UC-NRLF B M 022 Mb2 silis--- mm ff* N -lr THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GRAMMAR OF THE JAPAHESE WRITTEN LANGUAGE. BY W. G. ASTON, C.M.G. D.Lit., Late Japanese Secretaiy, H.B.M's Legation^ Tokio, Japan. THIRD EDITION, Revised and Corrected. E0utrou : LUZAC & CO. LANE, CRAWFORD k CO. 1904 REPLACING? ^ 7 ^ •' : CONTENTS. ^3 ' AS^ Introductory Remarks ... ... F^age i. CHAPTER PAGE. I. Writing-, Pronunciation, Accent, Letter-changes ... i II. Classification of Words ... ... ... 39 III. Uninflected Principal Words (Xa). Noun, Pronoun, Numeral Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, Inter- jection ... ... ... ... ... 41 IV. Inflected Principal Words (Kotoba). Conjug-ations, Derivative Verbs, Compound Verbs, Derivative Adjectives, Compound Adjectives ... ... 79 V. Uninflected Teniwoha suffixed to Na ... ... 106 VI. Uninflected Teniwoha added to Kotoba... ... 134 VII. Inflected Teniwoha ... ... ... ... 148 VIII. Humble and Honorific Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs, Verbs used as Adverbs and Conjunctions ... 161 IX. Syntax ... ... ... ... ... 170 X. Prosody ... ... ... ... ... 184 Appendix. Specimens of Japanese ... ... 199 '"'^" ivi534673 WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. A GEAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE SPOKEN LAN- GUAGE. THE NIHONGI; or, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. d. 697. Translated from the Original Chinese and Japanese. A HISTORY OF JAPANESE LITERATURE. SHINTO. In preparation. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, In its structure, the Japanese language possesses all the characteristics of the Turanian family. It is in the main an agglutinative language, that is to say, the roots of words suffer no change,* and the results which are obtained in European languages by inflection are arrived at in Japanese by the use of separate particles suffixed to the root. Like the other languages of this family, Japanese has no formative prefixes such as the German GE, or the reduplication of the perfect in Latin and Greek verbs. Its poverty in conjunctions and copious use of participles instead is another point of resemblance. The Japanese language is further an example of the rule common to all languages of this family, that every word which serves to define another word invariably precedes it. Thus the adjective precedes the noun, the adverb the verb, the genitive the W'Ord w^hich governs it, the objective case the verb, and the word governed by a preposition the preposition. The number of vocables common to Japanese with its kindred tongues is much smaller than might have been expected. The only language which contains any con- * It may be a question whether the addition of the vowels <2, ?', ti and e to the roots of verbs (see Chap. IV.) is agglutination or inflection. To the Japanese mind they are not distinct from the root, and a Japanese knows nothing of such forms as mat (wait), tab (eat). These \'owels have no meaning in themselves. They only serve to modify the meaning of the root, and therefore the term inflection appears more appropriate. It has accordingly been used in this treatise to distinguish these changes from agglutination proper, or the addition of particles which have a distinct meaning of their own, and are recognized by those "Who use the language as separate from the root. B II INTRODUCTION. siderable proportion of words which are also found in Japanese is that spoken in the Loo-choo Islands. Loochooan is very closely related to Japanese, but Mr. B. H. Chamber- lain's researches show clearly that its grammar differs so much that it cannot be regarded as a mere dialect. The Korean language has also an affinity with Japanese. The number of common roots is apparently not considerable, but the resemblance in grammatical structure is very close. The vocabulary oi the Japanese language, as it appears in its oldest monuments, is, in so far as it is possible to judge, homogeneous. It contains only a very few of the Chinese vocables which are so plentiful in its later forms. According to Japanese accounts, the study of Chinese was first introduced into Japan in the third century of the Christian era, when Chinese books and teachers were brought over from Korea ;* but even if these accounts can be depended upon, the influence of these teachers was probably confined to the Court, and had little permanent effect. A succession of other teachers afterwards arrived from Korea, but it was not till the sixth century, when Buddhism was first introduced into Japan, that the study of Chinese became general. From this time it spread rapidly. The profane literature of China was also studied, and Chinese words began to find their way into the Japanese language. This process has gone on uninterruptedly up to the present day, and now * The old Japanese histories inform us that a teacher of Chinese called AJikz came over to Japan from Korea A.D. 284, for which the correct date is 404. In the following year a second, named IVam', was sent for. PVani is said to have brought with him the Ron-go^ or Con- fucian Analects, and Sen-ji-mon^ or thousand character classic, but there must be a mistake about the last-named work, as it was not written till more than two hundred years later. These two scholars were subse- quently made instructors to the Imperial Prince. There is, however, evidence that Chinese books were brought to Japan in the preceding reign. INTRODUCTION. ITI the Chinese words in the language far outnumber those of native origin. The Chinese pronunciation first adopted by the Japanese was that of the province of Go ( Woo or U in Chinese). This province contained Nankin, the capital of Chin? under the eastern Tsin dynasty, which began a.d. 317, and it also contained the capital of the southern of the two empires into which China was divided during the dynasties which succeeded from A.D. 420 to A.D. 589. It was the Go pronunciation that the Buddhist priests used (and continue to use) in their litanies, and the greater number of the Chinese words which found their way into Japanese in the early period of Chinese learning have come down to us with the Go pronunciation. Most of the kana are Chinese characters pronounced according to the Go - on, or with slight modifications of it. The reason for choosing this dialect was no doubt simply because the province where it was spoken lies nearest to Japan, and was at that time the most flourishing part of the Chinese Empire. The inter- course between Japan and this part of China was considerable, and was not confined to matters of religion and learning only. Many Chinese customs and much of their civilization were adopted at the same time. To this day a draper's shop is called in Japan a Go-fiikit-ya^ or " Go-clothing-house," showing that what we are accustomed to consider the Japanese national costume was at first an imitation of the dress of Go. Japanese grammarians give as an additional reason for preferring the Go pronunciation, or Go-on as it is called, that it approached more closely to the sound of the Japanese language, and was therefore more easy of pro- nunciation. It is not to be supposed, however, that any Japanese, except perhaps a few scholars who visited China, ever acquired the true Chinese pronunciation. It is im- possible to represent any Chinese dialect accurately by the B 2 IV INTRODUCTION. Japanese syllabary. English written in this way becomes almost unrecognizable, and the metamorphosis undergone by Chinese when subjected to the same process is much greater. A second mode of pronouncing Chinese was introduced into Japan not long after the Go-on. This is what is known as the Kan-on. Kmi (in Chinese Han) is the name of the celebrated dynasty which ruled in China during the period from B.C. 206 till A.D. 265. Under it flourished the greatest literary men that C'hina has produced, and even at the present day the Chinese are proud to call themselves " sons of Han!' In a number of expressions Ka7i is used by the Japanese as equivalent to " Chinese." Thus, Kan-seki are Chinese books ; Ka7n-bu7iy Chinese composition ; Kan-go, a Chinese word ; Kan-gaku, Chmese learning, &c. In the term Kan-on however, the word Kan has a narrower signification. The Kan-on was the dialect which continued to be spoken in the province of Honan which had contained the seat of the government of the Han dynasty. It was the most refined and cultivated language of China at this period, and occupied a position similar to that now held by the so-called Mandarin dialect. It was recognized as the standard pronunciation by the Chinese teachers from Go, although they spoke and taught their own dialect ; and even the Buddhist divines, who did more than any other class of scholars to establish the Go-on, did not altogether neglect the study of the Ka7i-on. The Go-on had become widely adopted before much attention was paid to the Kan-on. The latter was, however, recognized as the standard, and succeeded gradually in establishing itself as the more usual pronunciation of Chinese words. It is now, except in rare cases, the only one given in Japanese dictionaries of the Chinese character, but a multitude of words is still pronounced according to the Go-on. The Kan-on often coincides with the Go-on, but it is as frequently widely INTRODUCTION. V different, and the use of these two systems of pronunciation has therefore given rise to considerable confusion. In the case of the more ancient nengo, or names of periods, and of the names of the Mikados, it is often doubtful which is the correct pronunciation, and in many cases either ma}' be followed at pleasure. . The modern official Chinese language is cal.ed by [ Japanese the To-in. To, in Chinese Ta?ig, is the name of the dynasty which flourished in China from A.D. 6i8 to A.D. 906, but this word is used by the Japanese for China and the Chinese nation generally. A Chinaman is popularly called To-jin, and To-in means simply the modern Chinese as opposed to the Japanese traditional pronunciation. The To-in has been generally adopted in the case of a very few words only, as tor instance P|j, which is pronounced Mi:i (Chinese Miftg) when the dynasty of that name is meant. It is also the pronunciation used in their litanies by the branch of the Zenshiu sect of Buddhists known as the Obakii ha. The Obakii ha was founded by missionaries from the monas- tery o{ Obaku, in China, who came over to Japan A.D. 1692, and established themselves at Uji, not far from Kioto. Like the Go-on and Kafi-o?i, the To-in differs considerably in the mouths of Japanese from the true Chinese pronunciation. The accents are neglected in the present Japanese pro- nunciation of Chinese words. There are, however, some traces of them to be found in the' spelling. Where the same character has two different accents, the spelling usually 1 varies, and the characters which have the entering accent I in Chinese may be recognized from the Japanese spelling ! ending in tsii, chi, ku^ ki, ox fu. Chinese words can generally be easily distinguished from those of Japanese origin. They end much oftener in diphthongs and in the letter «, and are usually associated in twos or threes, so that when one is known to be Chinese the VI INTRODUCTION. otners may be presumed to be so also. Another aid to their recognition is the fact that in Japanese syntax they are always treated as nouns. There are, however, a (qw cases in which genuine Japanese words have assumed an appearance which makes them hard to be distinguished from Chinese. For instance sata^ though really a Japanese word, identical With the root of sadaka, sadaiiieru^ &c., is usually written with the Chinese characters j^ ii;, and in this shape it has all the appearance of a Chinese word. On the other hand, a good number of Chinese words which were introduced in the early days of Chinese learning have become so thoroughly assimilated that they might easily be mistaken for Japanese words. Such are zeni (cash), which is only another form of se7i If, semi (cicada) for se7t ^, enislii (connexion) for en-shi i^,fiiini (letter) iox fnn ^. During the fourteen centuries over which our knowledge of the Japanese written language extends, its grammar has suffered but little change,^' and such modifications as it has undergone have been slow and gradual. There is no gap between ancient and modern Japanese like that which divides Latin from Italian, or even that which separates the English of the period before the Norman conquest from that now spoken. Such changes as have occurred consist chiefly in the disuse of certain particles and terminations, in modifi- cations of the meaning and uf.e of others, and in the * The grammatical structure of the Japanese language is looked upon ^ by native writers as an institution of Divine origin, and they attribute to this cause the substantial unity which it has maintained throughout its entire history. Heretical views of grammar, or bad grammar, are therefore a very serious matter in Japan. Amatsu oho mi kami no mi tsutahe ifti ni shi habereba^ sono okite 7ii tagahi ayamaru koto ha mi kitm wo kegashi-tatematsicru no tsujni fukak'' arubeshi. "Grammar having been handed down to us from the great and august gods of heaven, errors contrary to their ordinances must be a heinous crime, casting disgrace upon our august country." INTRODUCTION. VII disregard, to some extent, in the later forms of the language of the rules of syntax of classical Japanese. The progress of these changes marks three stages in the histor}' of the Japanese language, ist, that of development, extending to about A.D. 900 ; 2nd, that of maturity, including the four following centuries ; and lastly, that of decay, extending from A.D. 1300 up to to the present time. The latter half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the present witnessed a brilliant revival of the study of the old language, and it may be doubted whether Japanese has not attained a higher degree of perfection in the archaeo- logical and philological works of Mabuchi, Hirata, and more especially Motowori, than even in the golden age of its literature. But it is to be feared that this is no more than an eddy in the main current. The old language is at present falling more and more into neglect, and the faculty of writing or even understanding it is becoming rarer every day. Its use is confined to learned treatises far removed from the daily concerns of life. The style most in vogue at present (and used in official documents, newspapers, &c.) is modelled on literal trans- lations of Chinese books. It is charged with Chinese words, idioms, and constructions to such a degree that, whether read or written, it is often entirely unintelligible to an unlettered Japanese, and its grammar is only a skeleton of the luxuriant system of the older language. [See speci- mens VII., VIII., and IX. at the end of this volume.] The modern popular written language occupies an inter- mediate position between the old language, of which it is the true offspring, and the mongrel Chinese type just described. It is looser in its syntax and poorer in grammatical appliances than the former, but it has enriched its vocabulary by a liberal adoption of Chinese words. The Chinese element is, however, confined to the vocabulary, and there are few traces VIII INTRODUCTION. in this style of Chinese idioms and constructions. Books addressed to the unlearned class — such as novels, tales, the romances which take the place of history and biography to all but scholars, a certain proportion of the popular poetry, &c. — are composed in this style. The spoken dialect of Japan differs so considerably in its grammar from the written idiom that it almost deserves to be regarded as a new language. Its position is not unlike that of Italian in the middle ages, when it was only a spoken dialect, the language used for literary purposes being exclu- sively Latin. The difference, however, is much less in degree than in the case of Italian and Latin. The principal charac- teristic of the spoken language is a tendency to pass from the agglutinative into the inflectional stage of development, many suffixes which are in the written language distinct from the root being in the spoken dialect blended with it in such a way that the separate elements can no longer be distin- guished except by the scholar. For instance, where the written language has shimahi-tari, the spoken has shiinatta ; for the written form ari-tari-keri, the spoken dialect has attake ; for ara-imi. aro ; for kata-ku^ it has sometimes katOy and so on. Among these various forms of Japanese, the classical literary language of the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thir- teenth centuries has been selected as the most suitable standard for grammatical purposes, and such differences as the other forms of the language present have been noted as variations from it. The spoken dialect, however, differs so considerably from any of the written forms that it has been found more convenient to exclude it from the scope of the present work, and to make it the subject of a separate treatise. A considerable portion of the literature of Japan is written in the ancient classical Chinese language which is still INTRODUCTION. IX employed to a small extent. There seems, however, every reason to believe that it will soon share the fate of Latin in Europe, and fall entirely out of use except for a few purposes of a special character. CHAPTER I. WRITING, PRONUNCIATION, ACCENT, LETTER-CHAN(;ES. The origin and history of an alphabet, which in several forms has been found inscribed on certain ancient scrolls deposited in the treasuries o{ Japanese Temples, have been a fruitful subject of controversy amongst native scholars. Some have maintained that these letters, which the}- call the Shindaiji, or " letters of the age of the gods," are of vast antiquity, but it is now admitted that they are nothing more than the Korean script known as OmnuJi, invented by a king of that country towards the middle of the fifteenth century, and actually in use there at the present day. Japanese is written by means of Chinese characters both in the square (see I., II., VII., and VIII. of the specimens at the end of this volume) and cursive ^'see specimens IV., V., and IX.), and also in several intermediate forms. The order is the same as that of Chinese, viz., from top to bottom in columns proceeding from right to left. In writing Japanese, a Chinese character may have one of four different values. 1. It may be the equivalent of a Chinese word {on or koe). 2. It may be the equivalent of the synonymous Japanese word {ku7i ox yovii). 3. It may represent the mere sound of the Chinese word {ji-on no kand). 4. It may represent the mere sound of the Japanese word {knn no kand). In the two former cases a Chinese character has an ideo- graphic value ; in the two latter it has a phonetic value. When used in the former capacity, Chinese characters are 2 JAPANESE WRITING. termed by Japanese writers mana ; when used in the latter capacity, they are called kana. Mmia means '' true name," implying that this is the true use of a character, while ka?ia (contracted for kari-na) means " borrowed name," as in this case the mere sound of a character is " borrowed " in order to express the whole, or more frequently only a part of a word unconnected with it in meaning. Every Cliit^ese character may be used as the equivalent of a Chinese or of the synonymous Japanese word, and a considerable number of them are also occasionall>' employed phonetically. For example, ^ (heaven), may be equivalent to (i) the Chinese word teii, (2) the Ja[^anese word auie, or (3) the mere sound te or ten. ^ is not used for the mere sound a)ne, as distinguished from the word ajjie (heaven). An instance of a Chinese character used to represent the mere sound of a Japanese word is ^, which is used for the sound ;;// (4), as well as for the Japanese word mi or viitsic "three" (2), and the synonymous Chinese word san (i).* In the oldest Japanese writing, the Chinese characters are generally mafia, and have their ideographic value. The Kojiki, for instance, is written principally in mana, as are also the noi'ito, or ancient Shint6 prayers. Specimen I. (from the Kojiki: at the end of this volume is an example of this stage of Japanese writing. It will be observed that the Chinese order of the characters is followed, and it might perhaps be * This may be illustrated by the following example of the results which would have taken place had the Roman numeral signs been made use of in a similar way in writing EngHsh :— " On the IllCenary (i) a C (2) times I C (3) him to you, although it tC (4) ; i.e., "on the ter- centenary a hundred times I sent him to you, although it thundered." Here C has first its proper meaning, and represents the Latin word cent. (a hundred) ; second, it has its proper meaning, and represents the English word "hundred" ; third, it represents the Latin sound cent only, the meaning being different ; fourth, it represents the English sound hundred, the meaning being different. JAPANESE WRITING. 3 suspected that the Kojiki was intended as Chinese, and not as Japanese at all. The authority of Motowori, however, is against such a supposition, and he has even given us a restoration in Kana of the entire text, as he conceives it to have been originally read. In the norito, the characters are written in their Japanese order. But even in this early stage it was occasionally found necessary to give the Chinese characters a phonetic value, in order to write Japanese proper names of unknown or doubtful derivation, and other words or particles for which there were no convenient Chine5.e equivalents. Besides, in the case of poetry, uiaiia could c^nly give the meaning, whereas with kana, not only the meaning, but the precise words and particles used could be expressed, and consequently the metre rendered discernible. These causes gradually gave rise to a more extended use of the Chinese characters as mere phonetic signs. The poetry in the Kojiki is written in kana, and in the Manyoshiii, a collection of poems extending over the period from the fifth to the ninth century, a gradual increase in the proportion of phonetic signs is plainly observable. At this period the analysis of the sounds of the language into forty-seven syllables had not been made, and inasmuch as many different characters were used not only for each of these forty-seven sounds, but also for many of a composite nature, great confusion resulted, much of which is now avoided by the use of the alphabets, or rather syllabaries, known as the Katakana and Hiragana. There is some doubt respecting the exact date of their first introduction, but it is known that both had come into general use by the end of the ninth century of our era. The Hiragana syllabary can hardly be called an invention. It consists simply of abbreviated cursive forms of a limited number of the more common Chinese characters. This syllabary consists of forty-seven syllables, but each syllable JAPANESE WRITING. is represented by several characters, and as some of thesi are written in several different ways, the entire number of signs amounts to about three hundred. The Katakana syllabary is of a more artificial character. It consists, like the Hiragana, of forty-seven syllables, but there is only one sign for each. Most of the Katalzana characters are abbreviated forms of Chinese square characters, one side {katd) or a part being taken to represent the entire character. Thus ^ (2 ) is an abbreviated form of ^, xt {ro) of g, and so on.* Modern Japanese writing is an intermixture of Chinese characters used as ideographic signs {mand) with Katakana or Hiragana. The proportion in which these elements are combined varies greatly, and is different even in different editions of the same book, words which are at one time represented by inana, being at another expressed by means of Katakana or Hiragana. In other respects, too, there is great irregularity. The following rules are therefore subject to numerous exceptions : — 1. Mana are used for all words of Chinese origin, and for the roots of the more important Japanese words {na and kotoba). 2. Katagana and Hiragana are used for grammatical terminations, and for the less important words of Japanese origin {teniwoha). 3. Katagana or Hiragana are often found, as in Speci- men VI. at the end of this book, written to the right of a Chinese character, to represent phonetically the Chinese or Japanese word to which it is equivalent. They may also be written to the left, as in Specimen III., but this is less common. * It is a curious fact, that notwithstanding its greater simplicity and convenience, the lower classes of Japanese are unacquainted with the Katakana^ and even scholars prefer the Hiragana for most purposes. I JAPANESE WRITING. 5 4. Katakana are found with the square form of the Chinese character (see Specimens I., II., VII., and VIII.) ; Hiragana with the cursive form (see Specimens IV., V., and IX.). 5. Katakana are occasio lally employed amongst Hiragana in writing interjections, foreign words, and also where italics would be used in English. The pronunciation of the Katakana and Hiragana is not always identical with that of the characters from which they are derived, r and "C, for instance, are pronounced te, although derived from 5^, which has the sound te?i. The Katakana and Hiragana are arranged by native grammarians in two different orders. That in popular use is styled iroha^ from its first three letters. In this arrangement the forty-seven sounds constituting the syllabary have been made into a line of doggiel verse as an aid to the memory. The following table (Table I.) exhibits the Katakana and Hiragayia arranged in this manner. The first column contains the English pronunciation, the second the Katakana with the Chinese characters of which they are abbreviated forms, and the remaining columns the Hiragana letters, together with the Chinese square characters from which they are derived. In this table the Hiragana letters are arranged in order of their most frequent occurrence, those in the first space being far more frequently met with than the others. It is this variety which is given in native educational works and taught in schools, and at first the student had perhaps better confine his attention to it. TABLE I. ' ' 1 PRON. KATA- KANA. milAGANA. • .-I A v>^ A ^^ i #B 1 ^r >:^ -i- -If r^ V ^ ? ^ . >^ 1% ro S ^ ^ ^' * 3^ ^14 il 4& % ^ > [i- t ^ r^ ^ ha >v ;it A :^ >\ '^ « ^ 4> t 1^ ^ & _^> ^^ ^.% s ■^ G ni J^-^ _'*-. 5 4v 4> i ^ tt 4^ 7t 56' ho ^^z -f^^ 12. * Nigori only ^ i.e.y ba» TABLE [. PEON. KATA- KANA. . HIKAGANA. ho Cont'd. t he ^ il 4 i4 5 to Jir-- r ^ 'I ^ ^^^ • %' ^ ■k ■A i' / s ^ \ clii > > > 1^ li 'J ■9 i^ M ^1 t -. nu * Nigoriov\y, i.e., be. TABLE I. •PRON. . 4TA : RTRAGANA. >^^ 5 ' ^v (d ^> .?> ru //lb '^ "^ V;^ vH f> Y9 wo 4 t a- /A- i^ J/v> M ?^ ft wa 7 4^ 2 ka 73 pv ■1) o 1 r\ "9 ^-c -1^ f; ^ht> f^. 3 i> 1- i. -t ^ yo ^^ ^^ ^ 4> .^ fi ^/^ iA f^ ^^ ^\ Nig07-i only, i.e., ga. TABLE I. PRON. EL\TA- IL\NA. HIRAGANA. ta ■ ^ •:*:■ A i ± 4 > ^ ^ ^ ^ re V #. 4i- ^4 4 i * * so V # 3 f f t :5^ tsu 7 n f1 n ne -7 iX ^^^ 6 A^/^(3;7 only, z'.^., zo. C 2 10 TABLE I PRON. KATA- KANA. HIRAGANA. 1 1 i- t' [ 4 i^ f. r> na 4t ^ ^ ^> •^> n )a i^ ^ It V ' n ^1^ ^ i*'i 7 ^ ^ h I 1 cl % ^ f. f^ t- A h' t- ^ ^ 1^- mil J^ •^ ^V 4 3G. 7-X g 3^ n u ^ 5 ^ ^r^ ^ 1^ -^ f ^^ "2^ ^ k^ i ^•- -^ jf 1 1 ^ -^ / c^ /) ! 2:t K i no rj ^-) ^ % rc^ ^- • TABLE I. II PRON. iL\TA-' : IL\NA. ., HIPtAGA:is^A ■ • \ -> t. :5^ T ^ < A 1 ^ I? f'e ku A A 7v .:^b -H- ^J^ u ^)L ya 5:) '^r^ -V* [^ ;. >.'> ^. ^1- '-^- fu 7 4^ > ^'i> :# . \ 12 TABLE ] [. KATA- KANA. EIEAGANA. ko C' ^ 1^ i^'. e P- !> ^ . Tin- ^ # te r A' < 1 ? t f3 4f 4^ ^ ^ a 7 ^ -:!?-, % ^ IS sa 1^ . ki 5^ 31 7^ ^ ^ 1 ^ PBON. KATA- KANA. HHUGANA. ki yu SU -6 ^1: ^ ^ me ^ ® ,1; mi > y ^ ^ ^ A 4 A < shi V ^ 1 1^ . e J. hi 1' ,P5 J2 '3 Ni^ori only, i.e.,Ji. 14 JAPANESE WRITING. TABLE I. PRON. KATA-, KANA. HIRAGANi L. * 1 ^ i),"^ :4 h. -^ ^ 4^6' mo ^ ^ ^ ^•" -^ ^ -^ i :^ ^^ ^ ^ .^ ■?x ^^ se ,5^' t 1 7- :^' ^ ^i 1^ ^7 Sll ■ ^% • nJ ^^ —J- 1^ fe v\ ^^■ i M. M ^ V /u <^^ 11 ^r^ ■:^ The arrangement given in the following table (Table II.) is usually preferred by native scholars to the iroha. Here the syllabary (in the Katakana form) is arranged after a more scientific method, those syllables which contain the same vowels being arranged in upright columns, and those containing the same consonants in horizontal columns. It will be observed that this table contains fifty letters. 1 TAPANESE WRITING. 15 TABLE II. > S T N H M Y 1 R W i A r a • ka sa ta na 7 '" ha -7 ma 7 1 7 i ra wa I -1 i ki shi chi ni t ■ hi mi © yi 1J 1 .-H^ n 3 1 U n ku tsn 7 fu mu ru @ wu E e ke se T te ne he me ® ye re i e ko 7 so to 7 no ho mo 5 yo ro 7 wo Amongst these, however, the three letters which have circles drawn round them are not in use, and have only been introduced in order to fill up the breaks in the series. The reason why no letters are required for j'i and ^lVU is no doubt the close affinity of _y and i and w and ?/, which renders J/ and zv almost inaudible in this combination. Ve is equal to yH-a, and the same remark is therefore applicable to it as to j2. 1 6 JAPANESE WRITING. N final is omitted from the second Table. It is properly not a Japanese letter, the termination of the future, which is nearly the only place where it is found in Japanese words, having been anciently not n, but vm. It sometimes repre- sents an r which has been assimilated to an ii or jn following. The Japanese language does not possess the sounds si, ti, tu, or Jm. For si it has shi ; for ti, cJii ; for ///, tsti ; and for hit, fu. ^ and :a, though belonging to the w column, are not pronounced ivi and we, but i and e. No doubt the original pronunciation was wi and we. Wo (7) was formerly con- sidered one of the a {^t) i (^A) u [t^) e (:?:) series, and (;t) was placed along with wa (y) / (j^-) '^u {f}) e (ja). Motowori corrected this error, but it is still found in many Japanese books. The Wakun SJiiivori, for instance, follows the old practice. It will have been observed that the preceding Tables do not contain the letters g, z, j\ d, b, and p. Neither the Hiragana nor the Katakana originally provided any means of distinguishing the syllables commencing with these letters from those beginning with k, s, sk, t, and h, and there are many old printed books in which the distinction is not marked. The passage at the end of this volume, taken from the Takeiori Monogatari, is in example of this practice. The diacritic mark {^^ ) known as the ^nigori, placed to the right of the letter, is now made use of for this purpose. It is the same for both Hiragana and Katakana. The letter / had no existence in the older form of the language. It is now marked by a small circle (°), called the han-nigori, written to i the right of those kana which commence with // or f. The * Nigori means "impurity." It is opposed to sinni (purity), the term used in speaking of the unchanged sounds. An old form of the 7iigori, now little used, is , as '))"' (ga). The 7ngori is ofien omitted, even at t'le present day. JAPANESE WRITING. ly use of these marks will be best understood from the sub- joined table : — ^ ka ^ ki ^ ku ^ ke 3 ka if ga ^' gi ^* gu ^' ge n" go ■f sa iy shi ^ su -fe se y so •r za v^ ji X zu ^ ze y* zo ^ ta f- chi V tsu f te b to ^' da r dji ^y dzu r de 1" do -»N ha t hi y fu -^ he it-^ ho ^>* ba t* bi y bu •^ be ^" bo >^* pa f pi 7* pu -^ pe .i^' po OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 1 {Katakand) or o5 {Hiragana) for /^<9/^, a "thing or action." This sign is also used, more especially in the forms n or "^j, to mark the beginning of a speech or quotation — thus ^|. In this position it stands for koiOy in the sense of kotoba, ** words." In dramas it marks the beginning of the prose speeches of the actors, ^ is also used for koto. It is a combination of the Hiragana Z. ^^^ ^. ^ or /t^, said to be a form of _t:, is used for a Chinese character when repeated a second time, as ^ ichi-ichi, " one by one." (with Katakana) and v (with Hiragana), said to be a'so abbreviated forms of J^^, are put for the repetition of a word iS OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. of more than one syllable, as h hito-bito, " men ; " 11 mate is put ill Katakaiia for siiite, " having done." One or two Imes drawn to the right of a word or character have the same effect as italics or capitals in English printing, ^' ^ I ); y • The same effect is produced by a line drawn round a word \^\ or Lnter, as I. OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. I^ A is put for ^osrr, the first two syllables of go z am, "to be." ^ is for masu^ the polite termination of verbs in the spoken language. In writing or printing Japanese, the divisions between the words of a sentence are not marked by corresponding spaces between the letters, as in English. The Katakana are written distinct from each other, but there is nothing to show where one word ends and another begins, while in Hiragatia the letters are joined to each other or spaces left between them, entirely according to the caprice of the writer, and with no reference to the natural divisions of the words. Japanese printing is in most cases an exact imitation of the written manuscript, the paper being pasted on the blocks which are then cut out, thus making a facsimile of the writing. This is, of course, impossible with moveable types, the use of which has lately spread extensively, but even in their case no spaces are left to show the divisions between the words, as in European printing. PRONUNCIATION. a has the sound of a in father. 2 „ „ „ „ i „ inachme. u „ „ „ „ 00 „ book, e „ „ „ „ ej/ „ t/ie_y. » „ ,, „ „ so. U frequently becomes / after sh, j\ or ch in the Yedo pronunciation of Chinese words, as shuku, which is pro- nounced shiku. The consonants have the same sounds as in Ensflish. except in the following cases : — 5, Sh. — Se and ski are the Yedo pronunciation. In some provinces these syllables are pronounced she and sz. Ji, the 7iigori of shi, is pronounced exactly like dji, the nigori of chi. A different spelling has been adopted in order 2b PRONUNCIATION. to preserve a mark of the different origin of these two letters. Ztt and dz2i are also often confounded, especially by natives of Yedo. T, D. — The pronunciation of these letters differs slightly from the English sounds. In English the tip of the tongue touches the palate ; in forming the Japanese sounds it is pressed more forward against the teeth. H, F.—-\x\ the Yedo language the pronunciation 'of these letters resembles the English, except that in producing the Japanese sound represented by f, the under lip does not touch the upper teeth, but only approaches them, the result being a kind of strongly aspirated wh. In the west of Japan all this series of aspirates is pronounced /, not h. Hizen is called Fizen ; Hirado, Fwando^ and so on. In the vulgar Yedo dialect hi is almost undistinguishable from shi. R. — Especially before i, r differs considerably from the \ I English sound. The true pronunciation can only be learnt * from a native of Japan.* The pronunciation of combinations of Japanese letters in some cases differs considerably from that of the letters taken separately, and in order to be able to read Japanese books as they are read by the Japanese themselves, it is necessary to know not only the sound of each letter when taken separately, but also the changes which its pronunciation undergoes in these cases. Au, afu, ou, ofic 00, oho, and ozuo are pronounced 3 ; and eu, efUy eo, and eho are pronounced id or yd. Thus sofii, (to associate) is pronounced so ; Ohosaka is read Osaka ; sen-sou (a battle) is pronounced sen-so ; efii (to get drunk), yd, and so on. * The Japanese ^ is a medial, and not an aspirate. It is formed in the same way as d, except that the tip of the tongue touches the roof of th-e mouth further back than in pronouncing that letter. Some Japanese make it almost/ PRONUNCIATION. 21 The latter part of this rule is in reality only a particular case of the former. In Japanese etymology, e is equal to i^-a- Ell is therefore ia u : i.e.^ by the first part of the rule id or yd. This explains some apparent difficulties in Japanese pro- nunciation. Ten, for instance, is pronounced c/io, te u being equal to ti a ?/, i.e., chi o or cJio, t changing to ch before i, and an being contracted into 6. A similar analysis will show how it is that defu is pronounced djo ; sefu, sho ; and Jieu, hiyo or Jiyo. Exception i : In the terminations of verbs afu ofii are by most Japanese read aii oil. Exception 2 : In some words of native origin, afu and ofu are pronounced as written, for example — afiireru, to overflow ; Jiofiirii, to slaughter. U. — In pronouncing Chinese compounds, the first part of which ends with the letter ku, and the second begins with k, the u is lost, as in jnokii-kon, which is read inokkon. The vowels of the syllables tsu and chi are lost before a t following. Clii is in such cases written tsu, as in motsute (pronounced motte) for mochite. G. — At the beginning of a word, ^ is the English^ hard, but when it comes after other letters it has, in the Yedo dialect, the sound of ng in ring, as in Nagasaki, which is pronounced Na-nga-saki. In the genitive particle ^<'^, ^ has also this sound. In the western dialect, g is in all cases the English g hard. Tsu. — In modern Japanese and in Chinese words, tsu, except when it begins a word, is usually assimilated in pronunciation to a k, s, or p following. Thus shitsu-so is read shisso ; satsu-shari, sasshari ; sJiutsu-kin, shukkin ; Nitsu-pon, Nippon, &c. This has caused tsu to become regarded as a mere phonetic sign of the doubling of a letter, and it is not unfrequently used by modern writers when the doubling has resulted from the assimilation of other letters 22 PRONUNCIATION. than tsii. Thus, tattobtL is written tatsii-tobti, instead of tafti^ tobii ; hossuru is written hotsu-suru^ instead of hori-suru. In Hiragana texts a Katakana tsu is occasionally used for the same purpose. Something of the kind is needed, for it is often difficult to determine whether the tsii has its proper sound or is assimilated to the following letters. The only rule which can be given is that tsu is usually assimilated in Chinese words and in the most modern form of Japanese^ but not in the older language. //, F. — Except at the beginning of a word, the aspirates h and f are lost in pronunciation. Ha becomes wa ; hi, i; fit, 21 ; he, e; and ho, o. It is this loss of the aspirate which enables fu and ho to form a crasis with the preceding vowel, as shown above. The particle ha is pronounced wa, and he, e, as they are considered to form part of the word to which they are joined. The aspirates are sometimes omitted even in writing. Thus we find ill for ifu, "to say"; shiniau for shiuiafii, "to finish." This practice should not be imitated. The old language never has a syllable beginning with a vowel, except at the beginning of a word. N. — Before ;//, b, and /, n is pronounced m. TRANSLITERATION. In the first edition of this work, the rule adopted in spelling both Chinese and Japanese words in Roman letters was to give as nearly as possible the actual Yedo pronuncia- tion of the entire word, irrespective of its spelling in Japanese kana. This method has been retained in so far as Chinese words are concerned, for in their case nothing is gained in a work like the present by an adherence to the Japanese spell- ing. In the case of Japanese words, however, the native spelling represents a more ancient pronunciation, and a TRANSLITERATIOX. 23 knowledge of it is indispensable for etymological purposes. It has therefore been thought advisable, in the present edition, to represent the spelling rather than the pronunciation, and each letter of the Japanese s)^llabary is consequently in all cases written with the same Roman letters, viz., those placed opposite to it in the foregoing tables. The preceding remarks on the modifications undergone by some letters when combined with others will enable the student to infer the actual pronunciation, and, for example, to read sofii, so ; A'^agasaki, Na-uga-saki ; uiatsiitaku, mattakii, &c. LETTER CHANGES. The letter changes which Japanese words have suffered in the course of time have, in the majority of cases, not affected their spelling, which continues, as is so often the case in our own language, to represent the ancient pronunciation. These changes have been pointed out under the head of " Pro- nunciation,'" but those of this class which have found their way into the spelling, together with the changes due to the action of euphonic laws in derivation and composition, are still to be noticed. Changes of Vowels. Elision. — The n final of adjectives, and of the negative particle zn, is elided before the initial vowel of the verb am, " to be." Thus, nakare is written for nakii are, Jiagakari for ftagaku ari, arazaru for arazii am. Other examples of the elision of a vowel are : — Tari for te ari, Tarahi, " a wash-hand basin," for te arahi. Zaru for zo am. Kakari for kaku ari. Sasageru, '* to offer," for sashi-agem. Na7'i for 7ii ari. 24 LETTER CHANGES. Tari for to ari. Mare for mo are. An'so, " a reef," for a7^a iso. The vowels of the syllables ;;//, inn, mo, and ni are often elided, the remaining consonant being then represented by the letter -y , which, as above observed, is pronounced ;/ or m, according fo the letter which follows it. Examples : — Ason, " a noble of the Court," for asomi. Inbe, a man's name (pronounced hnbe), for Imibe. On, the honorific particle, for ojni. Kindachi, "nobles," for kimi-tachi. Kanzashi, a hair ornament, for kamisashi. Nanji, "you," for namuchi. Neng07'o, "kindly," for nemokoro. Hingashi, "east," for Jiimukashi. Naiizo, "what," for nani zo. Ikan, "how," for ikaiti. Aphaeresis. — In the older language, a hiatus was inadmis- sible in the middle of a word. It was therefore necessary, whenever the second part of a compound began with a vowel, either to elide the final v^owel of the first part of the compound, as in some of the examples quoted above, or else to remove the initial vow^el of the second part. The following are examples of the latter course having been taken : — Kamiitsumari for kamu-atsiiviari, "an assembly of gods." Towomari (pronounced tomari) hitotsu for tozvo amari kitotsu, "eleven." AkasJii (name of place) for Aka isJii. Ogata (name of place) for Oagata. Crasis. — / followed by a becomes e in the termination eri of the perfect, the e being here the result of a crasis of the i final of the root of the verb, and the initial a of the verb am. LETTER CHANGES. 