as the best for this purpose, is being superseded, and will probably soon have disappeared. THE THROSTLE FRAME. 291 CHAPTER X. Throstle and Eing Spinning. Doubling. The throstle, an improved form of Arkwright's water frame. — De- scription. — Attempts to improve it. — The Danforth throstle. — The Montgomery throstle. — Shaw and Cottam's improvement. — Doffing, an expensive process ; Bernhardt's doffing arrangement ; the throstle ceased to be constructed. — The Ring Frame ; its popularity. — Defects of the throstle, the origin of the ring frame. — The throstle in the United States ; reasons for its prevalence there. — Invention of the Ring Frame. — Practical defects in it ; its rejection in England. — Its improvement, and re- introduction. — Success as a doubling frame. — Slow acceptance as a spinning frame. — The Booth-Sawyer spindle ; the Rabbeth spindle. — The ring spinning ft-ame for warp yarn ; description ; process of spinning ; the traveller ; the ring ; the lifting chain ; the lift of the bobbin, — Description of the Rabbeth spindle. — Doffing ; the mechanical doffer. — Inclined arrangement of the rollers. — Ballooning. — The anti-balloon ring. — The traveller clearer. — Increasing popularity of the ring frame. — Its use for spinning weft in the United States ; the weft frame in England and on the Continent. — Doubling. — Doubled yarns. — The thi'ostle doubling frame; disadvantages. — Improved throstle doubling frame. — Chai'acteristics of throstle-doubled yarns. — The twiner. — Yarns from the twiner. — The ring doubling frame; its popularity. — Description. — The English and Scotch systems. THE throstle is the second of the mechanical spinning frames calling for notice. As, however, in its principal form it seems likely to be superseded at an early date, a brief description will suffice. This frame is simply an improved form of the water frame of Arkwright, and a gradual development from it. Compared with the latter, the changes introduced were that all the rollers upon each side were connected and actuated by a train of wheels driven from its first motion shaft. The method of driving the spindles was also im- proved by the introduction of the horizontal cylinder, which, as already pointed out, was one of the first im- provements made in Hargreaves' jenny. The spindles 292 COTTON SPINNING. were furnislied witli small pulleys or wharves, accordingly as tapes or bands were employed for driving them. The latter in construction were precisely similar to those of the spindle of the single thread spinning wheel, and which Hargreaves had adopted in his machine. Arkwrighfc adopted the wider pulley, in order to obtain more perfect driving. The flyer of the throstle was constructed as in the later form of the water frame, fitted for winding with a traverse arrangement or lifting rail. The legs were solid, with curled or twisted extremities. A piece of wire twisted somewhat like the curl of the leg was mounted on the top, to serve for the eye. From this eye the thread descended, passing around the leg in its course to the curl on its ex- tremity, and thence upon the bobbin. The bobbin was not driven positively, as in the bobbin and fly frames already described, but was fitted loosely upon the spindle, and pulled round by the thread, which, owing to the greater amount of twist put into it, was strong enough for the task. The winding was accomplished by placing the bobbin to rest upon the traverse or lifting rail, and retard- ing its movement by means of cloth washers. This caused its rate of revolution to fall behind that of the spindle just to the extent that the attenuated rove was supplied by the front or delivery rollers to the spindle. The alternate ascent and descent of the traverse rail filled the bobbin with a succession of even layers. The traverse of this rail was eSected by means of a heart-shaped cam, with cranks and levers, an arrangement then and since known as the heart motion. Such was the throstle frame in its earlier form. Subsequently numerous improvementfi of details took place in its construction, which, as in the case of the mule, brought it to a high degree of perfection some time ago. The old name of water frame, which had been con- ferred upon Ark Wright's machine, was superseded early in the present century by the new one of throstle, at or about the time when the steam engine displaced the water wheel as a motor. THi: THROSTLE FRAME. 293 In this state the improved macliine was adopted and extensively employed by the trade for the production of special classes of yarns required in both the home trade and for export, and in which solidity and strength were essential qualities. In its best form, as constructed at present, it is very suitable for this purpose. In appear- ance it differs little from the roving frame, except that its parts are smaller, and its spindles more numerous. The latter have usually had a velocity of 3,000 to 5,000 revolu- tions per minute ; though of late years this has been ex- ceeded, the rate attained having latterly been from 5,000 to 7,000 revolutions. It is, however, questionable whether this higher velocity is not, when considered from an economical point of view, and in relation to its un- improved form, an impracticable rate. In the older form of the frame the spindles were driven from a central shaft placed within, and extending the length of the frame, and which carried a driving pulley at one extremity. This shaft was fitted with a tin cylinder, from which motion was transmitted by means of endless cotton bands to the spindles. Each spindle carries a small wharve, and is supplied with a flannel, leather, or cloth washer, which is put upon it, and passed down to the top of the traverse rail. The flyer is mounted upon the top of the spindle. When ready for work, a bobbin — a small, short tube, flanged at each end — is placed upon each spindle. These flanges are respectively called the head and bottom of the bobbin, and differ in shape, the top one being slightly convex, and the bottom one concave on their outer sur- faces. The concave form of the bottom causes the bobbin as it were to stand upon a ring coincident in its dimension with the circumference of the flange. It is constructed thus in order to diminish the friction surface, and so lessen the strain upon the yarn. The bobbin fits loosely upon the spindle, and rests upon the cloth washer. The bolster rail, in many cases, also constitutes the traverse rail ; in others, there is an independent traverse rail. The fuuc- 294 COTTON SPINNING. tion of tlie traverse rail is to carry the bobbin up and down the blade of the spindle, the length of its tube, or rather the space between the top and bottom flanges, in order to wind the yarn in even layers upon the barrel. This is called its "lift," and its dimensions differ accord- ing to the nature of the requirement. This method of building up the yarn is known as the cylinder build, as distinguished from the conical build seen in the construc- tion of the cop upon the mule. The traverse is uniform in its length. The twist is put into the attenuated rove, as it leaves the delivery rollers, by the revolution of the spindle and flyer, the thread passing through the top of the latter, and thence around its leg and to the bobbin. The latter being in only slight contact with the spindle has a constant tendency to fall behind it in speed, were it not pulled along by the attached thread. As, however, the latter is being delivered by the rollers, the bobbin drops behind to such a distance as to take up the yarn as spun. When filled, the set is doffed, and the frame again supplied with empty bobbins. In performing this operation the flyers have to be removed from the tops of the spindles, the full bobbins replaced by empty ones, the yarn to be attached to the latter, the flyers replaced, and the frame re- started. In an ordinary size of frame dof&ng occupies from four to five minutes. Few of the numerous attempts that have been made to improve the throstle have been successful to any impor- tant extent, and its present state of perfection is more the result of improved construction of its parts than of any thorough change of principle. The Danforth throstle, an American invention, in which some radical changes were introduced, was brought before the notice of the trade about the year 1828, but a short experience soon revealed the fact that these were not improvements. Mr. Henry Gore's improvement was the next that demanded public attention, but the advantages claimed from this were soon found to be more apparent than real. Axon's and Brown THE THROSTLE FEAME. 295 and Powell's followed next in attracting notice, but both were soon disregarded as not approaching in practice the claims made on their behalf. The Glasgow or Montgomery patent throstle was, like the Danforth, of American origin, though considerably improved by Mr. Robert Montgomery, who patented it, and by whose name it was usually known in this country. Great expectations were also entertained of this invention for some time, but they were destined to remain un- fulfilled. Its speed was greater, and its production much larger than that of the common throstle. Its chief features were a dead spindle and a rapidly revolving flyer, which had the further peculiarity of being closed. The common throstle bobbin was used in one arrangement, whilst in another, in which the spindle was made to re- volve, it wound the yarn upon a tube in the form of a cop. Many other inventors attempted improvements in this machine, but with small results, until Messrs. Shaw and Cottam of Manchester, in 1848, introduced the plan of driving the spindles by means of two tin rollers in place of one — a plan which prevails to the present day. This was a great improvement, as by its means the bands were enabled to be brought upon the spindle in a horizontal line, instead of at a great angle as before. A further ad- vantage w^as that the machine, which had hitherto been made of great width, in order to diminish this angle, could be contracted in this respect. This plan has to a great extent superseded " tape " driving. Doffing, which occupies four or five minutes, and occur- ring frequently entails a great loss of time, is an expensive process. Efforts, therefore, have often been made to invent a mechanical doffer ; but the only one which has been ap- proximately successful is a doffing motion invented by Mr. Bernhardt of Radcliffe, by which the process is accom- plished in less than a minute. This plan, however, has not been extensively adapted to the common throstle, per- haps owing to the great importance the system of ring 296 COTTON SPINNING. spinning began to assume soon after the former invention was introduced to public notice. The principle of this doffer has^ however, been adapted to the ring frame by Mr. S. Brooks, who has acquired Mr. Bernhardt's interest in the patent. The most recent improvement in the throstle frame is that which is known as the Ash worth long collar, from the name of the inventor. This has been ex- tensively adopted, many frames of the old kind having been altered thereto. During the past four or five years few, if any, of the ordinary throstles have been constructed, the attention of the trade having been concentrated upon the ring frame. The Ring Spinning Frame. — During the past few years this frame has become exceedingly popular, owing to the spread of knowledge concerning its principles and capacity of production, and the great improvements that have been introduced into its details. As it stands now it is pro- bably for the lower ranges of number — say from 10^ to 32® — the most productive spinning machine in the market. Like the throstle frame, it is a continuous spinner, and is un- doubtedly derived from the latter, though it differs from it in important details. An examination of any one of the series of bobbin and fly frames will render it obvious that, so far as regards the rate of speed, the limit must soon be reached. The centri- fugal force developed by the rapid revolution of a spindle carrying a flyer was such as to cause the legs of the latter to fly open, and so to come into contact with one another, to their mutual destruction. To construct them stronger, in order to counteract this tendency, was to load the spindle with a heavier burden, and so to diminish the speed of its revolution, or to expend a greater amount of power in its attainment. In either case, beyond a certain limit, high speed was not an economical success. Hence the production of yarn from a throstle frame, though a continuous spinning machine, did not materially exceed that from the mule, notwithstanding that, spindle for THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 297 spindle, the ontlay in capital and labour, or the cost of production, was greater for the former. The mule also, for a long time, until the preparation machinery was rendered approximately perfect, had a great advantage in the *' stretching " action or " the gain " of the carriage in its outward traverse over the length of rove delivered from the rollers, this enabling it to produce a better quality of yam than could be obtained from the same material and the same amount of preparation in the throstle. It was owing to these facts that the mule maintained its prece- dence as a spinning machine over the latter. The mule, since its growth in magnitude, has required the services of male adults to work it, as it soon passed beyond the capacity of female strength to perform the manual operations required. It may come as information to many persons engaged in cotton mills to-day to hear that women spun upon the mules of about thirty-five or forty years ago, and preceding that time; but the older members of the present generation will be aware of the fact. The difficulties induced by this transition from female to male labour were considerable; but, though the latter was much more costly, it was, on the whole, considerably more economical, when the production from the enlarged ma- chines were considered. In the United States, no such change could be made; masculine labour could not be had, owing to the attractions of the other occupations and pur- suits ofiered by that naturally rich country. It is owing to this fact most probably that the world is indebted for the ring spinning frame. In spite of its disadvantages it was necessary to retain the throstle frame ; so