4j;.i 2 6l96tf OCT 2 5 RECD OCT 1 5 ir- MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW VORK ■ BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MFLBOrRKE THE MACMH.LAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION r.v M. V. O'SHEA PROFESSOR OK EDUCATION THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1921 All rights reserved Copyright, 1921, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and elcctrotyped. Published March, 1921. NoriDooti ^T(B0 J. 8. Cuahing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Masa., U.S.A. ^^ 1 os\ PREFACE In writing this volume the author has had constantly in mind the interests and needs of teachers in service and also persons who are preparing to teach. Consequently those aspects only of mental development and of education which directly concern those who train the young have received attention ; all strictly technical and speculative discussion has been avoided. No attempt has been made to treat comprehensively the psychology of childhood and youth or educational values and methods. Two questions have guided the discussion throughout ; — first, How does the individual normally respond at different periods in his development to the typical situations, physical, intellectual, aesthetic and social, in which he is placed ; and second, How can he best appropriate the materials and benefits of education so that he can utilize them to greatest advantage in daily life? The point of view is that afforded by present-day biological psychology. For those who may not at first glance see just what this point of view is, it may be said that one who regards human nature from the standpoint of biological psychology seeks to explain the behavior of a child or a youth on the basis of natural laws governing the development of his body, his intellect and his character. It is seen that the individual is at birth equipped with tendencies which represent some of the activities which have proved of service in the life of his ancestors, and these tendencies are manifested in varying degrees and forms in the course of development frojn birth to maturity. But the child is born into an environment which is fundamentally different in many respects from that in which the impulses which he brings with him were vi PREFACE established, and so he encounters difficulties in adjusting him- self to the world in which he must live. It is the object of edu- cation in the school and in the home to assist the individual to make necessary modifications of and adjustments to his environ- ments as easily and cfTectively and with as little strain and stress as p)ossible. To secure information bearing on these matters, the writer has made observations and investigations on his own part and has studied the investigations made and views presented by others ; and he has endeavored to organize and interpret all available data, and present conclusions in straightforward, in- telligible language. Stress is laid in this volume on dynamic methods in teaching, and an attempt is made to observe the principles advocated by assigning an important place to exercises requiring the student to analyze and investigate problems, to interpret data bearing on various aspects of development and education, and to apply conclusions to original situations. It is the author's experience that most readers and students need the stimulus of concrete problems in order actually to master what they read or study, and especially to gain ability and facility in making practical use of the principles they acquire. So in Part III of this volume many photographs, diagrams, tables, graphs, quotations and queries are employed, all relating in an orderly way to subjects which are discussed in the text, and the reader is encouraged to utiHze all his resources in knowledge and critical method to throw light into dark places and to bring apparently divergent phenomena under a few basic principles of development and of education. A sufficient variety of exercises has been provided so that a class, a study circle, or an individual reader can select according to special interests, facilities for investigation, or degree of acquaint- anceship with psychology and related sciences. • In 1005 the writer published :i volume entitled "Dynamic Factors in Education," which was more or less of a pioneer in the PREFACE vii field which it covered. This book met with a generous welcome from teachers, and it has apparently played a small part at least in promoting dynamic methods of teaching in the schools of our country ; but the plates have become worn, and it has been de- cided not to reprint it. Consequently, it has seemed advisable to include in this volume a few of the more useful chapters, thoroughly revised, of the earlier book. It is possible that a reader of this volume may recognize some paragraphs which he saw in the earlier book, but the little that has been