25 " to be." An instance of a somewhat similar crasis is iiageki " lament," for naga iki (lit. long breath). An irregular crasis is that of the words to ifu, which are sometimes written ten (pronounced cho). Other Changes of Vowels. U. — In a {q\n words u has been introduced in ord^r to give the syllable a fuller sound, as — Maiikeru (pron. mokerii) for makeru, "to provide." TaiiberiL (pron. toberii) for taberti^ "to eat." Ymika {^ron. ydka) for yaka, "eight days." Shikaii shite (pron. shiko shite) for shika shite, "thus," " therefore." An u of this kind is occasionally introduced into Chinese words. For instance, one pronunciation of ^ *g, usually read sakivan (a clerk in a government office) , is so-kwaii, i.e., sau-kwan. An u in the old language has not unfrequently become in the later times, as sodachi, " bringing up," for sttdachi ; ?io, " a moor," for ;///. Where the first part of a compound ends in e, this vowel in a considerable number of cases becomes changed into a. Examples : — Kana-mono, "a metal fastening"; from kane, "metal." and viono, " a thing." Saka-mori, "a drinking bout"; from sake, "rice beer," and mori, root of inoru, " to fill." Da-bi, " a torch " ; from te, " the hand," and hi, " fire." Muna-gi, " a roof tree " ; from mune, " the breast," and ki, " a tree." Manako, " the pupil of the eye " ; from me, " the eye," no, the possessive particle, and ko, " a child," "something small." In a few cases i, in the same position, is changed into 0, as konoha, " leaves of trees," for ki no ha ; honoho (pron. hono)^ D 2 26 LETTER CHANGES. " a flame," for hi no ho (lit, " an ear of fire ") ; hotaru, " a fire-fly," for hi-taru, " that which drops from it fire." Attraction. — The tendency to assimilate the vowels of successive syllables, which is common to the Japanese language with the other branches of the same family, has been termed attraction. In Japanese its action is com- paratively limited. The following changes of vowels are probably due to this tendency. Shira-ga " white hair," for shira-ke. Otodoshi, " the year before last," for atotoshi. Ago ohokimi, " my great lord," for aga ohokinii. The pronunciation of on as 6 (see page 20) is also no doubt due to attraction. The letters i and // are closely allied to each other in Japanese. It has been already observed at page 19, that in Yedo the n of Chinese words is in many words pronounced i. A few Japanese words are spelt indifferently with either letter, as iwo or iizuo, " a fish " ; iroko or 2iroko^ " a fish scale"; itsukusJiinm or utsukushiniu, " to love." The spoken language has iku for ynkii, " to go " ; and in some places ibi is heard ioY yicbi, " a finger,' and iki iox yuki, " snow." Changes of Consonants. Nigori. — The most familiar change of consonants is the substitution for a pure {i.e., hard) consonant (viz., k, j, sh, A ts, ch, or h, /), of the corresponding impure (or soft) consonant (g, .3", or y, d, or d^, and b or/). [See above, page 21.] This occurs when the word beginning with a pure consonant is made the second part of a compound. The introduction of the nigori (i.e., impurity) is not universal in such circumstances, and there is much irregularity wath regard to it, the same compound being pronounced by some people with the nigori and by others without it, as for instance the name of the city Ohosaka, which some pronounce Osaka, others Ozaka. LETTER CHANGES. 2/ The following rules will serve as a partial guide to its use. 1. In forming compound verbs, the first element of which is also a verb, the nigori is not introduced. Ex.: Sashi-hasaiiiu, sJii7ne-korosii , Jiiki-toni. 2. The initial consonant of the second element of most compound nouns takes the fiigori. Ex. : Jo-lmkuro, " an envelope," iox jd-fukui'o ; waraJii-gusa^ " a subject of laughter," for waraJii-kusa ; kana-buini^ " a writing in kana," for kana- fiiini. The same change takes place in man\' Chinese compounds. Ex. : Ko-zui for ko-sui^ "an inundation" ; ku-dokii for ku-toku^ " merit " ; han-jo for han-sho, " prosperity." The initial consonant of the second part of the reduplicated plural of nouns (see below. Chap. III.) almost invariably takes the 7iigori. Ex. : Sama-zaina for saina-saina, "all sorts of" ; shina-jina for shina-shina, " articles of various kinds " ; Jiito- bito for hito-hito^ " men." 4. Teniwoha suffixed to the perfect and to the negative base take the 7iigori ; those suffixed to other forms do not. Ex. : Yjike-ba, yuka-ba, yuki-te^ yuki-shi^ yuku-tojno. In the case of compound nouns, whether a consonant takes the nigori or not is greatly determined by euphony. Thus in abura-tsubo, " an oil-bottle," the nigori is no doubt omitted in order to avoid the ill - sounding combination abura-dzubo. It is also for the sake of euphony that in Japanese words an v {n or in) almost always caii«;es the following consonants to take the nigori. Ex.: Kindachi for kimitachi, "nobles"; tsiimindo for tsumi-hito, *'a criminal"; kaf'onzuru for karomisuru, " to make light of," " to despise " ; fude'ior f?inii-te, "a ^Qn" ',hiinukashi, "east," which has become first hingashi and then higashi. Chinese words are subject, thoup^h to a less extent, to the same tendency. For examples see the list of auxiliary numerals. The letter />, which is incorrectly described by Japanese 28 LETTER CHANGES. grammarians as the han-?iigori (half nigori) of // and f is entirely foreign to the older Japanese language. It is only found in Chinese words and in the present spoken dialect of Japanese, in the latter of which cases it is usually the result of the assimilation of a preceding consonant to the inital // or /of the second part of a compound. Ex. : Hap-po for hachi-ho, **on all sides"; seppnku for i^/j-//-/}//^?^, " disembowelment" ; hitsu-paru (pron. hippajii) for hiki-haru, " to pluck " ; tsutsu- pari (pron. tsuppari) for tsuki-hari, " a prop." In some Japanese words a double/ seems simply to have taken the place of an older h or f. Thus, ja/iarz, " still," has been strengthened into yatsu-pari (pron. yappari) ; via-hira, " humbly," into inatsu-pira (pron. inappird). In Chinese words an ;;/ or n at the end of the first part of a compound has often the effect of changing the initial h or f of the second part into /. Ex. : Nam-pu, " an adverse wind," for nan-fi) ; mam-pukii, " full stomach," for vian-fukti ; danipaii, " a negotiation," for dan-han. There are a few Japanese words beginning with/, but they are all onomatopoetic words of recent origin. Japanese grammarians maintain that the nigori is in all cases the result of some such changes as have been described above, and that it had no existence in the original form of Japanese words ; but this opinion can hardly be sustained, in view of the numerous words which begin with b, d, g, j\ &c., a fact for which they offer no explanation. Assiniilatio7i of Consonants to succeeding Consonants. The most ancient language had no double consonants, and consequently no assimilation. In the stage of the language represented by the Goiji Monogatari and similar works, there are frequent instances of the assimilation of r to an in or n following, as arazan nari for arazai'ii 7iari, bekani inereba for bekaru niei^eba^ sakaii-narn for sakarinarUy kudan no gotoku I LETTER CHANGES. 29 for hidari no gotokii^ &c. This ;;/ or n is usually written to the right and in Katakana, and it is often dropped altogether, the tendency of the older language being to avoid double consonants. Thus, karina, " a letter," which becomes kanna by the assimilation of the r to the ;/ following, is always written kana. All other cases of assimilation belong to the latest form of the language. Except in the case of m or «, the Japanese s\'llabaries provide no means of writing double consonants, and recourse has therefore been taken to the rude expedient of writing, instead of the consonant assimilated, the letter in which this change most frequently takes place, viz., tsu. Thus, to show that tafutoki, " august," is to be pronounced tattoki, it is spelt tatsutoki ; hori siirii, ** to wish," is written hotsu- suru, in order to show that it is to be read hossuru ; kitsii- saki (pron. kissaki), " the point of a sword," is written for kirisaki, and so on. The Japanese language dislikes to have successive syllables beginning with the same consonant. To this principle are due such forms as wo ba for wo wa. arashi for aru rashi. k eras hi for kerii rashi. boshikugi, " a broad-headed nail," for boshi-gugi. wasuruna, " don't forget," for wasururu na. minagara, " all," for niina Niagara. The difference between the second and first conjugation of adjectives is no doubt due to the same tendency. In the first conjugation shi is added to the root in order to produce the conclusive form, but as in the second conjugation the root already ends in shi, the same rule, if applied to it, would give a termination shishi. One of these syllables is therefore dropped. 30 LETTER CHANGES. In the more ancient language this tendency extended to double consonants, one of which was usually dropped, as kanna (for kari no), which is always written ka7ia, arazan fiari, often written arazanari^ Sec. ; but in the later and spoken forms of the language an opposite tendency may be observed, and many consonants have been doubled apparently for no other purpose than to strengthen the sound of the word to which they belong. Thus, tada has been strengthened into tatsuta (pron. tatta) ; niatakii into inatsutakii (pron. jnattakii)\ vahari is sometimes pronounced yappari ; inina^ niinna ; mina}ni, niiiinauii, and so on. K. — There is a tendency in Japanese to drop this letter when it occurs in the middle of a word. The most familiar instance of this is in the spoken language, where k is lost in the terminations of the adverbial and attributive forms of the adjective, liayaku, for example, becoming liayau (pronounced hayo)^ hayaki, hayai, &c. The written language also affords examples of the loss of /-. Saitsukoro, " previously," for saki tsu koro. Tsuitachi^ " ist day of the month," for tsukitachi. Waraudzu (pron. warodzti), " straw shoes," for wara-kntsu, H, F. — The aspirates of the syllables ha, hi,fu, he, ho, are often vocalized into //, the vowels of these syllables being at the same time dropped, as in the following examples : — Fuigaii {^^xox\. fiiigo), "bellows," ior fuki-gaha. Otouto (pron. ototd), " vounger brother," for ato-hito. Kariudo. " a huntsman," for kari-hito. Mauchiginii (pron. nwchigimi), " former lord," for maJie tsu kimi. Hauki (pron. hoki), '* a broom," for ha-haki. The western spoken form of the past tense of verbs ending in afn is also an instance of this change. In this dialect the termination ahita always becomes ota (in writing, autd) instead of atta, as in the Yedo language. Thus, the past tense of LETTER CHANGES. 3 1 shiDiafii^ " to finish," which at Yedo is sJibnatta, is, in the language of the western provinces, shivwta* AT and N. — :y (;// or ji) is frequently vocalized into u, as in the following examples : — Kouji (pron. kdji), ' a small road,' for ko-michi. Teudzu (pron. cho-dzii), " water for washing hands," for te-niidzH. Kautsuke (pron. Kotsuke), name of province, for Kanii- tsuke. Kaube (pron. Kobe), name of town, for Kami-be, A familiar example of this change is the n final of the future, which in the spoken language is changed into ?/, and then forms a crasis with the preceding a, becoming along with it o. An 1/ is frequently introduced for the sake of giving a fuller sound. Ex. : Yokumba, "if good," iov yoku ba, Akajubo, "a baby," for akabito, Tenno, " Emperor," for ten-o. Ze7inakti, "good and bad," for zen-aku. The Hakodate spoken dialect introduces this v very freely. M and b are closely related in Japanese. Some words are spelt with either indifferently. Ex. : Santurafu or saburafu, " to attend on." Seniaki or sebaki, " narrow." Keniuri or kebiiri, " smoke." Saniishiki or sabishiki, " lonely." Himo or hibo, " a cord." * Motowori lays down the rule, that vowels which are left when the initi il consonant of the syllable to which they belong has been removed, or which are the result of the vocalization of a consonant, should be written wiih the vowel series of letters (T ^ !> :£. ;t ) and not with the aspirated series (-»'» t 7 --s. ^) as is done by some writers. 32 LETTER CHANGES. It should be remembered that the sounds, tu, ti^ du, di, siy zi, and Jm do not exist in Japanese, and are represented by tsii, chi, dzii, dji, shi,ji, and fu. Hence the variations which take place in inflecting such a verb as matsii {inachi, matsu^ inata, niate)^ and in other cases where these letters are involved, are only apparent, and no change of consonant really takes place. Some of the preceding remarks on letter-changes are fur- ther illustrated in the following list of less obvious derivations. A FEW DERIVATIONS. Abiinii, " a stirrup " ; from ashi, " foot," and fujui, " tread." Cf agaki for ashi-kaki. Akatsiiki, " dawn " ; from aka, a root meaning " clear," " bright," and toki, " time." Asatsnte (pron. asatte), " the day after to-morrow " ; from asu, " to-morrow," and satsute (for sarite), " having passed." Fuda, " a ticket " ; from fiimi, " letter " or " writing," and ita, " a board." Hakama^ " trowsers " ; from haki, " to draw on," and mo^ " clothing." Hai'ubi, " a girth " ; from hara, " belly," and obi, " girdle." Hotoke^ " a deceased person," " a saint," " a god " ; from hito, " man," and ke, " spirit." Idzumi, " a spring " ; from idzuru, " to issue," and midzu^ " water." Cf. mito, " water-gate." Ihe, " a house " ; from /, root of iru, " to dwell," and he, an old word meaning " place." Ikada, " a raft " ; from uki, " float," and ita, " board." Inishihe, " ancient time " ; from ini, root of inui^u, " to go away," shi, a particle indicating past time, and he^ "place." DERIVATION. 33 Kaiiioi^ " the upper of the two beams into which the sHdes are inserted in a Japanese house " ; from kaini, " above," and /, root of ini, " to dwell." Koroiiic\ " clothing " ; from kim, " to wear," and )no, " clothing." KntsNKUJ, " a bit " ; from kuchi, " mouth," and wa, " ring." Maht\ " before " ; from mt\ " eye,' and he, '* place," or " side." Cf. s}iiriht\ " behind." MocJii-dziiki, "full moon"; from niichi, root of niitsuni^ "to be full," and tsuki, "moon." Mogiisa, "tinder"; probably from nioJie, root of iiwyuru^ " to burn," and kusa, " herb." Mukadt\ " a centipede " ; from nuikahi, " opposite," and te^ " hand." iV?>//z', "west," for inishi, i.e., the part where the sun "has gone away." Nodo or Hondo, " throat " ; from nonii, " to swallow," and to^ " door." Otodoshi, " the year before last " ; from ato, " previous," and toshi, "year." Ototohi,''t\\Q day before yesterday"; from ato, "previous," tsu, genitive particle, and hi, " day." Siizuri, "an inkstone"; from suini, "ink," and sui'u, "to rub." Tadzuna, " reins "; from te, " hand," and tsuna, " rope." TaimatsH, " a torch " ; from taki, root of taku, " to burn," and niatsu, " pine." Totonii, name of a province ; from towo, " far," tsu, genitive particle, and umi.^ " sea." Tsugouiori, " the last day of the month " ; from tsuki, " the moon," and kojuoru, " to retire." Tsuitachi, " the first day of the month " ; from tsuki, " the moon," and tachi, root of tatsu, " to arise." Tsu)}iabirakani,'' m\\\\xX.Q\y^' "fully"; from tsumu, "to cut 34 DERIVATION. short," and hiraku, " to extend." Cf. the phrase, " the short and the long of it." Yaiba, "sword-edge"; from yaki, root of yakii, "to burn," and ha, " edge." Yunie, " a dream "; from /, a root which appears in ineniuru, ^'to fall asleep," and nie, the root of iniru, " to see." The Japanese grammarians have supplied us with etymo- logical appliances far more powerful than any of those described above. They inform us that not only are syllables interchangeable which begin with the same consonant, i.e., those in the same vertical columns of the Table at page 15, but that one syllable may be changed for another if they only contain the same vowel, i.e., the syllables in the horizontal columns of the Table are interchangeable. This is the old maxim that in etymology the consonants count for very little and the vowels for nothing at all, with the difference that with the Japanese etymologists the consonants count for nothing as well as the vowels. With a comprehensive system like this, the gravest difficulties are easily surmounted. Thus, if we want to show that fm-uki, "old," is derived from wakaki, **'young," we have only to run the eye along the columns which contain wa and ka till we come to ha and ;??, and then follow the vertical columns in which the latter syllables occur till we find/u and ru, and the demonstration is complete. This rule is sufficient when the words contain the same number of syllables, but in the case of a redundancy or deficiency in their number, the native grammarians are amply provided for the emergency. By means of jS-riaku (aphaeresis), chiuriaku (elision or contraction), geriakii (apocope), and joji (affixes), the superfluous syllables are promptly removed and additional syllables provided wherever necessary. The following derivations, which are taken from Japanese works on etymology, illustrate the application of these principles : — DERIVATION. 35 Miiinc, " a plum," is derived from iLtsuknshiku niedzura- sliikii, " beautiful — rare," by taking the first syllable of each A\'ord and om.itting the others by geriaku. This gives innej but as u and niii belong to the same column, one may be substituted for the other. AT'^i"///, " a poppy," is derived ixom. Jiirake^ "to open out," and shiroshi, " white," the syllables hira being removed by joriaku, and roshi being taken away by geriaku. SJiitagafu, " to follow," is derived from shita iii tsiikite kokoro }ii kaiiafii, the superfluous syllables being removed by cliinriakii. Neko, " a cat," is from nedziinii kononiu, " fond of rats," the first syllable of each word being taken, and the others rejected hiu, '• a dog," is from iniiru, " to go away," because if taken to another place, he " goes away," and comes back to his master. Akane sasn, a viaktwa-katoba of doubtful meaning, is derived by the Kanjiko from akaki ke, " red vapour," which is first contracted into ake and afterwards lengthened by joji into akane, and sasu, " to strike," " to shoot." There is yet another system of derivation, by which words which we should be content to consider as roots are traced to fifty original elements corresponding to the fifty sounds of the Japanese syllabary. The following passage, taken from the preface of a Dictionary of Derivations compiled upon this system, will give an idea of its mode of operation. " All Japanese words have their origin in the nature of the heart. For the heart has fifty modes of action, and conse- quently man naturally gives utterance to fifty sounds. If in his heart he thinks ah ! the sound ah ! comes spontaneously to his lips ; if in his heart he grunts assent, he naturally utters the sound u ; the thought oh ! of alarm causes him spontaneously to exclaim oh ! and so on with the rest. The combination of these results naturally in words. Thus the 36 DERIVATION. colour aka (red) is so called because it is so radiant {kagayaku) as to make one feel ah ; awo (green) has been so termed from its being so plentiful {ohoki) as to make us feel ah ! ; kane (metal) is so called because it adheres nebari) firmly {katakii) together." This system, which is not without a grain of truth in it, is aided by a free use oijoriaku, chiuiiaku, &c. The influence of these theories is observable in the writings of even the most eminent Japanese grammarians, and it has therefore been thought desirable to warn the student against them. ACCENTS. Accents in Japanese have but little importance for the student either of the spoken or the written language. A competent authority has stated to me that the distinctions of accent described in the passages quoted below are really observed in speaking by the educated classes of Kioto, but the language of Yedo certainly neglects them, and educated natives of the east of Japan declare that they are unable to discover any difference in the pronunciation of such words as 7/2, " the sun," hi, " fire," and hi, " a water-pipe " ; kaki, " an oyster," and kaki, " a persimmon." The views of the native grammarians upon this subject will be learnt from the following extract from the San-on-ko, by Motowori Norinaga : — "In the language of this Empire there are but three accents, viz., *the ^ (or even accent), the ^ (or rising acceat), and the ^ (or departing accent). The entering accent (X) is not in use. Hi, 'the sun,' takes the ^ accent ; hi, 'a water-pipe,' the _t. accent; and hi, 'fire,' the ^ accent. On the other hand the /// of ///;/^z/rt, 'sunshine,' takes the _t. *^ 15 something like the English monotone ; _t. resembles the rising inflection, and ^ the falling inflection. ACCENTS. 37 accent ; the hi of hakeJii, ' a kind of water-pipe/ takes the ^ accent ; and the Jii oi JiibasJii, * tongs,' the J^. accent. Yajfia, 'a mountain,' has the ^ accent, but in such compounds as yaniakaze, 'mountain-wind,' 2iX\d yaniai/iatsii, 'mountain-fir,' yavia takes the ^ accent. Yet in the compounds higasJiiyama, 'east-mountain,' and nishiyama^ ' west- mountain, ' j/rt;;^<7 has the _t accent. Uji (the name of a district) again is pro- nounced with the ^ accent, but in the word UjikaJia, * tlie river Uji,' it takes the _t. accent, while in the compound UJibashi, ' the Uji bridge,' it has the ^ accent. " In this way all words suffer changes of accent, and if in such cases the original accent were retained, a change of meaning would be the result. Take, for instance, j/<^;;^(^/^^^^ ?iX\\ ya}Jiajnatsu,\.\\Q examples just quoted. U ya/na is here pronounced, as in the original word, with the ^ accent, the meaning will be ' mountain and wind,' ' mountain and fir,' and we shall have in each case two objects, and not one. It is owing to the change of accent that the meaning become^ 'tliC wind of the mountain,' 'the fir of the mountain.' " But yaina is composed of the two syllables ya and uia, kaJia of the two syllables ka and ha. If we examine the accent of each syllable se[^arately, we shall see that ya has the _t. accent, ma the ^, ka the _t, and ha the ^ accent. The entire words j^^;;/^ and kaJia have nevertheless their own accents, both taking the ^ accent. The same principle applies to polysyllabic words such as himukashi {higashi), •east,' ininaDii, 'south,' etc. But the attempt to distinguish the accenc of each of a number of successive syllables leads to confusion, and no clear results can be obtained. This is due to the intimate connection which exists between the sounds of which a word is composed. There is, however, no uncertainty in deciding the accent of any entire word.'' Motowori further says that although in speaking, Chinese words are accented by Japanese, the accents follow the 38 ACCENTS. Japanese system, and have nothing to do with the original Chinese tones. Kitanobe, author of the Ayiihisho, says that there are three accents in Japanese, viz., the yiiki (going), corresponding to the Chinese ZJS ; the kaheii (returning), corresponding to the Chinese _t. ; and the tachi (cutting off), corresponding to the Chinese ^. The comparison with Chinese shows that in the above remarks, by accent is meant musical intonation, and not a mere emphasis or stress on the word or syllable. In this latter sense the accent of Japanese words is much less marked than in English. It usually falls on the penultimate syllable, but to this rule there are numerous exceptions. CHAPTER II. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. Japanese g^rammarians divide words into three classes, viz. — Na, Kotoba, and Teniwoha. This classification accords well with the structure of the Japanese language. It rests on a division of words into principal and subordinate parts of speech, principal words being subdivided into uninflected {iid) and inflected {kotoba). There is, however, no good reason why this subdivision should not be extended to the subordinate parts of speech, viz. — Particles and Terminations or Teniwoha. If this be done, we shall have four classes of words, as follows : — I. Uninflected Principal words {iid). II. Inflected Principal words (kotoba). III. Uninflected Subordinate words 1 (f ' j \ IV. Inflected Subordinate words J ^' With this modification the classification of the Japanese grammarians has been adopted in the present treatise. Na^ means " name," and the class of words so denominated includes the noun, pronoun, numeral adjective, and interjection, together with a number of words, which, although correspond- ing in meaning to the verbs, adjectives, or adverbs of other languages, are uninflected, and must therefore be reckoned as 7ia. Kotoba means " word." Under this term are comprised * In the Kotoba no Chikcvnic/ii, na are called i-kotoba, or " words which remain at rest," as opposed to hataraki-kofoba^ or "words of action," the term which in that treatise has been appHed to the kotoba of older writers. By " rest" and "action" are here meant "want of inflection" and " inflec- tion," and Jiataraki^ "working," or "action," has no reference to the usual meaning of verbs as expressing action. 40 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. verbs and adjectives. The word teniwoha* is nothing more than four of the commonest particles, viz. — te, ni, wo, and ha, united so as to form one word. Under this designation are included particles and prepositions, together with the suffixes attached to verbs and adjectives. * Teniwoha. — The aspirate oi ha is sounded in pronouncing this word. CHAPTER III. UNINFLECTED PRINCIPAL WORDS. In this class of words are included the noun, pronoun, and numeral adjective of European grammars, together with some classes of words which it is convenient to render in English by other parts of speech, such as verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Cases of this last kind are especially numerous among words of Chinese origin, all of which are uninflected, and must therefore be taken to belong to this class, by whatever parts of speech it may be convenient to translate them in English. Thus iuia, *' now," is really a noun, as its derivation shows. It is compounded of /, the root of iru, " to be present," and ina^ " a space," the literal meaning being " the present space." Koko, " here," is also a noun, as is shown by its allowing the case-signs no^ Jii, &c., to be appended to it. Such Chinese words as shinjo, " to offer respectfully," ^(?r<^«, "look," although often used alone, require some such verb as nasani or sum, " to do," to be understood in order to make the sentence grammatically complete, and are therefore really nouns. The most common case of this kind is where a Chinese or Japanese uninflected word is combined with the v^erb naru, " to be," or with the particle ni, " in," to form a phrase equivalent to our adjective or adverb, the word being seldom or never used, except in one of these combinations. Thus, kirei nam is used as equivalent to our adjective "pretty"; kirei ni, to the adverb " prettily " ; shidzuka nam, to our adjective " quiet " ; shidzuka ni, to the adverb " quietly." These phrases are only substitutes for adjectives and adverbs, and must not be confounded with them. The true adjective is an inflected word (the adverb being one of its inflected forms), as may be seen by referring to the Table at the beginning of Chapter IV. E 2 42 UNINFLECTED PRINCIPAL WORDS. Words of this class have, properly speaking, no declension. The distinctions of gender, number, and case are indicated by means of certain particles placed before or after the words, which themselves suffer no change. THE NOUN. Xouns may be divided into Simple, Derived, and Com- pound nouns. Simple or Underived nouns require no remark. DERIVED NOUNS. Roots of Verds. — The roots of verbs often become nouns without any change of form. Thus c/iin] root of c/n'm, " to become scattered," is also used as a noun meaning " litter," " rubbish " ; ?ic/iz, " a stroke," is the root of the verb iitsi^, " to strike " ; kakitsuke, " a writing," is the root of the verb kakitsukeru, " to note down " ; hiraki, '' a door with hinges," is the root of the verb Jiiraku, " to throw open." Those abstract nouns which seem as if they were formed by adding the syllable mi to adjectival roots reall}- belong to this class. Thus takaini, " height," which contains taka^ the root of the adjective takaki, " high," is the root of a verb takanui, " to be high " ; hay ami, *' speed," is the root of a verb hayamii, " to be quick." In the old literature these nouns still retain enough of their original force as verbal roots to take before them the particle zuo, the sign of the objective case, as in the following examples : — Akagoma ga agaki zvo ha- The speed of foot of my bay yami. horse. Miyako wo tohomi. Its distance from the capital. Yama wo ohomi. A plenty of mountains. Some of these nouns in 7ni, like the English abstract words " height," " depth," are also susceptible of a concrete signifi- DERIVED NOUNS. 43 cation. Thus, fukanii may mean *' a deep place " as well as " depth " in the abstract ; takanii may mean not only " height," but " an elevation," " a hill."' Roots of Adjectives. — The roots of adjectives are occasion- ally used as nouns, as in the phrase shiro no jofu, " white cloth of first quality." A few abstract nouns are formed from the roots of adjec- tives by changing the final \'owel of the root into e, as ake, " redness," from akaki, " red " ; kure, " darkness," from kuraki, " dark "; take, " length," " a height," from takaki, " high." Sa. — The abstract nouns formed by adding sa to the roots of adjectives constitute a large class. It is to be observed that these nouns express not so much the quality denoted by the adjective as the degree of the quality. Takasa, for instance, is rather " highness " than " height " ; ohokisa is *' the degree of bigness," i.e., " the size," rather than the mere quality of largeness in itself Examples : — Akasa, '' redness," from akaki, " red." Nigasa, " bitterness," from Jiigaki, " bitter." AtsHsa, "thickness" or "hotness," from atsiiki, "thick" or " hot." Shirosa, " whiteness," from shiroki, " white." In the old language nouns are formed in one or two cases by adding this termination to the roots of verbs, as kahesa, " return," from kaheru, " to return." Ra. — A few abstract nouns are formed by adding ra to adjectival roots, as ivabishira, " misery," from zi'abishiki^ " miserable." Qe, iT^.— Abstract nouns are also formed from ?ia (un- inflected words) and from verbal or adjectival roots by the addition of the syllable ge or ke, which is identical with ki, " spirit." Derivative words of this class are of very frequent occurrence in the ancient nionogatari. 44 DKRIVEl) NOUNS. Examples : — Nanige in the phrase nanige nakii, " as if nothing were the matter "), from nani, " what," Midzuke, " moisture," from inidzu, " water." Aburake^ "oihness" or " greasiness," from abiira, "oil." Nige (in the phrase nige naki, " incomparable "), from niru, " to be like." Hitoge (in the phrase hitoge naki, " lonely "), from hito, " a man." Tsuyoge, " an appearance of strength," from tsiiyoki, " strong." Abu7iagt\ " an appearance of danger," from abiinaki^ " dangerous." WadzuraJiashige ^ " an appearance of troublesomeness," from wadzurahashiki, " troublesome." These nouns are often used in combination with nam as the equivalents of adjectives, or with ;// added, instead of adverbs. Examples : — Mukutsuge 7iaru, " hideous." Rikoge ni, " plausibly." lyashige ni, " meanly." Ka. — The uninflected words derived from other uninflected words, or from the roots of verbs or adjectives by adding one of the terminations ka, yaka, yoka, raka, Jiaka, saka, soka, or bika are of the class described at page 41 as always found combined with the verb nai-u, " to be," to form phrases equivalent to adjectives, or with ni added as equivalents of adverbs. The ka which appears in all these terminations is no doubt identical with the he or ge of the preceding para- graph, but the remaining syllables cannot be so readily explained. Ra is perhaps the ra used to form abstract nouns from adjectives, and bi another form of the termination mi, which has a similar force. These words are mostly descrip- DERIVED NOUNS. 45 tive of outward appearance, and they often correspond to English derivatives mful,]', or ly. Examples : — SJiidzu-ka fiaru, " quiet." Shidzu-ka tii, " quietly." Nodo-ka nam, " gentle." Waka-yaka nam, " youthful." Taka-yaka ?n, "loudly"; "with a loud voice," Nihohi-yaka nai^u, " having a blooming appearance." Hana-yaka nam, " gay-looking." Konia-yaka ?iam, " minute." Tania-saka ni, " by a rare chance." Yabu-saka naru, " stingy." Nayo-bika nam, " graceful." Nada-raka nam, " gentle " (of an acclivity). Niku-raka nam, " hateful." Oro-soka ni, " coarsely " ; '' without taking pains." Ate-haka nam, "noble-looking." Makotoshi-yaka ni, " with an air of truth." Aza-yaka ni, " clearly " ; " distinctly." Compound nouns may consist — 1st. Of two nouns, as kazagiirunta, "a toy windmill"; from kaze, " wind," and kni^unia, a " wheel or mill " ; kahabata, a " river-side," from kaha, a " river," and hata, " a side." 2nd. Of the root of an adjective followed by a noun, as kurombo, a " negro," from kiiro, root of kuroki, " black," and hito, " a man " ; akagane, " copper," from aka, root of akaki, " red," and kane, " metal." 3rd. Of a noun followed by the root of an adjective, as tomobuto, " big stern " (a kind of boat), from tomo, " the stern," ?i\'\^ futo, root oi fiitoki, " thick." 4th. Of the root of a verb and a noun, as norimono, " a travelling chair," from n'ori, root of nom, " to ride," and mono, " a thing-." 46 COMPOUND NOUNS. 5th, Of a noun and the root of a verb, as monoshiri, " a scholar," from mono, " a thing," and shiri, root of shim, " to know " ; jnidzuire, " a water-holder," from inidzu, " water," and 2>^, root of iriiru, " to put in." In compounds the first element may qualify the second, as ita-do, " a plank door " ; sho-sho, " a general of the third rank " ; or in Chinese words may govern it, as kai-san, "founding a temple"; ke-shin, "transformation"; or may be governed by it, as hi-kaki, " a poker " ; sake-nomi, " a drunkard " ; or they may be joined by " and " understood, as Jiiju-puku, "poverty and riches"; jo-ge, "going up and coming down " ; de-iri, " going out and coming in." In Chinese compounds two elements of the same or similar meaning are often combined for the sake of emphasis or com- prehensiveness, as /^^/-.y^/, "reforming"; kon-zatsii, "confusion." Hybrid Compounds (compounds of which one element is of Chinese and the other of Japanese origin) are much commoner in Japanese than in European languages. Examples : — Jin-bako, " a nest of boxes made to pile up one on the top of another," ixom. jiu, a Chinese word meaning " to pile up," and hako, the Japanese word for " box " ; obohe- cho, " a note-book " ; haretsu - dania, " a bomb-shell " ; j6- btikuro, "an envelope." HONORIFIC PREFIXES. Mi, ohomi, onii, ohon, on, o. — Nouns with one of these honorific words prefixed are of the nature of compounds. Mi means "august," ''imperial," and is usually rendered by the Chinese character ^^. It is generally, although not exclusively, found before words relating to the Mikado or to the kiuni (gods of the Shinto mythology), as vii-ko, " a prince " ; ini-ya, " a shrine of a kaini'' ; vii-su, " the transparent screen formerly hung before the Mikado on public occasions"; ini-ne, " the top of a mountain." HONORIFIC PREFIXES. 47 Ohonii is composed of oho, the root of ohoki, '' great," and the mi just noticed. Omi, ohon, on, and o are abbreviated forms of it. Ohouii and ami are only found in the old language, the modern language preferring the form on. Onii, however, is still used in the spoken language prefixed to one or two words, as omi ashi, " the honorable legs." O is almost entirely confined to the spoken language, where it is exceed- ingly common. All these words are prefixed to Japanese words only, except 0, which is found joined to a few Chinese words, as rusii, "your absence"; o yakiL-sho, "the honorable office " ; taku, " the honorable house," i.e., " your house." Mi is also found prefixed to Chinese words, as mi biohii, " the honorable screen," but this is extremely rare. Examples of ohonii, SiC. : — Ohomi-j/uki, " an imperial progress." Ohonii-odi, " the honorable girdle." the great and august god." ka I know not in what (Em- peror's) honorable time it was. Although I have no fish to offer you. OJion-gaini, Idziire no ari ken. ohon toki ni sakana (pron. Nani bakari no mi mo safurahanedo sorawanedo). Ikade on na wo tamahe. Hi})ie-miya no on tomo shite. Mikado on namida koboshite. Mikado no on yamahi. to tell me kikase- I beseech you your name. Accompanying the Princess. The Mikado shedding tears. The Mikado's ailment. Before words of Chinese origin are prefixed the honorific words ^^ or gio, as in go-sho, "the honorable place," i.e., " the palace"; ki, as in ki-kokti, "the honorable country," i.e., " your country " ; soji (before the relations of the person 48 HONORIFIC PREFIXES. addressed), as in son-pii (pron. soiii), " the honorable father," i.e.y " your father." Go occasionally appears before Japanese words, as go motsiitoDio, " you are right." HUMBLE PREFIXES. Humble prefixes are found with Chinese words only. They are — Gu, as in gic-sai, " the stupid wife," i.e., " my wife." Setsu, as in setsu-bo, " the awkward mother," i.e., *' my mother." Sen, as in sen-zoku, " the mean family," i.e., " my family." SJw, as in sho-jo, " the little woman," i.e., " my daughter." - Hi, as in Jii-ka, " the rough, rustic house," i.e., " my house." GENDER. In the class of compound nouns should also be included j nouns with one of the words wo, " male," or me, " female," j prefixed. An n is sometimes inserted for the sake of euphony \ Examples : — MASCULINE. FiiMlNlNE. Wo-uma, " a horse." Me-unia, " a mare." Wo-jika, " a stag." Me-jika, " a hind." Won-dori, " a cock." Men-dori, " a hen." W is not pronounced in these words. Wo and nie are combined with Japanese words only. NUMBER. Under the head of compounds there remains to be noticed a kind of plural formed in the case of a few nouns by a repetition of the word. Except in the ancient literature, j these forms have never exactly the same force as the plurals ' of European languages, nor is their meaning precisely the same in every case. " Every," ' all kinds of," before the noun, are the most usual renderings. NUMBER. 49 Examples : — Kuni, "a country"; kiiuiguni, "every countr\'." Hito, " a man " ; hitohito, " all sorts of men." Tokoro, " a place " ; tokorodokoro, " various places." Toki, " a time " ; tokidoki, " sometimes." Tabi, '' a time " ; tabitabi, " time after time " — " often." SJiina, " an article " ; shinajina, " all kinds of articles " — " an assortment." In almost every case the first letter of the second part of these compounds takes the nigori, if it be a letter which admits of it. PRONOUNS. The distinction of person which holds so prominent a place in the Aryan languages has little place in Japanese. The verb has no grammatical inflections to indicate person, and although there are words which correspond in meaning to the personal pronouns of other languages, their grammar is the same as that of nouns, and the idea of placing them in a separate class has not even suggested itself to the native grammarians. The use of personal pronous is much more restricted in Japanese than in English. As in Latin and Greek, they are used not as mere signs of the person of the verb, but in order to prevent ambiguity, or in cases where there is an emphasis upon them. Thus, " I will go," " He does not know," are in Japanese simply yukan, shirazu. But where the pronouns are emphasized, as in the following sentence, they must be expressed in Japanese. Ko womina naraba, ivaga ko If the child is a girl, I will ni sen ; wonoko iiaraba, make it my child ; if it is nanji yuniiyatori 7ii nashi- a boy, do yon educate him tateyo. for a soldier. Where personal pronouns are wanting, the person of the 50 PRONOUNS. verb may usually be inferred from the presence of honorific forms indicating the second person, or of humble forms showing that the first person is meant. The v^arious modes of indicating the plural are but rarely had recourse to in the case of other uninflected words, but with pronouns it is the rule to employ the reduplicated form, or to add one of the plural affixes when two or more persons or things are meant. PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON. 7. — Japanese Words. A, wa, are, ware, waro. — The most ancient Japanese word for " I " is « or wa. Both these forms are of frequent occur- rence in the Manyoshiu, but they have become obsolete in the - later forms of the language. Examples : — Wa wo niatsu tsubaki. The camellia which awaits me. A wo inatsu to Oh, that I could become Kinii ga nure-ken changed into the drippings Ashibiki no from the mountain toilsome Yaina no shidzuku 7ii to the feet, with which thou Nai^amashi mono wo. hast doubtless been wetted while waiting for me ! Ago (for aga) ohokhni, " my great lord." When followed by the possessive particle ga, wa is still in use. Examples : — Waga kimi, " my lord." Waga ko, " my child." Waga toinogara, " my companions " (used in the sense of "we"). Waga atsiirahe yarishi sakadzuki, " the wine cup which I ordered from you." PRONOUNS. 51 JVdjfa has also the meaning " one's own." Waga ko, for instance, may mean " his or her own child " as well as " m\' child." ]Va naini \^ properly a plural, but it is often used as a singular. Ai't\ another obsolete word for " I," is a with the syllable re^ which is also found in sore, kare, tare, &c. Ware (plural* ivarera, wareware, or waredonio) is formed by adding the re just mentioned to wa, " I." It is the most general word for the pronoun of the first person, and is found in the most ancient as well as in the latest forms of the language. It is occasionally heard in the spoken language in the plural form warera, which is used towards inferiors as a pronoun of the second person plural equiv-alent to orera. In the modern epistolary style, warera is used for " I " in addressing inferiors. Instead of zvare no and ware ga, waga is used. Examples of ware : — Ware nakaran ato nari tonio. Even after I am dead. Ware ni yoki hakarigoto ari. I have got a good plan. Wate kaheri kitaru made, You must wait here till I kokojii arite inatsubeshi. return. Ware-ware ha Hida no kuni We are artisans of the pro- naru takuvii nari. vince of Hida. Waro is an obsolete word for " I." It seems to be only a variation of ware. Watakushi. — As a pronoun, zuatakiishi belongs to the spoken language, and to modern epistolary correspondence, where it is the commonest word for " I." Watakushi gi (thing) and watakushi kata (side) are also used. In the literary language watakushi means " selfishness." " that which is private or personal." Its derivation is doubtful. * The editorial " we " is ware Into, " I and man," and sometimes luaga hai, or ivaga toniogara. 52 PRONOUNS. Maro. — Maro is used chiefly, although not invariably, to inferiors, or to persons with whom one is on terms of close intimacy. It has much the same force as the ore or washi of the spoken language. Towards persons with whom one is not on familiar terms, maro is a haughty word for " I." The author of the Makura Zoshi remarks that the Court nobles, in addressing the Mikado, should not say maro for " I," but should use their own names instead. . In the Tosa Nikkidi child says, — ''Maro ko?io iita no kaheshi sen,'' " I will compose a reply to this verse of poetry." In one of Motowori's works he says: '' Aru hito tohite thakit,'' " Uta to ha ikanaru mono zvo ifu zo ya ? " ''Maro kotaJiete ihaku!'' " A certain person asked of me, ' How do you define poetry?' | and I answered " The Mikado and persons of high rank are in books made ' to use maro towards inferiors, as Maro no yo fii, " in my reign." It is little used in the modern written language. Waraha (literally, " the child "), corresponding to the Chinese ^ {sho), is only used by women. Ex. : Warahli wo mo ite yuki tamahe, " take me with you, too." Onore ^plural onorera) is properly of no person. It means " self," " oneself," and may be used indifferently for " myself," " yourself," " herself," and " himself" In practice, however^ ( it is so little different from " I " that a place has been given j it among the pronouns of the first person. j In the spoken language, 07iore is usually of the second ' person, and is a contemptuous word oftenest heard along with abusive language. Examples of 07iore : — Ima onore misute-tatematsn- If }^ou should now abandon raba, ikade yo ni ohasen ? me, how could I exist in the world 1 PRONOUNS. 