the best thing to be done was to improve it, which the mechanicians of the United States set about to do. Accordingly it is from the States we first hear of the ring frame. The Danforth throstle was one of the first outcomes of these efforts, being invented about 1828 by a mechanic, after whom it was named. Great expectations were induced by this invention ; but after a short time they 298 COTTON SPINNING. were all disappointed, as it was found impossible to pre- vent the yarn being snarled every time the frame was stopped to relieve the spindle. The burden of the flyer caused the spindle to vibrate excessively, and soon destroyed it. It was necessary, therefore, to remove it, and it Avas seen that if a fixed ring could be constructed to take the place of that described by the legs of the flyer, when revolving, the flyer might be dispensed with. The Danforth throstle was an approach to this object, but, springing from an im- perfect conception, was a failure. The ring frame ap- peared immediately afterwards, but its success was preju- diced by the preceding failure of the last-named invention. Its scientific merits, however, prevented it from passing into oblivion, and efi'orts were steadily made to improve it It appears to have been invented about 1832 or 1833 by a Mr. Jencks of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, and was intro duced into this country within a year or two afterwards. In its first form, as introduced at this time, it consisted of a flat thin ring of the form of a washer, with a hole in it large enough for the bobbin to pass freely through. This was fixed on a rail, so that one ring should be centrically over each spindle ; on the inner edge of each ring was a small bead. A small loop made of spring steel, somewhat in this form O, was placed on the inner edge of the ring, the loop being opened to pass over it, after which it closed so far as to prevent it from slipping off", but not so closely as to impede its revolution freely around the inner edge. The spindle was short and light, and was operated as in the common throstle. It had a fixed wharve, upon which the bobbin rested, and was secured so as to revolve with it. Such was the ring frame on its first appearance ; and the process of spinning being precisely as at present, the revolution of the traveller being opposed by friction and the resistance of the atmosphere to such an extent as to produce the amount of drag necessary for winding pur- poses. It required little power to drive it at a high speed, and was said to be capable of spinning 80* yarns of good THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 2c»'.' qnality. The speed recommended by those who tried it was from 110 to 120 revolutions of the front roller of 1 in. diameter for spinning No. 20^ The yarns produced from this machine were at the time highly spoken of for theii- excellence of quality in every respect. It will appear strange at this date to read of the intro- duction of this machine in such a comparatively perfect state, and yet that almost half a century should elapse before it should win public favour for itself in this country. But the fact was that, though the principle was theoreti- cally sound, there were many practical diflaculties encoun- tered which could not be overcome. One of these was the clogging of the traveller with loose fibre, which in- creased its weight, and finally broke down the threads. Another was the impossibility, with the then mechanical ap- pliances, of so constructing the ring rail that the spindles should be exactly in the centre. Many others were met with which need not be enumerated. The consequence, however, was that its use was abandoned in England, and for many years its existence was almost forgotten. The means by which it was re-introduced to the notice of the English cotton trade, briefly stated, were as fol- lows : — Mr. Samuel Brooks, machine maker, of West Gorton, Manchester, having sent his representative, Mr. Jas. Blakey, to the United States on a busiuess tour, the latter had his attention attracted to the ring spinning system, and found that it had been so far perfected that it gave promise of soon becoming a formidable rival to the English mule. This led him to inquire exhaustively into the matter, and to examine the merits of the various spindles and machines then competing for the favour of the cotton trade of New England, to which at that time the cotton manufacture was almost confined. Mr. Blakey returned with a report of the thorough success of the system, and brought with him specimens of spindles, rings, cops of yarn, cloth, and everything necessary to illustrate his statements, and to enable him to give full details of the SOO Cotton spinning. construction of the frames. This evidence thoroughly con- vinced Mr. Brooks of the advantages of the system, and of its certainty of superseding the mule for many descrip- tions of yarn as soon as the prejudices of spinners could be overcome. He, therefore, determined thenceforward to devote his energies to the development of the system and its introduction to the English trade. The doubling frame was the one to which he first gave his attention ; and by persistent experiment, and the construction of special tools to ensure accuracy of workmanship, he succeeded in reme- dying the defects that had been discovered in this frame, and making it highly satisfactory to the trade. The fact that he has since supplied 180,000 spindles to one of the most eminent sewing cotton manufacturing firms in the kingdom, and large numbers to others, is a proof of the success attending his eff'orts, and of the peculiar value of this system of doubling to the leading sections of that branch of trade, and those making twisted yarns for warps, lace, sewing cottons, crochet, mendings, knittings, and heald yarns. This system has almost superseded the use of the flyer doubling machine, except for very fine or very coarse counts. Whilst Mr. Brooks was thus perfecting this branch of the ring system, he carried on at the same time a series of costly experiments to perfect the spinning frames, be- cause, though much had been done in the States towards making the ring spinning frame a thoroughly good ma- chine, yet, when it was brought into competition with the highly developed mule of England, it was found that much remained to be done before it could be said to equal, much less to surpass it. For five years not much success at- tended his efforts in this direction. The difficulties en- countered were chiefly in connection with the construction of the spindle. In the meantime other firms had had their attention at- tracted to the same field, and ring spinning frames con- taining the Booth-Sawyer spindle achieved a qualified 302 COTTON SPINNING. success, and succeeded in engaging the attention of the trade. The E-abbeth spindle was soon after introduced bj Messrs. Howard and Bullough of Accrington with great success. This mvention having become an open one, has since been taken up by most of our machinists, who are now constructing it, with or without specialities of their own. A view in perspective of the warp ring spinning frame, with a two-height creel, as constructed bj Mr. S. Brooks, is afforded by the illustration, Fig. 84. Fig. 85 is a cross section of the same machine, showing a section of the roller stand, mounted on the beam, with rollers and system of weighting ; the arrangement of the thread board, and the spindle and bobbin fitted into rail complete ; also ring rail, in which is fitted the ring, with travellers complete. A detailed description will be useful to the student. The beam, a, carries the roller stands, b &, which are so con- structed that they give an inclined position to the rollers, c, d, e, which are weighted by means of saddles, hangers, levers, wires, and weights, //. The weight upon the rollers can be varied according to requirement. The under- clearers are usually of wood covered with cloth, and keep the front bottom roller clean. The thread rail, h, is attached to the shafts, h\ extending the length of the frame on each side, and coupled together by connecting rods and cross shafts, /i^, h^. By means of a small handle placed upon the extremity of the shaft at one end of the frame, all the thread boards with the guide wires are turned up out of the way for doffing purposes. Each thread board, h, is also separately hinged to the thread rail, to permit of any one spindle being attended to for piecing the thread when broken. The ring plate, 2, carries the rings, y, which are firmly fixed therein, and on the latter is sprung the traveller, k. The bobbin, I, is placed upon the spindle, m, which is securely fastened in the spindle rail by a nut underneath. The creel having been supplied with roving bobbins, the Fig. 85. Ring frame, bectiou. 304 COTTON SPINNING. ends of the rove are passed through the guide wires ou the traverse rod, n, and thence between the three pairs of drawing rollers, c, c2, e, which act upon it as follows : the first or back pair, ee, simply take hold of the roving, draw it from the bobbin, and pass it to the second pair, d d. The latter, revolving a little more quickly than the first pair, slightly stretch the roving, conducting it to the third or front pair, c c, which, running much more rapidly — say^ making five or six revolutions for the second pair one — attenuate the roving to the required thickness for the counts to be spun. The attenuated rove is then passed through the guide wire, which is placed over the centre of the spindle top, thence down to the ring, and through the traveller to the bobbin, Z, upon the spindle, m. The latter, revolving at from 7,000 to 8,000 revolutions per minute, imparts the required twist to the rove, as it is being delivered from the front rollers, c, and when thus spun, it is wound upon the bobbins. The top of the ring, j, forms a flange, upon which is placed the traveller, h, pre- viously described, to form a drag upon the yarn, and thus wind it upon the bobbin. The size and weight of the traveller requires to be varied according to the counts of the yarn being spun — low numbers requiring the heaviest, and fine ones the lightest. Being made from fine drawn steel wire, the weight of each can be made uniform, and regularity of drag ensured. This is a great advantage over the flyer frame, as in the latter the drag is constantly changing from a minimum weight, when the bobbin is empty, to its maximum, when it is full. The traveller has another func- tion also — that of guiding the thread upon the bobbin, like the curl of the flyer leg in the throstle frame and the faller wire in the mule. The ring around which the traveller revolves is fixed in the lifting rail, which has a traverse of about 1|- inches, guiding the yarn upon the bobbin in a cop shape, as in the mule, which, it will be remembered, difi^ers from the cylin- THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 305 drical build of the layers of the bobbins in the bobbin and fly frames. At the same time the main chain of the lift- ing rail is being gradually taken up, thereby giving an additional lift to the rail, by which means, though the copping traverse of the rail remains the same, it passes over a continuously different length of the spindle blade or bobbin upon it, and in this way the copped bobbins of yarn are built up. The rate at which the lifting chain is taken up is regu- lated by change wheels, so as to make the bobbin larger or smaller according to the size of ring and counts of yarn being spun. The diameter of ring and length of bobbin varies in each frame according to the range of yarns in- tended to be spun upon it. The following particulars will illustrate this : — For 8^ to 12S a 2" ring and 6" lift of bobbin should be used. 16 » 20 li „ 6 24 „ 28 li. „ 5 30 „ 36 li „ 5 40 „ 50 If „ 5 Owing to the high speed of spindles obtained in the rmg frame, it has been found that the design, dimensions, con- struction, and quality of material are points of vital importance. The spindle most generally in use is the " Rabbeth," of which the following is a description : — Upon the steel spindle, a. Fig. 86, is firmly placed a cast-iron sleeve, B, so as to revolve perfectly true. This sleeve has the lower part turned, to form the wharve, C, for the reception of the band to drive the spindle. The tubular bolster, d, which is a combination of bolster and footstep, is made to receive the spindle ; and in the upper part is inserted a tube, E, of metal, which forms the upper bolster bearing of the spindle. This is placed so as to form a reservoir for the oil above it, which it prevents from flowing over the top of the bolster, d, which it would otherwise be liable to do, owing to its being carried upwards by the capillary X 306 COTTOX SPIXXIXG. action of the spindle when revolving. This tube is made from phosphor bronze, a metal that contains no acid or matter that can chemically affect the oil, or impair its lubricating properties, even after several months working. It will be seen that when the spindle is inserted into its position in the bolster, it revolves in the chamber, H, which L_2. A Fig. 86. Rabbetli spindle for ring frame. is filled with oil, in order to ensure perfect lubrication to its frictional parts. The results of experience show that this method of lubrication is quite effective for a period of about three months. The oil is preserved from all dirt and loose fibre, and is prevented coming into contact with, ^nd staining, the yarn on the bobbin, owing to the mode of THE EING SPIXXIXG FRAME. 