TO Sir A. C. Mackenzie New and Revised Edition. TMB JOSEPH WILLIAMS SERIES OP HANDBOOKS ON MUSIC UNDER THE EDITORSHIP OF STEWART MACPHBRSON. FORM IN MUSIC W/7'ff SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DESIGNS OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. STEWART MACPHERSON (Professor of Harmony and Composition at the Royal Academy of Music ^ Author of " Practical Harmotiy" etc.) PRICE SEVEN SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE NET LONDON: JOSKl'II WILLIAMS, LIMITED, 32 Great Portland Street, W.i. Australia: New Zealand : D. Davis & Co. Ltd., Sydney A. A. Corrigan &Co. Ltd., Wellington U.S.A. AND British North America: The B. F.Wood Music Co., Boston. B90 IQIS- FURNIVAL PRESS PRINTED BY CEO. BARTER, >JIVAL STREET, HOLBORN, AND 5ITOR STREET, CHANCERY LANE, E.C.4 Tcl. Holborn 1077 . / rURNI ■ \ CL'RSn TABLE OF CONTENTS. m Preface Index to Musical Examples CHArXER I. Introductory ... II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. - X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV, XXVI. Accent, Time and Rhythm ,, ,, ,, (continued) ,, ,, ,, (continued) Phrases and Sentences Sub-divisions of the Phrase Rhythmic Extension and Contraction The Construction of Complete Movements The Simple Binary, or Two-part, Form The Simple Ternary, or Three-part, Form The Binary and Ternary Forms (continued) The Evolution of the Ternary Idea: The Minuet AND Trio — The Episodical Form The Evolution of the Ternary Idea (continued) : The Older, or Simple, Rondo The Evolution of the Ternary Idea (continued) : Sonata-Form The Exposition — First Subject and Transition Sonata-Form (continued) : The Exposition— The Second Subject Sonata-Form (continued) : The Development, or Free Fantasia Sonata-Form (continued) : The Recapitulation and Coda — The Introduction Departures from the Normal Type of Sonata-Form : (i) Modified (bR Abridged) Sonata-Form ; (ii) The Modern or Sonata-Rondo The Variation Form The Sonata as a whole Fugue « Canon (i) The Symphony ; (ii) The Overture ; (iii) Concerted Chamber-Music The Concerto (i) Dance Forms Suite, Partita, etc. The (ii) Indefinite Forms The Historical Evolution of Sonata-Form. Modern Tendencies - Symphonic Poem. etc. Programme-Music, The Appendix Glossary General Index I 5 9 i6 25 35 48 61 62 71 86 91 107 "5 120 129 138 158 167 177 193 203 215 220 227 237 249 253 261 267 271 PREFACE. In issuing the present volume on the subject of Form in Instrumental Music — a subject that has taken of late years a place of considerable importance in musical education — the author desires to state, in as few words as possible, some of the principles that have guided him in the putting together of the work, and to refer at the outset to one or two points upon which he has felt himself compelled to differ from certain widely-accepted views, chiefly in the classification of the various types of musical composition. I. — It has been thought wise to confine the remarks throughout the work mainly to the region of instrumental music, for it is here that the art of design is manifested on its most detached and essential side, i.e., apart from the exigencies of an association with words or with dramatic situations. Moreover, the inclusion of an adequate description of the various vocal forms, the Opera, the Oratorio, &c., would have caused the volume to assume unwieldy proportions, and thus have defeated the aim and object for which it was written. 2. — Within these limits the following order of subjects has been carried out, viz: (i) the consideration of Accent and Rhythm, and the construction of Phrases, Sentences, &c. ; (ii) the grouping of these smaller musical divisions into " Paragraphs " and complete movements ; (iii) the grouping of these complete movements into such complex structures as the Sonata, Symphony, Concerto and other so-called " cyclic " forms. Reference has also been made to the Fugue, the Canon and Round, the Suite, &c., and the final chapters deal with some of the tendencies of latter-day music and with the historical growth of Sonata-form. 3. — It has been the custom to speak of certain instrumental movements as being in either Binary or Ternary form, and it may be said here that these expressions are convenient, and, if used consistently, of a distinct and logical value. Unfortunately, though, much confusion has arisen as to their exact signification, through the fact of their having been applied in totally different ways by different authors, who in more than one instance have VI PREFACE. imposed quite arbitrary meanings upon them. An instance will, it is hoped, make this clear. Such a movement as the little Mozart Minuet on page 72 would, according to the method of analysis adopted by some writers,* be designated a Binary {i.e., a two-part) movement, notwithstanding the fact that it undoubtedly consists of three distinct divisions (as they would be prepared in a certain sense to admit) ; and, moreover, would not be classified as a Ternary {i.e., a three-part) piece — as would seem natural — for the sole reason that " a true Ternary form should always contain an episode of some kind."! It seems there is little in rerum natura to support this somewhat arbitrary assumption ; consequently it has appeared far more reasonable, consistent and scientific to base the classification into Binary and Ternary upon the two facts, (i) of a natural division of the music into two or three parts (as the case may be), more or less easily recognizable by the listener, and (ii) of the important element in a Ternary form of a return to the opening section in Part 3, the question of the nature of the matter in Part 2 being a side issue, not without its importance, but of little or no consequence so far as this classification is concerned. J: The present writer was glad to find striking corroboration of this point of view in Dr. W. H. Hadow's interesting " Sonata- Form " (Novello & Co.), corroboration which was all the more convincing from the fact that practically the same conclusions as are therein embodied had been arrived at independently, before the perusal of that volume. 4. — The author entirely agrees with Dr. Hadow that the Ternary idea in musical composition in reality underlies the construction of almost every modern form, from the time of Haydn onwards ; but, while heartily endorsing this, he has thought it best to adopt special names for the larger designs which, like the Minuet and Trio, are the result originally • Amongst these Professor Prout holds the most distinguished place, by reason of his important works on musical form. Realizing the weight that attaches to any pronouncement by so eminent an authority, any serious dissent from his conclusions is naturally put forward with a certain amount of diffidence, and is at the same time accompanied by a very cordial and sincere recognition of the debt we all owe to him on this subject, as on many others. t E. Prout, "Musical Form," page 184. "By the term 'Episode is meant a subject altogether distinct from the principal subject of the piece, and more or less strongly contrasted with it." (Ibid.) X On the above grounds the author was at first somewhat inclined to dispense with the terms Binary and Ternary altogether, and to substitute Duple and Triple ; reluctance, however, as to the introducing of fresh technical terms caused him to abandon the idea. PREFACE. Vil of accretion, i.e., of the addition of one practically complete movement to another. Consequently, such terms — long in use — as "Minuet and Trio form," "Episodical form," &c., have in such cases been retained as conducive to clearness. By such means as these, and by an adherence throughout to a method of analysis that shall coincide with the reasonable appeal of the music to the ear, it is hoped that the path of the student may be rendered less thorny, and his efforts in the direction of an intelligent understanding of his music assisted and stimulated in some appreciable degree. 5. — Cordial acknowledgment is here made of much valuable help gained from the following works : — (i) The Oxford History of Music (particularly vols. 3, 4, 5 and 6). (ii) Sonata-Form \^^ ^ Hadow (iii) Studies in Modern Music j " ' (iv) Musical Form (v) Applied Forms ' (vi) Lessons in Music-form ) _, _, , . / • ( TT u • 17 ( Percy Goetschms. (vn) Homophonic torms ) ^ (viii) Lectures on Musical Analysis — H. C. Banister. (ix) The Art of Music— C. Hubert H. Parry. (x) Musical Studies — Ernest Newman. (xi) Programme Music — Frederick Niecks. (xii) Various articles in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Particularly is it desired here to recognize the indebtedness of musicians to the writings of Dr. W. H. Hadow, which, by reason of their deep insight and their charming literary style, stand forth as some of the most striking contributions to modern musical literature. 6. — Finally, the author's warm thanks are due to his friends and colleagues. Dr. Henry W. Richards and Dr. Arthur J. Greenish, for much time and care spent in correcting the proof-sheets of the present work, and for valuable suggestions during its preparation. London, 1908. ^_ PREFACE TO NEW AND REVISED EDITION. In this edition the author has carefully revised the original work, and has made several modifications and additions suggested by recent experience. London, 1915. Important Note. Owing to the many differences in the numbering of the Sonatas of Haydn and Mozart in the various editions of those works, the identification of any particular Sonata is frequently a matter of some considerable difficulty. The following comparative table has, therefore, been compiled in order to make this identification easier. The numbering throughout the present volume is in accordance with that of the Peters edition. MOZART SONATAS. Sonata in Peters 1 Augener Bosworth Analytical Edition' F No. I No. 15 No. 16 No. 15 C 2 ID 3 10 D 3 9 9 9 Bflat 4 13 17 13 F 5 19 14 19 F 6 12 13 12 A minor 7 8 7 8 C 8 7 4 7 E flat 9 4 19 4 D ID 6 10 6 F U 2 15 2 A 12 I r 12 II D 13 iS II 18 G 14 5 8 5 C 15 16 I 16 C 16 I 2 I B flat 17 3 18 3 C minor 18 14 6 14 B flat — 17 5 17 HAYDN SONATAS. Sonata in Peters Augener Analytical Edition* Sonata in Peters Augener Analytical Edition* Eflat No. I No. I No. I Bflat No. 18 No. — No. _ E minor 2 2 — D 19 14 E flat 3 3 3 F 20 13 G minor 4 4 — C 21 15 C 5 5 5 C minor 22 Ci minor 6 6 Eflat 23 — D 7 7 7 B flat 24 19 A flat 8 D 25 20 D 9 22 9 A 26 — G 10 16 E 27 — G II 9 — F 2S — Eflat 12 — E flat 29 21 F 13 8 — A 30 — — D 14 II — (; 31 — C 15 — — D 32 18 G 16 12 — B minor 33 — E 17 17 — E 34 10 — "The Analytical Edition" published by Joseph Williams Ltd. INDEX TO MUSICAL EXAMPLES. The Author is indebted to the following firms for kind permission to print extracts from their publications : — Messrs. C. F. Peters, of Leipzig, for those marked . . „ Breitkopf & Haerlel, for those marked ,, Schlesinger & Co., of Leipzig, for those marked ,, Novello c& Co., for those marked ,, Schott & Co., for those marked ,, Alfred Lengnick & Co., for those marked .. II AugenerS Co., 'or those marked Monsieur E. Fromont, of Paris, for those marked . . •»• The numbers are those of the ExamJ>!es, not of the pages, unless the page is specially indicated. Bach, J. S.— Allemande, from Suite Anglaise in G minor ... ... ... ... 176 ,, ,, Partita in B flat 215 Bourree, from Suite Anglaise in A ... 223 Courante ,, ,, in A 163 ,, ,, „ in A minor 216 Gavotte, from Suite Fran^aise in E (No. 6) 93 ,, ,, Suite Anglaise in G minor ... ... ... ... 221 Gavotte (so-called), from Violin Sonata in B minor ... (Footnote, p. 243) Gigue, from Suite Fran9aise in G ... ... 220 Mass in B minor ... ... ... ... ... 164 Musette, from Suite Anglaise in G minor 222 Organ Fugue in C minor 190 Sarabande, from Suite Anglaise in G minor ... ... 218 " Wohltemperirtes Clavier " : Book I., No. Book II., No. Beethoven — Pianoforte Sonatas : 2 ... 184, 185 4 ... ... 178 7 ... ... 182 16 ... ... ... 186 22 181, 187 2 ... 188 9 ... 189 in F minor (Op.2,No.i) (Footnote, p 20), 100 in A (Op. 2, No. 2) 9,63, III, 129, 160, 238 inC (Op.2,No.3) 10, 56 in E flat (Op.7) 16, 22 in C minor (Op. 10. No. i) ... 118 inF (Op. io,No.2) ... 122, 137. 141 inD (Op. io,No.3) • •• 237 in C minor (Op.13) ... 24, 128, 177 inE (Op. 14, No. i) (Op.i4,No.2) ... 142 inG 36, 244 in B flat (Op. 22 ... 54, 62, 153, 174. 239 in A flat (Op. 26) ... ... 74 in C sharp minoi (Op. 27, No. 2) 120, 245 inD (Op.28) ... ... ... 33, 103 in D minor (Op.3i,No.2) 6^, 173 in E flat (Op.3i,No.3) 121, 151. 152 inC (Op.53) ... 73, 148 in F minor (Op.57) ... ... 89 inG (Op. 79) ... .« 106, 108, 124 in E flat (Op.BiA) ... 155. 156 in E minor (Op.90) ... ... 126 in E (Op. 109) ... 123 noforte and Viol m (Op. 12, No. 2 )'" 158, 159 INDEX TO MUSICAL EXAMPLES. Beethoven — continued — Symphonies : in E flat (No. 3) ("Eroica") in B flat (No. 4) in C minor (No. 5) inF (No. 8) in D minor (No. 9) ("Choral") Pianoforte Concertos : in C major (Op. 15) in C minor (Op. 37) " Tama " of Variations on a Waltz of Diabelli (Op. 120) 32 Variations in C minor Variations and Fugue (Op. 35) ... Berlioz — " Le Carnaval Romain " (Op. 9) Brahms — ** Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 78) •*Symphony in D (No. 2)... •* Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel (Op. 24) ••Walzer (Op. 39) Byrd, William (1538-1623) — Canon, " Non nobis, Domine " ... Variations, " The Carman's Whistle " ... Chopin — Ballade in A flat (Op. 47) Etude in C sharp minor (Op. 10, No. 4)... Etude in D flat (Op. 25, Book II.) Mazurka in B flat (Op. 7) Nocturne in E flat (Op. 9) Polonaise in A flat (Op. 53) ... Pianoforte Sonata in B flat minor (Op. 35) Prelude in A flat (Op. 28, No. 17) Clementi Muzio — " Gradus ad Parnassum " Couperin, Francois — Gavotte, " La Bourbonnoise " ... Rondeau, " La tendre Fanchon " Cowen, F. H. — §" The Sleeping Beauty " ... Czerny, Carl — " L'art de delier " (Op. 699) Debussy, Claude — JJ "Sarabande" Dvorak — **" New World " Symphony •* Slavische Tanze (Op. 46) §" Stabat Mater " •• String Quartet in G (Op. 106) Grieg — * " Albumblatter " (Op. 28) • Ballade in G minor (Op. 24) ... • " Rigaudon " from Pianoforte Suite, "Aus Ilolberg's Zeit' * Sonata in C minor for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 45) Handel — Courante from Suite in G... " Messiah" Minuet in F, from " Sept Pieces" .1, 140, .60, 71, 1 54 191 112 13, 166, 133 199 12 46, 202 -211 • 92 168 171. 194 47 130 242 170 49 192 162 55 68 228 48 59 39 37 52 197 214 107 14 227 21 77. "5. 136 , 20 17 32 50 169 (Op. 40) 105 .. 114, 13s 217 30, I So , 224 INDEX TO MUSICAL EXAMPLES. XI Haydn — Pianoforte Sonata in C minor (No. 22) .. Pianoforte Variations in F minor Symphonies: in E flat (No. i) in D (No. 2) 28 165 70, 145 76, 99, 104 Hayes, William (1707-1777)— Round, "Wind, Gentle Evergreen" ... 198 Liszt — '• Liebestraum" in A flat... X Pianoforte Concerto in E flat t Symphonic Poem, " Tasso" Mendelssohn — "Elijah" Lieder ohne Worte : ; (No." "11) (No. 20) (No. 26) (No. 27) (No. 32) "Lobgesang" Pianoforte Fugue in D (Op. 35, No. J ) Symphony in A, No. 4 (" Italian") Zwei ClavierstUcke (No. l) Mozart — "Don Juan" Fantasia and Sonata in C minor Pianoforte Sonatas : in F (No. I ) in C (No. 2) in D (No. 3) in B flat (No. 4) in C (No. 8) in E flat (No. 9) in D (No. 10) in A (No. 12) in D (No. 13) inG (No. 14) in C minor (No. 18) Rondo (so-called) in D Serenade in C minor Sonata in E flat for Pianoforte and Violin (No. 7) Symphonies: in C, No. i ("Jupiter") in G minor (No. 2) in C (No. 6) MULLER, A. E. (1767-1807)— Menuetto ._ ... ^ ... 41 ... 212, 213 ... 231- •236 8 , 81 83 .84 ... 72 ... lOI ... 44 (Footnote, p. 22) 69 179 ... 143. 149 ... IS7 6, 31. 45 ;. 51 229 78 ... 18, 94 . 95 ... 53 57, 146 34 ,38 ... 109 35. 102 (Footnote, p. 119) 43, 58, 172 64 no, 127, 175 161 19s ... 144 , 125 ... 134, 147 . 97 91 ttNicoDi, J. L.— Tarantella (Op. 13) ... 226 Paradiks, Domenico — Sonata in D (No. 10) 230 PuRCELL, Henry (1658-1695)— Canon 4 in 2 193 xn INDEX TO MUSICAL EXAMPLES. Schubert — Impromptu in C minor (Op. 90, No. l) <*o Pianoforte Sonata in A (Op. 120) 40. ^5 " Rosamunde" Music ... ... *• ••• 5 Songs— " Whither " 3." " Der Lindenbaum " ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 42 " Haiden Roslein " ... 75 Symphonies: in B minor (" Unfinished") ... ... ... 25, 119 in C major (No. 9) 243 Schumann — " Canonisches Liedchen," from "Album for the Young " ... ... 196 "Carnaval" 98 Pianoforte Concerto in A minor ... ... ... 132 Symphonies: in C (No. 2) 82,113, 200 in D minor (No. 4) ... .». 65 Smetana — * String Quartet, "Aus meinem L fben " .„ ... ... 27, 116 Strauss, Johann — " Doctrinen " Valse ^ .~ .« 61 TSC H a i'KOWS KY — Symphonies: in E minor (No. 5) „ ... 150 in B minor (No. 6) ' Path(^tique" 131 Wagner — •' Der Fliegende Hollander " .». 19 II " Die Meistersinger " ^ 29,67,79 II " Die Walkiire " „ ... 2 " Tristan und Isolde " 1^8,139,240,241 Weber — Pianoforte Variations on " Castor and Pollux " .«. .« ... 167 Polacca Brillante (Op. 72) - .~ .», ... 225 ZiPOLi, DOMENico (1685 — ?) — Gigue in G minor ... ... ... .^ .» ... 219 MISCELLANEOUS. " Bourr^e du Mont Dore " (Old French) ... ... 26 Example of conventional passage writing ... ... ... ... ...I17 Fugue subject and answer to illustrate modulation to Dominant and back to Tonic ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 183 Hungarian Melody ... ... ... ... ... 96 National Anthem . . ... ... ... ... 23 Old English Tune (1780) 90 Old French Melody 7 "The Bailiff's Daughter of Islington" 87 " The Bluebells of Scotland " 88 Welsh Melody 15(a), 15 (b) References are also made to works by Auber, C. P. E. Bach, J. C. Bach, Sterndale Bennett, Felix Blumenfeld, Max Bruch, J. B. Cramer, Claude Debussy, Edward Elgar, C^sar Franck, Glazounow, Karl Goldmark, Harold, Hiller, Lulli, A. C. Mackenzie, Ignaz Paderewski, Raff, Rubinstein, A. Scarlatti, Saint-Saens, Villiers Stanford, Richard Strauss, Spohr, Sullivan, Verdi, &c. FORM IN MUSIC CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. The question how far the analytical and critical study of a work of art aids or hinders the appreciation of its more emotional and spiritual factors is one that has been asked over and over again, chiefly by those who have but imperfectly realized the complex character of the human organism, and still more imperfectly understood the aim of such analysis and criticism. Music appeals to us in a threefold way, which may be described under the headings of (i) Physical Sensation ; (ii) Emotion, or feeling ; (iii) Intellect {i.e. critical judgment, based upon certain reasoning powers within us). The first of these agencies, that of physical sensation, is without doubt the lowest of the three, and is one we share with the rest of the animal creation, upon whom — as we all Physical know — certain sounds seem to have a distinct ^^ ^ • and immediate effect — often that of pain. So with us : the impression made upon the multitude of listeners by the noisy sonority of such a work as Tschaikowsky's "1812" overture is, for the most part, purely physical ; it is but an action on the nerve-centres that is often confused with the second of the headings indicated above, viz., emotion. This, ho\vever, lies on a much higher plane than mere physical sensation. It is more subjective, and is the response of something in our own consciousness to some (often Emotion. indescribable) quality in the music to which we are listening. Our feelings go out at once in sympathy with, it may be, the mournful simplicity of the opening chords of the " Dead March in Saul," or the intense human passion of the Prelude to " Tristan." Each is the means of producing in us a mood, and creates an atmosphere to which only those who are dead to musical influences altogether can be entirely impervious. But, in judging of the emotional effect of a work, the factor of association has to be taken into account, and it is a truism to say that we are often tempted to estimate a Association. poem or a musical work quite out of all proportion to its real value as a work of art, simply because it is associated, perhaps, in our thoughts with (Nbw and Revised Editic^ ^ j. w., 14,681. 2 FORM IN MUSIC. certain events oi crises in our owti lives, or is the expression — probably the ver^ imperfect expression — of some sentiment with which we are in sympathy and accord. Here then, in order that we may the better arrive at a just and critical appreciation of that to which we may be directing our attention, comes the necessity for the employ- Intelleet. ment of the intellectual faculties of our nature. *' To judge a composition simply from the ** manner in which it works upon our feelings, is no better than " judging a picture or a poem merely from our sympathy with its " subject."* We here are called upon to exercise our judgment, to decide upon such questions as style, symmetry, and balance of design — to say, in fact, whether the composer has put his thoughts into the most convincing shape, into that form which will best convey their meaning. In this, as we have no external objects with which to compare works of musical art, in order to test their truth (as is the case with the arts of sculpture and painting), we have to fall back to some extent upon whatever inherent sense of fitness and proportion we possess. Here, however, we can be materially aided by a careful study of the many masterpieces of the great writers, in which certain definite underlying principles have been clearly and progressively exemplified, and which it is safe to regard as a guide in our own efforts at conscious criticism.! It is an axiom that every object of nature, and consequently every work of art, must have some sort of intelligible shape or form, through the medium of which it reaches Symmetry. our mind and sense. This is true whether we are considering a planet or a butterfly, a cathedral or a miniature, a Shakespeare drama or a simple ballad. In music the need for clearness of form is even more urgent than it is in literature, where, apart from the design of the whole work, isolated sentences and even individual ^^w? ^?^ Form words may, and do, convey some sort of "lusie. meaning in themselves, simply through their being the recognised expression or description of certain ideas and objects familiar to us in our daily life. Such, however, is not the case with music. No one particular set of notes can ever be said to represent either a concrete object or an abstract idea,! except by an arbitrary act of will on the part of composer or listener ; hence it is that music unallied to words must largely • W. H. Hadow. " Studies in Modern Music," Vol. II. t It should be clearly understood that the word criticism is never used in this volume in the sense of hostile judgment, but simply as an indication of an uttempt to balance the probabilities of strength and weakness in a work of art. X No account is, of course, taken here of the crude form of " Programme Music" represented by such works as "The Battle of Prague," et hoc genus imnc. FORM IN MUSIC. 3 depend for its intelligibility upon questions of Form, Design, Shape, or whatever term we may care to use in order to describe this necessary element in its existence. The evidences of Form in music are various, but they all have the common object just alluded Evidences of to. Among the more prominent of these evidences are : — (i) The grouping of pulses or beats (the musical ' ' protoplasm "), by means of more or less regularly recurring accents, into measures or bars, producing what is known as Time ; (ii) The grouping of sounds based upon some such time- scheme into musical figures, phrases and sentences, with definite relationships one to another, resulting in Rhythtjuc shape ; (iii) The grouping of such figures, phrases and sentences into larger paragraphs, described as Subjects, Episodes, etc., each with its special connexion with and relation to the others ; (iv) The grouping of these larger paragraphs into complete movements. Other evidences of design are to be found in the two ingredients of music we usually describe as Melody and Harmony, Melody here meaning an arrangement of single sounds Melody and \^ succession, giving, by their rise or fall and ^* by their special groupings, the impression of what may be described by the much-abused word, Tune. How- ever, a melody without any kind of support would, save in isolated instances, be intolerable to modern ears ; hence we find it associated with what is termed Harmony. This may take the form of an accompaniment of more or less subordinate chords, or it may be what is known as contrapuntal or polyphonic in character, i.e., it may consist of other melodies running side by side with the principal one, as is the case notably in fugal writing. As all these factors, Rhythm, Melody, and Harmony, are so inseparably bound up with one another, Rhythm, Melody, jt \^ ^ XwW^ difficult at first to think of fntepdependent. them separately and individually. The notes of many a fine theme seem to be harmonic in their very nature. Take, for instance, the two following extracts, which are clearly formed upon the Hapmonie nature common chords of E flat and C major many emes, j-gspg^tively, and are as naturally supported by those chords as if they sprang into existence from them : — Beethoven. — " Eroica" Symphony. '•i FORM TN MUSIC. Wagner.—" Die WalkUre." ^ :|: &c. Take, again, the initial phrase of Schubert's well-known song, " Whither ? " Here, in an equally marked manner, the melodic outline is clearly that of two chords, the Tonic and the Dominant : — _^ I Tonic chord. ^x— I Dominant chord. | &c. »- |il£j' i r • ' r ^ij^^ i . ^u^i^ ^ Instances could easily be multiplied to enforce this fact, but those that have been given are quite sufficient to illustrate the point. Again, the inter-relation of Rhythm and the two components we have been considering — Melody and Harmony — is shewn in the fact that rhythmic shape largely depends (as Rhythmic will be seen in a later chapter) upon the Shape often employment of Cadences, which, in their turn, harmonic forms. ^'"^ dependent upon special chord-progressions and even, to some extent, upon a special outline of melody. Hence it is that, until men's minds grasped the idea of grouping chords so as to form such cadences or " resting-places," definite, clear-cut rhythm was impossible — as can easily be seen on reference to any example of mediaeval contrapuntal writing. Another very palpable evidence of design in the musical art is that of Character, by which it is possible to classify works under certain clear and easily-recognisable headings, Character. such as Sonata, Overture, Symphony, Cantata, Opera, Oratorio, Song, Ballad, or the various kinds of dance. Largely, of course, the nature of the composer's ideas will influence the title of his work and determine under which heading it shall fall ; but this is by no means all. The nature and temper of an idea, or set of ideas, used in an oratorio need not of necessity differ widely from the nature and temper of an idea, or set of ideas, used in a symphony ; but the way in which these thoughts are presented, the manner of their development, and, indeed, the whole tenor of the composer's dealings with them, will be utterly different ; a result that is to a large extent due to variation in the structural plan of the two classes of composition. Hence it is evident that if we are to be able to estimate, with any regard to correctness of judgment, any work we may be called upon to hear or study, we must take Need for study gome account, at least, of these important of Form. elements of design and of structure, without which a work of art would be a shapeless mass of incoherence, FORM IN MUSIC 5 unable to tell its own tale through neglect of one of the fundamental laws of Nature. To those who will take the trouble to understand a little of the methods of the Masters, the lines upon which they worked, the inevitable process of evolution observable in their writings — to such students, and to those only, will music in a very special sense become what it indeed is, " an object of serious and refined " enjoyment that appeals to the emotions through the intelligence, " not a plaything for the senses alone " ;* a worthy field for the exercise of those higher faculties of our nature with which we should approach all great and good work in whatever form we meet it. CHAPTER II. ACCENT, TIME AND RHYTHM. It is so evident as to be almost axiomatic, that Accent lies at the root of all intelligibility in music. If we take any Accent series of sounds such as the following, it is practically an impossibility to sing or play them without laying more stress upon some than upon others : — ♦•i (<■) w The accents placed both above and below this passage will shew two obvious ways in which this might be done, the first, as at (a), indicating a stress upon the first of every two notes ; the second, as at {b), upon the first of every three. We see here an evidence of a fact that underlies the whole question of musical accentuation, viz.. Duple and Triple jjg ultimate division into groups of two or in Music. three — in other words, into Duple or Triple t measurement. This grouping of sounds into stronger and weaker pulses, or beats, produces what we know as Time, and the desire that J. the mind has for a certain element of unity Unity of Design. ^^ design has led those who have written music to maintain, for the most part, one distribution of accent throughout an entire composition, or at any rate throughout a large section of it. * Percy Goetschius. " Lessons in Music Form." t Quadruple measurement, as will be seen later, is only another aspect of Duple. FORM IN MUSIC. Within these limits there is, it need hardly be said, plenty Diversity °^ room for requisite diversity, as will be seen by the following example : — Schubert. — " Rosamunde." -% ^ £ where in no two instances are the details between each strong accent and the next of identical pattern. The various kinds of time in common use illustrate in a twofold manner this universal instinct of accentuation in twos or in threes. Firstly, if we take the measure, or bar, as the unit, we have, in the times usually described as Duple and Triple, clear evidence of the fact, e.g. : — Mozart. — " Don Juan." {Duple.) 