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PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 
 
London : 
 
 A. and G. A. Spottiswoode, 
 
 New-Street-Square. 
 
PSYCHOLOGICAL 
 
 INQUIRIES: 
 
 IX A SERIES OF ESSAYS, 
 
 INTENDED TO ILLUSTRATE 
 
 THE MUTUAL EEUTIONS OF THE PHYSICAL ORGAMZATION 
 AXD THE MENTAL FACULTIES. 
 
 BY 
 
 Sir benjamin C. BRODIE, Bart. 
 
 CORBESPONDING MEMBER OF THE IXSTITUTE OF FRi>CE, 
 ETC. 
 
 .-^ CjtL'B'T'4^9^^COND EDITION. 
 
 LONDON 
 LOJs^GMAN, BEOWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 
 1855. 
 
6fi II 
 
 EDUC. 
 PSYCH 
 ilBRARY 
 
 " The perceptions of the senses are gi-oss, but even in the senses 
 there is a differeuce. Though harmony and properties are not objects 
 of sense, yet the eye and the ears are organs •which offer to the mind 
 such materials, by means whereof she may apprehend both the one 
 and the other. Bj' experiments of sense we become acquainted with 
 tlie lower faculties of the soul ; and from tliem, whether by a gradual 
 evolution or ascent, we arrive at the highest. Sense supplies images 
 to memory. These become subjects for fancy to work on ; reason 
 considers and judges of the imaginations, and these acts of reason 
 become new objects to the understanding. In this scale, each lower 
 faculty is a step that leads to the one above it, and the uppennost 
 naturally leads to the Deity, which is rather the object of intellectual 
 knowledge than even of tlie discursive faculty, not to mention the 
 sensitive. There runs a chain throughout the whole system of 
 beings. In this chain one link drags another ; the meanest things 
 are connected witli the highest. The calamity, therefore, is neither 
 strange nor much to be complained of, if a low sensual reader shall, 
 from mere love of the animal life, find himself di-awn in, surprised, 
 and betrayed into, some curiosity concerning the intellectual." 
 
 SiKiS, A Cliain of Philosopliical Reflexions concerning the 
 
 Virtues of Tar-water, by Geokge Beeklet, D. D., 
 
 Lord Bishop of Cloyne, s. 303, 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In preparing another edition of the " Psycho- 
 logical Inquiries " for the press, I have taken 
 the opportunity of correcting whatever inaccu- 
 racies I had found to exist in the original pub- 
 lication. At the same time I have, in different 
 parts of the work, introduced some new 
 matter, arising out of the further considera- 
 tion of the subjects wliich I have ventured to 
 discuss. 
 
 HavinGj received communications from va- 
 rious correspondents, I have not hesitated to 
 avail mvself of some of the susigestions wliich 
 they have offered. There arei others of which 
 I should also gladly have availed myself, If it 
 had not been that the greater part of the 
 volume was in print before I received them. 
 
 Among my correspondents there is one who 
 seems to be of opinion that I have not suffi- 
 
 JL 3 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 clently regarded the dignity of human nature 
 in speaking of the minds of the inferior animals 
 as belonging to the same mode of existence, or 
 being of the same essence, with the mind of 
 man. I do not myself see how any one, who 
 does not (with Descartes) believe animals to 
 be mere unconscious macliines, can arrive at 
 any other conclusion. I do not, however, feel 
 that it is necessary for me to enter further into 
 the question, as it has been fully considered 
 by one of much greater authority than myself ; 
 and I have only to refer to the observations on 
 this subject contained in the first chapter of the 
 Rev. Dr. Butler's Analogy of Religion to the 
 Constitution and Course of Nature. 
 
ADVEHTISEMENT. 
 
 The subject of the present Volume, although 
 replete with interest, and of much practical 
 importance, is one as to which we have no 
 means of obtaining such complete and definite 
 knowledge as to admit of it being presented in 
 the shape of a systematic treatise. Some points 
 may be considered as established with a suffi- 
 cient degree of certainty ; there are others as 
 to which opinions may reasonably differ ; while 
 there is still a greater number as to which we 
 must be content to acknowledge that, with our 
 limited capacities, we have no means of form- 
 ing an opinion at all. 
 
 The method of dialogue seems to be espe- 
 cially adapted for inquiries of this description ; 
 and it is hoped that this will be considered as 
 a sufficient apology for the form in which the 
 foUowino" observations are submitted to the 
 public. 
 
..-i^" 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 THE FIRST DIALOGUE. 
 
 Intrcduction. — Pursuits in Retirement. — Limits of 
 Mental Exertion. — The elTort of Volition the source 
 of mental as it is of bodily fatigue. — The Imagination 
 when we are awake compared with that during Sleep. 
 — Dreams. — Analogy of the Poetic Genius to that 
 of Discovery in Science. — Sir Isaac Newton's account 
 of the Process of Discovery in his own mind. — Mental 
 Operations of which we seem to be unconscious. — 
 How to be explained. — Evils of an ill-regulated Ima- 
 gination. — Fanatics and Impostors. — Modern Credu- 
 lity. — Modern Education. — Influence of Mathematical 
 Studies. — The faculty of correct Reasoning a natural 
 gift rather than one acquired artificially. — Self-edu- 
 cation. — Sir Humphry Davy. — Sir Walter Scott. — 
 John Hunter. — Ferguson the Astronomer. — The 
 levellinji influence of a high Education. — Advautasres 
 whicli may be expected to arise from the improve- 
 ments of Education now in progress - Fage 1 
 
 THE SECOND DIALOGUE. 
 
 Mind and Matter. — Natural Theology. — Views of Sir 
 Isaac Newton. — Reasons for regarding the Mental 
 Principle as distinct from Organization. — The In- 
 fluence of the one on the other not sufficiently re- 
 garded by Metaphysicians. — Relations of the Nervous 
 System to the Mental Faculties. — Speculations of 
 Hooke, Hartley, &c. — The Brain not a single Organ, 
 but a Congeries of Organs co-operating to one Pur- 
 
 y 
 
;C CONTENTS. 
 
 pose. — Physiological Researches of Magendie and 
 Flourens. — The different Capacities of Individuals 
 for the Perception of Colours, Musical Sounds, &c., 
 probably dependent on different Organization of the 
 Brain. — Supposed Connection of the Cerebellum with 
 Locomotion. — Is there an Organ of Speech? — In- 
 stances of "Want of Speech in those who were neither 
 Deaf nor Idiotic. — Stammering. — Memory. — Dr. 
 Hooke's Speculations. — Affections of the Memory 
 from Cerebral Disease or Injury. — Impressions on 
 the Brain not sufficient for Memory, unless accom- 
 panied by Attention, which is an Act of the Mind 
 itself. — The Nature of the Physical Changes which 
 occur in connection with the Memory beyond the 
 reach of our Observation and Capacities - Page 34 
 
 THE THIRD DIALOGUE. 
 
 The Subject of Memory continued. — Sequence and 
 Association of Ideas. — Suggestion of Ideas by internal 
 Causes acting on the Brain by the Nerves, or through 
 the Medium of the Blood. — Influence of Narcotics, 
 Morbid Poisons, Lithic Acid, Impure Atmosphere, 
 and other Physical Agents on the Condition of the 
 Mind. — Such Inquiries not only of scientific Interest, 
 but also of practical Importance. — Physical Causes of 
 Mental Illusions. — Examples of false Perceptions 
 referred to the Sight and other Senses. — Other Forms 
 of Illusion more frequent in Cases of Mental Aber- 
 ration than mere Deceptions of the External Senses. 
 — Mr. Locke's Definition of Insanity not sufficiently 
 comprehensive. — A too rapid Succession of Ideas, 
 with Incapability of fixing the Attention, incompatible 
 with correct Reasoning. — State of Mind in the so- 
 called " Moral Insanity." — Question as to the Limits 
 of Moral Responsibility ----- 66 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 THE FOURTH DIALOGUE. 
 
 Diflerent Fnnctions of the Brain and Spinal Chord. 
 — Continuance of Life in some Animals without the 
 Brain. — Automatic motions of Plants and of some of 
 the lower Animals. — Multiplication of the latter by 
 Division. — The Diplozoon Faradoxon. — BufFon's View 
 of the Mode of Existence of the lower Animals. — 
 A Nervous System not necessary to simple animal 
 Life. — Origin of the Nervous Force. — Influence of 
 the Venous or dark-coloured Blood on the Functions of 
 the Nervous System. — The Absence of Sensibility or 
 voluntary Power no proof of the Absence of Conscious- 
 ness. — Dr. WoUaston, &c. — State of Mind preceding 
 Death. — Nature and Phenomena of Sleep. — Dreams 
 the Result of the Imagination uncontrolled by the AVill. 
 — Rapidity of Dreams. — Their Character influenced 
 by accidental physical Impressions. — Supposed Solu- 
 tions of Problems, &c., during Sleep. — Miiller's Obser- 
 vations on the Subject. — Do Dreams answer any 
 Purpose in the Economy of living Beings ? — Inquiries 
 as to the Nature of the Changes which occur in the 
 Nervous System in connection with Mental Opera- 
 tions Page 107 
 
 THE FIFTH DIALOGUE. 
 
 Mental Faculties of Animals. — Their Relation to the 
 Structure of the Brain. — Difiiculty of the Inquiry, but 
 some Kowledge of it not beyond our Reacli. — Cerebral 
 Organs connected with the Animal Appetites and In- 
 stincts. — Organs subservient to the Intellect. — Ques- 
 tion as to the Uses of the Cerebral Convolutions. — The 
 Posterior Lobes of the Cerebrum. — The Corpus Cal- 
 losum. — The Development of the Mental Faculties, 
 how far dependent on the Perfection of the Senses, and 
 
XU CONTENTS. 
 
 other external Circumstances. — The Nature and Office 
 of Instinct. — Intelligence not peculiar to Man, nor In- 
 stinct to the lower Animals. — Human Instincts. — The 
 Social Instinct and the Moral Sense. — Some Instincts 
 as necessary to Animal Existence as the Cii-culation of 
 the Blood, and other mere Animal Functions. — Ac- 
 (juired Instincts transmitted from Parents to Offspring 
 — These considered with reference to Moral and 
 Political Science. — The Social Instinct viewed as cor- 
 recting or modifying other Instincts, and as being made 
 more efficient by the greater Development of the In- 
 tellect. — The Eeligious Instinct. — Primary Truths of 
 Buffier and Reid ----- Page 164 
 
 THE SIXTH DIALOGUE. 
 
 Yiews of Human Nature. — The Science of Human Na- 
 ture — its Objects and Applications — to be distinguished 
 in its higher Department from the mere Practical 
 Knowledge of Human Character which Men acquire 
 for their own Purposes. — Different Opportunities of 
 pursuing the Study of Human Nature presented to dif- 
 ferent Individuals. — The Observation of the Influence 
 of the Body on the Mind, and of the Mind on the Body, 
 a necessary Part of it. — The Science of Human Nature 
 essential to the Science of Government. — The Preten- 
 sions of Phrenology. — Anatomical Objections to it. — 
 Observations on the Evidence on which it rests. — 
 Consideration of the Question as to the Relation of the 
 Size of the Brain to the Development of the Intellect. 
 — General View of the Circumstances which tend to 
 form or modify Men's Characters. — The Science of 
 Human Nature not reducible to any Simple Rules. — 
 Qualifications necessary for the Pursuit of it. — Self- 
 knowledge. — Duties and Responsibilities. — Con- 
 clusion -------- 213 
 
 Additional Notes - - - - - -251 
 
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 
 
 THE FIRST DIALOGUE. 
 
 Introduction. — Pursuits in Retirement. — Limits of 
 Mental Exertion. — The effort of Volition the source 
 of mental as it is of bodily fatigue. — The Imagination 
 when we are awake compared with that during Sleep. 
 — Dreams. — Analogy of the Poetic Genius to that 
 of Discovery in Science. — Sir Isaac Newton's account 
 of the Process of Discovery in his own mind. — Mental 
 Operations of which we seem to be unconscious. — 
 How to be explained. — Evils of an ill-regulated Ima- 
 gination. — Fanatics and Impostors. — Modern Credu- 
 lity. — Modern Education. — Influence of Mathematical 
 Studies. — The faculty of correct Reasoning a natural 
 gift rather than one acquired artificially. — Self-edu- 
 cation. — Sir Humphry Davy. — Sir Walter Scott. — 
 John Hunter. — Ferguson the Astronomer. — The 
 levelling influence of a high Education. — Advantages 
 whieli may be expected to arise from the improve- 
 ments of Education now in progress. 
 
 The Session of Parliament was drawlno- to a 
 close. Ministers took advantage of the ap- 
 proach of the grouse-shooting season to hurry 
 through the two Houses the various Bills which 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 they could not venture to postpone for another 
 year. Some official and professional persons 
 still lingered in the Clubs ; but the houses in the 
 squares were deserted, and there was an end 
 for the season of what is called, Kar s^o-)^i]v, 
 — London Society. Meeting accidentally a 
 friend, whom I shall distinguish by the name 
 of Crites, I expressed my surprise at seeing 
 him still in London. " Our Court," said he, 
 '^ has been sitting later than usual ; but I am 
 noAV emancipated, and I am about to pay a long- 
 promised visit to our friend Eubulus. I know 
 that It would afford him the greatest pleasure 
 if you would accompany me as his visitor." 
 
 Eubulus had been my intimate friend in 
 early life. As boys, we had wandered to- 
 gether through our native woods ; as young- 
 men we had similar pursuits and tastes : had 
 admired the same poetry, and had speculated 
 together on subjects beyond the reach of human 
 wit ; but afterwards, being engaged in different 
 professions, and our roads in life lying in dif- 
 ferent directions, we had parted company, and, 
 as we travelled onwards, had only occasional 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 glimpses of each other. Still, whenever we 
 met, the influence of old associations remained 
 unimpaired; we were as intimate as formerly, 
 and seemed to know more of each other than of 
 any of the friends whom we had acquired at a 
 later period of life. 
 
 It was two or three years before the period 
 of which I am now speaking that Eubulus, 
 finding that his health was scarcely equal to the 
 duties of the office which he held, and that, 
 between what he had obtained by Inheritance 
 and a retiring pension, he had sufficient fortune 
 to meet the reasonable demands of himself and 
 his family, had gone to reside on a property, 
 which he possessed, at the distance of a hun- 
 dred miles from the Metropolis ; and here he 
 had repeatedly urged me to be his guest. No- 
 thin"; could be more ao:reeable to me than the 
 proposal which Crites made ; and the result 
 was that, in less than forty-eight hours, we 
 were both seated In a carriage on the railway, 
 and. In the course of a few hours more, were 
 set down within a mile of our destination. 
 
 Our friend's house had been built in the 17th 
 
 B 2 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 century, and, like many country houses of that 
 date, was in a low situation, with a very limited 
 prospect. But this defect was compensated by 
 the beauty of the surrounding country, which 
 exhibited all that variety of picturesque 
 scenery which a A'aried geological structure 
 usually aifords. On one side were steep and 
 lofty chalk hills, covered by a scanty herbage, 
 and dotted with yews and junipers. On 
 another side was a still loftier hill, but of a 
 more gradual elevation, composed of sand with 
 a thin soil over it, and covered with heath, 
 with some clumps of Scotch firs scattered here 
 and there. In the intermediate valley there 
 were fields and meadows, with stubble and 
 green pasture, and intersected by a stream of 
 water ; while at the foot of the chalk hills, and 
 at no great distance from the house, there was an 
 extensive beech wood, which, from the absence 
 of underwood, and the magnitude and height of 
 the trees, Avith their branches mingling above, 
 might be compared to an enormous cathedral, 
 with its columns, and arches, " and dim religious 
 light." 
 
INTRODUCTION. O 
 
 On our arrival we found our friend waiting 
 to receive us, there being no one with him but 
 some of the junior members of his own family, 
 who joined with him in his hospitalities. 
 During the few days which our visit lasted we 
 saw whatever was most worthy to be seen in 
 the surrounding country, walking, or riding, 
 and resting at intervals for the purpose of con- 
 versation. It seemed at times as if we had 
 gone back to the period of oiu" early life. We 
 expressed ourselves as freely as when we were 
 young, having before us the unknown country 
 which we were about to explore. Still we 
 were sensible that we were not what we had 
 been formerly. The world was no longer that 
 faiiy-land which our imagination was wont to 
 furnish with its own images. We knew it, 
 and the people in it, and we knew ourselves, 
 better than when we began our journey. We 
 had lost the joys of hope and expectation, but 
 we had also lost many of the anxieties which 
 not unfrequeutly obscured our brighter visions, 
 and years had not rolled over us without 
 
 B 3 
 
b PURSUITS IN 
 
 leaving us, in the realities of life, many worthy 
 subjects of contemplation. 
 
 I have mentioned that Eubulus had quitted 
 his official situation on account of the state of 
 his health ; but he had now so far recovered as 
 to have considerable bodily activity, at the same 
 time that he had lost none of his intellectual 
 vigour. It was on the second day of our visit 
 that I expressed to him the satisfaction which 
 it afforded me to find that the experiment which 
 he had made had proved to be so successful. I 
 added, " It must, indeed, be delightful to you 
 to find yourself here, where everything around 
 you is so cheerful, with every comfort and 
 luxury which you can wish for, and in the en- 
 joyment of that perfect leisure which must be 
 more afjreeable from the contrast between it 
 and the incessant exertions of your former 
 life." 
 
 " I have reason," he answered, " to be grate- 
 ful to God for the many blessings which I 
 enjoy. But do not speak of perfect leisure as 
 one of them. It was very soon after I was 
 
RETIREMENT. 7 
 
 establlslicd here that I made the discovery that 
 it was necessary to my happiness that I shoidd 
 provide some new occupation for myself; and I 
 succeeded in doincc so. To those who have been 
 brought up in idleness, a life of leisure is bad 
 enouij-h : and hence we find that the more cner- 
 cjctic amonixthem are o;lacl toexchanije it for some 
 kind of active pursuit — politics, travelling, field- 
 sports, horse-racing, gambling, accordingly as 
 their natural tastes and accidental circumstances 
 give one or another direction to their minds. 
 The vulgar phrase of killing time very aptly 
 expresses the feelings of many on this subject. 
 But if a life of leisure be painful to such per- 
 sons, what must it be to one like you or me, 
 who have advanced beyond the middle period 
 of life, without having had any experience of 
 it ? This is no speculative inquiry ; it may 
 be answered from actual observation. Not a 
 few persons who abandon their employments 
 under the impression that they will be happy 
 in doing so, actually die of ennui. It in- 
 duces bodily disease more than physical or 
 mental labour. Others, indeed, survive the 
 
 B 4 
 
8 PURSUITS IN 
 
 ordeal. But where the body does not suffer, 
 the mind often does. I have known instances 
 of persons whose habits have been suddenly- 
 changed from those of great activity to those 
 of no employment at all, who have been for a 
 time in a state of mental excitement, or of hy- 
 pochondriasis, bordering on mental aberration. 
 INIoreover, it is with the mind as it is with the 
 body — it is spoiled from want of use ; and the 
 clever and intelligent young man, who sits down 
 to lead what is called a life of leisure, invariably 
 becomes a stupid old man." 
 
 Crites. You, at any rate, can have had no 
 difficulty in finding an occupation for yourself. 
 At school and college you made yourself not 
 only a good Latin and Greek scholar, but also 
 well acquainted with general literature. You 
 have, I conclude, flillen back on your early 
 studies; and your library, I perceive, affords 
 you abundant opportunities of doing so. 
 
 EuBULUS. It is true that this is a great re- 
 source, and that a person who has been origi- 
 nally well educated, has a very great advantage 
 over one who has been in this respect less for- 
 
RETIREMENT. 9 
 
 tunately situated. But do not take it for more 
 than it is worth. It must be confessed that to 
 one who has been engaged in more active and 
 exciting pursuits, whatever they may have 
 been — politics, profession, commerce, or any- 
 thing else — mere reading, without any specific 
 object, is, by comparison, but duU work. In 
 early life we read for some definite purpose, to 
 make ourselves acquainted with a particular 
 subject, or to obtain knowledge which is to be 
 applied to the attainment of something that we 
 have in view afterwards. Undoubtedly the 
 mere acquirement of knowledge is in itself 
 agreeable ; but something more than this is 
 necessary, not only to keep the mind in a whole- 
 some and vigorous state, but to happiness. Xot 
 only must the mental faculties be exercised, but 
 it must be on a worthy subject, or with some 
 ulterior view. It was better for Diocletian to 
 plant cabbages than to do nothing ; and it is to 
 be supposed that Charles the Fifth derived some 
 sort of comfort from his flying puppets and self- 
 flagellations ; but I suspect that, in spite of his 
 misfortunes. Lord Bacon was not altogether 
 
10 LIMITS OF 
 
 unhappy while engaged in completing his phi- 
 losophical works; and I cannot doubt that he 
 was much less so than he would have been if he 
 had shared the occupations and amusements of 
 the Emperors. 
 
 Crites. But Lord Bacon could not have 
 been wholly and entirely occupied in the way 
 which you have mentioned. He must still 
 have had many hours of leisure on his hands. 
 
 EuBULUS. That is true. A man in a pro- 
 fession may be engaged in professional matters 
 for twelve or fifteen hours daily, and suffer no 
 very great inconvenience beyond that which 
 may be traced to bodily fatigue. The greater 
 part of what he has to do (at least it is so after 
 a certain amount of experience) is nearly the 
 same as that which he has done many times 
 before, and becomes almost a matter of course. 
 He uses not only his previous knowledge of 
 facts, or his simple experience, but his previous 
 thouGfhts, and the conclusions at wliich he had 
 arrived formerly ; and it is only at intervals that 
 he is called upon to make any considerable mental 
 exertion. But at every step in the composition of 
 
MENTAL EXERTION'. 11 
 
 his philosophical works Lord Bacon had to 
 think : and no one can be enn^aijed in that which 
 requires a sustained effort of thought for more 
 than a very limited portion of the twenty-four 
 hours. Such an amount of that kind of occu- 
 pation must have been quite sufficient even for 
 so powerful a mind as that of Lord Bacon. 
 Mental relaxation after severe mental exertion 
 is not less agreeable than bodily repose after 
 bodily labour. A few hours of bona Jide 
 mental labour daily will exhaust the craving 
 for active employment, and will leave the mind 
 in a state in which the subsequent leisure 
 (which Is not necessarily mere idleness) Avill 
 be as agreeable as it would have been irksome 
 and painful otherwise. 
 
 Ckites. And what limits do you place to 
 mental exertion of the kind to which you 
 allude ? 
 
 EuBULUS. I do not see that it is possible 
 to lay down rules for the mind in that respect, 
 more than for the body ; so much must depend 
 on its original powers, on the physical con- 
 dition of the individual, and on his previous 
 
12 LIMITS OF MENTAL EXEETION. 
 
 training. Those whose early education has 
 been defective, for the most part, labour under 
 a disadvantage from not having acquired the 
 habit of attention at that period of life 
 when habits are most easily established. A 
 vast effort may be made for a short time. 
 But great things are accomplished more fre- 
 quently by moderate efforts persevered in, 
 with intervals of relaxation, during a very 
 long period. I have been informed that 
 Cuvier was usually engaged for seven hours 
 daily in his scientific researches; but these 
 were not of a nature to require continuous 
 thought. Sir Walter Scott, if my recollection 
 be accurate, describes himself as having devoted 
 about six hours daily to literary composition, 
 and his mind was then in a state to enjoy some 
 lighter pursuits afterwards. After his mis- 
 fortunes, however, he allowed himself no re- 
 laxation, and there can be little doubt that this 
 over-exertion contributed, as much as the moral 
 suffering which he endured, to the production 
 of the disease of the brain, which ultimately 
 caused his death. Sir David Wilkie found 
 
SOURCE OF MENTAL FATIGUE. 13 
 
 that he was exhausted if eniphiycd in his 
 peculiar line of art for more than four or five 
 hours daily ; and it is probable that it was to 
 relieve himself from the effects of too great 
 labour that he turned to the easier occupation 
 of portrait painting. In fact, even among the 
 hiiiher srades of mind there are but a few that 
 are capable of sustained thought repeated day 
 after day for a much longer period than this. 
 For any one who is engaged in intellectual 
 pursuits there is no more important rule of 
 conduct than that he should endeavour to take 
 a just measure of his own capacity, so that 
 he may not be subject to the ill consequences 
 which arise from the mind being strained be- 
 yond its natural powers. 
 
 Crites. I conclude that you use the words 
 tltoufjlit and thinking in their more strict sense 
 as implying not simply attention, but also that 
 tlie mind is actively employed in observing 
 and comparing facts, reasoning on them, and 
 deducing conclusions from them. 
 
 EuBULUS. Certainly. I refer to an exercise 
 of the mind beyond that which is required for 
 
14 SOURCE OF 
 
 learning what has ah'eacly been proved, and 
 following in the steps of those who have gone 
 before us ; and this being the case, the ex- 
 planation of what I have just mentioned is 
 sufficiently obvious. INIere attention is an 
 act of volition. Thinking implies more than 
 this, and a still greater and more constant 
 exercise of volition. It is with the mind as 
 it is with the body. ^Vliere the volition is 
 exercised there is fatigue ; there is none other- 
 wise : and in proportion as the volition is more 
 exercised, so is the fatigue greater. The 
 muscle of the heart acts sixty or seventy times 
 in a minute, and the muscles of respiration act 
 eighteen or twenty times in a minute, for 
 seventy or eighty, or in some rare instances 
 even for a hundred, successive years ; but there 
 is no feeling of fatigue. The same amount of 
 muscular exertion under the influence of vo- 
 lition induces fatigue in a few hours. I am 
 refreshed by a few hours' sleep. I believe 
 that I seldom, if ever, sleep without dreaming. 
 But in sleep there is a suspension of volition. 
 If there be occasions on which I do not 
 
MENTAL FATIGUE. 15 
 
 enjoy the full and complete benefit of sleep, 
 it is when my sleep is imperfect ; when my 
 dreams ai'e between waking and sleeping, 
 and a certain amount of volition may be sup- 
 posed to be mixed up with the phantoms of the 
 imajjination. 
 
 C KITES. But are you right in limiting the 
 capability of the higher kind of intellectual 
 labour in ordinary cases to so low an average 
 as from four to five hours daily ? You re- 
 ferred to the instance of Sir Walter Scott ; but, 
 if I remember rightly. Sir Walter has a remark 
 in his diary that, " as to his composition, it was 
 seldom five minutes out of his head durino- the 
 whole day." 
 
 EuBULUS. This remark was made after his 
 misfortunes, and when it is well known that he 
 was exerting himself beyond his powers. But 
 let us refer to the whole passage. He says, 
 " If any one asks me what time I take to 
 think of the composition, I might say, in one 
 point of view, it was seldom five minutes out 
 of my head in the whole day; in another, it 
 was never the subject of serious consideration 
 
16 THE IMAGINATION IN 
 
 at all, for it never occupied my thoiiglits for 
 five minutes together except when I was dic- 
 tatino;."* 
 
 This brings us to the consideration of another 
 faculty of the mind, a faculty than Avhich there 
 is none more important : in which I will not 
 say that there is no thinking at all, but cer- 
 tainly nothing like intense thought. The iraa- 
 jrination is here more at work than the reason- 
 ing powers, and it is to this faculty, which in 
 a greater or less degree every one possesses, 
 the child as well as the man, I might even say 
 the idiot as well as the philosopher, that, 
 being properly employed, we owe the greatest 
 contributions of genius to literature and science. 
 As you have already referred to Sir Walter 
 Scott, I will take him for an example. The 
 fictions of the " Lay of the Last Minstrel," or 
 of " Waverley," cannot be supposed to have 
 been the result of any exercise of volition. 
 They presented themselves to his mind Avith 
 no more effort than that which precedes the 
 visions of a dream. 
 
 *- u 
 
 Diary," February 1831. 
 
AVAKIXG AXD IN SLEEP. 17 
 
 Crites. Then you consider Ills novels and 
 poems to liavc been the result of a sort of 
 wakhio; dream. 
 
 EuBULUS. By no means. In sleep there Is 
 an absence of volition. If it be not wholly 
 suspended, it is because the sleep is imperfect. 
 The phantoms of the imagination are never 
 stationary. They succeed each other with 
 such rapidity, that they can never be made the 
 subject of contemplation ; and very often there 
 is no connection (that is, none that we can 
 trace,) between that which comes first and that 
 which follows. That there really are certain 
 laAvs which regulate their production, I do not 
 doubt, as there are laws which regulate all the 
 phenomena of the creation ; but whatever these 
 laws may be, we know little, and generally 
 nothing, of them. But when awake we have 
 the power of arresting the current of the imagi- 
 nation; we can make the objects which it 
 presents to us the subject of attention ; we can 
 view them under different aspects, and thus 
 perceive in them resemblances, relations, and 
 analogies which Ave could not have perceived 
 
 C 
 
18 MENTAL PROCESSES OF 
 
 otherwise. Hence new objects are presented 
 to us, not at random, but having a certain con- 
 nection with those by which they were pre- 
 ceded ; and from these we can reject one and 
 select another, and go back to that which we 
 had previously rejected. Our minds are so 
 constructed, that we can keep the attention 
 fixed on a particular object until we have, as it 
 were, looked all around it ; and the mind that 
 possesses this faculty in the greatest degree of 
 perfection will take cognizance of relations of 
 which another mind has no perception. It is 
 this, much more than any difference in the 
 abstract power of reasoning, which constitutes 
 the vast difference which exists between the 
 minds of different individuals. This is the his- 
 tory alike of the poetic genius and of the genius 
 of discovery in science. '' I keep the subject," 
 said Sir Isaac Newton, " constantly before me, 
 and wait until the first dawnings open by little 
 and little into a full light." It was thus that, 
 after long meditation, he was led to the in- 
 vention of fluxions, and to the anticipation of 
 the modern discovery of the combustibility of 
 
WHICH WE ARE UXCONSCIOUS. 19 
 
 the diamond. It was thus that Harvey disco- 
 vered the cu'culation of the blood; and that 
 those views were suggested to Da\'y, which are 
 propounded in the Bakerian lecture of 1806, 
 and which laid the foundation of that grand 
 series of experimental researches which termi- 
 nated in the decomposition of the earths and 
 alkalis. 
 
 Crites. If I imderstand you rightly, you 
 suppose that the mind, under the circumstances 
 which you mention, is to a great extent in a 
 passive state, objects being presented to it, or 
 conceptions arising in it, which are associated 
 according to certain laws, which diflPer accord- 
 ing to the peculiar structure of individual minds, 
 but which are independent of any direct act of 
 volition; and that the latter is exercised only 
 in keeping the object or conception in \iew 
 while its various relations gradually unfold 
 themselves to om- observation. But it seems to 
 me that on some occasions a still more remark- 
 able process takes place in the mind, which is 
 even more independent of volition than that of 
 which we are speaking; as if there were in the 
 
 c 2 
 
2'0 MENTAL PROCESSES OP 
 
 mind a principle of order winch operates witli- 
 out our being at the time conscious of it. It 
 has often happened to me to have been occu- 
 pied by a particular subject of inquiry; to have 
 accumulated a store of facts connected with it; 
 but to have been able to proceed no further. 
 Then, after an interval of time, without any 
 addition to my stock of knowledge, I have found 
 the obscurity and confusion, in which the sub- 
 ject was originally enveloped, to have cleared 
 awav; the facts have seemed all to have settled 
 themselves in their right places, and their mu- 
 tual relations to have become apparent, although 
 I have not been sensible of having made any 
 distinct effort for that purpose. 
 
 EuBDLUS. What you have now described 
 has occurred repeatedly to myself. It is cer- 
 tainly not very easy to comprehend the nature 
 of this mental operation. Is it that the subject 
 every now and then comes before us, and 
 is considered without our recollecting it after- 
 wards ? — or is it, as a philosophical friend has 
 suggested, that in the first instance we are per- 
 plexed by the multiplicity of facts presented to 
 
■\VniCII WE ARE UNCONSCIOUS. 21 
 
 us, and that after an interval of time those of 
 less importance fade away, while the memory 
 retains those which are essential, in the subse- 
 quent arrangement or classification of which, 
 being thus rendered more conspicuous, there is 
 no difficulty ? 
 
 C RITES. The latter seems to be the more 
 probable explanation of the two. At the same 
 time, it must be admitted that they are not in- 
 compatible with each other. 
 
 Yet we may Avell doubt whether there be not 
 something more than this. Observe what hap- 
 pens during sleep. However vague and un- 
 connected dreams may be, there is sometimes 
 so much coherence in them, that they are very 
 like realities. You hold a conversation with 
 another person, who, in answer to what you 
 say, uses an argument or makes an observation 
 which you believe to be erroneous, and contra- 
 dict. This is only one of many examples of 
 the same kind which dreams afford. 
 
 EuBULUS. With reference to such dreams, 
 Dr. Johnson has somewhere observed that the 
 dreamer must have invented the argument used 
 
 c 3 
 
22 ONEXESS OF THE MIND. 
 
 ao-alnst himself Avithout beino; aware that he 
 had done so. This, however, is merely a state- 
 rjnent of the fact, and no explanation of it. A 
 late writer, whose mind had in it more of inge- 
 nuity than of philosophy, published a thick 
 volume, to prove that each hemisphere of the 
 cerebrum has a separate mind, and that on these 
 occasions the two hemispheres might be consi- 
 dered as conversino; with each other.* The 
 work to which I allude, however fantastic it 
 may be, contains many curious illustrations of 
 mental phenomena. But I do not believe the 
 hypothesis, or rather, I should say, that it is 
 not in my nature to believe it. It seems to me 
 that the question as to the oneness and indi- 
 viduality of the mind is very clearly and un- 
 answerably stated by Father Buffier.f It is 
 one of those fundamental truths which are in- 
 herent in us, and defy all argument ; which I 
 can no more help believing than I can help 
 
 * On the Duality of the Mind, by A. L. Wigan, 
 M.D., 1844. 
 
 t Traite des Premieres Verites. Deuxicme partle, 
 ch. 10. 
 
INACCURATE REASONING. 23 
 
 believing in the external world, or even in my 
 own existence. 
 
 Crites. The subject of dreams is one of 
 great interest, and I shall be glad if we can 
 have the opportunity of discussing it hereafter. 
 At present I would rather revert to a former 
 part of our conversation. 
 
 Admitting all that you say as to the advan- 
 tage of contemplative habits, still you surely do 
 not mean to say that these are more important 
 than the capability of forming a right judgment 
 of the thing before us, and of reasoning accu- 
 rately. 
 
 EuBULUS. Certainly not. But then it 
 seems to me that in all cases in which we have 
 to arrive at a conclusion by comparing the evi- 
 dence on one side with that on the other (and 
 these include all branches of human knowledse 
 except pure mathematics), nothing contributes 
 so much to accurate reasoning as the habits of 
 which we are speaking. The principal defect 
 in those who reason inaccurately is that so 
 happily illustrated by the fable of the two 
 knights disputing about the gold and silver 
 
 C 4 
 
24 INFLUENCE OF 
 
 shield. They do not see, or they do not take 
 into the account, the whole of the facts on 
 "which their conclusion is to be founded. Who 
 is so little liable to fall into this error as the 
 individual who keeps the subject to which his 
 inquiries are directed constantly before him, 
 until all its relations gradually are presented 
 to his view ? Observe, that I am speaking of 
 a well-regulated imagination, which is not led 
 astray by prejudice or passion, or fanciful ana- 
 logies. The ill-regulated imagination of infe- 
 rior minds is quite a different matter, and pro- 
 duces nothing but enthusiasts, fanatics, and, I 
 may add, impostors. 
 
 Crites. But, unfortunately, it is these last 
 classes of persons who, by means of their ac- 
 tivity and earnestness, are often the most in- 
 fluential in the world. A fanatical monk per- 
 suaded the Avhole of Christendom to embark in 
 the wild scheme of the Crusades. Lord George 
 Gordon, a crazy fanatic, led the London mob 
 to burn down Newgate, and nearly to involve 
 the whole of the metropolis in the conflagration. 
 It is not long since no small nmnber of persons. 
 
ENTHUSIASTS AND FANATICS. 25 
 
 and not merely those belonging to the unedu- 
 cated classes, were led to believe that a dropsical 
 old woman was about to be the mother of tlie 
 real Shiloh; and, even at the present day, 
 many thousand Mormonites attest their belief 
 in the divine mission of a half-madman and 
 half-impostor in the person of Joe Smith. How 
 many similar histories may be furnished by any 
 one who studies the past history of the human 
 race! 
 
 EuBULUS. I am afraid that we need not go 
 so far back as the age of the Crusades, nor 
 refer to the disciples of Joanna Southcote, or 
 the ^Mormonites, for instances of such credulity 
 on the part of a considerable portion of man- 
 kind. We have, indeed, discarded our faith in 
 astrology and witches : we pity the ignorance of 
 the poor African, who, in a season of drought, 
 seeks the conjurations of the rainmaker; we 
 cannot well comprehend hoAv it was that the 
 civiKsed Athenians of the third century should 
 have believed that marble statues would feel 
 themselves to be offended, and show their dis- 
 pleasure by leaving their pedestals and walking 
 
26 ENTHUSIASTS AND FANATICS. 
 
 about at night.* Nevertheless, with all our 
 boasted wisdom, and all our advance in know- 
 ledge, there are at the present day many who 
 believe in things not supported by better evi- 
 dence than these. There are epidemics of opi- 
 nion as weU as of disease, and they prevail 
 at least as much amono; the well-educated as 
 among the uneducated classes of society. The 
 energy and sincerity of enthusiasts is powerful 
 in all ages, and carries with it the conviction 
 of that large portion of mankind who do not 
 inquire and think for themselves. It is, indeed, 
 a melancholy fact, that a great extension of 
 education and knowledge does not produce any 
 corresponding improvement in this respect. 
 Still, in the end, good sense prevails. Errors 
 and deceptions last only for a time. Those 
 which disgrace one age vanish, and are suc- 
 ceeded by those which disgrace the next. But 
 a truth once established remains undisputed, 
 and society, on the whole, advances. 
 
 Ceites. But does not what you have now 
 
 * Lucian in Philopseudes. 
 
EDUCATION. 27 
 
 stated tend to show that there is some defect in 
 modern education ? Might it not do more than 
 it does towards the improvement of the reason- 
 ing faculty ? 
 
 EuBULUS. I doubt it. Education does a 
 great deal. It imparts knowledge, and gives 
 the individual worthy objects of contemplation 
 for the remainder of his life. It streniijthens 
 his power of attention ; and such is especially 
 the case with the study of mathematics; and 
 in doing so it cannot fail, to a certain extent, to 
 assist the judgment. Still it seems to me, that 
 to reason well is the result of an instinct ori- 
 ginally implanted in us, rather than of instruc- 
 tion; and that a child or a peasant reasons 
 quite as accurately on the thing before him 
 and within the sphere of his knowledge as 
 those who have gone deep into the study of 
 loo;ic as a science. With reirard even to ma- 
 thematics, I much doubt whether they tend 
 to improve the judgment on those subjects 
 to which they are not immediately applicable. 
 Dugald Stewart makes the followino; obser- 
 vation: — "In the course of my own expe- 
 
28 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES. 
 
 rience I have never met with a mere ma- 
 thematician who was not credulous to a fault, 
 not only with respect to human testimony, 
 but credulous also in matters of opinion, and 
 prone on all subjects which he had not care- 
 fully studied, to repose too much faith in illus- 
 trious and consecrated names."* Xor is this 
 at aU difficult to explain. The principal errors 
 of reasoning on all subjects beyond the pale 
 of the exact sciences arise from our looking 
 only on one side, or too exclusively on one side, 
 of the question. But in nmthematics there is 
 no alternative. It has nothing; to do with de- 
 grees of probability. The truth can be on one 
 side only, and we arrive at a conclusion about 
 which there is no possibility of doubt, or at 
 none at all. In making these observations, 
 however, do not suppose that I do not suffi- 
 ciently estimate this most marvellous science, 
 which, from the simplest data, has been made 
 to grow up into what it now is by the mere 
 force of the human intellect ; the truths of which 
 
 * Moral Philosophy, 4th edition, 1827, vol. iii. p. 280. 
 
SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. 29 
 
 would have been the same if heaven and earth 
 had never existed ; would be the same still if 
 they were now to pass away ; and by means of 
 which those branches of knowledge to which it 
 is applicable have been brought to a state of 
 perfection which others can never be expected 
 to attain. 
 
 Ergates. It certainly seems to me, as it 
 does to Eubulus, that the faculty of reasoning 
 correctly (or what is commonly called having a 
 clear head) is for the most part a natural gift, 
 and that it admits of being artificially improved 
 only in a limited degree. Indeed, it admits of 
 a question, whether modern education, instead 
 of doing too little, does not, on the whole, err 
 on the side of attempting to do too much ? Sir 
 Humphry Davy, w^hen a boy, was placed 
 under a schoolmaster who neglected his duties ; 
 and adverting to this subject in a letter ad- 
 dressed to his mother after he was settled in 
 London, he says, " I consider it as fortunate 
 that I was left much to myself as a child, and 
 put on no particular plan of study, and that I 
 enjoyed much idleness at Mi\ Coryton's school. 
 
30 SELF-EDUCATION. 
 
 I, perhaps, owe to these circumstances the little 
 talents I have, and their peculiar application. 
 What I am I made myself. I say this without 
 vanity, and in pure simplicity of heart." * John 
 Hunter, who, in the department of science, is 
 one of the most remarkable individuals whom 
 this country has produced, had applied very little 
 to study of any kind until he came to London, 
 and began that of anatomy, under his brother 
 William. Like Davy, he was distinguished 
 for his industiy, the originality and comprehen- 
 siveness of his views, and the clearness of his 
 intellect. Would not these faculties have been 
 cramped and deranged, rather than improved, 
 by a more systematic education ? 
 
 EuBULUS. In accordance with your view 
 of the matter, Sir Walter Scott has somewhere 
 observed, that " the best part of every man's 
 education is that which he gives himself; " and 
 I willingly admit that, among those whose in- 
 tellect is of the higher order, there are many 
 who would ultimately accomplish greater things 
 
 * Memoir, by John Davy, M.D., vol. i., chap. 1. 
 
FERGUSON THE ASTRONOMER. 31 
 
 if in early life tlicy were left more to their own 
 meditations and inventions than is the case 
 among the more highly educated classes of the 
 community.* Ferguson, the astronomer and 
 mechanical philosopher, told Dugald Stewart 
 that "he had more than once attempted to 
 study the ' Elements of Euclid,' but found him- 
 self quite incapable of entering into that species 
 of reasoning. He satisfied himself of the truth 
 of the various geometrical proj)osItions of which 
 he had daily occasion to make use, by means of 
 compasses and other mechanical contrivances, "f 
 It is well known that Ferguson had little or no 
 education. If it had been otherwise, it is more 
 than merely probable that he would have been 
 held to be a dunce, and that the peculiar talent 
 by which he acquired his reputation would have 
 been crushed or wasted. A high education is 
 a leveller, which, while it tends to improve 
 ordinary minds, and to turn idleness into in- 
 dustry, may, in some instances, have the effect 
 of preventing the full expansion of genius. The 
 
 * See additional note A. 
 
 t Stewart's Moral Fliilosophy, 1814, vol. ii. p. 196. 
 
32 SYSTEMS or EDUCATION. 
 
 great amount of acquirement rendered neces- 
 sary by the higher class of examinations, as 
 they are now conducted, not only in the uni- 
 versities, but in some other institutionSj while 
 it strengthens the power of learning, is by no 
 means favourable to the higher faculty of re- 
 flection. But it must be borne in mind, that 
 in this world none of our schemes are perfect, 
 and that in all human affairs Ave must be con- 
 tent to do that which is best on the whole. 
 Geniuses are rare exceptions to the general 
 rule ; and a mode of education, which might be 
 well adapted to the few Avho think for them- 
 selves, would be ruinous to the unreflecting 
 majority. As to making one system of educa- 
 tion for one class of minds, and another for 
 another, there are, if I may be allowed to use a 
 metaphorical expression, mechanical difficulties 
 in the way. Besides, who is to know what a 
 boy's mind is, or what is his peculiar tm'n, 
 until the greater pai't of his education is com- 
 pleted ? 
 
 Ceites. I agree with you to a great ex- 
 tent, but not altogether. 
 
SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 33 
 
 " Est quadam prodire tenus si non datur ultra." 
 
 I apprehend that tlie changes as to education, 
 which are now in progress in this country, of 
 whiclf the principal result will be the introduc- 
 tion of new branches of study into our schools 
 and colleges, will do much towards remedying 
 the defects of the present system. Those who 
 have it not in their power to excel in one thing 
 will find that they may, nevertheless, excel in 
 another ; and each individual will naturally, and 
 almost imconsciously, direct his attention to 
 those subjects which are most congenial to his 
 taste, and best adapted to the peculiar struc- 
 tm'e of his mind. 
 
34 
 
 THE SECOND DIALOGUE. * 
 
 Mind and Matter. — Natural Theology. — Views of Sir 
 Isaac Newton. — Reasons for regarding the Mental 
 Principle as distinct from Organization. — The In- 
 fluence of the one on the other not sufficiently re- 
 garded by Metaphysicians. — Relations of the Nervous 
 System to the Mental Faculties. — Speculations of 
 Hooke, Hartley, &c. — The Brain not a single Organ, 
 but a Congeries of Organs cooperating to one Fur- 
 pose. — Physiological Researches of Magendie and 
 Flourens. — The different Capacities of Individuals 
 for the Perception of Colours, Musical Sounds, &c., 
 probably dependent on different Organization of the 
 Brain. — Supposed Connection of the Cerebellum with 
 Locomotion. — Is there an Organ of Speech? — In- 
 stances of Want of Speech in those who were neither 
 Deaf nor Idiotic. — Stammerinc:. — Memorv. — Dr. 
 Hooke's Speculations. — Affections of the Memory 
 from Cerebral Disease or Injury. — Impressions on 
 the Brain not sufficient for INIemory, unless accom- 
 panied by Attention, which is an Act of the Mind 
 itself. — The Nature of the Physical Changes which 
 occur in connection with the Memory beyond the 
 reach of our Observation and Capacities. 
 
 It was on tlie day following that of the fore- 
 going discussion that our friend invited us to 
 accompany him to a spot in the neighboui'hood 
 
MIND AND MATTEll. 35 
 
 which, from its greater elevation, aflPorded an 
 extensive panoramic view of the whole of the 
 surrounding country. Our road was by an 
 easy ascent ; the weather was fine ; and, as 
 we proceeded leisurely, we were able to 
 combine the pleasures of conversation with 
 those of breathinjT the fresh air and admiring 
 the beauties of the scenery. When we had 
 reached the summit of the hill, we were amply 
 rewarded for the trouble of ascending it. It 
 was one of those days which so frequently pre- 
 cede a fall of rain, Avhen the transparency of 
 the atmosphere renders distant objects unusu- 
 ally distinct, and apparently less distant than 
 they really are. For twenty-five or thirty 
 miles, on every side, the country lay before us, 
 with its woods and meadows, villages and 
 chiu'ches, as plain as if they had been repre- 
 sented on a map. The sun was at this time 
 about two hours above the horizon, liis beams 
 being occasionally intercepted by some light 
 clouds, the shadows of which sometimes fell on 
 ourselves, and at other times were seen rapidly 
 traversing the landscape below. A slender 
 
 D 2 
 
36 MIND AND MATTEE. 
 
 moon, not more than three days old, was seen 
 following the sun towards the west. 
 
 " I never," said Eubulus, " find myself left 
 to my own contemplations in a situation such 
 as this without a feeling of wonder at myself 
 and my own existence. Here am I, I mean I, 
 who feel and think, pent up within the narroAV 
 dwelling of my own body, yet taking cogni- 
 sance of things remote in space, not only of 
 those which belong to our own world, but of 
 those in the vast universe around us. Mar- 
 vellous as this may be, let us wait but for a few 
 hours, and we have what is still more marvellous. 
 By the aid of a tube and a few glasses, I may 
 become acquainted with other objects, suns and 
 worlds, distant from us not only in sjmce, but 
 also In time, which I see not as they now are, 
 but as they were many thousands of years be- 
 fore I myself was in existence. I do not say 
 that such reflections prove moi'e than may be 
 proved in other ways, but they certainly im- 
 press my mind more strongly with the convic- 
 tion that, as a percipient, conscious, and intelli- 
 gent being, I belong to a mode of existence 
 
MIND AND MATTER. 37 
 
 wholly dlfFerent from that of the senseless 
 bodies by which I am surrounded, and that 
 (even independently of the evidence afforded 
 by revelation) there is nothing unreasonable in 
 the universal expectation of mankind (so uni- 
 versal, indeed, that it may well be regarded as 
 an instinct) that there is something in us which 
 will remain, and be capable of perception and 
 thought, and it may be of pure and high aspi- 
 rations, when the gross material fabric with 
 which it is now associated has become resolved 
 into its original elements." 
 
 Crites. I can perfectly enter into the sen- 
 timents which you have now expressed. The 
 properties of mind are so wholly different from 
 those of matter, the two are so completely 
 asunder, that they do not admit even of the 
 most distant comparison with each other. I 
 can easily imagine that motion, gravitation, 
 heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical 
 attraction, have something in common; that 
 they are (as, indeed, ]Mr. Grove has shown 
 them to be) so far of the same essence as to be 
 convertible into each other; but it is to me 
 
 D 3 
 
38 MIND AND MATTER. 
 
 wholly inconceivable that any exaltation of the 
 known properties of matter should produce 
 _the conscious indivisible monad which I feel 
 myself to be. When the materialist argues 
 that we know nothing of mind except as being 
 dependent on material organization, I turn his 
 argument against himself, and say that the 
 existence of my own mind is the only thing of 
 which I have any positive and actual know- 
 ledge. I cannot help believing in the existence 
 of an external world. Still the hypothesis of 
 its non-existence implies no contradiction, 
 whereas it is as much a contradiction to doubt 
 the existence of my own mind as it would be 
 to doubt that two and two are equal to four. 
 You must excuse me, however, if I say that it 
 occurred to me yesterday (though I did not 
 notice it at the time) that in one of your re- 
 marks, you seemed to identify the functions of 
 the mind with those of the body more than you 
 are disposed to identify them at present. I 
 allude to the comparison which you made of 
 the effect produced by long-continued volun- 
 tary effort in the maintenance of muscular 
 
NATURAL THEOLOGY. 39 
 
 contraction, and in the operations of the in- 
 tellect. 
 
 EuBULUS. When we say that we believe 
 in the independent existence of the percipient 
 and thinking principle, I apprehend that neither 
 you nor I can mean to deny the obvious fact 
 of it having a connection with our bodily 
 organs, by means of which it receives impres- 
 sions from without, and operates in return on 
 bodies external to itself.* This, however, is not 
 peculiar to such humble beings as ourselves. 
 "When I contemplate the evidence of intention 
 and design which present themselves every- 
 where around us, but which, to our limited 
 comprehensions, is more especially manifested 
 in the vegetable and animal creations, I can- 
 not avoid attributing the organization of the 
 universe to an intelligent being, whose power 
 and knowledge are such that it is imjDossible 
 for me to form any adequate conception of them, 
 any more than I can avoid referring the motions 
 of the planets and stars to the same law of gravi- 
 tation as that which directs the motions of our 
 
 * See Additional Note B. 
 V 4 
 
40 SIR ISAAC NEWTOX. 
 
 own globe. But no one, I apprehend, will main- 
 tain that the mind of the Deity depends on a 
 certain construction of brain and nerves ; and 
 Dr. Priestley*, the most philosophical of the 
 advocates of the system of materialism, ventures 
 no further than to say that we have no know- 
 ledge on the subject. But, to use the words of 
 Sir Isaac Newton, " This powerful ever-living 
 agent being in all places, is more able to move 
 the bodies within his boundless uniform senso- 
 rium, and thereby to form and reform the parts 
 of the universe, than we are, by our will, to 
 move the parts of our own bodies." The re- 
 mainder of the passage from which I have 
 made this quotation, is not without interest, as 
 indicating the view which Newton took of the 
 matter in question: — " And yet we are not to 
 consider the world as the body of God, or the 
 several parts thereof as the parts of God. He 
 is an uniform being, void of organs, members, 
 or parts, and they are his creatures, subordi- 
 nate to him and subservient to him, and he is 
 
 * Priestley, Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 
 sect. 9. 
 
SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 41 
 
 no more the soul of them than the sonl of man 
 is the soul of the species carried tlu'ough the 
 organs of sense into the place of its sensation, 
 where it perceives them by its immediate 
 presence, without the intervention of any third 
 thino;. The oro-ans of sense are not for enablino; 
 the soul to perceive the species of things in its 
 eensorium, but only for conveying them thither; 
 and God has no need of any such organs, he 
 being everywhere present to the things them- 
 selves." * 
 
 Ergates. I entirely agree with you in the 
 opinion that we must admit the existence of the 
 Deity as a fact as well established as that of the 
 law of gravitation, and that in doing so we 
 must further admit that there is no necessary 
 connection between mind and bodily organi- 
 zation. It must be remembered that mind, 
 in its humblest form, is still mind, and that, 
 immeasurable as the distance between them 
 may be, it must nevertheless be regarded as 
 being of the same essence with that of the 
 
 o 
 
 * Optics, book iii. p. 379, 4th edition. 
 
42 RELATIOXS OF MIND 
 
 Deity, by whom it has been created as a fahit 
 reflection of " his own image." For my own 
 part, I find no difficulty in conceiving the 
 existence of mind independently of corporeal 
 organs. But our actual experience of the 
 hvmian mind is only under the last-mentioned 
 condition, and in no other way can it be the 
 proper object of study. It seems to me that the 
 best writers on the philosophy of the mind have 
 erred in considering the mind too abstractedly, 
 not taking sufficiently into the account the 
 physical influences to which it is subjected. 
 
 EuBULUS. There are, however, those who 
 form an exception to this rule ; for example, 
 Descartes, Hartley, and that universal genius 
 Dr. Hooke. Moreover, Dr. Reid's inquiry into 
 the human mind is founded on a critical exa- 
 mination of the sevei'al senses ; and Dr. Berk- 
 ley's essay on the corporeal function of vision 
 contains the genu of all his metaphysical 
 investigations. 
 
 Crites. The two latter were certainly any- 
 thing but materialists. The others to whom 
 you allude have been guilty of an error the 
 
AND ORGANIZATIOX. 43 
 
 very opposite to that which I have mentioned, 
 giving as an explanation of mental phenomena 
 that which not only has no foundation In ob- 
 servation and experience, but which is, Indeed, 
 no explanation at all. When I learn from 
 Hartley that thought is a vibration of the fibres 
 of the brain ; and from Hooke that there is a 
 matter in the brain intended to receive the im- 
 pressions of sound, which may be compared to 
 the bells and vases Avhich Vitruvius describes 
 as being placed in the ancient theatres * ; and 
 that thinking- is the radiation of the soul from 
 one part of the brain to another, I do not find 
 myself to be a whit wiser than I was before. 
 
 EuBULUS. That may be true. But when 
 Hooke states that there are various structures in 
 the brain adapting it for the part which it has 
 to perform in connection with the mental prin- 
 ciple, — that there is an organ of memory, for 
 example, — - I find so many facts which are 
 favourable to this opinion, that I cannot but 
 regard it as more than a mere hypothesis. As 
 
 * Postliumous Works. — Lectures on Light, sect 7. 
 
44 RELATIONS OF MIND 
 
 to this point, however, Ergates has had greater 
 opportunities than I have had of obtaining 
 information; and I should be well pleased to 
 hear what he has to say on the subjects 
 
 Ergates. If I comply with your wishes, I 
 must make some small demand on your patience, 
 as, although what I have to say may not be 
 much in substance, it cannot be compressed 
 into a very few words. 
 
 We may safely assume, as an established 
 fact, that it is only through the instrumentality 
 of the central parts of the nervous system that 
 the mind maintains its communication with the 
 external world. The eye is necessary to sight, 
 and the ear to hearing; and so with the other 
 organs of sense. But the eye does not see, and 
 the ear does not hear ; and if the nerve which 
 forms the communication between any one 
 organ of sense and the brain be divided, the 
 corresponding sense is destroyed. In like 
 manner it Is from the brain that all those Im- 
 pulses proceed by which the mind Influences 
 the phenomena of the external world. The 
 division of the nerves which extend from the 
 
AND ORGANIZATIOX. 45 
 
 brain to the larynx destroys the voice. The 
 division of the nerves of a limb causes the 
 muscles of the limb to be pai'alysed, or, in other 
 words, withdraws them from the influence of 
 the will ; and the division of the spinal chord 
 destroys at once the sensibility and the poAver 
 of voluntary motion in all the parts below that 
 at which the division has been made. 
 
 If we investigate the condition of the various 
 orders of vertebrate animals, which alone admit 
 of a comparison with our own species, we find, 
 on the one hand, great diflferences among them 
 with regard to both their physical and mental 
 faculties, and on the other hand a not less 
 marked difference as to the structure of their 
 brain. In all of them the brain has a central 
 organ, which is a continuation of the spinal 
 chord, and to which anatomists have o-iven the 
 name of medulla oblongata. In connection with 
 this there are other bodies placed in pairs, of a 
 small size and simple structure in the lowest 
 species of fish, becoming gradually larger and 
 more complex as we trace them through the 
 other classes, until they reach their greatest 
 
46 ORGANS OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 degree of development in man himself. That 
 each of these bodies has its peculiar functions 
 there cannot, I apprehend, be the smallest 
 doubt ; and it is, indeed, sufficiently probable 
 that each of them is not a single organ, but a 
 congeries of organs, having distinct and separate 
 uses. Experimental physiology, joined with 
 the observation of the changes produced by 
 disease, has thrown some light on this myste- 
 rious subject. There is reason to believe that, 
 whatever it may do besides, one office of the 
 cerebellum is to combine the action of the vo- 
 luntary muscles for the jjurpose of locomotion. 
 The corpora quadriyemina are four tubercles, 
 Avhich connect the cerebrum, cerebellum, and 
 medulla oblongata to each other. If one of the 
 uppermost of these bodies be removed, blind- 
 ness of the eye of the opposite side is the con- 
 sequence. If the upper part of the cerebrum 
 be removed, the animal becomes blind, and 
 apparently stupified, but not so much so but 
 that he may be roused, and that he can then 
 walk with steadiness and precision. The most 
 important part of the whole brain seems to be 
 
MAGEXDIE AND OTHERS. 47 
 
 a particular portion of the central organ or 
 medulla oblongata. While this remains entire, 
 the animal retains its sensibility, breathes, and 
 performs instinctive motions. But if this small 
 mass of the nervous system be injured, there is 
 an end of these several functions, and death 
 immediately ensues. These facts, and some 
 others of the same kind, for a knowledge of 
 which Ave are indebted to modern physiologists, 
 and more especially to M. ISIagendie and ]\I. 
 riourens, are satisfactory as far as they go, 
 and warrant the conclusion that there are 
 various other oro-ans In the brain, deslo-ned 
 for other purposes, and that if we cannot point 
 out their locality. It Is not because such or- 
 gans do not exist, but because our means of 
 research into so intricate a matter are very 
 limited. 
 
 Crites. Your proposition being granted, 
 and not denying that there may be original 
 dliferences In the mental principle itself, we 
 perceive to how great an extent the propensi- 
 ties and characters of individuals may depend on 
 their physical organization. One person, for 
 
48 PERCEPTION OF COLOUES, ETC. 
 
 instance, may have a nicer perception of colours 
 than another in consequence of the organ by 
 which colours are distinguished being in the 
 one more, and in the other less, developed. 
 
 Ergates. Or the organ may be so imper- 
 fect that the perception of colours may be 
 in a great degree, and as to some colours 
 entirely, wanting. In fact, examples of this 
 imperfection are not very uncommon. There 
 are some persons who are incapable of recog- 
 nizing the difference of colours which are quite 
 different to ordinary observers, and who are 
 especially liable to confound the two comple- 
 mentary colours of red and green with each 
 other, so that where a scarlet cloth is laid out 
 on the green turf they perceive no difference 
 between them. The great difference which 
 exists in different individuals as to the percep- 
 tion of musical sounds, or the power of nume- 
 rical calculation, is best explained by attributing- 
 it to a difference of organization ; and it is pro- 
 bable that the imperfection or absence of other 
 faculties which we occasionally meet Avith is to 
 be explained in the same manner. For ex- 
 
ORGAN OF SPEECH. 49 
 
 ample, if there be a part of the brahi whose 
 office it is to combine the action of muscles for 
 tlie purpose of locomotion, it is a fair conclu- 
 sion that there is some other part of it answer- 
 ing the same purpose as to the muscles of 
 speech ; an organ which, if not peculiar to 
 them, is most complete and perfect in the 
 human race, the " ixspoirss av^pojTroi." 
 
 C RITES. If so, an imperfection or absence 
 of this organ should be a cause of dumbness. 
 But I have understood that dmnb persons are 
 either those who are cono-enitallv deaf, so that 
 they cannot hear the sounds which they are re- 
 quired to imitate, or those who are idiotic, and 
 deficient in other faculties as well as in this. 
 
 Ergates. AVhat you have stated is undoubt- 
 edly the general rule. There are, however, 
 cases of incapability of articulate speech which 
 cannot be referred to either of these categories. 
 There are individuals who, having suffered from 
 disease of the brain, are unable to express theu' 
 thoughts by speech, although, their faculties 
 being little or not at all impaired otherwise, they 
 have a perfect comprehension of what others 
 
 E 
 
50 OEGAN OF SPEECH. 
 
 say, and of what they wish to say themselves. 
 Some of them can utter a few words, others 
 - none at all, and others again, when intending 
 to say one word, use another. But there are 
 other cases still more remarkable, the facts of 
 which may Avell lead us to believe that the 
 organ of speech, if not originally and congenl- 
 tally wanting, has been at any rate from the 
 beginning so imperfect as to be useless. Two 
 examples of Avhat I have now mentioned have 
 come under my own observation. Several 
 years ago, I saw a little boy, then about five 
 years old, whose faculty of speech was limited 
 to the use of the word papa. This, it may be 
 observed, is so simple a sound, that dolls are 
 made, by some very simple mechanism, to pro- 
 duce it very distinctly. I soon ascertained 
 that the sense of hearing was perfect, and that 
 there was nothing peculiar in the formation 
 of the soft palate, mouth, and lips. There was 
 no want of inclination to speak, but the attempt 
 to do so produced sounds which were wholly 
 inarticulate. So far was the child from being 
 deficient as to his powers of apprehension. 
 
ORGAN OF SPEECH. 51 
 
 that he seemed to be even beyond wliat chil- 
 dren of the sanie age generally are In this 
 respect. Although he could not speak him- 
 self, he understood perfectly what was said 
 to him by others, and expressed his answers by 
 signs and gestures, spelling with counters mono- 
 syllabic words which he was incapable of utter- 
 ing. I should add, that the external senses and 
 powers of locomotion were perfect, and that all 
 the animal functions were properly performed. 
 The only other sign of disease or imperfection 
 of the nervous system was that, for two or three 
 years before I saw him, the child had been sub- 
 ject to fits or nervous attacks, attended with 
 convulsions, but Avhich (as I was informed) his 
 medical attendant in the country regarded as 
 having the character of hysteria rather than 
 that of epilepsy. 
 
 I have had no other opportunity of making 
 my own observations on the case; but eight 
 years afterwards I was informed, on good 
 authority, that he was still unable to speak, 
 though he had made much progress other- 
 wise; and that, among other acquisitions, he 
 
 £ 2 
 
52 OEGAN OF SPEECH. 
 
 wrote beautifully, and was very clever in 
 arithmetic. 
 
 The other case to which I have referred was 
 that of a girl, who, at the time of my seeing 
 her, was eleven years of age. She had no 
 faculty of speech, uttering merely a few inarti- 
 culate sounds, which her parents in some degree 
 understood, but wliich were wholly unintelli- 
 gible to others. It was easily ascertained that 
 her sense of hearing was perfect, and that there 
 was no defect in the formation of the external 
 organs. After a careful examination, I was 
 satisfied that the parents were correct in saying 
 that she comprehended all that was said to her. 
 She was perfectly tractable and obedient, and 
 did not differ either in her appearance, or as to 
 her general behaviour, from other intelligent 
 children. Being in an humble sphere of life, 
 it seemed that very little trouble had been taken 
 with her education ; still, when I placed before 
 her a book which she had never seen before, 
 and desired her to point out different letters, 
 she did so with readiness and accuracy, making 
 no mistakes. She had never suffered from fits 
 
MEMORY. — DR. IIOOKE. 53 
 
 of any kind, nor were there any indications of 
 cerebral disease or other physical imperfection. 
 Her parents said that from her earliest age she 
 had been as she was when I saw her, equally 
 intelligent, but incapable of speech. 
 
 EuBULUS. The facts which you mention 
 are very interesting ; and it seems to me that 
 they throw light on at least some cases of 
 stammering, in which we may suppose that 
 the organ of speech is more or less imper- 
 fect, although it may be not altogether want- 
 ino;. But let us cro back to Dr. Hooke : he 
 says, — "I suppose memory to be as much an 
 organ as the eye, ear, or nose, and to have its 
 situation (in the brain) somewhere near the 
 place Avhere the nerves from the other senses 
 concur and meet." He then goes on to explain 
 in detail, that the soul, or first principle of life, 
 though it be an incorporeal being, yet in per- 
 forming its actions, makes use of corporeal 
 organs ; that in the brain there is a repository 
 of impressions made by the senses for the pur- 
 pose of memory; but that no idea can be stored 
 uf) in this repository without the directing 
 
 E 3 
 
54 MEMORY. 
 
 power of the soul, and that this act of the soul 
 is what is called attention. 
 
 Ergates. I am not prepared to admit, nor 
 is it worth while to discuss, the explanation 
 which Hooke has given of what goes on in the 
 brain in connection with the memory, and other 
 mental processes, it being for the most part fan- 
 tastical, and unworthy of so great a philosopher; 
 but that he and others are correct in regarding 
 memory as being in some way connected with 
 our physical organization, there can be, I con- 
 ceive, not the smallest doubt. 
 
 The eye, the ear, and the other organs of 
 sense, are physical instruments by means of 
 which impressions are communicated through 
 the nerves to the brain. Without this appa- 
 ratus, in our present state of existence, there 
 would be no sensations ; no knowledge of any 
 thins: external to ourselves. It does not, how- 
 ever, follow that the brain itself feels, or that 
 it performs any other than a subordinate office, 
 conveying the impressions received from the 
 organs of sense to a superior principle in con- 
 nection with it. Memory is a recurrence of 
 
MEMORY. 55 
 
 sensations, wliicli existed formerly, produced 
 by tlie operation of some internal changes, after 
 the causes, by which the first sensations were 
 excited, have ceased to exist. These renewed 
 sensations are (with some rare exceptions) 
 fainter and less distinct than those in which 
 they originated. There is also this difference 
 between them, that the renewed sensations are 
 subject to the influence of volition, vanishing at 
 once on the sli2;htest effort beinc; made to direct 
 the attention to anything else ; whereas we 
 have no such power over the impressions which 
 are made on our senses by the immediate 
 presence of external objects. Notwithstanding 
 these points of difference, it is plain that 
 memory is closely allied to sensation, and the 
 resemblance between the two orders of pheno- 
 mena is so great as to justify the suspicion that 
 the nervous system is instrmnental in producing 
 the one as well as the other; while a multitude 
 of facts show that the suspicion Is well founded. 
 A blow on the head may destroy the memory al- 
 together, or (which is more usual) it may destroy 
 it partially, or it may interrupt its exercise for 
 
 E 4 
 
56 MEMOEY. 
 
 a certain time, after which it may be gradually, 
 or even suddenly, restored. After fever, also, 
 and some other bodily ailments, the memory 
 is not unfrequently impaired or lost. A gen- 
 tleman found that he had lost the power of 
 vision in one eye. Then he regained it par- 
 tially in that eye, but lost it in the other. 
 Afterwards he partially regained it in the eye 
 last affected. He could now see objects when 
 placed in certain positions, so that the image 
 might fall on particular parts of the retina, while 
 he was still unable to see them in other positions. 
 These facts sufficiently prove the existence of 
 some actual disease. But observe Avhat hap- 
 pened besides. His memory was affected as 
 well as his sense of sight. Althouffh in looking; 
 at a book he recognised the letters of the alpha- 
 bet, he forgot what they spelled, and was under 
 the necessity of learning again to read. Never- 
 theless, he knew his family and friends; and his 
 judgment, when the facts were clear in his 
 mind, was perfect. 
 
 In another case, a gentleman who had two 
 years previously suffered from a stroke of apo- 
 
MEMORY. 57 
 
 plexy (but recovered from it afterwards) was 
 suddenly deprived of sensation on one side of 
 his body. At the same time he lost the power, 
 not only of expressing himself in intelligible 
 language, but also that of comprehending what 
 was said to him by others. He spoke what 
 might be called gibberish, and it seemed to him 
 that his friends spoke gibberish in return. But 
 while his memory as to oral language Avas thus 
 aifected, as to written languao-e it was not 
 aifected at all. If a letter was read to him, it 
 conveyed no ideas to his mind ; but when he 
 had it in his own hand, and read it himself, he 
 understood it perfectly. After some time he 
 recovered of this attack, as he had done of that 
 of apoplexy formerly. He had another similar 
 attack afterwards. 
 
 A blow on the head which causes insensi- 
 bility generally affects the memory so far that 
 when the patient has recovered from the state 
 of insensibility he has no knowledge of the acci- 
 dent. But in some instances the effect of a blow 
 on the head is merely to disturb the memory, the 
 other functions being unimpaired. A groom 
 
58 MEMORY. 
 
 in the semce of the Prince Resent was clean- 
 ing one of some horses sent as a present to His 
 Royal Highness by the Shah of Persia. It 
 was a vicious animal, and he kicked the o-room 
 on the head. He did not fall, nor was he at all 
 stunned or insensible ; but he entirely forgot 
 what he had been doing at the moment when 
 the blow was inflicted. There was an interval of 
 time, as it were, blotted out of his recollection. 
 Not being able to account for it, he supposed 
 that he had been asleep, and said so to his 
 fellow servants, observing at the same time 
 " that he must set to work to clean the horse, 
 which he had neglected to clean in consequence 
 of his having fallen asleep." 
 
 In other cases the effect of a blow on the 
 head has been not only to erase from the 
 memory the events which immediately preceded 
 the accident, but also to prevent it retaining 
 the impression of those which occurred imme- 
 diately afterwards. A young man was thrown 
 from his horse in hunting. He was stunned, 
 but only for a few minutes ; then recovered, 
 and rode home in company with his friends. 
 
 m 
 
MEMORY. 59 
 
 twelve or tlilrteen miles, talking with them as 
 usual. On the following day he had forgotten 
 not only the accident itself, but all that hap- 
 pened afterwards. 
 
 It would be easy to multiply examples such 
 as these, both from my own experience, and 
 from the observations of others ; and from them 
 it seems to be a legitimate conclusion, that the 
 nervous system is instrumental in producing 
 the phenomena of memory as well as those of 
 sensation. They show also that it is not in 
 every part of the nervous system, but in the 
 brain, that memory resides. This faculty is 
 injured by a blow on the head, or a disease 
 affecting the brain ; but not by an injury of the 
 spine, or a disease of the spinal chord. The 
 eyes may be amaurotic ; but Milton and Huber 
 retained the memory of objects which they had 
 seen previously to their blindness. It is not 
 the spinal chord, nor the nerves, nor the eye, 
 nor the ear, but the brain, which is the store- 
 house of past sensations, by referring to which 
 the mind is enabled to renew its acquaintance 
 with events which are passed, and at the same 
 
60 MEMORY. 
 
 time to obtain the means of anticipating, to a 
 great extent, the events which are to come. 
 
 Ceites. Your view of the matter then 
 seems to be that impressions made on the 
 organs of sense, and transmitted to the brain, 
 produce some actual change in the minute 
 organization of the latter, and that this is sub- 
 servient, and in our present state of existence, 
 essential to, the memory. 
 
 Ergates. I do not see how the facts which 
 I have mentioned, and a hundred others which 
 I might mention, can be otherwise explained. 
 "\Yliat the actual changes in the condition of the 
 brain may be, it is impossible for us to compre- 
 hend. Yet it is in no degree remarkable that 
 such changes should take place. We see a tree 
 which has been exposed for centuries to the 
 heat of summer, and the cold of winter, and the 
 influence of the winds and tempests. Every 
 change of temperature, every gust of wind, 
 every storm of rain or hail, and probably even 
 every change in the electric condition of the 
 atmosphere, must have left its mark behind by 
 producing some slight alteration in its root. 
 
MEMORY. 61 
 
 and trunk, and branches. AVe recognise only 
 the general result, when we see the aged tree, 
 with its fissui-ed bark, and its branches inclined 
 to that side fi'om which it has been the least 
 assailed by the wind. But a being of superior 
 knowledge, and possessed of the faculties neces- 
 sary for more minute and accurate observation, 
 woidd be able to distinguish the effect of every 
 individual impression made by the operation of 
 the causes which have been enumerated, and of 
 others more obscure. 
 
 In offering these remarks, however, let me 
 not be misapprehended as giving our knowledge 
 for more than it is actually worth, or as pre- 
 tendlno; to understand more than we understand 
 in reality. In om' present state of existence, 
 in like manner as the eye, the ear, the touch, 
 and the other organs of sense, and, I may add, 
 the action of our muscles, are the means by 
 which we obtain a knowledge of things external 
 to om-selves ; so it woiild appear that the orga- 
 nization of the brain is made subservient to the 
 function of memory. As to what there may 
 be besides, or what may be the capabilities of 
 
tie ' TBtenta! Tiriii 
 
 a.. snc: mcsi 'iwt- .xirnxbeai: ^MadAr tir^ acr- 
 
 tnnswtettrrt law 1*k .snatter T«m i- ■««; '■flr 
 
 mm hpy:mal -1^ -remiab -of mar «i^ez&e!&. «B 
 
 s aaaU ifamfaaaami '■ : ui7 vae ^ zsast. nr 
 
 iesl. or Migi B Bb . "Smi. m^ ^a; mmitiamtitjj ii?^ 
 veassL.. rsxnxviir^ ^tin'vmamp "Mmtt wait waiw ife«r US' 
 txtfiK ^ttimr*^ t^ 'vcias^ vat' ^■k'smk "tfimiAW- 
 
JCEKOKT. €} 
 
 facj DO atteBtkn at alL Xotr, ae Fib«i»» ex« 
 piiiinrr! to lu oa a fixaaer ocfari o M, titewtkm 
 impBcM Tofitien; tJbat m, it h tfait cfibrt of 
 Ttdiljoa bv whkh aa ol^eet, whkb woold 
 odkerwiae have iaHMifiaftefy pwmcH ararsj, k 
 kept present to the miod dnng a eertda 
 period of tizne. SeandoB and TiofidcMi are ihe 
 two fcmctioBS bj meaae €tt wkidi the 
 principle is enabled to mafntaJTi its 
 tion witli the external world. It is 
 influence of Tobiioa. tint the eouttacdam of 
 mnacies takes plaee ibr lornritkM, ipeeA, iIk 
 procuring of food, aaid otker pafp o wegj aad that 
 the torpedo discharges las dectrie Iwdoj. 
 Here there is aa iMpwfap eammu 
 the mind to the bnin, front tfaeace to de j 
 and &(an these to odier ot^u^s, and ptoda e ia g 
 a maiked diange in the conditkm of the litter; 
 and, a priori, there is iko reason t9 dndit tint 
 the operaticm of a gimflaT cause jaaj pn^ee an 
 eqnal change, though of sntaAer kaad, aad 
 more permanent, in the minute stzsetnre of de 
 brain itsel£ 
 
 Ceites. If these TieTrs be correct, and if 
 
64 MEMORY. 
 
 your sj)eculation also be correct as to the exist- 
 ence of special organs in the brain for the pur- 
 poses of locomotion and speech, it would ap- 
 pear probable that there is a special organ for 
 that of memory also. 
 
 Ergates. That is true. But there our 
 knowledge ends. We may, I suppose, take it 
 for granted that there is no animal whose 
 memory is equally capacious with that of man ; 
 and we know that, with the exception perhaps 
 of the dolphin (of whose faculties we know 
 nothing), there is no other animal in whom that 
 portion of the cerebrum which we call its 
 hemispheres, and which are bounded externally 
 by the convolutions, is equally developed. It 
 may be said, and not without some show of 
 reason, — " Do not these facts seem to indicate 
 where the faculty of memory resides ? " Willis 
 answered the question in the affirmative.* But 
 observe how it is in birds. In them there are 
 
 * " Multiplices cerebri plicae et convolutlones requi- 
 runtur, nempe ut in istis, tanquam in diversis cellulis et 
 apothecis, sensibilium species reservari, atque illinc pro 
 data occasione evocari queant." — Willis, de Anatome 
 Cerebri, cap. 10. 
 
MEMORY. 65 
 
 no convolutions ; and the only part of the ])rain 
 which can be said to correspond to the cerebral 
 hemispheres of man, is merely a thin layer of 
 cerebral substance expanded over some other 
 structures which are developed to an enor- 
 mous size. Yet we know that birds wliich 
 are domesticated exhibit si2;ns of considerable 
 memory, parrots and cockatoos recognising in- 
 dividuals after a long interval of time ; and that 
 birds in their natural state return to their old 
 haunts after their annual migrations. The ex- 
 ploits of the carrier-pigeons cannot be explained 
 without attributing to them no small powers of 
 observation, and of recollecting what they had 
 observed. Perhaps future observations on the 
 effects produced by disease of the brain in con- 
 nection with aifections of the memory may 
 throAV some light on this mysterious subject. 
 At present we must be content to acknowledge 
 that we know nothing as to the locality of the 
 function, nor of the minute changes of organiza- 
 tion which are connected with it. 
 
 P 
 
66 
 
 THE THIRD DIALOGUE. 
 
 ^Tlie Subject of IMemory continued. — Sequence and 
 Association of Ideas. — Suggestion of Ideas by internal 
 Causes acting on the Brain by the Nerves, or through 
 the Medium of the Blood. — Influence of Narcotics, 
 Morbid Poisons, Lithic Acid, Impure Atmosphere, 
 and other Physical Agents on the Condition of the 
 Mind. — Such Inquiries not only of scientific Interest, 
 but also of practical Importance. — Physical Causes of 
 Mental Illusions. — Examples of false Perceptions 
 referred to the Sight and other Senses. — Other Forms 
 of Illusion more frequent in Cases of Mental Aber- 
 ration than mere Deceptions of the External Senses. 
 — Mr. Locke's Definition of Insanity not sufficiently 
 comprehensive. — A too rapid Succession of Ideas, 
 with Incapability of fixing the Attention, incompatible 
 with correct Reasoning. — State of Mind in the so- 
 called " ]\Ioral Insanity." — Question as to the Limits 
 of Moral Responsibility. 
 
 The conclusion of our journey had somewhat 
 abruptly terminated our conversation. llTien 
 we were assembled in the evening, the subject 
 of it w^as thus resumed by Eubulus. 
 
 EuBULUS. Although some of the opinions 
 which Ergates expressed this afternoon may be 
 regarded as hypothetical, and not admitting of 
 
MEMORY CONTINUED. C7 
 
 actual and positive proof, yet it must be owned 
 that they are supported by many facts, and by 
 some in addition to those which he has himself 
 adduced. Especially his views as to the nature 
 of memory seem to afford an explanation of 
 some circumstances, relating to the connection 
 of the mind with the body, which cannot well 
 be explained otherwise. 
 
 For instance : we remember nothing of what 
 occurred in infancy. That part of our life 
 seems afterwards to be a blank in our existence ; 
 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the 
 brain, like some other of the organs of the 
 newly born child, is in an imfinished state, and, 
 therefore, not fitted to retain the impressions 
 made on it during any considerable period of 
 time. 
 