53 Ofiore kind no kokot'o yokii I have well known )'our heart. shirijiii. Onore ga cJiichi )io tokui nari. He is a customer of my father's. Onore Jiitori niakaran to iJiite. Saying " I will go myself, alone." Miy niidonw, niidzukara. — Ali literally means " body," " person," and hence " self," but like ouoj'e it is often used as a pronoun of the first person. Waga mi has the same meaning as mi. The derived form midzukara is, however, commoner. It is formed by adding to mi the genitive particle tsii, and the kara which also appears in nagara, mono kara, &c. Midzukara means " by or of oneself," '* by or of myself." Midojno is used in the spoken dialect by persons of the samurai class for the singular and plural indiscriminately. Name of the speaker used instead of the pronoun of the first person. — Both in speaking and in writing, the name (the nayiori^ or if the speaker or writer has no nanori, the na^ is often used instead of " I." Examples : — CJiikiizemnairite sono miikasJii After (I) Chikuzen came and no kotodomo Jdto-bito ni ka- related to them all the taraJii Jiaberi-shikaba. things that had taken place previously to that. Noj'inaga anziiru ni. In Norinaga's opinion \i.e.^ in my opinion]. Soregashi. — Soregashi properly means " a certain person," " somebody," but it is generally used in the sense of " I." It is peculiar to the written language. Example : — Soregashi ga me no niJiaka ni Inasmuch as my eyes were naku narite Jiabereba. suddenly destroyed. 54 PRONOUNS. Yatsugare is a humble form of expression, equivalent to the Chinese boku (^). It is not in use in the spoken language, nor in the earlier written language. 2. — Chinese Words. Chin ^^ is the word used by the Mikado in his official character. It corresponds to the *we' of European sovereigns. SJiiii g (plural shin-ra) is the converse of chin. It is the word used in petitions and memorials to government, or to persons in authority. In China this character is only used by officials of the highest rank, but in Japan all classes employ it. It is often preceded by the character gu ^, " stupid." Yo ^ (plural yoj'o), is peculiar to tlie written language. It ma)' be used to superiors, inferiors, or equals. Sessha ^ ^, "the awkward person " (plural sesshadoino)^ is the word used for " I " in the official epistolary style when addressing equals. It is not altogether unknown in the colloquial language, but in speaking it is rather a forma] word. In Aidzu it is commonly used for watakushi. Setsu, the sound of ||lj, the first of the two characters for sessha^ i? also in use in the spoken language^ as in the phrase setsii m ron ni ha, *' in my poor opinion." Boku ^, " servant," is a humble word. It corresponds to the Japanese j<^/i-^ii, "body," "person," is a respectful word for ''you,'* common in the later book style. On-nii idzukii wo sashite yukase-taviafu ? "whither are you going ? " O koto also belongs to the later book style, as okoto ga se?iaka ni oharete, " borne on your back." In this sentence the speaker is a mother addressing her grown-up son. Maiito (pron. vioto)^ from via^ " correct," "just," and hito^ " a man," is only used towards inferiors , as for instance by a noble to his retainers. The following example is from the Genji Monogatari : — Kono anegimi ya viauto no nochi no oya ? This elder sister is then your second parent ? Koyatsu, or koitsii, lit. " this fellow," is an extremely con- temptuous word. Ki-sania is a hybrid word composed of the Chinese honorific prefix ki ;^, *' noble," and the Japanese word sama^ " sir." Kisania occurs frequently in the modern epis- tolary style, and although not employed in addressing superiors, is by no means an impolite word. In the spoken language it is a contemptuous or familiar expression. Anata, in the sense of " you," does not belong to the written language. 2 . — Chinese Words. Kak-ka, Ki-ka. These are the principal words for " you " in the modern official epistolary style. Kak-ka is considered as equivalent to " Your Excellency," and is used in addressing PRONOUNS. 59 Ministers of State, nobles, the Foreiijn Representatives, and other persons of similar rank. Ki-ka indicates much the same rank as " Esquire." It is the word used to Foreign Consuls, the principal local authorities at the open ports, the secretaries in the public departments, &c. Kak-ka and ki-ka are also placed after the name in writing- the address, as E-koku Koshi Kak-ka, " His Excellency the British Minister." Hei-ka, Den-ka. In the same way Hei-ka (Your Majesty) is used in addressing the Emperor, and Den-ka (Your High- ness) towards Princes of the Imperial family, and formerly to the Taikun, as Teiino Heika, "His Majesty the Tenno " ; Taikun Denka, " His Highness the Taikun." Sok-ka is also much used in the official epistolary style. It is a moderately respectful word. In private letters, ki-kun, son-kun, or son-ko may be used to equals or superiors, and ki-den, or ki-jo, to inferiors. Go-zen is the pronunciation of the Chinese characters by which omahe is written. It is, like omahe, a respectful word. Go-zen belongs to the book style. Go-hen (plural go-hen ra) is the Chinese equivalent of mauto, and, like it, is only used towards inferiors. The student will probably find that nanji for the book style, kak-ka, ki-ka or sok-ka for official letters, and ki-kun or ki-den for private letters will be all that he requires for writing Japanese. PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. Ka, kare (pi. karera), a, are (pi. arera). These words are, properly speaking, the substantive forms of demonstrative pronouns, and mean literally " that person," " that thing." They are, however, used for " he," " she," " it," " they." At the present time the distinction between kare and are is that the former is confined to the written language, and the latter to the spoken idiom. In the older language both words are in use, but a difference of meaning is recognized, kare 6o PRONOUNS. being applied to the less remote, and are to the more remote, of persons or objects not conceived of as immediately present before the speaker or the person addressed. Kai^e would therefore correspond to the Latin is, and are to ille. Ka and a are old forms. They are usually followed by the particle Jia. In the written language a and are are "luch less frequently met with than ka and kare. Examples : — Kai'e ga akiigio wo nikumi- Inasmuch as he hated his evil ivorikereba. conduct. Ka ha to mite ivataranu nchi Seeing that it is she, whilst I ha — do not cross over — The Japanese are fond of punning on ka ha. Thus in the above sentence it must be taken in two meanings, viz., ka ha^ " she," and kaha, " a river." It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the studenu that the Japanese language, although so abundantly supplied with personal pronouns, is very sparing in their use. There are often pages and even whole chapters without a single personal pronoun. In writing Japanese it is a good rule never to introduce them except when absolutely necessary for the sense, and always to think first whether one of the numerous honorific or humble words or forms will not serve the purpose. These remarks apply equally to the spoken language. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Root and Archaic Form. Substantive Form. *Ko, kore (pi. korera), So, sore (pi. sorera), Ka, kare (pi. karera), A, are (pi. ai'era), * Kore and ko7io correspond to the Italian questo (Latin hie), sore and S0710 to cotesto (Latin iste), and kare and kano, arc and a7io, to quello (Latin is, ille) Adj, Form. jNIeaning. kono. this. sono. that. kano. that. ano. that. PRONOUNS. 6l Ko, kon\ kouo are said of thin; ~v: W . ^ \ -s >-1 ^ "S v, "^ CTIV 1 u § « t <2 tt 5 < Igation 'good ^ ^ 1 1 1 3 .. "^ T^ "^i '-^ ■§ sT u -> >. 1 c-i 1 1 ^ ^ rt •f>. ;5 « ' C! G 5; ^ ;^ >. tc ■»• :5 ■<~- 5; J •<^ ■<^ 1 . •- -X '„ 2 1 •« 5 1 ^ 1 ^ D "^ , i ^ ^, s 15 ^, -^ o .^ s i^ ■J^ ^ t S^ "^ t Q « Q ^ r" •^ -- :; 1 ^ ■f* » >j ■^* N »J .k •h s •'^ 1 T- i S 5 5 a' -^ o 5: 1 U 1 " = "si 5 "^ N. >» N N < 5 § ^ a II II taburt dekiin -• \ § s 1 ^ ■^ 1 1 5 5 1 <« << << •v: 1 82 VERB AND ADJECTIVE. ROOT. I. The roots of verbs and adjectives are often used as nouns, as yorokobi ?io ainari, " excess of joy " ; e-gata no giriy *^ a meaning hard to apprehend " ; s/m'o no Satsuma jofu^ *' white Satsuma fine cloth " ; tsukahi, '* a messenger." In these examples yorokobi, arnari^ egata^ shiro^ and tsukahi are the roots oi yorokobu^ "to rejoice," ajnaru, " to exceed," egataki^ ^' hard to apprehend," shiroki, " white," and tsukafu, " to send." It is more convenient, however, to consider these nouns as na derived from kotoba^ and they have been accordingly^ noticed under that head at p. 41. ?. The root is also used in forming compounds, as kashi-ya, '" a house to let " ; yo-hodo, " a good deal " ; waru-gashikoki^ ■*' badly-clever," i.e,^ " cunning." 3. In exclamations the adjective is put in the root form. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF KOTOBA (VERB AND ADJECTIVE). ADVERB OR ADVERBIAL FORM. In verbs this form does not differ from the root ; in adjec- tives it is distinguished by the addition of the syllable kti* As will be seen below, the term " adverb " or " adverbial form " does not cover all the uses to which this form is applied. Sometimes it is a true adverb (i), at other times it is joined to a verb or adjective, but without qualifying it (2), and may therefore still be called an adverb, although not exactly in the ordinary sense of the word, and it is sometimes not an adverb at all, but a noun (3), or merely a base to which suffixes are attached (4). I. The adverbial forms of adjectives are sometimes adverbs, as hayaku hashiru, " to run fast," atsuku shasurn, " to thank * The spoken language drops the letter /- in this termination, and the contracted form is also frequently found in books of the iiaka-miikashi^ ., " adjective," and other names of a similar purport have been invented for it by other native writers on grammar. I. This form may be an adjective. In the case of verbal roots, it then corresponds to the participle in i7ig of English verbs, but it may oftener be translated by placing the verb in a relative clause. Like the conclusive form, it is of no tense, and the context must decide whether, in translating it, the present, past, or future tense should be employed. There is an ambiguity in the use of this form as an adjec- tive which a glance at the context is generall}' sufficient to remove. Matsu hito, for instance, may mean either " the man who is waiting " or " the man for whom I wait " ; shim * The conclusive form has almost entirely disappeared from the modern form of the spoken language, its place having heen usurped by the attri- butive form. An exception is iiashi^ the conclusive form of the negative adjective, which is not unfrequently used in the spoken language, although nai (a contraction of the attributive form ttaki) is more common. In some of the provincial dialects the conclusive forms of adjectives are still in use. This change in the construction of Japanese is well worthy of the attention of students of language. It is as if we gave up the use of the indicative mood, and used participles instead, saying, for instance, "he dying" or "his dying" instead of "he died," "his being killed" instead of " he was killed." The sensation headings of American news- papers, and the verbless sentences of telegrams and advertisements, show that English is not altogether free from the same tendency'. For the manner in which this change was brought about in Japanese, see Chap. V., under the particles ;/6> and ^a. 86 VERB AND ADJECTIVE. hito may be either " the man who knows " or " the man I know " ; arigataki kokoro may be either " a thankful heart " or " a heart for which one should be thankful." Examples of Attributive Form as Adjective : — Noki chikaku tobu hotaru. The firefly that flies near the eaves. When he started in pursuit. [Lit., the time of his start- ing to pursue.] The past nth day. Without any place to go to. His not being able to learn where Tametomo had gone to. A good man. A river in which fish are plentiful. 2. This form has, as a noun, two significations. Kasii, for example, may mean either " the person or thing who lends ' ' or " the act of lending " ; yoki may mean " good persons or things " or it may mean " goodness." In other words, kasu may be the equivalent either of kasu mono or of kasu koto ; yoki may correspond in meaning to either yoki mono or yoki koto. It will be observed that in neither of these senses has the attributive form the same meaning as the root, which may also be used as a noun. Examples of Attributive Form as Noun : — Those (teniwoha) which are attached to the attributive Oha7i to susumu toki. I nunc j ill ichi nichi. Yuku he naku. Tametomo no yuku he shire- zaru koto. Yoki hito. Uwo ohoki kaha. Zoku-tai-gcn yori ukuru ha. Tatsutoki mo iyashiki mo. form. Both noble sons. and mean per- I VERB AND ADJECTIVE. Hodokosii til mo, shiniatsii iii 1110. Kami ichi iiiai ni te mo sil- ts une zuo osorete. • Ko/io ji zuo mocJiiyiirii Jia ayamari Jiari. Hi 710 Jiikari ni souo hire wo Jiinimekasiini ha Jiata zuo fiiru ga gotoshi. Wadzurahashiki made ohoshi. I Both in liberalit}' and in econom\'. Fearing the throwing away of even a single sheet of paper. The use of this character is an error. Its causing its fins to gUsten in the sunHght is Hke the waving of a flag. They are numerous unto troublesomeness. [/.^.,They are so numerous as to be troublesome.] 3. This form takes the place of the conclusive form when preceded by co, ya, or an interrogative, b}- a rule which is explained in Chapter IX. Examples : — Otonashi-gaha to zo tsuini It is as the river Otonashi nagare-idzuru. that it at last flows out. Kore zo medetaki. It is this that is beautiful. 4. The suffixes which may be attached to this form as base are given below. [See Chaps. VI. and VII.] BASE FOR NEGATIVE AND FUTURE SUFFIXES. This base never constitutes a complete word by itself. It is only found associated with the negative and future suffixes. It is termed, in the Kotoba no Chikamichi, sho-zen-gen, or " future form," and is opposed to the ki-zen-gen, or " past . form," as the perfect is termed in the same treatise. The San-in-ko says that this form imada shikarazai'u ni mochiyii, " is used for events which have not yet taken place," a descrip- tion which seems more appropriate than the sho-zen-gen of 88 VERB AND ADJECTIVE. the Chikaniichi, as it would apply to the negative as well as to the future. ' For the suffixes attached to this base, see Chaps. VI. and VI L PERFECT. In the modern written language, verbs of the first conjuga- tion have a perfect formed by adding aru to the root, the. final i of which is contracted with the initial a of am into e. Thus kaku^ " to write," has a perfect kakern (for kaki-\-aru), " to have written " ; ifu, " to say," has a perfect iherii Tor thi -{-aru), " to have said." In the most ancient literature we find a form from which the final syllable rii of this form has disappeared,* and there it is not confined to verbs of the first conjugation, but is also in use, although with some changes, for verbs of the other conjugations and for adjectives. It is this form which is in the present treatise called the perfect, the ki-zen-gen of the Chikamichi. The perfect form is used in the following ways. 1. In the most ancient literature! it stands by itself as a perfect, as Inishihe 710 hito ni ware are Have I been one of the men ya ? of old ? Ikani oDiohoshimese ka ? What has been his thought ? 2. When preceded by koso, it takes the place of the con- clusive form. Hence it has been called by a native gram- * There are several other instances of the disappearance of the ru final of the verb am and its derivatives. In the written language oniyezaru nari is often written miyezanari, and in the spoken language we have ta (the termination of the past tense) for tarn, kt7-ei-7ia for kirei 7iaru, waruka (Nagasaki dialect) for "warukii aj'u, and attakke (Yedo dialect) for ari-tari-keri. t The perfect form 7ne of the future suffix 7i or 77111 is occasionally met with in modern writers. VERB AND ADIECTIVE. 89 marian koso no iniisubu kotoba, or " form joined with kosoP [See Chapter IX.] Examples : — Kore koso tania nare. Yone koso yokere. It is this, and not anything else, which is the jewel. It is rice onlv that is eood. 3. The most familiar use of this form is as the base to which are added the conditional and concessive particles ha^ do, and donw. It retains, however, its force as a perfect, as may be seen by comparing such forms as yukeba, " since he has gone " or '' if he has gone," \x\\\\ yiikaba, " if he went " or " if he should go." 4. In the first conjugation of verbs, and in the irregular verb aru,^ this form coincides with that of the Imperative Mood. Example : — Yuke, " go ! " nakare, " let it not be." * For the mode in which the Imperative is formed in other conjuga- tions, and when combined with a negati\»e, see under the suffixes yo, na — so^ and na. The following table shows the formation of the Imperati\e, both Positive and Negative, in the difterent conjugations :— VERB. POSITIVE IMPERATIVE. NEGATIVE IxMPERATIVB. 1st Conj. kasu kase kasuna or na kashi so 2nd Conj. tabiiru tube yo tabtiruna or na tabe so 3rd Conj. 7nirn vn yo miruna i ar2i are nakare Irregular J kuru ko yo kuna or kunma Verbs. 1 stiru se yo suna or S7iriina I inuru hie tnurnna or na im so H 2 90 CONJUGATIONS. There are three conjugations of verbs and two of adjectives. First Conjugation of Verbs. — To this conjugation belong the great majority of underived verbs. It is distinguished be- having a form for the negative base distinct from the root, * Of the three conjugations of Japanese verbs, the first is evidently the original one. The third consists entirely of verbs with monosyllabic roots. If these verbs had been inflected according to the first conjugation, the vowel of the root would have been obliterated in every part of the verb except the adverbial form, a loss which could be ill afforded in words consisting of only two letters. To avoid this the letter r has been inserted between the root and the characteristic vowel endings of the attributive, conclu- sive, and perfect forms, so that we have, for instance, instead oi mil inu ine^ mini mini mii-e. In the case ot the negative base, the obliteration of the vowel of the root has been avoided by a different means, viz., by allowing the root to remain without change. There are a few other verbs with monosyllabic roots whose inflections, no doubt partly from the same cause, resemble to some extent (and in the Yedo spoken language are identical with; those of verbs of the third conjugation. One of these verbs is iirii^ " to get," which is conjugated thus : Adv. ^, concl. u., attrib. z/r//, neg. base (f, perfect ure. Uni may in fact be considered a slightly irregular verb of the third conjugation. It will be seen by referring to the Table of Inflections that the principal parts of iini are identical with the terminations of verbs in e of the second conjugation, and there is every reason to conclude that all such verbs are composed of a root followed by this verb iini. This is plainly the case with Passive and Causative Verbs, which constitute the large majority of verbs of this conjugation. Korosaruni^ "to be killed," is obviously nothing more than korosti-ari-tiru, i.e.^ " get-be-kill " ; korosasuru., " to cause to kill," is ko7'OsJii-sJii-iini.^ z>, "get-make-kill." The Derivative Transitive and Intransitive verbs, such as adziikin-u, "to give in charge" (really to get taken charge of), miyiini^ " to be visible," may be easily shown to contain the same element, and an analysis of the remaining verbs in e of this conjugation will generally reveal it. The number of those whose roots end in /is comparatively small, and many of them may also be inflected according to the first conjugation. They are also plainly derivatives, but it may perhaps be doubted whether the final iiru CONJUGATIONS. 9 1 and b}- the circumstance that the inflections involve no increase in the number of syllables of the root. Second Conjugation of Verbs. — The number of underived verbs of this conjuc^ation is small, but it comprises all passive and causative verbs. The Japanese grammarians make two conjugations of it, drawing an unnecessary distinction between verbs whose roots end in i and fliose whose roots end in e. In the second conjugation the root and the negative base are identical in form, and the attributive form and the perfect contain one syllable more than the root. In the spoken language of Yedo, and sometimes in the modern written language, the attributive form and perfect of verbs in i of this conjugation terminate in zru, ire, and the same forms of verbs in e end in eni, ere. Third Conjugation of Verbs. — The third conjugation differs from the first in having the negative base the same as the root, and from the second in having the conclusive undistin- guishable from the attributive form. The following list con- tains all the verbs of this conjugation. It will be observed that they have without exception monosyllabic roots. In this conjugation the older language often attaches to the adverbial form the teniuwJia which belong properl}- to the conclusive form. Kiru^ " to clothe " ; niru, " to resemble " ; niru, '' to boil " ; is the verb iiru., "to get," or some other verb with a monosyllabic root, as, for instance, iru^ " to remain." It may be observed that the spoken language of the east of Japan, by omitting the conclusive form and preserving the vowel of the root in the attributive and perfect forms (having eru int., ere ire instead of iiru, ure).^ makes the second conjugation agree entirely with the third. It is not improbable that in this case the spoken forms are really older than those of the literary language. The above remarks may be summed up by saying that the First is the Original conjugation ; the Second, the Derivative or uru conjugation ; and the Third, the Monosyllabic conjugation. 92 CONJUGATIONS. him, " to dry in the sun " ; him, " to winnow " ; him, " to sneeze " ; niim, '' to see " ; irii, " to shoot with a bow " ; irUy " to melt " ; im, " to dwell " ; kern, " to kick." IRREGULAR VERBS. Am, "to be." The conjugation of am differs from that of verbs of the first conjugation in the conclusive form only, which is ari instead of am. The latter form is, however, retained as a base for the suffixes (except to, which is rather a conjunction than a suffix proper) of the conclusive form. Like am are conjugated om, habem, and imasokam, and the suffixes into the composition of which am enters, viz., keru^ tam. :zam, mem, nam, and sem* The imperative of aru is ave^ and the negative imperative nakare (for nakii-are). Ktim, " to come." In this verb the suffixes shi and shika^ which in other verbs it is the rule to append to the root-form, are more usually, though not invariably, attached to the nega- tive base ko. The imperative of ktiriL is ko, but modern writers have often koyo or koi. The negative imperative is kuiia, or in the later language kiiruna. Slim, " to do." Like sum are conjugated ohasuru, '* to be," and the numerous compounds of sum, as hi-sum, " to com- pare " ; ji-sum, " to decline " or " refuse " ; sJio-zum, " to pro- duce," &c., &c. The suffixes shi and shika are never found attached to the root-form of this verb, viz., shi, but always to the negative base se. The imperative of si4,ru is seyo. The negative imperative is suna or siirima. Imim, " to go away." Like i7ium is conjugated shinuru, " to die," and also the suffix num, which is nothing more than inum with the initial i elided. Lmm has the imperative ine. Later writers have sometimes ineyo. * Saru yiox sa-ai'ii) and shikaru (for s/ii'ka-iwu) are, of course, also conjugated in the same way as ai'-u. I CONJUGATIONS. 93 CONJUGATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. Most adjectives are of the first conjugation ; the second conjugation inckides those adjectives only whose roots end in sJii or y'/.* The native grammarians are of opinion that the ending kcre of the perfect is compounded of kiy the termi- nation of the attributive form, and are^ the perfect form of am, " to be." The old forms yokenui, yokedomo, which are found in the Manyoshiu, perhaps stand for yoki-arainu, yoki- aredouio, and are additional instances of the loss of the letter ;* of the verb am, " to be." (See above, note to page 88). Only a few of the suffixes are attached immediately to the different parts of adjectives. The verb am generally comes between. DERIVATIVE VERBS. I. Derived from 7ia or Nouns. Verbs are derived from na — 1. By adding the termination m, as Yadom, " to lodge " ; from yado, " a lodging." 2. By adding mn, mam (intrans.) or niuru (trans.) as Haraimi, "to become pregnant"; {xom.hara, "the belly." Tstckanin, "to grasp"; from tsuka, "a handle." Inanm, '*to refuse"; from ina, "no." Kiwamam, " to reach a limit " ; from kiwa, " edge." Kiwa7imm,''to push to an extreme " ; from kiwa, "edge." 3. By adding gu, as Tsunagu, " to tie " ; from tsuna, " a rope." * The reason why the conclusive form does not add ski in the second conjugation is obviously because the root already ends mshi (or//, which is the same thing in Japanese), and the repetition of the same syllable is disliked. In other respects the second conjugation is the same as the first, and if this difference is only remembered, the student need not trouble himself about the second conjugation of adjectives. 94 DERIVATIVE VERBS. 4. By adding nafii^ as Ajinafu^ " to taste " ; from aji^ " taste." Toiiionafii^ " to accompany " ; from tonio^ " company." Makinafu, " to bribe " ; from mahi^ " money." 5. By adding///, as Utafu^ " to sing " ; from uta^ " song." 6. By adding bum (root bi), as Inabiirii, " to refuse " ; from ina, " no." Otonaburii, '' to be of full age " ; from otona, " a full grown person." 7. A good many derivative verbs are formed by adding to nouns the verb sui^u^ " to do," the initial s of which often takes the nigori and becomes .z. In the great majority of these verbs the root is a Chinese word. In the later language those verbs of this class in which the initial s of sum takes the nigori often follow the spoken form of verbs of the second conjugation in i for the Attributive, Neg. Base, and Perfect, as, for instance, anzui^u, " to reflect," which is conjugated thus : — OLD CONJ. NEW CONJ. Adverb anji anji Concl. Form anzu anzu Attributive anzuru anjiru Neg. Base anse , anji Perfect anzure aijire DERIVATIVE VERBS. 95 Examples of derivatives of siiru : — Ron-z2iru, modern form rou-jiru, " to argue." ]\Iei-zun(, modern form mei-jirii, " to command." Oi)ion-zui-u (for oinoini-siiru), modern form oiiwn-jim, " to esteem." Karon-zimt (for karomi-simi), modern form karon-jiru, "to despise." These last two verbs are derived from the nouns oniovii, karomi, which contain the roots of the adjectives omoki, " heavy," and karoki, " light." [See above, p. 41.] Hi-suru^ " to compare." In this example the letter s does not take the Jiigori, and the conjugation of ^7/;?/ is therefore retained even b}- modern writers. 8. By adding nieku, as Kara-ineku, "to have a Chinese look"; from A'^zm," China." Fiiyu-uiekii, " to have a wintry look " ; from fuyu, "winter." II. Derived from Verbs. I. Intransitive and Transitive Verbs.— \\\ English there are seldom distinct words or forms for the intransitive and transitive applications of the same verbal root. Thus the words ride, sink, break, bend, and many others are either tran- sitive or intransitive according to circumstances. In such cases the Japanese language has usually two distinct \-erbs containing the same root. These verbs are formed in several different wa}'s, some- times the transitive from the intransitive form (I.), sometimes vice versa (II.), and sometimes both from an obsolete verb containing the common root (III.). Intransitive must be distinguished from passive verbs. For instance, kiriiru, the intransitive form of kirn, " to cut," should not be confounded with kiraniru, the passive form. The latter only is properly translated " to be cut." Kiriiru means 96 DERIVATIVE VERBS. " to possess the quality cut," i.e., " to be discontinuous." It conveys no idea of passivity or of being acted upon either from without or by the subject itself Many of these verbs are best translated with the help of adjectives terminating in able and ible. Uniru^ kiruru, &c., are exactly rendered by the French se z'endre, se couper, &c. The following examples illustrate the various modes in which transitive and intransitive verbs are formed from one another. Intransitive. 1st Conjugation. Shirizokii^ " to retreat." Tatsu, " to stand." Susuiim, " to advance." Ymmi, " to cease." 1st Conjugation. Ugoku, " to move." Odoroku^ " to be astonished.' Kawaku^ *' to dry." Oyobu, " to extend." IVatarn, " to cross over." Kaherii, " to return." Nokoru, " to remain over." I St Conjugation. Yorii^ '' to approach." Norti, " to mount." 3rd Conjugation. Niru, '' to be like." 2nd Conjugation. Kikoyuru^ " to be audible." Kirurii, "to be discontinuous." I. II. Transitive. 2nd Conjugation. Shirizokuru, " to drive back." Tatsuru, " to set up." Susmnuru, " to encourage." Yaviuru, " to cease." I St Conjugation. Ugokasu, '" to move." Odorokasu^ " to astonish." Kawakasu, " to dry." Oyobosu, " to extend." Watasu, " to send over," '' to deliver over." Kahesu, " to send back." Nokosu, " to leave." 2nd Conjugation. Yosuru, " to bring near." Nosuru, " to mount.'* 2nd Conjugation. Nisiini, " to counterfeit." I St Conjugation. Kiku, " to hear." Kirn, " to cut." DERIVATIVE VERBS. 97 Intransitive. 2nd Conjugation. Kudakuni, " to crumble." Toknni, " to melt." 2nd Conjugation. Miyuni, " to be visible." I St Conjugation. Tsusi;aii(, " to be continuous. III. 2nd Conjugation. OnivH, " to descend." Okui'H, " to rise." Idziiru^ " to go out." Nignni, *' to flee." Obivuni, " to start with alarm." Sugurii, " to pass," " to be ex- cessive." I St Conjugation. Tasukani, " to have help." Sadainani, '* to be fixed." Kaivant, " to change." 2nd Conjugation. S/iirakuni, " to become white or feeble." Noburu, (root 7iobi), " to stretch." The transitive verbs terminating in su or differently inflected from stint, " to do," have no doubt been formed by adding this verb to the root. Indeed, the modern language often conjugates them like sum, and we meet with such forms as watase-shi instead of watashi-shi, tsukahasure- domo instead of tsukahasedomo. The verb masu, so common in the spoken language, is one of the verbs which has been affected in this wav. In the older language it is a verb of Transitive. I St Conjugation. Kudaku, " to crush to pieces." Toku, " to melt." 3rd Conjugation. Mini, " to see." I St Conjugation. Tsiigu, " to join." 1st Conjugation. Orosu, " to let down." Okosii, " to raise." Idasu, " to put out." Nigasu, " to let flee." Obiyakasu, " to frighten." Sugosu or sugiisu, " to pass,'* " to exceed." 2nd Conjugation. Tasukuru, " to help." Sadamuru, " to fix." Kafuni, " to change." 2nd Conjugation. Shiraguru, " to make white." Nobnrji (root stretch." nobe), to sum, although gS DERIVATIVE VERBS. the first conjugation, but in the later and spoken language its inflections have been assimilated to those of siiru. The terminations am and wu of the above table are no doubt the verbs aru, " to be," and //77/, " to get." The conjugation, however, of those in am is regular. In the examples given below we have pairs of transitive verbs containing the same root. Those in the second column may seem at first sight to be merely the causative forms of those in the first column. They are really the transitive forms corresponding to intransitive forms which in most cases have ceased to exist, or perhaps never have existed. Kasic^ for example, does not mean " to cause to borrow," but •" to make borrowed," i.e., " to lend " ; misiiru is the transitive form corresponding to the intransitive viiynni, "to be visible," and does not mean " to cause to see," which would be misasuni. The fact that these forms never have a -honorific sense shows that, they are not regarded as causative verbs. Karii, " to borrow." Kasu, " to lend." Sadziikaru, " to receive." Sadzukuru, " to give." Adsukaru, "to take charge Adzttkitru, "to give in of." charge." Satoni, " to understand." Satosn, " to acquaint." Tamaharit, " to receive." Tamafu, " to give." Kini, " to wear." Kisuru, "to put on (clothes;." Mini, " to see." Misiiru, " to show." 2. Caiisative Ve?^bs. The causative forms of verbs may be obtained by the following empirical rule. Rule. For verbs of the first conjugation, and the irregular verbs ar'ii. and iniiru, add to the negative base sunt (root se) or in the modern language sJiiniuru (root sJiiuie). For verbs of the second and third conjugations, and the irregular verbs kurn and surii, add to the negative base DERIVATIVE VERBS. 99 sasiiru (root sasc), or in the modern language sJnvmru (root sJiime). Exception. Verbs with monosyllabic roots add seshi- jnunt, the causative of sum, to the root. Sjiru itself is, of course, an exception. Examples : — I St Conjugation. JManiorn, " to guard." Mamorasiirii or iJiamoyashi- imi7'ii, " to cause to guard." Korosii, " to kill." Korosasurii or korosashiumni^ " to cause to kill." 2nd Conjugation. I'tij"///'//, " to become lean." Yasesasum or yaseshimuriiy " to cause to become lean." Tadzunuru, " to look for." Tadzimesasiini or tadzii7te- shimuni^ " to cause to look for." 3rd Conjugation. Mine, " to see." Misasurn or iniseshiniiirHy " to cause to see." All causative verbs have their roots terminating in e, and are of the second conjugation. The causative forms are very commonly used instead of the original verbs in a honorific sense. The reason is that, according to Japanese ideas, it is considered polite to repre- sent the man of rank as surrounded by vassals and attendants, whom he causes to execute his commands.* 3. Passive Verbs. The passive forms of verbs may be obtained by the following empirical rule : — * In suru^ sasurii^ or sJiimuru^ the terminations of causative verbs, it is easy to recognize the elements sin'ic (root shi)^ " do," and tiru^ " get." The passive terminations riirti and rarurii are evidently composed of the verbs aru^ " be," and tent, " get." ft 100 DERIVATIVE VERBS. Rule. • For verbs of the first conjugation, and the irregular verbs aru and iniiru, add ruru (root re) to the negative base. For verbs of the second and third conjugations, and the irregular verbs kiiru and surti^ add raruru (root rare) to the negative base. Examples : — ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Kasu, " to lend." Kasariiru, " to be lent." Taburu, " to eat." Taberaruru, " to be eaten." Miru, " to see." Miraruru, " to be seen." Aru, " to be." Arariiru, " to be able to be." Kuru, " to come." Ko7'aruru, "to be able to come." Sum, " to do." Seraruru, " to be done." Inuru, " to depart." Inaruru, "to be able to depart." All passive verbs have their roots terminating in e, and are of the second conjugation. In the case of intransitive verbs these forms have a potential signification, as in the examples korarnru, inaruru^ cited above, and the passive forms of transitive verbs may- have a potential as well as a passive signification. Miraruru, for instance, may be " to be seen " or " to be able to see." The potential often merges into a honorific sense, it being thought more respectful to say that a man " has been able to do some- thing" than simply that "he has done something." The passive forms of causatives are very frequently used as honorific substitutes for the original verbs. A familiar example of this is araseraruru, the passive of the causative of aril, a form much used in speaking of the Emperor.* Examples of Transitive and Intransitive, Causative and Passive Verbs : — * The Kotoba ?to Kayohi-ji, Vol. I., is the best native authority on the subject of intransitive and transitive, causative and passive verbs. r DERIVATIVE VERBS. lOI Ko WO wojuina ni adziikete yashinahastc. Hi no naka }ii ucJii - kiibete yakase taniafii ni^ viera P mera to yakemi. Hi ni knbete, yakitari. SasJii kosaresJii (honorific use , of passive) edznnien. Tenchi no ahida ni iimariirn Diono. Kzi'oto kawarase (honorific use of causative) tamafii koto nashi, Tami yasukare to asana yicna inorase tamafu koto. Hito no kokoro zvo tanosJii- mashinniru. Onore ga tamashihi wo nusu- marete. Hito ha mihenu nari. Having given the child in charge to a woman, he caused her to nourish it. When he caused (his attend- ants) to burn it by throw- ing it into the middle of a fire, it burned awa}^ with a blaze. He burnt it b}- placing it on the fire. The map which you have been good enough to send me. Creatures born between heaven and earth. The imperial line of descent has never changed. (The Emperor's) praying every morning and every evening that his subjects may have ease. To give pleasure to the hearts of men. Being robbed of his own soul. There is no one to be seen. 4. In the Manyoshiu and iT^p/V^/ there are found many verbs which differ from the ordinary forms of the same verbs by having aru, afu, or asu instead of the u final, or by being lengthened in other ways : — Examples : — TsHtsnshiniant for tsutsus/iijnu,''to be quiet and respectful." I02 DERIVATIVE VERBS. KakiLsafu for kakusic, " to hide." Nabikafic for nabikti, " to bend." Nagekasit for nageku, " to lament." Tstnnasu for tstcum, " to pluck." These seem to be merely poetical forms, of the same mean- ing as the original verbs. III. Derived from Adjectives. 1. By adding inu to the root. Ex. : ShirojHu, " to become white " ; from shiro, root of shiroki, " white." Kuroimi, " to become black " ; from kuro, root of kiiroki, " black." The lengthened forms shiroviani^ ktironiaru, &c., are also found. The corresponding transitive verbs end in mtiru (root vie), as shiroiniiru, "to make white," nagamiwu, "to lengthen," " to gaze upon." 2. By adding I'li to the root. Ex. : Shigenc, "to be dense"; from shigeki, "dense." Nigaru, " to feel bitterly "; from nigaki, " bitter.^' The final vowel of the root is sometimes changed, as in Asuru^ " to be shallow " ; from asaki, " shallow." Katsuru, " to be hard " ; from kataki, " hard." The last two examples are, however, verbs of the second conjugation. 3. By adding garu to the root. These verbs are chiefly formed from the desiderative adjectives ending in taki, Ex. : Yukitagaru, "to wish to go " ; irora yukitaki, "desirous of going." Hoshigaru, " to be eager for " ; from hoshiki, " eager.'* Ayashigaru, "to think strange"; from ayashikiy " strange." Gani is no doubt compounded of ge, the termination of nouns described at page 42, and aru, " to be." These verbs DERIVATIVE VERBS. IO3 are, however, not conjugated like am, but as regular verbs of the first conjugation. They must not be confounded with the combinations so frequently met with of the adverbial form of adjectives with am. HosJiigarii, for instance, must be distinguished from hoshik'arn. COMPOUND VERBS. The first element of a compound verb may be a noun or an adjectival root, but is more commonly a verb in the root form. The first element of a compound may stand to the other — 1st. In the relation of an object direct or indirect. Ex. : Tabi-datsii, " to start on a journey." j\Iono-gataru, " to relate." 2nd. In the relation of an adverb qualifying it. Ex. : Ni-korosu, " to boil to death." Seine-Jiairii, " to enter with violence." Buchi-korosu, " to beat to death." Atsu-goJietaru kinu, "thick clothing." 3rd. It is sometimes co-ordinated with it. Ex. : Yuki-kaheru, " to go and return." Nige-chirii, " to flee and scatter," " to be put to the rout." DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. I. Derived from na. 1. B}' adding rashiki. These adjectives have a similar signification to English adjectives in ish. They belong to the later language. Ex. : Kodonio-rashiki, " childish " ; from kodojtio, " a child." Baka-rashiki, " foolish " ; from baka, " fool." 2. By adding shiki ox jiki. Ex. : Hanahadashiki, " extreme " ; from hanahada, " very." Hitoshiki, " uniform," " similar" ; from hito, " one." Kohishiki, " beloved " ; from kohi, " love." I ia4 DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. Adjectives in shiki often reduplicate the root for the sake of greater emphasis. Ex. : Hakabakashiki, " efficient." Chinese roots sometimes take this termination. Ex. : Bi-bi-shiki, " splendid " ; from bi, " beauty." 5. By adding keki. Keki is a poetical form. It simply changes an uninflected word into an inflected word, and does not alter the meaning. Thus tahirakeki, from tahira, means " level," " flat," and is the same as tahira nam of the ordinary written language, or tairana of the spoken language. Such forms as naga-kekic, samu-kekii _ where keku (never keki) follows the root of an adjective, have an entirely different character, and must not be confounded with the adjectives just described. II. Derived from kotoba. I. By adding sJiiki to the root, the vowel of which is usually modified at the same time. Ex. : Konoinashiki, " lovable " • from kononii, root o{ kononiu, " to like." Isogashiki, " busy " ; from isogi, root of isogu, '' to be busy," " to be in a hurry." Osoi'oshiki, " dreadful " ; from osori, root of osotni, " to dread." All verbs have derivative adjectives formed by adding taki to the root, and beki and niajiki to the conclusive form, but it is more convenient to include these terminations among the teniivoJia. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. The first element of a compound adjective may be either a noun, a verb in the root form, or the root of another adjective. Examples of Compound Adjectives : — Na-takaki, " famous " ; from na, " name," and takaki, " high." Te-bayaki, " dexterous " ; from te^ " hand," and hayaki^ "quick." COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. IO5 Kiki-gunishiki, " harsh " ; from kikii, " to hear," and kuriisliiki, " painful." Nogare-gataki, " inevitable " ; from nogaruni, " to escape," and kataki, " difficult." Shi-yasiiki, " easy to do " ; from sum, " to do," and yasuki, " easy." JJsii-akaki, '' light red " ; from usuki, " thin," and akaki, " red." \ I 2 CHAPTER V. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. I. Case Suffixes. Genitive, }io^ ga, isu^ " of." Dative, Locative, Instrumental, ni, " at," " in," " to " ; 7iite^ "in," "by means of"; he, gari, "towards" ; made, "as far as." Accusative, wo. Vocative, yo, ya, yayo. Ablative, j/^r/, kara, "from." II. Plural Suffixes. Ra, dojno, tachi, gata, bara, nado, sJiiu, to. III. Other Siffixes. Ha (read wa), Distinctive or determinative particle. Mo, " also," " even." Ka, Interrogative. Kana, Exclamatory. Ya, Interrogative and Exclamatory. Nan, Emphatic. Zo, do. Koso, do. To, Conjunctive. Dzutsu, " each." Dani, " at least." Sura, " even." Sahe, " even." Shi, " only." Noini, bakari, " only." Gachi, " all over." N agar a. Datera. UNINFLECTED TENIWOIIA SUFFIXED TO NA. 10/ Many of the teniwoha in this chapter may be suffixed not only to 7ia, but to those parts of kotoba and inflected teniivoha \\hich are capable of being treated as substantives, viz., the adverbial form and the attributive form. I. CASE SUFFIXES. There is no suffix to distinguish the nominative case. As sliovvn below, Jia and ga do not indicate the nominative. Gefiitive or Possessive Particles. No, ga, tsu, '' of" The distinction between 710 and ga resembles that between the English preposition of and the s added to form the possessive case. This is probably what the Japanese gram- marians mean when they tell us that ga no yori oinos/ii, i.e., ''ga is heavier than no!' the possessive relation being looked upon as a closer one than the partitive relation. In the classical period ga was used only after the substan- tive forms of verbs and a few other words, chiefly pronouns, as, for instance, ta ga, wa ga, kimi ga, imo ga, cJiichi ga. Ga and no are in later times used without much distinction. Thus hana ga saku and hana no saku mean precisely the same, viz. " the unfolding of the flowers." There is, however, a tendency in the Japanese language to treat phrases of this kind as if they contained an assertion, and hana no saku or hana ga saku are sometimes met with in poetry in the sense of '' the flowers unfold." In the spoken language the last-named meaning has become much the more usual one in the case of ga, and so entirely has the proper force of that particle been forgotten in these cases that it is either considered a sign of the nominative case, or is omitted altogether. This construction — viz., the attributive form with or without ga — is now used in speaking to the exclusion of the conclusive form, which has passed out of use both for verbs and adjectives. Thus for midzu 7tagaru, "the water flows," the spoken I08 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. language has inidsu ga nagai-uru (or oftener rtagai-erti) inidzu nagaruru. or niidzii. wa nagarurti ; for hana ha shiroshi, " the flower is white," Jiana ga shiroi (for shiroki) or Jiana wa shiroi. [See above, page 85.] In the later part of the classical period there are instances whereof? with a pronoun of the first person seems to imply humility, and with pronouns of the second or third person, contempt or disparagement ; but this use of ^<^ is unknown in the more ancient language, and also in its modern form. No (not ga) is used where the same thing is meant by the two nouns which it joins, or where one is a part of the other as in the examples Yainato no kuni^ "the province of Yamato," chichi no Dainagon, " her father the Dainagon," sono toshi no natsH, " the summer of that year." A noun is sometimes omitted after 710 if it can be easily supplied from the previous clause, as hito tsuina to ware no, " some one else's husband (or wife) and mine." Tsuina is of course to be supplied after no. No frequently occurs in the ancient poetry in the sense of no gotoki or no gotoku, " like," as tori no muragarite matsu, " to wait assembled in a flock like birds." Tsii (sometimes dzii) is an old word for the genitive particle. It is obsolete in the modern language except in onodzickara, niidzukara, " of or by oneself," and a few other words. Examples of Genitive Particles : — Tsiiki no j'O, yuki no ashita. A moonlight night, a snowy morning. Taregashi ga niuko ni nam. To become such a one's son- in-law. Ono ga waruki koto no sange. The confession of one's own sins. Saki no kanii nio, inia no nio. Both the former lord, and the present one. UNIXFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 109 Miyako he to Oniofu mo mono Jio KanasJiiki Jia Kahei'anu Jiito no A reba nari keri. I ma no yo 710 Jiito no monoserii fiimi nta wo iniru ni. Oki tsH sJiiranami. Waga nakti namida. Xurii ga ncJii ni. Itsutsu 710 mntsii. Seikmi ko ga kotoba 7ii. Yuku 77iidzu no JiayakiL (poetical). Ki77ii kofnru 7ia7nida 7io toko 7ii 77iichi7iureba. Ftiyn-gare 7to I\Io7'i 710 kudii-ba 7io Shimo 710 uJie 7ii Ochitaru tsuki no Kage no sayakesa. Matsu hi to 710 ko7i ya koji ya no sada7Jie nake7'eba. Ev^en with our joyous antici- pations of returning to the capital is mingled the sad thought that there are some who never will return. [In this sentence it is necessary to supply from a7'eba the substantive form arii^ In reading the prose and poetical compositions of the men of the present day. The white waves of the open sea. The tears which I weep. During my sleep. Five times six. In the words of Seikan. Swift as running water. As the tears of longing for thee have filled my couch. [In this phrase 7io joins na77iida with michi7iu7'u, which must be supplied from 77iichinu7'eba^ Oh ! the brightness of the moonlight that falls on the hoar-frost of the decayed leaves of the winter - withered woods ! As there is no certainty as to whether he whom I expect will come or not. no UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Ham ha kagiri no nakarama- If there were only no end to shikaba. spring. Ihe tsu dori. Xhe house-bird, i.e., the cock. Haru 710 suhetsu kata. The latter part of spring. Dative, Locative, and Instrumental Cases. Ni, "at," "in" or "to," "into," "by"; ni te, "by," "by means of"; he and gari, "towards"; made, "as far as," *' until." Ni is sometimes the sign of the dative case, as in the following examples : — Ware ni niiseyo. Show me. Hito ni adznkuru. To give in charge to some one. Ova ni niru. To be like one's parents. In the following examples ni means " to," " in," or " into." Yokohama ni yukn. To go to Yokohama. Yokohama ni worn. To live in Yokohama. Hako ni iriiru. To put into a box. A^i has the meaning of " along with " in the following example : — Qbana ga kaze ni niha no Along with the wind through tsnki-kage. the obana (a kind of grass) the moonlight in the court- yard. In such expressions as isami ni isamite, " full of eagerness " (lit., " along with eagerness being eager "), ni has the same force. The instrumental case is represented by the noun followed by ni te. This is the equivalent of wo motte of the modern semi-Chinese style. Ex. : CJii ni te cJii vuo arafu. To wash away blood by blood. UNINFLECTED TENIWOIIA SUFFIXED TO NA. Ill Ni is sometimes apparently the root of an obsolete verb 7111, " to be." AH te, for instance, may mean '' being- " as well as '' in," and nam {iii -\- aric) may mean " to be" as well as " to be in." Ni te is then the equivalent of de atte of the spoken language. Examples : — Of 10 re ha CJwin no Jiotori ni sabiirafii okina ni sahnrafn, Ika nam hi to ? Wadono tacJii ha idznku no hito-bito ni ka ? Kono atari ni te. Fudokoro nam fne. I am an old man who resides in the neighbourhood of Choin. What manner of man .' [Lit., a how being man.] What country-men are }-e, my masters ? In this neighbourhood. A flute which was in his bosom. Ni may often be conveniently regarded as the sign oi the predicate of a proposition. In the semi- Chinese style ivo shite or wo niotte sometimes takes the place of ni, as shinra wo niotte nani nani wo shira- shiinnm, " to make so and so known to your servants." iVz" is added to indeclinable words to form adverbs, as jiki ni, " quickly "; viuri ni, " violently," " wrongfully." Ni is used with causative verbs to distinguish the person who is caused to perform the action, and with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the action is performed. The phrases used in the Kayohi-ji for " causative " and " passive " are examples of this use of ni. Ta ni shikasasum. Ta ni sJiikaseranini. Causing another to be or do so and so. Being caused by another to be or do so and so. 112 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Other examples o{ ?n : — Makoto ni. In truth. Sumiyaka jii. Immediately. Mutsu 7ii wakarurii. To be divided into six. Idzure no toki ni? At what time ? Ufa yonm ni. In composing poetry. Ka7ie ni naru. To become metal. Dai ni tsiikuru. To make into a table. OnodziLkara nam mono m Making it to {i.e., accounting shite. it) a thing which is pro- duced of itself. Soi-e ni. In addition to that. Koto ni yorite. According to circumstances. Oya 7ii katido seraru. He was disowned by his parents. To is sometimes used in the same signification as ni in the example kane ni naj'u quoted above. Ex. : Hito to nam, " to become a man," " to attain to manhood." He, " towards." He not being considered a separate word from the noun to which it is joined is pronounced e by the rule given at p. 2. It is really a noun meaning " place," " direction," as in ihey " a house," from i, root of im, " to dwell," and he, " place " ; yuku he, " the direction in which to go." It has taken the 7iigori in the compounds haniabe, " the shore " ; nobc, " the moor " ; iiniibe, " the sea-side." He is often confounded by careless speakers and writers ot Japanese with ni, " to." The former is properly used only of motion in the direction of, the latter of motion up to. Thus kita he yuku, '*to travel northwards," is the correct expression, and not kita ni yuku. UNIXFLECTED TKNIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. I I Example of he : — Mine Jie funioto he ori nobori. Sometimes ascending towards the summit, sometimes de- scending towards the base. JSFade indicates a Hmit arrived at, and may be translated " until," "as far as," "as much as," *' as many as," "to such a degree," &c. Examples : — Jhigo 712 c hi made. KarasiL no atama shirokii nam made. Yokohama made. MicJii nio naki made. Until the 15th. Until a crow's head becomes white. As far as Yokohama. To such a degree that there was no road. Gari is an old word occasionally found in poetry. It has the same meaning as he. Examples oi gari : — Kimi gari. Hito no gari ifiibeki koto arite fnmi wo yarn. Has hi wo uina koshigajiete, kokoro 710 mi 77710 gari ya7'ite, zva ha koko7ii shite. Towards you. Having something to say to some one, I send a letter. My horse being unable to cross the bridge, I remain here, my heart alone I send towards thee. Accnsative Case. Wo, the ordinary sign of the accusative case, was probabl\' in its origin an interjection of the same meaning with the English " O ! " It has this sense in so7io yaJie gaki wo ! '' 0\ that eight-fold barrier ! " a phrase which occurs in one of the oldest extant specimens of the Japanese language. In the 77io7iogata7'i we find instances oi wo as an interjection in answer to a call or command, something like the English " Halloa ! " or " Aye, aye, Sir ! " 114 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Example : — JVo to te (for to ihi te) tacJiinu. " Aye, aye, Sir," said he, and started off. Intermediate between its use as an interjection and as the sign of the accusative case may be placed those instances where wo seems to be merely an emphatic particle, of much the same force as a significant emphasis or pause over the word. This is perhaps why Motowori calls it a yastune- teniwoha or " pause particle " when used in this way. Example : — Samidare no On this night, when the Tsuki no honokafii moon of the 5th month is Miyiirii yo ha, seen faintly, do thou, at Hototogisii dani any rate, O, hototogisu ! Sayaka ni wo nake. sing distinctly. Wo has here the force of drawing attention to the anti- thesis between the faint shining of the moon and the distinct singing of the bird. The same wo is also found after verbs. Example : — Yomosugara All night long Mite wo akasa?i Having see^i thee I would watch till morning Aki no tsuki ; O moon of autumn ! Ko-yohi no sora ni On the sky of to-night Kumo nakaranan. May there be no cloud. The wo here marks an emphasis on mite. Akin to this force of wo is its meaning in sentences like the following : — Shira-tsuyu no Of the clear dew Iro ha hitotsu wo — The colour being but one — Ikani shite How then can it be that Aki no konoha wo , The leaves of autumn Chiji ni somuran ? A thousand-fold it dyes ? UXINFLECTED TEXIWOHA SUFFIXED TO XA. 115 IVo has in this case an adversative force very much Hke the EngHsh " but," " though," " notwithstanding." J/o/io ivo. \Mien Ik.'o follows dwho, preceded b}^ a verb or adjective in the attributive form, it has commonly the mean- ing just described. Example : — Miyako idete Kimi }ii aha7i to KosJii mono zvo — KosJii kaJii uio fiakii, ]Vak cxrenunL kana. Setting forth from the capital, That I might meet you, I have come hither, but My coming having been fruitless, Alas ! we are parted. By far the most common use of wo is as the sign of the accusative case. This case is, however, b}' no means in- variably indicated b}' ivo. It is not found when the noun is governed by a preposition, or when it forms, along with a governing verb, an equivalent to a single verb, as in rioji siiruy *' to treat medically," kojii su7'ii, " to examine," and is omitted in many other cases. In fact it is only used when it is desired, to mark distinctly the case of the noun. Examples of wo. Kono ko zvo initsiikete nochi 7ii take wo torn 7ii fushi wo hedatete yogoto 7ii kogane am take wo mitsiikuru. Takara wo ushinahi, yaviahi wo mauku (pron. inokii). Kono chigo yashinafu ho do ni. [Accus. without wo]. Wo is frequently found in preposition would be used. After discovering this child in collecting bamboos, he every night found bamboos containing gold on separat- ing the joints. He loses his money, and con- tracts disease. In proportion as they nur- tured this infant. Japanese where in English a ?-^' / Il6 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Examples : — Miyako wo tohonii. Hito wo wakaru. Ohoji wo yorobohi yukite. The being distant from the capital. To •^d.xX. frovi some one. Staggering along the high road. O-dan wo yaum. To be sick ^/jaundice. Other particles sometimes come between the noun and wo, as — Kushi to kanzashi to wo ?iuktc. To remove comb and hair- pin. Kore bakari wo shii'u. He knows this only. In poetry, and in the semi-Chinese style, wo is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence. In such cases an inversion of the construction has taken place, or an ellipsis has to be filled up. Example : — Hisokani negafu — yitshi kono I humbly pray that the tairi ni gyakii sezaran koto officials will not oppose wo. this great principle. Wo ba. The ba of this combination is the ordinary dis- tinctive particle ha with the nigori. Both particles have here their ordinary meaning. Example : — Hito tsuku ushi wo ba, tsimo We cut off the horns of an wo kiri, hito kufu taka wo ox which butts at people, ba, Diivii wo kirite, sono and cut the ears of a falcon shirushi to sii. which bites people, as a mark of their vice. It will be observed that the last sentence is an example of a double accusative, a construction familiar to us in Latin and Greek. In the semi-Chinese style wo mochite (inotte) or wo shite is often put for ni or wo only. '^S-r uninflectp:d teniwoha suffixed to na. 117 Vocative Case. The vocative case is rarely indicated by any specific particle, but when necessary one of the particles yo, ya, or yayo may be added to the noun. Example : — Jinta yo ! Jiuta yo ! to yoba- He never ceased calling out, kite yaniazu. "Jinta ! Jinta ! " Ablative Case. Vori, kara, " from," " since." Yori is the root of the verb voru, " to approach," " to relate to," but this meaning is forgotten in its familiar use as a suffix meaning " from." Yo and yii are ancient poetical forms for yori. Yori may be translated " than " when used in phrases like the fol- lowing, where in English the comparative degree of the adjective is employed : sakura yori nunne ha hayaku saku " the plum blossoms earlier than the cherry." Kara cannot be used iox yori in such a position. Kara does not differ in meaning from yori. It is curious that whereas it has become nearly obsolete in the later written language, the spoken language uses it almost to the exclusion oi yori. In the old language no is often put between kara and its noun, the reason being, no doubt, that kara was originally a noun itself. A similar construction is observable in the com- pounds te-dzu-kara and ono-dzii-kara, " of oneself" Kara 7ii of the old language does not differ in meaning from kara alone. Mono kara has much the same force as 7iagara, as in the following example : — Itsuhari to False Omofu mono kara — While I think it, hjia sara ni Just now Taga inakoto zvo ka In whose truth Ware ha tanonian ? Shall I put my trust ? Il8 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Examples oi yori and kara : — Mukashi yori. From antiquity. Muma kuruuia yoid otsurii. To fall from a horse or car- riage. Ohosaka yori. From Osaka. Oya yori iikurii. To receive from one's parents. Kore kara. From here. Kohishiki yori ha, uki ha Compared with love, is misery mono ka ha ? aught ? Kore yori hokani. Other than this. Fune no he yu mo tomo yu mo. Both from the ship's stem and stern. On inochi wo rochiii ni sute- Rather than fling away your raritbeki yori. life into the road. II. PLURAL SUFFIXES. Ra may be used either with persons or with things, as arera, " they " ; korera, " these things " ; nanjira, " you." Ra implies neither respect nor the reverse. It is therefore little used with nouns or pronouns in the second person. In the old language there are instances of ra joined to nouns in the singular. For instance, the Manyoshiit has kora, imora where only one person is meant. This is, however, exceptional. With adverbs of place, ra gives an idea of greater inde- finiteness. Kokora, for instance means " hereabouts " ; achira, " somewhere there." Douio (from tomo, " a companion ") is a very common plural particle in the old language, where it is used for both persons and things, as musJii-donio, " insects "; koto-domo, " things." In the modern language it is mostly found with pronouns or nouns (not inanimate things) in the first or third person. In the modern language zvatakiishidomo and midonio are sometimes used where only one person is meant. UXIXFLECTED TEXIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. I I9 Tachi (in the later language also dacJii) is used with nouns or pronouns in the second person, or in speaking respectfully of any one, as niiko tacJii, "princes"; oya tachi or oya dacJii^ " parents." Gata (from kata, " side ") is similar in meaning to tacJii. It belongs to the later language. Ex. : OinaJie-gata, '' you." Bara is little used. Examples : — Hoshi bara no ni san nin. Two or three priests. Otoko zuoinitia bara. Men and women. Nado or nando (from nani to) is sometimes called a plural particle. Its meaning is rather that of the Latin et cetera. Examples : — Kaze no oto, inusJii no 7ie nado The sound of the wind, and itoahare iiari. the cries of the insects, &c., are very touching. SJiokudai, tsukue, koi'o nando Having made ready candle- no yoi zvo shite. stick, table, incense-pot, &c. Skill is a Chinese word which is sometimes found in the later language as a plural particle, as kodonio shin, " children "; yakunin shin, " officials." To is sometimes a plural particle, and sometimes, like nado, resembles the Latin et cetera. Examples : — Mori Daigakii no Kami to. Mori Daigaku no Kami and others. Sho hanshi to. Samurai of the various Han. Si'i and sho. The plural is implied by the use of such Chinese prefixes as si'i or sn, " several "; sJio, "various," but the combinations of these particles with monosyllabic Chinese words, as in sn-nin, " several persons," sho-kokn, " the various countries," belong to Chinese rather than to Japanese grammar. 120 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Examples of Plural Particles : — Kodonio ra or kodonio shin. Children. Nanjira. You. Aril tokoro no saniurahi donio. The samurai of a certain place. Kono hito donio wakaregatakn I felt it hard to part with oviofu. these men. III. OTHER SUFFIXES. Ha. This particle is not looked upon as a separate word from the noun to which it is joined, and is accordingly read wa, according to the rule by which aspirates are not pro- nounced in the middle of a word. [See page 22.] Ha may be termed a separative or distinguishing particle. Its force is thus described in the Kotodaina no Shirnbe : " Ha ha isasaka nageku kokoro ivo obite^ mono ni mare, koto ni mare, aru ga ?taka yori eri-waknru yd no kokoi'o moteru teni- woha narir I.e., " Ha has somewhat of an exclamatory force, and is a particle which possesses the meaning, as it were, of choosing out and separating a thing or an action from amongst a number." In English, ha may sometimes be translated " with respect to," " in the case of," " in so far as regards," " at any rate," or its meaning may be given by printing in italics the word to which it refers. The French " quant a " expresses its force pretty accurately. In most cases, however, ha cannot be rendered in translation, and its force is often so slight that its presence or absence makes no appreciable difference in the meaning. In speaking, a significant emphasis is often the best equivalent. Ex. : Ware ha to omoJii. Thinking / (am somebody). Kore to ha chigafu. It is different from this. Kotio tokoro he ha kitarazn. He has not come here at any rate. UNINFLECTKD TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO XA. 121 Ha has been called the sign of the nominative case. It is quite true that it often does distinguish the subject (jf a sen- tence, but this is merely by virtue of its general force as a distinguishing or separating particle. A suffix which is used freel}' with nouns in the dative or objective case cannot properly be described as the sign of the nominative. Examples : — Toki shiniJiH yaiua Jia Fuji The mountain which knows 710 7ie {jiari). not time is the peak of Fuji. Ken Jia kiuako wo utagafu Ken is a word which ex- kotoba nain. presses a doubt concerning the past. In the phrase Akashi no tira ha? " In regard to the Bay of Akashi ? " or '' What about the Bay of Akashi ? " ha looks like an interrogative particle. The sentence is, however, really incomplete, and some such words as ika nam tokoro nam? "What sort of a place is it?" require to be supplied. In Sono fiimi no kotoba Jia to tofu, " ' What is the language of that letter? ' asked he," a similar ellipsis has to be filled up. Ha is used not only to single out an object from among a number, but to contrast or oppose one object to another. The Greek \x^v Se would accordingly be in Japanese Jia Jia. Examples : — Hito Jia isa ! Its people — ah no ! KoJzoro mo sJiirazu ; I know not their hearts ; Fumzato Jia But in my native place Hana zo muJcasJii no The flowers with their ancient Ka ni niJioJii-kem. Fragrance are odorous. Miyania ni Jia Deep in the mountains Matsu no yiiJii ciani E'en the snow on the fir trees KienaJiu ni Has not yet melted — K 2 122 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO ^A. Miyako ha 7iobe no On the moors by the capital Wakana tsuini-keri. We have plucked the young herbs. In the first of these two sentences the has point the contrast between the inhabitants and the place itself ; in the . second, between the mountains where the season is late, and 9 the capital where it is early. When ha is suffixed to an interrogative word or particle, it shows that the question is merely rhetorical, and not for information, and that a negative answer is expected. But if the question already contains a negative, an affirmative reply is suggested. Thus, while ikaga sen merely puts the question, "What is to be done?" which may or may not be merely rhetorical according to the context, ikaga ha sen is only another way of saying " there is nothing to be done," " there is no help for it." In the same way Ware hitori ka ? " Am I the only person ? " may be either a question asked for information or an indignant way of denying that one is the only person. But if we say ware hitori ka ha, the question can only be a rhetorical one, and the answer " No ! " necessarily follows. This rule holds good throughout the greater part of ' Japanese literature. In the pre-classical period, however, ha \ is found with interrogatives without any meaning of this kind, 1 and the rule is not often exemplified in modern literature, which is comparatively sparing in its use of particles. Examples : — Kohishiki yori ha nki ha Compared with love, is mono ka ha ? misery aught ? Nurn ga iichi Shall we call that alone a Mini wo noini ya ha dream which we see while Ynuie to ihan — sleeping ? — this vain world Hakanaki yo wo nio also I look not upon as Utsutsii to niizu. reality. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 1 23 Xainida ya Jill ! What? Tears! He is Mata 1110 afubeki doubtless a husband whom Tsinna nanm — I shall meet again — Naku yori hoka no Other than weeping Nagusanie zo 7iaki. Consolation I hav^e none. Itsu ka ha iiiafushi ayaniari- When did I ever inform }-ou • taru ? wrongly ? In the later language ivii at the beginning of an interroga- tive clause shows that a negative reply is expected. The case suffixes and the interrogative particles ka and ya are placed between Jia and the noun. Where u'o intervenes, ha takes the nigori and becomes ba. This is owing to the dislike which the Japanese language has for allowing two successive syllables to begin with the same consonant. Example : — Hito tsukii iisJii zvo ba^ tsuno We cut off the horns of an ox wo kiri ; hito knfu taka wo which butts at people ; we ba^ inijiii wo kirn. cut off the ears of a falcon which bites people. Mo is the opposite of ha, Kore ha, for instance, means " this separated or distinguished from something else " ; kore vio means " this along with something else," and may be translated " too," " also," '' even." Examples : — Kono ho ni vio. On this side also. Uhe ni mo ihem gotoku. As has been stated above also. Sono ko7v made mo. Even up till that time. Ifubeki ni mo arazu. It is not necessary even to mention. Where mo is repeated with each of two successive nouns the meaning is " both — and — ." Example : — Kono yo mo, nocJii no yo mo. Both this world and the next. Kozo mo kotoshi mo. Both last year and this }'ear. 124 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. j\Io after an interrogative particle has often a force opposite to that of ha in the same position, and indicates that an affirmative answer is expected if the question is affimative, and a negative answer if the question is negative in form. For example — Tavuru hi aranie ya ha ? is " Will there be a day when it will cease ? [by no means] " but Tayurit hi arame ya mo ? is " Will there ever be a day when it will cease ? [I trust so]." A somewhat similar use of vio is where it converts inter- rogative pronouns and adverbs into indefinite. Thus by the addition of ino^ tare, " who," becomes tare mo, " any one ; " itsu, ''when," becomes itsu mo, "at any time," "always ;" and nani, " what," becomes nani mo, " anything." Especially in the old language mo is in many cases nothing more than a feeble interjection of surprise for which there is no adequate English equivalent. Example : — Kakaru Jiito mo yo ni ide Even such a man is a thing ohasuru mono nari-keri. which appears in the world, i.e. There are such men as this in the world. Mo is contracted with are, the imperative of am, " to be," into mare, as in the phrase Idzure ni mare, " Be it whichever it may " ; Mi mare mizii mare, " Be it that I see, be it that I do not see," i.e. " whether I see or not." Mo ga mo or mo ka mo, mo ga na, mo ga mo na express a strong desire. Examples : — Amabashi no nagaku mo ga I pray that the bridge of mo. heaven may last long. Takaku tobu A high-soaring Tori }ii mo ga mo {narite) Bird — Oh ! that I could become, UNIXFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. ^^ Ash yiikite That I might go to-morrow Imo ni kotodoJii. And visit my love. Otoko mo li'oinina mo ikade As both men and women tokii miyako Jic mo ga 7ia were eager to reach the to omofu kokoro areba. capital as soon as possible. The case suffixes and the interrogative particles ka and ya are placed between mo and the noun. Ka and ya. In Japanese no change of construction is required in order to convert an affirmative clause into an interrogative one. All that is necessary is to suffix one of the particles ka or ya. The force oi ka or ya varies somewhat according to circum- stances, being referable to one of the following heads : — 1. A question for information. 2. A merely rhetorical question. 3. A doubt. 4. A mere exclamation, of much the same force as the sign " ! " Ka is chiefly used in the first sense, but is also common in meanings 2 and 3. Followed by 7/10, it occurs in the Man- yosJim as a mere interjection. In the combination kana it has also usually an exclamatory force, though it occasionally retains its interrogative meaning. Ya seldom marks a question asked for information ; its force is almost entirely restricted to the other three heads. Examples of ka : — /. Kono kite ni ko ha am ka, Has this man children or iiaki ka ? not ? Konnichi ka ? Is it to-day ? 2. Kono kado no make yori How is it possible for me to ski mo wataru mono ka ? pass before this door ? Sono kinsei gaen siibeki ka? Is one to agree to this pro- hibition } 126 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 3. Kahabe no hotaru ka ; ania no taku hi ka ? Idzure no ohon toki ni ka ariken. Mitsu ka Jiitotsu ka ?ii te mo aran. 4. Osoroshiki kana ! Kana- sJiika kana ! Hito 710 kokoro oroka nam mono kana ! Mikasa no yama ni ideshi tsuki ka mo ! Examples of ya : — 1. Migi ha ika narujiko nam ya ? Jicho ya am ? 2. Ani kore zvo sassezaru-be- ken ya ? 3. Hana ya momiji wo nm'u. Kore y a to omofu. Oya ya shinmi. Sam ni mo ya mi subeshi, Ame tsiiyokn shite, hashi ochi- kem ni ya — 4. A na ! mendo ya ! Ui^eshi ya ! Jinta ya ! Is it a firefly on the river bank, or a fire kindled by the fishermen ? In what august time {i.e., reign) will it have been ? [I do not know.] It may perhaps be three or one. How dreadful ! How lament- j able! Alas ! what a stupid thing the heart of man is ! The moon that hath come forth over the mountain of Mikasa ! What is the cause of this ? Have you an attendant ? Is it likely that he does not perceive this ? To look at the flowers or red leaves of autumn. I think it is perhaps this. Parents or relations. He is perhaps to be classed even with monkeys. Whether it was that the bridge had fallen on account of heavy rains — Oh ! what a bother ! How joyful ! Jinta ! UNINFLECTED TENRVUllA SUFFIXED TO NA. 1 27 Miniasaka ya ! KiiDienosam Mimasaka ! Nay, rather let yania, me speak of the Kumeno- sara mountain. Ka added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs usually, but not always, makes them indefinite, as tare^ " who," tare ka, " somebody," itsit, " when," itsu ka, " at some time or another." At the end of a clause which begins with an interrogative, Motowori rules that ka is the proper particle to use and not ya, except the latter has its exclamatory force, as 7iani zo ya ? " What is it ? " In the modern language, however, little attention is paid to this rule, and especially in indirect inter- rogative clauses, ^^<'Z is almost always found instead oi ka. In the modern semi-Chinese style ya often represents the. Chinese ^, especially after the opening words of a chapter or paragraph. It has here its exclamatory force, and draws the attention of the reader strongly to the subject- matter which is about to be discussed. Thus an article on adoption begins as follows : Yoshi no shmk'wan tariL ya — *' With regard to the custom of adopted children — " Ya followed by aran (fut. of aru^ is usually contracted into yaran, which in the spoken language, and occasionally in the popular written style, is further shortened \\\X.o yara. Nan is probably the same particle as the na, nd, no or ne (Yedo dialect) of the spoken language. It is an emphatic exclamation drawing the attention strongly to the word which precedes. It resembles, but is a less emphatic word than zo. Nan is perhaps the future of the obsolete verb nii, " to be," inserted parenthetically in the sentence. Nanio is an <:»ld form which occurs in the Manyoshiu and other old books. Examples of nan : — Kore 7ian sore to ntsuscniin I would like to see this ex- kashi. changed for that. Kore fian tune to shirimn^u, I found that this was a plum. 128 UNINFLECTED TENnVOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Katachi yori ha kokoro nan Her heart was more excellent masari-taru. than her beauty. Zo is an emphatic particle. The Kotodavia no Shirube describes it as " a particle which limits and narrows things, or represents them, as it were, taken up and held in the hand," and adds that " it is opposed to ya in meaning." Very often the best way to translate zo is to change the construction of the sentence in the manner shown in the following examples. Examples of zo : — Oya no kokoro yastune-sJiidzn- It was not until he had quieted mete zo niata ide ni keru, and calmed his parents* hearts that he again went out. Kore zo tadashiki yoniizania It is this that is the correct nam. mode of reading. Kara no nta ni nio kakic zo This is probably true in the arubeki. case of Chinese poetry too. Koso resembles zo in meaning, but it is a still more emphatic word. It is probably derived from ho, " this," and so^ " that." The Ayuhisha says of the sentence yone koso yokere, " it is rice and rice only that is good," that yone no hoka ha nashi to if it nari, i.e., " this is saying that there is nothing else but rice (that is good)." The same authority further says of koso that it has the force of choosing out and rejecting other things, and of taking up in the hand and looking at the object to which it refers. Kore koso may therefore be translated, " This and nothing else," " This more than aught else," " This very thing." Koso and 7ian are very common particles in the naka inukashi, or later classical period, but are less frequently met with in the modern language. Koso is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence. In such cases a verb has to be supplied after it. UNIXFLECTED TKNIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 129 Examples : — A hi - mi f I koto {omoJie). HaJia cJiirazu {JiosJiikere). nonii an koso koso Examples of koso : — Yorodzii no yaniahi ha sake yori koso okore. Mukashi ha " anie no sJiita " to no)ni koso ihere. Tsutsu ha tsii no teniwoha ii>o kasanetaru mono ni koso are. Horai no ki ka to koso oniohi- tsure. Masame ni kind zvo ahi-mi- teba koso, zvaga kohi ya- rn a me. I think of naught else but meeting him. My whole wish is that the flowers may not become scattered. It is strong drink alone from which all diseases spring. In ancient times, the only form ot expression was " ame no shita!' Tsutsu is 7iothijig more than a reduplication of the suffix tsu. I had imagined that it was doubtless none other than the tree of Mount Horai. Not until after I have seen you face to face will my longing cease. To is a conjunctive particle. With nouns it may mostly be translated " and," " with," " along with," as in the examples kare to ware, "he and I," kimi to yuku, "to go along with }'0U." Analogous to the use of to with verbs as equal to the English conjunction " that " in introducing indirect narration is its use after nouns when followed by one of the five verbs miru, " to see " ; kiku, " to hear " ; omofu, " to think " ; suru, " to do " ; and ifu, " to say." To ifu is often contracted, especially in poetry, into tefu (pron. cho), chifu {chiu), or tofii (to). To often stands after nouns where one of the five verbs mentioned above must be supplied in order to complete the sense. Thus 130 UNINFLECTED TEXIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. to te often stands for to ihite or to oniohite ; to yo for to iniyo or to seyo; to zo for to ifu zo ; to naraba {ox to ifii koto ?iaraba ; to dani for to ifu koto dani, &c. Where adverbial expressions are formed by adding to to uninflected words, as in ham baru to, " from a distance," hiso Jiiso to, ** quietly," shite is to be understood after to. Tarn, preceded by a noun, as in the phrase sJiiiijiji taru hito, "a man who is a master," is a contraction ior to am. This form is rarely found in poetry, and never occurs in the more ancient language. Examples of to : — Hito no kotoba to niidzukar'a no kotoba. Kore to chigafu. Ame to film (poetical), Yuki to chim sakura no hana. Natsn to aki to. Rusui to sadanium. Oya to iniru. Ko taru (for to-ani) mono. DzutsiL means "at a time, examples : — Hitori dzutsu im. Another's words and one's own words. It is different from this. To fall like rain. The cherry flowers which scatter like snow. Both summer and autumn. To appoint rusui. To regard as a parent. One who is a child. "apiece," as in the following one person at a To enter, time. Young birds ten at a time. To give them all four apiece. every time"; ni. Tori no ko toivo dzutsu. Mina ni yotsu dzutsu atayuru. Goto ni, " each," " every " — as tabi tsuki goto ni, "each month." Dani with an affirmative means " at least," " at any rate," "' if no more," and with a negative, "even," "so much as." It is used where something less than might have been expected is spoken of, as in the following examples : — UNINFLECTED TP:XIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 131 Sore zi'O uiitc diDii kixhcri)ia)i. Moji to ifii 1)10)10 zuo katacJii ivo diDii ))iita)'ii koto dio )iaka)'i-ke)i. IcJii ))io)iji da)ii sJnra)iu ))io)io. Ke hito siiji zuo dani ugokasJii tatei)iatsii)'aji. SiD'a may also be translated something is introduced more than might have been expected as in the examples : — I will return after having seen that at any rate (having expected more). Probably not so much as the shape of what are called characters had been seen. A person who does not know even a single letter. I will not move even a single hair. but it is used where even, Ha)'uka )w )iochi, Nai-a )io ko)'0 )io sho }ii siD'a. Seiji)i su)'a. Long after, even in writings of the Nara period. Even a holy man. Sake (pronounced saye) is connected with the verb sofiiru (root sohe)^ meaning " to associate," " to join to," and in the old language it means " also," " in addition," as in the examples : — Hito flit a )io Me )io))ii )ii a)'azu : Itsutsii DllltSU MitsH yotsH sake ari — Sugiirokii )io sae. Ha)iiie)i a))iari nogio wo na- snzu, ihe ni mo robo sake ai'i. Not only are there the sides one and two : there are also five, six, three, and four — the dice of the back- gammon board. He had done no cultiv^ation for more than half a year, and in addition he had an aged mother in the house. In the colloquial language and in the later written language, saJie is used instead of da)ii and siwa. Shi is a particle of very little meaning which is sometimes found after nouns. " Only " is a little like it. 132 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. Examples of ski : — Kiuii kofuru nainida ski na- kuba. Shika ski araba. Hosho no ori ski mo. Onore ski. Nonii and bakari, Examples : — yiiitsu bakaid. Kimi nomi. only; If there were only no tears of longing for you. If this were only so. Even at the time of the Emperor's death. By themselves. ' " no more than." Only six. You only. Bakari is derived from hakani, " to weigh," and originally meant " quantity," in which sense it is frequently used by old writers, as in the example Hito bakari hishashiki ha 7iashi, *' there is no animal so long-lived as man." The style imitated from the Chinese puts nomi at the end of a sentence in a meaningless way. Motowori condemns this. Gachi or gachi ni, also gochi^ " all over." Examples : — Hige gachi ni yase-yase naru otoko. Siiziiro ui nainida gachi nari. Nana hirake-hatezn, tsubonii gachi ni niiyu. A lean fellow all over beard. She became unconsciously bathed in tears. The flowers have not un- folded completely, but seem all over buds. Nagara means that the object to which it applies is taken without any change or modification. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 1 33 Examples : — Tabi no siigata nagara. In his travelling dress as he was. Tsiiyu zvo eda nagara jniyo. Look at the dew as it lies on the branch. Datcra resembles Jiagara in meaning. Example : Oi-lnto datera^ " old man as he is." Gatera, " by way of." Example : Katanii gatera to okosetani korouio, " the clothing sent by way of keepsake." I CHAPTER VI. UXINFLECTED TEXIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. This chapter gives an account of the more common suffixes cittached to inflected words, classified according to the part of the verb or adjective to which they are joined. Some suffixes are attached to more parts of the verb than one, but in such cases there is a difference of meaning or application. It is to be noted that these particles may be added not only to the principal parts of verbs or adjectives, but to the corresponding parts of those teniwoha which admit of inflection. It is impossible to notice all the different combinations of teniwoha. Some oC the more common are explained in the following pages, and it is believed that the others will present little difficulty to the student who has mastered the meaning of the several teniwoha of which they are composed. Few teniwoha are joined immediately to adjectives. The auxiliary verb ai^u is usually interposed. Thus for Jioshikuzii we must say Jioshikarazu, " he is not desirous " ; for yokn keriy yokari-keri, &c. In such cases the it final of the adjective is elided. The initial consonant of those particles which are added to the negative base and to the perfect takes the nigori ; particles added to other forms remain unchanged. I. UXINFLECTED TEXIWOHA ADDED TO TFIE ADVERBIAL FORM. The adverbial form is sometimes a noun, and as such may be followed by most of the particles described in the previous chapter. Amongst those which occur most frequently in this position are ni^ ha, mo, to, and Niagara. UNINFLECTED TENIWOIIA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. I 35 A7. The commonest signification of ni following a verb in this form is " in order to," as in the phrases mi ?ti, " in order to see"; yobi ni kitareri, "he came to summon." Ni also occurs after the adverbial form in such idiomatic phrases as akire ;// akirete, " extremely amazed "; isaini ni isaniite, " ver}- eager." Ha. When Jia follows the ad\'erbial form of adjectives, it has sometimes the same meaning as it has when suffixed to nouns, i.e. that of a distinctive or separative particle. It may also have the meaning "if" (conditional future), but in that case ba is more commonl}' written. Examples : — Sono katana nibuku Jia araji. That sword will not be blnnf (whatever else it may be). A^izvo nogare-gataku ha. A thing which it is still more difficult to escape from. Oiiajiku ha waga shoino no If it will be the same (to you), katana taniaharitenya. will }^ou please give me the sword which I desire. Ha after rju, the adverbial form of the negative suffix, has the force of a conditional, as yd sezn ha, " if one did not take care," but in this position most later writers prefer to write ba. Ha after te, the adverbial form of the suffix tsuj-u, has its ordinar)' force as a separative particle. Mo is frequently found with the adverbial form of both \erbs and adjectives. Here it may usually be translated " even." It is particularly common after te, as shiri-te mo, '' even knowing," iki-te mo, " even having gone." Mo some- times comes between the two parts of a compound verb, as ihi mo oharazu, " not even finishing what he was saying." To is found with the adverbial form of verbs in idiomatic phrases like ari to am, " as many as there are," kiki to kiku hito, " all who may hear." 136 UXINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTr)BA. Nairara has a similar meaning after verbal roots to that which it has after nouns. Examples : — UiJiare nagara 710 kata'i mono. In the same state in which he was born, a cripple, i.e., a cripple from his birth. Remaining at rest to await the enem\'. A defensive warfare. Though still looking on it as a source of help. hnashinie gatera ni ifiL koto " something said by way of reproof." Gachini or gochini. With verbs, this suffix may be trans- lated " constantly." Examples : — Kaheri-mi gachi ni ide tania- I 7iao;ara teki wo viatsn. / jiagara no ikiisa. Yoriibe to ha oniohi nagm^a. Gatera, " by way of." Ex. hinu. On naka mo hedataj^i gachi ni te. Mono home s:achi. He went away constantly looking behind him. Being also constantly on bad terms. Always praising things. The following particles are found in conjunction with verbs only. Tsutsu indicates that the action of the verb to which it is joined is simultaneous with that of the verb following. When tsutsu occurs at the end of a sentence, as it often does in poetry, an ellipsis must be supplied, or the order of the sentence has been inverted. The Kotodama no Shi rube thus distinguishes between tsutsu and te : " The sentence Otoni kiki te kohi-wataru is equivalent to Otoni kiki te nochini kohi- luataru, but Otoni kiki tsutsu kohi-zvataru is equivalent to Otoni kiku to onaji toki ni kohi-wataru!' UXIXFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KUToBA. I 37 I Examples of tsittsii : — Am 1)10)10 to {o))iohite) iva- stire tsutsK, )iaki hito ivo tofic. Midzu )io iihe)ii asobi-tsiitsn invo ivo kufu. Dii ))ii resembles spoken language. Examples : — Hare))ii kii))io)'i))ii. tSX the same time that he for- gets and thinks that they are still alive, he mquires after dead persons. It feeds on fish at the same time that it sports on the surface of the water, the tari tari of the Naki))ii ziUD'aJiiDii. Kai)ii)iadzukt fin'ii))ii fiira- zii))ii sada))ie naki skigiire zo fiiyii )io haji))ie nam. Becoming alternately clear and cloudy. Alternately weeping and smiling. It is the unsettled, showery weather of the tenth month, sometimes rain}-, sometimes fine, which is the beginning of winter. tsu tsu also corresponds to the ta)-i iari of the spoken language. Example : — Ikusa ha kiritsu kiraretsu War is a business where sum ))iono Jiari. people wound and are wounded. Na so. The negative of the imperative mood is in the old classical Japanese formed from the adverbial form by prefixing )ia and adding so. Examples : — Na ytiki so.