307 construction of the spindle. The brass cup, f, is securely fastened upon the top of the wharve, c, and receives the bottom of the bobbin, holding it firm and true in its position. It also forms an important feature in the doffing of the bobbin, G. The doffing or changing of the full bobbin for the empty one is of great importance, as it necessitates upon the common throstle the employment of a special staff of operatives — usually boys, whose sole duties are to perform this operation, the time occupied being a considerable pro- portion of the whole, and the cost great. The advantages of the ring frame over the flyer frame in this respect is very great, as the doffers are to a great extent dispensed with, and tying by hand of the thread round the empty bobbin is obviated, this being done by means of the brass cup, F. With the mechanical doffer, when the bobbins are full, the attendant, by means of the lifting motion, winds down the ring rails to the bottom of the bobbin, and at the same time stops the frame ; then, by means of the shaft to which the thread boards are attached, the latter are turned up at once, leaving all clear for the removal of the bob- bins, the doing of which coils the threads around the sleeve. When the empty bobbin is placed upon the spindle, it presses down the thread, wedging it between the bobbin and the brass cup, thus holding it securely, and forming a connection between the rollers and the spindle, so that when the frame is started, the yarn is wound upon the bobbin without any loss of time being incurred in tying up the threads to the bobbins. When the frame has been thus supplied with bobbins, the thread boards are all lowered again into position, and the frame is re-started. The time occupied in doffing a frame of 250 spindles is only about thirty to thirty-five seconds. The bolster is fastened in position by the nut, K ; and the vertical wire bent at the top is for the purpose of holding the spindle in position in the bolster when the bobbin is taken off. Improvements in arranging these wires have, however, been patented, by 308 COTTON SPINNING. whicli all the spindles in a frame can be released at one time for cleaning, oiling, &g. One great difficulty encountered in tlie ring system of spinning has been the impossibility of spinning yarn with a " soft " or limited quantity of twist, otherwise very few turns per inch. On the ordinary throstle, the leg of the flyer has intervened to relieve the drag or strain upon the yarn between the roller and the bobbin ; and in the mule, the yarn being twisted before the operation of winding on the spindle commences, the difficulty has not existed. On the ring frame, however, the processes of twisting and winding go on simultaneously ; and the tender roving, which is delivered from the rollers without twist, is imme- diately subjected to the full strain of the drag, which fre- quently causes the yarn to break. The rollers have up to quite recently been mounted horizontally in the stands, and the attenuated rove has remained in contact with the bottom roller nearly three-eighths of an inch below the nip between it and the top roller; thus preventing the twist put into the yarn by the revolving spindle from running directly up to the point of contact between the rollers, which is essential to good spinning. This has led to the adoption of an inclined position for the rollers, as shown in the section, Fig. 85. The new position allows the twine to run directly into the rove immediately it issues from the rollers, thus making a stronger and better twisted yarn, and obviating the difficulty referred to above, in producing a soft twisted yarn, when such is required. The development of this machine has forced several im- portant problems upon the notice of mechanicians, the correct solution of which have been necessary to make it a success. The increase of speed caused a great amount of vibration of the spindle, and consequently heavy wear and tear. This necessitated a close study of the form and structure of the spindle, the footstep, and the bolster, and their relationship to each other ; also, of the best means of lubrication of the friction surfaces. It was a long time before these were THE RING SPINNING FRAME. 809 surmounted, but the task was finally accomplisliecl, and the rate of speed greatly accelerated. A second series of difficulties now demanded attention ; these related to the ring and the traveller. It was found that when the speed exceeded a given rate, at a certain portion of the traverse the threads broke down in an excessive proportion, greatly impeding work, and diminishing both quantity and quality of production. The centrifugal force generated by the rapid revolution of the spindle caused the threads to bulge outwards from the vertical position, otherwise to describe the figure of an inverted balloon, from which the name of " ballooning " has been given. When this was at its maximum, the threads came into contact with one another, and were thus broken down. A heavier ring was tried, which had the eff'ect of partially preventing the fault ; but speed was reduced, and the consumption of power was increased. Certain counts, it was also found, would not carry above a given weight of traveller at a specified rate of speed, the drag breaking them down. To avoid lower- ing the rate of speed, and diminishing the production, thread guards or protectors were devised, which were either plates or rods put into such a position that the threads, in their revolution, should impinge against them, by which the tendency to form the balloon figure above referred to should be held in restraint. These different devices were only partially successful, and the limit of speed, and consequently of production, or of the fineness of the yarn spun, was too soon attained. Another step forward has, however, been made, and the writer has quite recently had the privilege of inspecting an invention which completely solves these difficulties. This is a little contrivance which he described in " The Textile Manufacturer " of September 15th this year (1883). It is the joint invention of Messrs. Furniss and Young, the manager and spinning-master respectively of Mellor Bot- toms Mill, Derbyshire. It is called the anti-balloon ring, and consists of a ring affixed to the traverse, or ring raS, 310 COTTON SPINNING. by vertical brackets, carrying the bar, b, shown in the elevation and plan views, Figs. 87 and 88, to which the ring is affixed by a small set screw. For facility in work- ing, the bars, B, are made of a length sufficient to hold about twelve rings, which are adjusted to the proper spindle gauge, passed upon the spindles, and attached to the rail as indicated. It will be observed that the ring is not a closed one, but that its ends, c, d, are set apart, d being below, and projecting beneath the end of C. This com- pletes the ring-like form, whilst the breach easily admits the thread after being pieced up. It will be obvious that the thread will be controlled at every part of its revolution by means of this ring, and that consequently a lighter traveller can be used, higher speeds can be attained, finer yarns be spun, and a greater production obtained. The traveller, it was found by experience, gathered around itself a quantity of cotton fibre, most probably from its friction upon the thread passing through it, and a small portion perhaps from that floating in the atmosphere through which it was rapidly passing. As this fibre accu- mulated, it so much increased the bulk and weight of the traveller as to greatly increase the drag, which broke down the threads. This was an impediment to the success of the ring frame that entailed a good deal of trouble to remove. Again, however, persevering labour was re- warded by success, by the invention of what is denomi- nated a traveller clearer. This is a small piece of metal of appropriate shape for the purpose, which is fixed between two rings, and so near to each that the travellers upon them, in passing, go so near to contact that, whilst not touching, they yet are cleared from loose fibre. Thus was accomplished another improvement in detail essential to success. The recent rapid increase in the adoption of the ring spinning frame for low and medium counts shows that it is now a practically perfect and commercially successful machine. It is undoubtedly now ^ formidable rival to the ca Fig. 88. Anti-balloon. Plan. Fig. 87. Anti-balloon ring. 312 COTTON SPINXIXG. * mule, and in a very few years tlie contest for superiority between the two systems will show to which side the vic- tory will finally incline. There is no likelihood, however, that whatever the ring frame may be rendered capable of doing in competition with the mule in low medium and the lower ranges of the fine numbers of yarn, that it will ever displace the mule for fine counts — say, from 80^ and upwards in warp yarns, and 60^ and upwards in weft yarns. The necessarily less twist put into the latter class of yarns will render them unable to carry a ring traveller without such breakages as would greatly interfere with both quality and quantity of production. In the United States, where, as has been shown, the use of the ring frame is a necessity arising mainly from its social conditions, it is used extensively for the production of weft yarns, but certainly not economically ; and were it not for the highly protective tarifi* in force in that country, it is probable that for this purpose it would have to give way to the European productions of the mule. In this field it holds its own simply by virtue of the protection accorded to it. Being in existence and use as a weft-producing machine, it necessarily engages attention, and mechanicians are labouring continuously to improve it. In the States, the sub- division of the cotton trade into two branches — spin- ning and manufacturing — as here, has not taken place ; yarn is spun and consumed in one establishment, and the difficulties of dealing with the tare and return carriage of empty tubes or bobbins does not arise. Here, with the spinning carried on in one part of the country, and the manufacturing processes in another, distant ten, twenty, thirty, or even more miles away, and by other firms, these are insuperable ; and unless the machine can be modified, so as to produce yarns that can be handled and trans- mitted from place to place with the same facility and cost as mule wefts, its field for spinning this class of yarn in this country will remain a limited one. Mr. Samuel E^ 314 COTTO?r SPINNING. Brooks, so far as we are aware, is the only machinist in this country who has devoted much effort to accomplish this purpose. His labours have met with a fair measure of success. Fig. 89 shows this machine as constructed by him for spinning wefts. It differs little from the warp yarn frame, except in such details as the gauge and size of the spindles and rings, and the substitution of paper tubes for the wooden pirns of the latter. It is meeting with much acceptance on the Continent, where the conditions of the trade are more nearly like those of the States than of this country. Some spinners also in this country, who weave their own productions of yarn, have also adopted it, and its future is regarded as being of a hopeful character. The persistent endeavours made to render it a practicable machine for its designed purpose certainly deserve to be successful. Doubling. — This is a process by which two or more threads are twisted together to form a stronger thread. Such threads are termed 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 6-fold, 8-fold, or 12-fold yarns, according to the number of single threads each may contain. When described commercially, the count of the single yarn is first expressed thus : 12* 2-fold, IG^ 4-fold ; these are usually written thus : 12^2, 16Y4. Yarns of this kind are much used in manufac- turing, and are also extensively applied to many other pur- poses. They form the warps for numerous descriptions of silk, cotton, worsted, woollen, linen, and other fabrics both light and heavy, including Kidderminster, tapestry, Brussels, and other carpets ; they are also employed ex- tensively in the lace and hosiery trade, and for knitting, netting, sewing, crochet, and many fancy purposes. Thus it will be seen that the doubling branch of the cotton trade forms an important portion. It is so extensive, in- deed, as to have developed the tendency to become an independent section of the trade, and many establishments exist in which doubling alone is carried on. In others, again, it forms a portion of the spinning division, whether this is on the mule, throstle, or ring principle. DOUBLixa. 315 Doubling is chiefly performed on three different ma- chines, all of which are respectively modifications of spin- ning machines. The first that should be named is the doubling throstle frame, which is the throstle frame modi- fied by the arrangement of the creel for the reception of yarns, and the substitution of the drawing rollers by a single pair of rollers of considerably increased diameter. These rollers in wet doubling are covered with thin sheet brass to prevent corrosion. When delivered from the creel, the yarn passes through water contained in a zinc trough, heated by a steam pipe passing through it, and thence between the pair of rollers which press out the superfluous water it may have taken up. It next passes to the flyer and upon the bobbin. Care is always taken that the twisting it receives shall be in the direction opposite to that of the single thread. The flyers are so constructed that the curls on the legs can be renewed when worn out» In other respects the throstle doubler is simply a counter- part of the spinning frame of that name. In doubling fine numbers on the throstle several serious disadvantages are encountered. One of these is that after doflang it is necessary to oil the spindles in order to secure that the bobbin shall " slip " and wind properly, so as not to break the threads. The consequence is that many bobbins soon become saturated with oil, the dry porous wood readily absorbing it, whereby the weight of the bobbin is greatly increased, and the drag is rendered un- equal as compared with that of bobbins not yet saturated with oil. The result is an irregular yarn. Another evil is that a large number of bobbins are rendered useless. The saturated bobbins also stain the yarn wound upon them, and greatly depreciate its value. Often when a frame has been replenished with bobbins it is found that several will not slip, and the threads after breaking and being pieced several times are rendered unfit for their in- tended use. These are then stripped with a knife, and the yarn, worth, perhaps, from Is. to os. per lb., is reduced to waste, valued at only a few pence per lb. In numerous 816 COTTON SPINNING. other ways yarn is damaged by saturated bobbins. A great quantity of oil is consumed in the lubrication of the spindles, and a heavy loss is entailed by the necessity of throwing out as unfit for use a great number of the saturated bobbins. These evils have to a great extent been obviated by an J w ([ Fig. 90. Impixtved throstle doubling spindle. invention perfected and patented by Messrs. Taylor and Ramsden of Bolton, and which is illustrated in Fig. 90. The flyer,/, is removed from the summit of the spindle — the position it occupies in the ordinary throstle — inverted, and relegated to the place formerly occupied by the bobbin, h. Instead of being made fast as before, it has a boss, 1" , fixed to it, and is placed loose upon the spindle, resting upon the bolster rail, r, with only the ordinary leather washer inter- DOUBLING. 