 Then the impressions made on the memory 
 
 gradually become fainter and fainter as time 
 
 elapses; and this is in accordance with the 
 
 gradual alteration which our physical structure 
 
 undergoes as we advance in life. If there be 
 
 exceptions to the rule, they are such as tend to 
 
 prove the rule itself. For example, Avhere the 
 
 F 2 
 
68 MEMORY, ASSOCIATION", 
 
 recollection of an event wliich occurred long 
 ago is unusually vivid, we say " it seems as if 
 it had happened only yesterday," and, on the 
 other hand, when the recollection of an event 
 which occurred only lately is unusually faint, 
 it appears to us at first that it happened long 
 ago ; and it is only after some consideration, 
 and by recalling to our mind some other cir- 
 cumstances in connection with it, that we are 
 enabled to correct the error. 
 
 Ergates. Allow me to inteiTupt you for a 
 moment by observing that, besides those which 
 I have already mentioned (namely, diseases 
 and injuries of the brain), there are other phy- 
 sical agents which prevent the impression of 
 things, of which we are conscious at the time, 
 from being imprinted on the memory. Thus, 
 a drunkard either forgets altogether, or has 
 only a vague recollection of the nonsense which 
 he talked, and the follies of which he was 
 guilty, on the previous day while under the 
 influence of alcohol; and those who, for the 
 purpose of undergoing a surgical operation, are 
 placed under the influence of what are called 
 
AND SUGGESTION OF IDEAS. 69 
 
 annesthetic agents, as ether or chloroform, al- 
 though in most instances they appear to pass 
 into a state of entire insensibility, in other in- 
 stances groan and struggle, and give evident 
 signs of suffering while the operation lasts, 
 although they remember nothing of it after- 
 wards, and can scarcely be persuaded that what 
 they had so much dreaded is really completed. ' 
 
 Edbulus. I cannot complain of the inter- 
 ruption, as the fjicts which you mention are 
 very much to the purpose. But I was going 
 on to observe, in connection with our present 
 inquiry, that, without denying the generally 
 received doctrines as to what metaphysicians 
 have called the association or suQ-o-estion of 
 ideas, still these do not explain the whole. 
 How often does it happen that thoughts arise, 
 and images present themselves to the mind, 
 which cannot be traced as the immediate result 
 of impressions on the external senses, or of 
 anything that was passing in the mind previ- 
 ously. But may not this be explained by sup- 
 posing that the brain, as the organ of memory, 
 and therefore of the imagination, is liable to be 
 
 f 3 
 
70 SUGGESTION OF IDEAS BY 
 
 influenced by physical impressions of various 
 kinds communicated from other parts of the 
 corporeal system besides the immediate organs 
 of sense, through the medium of the nerves. 
 Whoever will carefully inquire into what passes 
 within himself, Avill, I suspect, be satisfied that 
 there are many of his thoughts, and trains of 
 thought, and, I may add, of the agreeable or 
 disagreeable feelings with which they are asso- 
 ciated, that cannot be accounted for otherwise. 
 Ergates. Dreamy present some striking 
 examples of what you have now mentioned. 
 You are awaked by a distressing dream, and 
 find yourself labouring under the uncomfortable 
 sensations occasioned by acid in yovir stomach. 
 You take some magnesia, which will neutralise, 
 or drink a glass of cold water, which will dilute, 
 the acid, lie down again, and enjoy a refreshing 
 sleep. A lady had a small tumour in one leg. 
 It was hard, Avell defined, exquisitely tender, 
 so that even a slight pressure on it occasioned 
 a severe pain, not only at the instant, but last- 
 ing; a considerable time afterwards. It seemed 
 to be a tumour of a peculiar kind, well known to 
 
INTERNAL PHYSICAL CAUSES. 71 
 
 surgeons as being occasionally found among the 
 fibres of a nerve. This lady observed that she 
 frequently awoke at night suffering from a 
 frightful dream, which, although it related to 
 some other and quite different subject, she 
 could always trace to an accidental pressure on 
 the tumour. In like manner children who 
 labour under disease of the hip joint are often 
 prevented from falling asleep by pains in the 
 hip and knee, and painful startings of the limb ; 
 but when they are asleep, instead of these 
 local symptoms, they are tormented by distress- 
 ing dreams. 
 
 In cases such as these we must suppose that 
 the order of the phenomena is as follows. An 
 impression is made on a nerve, and from thence 
 transmitted to the brain, producing in its 
 minute structure certain changes, which affect 
 the mind itself. But there is no doubt that the 
 same effect may be produced without the inter- 
 vention of the nerves, by the blood acting on 
 the brain. Bichat has shown that the influence 
 of the scarlet or arterial blood is necessary to 
 the due performance of the cerebral functions. 
 
 F 4 
 
72 INFLUENCE OF OPIUM, ETC., 
 
 If dark-coloured, or venous Mood, be substi- 
 tuted for it, and transmitted to the brain by the 
 Arteries, the animal lapses, — I will not say into 
 a state of unconsciousness, for of that we know 
 nothing, — but into a state of total insensibility 
 to external impressions. This fact being esta- 
 blished, we cannot be surprised that blood of an 
 improper quality, or containing something which 
 healthy blood should not contain, may disturb 
 the functions of the biTiin, so as even to influ- 
 ence the mind itself. The habitual opium- 
 taker, while his favourite drug is circulating in 
 his vessels, instead of being set asleep is visited 
 by soothing and luxurious thoughts, and enjoys 
 the contemplation of the great tilings which he 
 means to accomplish, but which he never ac- 
 complishes in reality ; while the Malay, under 
 the influence of the East Indian hemp, is thrown 
 into a state of excitement, and runs a muck* 
 A man has been exposed to the contagion of 
 small-pox. A minute quantity of the poison 
 introduced into tlie blood acts as what tlie 
 
 * See Additional Note C. 
 
ON THE MIND. 73 
 
 chemists call a ferment, and occasions the 
 generation in it of a larger quantity of poison 
 similar to itself; and when a certain degree of 
 accumulation of it has taken place, there is a 
 severe attack of fever, and the mind probably 
 is haiuitcd by the phantasms of delirium. After 
 a time the poison is ejected from the blood, and 
 is found deposited in pustules on the surface of 
 the skin, and simultaneously with the appear- 
 ance of the eruption the fever subsides, and the 
 delirium subsides with it. In a person who 
 has the misfortune of inheriting a gouty habit, 
 or who has (which is a much more common 
 case) produced it in himself by a lazy and luxu- 
 rious life, there is a superabundance of lithic 
 acid in the blood. This fact has been esta- 
 blished by the researches of Dr. Garrod. Then 
 uncomfortable thoughts are presented to his 
 mind ; he becomes fretful and peevish, a 
 trouble to himself and, if he be not trained to 
 exercise a moral restraint over his thouo-hts and 
 actions, a trouble to every one about him. After 
 a while the poison, as it were, explodes : he has 
 a severe attack of gout in his foot ; he is placed 
 
74 INFLUENCE OF THE STATE 
 
 on a more prudent diet ; the system is relieved 
 of the lithlc acid by which it was poisoned. 
 Then the gout subsides ; happy and cheerful 
 thoughts succeed those by which the patient 
 was previously tormented, and these continue 
 until he has had the opportunity of relapsing 
 into his former habits, and thus earning a fresh 
 attack of the disease. 
 
 There is nothing more interesting In philoso- 
 phy, nor more important as to practical pur- 
 poses, than a just appreciation of the influence 
 which the body exercises over the conceptions 
 and feelin2;s of the mind. Certain conditions of 
 the former induce certain conditions of the 
 latter. This Is one of the principal trials to 
 which we are here subjected ; and according to 
 our original construction, and some circum- 
 stances extraneous to ourselves, the trial Is 
 greater to some of us than It is to others. The 
 result may be for good or for evil ; and the 
 practical question is, what can we do to j)ro- 
 mote the former, and lessen or prevent the 
 latter? A diseased condition of the blood, 
 where a morbid poison, as that of the small-pox, 
 
OF HEALTH ON THE TEMrtHI, ETC. 75 
 
 or the more terrible one of" hydrophobia, lias 
 been adiuittecl into it, will disturb the nervous 
 system in spite of ourselves. But though this 
 cannot, there is much that can, be helped. No 
 one having the smallest capacity for observation 
 can doubt the vast influence which the con- 
 dition of the body has on the temper, and even 
 on the moral character. There are certain 
 states of the general health in which the sim- 
 plest impressions on the organs of sense may be 
 transmitted to the sensorium with somethinsj 
 superadded to them, which produces a painful 
 or uneasy feeling in the mind. There are 
 others in which the effect is opposite to this. 
 Hence we find one individual cheerful and 
 hopeful under adversity, while another is un- 
 happy and tired of life in the midst of all 
 worldly prosperity. We are told, on high au- 
 thority, of the necessity of self-control. We 
 are also told how the effort of self-control may 
 be rendered more easy by avoiding those sensual 
 indulgences which tend to derang-e the func- 
 tions of the animal system. This rule applies 
 not merely to the profligate and the drunkard. 
 
76 PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE 
 
 There is many a person In whom a muddled 
 intellect and a peevish temper may be traced 
 lo a too great indulgence of the appetite — to 
 eating more than the stomach can digest; to 
 drinking a bottle, or even half a pint of wine 
 daily, and leading otherwise a lazy and luxu- 
 rious life, but who would be found to have no 
 contemptible powers of mind, and cheerful 
 spirits, if restricted to a more abstemious diet, 
 and to drlnkino; nothing; more stimulating; than 
 toast and water. 
 
 " Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpora sano." 
 
 We are all anxious to obtain rank, reputa- 
 tion, and wealth ; but that for which we have 
 most reason to be anxious, not only for our own 
 sake, but also for that of others, is such a state 
 of our bodily functions as will enable us to 
 make use of our higher faculties, and promote 
 in us happy and contented feelings. Happi- 
 ness, after all, is not so unequally distributed in 
 this world as to a suj)erficial observer it seems to 
 be. Poverty is terrible if it be such as to pre- 
 vent the obtaining the actual necessaries of life. 
 
UF THESE INQUIRIES. / / 
 
 But the ao-ricultural labourer who has enough 
 of wholesome food, and warm clothing for lum- 
 self and his family, and who has the advantage, 
 which cannot be too highly estimated, of living 
 in the open air, has more actual enjoyment of 
 life than the inheritor of wealth, living in a 
 splendid mansion, who has too much of lithic 
 acid in his blood. 
 
 You will say that this is a worn-out tale. 
 But let us pursue the subject further, and we 
 shall find that it has extensive ramifications, 
 questions arising out of it appertaining not only 
 to individuals, but to the whole fabric of society. 
 Much is said at present as to the necessity of 
 extending education, as the means of improving 
 the condition of the multitude. I am not so 
 great a heretic as to deny the advantages of 
 knoAvledge and of early instruction, especially 
 if it be combined with a proper training of the 
 mind, so as to give the pupil habits of self- 
 restraint. But there is much to be desired be- 
 sides. Nothing can tend more to every kind 
 of moral and intellectual degradation than the 
 vice of gin-drinking so prevalent in some, but 
 
78 BAD AIR AND GIN-DRINKING. 
 
 not In all, of the lower classes of society. In a 
 conversation which I had with a very intelli- 
 gent person employed by the " City Missionary 
 Society," whose location was in London among 
 the inhabitants of St. Giles's parish, he said, " I 
 assure you that there is scarcely any one of them 
 who might not obtain a comfortable livelihood if 
 he could leave off drinkino; cfin." But see how 
 one thing hangs upon another, and how one 
 evil leads to another evil. Mr. Chadwick has 
 shown that many are driven to drinking gin as 
 affording a temporary relief to the feelings of 
 depression and exhaustion produced by living 
 in a noxious atmosphere ; and he gives instances 
 of individuals who had spontaneously abandoned 
 the habit, when they were enabled to reside 
 in a less crowded and more healthy locality, 
 where they could breathe a pure air, instead of 
 loathsome exhalations. The case of such j^er- 
 sons is analogous to that of others, who become 
 addicted to the use of opium, as the means of 
 relief from bodily pain. Schools and churches 
 are excellent things, but it is a vast mistake to 
 suppose that they will do all that is required. 
 
ILLUSIONS OF MIND. 79 
 
 There can be no feeling of contentment where 
 there is an insufficient supply of wholesome 
 food; and the "Temperance Society" can make 
 few converts among those who live in crowded 
 buildings, unventilated, and with imperfect 
 drainage. Our late legislation has accomplished 
 much, and as much as it can reasonably be 
 expected to accomplish, towards the attain- 
 ment of the first of these objects; and measures 
 arc now in progress which justify the expecta- 
 tion that eventually much good may be done 
 in the other direction also. 
 
 C RITES. If such causes as those to which 
 you lately referred may produce the effects 
 which you have described ; if an unhealthy 
 state of the blood may give rise to delirium in 
 fever, or illusions and horrors of mind in hydro- 
 phobia ; if opium fills the mind with luxurious 
 thouo;hts and visions havinoj no foundation in 
 reality; is it not probable that those greater 
 and more permanent distractions of the mind 
 which constitute the various fonus of mental 
 alienation may be traced to similar causes, that 
 is, to some physical derangement affecting the 
 
80 FALSE PEECEPTIONS 
 
 organ of memory, and thus disturbing the 
 imagination ? 
 
 Eegates. I cannot doubt that mental 
 alienation is generally the result of some 
 wrong condition of the body, either functional or 
 organic. Wliether there be any exceptions to 
 this rule, it would require more actual know- 
 ledge and experience of the subject than I pre- 
 tend to possess, and more thought than I have 
 bestowed on it, to enable me to determine. 
 Probably there is no degree of knowledge, 
 which it is in the power of man to attain, 
 which could enable us to give a positive answer 
 to this question. Putting it aside, however, 
 for the present, there are abundant proofs 
 that impressions may be made on the brain 
 by other causes simulating those which are 
 made on it by external objects through the 
 medium of the organs of sense, thus producing 
 false perceptions, which may, in the first 
 instance, and before we have had time to 
 reflect on the subject, be mistaken for realities. 
 I have, indeed, already furnished an example of 
 
SIMULATING REALITIES. 81 
 
 this in the virions presented to us in our dreams 
 under the influence of physical causes. 
 
 Crites. I have been accustomed to believe 
 that the latter are not, in reality, different from 
 the objects commonly presented to us by the 
 mcmorv and the ima2;ination ; but seeming: to 
 be more distinct than usual, because durinjT 
 sleep we have no real objects with which we 
 can compare them ; in the same manner as the 
 deception of a panorama depends in part on 
 the circular form of the painting, which ex- 
 cludes real objects from the view. 
 
 Ergates. In the visions belono-ino; to our 
 dreams there must be more than what you 
 mention. A friend of mine, on awakino- in 
 the morning, saw standing at the foot of his 
 bed a figure in a sort of Persian dress. It was 
 as plainly to be seen, and as distinct, as the 
 chairs and tables in the room, so that my 
 friend was on the point of going up to it, that 
 he might ascertain what, or rather who, it was. 
 Looking, however, steadfastly at it, he observed 
 that, although the figure was as plain as possible, 
 the door behind it was plainly to be seen also, 
 
82 PHANTOMS. 
 
 and presently the figure disappeared. Con- 
 sidering the matter afterwards, he recollected 
 that he had had a dream, in which the Persian 
 figure played a conspicuous part ; and thus the 
 whole was satisfactorily explained, it being 
 evident that the dream, as far as this part of it 
 was concerned, had continued after he was 
 awake, and so that the perception of the 
 imaginary object had existed sunultaneously 
 with that of the real ones. The same thing 
 occurred to the same person on another occa- 
 sion, and similar histories have been related to 
 me by others. It is probable that this is the 
 history of many startling and mysterious tales 
 of ghosts and spirits. 
 
 But phantoms similar to those which belong 
 to dreams, and which like them do not vanish by 
 an elFort of the will, may, under certain circum- 
 stances, present themselves to those who are 
 really awake. They may be the result of some 
 actual organic disease of the brain. A gentle- 
 man, eighty years of age, had been for some time 
 labouring under hypochondriasis, attended with 
 other indications of cerebral disease. On a cold 
 
niANTOMS. 83 
 
 day In winter, while at cluircli, he had a fit, 
 which was considered to be apoplectic. He 
 was taken home and bled, and recovered his 
 consciousness, not being paralytic afterwards. 
 He died, however, in a few days after the attack. 
 During this interval, though having the perfect 
 use of his mental faculties, he was haunted by 
 the appearance of men and women, sometimes 
 in one dress, sometimes in another, coming 
 into, and loitering in the room. These firjures 
 were so distinct that, at first, he always mistook 
 them for realities, and wondered that his fiimily 
 should have allowed such persons to intrude 
 themselves upon him. But he soon, by a pro- 
 cess of reasoning, corrected this error, and then 
 talked of them as he would have talked of the 
 illusions of another person. You have probably 
 read the history of Nicolai, the bookseller of 
 Berlin, who was haimted by visions of persons 
 coming into his apartment, sitting down, and 
 even conversing with him and with each other, 
 and this during a period of several months. He 
 also was at first taken by surprise, believing the 
 phantoms to be real objects; but was soon 
 
 G 2 
 
84 PHANTOMS. 
 
 enabled to convince himself that they were not 
 so. His recovery Avas attributed to an im- 
 proved state of his bodily health. I must not 
 weary you by referring to other instances of 
 the same kind. The late Dr. Alderson, in an 
 essay which he published nearly fifty years ago, 
 gave an account of several which had occurred 
 under his own observation, in individuals of 
 perfectly sane minds*, and others have been 
 since then recorded by other authors. 
 
 Examples of deceptive appearances analogous 
 to these, but less remarkable, are not very un- 
 common. A gentleman of my acquaintance, of 
 a very sensitive and imaginative turn of mind, 
 informed me that, not unfrequently, when he 
 had had his thoughts intensely fixed for a con- 
 siderable time on an absent or imaginary object, 
 he had at last seen it projected on the opposite 
 wall, though only for a brief space of time, with 
 all the brightness and distinctness of reality. 
 
 Crites. If such a person had the misfor- 
 tune to lose one of his family or a dear friend 
 
 * An Essay on Apparitions, by John Alderson, M.D. 
 
PHANTOMS. 85 
 
 by death, how easy woiihl it be for liim to 
 believe tliat he had been visited by his ai)i)ari- 
 tion afterwards ! It is probable that wlien 
 Swedenborg supposed that he met Moses or 
 Elias in the street, some such object was 
 really, presented to his mind ; and that even 
 Joanna Southcote, and others who have l)een 
 regarded as a low order of impostors, were not 
 altogether impostors, but in part the victims of 
 their own imaginations. The subject is one 
 which may Avell excite our curiosity, and I 
 should be glad to obtain some further insio;ht 
 into it. Under what circumstances do these 
 visions, so like those of our dreams, present 
 themselves to the waking person ? where do 
 they really exist, and Avhat is their origin ? 
 
 Ergates. I have already stated that in the 
 instance which I quoted on my own authority, 
 the existence of actual disease of the brain was 
 indicated by other symptoms. I have also 
 mentioned that in that of the bookseller of 
 Berlin there was a deranged state of the 
 general health, and that he recovered under 
 a course of medical treatment. In all the 
 
 G 3 
 
86 PHANTOMS. 
 
 instances recorded by Dr. Alderson, the appear- 
 ances were connected with actual bodily disease, 
 which in two of them was of such a nature as 
 especially to affect the nervous system. We 
 may suppose the part actually affected to be 
 the expansion of the nerve of sight in the 
 retina of the eye ; but it is more probable that 
 it is that part of the brain itself which belongs 
 to vision. In confirmation of this opinion, I 
 may refer to a case recorded by Esquirol. A 
 Jewess, who had been for a long time blind, 
 became insane. Her illusions were of the 
 sight, and she was constantly haunted by 
 strange visions. After her death it was ascer- 
 tained that the two optic nerves, from the part 
 at which they are united within the head 
 (which anatomists call their commissure), to 
 their termination in the retinas, were shrunk 
 and wasted, so that they must have been 
 wholly incapable of performing their functions.* 
 I may also refer to another case which came 
 under my own observation. A man met with 
 
 * Des Miilades Mentales, vol. i, p. 195. edit. 1838. 
 
DECEPTIONS OF OTHER SENSES. 87 
 
 on injurv of the head, which, as the event 
 proved, occasioned an extensive fracture in the 
 basis of the skull, with such a displacement of 
 bone as to press on the optic nerves, and render 
 thcni wholly incapable of transniitting impres- 
 sions to the brain. He was totally blind: 
 otherwise he was not insensible, though he 
 was slow in giving answers, and peevish when 
 disturbed. On the second day after the acci- 
 dent, there Avere manifest symptoms of inflam- 
 mation of the brain. He was In a state of 
 great excitement, delirious, believing that he 
 saw objects which did not exist; and he con- 
 tinued in this state until within a short period 
 of his death. 
 
 Crites. You have spoken of deceptions of 
 the sight. Does nothing like this happen as to 
 the other senses ? 
 
 Ergates. Certainly It docs. The phantoms 
 by which Nicolal was haunted are said to have 
 conversed sometimes with him, sometimes with 
 each other. I know a person, who amid the 
 din of London streets occasionally has the per- 
 ception of his being called by his name, so that 
 
 c 4 
 
88 DECEPTIONS OF 
 
 he Involuntarily turns round to see wlio calls 
 him. Sir Henry Holland has given an account 
 of a- much more remarkable case. A gentleman 
 had symptoms of an affection of the brain, which 
 was attributed to an accidental blow on the 
 head. On the following day he had pretty 
 well recovered. Two days afterwards he was 
 well enough to drive out in his carriage. But 
 now, " for the first time after the accident, 
 " there came on the singular lusus of two 
 " voices, seemingly close to his ear, in rapid 
 " dialogue, unconnected with any present 
 " occurrence, and almost without meaning." * 
 It is not uncommon to find persons, who, w^hen 
 their attention is not otherwise occupied, are 
 distressed by the sound of bells ringing. A 
 gentleman, having what is commonly called a 
 highly nervous temperament, had some teeth 
 drawn while under the influence of chloroform. 
 From that time, whenever Iris mind was not 
 otherwise engaged, he was tormented by sounds 
 as if a number of persons were yelling and 
 
 * Medical Notes and Reflections, 2d edit. p. 232. 
 
OTHER SENSES. 89 
 
 hooting him. I have been told of a great 
 mutiical genius, who, from the earliest i)eriod 
 of his life, has never been without the sounds of 
 music of the most harmonious kind. Then as 
 to the other senses. I remember a man who 
 hud a severe blow on the head, occasioning the 
 symptoms which surgeons attribute to a con- 
 cussion of the brain. He recovered from the 
 other consequences of the injury ; but for a 
 long time afterwards everything that he ate 
 had a bitter taste. The case of another person 
 who had a constant sensation as if a burning 
 coal had been applied to his arm belongs to 
 the same category. 
 
 Crites. But are not all such cases as those 
 which you have described, to be considered as 
 examples of mental derangement, though not 
 in its worst and most aggravated form ? and 
 does not this correspond with the view of the 
 subject taken by Locke, who regards this 
 disease as affecting the imagination only, and 
 not at all the reasoning faculty ? 
 
 Ergates. Certainly not ; for with the ex- 
 ception of Swedenborg, no one of t he in dividuala 
 
 UNIVEBSITT V 
 
90 MENTAL DEEANGEMENT. 
 
 whom I liave just now mentioned mistook the 
 -deceptions as being connected with real objects. 
 It is true, that some of those who are the sub- 
 jects of mental derangement may see phantoms 
 and hear strange voices ; but they believe them 
 to be realities, and cannot be persuaded that 
 they are otherwise. Besides, as I am led to 
 believe, it is not by this class of illusions that 
 they are most liable to be tormented. As a 
 morbid condition of the brain may produce 
 the impression of visible objects, or of voices, 
 which have no real existence, so it may also 
 produce notions of a more complex and abstract 
 character, and these may be constantly obtruded 
 on the mind, so that the individual is unable to 
 withdraw his attention from them, being, as it 
 would seem, as much beyond the influence of 
 volition as the muscles of a paralytic limb. 
 Thus, one person believes himself to be ruined 
 as to his worldly affairs, and that he and his 
 family, though really in affluence, are reduced 
 to extreme poverty ; while another is persuaded 
 that he is in possession of unbounded wealth, 
 the consecLuence being that he is in danger of 
 
MENTAL DERANGEMENT. 91 
 
 being ruined by extravagance ; and a tliiiil is 
 under the apprehension of lli^^ being accused of 
 some dreadful crime, and perhaps seeks a refuge 
 from his fears in self-destruction. It is more 
 difficult to escape from the latter than from the 
 former class of illusions, as the ai)peal lies not 
 from one sense to another, but to a more refined 
 process of thought and reflection, and the ex- 
 amination of evidence. 
 
 With regard to the opinion of INIr. Locke, 
 (and I beg of you to observe that I speak not 
 pretending to have any practical knowledge of 
 the subject, but viewing it merely as a physio- 
 logist,) I own that it seems to me that he has 
 laid down the rule too broadly, and that his 
 explanation will not include the wdiole pheno- 
 mena of insanity. In many insane persons, in 
 addition to the illusions under which they 
 labour, the capability of fixing the attention is 
 almost entirely destroyed. The mind hurries 
 on from one thing to another, as if it could find 
 no resting-place ; and under these circumstances 
 it is plain that correct reasoning, which Locke 
 defines as " the perception of the agreement or 
 
92 MENTAL DERANGEMENT. 
 
 disagreement of our ideas," is out of the 
 question. At the same time, this does not 
 prove that the reasoning faculty is primarily 
 affected. The increased intensity of the action 
 of the nervous system, and the imperfect sub- 
 jection of it to the will, sufficiently explain the 
 whole. In one case, the mind may be occupied 
 with a single object, or a single idea, or com- 
 bination of ideas. In another case, a constant 
 and rapid succession of different, and perhaps 
 heterogeneous, ideas is presented to it: and the 
 will is equally powerless to dismiss the single 
 idea in the former case, and to stop the current 
 of different Ideas in the latter. 
 
 In confirmatiom of these views, it may be 
 observed, that mental derangement is In 
 numerous instances preceded by a disordered 
 state of the general health ; that It Is not un- 
 common to find It alternating with diseases 
 which affect merely the corporeal functions ; 
 or occurrino; under other circumstances which 
 show that it must have been the result of mere 
 physical agencies. 
 
 EuBULUs. You have certainly adduced 
 
MENTAL DERANGEMENT. 93 
 
 facts -wlik-li jiutlfy the opinion tliat mental 
 derangement may, and generally does, arise 
 as the result of some actual physical imper- 
 fection, which we may suppose to be functional 
 in some instances, organic in others ; and I own 
 that this is to me a very acceptable and con- 
 solatory view of the subject. But you cannot 
 deny that in many instances it may be traced 
 just as plainly to the operation of moral causes. 
 The mind may break down all at once under 
 some sudden affliction ; or it may yield more 
 gradually where the attention has been long 
 and constantly and anxiously directed to some 
 subject of unusual interest ; and thus, the 
 apprehension of poverty, the excitement 
 arising from the unexpected possession of 
 wealth, a gloomy and unholy religion, or a 
 long indulgence in di'eams of vanity and ^^ride, 
 may upset a vigorous intellect. Such facts as 
 these cannot be questioned — and is not the 
 conclusion from them inevitable ? 
 
 Ergates. I am quite aware that mental 
 derangement may in many instances be traced 
 to moral causes as its original soui'ce, and far 
 
94 MENTAL DEKANGEMEXT. 
 
 be it from me to assert that the one Indivisible 
 percipient and thinking being, which each of 
 us feels himself to be, may not be in itself 
 liable to changes. Independently of any previous 
 change in the material structure with Avliich It 
 is associated. Still, in the facts which you have 
 mentioned, there is nothing to contradict the 
 opinion that the essence of the disease, even 
 when produced by the operation of moral 
 causes, may be in the nervous system. A 
 physician, whose knowledge of the subject is 
 not surpassed by that of any one in Europe, 
 assui'es me that " when mental derangement 
 seems to have been induced by moral causes, 
 it is generally to be presumed that there was 
 originally an imperfect state of the brain, form- 
 ing a predisposition to the disease." Then be 
 it observed, that as the brain may influence the 
 mind, so may the mind influence the brain. It 
 is in this manner that volition acting on the 
 brain first, and on the nerves afterwards, j)ro- 
 duces muscular contractions ; that grief causes 
 tears to flow from the lachrymal gland: and 
 that the mouth becomes parched, and the diges- 
 
MENTAL DERANGEMENT. 95 
 
 tion of the food interrupted, as a part of the 
 consequences of mental anxiety. So, also, 
 persons have been known to sufter from Imagi- 
 nary hydrophobia, experiencing not a few of 
 the symptoms of that terrible disease. In such 
 cases the mind is affected first, the nervous 
 system afterwards ; the latter re-acting on the 
 mind, and confirming and continuing the illu- 
 sion. If the functions of the brain should be 
 thus disturbed during a very long period of 
 time, it may well be supposed that some actual 
 change will at last be produced In its organiza- 
 tion ; and indeed, it is not very easy otherwise 
 to understand how mental derangement, induced 
 by moral causes, should be permanent, when 
 the causes themselves have been In operation 
 only for a limited period. Nor is there in this 
 anything more remarkable than the fact of or- 
 ganic disease of the heart being in some instances 
 distinctly to be traced to anxiety of mind. 
 
 Crites. All this is to me a matter of 
 curious speculation; but It leads to another 
 subject, in which I feel a still greater Interest ; 
 partly because, from the special nature of my 
 
96 QUESTION AS TO 
 
 pursuits, it is sometimes forced on my attention, 
 ^and partly because out of it arise questions, 
 which, as they affect our social system, are of 
 great practical importance to us all. Some 
 Avriters have described, under the name of 
 Moral or Instinctive Insanity, a state of mind 
 in which they say that there are no illusions, 
 nor any affection of the intellect ; but in which 
 there is simply a perversion of the moral senti- 
 ments ; the individual labouring under an 
 impulse to perform certain extravagant and 
 outrageous acts, injurious to himself or others ; 
 such impulse being irresistible, so that he is 
 to be held as being no more responsible for 
 his conduct than an ordinary lunatic. Now I 
 own that, looking at the question merely as one 
 Avho has some knowledge of human nature, and 
 with no other aid than that of my own common 
 sense, I am very much inclined to doubt the 
 correctness of this doctrine, and I am certain 
 that it is dangerous to admit the plea of 
 irresponsibility for those who labour under this 
 so-called Moral Insanity, to the extent to 
 which Dr. Pritchard and others have claimed it 
 
MORAL INSAXITY. 97 
 
 for them. Observe, that I use the term floral 
 Insanity not as comprehending cases in which 
 there is a belief in things that do not exist in 
 reality, or cases of idiotcy, or those approach- 
 ing to idiotcy ; but limiting it strictly and 
 exclusively to the definition given by writers 
 on the subject. The law makes a reasonable 
 allowance for the subsiding of passion suddenly 
 provoked. But we are not, therefore, to 
 presiune that the same allowance is to be 
 made for those in whom a propensity to set 
 fire to their neighbours' houses, or commit 
 murder, is continued for months, or weeks, or 
 even for hours. Is it true that such persons 
 are really so regardless of the ill consequences 
 which may arise, so incapable of the fear of 
 punishment, and so absolutely without the 
 power of self-restraint, as they have been 
 sometimes represented to be ? If not, there is 
 an end of their want of responsibility. Let me 
 refer here to the instance of the gouty patient, 
 some time since adduced by Ergates. Under 
 the influence of his disease every impression 
 made on his nervous system is attended with 
 
 H 
 
98 QUESTION AS TO 
 
 uneasy sensations. If such a person lias 
 exerted himself to acquire the habit of self- 
 control, the evil ends with himself; but other- 
 wise, he is fractious and peevish ; flies into a 
 passion, without any adequate cause, with those 
 around him, and uses harsh words which the 
 occasion does not justify : conduct, of which he 
 can offer to himself no explanation, except that 
 he cannot help it ; and for which, if he be a 
 right-minded person, he is sorry afterwards. 
 If he were to yield to the impulse of his temper 
 so far as to inflict on another a severe bodily 
 injury, ought it to be admitted as an excuse, 
 that Dr. Garrod had examined his blood, and 
 found in it too large a proportion of lithic acid ? 
 Yet, when Oxford yielded to what was pro- 
 bably a less violent impulse, which caused him 
 to endeavour to take away the life of the 
 Queen, the jury acquitted him, on the ground of 
 his being the subject of " Moral Insanity." It 
 seems to me that juries have not unfrequently 
 been misled by the refinements of medical 
 witnesses, who, having adopted the theory of a 
 purely moral insanity, have applied that term 
 
MORAL IXSAXITY. 99 
 
 to cases to which the term insanity ouglit not 
 to be applied at all. It is true, that the 
 difference in the character of individuals may 
 frequently be traced to difference in their 
 organizations, and to different conditions as to 
 bodily health; and that, therefore, one person 
 has more, and another has less, difficulty in 
 controlling his temper, and regulating liis 
 conduct. But we have all our duties to per- 
 form, and one of the most important of these 
 is, that we should strive against whatever evil 
 tendency there may be in us arising out of our 
 physical constitution. Even if we admit (which 
 I do not admit in reality), that the impulse 
 which led Oxford to the commission of his 
 crime was at the time irresistible, still the 
 question remains, whether, when the notion of 
 it first haunted him, he might not have kept it 
 under his control ; and thus prevented himself 
 from passing into that state of mind which was 
 beyond his control afterwards. If I have been 
 riijhtlv informed, Oxford was himself of this 
 opinion ; as he said, when another attempt had 
 been made to take away the life of the Queen, 
 
 H 2 
 
100 QUESTION AS TO 
 
 ** that if he himself had been hanged this would 
 liot have happened." "VVe have been told of 
 a very eminent person who had acquired the 
 habit of touching every post that he met with 
 in his walks, so that at last it seemed to be a 
 part of his nature to do so; and that if he 
 found that he had inadvertently passed by a 
 post witliout touching it, he would actually 
 retrace his steps for the purpose. I knew a 
 gentleman who was accustomed to mutter 
 certain words to himself (and they were 
 always the same words), even in the midst of 
 company. He died at the age of ninety, and 
 I believe that he had muttered these words for 
 fifty or sixty years. These were foolish habits ; 
 but they might have been mischievous. To 
 correct them at last would have been a very 
 arduous undertaking. But mio;ht not this 
 have been easily done in the beginning ? and 
 if so, — if instead of touching posts, or muttering 
 unmeaning words, these individuals had been 
 addicted to stealing or stabbing, — ought they 
 to have been considered as absolved from all 
 responsibility? It has been observed by a 
 
MORAL INSANITY. 101 
 
 physician, who has had large opportunities of 
 experience in these matters, that " a man 
 may allow his imagination to dwell on an idea 
 until it acquires an unhealthy ascendancy 
 over his intellect."* And surely, if, under 
 such circumstances, he were to commit a 
 murder, he ought to be held as a murderer, 
 and would have no more claim to be excused 
 than a man who has voluntarily associated with 
 thieves and murderers until he has lost all sense 
 of right and wrong ; and much less than one 
 who has had the misfortune of being born and 
 bred amono; such malefactors. 
 
 Ergates. I have no doubt, as you have 
 expressed it, that those who have maintained 
 the doctrine of " Moral Insanity," have often 
 applied that terra to cases to which the name 
 of Insanity ought not to have been applied at 
 all. But I also have no doubt that there has 
 been much mystification of the subject, by the 
 application of the same term to other cases in 
 which illusions really existed, and Avhich might, 
 
 * Anatomy of Suicide, by Forbes Winslow, M.D. 
 
 H 3 
 
102 QUESTION AS TO 
 
 therefore, have been more properly classed with 
 cases of ordinary mental aberration. At the 
 same time, we must not overlook the fact that 
 there may be, and sometimes is, a real diificidty 
 in determinlns: whether a man who abandons 
 himself to an evil passion, or a mischievous or 
 absurd propensity, labours under illusions or 
 not. For example : a disease has been de- 
 scribed under the name of Bulimia, in Avhich 
 the patient is affected with an inordinate appe- 
 tite, which nothing can satiate, and which his 
 will seems powerless to resist. One individual, 
 whose case is recorded in the Transactions of 
 the Royal Society, Avould eat an ordinary leg of 
 veal at a single meal, adding to it a store of sow- 
 thistles, and other wild vegetables.* Another 
 would devour raw, and even living, cats, rats, 
 and dogs, the entrails of animals, and candles, 
 to the extent of fourteen pounds daily. f Now, 
 except that the passion has another object, there 
 seems to be no essential difference between 
 these cases and that of a man who squanders 
 
 * Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxii. 
 f London Medical and Physical Journal. 
 
MORAL INSANITY. 103 
 
 his property, purchasing articles for which he 
 has no use, and which he Immecllatcly lays 
 aside, reckless of the ruin which he is bringing 
 on himself, his wife, and children. But it may 
 be urged, on the other hand, that in Bulimia 
 the sense of hunger, where food is not really 
 required, and which nothing can allay, may 
 not improperly be regarded as an illusion ; 
 having, at any rate, a considerable resemblance 
 to the visions, voices, or unfounded conceits, 
 which haunt the imagination of an ordinary 
 lunatic. 
 
 Crites. There seems to be some truth in 
 this comparison. But let us suppose that your 
 patient with Bulimia were to be in the habit 
 of robbing butchers' shops and larders, ought 
 he to be considered as not being responsible 
 for his actions, because he was driven to do so 
 by his inordinate appetite? And this leads 
 me to offer one farther observation. If we are 
 not to confound merely mischievous propensi- 
 ties with illusions, we are also not to admit the 
 mere existence of an illusion, as being in all 
 cases an excuse for crime. A thorough-going 
 
 H 4 
 
104 QUESTIOX AS TO 
 
 Socialist may be conscientiously persuaded that 
 the unequal distribution of property is contrary 
 to religion and morality. The conviction may 
 be so strong that he not only disregards, but 
 cannot comprehend, the arguments which satisfy 
 men of sober sense that his views are erroneous 
 and absurd. Is this anything more or less than 
 an illusion; and if, under its influence, he were 
 to appropriate to himself his neighbour's pro- 
 perty, or abet others in taking it for themselves, 
 is he, therefore, to be held as not being respon- 
 sible for what he does? it being always borne in 
 mind that the object of human punishment is, 
 not to revenge society on the malefactors, but 
 to deter others from following their example. 
 There are many dogs whose natural and original 
 instinct leads them to run after and kill sheep ; 
 but a proper discipline teaches them that they 
 are not to do so, and counteracts the instinct. 
 There are, undoubtedly, instances without 
 number of illusions, which not only have a 
 firmer hold on the mind than tliis particular 
 instinct in dogs, but which neither argument 
 nor discipline can remove or even control : but 
 
MORAL INSANITY. 105 
 
 it is not so as to others ; and surely there i.s no 
 reason -why those of the latter class shoukl not 
 be overruled by means analogous to those which 
 overrule the instinct of the brute. Dr. Mayo, 
 whose attention has been directed, with much 
 success, to this class of inquiries, has arrived at 
 this conclusion, and I do not see how any one 
 can well differ from the opinion which he has 
 expressed.* 
 
 EuBULUS. Believing as I do, with Crites, 
 that the subject which you are now discussing 
 is one of great importance as it affects society 
 at larffe, I have listened with much interest to 
 the observations Avhich you have made. You, 
 Crites, have pointed out the necessity of not 
 confounding, as has been sometimes done, mis- 
 chievous or absurd propensities, however strong, 
 with actual insanity. You, Ergates, have en- 
 deavoured to show that there is no broad line, 
 by which the fonner can always be distinguished 
 from the latter ; and I am inclined to agree 
 with both of you. But I also cannot but assent 
 
 * See Additional Note D. 
 