12 ;-„ 2 I 2 12 The various kinds of Time. 6. ^ f f \ \ ^ f I rf n \- — { ] — L ^ if r r I r r &c. [Triple.) I '•i Old French Melody. 2 3123 5 w W-^ £ ^s the strong accent recurring after one weaker pulse, or after two, as the case may be. A bar of Quadruple Time, such as I, |, &c., in reality is made up of two bars of Duple Time, as indicated by the dotted lines in the following example. Here we have, undoubtedly, an accent occurring on the first of every two pulses, although, in actual performance, that upon the 3rd pulse of the bar is slightly less marked than that upon the ist. [Quadruple.) I 2 3 Mendelssohn. — " Elijah." 3412 34 A r> A r=- He, watching o el, Slum-bers not nor sleeps. Secondly, this grouping in twos or threes is further exemplified in the two varieties of each of the above times known usually by the terms Simple and Compound, where the Simple arid ^q\q difference in effect is one that depends T?mes°^° entirely upon the way in which each pulse or beat is subdivided — whether into two, or into three. Thus, we find that, in the simple form of a time, each beat is represented by tiro smaller notes, e.g. : — *fc FORM IN MUSIC. 9 Beethoven. — P. F^ Sonata, Op. 2, No. 2. ^ &c. •■^^m t- £-• tj-trt the first of each two being more strongly emphasized than the second ; whereas, in compound time, each beat is represented by /Aree shorter notes, e.g. : — ->. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3. 10. it ^Sc r-r^ it -*-^ s ^ M I -*- &c. the first of each three being more strongly emphasized than the remaining two. Lastly, observation will shew that successive bars vary in weight and strength, and that most frequently a StPonffep^BaPS rhythmic grouping is the result in which we ' find a less accented bar proceeding towards a more strongly accented one : — Schubert. — " Whither." (Weaker.) (Stronger.) (Weaker.) (Stronger.) 11 lit >^-i^ rmsr^fjfn I heard a brooklet gushing From its rock-y fountain near. Allegro con brio. Beethoven. — P. F. Concerto, Op. 15. (Weaker.) (Stronger.) . • (Weaker.) (Stronger.) \ — « — -}-• \ — I — *■ ^^:: This form of rhythmic grouping is so general in musical phrases of normal construction as to be almost universal ; and, the quicker the speed of the music, the more readily will the varying weight of the bars be felt by the listener. (Sec Figs. 60 and 61, also foot-note to page 14.) The triple grouping of complete bars, i.e., where a strong bar is led up to, or followed by, two weaker ones, is decidedly rarer, and is met with mostly in passages proceeding at a high rate of speed. Perhaps one of the most notable instances is to be 8 FORM IN MUSIC. found in the "Scherzo" of Beethoven's 9th Symphony, where the following passage occurs : — Molto vivace.^^^^ (Strong.) (Weak.) (Weak.) 13. i is f^ (Strong.) _1 ±. (Weak.) (Weak.) &C. It is significant that Beethoven has, in his score, indicated this accentuation by the direction " Ritmo di tre battute" {i.e., 3-bar Rhythm). Another striking example of this triple grouping of bars is afforded by the chief theme of a chorus in Sir Y, H. Cowen's Cantata, " The Sleeping Beauty," which runs thus : — * m Vivace, (Weak.) (Weak.) (Strong.) (Weak.) (Weak.) (Strong.) m^ 14. £ At dawn of day, . . On the first of May, (Weak.) 1 Vi 1 (Weak.) (Strong.) (Weak.) Weak.) (Strong.) ' \ V \ 1 1 1 • ^J * 1 y* *. b m \ '-> m if tA • 1 1 rJ . ■M \L — ^ — # *. 1 ' 1 u 1 &c. Ere the heat of noon has scorch'd the wak'n - ing flowers. In order to prevent misconception, it should be stated, in conclusion, that the regular alternation of weaker and stronger bars spoken of above is of necessity often disturbed in the case of involved or complex rhythms. Moreover, it is important to observe that the rhythmic climax of a musical phrase (not necessarily its most emotiotial point) is its final cadence, to which everything else leads, and in which the phrase finds its completion and consummation. {See page 10 ; also Appendix, page 261.) * Neither of these extracts can quite accurately be said to be written in Three-bar Rhythm. The Tempo being so rapid, the efiect in each case is actually that of Compound Triple Time, three bars of the original in reality forming only one bar. For instance, Sir F. H. Cowen's theme might well have been written thus, so far as the result upon the listener is concerned : — Moderate. %^ \- -^'-r ^^-J- 4 «!*r- ^ -m=f!=mz=^ I r \r de:t &c. FORM IN MUSIC. CHAPTER III. ACCENT, TIME AND RHYTHM {continued) The term Rhythm is one that it is extremely difficult to define exactly or accurately ; it involves so much, and can be applied in so many directions, that to confine its meaning within the four walls of a verbal definition is an almost hopeless task. This difficulty is increased by certain misconceptions of the Rhythm : the exact nature of Rhythm which have resulted mfsapplied. ^" many popular misapplications of the term. It is, for instance, frequently confused with Time, and one hears such expressions as % Rhythm, Quadruple Rhythm, and so on ; or it is no less often regarded as indicating merely the particular way in which notes are arranged between the successive strong pulses. Rhythm, although it necessarily includes the factors of pulse, accent and time, goes further than any of these and demands for its expression and realization the idea of a movement or an impulse towards definite points of climax or of repose. Therefore, whereas Time, in the sense of a grouping of pulses by means of recurring accents into bars is, so to speak, the framework or skeleton of the music, it is Rhythm that in reality imparts to it the element of life and endows it with meaning. An example will, it is hoped, make this clear. If the following passage is thought of as a series of self-contained bars defined by the successive bar-lines, a travesty of its real musical effect will be produced : — 15. I I , II II |k^^ I t^ 1 i 1 — i i i r ?±f3E5 The reason for this is that certain sounds within any metrical bar bear definite relationships to certain other sounds, not always — indeed, rarely — confined to that bar itself, and to dissever those logical relationships would be to destroy the sense of the music just as inevitably and surely as to dissever certain words from others in a sentence of poetry or prose would ruin its meaning. Compare Fig. 15 {a) with the following couplet, to which the music is set. The commas correspond in position with the bar-lines : — Dear, harp of my, country in, darkness I, found thee The, cold chain of, silence had, hung o'er thee, long. Let us now endeavour to arrive at the true rhythmic shape of the passage. In the following example Fig. 15 {b) the brackets above the notes of the melody shew the natural grouping of the lO FORM IN MUSIC. sounds in any intelligent conception of the music. The arrows . indicate that these sounds progress,* or travel, pKression towards certain definite points. In this particular instance these occur upon the first beat of bars 2, 4, 6 and 8, and it will be noticed that in the melody under discussion the little musical periods terminate, in all but the final bar, upon the following weaker beat.f The rhythmic climax of the whole melody is, of course, its final strong accent : — 15 {b). ^SE ■> I ■> II — 3 ^ ±^ Dear harp of my country, In dark - ness I found thee, The P fe -> ■>! :^=«: cold chain of si - lence had hung o'er thee long. One salient feature of any idea of rhythmic shape, therefore, is that of an interruption, however slight, in the succession of sounds. In the larger rhythmic periods of which our music is composed these interruptions become more distinctly points of climax {see final bar of above example) and correspond Cadence. to the more or less clearly-marked cadences which occur from time to time, and give the effect of more definite breathing-places, or points of arrest. | Cadences may be classified under three main headings : — (a) Cadences of rest, or finality. {b) Cadences of temporary arrest, (c) Cadences of "interruption." The most familiar instance of (a) is, of course, that of the so-called Perfect Cadence (or Full Close), which takes Perfect Cadence, place when a musical period terminates with the Tonic chord of a key preceded by some form of Dominant harmony, e.g. : — Foco allegretto. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in E 1?, Op. 7. 16. S it ^ i "t^ &c. S rX '-li: • No one has demonstrated this law of Rhythmic Progression so ably or clearly as Mr. Tobias Matlhay, in his works on pianoforte-playing and teaching. f This form of termination, usually called a " feminine-ending," will be discussed in a future chapter. (See page 16, foot-note.) \ For further remarks on Rhythmic Shape, see the author's " Studies in Phrasing and Form," Chapter I, especially pages 7 to 19. FORM IN MUSIC. Andante con moto. 17. ^^ Dvorak.— "Stabat Mater." PFFf ^^ ■?" -M— ^- ■^ -dr 123: Cadences of " temporary arrest " are many in number and varied in character. The term Imperfect Cadence (or Half close) has usually been restricted in its employment cT^enees ^° those cases in which a phrase terminates with the chord of the Dominant, preceded by any other chord of the key ; but there are so many other forms of cadence which produce the effect of " temporary arrest " equally with the generally-recognized variety just mentioned, that it would seem advisable to extend the signification of the term Imperfect Cadence almost indefinitely to those chord-progressions which — used cadentially — imply neither rest nox'''' interruption "^twi merely such a break in the continuity of the music as leaves the impression of uncompleted sense. Figs. i8 and 19 below shew the more usual forms of Imperfect Cadence, that is to say, where the musical period terminates with the harmony of the Dominant : — Mozart. — P. F. Sonata in C, No. 2 * r \ . ^ tr. Allezretto, m i ^ I, ^ V 19. Animato. Wagner. — " Der fliegende Hollander." ^i^f^-r-r- it .Werd' ich die Toch - ter heut' noch sehn ? &c. • The numbering of the Pianoforte Sonatas of Mozart throughout this Tolume is that of the " Peters " edition. 13 FORM IN MUSIC. The following examples will shew some less usual forms of Imperfect Cadence : — Dvorak. — " Slavische Tanze," Op. 46. Allegro vivace. 20. ^ ^^ i IS ^S ^ iM &c. S Jiii u L^ -^ ^ Cadence. It will be observed that here the cadence is formed by the Submediant chord preceded by that of the Tonic, while in the following passage — Debussy. — " Sarabande." Grave et lente. ■ave et lente. 3 . ,— ^ -f?- * *i ^ Cadence. the phrase terminates upon the chord of the Mediant preceded by that of the Tonic. Cadences of " interruption " occur where the course of the music leads the hearer to expect a Perfect Cadence, but when the composer breaks away from this and sub- stitutes some other chord for that of the Tonic. It would be difficult to quote a more beautiful and original instance of such a cadence than that in the slow movement of Beethoven's Sonata in E flat (Op. 7), where the following passage occurs : — Interrupted Cadence. 22. Largo. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 7. TT :S»" q^g^^^^g^^ r I F Xr •r FORM IN MUSIC. 13 Phrases and Sentences. The larger rhythmic periods (those culminating in some form of cadence) are usually classified under the two main headings of Phrase and Sentence* the smaller ones being described by the terms Section and Figure. {See Chapter VI.) The Phrase may be conveniently taken as the unit of measure- ment, a standard from which to base our consideration of other periods of varying length. The smallest and simplest Phrase is that which contains two metrical accents, and is therefore called a two-bar phrase, t e.g. : — 23. ^^^ -> ^¥ J -^.J J J £ These two-bar phrases are, however, somewhat rare, and a much more frequent species is that containing four metrical accents, and, as a consequence, termed a four-bar phrase : — Beethoven.— P. F. Sonata, Op. 13. Adagio. Allegro moderaio. SCHUBERT.— " Unfinished Symphony." • It should be observed that the use of these two terms is not strictly analogous to their employment in literature. t See particularly Appendix, page 265, and also note that the second bar in Fig. 23 — that to which the first leads — is the weightier in effect. (See page 7.) 14 FORM IN MUSIC. i %=r^ ^s f-K^-- f4- A y r ■i=- A. _i i_ &C. r -f — F- This form of phrase is so universal in its application to all classes of music as to be fitly described as the normal type.* The chief reason for this lies most probably in the fact that, as compared with the two-bar phrase, it admits of greater continuity of melody, as well as of variety of detail. The frequency of cadence accompanying the splitting-up of the music into two-bar phrases, tends to produce an effect of squareness and angularity, which is considerably less noticeable in four-bar rhythm. The Phrase of three bars is, as has been already stated, decidedly rare, perhaps owing to the difficulty the mind has in thinking of accents grouped in threes. Two instance of ^^/a^Z-three-bar rhythm have already been given (Chapter II., page 8), to which may be added the following quaint tune, in which the phrases run very definitely in groups of three bars. {See also Brahms' Hungarian Dance No. 3, in F.) BouRRiE DU MoNT-DoRE. — (Old French.) I , ., I J I 1 , J /^ , , — -^4- ^ ^ j_ U ^ ^ rii m ^f ^ ^ * It will readily be felt that the 2nd and 4th bars of Figs. 24 and 25 are musically " led up to " from bars i and 3 respectively, and as a consequence are, rhythmically, the weightier, the " trend " of the whole phrase being, however, uninterruptedly towards its culmination in bar 4. FORM IN MUSIC, 15 Phrases of five, six and seven bars are occasionally met with, but they are gf comparatively infrequent L^ss usual occurrence.* The following examples will rhythms. illustrate these particular forms : — Five-bar Rhythm. Allegro appass. 27. Smetana. — String-Quartet, *'Aus meinem Leben." c ^gr ' r Vp- 'c ''g^- Other notable instances will be found in the opening phrase of the " Largo e mesto " of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3), and in the "Trio "of Schubert's P. F. Sonata in E flat (Op. 122). Six-bar Rhythm. Haydn. — P. F. Sonata in C minor (No. 22, Peters). Allegro. |._ f^ ^ 3 Z-Tr^^TJ^^ 28. m¥^ Fj^ ft »=«=^ * The extension of a normal four-bar phrase to one of 5, 6, or 7 bars is not here taken into consideration. This will be spoken of later. (Chapter VII.) i6 FOR^r IN MUSIC. Sevtfi-bar Rhythm. „ ^ J , ,■ , Wagner. — " Die Meistersinger. Tetnpo moderato at vaisero. ° ^-"^ :; ' ^ I I ^ I I ! I -t^ 29. ^^ P sempre staccato. ^Ea ^ ^ A\A UA ^ S Q S Gh &c. m^ CHAPTER IV. ACCENT, TIME AND RHYTHM {continued). Hitherto we have been considering the various phrase-lengths, and have seen how these are determined by the position of the cadence. In most instances this is easily recognizable, owing to the fact that the cadence-chord * of the phrase Position of usually assumes a certain importance from det^mfned^^ ^^^ z^«^///, i.e.^ its strong accentuation, or its length, e.g.:— * By the term "cadence-chord" is always to be understood the yfwa/ chord jf a phrase. This occurs most frequently upon its last strong accent — the rhythmical culmination of the phrase — {see, however, page 21). But in the case of so-called " feminine endings" such as the following (a, b and c, below), and also that in Fig. 33, the cadence-chord is delayed in its appearance, and is transferred to the succeeding weaker beat : — (a) A half-cadence ending with a | followed by a ^ on the Dominant bass. 16 5 4 3 FORM IN MUSIC. 17 Largheito. Handel. — "Messiah." 31. Andante grazioso. Mozart. — " Don Juan." Allegro con Juoco. Dvorak. — String Quartet in G, Op. io6. 32. r^j_ '^-L4i^ CiXr 1 (3) A perrect cadence, with a retardation of Dominant harmony over the Tonic bass : — ra =?! '- f4- t g^ iL,;; ^ (c) A half cadence in which accented passing-notes (or appoggiaturas) delay the appearance of the final Dominant harmony : — 1 8 FORM IN MUSIC. Andante. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in D, Op. 28. 4 ' ^■' An important fact in dealing with the effect of cadences is illustrated by Figs. 31 and 32, viz.: that the mental impression of weight upon the final chord — derived from length Rests — '^ produced almost as strongly by a short note or chord, followed by rests, as by a note or chord actually sustained for a considerable amount of time. It often happens, however, that the cadence-chord is in reality Short Cadence- °^ comparatively short duration, as in the chords. following instances : — Allegretto graxieso. MoZART. — P. F. Sonata in C, No. 8. ' - • ; ^-^ 34. rt- £fe te #^ (Bar I.) ^i^: ^^ ^ ^i?=*: (Bar 2.) l^r Tr- \ ' \ .v^ ^ =-r-J P *S Link. &c. i - Mi l- ^ :^=F ^^ ^ (Bar 3.) Cadence. (Bar 4.) (Bar I of new phrase. ) FORM IN MUSIC. 19 Mozart. — P. F. Sonata in D, No. 10. Allegro. ""(New phrase.) AUegre. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 14, No. 3. (Melodic commencement " \ \ \ m *c. /— s n^^ of new phrase.) ^ dence (Bar 4.) ^-^-TT ^- ^ (Bar I of new phrase.) FORM IN MUSIC. Chopin. — P. F. Sonata in B|? minor. Allegro. -^ .^ -«-'"X!*N^ (Melodic commencement of new phrase.) (Bar I of new phrase.) The examples given above shew us the cadence-chord reduced to very small dimensions ; at any rate, so far as the length of the melody-note is concerned. In Fig. 34 the last The Link. seven semiquavers of bar 4 act as a sort of " Link " between the end of the first phrase and the beginning of the next, a rather more extended instance of such a Link being illustrated in bars 5 and 6 of Fig. 35. In the extracts from Beethoven and Chopin (Figs. 36 and 37), the cadence-chord is rendered as short as Melodic possible by the entrance of notes clearly Sn^w'lfhS. belonging to the new phrase, whose first full-bar (and, consequently, whose first accent) is that which succeeds its actual melodic commencement.* * It is an important fact, which should be steadily borne in mind, that, for the purpose of rhythmic analysis, the first bar of a phrase is always that in which its first metrical accent occurs. A phrase often begins with a sort of melodic prefix prior to this accent, sometimes described as an " Anacrusis." The following passage will illustrate this : — Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. i. (Bar 4.) FORM IN MUSIC. 31 Testing Cadence-points by the ear. In such cases as those we have been considering 't is not, after all, possible to go very much astray in determining the cadence-points, if we listen carefully for the " breathing-places " ; for it will be found, as a rule, that the ear readily and easily fixes itself on any natural break in the course of the music. At the same time, it is useful to remember the following points : — (i) That, in the great majority of phrases, the cadence-chord i^see page i6, foot-note) falls upon a strong accent — usually on the first beat of a bar (but occasionally on the third beat, in passages in quadruple time*), (ii) That exceptions sometimes occur to this rule, (a) in those cases where the composer wishes to minimise the decisiveness of the cadence, f e.g. : — Mozart. — P. F. Sonata in C, No. 8. 38. \jr 1 ]/,*},' r^l \ 1 • ' I ' m _t r» /k b • 1 Jx b: S ' 1 * * J J M — J ^ ^ J ^Jr " Crk\' *t S » > ((•;•, t> r-» r-* Ml M vJ^U A r 'if ^ LT ' 1 r and (^) in special forms such as the " Polonaise " or " Polacca," a noticeable feature of which is the occurrence of the cadence-chord on the final (third) beat of the bar, e.g. :— Chopin. — Polonaise in AJ?, Op. 53. 39. • This is generally the result of wrong barring, and the cadence-chord should, in reality, occur upon the first beat. The musical sense of such passages distinctly proves this. (See the opening of the "Andante" in Beethoven's P. F. Sonata in G, Op. 14, No. 2) ; also many hymn-tunes, particularly those in " Long Meue." This incorrect barring is also very frequent in compound times. t See also Fig. 49 22 FORM IN MUSIC. (iv) (iii) That, in the final bar of a phrase, when the cadence-chord falls upon a strong accent, notes following such strong accent are most frequently to be regarded as belonging to the new phrase.* {See Fig. 36 above.) That the slurs, or other phrasing-marks, inserted during the course of the music are often of but slight assistance in the determining of the rhythmical divisions, being not ivifrequently little more than indications of a generally smooth or legato manner of rendering the particular passages. This is notably the case with the music of the older masters, whose phrasing-marks are often quite misleading. The important matter of continuity in a composition is maintained, in spite of the recurrence of cadence-points, in several ways. In the first place, the composer will judiciously vary his cadences, using the less final half-cadence, or the interrupted cadence, where the music suggests a certain degree of onward movement, reserving the as a rule, for those places where a feeling of greater repose or conclusiveness is required.! Moreover, even the perfect cadence depends for its effect of completeness largely upon the key-note being in both of the extreme parts of the harmony {see Figs. 30 and 31) ; consequently, if this condition is not fulfilled, the weight of the cadence is reduced, and the sense of finality avoided, e.g. : — Allegro moderato. ScHUBBRT.— P. F. Sonata in A, Op. laa Continuity not neeessapily prevented by Cadence-points. perfect cadence, 40. • An exception to this occurs in those cases where such notes are connected in a very distinct manner harmonually with those upon the accent, e.g. : — Mbnuelssohn.' \Prul; " Lieder ohne Worte," No. 3«. (<») Commencement of new phnue. t This question of variety of cadence is more fully considered in dealing with the construction of the complete "Sentence" (Chapter V.) FORM IN MUSIC. as In the above example from Schubert is illustrated the varying degree of cadential effect produced by two perfect cadences, the first at (a) having the 3rd of the Tonic chord at the top, and the second at {b) having the Key-note in both the outer parts. The comparatively slight stop, or break, produced by the former cadence, and the distinctly heavier and more complete feeling of conclusion afforded by the latter will hardly escape observation. Then, again, the flow of the music may be preserved by allowing the rhythmic movement, or pulsation, of the measure to be maintained by some figure of accompaniment, as at (a) in Fig. 41, or by a more or less melodic movement of another part or parts, as at ip) in Fig. 42, thus linking-up one phrase with another. 11. Poco Allegro, con affetio. Liszt.— "Liebestraum," in A]?. S ^ t^r @^ t=^ .i=i ^ \^ ^ r I I Cadence. i ^ W==^' ^ ' ' I r^nmmfi i ^s J. Commencement of new' phrase. r I I ' 74 FORM IN MUSIC Moderato. 42. 1^ Schubert. — "Der Lindenbaum." 3 i a^.Ui;_,4J I i/' l j. ;>^j- Be - fore the gate's a foun-tain, And near a lin-den #fy^ ^ ^ * -a- s- t V ^ g|!tj^ p -1 K Cadence. *#*£ I Commencement of new phrase. | tree. Be - neath, jfea^rm ^ Kb) J-^^ && Lastly, any break in the impulse of the music may be checked by the immediate commencement of the succeeding phrase, the cadence-chord being reduced to the smallest dimensions (as in the examples from Beethoven and Chopin, Figs. 36 and 37). It need hardly be said that the methods enumerated above by no means exhaust the many possibilities in the direction of phrase-connexion that readily occur to the mind of an inventive and experienced composer ; but they represent the principal factors in the case, and the intelligent student will discover, without much difficulty, that therein are practically embodied the underlying principles that make for continuity of thought and idea, and tend to the welding together of the various smaller divisions of a composition into one coherent design. Upon principles such as these the best writers have worked, achieving the element of unity by paying due regard to the proper relation of each individual period to the broadly-conceived plan of the whole. FORM IN MUSIC. as the " Unit of Measurement. CHAPTER V. PHRASES AND SENTENCES. The musical Phrase has been described in a former chapter as being conveniently a standard period from which to reckon others of greater or less length, a " unit of The Phrase measurement," in fact. We have seen that in its most frequent manifestation it is a passage of four bars, culminating in a more or less definite cadence, and possessing as a consequence some degree of completeness within itself. This " self-contained " nature of the phrase, however, does not assume so pronounced a character as to render it capable of expressing more than a portion of the composer's train of thought. In other words, although its function is that of providing through its cadence a point of repose, or " breathing-place," in the course of the music, it will be found that the mind Need of the instinctively feels the necessity for another Phrase^^^^ phrase of somewhat similar character to succeed it, which by a sort of natural response shall give the requisite sense of completion which can in no way be imparted by the first phrase alone.* Thus it comes about that a distinct relationship between an announcing phrase and an answering one is set up, which in itself illustrates one of the most important essentials of good musical form, viz., that of Balance.] The smallest period in a musical composition that can give in any sense the impression of a complete statement is that called the Sentence, which may be defined as a period containing two or more phrases, and most frequently ending with some form of perfect cadence. The form of sentence that is by far the most often met with is that of two phrases, e.g. : — A. Sentences of two phrases, or " Duple " sentences. ... Mozart.— P. F. Sonata in D, No. 13. Allegro. . , t y Definition of Sentence. 43. i m it -X f • Occasionally the phrase is to be found existing as a separate and complete thing, as the Introduction to a song or instrumental solo, &c. t This desire of the mind for the " answering phrase " is, without doubt, an instance of the universal instinct that requires that a proposition shall be met by its needful reply — in the words of logic, that theiis must be succoeded by antilhesis. 36 j te FORM IN MUSIC. '»" g 1 [J^£=:grW-[4^-^^ ^ ^ (Half-cadence in Tonic key.) ^ ^^ ^ 1 >-^;h,.0 : . I K I I Responsive phrase. » I J /J fr. -*- _ -*- -V-n-: -m—m- (Perfect cadence in Tonic key. ) — I » — 31' Mendelssohn. — " Lieder ohne Worte," No. 27. Andante maestoso. '""T^ 44. ^^^^ (Half-cadence in Tonic key.) ^v ^^ ^=rt- ■=x "^^ Announcing phrase. -w--:^ ^ r f-r r If / (Perfect cadence in Tonic key.) Responsive phrase. Andante Mozart.--" Don Juan." 45. _ ^ _ (Perfect cadence in Dominant key.) ^^'i M ^ i^r* ^ 3 ^ Announcing phrase. FORM IN MUSIC. 27 £ 1 r** r :^=;c £n: V'e - di, non ^ - Ion - tp^-no, par - tiam, ben mio, da qui. U^ ^ i ^ i ' — jy ^ ^q=*^ ^aE ^ (Perfect cadence in Tonic key.) 'W^^^ ^s £iz: Responsive phrase. Allegro. Beethoven.— P. F. Concerto in C minor, Op. 37. 46. ^^S £ ±=E E^l^ ^ ^ ^ -^ g te^^LLT^-r^ n ^ I Announcing phrase. m • f ^ ^ ffi ^^ ^=i! =^^ (Half-cadence in Tonic.) iEE* I r I ^ ! I Responsive phrase. ^ ^PS^ /I 1 (Perfect cadence in Dominant key.) ^ L^ * r ^ r * r , r L r ,* It J=4TC s «^HIf ^?^ ^^ It will be observed that, in each of the foregoing extracts, the second phrase responds to the first, not only in rhythmic shape — by reason of an equal number of bars, but pesDO*nd^ to ^^^^ ^^^° "^ w m »- J; ij: ij: rj: ^ ^^=^= ^ y^ ^ i^c I Announcing phrase. f#^ ^^ i:^y 5 j -^J^N^J -^"^ ^^=^^^^ i ^H ^M ^ i J^i ,^-1 ^ ' -"1 ' - -^ a 1 11 ^— s gl^^^ .Ni-iL N .N . MJ^i ^^ I Responsive phrase. i ^^^^^^^ E Here, although the shape of the melodic contents of the two phrases is dissimilar, coherence is maintained by the continuous figure of accompaniment and by a certain relevancy of character throughout the whole strain of melody.