* Do not go. Na yaki so. Do not burn. * For which the modern language would s?iy yuku nakare. 138 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. " Kefu nami na tachi so " to Everybody prayed — may the hito-bito inoru. waves not arise to-day ! Ware wo hito na togame so. Let not people blame me. The last two examples show that the imperative is by no means confined to the second person. Yo is in the second and third conjugations added to the adverbial form, and in the irregular verb siiru, to the negative base, as the sign of the Imperative Mood. Except by ignorant writers of the present day, yo is not used to form the Imperative in the First Conjugation, but it may be placed after it by way of giving additional emphasis, as in the example Tore yo kashi, " Do take it, I pray you." This is however, a very exceptional use oi yo. A yo of this kind may occur even after a negative imperative, as ivasurima yo, " be, sure not to forget." Examples oi yo : — Mi yo. Look ! Tabe yo. Eat ! II. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO CONCLUSIVE FORM. Rashi is connected with the adjectival termination rashiki, which it resembles in meaning. It is, however, indeclinable, and has always the force of the conclusive, and never of the attributive form. It has the same meaning as s67ia of the spoken language, as in the phrase ame ga fiiri sona^ " it is likely to rain," which would be in the written language ame furu rashi. There can be little doubt that rashi is really added to the attributive form, and that the final ru which distinguishes this form in verbs of the second conjugation has been dropped for reasons of euphony. The final syllable of the perfect forms in ri is also dropped before 7'ashi. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTUHA. I 39 Example of rasJii : — Ham siigite Spring seems to ha\e passed Natsii kitani rashi ; a\va\', and summer to have Shirotahe no come, for the white gar- Konvuo JiosJiitari, ments are spread out to Ainenokagii yaiua. dry on Mt. Amenokagu. To corresponds to the EngHsh conjunction " that,"* and is the sign of quotation, or of indirect narration. It may be placed not only after the conclusive forms of verbs and adjectives, but after any word which is capable of standing at the end of a sentence. As has been explained above (p. 129) there is often an ellipsis after to of one of the five verbs Diiru, "to see"; kiku^ " to hear "; oj)iofu, " to think "; sum, " to do "; and ifu, " to say," either in the substantive form or in the adverbial form with te added. This is often the key to a difficult construction. In the modern language, as for instance in newspapers, the following construction is not uncommon. First we have some such phrase as Am kisha ihaku, "A certain writer observes," or Hisokani kikeri, " I have heard privately." Then follows the quotation, after which is the particle to, marking the end of it. Iheri or kikeri must of course be added to complete the sense, and the omission of these words is con- demned by Motowori as a slavish imitation of a Chinese con- struction. In the modern language, however, to is continually used in this way by the best writers. * There can be little doubt that, like its English equivalent, to was originally a demonstrative, and that it is identical with the so oisore, "that." It has still this meaning in the compound to kaku, "in that way or in this," and in the phrase to mare kaku mare, " be it in that way or in this." In many other cases to is best construed as equivalent to " this " or " thus." 140 UXINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. Examples of to : — Rashi ha sona to ifu kokoro ' nari to iheri. Kwaki nobin to sunt ni. Yukan to oniofn. Hidetsugu ko ni tsiikahe ta- tejiiatsuran to {pniofu) ni ha arazii. Takara ohoki ha mi wo ina- viorii ni gai ari to iifti) ha kakaru koto wo inafnsii. He has said that the mean- ing of 7'ashi is sona. The fiery element in its efforts to expand. I am thinking of going. Jt is not that I wish to enter Hidetsugu's service. The saying that great riches are injurious in respect of self-protection was meant of occurrences like this. to Thinking that he would stop people's mouths. Ya has the same variety of meanings after inflected as it has after uninflected. [See p. 125.] It has Hito-guchi wo fusagan {omoliite). Ya. words sometimes an interrogative force and exclamation. Examples ofj/a : — Ari va nashiya? Ito hadzukasJiiki waza narazn is at others a mere Is there or is there not ? Is it not a very shameful ya .^ UresJii ya ! Oniohi no gotoku vio notania- fti ya ! Jitsii ni sliikaru ya ina ya ivo shirazn. Kore wo mini ya ina ya., siiguni kore wo yakushite — thing ? How glad I am ! Your speech is even as my thought ! We did not know whether it was really so or not. As soon as we saw it, we at once havincr translated it — The last example contains a very common idiomatic use oiya. J//;7/jv? ^V/^-zjYZ literally means "while it is doubtful whether one sees it or not," i.e.^ "as soon as one sees it." UNINFLECTED TEXIWuHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. I41 KasJii is a word which adds emphasis to what precedes. It is often used at the end of pra}'ers to the Deity, where it means much the same as our " Amen." Kashi is doubtless nothing more than the conckisive form of /('rt:/^?/, "thus," and means Hterally "thus it is." It really stands by itself, and forms no part of the sentence. • Examples : — Kokoni knrHiiia yori ori ha- We here got down from the herijui kasJii. carriage. It is difficult to give the force of kashi in this sentence, " Thank God " is perhaps a little near it. Mo, yo, and 71a after the conclusive form are mere inter- jections. All these particles, except I'ashi^ are found after both adjec- tives and verbs in the conclusive form. III. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO ATTRIBUTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE FORM. As a noun, this form of the verb may be followed by any of the particles mentioned in the previous chapter. Wo has ordinarily its usual force after this form of verbs and adjectives as the sign of the accusative case. It has, however, sometimes the same meaning as mono wo, i.e.^ "although," or "whilst." [See p. 115.] For this last wo, modern writers and the colloquial dialect have ga. Ni is often found with the attributive form of the past suffix sJii in the sense of " as " or " since." Kaze fnkishi ni, "since the wind was blowing." Kara, with verbs, means " after," as — Oshiimi kara kohishiki mono Whereas it is after we regret wo. things that they are dear to us. Kaze no fiikisJii kara. After the wind blew. 142 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. Ka. The interrogative particle ka is suffixed to this form ; as has been seen above, ya is added to the conclusive form. Na added to the attributive form of the verb gives one form of the negative imperative of the written language and the sole form used in the spoken language, as yukii na, " do not go "; taburu ma, '' do not eat "; 7ntni na, " do not look." The j'u final is, in one or two exceptional cases, dropped before this na, as wasuru na, " do not forget " ; ku na, " do not come." The regular forms are also found. The verb am, " to be," has a negative imperative, or rather a substitute for one, formed by prefixing the negative adverb naku, " not," to the positive imperative are, thus giving the form 7iakare, Akii, keku. In the old language there is a form which ends in aku in the case of verbs, and in keku in the case of adjec- tives. The difference in these endings is only apparent. They are identical in meaning, and may both be obtained by the following rule : — Rule. — Add aku to attributive form, eliding the final u of verbs, and contracting the final /' of adjectives with the a of aku into e. [See above, p. 24.] Thus, from iniru, " to see," is formed niiraku ; from kohishiki, " dear," kohishikeku. The termination aku, whose existence is here assumed, is not found in any other connexion, and its derivation is by no means obvious. The a may perhaps be the a of aru, " to be," and ku is possibly the same as the ko of koto. Sainukeku would therefore be saniuki-aru-koto ; niiraku, viiru-aru-koto. At any rate this derivation corresponds well with the mean- ing, for this form is always a noun, and not an adverb or adjective, as the final ku might lead one to imagine. Xo such form exists as samukeki. In a few verbs this form is in use even in the modern language, as Koshi no ihaku, ''the saying of Confucius"; negahaku ha, " that which I beg for." UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. I43 Examples : — Shi ga haha wo toraku zvo They know not of the capture shirazii. of their own mother. Miviaku no hoshisa. The wish to see. In the last sentence aku is added to the attributive form via of the future particle. Nagekaku ivo todonie kane- Not being able to restrain my te — lamentation — Yokeku wo niireba. As I see the goodness. Nuni yo ochizu At night when asleep without fail L)ie 7ii ha niiredo In my dreams I see thee, Utsuisu ui shi But as in my waking hours Tada ni araneba This is not truly so, Kohishikeku My longing Chihe ni tsuinori?iu. Is heaped up a thousand-fold. Konia 710 oshikekn nio nashi. I do not spare my horse. Ahoshiki^ the termination of desiderative adjectiv^es in the old language, is contracted for akuhoshiki. It is added to the future suffix 7nu. Thus, 77ii77iahoshiki, " wishing to see," is nii-77iu-akii-hoshiki ; yuka77iahoshiki, " wishing to ^ol' is ■yHka-77iu-akii-hoshiki. These adjectives belong to the second conjugation. Example : — Ko wo oshiyuric hito ha kakti It is of this kind alone that it _. koso a7'a77iahoshikere. is desirable that teachers of youth should be. IV. UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO NEGATIVE BASE. Ba with the negative base forms what may be called a future conditional tense. Thus yukaba means " if he shall go," " if he should go," or " were he to go." Ba is probably a contraction for «, the future suffix, and ha, which has in this 144 UNIXFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. combination substantially the same meaning as described above, p. 120. The fact that the older language has ha instead of ba after the negative suffix zji and after adjectives confirms this derivation, as the future suffix is not found along with either of these forms. Later writers, however^ following a false analogy, use ba for ha in these cases. After adjectives ;;/ is sometimes inserted for the sake of euphony, d^s yokuniba {ox yokuba, '' if it should be good." In the Manyoshiu forms X\k.Q yokaba are found. The com- mentators say that aba is here a contraction for araba. Yo- kaba would therefore be iox yoku-araba. Ba has often an optative force, which is sometimes brought out more forcibly by adding the interjection ya, as in the sentence hito ni misebaya, " Oh ! that I might show it to some one." Examples of ba : — Tsiiki idc ba. If the moon should come forth. Kore wo shirazu ba. If he should not know this. Riogoku ni sebaya to nozounc. He wished to make it his own dominion. Ugiihisii no tani kara idziirii Were it not for the note of kohe naku ba. the uguisu coming forth from the valley. S araba (for sa-araba). Should that be so. De is a negative particle. Its grammar is that of a verb in the adverbial form. It is equivalent to, and is perhaps a con- traction for, zu-te. Another derivation makes it a contraction for ni-te, ni being here the old adverbial form of the negative suffix nu. Example of de : — Fukaki kokoro wo shirade ahi- It is impossible to meet him gatashi. without knowing the depth of his heart. UXIXFLECTED TENIWUHA SUFFIXED TO KOTODA. 1 45. // is also a negative particle. Its grammar is that of a verb in the adverbial, conclusive, or attributive form. It is the negative corresponding to the future particle n or niu. Ji is the equivalent of viai of the spoken language, and of beka- razu of the later written language. Examples : — Makeji kokoro. A spirit that \\-ill not be vanquished. /ss/io no haji kore fii siiguni It is improbable that any ha araji. disgraceful act of his whole life will surpass this. Mukahc-ideji to oboshite. Thinking he would not go out to meet him. Kon ya koji ya ? Will he come or will he not ? Xa?i with the negative base must be distinguished from nan with the adverbial form. The latter is the future of nuru. Nan with the negative base is probably contracted for n of the future followed by nan described in the chapter on suffixes added to nouns. The form thus obtained has an optative signification. It is chiefly confined to poetry. Examples : — Kind ga kokoro ware 7ti to- Would that your heart were kenan. melted unto me ! Kavii ni taniuke suru nusa no May the favouring breeze of ohi-kaze yamazu fukanan. {i.e. granted by reason ofj the fillets offered to the god blow without ceasing ! Deji^ and nan do not occur after adjectives. V. UNIXFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO PERFECT. Ba with the Perfect is the same separative particle ha (with the fiigori) already described at p. 120. Ynkeba, for instance, will therefore mean "in the case that he has gone," "in respect to his having gone," and ba in these forms may usuall)- be 146 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. rendered by one of the conjunctions " since," " when," ■" whereas," " because." Ya after this da has its ordinary dubitative force, and not an optative, as when it follows da suffixed to the negative base. Thus mirebaya means " since he has seen, if indeed he has seen," while mibaya means " Oh ! that he might see." Mireba ka would mean " is it because he has seen," or *' perhaps because he has seen." Examples of ba : — Haru tateba^ kiyiiru kohori. Hi wo tomoshite mireba^ ro- kii-jiu bakari no hoshi nari> Sareba or shikareba (for sa areba or shika areba), Kono hi kureshikaba {shika^ perfect of past participle shi^. The ice that melts now that the spring has come. When he kindled a light and looked, it was a priest of about sixty years of age. Since that is so, or that being so. When this sun had set. Do is the same particle to (with the nigori) already described under the head of particles suffixed to the con- clusive form. With the perfect it may be translated " though," '* although," " notwithstanding." To ihedo, literally " though it be said that," *' though one say that," is often found where the meaning is simply " although." Observe that the phrase yuku to mo, " though he should go," forms a Future Concessive corresponding to the Future conditional yukaba, " if he should go," while yukedo is the Perfect Concessive corresponding to the Perfect Conditional yiikeba. Do is very commonly followed by via, " even," as yukedomo^ " even though he went." UNINFLECTED TEXIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. I47 Examples of do and do 11 10 : — Yobedojno, sainezu. Even though they called her, she did not awake. Although the weather is good, I am unable to come, having an engage- ment. Although I expected you to come to-day. Although the use of Chinese characters is very im- proper. Ya, the interrogative particle, is sometimes found after vie, the perfect form of the future particle inu, as in araine ya, " will there be," or " will there have been." Ba and do may be added to the perfect forms of either verbs or adjectives. Tenki Jia yoroshikii safura- hedoino, sasJiitsukahe kore art, maivi-gataku safurafii. Konnichi no on ide ii'o juacJii safurahedomo. Kanji wo uiochiyiini ha Jiana- hada fiitsugo naredonio. CHAPTER VII. INFLECTED TEMWOHA. Inflected teniwoha are suffixed to verbs and adjectives only. In the following list the same classification has been adopted as in the case of the uninflected teniwoha, />., accord- ing to the part of the verb to which they are suffixed. Only a few of these suffixes are added directly to adjectives. As in the case of uninflected teniwoha, the verb ixni usually intervenes. I. INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO ADVERBIAL FORM. Tsiii'u {te, tsu, tsuni, te, tsure) has the same meaning as the Chinese ^ and the Japanese hatsiirii, i.e., "to finish " ; thus mitsiiriL, kikitsiirii^ mean " to finish seeing," ^' to finish hearing." Tsiirii is much the same as the te shiviafu of the spoken language. It is not really a sign of the past tense, or it would hardly be found combined with the past suffix shi, but it is often difficult to render it other- wise in English. Te followed by the combination of particles sJii ga or sJii ga na forms an optative. Ex. : Ikade kono KagiiyahiiHe wo eteshigana^ niiteshigana. " Oh ! that I might obtain this Kaguyahime ! Oh ! that I might see her ! " Te, with 71, the future particle, and ya, the interrogative, expresses a request ; as in the following examples : — Yo fukete, osoroshikereba, As the night has become okurite taniahi te7i ya. late, and I am afraid, will you please escort me. Chiunagon no ko wo esaseten Will you be after causing me ya ? to obtain the Chiunagon's daughter ? NFLECTED TEXIWOIIA. 149 In the later form of the language, the root te is the only form in use. Here it has lost the meaning te shiniafu which it had in the old language, and merely indicates that the action of the verb to which it is joined is regarded as prior or preparatory to that of the principal verb of the sentence ; in other words, it forms a past participle. Examples of tsuni : — UgnJiisii }io }iakitsuni haiia Sake kiiraJiitsureba^ hian to ifu. Hana sakite zo kiiru. hito nil 711 The flowers where the uguisu has just been singing. When the\' had finished drinking the wine, they said the}' would go away. It is after the flowers have opened, that people come to see them. You will kindly hear to the end what the old man is about to say to you. To whet one's arrows after one sees the battle. Be after hiding it. Spring having passed, sum- mer comes. Tai'u (tari, tari, tarn, tara, tare) is te, the ad\-erbial form of tsu7'u, followed by the verb am, " to be." It has the same meaning as the te am or te im of the spoken language^ and should be distinguished from the colloquial ta, which (though the same word as tarii) is used simply as a past tense. The force of tarn will be understood from the following examples : Numm, for instance, means " to get wet " ; nuretam, " to be having got wet," i.e., "to be wet"; num means " to lie down"; netam, " to be having lain down." The nureta and neta of the spoken language mean " got wet," " lay down." Okina no niafnsaii koto kiki- taniahi ten ya. Ikusa niite^ya wo hagu. KaknsJiite yo. Ham sugite, natsn kitaru. 150 INFLECTED TENIWOHA. Examples : — Hige kaini kotogotoku shii'okii His beard and hair have al! nari-tai'i. become white. Kiino7io no shiineri-tarii wo Having taken off his wet migite. clothes. Kami-kazu wo habuki-taru The having diminished the ha hone-ori wo hoshiniii ni number of leaves was arazu. not because labour was grudged. Nuru {ni, nu, nuru, na, mire) is the verb inuru, " to go away," the initial i having been lost after the i or e final of the adverbial form of the preceding verb. Nuru and tsuru differ little in meaning, but they are not found combined with the same verbs, nuru being usually found with intransitive, tsu7'u with transitive verbs. This rule is, however, subject to numerous exceptions. Nuru may often be conveniently rendered by the adverb " away," as yuki-nuru, " to go away,'* slimobi-nuru, " to steal away," yake-nuru, " to burn away.'* The German kin is a still closer equivalent. Nan after the adverbial form of verbs is the future of this suffix. Motowori is of opinion that 7ii in such phrases as jiari ni keri, kihe ni seba, etc., is Jti the adverbial form of nuru and not ni the preposition. Like te, ni with ski ga or sJii ga na has the force of an optative. Examples of nuru : — Nonoshiru uchi ni yo fukenu. Whilst we were gossiping, the night grew late. Kokoni usenishikaba. Inasmuch as she died here. Fune ni norinan to su. We made to go awa}^ on board. Keru {keri, keri, keru, kera, kej-e) is the perfect of kuru, " to come," as in the example tsukahi no kereba, tajioshinii to INFLECTED TENIWOHA. 151 iomohite) niatsu, " I waited, thinking of the joy when the messenger should have come." As a suffix, however, it is employed in a looser and more general signification, and is sometimes little more than a substitute for the perfect ending of the principal verb. Where its original force is more distinct it may be rendered '' at length," " it came to pass that." The form gem is sometimes met with in old writers. The spoken equivalent of kern is te kita. Examples of keru : — Hayia ha saki kcri. The flowers have at length opened. Haru ha ki ni keri. Spring has at length arrived. Nige-tise ni keri. They at length ran away. The ni keri of the last two examples is often written ngeri in the naka imikashi period. Shi ( — , ki, shi, ke, shika) is the sign of the past tense. The root of the verb with shi added is like the Greek aorist, simply a past tense, and nothing more. This is really the only past tense in the Japanese language, at least in its classical form. Past time may, however, be implied by the use of other suffixes, and when tsiiru, 7mru, taru or kei'u is added to a verb, a past tense will usually, though not invariably, be the proper translation. The following example illustrates the distinction between tsiirii, nurii, and sJii. Fuji ftami ha saki te chiri ni ki, " the westeria waves (poetical for flowers) having first {te) blos- somed, became {ki) dispersed away {niy Ignorant writers of the present day often use shi for the conclusive as well as for the attributive form. The semi-Chinese style prefers to indicate past time b}' separate words such as katsute " previously," sudejti " already," &c. 152 INFLECTED TENIWOHA. Examples of ski : — Kw ni te timareshi womma. A woman born in Kio. Kokoni usenishikaba. Inasmuch as she died here. Muina wa kishi (or koshi) The horse is an animal which michi wasurenu mono nari. does not forget the road which it has come. Korosan to shiki. They made to kill us. Taki is inflected regularly as an adjective of the first conjugation. It is the same word with the adverb ito (before adjectives) or itaku (before verbs) " very," " exceedingly," and in the ol^ language when added to verbs it produced adjectives resem- bling English adjectives in ly, ful, etc., as viedetaki, " lovely," from niedziiru, " to love " ; kohi-taki, " much longed for," from kofu, " to love," " to long for." In the modern language taki forms desiderative adjectives, and may be added to all verbs, as yukitaki, " desirous to go," iiritaki, " desirous to sell." It has replaced the ahoshiki of the old language. Examples of taki : — Go mengo nasaretaki imme. The information that you desire an interview. Go shochi kore aritakii zonji- I think it desirable that you sabiirafu. should understand. II. INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO CONCLUSIVE FORM.* Nam {nari, nari, nam, nara, nare), " to be," is sometimes found annexed to the conclusive form of the verb, as in the * It has been thought convenient to follow the practice of the Japanese grammarians and to place the suffixes ?iaru, meru, 7-a7i, beki, and 7)iajiki under the head of Teniwoha suffixed to the Conclusive Form. At the same time there can be no doubt that these particles are really suffixed to the attributive form, and that what in verbs of the second conjugation appears to be the conclusive form is only the attributive form denuded of the final syllable ru^ which has disappeared owing to phonetic causes. INFLECTED TENIWOHA. I 33 phrase Yajna ni inushi no kohe su 7iari^ " There is a chirping of insects on the hill." Meru {jneri, inert, mem, inera, mere) expresses a slight shade of uncertainty, such as is indicated in English by the use of such adverbs as " seemingly," " probably," " apparently." The Kotoba no Cliikamichi says that mem is contracted for viihe am, mike being the root of miyum, " to seem." Am, whether alone or in composition, loses the final ru before mem. Examples of niem : — Shiritameredo. Although they are doubtless aware. Oroka naranii Jiito bito ni They are doubtless an\'thing koso amere (for am mere). but stupid men. Ran {ran, ran, ran, — , rame) is aran, the future of am, " to be," the initial a being dropped after the final vowel of the verb, in order to avoid a hiatus. Ran is therefore the same No question arises on this point in the other conjugations vshere these two forms are identical. This will explain a number of apparent irregularities in the forms as- sumed by the verb before these particles. For instance, we see that sesa 7iari, where nari is apparently attached to the negative base, is really sezaru nari, and in confirmation of this we have the intermediate form sezan nari, in which the 11 oi sezan represents the r of ru which has be- come assimilated to the following consonant. I n the same way tniran., where ran seems added to the adverbial form, is a contraction for mi7'u ran, ameru for aric merit., su nari for suru nari. The modern written language sometimes follows the Yedo colloquial idiom in having the attributive form of verbs of the second conjugation in eru or iru instead of in uru, and we therefore meet with such forms as sutebeki, dekimajiki, where beki and majiki are not really added to the adverbial form, as might appear at first sight, but to the colloquial attribu- tive in cru or iru, the final ru having been lost. For a similar reason niai (for majiki], the sign of the negative future in the spoken language, is only apparently suffixed to the adverbial form in the second conjugation. M 2 154 INFLECTED TENIWOHA. as de aro of the spoken language, or ni te aran of the written language. Ran expresses a slight shade of doubt. Examples of ra7i : — Horai to ifura7i yavia. The mountain called, if I mistake not^ Horai. Hagi ga ka?ia chiruran. The hagi flowers will doubt- less become scattered. Beki {bekti, beshi^ beki^ bekii^ bekere) is a regularly inflected adjective of the first conjugation. It is used in many different shades of meaning, such as to express probability, possibility, moral obligation, necessity, futurity, &c., and may be variously rendered according to circumstances by " probably," " may," " ought," " must," " should," " will," &c. The last meaning is very common in the later official and epistolary style, where beki has almost superseded the ordinary future in «. Beshidind bekarazii {bekn-arazu) are often used as nearl}^ equivalent to the ordinary imperative. In the Monogatari beil is frequently found for beku. Examples of ^^^z; — '^oshiu e ranniu subeshi to geji He ordered him (saying) shi-tainafu. ''Make an incursion into Joshiu." Idzure yowakaran tokoro inu- He was to confront whatever kafu beshi. place might be weak. Teki ha sadainete taigun 7iarii Decidedly the enemy are sure beshi. to be in great force. Tatakafu beki ka ; waboku Should we fight or beg for kofu beki ka ? peace ? Kono tita mo kakii 7io gotoku The same is probably the case nam beshi. with this poetry also. Sono birei 7iaru koto ifubeil It was impossible to describe 7no arazu. its beauty. Be77ii and bera are poetical forms. They are abstract nouns: INFLECTED TENIWOHA. I 55 obtained by adding to the root he the terminations mi and ra. [See above pp. 42, 43.] Example : — Chi-tose-dochi to zo onwfubera There is a thinkabihty that nam. they are thousand-year comrades, i.e., one may well suppose that they have been comrades for a thou- sand years. Majiki {niajiku, viaji, viajiki^ niajikii, inajikere) is a regularly inflected adjective of the second conjugation. Its meaning is the opposite of that of beki. Mai, the negative future of the spoken language, is a contracted form of majiki. Examples of ;;/<7;y/i'2.' — Kono yo ni ha mata uiirtiviaji. In this world, at any rate, we are unlikely to see him again. Tsukafu beki tokoro to tsiikafii There are places where it majiki tokoro to aiH. ought to be used, and also places where it ought not. III. INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO ATTRIBUTIVE FORM. There are no inflected teniwoha added to the attributive form of the verb or adjective. IV. INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO NEGATIVE BASE. Nu (zu or ni, zu, mi, zu, ne), " not," is the negative suffix. Ni is obsolete in all but the oldest form of Japanese. Examples of 7iu : — Ikanedo. Though one do not sa}\ Shirazu. I don't know. Shirazn omohiki. He felt ignorant. Yd sezu-ha. If one did not take care. b 156 INFLECTED TENIWOHA. Zarii {zari^ zari, zaru^ zara^ zare) is for zu-arii. In the later language zai-ii is preferred to the simple suffix nn, especially in the case of the attributive form. Zaru, for zo am, must be distinguished from the above. Examples of zarii : — Shirazari keri. ' Shirazaru hito. N or niu {n or niu, n or mu, suffix. It may also give the v or of an optative mood. At *' probably," " doubtless," &c., of rendering it. Examples of n : — Hototogisu ki-nakan tsuki ni, Iviada ))iinii hito ni mo tsugen, Kwaki nohin to sum 7ii. Ikahodo kanimuri ui'uhashi- karaji ni nio. Nikki kakan hito. Korosan to shiki. Horai to ifu yania ' naran. He did not learn (or know). A stranger, or, a man who does not know. n or inn, — , vie) is the future erb the force of a subjunctive other times such adverbs as are the most convenient way In the month when the hoto- togisu will come and sing. I would tell those also who have not yet seen it. The fiery element, in its efforts to expand. However elegant the head- dress may be. Those persons who may write journals. They made to kill us. It is probably the mountain called Horai. Nzuru. The future suffix n is sometimes combined with the verb sum, " to do," thus forming a compound future tense. This combination has the meaning of a future tense proper, and not of a subjunctive or optative mood. INFLECTED TENIWOHA. 157 I Examples of yiziiru : — Kt/ie usenanzu. I will \'anish a\\ay. Sam tokoro he Diairanzuru The being about to go to such koto, 3. place. Ware ha kore yori kaheri I will return from this place. inafizii. This combination is not found either in the oldest or in the most modern form of the Japanese language. The word niakarazu occurs in the Tosa Nikki not as a negative, but as a future. Makai-azu is here put for makaran- zu, " I will come." This form is preserved in several of the local dialects. Mashi ( — , niasJii^ inashi, viase, inashika). Mashi is a kin- dred particle to 71 and beki, but like the English phrases " would have," '' ought to have," is only used where the action of the verb might have taken place, but did not. It is most commonly found after conditional clauses, where it implies that the condition is unfulfilled. Mashi is chiefly confined to poetr}^ Examples o^ mashi : — Chikakaraba Kaheri ni dani mo Uchi-yiikite Imoga tamakiira Sashi-kahete Netemo ko?nashi wo. If thou wert near, Even it were only to return, I would go to thee, And having slept, Exchanging with thee arm pillows, I would come. Ahi mizii ba Kohishiki koto mo NakaraDiashi. If we had never met. Neither would there been love. have 158 INFLECTED TENIWOHA. Mini hito mo Naki yama-zato no Sakura-bana Hoka no chiruran Nochi zo sakaniasJii. Uguhisu no tani yori idziiriL kohe naku ba^ haru kiirn koto ha tare ka shira7nashz ? The cherry-flowers of the mountain hamlets, where there are none to see them, ought to flower after the others shall have become scattered. Were it not for the note of the uguisu from the valley, who would know of the arrival of spring ? V. INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO PERFECT. Rti {ri, ri, ru, 7^a, re). The meaning and derivation of the perfect form in ru have been already explained at page 88. This form is peculiar to verbs of the first conjugation and the irregular verb sum, the perfect of which is seru. Examples of perfect form in ru : Kono koto ha onore Miknni no Kotodama ni tsubara ni iheri. Nochi no yo no hito no kakeru mono mini ni. This subject I have myself fully discussed in the Mi- knni no Kotodama. In reading the writings of men of a later age. TABLE OF TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO INFLECTED WORDS. I. TENIWOHA ANNEXED TO ROOT. I. UNINFLECTED. Ni^ ha, mo, to, nagara, tsiitsu, gat era, gachi, 7ni mi, — tsii tsii, na so,yo. INFLECTED TENIWOHA. 2. INFLECTED. 159 Adv. Form. Conclusive Form. Attributive Form. Negative Base. Perfect. te tsu tsurn te tsnre tari tari tarn taj'a tare ni nit nnrn na 7iure keri keri kern kera kere — ki ^ ski ke shika takii tashi taki taku takere IL TENIWOHA ANNEXED TO CONCLUSIVE FORM. I. UNINFLECTED. Raski, to,ya, kashi, vio.yo, ?ia. 2. INFLECTED. Adv. Form. Conclusive Form. Attributive Form. Negative Base. Perfect. Jiari nari nam nara nare jneri nieri nieru mera mere ran ran ran — rame beku beshi beki beku bekere majiku viaji niajiki majiku viajikere i6o INFLECTED TENIWOHA. III. TENIWOHA ADDED TO ATTRIBUTIVE FORM. 1. UNINFLECTED. Na, ka, kana, kara, wo, aku. 2. INFLECTED. None. IV. TENIWOHA ANNEXED TO NEGATIVE BASE. I. UNINFLECTED. Ba, deji, na?i. 2. INFLECTED. Adv. Form. Conclusive Form. Attributive Form. Negative Base. Perfect. zu or ni ZU nu ZU ne zari zari zaru zara zare n ox mil « or inu 71 or viu — me — iiiashi ifiashi inase mas Ink a V. TENIWOHA ANNEXED TO PERFECT. I. UNINFLECTED. Ba, do.ya. 2. INFLECTED. Adv. P'orm. rt Conclusive Form. ri Attributive Form. Negative Base. 1 Perfect. ru ra re CHAPTER VIII. HUMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS, AUXILIARY VERBS, VERBS USED AS ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. The absence in the Japanese verb of any grammatical distinction of person has been already remarked. This want is partly supplied by the extensive use of humble and honorific words and particles, the former being chiefly charac- teristic of the first person, and the latter of the second. A curious exception is the case of the Mikado, who in books is made to use the honorifics in speaking of himself Humility and respect are indicated in Japanese in the following ways : — I. By prefixing to nouns on^go^ki^ so7iJiei, &c. ; or to verbs the particles o or on. II. By substituting for the simple verbs the derivative causative or passive verbs. III. By the use of humble and honorific synonyms instead of the ordinary nouns or verbs. IV. By means of auxiliary verbs. The humble and honorific prefixes, and the use of causa- tive and passive verbs as honorifics, have been noticed above. [See pp. 46, 99, 100.] The following are examples of humble and honorific synonyms : — NOUNS. NEUTRAL. HUMBLE. HONORIFIC. Ko (child) segare go shisoku Musuine (daughter; slid jo shit su jo. Tegami letter) SUJlcJlO h6ka?i 1 62 HUMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS. NEUTRAL, Miru (to see) Suru (to do) Yuku (to go) Ktiru (to come) Ifu (to say) VERBS. HUMBLE. Haiken suru Tsukamatsuru Makaru Mairu Mafusu HONORIFIC. Goranjiru or Goran nasaru Nasaruru Ideniasu Idemasu Oho suru Kudasaru Tainafu Kikoshhnesu Atayuru (to give) Aguru „ Tateniatsurii Taburu (to eat) Okuru (to send) Mawasuru As will be seen from the examples quoted below, the verbs used as humble and honorific substitutes for ordinary verbs have a tendency to lose their original specific meaning, and are in many cases used as mere indications of humility or respect. In some instances a still further change takes place, the distinction between respect and humility is lost, and the auxiliary ceases to be anything more than a characteristic of a polite style. A familiar example of this is the termination masu of the spoken language. I. Auxiliary verbs used primarily with verbs in the first person to express humility. Haberu or haniberu originally meant " to be beside," " to be in attendance on," but it has acquired the same force as the modern colloquial masu or gozarimasu. The old language uses haberu chiefly with verbs in the first or third person as a more respectful word than aru, " to be," or woru, " to abide." It is obsolete in the modern language. Examples of haberu : — Ikade ka yo ni habei-an ? Vo ha oinohi 710 hoka naru Diono to omohi haberu. I remain m this How shall world ? It is my humble opinion that this world is a thing which is beyond our expectations. HUMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS. 163 Me mo inihe Jiaberanu ni. My eyes, too, being unable to see. Sa ha haberami ka ? Is it not so ? Sainiirafu, saburafu, or safiirafu is a verb of the first con- jugation. Like Jiabern, it originally meant " to be in atten- dance upon," and in this sense it often occurs in the older literature. The word samiiraJii, " a Daimio's retainer," " a man of the two-sworded class," means, therefore, properly " an attendant." Safurafu (pronounced soro) has by degrees become the written equivalent of the colloquial masu or gozariniasH, and is now used as a polite auxiliary with all three persons, and even where the subject of the verb is not a living being at all. In the modern epistolar}- style, almost every verb has safurafu {soro) annexed to it. Examples of safurafu : — "^ KususJii Atsushige go Ho-o The physician Atsushige uo oniiiaJie ni sanmraJiite. being in waiting before the retired Emperor. Sadauiegataku zonji safurafu. I think it is impossible to decide. Shokan zvo inocJiite niafushi- I address you by a letter. ire-safurafu. Deki shidai sashi-sJmizu-beku I \\\W. send it to you as soon safurafu. as it is finished. to yoineru koka vio safu- As there is an old stanza raheba. composed saying that — Omui lux ika iiaru hito ni te What manner of man are safurafu ? you ? Makaru means properly " to go down," " to retire from the presence of a superior," or " to go from an honourable place to one which is less honourable." Later it became used more generally as a humble word instead oi yuku, " to go." In the Japanese of the present day makaru does not stand by itself, HUMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS. but is prefixed in the adverbial form to verbs signifying motion, such d^s yuku, idzuru, kosu, &c., as a mere auxihary to express humiHty. It is also found before ^77/, " to be," and 'worn, " to abide." Makaru occurs very frequently in the notes of evidence taken in courts of justice. Examples of makaru : — Tama no eda tori ni nan Saying that he was going makaru to ihasete (Tsu- down to fetch the jewel ktcshi he) kudari tamafu. branch, he went down (to Tsukushi). Going from the capital to the provinces is alwa}'s spoken of in Japan as "going down." This example is from one of the old classics. The following examples show the modern use of makaru : — Kifu he makari koshi sa- When he visited your honour- furafu setsu. able city. Kokoni makari ari safurafu Whilst I was here. tokoro. Mafusu (pron. mosu) was originally used, chiefl}^ in the first person, as a very humble word for ifu, " to say." In the later language it is still a polite word for ifu when it stands alone or precedes another verb, but it is also employed after verbs in the adverbial form as a mere auxiliary to indicate humility, and without any trace of its original meaning. Examples of mafusu : — AXCIEXT LANGUAGE. Genji no kimi ?ii mafusube- Something which ought to ki koto. be respectfulh' represented to Prince Genji. Kono yoshi mafushi tamahe. Be so good as to represent this (to some high \)^x- sonage). HUiMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS. 165 MODERN LAN0UA(;E. Hiki-binie idete niiiiato he Tug-boats ha\-ing come out, hiki-it'e-niafusJii-safuvafu. towed us into the harbour. YakusJw to obosJiiku miJic- It looked like a public office. viafushi safurafu. Yu wo tsiikahi-niafHSu koto. The use of hot baths. Kikoyiiru^ like niafusu^ is properly a humble word for " to say," " to tell," but it is often used as a mere auxiliary expressing humility without any specific meaning. The compounds kohi-kikoyuru, oniohi-kikoyiiru for instance, are only polite expressions instead of the simple verbs kofu^ " to love," oniofu, '' to think." This word is obsolete in the modern language. Tatematsuru originally meant '' to give as a present," as in the sentence Masatsiira sake yoki mo7w tateniatsureri, " Masa- tsura brought a present of sake of excellent quality." As an auxiliary it is a very humble word, and is much used in memorials, addresses, and other writings composed in a formal style. Examples of tatematsuru : — IppitsiL keijo tateniatstiri safu- I beg to address you one rafii. stroke of the pen. Negahi age tatematsiiri safu- I most humbly request you. rafii. Aguru, " to raise," " to offer up," is also joined to the roots of verbs to mark humility. Example : — Sudeni viafushi-age safurafu As I have already had the yoni. honour to inform you. " Mairasuru means " to send as a present." It is used generally as a humble auxiliary both in the old language and occasionally in the modern epistolary style, especially in letters written by women. L 1 66 HUMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS. Examples of mairasurii : — Go heiiji wo maftishi-age iiiai- I shall reply to you. rase-safiirafu beshi. On yorokobi mafushi-age inai- I beg to offer you my humble rase-safurafu. congratulations. II. Auxiliary verbs used as honorifics with verbs in the second person, or with verbs in the third person when the actions of some exalted personage are spoken of. Tamafu is a lengthened form of the old verb tabu, " to give," and was originally used as a honorific substitute for that verb. Even at present it has often this force, but it is more commonly a mere honorific in which the meaning "give" can no longer be traced. Examples of tamafu : — Wasure-tamafu7ia. Please do not forget. Sassoku ni kiki-sumi tainahi- At once granted his request. ki. Tsuki zvo viite iuiijiku naki- Seeing the moon, she wept tamafu. exceedingly. Oshihe - Diairase-sase-tamahi- He caused him to teach. keri. Masu (ist conj.) is used as a honorific in the old language, where it is found exclusively in the second or third person. It is much more restricted in its use than tamafu, being only used along with certain verbs. Masu originally meant " to sit," " to dwell." The modern colloquial auxiliary masu is the same word, although its conjugation is different, and it is used indiscriminately with all three persons. Examples of masu : — Hanamuke ski ni idemaseri. He came to give a parting present. HUMBLE AND HONORIFIC VERBS. 