106 QUESTIOK AS TO MOEAL ixsAxrrr. 
 
 to the opinion of Crites, when he farther stated 
 that the existence of illusions is not in ererr 
 instance to be regarded as jnstifjing the plea 
 of want of responability. It certainly eeems to 
 me to be not less absurd in itself than it is 
 dangerous to society at large, to hold that any 
 one whom the dread of being ponidied might 
 deter &om the oommi^ion of crime, is not a 
 fit subject for pmiishment. At the same time 
 I folly admit that a more or less nnsoimdness 
 of mind may affintd a soffidient reason for com- 
 muting, or modifying, the nature of the penalty. 
 Allow me to add, that it is a Tcry great nub- 
 take to suppose that diis is a qnestioii which 
 can be determined only by medical pvacti- 
 tioners. Any one of plain common sense, 
 and having a £ur knowledge of human nature, 
 who will give it due con^eration, is compe- 
 tent to form an opnion on it, and it. beloag^ 
 fully as much to those whose office it is to 
 adnunister tibe law, as it does to die medical 
 
107 
 
 THE FOURTH DIALOGUE. 
 
 Different Functions of the Brain and Spinal Chord. 
 
 — Continuance of Life in some Animals without the 
 Brain. — Automatic motions of Plants and of some of 
 the lower Animals. — Multiplication of the latter by 
 Division. — The Diplozoon Paradoxon. — Buffon's View 
 of the Mode of Existence of the lower Animals. — 
 A Nervous System not necessary to simple animal 
 Life. — Origin of the nervous Force. — Influence of 
 the Venous or dark-coloured Blood on the Functions of 
 the Nervous System. — The Absence of Sensibility or 
 voluntary Power no proof of the Absence of Conscious- 
 ness. — Dr. WoUaston, &c. — State of Mind preceding 
 Death. — Nature and Phenomena of Sleep. — Dreams 
 the Result of the Imagination uncontrolled by the Will. 
 
 — Rapidity of Dreams. — Their Character influenced 
 by accidental physical Impressions. — Supposed Solu- 
 tions of Problems, &c., during Sleep. — Miiller's Obser- 
 vations on the Subject. — Do Dreams answer any 
 Purpose in the Economy of living Beings ? — Inquiriea 
 as to the Nature of the Changes which occur in the 
 Nervous System in connection with Mental Opera- 
 tions. 
 
 Tpie clear transparent atmosphere of the pre- 
 ceding clay was followed, as might have been 
 anticipated, by rain, which confined us to the 
 house. In the afternoon we were assembled 
 in Eubulus's librarv, and had been for some 
 
108 FUXCTIOXS OP 
 
 time conversing in a desultory manner, when 
 the subject of our former discourse was thus 
 resumed- 
 
 Crites. Ergates regards the brain, properly 
 so called, as the physical orsran bv means of 
 vrhieh alone (to use his own expression) the one 
 indivisible percipient and thinking being, which 
 each of us feels himself to be, maintains its 
 communication with the external material world. 
 But I own that he did not quite satisfy me that 
 this opinion is correct, and I should be glad to 
 make some forther inquiries on the subject. A 
 priori, there is no reason why the mind should 
 not be in connection with any, and every, other 
 part of the nervous system ; why it should not 
 be present in the eye, and at once, and without 
 the intervention of anv other orsnin, have a 
 direct perception of the picture of external ob- 
 jects which is painted on the retina ; or a similar 
 perception of the impressions which the waves 
 of sound make on the nerves in the labyrinth 
 of the ear ; or of those which we refer to the 
 sense of touch in the hands or feet, or elsewhere 
 on the surface of the bodv. Then, if I am 
 
THE BKAIN, ETC. 109 
 
 not misinformed, the spinal chord in some of 
 the lower animals of the vertebrate class is of 
 considerably larger size than the brain itself. 
 May we not, therefore, conclude that it is at 
 least equal to the brain as to the importance 
 of its functions ? Again, mankind have, very 
 generally, referred hope and fear, joy and sor- 
 row, love and hatred, to the heart. May they 
 not have theu' special seat in the nerves of that 
 organ ? I have understood that a distino-uished 
 French physiologist has supposed what you 
 anatomists call the great sympathetic nerve, 
 (which I imderstand to be connected with, but 
 nevertheless distinct from, both the brain and 
 the spinal chord) to be the actual seat of that 
 class of mental conditions which we call the 
 passions or emotions. 
 
 Ergates. I agree with you in the opinion 
 that, a priori, there is no reason why all this 
 should not be as you have now suggested. The 
 only question is as to the matter of fact. You 
 may recollect that in the course of our conver- 
 sation yesterday, I refen-ed to two cases, in one 
 of which pressure on the optic nerve, and in 
 
110 FUNCTIONS or 
 
 the other disease of the same nerve, occasioned 
 total blindness ; but in which nevertheless the 
 individuals thus aiFected were haunted by illu- 
 sions, believing that they saw objects which did 
 not actually exist. So if the nerves be divided 
 or materially injured in the thigh, the sense of 
 touch is destroyed in the foot : while, if the leg 
 be amputated, the patient for a long time after- 
 wards feels his feet and toes as if they still be- 
 longed to him. The conclusion to be drawn 
 from these facts is sufficiently obvious. 
 
 AVith regard to the spinal chord, we know 
 that it exercises functions of the greatest im- 
 portance in the animal economy, generating the 
 nervous energy, which is required for muscular 
 action ; influencing the secretions ; in part re- 
 gulating the motions of the heart; and probably 
 helping to maintain the action of different organs 
 in that sympathetic union, and harmony, Avhich 
 is necessary to the due performance of their 
 several functions. The size of the spinal chord 
 bears an exact proportion to what is required 
 of it in those respects, while it has no relation 
 whatever to the faculties of perception and 
 
TUE BRAIN, ETC. Ill 
 
 thouglit. It is true that the spinal chord is 
 composed of the same materials as the brain, 
 in the form of the grey and vesicular, and the 
 white or fibrous substance ; but in the former 
 these are disposed in the same simple form 
 throughout, while in the latter, as indeed I ex- 
 plained formerly, there is an almost endless 
 variety as to the mode in which they are ar- 
 ranged ; and we recognise in it, not a simple and 
 uniform organ, but a congeries of organs, each 
 having a peculiar structure, and being evidently 
 intended to answer a special and peculiar pur- 
 pose. A large extravasation of blood within 
 the head, by the pressure which it causes on 
 the brain, induces a state in which there is a 
 total insensibility to all external impressions, 
 and at the same time an entire suspension of 
 the influence of volition. But the effect of a 
 suuilar injury of the spinal chord is widely dif- 
 ferent. The parts below the injury, the com- 
 munication of which with the brain is thus 
 interrupted, are deprived of their sensibility. 
 The muscles are no longer subjected to the 
 dominion of the Avill, although they may still 
 
112 FUNCTIONS OF 
 
 contract on the application of mechanical stimuli 
 or electricity. The lower limbs may be made 
 to start by tickling the soles of the feet. But 
 those motions are merely automatic, and we 
 have no reason to believe that they are attended 
 with sensation, or preceded by volition, any 
 more than those of the leaves of the Mimosa 
 sensitiva. At the same time, in those parts of 
 the body Avhich are above the injury, and whose 
 nervous communication with the brain is not 
 interrupted, the sensibility and power of volun- 
 tary motion are unimpaired, as are also the 
 mental faculties. Singular indeed is the con- 
 dition of the individual, in whom there has 
 been a laceration, or equally severe injury of 
 the spinal chord in that part of the neck which 
 is immediately below the origin of the nerves 
 belonging to the diaphragm. In him respira- 
 tion, though imperfectly performed, continues, 
 so that life may be maintained during a period 
 which varies from twenty-four hours to five or 
 six days. He retains his consciousness; he can 
 see and hear, and comprehend what passes 
 around him, but except his head, and the u|)per 
 
THE BRAIN, ETC. 113 
 
 part of his neck, his body is as if it did nut l)c- 
 lonj' to him. He is a livinG; head and notliinn 
 more. I saw a lady under these circumstances 
 with her mind as active, her sympathy Avith 
 others, and her sense of duty as perfect, as 
 before the injury had occurred. In fact the 
 result which follows any severe injury of the 
 spinal chord, though greater in extent, is of the 
 same kind as that which follows the division of 
 a nerve. Then as to Bichat's hypothesis of the 
 passions or emotions having their seat in the 
 great sympathetic nerve ; we know that the 
 heart palpitates with hope ; that its action may 
 cease under the influence of fear; that grief 
 may cause tears to flow from the lachrymal 
 gland ; and that anxiety of mind may cause the 
 mouth to be parched by stopping the secretion of 
 saliva, and interfere with the digestion of the food 
 by the stomach. But surely it would be a very 
 far-fetched conclusion to assume from such facts 
 as these that hope and fear reside in the car- 
 diac plexus of nerves, or grief in the ophthalmic 
 branch of the nerve of the fifth pair. Indeed, 
 they show nothing but this, that as certain states 
 
 I 
 
114 INSTINCTS AND PASSIONS. 
 
 of mind affect one class of muscles by means of 
 volition, so other states of mind affect other 
 muscles, or other organs, without the volition 
 beino; exercised. 
 
 We must regard the animal appetites and 
 instincts as being intimately connected with the 
 nervous system, and as having their special 
 places allotted to them in it. But we are not 
 warranted in drawing the same conclusion as 
 to the emotions and passions, properly so called. 
 Hope and fear, joy and sorrow, pride and shame, 
 these, and such as these, are conditions of the 
 mind, which have no abstract or independent 
 existence; but which, as they may be super- 
 added to our perceptions and thoughts, admit of 
 beino; excited and acted on through the medium 
 of the nervous system. At the same time, as far 
 as we can see, they have no special locality in it. 
 EuBULUS. But has it not been stated that 
 there are some of the less perfect vertebrate 
 animals, which actually survive decapitation, 
 and live even for several months after beina: 
 thus deprived of the brain ? and is it not the 
 case that some of the lower grade of animals 
 
AUTOMATIC LIFE. 11. 5 
 
 admit of being divided into parts, and that each 
 of these becomes a distinct individual, as if in 
 them the mental principle resided in the animal 
 generally, and were it^self capable of division ? 
 
 Ekgates. You refer to the observations 
 of Le Gallois, who found that certain lizards 
 lived for a very considerable time after the 
 loss of the head ; and that, when they died 
 at last, the immediate cause of death appeared 
 to be the want of food. But creatures under 
 such circumstances exhibit no sign of anything 
 more than automatic life. Even breathing 
 is suspended, the blood probably deriving 
 the little oxygen which is required, not from 
 air drawn into the luno-s, but from beins: 
 exposed to the atiuosphere in the superficial 
 vessels of the skin. It is also true that if the 
 legs be pinched under these circumstances the 
 muscles are made to contract: but this is no 
 more a proof of sensibility than the starting of 
 the limbs, which I have already mentioned as 
 occurring in the human being, on tickling the 
 soles of the feet after an injury of the sjnnal 
 chord; or the convulsions ofs\fl. epileptic patient. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 AUTOMATIC LIFE. 
 
 Then as to the multiplication of some of the 
 lower orders of animals by division, we know 
 so little of their mode of existence, and it is so 
 entirely different from that of animals of the 
 higher orders, that it really seems to me that 
 we can draw from it no conclusion that would 
 be well applicable to the latter. Is it at all 
 certain that a polypus is endowed with any 
 higher properties than those which belong to 
 vegetable life ? Do the motions of its filaments 
 afford any better evidence of sensibility and 
 volition, than those exhibited by many plants, 
 such as the Miinosa sensitiva, the Dionaa 
 muscipula, or the Hedysarmn gyrans ? or 
 than the folding up of many flowers in 
 the night and in rainy weather ? or than 
 the motions of the minute bodies described 
 under the name of dlia in animals ? or, if 
 the sensibility of the polypus be taken for 
 granted, may it not be a compound animal with 
 distinct centres of sensation and volition, in 
 like manner as In a tree every bud is in fact a 
 distinct individual, which may live and grow 
 though separated from the parent stock ? An 
 
TlIK l^IPLOZOON. POLYrr. 117 
 
 example of this mode of existence Is supplied by 
 an animal much above the polypus in the scale 
 of living beings. The diplozoon paradoxoii is 
 described by Nordmann as a parasitic animal 
 which attaches itself to the gills of the Cyprinus 
 Brama. It consists in fact of two animals, 
 united in the centre so that they have a part of 
 their viscera in common, but with two distinct 
 nervous systems. As far as the latter are con- 
 cerned there is no reason why each half of this 
 double creature should not live very well, 
 though separated from the other.* 
 
 I am aware that one of our most celebrated 
 modern physiologists, from observing the multi- 
 plication of polypi by the mere division of the 
 animal, and from some other circumstances, has 
 come to the conclusion which you have sug- 
 gested, that the mental principle, which to our 
 conceptions presents itself as being so preemi- 
 nently, above all other things In nature, one 
 and indivisible, is nevertheless itself divisible, 
 not less than the corporeal fabric with which it 
 
 * Annalcs des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xxx. 1833. 
 
 I 3 
 
118 ANIMAL LIFE WITHOUT 
 
 is associated. But it is to be observed that, 
 great as is the authority of Miiller generally in 
 questions of physiology, in the present instance 
 he is not quite an unprejudiced witness, in- 
 clined as he is to the pantheistic theory, which 
 has descended from the school of Pythagoras to 
 these latter times, as it had before been derived 
 by him from the Buddhists of the East; and 
 which teaches that all the innumerable variety 
 of living beings which we see around us, are 
 but different manifestations, and as it were 
 emanations, of the one vast intelligent spirit 
 which pervading the universe 
 
 " Agitat molem et magno se corpore miscet." 
 
 EuBULUS. If my recollection be accurate, 
 Buifon regards the condition of some of the 
 lower animals, taking the oyster as an example, 
 as being that of constant and profound sleep, 
 meaning thereby that they have neither sensa- 
 tion nor volition. 
 
 Ergates. However that may be, there is no 
 doubt that mere animal life may exist without 
 either the one or the other, or without anything 
 
A NERVOUS SYSTEM. 119 
 
 that l)ears even tlie most remote relation to the 
 mental ])rinciple. For instance, Dr. John Clarke 
 has given an account of "an extraordinary pro- 
 duct of human generation," in which there was 
 *' neither brain, spinal marrow, nor nerves, nor 
 heart, nor lungs," but which was nevertheless a 
 llvinor org-anized mass, containinf>; several bones 
 tolerably well formed, and vestiges of some 
 other organs.* 
 
 As I have already mentioned, the nervous 
 system is composed of two substances of different 
 organization ; the one, which is commonly called 
 the medullary, being of a white colour, of a soft 
 consistence, which may be proved by a careful 
 dissection to be composed of fibres ; the other 
 of vesicular or cellular structure, of a still softer 
 consistence, more largely supplied with blood- 
 vessels, presenting no fibrous appearance, and 
 of a gray colour. This gray matter exists in 
 much smaller quantity than the medullary, 
 being disposed in layers in w^hich the fibres of 
 the latter seem to have their origin. It is 
 generally supposed that the function of the 
 
 * Philos. Transactions, 1793, p. 154. 
 I 4 
 
120 ORIGIN OF THE 
 
 mediiUaiy substance is to conduct, direct, and 
 make use of the nervous force, the latter being 
 generated in the gray substance, and being in 
 itself always one and the same, though con- 
 verted to different purposes in different parts ; 
 much as the electricity generated in a voltaic 
 batteiy is made by means of one apparatus to 
 produce chemical decomposition, and by means 
 of others to direct the needles of a telegraph, or 
 convert common ii'on into a magnet. We may 
 carry the parallel between the nervous and the 
 electric force further still. Although the gray 
 matter of the nervous system is necessary for the 
 production of the former, it is not in itself suf- 
 ficient, any more than the alternate plates of zinc 
 and copper are sufficient for the production of the 
 latter. The acid solution added to the voltaic 
 battery is required in the one case, the presence 
 of blood which has obtained a scarlet colour and 
 undergone other changes by exposure to the air 
 in the lungs, is necessary in the other. In some 
 animals of the cold-blooded classes the sensibility 
 as to external impressions, and the power of 
 voluntary movement, may indeed remain after 
 the supply of scarlet blood has ceased, but it is 
 
NEUVOUS FORCE. 121 
 
 only for a Hmltcd period of time; Avliilc in man 
 and in other warm-blooded animals the suspen- 
 sion of the same faculties, under the same cir- 
 cumstances, seems to be, not absolutely, but 
 almost instantaneous. In a person who is 
 drowned, or otherwise suffocated, and in whom 
 the dark-coloured blood is transmitted to the 
 brain bv the action of the heart, two or three 
 minutes are sufficient to produce the effect 
 which has been described. This has been fully 
 explained by Bichat, whose observations on the 
 subject I had occasion to mention formerly. If 
 you wish to obtain further information on it, 
 and will refer to the " Recherches sur la vie et 
 la mort^'' you will be well rewarded for your 
 labour. 
 
 EuBULUS. Under this ^-iew of the subject, 
 the dark-coloured blood affects the brain simply 
 by a negative influence ; by depriving it of that, 
 whatever it mav be, which exists in the scarlet 
 blood, but not in the dark-coloured blood, and 
 which is necessarv to the generation of the 
 nervous force. But, if this were all, the brain 
 ought to resume its functions immediately on 
 the supply of scarlet blood being restored. Is 
 
122 NARCOTIC ErFECTS. 
 
 it SO In reality? I have heard of drowned 
 persons who remained insensible for a long time 
 after they were taken out of the water, although 
 they recovered ultimately. 
 
 Ergates. Your observation is quite correct. 
 In fainting, or, as we technically term it, in 
 syncope, the supply of blood to the brain is 
 interrupted altogether ; both of that which is 
 scarlet, and of that which is dark-coloured ; and 
 if the syncope be complete, there is a state of 
 apparent insensibility, from which, however, 
 when the action of the heart is restored, the 
 patient presently recovers. But the dark- 
 coloured blood, if it has once been transmitted 
 to the brain even for two or three minutes, 
 leaves an impression on it, from which it may 
 not recover for half an hour or even longei*. 
 After strangulation, especially, individuals have 
 sometimes remained in a state of apparent in- 
 sensibility for some hours. In fact the dark- 
 coloured blood transmitted to the brain operates 
 as a narcotic poison. I need scarcely re- 
 mind you that there are very many foreign 
 substances, as for example alcohol, chloroform, 
 opium, the woorara, which introduced into the 
 
OF VENOUS BLOOD, ETC. 123 
 
 circulation i)rocluce the same effect, even thoui^h 
 the supply of scarlet blood is not interrupted. 
 Of the modus operandi of such terrible agents 
 we are wholly ignorant. All that we know is 
 the simple fact, that when their operation is 
 complete they render the brain insensible to 
 the impressions made on the external senses, 
 and incapable of transmitting the influence of 
 volition to the muscles. Pressure on the brain 
 or a stroke of lightning may produce the same 
 eifect. 
 
 EuBULUS. In short, a condition of the brain 
 producing unconsciousness may be produced in 
 various ways. 
 
 Ergates. I have purposely avoided using 
 the word unconsciousness, for as to that it is 
 plain that we know nothing. The mind may 
 be in operation, although the suspension of the 
 sensibility of the nervous system, and of the 
 influence of volition over the muscles, destroys 
 its connection with the external world, and pre- 
 vents all communication with the minds of others. 
 It is indeed difficult to say even when the exter- 
 nal senses are completely and absolutely closed. 
 
124 APPARENT BUT NOT 
 
 I might refer to numerous facts whicli liave 
 ..fallen under my observation as illustrating this 
 subject; but the following will be sufficient. 
 An elderly lady had a stroke of apoplexy : she 
 lay motionless, and in what is called a state of 
 stupor, and no one doubted that she was dying. 
 But after the lapse of three or four days, there 
 were signs of amendment, and she ultimately 
 recovered. After her recovery she explained 
 that she did not believe that she had been un- 
 conscious, or even insensible, during any part 
 of the attack. She knew her situation, and 
 heard much of what was said by those around 
 her. Especially she recollected observations 
 intimating that she would very soon be no more, 
 but that at the same time she had felt satisfied 
 that she would recover ; that she had no power 
 of expressing what she felt, but that nevertheless 
 her feelings, instead of being painful or in any 
 way distressing, had been agreeable rather than 
 otherwise. She described them as very pecu- 
 liar; as if she were constantly mounting up- 
 wards, and as something very different from 
 what she had ever before exj)erienced. Another 
 
REAL INSENSIBILITY. 125 
 
 lady who had met with a severe injury of the 
 head, which caused her to be for some days 
 in a state of insensibility, described herself as 
 having been in the enjoyment of some beatific 
 visions, at the same time that she had no know- 
 ledge of what had actually happened, or of what 
 was passing around her. I have been curious 
 to watch the state of dying persons in this 
 respect, and I am satisfied that, where an ordi- 
 nary observer Avould not for an instant doubt 
 that the individual is in a state of complete 
 stupor, the mind is often active even at the very 
 moment of death. A friend of mine who had 
 been for many years the excellent chaplain of a 
 large hospitiil, informed me that his still larger 
 experience had led him to the same conclusion. 
 A remarkable example of this occurred in the 
 case of the late Dr. Wollaston. His death was 
 occasioned by a tumour of the brain, which, after 
 having attained a certain size, encroached on the 
 cavities (or as they are technically termed the 
 ventricles) of the brain, and caused an effusion 
 of fluid into them, producing paralysis of one 
 side of the body ; and it is worthy of notice 
 
126 DR. WOLL ASTON. 
 
 that certain symptoms which he had himself 
 noted, and as to the cause of which he had been 
 in the habit of speculating, proved that this 
 organic disease must have existed from a very 
 early period of his life, without interfering with 
 those scientific investigations which made him 
 one of the most eminent philosophers, and one 
 of the o;reatest ornaments of the ao-e in which 
 he lived. During his last illness his mental 
 faculties were perfect, so that he dictated an 
 account of some scientific observations which 
 would have been lost to the world otherwise. 
 Some time before his life Avas finally extin- 
 guished he was seen pale, as if there were 
 scarcely any circulation of blood going on, 
 motionless, and to all appearance in a state of 
 complete insensibility. Being in this condition, 
 his friends who were watching around him ob- 
 served some motions of the hand, which was 
 not aiFected by the paralysis. After some time 
 it occurred to them that he wished to have a 
 pencil and paper, and these having been sup- 
 plied, he contrived to write some figures in 
 arithmetical progression, which, however imper- 
 
DROWNING. 127 
 
 fectly scrawled, were yet sufficiently legible. 
 It was supposed that he had overheard some 
 remarks respecting the state in which he was, 
 and that his object was to show that he pre- 
 served his sensibility and consciousness. Sorae- 
 thintr like this occurred some hours afterwards, 
 and immediately before he died, but the scrawl 
 of these last moments could not be decyphered.* 
 EuBULUS. You might refer as confirming 
 the observations which you have just made to 
 that interesting letter of Sir Francis Beaufort 
 (which some of us had seen long ago in manu- 
 script, and which is now generally known, having 
 been published by the late Sir Jolm BarroAV in 
 his autobiography), in which the writer describes 
 what happened to himself when he was pre- 
 served from being drowned ; when " every inci- 
 dent of his former life seemed to glance across 
 his recollection in a retrograde succession, not 
 in mere outline, but the picture being filled 
 with every minute and collateral feature," form- 
 ing " a kind of panoramic view of his entire 
 
 * See additional Kote E. 
 
128 DROAVNIIS'G. 
 
 existence, each act of it accompanied by a 
 sense of right and wrong," * &c. 
 
 Ergates. I have been informed of some 
 other cases in which the same thing happened, 
 and all this must have been in the brief space 
 of a very few minutes. But I have also been 
 informed of other instances of individuals 
 whose minds had been affected very much 
 in the same way when they were suddenly 
 placed in a situation which threatened imme- 
 diate death, although they were not at all 
 deprived of their sensibility and self-possession. 
 It is probable that histories such as these 
 suo-fTCsted that rather curious tale of the Chec 
 Chehabeddin and the Infidel Sultan of Egypt, 
 which used to astonish my youthful imagination, 
 in reading the Persian and Turkish tales. The 
 accounts, however, given after recovery from 
 drowning vary very much. Some, whatever they 
 may have felt at the time, remember nothing 
 except their having been overcome by a sense of 
 insuperable drowsiness. In one instance, as a 
 
 * Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, 
 Bart., p. 398. 
 
DUOWXIXG. 129 
 
 naval officer informed me, a sailor who had l)cen 
 snatched from the waves, after lying for some time 
 insensible on the deck of the vessel, proclaimed 
 on his recovery that he had been in Heaven, 
 and complained bitterly of his being restored to 
 life as a great hardship. The man had been 
 regarded as a worthless fellow ; but from the 
 time of the accident having occurred, his moral 
 character was altered, and he became one of 
 the best conducted sailors in the ship. 
 
 EuBULUS. We may conclude from what 
 you now have stated, that drowning, terrible as 
 it appears to be, is not after all, either morally 
 or physically, a painful death ; and this is con- 
 firmed by the experience of a friend of my 
 own, who very nearly lost his life in this 
 manner. He says that the last thing which 
 he remembers is looking at the pebbles and 
 weeds at the bottom of the river, with little or 
 no fear of what was about to happen, and no 
 bodily suffering. I suppose that it is the same 
 Avhenever death takes place in the same manner : 
 in cases of strangulation, for example. 
 
 Ergates. Really, according to my obser- 
 
 K 
 
130 STATE OF MIND 
 
 vation, the mere act of dying is seldom, in any 
 sense of the word, a very painful process. It is 
 true that some persons die in a state of bodily 
 torture, as in cases of tetanus ; that the drunk- 
 ard, dying of delirium tremens, is haunted by 
 terrific visions; and that the victim of that 
 most horrible of all diseases, hydrophobia, in 
 addition to those peculiar bodily sufferings 
 from which the disease has derived its name, 
 may be in a state of terror from the supposed 
 presence of frightful objects, which are presented 
 to him as realities, even to the last. But these 
 and some other instances which I might ad- 
 duce are exceptions to the general rule, which 
 is, that both mental and bodily suffering ter- 
 minate long before the scene is finally closed. 
 Then as to the actual fear of death : it seems 
 to me that the Author of our existence, for the 
 most part, gives it to us when it is intended 
 that we should live, and takes it away from us 
 when it is intended that we should die. Those 
 who have been long tormented by bodily pain 
 are generally as anxious to die as they ever 
 were to live. So it often is with those whose 
 
PRECEDING DEATH. 131 
 
 life has been protracted to an extreme old age, 
 beyond the usual period of mortality, even 
 when they labour under no actual disease. It 
 is not very common for any one to die merely 
 
 of old age : — 
 
 " Like ripe fruit to drop 
 Into his mother's lap." 
 
 But I have known tlils to happen; and a happy 
 conclusion it has seemed to be of worldly cares 
 and joys. It was like falling to sleep, never to 
 awake asain in this state of existence. Some 
 die retaining all their faculties, and quite aware 
 that their dissolution is at hand. Others offer 
 no signs of recognition of external objects, so 
 that it is impossible for us to form any positive 
 opinion whether they do or do not retain their 
 sensibility ; and others, again, as I have already 
 stated, who appear to be insensible and uncon- 
 scious, when carefully watched, are found not 
 to be so in reality ; but they die contentedly. 
 I have myself never known but two instances 
 in which, in the act of dying, there were 
 manifest indications of the fear of death. The 
 individuals to whom I allude were unexpectedly 
 
 B. 2 
 
132 STATE OF MIND 
 
 destroyed by hasmorrhage, which, from peculiar 
 eircvimstances, which I need not now explain, 
 it was impossible to suppress. The depressing 
 effects which the gradual loss of blood produced 
 on their corporeal system seemed to influence 
 their minds, and they died earnestly imploring 
 that relief which art was unable to afford. 
 Seneca might have chosen an easier death than 
 that from opening his arteries. 
 
 EuBULUS. In the account which you have 
 now given us, it seems to me that you have 
 made a considerable omission, in as much as 
 you have said nothing as to the influence of 
 religious sentiments on the minds of dying 
 persons ; of the hopes and fears connected with 
 the retrospect of a well-spent or ill-spent life, 
 and with the prospect of what is to happen 
 after the greatest and most mysterious change 
 belonging to humanity has taken place. 
 
 Ergates. You have called our attention 
 to a subject involving considerations to which 
 no one can be indifferent. But you do me an 
 injustice, if you suppose that I have been un- 
 mindful of it. What I have said refers only 
 
PRECEDING DEATH. 133 
 
 to the last stage in the process of dissolution. 
 There is no doubt that a pure and sim})le reli- 
 gious faith, and a firm reliance on the Being 
 who has placed us here, contribute more than 
 anything besides to disarm death of its terrors, 
 deprive " the grave of its victory," and smooth 
 the passage of the humble and sincere believer 
 to the termination of his worldly career. Never- 
 theless, according to my own experience, and 
 what I have heard from others, the influence of 
 religious feelings is, for the most part, not so 
 much perceptible at the moment when death is 
 actually impending, as it is at an earlier period, 
 when the individual, who was previously in 
 health, or supposed himself to be so, first dis- 
 covers that it is probable that he will die. 
 
 Crites. You have compared death from 
 mere old age to falling asleep never to awaken 
 again in this world. This brings us to another 
 subject, not very distantly related to that which 
 we have been just discussing ; at least so 
 thought the Latin poet, when he wrote — 
 " Quid est somnus, gelidte nisi mortis imago ? " * 
 
 What is sleep itself? Wlierefore is it required? 
 
 K 3 
 
134 NATURE AND 
 
 What is the condition of the nervous system 
 en which it immediately depends? and what, 
 during sleep, is the actual condition of the 
 physical and mental faculties ? 
 
 Ergates. One of your questions certainly 
 cannot be answered. It is plain that in some 
 respects the condition of the nervous system 
 must be different during sleep from what it is 
 when we are awake ; but it seems impossible 
 that we should know in what that difference con- 
 sists, when we consider that neither our unas- 
 sisted vision, nor the microscope, nor chemical 
 analysis, nor any analogy, nor any other means 
 at our disposal, enable us to form any kind 
 of n(jtion as to the actual changes in the brain 
 or spinal chord on which any other nervous 
 phenomena depend. Then, as to the other 
 points to which you have adverted, the subject 
 has been so frequently treated of by others, 
 that there is little or nothing new to remark 
 upon it. 
 
 It appears that in human beings, and in all 
 animals of the higher classes, those functions, 
 which Bichat has described as constituting the 
 
PHEXOMEXA OF SLEEP. 135 
 
 system of organic life, may continue to be per- 
 formed without the need of repose ; but that it 
 is quite otherwise with regard to those which 
 the same physiologist has referred to animal 
 life, and which are connected with the mental 
 principle. It is for the latter, and not for the 
 former, that sleep is required. As Eubulus 
 observed on a former occasion, the action of the 
 heart, and of the muscles of respiration, the 
 digestion of the food, the various secretions, the 
 generation of animal heat, all these functions 
 are performed during sleep, as well as when 
 we are awake ; and, so far, the sleep of human 
 beings differs very much from the torpor of 
 hybemating animals. In whom, during the 
 winter, these functions are reduced to the very 
 lowest degree of activity. But, If we extend 
 our Inquiries to the functions of animal life, we 
 find, that If we act with the voluntary muscles. 
 If we think, and even If we merely attend to 
 the sensations which are derived through the 
 organs of sense, or to those which arise spontane- 
 ously In our minds, after a time what we call «» 
 eense of weariness arises, and we require r'^i>03e; 
 
 K 4 
 
136 NATURE AND 
 
 and it is tliis repose which sleep affords us. It 
 would appear that during sleep there is an 
 accumulation of the nervous force, which is 
 brought into use, and gradually exhausted 
 after sleep is terminated ; the expenditure of it 
 being greater, and the exhaustion more com- 
 plete in proportion to the degree in which the 
 volition is exercised. The muscles of the limbs 
 may be for a long time in a state of involun- 
 tary contraction (as in cases of tetanus or cata- 
 lepsy) without weariness being induced ; but 
 under the influence of the will they cannot re- 
 main contracted for more than a few minutes 
 at a time. In like manner visions may pass 
 before the mind when it is entirely passive, 
 without causing fatigue ; but it is quite other- 
 wise when we endeavour to arrest their pro- 
 gress, to view them vinder different aspects, 
 and to compare them with each other. This 
 occasions weariness, and the necessity of repose, 
 and at intervals of that complete repose which 
 belongs to sleep, as much as voluntary muscu- 
 W exertion; and these things justify the opi- 
 nion, wliich thouo-h it misfht not have origi- 
 
PHENOMENA OF SLEEP. 137 
 
 nateJ with lilm, was first brouglit into notice 
 by Dr. Darwin, that the essential part of sleep 
 is the suspension of volition. 
 
 Crites. But some objections may be made 
 to this explanation. "We see persons turn 
 round in their sleep, and hear them talk in 
 their sleep, which must be regarded as a proof 
 that their volition is exercised. Besides we 
 breathe in our sleep, and is not this a voluntary 
 process ? 
 
 Ergates. Such objections are easily an- 
 swered. There are, in fact, degrees of sleep. 
 It may be so incomplete that the individual 
 may be moving and awaking at intervals during 
 the whole night. As to breathing, I apprehend 
 that no one who is at the pains to consider the 
 subject can doubt that, although to a certain 
 extent it may be influenced by the Avill, it is, 
 under ordinary circumstances, as independent 
 of it as the action of the heart, or the peristaltic 
 motion of the intestines. We may by a power- 
 ful eiTort svispend the action of the respiratory 
 muscles during a limited time. It is said that 
 the divers for pearls can do this for a minute. 
 
138 NATURE AND 
 
 or even longer. At last, however, the will is 
 powerless, and we breathe in spite of it. Again, 
 you may say that a sound or touch, which would 
 be heard or felt by a waking person, may not 
 affect us at all when we are asleep ; and that 
 this shows that there is somethino; more than 
 the mere absence of volition. But observe, 
 at all times, what a multitude of impressions 
 are made on our senses, of which we take no 
 coirnisance. I am engao-ed in writino; a letter, 
 or in reading a book in which I am much 
 interested ; a friend comes into the room, 
 opens and shuts the door, or he may even 
 speak to me in his ordinary tone of voice, and 
 I know nothing of it. It is obvious, that 
 unless our attention be directed to them, the 
 impressions on our senses are not communi- 
 cated to the mind; and such an effort of at- 
 tention implies an effort of volition ? But my 
 friend speaks to me in a louder tone, which 
 rouses my attention ; and then I hear all that 
 he says in his ordinary voice afterwards. So 
 it is during sleep. Those smaller sounds 
 which we hear distinctly when we lie awake. 
 
PHENOMENA OF SLEEP. 139 
 
 111 the stillness of the nlglit, are during sleep 
 unnoticed. So is the light from the rushlight. 
 But a tempest of wind, or the morning sun 
 l)ouring in his rays through the window, rouses 
 our attention, and with this effort of attention 
 sleep is terminated. 
 
 . I may here refer to the state of mind during 
 what is popularly termed " the nightmare," as 
 illustrating this subject. In this case sleep is 
 imperfect. We are to a certain extent aware 
 of our situation. We know where we are, but 
 we feel as if some power oppressed us, and 
 prevented our moving our limbs. The fact 
 is, not that the muscles will not obey the will, 
 but that the will itself is not exercised. The 
 paralysis and catalepsy of hysterical patients 
 is of the same kind, and both the one and 
 the other immediately vanish if a strong im- 
 pression be made on the senses, or even on the 
 imagination. 
 
 Sound sleep is incompatible with voluntary 
 exertion, mental or bodily. After long watch- 
 fulness, or severe labour, we sleep in spite of 
 ourselves, because the power of exercising the 
 
140 NATURE AND 
 
 volition is exliausted. If we would sleep 
 -under other circumstances, the first thing that 
 we do is to abstain from exercislno; it. We 
 place ourselves in that position, in which we 
 can remain without calling into action any of 
 our voluntary muscles ; we close our eyes that 
 we may not be tempted to attend to visible 
 objects ; we exclude from our minds all dis- 
 agreeable or otherwise exciting subjects to 
 which our attention might be too earnestly 
 directed. We cause a child to sleep by rocking 
 him in his cradle. The so-called mesmeric 
 passes may produce the same eifect. When I 
 do not easily fall asleep at night, I frequently 
 succeed in obtaining sleep by watching the 
 strange, indescribable, and ever varying spectra, 
 which I refer to the eye, though they are pro- 
 bably in the brain itself, and which present 
 themselves when real objects are excluded from 
 the sight. It is not that on such occasions as 
 those to which I have referred, there is abso- 
 lutely no effort of attention, but the effort is 
 so slight that it is next to none at all, and 
 readily ceases of itself, at the same time that it 
 
 ■:3fe4:- 
 
PHENOMENA OF SLEEP. 141 
 
 prevents the greater effort which I should be led 
 to make if things of higher interest were to 
 occupy the mind. 
 
 There are physical causes within ourselves, 
 and independent of all external circumstances, 
 which interfere with sleep, — bodily pain, for 
 example, or acid in the stomach. It may be 
 said that actual pain, and the disagreeable 
 sensations produced by indigestion, prevent 
 sleep, as a strong light might prevent it, 
 by too powerfully exciting the attention. At 
 the same time, there is no doubt that there 
 is sometimes a morbid condition of the nervous 
 system, the nature of which we cannot well 
 explain, Avhich is incompatible with sleep. 
 The patient says, '* I feel fatigued and wea- 
 ried, and that I Avant to sleep, but I cannot 
 sleep." 
 
 EuBELUS. I have understood that this state 
 of the system, when long continued, is some- 
 times the forerunner of mental derangement ; 
 and I can well understand it to be so. It is 
 reasonable to suppose that the absence of its 
 natural refreshment would powerfully affect 
 
142 NATURE AND 
 
 the nervous system. Indeed, it happened to 
 -myself to be acquainted with a case of this kind. 
 A gentleman of my acquaintance, in whose 
 family circumstances had occurred which were 
 to him a source of intense anxiety, passed 
 six entire days and nights without sleep. At 
 the end of this time he became affected with 
 illusions of such a nature that it was necessary 
 to place him in confinement. After some time 
 he recovered perfectly. He had never shown 
 any signs of mental derangement before, nor 
 had any one of his family, and he has never 
 since been similarly affected. Tliis was an 
 extreme case. But do not examples of the 
 want of sleep producing very similar results, 
 though in a very much less degree, occur under 
 our observation constantly? How altered is 
 the state of mind in any one of us after even 
 two sleepless nights! Many a person, who, 
 under ordinary circumstances, is cheerful and 
 unsuspicious, becomes not only irritable and 
 peevish, but also labours under actual though 
 transitory illusions; such, for example, as 
 thinking that others neglect him, or aflfront 
 
PHENOMENA OF SLEEP. 143 
 
 lilm, who have not the smalle^^t intcutlon of 
 (loiniT either the one or the other. 
 
 Ekgates. I have observed such effects as 
 these repeatedly in nurses who have been 
 harassed by an incessant attendance on sick 
 persons during many successive days and nights; 
 and this goes far towards explaining the origin 
 of a vice to which individuals of tliis class too 
 frequently become addicted. Alcohol removes 
 the uneasy feeling, and the inability of exertion, 
 which the want of sleep occasions, I have 
 sometimes, when I have been writing late 
 at night, and much fatigued, so that I could 
 scarcely fix my attention on the tiling before 
 me, feeling as if my head were almost too large 
 for the room to contain it, obtained complete 
 relief by taking a single glass of wine. But 
 such relief is only temporary. Stimulants do 
 not create nervous power ; they merely enable 
 you, as it were, to use up that which is left, 
 and then they leave you more in need of rest 
 than you were before. The same observation 
 applies to powerfid mental excitement, with 
 this difference, however, that it enables you to 
 
144 STATE OF MIND 
 
 overcome the sense of exhaustion more com- 
 pletely, at the same time that it has a less 
 transient operation than any merely physical 
 stimulus. 
 
 Crites. The obserA^ations which you have 
 now offered relate chiefly to our physical con- 
 dition during sleep. But the state of the mind 
 during sleep is to us, who are not physiologists, 
 a question of even greater interest than this. 
 Eubulus made some remarks on this subject on 
 a former occasion. Perhaps he can give us 
 some further insight into it. 
 
 Eubulus. Indeed, it is difficult for me to 
 say anything without the risk of repeating 
 what I have incidentally said already. Be- 
 sides, I have no knowledge of the subject 
 beyond that which is within the reach of any 
 other person with common powers of obser- 
 vation. 
 