* (^S^iralso pages 261, 262.) • Compare also the first sentence of the following :- -Beethoven's P. F. Sonatas, Op. 7, Lar^o ; Op. 1 3, Adagio cantabiU ; Op. 31, No. 3, Menuetto ; Op. 109, Andante, Var. I ; Muzarl's P. F. Sonata in C, No. 2, Andante cantabiU, &c. FORM IN MUSIC. B. Sentences of three phrases ^ or " Triple " sentences. 29 Chopin. — Mazurka in B[7, Op. 7« ir — Vivcue. 48. ^^ #-r^-L' Ar^^m ^ -m-^WX X^ t3^ f £ fe= I Announcing phrase. i*- A f } a 'J 4f-^ ^^ ^m g ri: ^—U^ i=fe * * ^=!= ^ I First responsive phrase. -^»— > ^ ^^^ ^3c 4Z. ^t ^ ^=£ ^ -^ ^ I ! Second responsive phrase. ^^ 4— t r t &^^ Brahms.— Walzer, Op. 39. 49. 'mmm mr ^^ ^ tea ^=£ rjt »=7fffyf Announcing phrase. I r -p- -^ f 30 FORM IN MUSIC. 7i... - 7'. •If=- fg^ i I 'ijf Lf ir #= ^ ^ ;xL±r m f ijtzt 1iT~F" r First responsive phrase. i i , t ! i>i i'^f~^^ -M- ^ t» Jt. i^ — fe^ s f^r-^Pff^P ^g Second responsive phrase. ^ *=e m M=t -^ ' ' ' t: Allegro con m«to. GK.IBG. — Albumblatler, Op. 28. 3 — 3 Announcing phrase. m irr w ^n^ ^ ^ 1? w- ^-^- J I First responsive ph rase. 1^^ FORM IN MUSIC. 3« ^ w 1 rrr c t g ^E^ a.ii.b .!! ^ F^=f= r 1' ;^ r Second responave phrase. li M '- Hji^ i ^-i^ 'r ^g ' i-^'^g ^^ ^^^ -J — J^ ^ ^ ^-.^l 1^ T Other good examples of the '* Triple " form of sentence will be found in the first part of " Rule, Britannia " ; la the opening of the Minuet in Beethoven's P. F. Sonata in F minor (Op. 2, No. i) ; and in the same author's Sonata in F major (Op. 10, No. 2) (where the first sentence of the first movement is one of three phrases) ; in the opening of the Scherzo of Schumann's Symphony in C major, and in Siegmund's song in Wagner's " Walkiire," — " Winterstiirme wichen dem Wonnemond " — (first sentence, to end of 12th bar). C. Sentences of four phrases , or " Quadruple " sentences. Andante soslenuto. MozART. — " Don Juan." Dal - la sua pa - ce la - mia di - pen • - de i ^ -^ ^ ^r-- ^ ¥^- W 61. i T^ First announcing phrase. 3* FORxM IN AfUSIC. I First responsive phrase. t » I f - yi — r ? &£: V »> I '.^ qnd che !e in - cres - ce, raor - te mi dk, -^ : j:"S^. ..^. ^ N ^^ r -t::^-^ p *i r Second announcing phrase. * *r ^ te, mor - te mi di. i N ^ r -c ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^s y=Htr I Second responsive phrase. 62. Chopin. — Prelude, Op. 28, No. 17. Ahigretto. I First announcing phrase. :& J S J # f 5 ' 1 ^ tcr S 1? r:-^^ *it4Mt^ FORM IN MUSIC. 33 i » ^ I I First responsive phrase. :fa^ ^f:=t- U ' tj 'LXJ- ^ ^ Z L ^ ■yy ^: 'Wl ^-IJ^ ^ rf,v;.:.rTT7j'l 4^ ^^© tr 5:5: ^i -4:^ ^^n f :iiezc:e a b7 U iit r I Second announcing phrase. i''''Tim^\ JEZCZE m yff, f^^ff , ttttt F r Fr S es?s ■=P=c ^ ffi ^£D fV i-ppji l p~l[ F F [ I Second responsive phrase. ^^^^^^^m \i> J„- -' -t^^ 3 #* Ljy s s ^ {a) ^m r r ^ r I -r.)-crLxr ^w :i£^-S: ^gg OJ 34 FORM IN MUSIC. The sentence quoted above from Chopin's Prelude illustrates a very usual form of the quadruple sentence, viz., one in which a species of rhyming is observable between Analogy with the flj-gt gjid third, and between the second roetry. ^^^ fourth, phrases — forming thereby a metrical design analogous to a stanza of poetry consisting of four Unes, such as the following : — Home they brought her warrior dead ; She nor swoon'd, nor uttered cry : All her maidens, watching, said, "She must weep or she will die." — Tknnyson. Further, the music of the entire third phrase is frequently identical (or nearly so) with that of the first, and the fourth with that of the second, an alteration of cadence Identity of being the only point of divergence — for the oon^^nts purpose of bringing the sentence to a termina- tion. This form is shewn clearly in the foregoing extract, the cadential modification appearing at (a) — {a). Space forbids the inclusion of further specimens of the sentence of four phrases, but the student will do well to consult the following passages, in which he will find this rhythmic type exemplified : — Beethoven's Sonata m A flat (Op. 26),* first movement; Mozart's Sonata in D (No. 10), second movement ; the Rondo in the same composer^s Sonata in D (No. 3) ; Schubert's Sonata in E flat (Op. 122); Schumann's "Arabeske" ; Grieg's fourth Humoreske (Op. 6), and his "Lyrische Stiickchen " (Op. 38, No. 7). Numerous other instances could be cited without difficulty, Comnarative ^^'^ ^^ above will suffice to prove the frequency of comparative frequency of the quadruple Quadruple sentence, and the student should be easily Sentences. able to supply others for himself from the works of the great masters. Reference was made in Chapter IV. (page 22) to the need for variety of cadence, if the element of continuity is to be preserved. It is too much to say that no two successive Tariff ^J cadences should be alike ; but in the majority of sentences it will be found that this principle is acted upon. For example, the announcing phrase in number- less cases terminates — as in Fig. 43 — with a half-cadence in the tonic key, the responsive phrase ending with a perfect cadence. Or, as in Fig. 45, the cadence of the announcing phrase may be a perfect cadence in another key, often that of the dominant — and so on. No hard and fast rule can be laid down in the matter ; in this, as in so many other details of his work, the composer is, and • The reference is in all cases to the first sentence of the works named. FORM IN MUSIC. 35 must be, guided by his own feeling for contrast and colour, and by the particular character of the ideas he wishes to express. It is, moreover, significant that the tendency more and more in modern music is to render the cadence-points less obvious. Especially is this desirable and necessary where the music is marked by passion and stress of feeling ; in such cases the more shapely and polished periods yield place to a rhythmic scheme having a broader sweep, which is more in keeping with the emotional state intended to be produced. CHAPTER VI. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PHRASE. It often happens that, in listening to a musical phrase of four or more bars, one is conscious of a distinct subdivision, or splitting-up. Smaller rhythmic ^^.^^^ P^^'^f 'f^ ^^^'° Portions the first of groupings, which may lead to some sort of cadence — not of a very emphatic or complete character, perhaps, but still sufficiently definite to give the effect of a breathing-place in the course of the music. Such passages as the following will make this clear : — Ailegro. Mozart.— P. F. Sonata in D, No. 3. It '- '—± 53. i %- r. T ii ^ ^g?5 S £: I Section. ^=F M- ^^ i SI -^ p p p I r I [ Se ction. '^ ^ (Complete Phrase.) 3= j6 FORM IN MUSIC. Allegretto. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in Bl?, Op. M. 64u Section. zJ t:j- f I Section. fc^ ifaLJLr''r r l«f r I ^' i^'H -^ * S 4 Allegretto. Chopin. — Ballade in A^, Op. 47. Such sub-divisions of the phrase are conveniently termed Sections. It by no means follows from what has been said above that all phrases are capable of being thus sub-divided ; Some Phrases indeed many are entirely indivisible, and it intG Sections. often occurs that, in a sentence of two phrases, one (usually the first) is susceptible of being split up into sections, while the other is not, e.g.: — Allegro con brio. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in C, Op. 2, No. 3. 56. M j. ^^iviiT '^ ^ '^ -j:2l 231 I Section. ^ -Q_ Sectioo. FORM IN MUSIC. 37 i 3t=ii: J jTT.nw J ;^o r r I r m ^ ^ -ZJl. ^ r ^ Undivided phrase. Andante cantabile. Mozart. — P. F. Sonata in Bt?, No. 4. ^iir ^\^^i \ {Wfy. 67. '-^ I r i-t ev;ijTJ^ tf | r ^ -H-f^ Section. 1^ J gg'JiJ^>jf^ J^ ^^ ^rf t^r^ -*^H ^ ^ ^^3 ^ ^ ^ Section. ^^ te eV!, 1 r CJ ^ I Undivided phrase. 38 FORM IN MUSIC. In the two foregoing quotations from Beethoven and Mozart, the two-bar sections into which the first phrase naturally breaks up are very clearly marked (i) by the rests occurring in the melody ; (ii) by the cadential effect in bars 2 and 4, factors in the case that are entirely absent in the responsive phrase beginning in bar 5, which flows on without break until its last bar. It is worthy of note, though, that sometimes a phrase may be felt to be " sectional " in character, even where neither of the above conditions is present. The following extract well illustrates this : — 58. Allegro. Mozart. — P. F. Sonata in D, No. 13. tr a It / T^. it li M '^^J){ J- l '^ I Section. £=F=^ I I Section. 'M^Pi ^^ ^ '9-_^-ij^ I I Section. i \ J /'J i^ i rrrrff'^i * ^ mf i ^==F f I I Section. In neither of the two phrases constituting the above complete sentence of eight bars is there any break in the midst of the melody, resulting from the employment of rests, nor is there FORM IN MUSIC. 39 Non-eadential nature of some Seetions. anything in the nature of a cadence to mark-off the sections ; nevertheless, the ear most certainly responds to the idea of a definite division after the third A in bar 2, and after the third B in bar 6. The reason for this lies probably in the antithetical character of the music of the two sections in each case, and to some extent at least in the sudden change from a bare passage in octaves to one in fuller harmony. Moreover, it is important to remember — so varied are the possibilities of melodic and rhythmic detail, even in the "normal" type of phrase — that the idea of subdivision cannot, and must not, be in any sense arbitrarily applied ; and although it is true that many phrases do divide into regular " sections " such as those that have just been described, it will be found that other subdivisions, more variable in size and scope, will occur from time to time in the course of the phrase. {See page 43.) The author cannot too earnestly protest against any form of analysis of a musical work which is little more than an attempt to measure the superficial area of that work, so to speak, and to label its various periods according to some prescribed method. As an example of a too mathematical conception of analysis may be instanced the stress laid by some theorists upon an arbitrary dissection of the music into certain metrical fragments called motives* a dissection which usually conveys little or nothing to which the musical sense can respond. Before leaving the question of the division of the Phrase into Sections, a word or two must be said in reference to those cases — unfortunately not infrequent — where the composer has inadvertently barred his music inaccurately. Much confusion and misap- prehension is often caused in the mind of the student who may be attempting to analyse some such passage, by his not realizing the fact that even the greatest writers have not been as free from carelessness in this respect as might have been wished. Take, for instance, the opening of the well-known Nocturne in E flat of Chopin, Op. 9 : — Andante. Chopin. — Nocturne in Ejy, Op. 9. Section I. ^ -^ .^ ^ ^ ^ ^ | |Sec- Wrong barring and the sub-division of the Phrase. • An anglicised form of the German " motif," used by some theorists tc indicate a sub-division of the phrase, consisting of "a strongly accented note, preceded by one or more unaccented or less accented notes." — E. Prout : " Musical Form," page 31. {See, in contradistinction to this, page 43 of the present work.) 40 FORM IN MUSIC. i doa 2. s^ ^m ^ ■^^ I I Sec- 3 6?-£ m 'f^ ^ cJ^ ti^ t^:^ Phrase 2 Here, without doubt, we have what is clearly a complete sentence of two phrases, ending with a very definite perfect cadence. As Chopin has written it — in ^ time — the sentence consists of four bars, its first phrase ending in bar 2, with a perfect cadence in F minor. Moreover, very clearly-marked sections are noticeable towards the close of each bar of the extract. But a careful playing-over of the entire passage will reveal the undoubted fact that a strong accent actually occurs at every half-bar, shewing conclusively that the piece should have been written in | time (as indicated by the dotted lines in the example), the sentence thus in reality consisting of the usual ei'g/if bars, divided into two phrases of /our bars, which are again sub-divided into two-ba.T sections. It is worthy of note, further, that — even were we to take ^ measurement as a correct barring of the passage — it would be found that Chopin has written all his cadence-chords u/>on the weaker half of the bar, causing thereby a clear misplacement of the accentuation of the theme I FORM IN MUSIC. 41 Finally, in analysing the rhythmical construction of quick movements — such as the scherzos of the sonatas and symphonies of Beethoven, many valse movements, &c. — it should steadily be borne in mind that, in I or I time of a rapid "tempo," every alternate bar is so much more strongly accented than the intervening one that the result is practically | or | time, one bar of which is, in actual fact, formed by two bars as originally written, e.g. : — Stronger and weaker bars in q^uick Triple times. Allegro. Beethoven. — C minor Symphony. ^ i ■^ V ^ t»:r V -^ r \' r ^);,, i ? ;t 1 r r \ V v \\ V r -^ 5 i ^^ 11,-^ p r r T r -^ ^ \r r r ^ Wj. ijj r r M ^ E I -f^-f^ ^ J. Strauss.— Valse, •' Doctrinen." I tr ^ tr ^ E f^ 61. e^il r I J f f I J T f I J f i I I ^~^,a 5 * I m 1^ ^ ^ £=£ fr ij: j: j::?: :?::?: frigr g^ig: r r u r P I r r-fiT-f r 1 j P r ^i: In the first of these two cases, a weak bar is followed by a strong bar, as shewn by the signs yj and i — i respectively, whilst in the second the reverse accentuation will be noticed. 4a FORM IN MUSIC. The truth of this will most forcibly be felt if the above two passages are played with reversed accents (a strong accent being placed where now a weak one is indicated, and vice versa), or if every bar is accented equally strongly. In either case, a condition of utter impossibility will be set up, so far as any idea of musical sense is concerned, conclusively proving the really Duple nature of the accentuation in such movements as those under consideration, and the necessity of a clear idea in the mind of the performer as to the relative position of the strong and weak bars. In the majority of instances, the ear readily seizes the distribution of accent ; but, in cases of doubt, it is useful Cadenee-chord to remember the fact that has already been nearly always mentioned, viz. : that most often the ''cadence- aeeentf°°^ f/4^r^"* of a phrase occurs upon a strong accent. By counting back from this, in an alternation of weaker and stronger bars, the correct accentuation of a movement can generally be readily arrived at.f {See Appendix, page 262.) The probable reason for the 4 barring of the Beethoven Scherzos lies in the fact that they are the historical descendants of the Minuets of Haydn and Mozart, which in themselves are an evolution from the slower and statelier Minuets of the earlier writers, Corelli, Handel, Bach, &c. These old Minuets were distinctly in real | time, with one strong accent followed by two weaker ones. The quickening of the "tempo" by Haydn and Mozart tended to obliterate this definitely triple accentuation, which became entirely obscured, and indeed re-modelled on the basis of a compound duple time by the far greater rapidity of the Beethoven Scherzo. From force of habit and in deference, it may be supposed, to prevailing custom, Beethoven retained the old | time-signature, which however fails to represent the actual effect intended in these movements. Space forbids the inclusion of further instances of such inaccurate barring as has been spoken of Examples 01 jj^ jj^g preceding pages. The student is, of Sentences. however, strongly urged to examine carefully the following passages : — (i) Hymn-tune. — " Jesu, lover of my soul" (typical of many others). (ii) Beethoven. — Sonata in C (Op. 2, No. 3), opening of "Adagio." ^iii^ Beethoven. — Sonata in G (Op. 14, No. 2), "Andante." (iv) Beethoven. — Sonata in E flat (Op. 27, No. i) first movement, "Andante." (v) Many of the same master's Scherzos and Minuets. • {See Chapter IV., page 16, »lso foot-note to same page). t Set Schertos of Beetboven in Pianoforte Sonatas, Nos. 3, 6, 12, 15, &c. FORM IN MUSIC. 43 (vi) Mozart. — Sonata in D (No. 3), " Andantino con espressione." (vii) Mozart. — Sonata in F (No. 6), "Adagio." (viii) Mozart. — Sonata in A (No. 12), "Andante grazioso." (ix) Mozart. — Sonata in C minor (No. 18), "Adagio." (x) Schubert. — Impromptu in B flat (Op. 142). (xi) Chopin. — Etude in E (Op. 10, Book I., No. 3). (xii) Chopin. — Etude in Dflat (Op. 25, Book II., No. 2). (xiii) Mendelssohn. — Lieder ohne Worte (Nos. 16, 17 and 36). (xiv) Schumann. — " Davidsbiindler " (No. 12), " Waldscenen " (No. 6), Romanzen (No. 2), &c. Small phythmie groups. Reference was made on page 39 to the varied possibilities of rhythmic and melodic detail within the limits even of the " normal " four-bar phrase, and it was there stated that subdivisions of the phrase, other than those represented by the well-marked " section " — which is usually concerned with subsidiary cadence- points — may be from time to time clearly indicated by the nature of the music. It happens not infrequently that some terse, epigrammatic "germ-idea," consisting of a few notes only, may be given out in a more or less isolated fashion, and then repeated and — so to speak — insisted upon by the composer, with a perceptible break between each presentation. Often, indeed, a phrase may itself be largely founded upon such repetition of the germ idea, e.g. : — Allegro ton brio. Beethovkn. — P. F. Sonata in B]?, Op. 22. (a) w^rw^r^ ^ ' I Figure. -^ I I Figure. ■if -#■ I Section. J I Section. Here there is certainly a marked break in the middle of the phrase into sections, but ever, a very casual hearing of the 44 FORM IN MUSIC. passage will enable us to perceive that a hardly less clear division is caused at (a) by the crotchet rest, a division whose significance is emphasized by the repetition of the same idea immediately afterwards. The second section of the phrase does not so break-up, but is a continuous carrying-out of the design of the germ-idea. Each of the two sub-divisions of a section of a phrase may be designated a Figure, as it usually represents little more than an easily recognizable melodic configuration, The Fi^pe. acting as a sort of pattern from which much or little may be evolved at the discretion, or according to the skill, of the composer. It must be observed, further, that the position held by the Figure as a rhythmical sub-division of the phrase must of necessity be regarded from a somewhat different stand- Variable size point from that of the Section. The latter is * frequently the half of the Phrase ; v^hereas the former, owing to the particular shape of the composer's germ- idea, often varies considerably in its dimensions, e.g. : — 63. Allegretto. Beethoven.— P. F. Sonata in A, Op. 2, No. 2. I Figure. j | Figure. | Wf Figure. r I r i u ^ ^'Tlt=^ It QpF r Y && Allegro. Mozart.— P. F, Sonata in G, No. 14. ^ ±1 £ I FigT I. I I Fig. 2. I I Fig. I. I I Fig. 2. I ^ ^..^ i±J: i &c. FORM IN MUSIC. 45 Allegro. Schumann. — Sjrmphony No. 4, in D minor. -^ -^ Jt. fe^:^ m $ w^^^^ Figure i. | 65. Figure 2. s^JtO^^ W i ^ 1 ^ ^ •" T^ I ^^ccessory figure.i I 1^^^ M''I4-! ^ ' ^ «K ^r==^ Figure i. I Figure 2. j &c. Allegretto. Brethoven. — P. F. Sonata, in D minor, Op. 31, No. 2. 66. ^W'JJK q^^' l g A' ^' \ ^ ^ p ^-IP ^ ^tff^ I Figure. | | Figure. | | Figure. | | Figure. | &c. WM1 l d ^^> I d^'^'^ 1 ^^"^'^ Ij^ I i Moderate. I'>4 _ s Wagner. — " Die Meistersinger." Meis-ter, 'sistnicht so ge- ^ S J rT*A \ i - f^ 2z: Figure. Figure. 67. ^gviMl^ ^ ^^ 46 FORM IN MUSIC. ^ i ai " ■ U »fr ^ ^ * * ^ [: ^ p fahrlich I tEI= — r^ — " und ist's dem Schneider ge-gliickt, wer J. ^^ o ^ •. * ^ S^i ^ ^=^ ^ A two-fold extension of the responsive phrase is shewn in the above example between the two asterisks, the passage I 0") i") I being twice re-stated. A normal 4-bar responsive phrase will be found by the omission of the music between the asterisks. Allegro confuoco. Dvorak.— " New World " Symphony. -»i-i m — ■ — , m ■ w 1 — I — p-i i — T-w- i . 77. i ji 3: 1.. ^> :rj I s ^a ^S - r-— i ?gF=^ I Announcing phrase. ^r i fr- I No. 2 in Breitkopf and Haertel's edition. 54 I FORM IN MUSIC. J ^fi ^ ^ W- r.r ifitfif ?f ? '=F^ Responsive phrase. 8wa- if-Llfki^ei' i yjLi' ^ In the foregoing extract from Dvorak's " New World " Symphony, the interpolated bars are again shewn between the asterisks. The re-statement of bar 3 of the responsive phrase is, in bar 4, exact ; but in bars 5 and 6 the repetition is in notes of half the length, producing an instance of what is usually termed Diminution. The effect of this is greatly to enhance the fiery energy of the passage. (ii) By some form ^f Sequence Andante. Mozart. — Sonata in F, No. i. I b"i) J J J ^ a ^ ■ r->-^ . ;^jtH I 78. ^S ■^^ f f: tiJ^ J- y — -j ^ I Announcing phrase. ^^ fc^ ^ -t=^ # ^ ^^ :$:""* ^ Zd I I ResfMnsive phrase. FORM IN MUSIC. 55 Here it will be readily seen that the two bars between the asterisks are the free sequential imitation of the two preceding bars, by means Df which the responsive phrase is lengthened from four bars to six. A remarkable instance of sequential repetition, by which the responsive phrase is extended from four bars to as many as sixteen, may be found in the last movement of Tschai'kowsky's P. F. Concerto in B fiat minor (50th bar from the end, as far as the final "Allegro vivo"), while one of still greater beauty is provided by the well-known passage in the Introduction to Act III. of Wagner's " Meistersinger " : — Un poco s ostenuto. Wagner. — " Die Meistersinger." 79. S & ,iS iH \i:^ \ ^\ ^ I Announcing phrase 3: 3 r^ ^ 6 I ^ NM: - J^TtiM^ i Responsive phrase. ti ^ JS ^vr^ f-C; J l <)- JjlJ- ^ :z2: -3=t rf ^^ n r^ r w tr- If o . T2L &3t P2: =P=1= FORM IN MUSIC, Particular attention should be directed to the two-fold extension by sequence (bars 7-10) of the melody of the first two bars of the responsive phrase (bars 5-6) ; also to the closer sequences in bars 10-12, and 12-13. By these means, it will be seen, the responsive phrase has been lengthened from the normal four bars to eleven. Ciii^ By the insertion of an entirely new bar {or bars), by which a phrase assumes what may be described as an " inherent irregularity^^ {such as has been treated of in Chapter III, page 14, et seq.) Sc hubert. — Impromptu, Op. 9 0, No. i. Allegro molto moderate. . ^ '- '^ . 80. £=£ ^ vinlrj- i fi^j-J^^^ Responsive phrase. jr li i & w^ w m ^ ~^i a ^ > occ. ^^rjT^ j-:^ r:^ I .^p^ £!=■ This phrase oifve bars is the responsive phrase to one of the usual four ; Schubert has, however, in other places in this same Impromptu, written sentences in which both phrases have the additional bar. * In the opera the cadence is, as a matter of fact, interrupted here by the entry of one of the "'Prentice " themes ; but that does not aflfect the point of the illustration. FORM IN MUSIC. III. — Cadential Augmentation. 57 This is effected by doublings or otherwise augmenting^ the actua* length of the notes of the cadence : 81. Andantitto. Mendelssohn. — •• Elijah." i r 1 ^ 3 O rest in the Lord, O rest in the a ^ (a) (a) I g 52: ^ wait . . pa - tient - ly for Him. Lord, and wait, ^ lLi-.4^iu. ns^ " d Q^^Tfr m fe rJ i. | j »=^ r — r r- This concluding phrase of Mendelssohn's well-known song, "O rest in the Lord," well exemplifies this method of extension. Upon the basis of the preceding phrases of the piece, the passage | (a) (i)~| would ordinarily have appeared thus : — wait pa • tient-Iy for Him. and the phrase would have assumed the normal four-bar aspect. As, however, Mendelssohn evidently wished to give a greater sense of weight and importance to the ending of the song, he adopted the course of doubling the length of the notes leading to the cadence, thus extending the phrase to five bars, and thereby greatly increasing its effect. 58 FORM IN MUSIC. In the preceding portions of this chapter we have seen how it is possible to lengthen musical sentences in various ways, without their rhythmic shape becoming in Rhythmic ^ny sense indefinite or chaotic. We have eoniraetion. ^^^ ^^ observe the opposite process, viz., that of shortening, which, however, is rather less often met with. This takes place most frequently through the Oj^^^^PP^'^S^ overlapping of two phrases, i.e., by the last or phrases. ^^^ ^j. ^^^ phrase becoming the first bar of the next, e.g. : — Schumann. — Symphony in C. > N m ^ ^ ^ff^fr^Ei^w^i^^ Announcing phrase ^'!, QJ „ A Jl o^ ^^'^i?^#^ ^^ m^ S^ fe ^!^ ±± t=^ =1^^ I I Responsive phrase. i Wood whxl./ m P ^ ^ ±1 {overlapping.\ ^S .-^- * ' ^ ' * ^Sf^ P^y s* i«=» ^t^qr^ q &c. ^a ^ ^ f - I 2nd announdng phrase. &c. A somewhat curious case of " overlapping " is to be found in No. 1 1 of Mendelssohn's " Lieder ohne Worte." The movement opens thus : — FORM IN MUSIC. 59 ^m s 83. ^^ Announcing phrase. fnUt^^ ^K i- ^ \ 'J_iS \[ I Responsive phrase (extended). ^ i i i^jJJ l^L ^\^^ ^-^l Perfect Cadence in A. There is clearly an elision of a half-bar at *, and it is noteworthy that, when the sentence recurs at a later period of the piece, Mendelssohn does not adopt a similar plan, but allows the first phrase to run its logical course (vide f) as follows : — fiirjiJ^JTij n\.j yr\ 84. Announcing phrase. Inverted Cadence in D. \ Note. — The melody only of the two passages has been given, in order to save space, and because of the easily accessible nature of the work from which they are taken. A second method of shortening will be found in the following extract : — Andante. SCHUBERT. — P. F. Sonata in A. 85.' fr n , ^-i ' i '\ '- \i-iiii\ ^: Y^ I i^%k^ 6o P FORM IN MUSIC. ^ ^M. »* . ^ a >i» E — m ' ^^' m m m » — 1 — i — i P ■ i» m EEI 1 XU ' fj± t^. EEEE Responsive phrase (3 bars). The responsive phrase here is one of three bars. In order Compression of ^o match the announcing phrase exactly, the two bars into one. conclusion of the passage could quite easily have appeared thus : — 86. * ^P ^ ^ I &c — ^- ^ — '■ ^-J \ Sr^^ r-—r-f — •" In the first of these tunes it will be noticed that the music naturally divides itself into two practically Simple Binary equal parts (A and B) ; the second acting as the response to, and complement of, the first. Such a tune is conveniently described as being in " Binary " or " Two-part " form. OP Two-papt fopm. 62 FORM IN MUSIC. OP Three-part form. On turning to the second example, "The Bluebells of Scotland," a different structure will be observed. Here the music splits-up, so to speak, into three divisions (A, B, and A'), the third of which is a repetition of the first* after a kind of digression has been made by the second strain of the melody, with its slightly varied outline and its modulation into another key. On a similar principle of nomenclature, such a piece is Simple Ternary g^id to be in "Ternary" or "Three-part" form. From these two types, the Binary and the Ternary, most of the modern instrumental forms have in the process of time been evolved, and it will be the aim in the following pages to shew how this has been accomplished. It will be best, for the clearer discernment of the characteristics of the two types mentioned above, that our consideration of the form of complete movements should begin with a careful analysis of those smaller pieces of which good examples are to hand in the Minuets and Trios of the classical masters, the " Songs without Words " of Mendelssohn, &c. When once the principles upon which such movements are constructed are clear to the student's mind, little difficulty will be experienced in tracing their further development in the larger designs, such as sonatas, symphonies, &c. I. — The Simple Binary, or Two-part, Form. The most frequent exemplification of this form is found in those small pieces — such as national melodies, hymn-tunes, simple dance-movements, and themes for variations — which consist of two complete sentences, the second carrying on and bringing to a conclusion the musical idea announced by the first. At its simplest, such a form usually consists eight answering to eight, as in the succeeding The simplest type of Binary form. of sixteen bars example : — Beethoven. — "Andante" from P. F. Sonata in F minor, A , — V . ^. N_ Op. 57. 89. p \ Kl^ \ ^ : *u Wm (&uh. % ^ rr^ ^^ It =t ••■^ '^• o '^^Tj;^ • The figure 2 (as A*, &c.), will be used throughout to indicate this r^ -appearance of a musical passage. FORM IN MUSIC. 63 i =s= ^^tt^i?^ m ^S ^;; ^ ^S 2^ It Here both sentences end with a perfect cadence in the Tonic key, but in many instances the first part Modulation at g^ds in some other key — often that of the first Dart Dominant — by which means an element of contrast is brought in and continuity, generally speaking, the better maintained. A good instance of this is found in the following English tune (dating from 1780) : — 90. ^ i i^^ 4- — >J — I — ^^^ P • W (Tonic key ) (Dominant key i 1(a) (a) I B, ending definitely in Tonic ) * The two parts of such pieces as we are now considering are frequently marked to be repeated. This of course does not affect their form, as the balance is maintained unaltered. 