317 vening. The bobbin, h, being placed upon the spindle, descends to a position in -which it is firmly held. It will thus be seen that with the inversion of their relative po- sitions their functions are also changed, — the drag being obtained from the flyer instead of the bobbin as before. By this change the spindle is reduced one-third in length, and nearly two-thirds in weight, and the flyer one-half. The traverse has been lessened, whilst the diameter of the bobbin has been increased. In this form the spindles can be easily driven at 7,000 revolutions per minute. The ad- vantages are obvious, and will commend themselves to every one practically acquainted with the matter. The bobbin is placed quite away from contact with oil, and revolves with the spindle ; consequently, no bobbins are saturated, and no yarn is oil-stained. The flyers not being to take off", doffing can be performed by the minder a spindle at a time, without stopping the frame. This in- creases production and diminishes expense, dispensing with doffers' wages. The space between the arms of the flyer, which allows the diameter of the bobbin to be increased, rendering it capable of holding more yarn, thus reduces the number of knots made in the winding room, an impor- tant advantage in the matter of quality. Bobbins can be used until broken, and a great saving is obtained from this source. There is no waste of yarn from its snarling upon the spindle top as in the ordinary arrangement. A mode- rate estimate of the gain resulting from this improve- ment in a mill of say 65,000 to 70,000 spindles will be £1,500 per annum. Tarn doubled upon this frame, like that of the throstle spinning frame, possesses somewhat similar characteristics. By its passage around the leg of the flyer it becomes more perfectly consolidated, and the loose fibres that centrifugal action would bring to the surface are thoroughly laid by frictional contact, whilst the thread is to a certain extent p(>lished by the same means. Thus it is that a solid, wiiy, and glossy thread is obtained which has long been ■318 COTTON SPINNING. regarded as the best result of the doubling process, and consequently has stood correspondingly high in the estima- tion of producers. The twiner is the next machine that calls for notice. This is a modification of the mule, or more accurately, a return to the principles of Hargreaves' jenny. The twist- ing spindles are fitted in a bank or fixed carriage, whilst the creel containing the threads to be twisted consists of a traversing carriage which retires from the spindle bank whilst the length of yarn to the extent of its traverse is being twisted. When this is completed, it returns to its first position, the length of yarn being wound upon the spindles in the bank by means of a faller guide wire. There is also another kind of twiner more closely related to the mule, in which the position of the creel and spindles is reversed, the latter being in the traversing carriage. This form is, however, only found when the frame has been transformed from a mule, which is sometimes done when the latter is advanced in wear, but is still too good to break up. Twiners are mostly used for dry doubling. The yarns produced on both these forms of twiners are not so dense as those from the throstle, not having the advantage of the polishing and consolidating influence of the flyer. Like the single yarn from the mule, its sur- face is more hairy, the fibre being thrown out by centri- fugal action during the twisting process. The ring doubling frame is the latest competitor for pub- lic favour in this section of the trade, and the only remain- ing one to which attention need be drawn, as the few other machines on which doubling has been, or is yet occasion- ally jDerformed, are unimportant. Owing to its greater pro- ductiveness and other merits, it has sprung to the front of its competitors in public favour, and therefore demands a little more notice. The ring doubling frame, like the others, is simply modified in a similar manner from its parent, the ring spinning frame. Fig. 91 is a perspective view of this important frame as constructed by Mr. Samuel Brooks, and Tig. 92. King doubling frame. Scotch system. DOUBLING. 321 of which he has supplied nearly 200,000 spindles to the eminent firm of sewing cotton manufacturers, Messrs. J. P. Coats and Co., Ferguslie, Paislej, and also large quantities to other leading firms engaged in the manufac- ture of twisted yarns for the same class of trade. In this branch the ring doubling frame has almost superseded the flyer frame, except for the finest or the coarsest counts of yarns. This, Fig. 91, represents the frame as arranged to work on what is known as the English principle, which diflPers in its details from the Scotch system. Here the yarn-bobbins are arranged horizontally in the creel, a, whence the threads descend to the trough, pass through the water, and come over the rollers at 6, thence through the guide wires on the thread board at c, and down to the ring rail at c?, and, exactly as in spinning, pass through the traveller to the bobbin. The section. Fig. 92, shows the same frame as arranged on the Scotch system. This, it will be observed, difi*ers from the English plan in having the yarn as it comes from the spinning frame first wound upon large bobbins in a winding frame. These large bobbins necessitate a difierent arrangement of the creel. The threads are conducted down to the trough in which the pair of rollers are arranged, the lower one forming an immersion roller, beneath and around which the threads are conducted, and thence around the upper one to the thread guides and the spindles as before. It will thus be seen that the rollers serve the double purpose of immer- sing the yarn in the water, and expressing any superfluous quantity of water it may have taken up. As compared with the English plan, where the yarn usually passes under a glass rod in the water, it remains a longer time in the latter, and hence is thought to get more thoroughly satu- rated. It would be difficult, however, to demonstrate that any particular advantage will be secured by the adoption of one plan as compared with the other ; and it may safely be said that the custom of each district is at the founda- tion of any preference that may be shown. T 322 COTTON SPINNING. CHAPTER XL Miscellanea. Useful hints. — To find the area of the safety valve of a boiler. — To find the pressure upon each square inch of a safety valve. — To find the weight on every square inch of a valve where the weight is hung to it. — To find a weight to hang on a valve to resist a given pressure. — Steam engines. — Horse 'power. — To fijid the nominal horse power of a condensing engine. — Of a high pressure engine.— To find the indicated horse power. — To find the commercial horse power. — Shafting. — To find speed of second motion shaft. — To fijid speed of a belt or rope driven power. — Testing cotton. — Card clothing ; conflitioning — Oil paint to be avoided. — Covering iron cylinders. — Twist; to find the proper amount. — The twist of sluhhings and ravings. — Counts of yarn. — Cotton yarn measure. — Avoirdupois weight used for cotton yam. — French system of numb' ring yarns. — To reduce English to French nos. — To reduce French to English nos. — Strength of yarns ; table showing; means of ascertaining. — The strength of the cotton fibre utilized in yarns ; American cotton yarns ; Egyptian. — fila- ments in ci'oss section. — Twist for doubling of yarns. AS the presoribed limits of this work have already been considerably exceeded, only a few useful hints can be given upon matters that could not easily be incorporated under any particular heading in the previous chapters, or that were overlooked at the time. These consist mainly of practical rules or directions that will be found useful in the various departments of the mill. No pretence whatever is made of covering the whole ground, nor indeed of doing more in this respect than briefly supplementing the deficiencies of professedly practical essays treating of cotton spinning. For calculations and practical rules regard- ing the various changes in the different departments, the reader is referred to one or other of the numerous treatit;es already well known. To find the area of the safety valve of a holler, — Multiply the square of the diameter of the valve by '*lSb4i. MISCELLANEA. 323 To fitid the pressure upon each square inch of a safety valve. — Multiply the area of the valve by the length in inches of the short end of the lever for a divisor ; the total length in inches of the lever, multiplied by the weight upon it in pounds, will give a nnmber which, divided by the first, will yield a quotient showing the pounds pressure upon each square inch. This rule pre- sumes that the valve and lever are balanced by a counter- poise, and that the only acting weight is that upon the end of the lever. When the valve and lever are not balanced, but contribute their weight to press against the steam, to find if the pressure upon the valve is equal to the pressure of steam against : multiply the area of the valve by the pounds pressure per square inch in the boiler, and the pro- duct will be the pressure of steam against the valve ; then multiply the pounds weight upon the lever by its length in inches to the fulcrum, and divide the product by the number of inches in the short arm ; to the quotient ob- tained add the weight required to balance the lever, and the sum will show that the pressure upon the valve and the pressure against it are in equilibrium. The weight to balance the lever may be found by applying a spring balance to the lever at the point where it presses on, or is jointed to, the valve. The actual weight of the valve must be added ; or if it is attached by a joint to the lever, it will be weighed at the same time as the lever. To find the weight on every square inch of a valve lohere the weight is hung to it. — Divide the weight by the area of the valve, and the quotient will be the weight upon every square inch of the valve. To find a iveight to hang on the valve to resist a given pressure. — Multiply the pressure per square inch by the area of the valve, and the product will be the weight required. Steam engines. — The capabilities of steam engines are measured by a standard, the limit of which is a horse power. This is a force capable of raising 33,000 pounds 324 COTTON SPIXNIXG. one foot high in one minute ; or 1,000 pounds thirty- three feet high in one minute ; or, again, the exertion of a force of 33,000 " foot-pounds " per minute. Horse power. — There are three forms in which this is expressed : nominal, indicated, and commercial. Nominal horse power is the oldest form, and is now rapidly becoming obsolete. It is based upon the area of the cylinder, but takes no cognizance of the steam pressure and speed of piston. It is derived from data met with in the experience of Watt and his immediate successors the early engineers. To find the tiominal horse povjer of a condensing engine^ — Square the diameter of the cylinder in inches, and mul- tiply this by '7854, and the product will be the area. Divide this by 22, the number of inches area for one horse power, and the quotient will be the nominal horse power of the engine. To find, the nominal Iwrse poiver of a high pressure engine. — Find the area of the cylinder as before, and divide by 11, and the quotient will be the horse power. To find the indicated horse power. — The area of the cylinder, the number of pounds pressure per square inch on the piston, and the speed of the latter, or the distance it -travels per minute, multiplied together for a dividend, and divided by 33,000, will give for quotient the indi- cated horse power the engine is exerting. To find the commercial horse pov)er. — Deduct one-third from the indicated horse power for friction of the engine and shafting, and the remainder will be the commercial horse power available. Shafting. To find speed of second motion shaft. — Mul- tiply the number of teeth in the spur wheel of the engine by the number of revolutions it makes per minute for a dividend, and for a divisor take the number of teeth in the driven wheel upon the second motion shaft ; the quotient will be the revolutions per minute of the latter. To find the speed of a belt or rope driven pulley. — Multiply the number of revolutions of the driver by its diameter^ MISCELLANEA. 