 During what may be called sound sleep, those 
 impressions on the external senses, of which 
 we take cognisance while we are awake, are 
 altogether unnoticed. But it is not so with 
 regard to those changes which are taking place 
 
DURING SLEEP. 145 
 
 in the brain itself; and that which constitutes 
 the imagination during the day is the founda- 
 tion of our dreams at night. There is, however, 
 a great difference in the two cases, to which I 
 adverted formerly. The imagination while we 
 are awake is regulated by the will. We can 
 arrest its visions as they pass before us, compare 
 them with each other, and dismiss them as we 
 please. But it is not so with our di'eams at 
 night. Here the visions which arise, unin- 
 fluenced by the will, succeed each other 
 according to no rule with which we are 
 acquainted, forming strange combinations, 
 often wholly unlike anything that really 
 occurs ; and not less differing from reality in 
 the rapidity with which they come and depart. 
 You are called in the morning, and fall asleep 
 again. Perhaps, you have slept only -one 
 or two minutes, but you have had a long 
 dream. The late Lord Holland was accustomed 
 to relate the following anecdote of what had 
 happened to hunself. On an occasion, when 
 he was much fatigued, while listening to a 
 friend who was reading aloud, he fell asleep, 
 
 L 
 
146 DEEAMS. 
 
 and had a dream, the particulars of which it 
 would have occupied him a quarter of an hour 
 or longer to express in writing. After he 
 awoke, he found that he remembered the be- 
 ginning of one sentence, while he actually 
 heard the latter part of the sentence mime- 
 diately following it, so that probably the whole 
 time during which he had slept did not occupy 
 more than a few seconds. I mention tliis, 
 however, only in the way of illustration, not 
 as any very singular occurrence. Instances 
 of the same thing are referred to by Lord 
 Brouoham in his " Discourse on Natural Theo- 
 logy ; " and similar instances may, if we look 
 for them, be found within the range of oiu' 
 individual experience. If we were to pursue 
 this subject it would lead us to some curious 
 speculation as to our estimate of time, and the 
 difference between the real and the apparent 
 duration of life. The measure of time which 
 we make by our own feelings is a very dif- 
 ferent matter from that which uncivilised man 
 makes by the moon and stars, and which we 
 now make by clocks and almanacks. The 
 
DREAMS, 147 
 
 apparent duration of time is longer or sliorter 
 in proportion as a greater or smaller numl)er 
 of different states of mind follow each other in 
 succession. To a child, Avhose imagination is 
 constantly excited by new, objects, and Avhose 
 temper passes more easily from one passion to 
 another, a year is a much longer period of 
 time than to the grown-up man. As we advance 
 in age so do the years pass more rapidly. "We 
 may suppose the life of the vivacious butterfly, 
 which exists only for a single season, to be 
 apparently longer than that of the slowly 
 moving tortoise, whose existence is prolonged 
 for one or two centuries; and that there is a 
 similar difference, though in a less degree, 
 between the life of the enterprising man, whose 
 progress is crowded with events, and with 
 alternate hopes and fears, and that of another, 
 who, with more limited desires, keeps " the 
 even tenour of his way." 
 
 During sleep ordinary imjiressions pass un- 
 noticed. But impressions of a stronger kind 
 rouse the attention, and in so doing put an end 
 to sleep ; while those of an intennediate kind 
 
 L 2 
 
148 DREAMS. 
 
 affect us in another way, by giving a peculiar 
 ^character to our dreams. Ergates made the 
 same remark in one of our former conversations, 
 referring to acid in the stomach, and some other 
 cases, as ilhistrating the subject. It occurs to 
 me to add another example to those which he 
 has adduced. It lately happened to myself to 
 dream that some one had given me a shellfish 
 in a shell something like that of a muscle ; that 
 I ate it, and that after it had been swallowed, I 
 felt it to be very acrid, and that it produced a 
 pain in my throat. T\Tien I awoke I found that 
 I labovired under a sore throat, which must have 
 suffsested the dreaiu. It is a curious fact that 
 we may have a long dream in the act of aAvaking 
 from our sleep. A military officer informed 
 me, that while serving in the Peninsular war he 
 had frequently been roused from his sleep by 
 the firing of a cannon near his tent, and that 
 he had a dream, including a series of events, 
 which might be distinctly traced to the im- 
 pression made on his senses by the explosion. 
 Facts of this kind have inclined Lord Brougham 
 to the opinion that we never dream except while 
 
DREAMS. 149 
 
 in the state of transition from being asleep to 
 beino- awake. But I own that this seems to 
 me to be a mistake. First, there is no suffi- 
 cient proof of it being so ; and secondly, we 
 have a proof of the contrary in the fact that 
 nothing is more common than for persons to 
 moan, and even talk in their sleep without 
 awaking from it. Even in the case of a dog, 
 who is sleeping on the rug before the fire, if 
 you watch him, you can scarcely doubt that he 
 is sometimes dreaminjT thouoh he still remains 
 asleep. I should myself be more inclined to 
 doubt whether we ever sleep without some 
 degree of dreaming. At any rate, not to dream 
 seems to be, not the rule, but the exception to 
 the rule : for it rarely happens that we awake 
 without being sensible of some time having 
 elapsed since we fell asleep ; which is in itself 
 a proof that the mind has not been wholly 
 unoccupied. That on such occasions we have 
 no distinct recollection of our dreams proves 
 nothing. Referrins; aijain to the instance of 
 persons who talk in their sleep, we often find 
 that they have not the smallest recollection of 
 
 L 3 
 
150 DREAMS. 
 
 their having dreamed afterwards. It is only 
 those dreams which affect us very strongly, 
 and which occur immediately before we awake 
 from sleep, that we really remember ; and even 
 of these the impression is not in general suf- 
 ficient for us to retain it for more than a 
 very few minutes. If a dream be remembered 
 longer, it is only because we have thought 
 of it after it occurred, and have thus given it a 
 place in our memory which it could not have 
 obtained otherwise. And this leads me to ob- 
 serve that, although memory does so little as 
 to dreams, dreams throw some light on this 
 wondrous faculty. I know not indeed what 
 has happened to others, but it certainly has 
 often happened to myself to dream of some- 
 thing that had occvirred in my boyish days, and 
 of which, as it had not been present to my 
 thoughts for many years, it might well be sup- 
 posed that it was wholly forgotten. On one 
 occasion, I imagined that I was a boy again, 
 and that I was repeating to another boy a tale 
 with which I had been familiar at that period 
 of my life, though I had never read it, nor 
 
DREAMS. 151 
 
 thought of it since. I awoke, and repeated it 
 to myself at the time, as I believe accurately 
 enough, but on the following day I had for- 
 gotten it again. We may conclude from this 
 and from some other analogous facts, that many 
 thino-s which seem to be erased from our 
 memory are not erased from it in reality ; that 
 the impression remains, and that if we are not 
 conscious of it, it is merely because the secret 
 spring has not been touched, which would bring 
 it again under our observation. 
 
 Ckites. What you have now mentioned 
 shows that, however capricious and irregular 
 dm-ing sleep the imagination may be, there are 
 exceptions to the general rule. I have heard 
 of mathematicians who have solved problems, 
 and of others who have composed poetry in 
 their sleep. An acquaintance of mine, a soli- 
 citor, was perplexed as to the legal manage- 
 ment of a case which concerned one of his 
 clients. In a dream he imagined a method of 
 proceeding which had not occurred to him when 
 he was awake, and which he afterwards adopted 
 with success. 
 
 L 4 
 
152 DEEAMS. 
 
 EuBULUS. I may refer to some analogous 
 instances which have come within my own 
 knowledge. A friend of mine, a distinguished 
 chemist and natural philosopher, has assured me 
 that he has more than once contrived an appa- 
 ratus for an experiment which he proposed to 
 make, in a dream ; and another friend, who com- 
 bines mathematical with all sorts of knowledge 
 besides, has solved problems in his sleep, which 
 had puzzled him when awake. But these things 
 are rare exceptions to a general rule. They do 
 notj as it seems to me, at all controvert the 
 opinion that the essential character of sleep is 
 the suspension of volition ; and, on this hypo- 
 thesis, they are easily explained. There are, as 
 Ergates has observed, degrees of sleep, and in 
 a dream which occurs between sleeping and 
 waking, the power of attention may be exercised, 
 thouo;h not to the same extent as when we are 
 completely awake. Besides this, however, it 
 would indeed be a strange thing, in the crowded 
 chapter of accidents, if among the vast number 
 of combinations which constitute our dreams, 
 there were not every now and then some having 
 
DREAMS. l.)3 
 
 « 
 
 the semblance of reality. Further, I suspect 
 that in many of the stories of wonderful dis- 
 coveries made in dreams, there is nmch of either 
 mistake or exaggeration; and that if they 
 could have been written down at the time, they 
 would have been found to be worth little or 
 nothing. Knowing how imaginative a person 
 Coleridge at all times was, I may, I hope, 
 be excused for saying that it is more easy 
 to believe that he imagined himself to have 
 composed his poem of Kuhla Khan in his 
 sleep, than that he did so in reality. I 
 may here refer to the experience of a distin- 
 guished physiologist on this subject. " Some- 
 times," says Miiller, " we reason more or 
 less accurately in our dreams. We reflect on 
 problems, and rejoice in their solution. But 
 on awaking from such dreams the seemino; 
 reasoning is found to be no reasoning at all, 
 and the solution over which we had rejoiced to 
 be mere nonsense. Sometimes we dream that 
 another proposes an enigma, that we cannot 
 solve it, and that others are equally incapable 
 of doing so, but that the person who proposed 
 
154 DEEAMS. 
 
 it himself gives the explanation. We are 
 astonished at the solution, which we had so 
 long endeavoured to find. If we do not imme- 
 diately aAvake, and afterwards reflect on this 
 proposition of an enigma in our dream, and on 
 its apparent solution, we think it wonderful ; 
 but if we awake immediately after the dream, 
 and are able to compare the answer with the 
 question, we find that it was mere nonsense. 
 I have at least several times observed this in 
 my own case." * 
 
 Ekgates. Still, without referring to such 
 exercises of the intellect as Miiller has de- 
 scribed in the passage which you have noAV 
 quoted, it must be owned that there is often a 
 remarkable degree of coherence in our dreams. 
 A drama is performed, including a series of 
 events in which we ourselves are concerned, 
 and having a mutual relation to each other. 
 There are other actors in it, who seem to speak 
 and act independently of ourselves, as if influ- 
 enced by other motives, and aiming at other 
 
 * Miiller's Physiology, translated by Baly, p. 1417. 
 
DREAMS. 155 
 
 objects, with regard to which we do not concur, 
 or to which we may be actually opposed. Scenes 
 are presented to us, in which it seems that an 
 intelligence is exercised, although we do not 
 imderstand how that intelligence can be our 
 own. How is it that these things happen ? I 
 own that I search in vain for any very satisfac- 
 tory explanation. 
 
 EuBULUS. Another question arises as to 
 dreams, which it is even more difficult to 
 answer than that which you have suggested. 
 Are they merely incidental effects of the exist- 
 ing order of things, as determined by the will of 
 the Creator of the universe ; or do they answer 
 any special purpose, and lead to any ulterior 
 consequences ? In a machine of human in- 
 vention effects arise which are truly incidental, 
 that is, which were never contemplated or 
 intended by the inventor. For instance, it was 
 casually discovered that an abundance of electri- 
 city may be obtained from the steam supplied 
 by the boiler of a steam-engine. But such a 
 result had never been anticipated by those to 
 whom we are indebted for this great invention. 
 
156 NATURE OF THE CHANGES 
 
 Does anything like this happen with regard to 
 the machinery of the universe? Is it not 
 more probable that everything that occurs has 
 been anticipated, and has its definite and ap- 
 pointed purpose ? I believe that no one has 
 hitherto offered any certain or satisfactory ex- 
 planation of the uses of the spleen, and that it is 
 known that animals may live, and apparently in 
 good health, after that organ has been removed. 
 So, also, no satisfactory explanation has yet 
 been offered of the functions of the thyroid gland 
 or the renal capsules. Yet no one believes the 
 formation of these organs to be merely inci- 
 dental, or doubts that they have some special 
 offices allotted to them. Dreams are, at any 
 rate, an exercise of the imagination. We may 
 well conceive that one effect of them may be to 
 increase the activity of that faculty during our 
 waking hours ; and it would be presumptuous 
 to say that they may not answer some purpose 
 beyond this in the economy of percipient and 
 thinking beings. 
 
 Ceites. Before our conversation for this 
 day is concluded, there is one other inquiry 
 
IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 157 
 
 which I would make of Emates. Believliis;, 
 as I do, that the percipient, conscious, and In- 
 telllsent mind beloncrs to a mode of existence 
 Avholly different from that of the senseless 
 bodies by which avc are surrounded, still I 
 cannot but admit that there must be certain 
 changes taking place In the nervous system In 
 connection with mental processes, some of these 
 being transient In their nature, while others are 
 so far permanent that they may not be effaced 
 during the longest life. Now, with regard to 
 these changes, Ergates has stated that " theii* 
 exact nature is a mystery which we have no 
 means of unravelling, and that this Is a kind of 
 knowledge as much beyond our reach as that of 
 the structure of the sun, or of the central parts 
 of the earth." Not disputing the correctness 
 of this statement, yet I see no reason why we 
 might not be able to form some general notion 
 on the subject, and the following questions 
 naturally present themselves to us. Are the 
 changes which the nervous system undergoes 
 simply mechanical? or are they of the same 
 kind as those chemical changes which take 
 
158 NATURE OF THE CHANGES 
 
 j)lace ill inorganic matter? or do they rather 
 belong to that class of phenomena which we 
 refer to imponderable agents, such as electricity 
 and magnetism, by virtue of which a piece of 
 sealing-wax rubbed with a silk handkerchief 
 draws light bodies to itself, or a bar of iron 
 becomes endued with the attractive property 
 of a magnet ? 
 
 Ergates. Although these subjects have 
 not been hitherto formally discussed, still you 
 may on some points anticipate my answer from 
 observations which I have already made inci- 
 dentally. 
 
 The very little that we actually know may 
 be comprised in a few words. 
 
 1. The transmission of impressions from one 
 part of the nervous system to another, or from 
 the nervous system to the muscular and glan- 
 dular structures, has a nearer resemblance to 
 the eifects produced by the imjDonderable 
 agents to which you have alluded tlian to any- 
 thing else. It seems very probable indeed, 
 that the nervous force is some modification of 
 that force, which produces the phenomena of 
 
IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 1j9 
 
 electricity and magnetism ; and you may re- 
 collect that I have already ventured to compare 
 the generation of it by the action of the oxy- 
 genised blood on the grey substance of the 
 brain and spinal chord, to the production of the 
 electric force by the action of the acid solution 
 on the metallic plates in the cells of a voltaic 
 battery. 
 
 2. We know that the solid parts of the body 
 are in a state of perpetual change. There is 
 a constant influx of new materials supplied by 
 the digestive organs, and in other ways ; and 
 a corresponding eflSux of the old materials by 
 means of the various excretions, especially by 
 that of the kidneys. The brain itself forms no 
 exception to the general rule. We cannot 
 otherwise account for its growth in the early 
 part of life, nor for the alterations in its struc- 
 ture which arise as the consequence of disease, 
 nor for those other changes which occur in 
 extreme old acje. The molecules of the brain 
 in a man of twenty years of age are not the 
 same with those which formed the brain of the 
 same individual when he was ten years old. 
 
IGO NATURE OF THE CHANGES 
 
 nor Avitli those of wlilcli it will be composed 
 when he arrives at the age of fifty years. The 
 mind preserves its identity, but there is no 
 corresponding identity of the corporeal organ 
 with which it is associated ; and we may even 
 venture to assert that the brain of to-day is 
 not precisely and in all respects the same with 
 the brain of yesterday, and that it will not be 
 the brain of to-morrow. 
 
 3. We cannot suppose that such deposition 
 of new materials and abstraction of old ones 
 can be effected by mere mechanical means, as 
 you would take one brick from a building and 
 substitute another in its place. The elements 
 of which the nervous system is composed exist 
 in the blood, but they must undergo a new 
 chemical combination before they can be in- 
 corporated with it; and in like manner they 
 must undergo a chemical change of an opposite 
 kind before they can re-enter the current of 
 the circulation. The precise character of these 
 chemical changes we have no means of ascer- 
 taining, but whatever it may be, there is reason 
 to believe that in proportion as the nervous 
 
 ■if:''^': 
 
IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 161 
 
 system is more or less exercised, whether it be 
 in connection with mere corporeal functions, or 
 with mental processes, so do they take place to 
 a greater or less extent. As relating to this 
 subject it may be observed that the nervous 
 substance is distinguished from all the other 
 tissues (with the exception of the bones) by 
 the very large proportion of phosphorus which 
 enters into its composition, amounting to 1*5 
 parts in 100, and to as much as one-thirteenth 
 of the solid matter which remains after the 
 evaporation of the water ; and that one result 
 of over-exercise of the ner^-ous system is the 
 elimination of an unusual quantity of salts con- 
 taining phosphorus by means of the secretion 
 of the kidneys. This fact was first observed by 
 Dr. Prout, who has given it as his opinion " that 
 tlie phosphorus in organized beings is in some 
 measure connected with nervous tissues and nerv- 
 ous action," and who in another place refers to 
 " severe and protracted debilitating passions, and 
 excessive fatigue, as the general exciting causes 
 of" what he terms " the phosphatic diathesis."* 
 
 * On the Stomach and Renal Diseases, third edition. 
 
 M 
 
162 NATURE OF THE CHAN&ES 
 
 4. With regard to those more permanent 
 changes in the brain to which Crites has re- 
 ferred as connected with the memory, and 
 what is called the association of ideas, and I 
 may add, with mental habits and dispositions as 
 far as these are dependent on our physical 
 organization, I have nothing to offer beyond 
 what I have expressed already. There is, I 
 apprehend, sufficient e^'idence that such changes 
 do certainly take place, but as to theu' real 
 nature we not only know nothing, but have no 
 means of obtaining any actual knoAvledge. The 
 improved microscope of the present day has 
 enabled us to unravel to a considerable extent 
 the minuter tissues of the animal body ; but 
 nevertheless, in pursuing an inquiry such as 
 this, it affords us no assistance. There can be 
 no doubt that there is as much in the animal 
 structures beyond the reach of the microscope, 
 as there is in the vast universe around us 
 beyond the reach of the telescope ; so that, 
 whatever we might thus discover, we may be 
 sure that there is something further still. But 
 let us suppose that it were otherwise, and 
 
IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 163 
 
 (assuming the molecular hyiwthcsis to be true) 
 tliat with more perfect organs of sense, or more 
 perfect instruments, we could trace exactly the 
 changes which take place in the arrangement 
 or ao-ffrecation of the ultimate molecules of the 
 brain, I do not see tliat we should be much 
 advanced in knowledge. We shall be just as 
 far from identifying physical and mental phe- 
 nomena with each other as we are at present. 
 The link between them would still be wanting, 
 and it would be as idle to speculate on the 
 nature of the relation between mind and 
 matter, as on the proximate cause of gravita- 
 tion, or of magnetic attraction and impulsion. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 THE FIFTH DIALOGUE. 
 
 Mental Faculties of Animals. — Their Relation to the 
 Structure of the Brain. — Difficulty of the Inquiry, 
 but some Knowledge of it not beyond our Reach. — 
 Cerebral Organs connected with the Animal Appetites 
 and Instincts. — Organs subservient to the Intellect. — 
 Question as to the Uses of the Cerebral Convolutions. 
 — The Posterior Lobes of the Cerebrum. — The Corpus 
 Callosum. — The Development of the Mental Faculties, 
 how far dependent on the Perfection of the Senses, 
 and other external Circumstances. — The Nature and 
 Office of Instinct. — Intelligence not peculiar to Man, 
 nor Instinct to the lower Animals. — Human Instincts. 
 — The Social Instinct and the Moral Sense. — Some 
 
 i Instincts as necessary to Animal Existence as the 
 Circulation of the Blood, and other mere Animal 
 Functions. — Acquired Instincts transmitted from 
 Parents to Offspring. — These considered with refer- 
 ence to Moral and Political Science. — The Social 
 Instinct viewed as correcting or modifying other 
 Instincts, and as being made more efficient by the 
 greater Development of the Intellect. — The Religious 
 Instinct. — Primary Truths of Buffier and Reid. 
 
 It was one or two clays after the conver- 
 sation wliicli has been just recorded, that we 
 found ourselves in the afternoon on the side of 
 a hill on which some sheep were scattered. 
 
MENTAL FACULTIES OF ANIMALS. 165 
 
 watching the operations of the sheep-dog, who 
 was collecting the flock previously to their 
 being driven home for the night This led to 
 a conversation respecting the habits and facul- 
 ties of animals ; and Eubulus related the his- 
 tory of a dog who, having been taken In a 
 carnage, and by a cbcuitous route, to a dis- 
 tant place, nevertheless, some time afterwards, 
 found liis way back to his former home, ha^dng, 
 as it appeared, gone across a tract of country, 
 with which he could have had no previous 
 acquaintance. 
 
 Ergates. There are very many well- 
 authenticated instances of the same thing. It 
 is even said that dogs carried across the sea 
 have travelled back to their former place 
 of abode, having established themselves on 
 board sliip for that purpose. Xor is this 
 faculty peculiar to dogs. At least I have 
 read an account of herds of cattle in New 
 South Wales which, having been removed 
 from their accustomed haunts to new pastures 
 at a considerable distance, have nevertheless 
 returned, not by the road which they had gone 
 
 M 3 
 
166 MENTAL TACULTIES 
 
 before, but by going straight across the 
 country, through wilds which they had never 
 before traversed. 
 
 EuBULUS. There are few more Interesting 
 subjects of inquiry than that of the moral and 
 intellectual qualities of other animals, yet there 
 are few of which we know so little. There 
 are, it is true, a good many scattered observa- 
 tions relating to it ; and I may especially refer 
 to the very interesting collection of facts Avhich 
 are recorded in one of Lord Brougham's dia- 
 logues.* 'No one, however, has devoted him- 
 self to such inquiries in the same way as many 
 have done to other departments of knowledge. 
 The papers of Frederic Cuvier are truly scien- 
 tific, and contain much important matter, but 
 they relate to a very limited number of animals. 
 He began the study too late, and died too 
 early, to make any considerable progress in it. 
 Such an investigation is, indeed, attended with 
 peculiar difiiculties, and to pursue it with 
 advantage would afford ample occupation, even 
 
 * Dissertations on Subjects connected with Natural 
 Philosophy, by Henry Lord Brougham, vol. i. dial. 3. 
 
OF ANIMALS. 167 
 
 with the largest oiii)ortunities, for the entire 
 tenn of a man's life. 
 
 Ergates. It may be, as I observed on a 
 former occasion, that some of those which are 
 usually regarded as the very lowest form of 
 animal life, have no endowments superior to 
 those which belong to vegetables. Setting 
 these aside, however, I apprehend that no one 
 who considers the subject can doubt that the 
 mental principle in animals is of the same 
 essence as that of human beings ; so that even 
 in the humbler classes we may trace the 
 rudiments of those faculties, to Avhich in their 
 state of more complete development we are 
 indebted for the grandest results of human 
 genius. We cannot suppose the existence of 
 mere sensation without supposing that there is 
 something more. In the stupid carp which 
 comes to a certain spot, at a certain hour, or 
 on a certain signal, to be fed, we recognise at 
 any rate the existence of memory and the 
 association of ideas. But we recognise much 
 more than this in the doc; who assists the 
 shepherd in collecting his sheep in the wilds of 
 
 M 4 
 
168 MEXTAX, FACULTIES 
 
 the Welsh mountains. Locke, and Diigald 
 Stewart followmg him, do not allow that 
 " brute animals have the power of abstraction." 
 Now taking it for granted that abstraction can 
 mean nothing more than the power of com- 
 paring our conceptions with reference to 
 certain points to the exclusion of others; as, 
 for example, when we consider colour without 
 reference to figure, or figure without reference 
 to colour ; then I do not see how we can deny 
 the existence of this faculty in other animals 
 any more than in man himself. In this sense 
 of the word, abstraction is a necessary part of 
 the process of reasoning, which Locke defines 
 as being " the perception of the agreement or 
 disagreement of our ideas." But who can 
 doubt that a dog reasons, while he is looking 
 for his master, whom he has lost ; or (as in the 
 instance of which we were sj^eaking ju^t now) 
 when he is seeking his way home over an 
 unknown country ? 
 
 C RITES. But if my recollection be accu- 
 rate, Dugald Stewart does not mean to deny 
 that brute animals are capable of the simpler 
 
 
OF ANIMALS. 169 
 
 forms of reasoning. He merely states that 
 being unable to cany on processes of thought 
 by the help of artificial signs (that is, of lan- 
 guage), they have no power of arriving at 
 general or scientific conclusions.* 
 
 Ergates. "Without doubting for an in- 
 stant the vast superiority of the human mind, 
 still it appears to me to be difficult to say how 
 far the capacities of brute animals are limited 
 in these respects. It is not to be denied that 
 the aid of language is necessary to the car- 
 rying on any long, or complex, process of 
 reasoning. But we see, nevertheless, that 
 those who are born deaf and dumb reason to a 
 great extent ; and, on the other hand, it may 
 well be questioned whether some animals are 
 so wholly unprovided with language as Dugald 
 Stewart supposes. 
 
 EuBULUS. I am inclined to believe with 
 Ergates, that the minds of the inferior animals 
 are essentially of the same nature with that of 
 the hmnan race, and that of those various and 
 
 * Moral Philosophy, vol.iii. p. 393. edit. 1827. 
 
170 EELATION OF THE BRAIN 
 
 ever-changing conditions of it, which we term 
 the mental faculties, there are none of which 
 we may not discover traces more or less 
 distinct in other creatures. Still, in the 
 degree in which these faculties exist, there 
 is a vast difference, not only between what 
 they are in man and in other animals, but in 
 other animals amons; themselves. And this 
 leads us to another subject, on which I shall 
 be glad if Erg-ates can o-ive us some informa- 
 tion. 
 
 It beino; admitted that the brain is the 
 material oro;an in connection with the mental 
 principle ; and it being also admitted that there 
 is in the different species of animals, on the 
 one hand, a great difference as to the extent of 
 their moral and intellectual faculties, and on 
 the other hand, a not less remarkable difference 
 in the size and formation of the brain ; so we 
 cannot well avoid the conclusion that these 
 two orders of facts are, in a greater or less 
 degree, connected with each other. I do not 
 mean to infer from this connection that the 
 mind is always the same, and that the greater 
 
TO THE MENTAL FACULTIES. 171 
 
 or less development of it depends altogether 
 on the greater or less perfection of the material 
 organ. It may well be supposed that the 
 original difference is in the mind itself, and 
 tliat the Creator has so ordered it that the 
 brain in the diftcrent species of animals should 
 be such as will meet the requirements of the 
 peculiar mind with which it is associated; — 
 a view of the subject, which, if I am not mis- 
 informed, derives no small support from the 
 researches of modern physiologists. I under- 
 stand that the embryos of all the vertebrate 
 animals have in the first instance the same 
 character, or so nearly so, that they cannot be 
 distinguished from each other : that starting, 
 as it were, from one common point, the changes 
 which the embryo undergoes differ, not only in 
 different classes, but in different genera and 
 species, as if something were superadded to 
 the physical organization, by which those 
 changes are regulated, and differently directed, 
 thus giving origin to that immense variety of 
 forms of animal life, which we see everywhere 
 around us. However that may be (and I 
 
172 MENTAL FACULTIES 
 
 admit that it is idle, if not presumptuous, to 
 speculate on a subject, as to which we are so 
 entu'ely without the means of obtaining any 
 actual knowledge), it does not at all affect the 
 question as to the relation which exists be- 
 tween the organization of the brain and the 
 mental faculties ; and what I wish to know is, 
 how far does our knowledge of this relation 
 really extend? Is it possible from any expe- 
 rience that we have of the habits and character 
 of a particular tribe of animals, to predicate 
 what kind of brain we should find them to have 
 on dissection, or from our observations on the 
 latter, to form an opinion as to their moral and 
 intellectual capacities ? 
 
 EPvGATES. To a limited extent this know- 
 ledge is within our reach. If two brains 
 were placed before me, in one of which the 
 cerebral hemispheres were largely developed, 
 while in the other they were very little de- 
 veloped, or altogether absent, I should at once 
 pronounce the former to indicate the existence 
 of a much greater intelligence than the latter. 
 But I see no reason to doubt that we might 
 
OF ANIMALS. 173 
 
 Icam more than tliis ; and that an individual, 
 who, in addition to ample opportunities of 
 examining the brains of different animals by 
 dissection, had equal opportunities of studying 
 the habits and behaviour of the same animals 
 while alive, and Avho himself possessed the 
 necessary qualities for such investigations, 
 might, in the course of time, and after some 
 years of thought and labour, arrive at some 
 very interesting and satisfactory results. If, 
 hitherto, so little progress has been made in 
 this department of knowledge, that is easily 
 accounted for. The combination of opportu- 
 nities which I have suggested, is of very rare 
 occurrence, and, when it does occur, few 
 persons are qualified to take proper advan- 
 tage of it. It is, indeed, very far from being 
 a matter of course that the anatomist, who has 
 successfully pursued his own plain matter-of- 
 fact science, should be the one best fitted for 
 observing and comparing the fleeting pheno- 
 mena of the mind, the study of which, pre- 
 sented as they are to us only through the 
 medium of their external manifestations, must 
 
174 ADAPTATIOX OF THE BRAIN 
 
 be proportionally more difficult as they differ 
 from the only standard of comparison which 
 we possess in oiu' individual selves. 
 
 EuBULUS. You might have mentioned 
 another difficulty, — that we seldom see other 
 animals in then* free and natm-al state, or 
 otherwise than as being cowed and oppressed 
 by the superiority of man. I suspect that, 
 from this cause, we are led to under-estimate, 
 on the whole, the moral and intellectual quali- 
 ties of inferior creatures. How little should 
 we know of man himself if we studied him 
 only among the slaves of a Vhginia planter ! 
 The rook confined in a cage would afford us 
 but little information as to what the rook may 
 be in the republic of his native rookery. The 
 horse tied to his manger in our stables is a 
 very different animal from the horse which is 
 domesticated in his master's family in the 
 Arab's tent; and he must be still more dif- 
 ferent from hun who wanders over the prairies 
 of America under the dominion of his chief. 
 Even if we could live in a colony of rooks, or 
 in a herd of wild horses, not having the means 
 
TO THE MENTiVL FACULTIES. 175 
 
 of communicating with them, such as these 
 animals certainly have among themselves, how 
 difficult Avoukl it be for us to obtain any real 
 knowledij-e as to their moral and intellectual 
 condition ! How little should we know even 
 of our own species in this respect, if we had 
 not the power of mutually communicating our 
 desires and thoughts through the medium of 
 oral and written language ! 
 
 Ergates. You will not then be surprised 
 to learn how little has been done towards con- 
 necting physical organization and mental phe- 
 nomena with each other. The observations of 
 Magendie, Flourens, and some other physiolo- 
 gists are interesting as far as they go; but they 
 throw no light on the more difficult and recon- 
 dite subject, which we are now discussing. 
 There is, indeed, only one fact connected with 
 it which can be considered as well established. 
 Those bodies, situated in the base of the brain, 
 to which in the human subject we give the 
 names of medulla oblongata, cerebellum, thalami, 
 corpora striata, and tubercula quadrigemina, 
 and the parts corresponding to these in other 
 
176 STRUCTURE OP THE BRAIN. 
 
 vertebrate animals, are connected with that 
 class of phenomena which belong to the animal 
 appetites and instincts; and the two larger 
 masses, which are placed above them, and are 
 known as the cerebral hemispheres, are more 
 especially subservient to the higher faculties 
 belonging to the intellect. The proof of what 
 I have now stated is that in the lower classes 
 of vertebrate animals, in whom the appetites 
 and instincts predominate over the intellect, 
 the first-mentioned bodies form almost the 
 entire brain, and that, very much as the intel- 
 lect is more developed, so are the cerebral 
 hemispheres more develojDed also; the degree 
 of their development being more remarkable 
 in man than in any other animal.* Some 
 apparent exceptions to this rule are easily 
 explained. In birds, which are so much more 
 than man, or than quadrupeds, under the 
 dominion of instinct, the cerebral hemispheres 
 appear at first sight to be of great size in pro- 
 portion to the rest of the brain. But you may 
 
 * See Additional Note F. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN. 177 
 
 recollect that on a former occasion, I explained 
 that they are not so in reality, and that the 
 only part, which can properly be compared 
 with the hcmit^phcres, is a layer of cerebral 
 substance laid on the surface of two otlicr 
 bodies (the corpora striata), these being of an 
 enormous size. Again, in some of the cetace- 
 ous, and in one or two of the quadrumanous 
 animals, the cerebral hemispheres are so large 
 in proportion to the rest of the body as to 
 approach very nearly to what they are in man 
 himself. But their size is only one thing to 
 be taken into the account. Although a steam- 
 engine of great power must be of certain di- 
 mensions, something will depend on its pecu- 
 liar construction. So it probably is Avitli 
 regard to the cerebral hemispheres. They 
 consist of two parts, the white, medullary or 
 fibrous substance, which forms the greater 
 portion of their bulk, and the more vascular 
 gTcy substance, which is expanded on their 
 surface. I stated formerly that the latter is 
 supposed to be the part in which the nervous 
 force is generated ; and, therefore, the most 
 
 N 
 
178 ADAPTATION OF THE BEAIN 
 
 important of the two structures. The surface 
 of the hemispheres is formed into folds, or 
 convolutions, and as the fissures by which these 
 are separated are deeper and more numerous, 
 so does the grey bear a larger proportion to 
 the medullary substance. In animals of a 
 very low degree of intelligence, as in the 
 kangaroo for example, the convolutions are 
 almost entirely Avanting. In man they are 
 more remarkable as to number and depth than 
 in any other animal, and hence some very 
 eminent physiologists, not without some show 
 of reason, have been led to believe that it is 
 by his organization in this respect that he is 
 adapted to the exercise of that high degree of 
 intelligence which places him at so vast a dis- 
 tance above the rest of the animal creation.* 
 
 Whether this hypothesis be or be not well- 
 founded, it is to be observed that it is not 
 merely as to its greater volume, and the 
 greater extent of the convolutions of the 
 cerebrum, that the brain of man differs from 
 
 * See Additional Xote G. 
 
TO TUE MENTAL FACULTIES. 179 
 
 that of other annuals. Coniparhig it with the 
 brains of the other manunalia (and it is only 
 with these that it much admits of comparison 
 in reality), we find tliat the posterior lobes of 
 the cerebrum are almost peculiar to the human 
 race. The only other animals in which they 
 exist are those of tlie tribe of monkeys, and 
 in them they are of a much smaller size than 
 they are of in man. The absence of this part 
 of the brain includes the absence of what 
 seems to be a special organ situated in the 
 posterior elongation of the lateral ventricle, 
 known by anatomists under the name of the 
 hippocampus minor ; and it is worthy of notice, 
 that even in monkevs, who are not alto2;ether 
 without the posterior lobes, this organ is 
 wanting. The corpus callosum is the name 
 o^iven to a broad thick band of nervous fibres 
 which unites the two cerebral hemispheres, as 
 if for the purpose of bringing them into har- 
 monious action with each other. In the kan- 
 garoo, which I have already mentioned as 
 having a very low degree of intelligence, the 
 corpus callosum is altogether wanting. This 
 
 N 2 
 
180 INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL 
 
 fact in itself might lead us to conjecture that 
 some important office is allotted to it ; and the 
 opinion is confirmed by observations made on 
 the human subject.' Cases are on record in which 
 this organ was wanting either wholly or in part. 
 In none of them could it be said that the 
 intellectual faculties Avere altogether deficient. 
 But in all of them there was an incapability 
 of learning, producing an apparent dullness of 
 the intellect, so that the individuals were unfit 
 for all but the most simple duties of life.* 
 
 EuBULUS. I grant that you have sufficiently 
 established the proposition with which you set 
 out. At the same time it would seem that the 
 organization of the brain does not indicate the 
 actual extent to which the mental faculties are 
 exercised, nor anything more than the capability 
 of exercisino; them. Havins; certain original 
 endowments, which differ in different indi- 
 viduals, the mind is made what it is by the 
 force of external circumstances. How different 
 
 * See Mr. Paget's and Mr. Henry's observations in 
 the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vols. xxix. and 
 xxsi. 
 
 .Ji*> 
 
SENSES, ETC. ON THE MIND. 181 
 
 was that of the savage of Aveyron from what 
 it niiglit have been if he had been trained to 
 early habits of obedience and self-denial, and 
 had been taught to make use of those powers 
 of attention and reflection which God has con- 
 ferred to a greater or less extent on all of us, 
 but which run to waste if neglected. It is by 
 no means impossible that in some nation of 
 savages there may be an individual with such 
 natural endoAvments, that, if placed under exactly 
 similar circumstances, he miglit have become 
 another Xewton; and we may be assured that 
 Newton would have been quite diiferent from 
 what he really was, if he had been born and 
 bred among the Aborigines of Australia. The 
 external circumstances on which the mind more 
 immediately depends are the organs of sense, 
 as it is through them that all kuowledo;e is 
 originally derived, and as without them it 
 would have none of the materials of thought. 
 The mind of an individual who labours under 
 congenital blindness, or congenital deafness, 
 cannot fail to be imperfect as compared with 
 that of others, except where great pains are 
 
 N 3 
 
182 INFLUENCE OE EXTERNAL 
 
 bestowed on the application of those means 
 which science has furnished for supplying the 
 deficiency ; and the imperfection must be 
 greater still in those instances in which these 
 two calamities are unhappily combined. 
 
 Ergates. You may extend your observa- 
 tions to other animals, and add, that as among 
 them there is a considerable difference as to the 
 structure and relative value of the oro;ans of 
 sense, so this must be taken into the account if 
 we would form even a rough estimate (and we 
 can form no other) of their mental condition. 
 In birds the eye is a more complicated, and 
 evidently a more perfect, organ than it is in 
 our own species, or in the mammalia generally. 
 The eye of an eagle is nearly as large as that 
 of an elephant ; he has a wider range of vision, 
 and can distinguish objects at a distance at 
 which they would be to us altogether unpercep- 
 tible. In this respect he has means of obtain- 
 ing knowledge which men do not possess, and 
 so far has an advantage over us. Having the 
 power of ascending to the higher regions of the 
 atmosphere, it is plain that the external world 
 
SENSES, ETC. ON THE MIND. 183 
 
 must be presented to him iimlcr a very difFcrent 
 aspect from that under wliich it is presented to 
 ourselves. But this is no solitary instance. 
 There are many other animals Avhich have 
 organs of sense more perfect, and many others 
 which have them less perfect, than they are in 
 the human race ; and whatever that difference 
 may be, it must lead to a like result by modi- 
 fying their perceptions, and, if I may be allowed 
 the expression, their notions of things external 
 to themselves. 
 
 EuBULUS. We cannot suppose it to be 
 otherwise. The astronomer who contemplates 
 the planets and the Milky Way, and discovers 
 revolving stars and remote nebulas by means of 
 the telescope, may be regarded, as far as the 
 heavenly bodies are concerned, as being endowed 
 with another sense, so that the impressions which 
 they produce on his mind must be quite different 
 from those which they produce on the mind of 
 the peasant, who knows nothing of them beyond 
 that which is disclosed to his unassisted vision. 
 But how much greater difference would there 
 be if his eye were so constructed that, without 
 
 N 4 
 
184 INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL 
 
 the aid of glasses, it answered the purpose of a 
 telescope for distant objects, and of a microscope 
 for others ! 
 