64 FORM IN MUSIC. Reeuprenee of idea. Besides the contrast of key here, another point is deserving of notice, viz.: the recurrence at the end of Part II. of the last two bars of Part I., transposed from the Dominant key to that of the Tonic. This illustrates a very important factor in the matter of obtaining coherence of musical design, viz.: some sort of repetition, at a later period of a movement, of some figure or passage that has been heard earlier in its course. One of the simplest methods of carrying-out this idea of repetition is for the cadence- bars of the first half of the piece to be reproduced* — with change of key, where necessary — at the end of the second part. This proceeding is often to be met with in the music of i7fh H iQtK ^^ earlier instrumental writers, and many Jlntury Sps. j^^^^f ^ ?^ ^""fl ^^P?i^°" ^'} be found in the suites,&c.,ofthe 17th and early iSlhcentury composers, who worked almost exclusively on Binary lines. This recurrence of idea is to be seen clearly illustrated in a little "Menuetto" by A. E. Miilier (1767-1807) : — 91. A. E. MOLLER.— Menuetto. ^rtjnr— r""a~ — 1 — Pi r->a W^ r * ■ J ■-. F=t= Pif'M • • • 1 • ., r r- r ^^^il .. —r- ' ^1 & '-"^ ^^^Nm r * The reason for this is, probably, that the ending of a phrase, sentence, or paragraph naturally dwells in the memory, and, as a consequence, the particular bit of melody is somewhat easily recognized later on, when it recurs in a similar situation. FORM IN MUSIC. 6S ^^i m f-f-i-f — « — i^ — •- ^ r- r- ^ U^f^f g-rwg| ^ @^ r> ' -^ ^ ±: ?- ^^ 1^- ^-^ ^M^-^^V^^ ^ E^ ^g f-f i f j_jr _ jH ,Ln;j- i In the above case the reproduction includes the u>/iok of the second phrase of Part I. at the end of Part II. This is not quite so usual (in a piece of such small dimensions) as for the repetition to be confined to the actual cadence-bars. The Theme of Beethoven's Pianoforte Variations (Op. 120) affords further exemplification of this form of procedure : — Beethoven — "Tema"of Varia tions on a Waltz of Diabelli, Op . 120. A ». Vivace, — " . \ . ^ . 92. m Si ^S=aF±^=s=3F P 66 FORM IN MUSIC. #= H- -Y ^^ ~N» -^ -H -f— H — h- . ^. =s= E =5^ vii> ^ ^ r r -^ r -1^ -j r TT ^-=i^ #4 j»ii-i '' ^^^=^^ --H ji h j 1 J SfcZE £=15 ^^ts I J ^ tJ::r^ i^~jr^"^ I 1^ " I I- 3t=fc£ ^ ^ t- I- -^ Y rir r ^^n,^ ^ FORM IN MUSIC. 67 i r-^ j.j^^ hi^^ 22: s ^ >- 43>t- iJp- £=^ 2: "F 21 •>&- ^ ^ ^ ^^^ i£ 'T- I J I r 4 ■! ^ m S Modern use of the simple Binary form. The reproduction of the latter half of Part I. as the second half of Part II. (with the final four bars freely transposed into the Tonic key) will hardly escape observation. Although instances of the simple type of Binary form, such as already given in this chapter, are to be found here and there in the works of the more modern writers, from Haydn and Mozart onwards, the tendency has been to relegate this particular structure to the region of such short pieces as themes for variations, &c., where simplicity of design is a desideratum. The somewhat obvious squareness of pattern — involved in the two parts so exactly balancing one another — has led to the abandonment of this form in favour of one more elastic and capable of development, viz. : the Ternary. The reason for the predilection for the Binary form evinced by the composers of the 17th and i8th centuries possibly lay in the fact that its somewhat rigid and formal shape fitted-in with the ideas of a conventional age, with its love of exactitude and preciseness of expression. It is noteworthy, though, that even during this period the Binary form adopted in nearly all the movements of the suites and sonatas of the time shews — as an eminent writer has said — " a continuous development, until at last it breaks its own bounds and passes into a higher stage of evolution."* Predilection of 17th and I8th century writers for forms based on Binary idea. •w. H, of Music. Hadow. " The Growth of the Sonata," in the Oxford History 68 FORM IN MUSIC. This matter will be more fully dealt with when we come to speak of the history of Sonata-form (Chapter XXV.); but an illustration of a rather more fully-developed Binary movement will not be out of place here : — J. S. Bach. — Gavotte, from sixth French suite. 93, •^ Allegro. The Binary fopm on an extended basis. A Allegro. . . • ^^ •^ r • I — ^ -r-i '—^ *- -^. — ■ m -* ^ P r r'i'-f u T=t '■'££/[ ''I I '' r '' » M^ J .r^gj , ^ ^ :* »- -"— I 1 ^ft g £ ^ %•:' ^ 1 J^ g 5* (Ending in Dominant key.) e ?=F^ f^ ^^F^ ^ f t ^ ^ i t^ i jp^ frJlT^iiiza • I l 'J . b K"« I « fe T^ r r y T (Freer hk ^? J«=^ ±: 1^ ^ (Freer modulation through C sharp minor and F sharp minor.) FORM IN MUSIC. 69 (Ending in Tonic key.) Here will be seen a two-part piece with its first part of the normal 8-bar length, ending in the l)ominant key ; but with its second part extended to 12 bars, the music passing through the keys of C sharp minor and F sharp minor before finally returning to the Tonic. The reproduction of the cadence-bars of Part I. at the conclusion of the whole — as shewn by the asterisks — should not be overlooked. It must be pointed out here that the Binary form as already described, although rarely used for complete movements — at any rate, since the time of Bach and Handel — is Simple Binary frequently to be met with as the basis of the form often used {^xm of self-contained themes occurring in themestn la?Sr ^'?? course of compositions of some consider^ compositions. able length. The Andante cantabile ot Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in C, No. 2, is an admirable illustration of this. In this movement there are two distinct themes or melodies, each complete in itself, and each in Binary form. The piece is too long for quotation here ; but, as the Sonata is easily obtainable, it will be sufficient to say that the first of these begins thus : — and consists of two parts, the first containing eight bars, and ending in the Dominant key ; the second extending to twelve bars, and concluding with a perfect cadence in the Tonic key. The second theme immediately succeeds, commencing thus : — - g^rfat 70 FORM IN MUSIC. and consists of two sentences of eight bars each, the latter of which is followed by a Coda (page 8i) of four bars, emphasizing the Tonic cadence. In conclusion : from our survey of the characteristics of the Binary or Two-part form we may gain an idea of some of the chief points that are desirable, and even necessary, if a composition — whatever its exact shape — is to exhibit that elemL.nt of symmetry and conscious plan which stamps it as a logical and consistent work of art. ??^^«,®^i®*^^!>^\^ These factors may be classified under the of symmetrical r n u j- composition. followmg headmgs :— (i) Balance : by which is understood the intelligent response of phrase to phrase, sentence to sentence, part to part, and so on ; (ii) Key-contrast : by which is meant a definite grouping of the important sections of a composition around different " tonal centres " * — {See Figs. 90, 91, 92 and 93, and the remarks thereon) ; (iii) Repetition or Recurrence of idea : that is to say, the re-statement (complete or partial) at a later period of a composition of some more or less noteworthy passage already heard at an earlier stage of the movement — by which unity f is preserved and certain musical ideas are brought into the foreground — so to speak — of the composer's scheme. J These important elements of design will receive further and ampler exemplification in the succeeding chapters. It suflJices now to say that, in order that a composition may tell its tale effectively, and convey an impression of shapeliness and coherence, these elements will almost invariably be present in some way or other. Their actual manifestations are endless ; their inherent truth is indisputable and well-nigh universal in its application. * The expression "tonal centre" is a convenient term used to indicate the key in which lies the greater, or more important, part of any section of a movement. For instance, we may speak of a composition, or a section of that composition, being "in the key of C" ; but we do not thereby imply that it remains entirely in C. All that is meant is that C is its cenlral key, i.e., its tonal centre. t The element oi diversity — no less essential than that oi unity — is supplied by varied rhythms, judicious modulation, and many other resources open to the composer. X This recurrence of idea will be observed more fully and consistently carried out in the form known as Ternary, or Three-part, form. In Binary form it sometimes does not occur at all. (See Fig. 89.) FORM IN MUSIC. 71 CHAPTER IX. THE SIMPLE TERNARY, OR THREE-PART, FORM. In the preceding chapter it was stated that the Binary, or Two-part, plan, although that on which the composers of the 17th and 1 8th centuries largely constructed their movements, has practically given way to a form more fruitful in possibilities of interest and diversity. This form is one in which the root-principle is that of three distinct periods or clauses, on the basis of (i) Statement, (ii) Digression, and (iii) Re-statement. That The Three-part, jg ^q g^^y^ ^ piece sets out with some musical OP Ternary, idea. ^j^Q^g^t that is more or less complete in itself, and also sufficiently definite to leave a clear impression on the mind. After this the music moves away from this first thought,* either in outline or key (or both), finally returning to the original idea as a conclusion to the whole (in its original key). Of this type there are literally hundreds of examples in the national melodies of Great Britain and Ireland, to say nothing of those of other countries. From this it may be legitimately inferred that this particular design has something in it that is inherently appropriate and logical. The majority of national tunes Many national ^^y^ y^Q^ been produced as the outcome of scientific musical knowledge, but are the expression of the natural poetic instinct of the people ; it is therefore somewhat significant that so many tunes of this character, from all parts of the world, should be based upon the Three-part, or Ternary, plan. We have already seen one example in " The Bluebells of Scotland" (Chapter VIII.) ; another instance is supplied by the following Hungarian melody : — melodies in Ternary form. 96. i k ^ ^33; I Key E minor. I I. |S # ^ ^ Key G major. • Not, however, sufficiently to give the impression of a change of character , the style must necessarily be consistent throughout, and each part should be the logical outcome of the original idea, although considerable freedom in outline may be met with from time to time. 7» FORM IN MUSIC. ^^^^^^ I hi ; Key E minor. When we come to consider the works of the great classical masters from the time, roughly speaking, of Haydn and Mozart, we tind the Ternary form very firmly established, particularly in such small pieces as the minuets and trios of their symphonies and sonatas. The following little movement from Mozart's Symphony in C (No. 6) gives a particularly clear illustration of this : — Menuetto. Mozart. — Symphony No. 6, in C. 97. az= d\ ^ f pr^-7'igm4ig ^ ^p r r zg m WE tr- ^ ^ ^m ss ~i~^:.^*-fr-f^ 5h r ^nz \ J^s m Tri l tr j r r s r -^ff^i^f i f r^=^^ rf^ FORM IN MUSIC. 73 ^ gprF rJ -y^ i=# ^g>i J j (I6) rs w sp^^^ (20) Jiiirijj ^ fldl^ljl > r r s ?^5¥ In the above extract it will be observed that, on the return of Part I. after Part II., an important new feature is added in the shape of an imitation, in the tenor, of the melody of bars 16-20. Such incidental elaborations as this are of frequent occurrence ; moreover, it is sometimes the case that very considerable modification of Part I. takes place on its reappearance as Part III. Such a proceeding, provided that the root idea of re-statement is not obliterated or markedly obscured, is not only permissible, but often desirable, for the purpose of imparting additional interest and zest to the repetition. In the minuet just quoted, the first part ends in the key of the Tonic, and is thus somewhat emphatically cut )ff from the matter • In small pieces of this description, it has always been customary for the parts to be marked for repeat, and it was open to composers to choose one of two ways of doing this. The first of these would be for each part to be repeated as soon as heard, thus : — A :1| B :|| A^ :1|. For many reasons, partly historical, this was set aside in favour of a method less square and obvious, viz., for Part I. to be repeated by itself, and Parts II. and III. together, thus :— A :|| B A'^ :11 74 FORM IN MUSIC. that follows ; moreover, both Part I, and Part III. end with the same cadence, in the same key. For the purpose of obtaining a greater feeling of continuity, Part I. (as in Binary form)* more often closes in some other key than that of the Tonic — often the Dominant — and so leads more directly into Part II., as in Schumann's "Valse Allemande":— First part of Ternary form frequently ends out of original key. 98. Molto vivace. Schumann. — " Carnaval" — Valse Allemande. A .^- /— s ^ ^ I rr H '"^ ^ ^ .d 9 * a wm ^- ^ "^ *i=? r^ l ^ l ypfjJ lup^ 1 ^:^^ \ p 3g; £i — I M — m 1 hwm \ rm\\~^^^ ^^ ifMifMr^irr m ^E^ rii. g1. « ~. =1= iAi'%.^--i L^ * See Figs. 92 and 93. FORM IN MUSIC. 75 ^^ 4^-M^ rii,.j^J | '>,j-jj t^ ^ 15;^ a tempo. ^ 1\ Tti T f' ^ ^ ^yU--^^-^f - ^ — ^ --— . ^ I H^ — WB 1 1 — I 1 " — I— t4^ -m ^ -f^-l^ i-MUJs^\ t^^rh-H-mf f^f ^^ £z=£i: ,* In the above example the first part ends in the key of E flat (the Dominant key), and so leads more uninterruptedly into Part II. Part III. shews considerable modification of Part I. ; but the return to the opening phrase is very distinctly marked, the changed character of the responsive phrase being largely due to the fact that some alteration was inevitable, so that the piece might terminate in the key of the Tonic instead of in the Domiftant, as in Part I. The Ternary form (of which the foregoing extracts are typical specimens) containing as it does possibiUties of contrast -, . - and diversity denied to the Binary form, TernarTidea. ^^^ ^een developed and expanded by com- posers in many ways full of interest and suggestiveness to the student. On reference to the Minuet of Mozart quoted above (Fig. 97), it will be noticed that Part II. ended definitely with a perfect cadence in the Dominant ; the music came more or less to a stop ; at any rate, it was cut off from the succeeding matter by a very definite point of rest. In pieces of slight texture and simple construction this is a very usual thing to find ; where, however, a composition assumes rather loftier propor- tions, and a greater sense of vital connexion between its sections is desired, the somewhat formal cadence points are usually made less obvious, and the music of one part is thus felt to grow, as it were, out of the preceding part. The point at which it is, perhaps, most natural and desirable for the angles of the design to be thus "rounded-off," is towards the end of Part II., pre- paratory to the return of the opening melody forming the final section. 76 FORM IN MUSIC. In the more highly-organized pieces on Ternary lines, we find at times a more or less independent passage inserted between the end of Part II. and the commencement of Part III. for the express purpose of allowing the music to merge into what follows without break of the continuity. Such a passage, be it noted, invariably gives the feeling of moveme?it towards the re-statemefit of the first idea — a leading-back to the first point of departure, e.g. : — 99. Menuetto. Allegro, A ^ Haydn. — Symphony in D, No. 2. • -^ J i>^ 'i . I If f flF VX' 4*^ ^^ e i ^ gm-^r^Hr^ tr^ E2: d£ fcfe Bl ^ (Repeat PP) 1:21 e — f r V 8»a. s I iT =*= S FORM IN MUSIC. 77 i ^-•- 4-J-U- («) T^-'-^-T T r^r S^^*^ '^Trf ^ r n'r p I'pj I r i^^ l^f-' l 'l uU : . . t^"~^-i- -^ ^ i ^s,; ^S^^^^^^S: ^J HTr— r ^ ^P r r - ^5 r f %^=^ P ^ ^ ''^ (a) I Aa ~># — rrj: S 4: i ^ f I* r ' r r P^ f ¥t^ i i -i-A-^-g- -j--til-.-s--s- I r 1 & Efe ^ gn jrJ J=^j i J r /r- Jl ¥- j i J r @ip (X) '^ -N I r r r 78 FORM IN MUSIC. 'UMMMM^MX^ 1 |jf>V r r a ^i g^*t \ r r £ I i If ^ A careful perusal of Haydn's Minuet will shew that the second part could have terminated at the chord of A major prior to the passage at f(a) (aTl > the return to the original idea being made immediately. In order, though, to mitigate any squareness of effect, Haydn has inserted eight bars founded upon the main figure of the Minuet. These bars are written over a Dominant Pedal * and successfully prepare the mind, by their transitional character, for the definite entry of the third part (A^) Examples of such links are of fairly frequent occurrence, and are, as a rule, easily recognizable in the scheme of design. It is, however, more usual for the music of the imDepeenttbfv"^ second part to tend gradually and almost into Part Illf imperceptibly in the direction of the key and character of the opening melody, as in the Trio of the Menuetto in Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in F minor. No. i ; — Allegretto. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. i. 100.- tt 1 1 JjJjJJ|JjJjJJ | ^H. ^ ^=^ | e-,i^r i r '^±^ ^ * The Dominant of the key retained as the bass throughout a succession of varied harmonies. FORM IN MUSIC. 79 t^ -P J J J ^ J J I Jf ^ . m o . I ^ :^4 ^^TTJHI *^ f^^f ^'nJ *! J J « « H Jii g *=^=^ f ;>T , .1 B^ ^ • >• J.. ^^^t^^ ^ =1 *=3 hN=JJ ^b 1 — *^ • r •p « ''1 '' = rrrr^ ^ ^ ^ h r -*-# i ^ ^ &- I bj. 1 J J .' I f HT^M • i i I ' fe -#-^ .'jjjj^UJ^J l 8o FORM IN MUSIC. £ l7rf7r TFP y-e-g-fyf-'S^^ -i— i- -^—» gg r±lASlAX^ • r r r f ^^UJ^^ A2 ^-rpp|y= I M^^^: I'JJJ^ i *j;jj i J. I j. s^ ^r^"^^^J^-^r r r r^r I ^ J ^ • * ^ ^ ^^ £^3 ^ i.^MJ-i4 A further examination of the Haydn Minuet quoted above (Fig. 99) will reveal a notable extension of Part III. It will be seen that at (x), a somewhat less conclusive The Coda. form of perfect cadence is substituted for that used at the end of Part I., and that the movement is then carried on beyond the point at which the FORM IN MUSIC. ai re-statement of the opening idea is completed. Such additional matter constitutes what is known as a Coda (lit : a "tail-piece"), and has for its object the heightening of the effect of the conclusion, by emphasizing its cadential character, and giving an added sense of completeness and finality to the whole.* This chapter cannot conclude better than with the quotation of an interesting specimen of an expanded Ternary movement, furnished by No. 26 of Mendelssohn's " Lieder exoSSed^' °^"^ Worte." Owing to its being of con- Ternary Form. siderable length, the piece is here given in outline only ; a fairly clear conception of its plan may, however, be gained from a careful study of the following analysis, which should be supplemented by reference to a copy of the comolete work : — Allegro con fuoco. MENDELSSOHN.^" Lieder ohne Worte," No. 26. •1 .0..^^ ^rp^.jjjrp.Jlijl.^Jp -iir TT-i-ir 1 I - ^i t^-^ ^nr ~q I Introduction. T 5 ^ ^^ -j^j-j-^yl-j- ^■«.. J^; I E ^> tf g r ^ 1 1 r ^ 5 . 1 ' .■"■» ¥=t ^^ -!*-*- t=&: iL^rr^. I Sequential extension ■» ^ » . • — ; — m ^ m 1 * The Coda, as a recognized and permanent artistic appendage to a work, may almost be said to have been a creation of Beethoven. In his hands, that which previously had often been little more than a reiteration of the cadence-bars for the purpose of avoiding an alirupt termination, became a highly-developed and pregnant feature of the plan — a kind of Epilogue, in which all that goes before finds its logical conclusion and consummation. The Coda naturally is more necessary as a factor in the larger and more important forms ; in many short Three-part movements it does not find a place. [^Set also Chapter XVI.) 82 FORM IN MUSIC. of phrase. | *-• -f^m-i, ^ ' r ji i-g ^^ £EEEE£ y^ — 1- r^ Second extension of phrase by Cadential Interruption. •i^ r tr/ 1 r T/f (; T P s I (Perf. cadence.) (G minor.) (C minor.) f^ * F * ^ ^ Here the music leaves the Tonic key. (G minor.) fc=e: ^yiinr^^S^^'''^'^ . • • , ( D min or.) bMHbMOB ' I " i i ' ^"' '^ I Cadential # £ ^rrr^"^^i^ ^^£pj: #l Interruption, and extension of Sentence by repetition. t^;: Q^rrr ;* '« ^^ a ir ^*^l I Passage leading to return of A. ^ 3^SS (A Peda! -bass-note (D) continues until *) Perf. Cadence ID D minor. FORM IN MUSIC. 83 ^t=^ * f=^ V'trrf^ ^ ' ^ --^ fL_i_e_A. -rfe f ^— ^r t =^ (Harmonies.) ir-r-" ~J A* I Opening melody (condensed). | ^ £ Tonic key resumed. | ^ FHH-'t'T &c. ^ ^ ^ -1 r i ^"^ rt^ ^ I »i ' M j E^E (Ha rmonies.) I Extension by repetition. j | Second extension (ornamented). ] #t^^^-^^-f=r-ffrj r^Fffrt^ ^> Hr>-|d : -:fe-^ i: kli; y:: ^ I Cadence delayed. | I Perfect Coda. tr ^@^^^^ (Key, Tonic till end.) ^^Ht^ I - U--d :^ Cadence. 84 FORM IN MUSIC, I First reiteration of Perfect Cadence. | m^ 1=F=^ ■6-^ tr ^ J I ^ ^ ^ ^^tZHZKZ^HM. ^ ^ ^*- • ^ b- J J - ^j [ _r_r [ Jj* I Uj^ f I ^^^^ --g @yt 4. Hi' -^;^ p ^ W^ WZjC ^ i SiiiJ ^5^ Interlude. jNir -1 J N 1 1 - i ^Kft ^ i ■ J -^ I Second reiteration of Perf. Cadence. *• | >i^JTl ^^Srm^; uizcj "1 r ^ i Interlude. ^^ --f 3: -IT S ^ r -1 FORM IN MUSIC 85 m-^ :> r "ir ^ i ^^i S-'b ^ , ^ir "T^ S ^ o • ^^ ^ — « »- ^ ^^ v^ ^ • Q • £^) OP«£. I 2«flf time. " ^m^^^^^ ^^ Here there is undoubtedly a return at {c) to the opening melody ; but the sense of digression prior to that return is far less marked than in Fig. 102, owing to the similarity of melodic pattern in each phrase of the piece. This, added to its very distinctly Binary shape (8 bars answering to 8 bars), is sufficient to bring it rather more reasonably into this particular category. From what has been said earlier in this chapter, it will readily be inferred that the size and dimensions of a movement are not always reliable guides whereby one may determine into which region of classification it shall fall — this must be based upon the inherent idea revealed by the disposition of its In this connexion, it should be remembered Size of parts not always a reliable guide. various sections that— FORM IN MUSIC. 91 (i) The two divisions of a Binary movement imply : — {a) Statenit-nt ; [l>) Response, (ii) The three divisions of a Ternary movement imply : — (a) Statement ; {b) Digression ; {c) Re-statement. In conclusion : by the foregoing illustrations, it will be seen that it is not always possible to diagnose the type of structure with mathematical exactness ; but, let us hasten to add, neither is it desirable. Art is free, and, within certain reasonable limits, so is the artist ; and all that the theorist can do is to deduce broad, general principles frcnii the varied [)ractice of the greatest writers. It is with the application of these in composition that the student necessarily has mostly to concern himself ; he will be wiser, in his essays in analysis, to leave those forms that He " on the borderland " to the region of probabilities, rather than to attem[}t to assign them by Procrustean methods to any rigid or fixed type. CHAPTER XI. THE EVOLUTION OF THE TERNARY IDEA. The Minuet and 1'rio. — The Episodical I'ORiM. " Perfection of structural design is attained in the Three-part form, and every larger (or higher) form will have its type in this design, and its basis upon it." — (Percy Goetschius, " Lessons in Music Form.") " Ternary form, so far as we can see at present, is the most complete and logical type of structure which music can employ. It answers exactly to our sense of contrast, it is almost infmite in variety and flexibility, and it is capable, in a very high degree, of continuous and progressive development. — (W. Ii. liADOw, "Sonata Form.") Hitherto our attention has been concentrated upon those basic principles of design underlying instrumental musical composition, which we have classified respectively as Binary and Ternary. Our consideration of these two ideas has been confined to their simplest manifestations, in the construction of movements planned upon a somewhat small scale. The next step is to examine the methods by which these principles are applied to the building-up of the larger art forms. 92 FORM IN MUSIC. A careful perusal of the instrumental works of the great masters from the time of Haydn and Mozart onwards, demon- strates very conclusively that development has Modern taken place almost entirely on the lines of instrumental the Ternary idea. This development has been music developed Qf j^ strikingly continuous and consistent lines of the nature ; the Binary form, so common with the Ternary idea. predecessors of Haydn and Mozart, has almost ceased to exist as the plan of complete com- positions and, as was stated in Chapter VIII., has been relegated to a somewhat obscure position, being employed for little else than the framing of short pieces (such as themes for variations, &c.) in which a certain obvious simplicity and squareness is not only no drawback, but is even at times an advantage.* The simplest and most rudimentary expansion of the Ternary principle is to be found in the Minuet and Trio of the classical masters. Most students of their writings will "^^rt T^\^^^^ know that it has been the almost invariable ana no. custom for a first Minuet to be succeeded by a second, usually entitled "Trio" (from the practice that prevailed in early times of having this particular movement played by a trio of instruments), and then for the first Minuet to be repeated in its entirety.! The two Minuets, be it remembered, are structurally indepen- dent — each is complete in itself. The Minuet and Trio 'p^JQ ^ims at a certain degree of contrast Independent. ^" siyXe, and affords an element of relief, heightening the effect of the recurrence of the first Minuet. * The emphatic assertion of this point of view is not made without a clear realization of the fact that the more modern examples of the Ternary idea (as shewn in the sonatas, symphonies, &c., of Ilaydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and later writers) have been historically evolved from the Suites, &c., of an earlier period, in which the Binary shape is almost universal ; but it is necessary to remember that the gradual expansion to which this form was subjected by J. S. Bach, and still more by his sons, C. P. E. Bach, and J. Christian Bach, and their contemporaries, lay largely in the direction of obtaining a greater element of digression in the middle of a movement, after which it became necessary to make a return to the beginning. This stage marked the transition from the lower type to the higher, and to describe (as same theorists do) the more modern examples as Binary merely because they have been evolved from that type is simply to confuse the issues and to put a stumbling-block in the path of clear analysis. t This structural design dates back to very early times, Lulli (1633-1G87) most certainly employed it, in a more or less primitive way, for many of his opera- arias, and the form was for many years practically universal in this connexion. Most of Handel's arias, both in opera and oratorio, are written in this shape, which became so stereotyped that composers rarely went to the trouble of writing out the repetition of their first section, but simply indicated this by the words " Da Capo." The formalism so engendered is almost intolerable to modern cars, and the " Da Capo Aria," as it is often called, is now fortunately a thing of the past. FORM IN MUSIC. 93 Regarded broadly, then, the idea of the Minuet and Trio is still Ternary : — Statement. First Minuet, Contrast. Trio. Re-statement. First Minuet repeated. The next important point to be observed is that— as both the Minuet and the Trio are virtually independent movements — each will invariably be found to be a complete Binary or Ternary design (far more often the latter), on the plan exemplified in the preceding chapters. In order to avoid any confusion in the use of terms, it will be well not to employ the designation Ternary to describe the three movements (Minuet I. — Trio — Minuet I.) taken together and considered as a whole. Ternary in idea as the result indeed is. A better and safer description ^ Minuet^and jg ^^at of " Minuet and Trio form," by the use of which it is possible to restrict the expressions Binary and Ternary to the indication of the particular shape or design of each movement taken separately. The following outline will help to shew the " ground-plan " of the Minuet and Trio form : — Minuet I. A complete Three-part movement, consisting °~A :il: B A^ :i| illustrating the ideas of statement, digression and re-statement within itself.* Trio. A similarly-planned movement, offeringsome amount of contrast in style, and usually of key. ReturnofMinuetI. A repetition of the whole of the First M inuet, to which often a Coda is added. A good illustration of this construction is afforded by the Minuet and Trio of Haydn's Symphony in D, No. 2. The Minuet has already been quoted (page 76) as an example of Ternary form; the Trio appears as follows in the major key, a major 3rd below, viz: B flat : — Haydn. — Symphony in D, No. 2. 