preserved from "Dynamic Factors in Education" has been brought into accord with the large amount of research that has been con- ducted in this field since the earlier book was written. M. V. O'Shea The University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin CONTENTS PART I DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER PAGE I. Motive Forces in Development: Physical Well-being 3 A simple illustration of the nature and role of driving forces. Physical welfare. Predominance of the food-securing impulse. Self-protective impulses. Conflict of motive forces. Resistance to remedial treatment. The impulse to seek protection from wind and weather. Interest in clothing for decoration rather than for protection. Fear as a protective agent. Fear as a motive force in development. II. Motive Forces in Development: Soclal, Intellectual AND Esthetic Well-being 18 The passion for experiences with persons. The passion to communicate. The strongest force of all, — the wish to secure the good-will of one's fellows. Rivalry as a motive force. Resentment and aggression. Submission to leadership as a motive force. The urge to gain knowledge for its own sake. The constructive impulse as a motive force. The impulse to solve intellectual problems. The choice of the beautiful and avoidance of the ugly. Activ- ities reminiscent of ancestral life. Environment vying with hereditary forces. Two forces acting on the child in his development. III. Primitive Forms of Adaptive Activities: Trial and Success; Imitation ^^ The helplessness of the infant . The first step in acquiring adaptive activities. A concrete example of acquiring a ix CONTENTS AFTER PACE voluntary act. Learning involves excessive activity. The integration of simple acts into more complex adjust- ments. Nothing is learned dc mn'o. Imitation as a form of adaptive activity. The phenomena of mimicry. When does imitation begin? Apperception in imitation. The principle illustrated in adult imitation. The course of development with respect to imitativeness. I\'. Higher Forms of Adaptive Activity: Generalization; Symbolization ; Imagination ; Reason ... 54 The adaptive activities of animals. "King Pharaoh's" abilities. Types of intelligence. Scnsori-motor re- sponse. A horse's responses depend upon visual, auditory or olfactory cues. The quahty of animal intelligence. Popular misconceptions regarding the abilities of animals. Illustrations of a dog's intelligence. One trait of dis- tinctly human intelligence, — symbolization. Impor- tance of symbolization in adaptive activity. Develop- ment of symbolizing activities in the child. The ability of the individual to develop free ideas. The ability to foresee consequences and adapt means to ends. Free con- cepts must be controlled by the ends to be attained. The most important distinction between the primitive and the higher types of intelligence. Analysis and synthesis. \ . EXPRESSIONAL ACTIVITIES : VoCAL, FeATURAL, PoSTURAL, Gestural 77 Indefiniteness of the first efTorts at expression. Ready- made means of expression. Darwin's view of the origin of expression. The expression of complex emotions. Or- ganic accompaniments of emotion reenforce motor re- actions. The James-Lange Theory. With the child ex- pression is intense but of short duration. With the adult , expression is subdued, but it is more enduring than in the earlier years. Why does expression become subdued with development ? Women are more expressive than men. Racial differences in expression. The expression of thought. Reflection involves strain and effort. Purpose- CONTENTS xi PAGE ful expressional activities. Gesture. Figurative gesture. The use of the gesture in conveying ideas of quality and of action. The use of gesture to emphasize feeling. Re- lation of gesture to language. Individual differences in the use of gesture. VI. Expressional Activities : Graphic, Pictorial. . ic6 The development of a sign language. The development of Hnguistic symbols. Scribbling activities. Studies of children's drawings. Difficulty of representation no barrier to expression. Older children are inhibited. The child's diagrams embody the most essential character- istics of objects. Always the same diagram for any given object. Special characteristics of objects not in- cluded in diagrams. Are logical relations revealed in chil- dren's drawings? Difficulty in representing special re- lations. Language acquired more easUy and naturally than drawing. The psychology of drawing. VTI. The Development of Coordination 128 Coordination in infancy. The first stages in acquiring manual dexterity. The wave of development is toward the extremities. The development of pedal control. The development of coordination in speech. The principle illustrated in the child's use of sentences. The order of losing coordinations in degeneration. VIII. The Development of Inhibition ; the Neurological and Psychological View 140 Children's lack of inhibition. The effect of motor re- straint on mental activity. Restraint comes with development. The neurological view of inhibition. Suggestions gained from the phenomena of degeneration. IX. The Development of Inhibition ; Restraining Forces . 