 Erg AXES. The dog distinguishes external 
 objects from each other less by his sense of 
 sight than by his sense of smell, of which last 
 we ourselves make so little use. The whiskers 
 of a cat, each having a special nerve belonging 
 to it, form a much more delicate organ of touch 
 than the human fingers. There is reason to 
 believe that some insects are enabled to take 
 cognisance of the electric state of the at- 
 mosphere, as we take cognisance of heat and 
 cold. The eyes of insects are very different 
 from the eyes of the higher classes of animals, 
 consisting sometimes of as many as a thousand 
 hexagonal and transparent plates, arranged, not 
 in the same plane, but at angles to each other, 
 so as to form altogether a large portion of a 
 sphere, each having belonging to it what seems 
 to be its own peculiar retina. With eyes such 
 as these the vision of insects must be very differ- 
 ent from ours, having an enormous range, with 
 no such distinct picture as is formed on the hu- 
 
SENSES, ETC. ON TUE MIND. 185 
 
 man retina, and i)robably affording its possessor 
 less perfect means of distinguisiiing near and 
 distant objects from each other. On the other 
 hand, the mole has an imperfect eye, and the 
 mus ti/phlus, or subterraneous rat, the pi'oteus, 
 and the siren, are altogether deprived of the 
 sense of sight. It is plain that the relations of 
 these animals to the external world, and their 
 conceptions of objects external to themselves, 
 must differ according to the difference in their 
 respective faculties of sense. 
 
 Still, as Frederic Cuvier justly observes, 
 " we must not, therefore, exaggerate the influ- 
 ence of the organs of sense on the mental 
 functions ; nor can we admit the doctrine wliich 
 some authors have held, that the perfection of 
 the intellect depends very much on the greater 
 or less perfection of these physical organs."* 
 This is, indeed, clearly an hypothesis unsup- 
 ported by facts. The eye and ear of the seal 
 are so constructed that he must have very 
 moderate powers of sight and hearing, and, 
 
 * Annales du Museum d'Histoire Xaturelle, tome xvi. 
 p. 5-4. 
 
186 KATUEE AND OFFICE 
 
 except through the medium of his whiskers, it 
 may be said that he has no sense of touch at alh 
 Nevertheless, the philosopher whom I have just 
 named, who had ample opportunities of studying 
 the habits of the seals in the Jardin des Plantes, 
 describes them as being possessed of intelligence 
 above the average of that which belongs even 
 to the higher classes of the mammalia.* 
 
 EuBULUS. The remarks which you have 
 just now made are equally applicable to the 
 hypothesis which some one has advanced, that 
 man is made what he is by the possession of 
 the hand, as a more perfect organ of prehension 
 peculiar to himself; and thus Ave fall back on 
 your original proposition, that, as far as liis 
 physical organization is concerned, it is in that 
 of the brain alone that we are to look for the 
 evidence of his superiority to other creatures. 
 
 Crites. I may now venture to make an 
 observation, which I should have made before, 
 if I had not been unwilling to Interrupt the 
 conversation. When you speak of instinct, as 
 
 * Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, tome xvii. 
 p. 397. 
 
OF INSTINCT. 187 
 
 contradistingulslied to the higher faculties of 
 the intellect, 1 conclude that you refer to it as 
 a principle by Avhlch animals are induced, in- 
 dependently of experience and reasoning, to the 
 performance of certain voluntary acts, which 
 are necessary to their preservation as indi- 
 viduals, or the continuance of the species, or in 
 some other way convenient to them. Kow I 
 would ask if it be quite clear that this dis- 
 tinction is well founded ? Has it not been the 
 opinion of some physiologists that by a careful 
 analysis of what are called instinctive actions, 
 they may be traced to the operation of ex- 
 perience, quite as much as those which are 
 more palpably derived from this source ? 
 
 Ergates. You may refer especially to the 
 first Dr. Darwin, whose great but too discur- 
 sive genius was apt to travel too fast for the 
 cautious pursuits of science. Let me state 
 a few facts, and then leave you to judge for 
 yourself. 
 
 Food is required because life cannot be 
 maintained without it. But no one under 
 ordinary circumstances thinks of this ultimate 
 
188 NATURE AND OFFICE 
 
 object. We have an uneasy sensation which 
 we call hunger, and it is merely to remove this 
 sensation that we are led to eat. This is the 
 simplest form of instinct, and it goes far towards 
 explaining others which are more complicated. 
 The desire for food is the same in the newly- 
 born child as in the grown-up man ; and 
 when applied to his mother's breast he knows 
 at once how to obtain it by bringing several 
 pairs of muscles of his mouth and throat suc- 
 cessively into action, making the process of 
 suction. The newly-born calf knows at once 
 how to balance himself on his four legs, to 
 walk, and seek the food with which he is sup- 
 plied by his mother. The duckling hatched 
 by the hen, as soon as his muscular powers are 
 sufficiently developed, is impelled by the desire 
 to enter the neighbouring pond, and when in 
 the water, without example or instruction, he 
 calls certain muscles into action, and is enabled 
 to swim. When a sow is delivered of a litter, 
 each young pig as it is born runs at once to 
 take possession of one of his mother's nipples, 
 which he considers as his peculiar property 
 
OF INSTINCT. 189 
 
 ever aftenvards. So the bee prepares his 
 honey-comb, and the wasp his paper nest, in- 
 dependently of all experience or instruction. 
 It is worth your while to refer to the luminous 
 exposition which Lord Brougham has given of 
 the mathematical accuracy with which the 
 former does his work. Yet I do not see that 
 it is at all more marvellous than what we see 
 in the yoimg calf. It would require a profound 
 knowledge of mechanics, and a long investiga- 
 tion, to determine beforehand what muscles 
 should be called into action, and in what order 
 they should act, to enable him to balance him- 
 self on his feet, to stand and walk. Yet all 
 this he accomplishes at once, as if it were a 
 mere matter of course. I do not see how these 
 and a thousand other things can be explained 
 on the hypothesis of Darwin, or otherwise 
 than by supposing that certain feelings exist 
 which lead to the voluntarv exercise of certain 
 muscles, and to the performance of certain acts, 
 without any reference at the time to the ulti- 
 mate object for which these acts are required. 
 EuBULUS. It would seem that it is in the 
 
190 INTELLIGENCE AND 
 
 proportion which their instincts and intelligence 
 bear to each other that the difference between 
 the mind of man and that of other animals 
 chiefly consists. Reasoning is not peculiar to 
 the former, nor is instinct peculiar to the latter. 
 Even as regards insects, which are generally, 
 and properly, regarded as being below the 
 vertebrate animals in the scale of existence, and 
 whose nervous system is of so simple a struc- 
 ture as to admit of no comparison with that of 
 the human subject, we cannot well hesitate to 
 believe that they are not altogether deprived of 
 that higher faculty which enables ourselves to 
 apply the results of our experience to the new 
 circumstances under which we are placed. 
 
 " Esse apibus partem divina3 mentis," 
 
 is no mere fiction of poetry. It is by instinct 
 that the bee collects his honey, and constructs 
 the hexagonal cells of liis honey-comb (always 
 according to the same pattern) from the wax 
 furnished for that purpose by his own secre- 
 tions. But instinct will not account for all 
 
 t,SAt. 
 
INSTINCT OF INSECTS. 191 
 
 that he docs besides. When a swann Is trans- 
 ferred to a new hive placed among many others, 
 at first they arc found frequently mistaking 
 other hives for their own, and it is only by 
 experience that they are taught after some time 
 to distinguish the particular hive in which their 
 queen is lodged.* Their habit is to build their 
 honey-comb from above downwards, attaching 
 it to the upper part of the hive. On one occa- 
 sion when a large portion of the honey-comb 
 liad been broken oif they pursued another 
 course. The fragment had somehow become 
 fixed in the middle of the hive, and the bees 
 immediately began to erect a new structure of 
 comb on the floor, so placed as to form a pillar 
 supporting the fragment, and preventing its 
 further descent. They then filled up the space 
 above, joining the comb which had become de- 
 tached to that from which it had been separated, 
 and they concluded theu' labours by removing 
 the newly-constructed comb below ; thus prov- 
 
 * Principles of Physiology, by W. Carpenter, M.D. 
 Second Edition, p. 224. 
 
192 INSECTS. 
 
 ing that they had intended it to answer a 
 merely temporary purpose. I state this on 
 the authority of a gentleman whose attention 
 has been much directed to these and similar 
 inquiries. 
 
 The observations of M. Dujardin place it 
 beyond a doubt that bees have some means of 
 communicating with each other, answering the 
 purpose of speech. When a saucer containing 
 syrup was placed in a recess in a wall, and a 
 bee conveyed to it on the end of a stick which 
 had been also smeared with syrup, he remained 
 there for five or six minutes, and then flew back 
 to his hive. In about a quarter of an hour 
 thirty other bees issued from the same hive, and 
 came to regale themselves on the contents of 
 the saucer. The bees from the same hive con- 
 tinued their visits as lono; as the sugar remained 
 in the state of syrup and fit for their purpose, 
 but none came from another hive in the neigh- 
 bourhood. When the sugar was dry, the saucer 
 was deserted, except that every now and then 
 a straggler came, as if to inspect it, and if he 
 found that by the addition of water it was 
 
INSECTS. ] 93 
 
 again in a state of syrup his visit was presently 
 followed by that of numerous others.* 
 
 If even a portion of the observations made 
 by the younger Huber on ants be well-founded, 
 these little creatures must be regarded as pos- 
 sessing, in addition to their instincts, no small 
 portion of intelligence. It is observed by a 
 modern writer that " there is hardly a mechani- 
 cal pursuit in which insects do not excel. They 
 are excellent weavers, house-builders, archi 
 tects. They make diving-bells, bore galleries, 
 raise vaults, construct bridges. They line their 
 houses with tapestry, clean them, ventilate 
 them, and close them with admirably fitted 
 s^ving-doors. They build and store warehouses, 
 construct traps in the greatest variety, hunt 
 skilfully, rob and plunder. They poison, sabre, 
 and strangle their enemies. They have social 
 laws, a common language, division of labour, 
 and gradations of rank. They maintain armies, 
 go to war, send out scouts, appoint sentinels, 
 carry off prisoners, keep slaves, and tend do- 
 
 * Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tome xviii. p. 233. 
 
 O 
 
194 INSECTS. 
 
 mestic animals. In short, tliey are a miniature 
 copy of man rather than that of the inferior 
 vertebrata." * Of these things which have 
 been thus graphically described much may 
 indeed be referred to the operation of instincts, 
 or to Avhat Dr. Carpenter terms " unconscious 
 cerebration ; " but surely it involves a consider- 
 able petitio principii not to refer a part of them 
 to a higher principle, bearing a resemblance, 
 however remote, to human intelligence. 
 
 It would be easy to extend observations such 
 as these to other parts of the animal creation. 
 We see, among the mammalia and birds, even 
 those which are the least intellio;ent neverthe- 
 lesa availing themselves of the lessons of ex- 
 perience, and adapting their proceedings to the 
 new circumstances under which they are placed ; 
 while with respect to the gregarious animals, 
 it is plain that their association could not be 
 maintained unless they had certain rules of 
 conduct among themselves, and the power of 
 communicating their wants and feelings to 
 
 * British and Foreign Medical Keview, No. 23. p. 10. 
 
HUMAN INSTINCTS. 195 
 
 each other by some kind of language, how- 
 ever imperfect it may be. On the other hand, 
 man, gifted as he is with such (comparatively) 
 vast capacity of memory and reflection — with 
 such powers of observation ; having the gift, 
 not merely of language, but of articulate speech, 
 and the use of words — "those shadows of the 
 soul, those living sounds, which render the mere 
 clown an artist — nations immortal — orators, 
 poets, philosophers, divine!"* — by means of 
 which he lays up stores of knowledge, not only 
 for himself and for those now in existence, 
 but also for generations which are to come; 
 living not merely in the present time, but also 
 in the past, and even in the future; Avhose 
 aspirations lead him to inquiries of a higher 
 nature, beyond the visible and tangible world 
 in which he is placed; — even man, such as he 
 is, is in many respects the creature of instincts : 
 and what would he be without them? As 
 Ergates has already remarked, when he seeks 
 
 * The Pliilosopliy of Language, comprehending uni- 
 versal grammar, by Sir John Stoddart, LL.D., second 
 edition, p. 1. See additional note H. 
 
 o 2 
 
196 HUMAN INSTINCTS, 
 
 food it is at the moment, not because his reason 
 and experience tell him that he would die 
 without it, but because he is impelled to do so 
 by the uneasy sensations which the want of it 
 occasions. So also is thirst an instinct. The 
 child is attracted to the mother's breast by 
 instinct. The love of the parent for the chUd, 
 and the desire to avoid danger and prolong 
 life, are instincts also. 
 
 Man could not exist as a solitary being. 
 He has neither swiftness of feet, nor any 
 natural means of offence and defence, which 
 would enable him to compete with the buffalo, 
 the lion, or the wolf. It would have been of 
 little avail to him if the Creator had left it to 
 himself to learn by hard experience, and any 
 wisdom of his own, that he can procure his 
 own safety, and his means of subsistence, only 
 by associating with others. The desire to live 
 in society is as much an instinct in him as it 
 is in the bee, or the ant, or the beaver, or the 
 prairie dog. Ought not this to settle the dis- 
 puted question as to the existence of a moral 
 sense ? For how could mankind live in society. 
 
HUMAN INSTINCTS. 197 
 
 helping and protecting each other, and joining 
 in common pursuits, if they were not so con- 
 structed as to sympathise with each other in 
 tlieu* joys and sorrows, and if they did not feel 
 indi\-idually that they owe to others what they 
 expect others to oflfcr them in return. Ex- 
 perience and reason, and, if you please, self- 
 interest, tend to confirm, to refine, to exalt 
 these sentiments, but they do not create them. 
 The cliild is led to seek the society of other 
 children by an impulse which he cannot resist, 
 and which is independent of any intellectual 
 operation. But having done so, his moral 
 qualities, which would otherwise have remained 
 in abeyance, are gradually developed, and 
 (except there be some actual imperfection of 
 the mental faculties) the power of distinguish- 
 ing right from wrong, justice from injustice, 
 follows as a matter of necessity, the result of 
 an innate principle, and not of anything 
 acquired. 
 
 C RITES. All that you have now stated leads 
 to tliis conclusion, that although it is only as to 
 the higher faculties of the mind that mankind 
 
 o 3 
 
198 INTELLIGENCE 
 
 propius accedunt ad Deos ; that it is only as to 
 these that the Deity has created man in his 
 own image ; it is not less true that as to mere 
 animal existence these are of much less import- 
 ance than the lower faculties of instinct. If 
 the Deity had no other intention than that of 
 maintaining on the surface of the globe a large 
 number of living beings susceptible of enjoy- 
 ment and indulging in sensual gratifications, with 
 a very small proportion of painful feelings, such 
 intention would have been suflSciently carried 
 out by the creation of animals endowed with 
 imperfect memory, with no capability of ex- 
 perience, with no thought as to the future, and 
 acting solely under the direction of instinct. 
 That the scheme of creation is not thus limited, 
 and that it tends to some ulterior and grander 
 object, we may well conclude from the existence 
 of that principle of intelligence, the dawning of 
 which we observe in the lower animals, and 
 which we find more completely developed in 
 the human race. 
 
 EuBULUS. It seems, indeed, to be as you 
 have stated, that animals may, and that some 
 
 !*V 
 
AND INSTINCTS. 199 
 
 animals probably do, exist by means of instinct 
 alone, and without possessing any of the 
 superior intellectual faculties. The converse 
 of this proposition, however, does not hold 
 good, and it is plain that the latter would be 
 quite insufficient unless they were accompanied 
 by instinct. Without it, experience and the 
 anticipation of what is to come founded on the 
 recollection of the past, would be the only 
 guide, and these of course cannot belong to the 
 newly-created or newly-born animal. Indeed, 
 we cannot but suppose that when man first 
 began to exist, and for some generations after- 
 wards, the range of liis instincts must have been 
 much more extensive than it is at the present 
 time. We see the infant first dcrivino- nom'ish- 
 ment from his mother's breast, but when the 
 period of lactation is over, the experience of his 
 parents supplies him with the fit kind of food 
 derived from other sources. The absence of 
 such experience must. In the first instance, 
 have been supplied by a faculty which he does 
 not now possess (but which we see manifested 
 in the lower animals), directing him to seek that 
 
 o 4 
 
200 INTELLIGENCE 
 
 which is nutritious, and to avoid that which is 
 not so, or which is actually poisonous. It is 
 easy to conceive that much besides in the 
 habits and actions of human beings which seem 
 now to be the results of experience and imi- 
 tation, was originally to be traced to instinct ; 
 and indeed there are many things which cannot 
 well be explained otherwise. I do not ven- 
 ture to say that from this source he first 
 derived the use of fire: yet it does not 
 seem that in such an instinct there Avould be 
 anything more remarkable than in that which 
 leads the bee with the skill of a mathemati- 
 cian to construct his hexagonal cells; and 
 considerino- how terrible and destructive an 
 agent fire, if discovered accidentally, must have 
 appeared to be, it is diflicult to conceive how 
 uncivilized and untutored man could have been 
 led by mere experience to convert it to the 
 purposes of his own comfort and convenience. 
 It may be further observed that except in the 
 tropical regions of the globe fire is almost as 
 necessary to his existence as food or clothing, 
 ind that without it he could not have filled 
 
AND INSTINCTS. 201' 
 
 that place which he seems to have been destined 
 to fill in the creation. It was probably under 
 tlie influence of views similar to these that the 
 Heathen mythologists invented the fable of 
 Prometheus havins; stolen it from the Gods. 
 
 On the other hand, if we study the habits of 
 other animals, we cannot doubt that there are 
 many which, however much they are dependent 
 on their instincts, profit also by experience, 
 though in a less degree than man ; and it is 
 probable that these, not less than the human 
 species, when first called into existence were 
 endowed with instincts which they do not now 
 possess. 
 
 Eegates. Continuing your line of argu- 
 ment, I may observe that the circulation of the 
 blood, respiration, digestion, the secretion of 
 the kidneys, being immediately necessary to 
 life, are nearly the same under all circum- 
 stances, being subject to no material variation 
 except when interrupted by accident or disease. 
 There are certain instincts to which the same 
 observation may be applied. A patient in a 
 lunatic asylum may, as a consequence of his 
 
202 ACQUIRED AND 
 
 malady, lose the instinct which constitutes the 
 desire for food, so that he would die of inanition 
 if food were not introduced into his stomach by 
 artificial means ; or he may lose the instinct of 
 self-preservation and commit suicide. But 
 otherwise these particular instincts are as in- 
 variable as the functions of the vital organs. 
 There are other instincts which are intended to 
 adapt the animal to the peculiar situation in 
 which he is placed, and liable to vary with the 
 circumstances for which they are required. 
 Acquired habits in several successive genera- 
 tions become permanent, and assume the 
 character of instincts, and thus we have the 
 opportunity of seeing new instincts generated. 
 I walked in the fields during the autumn with 
 a young pointer dog which had never been 
 in the fields before. He not only pointed at a 
 covey of partridges, but remained motionless, 
 like a well-trained dog. M. Magendie relates 
 an analogous anecdote of a retriever. He bought 
 liim as a puppy in England, and took him to 
 France. Though never having been trained 
 for the purpose, he knew his duty as a retriever, 
 and performed it sufiiciently well when taken 
 
HEREDITARY INSTINCTS. 203 
 
 into the fields. Mr. Andrew Knight has rrlven 
 an account of other facts of the same kind. It 
 is probable that if we had the opportunity of 
 studying the conditions of the herds of wild 
 horses which roam over the prairies of America, 
 we shoiild find that they are born with instincts 
 which their ancestors did not possess in their 
 domesticated state, and which they would lose 
 if again brought under subjection to man. 
 
 Crites. May not the habit of using the 
 right hand in preference to the left be one of 
 the acquired instincts to which you have now 
 referred ? 
 
 Ergates. Certainly it may be so. But it 
 is at least as probable that it was an original 
 instinct. We know that some individuals are 
 left-handed, but the proportion of them is 
 very small, and I am not aware that there has 
 ever been a left-handed nation. The reason of 
 our being endowed with this particular instinct 
 is sufficiently obvious. How much inconveni- 
 ence "would arise where it is necessary for dif- 
 ferent individuals to co-operate in manual opera- 
 tions, if some were to use one hand and some 
 the other? 
 
204 ACQUIRED AND 
 
 However that may be, we must suppose that 
 the conversion of an acquired habit into an 
 instinct is attended with some actual change in 
 the organization of the brain ; and in this there 
 is nothing more remarkable than in many other 
 changes which occur in animals in consequence 
 of an alteration in their mode of life. Tims 
 the thorough-l)red horse has more compact 
 bones and a thinner skin than the cart-horse. 
 The elei)hant Avhich had been preserved in a 
 mass of ice on the borders of the Northern 
 ocean was covered with hair, which is altogether 
 wanting among his kindred of the South ; and 
 still more remarkable examples of changes of 
 this kind may be found among our domesticated 
 animals, especially in dogs. 
 
 Crites. Tills is a subject which is not only 
 interesting as a matter of science, but also of 
 considerable practical importance. Setting aside 
 his physical condition, and the influence of 
 another climate on his health, would the infant 
 born of Esquimaux parents, living in huts of 
 snow, in the dreary regions of the north, be 
 equally fitted with the negro to assume the 
 
HEREDITARY INSTINCTS. 205 
 
 habits and mode of life of those whose ancestors 
 have resided during many successive generations 
 under a tropical sun, amid the luxuriant vege- 
 tation of a tropical climate ? or would the infant 
 nesrro be fitted to vmdertake the life of the 
 Esquimaux ? The negroes of Haiti, who passed 
 at once from a state of slavery into that of free- 
 dom and the imitation of civilized life, are 
 already relapsing into barbarism, and returning, 
 in spite of the humanising influence of Christ- 
 ianity, to the superstitions of their African 
 progenitors. In like manner, nations become 
 adapted to the peculiar mode of government 
 under which their ancestors have lived ; and 
 experience has shown that it is equally dan- 
 gerous suddenly to change a despotism for a 
 free constitution, or the latter for a despotism. 
 The original founders of the French revolution 
 had grand objects in view. They saw how 
 much free institutions tend to elevate the cha- 
 racter and extend the happiness of mankind, and 
 they had a strong apprehension of the opposite 
 tendency of the former government of their 
 country. But they overlooked the fact, that 
 
206 OTHER INSTINCTS MODIFIED 
 
 no government is good for which those who are 
 to live under it are unprepared, and they failed 
 by attempting too much. If they had been 
 content with beginning the work of regenera- 
 tion with a prospect of a further, but gradual 
 improvement in the course of after generations, 
 it is probable that their country would never 
 have groaned under the tyranny of the mob, 
 nor have sought refuge from it under the 
 milder despotism of the Emperor. On the 
 same principle it is that civilization can be only 
 gradually advanced ; and that all that the Czar 
 Peter could accomplish was to produce an out- 
 ward semblance of it in his capital, while the 
 masses of the large population of his empire 
 remained as barbarous as they were before he 
 attempted to force civilization on them. The 
 sudden emancipation of the negroes in the 
 slave-holding states of America would be pro- 
 ductive of notliing but misery and ruin to 
 themselves and the white popidation ; whUe 
 there is good reason to believe that a different 
 result would follow if they and their masters 
 were gradually prepared for so great a change 
 
BY THE SOCIAL INSTINCT. 207 
 
 during even two or three successive gene- 
 rations. 
 
 EuBULUS. In what you liave now said you 
 have in part anticipated some observations 
 which I was about to oflPer. While the study 
 of instincts in other animals is interesting to 
 the naturalist and physiologist, that of the 
 instincts of the himian race is not less interest- 
 ing to the moral, and, I may add, to the political 
 philosopher. The majority of instincts belong- 
 ing to man resemble those of the inferior animals, 
 inasmuch as they relate to the preservation of the 
 individual and the continuation of the species. 
 To tliese the social instinct is superadded, not 
 indeed, peculiar to man, but in him attaining a 
 greater degree of development than in other 
 creatures. This may be regarded as being in 
 many respects antagonistic to the other instincts; 
 and in order that society should exist, it is 
 necessary that the latter shoidd be in a great 
 degree subjected to the former. The first 
 impulse of a hungry man, not less than that of 
 a hungry wolf, is to possess himself with food 
 wherever he finds it. AYhfiC— Jiu^ Davy, on 
 
208 , THE EELIGIOUS INSTINCT. 
 
 the bank of a river in Ceylon, found the young 
 alligator just escaping from his egg, the newly- 
 born animal, assuming an attitude of defiance, 
 bit the stick which opposed his progress. So 
 the natural disposition of man is to defy opposi- 
 tion and resent an inj ury. The child who can 
 scarcely walk, beats the table against which he 
 has struck his head. The social instinct is 
 intended not to extinguish but to modify and 
 correct his other instincts. But for the attain- 
 ment of this object it is not in itself sufficient. 
 It requires the aid of experience, education, 
 example, and reason. In proportion as the in- 
 tellectual faculties are more perfect, so is the 
 social instinct more efficient. The gregarious 
 elephant is more intelligent than the solitary 
 tio:er. As the dog; is more intelligent than the 
 
 COO 
 
 cat, so has he social and moral qualities wh'ch 
 the latter does not possess ; and in like manner 
 human society is a more perfect institution than 
 that of any other animals which live in associa- 
 tion. Nor must we omit the operation of another 
 cause which mainly contributes to the attainment 
 of that higher degree of civilization in which the 
 
THE KELIGIOUS INSTINCT. 209 
 
 sentiment of duty prevails over the more selfish 
 apj)etites. The disposition of man, even in liis 
 most degraded state, to believe in supernatural 
 agencies is so universal, and so manifestly the 
 result of his peculiar constitution, that we must 
 regard it as ha^'ing very much of the character 
 of an instinct. As he advance^ in knowledge 
 and has leisure for observation and reflection, 
 the perception of the beauty, grandeur, and 
 hannony of the universe, of the evidence of 
 intention and design, and of the adaptation of 
 means to ends in everything around him, and 
 of the large amount of good with the small pro- 
 jjortion of e\i\, which is manifested in the con 
 dition of all living creatures, leads him to the 
 knowledge of an intelligent and beneficent 
 Creator, to whom he 7«ay at any rate be re- 
 sponsible for the right use of the faculties 
 with which he is endowed; and thus the re- 
 lifHous sentiment becomes eno-rafted on the 
 rude instinct of the savage. Thus, man as 
 he exists under the best form of civilization, 
 is made what he is by the operation of various 
 causes. There are his original instincts, with- 
 
 r 
 
210 PRIMARY TRUTHS OF 
 
 out which he could no more have continued 
 to exist than without the action of the heart. 
 There are habits, which begun in one, and 
 continued in subsequent generations, become 
 confirmed in him, and bear a close resem- 
 blance to instincts. These modify and correct 
 each other, and they are all, in a greater or 
 less degree, under the dominion of the intel- 
 lect. Such is the general view wliich we 
 must take of his condition ; but if we attempt 
 to make a more exact analysis of it, we find 
 the problem too complicated for a satisfactory 
 solution ; the various influences to which he is 
 subject being so intermixed with each other, 
 that it is unpossible for us to determine in 
 each particular instance how much of his sen- 
 timents and conduct is to be attributed to one 
 of them, and how much to another. 
 
 Crites. You have referred to the disposi- 
 tion of human beings to believe in supernatural 
 agencies as partaking of the character of in- 
 stincts. If you are correct in so doing, it seems 
 to me that you may with equal reason include 
 in the same category our belief in the existence 
 
BUFFIEE AND EEID. 211 
 
 of a material world ; our belief that what we 
 remember as having happened, happened in 
 reality ; in short, in all that some have in- 
 tended to describe under the name of innate 
 ideas; and that Buffier, and Reid after him, 
 regarded as primary and fundamental truths ; 
 the knowledge of wliich is forced upon us by 
 our own constitution, and is independent of 
 experience and reasoning. Xow, although I 
 do not admit the exactness of the catalogue of 
 these primary truths, which has been furnished 
 to us by the writers whom I have mentioned, 
 and, indeed, do not doubt that they have in- 
 cluded in it some kinds of knowledge which 
 are derived from other sources, yet I do not 
 dispute the correctness of their general views ; 
 and, indeed, it is plain that it has been prac- 
 tically admitted by even the most sceptical of 
 those philosophers who have written on the 
 subject. But are we really justified in regard- 
 ing such kinds of belief as being of the nature 
 of instinct ? 
 
 EuBULUS. They difier from them in one 
 very essential circumstance. It has been shown 
 
 F 2 
 
212 PRIMARY TRUTHS, ETC. 
 
 that instmcts are far from being constant and 
 immutable, as under a change of circumstances 
 certain instincts are lost, so are others gene- 
 rated. Even those which are of the greatest 
 necessity, which seem to be the most constant, 
 may, under certain circumstances, be found to 
 be wanting in an individual on whom they had 
 been fully developed previously. But it is 
 otherwise with those articles of prunary belief 
 which are represented as the foundation of all 
 our knowledge. However strange may be the 
 illusions of the lunatic, or however convincing 
 the arguments of the metaphysician, neither 
 the one nor the other can escape from the be- 
 lief that there is an external world independent 
 of himself, or that what he remembers to have 
 happened did actually occur. Taking these 
 things into consideration, it seems not un- 
 reasonable to suppose that this class of con- 
 victions has some higher source than that which 
 belongs to mere instincts, and that they are 
 actually inherent in the mental principle itself, 
 and independent of our physical organization. 
 
213 
 
 THE SIXTH DliVLOGUE. 
 
 Views of Human Nature. — The Science of Human 
 Nature — its Objects and Applications — to be dis- 
 tinguished in its higher Department from the mere 
 IVactical Knowledge of Human Character which Men 
 acquire for their own Purposes. — Different Oppor- 
 tunities of piirsuing the Study of Human Nature pre- 
 sented to different Individuals. — The Observation of 
 the Influence of the Body on the Mind, and of the 
 Mind on the Body, a necessary Part of it. — The 
 Science of Human Nature essential to the Science of 
 Government. — The Pretensions of Phrenology. — 
 Anatomical Objections to it. — Observations on the 
 Evidence on which It rests. — Consideration of the 
 Question as to the Relation of the Size of the Brain to 
 the Development of the Intellect. — General View of 
 the Circumstances which tend to form or modify 
 Men's Characters. — The Science of Human Nature 
 not reducible to any Simple Rules. — Qualifications 
 necessary for the Pursuit of it. — Self-knowledge. — 
 Duties and Responsibilities. — Conclusion. 
 
 The term which we had allotted for our visit 
 was drawing to a close. On the day preceding 
 that of our departure, after wandering for some 
 time exposed to the rays of an August sun, we 
 found ourselves enjoying the shelter of the beech 
 
 P 3 
 
214 TIEWS OF 
 
 wood, which I have already mentioned as being 
 ■ in the neighbourhood of our friend's habitation. 
 A tree which had been lately felled afforded us a 
 seat. The cool shade was refreshing to us after 
 the glare and heat of the sunshine in the open 
 country ; and the stillness and silence which 
 prevailed afforded us the opportunity of renew- 
 ing our conversation on subjects connected with 
 those which we had discussed previously. 
 
 " It is probable," said Crites, " that such 
 feelings might not be of long duration ; but I 
 own that at the present moment the scene 
 which is presented to me forms a delightful 
 contrast to the bustle and activity of my every- 
 day life ; and that it seems that I should be 
 well contented to escape from the turmoil of 
 the world, and the anxieties of a profession, 
 and pass the rest of my days in some such re- 
 tirement as this, — 
 
 " ' The world forgetting, by the world forgot.' 
 
 exchanging the study of the vices, caprices, and 
 vagaries of mankind, for that of books and the 
 contemplation of the beauties of the country." 
 
HUMAN NATURE. 215 
 
 EuBULUS. You judged rightly in saying 
 that these feelings might not be of long dura- 
 tion. I can assure you from my own expe- 
 rience, that such a mode x)f life as you seem to 
 contemplate would never satisfy you unless you 
 were to combine with it some worthy pursuit 
 appertaining to others as well as to yourself. 
 You would, if thus living only for yourself, 
 soon find the social instinct of which we were 
 speaking yesterday, as irresistible as that of 
 hunger ; so that you might as well pretend by 
 a process of reasoning to abstain from eating if 
 you were famished, as from seeking the society 
 of your fellow-creatures, when you had been 
 for some time deprived of it. 
 
 Further, it seems to me that you are not like 
 your usual self, and that you do not quite do 
 justice to mankind, when you refer merely to 
 theii- vices, caprices, and vagaries. It is true 
 that of these there is much in their composition, 
 which we mio-ht well wish to have been other- 
 wise ; but let us not overlook the numerous 
 examples which we meet with, of kind and 
 
 p 4 
 
216 THE STUDY OF 
 
 generous actions, of sacrifices of self-interest 
 made for the good of others in private, and 
 sometimes even in public life. I have now 
 lived long in the world, and have been mixed 
 up with various classes of persons ; and I may 
 truly say that, although I have met with evil 
 more than enough in others, and am not, I 
 hope, altogether insensible of my own defects 
 and faUiugs, my individual experience has led 
 me to entertain, on the whole, a better opinion 
 of mankind than that which I should have had 
 if I had studied the subject only in books. I 
 speak, be it observed, of moral qualities. As 
 to those of the intellect I own, that some time 
 since, when I had the opportunity of passing 
 an evening in the company of two lads belong- 
 ing to the aborigines of Australia, I was lost in 
 wonder, and could scarcely comprehend that 
 from so rude a stock should have proceeded 
 a race of beings so gifted as some of these 
 with whom it has been my good fortune to 
 be acquainted; so full of knowledge ; pene- 
 trating into the mysteries of the material world ; 
 subjecting the physical forces to their will ; at 
 
HUMAN NATURE. 217 
 
 the same time analysing the phenomena of the 
 mind itself; and ascending from thence to some 
 knowledge, however limited, of the one Supreme 
 Intellect which supports and regulates the uni- 
 verse. To us, situated as we are, with our 
 duties and in our sphere of action, there is, I 
 apprehend, no more woi'thy object of study 
 than man himself; his instincts and higher 
 faculties, his past history, his futm*e destiny ; 
 in short, the " science of human nature" taken 
 in its most extended sense. And in this sense 
 it is a most extensive science indeed, including 
 as it does anatomy and physiology ; intellectual, 
 moral, and political philosophy ; ethnology, and 
 I know not how much besides. Even the most 
 abstract sciences, though not directly, are in- 
 directly related to it, as we value them only in 
 proportion as they tend to gratify the curiosity, 
 supply the necessities, or elevate the character 
 of man. As we commonly imderstand it, how- 
 ever, the science of human nature has a more 
 limited signification, implying a knowledge of 
 the instincts, the passions, the intellectual ca- 
 pacities, the active power of our species, and. 
 
218 THE STUDY OF 
 
 above all, the motives by whicli the conduct of 
 individuals is regulated. 
 
 Crites. Such as you have now described 
 it, it may be said to be a science, which belongs 
 as much to every individual among us as to 
 the philosopher, dependant as we are on each 
 other, and compelled as we are to learn some- 
 thino; of the characters of those with whom we 
 associate. The rich man's valet studies his 
 master's temper and caprices, learns to antici- 
 pate his wants ; in those matters in which he is 
 himself concerned, saves him the trouble of act- 
 ing and even of thinking for himself ; and thus 
 at last acquires an influence over him, which is 
 not the less real because his master is uncon- 
 scious of it. The statesman, the lawyer, the 
 merchant, the medical practitioner, the specu- 
 lator, these and others, in their several ways, 
 study the disposition of other men, as far as it 
 is necessary for them to do so, with a view to 
 their own advantage, or to enable them better 
 to perform the duties belonging to their respec- 
 tive callino;s. 
 
 EuBULUS. It seems, however, that we are 
 
HUMAN NATURE. 2 I 9 
 
 scarcely justified in dignifying the practical 
 knowledge of human nature which men gene- 
 rally possess with the title of a science. For 
 the most part they view it under only one of 
 its numerous aspects ; the sight of each indi- 
 vidual not extending beyond the little clique to 
 which he himself belongs ; and there are none 
 to whom this remark is more generally appli- 
 cable than to those, who, independent of their 
 own exertions, are born to the inheritance of 
 ease and affluence. Those who study human 
 nature as a whole form an exception to the 
 general ride. Some have not the talent of ob- 
 servation ; others have not the necessary lei- 
 sure ; and of those who are not wanting in 
 these respects the greater part have not the 
 inclination to do so. 
 
 Crites. You may add that many have not 
 the opportunity. Inquiries such as these can- 
 not be carried on in a closet. They belong 
 altogether to active life. Then be it observed 
 that in some situations you come in contact 
 only with a particular class, while in others the 
 field of obser\-ation is more extensive. It seems 
 
220 THE STUDY OF 
 
 to me that medical practitioners, if they know 
 how to avail themselves of it, have in this re- 
 spect an advantage over most other professions ; 
 partly, because they have to deal with every 
 order in society, from the high-born patrician 
 and prosperous millionnaire, down to the poor 
 man in the hospital, seeing them as they really 
 are, under those circumstances of trial, which, 
 more than anything else, level all artificial 
 distinctions ; but more especially, because they 
 are necessarily led to contemplate the mind, 
 not simply in the abstract, as is the case with 
 the mere metaphysician, but in connexion with 
 tlie physical structure with which it is as- 
 sociated. 
 
 Ergates. Certainly the opinion which you 
 have now expressed seems not to be without 
 foundation. It is the business of medical prac- 
 titioners to study, not only the influence of the 
 mind on the body, but also that of the body on 
 the mind ; and, in so doing, they have the oppor- 
 tunity of learning more than others to trace 
 moral effects to physical caviseB. Where others 
 complain of a fretful and peevish temper, it 
 
HUMAN NATURE. 221 
 
 may be that they are led to make allowance 
 for the difficulty of self-restraint, where there 
 is a superabundance of litliic acid in the blood, 
 or an organic disease of the viscera. In the 
 catalepsy induced in a nervous girl by the so- 
 called mesmeric passes, they see only one of 
 the numerous phases of that multiform disease 
 hysteria ; and in the mischievous, and sometimes 
 even in the benevolent enthusiast, who, by his 
 sincerity and earnestness, enlists in the cause 
 which he undertakes the sympathy of the mul- 
 titude, their more experienced observation will 
 often detect the conunencement of illusions and 
 the germ of insanity. 
 
 It would, however, be a very great mistake 
 to re2;ard tliis kind of knowledjTC as beino; alto- 
 gether peculiar to medical practitioners. In 
 fact the connexion between the mind and body 
 is in many instances too palpable to be over- 
 looked by any practical observer of mankind. 
 For example, it is referred to by Lord Chester- 
 field, when he says that many a battle has been 
 lost because the general had a fit of indigestion ; 
 and you may recollect that I stated on a former 
 
222 THE STUDY OF 
 
 occasion that INIr. Chadwick had clearly ex- 
 posed the operation of living in an unwholesome 
 atmosphere as inducing the habit of gin-drink- 
 ing with nil the frightful moral consequences 
 which follow in its train. Still it must be ad- 
 mitted that members of the medical profession 
 have better opportunities of obtaining know- 
 ledge of this kind than most other persons ; 
 and hence it is that in many tilings which 
 even in these days of education, and in spite 
 of the advancement of knowledge, others regard 
 with wonder as the result of some unknown 
 and mysterious agency, they, with some rare 
 exc<?ptions, see nothing that is not to be ex- 
 l)lained on well-known principles, or in any 
 degree more remarkable than the exploits of 
 M. Robin or other conjurors. 
 