167 Kakuri-niashi-ki. He became hidden, i.t\, he died. Ko ha Watarahi ni masu This is the god who dwells kanii }iari. in Watarai. Asobasu, asobasani, and asobasariini, from asobu, " to sport," are used as honorifics in the same wa}- as tainafu. Examples : — On soroJii asobasJii, gokigen That you all together have yoku 0)1 tosJii kasane — begun a new year in good health— Go konrei sJiiubi yoku on toto- I beg to congratulate }'ou on nohi asobasare medetakii the marriage which }'ou zonji tateniatsiiri safurafu. have celebrated so auspi- ciously in all respects. In the older language, if a honorific particle is placed before a verb the honorific terminations or auxiliaries are omitted, and vice versa no honorific is prefixed if the verb has a honorific termination or auxiliary. This rule is not observed in the later language. III. Other auxiliary verbs. Am, narii. Ani (y^') means "to be," in the sense of ''to exist." It is not the mere copula of a proposition like nani (^). Thus, although the two propositions Kono viunia ha sJiirokari, Kono viunia ha sJiiroki nari, are practically identical, the real meaning of the former is " As to this horse, the quality of whiteness exists," while the latter is " This horse is white," 7iai'i being nothing more than a copula. Am is chiefly used, as in the above example, as an auxiliary joined to adjectives. Its use with verbs to form a perfect tense, and its combinations with some of the commoner teni- woha have been alread)' noticed. Nam, which is conjugated like aj'u, is contracted for ni am. N 1 68 AUXILIARY VP:kJJS. Here the 7ii is sometimes the locative particle " in," and some- times the root of an obsolete verb 7iu, " to be." Nam as an attributive is abbreviated in the spoken lan^^ua^^e intr) 71a, a form which is occasionally used by modern writers. Nari is often used after the attributive forms of verbs and adjectives to ff>rm a substitute for the conclusive form. It should bedistinj^uished from ;/c?r;/,"to becr)me," which follows the adverbial form of arljectives, and which is conjugated as a regular verb of tlif; first conju^^ilion. Examples of am and 7i(iru .• Chi aril ino^ oroka 7iaru mo. J^oth those who have under- standing and those who are foolish. Kore ha Ihn'ai 710 yaiiia 7ia7n. This is the mountain Ilorai. Kaku 7ia7'i to shirubekii 7ian. Vou must know that this is so. Midrjukara^iivo tokashi77uiru It makes the meaning ex- nai'i. plained of itself Nar^e 7ia7'eba 7ta7ii 7ia7ii to Why is it so? it is bc- 7iareha nari. cause it is so and so. Surii^ " to do." The simple verb may be replaced by tlie adverbial form followed by sum. Sometimes, however, there is a difference of meaning. 'Wxw-, yo7'oko(n-tc means " rejoic- ing "; yorokobi shitCy " making gala." 6^r?/, " to get," " to be able," is |)refixed in the adverbial form e to negative verbs, as in the examples — E ihazii. He is unable to say. E 7io77iar:.u. He is unable to drink. li ouiolii ha7ia7'cji. He will be unable to cease to think of her. A noun may intervene, as in the example: — E taimcft ta}7iawar(Uiu. I cannot accept an interview Ka7uini, " to be unable," is annexed to verbs in the ad- verbial form. I AUXILIARY VERBS. 1 69 Example : — Ytiki-kane safurafii. I am unable to go. Afu, " to meet." In man}- cases, this verb when prefixed in the adverbial form to other verbs has more or less of its original meaning, as ahi-iioru, " to ride together " ; ahi-i?nni, •'to see one another"; ahi-honiru^'' to love one another"; but in the later language it is often used without much meaning, as natsu ni ahi-nari safurafu toki, " When it became summer." VERBS AS ADVERBS OR CONJUNCTIONS. ^lany words which must be translated in English by ad- verbs or conjunctions are, in Japanese, verbs or adjectives {kotoba). Indeed, as shown in Chap. IV., every verb and adjective has a form in which it is an adverb. Examples of verbs as adverbs : — Hatashi-te. " Ultimately," " eventually." Seme-te, " At least." Kaheri-te. " On the contrary." Mashi-te. " Much more so." Aniari " Too much." Kahesu-gahesti. " Again and again." Nokora-zu. " Without exception." Examples of verbs as conjunctions : — So-shite (lit. " having done so ") " and." Shikareba (lit. *' since it is so ") " therefore." Oyobi (adv. form of oyobu, " to reach to "j *' and." Narabi ni (lit. '' in a line with ") " and." Tadashi (adv. form of tadasu, " to correct ") " but." Aruhiha (properly am ha) " in some cases," ''or." L CHAPTER IX. SYNTAX. ' ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 1. Qualifying words or phrases precede the words which they qualify. Thus : — (a) The adjective (verb or adjective in attributive form) precedes the noun which it qualifies, as jyokz /izto, " a good man"; kuru hito, "the man who comes." (b) The adverb precedes the word which it qualifies, as ito hayaku, " very fast "; hayaku kiiru, " to come quickly." (c) The noun followed by the genitive participle ?io or ga precedes the noun to which it is joined, as hito no chikara, " a man's strength." 2. The nominative case stands at the beginning of a sentence. Tsuki ha kagiri naku medetaki mono nari. " The moon is an immeasurably beautiful object." To this rule there are numerous exceptions. In comparisons, the object with which the subject of the sentence is compared usually, though not always, precedes it, as in the sentence Ko7io yaina yori are Jia takasJii, " That mountain is higher than this." 3. The verb (verb or adjective in conclusive form) is placed at the end of the sentence, as in the last example. The regular order of a sentence is frequently inverted in poetry, the verb appearing in the middle, and the sentence being closed by a noun, a particle, or a verb or adjective in the adverbial or attributive form. SYNTAX. 171 Examples : Na de fu (for 7iani to ifu and pronounced najo) ko- kochi siireba^ kakii mono onioJii tani sania ni te tsiiki wo uii tauiafu zo — 7iina- shiki yo ni? Kokoro ara7i Hi to ni niisebaya Tstmooka ga Shiwoyaki kebiiri. Because of what feelings do you in this pleasant world gaze upon the moon with the appearance of being so immersed in thought ? I would that I could show to some one who had a heart the smoke from the salt-furnaces of Tsunooka. The later semi-Chinese prose style affords examples of a similar construction. Negahakn ha sJiiho no kujtshi kokiii aran koto wo. Osonxku Jia fugaku no soshiri aran koto wo. Osorakn ha yo no Jiito no warahi-gusa to naran koto wo. 4. The case signs are I pray that gentlemen from all quarters will purchase it. I fear I may incur the re- proach of ignorance. I fear it may become a laughing-stock to the public, after the nouns to which placed they relate, as koko made, " to this place"; ware 710, " mine." 5. The direct object of the verb precedes it, as kaha wataru, "to cross a river." In poetry the object is sometimes placed after the verb. 6. A noun governed by a preposition precedes the direct object of the verb, ^sfi(7ie 7ii kaha watarn, " to cross a river in a boat." 7. Expressions denoting time precede expressions denoting place, and a general expression precedes one that is more precise. Examples : Itsu made kokoni suinu ka ? " Until when do you reside here ? " Roku gwatsii na7iiika made. '' Until the seventh day of the sixth month." \ 172 SYNTAX. 8. Conjunctions and interrogative particles are placed after the word or clause to which they belong, as in the examples, Ika nam Into ka to tofu, " He inquires what manner of man he is " ; Ikaga siibeki to oinofu, " What is to be done ? thought he." 9. Dependent clauses precede principal clauses. Example :— Uguhisu no Were it not for the note of Janiyori idziiru the uguisii from the valley, Kohe naku ba, who would know of the Haru kiiru koto ha arrival of spring ? Tare ka sJdrainashi ? In poetry this rule is often disregarded. Examples : — Yo wo sutsuriL To abandon this world Kokoro ha nawo zo Heart as yet Nakari-keru — There is not — Uki wo ushi to ha That misery is miserable OjHohi shiredonio. Though I recognize. What though the wind blow that paints the autumn hagi — my heart will not wither, for it is not a herb- leaf. y are not unfrequent in the We have privately heard that it is under consideration to add a degree of strin- gency to the Press Laws. We are told that a clexer falsehood is inferior to a clumsy truth. Aki hagi zuo Irodorn kaze ha FukiniL tojiio Kokoro ha kareji Kusaba naraneba. Inversions like the foUowin: modern semi-Chinese style : — Hisokani kikic — shivibun jorei isso gem-Diitsu wo kiihafiwu no gi art to. Kore wo kiku — kogi ha ses-sei ni shikazu to. SYNTAX. 173 In the style imitated from the Chinese, as for instance in official letters, a number of words of frequent occurrence are usually written in the Chinese order, although in reading, the Japanese construction is followed. Thus the verbs niotsu ^, itasii ^, sesliiuiuni /^, urn ^^, yoni jj^ (or 0) in the phrase ni yorite, okii JJ- in the phrase ni oite, oyobii ^ are written before the nouns which they govern, the passive termination arum ^ is written before the verb to which it belongs, ari /^ is put before kore when kore is nominative to it, the negative particle zu '^ comes before its verb, and the adjectives kataki ^, gotoki ^q, and beki rJ" precede the verbs with which they are compounded. Examples will be found in specimens VII., VIII., and IX. at the end of the volume. PARTICLES AFFECTING THE FORM OF THE VERB OR ADJEC- TIVE AT THE END OF A SENTENCE {kakari tetlhvoha). It has been already pointed out (p. Z%) that the principal verb of a sentence, i.e., the verb in the indicative mood, or the adjective when it includes the verb " is," is placed at the end of the sentence, and in the conclusive form. To this rule classical* Japanese recognizes certain well defined exceptions, which are stated below. It is difficult to over-estimate the importance o{ this part of Japanese grammar. Motowori has devoted a work in seven volumes, the Tama no (9,t to the elucidation and illustration of this rule and its exceptions, * The modern language shows a strong tendency to disregard these exceptions and to revert to the simplicity of the general rule. In the present spoken language both rule and exceptions are altogether unknown, and in the modern written language there is so much confusion between the old practice and the new forms to which the language seems tending, that no rule can be laid down. The semi- Chinese style rarely employs constructions where the exceptions required by classical Japanese would be exemplified. t Tavta no O, lit. "the string of jewels" {i.e., the connecting principle of words), a high-flown expression for "syntax." 174 SYNTAX. and other grammarians have followed his example. The substance of Motowori's treatise is contained in the following rules, among which I. and II. are much the most important : — Rule I. When one of the particles zo, nan (not the particle nan suffixed to verbs), or an interrogative {ka^ j/a, nam, nado, nazo, tare, ikani, ikaga, ikade, idzure, itsu, ikii) occurs in a sentence, the verb or adjective which closes it is put in the attributive instead of in the conclusive form. Examples : — Kore ya waga nwtouinru This is (if I mistake not) the yania 7iaru. mountain of which we are in search. Kore zo tania narubeki. It is this which must be the jewel. Yama kakusu This mist of spring which Haru no kasunii zo hides the mountains is Uranieshiki. hateful. Kami yo yori How many ages have passed I kit yo ka henishi ? since the age of the gods ? Fukaku oinohi When was it that the autumn Sojnetsti to ihi shi wind blowing scattered Koto no ha ha those leaves of speech (/>., Itsn ka aki-kaze words) in which he told me Fiikite chh'iniiru ? that his mind was deeply tinged with love ? Katachi yori ha kokoro nan Her heart was more excellent niasaritaru. than her beaut}'. Most Japanese grammarians include no in the list of particles which govern the attributive form. The mere occurrence of no in a sentence, however, does not affect the final verb or adjective, unless it is actually joined to it. In such cases the verb or adjective is properly a noun, but as shown at p. 107, this construction is frequently substituted for the conclusive form. SYNTAX. 175 Examples : — Sasagani no Koroma ni kakari Ware zvo tafioiniirii. The spider, clinging to my garment, has turned to me for help. No is here joined not to koromo, but to tajionmru, so that there is properly no verb in the sentence, sasagani no tano- niuru meaning properly " the spider's turning for help," not *' the spider turned for help." Ware wo oniofu Hito wo oniohanu JMnkuhi ni ya ? — ■ Waga oinofn hito no ■ Wa7'e wo oniohami. Rule II. When the particle Xj^'j-c' occurs in a sentence, the verb or adjective which closes it is put in the perfect form instead of the conclusive form. Is it as a punishment for not loving him who loved me? — He whom I love loves me not. Examples : — Kore koso tania nare, Yone koso yokere. Iro yori nio Ka koso a hare to Oniohoyure. Mi no uki wo Wasure-giisa koso Kishi ni ofure — Ube Suniiyoshi to A ma mo ihi-keri. It is this, and this only which is the jewel. It is rice, and nothing but rice, which is good. I feel touched above all by the fragrance more even than by the colour. Above all things {koso) the herb of forgetfulness of one's woes grows upon the bank — well have the fisher- men given it the name of Sumiyoshi (pleasant to reside in). 1/6 SYNTAX. Yakezu ba koso, makoto 7iaraji In case it does not burn, and to omoJii te, hito no ifu koto in that case only, I will ni mo viakeme. consider it genuine, and will comply with the man's proposal. A verb has often to be supplied after koso. Examples : — Ahi-viin koto ivo mini koso I think of nothing but of our (omohoyure). meeting. Chikara am hito ni te koso He is indeed a powerful man. (are). The older poems in the Manyoshiii have occasionally a perfect without koso or with a koso after the perfect. Even at present a pure Japanese style admits the perfect form in the case of the future particle, notwithstanding that koso may not have preceded it. Examples : — Inishihe mo shika 7iare koso. Even in ancient times thus and thus only was it. Ikasama ni How has he thought ? i. e.^ Onwhoshimese ka ? what has been his reason ? Kaha ni " kosiL " to ifu koto Is it likely that there should arame ya ha? be such an expression as " kosii " in speaking of rivers ? The modern popular style has often an attributive form after koso. Rule III. If koso occurs in the same sentence with zo^ 7ian, or an interrogative, the verb or adjective follows the government of koso. Examples : — Ohohara ya ! Oh! Ohara ! Oshiho no yama mo Even thy mountain of Oshio, SYNTAX. 177 Kefu koso Jia On this day of all others, Kami yo no koto uio The events of the age of the gods OnioJii idzuyaiiie. Will have called to mind. Rule IV. When one of the particles enumerated in Rules I. and II. occurs in a dependent clause, it does not affect either the verb of the dependent or of the principal clause. ' Siigata koso Even though I see not thy Nezauie jio yiika ni form when I lie awake in MiJiezu to J no. my bed. KoyoJii bakari ya (kon) to It was the appearance of one viachi-kenL sama fiari. who waited (thinking) will he (come) to-night. Exception. When the dependent clause is a quotation it is treated as a principal clause, and the verb or adjective which closes it follows the usual government. The reason for this is that the Japanese language has no distinguishing forms to mark indirect narration, and sentences must be repeated exactly as they were originally spoken, preserving of course their original grammar as independent sentences. Examples : — Tomo ni koso He whom I awaited, in order Hana wo nio mime to that we might see the Matsu hito. flowers together. Iku yo ka heshi to They would ask, " How man}' Tohamashi mono wo. nights have passed ? " This exception is not invariably observed. In good authors a conclusive form is occasionally found before to even when one of the particles enumerated in Rules I. and 11. precedes the verb. This construction appears somewhat abnormal,. and is no doubt traceable to a notion that " to " governs the verb before it in the conclusive form. 178 SYNTAX. Example : — Kane no oto 7ii Inia ya akenn to {pniohite). Naganiu7'eba Nawo kiuno fiikashi- Mine no shirayiiki. At the sound of the bell, " Hath day now broken ? " (thought I). When I looked out, the cloud of night was still deep over the white snow of the mountain-peaks. Where to is not the mark of quotation, as in to mo, the verb preceding it is unaffected by the particles in the clause with which it terminates. Example : — Asasa koso Hito ha iniru to mo. Rule V. Ya at the end of form of the verb or adjective which precedes, but at the end of a dependent clause, it governs the verb or adjective of the principal clause in the attributive form. Examples : — Even though men should see its shallowness. a clause does not affect the Hototogisu Konoha gaknre no Kohe ha kikoyu ya ? Kuj^enai ni Shiworeshi sode mo Kuchi hatenn — Arab ay a hito ni Iro mo niisubeki. Can I hear the cry of the hototogisu hidden among the leaves of the trees ? My sleeves that once hung down scarlet are now utterly decayed — if only their former colour re- mained, there is one to whom I would show it. Rule VI. Ka, kana, and zo, at the end of a sentence, govern the verb or adjective which precedes in the attributive form.* * In these cases the verb or adjective is really a noun. Ka and kana are equivalent to aru ka, am kana, and the verb am is understood after zo. SYNTAX. 1/9 Ani ka : naki ka ? Is there (or) is there not ? Nigori }ii kaJio iiiihetm ^o. In the muddy water my face L^ cannot be seen. In poetry, sentences are often met with which do not end in a verb or adjective in the conclusive form, notwithstanding that they contain none of the particles enumerated in Rules I. and II. These cases will generally fall under one of the following heads. (a) An inversion of the ordinary construction has taken place, as in the examples quoted above, p. 171. (b) A verb or adjective is understood which may be supplied from the context. Examples : — Toki shiraiui The mountain which knows Yaina ha Fuji no ne. not time is the peak of JP Fuji. Here nari is to be supplied after ne. Aratajna no The thing which is more Toshi tachi-kaheru excellent than the morn of Ashita yori the new year when it comes Masaruru mono ha round again is the note of Uguhisu no kohe. the uguisu. fc Nari is again to be supplied at the end of this sentence. Aki hagi ni If I might only take hold ot Nihoheru ivaga mo the towing - rope of thy Nnre7iu to mo ■ boat, (I care not) even Kimi ga mifune fto though I wet my garments Tsuna shi tori teba steeped in the odour of the autumn hagi. In this sentence there is an inversion of the ordinary construction, and some such word as kamahazu, " I care not," has to be supplied. \ l8o SYNTAX. Akatsuki no Kane no kohe koso Kikoyu nare — Koi'e wo iri-ahi to Om oka in ash ikaba. (c) The whole sentence Examples : — Tohoku areba Wabi te mo am wo — Sato chikaku A ri to kiki tsutsu Mimi ga subenasa ! Furu yuki no Mi no shiro-goronio Uchi-ki tsutsu Ham ki ?n keri to Odorokare?tum ! Idzu7'e ka has hi to Tohedo kotahenu ! It is none other than the sound of the bell of day- dawn that we hear — if we could only fancy that it was that of night-fall (it would be pleasant), has the force of an exclamation. If thou were far from me, I might wait in patience, but {wo^ Oh ! the helpless misery of not seeing thee while hearing that thou art near my dwelling- place ! Whilst putting on my clothes white as the falling snow, (imagine) my surprise to find that spring had come ! I inquire. Where is the bridge? But alas ! no answer ! These sentences are not statements of fact ; they merely picture to the mind a state of things without making any assertion respecting it. OTHER RULES OF SYNTAX. I. When a suffix is common to a number of nouns it is placed after the last only. Examples : — Oya kiodai niobo wo sutete To run awa}^ abandoning niguru. one's parents, brother and sister and wife. SYNTAX. 8i II. When an inflection is common to two or more in- flected words, it is put with the last of the series only, all which precede being put in the adverbial form. Examples : — Ayashikii uniwaskikn niede- taki mono nari. Kate wo ton, hayaku tsu- tsume. Chi sake, yaina ochi-iri, kaha sakashiuia ?n nagaru. It is a wonderful, graceful, and beautiful object. Take the provisions, and make them into a parcel quickly. The earth gapes, mountains collapse, and rivers flow backwards. Here sake and ochi-iri are adverbial forms put instead of the conclusive forms sakii and ochi-iru, the last verb only of the series, viz., fiagaru, retaining the inflection of the conclusive form. I Dorogaha ni shdziirii ha niku akaku, abura ohoshi. Kehashiku takaki tokoro. As to those which are pro- duced in muddy streams, their flesh is red and their fat plentiful. A steep and high place. In this phrase, both kehashiku and takaki are epithets of tokoro, but, by the rule above stated, only the last — viz., takaki — takes the appropriate inflection, i.e., that of the attributive form. Exception. If two adjectives qualify different parts of the same noun, both are put in the attributive form, as in the example yukiki ?io mono takaki iyashiki wo ihazic,yobi- atsunm, "He called together the passers-by without respect of highness or lowness of rank." HI. Adjectives used as interjections are placed in the root form. b 1 82 . SYNTAX. - Examples : — A 7ia iL ! How miserable ! Ana kanashi! How lamentable ! Kanashi na ! How lamentable ! Ajikina ya ! How tiresome ! IV. There are no grammatical forms to distinguish indirect from direct narration. A speech is reported without any change further than the addition of the particle to, " that." Thus the speech ware ha sJiirazii, " I do not know," if repeated by another person is repeated without change, as, for instance, zvare ha shira.'zu to viafusu^ "He said he did not know." V. An interrogative at the beginning of a sentence is accompanied by ka, not ya, at the end. This rule is often disregarded by modern writers. VI. The nominative case is often placed absolutely, i.e.y without a verb. Ex. : Okina viiko ni inafusu yo, " The manner of the speech of the old man to the Prince." VII. The genitive case sometimes dispenses with the par- ticles no or ga, as Jiototogisii koJie, " The cry of the hototogisu." VIII. The particle to, " and," is often omitted, as asa yufUy " morning and evening." KEN-YO-GEN. The ken-yo-gen is a species of pun. An example in Eng- lish is found in Thackeray's novel The Newconies where he speaks of the teapot presented to Mr. Honeyman by the devotees attending his chapel as the " devoteapot." Here the syllable " tea " stands at the same time for the last syllable of " devotee " and the first syllable of " teapot." This is a very common ornament of style, not only in poetry, but in the more adorned passages of prose compositions. The severer taste of the old classical authors rejects the ken-yo-gen. It is seldom found in the Manyoshiu. Ex. : Ikitaki kokochi nakii bakari, " Having no desire to SYNTAX. 183 live, and doing nothing but weep." Here naku must be taken twice. The first time it is the negative adverb " not," the second it is the verb " to weep." NaiJiida fio kaivaku ma mo mxki-kiirasu, " She spent her time in weeping, there being no interval in which her tears might dr\'." In this sentence naku, "not," must be supplied from 7iaki, the root of naku, " to weep." Yo no naka zi'o O village of Ohohara ! Still So7nuki ni to te ha there are many sorrows for Koshikadomo me, though I have come NaJio uki koto ha hither to avoid the world. Oho-hara no sato. In the last example ohoshi, " many," has to be supplied from Ohohara, the name of a village. CHAPTER X. PROSODY. Metre. Japanese poetry has neither rhyrhe, assonance, nor quantity. It is not marked by a regular succession of accented syllables, as in English, and is only distinguished from prose by metre. Broadly speaking, all Japanese metre consists in the alternation or mixture of feet, or rather lines {'^) of five and seven syllables. Lines of three, four, six, and eight syllables may be found in the oldest poetry, and in modern popular verse the metre is far from regular, but these variations are not intentional, and in singing or chanting, the proper length of the lines is preserved. There is no Japanese metre into which lines of other than five and seven syllables are regularly admitted. Each kana counts as a syllable, including n final, which was originally 7uu, and is not unfrequently written so in poetry, Chinese words are not admissible in classical poetry, but in the modern popular poetry, where Chinese words do occur, the same rule holds good. Rio-koku (V ^ }> =» :^ ) for instance counts as five syllables, boii-no (:^* >^ :^ :>) as four. The end of a line must also be the end of a word. Tanka or mijika-tita, i.e., " short poetry," so called to dis- tinguish it from naga-iita, or " long poetry," is by far the commonest Japanese metre, and when the general term uta is used, it is this metre which is commonly meant. It consists of five lines of five, seven, five, seven and seven syllables, or thirty-one syllables in all. There is a pause between the third and fourth lines, the former part being called the kanii no kuy the latter the shimo no ku. This division usually coin- cidjes with a break in the sense. rR(JS( )DV. 185 Each verse of thirty-one syllables is an entire poem. Examples of tanka : — Ntibatama no Yo watarii tsiiki wo Oinoshiromi — Waga worn sode ni B Tsiiyu so oj'i ni kern. THE MOON. Whilst enjoying the sight of the moon crossing the dark nisfht — On the sleeves waiting, there has of me descended the dew. I Wag' inioko ga Aka-nio no shso no Hidzuchi nan Kefu no kosanie ni Ware sake mire na. Idete inaba Nushi naki yado to Narinn to uio^ Nokiba no niunie yo Ham wo wasuruna. LOVE IN A SHOWER. Let me too be drenched with the fine rain of to-day, which is doubtless wetting the skirts of m}- love's crimson raiment. LEAVING HOME. When I am gone, Though my dwelling become tenantless, Do not thou, O plum-tree by the eaves ! forget the spring. Renka is where one person composes part (commonly the second part) of a tanka, the remainder being added b}' some one else. Kioka, or '* mad poetry," is a modern and vulgar kind of poetry, composed in the old classical metres, especially tanka. It differs from classical poetry by admitting words of Chinese derivation, and in being much less choice in its diction and subject-matter. It will be seen from the following examples that it deals largely in punning and plays upon words : — 2 1 86 PROSODY. LOVE IN A SMITHY. Kaharaji to The pair of sledge-hammers Tagahi ni kitahe having tempered each other Ahi-dztichi no to eternal constancy, be- Suhe hafiiigo no come at last the bellows' Ffi-fii to zo nam. J puff-puff. \ husband and wife. There is here a pun on fii-fu^ which is an onomatopoetic word for the puffing sound of bellows, and may also mean " husband and wife." IS MY LOVE THE THUNDER-GOD. Misovietsiinc Is the man whom I love Hito hajiu kit ka nineteen or twenty ? Hatata kami Or the Thunder-God ? Narihira sania ka Or is he Narihira, or Hikaru Hikani Genji ka ? (bright) Genji } From hatata kami, " the Thunder-God," there is understood hatachi ka, " Is he twenty ? " Narihii'a and Genji are names of beautiful youths, as we might say Apollo or Adonis. Kaini-nari ^end of third line and beginning of fourth) also means " thunder," and Hikaru, one of the names of Genji, is inserted, because the root of the verb hik, *' to be bright," is the second part of the word inabikari, " lightning." ARDENT LOVE. Mono oiuoheba. Thinking of my love, the Kaha no Jianabi vio very fire- works over the Waga vii yori river seem as if they were Pon to idetarii balls issuing with a bang Tama y a to zo niij^u. from m}^ own body. Naga-nta or cho-ka, i.e., " long poetry." Next to tanka, the commonest classical metre is 7taga-uta. Some of the best poetry which Japan has produced is in this metre. It con- I PROSODY. 187" sists of a series of couplets of lines of five and seven syllables, the end of the poem being marked by an additional line of seven syllables, thus : — I I Two additional lines of seven syllables are sometimes found instead of one. The following specimen of naga-tita is from the Manyoshiii (vol. vi. fol. 55, of Riakuge edition). IN PRAISE OF THE PALACE OF FUTAGI. Waga ohokinii \ kanii no mikoto no, Takashirasti \ Fiitagi no miya ha, ( Momoki nasii \ yania ha kodakashi, \ Ochi-tagitsu \ se no Uo vio kiyoshi : C Ugnhisii no \ ki-naku harube ha, < Ihaho ni ha \ yama-shita hikarti, C NisJiiki nasii \ hana saki ivowori ; C Sa woshika no \ tsinna yobti aki ha, < Aniagirafu \ shignre wo it ami, t Sa7iidziirafu \ momiji chiri-tsntsn, Yachi tose ni \ are-tsngashi-tsutsu, Ante no shita \ shirashiniesan to — Moino yo ni nio \ kaharubekaranu Ohoniiya-dokoro. By the palace of Futagi, Where our great King And divine lord Holds high rule, 1 88 PROSODY. Gentle is the rise of the hills, Bearing hundreds of trees, Pleasant is the murmur of the rapids, As downward they rush : So long as in the spring-time, (When the nightingale comes and sings) On the rocks Brocade-like flowers blossom, Brightening the mountain-foot ; So long as in the autumn (When the stag calls to his mate) The red leaves fall hither and thither Wounded by the showers — The heaven beclouding, For many thousand years May his life be prolonged To rule over all under heaven In the great palace Destined to remain unchanged For hundreds of ages. Hanka or kaheshi-uta. The naga-uta is usually followed by one or more tanka of the ordinary length of thirty-one syllables. These are called hanka. They sometimes contain the principal idea of the poem which precedes in a short, pithy form, and are at others employed as a sort of poetical save-all to utilize any scrap of imagery which it has been inconvenient to include in the naga-uta itself The naga-uta quoted above is followed by five hanka, the first of which will serve as a specimen : — t^ROSODV. 189 IdzHDiigaJia When the flowing waters of Yuku se no niidzii no the rapids of the river Taheba koso — Idzumi fail— then, and not OJiODiiya-dokoro till then, may our great UtsiiroJii-yukanie ! palace suffer change ! The hauka is occasionally not a tanka, but a sedoka. Sedoka consists of six lines, of five, seven, seven, five, seven, and seven syllables (5, 7, 7, 5, 7, 7), i.e., it is a tanka with an additional line of seven syllables inserted between the second and third lines. The pause in sedoka is after the third line. It is a characteristic of this metre that the last line usually contains a repetition of some word or phrase in the earlie- lines. Examples of sedoka : — LOVE IN ABSENCE. Ikenobe no Oh ! cut not the bamboo Wo-dziiki no nioto no grass at the foot of the Shinii 7ia kari so ne little elm tree by the pond Sore ivo dani side. If naught else is left _ Kind ga katami ni to me, I would bear (my r Mi tsutsu shinuban. loneliness) looking upon it as a memento of thee. PITY FOR THE LABOURER. Ham hi sura I pity thee that thou be- Ta ni tachi-tsnkaru comest weary in the rice- Kinii ha kanashi nio — field even on this spring Waka kiisa no day ; (I pity thee) that, Tsnma naki kind having no youthful spouse, Ta ni tachi-tsnkaru. thou becomest weary in the rice-field. Hokku, as its name indicates, is the first part of a verse of tayika. It consists of three lines of five, seven, and five syllables, or seventeen syllables in all. The modern varieties 190 PROSODY. of poetry known as haikwai uia and seftriu are chiefly com- posed in this metre, although the number of syllables is occasionally exceeded. As in the case of tanka, each hokku is an entire poem. Examples of hokku : — FUJI CONCEALED IN A MIST. Kiri no unii Into a sea of mist whither Idzuko he Fuji ha hath Mt. Fuji sunk ? Shidzumi nuru ? OLD AGE. Hito fii koso It is only man who becomes Toshi ha yori mire aged, Oh thou grass of Hanc no kusa ! spring ! THE SUMMER SHOWER. Yufudachi ya Oh ! if the summer shower Ta wo vii-ineguri no were only a god who should Kami naraba. make his round of visits to the rice-fields. The last verse is an acrostic on the word yutaka^ " wealth " or *' prosperity." IRREGULAR VERSE. The four kinds of metre described above are the only regular metres known in Japanese poetry. To the first three of these, viz., tanka, naga-iita^ and sedoka, belongs all poetry recognized as classical. The admirers of haikwai uta claim for it a quasi-classical character ; but it is objected, with much reason, that nothing which deserves the name of poetry can well be contained in the narrow compass of a verse of seven- teen syllables. There remains a large quantity of popular poetry which cannot be reduced to any regular metre. It is, however, distinguishable from prose by a more or less regular alterna- tion of lines of five and seven syllables. The character of the PROSODY. 191 versification of some of the principal varieties will be seen from the following specimens. Saibara is a kind of popular lyrical poetry of considerable antiquity. The following drinking-song may be given as a specimen : — 7 5 7 5 Sake wo taubete Tabe-yente Tan to korin zo {ya !) Maudekuru Drinking sake, Drinking till we 're drunken Then let us be right sober ! As we come along 7 5 Na yoroboJii so Maudekuru Steady ! no staggering ! As we come along Tanna tanna With our tanna tanna Tariya ra}ina Tari chiri ra. Tariya ranna Tari chiri ra. Ya, in the third line, is an interjection, which in this kind of poetry does not count in the metre. Kagura is also of considerable antiquity. As its name indicates, it was sung at the Shinto festivals. What is now known as kagura is dancing only, unaccompanied with singing. BOAT-SONG. 5 Shiiiagatori y Ina 710 niinato ni {aizo !) 5 Iru fune no 7 Kaji yoku niakase ; 7 Fune katabiikuna — 7 Fune katabukuna. 5 Wakakusa no {ya I) y Inio JHo Hoi'itari {ya !) {Aizo !) y I Vare mo ?ioritari {ya !), y Fune katabukuna ! y Fune katabukuna. Manage well the helm of the boat in the grebe-haunted harbour of Ina. Let her not heel over, Let her not heel over. II. My young wife Is on board, And I too am on board Let her not heel over, Let her not heel over. 192 PROSODY. It will be seen that, if stripped of interjections and repeti- tions, the first of these stanzas is a verse of tanka, and the second a verse of tanka wanting the third line. A large proportion of kagiira are tanka more or less disguised in this wa}'. Utahi. Japanese dramatic works are composed partly in prose and partly in verse. The speeches of the dramatis: personcE^ which are declaimed by the actors on the stage, are in prose, but these are always connected by a thread of narra- tive (as was, to some extent, the case in the older English' drama) which is in verse and is chanted by a chorus. It is this latter part which is termed utahi. The Japanese have two kinds of drama, the more ancient of which is called no. The no are short dramatic sketches, mostly of a religious character, and occupy a position in Japanese dramatic litera- ture corresponding to that held by the " mysteries " in Europe. The following specimen of this kind of poetry is taken from., a no called Hakurakiitcn. The principal personage having announced that he has been commissioned by the Emperor of China to spy out the intelligence of the inhabitants of Japan, the chorus strikes in and thus describes his voyage : — 7 Fune kogi-idete Oaring forth his ship. 5 Hi no Dioto no He would visit the land 5 Hi no jnoto no Of the quarter 4 Sonata ?io Of the rising of the sun, 7 Kuni wo tadziinen. Of the rising of the sun. 5 Tokai no As she sails, 7 Naniiji haruka ni As she sails 5 Yiiku fune no Far o\^er the wave-path 5 Yiikufune no Of the Eastern sea, 7 A to ni iru hi no Behind her sets the sun, 5 Kage nokoni O'er her is the void of heaven 7 Knino no Jiatate no Where the cloud-banners PROSODY. 93 5 AniaiSii sora — 7 Tsiiki mat a idzuru Sonata yori Yauia niiJiesoniete Hodo mo naku Nippon no chi 7ii mo Tsnki 7ii keri, Tsuki ni keri. The following- specimen called ' Ishikawa Goyemon.' parations for boiling alive name. SJiioki no basJio ha Shichijo gahara ; Ni cJio yo ho ni Kaki yuh i- ma hash /, Uchi ni tatetarn Nukimi no yari— KanaJie ni suheshi Oho-gama ha Jigoku no seme wo Kono yo kara Mi ni atsumarishi Gtinjiu no naka Saki wo harafute Hayano Yatdji Iwaki Tonia mo Ahi-yaku ni Ihi-tsukerarete Zehi nakii j}io Shogi ni kakaru A to yori mo Are still bright with his radiance — And now the moon comes forth ; On the same quarter Mountains are first descried ; Ere long Even at the land of Japan, He hath arrived, He hath arrived, of titahi is from a modern play It is a description of the pre- the celebrated robber of that The place of execution is the bed of the river (Kamo) in the seventh division (of Kioto) : for 240 yards on all sides a fence has been tied around : within> the upright spears with naked points, and the great caldron mounted on an iron tripod ! Clearing his way before him through the multitude which has assembled to see from this world the tortures of hell,, comes Hayano Yatdji, Along with him Iwaki Toma, appointed to be his colleague, reluctantly takes his seat on a camp stooL From behind them Hiobu,. 194 PROSODY. 7 Oya no Hiobu ha the (culprit's) father with 6 Kokoro 7)10 sora heart empty of hope, fruit- 8 Kanahami nagara mo less though he feels it,' 5 Tachi inukahi. standing forth opposite. [Here follows Hiobu's speech in prose.] The following is a specimen of the popular lyrical poetry of the present day : — 5 Afii to 1) lis hi Vain has been the dream 7 Yume ha munashiku ; In which I thought that we met ; 5 Sainete mata Awake, I find myself again 7 Tsuraki utsutsu ?io In the darkness 5 Yami no uchi. Of the wretched reality. 7 Omohite mitemo Whether I try to hope 5 Fusahidemo Or give way to gloomy thought 7 Hon ni kokoro no Truly for my heart 7 Yarukata mo nay a ! There is no relief ! 7 Don de aharenn II. If this is such a miserable 5 Uki-yo nara world that I may not meet thee, 7 Miyaina no oku no Oh! let me take up my abode 5 Sono oku no Deep in the far mountains 7 Zutsuto no oku 7ii And deeper still 5 Smnahi shite, In their furthest depths, 7 Hito-me omohade Where, careless of men's gaze, 7 Mono omohitaya. I may think of my love. i It will be observed that the metre of the above differs only slightly from naga-iita. ELISION. In Japanese poetry, elision may consist either in dropping PROSODY. 195 the final vowel of a word before the initial vowel of the next, or in taking away the first vowel of a word after the final vowel of the one preceding. Thus we have wagimoko for waga-iuioko, but kikanu hi niauekii for kikanu hi amaiieku. Elision is optional, except when two vowels come together in different parts of a compound, in which case it is com- pulsory. For instance, midzn-unii, " a lake," can never count as four syllables in poetry. It must be read viidz umi. Elisions are sometimes expressed in writing, but oftener they are left to the discrimination of the reader. The vowel e cannot be elided. Tsuiku, i.e., opposite or corresponding lines. This is a frequent ornament of Japanese naga-uta. It consists of a parallelism oi meaning or construction in two consecutive or sometimes alternate lines or stanzas. Hebrew and Chinese poetry afford numerous examples of it, and even in English poetry it is not unfrequently met with. The following lines from Longfellow's ' Hiawatha' are tsiiiku : — " Ye who love the haunts of nature, {Love the sunshine of the meadow, Love the shadow of the forest " — and again : — H f " Filled the marshes full of wildfowl, » \ Filled the river full of fishes." ■ A more elaborate kind of parallelism is exemplified in the poem entitled ' Seaweed,' by the same author. The following example is from the naga-uta in the Mafi- y OS hill : — CONSTANT LOVE. Miyoshinu 710 \ Mikane no take ni f Hinia nakii rjo \ auie ha f urn tofn (for to ifu) J 1 Tokijiku zo \ yuki ha fur u tofn I f Sono anie no \ hinia naki ga goto \ Sono yuki no \ tokijiku ga goto Hinia nio ochizu \ ware ha zo kofuru Inwga tadaka 7ii. 196 PROSODY. { On the peak of Mikane in Miyoshinu, /It is said that the rain falls unceasingly, I It is said that the snow is ever falling : f Like that rain which never ceases, 1 Like that snow that is ever falling. Without intermission do I long For thy charms. MAKURA-KOTOBA. Makiwa-kotoba, called also kainuri-kotoba or okosJd-kotoba^ are a peculiar feature of Japanese poetry. They are orna- mental epithets or phrases resembling in some degree the Homeric epithets of persons and places, but of a still more ': conventional character. Each viakura-kotoba is prefixed to a few words or phrases only, and, on the other hand, the number of mahira-kotoba which can be applied to the same words , seldom exceeds three or four. What marks even more plainly their conventional character is the circumstance that when a word to which a makura-kotoba belongs has several meanings or applications the niakiira-kotoba may be applied to it in all however meaningless or inappropriate it may be. Isanadori, I " whale-catching," for instance, is an epithet of //;;//, " the sea " ; j but it is also freely applied to inland lakes, such as the lake : of Omi (Lake Biwa), where, of course, no whales are to be found. In very many cases the word to which the makura- kotoba belongs must be taken in one sense with it, and in another with the rest of the sentence. This is the figure already described under the name Keny6ge7i. [See p. 182.] Thus, in a poem about the town of Akashi it has the epithet tomoshibi no, '* of the light," because akashi also means " to throw light upon." Makura-kotoba are not invariably of the nature of adjectives. Some are the direct or indirect com- plements of verbs prefixed to them as a sort of ornamental introduction. In Into ga me wo Misome no saki, the makura- PROSODY. 