1 54 The perfectly restrained individual. Experiences which develop restniir.l. Stages in acquiring restraint. Physical coercion not the only force that leads to re- xii. CONTENTS CHAPTER PACK straint. Restraining influences operate differently at various stages in development. Imitation of self- restraint in others. The restraining influence of heroes in stories. The fusion of restraining forces. The weak- ening of an impulse. The role of formal education in developing restraint. The influence of ideals estab- lished in history, literature, et al. The restraining influence of habits established by study. Individual differences in the matter of self-restraint. X. Activities Peculiar to Adolescence i6g Transformations occur abruptly during puberty. Boys form gangs. The boy is interested in tribal activities. The boy's tribal interests will flourish only in the gang. The larger the gang the more tribal its interests. The gang promotes pugnacity. Muscular contests. Steahng. The instinct of acquisition. Destruction of property. Profanity and the use of tobacco go hand in hand with stealing, etc. Truancy. Swimming. Competition in games. Girls form "sets" which arc only loosely organ- ized. Activities growng out of sex-interest. Eagerness to find a job. PART II EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETATIONS XI. Dynamic Education: Content Studies . . . .187 The meaning of dynamic education. How the child is enabled to interpret the world about him. The dynamic principle illustrated in the Montcssori schools. The dynamic principle applied in arithmetic. The dynamic principle applies to all studies. Dynamic methods in secondary education. Making rhetoric dynamic. The teaching of science in the high school. Dynamic teaching of citizenship. Developing patriotism. The first step in developing love of country. We are all members of one lx)dy. The study of community life. CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER HAGi; XII. Dynamic Education : Thk Role oi' Suggestion . . 205 Action follows the direction of attention. I'he con- structive treatment of aches and ills. One can intensify children's misfortunes by suggestion. The use of sugges- tion in the sick room. One's defects may be increased by suggestion. The morals of a community may be elevated or degraded by suggestion. Sugge-stion in the theater. XIII. Overstrain in Education: Wasteful Practices . .218 Present-day conditions that cause overstrain. The chief cause of overstrain. The need for periods of quiet. Wasting nervous energy in the home. The teased child. Noise as a nervous irritant. Overstrain in the schools. Waste from excessively line work. Unnecessary tension in writing. Concerning pens. The typewriter is less wasteful than the pen. Postures that lead to waste of energy. The eye in relation to nervous waste. Mal- adjustment of ocular muscles. Maladjustment of the lens. Dr. Gould on the effects of eye-strain. Importance of the teeth in relation to saving waste of vitaHty. XIV. Overstrain in Education: Conditions Affecting Endurance 263 Handicaps to endurance. Why people differ in power of endurance. Training for mental endurance. Training can be overdone. "OfT days." The law of economy in developing and maintaining organs. Organs that are not used tend to degenerate. Intelligence is in the ascend- ancy. The price of "refined" training. Hardening the body. New social conditions make our problem a very complicated one. Overeating and under-cleaning. Health and cleanliness. Blue Monday. Energy in re- lation to indoor air. What are the requirements for good ventilation? The toxic effect of "dead" air. The role played by clothing in maintaining vigor. Energ>' in re- lation to indoor temperature. Arranging a heating system so as to overcome inequality in temperature between head and floor levels. xlv CONTENTS PART ITT EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, INVESTIGATION AND A Pl^IJ CATION CHAPTER PACE I. Motive Forces in Development : Physical Well-being 2qi II. Motive Forces in Development : Social, Intellec- tual ANT> Esthetic Well-being 295 III. Primitive Modes of Adaptivk Activity: Trial and Success; Imitation ,^oi I\'. Higher Forms or Adaptive Activity: Conception; Symbolization ; Imagination; Reason . . . -310 \'. EXPRESSIONAL ACTFV'ITIES : VoCAL, FeATURAL, POSTURAL, Gestural 319 vi. expressional acti\'ities : graphic, pictorlal . 325 VII. The Development of Coordination . . . . 329 VIII. The Development of Inhibition ; the Neurological and Psychological View 332 IX. The Development of Inhibition; Restraining Forces . 338 X. Activities Peculiar to Adolescence 344 XI. Dynamic Education: General Principles . . 