 EuBULUS. Some may pursue the inquiry 
 with more or less of a philosophical spirit and 
 others merely as a matter of practical obser- 
 vation and experience ; but Crites has truly 
 stated that some knowledge of human nature 
 is necessary to all those who have any duties 
 (however small) to perform in society, and the 
 
HUMAN NATURE. 223 
 
 liieher and more arduous these duties are, the 
 greater is the amount of knowledge that is re- 
 quired. It forms the most essential part of the 
 science of government, and to the want of it 
 may be attributed many national calamities, 
 and the greater part of the mistakes made by 
 those to whom the affairs of nations are en- 
 trusted. The principal advantage possessed by 
 an adventurer such as Cromwell, or the first 
 Napoleon, is, that he cannot have risen by his 
 own exertions through the various grades, 
 which he has occupied in the course of his 
 career, associating with others on equal terms, 
 without acquiring an insight into men's minds 
 and characters, which he could not have ac- 
 quu-ed otherwise. The unhaj^py Louis XVI. 
 and Marie Antoinette, surrounded as they had 
 been by the etiquette and adulation of a Pa- 
 risian court, received almost their first lessons 
 in human nature from the brutal frenzy of a 
 revolutionary mob. How different might have 
 been tlie result both for themselves and for 
 Europe, if they had enjoyed a less restricted 
 intercourse with their fellow-creatures ; or if at 
 
224 PHRENOLOGY. 
 
 the head of a constitutional government, they 
 had tlie opportunity of seeing the thoughts and 
 feelings of the public, and the spirit of the 
 times reflected by an independent press ! The 
 great Duke, if he could have had an army such 
 as he required, made to his hand, might, by 
 means of his military skill, have been a success- 
 ful general, and " the conqueror of a hundred 
 battles," but it would have been still a problem 
 how that anny had been created, and how he 
 eumiounted the various difficulties which he 
 had to encounter, if the publication of his de- 
 spatches had not disclosed to us the great in- 
 sight which he possessed into the moral and 
 intellectual qualities of others. A statesman 
 may form grand conceptions in his closet, but 
 these will be of little avail if he knows not how 
 to select the right men to carry his plans into 
 execution ; or if, overlooking, or being ignorant 
 of, the different characters of the different races 
 of mankind he applies to one of them a mode 
 of government which is fitted only for another. 
 Ceites. From the way in which you treat 
 the subject, I suspect that you have disre- 
 
PHRENOLOGY. 225 
 
 garded, or are not a convert to, the doctrines of 
 phrenology. Nevertheless, among my friends 
 I am acquainted with some, and those too 
 persons of much intelligence, Avho believe that 
 these afford a sort of Royal road to a knowledge 
 of men's dispositions and characters ; and I 
 well remember that, some years ago when 
 Lord Glenelg occupied the situation of Colo- 
 nial Secretary, a memorial, signed by many 
 persons of repute, was addressed to him, se- 
 riously proposing that he should adopt the 
 phrenological method of investigation, with a 
 view to a classification of the convicts before 
 they were transported to the colonies ; it 
 being further proposed that an experienced 
 plu'enologist should be taken into the service 
 of the state, for the purpose of making the 
 necessary examination of their heads. 
 
 I do not mean to say that I am myself 
 either a believer or an unbeliever in the 
 system ; and I am led to mention it chiefly 
 because Ergates, who has attended more than 
 I have to questions of this kind, seemed, in 
 one of our former conversations, to admit that 
 
 Q 
 
226 PHRENOLOGY. 
 
 there may be some foundation for these doc- 
 -.trines, when he expressed an opinion that the 
 brain Is not a single organ, but a congeries 
 of organs, each having its peculiar function 
 allotted to it. 
 
 EiiGATES. Such, certainly, is the conclusion 
 at which I have arrived, and which seems to 
 derive confirmation, both from the anatomical 
 structure of the brain, and from the observa- 
 tions of experimental physiologists. But you 
 must not, therefore, suppose that I have the 
 smallest faith in what is called phrenology, 
 which is quite a different matter. The phre- 
 nological theory is that, of the various instincts, 
 dispositions, and talents, each has a separate 
 organ allotted to it; that these organs, with 
 only a single exception, are situated in the 
 hemispheres of the cerebrum ; that, in propor- 
 tion as they are more or less developed, so is 
 there a greater or less development of the 
 faculties or qualities which they represent; 
 that bv the external figure of the head the 
 relative size of these various organs may be 
 ascertained; and, lastly, that we have thus 
 
PHRENOLOGY. 227 
 
 afforded to us the means of determining the 
 characters of Individuals, so as to form a pretty 
 accurate notion of what their future conduct 
 will be, independently of all experience as to 
 their conduct formerly. Now, there are two 
 simple anatomical facts wliich the founders of 
 this system have overlooked, or with Avhich 
 they were probably unacquainted, and which 
 of themselves afford a sufficient contradiction 
 of it. 
 
 1st. They refer the mere animal propensities 
 chiefly to the posterior lobes, and the intel- 
 lectual faculties to the anterior lobes of the 
 cerebrum. But the fact is that the posterior 
 lobes exist onlv in the human bi*ain, and in 
 that of some of the tribe of monkeys, and are 
 absolutely Avanting in quadrupeds. Of this 
 there is no more doubt than there is of any 
 other of the best-established facts in anatomy ; 
 so that, if phrenology be true, the most marked 
 distinction between man, on the one hand, and 
 a cat, or a horse, or a sheep, on the other, 
 ought to be, that the foi-mer has the animal 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 PHRENOLOGY. 
 
 propensities developed to tlieir fullest extent, 
 and that these are deficient in the latter. 
 
 2ndly. Birds have various propensities and 
 faculties in common with us, and in the 
 writings of phrenologists many of their illus- 
 trations are derived from this class of vertebral 
 animals. But the structure of the bird's brain 
 is essentially different, not only from that of 
 the human brain, but from that of tlie brain of 
 the manunalia generally. In order that I may 
 make this plain, you must excuse me if I 
 repeat what I said on the subject formerly. 
 In the mammalia, the name of corpus striatum 
 has been given to each of two organs of a 
 small size compared with that of the entire 
 brain, distinguished by a peculiar disposition of 
 the grey, and the fibrous, or medullary sub- 
 stance, of wliich they are composed, and placed 
 under the entire mass of the hemispheres of 
 the cerebrum. In the bird's brain, what ap- 
 pears to a superficial observer to correspond to 
 these hemispheres is found, on a more minute 
 examination, to be apparently the corpora 
 striata developed to an enormous size; that 
 
PHREXOLOGY. 229 
 
 Avhich really corresponds to the cerebral hemi- 
 spheres being merely a thin layer expanded 
 over their upper surface, and presenting no 
 appearance of convolutions. It is plain, then, 
 that there can be no phrenological organs in 
 the bird's brain corresponding to those which 
 are said to exist in the human brain, or in 
 that of other mamynalia. Yet birds are as 
 pugnacious and destructive : as much attached 
 to the localities in which they reside, and as 
 careful of their offspring, as any individual 
 among us; and I suppose that no one will 
 deny, that if there be special organs of tune or 
 of imitation in man, such organs ought not to 
 be wanting in the bullfinch and parrot. 
 
 EuBULUS. I do not pretend to have much 
 knowledge of anatomy, but even without it — 
 from the perusal of the writings of Spurzheim 
 and some other phrenologists — I had come 
 very nearly to the same conclusion with that 
 which may be deduced from the facts men- 
 tioned by Ergates. It seems to me that the 
 classification of faculties which these writers 
 have made is altogether artificial, and that it 
 
 Q 3 
 
230 PHREXOLOGY. 
 
 is not at all reasonable to suppose that for each 
 of these a special material organ must be 
 required. If Ave admit the separate existence 
 of the thirty-three faculties, or propensities, 
 enumerated by Spurzheim, we might with 
 equal propriety admit the existence of fifty 
 others, for which, however, the phrenological 
 map of the head leaves no vacant space. 
 
 Then, when I consider the evidence on 
 which the determination of the seat of the 
 several organs is founded, I can conceive 
 nothing more fantastic or unsatisfactory, or 
 more unlike that which is considered to be 
 necessary to the formation of just conclusions 
 in other sciences. 
 
 Sometimes the seat of a particular organ is 
 ascertained by a particular part of the head 
 beino; warmer than the rest. It was thus that 
 Dr. Gall was first led to detect the seat of the 
 sexual passion in the cerebellum.* But is it 
 really the fict that one part of the head is 
 Avarmer than another if they are equally 
 
 * See additional Xote I. 
 
PHRENOLOGY. 231 
 
 covered or uncovered ? Was it ever found to 
 be so by a delicate thermometer? or is it at 
 all probable that so much more heat should be 
 generated in one portion of the brain than is 
 generated in other parts, as to be perceptible 
 through the bone and skin, and the hairy 
 scalp ? 
 
 The organ of philoprogenitiveness, by which 
 parents are impelled to love their offspring, is 
 said to be placed in the back part of the head, 
 in the posterior lobes of the cerebrum, imme- 
 diately above the cerebellum. Now observe 
 in Avhat manner this discovery was effected. 
 Dr. Gall found a protuberance in this part of 
 the heads of women, and for five years he 
 considered the subject, but could advance no 
 fjirther. At last he discovered a similar pro- 
 tuberance in the heads of monkeys. The 
 question then arose, what is there in common 
 between women and monkeys ? At this point 
 he obtained the assistance of a clergyman, who 
 observed that monkeys are very fond of their 
 
 offspring, and thus solved the difficulty : the 
 
 Q 4 
 
232 PHRENOLOGY. 
 
 conclusion at which he had arrived bcinG" after- 
 -wards confirmed by the following circum- 
 stance, — A woman in whom this part of the 
 head Avas unusually prominent being ill of a 
 fever, and (we may suppose) delirious, believed 
 herself to be pregnant with five children. 
 
 I shall trouble you by giving another 
 example of the manner in which these re- 
 searches were conducted by the two founders 
 of the phrenological system. They are both 
 of opinion that the organ of pride is situated 
 in the back part of the head, and hence it is, 
 as Dr. Spurzheim has observed, that " all the 
 motions of i)ride take place in the direction 
 upwards and backwards." But Dr. Gall 
 further believes that it is the greater develop- 
 ment of this organ which leads certain animals 
 to prefer to live in elevated situations. Thus 
 there is a proud rat which lives in hay-lofts, 
 and in the attic story of a house ; and another, 
 an humble rat, which is content to live in 
 cellars and gutters. It is under the same 
 influence that certain children and little men 
 display a proud disposition by climbing on the 
 
niKEXOLOGY. 233 
 
 backs of chairs, and that kings and emperors 
 are seated on elevated thrones. 
 
 Crites. I do not undertake to defend such 
 far-fetched illustrations as those to which 
 you have referred, and I am ready to ad- 
 mit that even those which are offered by 
 ]\Ir. George Combe (though his phrenological 
 treatise displays very much more of a philo- 
 sophical spirit than those of his predecessors) 
 partake too much of the same loose and un- 
 scientific character. Being no anatomist, I 
 cannot venture to make any observations on 
 the anatomical statement which has been made 
 by Ergates. Still, setting aside all other con- 
 siderations, if it be true that there are persons 
 who, from the examination of the shape of a 
 man's head, can form a pretty accurate notion 
 as to his character, however the fiict is to 
 be accounted for, there must be something 
 more than what is merely fanciful in phreno- 
 logy. Facts are not to be rejected merely 
 because the explanation offered of them proves 
 to be erroneous ; and I have not only heard of 
 them from others, but have myself known 
 
234 PHRENOLOGY. 
 
 instances of such shrewd observations on cha- 
 racter made by phrenologists that I can scarcely 
 believe them to have been purely accidental. 
 
 EuBULUS. I do not in the least doubt the 
 accuracy of your statement; and indeed I 
 might refer to a part of my own experience in 
 its'- favour. But I mioht also refer to still more 
 numerous instances in which the phrenological 
 examination of the head has proved to be a 
 failure. You may perhaps regard me as being 
 in some degree a prejudiced witness, and I will 
 therefore merely refer you to an account, pub- 
 lished some years ago, of the visit of Dr. Gall, 
 the inventor of the science, to Sir Francis 
 Chantrey's studio; when he pronounced the 
 head of Su* Walter Scott (who had not the 
 smallest turn for mathematics) to be that of a 
 great mathematician ; that of Troughton, the 
 mathematical instrument maker, to be the head 
 of a poet ; and at the same time discovered the 
 indications of a superior intellect in another 
 head, the living proprietor of which had cer- 
 tainly as little claim as any man could possibly 
 have to be thus distinguished. 
 
niuExoLOGY. 235 
 
 But even it" the errors of phrenology were 
 less numerous than I believe them to be, that 
 would not go far towards convincinjj me of the 
 value of their art. It is not very difficult for a 
 clever observer of human nature to foi'm a 
 notion of some part of a man's character in the 
 course of a brief conversation with him ; and 
 an enthusiast in phrenology may very honestly 
 persuade himself that he has obtained from the 
 examination of his head that knowledge which 
 he has really obtained from other sources. 
 Then observe how comprehensive the faculties 
 and propensities of the phrenological system 
 are su})posed to be. A large development of 
 the organ of destructiveness in the head of 
 Hare the murderer, explained how it was that 
 he was led to murder sixteen human beino-s 
 that he might sell their bodies.* But in the 
 head of another person who never committed a 
 murder it is sufficient to find that it exists in 
 combination with a disposition to satire, or to 
 deface mile-stones; and in the beaver and 
 
 * A System of Phrenology, by George Combe, 5th 
 edition, vol. i. p. 262, &c. 
 
236 PHKEXOLOGY. 
 
 squirrel, it explains how it is that these animals 
 are impelled to cut and tear in pieces the bark, 
 leaves, and branches of trees, for the innocent 
 purpose of constructing their cabins and nests. 
 So the large size of the organ of acquisitiveness 
 not only leads one person to be a thief and 
 another to hoard, but it also explains the habits 
 of the spendthrift (who does not hoard at all) ; 
 and it impels storks and swallows to return 
 after their migrations to establish themselves, 
 each succeeding year in the same locality. 
 Following these examples, I do not see that a 
 phrenologist can be much at a loss in finding a 
 character for any individual suited to the pecu- 
 liar confiixuration of his head. But observe 
 further, if a difficulty were to occur, how easily 
 it may be explained away by an ingenious 
 phrenologist. If ever there was a race of 
 thorouMilv remorseless murderers in the world, 
 such were the Thucrs of India. Generation 
 after generation they were born and bred to 
 murder. They looked to murder as the source 
 not only of profit but of honour. Dr. Spry 
 sent the skulls of seven of these demons, Avho 
 
PHRENOLOGY. 237 
 
 had been hanged at Saugor, to some plirenolo- 
 gical friends in Scotland. To their surprise, 
 destructiveness was not a predominant organ 
 in any one of them. But the anomaly was 
 soon explained. The Thugs, it was said, had 
 no abstract love of murder, but murdered for 
 the sake of robbery.* It would not be easy 
 to show that there was any difference between 
 the Thugs and Hare, or Burke, or Bishop in 
 this respect. 
 
 Ergates. After what I have already said, 
 you will scarely suspect me of being a convert 
 to the doctrines of phrenology. We must not, 
 however, lose sight of the facts, that idiots for 
 the most part have small heads, and that we 
 are generally agreed in considering a large head 
 and a capacious forehead as indicative of su- 
 perior intellectual endowments. In like manner 
 as the ancient sculptors gave to the figures of 
 some of the Heathen Gods the appearance of 
 youth, by shortening the jaws so that they 
 coidd not be supposed to contain the entire 
 number of teeth belonging to the adult, so they 
 
 * India, Pictorial and Historical, London, 1854, p. 356. 
 
238 SIZE OF THE BRAIN 
 
 expressed the Divine intelligence of others by 
 increasing the dimensions of the forehead. But 
 even to this rule there are exceptions. Some 
 very stupid persons, within my own knowledge, 
 have had very large heads. On the other hand, 
 if we may trust to the authority of the bust of 
 Newton in the apartment of the Royal Society, 
 the head of that mighty genius was below the 
 average size ; and Moore describes the head of 
 Byron as having been unusually small, with 
 a narrow forehead ; the fact being confirmed 
 by an anecdote related by Colonel Napier, of 
 a party of fourteen persons having tried to 
 put on his hat, and having found that it was 
 too small to fit any one of them. On a former 
 occasion I adverted to an hypothesis by which 
 these anomalies may be explained. The nervous 
 force is supposed to be generated in the grey or 
 vesicular substance, of which the greater part 
 is expanded on the surface of the cerebral 
 hemispheres, the extent of that surface depend- 
 ino; not so much on the bulk of the entire 
 brain as on the number and depth of the con- 
 volutions. Without, however, having recourse 
 
AND MENTAL FACULTIES. 239 
 
 to this explanation, it is easy to suppose that a 
 more oi* less refined organization may make all 
 the difference, so that the smaller brain of one 
 individual may be a more perfect instrument 
 for the mind to use than the larger one of 
 another. 
 
 EuBULUS. Men's characters are indeed 
 compounded of so many elements, and are in- 
 fluenced by so great a variety of circumstances, 
 that it is difficult to understand how they can 
 be determined by any such simple rules as 
 those laid down by the phrenologists. 
 
 First, there are those original and necessary 
 instincts, without which the human race could 
 not exist at all, but which are nevertheless, in 
 like manner as the higher or intellectual facul- 
 ties, more complete and of greater intensity in 
 some individuals than they are in others. Then 
 there are those habits which are gradually ac- 
 quired during several successive generations, by 
 which chiefly the different races of mankind 
 are distinguished from each other ; which cause 
 one nation to be peaceful and another warlike; 
 Avhich engender low-mindcdness and cunning 
 
240 CAUSES INFLUENCING 
 
 in those who have had an uncertain tenure of 
 life, or liberty, or property, under an arbitrary 
 and oppressive government ; and give rise to 
 liberal sentiments, and an open and manly 
 bearino; in those who have had the advantage 
 of belonging to a free and well-regulated com- 
 munity. To these Ave may add those other 
 habits and modes of thinking which are the 
 result of early discipline and training in indi- 
 vidual cases ; which dispose him who has been 
 brought up among thieves to become a thief; 
 which cause the spoiled child, whatever his 
 original disposition may have been, to grow up 
 into the selfish man ; which explain how it is 
 that of two persons with the same amount of 
 natural talent, one remains from the beginning 
 to the end of his life absorbed in frivolous 
 pursuits, and dies unregretted, or perhaps de- 
 spised ; while the other is distinguished for his 
 genius and superior intellectual attainments, 
 transmitting his name to jDosterity as that of a 
 benefactor of the human race. If we pursue 
 the inquiry further, we find that in addition to 
 moral agencies such as I have enumerated, there 
 
men's characters. 241 
 
 arc various physical agencies ^Yhicl^ co-operate 
 with them in forming individual characters. 
 One man is in that state of bodily health, that 
 even in spite of adverse circumstances he is 
 always cheerful and contented, ready to sympa- 
 thize with others, and obtaining their sympathy 
 in return. Another oppressed by chronic 
 dyspepsia, or visceral disease, or having his 
 nervous energies exhausted by excessive labour, 
 is in that condition whicli causes every impres- 
 sion made on liim to be attended Avith more or 
 less of an uneasy feeling ; and hence he is fret- 
 ful and peevish, doubtful as to himself, suspicious 
 of others ; so that it is only under the influence 
 of a high moral principle, and by a constant effort 
 of self-control, that he can avoid beinij unG;ra- 
 cious in his general behaviour, and in his dealings 
 with mankind, bring himself up to the level of 
 his more fortunate competitor. Nor are phy- 
 sical agencies of another kind less influential in 
 Other ways. It cannot be supposed that the 
 young gentleman of fashion, whom I remember 
 to have seen described in one of the police 
 reports as never being without a cigar in his 
 
 R 
 
242 CAUSES INFLUENCING 
 
 mouth, except when he was at his meals or 
 when he was asleep, had any other than a 
 muddled intellect ; and the alcohol circulating 
 in the vessels of the habitual drunkard must 
 have even a more injurious influence than the 
 poison of tobacco. We may carry our inquiries 
 further still, and in doing so we find the problem 
 to become still more complicated. How often 
 does it happen that the character alters as years 
 advance ! The young man who enters on his 
 career in the possession of what are called 
 great worldly advantages, full of hope, flattered 
 by those around him, and expecting of life 
 more than life can bestow, incurs a great risk 
 of becoming in the end a disappointed misan- 
 thrope. So the spendthrift of one period may 
 be the miser of another ; and he whose early 
 efforts obtain for him the reputation of superior 
 intelligence, not unfrequently ends where he 
 began, having allowed his talents to run to 
 waste, and never accomplished anything after- 
 wards by which he might be distinguished 
 from the herd of ordinary mortals. 
 
 Ergates. You may include in the same 
 
men's cuaracters. 243 
 
 category the changes which take place in ad- 
 vanced life, and which are undoubtedly to be 
 attributed to an altered condition of the brain ; 
 beginning with the imperfect recollection of 
 late events, and ending with that more com- 
 plete failure of the memory, which seems to be 
 the tioie, as it is the all-sufficient, explanation 
 of the fatuity occasionally met with in extreme 
 old age. 
 
 Edbulus. There can be no question as to 
 the occurrence of the changes which you men- 
 tion. But it is worthy of notice that, while in 
 old age the recent impressions of the memory 
 are evanescent, it is quite otherwise as to those 
 which were made formerly ; and hence it is 
 that the old man, whose mind wanders when 
 he speaks of what has happened to-day or yes- 
 terday, may be quite clear and coherent when 
 he goes back to the scenes of his early life ; and 
 that it is on these especially that he loves to 
 dwell during the day, while they form almost 
 the entire subject of his dreams at night. At 
 the same time my own observations lead me to 
 believe that the failure of the mind in old age 
 
244 THE MIND IN OLD AGE. 
 
 is often more apparent than real. The old 
 man is not stimulated by ambition, as when 
 he felt that he might have many years of 
 life before him. He has probably withdrawn 
 from his former pursuits, and has substituted 
 no others for them ; and Ave know that the 
 mind as well as the body requires constant 
 exercise to maintain it in a healthy state. 
 "Where it is still occupied we frequently find it 
 to survive the decay of the body, retaining its 
 energy and vigour even to the last. 
 
 Taking all these things into consideration, it 
 is difficult to understand how any simple rules 
 can be laid down for explaining and determin- 
 ing men's characters. It has been reported 
 of a celebrated prime minister of the last 
 century, that he held every man to have his 
 price. The anecdote may or may not be true, 
 but if it be so, the answer to such an uno-ra- 
 cious doctrine is sufficiently obvious. He drew 
 his conclusions from a too limited experience, 
 and did not bear in mind that those who had 
 not their price were just the persons with 
 whom it was least likely that he should come 
 
THEORY OF ADAM SMITH. 245 
 
 in contact. Adam Smith has been to a consi- 
 derable extent successful in referrint; to that 
 involuntary sympathy (or instinct) which causes 
 us to participate in what is felt, or what we 
 suppose to be felt, by others, as the foundation 
 of our moral sentiments. But this simple and 
 beautiful theory does not explain the whole. 
 It overlooks the disturbing influences arising 
 out of peculiarities of the physical organization, 
 and it has not sufficient reference to the intel- 
 lectual faculties, which in all the concerns of 
 life are so mixed up with the moral sentiments, 
 each influencing the other, that to study either 
 of them separately is as useless as it would be 
 to study geology without reference to chemistry 
 and mineralogy ; or the phenomena of the living 
 body disregarding the laws which operate on 
 inorganic matter. What I have ventured to 
 call " the science of human nature" is a depart- 
 ment of knowledge, in which I will not say 
 that we recognize no leading principles, but in 
 which we recognize none that will supersede 
 the necessity of minute observation, and an 
 extended individual experience. For all prac- 
 
 R 3 
 
246 SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 tical purposes the study of it must be conducted 
 very much in detail, and no man can make 
 much progress in it whose views are limited 
 to one variety of the human species, or to one 
 class in society; or whose situation is such 
 that he is merely a looker on, and not himself 
 an actor in the busy drama of life. 
 
 Crites. You may add that whoever would 
 understand the minds of others, and exercise 
 an useful influence over them, must first under- 
 stand himself. He who forms a wrong estimate 
 of his own capabilities, of his own prejudices, 
 and of the weak points of his own character, 
 measures the characters of others by an erro- 
 neous standard. Xot only is he in constant 
 danger of undertaking that which he is not 
 qualified, and of neglecting that which he is 
 qualified, to perform, but he is at the mercy of 
 others, who although they may very probably 
 be inferior to himself in some of the nobler 
 qualities, obtain a dominion over him by study- 
 ing his defects, and making them subservient 
 to their private purposes. 
 
 EuBULUS. Whatever they may have been 
 
SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 247 
 
 otherwise, the priests of the Delphic Oracle 
 were certainly no impostors when they dis- 
 played that simple but significant inscription 
 " Tvcodi asavTov" over the portico of the temple 
 of the heathen 2;od. If self-knowledore be im- 
 portant as the first step towards a knowledge 
 of the characters of others, on other grounds 
 it is more important still. Though we may 
 admit, with Ergates, that the mental principle 
 must be of the same essence, under whatever 
 form it exists, still there can be no question as 
 to the vast superiority of the mind of man to 
 that of all the created beings by whom he is 
 surrounded. But in what does that superiority 
 consist ? Other animals, and more especially the 
 gregarious, are not without an ample share of 
 the moral sentiments. We see them displayed 
 in the dog, who rejoices in being your com- 
 panion, who flies to your assistance if you 
 are attacked ; in the attachment of the elephant 
 to his keeper who treats hmi kindly, and in his 
 resentment of injuries; in the roebuck, who 
 pines and dies if separated from his mate ; and 
 even in the cat, who, peaceful at other times, 
 
 R 4 
 
248 DUTIES AND 
 
 turns round on you in anger if you interfere 
 with her kitten. It is not as to these, but as 
 to his intellectual faculties, that there is so vast 
 a difference between man and other animals, 
 that none can be said even to approach him in 
 this respect. But this distinction is not with- 
 out its price. It imposes on him duties of a 
 higher order, and greater responsibilities. He 
 is required not to yield to the impulse of the 
 moment, but to look to the more remote conse- 
 quences of what he says and does ; and to 
 keep not only his instincts and passions, but 
 even his thoughts, in subjection to his will. 
 Nor can this be rightly accomplished by any 
 one who does not regard his own powers, his 
 own disposition, and his peculiar moral tem- 
 perament, influenced as it is by his physical 
 condition and his mode of life, as a fit object of 
 study, even more than anything external to 
 himself. This brings us to other inquiries of 
 the highest interest, involving as they do so 
 much of what is of the greatest importance to 
 om'selves and others ; inquiries which have not 
 been neglected by heathen philosophers, but 
 
RESPONSIHILITIES. 249 
 
 winch assume a more exalted character, when 
 pursued by those who, guided by the light of 
 revelation, feel that they are answerable to one 
 almighty power for the right use of the faculties 
 with which they are endowed. But on these 
 we have no leisure to enter at present. What- 
 ever may be the value of our discussions, from 
 the arrangements which you, my friends, have 
 made, we must consider them as terminated. 
 
 " QucB cum essent dicta, Jinem fecimus et 
 umhulandi et disputandV^ 
 
ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 NOTE A. Pase 31 
 
 o 
 
 The following eloquent passage, extracted from Dr. 
 Newman's lectures, will be read with interest in con- 
 nection with the observations of Sir AValter Scott and 
 Sir Humphry Davy, referred to in the text : — 
 
 Self-educated persons " are likely to have more 
 thought, more mind, more philosophy, than those ear- 
 nest but ill-used persons, who are forced to load their 
 minds with a score of subjects against an examination ; 
 who have too much on their hands to indulge them- 
 selves in thinking or investigation ; who devour premiss 
 and conclusion together with indiscriminate greediness ; 
 who hold science on faith, and commit demonstrations 
 to memory, and who too often, as might be expected, 
 when their period of education is passed, throw up all 
 they have learned in disgust, having gained nothing by 
 their anxious labours except, perhaps, the habit of 
 application. 
 
 " Yet such is the bitter specimen of the fruit of that 
 ambitious system, which has of late years been making 
 way among us. But its result on ordinary minds, and 
 on the common run of students, is less satisfactory still. 
 
252 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 They leave their place of education simply dissipated 
 and relaxed by the multiplicity of subjects, which they 
 have never really mastered, and so shallow as not even 
 to know their own shallowness. How much better is 
 it for the active and thoughtful intellect, where such is 
 to be found, to eschew the college and the university 
 altogether, than to submit to a drudgery so ignoble, a 
 mockery so contumelious ! How much more profitable 
 for the independent mind, after the mere rudiments of 
 education, to range through a library at random, taking 
 down books as they meet with them, and pursuing the 
 trains of thoughts which his mother wit suggests ! 
 How much healthier to wander into the fields, and there 
 with the exiled prince to find ' tongues in the trees, 
 books in the running brooks.' How much more genuine 
 an education is that of the poor boy in the poem, — a 
 poem, whether in conception or execution, one of the 
 most touching in our language, — who, not in the wide 
 world, but ranging day by day round his widowed 
 mother's home, a dexterous gleaner in a narrow field, 
 and with only such slender outfit 
 
 " ' As the village school and books a few supplied,' 
 
 " contrived, from the beach, and the quay, and the 
 fisher's boat, and the inn's fireside, and the trades- 
 man's shop, and the shepherd's walk, and the smuggler's 
 hut, and the mossy moor, and the screaming gulls, and 
 the restless waves, to fashion for himself a philosophy 
 and poetry of his own." 
 
NOTE B. 253 
 
 NOTE B. Page 39. 
 
 The question referred to in the text has been well stated 
 by an accomplished friend of the author. 
 
 " The advocate for an immaterial principle is often 
 unjust to his argument, in his assiduity to rid himself 
 of those facts which attest the close and constant action 
 of matter upon mind. They are too palpable, not only 
 in matters of sense, but also as regards the purely 
 mental processes, to admit of any evasion. His true 
 doctrine lies beyond this ; in asserting a principle sub- 
 mitted indeed to these influences, but different from 
 them ; capable of independent changes and actions 
 within itself; and, above all, capable of self-regulation 
 in those functions of thought and feeling to which 
 external agents minister in the various processes of Ufe. 
 The ministering agents may become disturbing ones, 
 and such they frequently are to a singular extent. But 
 in this we have no proof of identity. A\'hatever of 
 reason we can apply to an argument insuperable by 
 human reason is against it ; and the record of such 
 instances is wholly comprised within that one great 
 relation, which pervades every part of our present being ; 
 but the intimate nature of which is a sealed book to 
 human research." — Medical Notes and Reflections, by 
 Sir Henry Holland, Bart. M.D. 2nd edit. p. 46l. 
 
 Those who are curious in inquiries of this nature will 
 do well to refer to another work by the same author, 
 " Chapters on Mental Phi/siology," especially to the 
 chapters which relate to sleep, dreams, and insanity. 
 
254 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 NOTE C. Page 72. 
 
 to^ 
 
 If a comparison of the effects produced by various 
 stimulant and narcotic agents on the nervous system be 
 interesting to the physiologist, it ought not to be less so 
 
 « 
 
 to the moral philosopher and the statesman. 
 
 At one period opium was much in request among 
 the inferior classes of the metropolis, and there were 
 chemists who disposed of many boxes of opium pills on 
 a Saturday night. Then gin became cheap; the gin- 
 palaces arose, and opium was neglected. This was 
 greatly to the advantage of the revenue. But was it of 
 advantage to society ? The effect of opium when taken 
 into the stomach is not to stimulate, but to soothe the 
 nervous system. It may be otherwise in some instances, 
 but these are rare exceptions to the general rule. The 
 opium-taker is in a passive stale, satisfied with his own 
 dreamy condition while under the influence of the drug. 
 He is useless, but not mischievous. It is quite other- 
 wise with alcoholic liquors. When Bishop and his 
 partner murdered the Italian boy, in order that they 
 might sell his body, it appeared in evidence that they 
 prepared themselves for the task by a plentiful libation 
 of gin. The same course is pursued by housebreakers, 
 and others who engage in desperate criminal under- 
 takings. It is worthy of notice, also, that opium is 
 
NOTE C. 255 
 
 much less deleterious to the individual than gin or 
 brandy. Many opium-takers live to a great age, while 
 dram-drinking induces disease of the liver, with its 
 attendant bodily suffering, ill-temper, wretchedness, and 
 premature death. 
 
 The effect of malt-hquor, like that of gin, depends 
 on the alcohol which it contains, modified, however, in 
 some degree, by the sedative properties of the hop. 
 But it is much less dangerous. According to Mr. 
 Brande's tables, the proportion of alcohol in gin is as 
 much as 50 per cent., while in London porter it is not 
 much more than 4 per cent. The porter-drinker, there- 
 fore, must drink 6j pints of porter to obtain gradually 
 the effect which the gin-drinker obtains at once from 
 half 3 pint (8 ounces) of gin. Gin-drinking, moreover, 
 is in some other respects better suited to the ill-dis- 
 posed part of the population. It does not distend the 
 stomach as is the case with the more diluted liquor 
 when taken in large quantity ; and therefore does not 
 at the time interfere so much with active exertion. 
 It is also more economical. Eight ounces of the 
 strongest gin (at the present price) costing about one- 
 sixth part less than their equivalent in porter. 
 
 Tobacco, as it is commonly used, is certainly less 
 mischievous both as to the individual, and as to society 
 at large, than alcohol. At the same time (indepen- 
 dently of the unwholesome influence which it has 
 on the digestive organs) there is sufficient evidence 
 that an excessive indulgence in the use of it produces 
 
256 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 ultimately a very ill eflPect on the nervous system. A 
 distinction, however, must be made between smoking 
 tobacco and the employment of it in other ways. It 
 has lieen shown that by the application of heat above 
 the temperature of boiling water, a new compound 
 (the empyreumatic oil) is generated, which is not only 
 a very much more active poison, but one which operates 
 especially on the brain in a manner entirely different 
 from the unprepared tobacco.* 
 
 * See " Experinu-nts and Observations on the different 
 Modes in which Death is produced by certain Vegetable 
 Poisons," by B. C. Brodie, F. R. S.— Phil. Transactions, 
 1811. 
 
NOTE D. 257 
 
 NOTE D. Pao-c 105 
 
 o 
 
 Although Dr. Mayo's "Croonian Lectures on Medical 
 Testimony and Evidence in Cases of Lunacy" have been 
 on one point referred to in the text, they were not 
 published until a considerable time after these papers 
 were ready for the press. . • 
 
 Dr. jMayo has carefully analyzed the facts which 
 bear on the question as to what has been called "moral 
 insanity." He has shown that many of the cases 
 described as belonging to this category were neither 
 more nor less than examples of insanity, according to 
 the strict and ordinary interpretation of that term. 
 He has shown that others, in which the plea of "moral 
 insanity " was set up as an excuse for crime deserved 
 no better appellation than that of " brutal reckless- 
 ness ; " and that to acquit criminals of this class on 
 the ground of irresponsibility, is only to induce others 
 to follow in the same course, who might otherwise be 
 restrained by a wholesome fear of punishment. 
 
 Even with regard to those who are actually insane, 
 he is of opinion that there is a defect " in the nature 
 of our criminal code, which recognizes no punishment 
 for offences committed by the insane ; and forces the 
 Courts either to visit them with the same penal inflic- 
 tions as would apply to the same acts committed by the 
 
 S 
 
258 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 sane, their derangements being ignored, or to let them 
 pass unpunished, however partially responsible they may 
 appear." 
 
 Dr. Mayo has treated the whole subject, including 
 that of mere unsoundness of mind, in the most able 
 and lucid manner ; and his observations on it are 
 the more valuable, and will have the greater weight, 
 as they come from one who combines just theoretical 
 views with the practical knowledge of an experienced 
 physician. 
 
NOTE E. 259 
 
 NOTE E. Pacre 127 
 
 o 
 
 Even setting aside the cases of dying persons, or of 
 those who labour under serious disease, there is suf- 
 ficient evidence that in many instances those who 
 appear to be insensible to external impressions are not 
 so in reality ; the apparent insensibility being the result 
 of a strong dislike, or disinclination, to make the effort 
 necessary for giving expression to what they feel, and 
 of nothing more. 
 
 Esquirol describes the case of a young man who, 
 after some disappointment in life, fell into what seemed 
 to be a state of idiotcy. His eyes were fixed : his 
 physiognomy was without expression. It was neces- 
 sary to dress and undress him ; and to put him in bed. 
 He never ate, except when food was put into his mouth. 
 He never walked, except when compelled to do so. 
 He recovered after the use of some remedies, and the 
 appearance of an eruption on his skin. After his 
 recovery he confessed that he had never been insensible 
 at all, but that an internal voice was always repeating 
 to him "A'c houge pas ! ne bouge pas !" and that fear 
 alone had rendered him immovable.* 
 
 In other instances the apparent insensibility is the 
 result of mere imposture. 
 
 • Esquirol, op. cit. vol. ii. p. 287. 
 8 2 
 
260 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 A young woman (a hospital patient) under the care 
 of Esquirol, seemed to be in a state of profound stupor. 
 She lay motionless in her bed, never speaking, even 
 when pinched or pricked with a sharp instrument. A 
 seton was made in her neck, and blisters were applied 
 in various parts of her body, but she gave no signs 
 of feeling, or even of knowing what was done. One 
 day, however, when Esquirol paid her his usual visit, 
 she had left her bed of her own accord, and from that 
 time nothing could persuade her to remain in the 
 dormitory at the time when he was expected. 
 
 "When she left the hospital she confessed that her 
 insensibility had been feigned. She said that one of 
 the students had made the experiment of pinching 
 her ; that she had felt no objection to this being 
 done by Esquirol himself, but that she did not choose 
 to submit to what she conceived to be a piece of 
 impertinence on the part of the student, and therefore 
 had determined to be always out of the way when the 
 medical attendants were to visit her.* 
 
 A case recorded in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 very forcibly illustrates the extent to which such an 
 imposture may be carried. 
 
 A young man, the son of a farmer in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Bath, fell into what was supposed to be 
 a state of profound sleep, which lasted during seventeen 
 weeks. During this time he was visited by a great 
 number of persons, and various attempts were made to 
 * Esquirol, op. cit. vol. ii. 
 
NOTE E. 261 
 
 awaken him, but without success. He was cuppcil ; 
 spirit of ammonia was held to his nostrils, and even 
 poured into them so as to occasion inflammation and 
 blisters, but all in vain. He slept on as before, and 
 hence Dr. Oliver, who relates the case, was satisfied 
 that " he was really asleep, and no sullen counterfeit 
 as some persons thought him." 
 
 The correctness of Dr. Oliver's opinion may, how- 
 ever, well be questioned : as every night his mother 
 placed on a stool by his bed some bread and cheese 
 and beer, which always had disappeared in the 
 morning; and as certain functions, the necessary 
 consequence of eating and drinking, were regularly and 
 decently performed.* 
 
 Impostures of this kind will appear in no degree 
 extraordinary to those who are accustomed to witness 
 surgical operations, not performed under the influence 
 of anesthetic agents, and who know how common it is 
 for patients to undergo even those of the most painful 
 kind without uttering a complaint, or in any way ex- 
 pressing what they feel. 
 
 * Pkilosophical Transactions, 1706, voL xxir. 
 
 8 3 
 
262 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 NOTE F. Paffe 176 
 
 to" 
 
 There probably is in the whole range of science no 
 problem the solution of which is more diflScult than 
 that of the relation of the mental faculties to particular 
 parts of the nervous system. Some very general pro- 
 positions may be considered as established on not very 
 insufficient data, and it is not impossible that by the 
 method pointed out in page^ 17-^> — namely, a careful 
 study of the habits and faculties of inferior animals, 
 pursued simultaneously with the examination of the 
 differences of structure of the brain, — some further 
 insight may ultimately be obtained into this mysterious 
 subject. It is not easy to understand in what other 
 way this object can be obtained. The inquiry, how-, 
 ever, is one which may well excite our curiosity, and 
 it is no matter of wonder that it should have attracted 
 the attention of physiologists. Those who wish to be 
 more particularly acquainted with the views entertained 
 by the most eminent modern physiologists may refer to 
 Dr. Carpenter's " Principles of Human Physiology." 
 Allusion has been made in a former part of this volume to 
 the crude speculations of Dr. Hooke. The subject has 
 been treated of in a more elaborate manner by a con tempo- 
 rary of Hooke, being the most distinguished anatomist 
 and physiologist of the 17th century; and the following 
 
NOTE F. 263 
 
 abridged account of the conclusions at which he liad 
 arrived is offered to the reader, as it may be interesting 
 to compare them with the opinions which are held at 
 the present day. It is plain that the majority of these 
 conclusions do not rest on any very sure foundation ; 
 but " valeant quantum valent." 
 