104.. ^ S fei i^iq ^^ ^-^ -» « » ■ • Very occasionally, the Two-part form is used instead of the Three-part ; the latter, however, is almost universal since Haydn's time. 94 FORM IN MUSIC. i^^^^^^=3 5_i£i-?-- W \f m f t p- ■ » f *— » — ^ — ? g^ ^ ::^^ ay' ' t' "I I ' t' ^ frh^ ^3ffi^ ^" i r ir¥^ jg:- ^ p S" s' i: -1 — \ r - FORM IN MUSIC. 95 3t-- ~^f- f i r y* % » ¥J. ^^^^^ t- 'f r =^ jd. ^Jdt ijca: ^'- m :^=¥=tf t T- ' i» *- g- g j ^ l ^i^nij^j::^ AS ■6^ :f^^?^:^^ itiitit i 1— i — I I ' t A ' f* r?p- f^ fr h^ b ^ p^ ^^E « — »- -^ — ^ jr-f-gr X, ^;^- - i-j * ^ -- M I ! r n ^ *-/■-*— i—^ ?^ Y r 1?- 1?- ^ -«» — « — «"< — J r P I I I T t^ M 1 I r I — f^ ^*F ^gf-, ^ r r I fp ^^ -f^-H^ 96 FORM IN MUSIC. h±rk= ± i^ 1^ ■a ^ E ■^ -^^-^ r -^^F^^4.^-H^4 ^^g .C2. m^ ^ Passage connecting Trio with repetition of Minuet. -A "TW A. ^ # — ^e — P , f f« ^ ^^ Mtnuetto Da Capo. Both sections will repay the closest and most careful analysis, as they both contain many points of interest. Among these may be mentioned (i) the considerable modification of Part I. of the Trio when it re-appears as Part III., and (ii) the lO bars added at the end of this Part, in order to lead the music back towards the key of D major, for the repetition of the Minuet.* * This "linking-up" of the Trio with the Minuet, although comparatively rarely met with, constitutes a proceeding of considerable importance, to which there will be occasion to revert later in this chapter. FORM IN MUSIC. 97 Instances of " Minuet and Trio form " can be counted literally by thousands ; they include not only actual Minuets, but dances of various kinds — Polaccas, Polona'ses, Frequency of Mazurkas, and many others. A particularly Trio^opm/' interesting specimen is the "Rigaudon" from Grieg's Pianoforte Suite, " Aus Holberg's Zeit"; it is selected for insertion here (in outline) as shewing one of the rare appearances now-a-days of the I'wo-Part or Binary form (extended).* It will be noticed that, whereas the Rigaudon is in Binary form, Grieg adopts the more usual Ternary form for the Trio section, A noteworthy feature in this Trio, possibly intended to give an old-world flavour to the music, is the repetition (after the manner of the 1 8th century writers) of the final phrase of Part II. at the conclusion of Part III. {Su remarks in Chapter VIII., page 64.) Rigaudon. — Allegro con brio. u A Grieg. — "Rigaudon," Op. 40. ^^ 105. ^ ^^-mU-,1 "cTltZ^ ^ ' Jr fr m m * M 0- U i flr ^32 t==i=± (Perf. cadence in Dominant key.) ffniui'jUKJt r riLlG-^ri; (The music remains in the Dominant key, and the whole of this i i=i ^> jjZHU- i ? second part is much extended by sequential treatment.) r | g: r j^ i pi d St ^^ (Cadence in Dominant key.) • Compare the quotation from Bach's French Suite, on page 68. 98 ^ FORM IN MUSIC. E i i # it-nf (Cadence in Dominant repeated and emphasized.) (Pedal bass-note.) H^ m ^. _f- . .r-.f , S £^^ g i^ s (2nd repetition of cadence in Dominant.) i I rf ff t£tf i tiffgEf i ft -^5 (3rd repetition of cadence in Dominant.) W 1 "cr "O" i r] i rrn nrr j z± ^ ' ^ ' ^ -»-^ (Modulation back to Tonic key.) ■^ — I ^f ! I ' i f ^ ^ Sz'o— >~> :x jit.r^^jj:^^^^#^£|^ FORM IN MUSIC. 99 I *£^ Fine. ^ fa rr'i.ff f^ — S»" ^ d ^=^^ (Tonic key established. ) Trio. A . Cadential ending as in Part I. (transposed.) f=T^ * 1=3: ^=^ i a: ^ -^ d 1M (Half-Cadence in Tonic key.) ;Mr ^ :t=i: (Key '&) major.) I "f i Tf Tf i .7f- ^P^^ i Aa ^^E iS> « f r r f p - p r r r f - r r r r ^ III ' —U- _L_l_Li_j -i^ ^ s ^^£ ^ ^ gi^y — nff J J ' ,J rV 13 ^^ ^ ^s* i=« FORM IN MUSIC. 103 p iS^ jm-Tr M- .tu -t fc^ ^ 15 {Interrupted cadence.) m ^ ^r 16 {Extension of phrase. g I i f f r i S :3: 17 r^ ^ i I ! J * J i ! =;?= ^ ^ -^'=^> r^ / J J ^ r- . ^ I04 FORM IN MUSIC. S -wr-w * i ^' 19 ^.\ JVlTi irr^ m t^ ^ ffi ^S5S 'p^ mA ^^Ff Jjj'j I JJJ'^^H^ ^3 I Link. III. 3c:» ^S S=»=f S 1 '_' ^^yi^ m Jf r J' I ,ri] ^rj] jp J' 8 J- 1 J': -« ff- 23 24 ^ ^ J J i FTj FORM IN MUSIC loS fjT i i ^ T 27 28 Ffcfc p r F — :t=- ^^ its 29 Coda. 3c ^^ TjI'*^' TTI - 1^ > rf r ^=^ ^ I ^^^ r I i I 1 1 II I III m :&=fe » ^ 32 £ F=h i ^ 3 r 1 33 %M-L$j,-^ TT T 34 ^ F g ^ - F ^ [ 1 r =^ io6 FORM IN MUSIC. Here each division of the movement is in Binary form {j.e.^ in two complete sentences).* The first division comes regularly to a close in the Tonic key in bar 8, but is connected with the Episode (beginning in bar lo in the key of E flat) by one bar linking the two themes together. The Episode, it will be seen, does not close in its own key, but comes to an imperfect cadence in G minor — the Tonic key of the piece — in bar 21. The original theme is then re-introduced exactly as at first, in bar 22, and a Coda is added (bars 30 — 34) as a conclusion to the whole, founded upon the idea of the first subject. To sum up : from what has been said it will have been gathered that one of the simplest and most natural means of building-up a movement of greater length and importance Conclusion. than the small pieces whose construction has been considered in Chapters VIII., IX. andX., is to add to an already existing Binary or Ternary form another of similar construction, but of contrasted character. The result of this proceeding is to produce in the first place the type familiar in the Minuets and Trios of the classical masters, and often going by the name of " Minuet and Trio Form." It has been shewn also that this form is frequently used for pieces far removed in style from that of the Minuet. A still more noteworthy point, however, is that it serves as the basis of a more closely-knit and continuous design. In this the three main divisions, (I) Principal theme, (II) Episode, (III) Principal theme, are made to lead naturally one into the other, the form thus being rendered more continuous and elastic, and therefore suitable for many classes of composition where the strongly-marked separation of the three divisions of the Minuet and Trio would be undesirable, if not entirely out of place. Each of these types may be classed under the general heading, " Episodical," by reason of the contrasted middle section which ,. . occurs only once, between the two appearances Form ^*^^ of the principal theme. Consequently, works constructed on this plan may be conveniently termed "Movements with a single Episode," or movements in " Episodical Form." The works of instrumental writers of all schools abound in such episodical movements. As interesting specimens the following may be mentioned among many others : — (i) "Andante cantabile" of Sonata in C (No. 2). — Mozart. (ii) "Adagio" of Sonata in D (No. 13). — Mozart (Analysed on pages 194 and 195.) (iii) " Largo' of Sonata in E flat (Op. 7). — Beethoven. (iv) "Andante" of Sonata in D (Op. 28). — Beethoven, (v) Impromptu in A flat (Op. 142, No. 2). — Schubert. (vi) Polonaise in A (Op. 40). — Chopin. * It should be noticed that the phrases in I. are of two-bar length, and in the first part of II. of three-bar length. FORM IN MUSIC. 107 (vii) Impromptus in A flat, G flat and C sharp minor (Op. 29, 51 and 66). — Chopin, (viii) " Davidsbiindler " (No. 7). — Schumann, (ix) " Novelletten " (Nos. 2, 4 and 7). — Schumann, (x) Slow movement of Trio for Pianoforte and Strings. — Mendelssohn, (xi) " Albumblatter " (Op. 28, No. 3).— Grieg. (xii) " Klavierstiicke " (Op. 118, Nos. 2, 3, and 5). — Brahms. &c., &c The student should have little difficulty in deciding, as the cases arise, whether the resemblance is more clearly and definitely to the Minuet and Trio form pure and simple, or to the more highly developed variety which is its logical outcome. CHAPTER XII. THE EVOLUTION OF THE TERNARY IDEA {continued). The Older or Simple Rondo. Growing up side by side, historically, with the forms we have already considered, is to be found another, a " descendant of the same stock as Ternary form," which goes by the name of the Rondo* Two explanations are given of the origin of the Rondo. One is that it was at first "a dance, the music to which was sung, . while the performers danced in a circle, Ro^^o holding one another's hands. The music began with a chorus ; one of the dancers then sang a solo, after which the chorus was repeated as a refrain. Other solos followed, the chorus being repeated after each. The chorus itself was called the ' Rondeau,' and the various solos " Couplets.' " t • The term Rondo (Fr. Rondeau), which signifies a "coming round," has reference only to \k\zform of such movements, not to their character . In this some dictionaries of musical terms have been anything but trustworthy guides, the word having been more than once described as "a gay and frolicsome movement, usually in | or | time " ! Some Rondos are, it is true, gay and even jaunty in style — particularly some of the specimens of the class written by such minor composers as Diabelli, Kuhlau, Kalkbrenner, and a host of others of even less capacity. Such Rondos often have the merest thread of musical interest, and it is from such pieces as these (sometimes, indeed, not Rondos a* all, although described as such) that the misapprehension has arisen. t Professor E. Prout, "Applied Forms," Chapter VI. io8 FORM IN MUSIC. Another explanation is that it is based upon " the common type of song with different verses and a recurrent burden or chorus ; a type which was technically known as the ' Carol,' and was in common use during the time of the Troubadours." * However this may be, we find the Rondo-form frequently appearing in the harpsichord works of such writers as LuUi (1633-1687), Couperin (1668-1733), Rameau ^^^*5ueney (1683- 17 64), and occasionally in those of Rondo-form. J* ^' Bach, Since then, it has retained its position amongst the recognized art-forms, undergoing from time to time certain modifications of detail which will be referred to in their proper place. The distinguishing mark of a Rondo has always been that of a Principal theme occurring at least three times, the various appearances of this idea being separated one from another by passages more or lessf in contrast to it. Thus, as the name Rondo implies {vide foot-note on page 107), this principal theme •' comes round " after each digression. practically an extension of the Ternary by the following formula : — Main idea of Rondo. Hence the design is form, as will be seen B . A" . C . A« . where A represents the main theme (re-appearing as A^ and A^), and B and C the sections in contrast with it. In the earlier Rondos, such as those by Couperin, these intermediate sections aimed at little more than a slight departure from the main thought, and are seldom marked by much divergence of subject-matter : — Francois Couperin. — Rondo, Rondeau (or principal theme). " La Tendre Fanchon ' K I, 107. ^^ :^":3- ^Ip rn- 3^.^^^j-ii jt=t -r-f- * W. H. Hadow, "Sonata Form," Chapter IX. The same author goes on to say that "It is still a custom in Spain for a party of singers to meet at the tavern, start with a chorus, and then pass the guitar from hand to hand, while each man improvises a solo verse and the chorus comes in after every stanza and gives the next ' improvisatore' leisure to think of his rhymes." t The qualifying expression " more or less " is used advisedly : for, in the earliest examples of Rondo, these passages exhibit little by way of independence of character. FORM IN MUSIC. 109 *• i feg *tf ^^r ^ ^^S ts) r.j, ^.'j? =Q ■^ s^s^ I I I i - ir =^ J- ^ 1_ ^Tj ^ i^^^^-g^^ ^ 1/ - m^ a 1 ^^ ^ "1 J^ r -ig. -1 j!" >^ Hr Fine. T i- 3 a- o W (J J .N _^H ^ hi rrn J » ' *. ■Tl jr: 'JTH ^ re - f^^^^iEl ^ f' -^^-* m f^^ ^ S ^^ j~?j .r> ;-^ w -w K ^ :s:3: 41- Sfc* ^^ w Rondeau, Da Capo. no FORM IN MUSIC. ^^ i W m. U— 1-1 ^^r7-i ?3 I'JJ "-^^ rT^-P4C^-^ w w ^^^^^^^ bl^LOl ^jir?¥::[a-.:n... j r-'r ir'l- IJT ^ „ p i 'g r *> 'ffir Jv ; i^s 3E E ^ r Rondeau, ZJa Ca/iJ. f r f J'O CJ. gaJJ^TJI^^^^JjjS -JJJiJ ' l'-^ M 1 Ml 1 1 J » f r^ i FORM IN MUSIC. III trrrn ? \ rr .:. ^ A • . zJiL M » -^ * ' ■" f 1 1 -^1 1- "I "1 Jl S^ :p=l^ ^ U^ ^ '- 'J - ' jJiJ4Jlj^''^'i^^^^-'^J^ ^ -1 -1 J^ i -1 /^ > y ^^ r- r^ r , ^7';7]T73r^T r ]7:' JaJji^ B-T r -H— H- ■^^ * ^-^ r *■ * f^^'^^^^rrr^ 1 1 --t^ ^ ^^=^ ^-^ ^m. _N_ ^3 ^ I Rondeau, ZJa Ca/o. 112 FORM IN MUSIC. In this little Rondo the first two " Couplets " (/.^, passages occurring between the three statements of the principal theme) offer little in the direction of actual contrast, save in key — the first beginning distinctly in the relative major, and the second modulating rather more freely, through the keys of G major, A minor and E minor. The third " Couplet," however, introduces an entirely new tram of thought with its ceaseless flow of semiquavers, the final return of the principal melody being heightened in effect by the change of character. It will be observed that the various sections of the piece are rendered additionally noticeable by the very strong cadence that occurs at the end of each.* As the Rondo developed, however — particularly in the hands of Haydn and Mozart — the passages separating the appearances of the principal theme began to assume the 1 rf°r ^ t nature of true Episodes, ;>., of themes in contrast. clear and unmistakable contrast with it — in character as well as key, and the Rondo of the latter part of the i8th century is usually found written on the following plan, which is generally designated the Older {or Simple) Rondo Form : — A. Principal Theme in Tonic key (often in a complete Binary, or sometimes even Ternary, design). B. Episode in a related key (possibly also in complete Binary or Ternary form, but not necessarily so). A^ Principal Theme (complete, or only a portion of it). C. Second Episode in another related key. A^. Principal Theme (final appearance, usually complete). Coda (optional). It will be seen from this that the form of the Older Rondo of the Haydn-Mozart period has its root- Minuet with idea in the Episodical principle enunciated two Trios JQ Chapter XL Indeed, examples are not to form of wanting of Minuets having Iwo Trios,! by Older Rondo. which the Minuet and Trio form is made to approximate very closely to the Older Rondo. The following plan should be compared with that first given : — A. Minuet. | B. Trio I. | A". Minuet repeated. | C. Trio II. I A^, Minuet repeated again. • A beautiful Rondo, offering many structural features in common with this and others of that time, will be found in Bach's Partita in C minor, No. 2. t See particularly Beethoven's Trio (Op. 25), for flute, violin and viola. Schumann introduces two trios in the Scherzos of his Symphonies in B flat and C, and in his Quintet for Piano and Strings (Op. 44). FORM IN MUSIC. "3 The Minuet with two trios has, however, not gained much favour as an art-form, owing to its necessarily much greater length and the somewhat tedious double repetition of the whole of the original Minuet. In the Rondo these drawbacks are met (i) by the far more concise nature of its various divisions ; (ii) by varied treatment of the principal subject on its re-appearances. Often, too, an effort was made (not always very systematically) in the direction of greater continuity, the Episodes being less squarely marked off from the principal subject by the introduction of passages ot transition, or Links. The " Vivace " from Beethoven's P. F. Sonata in G major (Op. 79) affords a good illustration of the Older Rondo. It is one of the few specimens of this form in that great master's works, and on that account doubly interesting.* As few students do not possess a copy of Beethoven's Sonatas, it will suffice to give merely an outline-plan of the movement, as follows : — Efforts in direction of greater continuity in Rondo. A. Principal Theme, in G major, consisting of two sentences (bar I to bar i^ repeated) — fc ^^^■ jfl r_rj L^ &c. Link of two bars, founded upon figure of principal theme (bars 16 and 17). B. First Episode, in E minor, consisting of one sentence (bar 18 to bar 24) — 4 ' f^ni ln f i Tj &.C Link, or passage of transition, founded upon figure of principal theme (bar 24 to bar 34). A*. Recurrence of principal theme, in Tonic key (bar 35 to bar 50) with varied accompaniment, and without repeats — f r_^ r. lJTm &c. * Beethoven almost invariably adopted the more modern type of Rondo, known as the Sonata-Rondo. (Chapter XVII.) XI4 FORM IN MUSIC. C. Second Episode, in C major, consisting of one sentence, afterwards repeated in an ornamented form (bar 50 to bar 66) — Link, founded upon figure of principal theme (bar 67 to bar 71). A'. Recurrence of principal theme in Tonic key, with varied accompaniment and (later) with varied melodic outline (bar 72 to bar 95) — ^jzr^rtrt^^^ &c. i Coda, founded upon principal theme (bar 96 to end), commencing thus — £ t^ ^ ^ ■X i^ze: &c. The Older Rondo superseded by the Sonata- Rondo. Since the time of Beethoven, the main features of the Older Rondo have been ingeniously and interestingly blended with those of the form known as Sonata-form, and a new type of movement evolved, which is usually described as the Modern Rondo, or Sonata-Rondo. Two magnificent examples of the Older Rondo are to be found in Mozart's Pianoforte Rondo in A minor, described by Mendelssohn as the most perfect Rondo ever written, and in the great " Finale " of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in C (Op. 53), both of which will amply repay the closest study.* Another interesting specimen is furnished by Schumann's "Arabesque." Consideration of the more highly-organized Modern Rondo, or Sonata-Rondo, is reserved until a later chapter, where its connexion with the type of movement known as Sonata-form, or First-movement form, will be more clearly realized and understood. • See also Chapter XIX., pages 197 and 198. FORM IN MUSIC. 115 CHAPTER XIII. THE EVOLUTION OF THE TERNARY IDEA {continued). Sonata-Form. The Ternary idea in musical composition receives its highest expression in the form known variously as (i) Sonata-Form, (ii) First-movement Form, and (iii) Sonata- Fipst-moveraent Allegro Form. Each of these titles has its Symphom'-?^ origin in the fact that, in the sonatas and symphonies of the last 150 years, one move- ment at least is cast, almost without exception, in this particular mould. As it is nearly always the opening movement that is so planned, this special type of design is very usually called " First-movement Form." It may be well here to state that, from the time of Haydn, the term Sonata has been applied to works for a solo instrument, or for two instruments in combination, having two or more J?^'" . movements (usually three or four), so arranged as to the Sonata, f^""^ ^ consistent whole, in which, however, the element of contrast is carefully carried out. Thus, if a Sonata consists of three movements, the first is generally an Allegro of somewhat important character and scope, the second a slow movement of an expressive or lyrical nature, while the Finale is another quick movement. If the Sonata has four movements, the additional one is most frequently a Minuet and Trio, or a Scherzo, whose usual place is between the slow movement and the Finale. WTien a work on this plan is written for more than two instruments, it is, curiously, no longer called a Sonata, but a Trio, Quartet, Quintet, &c., according to the number of instruments employed. There seems little or no reason for this change of nomenclature save that of custom, as the Trios, Quartets, &c., of the great masters are Sonatas in everything but name. When a Sonata is written for the orchestra it is entitled a Symphony, and when for the orchestra in combination with one or more solo- instruments, a Concerto. N.B. — The history of the Sonata and the Symphony is treated of at some length in Chapter XXV. A reference to Chapter IX. will remind the student that the simple Three-part or Ternary form, as shewn in the minuets, &c., of the classical masters, may be expressed by the following formula : — A :ll: B A^ :(| In some ot their more elaborate examples, the announcing sentence or period, A, is to be met with divided, roughly speaking, into two halves — the first being definitely in the Division of j^gy ^f jj^g Tonic, and the second no less Ternary definitely in that of the Dominant (or other movement. related key). Further, when this matter recurs as A", the music of the second half, instead of appearing in the Dominant Ii6 FORM IN MUSIC. key (as in the opening section), is transposed bodily into that of the Tonic. The second Minuet of Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in E flat (No. 9) well illustrates this : — Mozart. — Minuet from P. F. Sonata in eI?, No. 9. A (First portion, in Tonic.) 109. T\T\T ^ :*^-^ f r r rr rTf fr^tr'rr,^ ^ ^> r "^'sl ^ I ^ m r\ r\ T I m rJV -J-~^ (Second to:,j r T^ p ^'"'1^^ portion, in Dominant.) FORM IN MUSIC. "7 i S f r ^ntji ■h-'i". i-. £S^t^g=g 1 I '^^j-l-'f^ ^ ^ ^ ^« r^ ^ t ? # * s gJ>'-L; j'ir^ = l hi; I ^^ T 'u\ ^ r I- r- '^ r l:: g ^^p ^^'^r f- r j!^'UJ> U \ ^J\ tJi^S^V ^^ (^>'..'mn|^^^^ ^ ^ ;fc=p: J3^ ,l?yt^^ft^ i ^ i ^p ^ r Ji?*j A^ (First portion, in Tonic.) j ^'n ^ cJ^R" ^ ' £L"-^' I ^' "' ^^ ^AJ _^ r ^u j j t'j-B T f iU" ii8 FORM IN MUSIC. i ^p r r^'g .:rTii U'L ,J F ^- ^ :^^ fc ^ m pt ^ ±2: r V3 ; I TT ir -pr r -wT irT -w I I I I I I I (Second portion, in Tonic.) ^. r"r '^N-j rrrrir r .^ f ^^i fj I 'l-rc^ irJrJ^a ^ ^ vkJ J rrrri g fe/ — \ t^ f-H tj — f • f f» f \ m f . M A vv-i - r r i ^j h L^j FORM IN MUSIC. 119 The outline-plan of the above movement is clearly as follows : — / A I I B I <' ^' 1 (a) in Tonic— ((5) in Dominant/ * " | "\^(a)inTonic— ((5)inTonicj licj This division of Part I. into two portions is extremely important, as embodying — in miniature — one of the most salient features of " First-movement Form," viz: the employ- Employment of i^ent in Part I. of two distinct themes or two suDjee s. subjects in contrasted keys (frequently Tonic and Dominant), which recur in Part III., the second subject being then transposed into the key of the Tonic, In Mozart's Minuet, quoted above, it will be observed that, although the two halves of Part I. are opposed in key, they nevertheless are melodically related to one another. In the more elaborate " First-movement Form," with its greater length and correspondingly greater need of variety, the composer will seek to introduce a more distinct change of idea, as well as of key, when he reaches his second subject.* If, for example, his first theme is vigorous or passionate in style, his second theme may exhibit a somewhat quieter and tenderer inood, and so act as a relief to the first subjects. subject, which is heightened in effect by the contrast. Further, the music of Part II. (B) of the Minuets just quoted — in common with the majority of such pieces — while aiming at Digression^ does little more than create a desire for the return of the tlrst idea as Part III. (A*). Sometimes, however, particularly in some of the Sonatas of Beethoven, even such small movements exhibit in Part II. a very clear and unmistakable expansion or develop- Development ^^ent of some figure, or figures, from Part I. Part if^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^"^^ ^ ^^""y in^Portant link with the " First-movement Form " ; for, in the latter, Part 11. should, and nearly always does, aim at presenting the ideas of Part I. in new lights, i.e., under different conditions of key, rhythm, instrumentation, «Si.c. • Even this is to be found in some of the larger Minuets. See particularly the Minuet in Mozart's P. F, Sonata in A (No. 12). Here the contrast in idea between the two halves of Part I. is complete : — ('')g^ &C. (Key, A). (*•> fOtt-. K). I20 FOiiM IN MUSIC. Thus, the simple formula of A :||: B — A'' :|1 becomes, in the larger and more complex design of the First-movement : — ■ A. 1st Subject (Tonic key) leading to 2nd Subject (Dominant, or some other related key). B. Presentation of ideas from A under varying conditions of key, rhythm, &c. 1st Subject (Tonic key) leading to 2nd Subject (Tonic key), and possibly a Coda. The three main divisions, A, B, and A^ are then generally _, . , described respectively by the terms Exposition, di'^^sions of Development (or Free Fantasia) and Recapi- Sonata-form. tulation. I. — The Exposition. (The First Subject and the Transition.) From the foregoing remarks it will have been gathered that in the Exposition, or Part I., of a movement in Sonata-form, there is set forth the principal thematic material of the entire movement, the other two parts, viz: the Development and the Recapitulation, respectively enlarging upon and re-slating that material. A few words must now be said as Charaetepisties ^o the characteristics (formal and aesthetic) of Sub'^eets^^ the two themes or subjects occupying prac- ^ ' tically the whole of the Exposition, As has already been said, these are contrasted one with the other in style and key. The First Subject is invariably in the Tonic key, and is usually of such a strongly-marked and definite character as to fix itself easily in the memory of the listener and, also, to be useful for the purposes of development later. The First Hence we find that, from the time of Haydn SUDjeet. onwards, it has been more and more the practice of composers to concentrate the " essence " — so to speak — of the movement in this First Subject which, as a consequence, is usually less of the nature of an extended melody than of some terse, pithy utterance which arrests the attention at the outset.* The following examples will demonstrate this fact : — Molto allegro. t^^^ A Mozart. — P. F. Sonata in C minor, No. i8. PJK g ^ * * 110. ±t^ TTT n f • Beethoven perhaps, of all composers, has best exemplified these qualifica- tions in the first subjects of his sonatas, symphonies, &c- FORM IN MUSIC. 131 111. Allegro vivace. Beethoven.— P. F. Sonata in A, Op. 2, P fcfe -It- I r I J -^^ ^ i=? Beethoven. — Symphony in C minor. Allegro con brio. ^-^^ ^,_^ 112. ^^^^^Q uT ^ ^ lis. Allegro ma non troppo. Schumann. — Symphony in C. /' ^ cres. -J-JttJ^I-'.'Ii ^ atiti Grieg. — Sonata in C minor for P. F. and Violin, Op. 45. Allegro molto ed appass. 114. 115. Dvorak.— "New World" Symphony. Allegro. :^ ' f I^ -^ ^^1 r. f V r m 116. Smetana.— String Quartet in E minor. Allegro vivo appassionato. sf -^^'==- r 1 ; ^ ^ ^ J^l i V ^Z ^ r h 1 f y : j: J^'4 \ i 122 FORM IN MUSIC. It has been well said that the " formal function " of a subject "is to present and embody some particular key."* The First Subject therefore "presents and embodies" the key of "^^^^^j- Ju the Tonic, by which is not to be understood embodied by ..u . .. i a • * ui • ..u * First Subieet. *"^^ ^^ always and mevitably remams m that key throughout, but that whatever modulations occur in its course are purely incidental and do not obliterate the feeling that the Tonic is the " centre " around which they revolve. The First Subject is rarely of great length ; sometimes it extends to no more than a single sentence {see Mozart's P. F. Sonata in B fiat, No. 4, and Beethoven's P. F. Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. i, &c.), and quite frequently is complete in two {see Beethoven's P. F. Sonata in D, Op. 28, and Schubert's P. F. Sonata in E flat, Op. 122, &c.) This is almost invariably the case with the classical writers. It often ends with a perfect cadence (or half-cadence) in the Tonic key, and is then succeeded by matter serving as a _ , _. connecting-link between it and the Second Subieet. subject.! This part of the composition is mostly less definite in character than the First Subject, and may consist of new material entirely, or may be founded upon some figure in the Principal Theme. It frequently goes by the name of the Bridge-passage, '^^p'^'ri^^^^^^^^' ^ ^^^"^ ^^^^ savours somewhat of formalism ; passa^^e. " perhaps a happier designation is the Transition, by which the gradual passing from the one key and idea to the other is better expressed. In the somewhat conventionally-constructed movements of the latter part of the i8th century, the Transition was often little more than " padding," in the shape of scale-passages and broken- chord figures, such as the following : — Allesrro, 117. Conventional passage- writing. ^•^i^ ^' ^-^^ • W. H. Hadow, "Sonata-form." t In some of the Sonata movements of Haydn and Mozart, this connecting- link does not appear, but the Second Subject follows on immediately at the close of the First {see Mozart's P. F. Sonata in C, No. 15). This practice has been followed by Grieg in his Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 13 and 45), and his Sonata for Pianoforte and Violoncello (Op. 36). FORM IN MUSIC. 