325 and divide the product by the diameter of the driven pulley. The quotient is the number of the revolutions of the driven pulley. Testing cotton. — Of late years cotton has been greatly adulterated, and spinners have suffered correspondingly heavy losses from this cause. Sand and water are the two chief ingredients used for this purpose, either separately or in combination, and it is therefore desirable to ascertain the specific amount of each adulterant. Nearly all the former is left in the opener, intermediate, and finisher lap machine, but the latter evaporates, and hence has received the name of the invisible loss. It is too often, however, confounded with the former. In testing, therefore, let the parcel of cotton, after being carefully weighed, first be exposed for several hours spread open in a room the tem- perature of which is equal to the maximum temperature of the rooms through which it will have to pass in the working processes. Weigh again, and the loss will be the weight of water that has been evaporated. Next proceed as directed in a previous chapter. Card clothing. — It has long been a recognized fact that the quality of yarn produced in a cotton mill depends more upon the proper treatment of the material in the carding process than in any other. The most conscientious care is required in this department, and the process of carding should also be guided by an intelligent conception of its requirements. The cotton may be good, and the carding engines the best, yet the product may be quite unsatisfac- tory. In such cases it will often be found to originate in a defective condition of the card clothing arising from its unintelligent treatment. Cylinders and rollers are often covered with cards that have not been properly conditioned, when, though put on tightly, they soon become flabby and loose. This is owing to the temperature of the room in which they work being so much higher than that from which they were brought. In order to prevent this occur- ring, all cards should be exposed for several days and 326 COTTOX SPIXNI^'G. nights in a room the temperature of which is equal to or slightly higher than that of the room in which thej will have to work. They should not be taken from here until wanted for use. India-rubber card clothing has to a great extent superseded leather, and this sort requires special treatment. When kept in stock, exposed to a low tempe- rature, it becomes stiff and hard, and if examined would be found to have shrunk considerably. If a cylinder fillet be measured in this condition by stretching it over a long table with a considerable strain to get the fullest possible length out of it, and the same be conditioned and measured again, it will be found to have become practically two or even more feet longer. Were such a fillet put on in its unconditioned state, however tightly it might have been wrapped, the change of temperature would give it the extra length, which would go to slackness, and thus induce endless trouble and bad work. The proper way to deal with cards of this description is to condition them in a room where the temperature is five to ten degrees higher than the room in which they will have to work, by which they will become perfectly flexible and soft. N'ext, before using, let them be exposed for three or four hours in a temperature the same as that in which they will work. They should then be wound on the cylinders or rollers under a moderate and perfectly uniform strain ; and after having been fastened at each end they should be left for an hour or two before the intermediate nailing is proceeded with, in which time the card will have settled or bedded itself into its ultimate position. After this has been done, there will be a slight and uniform contraction, which will bring the card into the best condition for producing high- class work and ensuring durability. No oil paint of any kind, in any way, or under any circumstances, should be laid on the cylinders before nail- ing on the clothing. The application of oil paint to cylinders before nailing is a highly dangerous practice^ and where india-rubber cards are in question cannot be MISCELLANEA. 327 too strongly condemned. Oil paints now nsuallj contain petroleum, which is practically non-drying, and when used for this purpose the free portion is absorbed by the india- rubber cloth forming the card's foundation, which is thus quickly decomposed or rendered rotten. Should the founda- tion be dry, but not perfectly hard, the crowns of the teeth sink into the yielding substance, become rigidly fettered, and consequently broken. In covering iron cylinaers, the best and safest covering will be found to be stout calico, laid on with freshly made flour paste. This, before being covered, should be thoroughly dry. Calico thus applied constitutes a non-conductor be- tween the cold iron and the india-rubber, and thus tends greatly to the preservation of the latter. Considerable alternations of temperature are highly injurious to india- rubber, destroying it in a short time ; whilst where it is strictly preserved from paint, grease, and these changes in a reasonable manner, the cards will last almost as long as the machine itself. It has not unfrequently occurred in the experience of the best card-makers that their cards have worked for twenty years when properly cared for in these several respects, whilst, when neglected, they have been destroyed in four or five years. When cards are mounted on the bare iron, the surface of the latter should be made thoroughly clean. Care should be taken where the traversing grinder is used, that oil does not drop from it upon the cards. Much mischief often arises from the use of unsuitable hand-strippers, which, if too strong and unyielding, are the cause of rapid and irre- parable damage to the cards. " A little extra labour be- stowed upon the mounting of the cards," say Messrs. James Walton and Sons, the eminent card-makers of Denton near Manchester, in a circular of instructions upon the treatment of cards, and from which we have condensed most of the above remarks, " will save endless trouble and disappoint- ment afterwards." Twist. — In order to find the proper amount of twist per *628 COTTON SPINNING. inch to put into any counts of yam spun on mules, the rule is to multiply the square root of the counts by 3-1, when the yarn is intended for warps ; when for weft, the square root is multiplied by 3^. These numbers are what are called standard numbers, and the twist thus obtained is found to be such that the yarn will set without running into kinks. More twist might make a stronger yarn, bat other inconveniences are introduced when that obtained by the above means is exceeded. Warp yarns require spinning comparatively hard and firm, in order the better to bear the strain and friction of subsequent operations. Weft yarns, on the contrary, need to be spun with less twine, as it is desirable, for several reasons, that the latter should break at a less strain than the warp yarn into which they have to be inserted. Also being less consolidated, they give greater fulness in appearance, and a better feeling to the cloths. For yarns in the lower ranges of numbers spun from American cotton, and higher counts from Egyptian or Sea Island, the above rule will apply very well, but for counts higher than 32s. in American some spinners prefer for warp yarn to multiply the square root of the coant by 4, and for wefts by 3^. In Surat yarns, even this is slightly exceeded. The twine thus obtained is of course what is called an average or medium amount ; there are special classes of yarn called " soft spun," in which the twine is less ; and, again, other descriptions called hard spun, in which the average is exceeded more or less accord- ing to requirement. Yarns spun on the throstle or ring frame have usually from i-turn per inch in the lower numbers to 1^ in medium counts more than mule spun yams. The twist of sluhhings and rovings. — The late Mr. Evan Leigh, in his work on cotton spinning, gives the following as " a secret worth knowmg." " It is," says he, "a com- mon thing to turn the spindles of slubbing, intermediate, and roving frames all to the right or twist way. The effect of this may be best illustrated by endeavouring to make a MISCELLANEA. 329 rope of many strands twisted all one way. The tendency of such a rope would be to curl up and untwist itself; but if the strands are twisted one way when single, and the contrary way when doubled together, the rope will lie straight with the twist in it. Suppose, then, it is required to spin twist (warp yarns) from double rovings, and there are slubbing, intermediate, and roving frames, with the ends or bobbins doubled behind the intermediate and roving frames as well as in the mules, the proper thing to do is to twist the slubbing to the left, the intermediate to the righi, the roving to the left, and the mule to the right. The effect of this is to a certain extent to make the yarn like a cable, the fibres of the cotton being interwoven together. Both the intermediate and the roving frames would work better, and the mules spin better, and the yarn would be sounder and freer from crackers or weak places. More twist may also be got into it, and there will be less disposition to curl." When it is required to spin weftwise, or to the left, with double roving in the mule, this proceeding must be reversed. " It must be distinctly understood that it is of no use to reverse the spindles, except ivhere a doubliiig takes idlace at the hack ; otherwise it is twofold loss of the twist in the roving." " Attention to the above cannot be too strongly impressed upon spinners, as the advantage to be derived from it is very great." Counts of yarn. — The denomination of yarns in this and other countries where the English system prevails is ob- tained from the number of hanks of 840 yards each in the 1 lb. Troy. Thus, of 20s. there are twenty hanks, of 30s. thirty hanks in 1 lb., and similarly with other counts. Cotton Yarn Measure. 54 inches = 1 thread (or circumference of wrap reel) 4,320 „ = 80 threads = 1 lea. 30,240 „ =560 „ = 7 leas ==1 hank, or 840 yds. 330 COTTON SPINNING. A'moirdupois Weight used for Cotton Yarns. 24 grains = 1 dwt. 109|- „ = 41-°^ dwts. = -^ oz. 218|: „ = 9ii „ == i „ 437i „ =: 18i.i- „ = 1 „ 7,000 „ = 291^ „ =16 „ = 1 lb. French System of Nwmbering Yarn. 1,000 metres weighing 500 grammes ... is No. 1, 1,000 „ „ 250 „ ... is No. 2. 1,000 „ „ 50 „ ... is No. 10. 1,000 „ „ 25 „ ... is No. 20. Rnle : Divide the number of metres reeled by twice the weight in grammes. French No. 1 = English No. 1-18. To Reduce English to French Numbers, divide by 1*18. To Reduce French to English, multiply by 1-18. Strength of yarns. — The following figures showing the strength of different counts and qualities of yarns are abstracted from the tables recording the results of a series of valuable experiments made by Dr. Bowman, of Halifax, and given in his recent excellent work, the " Structure of the Cotton Fibre," a perusal of which is strongly recom- mended to the reader : — MISCELLANEA. 331 Breaking Average Sam- Description and quality of yarn. weight weight Actual ples. per lea in lbs. per lea in grains. counts. A 20» single, mule spun. All Ame- i rican cotton .... : 78.8 49.514 20.19 B 2tj» single, mule spun. American and Egyptian cotton . . 102.2 50.531 19.795 C 20» single, water twist. All Ame- ricau cotton 79.5 48.904 20.445 D 32' single, mule spun. All Ame- rican Cotton 54.7 31.629 31.63 E 40* single, super Bolton mule yarn. All Egyptian cotton . . 54.4 25.259 39.585 F 50* single, super Bolton mule yarn. ■ All Egyptian cotton . . 35.2 19.974 50.06 G 60* single, super Bolton mule yarn. All Egyptian cotton . . . 32.3 16.934 59.06 H 60» single, super combedmulejarn. All Egvptian cotton . . . 33.4 17-036 58.70 I 40«2-f.ild full twist Twiner yam. All American cotton . . 101.8 52.077 19.19 J 40* 2-fold full twist Twiner yarn. All Egyptian cotton . . 107.4 C2.230 19.14 K 40» 2-fold super frame yarn All Egvptian cotton 108.9 49.891 20.04 L 38* 2-fold super frame yarn Ali Egyptian cotton . . . . 131. 52.581 19.01 M 60* 2-fold super frame yarn All Egyptian cotton . . . 73.8 33.177 30.14 N 60* 2-fold Twiner yam. *Ali Egvptian cotton 85.5 33.090 30.22 80* 2-told Twiner yarn. Ali Egyptian cotton 61. 25.878 38.64 P 120* 2-fold frame yam. *Aii Egyptian 51.4 16750 59.70 Q 120* 2-told super combed frame. All Sea-Island 63.6 16.715 59.82 In each case the above particulars represent the average of twenty tests made with four separate samples of each yarn, five tests from each thread. They may thus be re- garded as fairly exhaustive. The samples represented various spinnings, and were not picked ones, but all were from good makers. The 332 COTTON SPINNING. Toom in which the tests were made was kept at a uniform temperature by a steam stove, and all the samples of yarn were exposed for twenty-four hours before testing in order to secure the same conditions of temperature and moisture, Avhich it is well known affect the strength of yarns. The tests were made by the most perfect appliances in use for the purpose, consisting of a reel fitted with a traversing motion, and an arrangement to secure a uniform tension on the threads during the reeling operation. The scales used for weighing the leas were a chemical balance which turned readily with the .^ ppoth part of a grain when the scale ends were loaded with 500 grains each. The strength-testing machine was of the ordinary form in use, but instead of being operated by hand power, which varies and appreciably affects the result, it was worked by a band, transmitting power from a shaft driven by the engines of Union Mills, Halifax, belonging to Messrs. Bowman Brothers, and which, for all practical purposes, were perfectly uniform and steady. In the samples A, the greatest variation in strength was from 73 to 86 lbs. = 16'5 per cent. ; in weight it was from 47-83 grains to 52'31 or 4-48 grains, about 9 per cent. This was regarded as a good commercial yarn. Sample B was more uniform, extreme variation in both strength and weight being only 8 per cent. A first-class yarn. The next, c, a good using yarn, varied about 11 per cent, in strength and 6'4 per cent, in weight. The next specimen, d, was of a favourite Lancashire yarn which in its extreme varied 18*2 per cent, in breaking strain, and rather less than 10 per cent, in weight. Sample E, a first-class 40^ spun down from 60' rovings, shows no more than 7*3 per cent, variation in strength, and less than 2 per cent, in weight. Sample F, from the same roving, does not give as good a result, strength varying 22 per cent., and weight 6*5 per cent. G was a first-class carded yarn, which varied at its highest 15 per cent, in its strength, and 6 in its weight. The next, H, was a super combed yarn, one of the best in the MISCELLANEA. 333 market, and its greatest variation in strength was 12 per cent., and in weight 6 per cent. The remainder are " two- folds," and exhibit, generally speaking, similar results, though the variations are not quite so extreme in either strength or weight. The strength of the cotton Jibre utilized in yarns. — Another most interesting inquiry undertaken by Dr. Bowman, and the details of which are given in his work, was as to how far in the manufacture of yarns the natural strength of the cotton fibre is utilized. The first step in this search was to ascertain the weight the individual fibre will carry without breaking ; next to count the number of fibres in the cross section of a yarn ; multiply the former by the latter, and the theoretical weight that the yarn should lift is obtained. A comparison of the latter with the actual strength, as tested by experiment, gives the percentage of the natural strength utilized. The following tables, which we extract from Dr. Bowman's work, are very instructive and interesting regarding this point. Of course an approxi- mately correct result is only possible, as in the first place the assumption, as observed by Dr. Bowman, that the se- parate fibres are of uniform strength, is not well founded. Several other circumstances also militate against a correct result being easily obtained. American Cotton. Average Calculated Observed Per- Per- Connts and description. of fibres in iToss section of thread. strength per lea in lbs. strength per iea in lbs. of tntnl strength utilized. of total Strength lost. 208 water twist . . 