356 XII. Dynamic Education: The Role of Suggestion . 368 XIII. Overstrain in Education: Wasteful Practices . 377 XIV. Overstrain in Education: Conditions Affecting En- durance 390 Authors Referred to or Quoted in the Text .... 395 Index 397 FIGURES IN THE TEXT 1. Children's Passion for Swimming and Playing Games in the Water 2. Children's Passion for Constructive Activities 3. The Nomadic Impulse during the Teens 4. Children's Interest in Dramatic Activities . 5. Children's Passion for Impersonation . 6. The Animal Brain as Compared with That of Man 7. Phrenological Chart 8. Chart Illustrating Chiromancy .... 9. Studies in the Expression of the Brow 10. Studies in the Expression of the Lips . 11. Studies in the Expression of the Eyes ... 12. The Evolution of the Letter M . 13. Examples of Pictorial Writing .... 13 a. Examples of Pictorial Writing .... 14. A Child's Drawing for "Jack and the Bean Stalk" 15. A Child's Drawing for " Johnny-Look-in-the-Air" 15 a. Second Drawing for "Johnny-Look-in-the-Air" 15 /). Third Drawing for "Johnny-Look-in-the-Air" 16. Fourth Drawing for "Johnny-Look-in-the-Air" 17. Fifth Drawing for "Johnny-Look-in-thc-Air" 18. Effect of Children's Efforts to Perform Coordinated Tasks 19. Activities Requiring Use of the Large Muscles Principally 20. Tasks That Do Not Require Fine Coordination . 21. Tasks Requiring Varying Degrees of Coordination 22. The Brains of ((7) Normal Adult ; (b) Adult Idiot ; (c) New- born Child ........ 23. Scene in the Vicinity of a Public School in a Large City 24. Competitive Games for Girls ..... 25. Indoor Games ........ 26. Curve Showing Annual Increase in Endurance, Vital Capacity Weight and Grip of Right Hand 27. Scene in an American Dance Hall PAGE 14 29 31 46 65 80 82 85 87 04 108 IIO no 1X2 IIQ 120 121 124 124 132 134 i.?8 141 144 147 150 170 182 XVI FIGURES IN THi: TEXT 28. Boys in the Early Adolescent Period . 29. An Educational Object Lesson 30. Learning Tables of Measurement by Actual Use 31. Judging Different \ arielies of Corn ^2. Fourteen Nationalities in One School . S3. Plethysmographic Record from the Arm of a Sleeping Person 34. Record Showing Effect of Noise on a Sleeping Subject 35. Different Styles of Penholders .... 36. A Posture Frequently Seen in Home and School 37. Overdoing the P^ffort to Maintain Erect Posture 38. Postures That Lead to Deformities 3Q. Posture Induced by a Too High Scat . 40. Posture Induced by Relation of Seat to Desk 41. Effect of Too Small Distance between Seat and Desk 42. Posture Induced by Too Small Desk and Chair . 43. Posture Induced by Too Great Distance between Seat and Desk 44. Proper Adjustment of Desk and Chair 45. Posture Induced by Too High Desk 46. Muscles of the Eyeball 47. The Normal Eye 48. The Shortsighted or Myopic Eye 40- The Longsighted or Hyperopic Eye 50. The Double Concave Lens . 5 1 . Concave Lens to Correct Myopia 52. The Double Convex Lens 53. Convex Lens to Correct Longsightedness 54. The Astigmatic Dial .... 55. Chart Showing Astigmatism 56. A Shortsighted Astigmatic Eye . 57. Another Type of Shortsighted Astigmatic Eye 58. The Longsighted Astigmatic Eye 59. An Astigmatic Eye in Which Rays Focus on the Retina in One Meridian and behind the Retina in Another Meridian 60. Astigmatic Eye in Which Rays Focus in Front of the Retina in One Meridian and behind the Retina in Another Meridian 61. Postures Which Determine Mental States .... 62. Seating Which Will Secure Erect Posture .... 247 247 254 255 FIGURES IN THE TEXT XV 11 FIOCRE 63. Fairhope Method of Inducing Children to Relax 64. School Facilities for Relaxation . 65. Outdoor Calisthenics 66. Competitive Games Which Develop Endurance 67. The Chief Malady of the Schoolroom . 68. The Nomadic Impulse 69. The Throwing Impulse 70. Operating a Linotype Machine 71. Work for Backward Children 72. A Study in Expression 73. A Study in Expression 74. Children's Spontaneous Drawings 75. Children's Spontaneous Drawings 76. Children's Spontaneous Drawings 77. Relative Proportions of Child and Adult 78. Relations of Adolescent Boys and Girls 7Q. Cultivating the Soil 80. The Meeting-Place of the Gang . 81. Dynamic Methods of Teaching Pyramids and Cones 82. Learning How to Take Care of a Baby 83. Learning How to Make a Bed 84. One Method of Lighting a Schoolroom 8^. Curvature of the Spine PAOE 258 260 272 274 284 294 296 317 321 322 323 325 326 326 333 352 353 3.S4 364 365 366 381 382 PART ONE DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION CHAPTER I MOTIVE FORCES IN DEVELOPMENT: PHYSICAL WELL- BEING A COMPLICATED subjcct may perhaps best be introduced by a. simple illustration. In the spring one plants a bean seed in moist earth. Soon the young plant will break through ^ g^j^pig the soil. Roots will push downward into the earth, illustration and stalk, branches and leaves will appear above and r6ie of the earth. If there is an obstruction in the path of