 According to Willis*, the nervous force (termed by 
 him the animal spirits) is generated wholly in the grey 
 or vesicular substance of the brain, which, being a kind 
 of secreting organ, is, therefore, possessed of a higher 
 degree of vascularity than the medullary. The convo- 
 lutions of the cerebrum and the folds of the cerebellum 
 are intended to offer a more extended surface for the 
 grey substance, and thus to enable it to furnish a more 
 abundant supply of the nervous force than could have 
 been furnished otherwise. The medullary substance (in 
 which Willis had detected the existence of a fibrous 
 structure, having traced the fibres from the medulla 
 oblongata through the corpora striata and thalami), 
 is intended for the transmission, exercise, and dis- 
 pensing of the nervous force, but not for its production. 
 
 By means of the medullary substance, connected as 
 it is with the grey substance of the convolutions, the 
 nervous force is transmitted to the corpus callosum, 
 and this last-mentioned organ is that which is princi- 
 
 * See his treatises De Anatome Cerebri and De Animd 
 
 Bruterum; the latter, however, is chiefly occupied with 
 
 metaphysical speculations, many of which relate to matters 
 
 which may well be regarded as beyond the limits of human 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 t)4 
 
264 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 pally connected with the intellectual faculties ; at the 
 same time that, by combining the two hemispheres 
 of the cerebrum, it enables them to co-operate with 
 each other. The forms of sensible objects are pre- 
 served in the convolutions, " tanquam in diver sis cellulis 
 et apothecis ;" from which we must conclude that Willis 
 regarded these as especially connected with the memory. 
 The corpora striata are the channel of communication 
 between the medulla oblongata, the nerves, and the cere- 
 bral hemispheres. They are themselves the seat of 
 simple sensation. But the impressions of the senses 
 being transmitted from thence to the corpus callosum, 
 and from the latter to the convolutions, become there 
 subservient to the memory and imagination, and excite 
 in the mind the feeling of desire, and acts of volition. 
 The same impressions, in some instances, instead of 
 being transmitted to the cerebrum, are, by a reflex 
 operation, propagated in the other direction, — that is to 
 the nerves, producing in them effects of which the mind 
 takes no cognizance, and motions of which we are 
 therefore unconscious. 
 
 The cerebellum belongs more especially to what Bichat 
 has called "organic life," and furnishes the nervous force 
 required for the action of the heart, respiration, diges- 
 tion, and the other mere corporeal functions. It is also 
 the part principally connected with the animal instincts 
 (^instinctus mere naturales), and the emotions ; but not 
 exclusively so, as the other bodies, situated in the base 
 of the brain, belong to the instincts and emotions also. 
 
NOTE F. 265 
 
 AV'ith regard to the former, "Willis supposes the cere- 
 bellum to be associated with the cerebrum, inasmuch as 
 the desires belonging to the instincts can produce no 
 effect until their influence is communicated to it, ex- 
 citing in the mind, through its intervention, the act 
 of volition. As regards the emotions also, the cere- 
 bellum is associated with the cerebrum, but in this 
 case, the movement is in the opposite direction, be- 
 ginning in the cerebrum, and from thence extending 
 to the cerebellum, so as to affect the heart, and other 
 organs which are under its immediate control. 
 
26Q ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 NOTE G. Page 178. 
 
 The following case may be adduced in confirmation 
 of the evidence which anatomy affords as to the grey 
 matter of the nervous system being the part in which 
 the nervous force is generated : — A young woman, of 
 hysterical constitution, died after having been for some 
 days in a state of great mental excitement, attended 
 with convulsive movements of the limbs, resembling 
 those of aggravated chorea, consequent on her having 
 been terrified by a man who had insulted her in a 
 most outrageous manner. On examination of the parts 
 after death, the determination of blood to the grey 
 matter on the surface of the convolutions was found 
 to have been such as to make it everywhere of a scarlet 
 colour. 
 
 The circumstance of the convolutions of the cere- 
 brum being more numerous and complicated, thus pre- 
 senting a larger surface for the expansion of the grey 
 matter in man than in any other animal, seems to 
 justify the opinion enunciated by Des Moulins, and 
 adopted by Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Todd, Mr. Bowman, and 
 other eminent physiologists, that this peculiar struc- 
 ture is connected with the greater extent of the intel- 
 lectual faculties in the human race. The observations 
 of Leuret, however, founded on a comparison of the 
 brain in a large number of animals, tends to create some 
 
NOTE G. 267 
 
 doubt as to the accuracy of this conclusion.* For 
 example, the convolutions of the brain in the sheep 
 are numerous and well marked, while in that of the 
 beaver and of the rat there are almost none at all. 
 But who can doubt that the intelligence of the two 
 last-mentioned animals is much greater than that of the 
 former ? Frederic Cuvier, indeed, finding that the 
 beaver, living without companions, in the Jardin des 
 Plantes, when supplied with wood, began to build a hut 
 in the same %vay as when living in association, was 
 led to believe that he was of a very low degree of 
 intelligence, and almost wholly under the dominion of 
 instinct.| But, on the other hand, it is affirmed by 
 BufFon that a solitary beaver, in a well-inhabited country, 
 does not build a hut at all, but seeks for his residence 
 some natural excavation on the bank of a river ^ ; and 
 Cartwright, describing the habits of beavers, as observed 
 by him in Labrador, adduces various instances of their 
 adapting their proceedings to the new and peculiar 
 circumstances in which they are placed, in a way which 
 can be attributed only to intelligence. 
 
 Monsieur Dareste suggests that the extent of the 
 convolutions bears a relation, not to the intelligence, 
 but to the size of the animal §, a view of the subject 
 
 • Anatomic comparec dii Systeme Xerveux, chap. 6me. 
 •f Annales d'Histoire Natiirello, tome ix. pp. 291 — 318. 
 X Ibid, tome i. p. 266. 
 
 § Comptes rendus, Janvier, 1852, Annales d'Histoire Na- 
 tortUe, 3mc serie, tome xviii. 
 
268 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 corresponding to that talien by Haller*, and supported 
 by many facts. But here also there are exceptions 
 sufficient to prevent the adoption of the general rule. 
 For instance, the kangaroo is a much larger animal 
 than an average dog, but the convolutions of the brain 
 in the former of these animals are very much less 
 extensive than they are in the latter. 
 
 * Elementa Physiologisc, lib. 1. n. 7. 
 
NOTE II. 2G9 
 
 NOTE H. Page 195. 
 
 It is but just to the accomplished and learned author of 
 the " Philosophy of Language/' that the entire passage, 
 from -which an extract has been given in the text, should 
 be presented to the reader. 
 
 " Speech, the language of articulate sounds, is the 
 most wonderful, the most delightful, of the arts, which 
 adorn and elevate our being. It is also the most per- 
 fect. It enables us, as it were, to express things beyond 
 the reach of expression ; the infinite range of existence ; 
 the exquisite fineness of emotion ; the intricate subtle- 
 ties of thought. Of such effect are these shadows of 
 the soul ; these living sounds which we call words ! 
 Compared with them how poor are all other monuments 
 of human power, or perseverance, or skill, or genius ! 
 They render the mere clown an artist ; nations immor- 
 tal ; writers, poets, philosophers divine ! " 
 
 In the Avork here referred to, a just and very important 
 distinction is made between mere language, and articu- 
 late language, or speech ; the former being used as a 
 generic term, applicable to all the different methods by 
 which animals communicate their wants and feelings to 
 each other ; speech being used as a specific term, repre- 
 senting that kind of language which consists of the 
 voice produced by the larynx, and then modified by 
 
270 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 articulation, that is by the action of the muscles of the 
 throat and mouth. 
 
 According to this definition, we cannot suppose any 
 race of animals, with the exception of some of those of 
 the very lowest orders (the oyster for example), to be ab- 
 solutely and entirely without the use of language. That 
 the gregarious birds possess it to a very considerable 
 extent must be plain to any one who has watched rooks 
 in their rookery, or observed swallows collecting gra- 
 dually on a parapet wall, and chattering with each other 
 before they take their flight all at once for their winter 
 habitations. 
 
 At the same time it would seem that the language of 
 birds, and the gregarious mammalia, is limited to varieties 
 of voice in the larynx, and that on man alone has been 
 conferred the inestimable boon of articulate language or 
 speech. Such slight modifications of the voice in the 
 passages of the mouth and nostrils, as occur in the bark- 
 ing of a dog, or the bleating of a sheep, or the unmean- 
 ing imitation of certain words by parrots and starlings, 
 cannot properly be regarded as exceptions to this general 
 rule. The different sounds, and combinations of sounds, 
 which may be produced in the larynx, numerous as they 
 may be, would be quite insufficient for the complicated 
 relations of human society, and quite inadequate to ex- 
 press the sentiments, and desires, and thoughts, of the 
 individuals of whom it is composed. Speech, with all 
 its endless varieties of sound and intonation, and accent, 
 could alone meet these requirements. If a higher order 
 
NOTE ir. 271 
 
 of intellect be necessary for speech, the latter is not less 
 necessary for the full development of the intellect, ^\'ith- 
 out it human society might have been little better than 
 that of rooks or beavers; -with it, it is impossible to say 
 how much further progress may not yet be made in 
 knowledge and civilization ; or, in after ages, what still 
 higher destiny may be reserved for man, even here on 
 earth. 
 
 As there is no instance of any, even the smallest and 
 most degraded, community of human beings, who are 
 without it, so we cannot do otherwise than regard the 
 faculty of speech as having its origin in instinct. This, 
 however, like the other instincts which appertain to man's 
 social condition, differs materially from those which ap- 
 pertain merely to the individual. The latter class of 
 instincts are simple, and in themselves complete. The 
 former are as nothing until they have been called forth 
 by intercourse with others, and even then are of little 
 avail without the help of education and experience. 
 The savage of Aveyron, who had been living wild in 
 the woods until he was approaching the age of puberty, 
 expressed what he felt only by inarticulate cries, and 
 had no more notion of articulate sounds than he had of 
 moral relations. There are many other, and apparently 
 well-authenticated, histories of deserted children, living 
 wild in solitude, or associating with animals; and it is 
 worthy of notice, that they were not only incapable of 
 uttering articulate sounds when first they were disco- 
 vered, but that, with one or two exceptions, it does not 
 
272 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 appear that any of them ever learned to speak after- 
 wards. It would seem that it is only at a very early 
 age that the ear can be taught to make that nice dis- 
 tinction of sounds, and the muscles of the mouth and 
 lips be trained to those nice varieties of action^ which 
 are alike necessary to speech ; an observation which is 
 confirmed by our every-day experience of the difficulty 
 of acquiring the right pronunciation of any foreign 
 language by any one who has not been accustomed to 
 it from a very early period of life.* 
 
 ♦ A work entitled " Notice historique sur le Sauvage de 
 rAvcyron, par P. J. Bonnaten-c, Professeur de rhistoire 
 iiaturclle, &c." contains much curious information respecting, 
 not only the Savage of Avcyron, but also respecting many 
 other cases of children similarly deserted. 
 
NOTE 1. 273 
 
 NOTE I. Paffe230. 
 
 o" 
 
 If any one of the phrenological doctrines has been 
 supposed to be better established than another, it is 
 that of the cerebellum being the seat of the sexual 
 passion. The following extract from Leuret's work 
 on the Nervous System will show what it is really 
 worth : — 
 
 " Le developpement comparatif de I'encephale des 
 chevaux soumis a la castration, at de ceux que Ton a 
 laisses entiers devait, s'il etait bien determine, servir 
 a la solution des questions que je ra'etais posees, et 
 me fournir un document propre a confirmer, ou a 
 detruire, la theorie de Gall concernant I'influence que 
 la castration exerce sur le cervelet. M. Ge'rard Mar- 
 chant a bien voulu faire pour moi cette epreuve, en 
 pesant comparativement le cerveau, le cervelet, et la 
 moeile allongee, d'un certain nombre de chevaux 
 entiers, de juments, et de chevaux hongres, qui servent 
 aux ope'rations de I'ecole d'Alfort. Les pesees faites 
 par M. Marchant, avec le concours de M. Lassaigne, 
 oflPrent toute la garantie d'exactitude que Ton peut 
 d^sirer, et je les regarde comme infiniment preferables 
 a la simple inspection du crane dont Gall se contentait 
 toujours, ou meme a la mensuration de la cavite 
 
 X 
 
274 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 
 
 cranniene du cervelet, quelque exacte qu'on puisse la 
 faire. 
 
 " Le tableau suivant contient le poids absolu, et le 
 poids relatif, du cerveau, du cervelet, et de la moelle 
 allongeedequarante-trois chevaux entiers, douze juments, 
 et vingt-un chevaux hongres." 
 
 Here follow the tables, which it is unnecessary to give 
 in detail, but of which the following is the result : — 
 
 '' La comparaison du poids relatif du cerveau et du 
 cervelet donne ce rapport d'une maniere exacte ; et ces 
 rapports sont les suivants : 
 " Chez les chevaux hongres 
 
 le cervelet est au cerveau comme 1 est a 5 97 
 
 Chez les juments - - comme 1 est a 6"59 
 
 Chez les etalons - - comme 1 est a 7'07 
 
 " Ainsi ce sont les etalons qui ont comparativement 
 le cervelet le moins developpe : les juments sont mieux 
 favorisees qu'eux sous ce rapport; et les chevaux hongres 
 le sont plus que les uns et les autres. Si Tun des deux 
 parties principales de I'ence'phale s'est atrophiee c'est le 
 cerveau, car il est seulement de 419 grammes, tandis 
 que le cerveau des etalons est de 433 : et si Tune d'elles 
 s'est de'veloppee de maniere a predominer sur les autres, 
 c'est le cervelet des chevaux hongres, qui pese 70 
 grammes, tandis que celui des etalons et des juments 
 n'ont pese que 6l."* 
 
 Whoever is desirous of inquiring further into the 
 
 * Anatomie comparee du Systems Nerveux, tome i. 
 
NOTE I. 
 
 275 
 
 system of Gall and Spurzlieim, will do well to consult 
 the " Examen de la Phrenologie," by M. Flourens, 
 and the " Treatise on Phrenology," in the seventh 
 edition of the Encyclopsedia Britannica, by Dr. Roget. 
 In the former the subject is discussed on general 
 grounds ; in the latter it is still more fully considered 
 in its details ; and in both it is treated in a manner 
 worthy of the high reputation of the respective authors. 
 
 V' Of TMf ' 
 
 TNIVERSITY 
 
 ?4HFbRt^^^ 
 
 THE END. 
 
London : 
 A. and G. A. Spottisvvoodb, 
 
 New-street-Sqiiare. 
 
A CATALOGUE 
 
 OP 
 
 NEW WOEKS 
 
 IN GENERAL LITERATURE, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 LONOMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS, 
 39, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
 
 CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Agriculture and Rural Aflairs. 
 
 Bayldon on Valuing Rents, etc. - - G 
 
 Caird's Letters on Agriculture " " " £ 
 
 Cecil's Stud Farm - - - - - / 
 
 Loudon's Kncvtlopiedia of Ai;ricullure - 14 
 
 ,, iseU-instruttion for Farmers, etc. 14 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Lady'eCountryCompamoii 14 
 
 Low's Elements of A^f riculture - - 15 
 
 ,, Domesticated Animai^ • - - 14 
 
 Arts, Manufactures, and 
 Architecture. 
 
 Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine 
 
 ., On the Screw Propeller - 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. 
 tMievrcul on Colour - - - - 
 Cresv's Encydo. of Civil Engineering 
 EaHtlak( on Oil P^iintiug - 
 Gwilt's Encyclop»dino( Architecture 
 Jameson's Sirred and Leeendaiy Art 
 
 ,, Commonplace Book 
 
 Loudon's Rural Architecture - 
 Mnseicy's Eii«:ineerini; and Architecture 
 Richardson's Art of Horsemanship - 
 Steam Enpne, by the Artisan Clul> 
 Tate on Stren^tli of Materials 
 Lire's Dictionary of Arts, etc. 
 
 Biography. 
 
 Aracro's Autobiocrapby - - - 
 BodeuKtedt and W«gner's Schamyl 
 Bri^'htwcll's Memorials of Opie 
 bun^cn 8 Hippolytus .... 
 
 rhehterton's Autobiography - 
 Cliii'on's (Fvnts) Auiobio^raphy - 
 Cockayne's Marshal Turenue - 
 Freeman's Life of Kirbv - - - 
 Havdon's Autobiography, by Taylor 
 Hotcrott's Memoirs - . . 
 
 HolUiid's (Lord) Memoirs 
 Lnrdner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 Maundcr's Biok^raphical Treasury - 
 Memoir of the Duke of Wellington 
 Memoirs of James Montgnmery 
 Merirnle's Memoirs of (Cicero 
 Russell's Memoirs of Moore - 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 js 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 s 
 
 12 
 10 
 23 
 111 
 13 
 16 
 
 2:i 
 
 16 
 
 If; 
 17 
 
 Russell's Life of Lord William Russell 
 Southey*8 Life of Wesley 
 
 ,, Life and Correspondence 
 
 Stephen^ Ecclesiastical Biography 
 Tavior's Lovola _ . . - 
 
 ' „ Wesley . - - - 
 Townsend's Eminent Judges - 
 Watertou's Autobiograpliy and Essays 
 
 Page* 
 
 - 19 
 ■ 21 
 
 - 21 
 
 - 21 
 
 - 22 
 
 - 2i: 
 
 • 2J 
 
 - 24 
 
 Books of General Utility. 
 
 Acton's Modern Cookery Book - - S 
 
 Black's Treatise on Brewing - . . 6 
 
 Cabinet Gazetteer - - - - - 
 
 ,, Lawyer - - - . , 
 
 Cusi's Invalid's Own Book - - - S 
 
 Hints on Etiquette . - - • - ]U 
 
 Hudson's Kxecutor'sGuide - - - 11 
 
 ,, On Making Wilts - - . ]| 
 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopu'dia - - - 13 
 
 Loudou's Self Instruction • - - 14 
 
 „ Lady's Companion - . . 14 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener • 14 
 
 Mauuder's Trt-asury of Knowledge - 16 
 
 ,, Biographical Treasury - - Jf> 
 
 ,, Scientific Treasury • . jf, 
 
 ,, Treasury of History • - Jf 
 
 ,, Natural History - - - 16 
 
 Pocket and the Stud - - • -Id 
 
 Pycroft's English Reading - - . 19 
 
 Recce's Medical Guide - - . - 19 
 
 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary - 19 
 
 Riddle's Latin Dictiouaries - - - 19 
 
 Richardson's Art of llorsemnuship • 19 
 
 Roget's English Thesaurus • . • l\) 
 
 Kuwton's Debater - - . . . ji^ 
 
 Short Whisl ------ 2U 
 
 Thomson 'slnterestTables - - - 2i 
 
 Traveller's Library - . - •2^1 
 
 Wcbstcr'a Domestic Economy • • 24 
 
 WiUiih'*. PopnUr Tables - - - 24 
 Wilnioi's Abridgment of Blackstone'a 
 
 Commentaries ... - 24 
 
 Botany and Gardening. 
 
 Conversations on Botauy . . . *( 
 
 Hooker's British Flora - . - - 10 
 
 ,, Guide tuKew Gardens - - In | 
 
 Lontlon: Printed by M. Mason, Ivy Luiit, ratemo&ter Row. 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Pagep 
 
 Lhidley's Introduction to Botany - - 14 
 
 „ Theory of Horticulture - • !'• 
 
 Loudon'B Hortus Britannicus - - 14 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener - 14 
 
 ,, Self-Instruction for Gardeners 14 
 
 ,, EncyciopiEdiaof Trees & Shrubs 14 
 
 ,, Gardening - 14 
 
 " „ Pltints - - 14 
 
 Rivers's Rose Amateur's Guide • - 19 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 Blair's Ohronologicnl Tables - . . 6 
 
 Bunsen's Ancient E^ypt - - - • 7 
 
 Haydn's Beatson's Index - - - - lit 
 
 Nicolas's Chronology of History - - 13 
 
 Commerce and Mercantile 
 Affairs. 
 
 Atkinson's Shipping Laws . - 5 
 
 Francis On Life Assurance • - . 9 
 Loch's Sailor's Guide - - ■.■'■' 
 Lorimer's Letters to aYoungMaster Mariner 14 
 
 M'Culloch's Commerce and Navigation - IS 
 
 Thomson's Interest Tables - - - 2* 
 
 Criticism, History, and 
 Memoirs. 
 
 Anstin's Germany - - - - • 5 
 
 Balfour's Sketches of Literature - - 6 
 
 Blair's Chron. and Historical Tables - 6 
 
 Bunseu's Ancient Kg)-pt - - - 7 
 
 „ HippolytnS - • • " 7 
 
 Burton's Historj- of Scotland - - ' 
 
 Chalybaeus's Speculative Philosophy - 8 
 
 Convbeare and Howson's St. Paul - - s 
 
 Eastlake's History of Oil Painting - fi 
 
 Erskine's History of India - - - 9 
 
 Francis's Annals of Life Assurance - <) 
 
 Gleig's Leipsic Campaign • - - 23 
 
 Gurnev's Historical Sketches - - - 9 
 Hamilton's Discussions in Philosophy, etc. 9 
 
 Haydoo's Autobiography, by Taylor - 10 
 
 Holland's (Lord) Foreign Reminiscences 10 
 
 ,, ., Whig Party - - 10 
 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions - - 1" 
 
 Kemble's Anglo-Saions in F.ngland - IC 
 
 Lardner's Cabinet CyclopBedia - - 13 
 
 Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Kssays - - 1.5 
 
 „ History of England - - 15 
 
 ,, Speeches - - - - 16 
 
 Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works - l.i 
 
 ,, History of Kngland - - 15 
 
 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary - 16 
 
 Martineau's Church History - - - 16 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of History - - Ifi 
 
 Memoir of the Duke of Wellington - 23 
 
 Merivale's History of Rome - - -in 
 
 ,, Roman Republic - - - IP 
 
 Milner's Church History - - - IC 
 
 Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, etc. - - 17 
 
 Mure's Greek Literature - - » 17 
 
 Kauke's Ferdinand and Maximilian ■ - 2.S 
 
 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary - I'.i 
 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries ■ - - 19 
 
 Rogers's Essays from Edinburgh Review ll' 
 
 Royet's English Thesaurus - - - 19 
 
 Russell's (I. ady Rachel) Letters - - IP 
 
 ,, Life of Lord William Russell - U' 
 
 St. John's Indian Arcliipelago - - liJ 
 Schmitz's History of Greece - - .20 
 
 Pages 
 Smith's Sacred Annals - - - - 21 
 Southey's The Doctor etc. - - - 21 
 Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography - 21 
 
 ,, Lectures on French History - 21 
 
 Sydney Smith's Works - - - - 21 
 
 „ Select Works - - 23 
 
 ,, Lectures on Moral Philosophy 21 
 
 Taylor's Ldvolh ..... 22 
 
 ,, Wesl6^ . - - - - 22 
 Thirlwall's History of Greece - - -22 
 Townsend's State Trials - - . - 22 
 Turkey and Christendom - - - 23 
 
 Tttrner's Anglo. Saxons - - - - 24 
 
 „ Middle Ages . - - .24 
 
 ,, Sacred History of the World . 22 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar ■ . . .24 
 
 Geography and Atlases. 
 
 Butler's Geography and Atlases - - 7 
 
 Cabinet Gazetteer - - - - . 7 
 
 Durrieu's Morocco . - - - - 23 
 
 Hall's Large Library Atlas ... 9 
 
 Hughes's Australian Colonies - - . 23 
 
 Jesse's Russia and the War - . .12 
 
 Johnston's General Gazetteer - - 12 
 
 M'Culloch's (ieographiciil Dictionary - \b 
 
 Russia add Turkey . - 23 
 
 Milner's Baltic Sea - . .. .Ifi 
 
 Murray's Kncyclopiedia of Geography . IS 
 
 Sharp's British Gazetteer, - . 2(t 
 
 Wheeler's Gsography of Herodotus . 24 
 
 Juvenile BookSi 
 
 - 20 
 
 - 8 
 . 20 
 . 20 
 
 - 20 
 . 11 
 
 - 11 
 . 20 
 . 12 
 . 20 
 
 15 &lfi 
 
 - 20 
 . 19 
 
 Amy Herbert ..... 
 Corner's Children's Sunday Book - 
 Earl's Daughter (The) ... 
 Experience of Life . . - - 
 Gertrude ..... 
 
 Howitt's Boy's Country Book - 
 
 „ (Mary) Children's Year 
 Katharine Asl<ton .... 
 Lady Una and her Queendom - 
 Laneton Parsonage 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations - 
 Margaret Percival .... 
 Pycroft's English Reading 
 
 Medicinfe and Surgery. 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers - - . 6 
 
 ,, Management of Children - . 6 
 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine . . 8 
 
 Cust's Invalid's Own Book . - - g 
 Holland's Mental Physiology - . .10 
 
 Latham On Diseases of the Heart - . 12 
 
 Little on Treatment of Deformities - 14 
 
 Moore On Health, Disease, and Remedy - 17 
 
 Pereira On Food and Diet - . - IS 
 
 Psychological Inquiries - ■ . . ]8 
 
 Recce's Medical Guide - - - - 19 
 
 Miscellaneous and General 
 Literature. 
 
 Atkinson's Sheriff Law .... 5 
 
 Austin's Sketches of German Life . 6 
 
 Carlisle's Lectures and Addresses . - 23 
 
 Chalybaeus's Speculative Philosophy . 8 
 
 Defence of Eclipse of Faith ... 9 
 
 Eclipse of Faith ..... g 
 Greg's Essays on Political and Social 
 
 Scicnre . - ... 9 
 
TO Mbssbs. LONGMAN and Co.'s CATALOGUE. 
 
 Pugcn 
 Havdn's Bookof nicnltlei . - - lu 
 Hole's Ei«RV oil Mctlmiikii' Intlltutions Id 
 Hollnndii Mciitnl Phyiioloify - - - j" 
 Hooker's KewGiiiilc - - - - 111 
 
 Howitt'» Rural I.ifeof Kiigland • - 11 
 
 ,, Vinits to llemarkKlile Place* • II 
 Jamenon^s Coniinoiiplfice Book - - 12 
 JtlTrey's (Lord) C.iiilrU'utions - - IJ 
 
 Last of the Old Si|uires • - - -Is 
 Loudon'a Ladv'^ Country Companion - H 
 Macaulay's Crltkal luid Historical Kssayi 15 
 
 ,, Speeches • - - - I-t 
 
 Mackintosh's (SirJ.) Miscellaneom Worka IS 
 Memoirs of a Mailre d'Arines - - 'J^i 
 
 Maitlnnd's Church in the Catacombs - Ifi 
 Piisciil's Works, by Pearce - - - IS 
 Pvcroft's E«|tlish Reading ... lil 
 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary - 19 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - -19 
 Rowton's Debater - - - - - 19 
 Seaward'! Narratitc of hla Shipwreck - 211 
 Sir RoKcr De Coverley - - - 21 
 
 Smith's (Rer. Sydney) Works - - 21 
 
 Southey's Common-Place Booki - - 21 
 
 ,, The Doctor etc. - - - 23 
 Souvestre's Attic Philosopher - - 2a 
 
 ,, Confessions uf a VVorking Man 2^{ 
 
 Stephen's Ess»ys ..... 21 
 Stow's Trninin^ System . - .21 
 
 Thomson'sOutTineofthc Lans of Thought 22 
 Townscnd's State Trials - - ^ - 22 
 Willich's Popular Tales 
 
 Yonge's English Greek Lexicon * - 24 
 
 ,, Latin Grndus - > • • 24 
 
 Zumpt's Latin (iramraar ... - 24 
 
 Natural History in General. 
 
 Callow's Popular Conchology - . . j 
 Kphemera and Younif on the Salmon - 9 
 GoKse's Xatural History of Jamaica • 9 
 Kemp's Natural History of Creation - 2^-i 
 Kirby and Spclice's Kntomology - .12 
 Lee's Klemeiits of Natural History . 1,' 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Natural History . ]f> 
 Turton's Shells of t^ie British Islands - 24 
 Waterton'sKssays on Natural History - 24 
 Youatt'sThe Dog ..... 24 
 ,, The Horse ... .24 
 
 1-Volume Encyclopaedias and 
 Dictionaries. 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports - - . - f, 
 
 Brande'a Science, Literature, and Art . 6 
 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine . .8 
 
 Cresy's Civil Kngiiieering - . - S 
 
 Gwilt's Architecture ---.() 
 
 Johnston's Geographical Dictionary . TJ 
 
 London's Agriculture . . . - 14 
 
 ,, Rural Architecture . .14 
 
 ,, Gardening . . . . }4 
 
 ,, Plants ..... 14 
 
 „ Trees and Shrubs - . . 14 
 
 M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary - IS 
 
 ,, Dictionary of Commerce - 15 
 
 Murray'8Rncvclop.x?diaof Geography . 1" 
 
 Sharp's British Gazetteer . - .20 
 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, etc. * . . 24 
 
 Webster'sDomestic Economy - - 24 
 
 Religious and Moral Works. 
 
 AmyHcrOcrt - . - - - - 20 
 
 Atkinson on the Church - ... 5 
 
 Bloom&eld'sGreek Testaments . . 6 
 
 ,1 Annotations on ditto - . 6 
 
 CaWert'a Wife's Manual 
 Coiiybcare and HnWHOll's Ht. Paul . 
 Corner's Sunday Book - . - 
 Dale's Domestic Liturgy 
 Defence of Kclipie u/ Faith - 
 IMscipline ..... 
 
 Earl's Daughter (The) ... 
 Ecliphc of Kaith - . . - 
 
 Englishman '» (ireek Concordance . 
 
 ,, Hcb. and Chald. Concord, 
 
 Erperichec of Life (The) 
 Gertrude 
 
 Harrison's Light of the Forge 
 
 Hook's (Dr.) Lectures on Passion Week 
 
 Home's liitr4)duction to Scriptures 
 
 M Abridgment of ditto 
 
 Ilulbert on ,lob . - - . . 
 
 Jamesou's Sacred Legends . . . 
 
 ,, Monastic Legends - . . 
 ,1 Legends of the Madonna 
 
 Jeremy Taylor's Works . - . . 
 
 Katharine Xshton - - - . . 
 
 Kippis's Hymns . . . . . 
 Lady Una and her Queendom 
 
 Laneton Parsonage . . . . • 
 Letters to My Unknown Friends 
 
 ,« on Happiness . . . . 
 
 Litlon's Church ot Christ . . - 
 Maitland's Church in the Catacombs 
 
 Margaret Percival - . . . 
 
 Martineau's Cliurch History . . . 
 
 Milncr's Church of Christ . . . 
 Montgomery's Original Hymns 
 Moore On tlie Use ofthe Body 
 
 »t *« Soul and Body . . 
 
 ft '-s Man and his Motives 
 Mormonism --.-*, 
 
 Neale's Closing Scene - . . . 
 
 „ Resting Places of the Just . 
 
 „ Riches that bring no Sorrow 
 
 ,, Risen from tlic Hanks . - . 
 
 Newman's (J. H.) Discourses - . . 
 Ranke's Ferdinand and Ma.tiulilian 
 
 Readings for Lent - . . . 
 
 1, Confirmation 
 
 Robinson's Lexicon to the Greek Testn. 
 mcnt ...... 
 
 Saints our Example . . . - 
 
 Self- lienial . - - - . 
 
 Sermon on the Mount • . . . 
 
 ■ • .. illuminated . 
 
 Sinclair's Journey of Life . . . 
 Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy 
 
 ,, ((i.) Sacred Annals . . . 
 
 Southey's Life of Wesley . . . 
 
 Stephen's (Sir J.) Ecclesiastical Bioirraoh 7 
 
 Taylor's Loyola . . . . . 
 
 ,, Wesley - - - . , 
 
 Tlieologia Germanica - - . . 
 
 Thumb Bible (The) - - - . 
 
 Turner's Sacred History . . . 
 
 Poetry and the Drama. 
 
 .■\rnold's Poems . . . . . 
 
 Aikin's (Dr.) Uritish Poets 
 
 Haillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works . 
 
 Barter's Iliad of Homer - - - . 
 
 Bode's Ballailh from Herodotus 
 
 Calvert's Wife's Manual 
 
 Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts 
 
 (loldsmith's Poems, illustrated 
 
 Knit's Alctlieia . . . , . 
 
 Kippis's Hvmns . . . . , 
 
 L. E. L.'s Poetical Works 
 
 Pa«es 
 
 - 7 
 
 - H 
 
 • 8 
 
 • 8 
 
 - 9 
 
 - 8 
 
 - Sll 
 
 - S 
 9 
 9 
 
 311 
 20 
 HI 
 lU 
 II 
 11 
 II 
 II 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 211 
 12 
 12 
 20 
 12 
 12 
 14 
 l-i 
 20 
 
 in 
 
 16 
 
 ir. 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 2a 
 18 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 
 18 
 23 
 20 
 20 I 
 
 19 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 ^il 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 on 
 
 22 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 
 18 
 9 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Pagt; 
 
 14 
 I ft 
 16 
 
 ir> 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 20 
 11 
 21 
 21 
 
 Linwood's Antliologia Oxoniensis • 
 Macaulay's I^ftys of Aiifieiit Uoiiie - 
 Montgomery's Poetinil Works • 
 
 ,, Oriuiual Hymns 
 
 Moore's Poetical Works . - - 
 
 f, Lalla Rciokh - - - 
 
 ,, Irish Melodies - - . 
 
 jf Son^s and Ballads 
 Shakspeare, Gy Bowdler - 
 
 'sSentinu'iitsand Similea 
 Southey'sPoetical Works 
 
 ,, British Poets - 
 T'honison's Seasons, illustrated 
 I'hornton's Zohral) 
 VValts's Lyrics of the Heart - 
 
 Political Economy & Statistics. 
 
 nanfiohl's statistical fonipaiiion - - G 
 
 Caird's Lctt'TS on Agriculture - - 7 
 
 Krancis on Life Assuran<-e - - - 9 
 
 (Jrei;*8 Kssays on Political and Social 
 
 Sficnce _ - - - - 9 
 
 I/aiML''s Notes of a Traveller - - 12 & 23 
 
 - ■ -■ 15 
 
 15 
 
 2:i 
 
 15 
 
 Ifi 
 24 
 
 M*Culloch*R Geogrnpliiral Dirtionary 
 ,, Dictionary ot Commerce 
 „ London . - - - - 
 ,, Statistics of the British Kmptre 
 
 Mflrcet's Political K<oin>iny - - - 
 
 W'illich's Popular Tables - 
 
 The Sciences in General and 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Arago's Works . - - - - 
 
 Bourne's (Jatcchism of the Steam Engine 
 
 ,, on tlie Screw Propeller 
 Brande*s Dictionary of Science, etc. 
 
 ,, Lectures on Organic Cheraistr}' 
 
 Cresy's Civil Kngineering , - - 
 DelaBet'be's Geoloijv o( Cornwall, etc. 
 
 ,, *s (ieolotfical Observer - 
 De ia Rive's I'Jectriiity - - - - 
 Faraday's N'on-Metallic Elements - 
 Kulloin's Marvels of Science - - - 
 Hersihel's Outlines of Astronomy - 
 Holhuid's Mental I'hysiology 
 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature 
 
 ,, Cosmos 
 
 Hunt's Researches on Liffht - - - 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclnpipdia 
 Marcet's (Mrs.) Convet-sations - 15 & 
 Moseley's Knijineenng and Architecture 
 Owen 'sLectmes oil ConipHrative '\iiatoiny 
 Our Coal Fields and our Coal Fits - 
 Peschcl's Elements of Physics 
 Phillips'^- Fossils of Cornwall, etc. 
 
 „ Mineralogy - - . . 
 
 », Guide to Cieology - - _ 
 Portlocli's (ieulogy of Londonderry 
 Smee's Klectro-Metallurgy - - - 
 Steam Eni:ine, by the Artisan Club 
 Tate on Strength of Materials 
 Todd's Tables of Circles 
 'vVilson's Electricity and the Electric 
 
 Telegraph - - - - . 
 
 E-ural Sports. 
 
 Baker*s Rifle and Hound in Ceylon 
 Berkeley's Reminiscences 
 Blaine's Oictiouary f>t Sports 
 Cecil's Stable Practice 
 
 „ Records of the Chase - 
 
 23 
 
 Pages 
 
 Cecil's Stud Farm - • - • - 7 
 
 The Cricket Field - - - - - 8 
 
 Kphemera on Angling - - - • 9 
 
 ,, 's Book of the Salmon - - 9 
 
 The Hunting Field - ** . - " *" 
 
 Loudon's Lady's Country Companion - 1*4 
 
 i'ocket and the Stud - - - - 10 
 
 Practical Horsemanship - - - - 10 
 
 i^ulrnan's Fly-Fishing _ - - - 19 
 
 Richardson's Horsemanship - " -19 
 
 St .loliii's Sporting Rambles - - -19 
 
 Stable Talk and Tahlc Talk - - - 10 
 
 Stonehenge on the (irevliound - - 22 
 
 The Stud,foi Practical Purposes - - 10 
 
 Veterinary Medicine, etc. 
 
 CectPs Stable Practice - - - - 8 
 
 ,, Stud P'arin ----- 7 
 
 The Hunting Field 10 
 
 Morton's Veterinary Pharmacy" - "1/ 
 
 Pocket and the Stud - - - - lO 
 
 Practical Horsemanship - - - - 10 
 
 Richaritsoii's Horsemanship - - - 19 
 
 Stable Taik and Tabic Talk - - - 10 
 
 The Stud for Practical Purposes - - 10 
 
 Yonatt'sTbe Dog - - - - 24 
 
 ,, The Horse - - - - 24 
 
 Voyages and Travels. 
 
 Raker*s Rifle and Hound in Ceylon 
 Barrow's Continental Tour 
 Carlisle's Turkey and Greece - - • 
 De ('ustine's Russia - - - . 
 
 Ettthen - - 
 
 fcrguson*s Swiss Men and Mountains ■ 
 t''orester and Biddulph'a Norway 
 Gironi^re's Philippines - - . . 
 Hill's Travel s in Siberia - - - - 
 Hope's Britraiiy and the Bible - 
 
 ,, (^hase in Brittany - • 
 
 Howitt's Art Student in Munich 
 Hue's Tartar)', Thibet, and China - 
 Huyhes's Australian Colonies - 
 Hnmbley's Indian Journal 
 Humboldt's Aspects ol Nature 
 Jameson's C'aiuida - - - . . 
 .lerrmann's Pictures frOm St, Petersburg 
 Laiug's Norw!jy - . - . . 
 
 ,, Notes of a Traveller - - 12 
 Macintosh's Turkey and Black Sea - 
 Miles' Rambles in Iceland 
 Ol imixon's Piccadilly to Peru - 
 Osborn's Arctic J ouriial - - - . 
 Peel's Nubian Desert - . . . 
 PfeifTer's Voyage round the World - 
 Power's New Zealand Sketches 
 Richardson's Arctic Boat Voyage - 
 Seaward's Narrative ot his Shipwreck - 
 St. John's (H.) Indian Archipelago 
 ,] (J. A.) Isis 
 
 >» X There and Back again 
 
 (Hon.F.) Rambles - 
 Sutherland's .-^rrtic Voyage 
 Traveller's Library • - - . 
 
 Werne's African Wanderings - 
 
 Works of Fiction. 
 
 Arnold's Oakfield . . . . , 
 
 Lady Willouirhby's Diary - - ■ 
 
 Macdon-tld'b Villa Vcrocchio - 
 
 Sir Kouer De C'overley - - - . 
 Soutiicy'ij The Doctor etc. 
 
 • S 
 
 ■ 23 
 
 7 
 23 
 
 ■ 23 
 
 • 23 
 
 • 9 
 23 
 10 
 
 ■ 23 
 
 • 23 
 
 ' 23 
 
 ■ 23 
 . 11 
 . 11 
 . 23 
 
 23 
 
 • 23 
 &23 
 
 ■ 15 
 
 • 23 
 
 ■ Ifi 
 . 18 
 
 • 18 
 . 23 
 . 18 
 . 19 
 . 2U 
 
 • 19 
 . 19 
 
 20 
 . 19 
 
 22 
 . 23 
 . 23 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 15 
 21 
 21 
 
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