230 388 80 20.6 79.4 32» mule twist . . 144 240 50 20.8 79.2 40» „ „ • . 120 194 40 20.6 79.4 50' „ „ . . 92 155 30 19.3 80.7 30» two-fold . . . 300 500 130 26.0 74.0 40« „ ... 225 380 100 26.3 73.7 50* „ ... 180 300 75 25.0 75.0 .3134 cotton spinning. Egyptian Cotton. Average number Calculated Observed Per- Per- Counts and description. of fibres in cross section of thread. strength per lea in lbs. strength per lea in lbs. centage of total strength ntilized. centage of total strength lost. 40' single mule . . 161 234 50 21.3 78.7 50» „ 129 188 38 20.2 79.8 60* „ „ 107 156 30 19.2 80.8 40* two-fold . 320 450 120 26.6 73.4 5o; „ . 240 360 96 26.6 73.4 6o; „ . I 200 300 83 27.6 72.4 70, „ 1 180 255 70 27.4 72.6 80. „ . 160 220 60 27.2 72.8 90 „ . 140 200 50 25.0 75.0 The number of filaments in the cross section of threads of the same counts is not always alike, this depending upon the nature of the cotton used. In the above calculations Dr. . Bowman took the average when Middling Memphis cotton with staple and fully good fair Egyptian was used. The calculation assumes that all the fibres are sufficiently twisted into the thread to prevent slipping or drawing out without breaking when strain is applied, but as this is never perfectly accomplished in practice, a considerable allowance must be made on this account, especially in slack-twisted yarns. Indeed, it will probably be found that it is here where the great loss which appears between the theoretical and the actual strength of yarns arises. In the tables, however, no such allowance has been made, as it was found practically impossible to fix any satisfactory data on which to make it. Much also depends on the amount of twist put into the yarn for preventing the slip- ping of the fibres. The investigation, however, was made with yarns containing the standard twist per inch obtained by multiplying the square root of the counts by o*75, as has been stated previously. It is curious to see that Tvhether the yarns are made from American or Egyptian MISCELLANEA. 335 cotton, very little more than 20 per cent, in single yams of the theoretical strength of the fibres is ntilized. In two-fold yarns a better result by about 6 per cent, is ob- tained. The percentage of loss increases in both cases ss the yarns become finer. In making these tests yarns were in all cases used, spun down from the highest counts in order to obtain them from the same cotton : that is to say, the American single yarns were spun down from 50* rovings, and the Egyptian singles from 60' rovings ; and similarly in the two-folds, all the Egyptians being from the same rovings and cotton as the 90^2. The result shows that there is room for further improvement. Twist for doubling of yarns. — Yarns after their first spinning are often twisted tos ether again in two, three, four and many other folds for various requirements. This process is technically called " doubling," a name which it is obvious only very imperfectly describes it. Several strands thus produced from two or more threads are fre- quently again put together, making a cord of any number of threads according to requirement. The amount of twist or twine to put into the article at the respective doublings is often a difficulty to those having charge of the opera- tions, especially as practical men differ about the matter. The consequence is, that yarn is sometimes spoiled in the endeavour to feel the way to a proper result. The best practice is to follow the principle laid down for obtaining the twist in spinning single yarns. Yarns doubled on that principle will lie straight as in the single state. Suppose 100' has to be doubled into two-fold ; two threads of 100' put together, the joint thread would be 50', the square root of this number is 7*05, which multiplied by 3|-, or thus, 3*75 gives 26*43 for twist. If the doubled yarn be wanted of a soft texture, then the square root as obtained above should be multiplied by 3^-, when the twist will be such as will set without curl. When curl is required, an additional percentatje to the above twist must be put in. In all cases the twist should be put in in the direction 336 COTTON SPINNING. opposite to that of the last preceding process. Suppose now three strands of this 100/2 fold be laid together, and it is wanted to know the proper twist to put into the six cord which it has thus become. Let it be assumed that the operation was commenced with yarn of true counts ^ that is 100^ the doubling makes this into 100^ two-fold, or counted singly 50*. But if measured and weighed out this yarn would not contain more than 48 hanks to the pound, and the reason of this is that the twining of the threads together reduces the length by about two hanks. Hence it is necessary, when a true length is required, to start with yarns higher in the actual than the nominal count. The three strands of the twofold 100* having, as we have seen, be- come, not 50* but 48*, three of these laid together now reduce the counts to 16* ; the square root of this number is 4, which multiplied by 3*75 gives 15, the number of turns per inch required at this stage. This process followed throughout will give satisfactory results. ^\Tien the yarn is wanted to curl, it is usual to add about 20 per cent, to the twine obtained by this principle. For knitting yarns three folds, which are required to be soft, a rule in exten- sive use is to multiply the square roots of the yarns (single) by 2i, and the result is the turns required. Crochet yarns follow the same rule, but require 2 for a multiplier. Embroidery cottons (four-folds) use the same standard number, 2, as the last-named. APPENDIX ON STEAM BOILERS AND ENGINES. APPENIiII. 3a9 APPENDIX. On Steam Boilers and Engines, Cotton mill boilers. — Dimensions. — Furnaces. — Flanging; boiler power 5 evaporative power. — To estimate the number of boilers required, — Inspection; cleaning; safety valves ; low water alarms; pipes, feed, and steam connections. — Boiler setting, with illustrations. — Engines. — Economizers. — Feed water temperature. — Position of economizer. — Chimney draught. — Oil consumption. — Driving. — Mechanical stokers. THE author is indebted to Mr. W. H. Booth, of the "Mechanical World," and formerly of the Man- chester Steam Users' Association, for the following re- marks npon steam boilers, engines, &c., in connection with which ho has had an extensive experience. Acknowledg- ment ic also made to the proprietors of the above journal for the accompanying illustrations. The boilers used to raise steam for either motive power or other purposes in the cotton trade are so universally of the Lancashire or internally-jBred two-flued type, that we shall confine our remarks wholly to that type of boiler. The making of boilers now ranks equal with, if not supe- rior to the manufacture of steam-engines, and great care and skill are brought to bear upon their construction. The chief centres of the boiler-making trade in the cotton dis- tricts are Manchester, Hyde, Dukiafield, Blackburn, Bolton, and Preston. For some years past the standard size of Lancashire boiler has been 27 or 28 feet in length, with a diameter of 7 feet ; and such a boiler, if double riveted, would be made from -^^ths iron to stand 75 lbs. pressure, but during the three years ending December, 1883, the use of steam of 100 lbs. has become more common, and steel 340 APPENDIX. has become the material of construction, while at the same time the diameter has been made 7 feet 6 inches, and the thickness of steel plates for 100 lbs. will be half an inch, and the boiler may be worked to 105 lbs. safely. Furnaces, also, are made of steel, and should not exceed |-ths in thickness of plate, indeed -j^^-ths is not an uncom- mon dimension. Resistance to collapse is best obtained by means of the flanged seam, and in the writer's opinion it is desirable that the flanges should be turned upon a properly-shaped block by means of wooden mallets, as the flanging-machine is very severe upon plates, though, perhaps, cheaper • than hand flanging. Hydraulic pressure is also suitable as a flanging agency, and preferable to a roller flanging machine. Boilers are now almost invariably made with flat ends, which require to be about -j^th inch thicker than the plates of the shell. These flat ends are attached to the shell by a circumferential flange or angle iron, as shown in Fig. 95, and they are stayed by means of five gusset plates at each end above the furnace tubes, and by two at the front and one at the back end below the tubes. There should be at least a distance of 10 inches between the circle of rivets attaching the tubes to the end plates and the lowest of the rivets attaching the gusset stay angle irons. If longitudinal stay rods are inserted, they should not be drawn tight, but should be slack enough to easily vibrate sideways 4 inches, and should be attached to the end plates by an inside and outside nut and washer. The distance apart of the stay bolts, which are two in number, should not exceed about 14 inches. In fact they should be placed as near together as the centre gusset will allow. All manhole and mudhole mouthpieces, and the blocks for the attachment of the steam, safety valves, and other branches, should be of wrought iron or steel ; cast iron is quite inadmissible above 76 lbs. pressure. The strengths given as safe to adopt are, of course, on APPENDIX. 34)1 the assnmption that materials and workmanship are of the best. With a standard 7 feet diameter boiler, there would be two furnaces 2 feet 9 inches diameter. The fire-grates would be 6 feet long, thus giving 33 square feet of grate surface. Such a boiler would be easily worked at fifteen tons per week of coal. It would burn eighteen tons comfortably, and twenty-one tons is a frequent rate of consumption, but it is not advisable to exceed twenty-five tons per week ; though at times of cleaning one of a pair of boilers, the writer has known thirty tons to be the rate of con- sumption in the boiler at work, but it is not economical to burn at such a rate. Two ordinary standard 7 feet 6 in. Lancashire boilers may be considered fully equal to supplying steam for 500 indicated horse-power in engines burning 2-L lbs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, the coal consumed per week being under sixteen tons per boiler. With modern engines of good design the con- sumption of coal per indicated horse-power may be taken at about 2i- lbs.- per hour. If the boilers evaporate an average of 8 lbs. of water per pound of coal, this is equal to 20 lbs. of water per indicated horse-power per hour, and on this basis may be calculated the boiler power required. Thus, if we know that our mill of 70,000 spindles will re- quire 900 horse-power to drive it, we may say that it will require 900 x 20 = 18,000 lbs. of water per hour. Dividing this by 8 gives 2,250 lbs. of coal, which in a week of fifty-six hours will amount to fully fifty-six tons. Reckoning to work our boilers at fifteen tons each, gives four boilers, to which it is good economy to add a spare boiler, making five in all. In estimating the number of boilers required, the follow- ing formula may be used : — Where I. H. P. equals number of indicated horse-power required, and N equals number T TT p of boilers, N = 1 + \^' ', This allows for a spare boiler, and easy working. 342 APPENDIX. It is advisable to have boilers periodically inspected. To secure satisfactory inspection, which should be thoroughly effected every year, the boiler should be emptied and cleaned out, and all scale removed. The flues should be thoroughly svrept, and the fire-bars and bridges wholly removed. Care should be exercised in using disincrustant compositions, and, on the whole, there is nothing better than common soda or soda ash, and the blow-out tap should be used two or three times per day to remove deposit. Safety valves should be made to blow slightly by lifting them every day at least, and gauge-cocks should be tested frequently every day, and especially first thing in the morning. Low-water alarms should give warning when the depth of water over the crowns of the furnaces is not less than 4i inches, and 5i would be better, and it is advisable to test them occasionally by lowering the water to the blow-off level. Dinner-hour is convenient for this, as the boiler may be filled up, and steam got up again before starting time. It is specially important that all steam -pipes, feed, and steam connections, and blow-out pipes should not be bound in brickwork or so arranged as not to admit of free movement and expansion, as fractures from pipes being bound fast frequently occur, often disastrously to the attendants. The following figures represent the mode of setting the Lancashire boiler, so as to facilitate cleaning and inspection. The dimensions of flues here given should not, if possible, be made less. Fig. 93 is a cross-section of the boiler and flues, and Fig. 94 a sectional elevation of the back end of the boiler, the section passing clear of the end plate, as shown in Fig. 95, which is a longitudinal section of boiler and seating ; Fig. 96 shows the plan of the brickwork. Figs, 97, 98, and 99 show various blocks for covering flues, &c. At Fig. 100 is given a section of the seating of the single- APPENDIX. 343 flaed, or Cornish boiler, and details are ^ven of the fire- clny cover and seating blocks to a larger scale in isome- trical perspective. Fig. 101 shows a general arrangement, "5 ' ~^ Fig. 93. Cross-section of boiler and seating. ill plan, of boilers, economizer, &c., for a mill of 70,000 or 80,000 spindles. The method of settino: out the flues of both the double Secttoro trv CD Fijj;. 94. Back sectional elevation. and single flue boilers by the agency of a simple 30 and 60 deg. set square is too plain to require explanation. Stea/m engines. — In regard to the question of steam WM^/Mi^M/M//M/yyyM/;///j///M APPENDIX. 