197 kotoba, ii/io ga me wo, " thine eyes," is the accusative case governed by the verb niisome, " to see for the first time," which is to be supplied from Misoine no saki, " Cape Misome." Makura-kotoba ahnost invariably consist of five syllables, and even when they are of three, four, or six, as is sometimes the case, they always constitute the first line in tauka, or the first line of a couplet in naga-uta. The inakiira-kotoba are one of the principal difficulties of the old poetry. They are in many cases remnants of the form of the language which existed prior to any written literature, and their derivation, meaning, and grammatical construction are often obscure.* Examples of uiakura-kotoba : — Nubataina no yo. Black night. [^Xubatama is the name of a black berry.] Ike tsH dori kake. The bird of the house, the cock. Ashi ga chirii Naniha. Naniwa, where the reeds are scattered. Inw ga te wo Toroshi no ike. The pond of \ r^f.'^fh, my love's hand. Wag'inwko ni Ahaji no The island of { i*^;"/' "^' '"""' my shinia. love. In the last two examples Toroshi and Ahaji are ken-yo-gen. From Toroshi is understood toi'u, " to take," and Ahaji, besides being the name of a place, also means " I shall not meet." _ Ahajinia no aharedo. Untranslatable. Here the first two syllables of aharedo, " though I meet/' suggest Ahajinia, the name of an island, which is accordingly installed as a makura-kotoba without the slightest regard to meaning. * The student of Japanese poetry is recommended to provide himself with the dictionary of makura-koioba called Kattjiko, and its supplement, Kanjizokucho. 1 98 PROSODY. Yainabiiki no My love, whose charms are NihoJieru into bright as the kerria. Kakitsubata My love, whose charms are NihoheriL into. bright as the iris. No, as in the first of these examples, often means " like " in makiira-kotoba, and is often omitted, as in the second example. Wada no soko The depths of the open sea Oki tsu fukaini. — of the bottom of the ocean. Ararefiiri The hail is falling — Cape Kashinia no saki. Kashima. Arare fiiri is brought in here as a makura-kotoba, not in the least because Cape Kashima is noted for hail-storms, but because Kashinia suggests kashimashiki, " noisy," which is a good epithet for a hail-storm. Ordinary syntax would have required arare furu. Joka, or " introductory verse," is a more extended kind of inakura-kotoba. Example : — Adzusa yunii \ te ni tori mochite Masurawo no \ satsuya tabasanii Tachimukafn \ Taka-viato-yania ni Haru nn yaku, Slc. The spring-moors are burning on the hill of High-target, opposite which one stands with adzusa bow in hand and the warrior's trusty arrows. Here the poem really begins at Taka-mato-yania, all that precedes being only an epithet of 7nato, " target," taken from the name of the mountain. APPENDIX. SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. I. PROSE PASSAGE FROM ' KOJIKL' I II. POETRY FROM KOJIKL' III. POEM FROM 'MANYOSHIU.' IV. PASSAGE FROM 'TAKETORI MONOGATARI. V. PASSAGE FROM 'TAMA NO ARARE.' VI. PASSAGE FROM ' HAKKENDEN.' VII. MEMORIAL. VIII. OFFICIAL LETTER. IX. PRIVATE LETTER. ill f P ^ :^^ 0' * '•?' fpt>^f 111 6 1^5 •^1 3 7 Jl'' m ^; flip i Mm I '^ Li .^ 3 4ii t p2 DP" ^; W' g- g 1^ 7 > -/ i2-t I- Aj ^ /< SPECIMENS OF JAl'AXF.Si:. V I. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Koko 7u soiio imo^ IzanamP no viikoto wo ahi-mivmku^ oviohosJiitc, YoDio tsu ktini^ ni ohi-ideniashiki!' SiinaJiachi tonodo yori ide - imikalie - Diasu toki ni, Izmiagi no inikoto kataraJii-ta})iahaku. " Utsnknshiki^ aga' naninio^ no niikoto : are'^ niiiuashi^^ to tsukurerisJii'^^ kuni iniada tsuknri-u'ohezu ai'eba, kaJicri-niasane'' to fiori-taviakikiP Koko ni Izanavii no inikoto )}iaivos}ii-tamahaku. " Kiiya-sJiiki ka nio. Toku kimasazutc, a ha Yovii tsu heguhi^^ shitsu}"^ Shikaredo.mo ntsukiisJiiki a ga nase ^'^ no viikoto iri-ki-masern koto kashiko- kereba, kaJierinan wo}^ viadzii tsubaraka 7ii Yonio tsu kanii to agetsurahaniH. A ^' wo na mi tamahisor Kaku mawoshite sono tono nuchi^^ ni kahei'i-iri-viasei'u hodo ito hisashikii te, inacJii-kane-taniahiki. Rare hidari no nii-inidzura ^^ ni sasaseru yutsu-^ tsunia-gushi'^^ no wo-bashira- hitotsu tori- kakite, hitotsu -bi tonioshite, iri-ininiasu toki 7ii^ uji takare tororogite^-^ nii-kashira 7ii ha oho-ikadzuchi wori, nii-niune ni ha hono-ikadzuchi wori, nii-hara ni ha kuro-ikadzucJii zvori, nii-hodo ni ha saku-ikadzuchi woi'i, hidai'i no ini-te ni ha waki-ikadzucJii wori, migiri no ini-te ni ha tsuchi-ikadzuchi li'ori, hidari no mi-ashi ni ha naru-ikadzuchi woi'i, migiri^^ no mi-ashi ni ha fushi-ikadzuchi wori, ahasete ya-kusa no ikadzuchi-gami naiH woriki. . TRANSLATION. Hereupon (the god Izanagi) wishing to see face to face his wife the goddess Izanami, went after her to the country of Yomi. So when she came out to meet him from the palace-door, the god Izanagi thus addressed her and said : " My dear wife ! the country which thou and I have made is not yet finished ; therefore come back." Plereupon the god- dess Izanami said : " How lamentable! By thy not having vi SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. come sooner, I have eaten of the cooking-pots of Yomi. Nevertheless, as I reverence the having entered here of thee, my beloved husband, I will return. But I will in the first place discuss it fully with the god of Yomi. Do not thou look upon me." Having thus spoken, she returned within her palace, but her stay being very long, he was unable to wait. He broke off one of the end-teeth of the many and close-toothed comb which was stuck in the left bunch of his hair and making a light, he entered and looked. Maggots had bred and she was putrefying. On her head there sat the great-thunder ; on her breast, the fire-thunder ; on her belly, the black-thunder ; on her groin, the cleaving-thunder ; on her left hand, the young-thunder ; on her right hand, the earth-thunder ; on her left foot, the rumbling-thunder ; on her right foot, the lying-thunder. In all, eight kinds of thunder-gods had been produced and were there. Notes. This is an extract from the Kojiki^ one of the oldest monuments of Japanese literature. Its value to the student of the language is, however, much lessened by the fact that it has been written in Chinese characters in such a way as to render the original Japanese words extremely difficult to ascertain. Motowori's attempt to restore the Japanese as it was read is shown in the katakana to the right of the Chinese characters, but there are many places where his version cannot possibly be correct, and it is impossible to accept it unreservedly as genuine Japanese of the period when the Kojiki was written. It will be observed that the Chinese order of the sentences is followed in the original text. Nearly all the Chinese characters >n this work are mafia., i.c.^ they have an ideographic value, the principal exceptions being proper names, lines of poetry, and words for which the writer apparently could find no con- venient Chinese equivalent. ^ Imo means in the old literature either younger sister or wife. It contains the root mo., " woman." — "^ Izafiaini. The characters for this word are kana. — ^ Miniaku, "the seeing." Mimaku is a noun governed in the accusative case by omohoshite. — ^ Yojno tsii kimi. Tsu is the old genitive particle. Yo^io or yomi., " Hades," probably connected with voru^ SPECIMENS OF JAl'ANESE. vH * night.' — ' Ide-viashi-ki. There is only one Chinese character, viz, ft , for this. t£> however, represents only ide, and the remainder is a conjecture of Motowori's. The honorific words such as tiiasii^ taniafu^ mi, ^c, and the suffixes are for the most part not in the original, and have been introduced by Motowori on his own authority.— « UtsiikusJiiki, in the old language, "beloved"; in the later language, "lovely," "pretty.'" — "^ Aga, archaic for waga. — '^ Naiiimo iox na ?io iino, "thou, my wife," iia being an old word for " thou."-^^^?r, archaic for luarc.—^'^ Miniashi^ an old word for " thou." — ^^ Tsuktirej'isJii, perfect of tsukuru, " to make," with s/n, the attributive form of the past particle. — ^'- To jjori-tai/iahi ki. All this is Motowori's, and is not found in the original. Norii is an old word meaning "to say." — ^'^He-giihi. Motowori says that Jie means "a cooking place." Guhi is the root of kiifii, "to eat," with the iiigori. ^^Shitsu. Tsu is the conclusive form of the particle fsin-ii. There is nothing for it in the original. — ^^Nase is the masculine of lumiino men- tioned above. Se is "elder brother," or "husband." The characters for Jiase are kana. — ^^Wo after kaherinan is not in the original. Its force is given in the translation by "but." — ^'.(4, archaic for Tc'^r^, "I." '^^NucJii iii is for 7io iichi 7ii. — ^^Mi-niidzura. Midsitra is in kmta. — '^ Yiitsu is for i-Jio-tsii, i.e., "five hundred," put here for "a large number." — "^^Tstima is connected with fsiiDiu, "to pack close." — "Wo-bashira, lit. "male-post," the large tooth at the end of the comb. — *^Uji takarc tororogite. Apparently the writer was at a loss how to express this in Chinese, and consequently had recourse to kana. — '^^Migi7'i, archaic for viisri. I' ^* SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. IX [ "• This line of poetry is taken from the Kojiki. It is said to be the earhest example of tanka, and dates probably from the sixth or seventh century A.D. It shows how Japanese was written before the invention of Katakana and Hiragana. The Chinese characters used here have all a phonetic value. The Katakana are an addition by a later editor. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Ya-kiiino^ tatsu : Idzumo^ ya-he-gaki ; Tstuna-gomP ni Ya-he-gaki tsukuru : So no ya-he-gaki wo ! TRANSLATION. Many clouds arise : On all sides they form a manifold fence : For the husband and wife to retire within They have formed a manifold fence : Oh ! that manifold fence ! Notes. It was the custom in ancient Japan to prepare a special hut for the consummation of a marriage. When Susanowo (the Rainstorm (iod) wedded Inada Hime (the Rice-field Goddess) the clouds gathered round on all sides to form such a hut for them, ' Ya is the same root which is also found \v\ yatsu, "eight." It is here put generally for a large number. — "- Idzumo. Motowori derives this word as the name of a province from ide-kwno, i.e.^ "the clouds which come forth." Idsiimo is really equivalent to idzuremo or dorcmo, " each,'' i.e., " on each hand. " There is no doubt an allusion to the name of the province Idzumo. — '' Tsuma-gomi. Another reading is tsuma-o;ome, i.e., the transitive form instead of the intransitive. This would mean ''to shut up my wife or the husband and wife in," isic7na being applicable ^to both sexes in the old language, and not confined to either number. 1? ^ ^ • -• • ^'.♦'B* ?• a»* ^' • 3 ^^ % V n .ffii.i.l. c^.73. Vi.l* >6 i> ^ t--^.l-^-?A ■ fe •^ ^ y ft- f '1 ;r^ * ^ 4A.-J-.l^^.l;^.t.t v'i^lAfflvJ^ ^ A^^^^ll fig 1-^ r.-^.i.®.t>^'.i.«.. % ^ • ? ^ 54 <± i Xvi SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. III. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. THE LEGEND OF URASHIMA. Ham no hi no \ kasumeru toki ni Siuninohe 7io \ kishi ni ide-ite Tsnri-bune no \ tayiitafu^ mireba Inishihe no \ koto zo oviohoyuru. Midzunoe no \ Urashima no ko ga Katsiiwo'^ tsuj'i \ tai^ tsuri-hokori Nanuka made \ ihe 7ti mo kozute Unasaka^ wo \ sugite kogi-yuku 7ii^ Watadzumi'° no \ kami no woto^ne ni Tamasaka ni \ i-kogi-mukahite Ahi-kagarahi \ koto narishikaba Kaki-musubi \ toko-yo ni itari Watadzinni no \ kami no miya no Uchi no he no \ tahe nam tono ni Tadzusahari \ fiitar'i iri-ite Oi mo sez7i \ shini mo sezu shite Tokoshihe ni \ arikeini mono wo Yo no naka no \ shiretaru hito no Wag'imoko ni \ norite kataraku — " Shimai-aku"^ ha \ ihe ni kaherite Chichi haha ni \ koto^ wo mo norahi'^ Asu no goto I ware ha ki?ia?i'' to Ihi-kereba \ imo ga iheraku — " Tokoyobe ni \ mata kaheri-kite Ima 710 goto I ahan to naraba Ko7io kushige \ hirakuna yu7}ie " ^^ to Soko7'aku ni \ kata77ieshi koto wo Su77iinohe ni \ kahe7'i-kita7'ite Ihe 77tiredo \ ihe 7710 77ii-kanete Sato 7iii7'edo \ sato 7710 77ii-kanete SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. XVll Ayas/ii to \ soko ni omoJiakii Ihe yii^^ dete^'-^ \ uiitose no ho do )ii Kaki mo nakii \ the iiseuie^^ ya to Kono hako wo \ Jiirakite mitelnx Moto no goto^^ I the ha aran to Tauia-kiishige \ sukoshi hiraku ni Shira-kunw no^^ \ hako yori idete Tokoyobe ni \ tanahikinureba Tachi-hashiri, \ sakebi, sode furi^ Kohi-niarobi, \ ashi-zuri shi-tsntsu Tachi-niachi ni \ kokoro-ke usenu Wakak' arishi \ hada mo shiwaminiiy Kurok' arishi \ kami mo shirakenu Yuna-ynna^^ ha \ iki sahe^"^ taete Nochi tsuhi ni \ inochi shinikeru Midzunohe no \ Urashima no ko ga Ihedokoro^'^ miyu. HANKA. Tokoyobe ni Sumubeki mono wo Tsurugidachi^^ Shiga kokoro kara Osoya P^ kono kimi. TRANSLATION. When the days of spring were hazy, I went forth upon the beach of Suminoe, And, as I watched the fishing-boats rock to and fro, I bethought me of the tale of old : (How) Urashima of Midzunoe, Proud of his skill in catching the katsuwo and tai, For seven days not even coming home, Rowed on beyond the bounds of the ocean, xviii SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. Where with a daughter of the god of the sea He chanced to meet as he rowed onwards. When with mutual endearments their love had been crowned, They plighted their troths, and went to the immortal land, Where hand-in-hand both entered Into a stately mansion within the precinct Of the palace of the god of the sea, There to remain for everlasting, Never growing old, nor ever dying. But this was the speech which was addressed to his spouse, By the foolish man of this world — " For a little while I would return home, And speak to my father and my mother : To-morrow I will come back." When he had said so, this was the speech of his spouse — " If thou art to return again to the immortal land And live with me as now. Open not this casket at all." Much did she impress this on him. But he, having returned to Suminoe, Though he looked for his house, No house could he see : Though he looked for his native village, No village could he see. " This is strange," said he ; thereupon this was his thought — " In the space of three years since I came forth from my home. Can the house have vanished, without even the fence (being left) ? If I opened this casket, and saw (the result) Should my house exist as before ? " Opening a little the jewel-casket, A white cloud came forth from it And spread away towards the immortal land. SPECIMExXS UF JAPAN ESK. XIX He ran, he shouted, he waved his sleeves, He rolled upon the earth, and ground his feet together. Meanwhile, of a sudden, his vigour decayed and departed : His body that had been young grew wrinkled ; His hair, too, that had been black grew white ; Also his breath became feebler bye and bye. Afterwards, at last his life departed, And of Urashima of Midzunoe, The dwelling-place I can see. \ HANK A. In the immortal land He might have continued to dwell, •But of his own natural disposition. How foolish was he, this wight ! Notes. The Manyoshiu^ as may be seen from this specimen, is written in 7nana^ with kana intermixed. The kana are however, much more numerous than in the Kojiki^ and there is the additional guide of the metre, so that there is here some certainty that we have before us the genuine Japanese language of the period. In fact, it is by means of the knowledge of the old language acquired from the ManyosJiiu that Moto- wori has endeavoured to restore the Japanese version of the Kojiki. Metre. — For the metre of this poem see under Naga-iifa, p. i86. ^ Tayiitafu. Another readingf is toivorafu^ a lengthened form of iozuorti^ "to pass." — '^ Katsuwo. The bonito. — '^ Tai^ the serramcs 7na7'ginalis^?i fish greatly prized in Japan as a delicacy. — ^ Unasaka^ the same as timi- saka, " the bounds of ocean," " the horizon." — ^ Siigite kogi-yiikii ni. This line has a syllable too many. — ^ Watadziwii^ for wata-tsu-iimi^ ivata being an old word for "sea," and tsii the genitive particle. — "' Shiina7-aku^ old form for '''' shibarakiiP — ^ Koto nearly always means something said in the old language. — ^ Norahi, a lengthened form instead of 7W7i. — '^^Yuifie^ " a dream." Hiraktina yu77ie^ ''^ O'^^n no\. ^.x^n a dream," i.e. not at all. Tsiiyu^ "dew," is used in the same way.— ^^///£' yu. Yu is old Japanese for yo7'z\ — ^'^ Dete. The initial i is removed by elision for the sake of the metre. — ^^ Use77ie. Me is the perfect form of the future suffix 771U. It is not unfrequently found before ya. — ^^ Moto no goto. Later Q 2 XX SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. Japanese would h^ixe. gotoku. — ^^ Shirakumo no. The complement to no is to be supplied from tanabiki?iureba^ "as there was an extending aw^ay of a white cloud," &c. — ^^ Yuna-yuna, an adverb, " nightly," connected with j/i? or j^rz/, " night." — ^' Sake., "too." This is the original meaning of sake. — ^^ Ihe-dokoro is interpreted by Motowori to mean the ruins of the house. It may perhaps mean his tomb, by a figure not uncommon in Japanese poetry. — ^^ Tsurugi-dachi is a makura-kotoba consisting of two words meaning " sword." I have not been able to find any satis- factory explanation of its being prefixed to j///, the reflexive pronoun. —2'^ Osoya. Oso is the root of osoki, " slow," " dull," " foolish." xxvi SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. IV. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Okina viiko^ nP niafusu^ yo.^ Ika naru' tokoro rii ka^ kotio^ ki ha^ safurahiken P^ Ayashikii^^ uruhashiku niedetaki^^ mono ni uio^^ to^^ mafusu}^ Miko kotahete notaniahaku}''' " Saoto- doshi^^ no kisaragi^'* no towoka goro ni, Naniha yori fune ni norite, iimi-naka ni idete^^ yukmt^'^ kata mo shirazu^^ oboheshi- kado^^ oinofu koto narade^ yo no naka ni iki^^ nanika hc?^ sen^'^ to omohishikaba^^ tada viunashiki kaze ni niakasete ariku?'' Inochi shinaba^'^ ikaga ha sen ; ikite aran^'^ kagiri^^ kakti^^ arikite Horai to^'^ ifurari'^'^ yania ni afu^^ ya td^^ uini ni kogi tadayohi-arikite, waga kuni^^ no uchi'^'^ wo hanarete ariki- Diakari shi^^ ni, aru toki ha nami aretsutsu^'^ umi no soko ni 1)10 iriniibekii ;^^ aru toki ni ha, kaze ni tsukete^^ shiranu^'^ kuni 7ii fuki-y OS er arete ^^ oni no yd 7iaru^^ mono ide-kite^^ korosan^^ to shiki. A ru toki ni ha koshi-kata^"^ yuku suhe mo shirade^^ nmi ni magiren^'^ to shi,^^ aru toki ni ha, kate tsukite, kusa no ne wo kuhi-mono to shi, aru toki iharf^ kata naku mukutsuge nam nio7io no^^ kite kuhi-kakaran to shiki. A ru toki ha umi no kai wo torite inochi wo tsugu. Tabi no sora ni tasuke-tamafubeki hito mo naki tokoro ni iro-iro^^ no yainahi wo shite yuku kata sora mo obohezu, fune no yuku ni makasete"^ umi ni tadayohite ihokd"^' to ifu. Tatsu no koku bakari ni umi no naka ni wad- zuka ni yama miyuP^ Fune no uchi wo^"^ 7ian semete miru. Umi no uhe ni tadayoheru^^ yama ito ohoki^^ nite ari. Sono yama ?io sama takaku^^ uruhashi. Kore ya waga motomuru^^ yama naramu to omohite sasuga ni osoroshiku obohete yama no fneguri wo sashi-megm'ashite futsuka mikd^^ bakari nii-ariku ni, ama-bito no yosohohi shitaru^^ womina yama no naka yori ide-kite shiro-gane no kana-maru luo mochite midzu wo kumi- ariku. Kore wo mite, fune yori orite, * Kono yania 7io na wo nani to ka mafusu ' to tofu. Womina kotahete ifu — ' Kore ha Horai no yama nari ' to kotafu. Kore wo kiku ni, ureshiki SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. XXVll kotd'"^ kagiri nasJii. ' Kono ivoDiina kaku ?iota)nafu'^^ ha tario ' to tofu. ' Waga na ha Hokanniri' to ihi te, futo yauia no naka }ii irinny^^ TRANSLATION. Thus spoke the old man to the prince : " In what manner of place can this tree have been ? What a marvellous, graceful, and lovely thing it is ! " Thus he spoke, and the prince answered and said : " Three }^ears ago, on the tenth day of the second month, we embarked from Naniwa (Osaka). When we put forth into the mid-ocean, we knew not even the direction in which to go, but as I felt that unless my heart's desire were fulfilled what should I do living in this world, we sailed on, merely trusting our course to the empty winds. If our lives perish, what help is there for it — so long as life remains, sailing on thus, we shall reach, it may be, this mountain called, if we are rightly informed, Horai. With such thoughts we rowed on over the ocean ; and tossed about until we left the bounds of our own country far behind us. In the wanderings which we then made, we were at one time like to go down even to the bottom of the sea whilst the waves were raging ; at another time, driven by the wind, we- were borne to an unknown land, where creatures like devils came forth and endeavoured to slay us. At one time, know- ing neither the way we had come nor the course we ought to follow, we were almost lost upon the sea ; at another time our provisions became spent and we used the roots of herbs for food. Once, beings hideous beyond expression came and attempted to devour us, and once we sustained life by gather- ing the shells of the sea. Under a strange sky where there was none to render us aid, we tossed about over the sea a prey to diseases of all kinds, and leaving the ship to her own spontaneous motion, for we knew not at all what course we should follow. At last when five hundred days had passed, about the hour of the drag-on (8 A.M.) a mountain became XXVlll SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. faintly visible in the midst of the sea. All in the ship looked steadily at it and saw that it was a very great mountain which floated about on the surface of the sea. The appearance of this mountain was lofty and picturesque. Thinking that this was doubtless the mountain of our search, no wonder we were filled with awe. After we had sailed round it for two or three days there came forth from amongst the hills a woman clothed like an inhabitant of heaven, and drew water in a silver vessel. Upon seeing her we landed from the ship, and asked what might be the name of this mountain. The woman replied and said : * This is the mountain Horai.' Our joy at hearing this was unbounded. We inquired ' Who is the woman who tells us so?' 'My name is Hokanruri,' she said, and of a sudden went away in amongst the hills." Notes. This passage is taken from the Taketori Monogatari, a work of the classical age of Japanese literature. ^ Miko, " a prince," is compounded of the honorific prefix mi and ko, "a child." — ^JVi is the dative suffix. — ^ Mafusu is the attributive or adjec- tival form of the verb inafusii (pron. nwsu\ " to speak." — "* Yo, " manner," is a noun in the nominative case, placed absolutely. It is, however, possible to supply some such words as kore 7iari after yd. This will be literally " The manner of speech of the old man to the prince was this." Miko ni maftisii is in this sentence an attributive clause qualifying j^. The Japanese language employs attributive clauses exclusively where a European language often prefers a construction involving the use of a relative pronoun. Thus 7niko ni viafusu yd m\g\v\ be rendered in English " The manner zV/ ■zt/Z/Zr/z he addressed the prince." — ^ Narii^ "to be," is here in the attributive form because it qualifies the noun tokoro. Ika naru tokoro ni is literally " in a how being place."— ** Ka is the interroga- tive particle. It is in this sentence redundant, a question being already implied by the use of the word ika. — ' Kofio is the adjectival form of kore^ "this." — ^ Ha is the distinctive or separative particle. It has here the force of concentrating the attention on the word ki. — ^ Safurahi-ke-n. Safura/ii is the adverbial form of the verb safiirafu, "to be." [See p. 163.] The adverbial form is required before the particle ke. Ke is the negative base of the past suffix s/ii. The negative base is required SPECIMENS OF JAPANKSK. • xxix before //, which is the conclusive form of the future suffix ;/ or viu. Safiirahi-ke-n is Hterally "will have been." — ^^ Ayashiku tiruha— shiku }ncdetaki mono. Note that of the three adjectives qualifying mono, the lasi only is put in the attributive form, the two which precede beinj.;- placed in the ad\erbial form. — ^^ Medetaki is derived from jue- dzuru^ ' to love.' The letter "X, ije) is here read de, although there is no mark to show that this is the case. The nigori is omitted all through this passage, which is a facsimile of the Japanese printed edition. — '^'^ Mo has here scarcely any meaning. After 7)io must be understood ar/, which with the preceding ;// make up ;zar/, the conclusive form oifiaru^ "to be.'" — ^"" To \s 3. conjunction which may often be translated " that," but which cannot be conveniently rendered in this passage by any English word. It may be considered to be represented by the marks of quotation ' '.- ^* J/a/i(su, "he said," is redundant, as the same idea has been already expressed in the words inafusu yd above. — ^^ Notamahaku is a poetical substitute for Jiotmnafu, a honorific word for mafiisii. It is here a noun in the nominative case, placed absolutely, — ^^ Sa-oto-doshi. Oto-doshi means " the year before last." The addition of sa (for jczXV, " before ") makes it mean another year further back. — ^" Kisaragi^ " the second month." The modern language always uses 7tigwatsu^ 3. word of Chinese origin. Note in this sentence an example of the rule that clauses indicative of time precede clauses indicative of place. — ^^ Ide-te. Ide is the adverbial form oiidzuriiy "to go out." — ^^ Yiika-ji isyiekuy the negative base oiyuku., " to go," with the attributive form of the future suffix ;z or 7nu. — -♦' Shirazii is shira^ the negative base of shim., " to know," with zii.^ the adverbial form of the negative suffix Jiu. Shirazii is here an adverb qualifying the verb obohe which follows. — -^ Obohe-shika-do is obohe., adverbial form of the verb oboyiirii., " to think," " to feel ; " shika is the perfect of the past suffix shi ; and d^f? is the concessive particle meaning "although." Shirazii obohe- shikado is " although we felt ignorant." Note how each particle governs the form which precedes, shika requiring an adverbial form before it, do a perfect, and -s-w a negative base. — '^^ Narade is wczr^, negative base of nam., "to be," with the indeclinable negative suffix de. — '^^ Iki is the adverbial form of //f'zr/^, " to live." — '^^ Nanika ha. //a after the interro- gative suggests a negative answer. — '^'^ Se-n is se, the negative base of the irregular verb su7'ii, " to do," with the conclusive form ot the future particle n. — -^ Omohi-shika-ba is oniohi., adverbial form of the verb omofii " to think ; " shika., perfect of shi., the past suffix, and ba, a suffix which after perfect forms means "as," "since," or "because." — ''~ Ariku is the conclusive form of the verb ajikii or amkii, " to walk," " to go." — XXX • Sl^ECIMENS OF JAPANESE. ■28 Shina-ba is slmia^ negative base of the irregular verb shinuru^ '■ to die " with ba^ a sufifix which with this base means " if," — '^ Ara-n is ara^ nega- tive base of aru^ " to be," with the attributive form of the future particle 71. — ^^ Kagiri, " limit," is the root of the verb kagiru, " to come to an €nd." It is here a noun. Iki-te ara-n kagiri. Lit. "the limit of our Toeing alive, i.e. " so long as we remain alive." — "^ Kaku^ vulg. ko., " thus." — ^ Horai to ifu^ called ^'' Horai.''' To has the force of the inverted -commas before and after '' HoraiP — ^^ Ifu-ra-n. Ifu is the verb "to say," "to call ; " ra is for ara., negative base oi aru., "to be," and 7i is the future particle which has here a force which is attempted to be rendered in the translation "if we are rightly informed." — "^^ Afu ya. Afu is the conclusive form. Ya\s an interrogative particle, but the question which it puts is addressed to the speaker himself, not to another. See the translation. — ^ To. After to must be understood omohi-te. — ^ Wa~ga kuni., i.e. Japan. — '^'' Uchi is literally " the inside." — ^^ Makari is probably an error of the text. The true reading is no doubt mawari, " to go about," "to wander." Shi is the attributive form of the past suffix. It is here a noun, as is seen by its having the particle ?ii suffixed. Ariki- mawarishi ni is " in the wanderings we then made." — ^^ Tsutsii. The particle tsidsu shows that the actions signified by the verbs are and zrzVzw^^'/tz^ are regarded as simultaneous. — '^^ Iri-nii-beku is m, adverbial form of iru., "to enter" ; nu., conclusive form of the suffix 7iurii., and .beku., adverbial form of the suffix beki. Nu is equal to te shimaii of the spoken language, beku has the meaning " probable," and the ki at the end of the sentence must be taken with iri-nu-beku as well as with shi., so that the full translation will be "Were {ki) like to {beku) enter {iri) utterly {?w)."—'^'^ Tsukete. Tsuki-te (or tsiiite) is the modern form. — ^ Shira-nu is shira., negative base of shim., " to know," followed by the attributive form of the negative particle nu. — "^ Fuki-yoserarete. Fuki^ adverbial form of fuku., " to blow," is an adverb qualifying yoserare. Yoserare is the adverbial form of the passive of the transitive of the verb yoru., " to approach. — ** Yd naru is the colloquial yona. — ^5 Jde-ki-te^ is ide adverbial iorvn oi idzuru., "to come out" ; ki^ adverbial form of kuru., " to come," and te, adverbial form of the suffix tsuru. — ^ Korosa-n to shi-ki is literally "they made that they would kill us." — *'' Koshi-kafa. One of the irregularities of /&/^r/^, "to come," is that it attaches, as here, the past suffix shi to the negative base ko instead of to the adverbial form ki. — ^ Shira-de is shira, negative base of shiru., " to know," with the negative suffix de. — ^^ Magire-n is fnagire^ negative base of the verb of the second conjugation magiruru., "to mingle," "to become indistinct," with n the future suffix in the conclusive form. — "^ Shi is the adverbial form of SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. xxxi surii^ " to do," " to make." The past suffix ki at the end of the sentence must be taken with this shi ?iS well as with the word along with which it is found. — ^^ l/ia-n. Iha is the negative base of ifii^ " to say." Iha-ii kata miku, "unspeakably." — '"- Jifono no. See p. 107. — ^^ h'o-iro. Iro means " colour," iro-iro, " every colour," hence " all kinds of." — ■"*■ Yiiku ni makasete. YukUy " to go," is here treated as a noun in the sense of *' movement." — ^ I-ho-ka, "five hundred days," is derived from z, root of itsutsu, " five," /^<9, an old word meaning "hundred," and>t't2, the termina- tion of the numerals for days. — '^'^ Miyu is the conclusive forni oi jniyieru, "to appear," "to be visible," the intransitive verb corresponding to the transitive jniru, "to see." — ^"^ Fime no uchi wo. There is probably some- thing wrong in the text here ; wo can hardly be right, but the meaning is no doubt that given in the translation. — ^^ Tadayoheni is the attribu- tive form of the perfect of tadayofu, " to toss about."— '^^ Ohoki is the predicate, the construction being jrt;;/^? ohoki nari {?ti+ari), "the moun- tain is a great one." — ^ Takaku is the adverbial form, while uruhashi (second conjugation of adjectives) which follows is put in the conclusive form. The meaning is the same as if both were in the conclusive form, viz., " was lofty and picturesque." — ^^ Waga motomurii yama. Note the force of the attributive form vwtomuru as equal to the relative clause "which (we) are in search of." — ^ Mika. In the modern language 7nitsuka^ pronounced mikka. — ^ Shitaru. Note the force of the termina- tion tartly indicating a continuous state. — ^^ Ureshiki koto is put, by an idiom very common in the spoken language, for the abstract noun ureshisa. — ^ Kono womi7ta and kaku notamafii are both nouns in the nominative case, placed in apposition. A more regular construction would have been kaku notamafu womina. — ^ Iri-nu. The mi is repre- sented by the word "away" in the translation. SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. xxxii V. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Kaha wo kosii. YiiDia Jia^ koyu to- iJii, kaJia ha zvataru to ifir^ zo sadauiari- nani} SJiikaru wo^ iina no into tabi-ji no nikki nado 7ii " nani-gaha zuo kosJiite " nado kakn^ ha iviishikP higakoto nan'. I ma no hi to ha kachi-zvata^^i naradehc^ '^watarn'' to ha iJianedof niukashi Jia^'^^ unii kaha Jia, hashi ni niare}^ fune ni mare, nani ni mare, siibete^- ''wataru' to koso ihi-tsnreP Mata yama ha '"koyi^ to iJiedomo}^ sore mo ^' kosii'' to ha ihazti}^ '' Koyii'' td^"^ "' kosii'' to ha jita^~ no kejime ari. Mashite^^ kaha ni '"kosii'^ to ifu koto arame ya^^ ha-^? TRANSLATION. Kaha wo kosii (to cross a river). In the case of a mountain, it is the rule to say " koyu " (to cross) ; in the case of a river, to say " watarn " (to cross). The use which, notwithstanding this rule, is made by men of the present day in their journals of travel, &c., of such expressions as " nani-gaha wo koshite " (having crossed such and such a river) and the like, is a great error. Except in the case of crossing by fording, writers of the present day do not say " watarn',' whereas in ancient times the word " watarn'' and no other, was used generally for crossing the sea or river, whether on a bridge or in a boat, or in any manner whatsoever. Again, although in the case of a mountain " koyu " was said, yet even in this case no one said " kosH." Between " koyu " and " kosu " there is the distinction of intransitive and transitive. Still more is it unlikely that there should be such an expression as " kosu " in speaking of rivers. Notes. This extract is from the Tama no Arare, a work of the well-known grammarian Motowori Norinaga. xxxiv SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. ^Ha (pron. lud). It is ha which is translated "in the case of." — -To is equivalent to the marks of quotation " ." — ^Ifu is a noun, nomina- tive to 7taru. — *Naru. The attributive instead of the conclusive form, because zo occurs previously in the sentence. [See p. 167.] — ^IVo "notwithstanding." [See p. 115] — ^Kaku, a noun, nominative to nari. "' hjiishiki^ an adjective of the second conjugation in the attributive form, qualifying higakoto. —^Naradeha^ lit. " if it be not," is nara^ neg. base of iiaru^ " to be," de^ the indeclinable negative particle, and ha^ the dis- tinctive or separative particle. — ^Iha-ne-do is iha^ negative base of ifu^ "to say"; ne^ perfect of the negative particle 7iu^ and do, the concessive particle. — ^^Ha. Note the force of ha in marking the opposition between hna 710 hito and fnukashi. — '^'^Mare is for 7}io are, are being the imperative mood of aru, " to be." — ^'^Sube-te may be translated " generally." It is the adverbial form of the verb suberu, "to include," with te, the adverbial form of the particle tsuru. — ^^Ihi-tsure. The perfect is used instead of the conclusive form, because koso occurs previously in the sentence. [See p. 170.] — ^^Ihe-do-)}io is literally "though one has said," but means here nothing more than " although." Ihe is the perfect form (before do) of the verb ifu " to say." — '^^Iha-zu. Zu is the conclusive form of the negative particle nu. — ^'^To repeated after koyu and kosu means simply " and." — ^'^Ji-ta. Ji means " oneself," ta, " another " ; ji-ta means here " intransitive and transitive." — ^^Mashi is the adverbial form of 77iasii^ "to increase"; with te it has an adverbial force, viz., "increasingly," " much more." — ^^Ara-nie is put here for the perfect future ara-7)ie-7i\ [Seep. 153.] — '^//"« after an interrogative clause shows that a negative answer is expected. [See p. 122.] I R 2 XXXVl SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. VI. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Kono hi mo kureshikaba} Motofuji ha madzu kinjiu ra ni ihitsiikete, okinnaritaru^ kozashiki wo kaki-hm^ahashif tobari wo tarete, shokudai tsukue koro nando^ no yoi hayaku vio toto- nohikereba, '' Happiakti bikuni wo yobisamashite, yiifu-zen wo susumeyo'' to te-^ koshinioto ra tsukahaseshi^ ni, '^kudan no bikuni ha uviahi shite, yobedomo yobedonw, saniezu" to ifu. Tokakn suru hodo ni ko takete, haya ne no nakaba ni narishi- kaba, Motofuji iradachi katsu utagahite, viidzukara soko ni omomukite, yobi-sainasan to seshi^ hodo ni, Miyochin yo-yaku nemuri saniete, midzu wo kohi, kuchi sosogite, hikarete idete kinikereba, Motofuji ya ! ya!^ to yobi-chikadzukete, ^^ Niobosatsu, sudeni kano go ni narinur TRANSLATION. When this sun too had set, Motofuji, in the first place L^iving orders to the attendants, caused to be swept out a small reception room at the rear of the house, and hung a curtain before the door ; and as the preparation of candle- sticks, table and censer, &c., was already complete, sent the maid-servants, saying, "Awake the nun Happiaku, and offer her supper." But they said that the nun was in a deep sleep, and that however much they called her, she did not awake. Whilst doing this and that it grew late, and it had become already the middle of the hour of the rat (midnight), so that Motofuji, partly enraged, and partly suspicious, went there in person and attempted to awake her. When he did so, Miyochin awoke from sleep with difficulty. She asked for water, and having rinsed her mouth came forth led by the hand. Motofuji called her to him, exclaiming, " Come, come, your Holiness ! the hour appointed has already arrived." SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. XXXvii NOTKS. This passage is taken from the Hakkcndoi^ a romance by the popular writer Bakin, published in 1834. ^ Kurcshikaba. Kurc is the adverbial form of kiiruru "to set," sk/ka, perfect form of past particle sk/, and Z-^?, a particle having here the force of "when,"' "as." — '-Okuniaru is a hybrid word, the root oku being- Chinese, and the termination Japanese. — '^ Harakasu (pron. kiifawasti) is not the causative proper of karafu which would be karakasiiru or hara- kisasuru. Harakasu means " to make swept out," karakisasin-u " to cause some one to sweep out." — ^Nando. The ;/ being written in kata- kana shows that the writer looks upon it as properly not belonging to this word, which is usually written 7iado. It is possible that mini to from which luuido is derived may have first been contracted into nado and the 71 inserted afterwards for euphony, but it seems more likely that 7mndo is really a transition form between 7ia7ii to and iiado. — ^To tc\s{Qx to ikite.—^TsukakasesJii. The verb is tsukakasii, and j-///, the past parti- ciple, is added to the adverbial form. We ought therefore to have had tsiikakask/ski, but the modern popular language prefers the form ending in seski. ' Sesk/. It is one of the irregularities of sufu that it always adds ski and sk/ka to the negative base instead of to the adverbial form. — ^Frt.' fa/ is an interjection. Interjections are usually printed in kataka7ia as here. \ 41^ 41 #L 4fcp ^^ ^ * «H 1; 4' '^ i ^'J ^ D-f ^ :k i55^ /\3 ^ -^ ^' ^t *1 -t #i ^ =^ -1^ % ^ i^ '^'^ s« -A t ^ i^ -> -/^ /u iU A^ ^ ^ s =^ '^ ^ "^ T i :S. Jl # f 1 B M '^ ^ Jl # ■' § j^ ifc^^ v^ % *; i s if t ^ # - # ^ )^ # MM a 7 f t f ^>3 * ^ 4f j^b ^ # f 4^ ^^ ^ li f^ i^ s^ ^ 4^ 4' ^ ^fe ^ ^ '1^ ^-^ M %^'^ ». t^.=- ^ 1^ & ^>4= i% a p.iL ;ffe 4a g^ ^ S. t^ iS' *> iE ^^ ^ ^p /t; ' f > ^ h 6A g f i^z'a A 3: •'. '^ 1 ^ .^ ' t :: ^ v^ ,u t^ ^- •> -^ % / f?ij ifl SS. X '^ 5) ^ A Cj ^ <7 ifP - _t T^ H'l /^ '^ 7t - ^- S!C p^ ^ - i - ^1^ s # ^^ b] p^ ^ / ^ 2. 4 ^ ■ / ;^ A 7^ ^ ^ % . if T ^ T 3^ T ^ t 1 pi / / / 4- ^ '"r '-'>^~<^ 1 ^ ^ ?^flf«f i t'jr ti.'^% ■ ^ ^ ' ^ 'ihi ^^ •=- ( §:■ ^ ft K ^ i: ^ iF§ ^ a t t 1 4 w> ^ M; /k >w. T- '^ m '1^ !^ -J^ -±- A: -k ^ ^ #>. ^ "^ f .- /^7 f *' ^ * §1 4k 4^ vj: ^ V. f ■4- : i^ < -^ t '"F ^^ fe. ;li^-i ^ 4 -^ ^ 7 $ ^ n m s j^p H/J ^ 7 ^ lu B ^ / =^ k A m 7 7 7 7 At m / 4^ ■f 1 iL '^' #.. 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'^1 S -'^ '^ t-u 4 f ^ r i ^ ^^ A . vA i ^ ^- 7 ^ Rfl Tu #fe f ^ i® 1, .i| H Bl^ ?fr X s/^ A iff^ 1 ' 1^ 7 1- # ,^-n 7 ^3^ r .^ A. > ^ -7 M t 7. 7 y. 7 ig - ^ ;e 7 y^/ ^p 7, ^ ^ '^% s. % I 2 7 ^ ^ -^ ^ 7I f ^ # 'r # ^ ^ ^ ^ J, ^ % ^ ^ t 'J^ 1^ -$ '^ ^ T :^ A £ '^ ^^ ^ i. ^J>- 't^ 7 It ^ 11 ^ "^ 4 '^ '^ ^ ^ * *!^ ^fs/ 7 ^^ ^ r m t ^ 7 ^ ^ # 11 i& ^ ^ ;; K ?fc / ?r ^ # ^ i'l f^ '^ t ^-^^ T7 i t # i # n f -1- a - ^? 7 ^S t V^ r fi y ^ ^ f W .^ 5 T icr -^ A !,g 7 ^ Tt T^ t ^# ,#^ -A f 1^ ^ ^ ^, r: \ ? ^ 1 7 if I - 7 t 41 ^ ill i ^,^ ? - f: /^ fe / ^ 7 ^^ -) I'l T |i I f \ %%fh)%^^^n^ ') m ^ 7 7 * > *p ^bI n -- m t i 7 ^^ 7 # #^ ^ ^^ ^ ;«: T 5 / m ^ ^- t ^ ? m i f- ? ^ A 7 I ^ fS^ f -> + ^ f# + it ^ ^ g ;^ ^ rx 4 J^ IW i^ '- M ^ -f ;L ? « ^^ ^° ^ ?1 1 ,^ 4t "4" ^g ^ t X T 7" ^ i^ + 3f ?g E ^ ;t f Pi tx if I 1 ^1 *S It C k k 7 f^ ih f 1 1# If t =7 ;§- 4^ B / 1^ ^ — J: 7 1 If si- 2« 7 * i f y I % f if J* u 1 C ? /i- ^/ ^-^ r^ ? m - £ ti i /„ ^I f HI * 7 ^ ^ i ^ J- it ^ <^ I il'^ -r- ^; /^ il i^l / ,i7 ^ ^ i * ^ ^ /^ # I < I SPECIMENS OF JAPAN KSE. xlv VII. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Siur^(7s/ii ra} bessJii kengen tatejnatsiwP safuvafu (pro- nounced soro^ soro, or even soro) shidai Jieizei no jiron ni shite^ soregasJii ra zaikwan-cJiiu shiba-shiba kengen nP oyobi^ safu- rafu mono ino kore ari safiirafu tokoro'^ Yobei^ dofnei kakkoku he taisJii on hashntsu 7io uhe, jitchi no keikid wo nio' on 7noku- geki ni ahi-narif sono uhejigi shinshaku shisetsii ahi-nariibeku to no go hiogi mo kore^ ari. Shikarn^^ ni inohaya taishi go kicho irai sndeni sugetsu wo kemishi safiirahedojtw^^ ?iani ra no go shisetsu mo haisJio tsukamatsurazu, sakkofi minsJiin kiokio^ sJioka aJii-utagahi, yaya nio sureba, toko gwakai no cJio kore nasJii to mo mafushi-gataki^'^ ikiJiohi ?ii tachi-itari saftirafii gi^^ hikkio tenka yoron kogi no yosokii sum yuhe to jitsu mochite cannen no itari^^ ?ti zonji tatematsuri safiirafu. Kono danyoroshikii go hiogi wo togerarubekii^'' safiirafu nari. Meiji shicJii fien dai icJii gwatsii jiu-sJiichi nichi. Kochi ken kwanzoku shizoku Furusaha Uro}'^ „ „ „ Okamoto Kenzaburo. Miodo „ „ „ Komuro Xobuwo. Tsurus:a ken „ „ Yuri Kimmasa. .pc. Sagot „ „ „ Eto Shimpei. Ko-chi „ ,, „ Itagaki Taisuke. Tokio Fu „ „ Goto Shojiro. Saga Ken „ „ Sohejima Taneomi. Sain^' On Chiu Shinra}^ fushite^"^ hokon seiken no kisuru tokoro wo sassuru ni^ kami teishitsu ni arazu^ shinio jinwtin ni arazu, shikaushite hitori yushi ni kisu. Sore^^ yuski kami teishitsu wo tatsutobu to ihazaru ni ha arazu; shikaushite teishitsu yoyaku sono soni zvo ushinafu: shimo jimmin wo tamotsu to ihazaru ni ha arazu; shikaushite seirei hiaku tan choshutsu bokai matsu- rigoto jojitsu ni nari, shobatsu aizo ni idzu, genro yohei konku xlvi SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. .tsuguru nashi. Sore kaktinogotoku 7ii shite, tenka no chian naran koto wo hossii ? Sanseki no doji mo naho sono fuka naru wo shiru. Injo aratajnezu^'^ osoraku ha kokka toho no ikihohi wo itasan. Shin ra aikoku no jo onodzukara yainii atahazu, sunahachi kore wo shinkiu suru no micJii wo kokiu sum ni tada tenka no kogi wo haru ni aru nontiP Tenka no kogi wo haru^"^ ha niinsen giin wo tatsuru ni aru nojni, suna- hachi y/ishi no ken kagiru tokoro arite shikaushite shoka sono anzen kofuku wo ukuru mono aran. Kofu-^ tsuhi ni kore wo chinsen. Sore jimniin seifu ni tai-shite sozei wo harafu no gi)nu am mono ha su?iahachi sono seifu no koto wo yochi kahi suru no kenri wo yu-su. Kore tejika^'^ no tsiiron ni shite mata chocho shin ra no kore wo zeigen sum wo inatazaru^^ mono nari. Yuhe ni shin ra hisoka^"' ni negafu yushi mata ko?io tairi ni koiei sezaran koto ivo?