123 I £ U-f^^^H ^ m : r^.fe^ JJ' I JJ ' -^; The ideal Transition. Even great masters like Haydn and Mozart did not entirely escape from this sort of thing which, however, was partly a necessity of the time, owing to the unfamiliarity of audiences with the (then) new and unusual structural design. For these somewhat empty and threadbare passages, often so trite and meaningless to modern ears, then served the purpose of " sign-posts " — so to speak — by which the listener could tell where he was in the unfolding of the plan of the movement. As familiarity increased, the need for these (musically) "barren tracts " became less, and so we find Haydn and Mozart endeavouring, in many of their best works, to make the Transition a more living thing. In the hands of Beethoven it is always, in a most notable degree, organic, and in the truest sense inevitable in the scheme ; it is no longer matter inserted to mark-off the ending of one period and the beginning of another, but rather the natural outcome of that which has gone before, having for its object the " hiding of the seams," and the gradual leading of the hearer into the moOd of the Second Subject, as well as into its key. The Transition (or Bridge-passage) then, is an important factor of the Exposition ; it has a very definite purpose to serve and is, in a very special sense, often a test of the composer's constructive skill, as nothing reveals weakness in this respect more than what may be described as a bad "join." It was stated above that the Transition might consist of entirely new matter, or be founded upon some figure, or figures, of the First Subject. The following examples will shew both these methods : — Transition consisting of New Matter. Beethoven.— P. F. Sonata, Op. 10, No. i. End of First Subject. 118.' ^eV^4 1 r I r r f- ">>, -^ — r^ 124 FORM IN MUSIC. f^ ^^rv^ Transition. ^^ I V; r r r | ^ ?^M^ f^Jiriu^ rJ-A ^^^^ ^ P\y If Ir ^ ^ r - ^ • r'^ ^'- if^ y'-'p : \ ^ : \ \>q: ^=^^^5^^^^^ ^ • n n ■ ^ ¥ Kq b; r r r I gg ^ m f^ 1^ i> r r rlr'T Hr J J | J J Mi ?^^ bA,,j J , J J J, J j_^^ J j , J„i r. ?^ FORM IN MUSIC. 125 j Second Subject (in ji,i|, ,,y^Jj7j | ,^,rjTTj|j. ^ J iJ |4 J ^ 1 »':3 ^ ■^^ ^ ^ g 3=PS =-r relative major.) ~^ — r — :f^' — -p-^ r — F= — p — ((j)'^> J • * 1 r r '^^\ riri rr ^^3E ^ &c Other good instances of the Transition consisting entirely ot new matter will be found in the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonatas (Op. 28; Op. 31, No. 2; Op. 78, and Op. 90); Mozart's Piano Sonatas (No. 5, in F ; No. 6, in F, No. 8, in C ; No. 10, in D ; No. 11, in F ; No. 14, in G) ; &c., and Schubert's " Unfinished " Symphony — where the Transition, commencing at bar 38, is of only four bars' duration, as follows : — Second Subject in G major then begins. A very fine example (too long to be quoted here) is to be seen in the first movement of Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto, commencing at bar 72 and ending with the entrance of the Second Subject in bar 131. 120.' Transition as outcome of First Subject. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 27, No. 2 (last movement.) (Figure of First Subject.) jrigureoi rirsc auojecc. ^ .^. -^ &c j: ' J: 126 FORM IN MUSIC. Transition (commencing at bar 15), f-h J j I J 'HT^ r J^J ^-^ iSif*: ^^ SEE* ^ii"t,^ Trfrrffj_ j/j'TPi ^J Tt I J „J J ^^ I* P ii* ' - 'T 0-M=% jcrf: i?^ iw: aji ^ SS TC»~ FORM IN MUSIC. "7 ggg 3H3 TC» %SBi m I 2nd Subject in Dominant minor. ^ &c. ^ — ^^ 3 P J ^ J ^ J • J ^^ J I * ' a (See also the first movement of Beethoven's Sonatas, Op. 2, No. I ; Op. 10, No. 2 ; Op. 14, No. i ; Op. 31, No. i ; Op. 53; Op. 57 ; &c.)* Frequently a combination of the above two methods is adopted, and the Transition formed partly of new matter, and partly of an expansion of the idea of the First Subject. A good illustration of this will be found in Beethoven's Sonata in E fiat (Op. 31, No. 3). begins in bar 25 with a passage of fresh Combination of above methods. The Transition material : — 121 (a) ■ pvi^tT^rrnn &c after which the " motive" of the opening bars of the First Subject is brought in thus : — 121. (3) ^'''^"01. r &C. ^ m the Transition ending in bar 45 with the entry of the Second Subject. * The author deems it hardly necessary to apologise for the many quotations from and references to the Pianoforte Sonatas of Beethoven in this and succeeding chapters. It has seemed to him that, as few students do not possess these works, examples with which they are likely to be familiar will illustrate the various points with the greatest sense of reality. 128 FORM IN MUSIC. The next question that arises is : How are we to determine the exact moment at which the Transition, or Bridge-passage, begins ? In those cases where the First Subject closes When does definitely with a perfect cadence or a half- begin ? cadence in the Tonic key, this is generally an easy matter to decide, for the Transition — whose purpose, it should be remembered, is to lead away from that key — usually begins immediately after such cadence. In some cases, however, such as that of Mozart's Sonata in D (No. lo), this might occur at more than one point. In this particular movement there are two such Doubtful cases. places, viz: at the 9th bar, after a perfect cadence in the Tonic, or at the 17th bar, after a half-cadence in the same key, and any decision in the matter must remain in the region of probabilities rather than of certainties. Again, as happens frequently in modem compositions, there is a total absence of any strong cadence in the Tonic key in the course of the First Subject, the music modulating freely and leading imperceptibly into the Second Subject. A striking instance of such a proceeding is furnished by the first movement of Tschaikowsky's Symphony in B minor, Op. 74, (the "Pathetique"). In such cases as these it is not necessary, neither is it desirable, rigidly to map out the various sections, and it should be remembered that often this gradual obliteration of the key and feeling of the first theme, so as to lead without palpable break into the Second Subject, evinces a higher level of constructive skill, and is the outcome of that desire for greater continuity which has characterized the writings of the more modern masters, from the time of Beethoven onwards.* This desire is further manifested (as will be shewn in succeeding chapters) in the tendency of later writers to insist less strongly upon the definite demarcation of other important divisions of their movements by well-marked cadences and points of repose, and to allow these divisions to merge one into the other far more than was the case with the older masters. All this is now possible, owing partly to the fact that audiences have, in the course of time, grown more accustomed to the shape of the works to which they are called upon to listen ; and, as a consequence, there is the less need for the formal cadence-points and emphatic terminations which served an undoubtedly necessary and important purpose in the earlier writings. • See even Beethoven's little Pianoforte Sonata in G minor (Op. 49, No. l) as an excellent example. FORM IN MUSIC. 139 CHAPTER XIV. Sonata-Form {continued). The Exposition. — The Second Subject. The Second Subject, as has already been stated, usually presents some degree of contrast to the First, or Principal, Theme. In aiming at such contrast, though, the composer Relation of j^^s to be careful to avoid anything in the Subiects. nature of incongruity ; the two themes must of course be in keeping one with the other — a most necessary matter in a movement whose aim is to preserve continuity and a certain degree of unity of style throughout. The Second Subject often consists of more than one distinct idea or theme, frequently of several.* As these are almost always in the same key,t it is convenient to class them all — however many there may be — under the one heading Different Qf Second Subject, referring to each as first Second Subject, section, second section — and so on — of that Second Subject. As an illustration of this, the student should refer to the Pianoforte Sonata of Beethoven in F (Op. 10, No. 2). Here the Second Subject (section i) begins at bar 18, thus : — 122. Allegro. ^m ^-^ t ^ m^ ^ m s m • In some of the earlier works of Haydn and Mozart the first part of the Second Subject is nothing more than a transposition of the First Subject — sUghtly altered in treatment — into the key of the Dominant. This is succeeded by matter more in the nature of the contrast demanded by a true Second Subject. {See first "Allegro" of Haydn's Symphony in D, No. 2.) By the time of Beethoven this practice had become obsolete, though in his Pianoforte Sonatas in A and C (Op. 2, Nos. 2 & 3), we find that he makes copious allusions during his Second Subject to the matter he has employed earlier in the movement, in the course of the Transition. t This does not, of course, preclude incidental modulatiojx. (See Chapter VHI., page 70, foot-note.) ISO FQRM IN MUSIC. % if i f a- ^ JT ^ ^ &c. e- . PT l J ■> ^ ' j^^ ' ' J "=3 & a second section at bar 38- 122. I f r r i - nr f I risas^ i ^ . • *-ri ^ r » r i r n- f ^ &C. n^w ig n i f^ a M/r^ at bar 47 — 122. Kc) ^M: ^^^-^ ''^ g I ^ H^ g j T ^^ &c ^ > i» .4 *l h ^ ' at b \{ B and n fourth at bar 55 — all these having as their " tonal-centre " the key of C major (the Dominant).* * See also, in farther illustration, the first movements of Beethoven's Sonatas Op. 7, Op. 13, Op. 14, No. 2, Op. 22, &c. FORM IN MUSIC. i^ The Second Subject as a rule occupies a larger part of the Exposition than the First Subject, probably of S^*^ond°^^^ ^'^^ ^^^ reason that there is the less need Subject. °^ dwellirig for long in the Tonic key at the outset, owing to the fact that in the Recapitulation both First and Second Subjects occur in that key, Ppobahlfi which then predominates to the end of the reason. movement. The keys in which the Second Subject may be written on its first appearance are various. Until the time ot Kpv nf <5fi rl Beethoven those chosen were, almost without Subieet. exception, the Dominant., if the key of the whole piece were major ; or the Relative ffiajor^ if the key of the piece were minor. Thus, if a Sonata movement had its First Subject in C major, the Second Subject would be in G major ; if the First Subject were in C minor, the Second Subject would be in E fiat major, and so on. Beethoven, however, considerably enlarged the range of possibilities in this direction, and we find that in many cases (notably the " Waldstein " Sonata, Op. 53, the "Leonora" Overture, No. 3, &c.) he chooses the Mediant Choice of key major; in others (such as the "Hammerclavier" freer now than c . r\ ^ a ^\. ^ • • tja* formerly. Sonata, Op. 106, and the Trio in B flat major for Pianoforte and Strings) the Sub-mediant major; again (as in the Pianoforte Sonata in D minor. Op. 31, No. 2), the Dominant minor ; besides making other experiments of a similar nature.* The tendency since Beethoven has been towards a still greater freedom in this matter ; and, provided that the composer can make the passing from the key and temper of the First Subject to that of the Second Subject satisfactory from the standpoint of artistic effect, there is no very valid reason why he should be fettered in his choice. However this may be, it is even now the case that the Dominant and the Relative major, as already stated, are the keys most frequently adopted.! * Beethoven also shews a partiality for presenting the 6rst section of his Second Subject in the opposite mode of the key in which the rest of it is to occur. For instance, in the Sonata (Op. 2, No. 3) in C major, he begins his Second Subject in bar 27 in G minor, the second section occurring in bar 47 in G major. This is the case also in other of his works, notably the Sonatas (Op. 2, No. 2, and Op. 13). In the Sonata in F minor (Op. 57) the reverse of this occurs ; the first section of the Second Subject occurs (bar 35) according to the usual custom in the relative major, A flat, but the second section (bar 51) appears in the opposite mode of this key, viz: A flat minor, in which key the Exposition closes. t Tschaikowsky evinces a predilection for the major key a minor 7th above his original Tonic (if the piece is minor), as in the first movement of his Pianoforte Concerto in B flat minor, and his Symphony in E minor, where the Second Subjects remain throughout in A flat major and D maior respectively. 132 FORM IN MUSIC. Occasionally, the Second Subject opens in a key other than that in which it continues, and in which its greater part is written. A conspicuous instance of this will be found in Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata (Op. lo, No. 3) — where the Second Subject begins, in bar 22, in B minor (the relative Second Subject minor of the original tonic), afterwards modu- beginning In lating to the key of A major (the Dominant), eontinuine" in ^" which the Exposition henceforward remains. another. Other similar cases are those in the first movements of his Op. 28 (in which the Second Subject begins in bar 63 in the relative minor of the key in which it afterwards proceeds) ; Op. 79, with Second Subject (bar 24) in the Super-tonic major, afterwards modulating to the Dominant key; the Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 12, No. 2), with Second Subject (bar 30) in the Mediant minor, passing through many keys to the Dominant major ; Brahms' second Symphony, in D major, where the Second Subject oscillates a good deal between F sharp minor, in which it begins, and A major, in which it for the most part continues ; and Grieg's Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin in G, where the Second Subject commences in B minor, and ends in D major. In each of these examples the composer apparently desired to produce a certain feeling of vagueness of tonality at the outset which, in a sense, heightens the ultimate passing into a greater definiteness. It happens at times, especially where the First and Second Subjects are not very markedly in contrast, that the beginner finds it a little difficult to say exactly where the How to fix Second Subject actually begins, by reason, it eorameneement ^ay be, of the Transition between the two Subieet. themes leading almost imperceptibly into it, without any strong feeling of preparation for its entry. A good plan, in such cases, is to compare this part of the movement with the Recapitulation (Chapter XVI.) In this Recapitulation the Second Subject is nearly always transposed into the Tonic ; therefore the point at which this change in key is found to be made will most usually be the point at which the Second Subject may be said to begin. To take an illustration : The two main themes of the " Prestissimo " of Beethoven's Sonata in E (Op. 109) are so akin in their character that the entry of the Second Subject at bar 33 — 123. (a) fa &c might easily pass unobserved as a continuation of the first. Thai this, however, really marks the opening of the Second Subject is proved by the fact that the music at the corresponding place in the Recapitulation is transposed bodily, after an extension and FORM IN MUSIC. 133 modification of the Transition, into the key of the Tonic (E minor) : — If, as was shewn on page 132, the Second Subject begins in a key other than that in which it continues^ a corresponding key- relationship will mostly be observed in the Recapitulation. For example : in the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata in G (Op. 79), the Second Subject begins thus — 124. in bar 24 (in the key of A major, modulating later to D, in which it ends), as is proved by reference to the Recapitulation, where the same theme begins (at bar 146) — 124. in D major, modulating, as before, to the key a 5 th below (viz: G — the Tonic key), in which the music afterwards remains. It was stated above (page 129) that the Second Subject is usually divided into two or more sections determined by a change of idea. The last of these sections, seet?on of^ especially in older writers, frequently serves Second Subject. ^^ purpose of merely clenching the cadence in the secondary key, by a process of reiteration. This often amounted to little more than an array of " brilliant passages," by way of a finish, as in the following : — 125. Allegro vivace. Mozart. — Symphony in C, "Jupiter." 134 FORM IN MUSIC, t^&=Mi. n f=^ ^6 j f f^ ij i ^=fT In many cases, however, the same end is obtained by more subtle and artistic means : — Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in E minor, Op. 90. 126. • t ^ % ^£ / ST m ^ ^ — ^ i ^ £=£ -"r-^ £:& M —SI -i^-f^- - ; ^^=F=F= -; r r : FORM IN MUSIC. 135 where the insistence upon the perfect cadence in the key of the Second Subject is carried out with unmistakable effect, the actual formal purpose of the passage being disguised by the , wealth of deep expressiveness it reveals. No ap^stie^^^ ^ longer is this emphasizing of the cadence mere treatment of *' Padding " ; with Beethoven it became a Cadence-bars. vehicle for as much artistic treatment as any other part of the movement, anything in the nature of mere " fiUing-in " being alien to the whole temper of his genius, as savouring of the conventionality he so heartily despised.* This final section of the Second Subject is frequently spoken of as the Codetta] to the Exposition, and although it is perhaps hardly necessary to insist on a separate name, The Codetta/. the term is perhaps useful to indicate the point at which the music tends rather to complete and •' drive home " — so to speak — what has gone before, than to break fresh ground. With the conclusion of the Second Subject the Exposition comes to an end, and with it the setting forth of the material out of which the composer constructs the rest ExDOSition °^ ^^^ movement. Henceforward, no new themes are introduced (save under certain exceptional conditions, to be referred to later) ; but those presented in the Exposition appear in new lights and with different treatment. The end of the Exposition is, in many sonatas and symphonies, indicated by a double bar, with "repeat marks," shewing that it is to be played over again. This repetition, and Renea^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ double-bar, are now-a-days frequently omitted ; but up to the time of Beethoven both were features of the design, and only in a few notable instances does Beethoven dispense with them. J The repetition of the Exposition, from some points of view, has undeniable advantages ; it impresses the ideas that are going to be used in the development of the composer's plan upon the memory, and so enables the hearer to follow the unfolding of the " argument " more easily and clearly. On the other hand, the exact re-statement of so large a part of the movement certainly tends, especially in a work of an emotional and impulsive * In his early works, which in a large measure were, as Dr. W. H. Hadow so well says, " i8th century music raised to a higher power," we do, it is true, 5nd traces of the formal cadence-bars so frequent with his predecessors. As his individuality asserts itself more strongly, such passages become rarer and rarer. t Literally, a " small Coda." X In his Pianoforte Sonatas, the earliest in point of date to break away from the traditional custom is the Sonata in F minor (Op. 57), in the first movement of which neither " repeat " nor double-bar marks the end of the Exposition. 136 FORM IN MUSIC. character, to check the rush and impetus with which the various crises in its course should succeed one another. It is worthy of notice that it is precisely in some of his more highly emotional works that Beethoven dispenses with this repetition of the Exposition. {See particularly the Pianoforte Sonatas, Op. 57, Op. 90, Op. loi, and Op. no.) In many cases — indeed, in the majority of cases — the Exposition comes to a somewhat strongly-marked perfect cadence in the secondary key ; but in others a sort of link of^ExDos'^^on ^^ inserted, in order to lead back to the ^ ' opening of the movement, for the " repeat," or forward to the commencement of the Development section. The earlier sonata and symphony writers adopted almost exclusively the first of these methods. A notable exception, however, is to be found in Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in C minor (No. 18), where a passage of four bars, formed upon the idea of the First Subject, serves the double purpose of leading back to the opening, and of leading forward to the Development. It runs as follows : — 127. Molto Allegro. MozART. — P. F. Sonata in C minor, No. 18. End of ^econd Subject. % ^ ^W^ -*nt- ^ -m- ±3L S I Link founded on First Subject. J i rN-grcf i ^rrfa£ j End of ^^ Exposition. m ' ^V > r - m n .fe ^ s Similar exceptions of this kind will be found in Haydn's Symphonies in D (No. 5) and G (No. 6) ; in Mozart's Symphony in C (No. 6), &c. It should be borne in mind, though, that they are exceptions to a rule that was almost universal at the time. With Beethoven this Link, or transitional passage, occurs _. T . 1- f^f more frequently, and it is not necessary frequent in ^° ^^ more than quote one characteristic Beethoven. and well-known instance : — FORM IN MUSIC. 137 Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in C minor, Op. 13. I En d of Second Subject. 128. ^^wL^^-^rrrrfLrr ^ii^ ^ ^^ I? "' f^ ^ ^ ^^ Link founded on First Subject. ^''-^ J j l ] J Mpip f f ^g.y, rT] r^ \ r^ f^iT^ r^ # s i ^ «£: •Q- zz: ^? s r:i rn | pTl rj | r3 r^ -€>- -€f- -«►- -e?- -^ -^ ft i •rr izz: ^ ^^ ^ 22 ij/ /m<. i 5^ Commencement of Development. & -fe^ M *^ #^ 138 FORM IN MUSIC. In each of the foregoing examples from Mozart and Beethoven, the Link has been founded upon a figure from the First Subject, but this is far from being an invariable practice. Often the transitional matter is new, as in the first movement of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in E flat (Op. 31, No. 3). The great point, however, to be remembered is that these connecting passages, slight in importance as they seem to be, marked a step onwards in the evolution of the design of the Sonata, from the formal periods of its infancy to the magnificent freedom and fulfilment of its maturity. CHAPTER XV. Sonata-Form (continued^ The Development, or *' Free Fantasia." This important section of a movement in Sonata-form aims at presenting the ideas heard in the Exposition (or some of them) under conditions dissimilar from those under Aim of the which they have already appeared. Section ^^ ^ certain sense, this portion of the work may be likened to the intricate involvements ot the plot of a drama or a novel, where the varied influences due to circumstance or association are brought to Analogy with j-^gg^j. upon the principal characters already Literature. ■ ^ a a ^ ^ ^ a u-u *u-s. introduced to our notice, under which they reveal from time to time many different aspects of their nature. Or again, this Development section may be compared to a closely-reasoned argument, in which the original propositions are gradually elaborated on a logical and convincing plan. The means at a composer's command by which thus to " develop " or dilate upon his thematic material are almost endless, the limit in this direction being the limit of his skill and inventiveness. The chief of these may, however, be summarized as follows : — (i) Change of tonality : the themes appearing in keys other than those in the Exposition, or (as in Various means pjg j^q^ ^jj-j^ jj^gjj. ^^^^^ changed from major ^ ' to minor, or vice versa. (ii) Varied harmonization : by which a melody may assume an entirely new character. This may (as in Fig. 129) include a change from an unharmonized version of a passage to a harmonized one, or vice versa, and may be accompanied by a different degree of tone-force, &c.* • Changes from " staccato "to " legato," and vice versa, may also occur. FORM IN MUSIC. 139 (iii) Change of register, and different forms of accompaniment : by means of which much fresh interest may be imparted to a theme, v?hose whole temper may be changed by being transferred from a high to a low register, or the reverse ; or by being supported by varied figures of accompaniment. (Closely connected with (ii).) (iv) Variety of rhythmic treatment : caused by (a) change of accent or time ; {b) contradiction or extension of normal phrase-lengths, and the breaking up of the usual regular periods. (This extension is well shewn in Fig. 133.) (v) Contrapuntal treatment : such as (a) imitation between higher and lover parts of the harmony (as in Fig. 133), and {b) the device of Double (or invertible) Counter- point, &c. (vi) The "working " by sequence or othenvise, of typical figures : a most useful fictor in development. (vii) Augmentation or Diminution ; i.e., the presentation of certain figures in longer or shorter notes than in the original. (Intimately bound up with (vi).) The following extracts from well-known works will serve to illustrate the above points : — 129. I. — Change of Tonality. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in A, Op. 2, No. 2. I Idea as announced in Exposition. | I Opening of Development. '] I Later in Development. 140 FORM IN MUSIC. 1 fe * * ^ J. ^ J. ^ ^ .^J. ^ ^^ =^ ^9- -m- ^9- -m- -m- &c ss S^ f II. — Varied Harmonization. Brahms. — Sonata for P. F. and Violin, O p. 78. I idea as announced in Exposition^ ^| Violin. 130. Piano. fa=^ (5 P ^ P ^^ f ^ &C. r ^ ■ET In Development. -■ '■rir i f gr, j-TT.'^rnd i &c. W^^ ■c ^ e tF^ qCZT :e; r "ST ■•^. III. — Change of Register and varied Accompaniment. TscHAlKOWSKY. — Symphony No. 6, in B minor, " Pathetic." I Idea as announced in Exposition. \ 131. ^t»^=M ^ i^^^=^^^ 1 V r ^-^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ r^ I — ^ ^ &C. FORM IN MUSIC. 141 I In Development i ¥=^ &c. <^ v^f^j^ ^i ^:^ £ ^ IV. — Variety of Rhythmic Treatment. {a) Change of accent and time, e.g. : — Schumann. — P. F. Concerto In A minor, ["idea as announced in Exposition. 132. Allegro affettuoso. ^.— — — ^ &c. g- ■g-:-8-,-^ ^^fp^BljW^ Andante espressivo. 142 FORM IN MUSIC. (b) Extension of phrase-lengths, e.g. : — BsETHOVEN. — Symphony in F, No. 8. I Idea as announced in Exposition. | 133. • ^fe ^i1^ J r ^.JTTJtP-i rj * ft m w. -F-(^ g ^; .iU\}i^ &c. ±=±1 In Development. bi. 171 i"r i f^ = 9^ 1 ^ JTO at* ti i ^ ^r ^1^ fflJ-iS^X^i-^Bsr r f If i'' ^ cr rs ^^J ^iJ I ^ !jX ' ^ ^ ^ ia: ^s ffiiiui,.^^ ^ ly 1? ^ 9\ ^ 9p - tr a y &C. i ^ ^J ^ j^^ &L ^^ ^ ija: FORM IN MUSIC. M3 V. — Contrapuntal Treatment. (a) Imitation between higher and lower parts {see Fig. 133 above). {b) Invertible Counterpoint^ e.g. : — Mozart. — Symphony in G minor. I Idea as announced in Exposition. 134.- P-x^ \ ' Cj'--u- i r ' r ^ ®sfc ^=£ TT] d-d "T1 nri nn ^ — -- -fS -- '^ r Lr r (j\} } ZZJ. j: "N/^ rm r^'\ ^ I In Development. ^i^^ij^^^ ^i^ ir rr^ / gg^F^ Cmnttrpoint. E^ *—* jg=-#-^ I?- l-.^4 ^ i=J Tkttiu. j^" Prfrfr 1-^.-^ g Thtnte. ^ i f ^T-^ ^yf irrffitfgrffertfrH^^ i,»UHttrpOtHt. 144 FORM IN MUSIC. i ^ f f I f" ^ r f- ■fT\^f' • . ■ . &c. rH g^TiicMiii ^^ VI. — Working of Typical Figures. (See Fig. 133 above ; also the Development section of the first movement of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in D (Op. 28), and " Pastoral " Symphony in F.) VII. — Augmentation and Diminution. Grieg, — Sonata for P. F. and Violin in C Minor, Op. 45. I Idea as announced in Exposition. 135. Violin. I In Development. pp '' -> Piano. ^^ ^^ _^ » \- I — ^ — r ill FORM nV MUSIC. I4S 146 /^-sp,/' WRM IN MUSIC. Here, in the Development, Grieg has entirely altered the character of his theme by writing it in notes four times the original value, producing as a consequence the effect known as Augmentation. Dvorak.—" New World" Symphony. (Idea as announced in Exposition.), 186.- ^ ^^ ^ P2 ^ ra: ^^=S a i ^^ &c. ^ FI. and Ob. (In Development.) j | | | f\ ^J=^ V • BSSEXS &C. 'Cello, •,* In this example it will be easily observed that the first two bars of the theme shewn in the Exposition are compressed into one bar in the passage (given tc the cellos) from the Development ; while a similar process is carried out in reference to the third and fourth bars, producing in each case the effect known as Diminution. With reference to the keys that may be used in the Development section, all that there is to be said is that the only restrictions in the matter are (i) that the Tonic key* is avoided (save for a transient modulation), for the simple reason that, by this means, that key is kept fresh for the return of the First Subject in its original form at the beginning of the Recapitulation ; (ii) that Keys in Development Section. Generally, also, the key of the Second Subject. FORM IN MUSIC. 147 a key once used in the Free Fantasia is not employed again, as a rule, during its course. Otherwise, the composer has the whole range of keys at his disposal, and, while avoiding an inartistic extravagance in this direction, it is in the Development that the " play of colour " resulting from frequent, and at times unexpected, modulation is eminently in -place and often of the highest effect.