345 engines, it may be said that fashion largely prevails in this matter. At one time nothing would do but beam-engines, now horizontal engines are almost universally employed. SixLe FhL& CcverirLc/s Fig. 97. BoLch Cover Blocks for cLoyvrUjoJce 27 RojoU Fig. 98. In the experience of the writer, taking into consideration large numbers of engines, the balance of economy in fuel consumption is on the side of the " McNaughted," or » --2 -> '^ S. SeaXirt^ Blocks Fig. 99. Fig. 100. Section of Cornish boiler and seating. Fig. 101. Plan of boilers and economizer. APPENDIX. 3 4-7 componnd beam-engine, with the exception of compound horizontal engines, with at least the small cylinder properly steam-jacketed ; and it is reasonable to suppose that the most economical engine would be the compound beam, with a satisfactory jacketing, and it should be more generally known that to jacket efficiently, steam of a higher pressure than that used in the engine must of necessity be employed ; and, further, the working steam itself ought to be super- heated to a moderate extent. Cylinders must of necessity work more freely when vertical than when horizontal, and there is no reason why a properly constructed beam-engine should be either more expensive to construct, or more liable to break down than an horizonal engine ; nor is there any reason why equally high piston speeds should not be attained, though it is clear that cast iron should not be employed in many situations that have hitherto been filled by it. A good deal of misapprehension exists in regard to the engine question, and the writer does not expect to influence the fashion in the matter, but gives simply the result of a long series of observations. Economizers. — The fuel economizer, to absorb much of the heat of the products of combustion between the boiler and chimney, is almost universal. An economizer of the standard or Green type consists of a series of vertical pipes 9 feet long and 3J inches internal diameter, arranged in rows to the number of 6, 8, or 10 pipes per row, and these individual rows of pipes are placed side by side to any required number, as many as 320 pipes existing in some sets, a convenient number of pipes being from sixty-four to ninety-six per boiler. The temperature of the gases entering the economizer is commonly found between the limits 700*^ F. and 450°, being usually about 600°. In passing through the apparatus the gases impart heat to the feed-water in the pipes, and pass away to the chimney, reduced from 100* to 250° in temperature, commonly falling to about 400°. o48 APPEXDIX The averages of a large number of tests gives an inlet temperature of 555°, an outlet temperature of 37 7^*, equal to a fall of 178" ; but this average includes many- cases of insufficiency of pipes. The rise of temperature of the water passing through the pipes at the same time averaged 106°, the greatest noted temperature being 285°, a rise of 187° from feed-water supplied at 98°. In modern mills the economizer is usually placed at the back end of the boiler-house, transversely to the boilers. The main flue, which receives the ends of the boiler side flues, running between the back ends of the boilers and the economizer, and suitable provision being made to connect the main flue direct to the chimney, cutting the econo- mizer out of the circuit for purposes of repair or cleaning. Economizers require cleaning and inspecting equally with boilers, and should not be neglected. For a chimney draught, an economical temperature for the smoke is about 300°, and this may in time be generally obtained by a more rational arrangement of economizer than that generally made, which, though very good in practical use, is not a scientifically- arranged apparatus, and by many engineers is considered open to improvement. Oil consumjjtion. — In regard to the consumption of oil by engines, it has been found that one pint of oil will suffice for each indicated horse-power as many as 5,000 hours in favourable cases, the best results being obtained from beam-engines ; 2,000 to 3,000 hours being a fair average duration of a pint per horse-power, the expendi- ture of tallow per horse-power at the same time being at the rate of a pound in about a third to a fifth of the same time. Driving. — The method of driving by ropes appears to be likely to prove permanent, at least for some time. The capacity of a rope to drive is directly dependent upon its velocity : at 4,000 feet per minute, a two-inch cotton rope is considered equal to fifty horse-power. APPENLIX. 349 Mechanical stoTcers. — The question of stoking by ma- chinery is an open one. The writer knows of many suc- cessful stokers, and also of many the very reverse, and would not like to express any general opinion on the matter. So much depends on environment in this matter that nothing but an inspection of the whole surroundings of a boiler to which it is proposed to apply stokers will suffice to arrive at a proper conclusion. INDEX Adulteration of cotton in packing, 28 ; with sand, 90, 325 ; with water, 325. Africa, cotton cultivation in, 22. America. See United States, ."x)uth America, American, &c. American cotton, 29, 33, 58, 40, 328, 331, 333. See also United States, South America, Central | America, &c. inventions. See American machinery. Inventions, &c. ma'-hinery, 124, 226, 297. throstle machines, 294, 295. Anguilla cotton, 29. Animal fibres and those of cotton compared, 53, 54. Anti-balloon ring, Fumiss and Young's, 309. Arkwright, K., and his inventions, 209, 217 ; his claims as an in- ventor, 210 ; his patent of 1769, i6. ; King's assistance to him, ib. ; his improvements, 196; his apprentice, Wright, 222. Arkwright's doflfer comb machine, HI. machine, 4, 10, 149, 196, 211, 214, 225, 230, 291; com- pared with Hargreaves', 214; when the Arkwright water- frame became the throstle, 291. water-frame. See Ark- wright's machine. Ashworth's improvement in the throstle machine, 296. Asia, the cottons of, 31 ; the cotton industry there, 6, 22. Asia Minor, cotton cultivation there, 22. Atmospheric effects upon cotton in the mill, 97. Australia, the cotton industry in, 7. See also Natal, &c. Author, the, his aim in the present work, 13, 76. Automatic machines, the earliest, 226. Axon's improvement in the thros- tle machine, 294. " Backing-off," described by Mr. John Piatt, 252 ; Mr. Eli Spen- cer on, 258. Baker's cylinders, 221. Baling cotton, 28, 74 ; false baling, 28. See also Packing, and Adul- teration. " Ballooning," 309. Barbadoes cotton, 16. Belt driving, 68, 72. Bernhardt, Mr., his doffing motion, 295. Biancaville cotton, 33. Blackburn, the cotton industry in, 9. Blakey, James, his report of the merits of the ring machine, 299. Bobbin, the, 169, 207. Bobbin-and-fly machines, 161,216; their speed, 296. Boiler-making trade, the, 339. 352 INDEX. Boilers, engine, 339 ; cleaning, &c. , 342 ; corrosion of boilers, and the remedies, 71, 342 ; to estimate the number of boilers required, 341 ; evaporative power of boilers, ih. ; flanging, 340 5 low-water alarms, 342 ; pipes of boilers, ib. ; power of boilei'S,341 ; pressure on boilers, 339 ; management of safet}' valves, 322, 323, 342; setting boilers, 342 ; size of boilers, 339. See also Furnaces, Safety valves, &c. of engines and the boiler- house, 69, 70. steam, and engines, W. H. Booth on, 339. Bokhara cotton, 32. Bolton, the cotton industry in, 9 ; the medium-fine cotton trade of, 58. mule yarn, 331. Booth, W. H., on steam boilers and engines, 339. Booth -Sawyer spindle, the, 300 Boulton and Watt's steam engine applied to cotton spinning, 10. Bourbon cotton, 16. Bow, the, cleansing by, in India, 2. Bowman, Dr., his inquiries into the development of cotton fibres, 40, et seq. j his " Structure of Cotton Fibre," and tables from it, 330-4. Brahmins, cotton used for their clothing, 18. Bramwell's wool feeding machine might be applied to cotton, 103-5. Brazil, cotton cultivation, 22, and industry there, 2. Brewster, Dr. , his automatic ma- chine, 226. Broach cotton, 31. Brooks, S., his doffing motion, 296. his doubling frame, 300. his warp ring machine, 302. Brooks, S., his weft spinning ma- chine, 314. Br-ioks and Blakey's re-introduc- tiun of the ring machine to England, 299. Brown and Powell's improved throstle machine, 295. Brunswick flax spinning wheel, the, 197. Buchanan's automatic machine, 226. Butterworth, Mr. J., his micro- scopic examinations of cotton fibre, 49-52. Buying cotton, guide to, 38. Calicos, the, of Calicut, their im- portation to England before the invention of spinning machinery, 201. Card clothing, 325 ; temperature in relation to, ih. ; india-rubber card clothing and its manage- ment, 326 ; oil paint should not be used on the cylinders, ih. covering iron cylinders, 327 unsuitable hand-strippers, ih. Walton and Sons' circular on mounting cards, ih. Card clothiers, 125. teeth, points of, 131. Carding, 75, 325 ; light carding, 130. machines, 110, et seq. ; a new American machine,124; breaker and finisher cards, 130 ; double carding machines, 129 ; the Derby doubler, 129 ; " the draught" in carding, 119; re- volving flat card machines, 119, 122 ; Howard's electrical stop- motion, 158 ; the roller machine, 112 ; Wellman's cards, and the improvements upon them, 119, et seq. and combing, 1 08-45. Cards, grinding the, 130 ; me- chanical and hand grinding, 131. IXDEX. 353 Cards, hand, used with the old spin- ning wheels, 197. leather and india-rubber, 326. Carolina, U.S., early cultivation of cotton there, 10. See also United States, &c. Cartwright, the Rev. Dr., his power loom, 1785, 10, 226; his automatic machine, 226. Castellamare cotton, 33. Cheshire, the cotton industry in, 11. China, the cottons of, 31 ; cotton cultivation, 22, and industry there, 2, 6. Clayton's tube lap-roller, 105. Click gear, 270. Coal consumption in boiler fur- naces. 341. Coats, J. P., and Co., of Paisley, 321. Combing, 75, 135, et seq. See also Carding. machines, 135, et seq. ; Heil- mann's, and its improvements, 135. Competition in the cotton trade, 57. Continent, the, cotton industry on, 6, 7. Copping apparatus, 226, 239. Corrosion of boilers, 71, 342. Cotton, the plant, and its botani- cal classification, 1, 14, 16, 20. its fibre, &c., 40, et seq. See also Pibre. commercial designations and varieties of, 22, 35, etseq., 142, 159 ; standards of cotton at Liverpool, 38-40. See also Yarn. its cultivation and manufac- ture in different parts of the world, 1, 23, et seq. ; when pre- maturely gathered, and when over-ripe, 78 ; soils fit for grow- ing, 22. districts in England, the, 9, 13,58. Cotton, examination and testing of, 76, et seq., 325. See also Test- ing, Adulteration, &c. the manufacture of, its scien- tific principles, 55, 56. See also under the various processes, &c. mill, the. See Mill, cotton. seed. See Seed. trade, present magnitude of the industry throughout the wt)rld, 7, 8 ; in England, 1 ; gluts and crises in the trade, 11 ; the Lancashire cotton famine, ib. ; statistics of facto- ries, &c., in the United King- dom, ib. ; the Doubling branch of the trade, 314 ; trades bene- fited by the cotton industry, 12; its future, ib. ; advice on enter- ing the business, 57 ; buying cotton, guide to, 38 ; the pro- cesses of spinning, 58 ; branches of the trade, where located, ib. See also under Spinning, Ma- chinery, &c. Counts of yarn, 329. See also Yarn, Twist, &c. Crighton's opening machine, 85, 92. scutching machine, 94. Crises and gluts in the cotton trade, 11. Ci-ochet yarns, 336. Crompton, Samuel, 209. his mule, 10, 203, 216, et seq., 230; his machine in 1787, 10; improvements upon it, 217, et seq. ; his roller system, 218. See also Mule machine. Crum, Mr. Walter, his observa- tions of cotton fibre, 51. Cultivation of cotton, the process 23, et seq. Curtis and Sons' mule, 24^. Cyprus cotton, 32. Damp cotton, 77, 97. Dancer, ^Ir., his microscopic ex- aminations of cotton fibre, 50. A A 354 INDEX. Dunforth throstle machine, the, 294, 297. De Jongh's automatic machine, ■ 226. Derbyshii'e, the cotton industry in, 11. Dharwar cotton, 31. Dhollera cotton. 31. "Differential motion" in the roving process, 168, 264. Distaff, the, 2, 192, 200 ; early use in India, 2. Dobson and Barlow's improve- ments on Heilmann's comber, 140; Imb's ditto, 142. Doffer comb. See Combing and Carding. Doffing, 165, 187, 295, 307; un- provements in, 308. motions of Messrs. Bern- hardt and Brooks, 295-6. Doubling, 76, 147, 314 ; dry doubling, 318 ; the Doubling branch of the cotton trade, its productions and importance, 314. machines, 315-18; Brooks' ring, 318; the throstle, 315; the twiner, 318. " Draught, the," in carding, 119. Drawing, 75, 146, 215. ■ machines, 151, 216; James Smith's, 158 ; Howard and Bul- lough's electrical stop motion, ib. rollers, 243. "Drawing-out, Middle," appara- tus, 243. Drinkwater, Mr., and the first employment of steam power, 10. Driving:, by I'ope, by belt, &c., 68, 72, 348. Eaton, "W., his copping motion, 1818, 226. Eaton's automatic machine, 226. Egyptian cotton, 16, 29, 30, 33, 38, 40, 328, 331, 333 ; the long- stapled sorts, 16; cotton culti- vatinn, 22, and manufacture in Egypt, 2. Ellison and Co.'s estimates of pro- duction and consumption in the cotttm trades, 8. Embroidery cottons, 336. Engines for cotton mills, 67 ; bean and horizontal engines, 345 ; the McNaughted beam engine, ib. ; capabilities of engines, 323 ; chimney draught for, 348 ; economizers of fuel, 347-8 ; feed- water temperature, 348 ; horse- power of engines, nominal, indi- cated, and commercial, 324 ; to find the power of engines, ib. ; mechanical stokers, 349 ; oil consumption of engines, 348 ; rope and belt driving, 68, 72, 348. See also Furnaces, Boilers, &c. England, the cotton industry in, statistics of, &c., 7, 11, 13. the cotton districts of, their growth, 9. Europe, continental, its cotton in- dustry, 6, 7. Factories, people employed in, statistics, &c., 12. Factory s3-stem, beginning of it, about 1770, 9. Faller wire, the, and the counter faller, 225, 22V. motion, 280, 28 Ijf^Jsfg.; the same described by Mr. John Piatt, 244, et seq. Feeding, 97 ; cheap labour at, de- precated, 96. machine, the lever, or piano arrangement, 98. Fibre, cotton, structure of, and its bearing upon quality, 46, et seq.-, tables from Di*. Bowman's " Structure of Cotton Fibre," 330-4 ; microscopic observations by Messrs. O'Neil, Dancer, and Butterworth, 49-52 ; compari- son of the fibres of cotton, wool, INDEX. 