^ Ima minsefi giin wo tatsuru no gi wo kobamu mono ihaku. " Waga taini fugaku 7nuchi^^ imada kaimei no eki ni susumazu, yuhe ni konjitsu minsen giin wo tatsuru^^ naho masani hayak'a7'u beshi'' to. Shin ra omohe- raku ^ moshi hatashite 7nakoto ni so?io ifu tokoro^^ no gotoki ka, sunahachi kore wo shite gaku katsu chi shikaushite kiu ni kai- mei no eki ni susiimashimum no michi sunahachi minsen giin wo tatsuru ni ari. Nani to nareba^ sunahachi konjitsu waga jimmin wo shit^^ gaku katsu chi ni kaimei no eki ni susuma- shiinen to su^"" madzu sono tsiigi kenri wo hogo seshinie^^ kore wo shitejisonjicho, tenka to yuraku wo tomo ni sum no kisho wo okosashimen to suru ha, kore wo okosasJiime^i to sum ha, kore wo shiie^'* tenka no koto ni adzukarashimum ni ari, Kaku no gotoku^ shite, jinunin sono koro ni yasunji, fugaku muchi Diidzukara amanzuru mono inuida kore arazaru nari?'^ Shikaushite ima sono midzukara gaku katsu chi ni shite midzukara sono kaimei no eki ni im wo matsu. Kore hotondo hiaku nen kasei wo matsu no mi nari. Hana-hadasJiiki ha^'^ sunahachi ima niwaka ni giin wo tatsuru ha kore toika no gu SPECIMENS OE JAPANESE. xlvii WO atsuniuruni sugizaru 7ioi)ii to ifu ni itaru. A ! nan.zo jnid- zukara ogoru no hanaJiadashiku ,^^ shikaushite sono jiuunin wo Diiru no betsiijo taru ya Z"*^ Yiishi chin chiko moto yori Jiito ni suguru mono aran, shikaredoino idsukunzo gakumon yushiki no hi to yo^^ uiata shojin ni suguru mono arazaru wo shiran ya ?^^ Kedashi tenka no hito kakunogotoku besshi subekarazaru nari, MosJii hata besshi subeki mono to seba^ yiishi inata sono uchi no itsujin narazu ya f Shikaraba sunahachi hitoshiku kore fugaku mushiki nari. Kinkin yiishi no sensai to jimmin no yoron kogi wo ham to sono kengu fusho hatashitc ikan zo ya ? Shin ra ifu. Yushi no chi niata kore wo ishin izen ni miru^ kanarazu sono susumishi mono naran. Na7ii to nareba^^^ sunahachi ningen ni chishiki naru mono ha kanarazu sono kore wo mochiyuru ni shitagahite susumu mono nareba nari. YuJie ni ihaku. " Minsen gi'in wo tatsu kore sunahachi jimmin zco shite gaku katsu chi ni shikaushite kiu ni kaimei ?io eki ni susumashimuru no michi nari''^^ to. Katsu sore seifu no shoku sono yoroshiku ho- shite mo chit e mokuteki to nasubeki mono jimmin wo shite, shimpo sum wo eseshimum^" ni^ ari, Yuhe ni somai no yo yaban no zoku sono taini yumo bokan shikaushite shitagafu tokoro^^ wo shirazu. Kono toki ni atarite seifu no shoku moto yori kore wo shite shitagafu tokoro wo shirashimum^ ni ari. Ima waga kuni sudeni sdmai ni arazu. Shikaushite waga jimmin no jiujun naru inono^^ sudeni kwajin to suP'^ Shikaraba sunahachi konjitsu waga seifu no yoroshiku mochite sono mokuteki to nasubeki mono sunahachi minsen giin wo tate, waga jimmin wo sJiite'f' sono kani 710 ki wo okoshi, tenka wo bunnin sum no gimu wo befichi shi, tenka no koto ni sanyo shi, eseshimuru ni ari. Sunahachi kokoku no hito mina doshin nari. Sore seifu no tsuyoki mono nafii wo mochite kore wo itasu ya ? Tenka jimmin mina doshin nareba nari. Shin ra kana- razu towoku kiuji wo hikite kore zuo sho-sezu, katsu saku jiugwatsu seifu no henkaku ni tsukite, kore wo ken-su. Kite xlviii SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. kiu ko sore ayafuhi kafia ! Waga seifu no koritsu suru ha nanzo ya ? Saku jiugwatsu seifu no hejtkakii tenka jinnnin 710 kore waga tame ni kiseki sesJii mono ikubakyp^ ka aru ? Tada kore ga tame ni kiseki sezaru nomi narazu, tenka jimniin no bo to shite kore wo shirazaru mono jiu ni shite"'^ hakkii ni oru. Tada heitai no kaisan ni odoroku nomi.^'^ Ima ininsen giin wo tatsurii ha sunahachi seifu jimnmt no ahida 7ii jojitsu y/ltsil shikaushite ahi-tomo ni ahasete ittai to 7iai'i^ kuni hajimete mochite^"^ tsuyokarubeshi ; seifu hajimete mochite tsuyokarubeki nari. Shin ra sudeni tenka no tairi ni tsukite kore wo kihame, waga kuni konjitsu 7io ikihohi ni tsukite kore wo jitsu ni shi^ seifu no shoku ni tsukite kore wo ro7iji^ oyobi saku jiugwatsu seifu no henkaku ni tsukite kore wo ken-su. Shikaushite shin ra 710 77iidzukara shin ra no setsu wo shinzuru koto iyo-iyo atsuku, setsu ni ifu — " Konjitsu tenka wo iji shinki suru no michi tada 77tinsen gitn wo tate, shikaushite tenka no kogi wo haru ni aru no7ni'' to^^ Sono. hoho to^^ 7io gi no gotoki^^ shin ra kanarazu kore wo kokoni ihazu. Kedashi jiu-su-77iai-shi^^ 710 yoku kore wo tsukusu mono ni arazareba nari. Tada shin ra hisoka^^ ni kiku " konjitsu yushi jicho no setsu ni yori koto ohoku injun wo tsut077ie^yo no kaikaku wo ifu 77iono wo 77ioku- shite keikei shi7Jipo to shi, shikaushite kore wo koba77iu ni ' naho hayaki ' no niji wo 7}iochite su " to. Shijt 7'a kofu^^ 77iata ko7'e wo benzen. Sore keikei shii7ipo to ifu 7710710^^ i7ioto yori shin 7'a no kai- sezaru tokoro, i7ioshi hatashite koto sosotsu ni idzuru 7710710 wo mochite keikei shi77ipo to stiru ka, 77ii7isen gim na7'u 7710710 ha mochite koto wo teicho ni su7ni tokoro no 77iono^^ nari : kakusho fuwa ni shite shikaushite henko no sai koto ho77i77iatsu kwankiti no jo wo shusshi hisshi 7io shisetsu ahi-77iizaru 7710710 wo i7iochite^^ keikei shi77ipo to suru ka, ko7^e ku7ii ni tei7'itsu naku yiishi jini hoko sureba nari. K0710 fitatsu 7io i7iono araba simahichi 77iasa ni sono viinsen gitn 7io tatezunba arubekara- SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. xlix ani^^ no yuen wo sho-suni wo niirn fioini. Sore sliimpo nam mono ha tenka no shibi nari, jiji butsiibittsn shinipo sezunba arubekarazaru. SJiikaraba sunahachi yi'ishi kanarazn shinipo no nijizvo tsunii sum ataJiazu. So7io tsuniisumi tokoro^^ kana- razn keikei no niji ?ii todoniai'an ; keikei no niji niinsen giin to katsute ahi kansho sezam nari. " Naho hayaki " no niji no ininsen giin wo tatsum ni okem^'^ shin ra tada ni kore wo kai-sezaru nonii narazn, shin ra no ken masa ni kore to ahi-han-su. Ikaif^ to nareba, kon~ jitsu niinsen giin wo tatsnrif'^ mo naho osoraku ha saigetsu no hisashiki wo macJii shikaushite nochi hajimete sono'^^ jiubiui gambi wo kisuru ni itaran. Yuhe 7ii shin ra icJiijitsu vio tada sono tatsn koto no osokaran koto wo osoru. Yuhe ni ihaku " shin ra tada sono hantai wo miru niomi " to. YusJii no setsu mata ifu ' Yobei kakkoku konjitsu no giin 7iam mono ha itcho isseki ni setsuritsu seshi no giin ni arazu^ sono shimpo no zen wo niochite kore wo itaseshi mono nomi, yuhe ni waga konjitsu niwaka ni kore wo mo-suru wo ezu'"^^ to. Sore shimpo no zen wo niochite kore wo itaseshi mono a?ii'^ hitori giin nomi naran ya ? Ohoyoso hiaku no gakumori gijitsu kikai mina shikaru nari. Shikaru ni kare suhiaku nen no hisashiki wo tsumite'^ kore wo itaseshi''^ mono ha kedashi mayeni seiki naku^ mina midzukara kore wo keiken hatsumei seshi nareba nari. Ima zvare sono seiki wo eramite ko7'e wo toraba nanzo kuwadate-oyobubekarazaran yaP Moshi waga midzukara joki no ri wo hatsumei suru wo inachi, shikaushite nochi, ware hajimete joki kikai wo mochiyum wo ubeku;^ denki no ri wo hatsumei suru wo machi shikashite"^^ nochi ware haji- mete denshin no se?i wo ga-suru wo ubeki to suru ka ? Seifu ha masa ni te wo kudasu ?io koto nakambeshi. Shin ra sudeni sudeni konjitsu waga kuni minsen giin wo tatezunba arubekarazaru yuen oyobi^^ konjitsu waga kuni jim- min shimpo no do yoku kono giin wo tatsum ni tayuru koto wo benron suru mono ha^^ sunahachi yi'ishi no kore wo kobamu s 1 SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. mono wo shite kuchi ni seki suru tokoro nakaj'ashiinen to ni arazu^ kono giin wo tatsuru tenka no koron wo shincho ski jimrnin no tsiigi kenri wo tate, tenka no genki wo kobu shi, mochit^'^ shoka shinkin ski kunshin ahi-ai shi waga teikoku wo iji shinki shi kofuku anzen wo hogo sen koto wo hosshite nari. Kofti sahiwahi ni kore wo erabi-tamahan koto wo. Translation. The opinions contained in the Memorial hereto annexed which we have the honour to address to you having con- stantly been held by us, and some of us during our period of office having repeatedly memorialized you on the same subject, an understanding was come to that after the embassy despatched to the allied powers in Europe and America should have observed the actual condition (of affairs) also, steps should be taken after due consideration of the circum- stances. But although several months have elapsed since the return of the embassy to this country, we do not learn that any measures have been adopted. Of late the popular mind has been agitated, and mutual distrust has sprung up between the governors and the governed (lit. the upper and the lower), and a state of things has arrived in which it cannot be denied that there are signs of destruction and ruin being ready to break forth at any moment. The cause of this we profoundly regret to say is, in effect, the suppression of the general opinion of the Empire as ascertained by public discussion. We trust that you will give this matter due consideration. 17th January, 1874. SOEJIMA Taneomi, Samurai of the Saga ken. Goto ShoJIRo, Samurai of the T6ki6-Fu. Itagaki Taiske, Samurai of the Kochi ken. Eto Shimpei, Samurai of the Saga ken. MiTSUOKA Hachiro, Samurai of the Tsuruga ken. Yuri Kimmasa, Samurai of the Tsuruga ken. I SPECIMENS OF JAPAN HSK. H KOMURO NOBUO, Samurai of the Miodo ken. Okamoto Kenzaburo, Samurai of the Kochi ken. FURUSAWA Ur6, Samurai of the Kochi ken. To the Hon'ble Members of the Sa-In. When we humbly reflect upon the quarter in which the .governing power at present Hes, we find that it lies not with the Crown (the imperial house) above, nor with the people below but with the officials alone. We do not deny that above the officials respect the Crown, and yet the Crown is gradually losing its prestige (lit. honour and splendour), nor do we deny that below they protect the people, and yet the manifold decrees of government appear in the morning and are changed in the evening, the administration is conducted in an arbitrary manner, rewards and punishments are prompted by partiality, the channel b}' which the people should com- municate with the government is blocked up and they cannot state their grievances. Is it hoped that the Empire can be peacefully ruled in this manner? Even a child three feet high knows that it cannot be done. We fear, therefore, that if this continues, and a reform is not effected, the state will be ruined. Unable to resist the promptings of our patriotic feelings, we have sought a means of rescuing it from this danger, and we find it to consist solely in developing public discussion by the Empire. The only means of developing public discussion is the establishment of a council-chamber chosen by the people. Then a limit will be placed to the power of the officials, and both governors and governed \vill obtain peace and prosperity. We ask leave, then, to make some remarks on this subject. The people, whose duty it is to pay taxes to the govern- ment, possess the right of sharing in the direction of their government's affairs, and of approving or condemning. This being a principle universally acknowledged, it is not necessary for us to waste words in discussing it. We therefore humbly s 2 Hi SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. pray that the officials will not resist this great truth. Those who now oppose the establishment of a council-chamber chosen by the people say : " Our people are wanting in culture and intelligence, and have not yet advanced into the region of enlightenment. Therefore it must necessarily be too early yet to establish a council-chamber elected by the people." It is our opinion that if it really be as they say, then the way to give to the people culture and intelligence, and to cause them to advance swiftly into the region of enlightenment is to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people. For in order to give our people culture and intelligence and to cause them to advance into the region of enlightenment, they must in the first place be induced to fulfil their duties and protect their rights, to respect and value themselves, and must be inspired with a spirit of sympathy with the griefs and joys of the Empire, which can only be done by giving them a voice in the concerns of the Empire. It has never happened that under such circumstances the people have been content to remain in a backward condition or have been satisfied with want of culture and intelligence. To expect now that they will acquire culture and intelligence by themselves and advance by themselves into the region of enlightenment, is very much like " waiting a hundred years for the water to clear."* The worst argument they put forward is that to establish a council-chamber at once would be simply to assemble all the blockheads in the Empire. What shocking self-conceit and arrogant contempt for the people this indi- cates ! No doubt amongst the officials there are men who surpass others in intelligence and ingenuity, but how do they know that the world does not also contain men who surpass the multitude in learning and knowledge ? Wherefore the * A quotation from the Tsochiiaii. The Yellow river is said to be a muddy stream, but to become clear at intervals of a thousand years. The text says " a hundred," which is no doubt a slip of the pen. SPECIMENS OV JAPANESE. Hu people of the Empire should not be treated with such con- tempt. Admitting that they deserve to be treated with contempt, are the officials themselves not a part of the nation, in which case they also are wanting in culture and intelli- gence ? Between the arbitrary decisions of a few officials and the general opinion of the people as ascertained b}- public discussion, where is the balance of wisdom and stupidity ? We believe that the intelligence of the officials must have made progress as compared with what it was previous to the Reformation,* for the intelligence and knowledge of human beings increase in proportion as they are exercised. There- fore we have said that to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people would promote the culture and intelligence of the people and cause them to advance rapidly into the region of enlightenment. It is further the duty of a government and the object which it ought to promote in the fulfilment of that duty to enable the people to make progress. Conse- quently in uncivilized ages, when manners were barbarous, and the people fierce, turbulent, and unaccustomed to obey, it was of course the duty of a government to teach them to obey ; but our country is now no longer uncivilized, and the tractableness of our people is already excessive. The object which our government ought therefore now to promote is by the establishment of a council-chamber chosen by the people to arouse in our people a spirit of enterprise, and to enable them to comprehend the duty of participating in the burdens of the Empire and sharing in the direction of its affairs, and then the people of the whole country \vill be of one mind. What is it that makes a government strong ? It is b}- the people of the Empire being of one mind. We need not prove this by quoting ancient historical facts. We will show it by the change in our government of October last. How great * I.e. The restoration of the Mikado's .government. liv SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. was its peril ! What is the reason of our government stand- ing isolated ? How many of the people of the Empire rejoiced at or grieved over the change in the government of October last ? Not only was there neither grief nor joy on account of it, but eight or nine out of every ten of the people of the Empire were utterly ignorant that it had taken place, and they were only surprised at the disbanding of the troops. The establishment at present of a council chamber chosen by the people will create community of feeling between the government and the people, and they will mutually unite into one body. Then and only then will the country be strong. Then and only then will the government be strong. We have now investigated the question in the light of uni- versal principles ; we have shown the truth in regard to it by reference to the tendencies of the day in this country ; we have discussed it in reference to the duties of a government, and have tested it by the case of the change which occurred in our government in October last. Our belief in the justice of our views is strengthened, and we earnestly contend that the only way to maintain and develope the destinies of (lit. to move up) the Empire is to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people and to develope public discussion by the Em- pire. We will not here enlarge upon the means by which the idea is to be wrought out, as that would occupy too much space. We are informed that the present officials, under the pre- tence of being conservative, are generally averse from progress. They call those who advocate reforms " the rash progressists," and oppose them with the two words "too early." We ask leave to make an explanation here. In the first place we do not comprehend the phrase " rash progression." If by " rash progression " is meant measures which are heedlessly initiated, then it is a council-chamber SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. !v chosen by the people which will render them prudent. Do they mean by " rash progression " the want of harmony between the different departments of the government and its consequences, viz., the disturbance, during a period of change, of the sequence of beginning and end, of not urgent and urgent, and the incongruity of this measure with that ? The cause of this is the want of a fixed law in the country, and the fact that the officials abandon themselves to the prompt- ings of their own inclinations. These two facts we look upon as precisely a confirmation of the reasons which render it necessary to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people. Progress is the most beautiful thing in the world, and is the law of all things moral and physical. Officials cannot condemn this word "progress": their condemnation must be confined to the word " rash," which has no connexion with a council-chamber chosen by the people. We are not only simply unable to comprehend what the words " too early " have to do with a council-chamber elected by the people, but our opinion is directly the opposite of this. For if a council-chamber chosen by the people were estab- lished to-day, we may fairly suppose that it could not be expected to be in complete working order until months and years had elapsed. We are only afraid therefore of a single day's delay in establishing it, and therefore we say that we hold the opposite of this opinion. We shall mention another argument of the officials. They say that the council-chambers now existing in European and American States were not formed in one morning or one ev^ening, but were only constituted by gradual progress, and therefore we cannot to-day copy them suddenly. But gradual progress has not been the case of council-chambers only ; the same is the case with all branches of learning and science and mechanical art. The reason why foreigners have perfected this only after the lapse of centuries is that no rules existed Ivi SPhXIMENS OF JAPANESE. previously, and these were all discovered by them for them- selves by actual experience. If we now select these rules and adopt them, why should we not be successful in our endeavours ? If we are to delay using steam machinery until we have discovered the principles of steam for ourselves, or to wait until we have discovered the principles of electricity before we construct an electric telegraph, our government will be unable to set to work. Our object in seeking to prove that a council-chamber elected by the people ought to-day to be established in our country, and that the degree of progress amongst the people of this country is sufficient for the establishment of such a council-chamber, is not to prevent the officials from making use of various pretexts for opposing it, but we are animated by the desire that by establishing such a council-chamber public discussion by the Empire may be developed, the duties and rights of the people be established, the spirit of the Em- pire be roused to activity, the affection between governors and governed be made closer, sovereign and subject be brought to love each other, our imperial country be main- tained and its destinies developed, and prosperity and peace be assured to all. We shall esteem ourselves fortunate if you will adopt our suggestions. Notes. . ^ Soregas/n ra, " certain persons," " we.'"'" '- Tat omits iwi is written in the Chinese order before the noun which it governs. — '^ Ni is not written, but must be suppHed in reading, — ^ Oyobi is also written before its noun. — ^ Tokoro is something hke "whereas." It is represented in the trans- lation by the ing of " having."—'^ Yo-bei. V6, the first syllable of Voropa, Europe : bei is for //le, the second syllable of America. — ' J/o. Not only the arguments of the memorialists, but actual observation on the spot "also." — ^A/ii hiis little meaning here. — ^ A'ore is inserted before an in imitation of Chinese construction. It is superfluous. — ^'^ Shikaru m, lit. " in its being so," i.e. " although this was so."—" Safttrahedomo, pro- nounced sdraedo)no.—^'- Mafushi-gataki. This compound is written in SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. Ivii the Chinese order. — ^-'6^/, "matter." This word is quahfied by the whole passage from sakkon on. — ^^ Itari^ "matter," Ht. "go." — ^'' Togera- rubekii. Togeraru is the conclusive of the passive (used as a honorific) of the verb ""'' togerii^'' "to complete." — '^^ Furusaha Uro, S:c. The signatures are in the opposite order to what we should expect, the most honourable position being in Japanese that next the name of the person -addressed. Furusaha^ although his name occupies the least honourable place, is believed to be the actual writer of this Memorial. — ^" The Sa-in is no longer in existence. It was a board associated with the Council of State. One of its duties was to examine all memorials presented to the Government. — ^^ Shin ra, "your servants," "we," only used in addressing the Government. — ^^ Fushite, lit. " with the face to the ground." — '-^ Sore is superfluous. It is inserted in imitation of a Chinese construction. — -^ Aratauiczu is conditional. The omission of ba is characteristic of the semi-Chinese style. — - Nonii ?i\. the end of a sentence is an imitation of Chinese.— -^i¥rtr//, lit. "to stretch."— ^^ A"^/z^. In ordinary Japanese this verb would be at the end of the sentence instead of at the beginning. — ■^ Tefika sometimes means " Japan " only ; sometimes, as here, " the universe." — '^ Matasaru^ for inataztc m-u, "does not wait for," i.e.^ "does not require." — '^' Hisoka 7ii^ " privately," hence "humbly." This applica- tion of ///j-(?/'rt /?/ is in imitation of Chinese, where the character corre- sponding to this word has also this secondary meaning. — ''^^ Koto luo. Koto is governed by the verb negafu which precedes it. This is a Chinese construction.— '-^^/^//^^z/^// vncchi. Supply iii te after these words. — '^ Tat sum is a noun ("the establishment") nominative to hayakaru- besJii. In proper Japanese tatsuru would have some particle, as 720 or ha^ added to it to show that it is a noun. The semi-Chinese style, however, rejects particles as far as possible. — ^^ Omoheraku is ovioheru^ perfect of oinofu and aku, a termination which gives the verb the force of a noun. Skill 7'a omoheraku, "our opinion (is that)."— =^' T/z^ tokof'o, "that which they say." Tokoro is here the relative. — ^^ Nani to iiareba. " Because it is what ?" i.e. " for what reason ?" — -^ Waga jimmin luo shite. Shite is altogether superfluous.— •'^^ Su. By a Chinese construction for the hypo- thetical seba.—^ Seshime. Causative of sum, " to do," " to make." — '^~ K ore wo shite. Shite is again superfluous. It adds nothing to the sense, is unnecessary for the grammar, and is only inserted in blind imitation of Chinese. — ^ Kaku no gotoku. The Chinese characters for these two words are written in the reverse order to that in which they are read. — ^ Arazaru Jiari. A circumlocution for arazu. — ^ Hanahadashiki ha. "The worst is to ifu ni itaru, that they proceed to say."— "'^ Ha Iviii SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. 7iahadashiku. Adverbial form, the sentence not ending till betsiijo tani- ya. — ^^ Betsujo taru ya. Ya is an interjection merely. Taru is in the attributive form, owing to the sentence containing the interrogative 7;rt;z2-^. — ^"Yo^ for yo ni or yo no naka ni. — ^ Shira?i ya. Ya is here the interrogative particle. — ^^ Nani to nareba itareba 7iari. "Because of what is it ? It is because " — ^ Michi nari to. To is joined with ihakii two lines back. — ^' EseJmmirii. E is the root oi tiru^ " to get," and seshU miiru the causative of sw'ii., " to do."— ^^ Ni afi. Ni is often, as here, the sign of the predicate of a proposition. — ■** Shitagafii tokoro. " Where to be obedient." — ^^ Shirashimiiru^ causative of shiru., " to know." — ^^ Mono in the semi-Chinese style is often equivalent to the particle ha of proper Japanese, — ^^ Sii., conclusive form of sitrii., " to make," " to account." — ^^Jimmin wo shite., equivalent to jii)imi)i ni of proper Japanese. — ^^ Ikiibaku ka am. Arii^ the attributive, instead of rtrz, the conclusive, owing to the interrogative which precedes. — ^^Jiti no shite. Shite would be omitted in proper Japanese. — ^^ Notni., a Japanese word, is written with the two Chinese characters jfi] ^'—^"^ Mochite, 'by this means.' — ^Kogi 1U0 ham ni am nonii to. To refers back to setsu 7ii ifu. — ^^Hoho to. To marks the plural. — ^Gotoki properly means " such matters as," but in the semi-Chinese style it has often very little meaning. It has been entirely omitted in the translation. — ^^Jiu-su-niai-shi. " More than ten sheets of paper." — **- Hisoka ni., " secretly," must not be understood too literally. It merely means that they have heard from some one whom it is unnecessary to name. — '^ Shinra kofu. The Japanese construction would be shinra mata kore wo be7izen koto wo kofu. — *^ Mo7io would be ha in proper Japanese. — *^° Teicho 7ii sum tokoro 710 7710710., " a thing which renders prudent." Tokoro is here a relative. — '^ Mochite is here super- fluous. — '^'Tatezunba arubekarazu. Tatezunba. N is inserted for euphony. It is pronounced 7n. This phrase is equivalent to the collo- quial tate7ieba 7iara7iu., "must erect or establish." — ^ Sono tsumi su7'U tokoro. " That which they blame." — ^^ Tatsuru 77i okem. Oke7'u would be ni cite or 7ii tsuite in ordinary Japanese. — "'^ Ika7i (for ikani) to na^-eba. See above, 7mni to 7iareba. — '^ Tatsuru 7710 would be in ordinary Japanese tatsu to ihedo)7io, or mihe spoken language, tatete7no. — "'-80710 qualifies kisuru. " Its attaining perfection." — "''^Mo-sum wo ezu. "We do not get the imitating," z>., " We are unable to imitate." — '''^A72i is placed at the beginning of an interrogative clause and shows that a negative answer is expected, — "^ Suhiaku 77e7i 770 hisashiki tuo tsuniite. " Accumu- lating the length of several hundred years." — '^^ Itaseshi 7710770 ha 77a- reba 77ari. "Their having done this is because" M0770 is super- SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. llX ^\xo\xs.—''''Ku-vadatc-oyobu-bek'-ara-z'-ara-ii-ya. Endeavour-reach-should- be-not-be-fut.-interrog.— "=^^-^^>^/^ conclusive form of uru, "to get," " obtain," " be able," and bckii, adverbial form of heki, " should."—"^ Shika shite and shikau shite i^^^xorv. shiko shite) are the same, the /^ being inserted for euphony.— ^"^ Oyobi, " and."— «^^^;?r^^ sum mono ha. " The reason why we maintain." Moiw is nominative to nari at the end of the sentence.— '"J/^^-////^-. " By means of all these." Ixii SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. VIII. VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS. Shokan wo inochite^ keijo itashi safurafu. Shikarebc? Taiwan banchi^ no kioto bnnzainogini tstiki, waga seifu to Seikoku^ seifu no iken sogo wo shoji'^ dainpan nkketstfi tsuhi ni kokwa hoson shigataki badhi ni "' tachi-itari saftirafu tokoro, Hokkin^ chiuto kikokn^ zenken koshi kakka waga benri daijin to kano shodaijin}"^ no ahida ni go shiusen kore ari}^ besshi no towori kiogi ahi- totonohi tagahi ni jokwan wo kokwan safurafu mune migi benri daijin yori kwanin kicho^"^ seshime}^ sakujitsu tochaku^ konjitsu gujo ni oyobi safurafu ahida, go naira^t ni ire safurafu, migi ha waga seifu no shiui kwantetsu shi, riogoku^^ no kofuku ni itari safurafu gi inigi^'^ kizenken-koshi kakka no go jin- rioku sukunak' arazaru^^ gi to zonji safurafu. Kore ni yorite tori-aJiezu ichio shinsha ni oyobi safurafu jo kiseifti narabi ni zai Hokkin kikoshi^'^ kakka e shikarubeku go de7ichi kudasare- taku, migi shaji mafushi-shi7ijitaku, kaku no gotoku safurafu^ Keigu. Meiji shichinen^jiuichigwatsujiuni nichi. Gwaimukio Terashivia Munenori. Dai Buritania koku Tokumei Zenke7t Koshi Haruri esu Pdkusu Kakka. TRANSLATION. I have the honour to address you a letter. A difference having arisen between the views of our Government and that of China in respect to the matter of the chastisement of the savages of the barbarous part of Formosa, there was a hitch in the negotiations, and they at last reached a position in which the preservation of friendly relations was impossible. His Excellency the honourable country's Minister Plenipoten- tiary resident at Pekin then used his good offices between our High Commissioner and their high officials. An agreement SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. Ixiii was thus brought about and articles mutually exchanged as in the enclosure. Our High Commissioner sent an officer back to Japan with this intelligence. This officer arrived yesterday and has made his report to me to-day. I therefore place it (the agreement) in your hands for your private perusal. I am sensible that no small exertion has been made by His Excellency your honourable Minister before-mentioned in arriving at a result in which the views of this Government have gained acceptance, and which is fortunate for bot countries. I accordingly hasten to offer to you this expres- sion of thanks, which I beg you will be good enough to convey in a suitable manner to the honourable Government and to the honourable Minister at Pekin. I wish to offer the above thanks. Thus it is. With respect. November I2th, 1874. Terashima Munenori, Minister for Foreign Affairs. To His Excellency Sir Harry S. Parkes, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain. Notes. This is a specimen of the style of official letters. * '^Shokan wo mochite. Wo is not written, but is always supplied in reading. Mochite is pronounced motte. In writing this phrase, the Chinese order of the characters is followed, that for mochite coming first. — - Shikareba^ lit. " this being so." To shikareba inclusive may be freely rendered " I have the honour to inform you that — ." — ^ TaiiuaJt banchi is for Taiwan 710 bayichi. — ^ Seikoku. Sei, in Chinese Tsing^ is properly the name of the Manchu dynasty of Emperors of China. Seikoku is the ordinary word for China in official correspondence. — ^ Shoj'i^ adverbial form of J'/^<^-2'//r//, from j-//^, "producing," and suru^ "to do." — ^Ukketsu, After ukketsic must be understood shite. The constant omission of unim- portant words and particles is characteristic of the semi -Chinese style. Ixiv SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. — '^ Tachi has little meaning \v^x^.—^Hokkin. Ni must be understood after Hokkin.—^Kikoku. " The honourable country," i.e., your country. —^^ Sho daijin. Sho marks the plural— ^^ Kore art. Kore is superfluous in Japanese : it is introduced in imitation of the Chinese construction. — ^"^ Kicks, " return to court," i.e., to Japan.— ^^ Seshime. Adverbial form of seshimuru, the causative of sum, " to do." The character for this word is placed Chinese-fashion before the noun which it %m^xns.—^^Ri6goku. Goku is for koku, " country."— ^'^ i^z^/, "the right," corresponds to "the above mentioned," Japanese being written from right to left. — i^ Sukuna- karazaru, i.e., sukunaku ara-zu aru is represented by the two characters >p>'|?, the first of which represents zu, and the other the remainder. — '^'' Kikoshi, "the honourable minister," z>., your country's minister. si'i:cimi:ns oi jai'anksk. Ixvii IX. VERSION IX ROMAN LETTERS. Ippitsii^ keijo. SJiikareba sakiijitsu ha sankan- go teinei go kioo, koto fii giisokii }>iade Dieshi-yoserare, jiu-jiu go konsei katajikenakii rjonji safumfu. Katsu chdseki ruru go seidan kansha 7w itari ni zonji safurafu. Sofw setsu on hanashi- mafiishi-age safurafu somoku baiyosho gens ho on mahashi- 7nafnshi-age safurafu jo^ go ichiran kudasaretaku-safurafu ; sakujitsu fio bun ha uiachigahi no shorui nite hanahada niochite on kinodoku ni zonji safurafu, Soso niigi kit etaku^ kaku no gotoku^ ni safurafu. Keigu. Hachigivatsu nanoka. Matsuda Keizd. TakeJiaka Riosukc sauia Kika. TRANSLATION. I address you a stroke of the pen. I am grateful for your extreme kindness in entertaining me so courteously when I visited your residence yesterday, and especially for having invited my son also. Further, I feel that your conversation at our long interview is matter for thankfulness. I beg now to send you the originals of the papers on the rearing of plants and trees which I then spoke to you of, and hope you will peruse them. I am extremely sorry that those I brought yesterda}- were the wrong papers. In haste. Please take note of the above. Thus it is. With respect. August /th. Matsuda Keizo. To Takknaka R16SUKK, Esq. IXVHI SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. Notes. This is a specimen of the ordinary style of a private letter. The version in the current hand is a facsimile of the original, the version in square character being added for the sake of comparison. ^ Ippitsu^ for ichi hitsu^ "one pen." Almost all Japanese letters begin by this or one of the numerous phrases of similar meaning, and go on with shikareba^ " this being so," &c. — - Sankati. The construction here is very elliptical. The full construction would be saiikan Jto toki go telnet 110 kido wo uke. — ^ /o. See p. 78. — ^ Kit etakii^ kaku no gotoku. In writing these phrases, the Chinese order of the characters is followed. INDEX. PAGE PAGE A (pronoun) ... 50 Ba ... ... 13s, 144, 146 Ablative ... 117 Bakari ... ... 132 Abstract nouns ... 43 Bara . 119 Accents, Chinese In trod, v Bava ... 146 ,, Japanese... . ... 36 Beki 154 Accusative ... 113 Be mi 154 Adjective, conjug ... 93 Bera 154 ,, derivative ... 103 Beii... ... .. 154 , , root of ... ... 82 Boku 54 ,, syntax of ... 181 Buru ... 94 Adv«rbs . ... 169 Case su ffixes . 106 Adverbial form ... 82 Causative verbs . 98 Affinities of Japanese In I rod. i Chin 54 Afu ... ... 169 Chinese character ... I Agglutination Introd. i »? pronunciation of. .. Introd. iii. Aguru . ... 165 5> study of ... . Introd. ii. Ahida ... 77 Choka ... 186 Aho.shiki ... 143 Classical language... , Introd. viii Aku ... 142 Classification of words . ... 39 Anata . ... 58 Compound adjectives . 104 Ani ... 123 M nouns... . 45 Ano 59, 62 ?J verbs ... 103 Aphaeresis ... 24 Conclusive form ... 83 Are, personal pron. • - 51 Conjugations, adjectives . 81, 93 ,, demonstrative pron.. . ... 62 5> verbs . 81, 90, 94 Aru 89,92,98 99. i53» 167 Conjunctions . ... 76 Aru hito 66 Con. sonants, assimilation r )f 21, 28 Asobasu . ... 167 M changes of . ... 26 Aspirates, loss of ... 22, 30 ,, double 28, 30 As.similation 21, 28 Crasis ... ... 24 Attraction ... 26 Dachi ... 119 Attributive form ... . ... 85 Dani ... ... 130 Auxiliary numerals ... 72 Dare ... . ... 63 Auxiliary verbs ... ... 162 Datera ... ... 133 B, interchange with M ,. ... 31 Dative . no INDEX. PAGE PAGE De ... 144 1 Ha, after nouns ... 120 Demonstrative pronouns .. ... 60 ,, after verbs ••• 135 Denka ••• 59 Haberu ... 162 Derivation ..• 32! Haikwai ... 190 Derivative verbs ... • •• 93 Hanka ... 188 Derivative adjectives ... 103 Han-nigori 16,28 Derived nouns ... 42 Hataraki kotoba ... 79 Distributive pronouns ... 66 He ... 112 Division of words ... ... 19 Heika ... 59 Do . ... 146 Hi ... 48 Domo, plural particle ... 118 Hiragana ... 3 ,, with verbs... . ... 146 ,, table of 6 Dore, dono . ... 64 Hito ... 66 Dramatic poetry ... ... 192 Hokku ... 189 Dzutsu ... 130 Honorific prefixes ... 46 E, changes of 24 ,, verbs ... 161 Elision 23, 194 Humble verbs ... 161 Etymology 32 Humble prefixes ... 48 F, changes of 27 Hybrid compounds ... 46 ,, pronunciation of 20, 22 I, changes of 25 Fu, term, of verbs 94 Idzu ... 64 G, pronunciation of 21 Idzure ... 64 Ga 107 Ika ... 64 Gachi 132, 136 Iku ... 64 Gari 136 Imashi ... 56 Garu 102 Imperative ... 89 Gata 119 Indefinite pronouns ... 65 Gatera 133. 136 Inflected Teniwoha ... 148 Ge 43 Inflection ... Introd. i, note, viii Gender 48 table of ... 79 Genji Monogatari ... 28 Instrumental case ... 81 Genitive particles ... 107, 182 Interjections ... 78 Go 47 Interrc^atives 63, 1 25, 140, 174, 178 Gochi 132, 136 Intransitive verbs ••• 95 Gohen 59 Inuru ... 92 Go-on Introd. iii, v Inversion 170, 172, 173 Goto ni 130 Iroha 6 Gozen 59 Irregular verbs ... 92 Grammar, divine origin of Introd. vi Italics, marks of ... 18 Gu 48, 54 Itsu ... 64 Gu, term, of deriv. verbs 93 Ji, pronunciation of ... 19 H, changes of 30 j ,, neg. fut. particle ... 145 ,, pronunciation of 20, 22 ijilnrn ... 67 IXDKX, 1 .U-.K |'A(;k Ti-i^hin 67 Kore 60 K- 77 Korean Introd. ii [oka 198 Koso 128, 175 K, loss of . 30 Kotoba 39 Ka, interrog. 65, 125, 142, 178 Koyaisu 79 Ka, pronoun ... 59,6c ,62 Ku 82 ,, tennin. of noun 44 Kudasaru ... 162 Kagura . 191 Kuru 92 Kaha 122 Letter changes 23 Kaheshi uia 1 68 Locative no Kakari Teniwoha . 173 Loochooan.. Introd. ii Kakka 58 M, changes of 31 Kamuri kotoba 193 Made 113 Kana 2 Mafusu 164 Kana, interjection.. ... 178 Mairasuru ... 165 Kano 62 Majiki 155 Kan-on Introd. iv Makaru ... 163 Kanuru 168 Makura kotoba 196 Kara 117, 141 Mana I Kare 59 ,62 Manyoshiu ... 3> 182, 187 Kashi 141 Maro 52 Ivatakana 3,5 , 15 Mashi, pronoun 56 Katsute 151 ,, particle 157 Ke . 43 Mashika ... 157 Keki . 104 Masu 97, 166 Keku 142 Mauto 58 Ken-yo-gen 182 Me, feni. prefix 48 Keru 150 ,, future suffix 88, 156 Ki, honorific prefix ... 47 Mei-mei 66 ,, past particle ... 151 Meru 153 ,, term, of adjecti ves ... 81 ,85 Metre 184 Kiden 59 Mi, tennin. of nou ns 42 Kijo 59 ,, pronoun 53,6; Kika '.'.'. "58 , 59 „ prefi.x ... 46 Kikoyuru ... ... 165 Midomo 53 Kikun 59 Midzukara ... 53, 74 Kimi ... 56 Mimashi ... 56 Kioka ... 185 — mi— mi ... 137 Kisama 58 Mina 66 Kizengen 87 Mo •• 65, 123, 135, 146 Kiyatsu 58 Mochitc 116 Ko ... 60 Mogamo ... 124 Kono ... 60 Mogana 124 INDEX. PA(iE Mono wo ... 115 Nu, neg. suffix Mono kara ... 117 Number Mosu . ... 164 Numerals Motowori Introd. vii ,, auxiliary Mu, termin. of deriv. verb s 93. 102 Nuru ,, future suffix ... 156 Nushi N, changes of ... 31 Nzuru ,, pronunciation of 22, 24 ,, future suffix . ... 156 Ohomi Na, part of speech ••• 39 Okoshi kotoba ,, personal pronoun .- 55 Okoto ,, interjection ... 141 Omahe ,, neg. imperative ... 142 On Nado . ... 119 Onmahe Nafu ... 94 On-mi Nagara 132, 136 Onodzukara Naga-uta ... 186 Onomatopoetic adverbs ,. Namo ... 127 Ono-ono Nan, after nouns ... 127, 174 Onore ,, vi'ith neg. base ... 145 Order of words ,, with adverbial form ... 150 Ordinals Nando ... 119 Otemahe Nani . ... 63 P Nanigashi ... 66 Parallelism Nanika . ... 65 Pas.sive verbs Nanimo . ... 65 Perfect Nanji 55, 59 Person Nare ... 55 Plural suffixes Naru . 152, 167 Possessive particles Nasaruru ... 162 Prefixes, honorific... Na— so ... 137 Prefixes, humble ... Ngeri ... 151 Printing, Japanese Ni (locative particle) . no, 135 Pronouns ... „ (neg. particle) ... 155 Prosody Nigori ... 16 Pronunciation Ni keri ... 151 Punctuation Nite ... no Quotation No 107, 174 R, changes of No ... 192 ,, pronunciation of Nomi ... 132 Ra, termin. of nouns Nominative absolute ... 182 ,, plural suffix Norito, writing of 3 Ran Noun ... 41 Raruru . NDEX. Rashi Rashiki Reduplicated plurals Reflexive pronouns Relative pronouns Renyogen ... Renka Root of verb and adjective Ru, disappearance of ,, termin. ofderiv. verbs ,, termin. of perfect Ruru S, pronunciation Sa Sahe Saibara Saidangen ... Samurafu ... Sasuru ... ... Sedoka Semi-Chinese style Introd. Sen ... Senriu Sessha ... Setsu Sh, pronunciation Shi, reflexive pronoun ,, suflix to nouns Shi, past particle ... ,, termin. of adjective ... Shiga (ir Shigana Shika Shiki Shimuru Shin Shindaiji Shiu... Sho Sho Shozengen ... So Sokka Soko FACE ... 138 ... 103 ... 48 ... 66 ... 67 ... 83 ... 185 42, 43, 82 ... 88 93, 102 ... 158 ... 100 ... 19 ••• 43 ... 131 ... 191 ... 83 ... 163 ... 99 ... 189 vii, 171, 173 ... 48 ... 190 • •• 54 ... 48 ... 19 ... 66 ... 131 ... 151 93 150 . 151 104 .. 98 • 54 I . 119 • "9 48,55 . 87 . 61 • 59 57,61 148, Soko moto Son ... Sonata Sonko Sonkun Sono Sono h6 Sono moto ... Sore Soregashi Soro Spoken language ... Stages of Japanese... Structure of Japanese Su Substantive form ... Sudeni Sura... Suru Syntax T, pronunciation ... Ta Tachi Taki Tamafu Tama no O... Tanka Tare Tareka Taremo — tari — tari Taru, after nouns ... ,, verbal suffix... Tatematsuru Te Ten Teniwoha .. Tcshigana ... 57 47 61 59 59 61 57 57 57, 61 53,66 ... 163 Introd. viii Introd. vii Introd. i 119 85 151 131 99, 168 112, 129, 130, To To ... ~.t:' T6-in Tokoro Transitive verbs 92, 94, 171 20 63 119 152 166 173 184 63 65 65 137 130 149 165 148 148 39,40 ... 148 134, 139, 178, 182 . 119 Introd. V 68 95 INDEX. PAGE I'ACIB Transliteration 22 Ware S^ Tsu, kana 21,29 Waro 50 „ genitive particle ... 107 Watakushi 51 ,, termination of numerals .. 70 Wo, masc. prefix 48 ,, verbal suffix .. 148 , , sign of accusative ... i 13. 141 Tsuiku .. 195 Woba 116 Tsuru .. 148 Waiting I Tsutsu .. 136 ,, marks used in ... 17 — tsu— tsu . ... 137 Va, interrog. ... 1 25, 140, [46, 147 U, changes of 23.25 , , vocative case 117 ,, pronunciation ... 19. 21 Varan 127 Uninflected principal words •• 39 Vatsu .. 71 Uninflected teniwoha ... io6, 134 Vatsugare 54 Uru 99, 168 Vayo 117 Utahi .. 192 Vo, pers. pronoun 54 Verbs ■. 79 ,, imperative 138 ,, humble or honorific... .. 161 ,, vocative case 117 ,, as adverbs .. 169 , , after conclusive form . . . 141 ,, as conjunctions .. 169 Vori 117 Vocative case .. 117 Vuye 77 Vowel changes .. 23 Zam 156 W, pronunciation 20 Zetteigen 83 Wa, pronoun .. 50 Zo 128, 1 74, 178 ,, particle See ha Zokutaigen .. 85 Waga 51.67 Zokuyogen .. 83 Wagimi .. 56 Zu, neg. particle .. 155 Waraha ... 52 ,, future 156 PKI.NIED HV JOHN BDWARD FRANCIS, I3, BREAM's BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAM D-PARTMFNT This book isfw^j^i^Jf^e |t«iiji>ed below, or Renewed books are subjea to immediate recall lAP R 1 3 1972 9 T - ^ i '^ 22 1978 - JBSJaB.JU6_l_7f ^ •^ LD21-35m-2,'71 (P200IslO)476— A-32 General Library University of California Berkeley iV! AY 12.1960 LD 21-100w-2,'55 (B139s22)476 General Librar University of Cali' / Berkeley / U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES mill illlllliilhIM m I^T •:9m. mm :::m WMJiM K-}