* The actual material that the composer takes from the Exposition for the purposes of development is chosen on the MntA *ni ri " ground of its suitability, and it is worth notice Development. ^^^^' ^^ ^ general rule, continuous melodies of a lyrical nature are less valuable for development than those subjects that are formed upon some easily recognizable rhythmic figure. In Chapter VI. it was incidentally stated that much or little might be evolved from the Figure at the discretion, or according to the skill, of the composer. It is of^\^\ef 1 ^txt, in the Free Fantasia, that this working FiffUPes. °^ typical figures is carried out to the most noteworthy extent; and, of all composers, perhaps Beethoven has exhibited the greatest ingenuity and fertility of resource in this direction. The truly amazing way in which some obscure and apparently unimportant little group of two or three notes, such as that at the end of the Exposition in the Sonata in F (Op. 10, No. 2) — Beethoven's -9 ^ » power of flgupe- /f [y It ^^i j development. ;y ' ^ S is made the basis of almost the whole fabric of the Development is one of the most striking evidences of the intellectual grip and extraordinary concentration of purpose that are so characteristic of the great master.! It is interesting to note that the scores of Wagner's music dramas — more particularly his later and more mature works — reveal a most characteristic and elaborate Thematic application of this species of thematic develop- fnultr^t™d°^ ment. Indeed, the music of "Tristan und in Wagner's Isolde," " Die Meistersinger," &c., has been music-dramas. somewhat felicitously likened to a gigantic Free Fantasia, the germs of which are to be found in the various "leit-motive " (or short, pregnant themes) associated with certain persons, or even abstract ideas, playing an important part in the unfolding of the drama. The following * The student should examine the beautiful modulation in Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata (Op. 13) (from the Tempo prima in the first movement to the resumption of the Molto Allegro e con brio). t The Free Fantasia of this particular sonata-movement should be carefully analysed. 148 FORM IN MUSIC. extract will to some extent illustrate this, and will serve to shew Wagner's astounding skill in weaving the complex web of his score from a comparatively slight amount of actual thematic material : — MoUo vivace. Wagner. — " Tristan und Isolde " (Act III.) 138. FURM IN MUSIC. 149 P ^ ^^^f-K pT ^^^^^^- ^ ^ ^^^ii^: i te zt- ^ fcc i T" r Fed. [d) •■ tT^; ^ r T ^ r ^i r T *** It will be seen that the foregoing passage is constructed entirely from the four following themes (a, i>, c and d) : — ■| ,39.Sg (a) From Love-duet in Act II. 1? A. P^ i3*J?i i i^ ^ ^^ ^ ' ibJ 1 Q= &c. (3) The " Death-potion" wo/zV^, Act I. b o i f r .,ajgsf | f> Ji ^3: ^ ^^ ^ ^ >' f^ -1 S a^ {^ I Commencement of Recapitulation. ^ff r fTT ^ ^r^^ &c. ■5^ The plan of returning to the principal theme and key through its Dominant has been followed in the great majority of cases, FORM IN MUSIC. 153 and the works of the classical masters abound in excellent illustrations of the manner in which this somewhat stereotyped chord-basis has been invested with a real and living interest and charm. Two typical instances, utterly dissimilar in their effect may be quoted : — Mozart. — Symphony in G minor. i 147. r-i y- Molto allegro. "•" jL .cL t3= ■ ^^, -^1^ m ihik 3^fe u *-l^* bcL tete :J. ri Jr ^ 1=^ t^ "cr I Commencemen t of Recapitulation. ji {First Subject.) n .J. -fii -11 &c. i m^ Allegro con brio. BEETHOVEN. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 53. 148. ipqc r^ rr rr r ri w ■cr »54 FORM IN MUSIC. m. zz: ^ UHUHkH^ ^ @ f*r f f f r *— ^ ^£ S poco WWff^ffWffWff ^iiiiii^tl^iiiiii FORM IN MUSIC. ■55 ifc m 1 i r -^ T^ W I mtTz mt I I I I I I I I I I ^-^ ^ I I h- I ^i — r f f -1 8SSg = ^it ji iiji^ijjjj ^^ ^ ^ / w I I I I — * --■'^^ "^f f-Tf fl -:i^-- t^t^- ^^ii^^ij^^i ' 156 FORM IN MUSIC. I Commencement of Recapitulation. ^igji ^ p p p ^ VV &c m lii j:iif The tendency, moreover, with later writers has been in the direction of obliterating the strong line of demarcation between Development and Recapitulation, and of allow- Development j^g ^^g one section of the movement to flow Spftulation. "^o'-e continuously into the other. In this connexion, it may be mentioned that Mendelssohn is often very happy in the way in which he re-introduces his subjects. The following passage from his " Italian " Symphony shews the principal theme brought back, at the close of the Free Fantasia, upon a second inversion of the Tonic chord, at (x), approached from the relative minor key : — Allegro vivace. Mendelssohn. — Symphony in A, No. 4. i49X -t** ms^^ mf 1. w E r- r ^^ ^~- fORAf IN MUSIC. 157 L4- ^^t^^^ 1 Com men cement of 1 1 r Jy »-T E SseI: / '/ M} i i. r i f ¥■ ^ Recapitulation. fcE ^^ f f f^ ^ s/ Tschaikowsky adopts a similar expedient in his fifth Symphony : — 150.' It 'i^|LXJ-f-^ pp ji. ^^' 1 -1 r 1 ^ ^j_ j_ &c (I) T as does also Dvo?kk in the first movement of his Quintet for Pianoforte and Strings in A (Op. 81), where, by the way, the 158 FORM IN MUSIC. Recapitulation is not made from the beginning of the First Subject. Beethoven, in his Pianoforte Sonata in F minor (Op. 57), makes a magnificent return upon a Dominant pedal, the First Subject entering //, after a long passage of terrific stress and power. Other cases of much interest will be found in Haydn's Symphony in D (No. 2 — last movement), the first movement of Beethoven's Symphonies in D and B flat, his Pianoforte Sonatas in E flat (Op. 31, No. 3), in E flat (Op. 81 a), in E minor (Op. 90), the second movement of that in E major (Op. 109), the " Prestissimo " of the String Quartet in C major (Op. 59, No. 3), and the first movement of " Tschaikowsky's " Pathetique " Symphony and of Brahms' Symphony in C minor, all of which will repay the closest attention and study. CHAPTER XVI. SONATA-FoRM {continued). The Recapitulation and Coda. — The Introduction. Having traced the course of a movement in Sonata-form through the two periods of Exposition and Development, it now remains to consider the third stage in its construction, viz., the Recapitulation. The prototype of this part of the design is, as has already been shewn, the third division of a Three-part or Ternary form— the A^ of the formula, A B A^. The Recapitula In other words : after having discussed in the tion the |^i^d Development section the material (or portions Teraary ideaf ^^ ^^) announced in the Exposition, the composer now makes a return to the beginning — practically on the same plan as in the little Minuets, &c., treated of in Chapter IX. This re-statement or Recapitulation of the matter contained in Part I. is in many cases carried out more or less exactly, with the sole difference that the Second Subject is Transposition of transposed from the secondary key (Dominant, Second Subject relative major, or whatever key was chosen), of Transition. " into that of the Tonic, this change usually being brought about by a modification of the Transition between the two themes, as in Beethoven's Sonata in E flat (Op. 31, No. 3). The Transition in the Exposition runs thus : — FORM IN MUSIC. J 59 Beethoven.-- -P. F. Sonata in EJ?, Op. 31, No 3. 151. I Commencement of Transition Allegro S: -»-»-»- ^^^ « -*'/ r i f • J ? 4 . ^ S? ^ ^^ ^■'iVi i j^^ ' jj-^ I I I ffi tl * » * ^^ ^ ■ 1ft * • £ g^r-^ .^-" ^ M jj r | iL>U -■• -■ ■• -^ ■ ' ^ w ^ ^ ^ r^^^r^^^^j ^g^ I E3 S a: ffi ,--H J. 'M^TfT ^EtES n /■ "N. 'e> p/F- j!l"i-iy4H: ^eiT f" i6o P'r^r—Jl I'D JIM IN MUSIC. r-^i A- -w^ ^ ^ m-r\ mA -f^TJ— P ffi i Commencement of Second Subject in Dominant key. 7if ^r/-f^ ^ ^ r r ^ &c. ^ #— ^ mMMT i^ 17 r t;i -* z: In the Recapitulation the following modification occurs, by which it will be seen that, in this instance, a considerable curtailment takes place : — * 152.. ^^ ^mf^ m^ ^ ^ ^^m m ^f. '"TTrvn m s *^*^ I?— r ^' '^f I s • Occasionally, as in Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in F (No. 6), the Transition in the Recapitulation is more extended than in the Exposition. FORM IN MUSIC. i6i I I I I i Commencement of Second Subject in Tonic key. ^f ^ fit :;: - r r -1 &c. i !? r-! g)"P ^ H *- -^^ It Omission of Transition. Part of Second Subject re-introduced in remote liey. In a few instances, notably in the last movement of Beethoven's Sonata in C sharp minor (Op. 27, No. 2), the Transition is omitted entirely, and the Second Subject follows immediately upon the close of the first. This plan has been adopted, amongst others, by Brahms in the first movement of his Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin in G (Op. 78). Sometimes, especially in those cases in which the Second Subject has been given out in the Exposition in some unusual key {e.g.^ the Mediant, or Sub-mediant), Beethoven and the more modernwriters re-introduce the first phrase or so of it in the Recapitulation in some key more or less remote, afterwards modulating to the Tonic key. The first movement of the great C major Sonata of Beethoven (Op. 53) offers a conspicuous case in point. The Second Subject, first heard in E major (the Mediant) recurs in A major, working back by means of a beautiful modulatory "glimpse" of A minor, to C major, in which key the rest of the theme proceeds. Another excellent specimen of this kind of treatment is afforded by the first movement of Brahms' Sonata in E flat (Op. 120) for Pianoforte and Clarinet, although here the Second Subject appears in the orthodox key of the Dominant in the Exposition.* • A rather curious instance of the re-introduction of the Second Subject in a remote key will be found in Beethoven's Sonata in E flat (Op. 31, No. 3, last movement), where it enters in G flat, after having been heard in the key of B flat in the Exposition. 1 62 FORM IN MUSIC. As has already been mentioned, if the various sections of the Second Subject have been given out in different keys in the Exposition (as sometimes, though not often, Treatment of happens), the same tonal relationship will be Second Subject observable in the Recapitulation. The student OPigfnafir^ should refer particularly to Beethoven's Sonata aDpearedin 'n D (Op. lo, No. 3); in this sonata, the different keys. Second Subject of the first movement begins very definitely in B minor, afterwards modulating to A major — the Dominant^^r its second section. In the Recapitulation, a similar sequence of keys is presented by its first section being written in E minor, and its second section in D major — the Tonic. As regards the matter of the Recapitulation, it was formerly customary to repeat substantially the whole of the Exposition more or less exactly. As time has gone Subjects on, it has become more and more the di^^entf/ln practice to introduce, at the least, some new Recapitulation. treatment of the themes, and a notable tendency has also manifested itself in the direction of compression, it being felt that, so long as the main idea of recurrence is set up, there is no very great merit in bringing back ever)'thing just as it stood at Compression. first, in all its detail. In fact, a curtailment of this recapitulatory process is generally now recognized as eminently desirable, preventing a sense of tedium and prolixity, and causing matters to move onwards towards their consummation with greater rapidity and a consequently firmer grip on the mind of the listener.* In the " Allegro con spirito " of Tschaikowsky's Pianoforte Concerto in B flat minor (Op. 23), this condensation amounts to a cutting-out of by far the greater part of the First Subject in the Recapitulation, only about 20 bars or so being reproduced before the advent of the Second Subject. In Chopin's B flat minor Sonata (Op. 35), the first theme is entirely omitted in the Recapitulation, the Development section . . being succeeded immediately by the Second Theme^'^ ^ Subject in the Tonic major key.t Asimilar pro- ceeding is noticeable in No. 5 of Mendelssohn's " Lieder ohne Worte " (which is written in Sonata-form), in * Two contributory causes in this connexion undoubtedly are : — (i) The greater length and importance of the Codam more modern works ; (ii) The less need now-a-days (owing to the increasing familiarity of audiences with the shape of the more usual designs) for exact repetition, in extetiso. t When a Second Subject has originally appeared in the relative major of a minor Tonic key, it re-appears in the Recapitulation sometimes in the Tonic minor (of course, with somewhat changed character), and sometimes in the Tonic major. The former plan is more frequent with the older writers. See, as a typical instance, Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in C minor (No. l8). FORM IN MUSIC. 163 the Finale of Schumann's Symphony in D minor (No. 4), and in the first movement of Smetana's String Quartet, " Aus meinem Leben." The student should with a Httle practice have a comparatively easy task in discerning cases of this and other methods of abridgement in the works he may be analysing from time to time, when once he has grasped the fact that such things do occur. In the above-named works the condensation is considerable ; in the majority of movements, however, it is rarely that one finds a whole subject left out, the more customary method of compression being that of reproducing part only of each theme, instead of the whole — by which means the bulk of the subject-matter is at any rate alluded to in the Recapitulation. Two occasional irregularities remain now to be mentioned. The first is that, in a few instances, the First Subject is brought in at the opening of the Recapitulation in the m'egulapities of ^^^ ^y ^^^ Sub-dominant. A case in point i*» the little Sonata in C major (No. 15) of Mozart, where the First Subject enters in F (the Sub-dominant). As the Second Subject subsequently appears in C (the Tonic), the same balance of keys that obtained in the Exposition is maintained,* thus : — Exposition. First Subject. Second Subject. C major. G major. (Key % 5th above C.) Recapitulation. First Subject. Second Subject, F major. C major. (Key a Sth above F. Revepsal of order of First and Second Subjects. The second irregularity in the plan of the Recapitulation is the appearance of the Second Subject before the First, of which a well- known instance is that of the " Allegro con spirito " of Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in D major (No. 3). Other cases are those of the same master's Overture to " Titus," the first movement of his Sonata in D (No. 13) for Piano and Violin ; the Octet of Spohr (first movement), and the first movement of Dvorak's Pianoforte Quartet in E flat (Op. 87). Neither of these last-mentioned departures from the usual plan is at all frequent, and they are mentioned here more for the sake of completeness than for anything else, although there is no very substantial reason why composers should not adopt the latter " variant " of the prevailing type more often than is now the case, particularly if the Second Subject has not been used for the purposes of development in the Free Fantasia — by which means its appearance before the First Subject in the Recapitulation is, at the least, not an unwelcome feature in the design. • The examples of this exceptional treatment of the First Subject are very rare indeed. \See, however, Schubert's Pianoforte Sonata in E major.) I&4 FORM IN MUSIC. With the completion of the re-statement of the two principal themes a sonata-movement sometimes ends, the Recapitulation being — save in the matter of key, as already explained — a reproduction in its main outlines of the Exposition, even the conclusion and climax of the two parts being, as likely as not, identical, as in many of the sonatas and symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, and a few of the sonatas of Beethoven, e.g., that in B flat, Op. 22 : — Some movements complete at the end of the Recapitulation. 153. (End^of Ex posit ion. ) Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in B7, Op. 22. 4 ^^ ^f ¥1 l ^ ' ^f H J -^ — - (End of Recapitulation. ) ¥- f V ~ ^R ^ i T tki ^ ^ r - - T rx- Although this manner of terminating the entire movement may be, and often is, quite effective, it is more often found to be somewhat inadequate. Something more in the The Coda. nature of a final climax seems to be required, and it is this feeling that has led composers to adopt the plan of adding, after the actual Recapitulation, extra matter in the shape of a Coda to the whole * The Coda This section has, in the more modern works, become so important a feature of the design of a movement in Sonata-form, that it is deserving of more than passing notice. Originally a mere emphasizing, by means of reiteration, of the final cadence. • The commencement of the Coda, therefore, may be located by noticing the point at which the actual Kecapitilatiou of the subjects ceases. FORM IN MUSIC. 165 it has (especially from the time of Beethoven) grown to be a highly-organized and noteworthy part of the Increasing structure, in fact (as was stated in Chapter IX., o?Coda°^^ page 81), a kind of Epilogue — in some cases of such a character as almost to constitute a fourth division of the movement. Beethoven's Codas are . , . , „ unsurpassed in their superb sense of climax Epiloeue. ^""^ fulfilment. The student should most carefully study the Codas of his Piano- forte Sonatas, especially those of Op. 2, No. 3, Op. 7, Op. 27, No. 2 (last movement), Op. 31, No. 3, Op. 53 (a magnificent example), Op. 57 (also of the highest interest), Op. 8ia (a very long Coda), Op. 90, Op. 106, and Op. in. The precise form of the Coda is entirely a matter for the taste and discretion of the composer, but it rarely contains new material. A few instances there are in which Coda rarely g^^^j^ extraneous matter is introduced U.g.^ the contains new , ^ .. r r. ^u 1 r\^ -- fu» material. ^^^^ movement of Beethoven s Op. 57, the first movement of Schumann's Symphony in B flat, &c.),* but they are distinctly exceptions to the broadly recognized rule that at such a late period in the movement it is rather the time for gathering together existing strands than for the importing of new ideas into the scheme, however interesting in themselves such ideas may be. The Introduction. One factor only in the design of a movement in Sonata-form now remains to be noticed, viz: the Introduction, which is purely optional, occurring more often in connexion with symphony- writing than with the composition of a sonata. " The main Oh* t nf th purpose of an Introduction," says Sir Hubert Introduction. Parry, t "is either to summon the attention of the audience, or to lead their minds into the earnest and sober mood which is fittest for the appreciation of great things." When the object of the Introduction is simply a " call to attention," it frequently amounts to little more than a sonorous giving-out of the Tonic chord, or at any rate, a group of chords defining the principal key of the movement that is about to follow. Of this there are numerous instances in the works of the older writers A more modern example — one, moreover, of immense effect — is furnished by the opening of the " Eroica " Symphony of Beethoven, where the quiet commencement of the first theme is preceded by isvo forte chords of E flat, thus : — * See also last movement of Mendelssohn's Sonata in D for Pianoforte and Violoncello, and first movement of Tschaikov^sky's " Path^tique " Symphony. t Grove's Dictionary (Revised Edition), Vol. II., page 488. 1 66 FORM IN MUSIC. Allegro con brio. 154.' I fea «£ i Beethoven. — Symphony No. 3. f^-F- I r ^ "i ^ 5=p:l: ^ ^«: a= J ^ J J J -m-m-it &c. s ^^ Sv^M-t- -f^-F- zz: I First Subject. The Introduction, however, is often in the nature of a slow and dignified prelude, sometimes lasting for merely a few bars (as in Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in F sharp, J^lE^^^^^L^o Op. 78), but sometimes developing into a Intpoductions. \. <• -a ui j- • / movement of considerable dimensions (as in the same writer's Symphony in A, No. 7). It often ends upon a half-cadence in order to prepare for the entry of the First Subject of the " Allegro," and the earlier writers generally made this cadence a rather strongly marked one. The tendency amongst the more modern composers, however, has been to allow the Introduction to lead without break into the main movement. In the sonatas of the composers prior to Beethoven it is quite rare to find an Introduction to the opening movement, and out of that great master's 32 sonatas for the Pianoforte, only four, viz: those in C minor (Op. 13), F sharp major (Op. 78), E fiat major (Op. 8ia), and C minor (Op. in) have Introductions. On the other hand, as regards Symphonies, eighteen out of twenty-four of the best-known examples of Haydn are thus preceded, as are also, notably, Mozart's in E flat (No. 3), D major (No. 4), C major (No. 6), and D major (No. 7) ; Beethoven's in C, D, B flat and A ; Schubert's great Symphony in C (No. 7); Mendelssohn's in A minor (the " Scotch") ; Schumann's in B flat, C major, and D minor; Brahms' in C minor (No. i); Dvorak's in E minor ("From the New World ") ; Tschaikowsky's in F minor, B minor ("Pathetique"),and E minor; Rubinstein's in D minor ("Dramatic"), and many others.* Beethoven, to whom we are indebted for so much that is of the highest importance and value in the evolution of instrumental design, frequently makes use of the musical idea of the Introduction in the course of his succeeding "Allegro" with the greatest possible effect. Two examples only need be mentioned, viz: the " Sonate Pathetique " and the Sonata in E flat (Op. 8ra), entitled " Les Intpoduetions more usual in Symphonies than in Sonatas. Musical idea of Introduction afterwards used in the main movement. • Overtures, which are often in Sonata-form, are usually preceded by an Introduction, e.g., Weber's *' Der Freischutz " and " Oberon " ; Mendelssohn's " Ruy Bias " ; Schubert's " Rosamunde " ; Tschaikowsky's " 1812," &c., &c. FORM IN MUSIC. 167 Adieux, I'absence, et le retour." motto-figure of the Introduction- Adagi o. 155. ^^=^= In the latter, not only is the ^r"'^ '- i &c. Le - be - wdhi ! the basis of the Second Subject, which opens thus — Allegro. ^ I 1^ ^^ -t 156.. but it is the most prominent feature of the Development Section and of the great Coda with which the movement concludes. Thus it will be seen that, whereas the Coda may be regarded as a kind of Epilogue, the latroduction may equally well be likened to a Prologue, which either may The Intpoduetion merely "set the tone" of the entire piece, or Proloffue. ™^y more minutely foreshadow that which is to come. In either case, be it remembered, it is structurally independent of the movement it precedes, even although its melodic or other features may be incorporated therein. CHAPTER XVII. DEPARTURES FROM THE NORMAL TYPE OF SONATA-FORM. I. — Modified (or Abridged) Sonata-Form. II. — The Sonata-Rondo. Two offshoots of the form known as Sonata-form, or First- movement form, now claim our attention. These are (i) that -.,.-,, usually described by the term "Modified Sonata-Fopm. Sonata-Form," and (ii) the more modern type of Rondo, entitled the Sonata-Rondo (or Modern Rondo). The former is to be met with in movements on a small scale, such as many Sonatinas,* certain slow-movements of symphonies, sonatas, &c., and many Opera-overtures, particularly * A Sonatina is, as its name implies, a Sonata of smaller dimensions, in which the ideas are slighter and simpler in style. Ahhough the "Modified Sonata-Form " is often used for such pieces, some Sonatinas are practically Sonata* as regards their form. 1 68 FORM IN MUSIC. those of the ItaUan and French Schools of Rossini, Donizetti, Auber and others. Its shape is as follows : — Exposition First Subject in Tonic. Second Subject in Domt. (or other related key). Modulating link (often merely the chord of the Domt. 7th in the Tonic key). Recapitulation. First Subject in Tonic. Second Subject in Tonic Coda. In other words, it is Sonata- Form without the Free Fantasia. As a particularly concise example, the " Andante Cantabile " in B flat of Mendelssohn (No. i of " Zwei Clavierstiicke ") may be quoted. To save space it is here given in outline-plan only : — Mendelssohn. — No. i of " Zwei Clavierstiicke." I Introduction. Andante cantabile. i .m7ifmj^,jii 157. (g ^ \M> l^J^ ^0 w ^ a ^ f f- "~| I E xposition. — F'irst S ubject in Tonic. ^ ^^^^^^m 7 riz ' J J ^ wm^ -* Wl ■^ • _^ '_ ' I Transition modulating to key of Dominant. I ' J^ ' ./J^ ^ ^^ i m t=^ ^s^ ^ ^i=i ?=!=: ^ FORM IN MUSIC. 169 , -^ I I I I J."T'J'jJ Jl . ^ ^*^?\ ■ N Link, or Transition back to First Subject. p ' ^ ' m^l^ ^ ^ t 0»\ r Sfe f 'frur.r^ 1 Recapitulation. — First Subject in Tonic. g>:j, ,'Trl .rX^f^ . ^ ^^^-f4^^ j Transition modulnting 'hro ugh ^ ->■ 1 *1 E fiat, C minor, and G minor, to Tonic key. -4- 1/ ^ FORM IN MUSIC. [S econd Subject in Tonic, shortened and merging into Coda =;, *S w-^jn^j ^r^^^ j 5 ^^"^ - #* #-g=lfc iS ^: i ^^S H J ^^ J. &c » * •~ir - ^m m =f^^-^ iiit lyr^tm ^'^ Examples of "Modified" Sonata-Form Amongst other pieces constructed on this plan may be mentioned the " Adagio " in Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in F (No. 6) ; the " Molto Adagio " of Beethoven's Sonata in C minor (Op. lo, No. i); the same author's " Prometheus " overture ; the overture to Mozart's opera, "Figaro"; the " Masaniello '' overture of Auber ; Schubert's " Rosamunde" overture, &c. It is not difificult to see that the omission of the Free Fantasia and the consequent shortening of the formal scheme makes the " Modified " Sonata-Form more suitable for slow movements than the fully-expanded type, with its three divisions of Exposition, Development and Recapitulation, as the latter design would tend to make such movements unduly long, owing to their more leisurely " tempo." * The second and rather more important modification of Sonata- Form is that of the Modern (or Sonata) Rondo. This form, foreshadowed by Mozart and Haydn, reaches its most assured and perfect shape in the works of Beethoven, in whose sonatas there are many instances of this particular design. Its chief characteristics are drawn from both the Older Rondo treated of in Chapter XII. and the " First-movement." The Sonata- Rondo. See, however, Chapter XTX., page rg6. FORM IN MUSIC. 171 It differs from the former in that it is much more cogently planned — that is to say, its themes, besides being usually more important in themselves, are treated more Its chief _ connectedly and with an absence of that enaractensi es. squareness and division into " compartments " that so often distinguishes the Older Rondo.* In other words, the feeling of continuity, so noticeable a feature of First-movement form, pervades to a considerable extent the Modern Rondo also. Structurally it differs from the older variety in the fact that the first Episode, after the giving-out of the Principal Subject, recurs at a later period of the movement in the Tonic key, by which means it assumes added importance, and is virtually a Second Subject.! The following outline-plan will shew the main points of difference : — Older Rondo. Sonata-Rondo. A, Principal Subject Tonic. A.. Principal Subject Tonic. B. ^^\soA&... Dominant [usually).': B. Second Subject A'. Recurrence of Principal Subject Tonic.\^. Recurrence of Principal . . Subject Tonic. C. Second Episode in some other- related key. C. Episode in some other related key. A^. Recurrence of Principal Subject Tonic. -.h^. Recurrence of Principal And possibly a Coda. Subject Tonic. B^. Recurrence of Second ISomejiraes a Third Episode may occur, in : Subject Tonic. which case a fourth appearance of the j Principal Subject ukes place before i A*. Final recurrence of Principal Sub- the Coda.] : j^^.^^ ^j. ^ Qoda in which Principal • Subject is extensively alluded to. Beethoven and his successors, in some of their more highly- organized Rondos of this kind, introduce a certain amount of development of the principal themes into the Sf Sonata-"^ Episodical part of the movement, that is to Rondo. ^^y* ^^^^'" ^^ ^'"^^ re-appearance of the First Subject;! but such development rarely assumes much importance in the genuine Rondo, and in a large and * It will be remembered that the themes of the Older Rondo were, as a rule, rather rigidly cut oflF from one another by somewhat strongly-marked cadences ; in the more modern type there is generally some kind of link or transitional passage between them, in some instances as important in scope as the Transition in a movement in Sonata- Form. t It may be well to reiterate here what has already been said, viz: that a Subject is a theme of greater importance which recurs at a later period of a movement, whereas an Episode is a subordinate theme of a transient nature, which does not so recur. X See, for example, the Rondo of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in B flat (Op. 22). In Weber's " Rondo Brillante" (Op. 62) for the Pianoforte, the place of the Episode is almost entirely occupied by development of the First Subject. i7» FORM IN MUSIC. perhaps preponderating number of Modern Rondos it does not appear at all. The two succeeding diagrams will illustrate the points of divergence between a movement in First-movement form, and a Sonata-Rondo : — First-movement Form. 