355 and hair, 53, 54 ; imperfectly developed fibres in the mill, 108. Fire, precautions against, and in- surance of mill property, 66. Firmin's " Employment of the Pcor," referred to, 215. Flax-dresser's heckle, the, 110. Flax spinning wheel, the Bruns- wick, of 1533, 197 ; the Saxony, ib. " Fly," cotton, 114. Flyer, the, 169, 198, 207, 215. France, the cotton industry in, 6 ; machinery introduced there, 1787, 10. French weights and measures of yarns. See \yeights, &c. Fuel, economizers of, 347. Furnacesof engines, 71, 340; coal consumption of, 341. i'urniss and Young's anti-balloon ring, 309. Gearing, 68, 72. Georgra, U.S., early cultivation of cotton there, 10. See also United States, &c. Germany, the cotton industry in, 6. Ginning, cotton, 24, 74, 109. Glasgow, the, or Montgomery throstle machine, 295. Gluts, cotton, 11. Gore, Mr. H.,his improved throstle machine, 294. Gossypium (cotton), the four pri- mary varieties, 14, 15. Greece, growth of cotton in, 32. Green-seeded cotton, 16. Grinding the cards. See Cards, &c. " Grist," the, 147. Growing, cotton, estimates of cost, 26. SVe also under Cotton, cul- tivation of. Hair, fibres of, compared Avith cotton fibres, 53, 54. Haley's horizontal cylinder, 217. Hand-card of the wool-coniber, 110. Hand-cards. See Cards. Hand labour versus macliine labour, 77, 96, 97. See also Hand- spinning. Hand-spinning, 201. and machine spinning of fine yarns, 281, et siq. Hargreaves, James, of Blackburn, and his spinning-jenny, 4, 10, 110, 197, 198, 200, 202, 206, 209, 210, 216, 225, 230; rela- tive qualities of his, Arkwrighi"s, and Crompton's machines, 214, 272 ; his carding machine, made for Mr. Robert Teel, 110, HI ; improvements of his jenny, 217, 219. James, of Tottington, his in- ventions, 222. Headstock, the mule, 240. Heating, economical, 71. Heckle, the, of the fiax-dresser, 110. Heilmann's combing machine, 135. Hindoos, lack of inventiveness among them, 3. Hingunghat cotton, 31. Hints, useful, in cotton spinning, 322. Holdsworth's solution of the " dif- ferential motion" problem, 168, 264. Horse-power of engines. See Engines. Horsfall mechanical grinder, the, 132. Howard and Bullough's electrical stop-motion, 158; their Rabbeth spindle, 302. India, calicos, &c., of, 201. the cottons of, 16, 18, 31, 33, 38, 40 ; cultivation of cotton there, 22 ; the birthplace of the cotton manufacture, 2 ; the trade there since, 2, 7, 209. 35G INDEX. Insurance of mills, and precautions against fire^ 66. Intermediate, &c., frames, the twist of, Mr. Evan Leigh on, 328. and roving machines, 75, 158, 161, 162, 188,216. Inventiveness of the Hindoo races, imperfect development of, 3. Inventors of spinning machinery, relative merits of the fourgi'eat- est, Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and Roberts, 214, 230, 272. of spinning machinery, suc- cession of, and their works, 217, et seq. See also Spinning, &c. Ireland, the cotton industry in, 11. Italy, growth of cotton in, 32. Jacking, or stretching, 272. Japan, the cotton of, 32 ; the cot- ton industry there, 6. Java cotton, 32. Jencks, the supposed inventor of the ring frame, 298. Jenny, the spinning. See Har- greaves' machine, &c. Jersey, the, or common spinning wheel of Europe, 196, 200. Kay, of Bury, and his inventions, 4, 202 J his picking stick, &c., 202. Kelly's improvements upon Cromp- ton's machine, 222. Kennedy's improvements upon Crompton's machine, 223. King, the watchmaker, his assis- tance to Arkwright, 210. Knitting yarns, 336. Labour saved by cotton machinery, 8. skilled, 59. slave. See Slavery. Labour, the transition fron:i female to male labour in cotton spin- ning, 224, 297 ; male and fe- male spinners in America, 297. Lancashire, the cotton industry in, 9, 11. south east and east, the me- dium-iine cotton trade there, 58. Lap, the, 93. finisher machines, 101, 105. machines, 87, 105. Lap-roller, tubular, Clayton's, 105. Leigh, Mr. Evan, his improvement in the roving machine, 163 ; his " secret worth knowing" on the twist of slubbing, roving, and intermediate frames, 328. Leipsic wheel, the, 206. See also Saxony wheel. Liverpool Cotton Brokers' Asso- ciation, its cotton standards, Machinery, cotton, 73, 77, 105, 2 10 ; introduced into France and United States, 1787, 10; Boul- ton and Watt's first steam spinner, 1789, 10; the begin- ning of the modern machinery, 4 ; American improvements in, 124. See also under the names of the various machines and pro- cesses. discoveries in, due to the cotton industries, 1. labour saved by, 8. Machines, should not be over- worked, 130 ; oiling and clean- ing them, 107. Manchester, the cotton industry in, 9 ; the fine cotton trade of, 58. Maranham cotton, 30. Markets, cotton, 59. McNaughted beam-engine, the, 345. Measures and weights of cotton. See Weights, &c. INDEX. 367 Mechanical World, the, 339. Memphis (middling) cotton, 334. Middle drawing-out apparatus, 243. Mill, the cotton, fitting localit}', site, building, and appoint- ments for, 57-72 ; Stott and Sons' plan of a mill, 62 ; useful hints for various parts of, 322, et seg. Miscellaneous hints, 322, et seg. Mixing cotton, 74, 78, et seq. Mixing-book, the, 77. Montgomery, the, or Glasgow throstle machine, 295. Mounting cards. See Card cloth- ing, &c. Mule headstock, the, 240. Mule machine, the. 210. See also Crompton's machine. the modern, and its latest improvements, 231-90. and throstle machines com- pared, 297. and throstle spinning, the competition between, 310. " Mule Spinning Process, The," quoted, 189. Mulhausen, a continental centre of the cotton trade, 135. Nankin cotton, 32. Natal, cotton cultivation in, 22. Need and Strutt, Arkwright's partners, 211. New South Wales, cotton cultiva- tion in, 22. New Zealand, the cotton industry in, 7. Nose peg, the, and Piatt's auto- matic nosing motion, 264. "Nuns' cotton," 20. Oil consumption of engines, 348. from cotton seeds, 27. Oldham, the cotton industry in, 10; the coarse cotton trade of, 58 ; the waste cotton trade of, ib. O'Neil, Mr. Charles, his micro- scopic examinations of cotton fibre, 49-51. Oomrawuttee cotton, 31. Opening, 74. See also Willow- ing. machines, 85, 87, 90, 92 ; the Crighton, 85, 92 ; the Por- cupine, 87. Orleans cotton, 30. Organ hand-mule, the, 281, 290. Packing, or baling cotton, 28, 74. Paint, oil, for card cylinders, con- demned, 326. Paul's early carding machine, 1 10 j his plan for roving. 149. Paul and Wyatt's roller improve- ments, 214. Peel, Mr. Robert, employs Har- greaves to make a carding ma- chine, 1762, 110, 111. Pernambuco cotton, 40. " Pernams " cotton, 30. Persia, cotton cultivation in, 32. Peruvian cotton, 30. Picking cotton, 23. Picking-stick, &c., Kay's, 4, 202. Planting cotton, 23. Piatt, Mr. John, his paper on " Cotton Spinning " quoted, 244, 252. Platts, Messrs., their automatic nosing motion, 264. machines for fine yarn, 274, et seq. Pod, cotton, the, stages of growth, &c., 40, et seq. Porcupine opener, the, 87. Port Natal cotton, 40. See also Natal. Power transmitted by ropes, belts, or gearing, 67, 68, 72, 348. Pressure of boilers. See Boiler, Valves, &c. Processes of cotton spinning, the, 73, et seq. See also the various processes by name. "Protection,"' the fallacy of, 13: A A 2 358 INDEX. effects of, in the United States cotton trade, 312. Pugliar cotton, 33. Queensland, cotton cultivation there, 22. Rabbeth spindle, the, 305 ; ]\Iessrs. Howard's, 302. Ring machine, the. and ring spin- ning, 210, 211, 291-321. and mule spinning, the com- petition between, 310. doubling machine. Brook's, 318 ;ring doubling on the Scotch system, 321. Rioting consequent upon the in- vention of the spinning jenny, 1767,210. Roberts, Richard, his machine, and its improvements, 1825- 1830, 227, et seq., 253, 262. Rochdale, the coarse cotton trade of, 58. Roller drawing, 215. See also Drawing. improvements upon Har- greaves' machine, 214. Ropes preferable to belts for trans- mitting power, 68, 72, 348. Rossendale Valley districts, the coarse cotton trade of, 58. Roving, 76, 162, tt seq. -, "diffe- rential motion " in the process, and Hoklsworth's solution of its problem, 168, et seq. machines, 158, 161, 162, 2I65 Evan Leigh's improvement, 1 63 ; the self-acting stopping arrange- ment, 185. Rovings and slubbings, the twist of, Mr. Evan Leigh on, 328. Royle, Dr., his classification of the cotton plant, 14. Russian promotion of cotton culti- vation in Turkestan, 32. Safety valvee of boilers. See Valves. Sand, adulteration of cotton with, 90, 325. *•' Santos " cottons, 30. Saw-gin, the, 25. Saxony spinning-wheel, the, 3, 197, 206,209, 210, 215. Scale in boilers, and the remedy for it, 71. Scotch ring doubling system, the, 321. Scotland, the cotton industry in, 11. Scribbler machine, the, in woollen manufacture, 103. Scutching, 75, 93. machines, 87, 94. Sea Island cotton, 16, 22, 29, 33, 40, 328, 331. Secession war. See L'nited. States, and War. Seed, cotton, use of, for extraction of oil, and for cattle feeding, 26 ; in the pod, &c., 40, et seq. Sewing cotton, combing for, 135. Shafting, to find the speed in, 324. Shaw and Cottam's improvement in the throstle machine, 295. Shuttle, the, Kay's improvements in, 4. Slater, Samuel, Arkwright's ap- prentice, 10. Slavery in the United States, effects of its aboUtion on the cot- ton trade, 11, 25, 27, 28. Sliver, the, irregularities of, 147, et seq. cans, the, 188. Slubbing, 75, 161. See also Inter- mediate or second slubbing. billy, the, 219. machines, 158, 161, 162, 188. 216. Slubbings and rovings, twist of, Mr. Evan Leigh on, 328. Smalley, John, ArkwTight's capi- tahst, 211. Smith, of Deanston, his automatic machine, 226. INDEX, 319 Smyrna cotton, 16, 32. Soils for cotton growing, 22, 33. South American cotton, 29, 38. Se^ also Brazil, &c. Spain an unutilized field for cotton growing, 32. Speed of the bobbin-and-fly ma- chines, 296. in shafting, 324 ; speed of a belt or rope driven pulley, ib. of the throstle machines, 293. Spencer, Mi\ Eli, his paper on re- cent improvements in cotton machinery, 257, 276. Spindle, the, 169; early spindles, 2, 200. the Booth-Sawyer, 300. Spinning, cotton, 76 ; definition, 73, 192 ; possible origin of, 190; its history, 190, et scq. ; de- scribed by ancient writers, 193 ; the connection between the old and the new systems of spinning, 199 ; the transit from the early to modern system, 216 ; labour transferred from females to males, 224, 297 ; application of steam power, 223 ; the modern system of spinning, 200, et seq. ; spinning processes, 73, et seq. See also under Cotton, Ma- chinery, and under the names of the various machines and pro- cesses, also under Hand- spin- ning, &c. and the weaving trades, 202. Spinning-jenny. See Spinning- wheel, Hargreavesj &c. Spinning-wheel, the, early one- thread wheels of India, kc, 2, 194, 195; the hand wheel of 1530, 3; the Saxony wheel, ib., 215 ; the " two-handed" wheel, 4, 198 ; the Jersey wheel, 196 ; Hargreaves' spinning-jenny, 1767, 4. See also under Ma- chinery, Hargreaves, Arkwright, &c. &c. Spinsters with the distaff, 194. Spon's "Encyclopaedia of the Indus- trial Arts," 74, 232. Standards of cotton, 38-40. Staple, length of, in several varie- ties of cotton, 39, 40. Statistics of the cotton industry throughout the world, 7, 8. Steam power, 69, 292. applicationof, to spinning ma- chinery, 223 ; the first steam spinner at Drinkwater's factory, 1789, 10. engines. See Engines. Stokers, mechanical, 349. Stones, H. , his improvement of Crompton's rollers, 218. Stott and Sons' plan of a cotton mill, 62. et seq. Strength of yams and cotton fibres. See Yam, Cotton, and Fibre. Stretching, or jacking, 272. Sural cotton, 16, 328. Switzerland, the cotton industry in, 6. Syria, cotton cultivation in, 32. Taylor and Eamsden's improved throstle doubling spindle, 316. Temperature, effects of, on cotton in the mill, 97, 160; tempera- ture in relation to card clothing, 325. Terranova cotton, 33. Test or loss-book, the, 76. Testing, cotton, 76, et seq., 325. See also Adulteration. Textile Mamcfacturer, the, 68, 309. ThrelfaU, Messrs., their fine mules, 290. Throstle spinning, 291-6. doubling machines, 161,216, 315 ; improvements in. 316. machines, 116, 210, 218, 291-6. and mule machines compared, 297. Todmorden, the coarse cotton trade of. 58. 360 INDEX. Traveller clearer, the, 310. Traverse rail invented by Coniah Wood, 1772, 216. Turkestan cotton, 32. Turkey, cotton grown in, 32. Twiner doubling machines, 318. yarn, 331. Twist for doubling of yarns, 335 ; how to find the proper amount of twist, 327 ; Mr. Evan Leigh en the twist of slubbings and rovings, 328. United States of America, the cottons of, 16, 27, et seq. ; those produced before, and those after, the abolition of slavery, 27, 28 ; cotton cultivation there, 22 ; the Secession war, and the resulting cotton famine in Lancashire, 1 1 ; statistics of production, 7, 8,25 ; false baling and adulteration there, 28 ; cotton manufacture there, 2, 5-7, 312; the first cotton mill there, 1787, 10; machinery there, and improve- ments in it, 5-7, 10, 312 ; effects of " protection " there, 312. See also America, Carolina, Ma- chinery, &c. " Uplands " cotton, 22. Valves, safety, of boilers, manage- ment of, 323, 342 ; to find the area of the valve, ih. ; to find the pressure, 323 ; to find the weight on the square inch, ib. ; to find a weight to resist pres- sure, ib. Walton and Sons, Messrs. James, their circular on card mounting, 327. War, civil, in the United States, its effects on the cotton trade, 11, 25. Warden, A. J., on the " two- handed" spinning wheel, 198. Water, adulteration of cotton with, 325. Water-frame, the, 4. See also Arkwright's machine, &c. Water power for machinery, 69 ; it displaced by steam, 292. Watt. See Boulton and Watt. Weaving, early, in India, 3. the, and the spinning trade*}, 202, 225. Weft spinning, 313 ; Brooks' ma- chine, 314. Weights and measures of cottons, yarns, &c., English and French, 329, 330 ; rules for converting the one measure to the other, ib. Wellman's carding machines, and improvements, 119, et seq. West Indies, the cotton of, 29 ; cotton cultivation there, 22 ; the cotton industry there, 2. Wharve, the, 196, 207. Whorl, the, and the distaff, 192. Willowing, 72, 82, etseq., 105. See also Opening. machine, the Oldham, 83. Winding arrangement, details of the, 238. difficulty, the, 226, 227 ; Eaton's invention, ib. quadrant, the, 253, 262. Wood, Coniah, his invention of the traverse rail, 216. Wool-comber, the, and its hand- card, 110. Wool fibres compared with those of cotton, 53, 54. 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