'A. Principal Subject Tonic. B. Second Subject Dominant, dr'c. II Free Development Section, Fantasia. (With occasionally some Episodical matter.) 'A3. III. Principal Subject Tonic. B^. Second Subject... 7o«j^. And generally a Coda. Sonata-Rondo. A. Principal Subject Tonic. B. Second Subject../)^////, ^s'c. A^. Principal Subject Tonic. II. Episode. (Possibly also a limited amount of Development.) III. 'A^. Principal Subject ...Tonic. B^. Second Subject.. TwzV. A*. Principal Subject, or a Coda in which Principal Subject is extensively alluded to. From the above it will be observed that the main distinctions between the two forms, structurally, are (i) that the Exposition in First-movement form ends with the Second ^.^" Subject, in the secondary key, whereas in the Modern Rondo a return is always made to the First Subject in the Tonic ; (ii) that in the Rondo an Episode practically takes the place of the Free Fantasia which is so conspicuous a feature of Sonata-Form. Moreover, the themes of a Rondo are often very simple in their rhythmical construction (mostly in definite 4-bar and 8-bar periods), and the Principal Subject is in the Themes of Rondo majority of instances of a more tune-like phythmfealhrf ' character than that of a First-movement, with its pithy, pregnant phraseology. One example — typical of many — will suffice to demonstrate this : — Principal Subject of First Movement : Beethoven. — Sonata for P. F. and Violin in A, „ jt Allegro vivace. Op. 12, No, 2. Violin ( I J J J J ! J J I J I f^^^.^^ 'ij li^fr^ ^^ -^f-F- * The Exposition in First-movement form is often repeated in its entirety, as was shewn in Chapter XIV., page 135; that of the Sonata-Rondo never. ** FORM IN MUSIC simile. »73 fefe E P= ^ -i^-i|^ -i r -il^ i"^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^ .r; -1 r =qf^ ^=^ i r H- £i I' ^j -1 r f i T^Ti^ni .. 1 r [^ @j|fe 1^ ^ 1 . ' J ^ ji t r =^ -kis=3 *■= ' ^. * 1^=: ^^=^ P fe* 5t£tt; '%' . ...«'. r«rrr' 1 — III ■ ^ ^^^5 1 r 1 f^ -^^ — f^ y^ _* f ^^ -I — h ^Xjr I t.* ^.rf'fe && ^^ -♦- -m- -m- -n ^ ^ t7t FORM IN MUSIC. Princit>al Subject of last movement {Sonata-Rondo) Allegro picuevole. Violin. 159. Piano. ^ -:*r:fcE 4^ ^ ^^ Wf -=g^ f ^ , f r - P lit: r r J Ji* iS: i rr^ ^ I ^ *! -f^— f^ £=& a -^=»- -*^ -f^— P- =^=^ -1^— ^ li^ F <» • ^ £=& fcfe=^ i i I iU r r -o- 15: (14^* ^ : | llf^ ^ m -P— r FORM IN MUSIC. 175 The Second Subject, too, is as a rule much shorter in the Sonata-Rondo, very probably for the reason that the first main division of the movement, the Exposition, Shorter Seeond contains a return to the First Subject, which First movement. ^^'^^ ^°* ^^^ place in First-movement form. As the pianoforte sonatas of Beethoven are so readily accessible, our illustration of the Sonata-Rondo as a whole will take the form of an analysis of the last movement of the Sonata in A (Op. 2, No. 2). It will suffice to indicate the various points in the design by reference to the first bar of each: — A. Principal Subject (bar i to bar 16) ^^ mrr^ ^^ ^0^ &c. Transition to Second Subject (bar 16 to bar 26), commencinsf thus — -%-Jhit^ - ^- t=arL -^sb^ 'r ^ • ^ * &c "^J B, Second Subject in Dominant key (bar 26 to bar 39) : m W^ U I ^ C r T^?=f^ &c. Link of two bars in left-hand part (bars 39 and 40) leading to — A". Recurrence of Principal Subject (varied) in Tonic key (bar 41 to bar 56) : Link (or " melodic prefix ") of half-a-bar in right- hand part (bar 56) leading to — C. Episode in Tonic minor key (bar 57 to bar 99) : y ^ f^^ -r^ ^ ': ''\ i\ ^- This leads without break into — 176 FORM IN MUSIC. A^. Recurrence of Principal Subject (varied) in Tonic key (bar loo to bar 115) : Transition to Second Subject (bar 115 to bar 123), commencing as before. B^. Second Subject in Tonic key (bar 124 to bar 135) : m ^ &c. A*. Recurrence of Principal Subject, varied, and modulating through F major and B minor back to A major (bar 135 to bar 148) : ^i f^T. ^rjFg^ ;jl_l ^^ t &c. J. -0- ■n m ^ J- J- * ^ ^ ^H- ^ — -1 Coda, founded upon Principal Subject and Episode (bar 148 to end) commencing thus — &c A perusal of the entire piece will reveal the fact that the Principal Subject is considerably varied on each re-appearance. This is a by no means uncommon method of maintaining the interest, particularly when, as in a Rondo (or a slow movement), the principal theme is of a song-like character, and more or less obvious and regular in its rhythm. The changes in the melodic outline prevent any feeling of monotony without in any way obscuring that idea of recurrence which is ot the essence of the Rondo-iorm. From the foregoing remarks it will have been seen that the Sonata-Rondo is the result of a fusion of two types, viz. the simpler (or Older) Rondo and the First- movement form. It approximates to the former in that its principal them i recurs twice after its initial appearance — one of the chief structural points in any kind of Rondo ; and to the latter in Varied presentations of Ppineipal theme. Sonata-Rondo the fusion of two types. FORM IN MUSIC. 177 that the theme taking the place of the first Episode of the Older Rondo is given a position of greater importance by being re-introduced at a later period of the movement. The Modem Rondo is often used for the last movements of pianoforte sonatas and occasionally of quartets and symphonies ; single pieces are also to be found cast in this mould, e.g., Beethoven's 51, No. 2), which is a beautiful specimen of its Uses of Sonata-Rondo Rondo in G (Op. class.* In conclusion, Title of Rondo given to pieces not in Rondo- form. 161. it is necessary to point out that some pieces entitled Rondos by their composers are really not Rondos at all. Such misnomers are not altogether uncommon ; Mozart's so-called Rondo in D, commencing thus : — is in unmistakable First-movement form, while such works as Sterndale Bennett's " Rondo piacevole " and " Rondeau k la Polonaise " are in Modified First-movement form. Mendelssohn's " Rondo capriccioso " in E major and minor so far departs from the recognized design as to come rather more legitimately into the category of such irregular types as capriccios, fantasias, &c., which will be referred to in a later chapter of this volume. CHAPTER XVIII. THE VARIATION-FORM. From the earliest days of instrumental music — that is to say, from the time when composers began seriously to write for instruments with some sort of appreciation of their capabilities and with some attempt at evolving a style distinct from that appropriate to voices — the form known as the Variation-form has held a more or less con- spicuous place. The pioneers of instrumental art were, as Sir Hubert Parry says,f "as fully conscious as composers are now of the necessity of some system of structure or principle of art to unify the whole of each work, and to carry on the interest from moment to moment ; but as they had not discovered any form which could extend for more than a few phrases or periods, their only means • In this Rondo the Episode in the middle of the piece is in a different time and " tempo " from the rest of the work. t Article, "Variations," in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. V. of revised edition. The Variation a comparatively early type of instrumental design 178 FORM IN MUSIC. Florid embellishment of the Theme. of making the music last any length of time was to repeat, and to disguise the repetition and give it fresh interest by artistic devices." The result of this, so far as instrumental music was concerned, was that the melodies they invented (mostly in the form of dance-tunes) were repeated with embellishments in the shape of runs, " graces," and other ornamental figures, by which means the music was spun out to the required length, and the monotony of bare repetition avoided. The four closing bars of the theme of William Byrd's " Carman's Whistle " and the corresponding bars of two of the variations upon it will act as a specimen of the sort of thing composers were doing in the i6th and the early part of the 17 th centuries : — William Byrd (1538-1623). — Variations : Theme (last four bars). " "^^^ barman's Whistle." 162." 4 O ^ ■jcL 22: -ri- -^^ 1 JFSl T JJ ra: 1^ i ^ d: -rJ- J- m :st: P T^ Var. 2 (last foar bars). ^ m -rr m . 1 . ^ m *-^ — -m-^ ^ -^ 22: i s * # * ~^ — "9" ~^ TP" "^3^ w FORM IN MUSIC. Var. 6 (last four bars). 179 The practice of embellishing dance-tunes, &c., in this way was one that held its ground for a considerable time, and we find instances of it in Bach and Handel in the latter part of the 17th and the beginning of the i8th centuries. In the first English Suite of Bach there is a " Courante avec deux doubles,"* in which the melodic outline of the original is considerably varied in the two repetitions that follow. The following extracts will shew that the method, notwith standing its greater depth and richness of style, is still that of Byrd's " Carman's Whistle " :— 163.' *l J. S. Bach. — "Courante avec deux Doubles," from *' Suite Anglaise " in A major . Courante. ^^ -r&r * ^te ^S rrrTi M ^ J. ^ I '^ \ ^^: ^ ^ ^ w ^^^ t^3- &c. ^ I 9 *^ »rJ= 3E=:=t i d-U :^ :r=it * " Double" was a French word for a variation. I So FORM IN MUSIC. Double I. I | t i\ ^ ^^^^E 7'^ ^.n^rr\ i w=^ \ \ 7 W J ** J * J ~ J*1 'LT*^*^* at # «: If ^ * J J ^fr^ 1 p C ^ ; p i ^j-'i<* J i ^"^^ i^ ^^ 4=^ "f &c. ^ ^ JC^ 1^ Double II. ^ ♦- ^ gi- Dik . I y» *< ^^^ P^^ ^•iiif j.^J^^:^^^^^ W 5^ tj* r J. fl r &C. ^ * *rr^ ^^ i ^ FORM IN MUSIC. i8i With Bach, however, the writing of variations did not by any means always imply the mere ornamentation of the theme ; he anticipated the more modern idea of harmonic, as distinct from melodic, connexion between it and the variations that follow, exhibiting an extraordinary wealth of device isach s jj^ jj^g invention of new and ever-changing melodic and rhythmic figures. Often the bass supplied the means by which the variations were linked together in conception, and in such designs as the Chaconne and the Fassacaglia^ (both variation-forms) this bass-part is a persistently recurring one, and goes by the name of a JJ^g Ground- Ground-bass, or '' basso osttnato." There are instances of Ground-basses considerably earlier than Bach ; Purcell, Blow, Corelli, Vivaldi, and many others introducing this particular feature into their works ; but a supreme example of the device is furnished by the noble " Crucifixus " in Bach's great B minor Mass, founded upon the following *' ground " : — J. S. Bach. — Mass in B minor. '■ ^^. I I r r : > Itj. r iir =^ 164. ^ ^3 &c. which recurs no less than twelve times after its first presentation, and upon which the most wondrously beautiful harmonies and melodic figures are built. f A popular instance of Handel's use of the Variation-form is that of the so-called " Harmonious Blacksmith," where, according to his general practice, the variations (at any rate Handel s _ ^Y\q earlier ones) follow the original melody Blacksmith " ^^^y closely. The harmonies vary but little, the interest being maintained by the increasing rapidity and elaborateness of the broken-chord and scale-passages of which they largely consist. In the variations of the Haydn-Mozart period we find, as with Handel, the connexion between theme and variations preserved, * The Passacaglia (Fr. passecaille) and the Chaconne were both originally dance-forms. See Bach's Chaconne for Violin alone, and also his Passacaglia for Organ, in C minor. t The Harpsichord works of Bach's contemporary, Handel, contain some good examples of variations on a Ground-bass ; but, unlike that of Bach, his harmonic scheme is usually little varied, the changes being almost entirely in the direction of melodic embellishment. {See particularly the " Passacaille " io the 7th Suite, and the "Chaconne " in G, with its sixly-two variations.) l82 FORM IN MUSIC. " Cheap " Vapiations. as a rule, fairly closely ; and in the case of the many inferior writers of the time the treatment of the theme throughout was often of the most threadbare description, cheap and trivial scale-passages and arpeggios doing duty for that which, in the hands of greater men, took the form of more subtle and intellectually- interesting transformations of the original idea. Mozart, although many of his variations shew considerable beauty, displayed less inventiveness and enterprise than his elder contemporary, Haydn, who lavished more care Mozart and on both theme and variations than did Mozart, wT'n:pp<5^of ^^^ often reached a high level not only of Variations. workmanship, but of deep expressiveness. As proof of this, we may instance his Variations in F minor for the Pianoforte, which are framed upon a double theme, whose first half is in F minor, and the second in F major, commencing respectively as follows : — (a) Andante. Haydn. — Variations in F minor. 165. i ^ ^ t/ i f r g^b ' i^ I r '? r^ r^ , r^ -f^- The variations that follow are in all respects most interesting — full of changeful colour and harmonic freshness. When we FORM IN MUSIC. 183 compare these with the majority of those by Mozart we find how the Variation-form in itself made a stronger appeal to Haydn than to Mozart. Sir Hubert Parry, in the article in Grove's Dictionary already alluded to, says: — "A certain similarity in the general plan of several of [Mozart's] independent sets [ot variations] suggests that he had a regular scheme for laying out the succession of variations. The earlier ones Sip Hubert generally have the tune of the theme very Pappy on prominent; then come one or two based rather setfe^e^fop r^voxt upon the harmonic framework, so as to Vapiation- prevent the recurrence becoming wearisome; writing. about two-thirds of the way through, if the theme be in the major, there will be a minor variation, and vice-versd ; then, in order to give weight to the conclusion and throw it into relief, the last variation but one has a codetta of some sort, or an unbarred cadenza,* or else there is an unbarred cadenza dividing the last variation from the final coda, which usually takes up clearly the features of the theme." It required the intellectual greatness of a Beethoven to bring the Variation-form to a point at which an extraordinary unity of structure goes hand in hand with a no less remarkable freedom of treatment, causing the variations bearing his name to stand forth as some of the most masterly examples of Beethoven's their class in existence. It is hardly necessary gpeatness as ^q ^q more than mention the 32 variations in ^^j^gj, C minor (upon a descending chromatic ground- bass), those in E flat (Op. 35) with a "Finale alia Fuga"; in the "Eroica" Symphony, upon the same theme ; in the trio in B flat (Op. 97) ; the set for pianoforte in F (Op. 34), in which all the variations are in different keysf ; the 33 variations on a valse of Diabelli ; those in the Pianoforte Sonatas (Op. 109 and Op. iii), &c., to prove what Beethoven has achieved in this direction. In most of these sets the independence of the variations is remarkable; often it is merely the rhythmic construction as defined by the principal cadences that Independent connects them with the Theme, and within of^an^v^ these limits Beethoven evinces the greatest Variations. freedom of thought in the working out of any melodic or harmonic " germ " inherent in his theme, which germ he presents under continually new aspects with that marvellous power of figure-development to * A passage of display, frequently formed upon a 4 or a Dominant 7th chord, leading to matter of more •importance theraatically. t Quite an unusual proceeding, the different numbers in a set of variations being, as a rule, in the same Tonic, even if some appear with the mode changed from major to minor, or vice versd. Modern composers, however, allow themselves more latitude as to key, a most desirable form of freedom. {See Darticularly Dvorak's Orchestral Variations in C major, Op. 78.) iS4 FORM IN MUSIC. which there was occasion to refer in dealing with the Free Fantasia of the Sonata-Form. Since Beethoven, variation-writing has not progressed very notably. Those of Weber and Schubert, the " Variations serieuses" of Mendelssohn, those of Schumann of laTeP masters ^" ^ ^^^ ^°'" *^'° pianos, and others, beautiful as they are, have in reality contributed little that is new to this particular form of art-work, save, of course, the one element of personality. The last-named composer's " Etudes Symphoniques " for the pianoforte are free studies upon his theme, which are full of truly romantic and expressive feeling, but which display nothing like the power of ingenious development manifested by those of Beethoven. Undoubtedly the greatest master of the Variation-form in modern times is Johannes Brahms. In his Variations and Fugue (Op. 24) for pianoforte, on a theme by Handel, Brahnis^^ his orchestral set in B flat (Op. 5 6a) on a theme by Haydn, to say nothing of others hardly less distinguished, he has proved himself a worthy successor of Beethoven, strong and virile in sentiment, with a technical mastery that never fails in the carrying out of the many intricate devices he employs m the unfolding of the possibilities of his theme.* It now remains to classify, so far as it is possible to do so, the chief devices used by composers in the Vapfatlons writing of variations. These may be roughly described as follows : — (i) Ornamentation or "figuration" of theme, the harmony remaining practically unchanged, (ii) Theme differently harmonized, the melody little altered, if at all.t (iii) Melody changed, the harmonic basis being kept intact, or nearly so. (iv) Character of theme altered by change of " tempo" the melody or harmony (or both) retained in their main features. (v) Etitire departure from the original version and sentiment of theme,\ a certain thread of connexion with the theme being maintained either by the general harmonic structure, or the rhythmic shape of the music — particularly the latter, (vi) Contrapuntal treatment, such as Canonic or Fugal writing. * Other interesting specimens of modern v-ariation-writing are Dvorak's Orchestral Variations in C (Op. 7S) ; Raff's " Giga con variazione," for Pianoforte (Op. 91); Edward Elgar's *' Enigma" Variations for Orchestra; Tschaikowsky's "Theme et Variations " in F (Op. 19, No. 6); Paderewski's " Theme varie " in A, &c. t The varied harmonization may be accompanied by a change of rnodt from major to minor, or vice vend. X In such a case, a variation may app>ear in the form of a Valse, Polonaise, March, Minuet, Romance, or other piece of special character. FORM IN MUSIC. 185 The following extracts will serve to illustrate the above points : — I. — Ornamentation or " Figuration " of Theme. Theme. Beethoven. — Symphony in D minor, No. 9. Adagio, 166. V * rj-^ r^^ Ti J « j^ T 1 T mst ij ^ %'r^ f 'vf- "^ r (?>;. » -^ t? ^ 1 86 FORM IN MUSIC. 167. II. — Theme differently harmonized. Thbme. Weber. — Variations on " Castor and Pollux .' Andante. ^ I ^ • ^^ ^W^^^ ^ S^ : ^— — a — I — • ' I r I F ^ ^ Variation. ^ ; r I I -JIM ^ E J. m ^rr \ tytf\-mjth=f^ P I m I t- Jin ^ E ' r I L- ? I Tj iff- -f- T , -*- 1^:- ' -^ &C. ^^^^LJ|' -^^i^g ^ FORAf IN MUSIC. 187 Hi — Melody changed — Harmonic basig kept. Bebthovkn. — 32 Variations in C minor. Theme. Allegretto. 168. ^ -z**^ > p / ^ :^ ^ |g4^ ^^31 rt^ S :^ b'i 7 ^ 1 7 : ! \^'4 >^ J" 1=^^ 3^ -1- fe \-i -^-^1 — J--^^^=s^ IT ^ Variation, U- f^^'"^ Llj^ LU LLr lXj ^ SJ^lIj fc^ ±ir H 1 1 1- FORM IN MUSIC. ^^r^ . • . P^ ^ r f rr ^f^ b*- ^ ^^ Mp^ v= — m — ^ ^ — r — x~ m ~. — r — 1 P^lI^ i ' r r- r £ -t- ^ T- s I I I i -bJ' ^ ^rrrrr^ ^ r ^m_ i r -r- r -r f f - ^ £ ^^^ ^ i|--fefe f t m P w I I nvr T ^ T ±. jy-1 — c±z /r- /r. ^ rf^f'^r^[ 5= n FORM IN MUSIC. 189 IV. — Character of Theme altered by change of " Tempo," Thbmb. Andante esprtss: Grikg. — Ballade in G minor, Op. 24. -dJ ni 'V r^ wWA^ ^f-^f^^ 169. r ^ Variation Allegro furio:o ^3^ — # — « — * j ^ •— T^ ^ -*1 -»- &e. ^ ^ — « ^ — I -. ^ ) III |>| I V. — Entire departure from Original Version or Theme. 170.' Brahms. — Variations and Fugue, Op. 24, Theme. on a Theme by Handel. tr tr ^ M -^ m- ^ =0 I go FORM IN MUSIC. tr _ tr- trr^V'^'si: V \\ [j g4 ^^ ^ t &c. ^^ w^ * ' ^ Variation. I r ' t r r ilr ■ 1 1 r r r r r r @» ^S g ^ it&it ^^ ^ \>»- feS: VI. — Contrapuntal Treatment, e.g., Canon or Fugue. Theme. Beethoven.— Variations and Fugue, Op. 35. Allegrttto vivace FORM IN MUSIC. 191 ^ ^ri . j^ 1 1 ^^ &C. ^ toe Variation (Canon at the 8ve below). ^fc^ fef=£ ^ i ife s3ee^ ^=g fi^ S ^J ,f-! l » • ^=^ ^ e ^^ S3E f ''' U :j ijTO x:gj^^^ j &c. jj^'i^i.r^ l . r^ rf\l jr^ 'Vd ^ Finale alla Fuga (Subject formed upon Bass of Theme.) Allegro con brio. ^3 a - T ? ^^^^^5^ ^^ yVy ^"^F^^^lS^S ^ 192 FORM IN MUSIC. r^-^Tfi ^r t^j ^3? £ifc :^^77^/gl ^ ' Ua4/ P£^ &C. The concluding variation of a set usually exhibits a considerable amplification of the form of its predecessors, and practically becomes a Coda to the whole, in which the a spt of ^° rhythmic shape of the theme is often entirely Variations. departed from, although its melodic features may be embodied therein. The necessity for such a Coda is all the more strongly felt after the comparatively square and obvious rhythmical design of the theme, repeated as this design often is with little change in the variations that follow. This Coda may be founded upon some " figure " of the theme, or may take the form of a fugue, such as that quoted above from Beethoven's Op. 35, or that in Brahms' Op. 24, or may be a free and elaborate movement such as the Finale of Schumann's " Etudes Symphoniques." However this may be, the object is to provide a telling and impressive peroration to the whole, and in this the composer has abundant opportunity of proving his power of effective climax. The Variation-form, though lacking the continuity of structural design shewn in such a form as Sonata-form, is yet capable of the highest interest in the hands of a writer possessing that faculty of idea-development, which is one of the surest signs of strength and mastery. The form, therefore, will in all probability appeal with a certain force to composers in the future as it has in the past, and many proofs of its vitality will doubtless be forthcoming as time goes on. In some directions, though, it would seem that a greater degree of latitude is desirable in the writing of variations than has mostly obtained hitherto — notably in the matter of key. There seems no very valid reason why all the variations of a set should keep to Inherent vitality of Variation-form. FORM IN MUSIC. 193 the same Tonic ; certainly this practice — almost uniform, it is true, up to the present — should never be regarded as Desirability of a sort of immutable law. In fact, the tendency nfthe^ma^ter*^"^ '" ^^"^ limiting the range of keys is inevitably of key. towards the production of a degree of monotony that a freer choice in this matter would be the means of avoiding. Without going to the extreme of Beethoven's plan in the Op. 34 Variations (mentioned above, page 183), in which every variation is in a different key, the composer should be given a free hand in the selection of the keys for the various numbers in his chain of variations, so that all the resources of this powerful " colour-factor " may be at his command for the enrichment of his effect and the heightening of the listener's interest. CHAPTER XIX. THE SONATA AS A WHOLE.* In preceding chapters it has been our aim to analyse the main types of movement most frequently met with in instrumental music, types which — with modifications of detail from time to time — may be said to form the basis of practically all that has been done successfully upon this side of the art up to the present time. By this it is not meant that new varieties of design may not be evolved as time goes on, but that, in all probability, the lines upon which such new varieties Drhiet^es^^ "^^^ manifest themselves in connexion with symmetry. abstract music will exhibit in large measure similar underlying principles of symmetry and shapeliness — at any rate, if they are to prove of permanent value as the foundation of true art-work in the future. The complex forms known as the Sonata and the Symphony contain within themselves specimens of all Sonata and these varied types, from the simple Binary ImKee^'many ^"^ T^'-"^^^ forms spoken of in Chapters VIII. types of design. ^"" ^-^•' ^P ^^ ^"^ elaborate First-movement form, as representing the highest and most broadly-conceived instrumental design. The term Sonata here is intended to include all works such as Trios, Quartets, Symphonies, ic, written upon the same plan as regards their structure, as solo and duet Sonatas. {Sec Chapter XIII., page 115.) 194 FORM IN MUSIC. When we come to consider the Sonata and Symphony as a whole, we find that in the great majority of cases the first " Allegro " is, structurally, the most important First part of the work. It comes at a time when movement t^e attention of the hearer is fresh, and, as a jjjQg^ ^ consequence, the composer is enabled to make important. stronger demands upon his emotional and intellectual faculties. The appropriateness, therefore, at this point, of the form known as First-movement form has led the great masters to cast their first-movements (with but few exceptions) in this mould. Following the first movement, with its more or less animated and stimulating character, comes usually a contrast in the shape of a slow movement (an Andante^ Adagio, &c.) mnvfirnfint °^ ^ more lyrical nature, expressive and melodious rather than constructive in temper and style. This slow movement may be written in : — (i) Episodical Form (based upon the structural type of the Minuet and Trio), (ii) Modified (or Abridged) Sonata-Form, (iii) Variation Form, % Rondo tlf"^'''"™' ) (-""•'^' '-'y "-' -">)■ These two latter more extended designs are not often employed, for the reason that the slower '* tempo " of an " Andante " or an " Adagio " precludes any considerable length — in number of bars — on the ground of the greater time occupied in performance compared with a piece proceeding at a quicker rate of speed. Of all the forms used from time to time for slow-movements, the Episodical is perhaps the most usual. Slow movements ^ particularly good illustration of this is to be fOPm/^° found in Mozart's Sonata in D (No. 13).* The following outline plan will sufiice to indicate the various points in its structure : — A. Principal Subject, in A major, of two complete sentences (bar I to bar 16): .72. f-^^l'^-r^Jjj^ _ ^ Link of three notes (A sharp, B, B sharp) in right hand, leading to — * Another very clear example of this form is furnished by the " Andante " of Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto in E minor. FORM IN MUSIC. »9S B. Episode in F sharp minor, of three sentences (bar 17 lo bar 41) : f *t ii fc 3S &c. Link of three bars (bars 41, 42 and 43) leading to — A*. Recurrence of Principal Subject, in Tonic key (bar 44 tc bar 59): J? M f.rp.pf r , > f-' F* \_^iLis\Lk^ 1 &c Coda, founded to some extent upon the Episode (bar 59 to end), commencing thus — Modified Sonata-form (described in Chapter XVII.) is to be found fairly frequently. Beethoven has used ?^°w !P,«^^°^®"^^ it for the "Adagio" of his Pianoforte Sonatas in Moaifled . . ,^ xt \ 1 t-» • Sonata-fopm. "^ ^ mmor (Op. 10, No. i), and D mmor (Op. 31, No. 2). The " ground-plan " of the last-named slow movement is as follows : — Exposition — 'Principal Subject in B flat major (bar i to bar 17) : 173. Transition to Second Subject (bar 17 to bar 30). Second Subject in Dominant key (bar 30 to bar 38) : Link, 01 Transition (on Dominant pedal) back to First Subject (bar 38 to bar 42). 196 FORM IN MUSIC. Recapitulation — / First Subject in Tonic, considerably ornamented (bar 43 to bar 59) : m^ ^ i Transition to Second Subject, modified (bar 59 tc bar 72). Second Subject in Tonic (bar 72 to bar 80) : ^E *c. Coda founded upon the Transition at end of Exposition and upon portions of the First and Second Subjects (bar 89 to end), commencing thus — S3 /£i^Jv::ik^ Variation-form has been adopted by Beethoven in the slow movements of the Pianoforte Sonatas in G (Op. 14, No. 2) ; F minor (Op. 57); E major (Op. 109) ; and Slow-moyement q minor (Op. in); in the Andante of the form '^^^ '^"o ^o"" Pianoforte, VioHn and Violoncello (Op. I, No. 3) ; and of the Sonata in A for Pianoforte and Violin (the " Kreutzer "), and it has been employed in like manner by many other writers. Unabridged Sonata-form^ though comparatively rare, is con- spicuously exemplified in the " Andante Slow-movements cantabile " of Mozart's Sonata in B flat (No. 4), Sonata-fopm ^^^ ^^^^ i" ^^^ "Adagio" of Beethoven's Sonata in the same key (Op. 22). The analysis of the latter is as hereunder : — FORM IN MUSIC. »97 Exposition — /Principal Subject in E flat (bar i to bar rz) teiJ ^JJ J ^IJ- ^c^^^ &c. 174. Transition to Second Subject (bar 12 to bar 18) commencing thus — Second Subject in Dominant key (bar 18 to bar 30) =^ ^">^3=;u ^^p^ &c. Development^ founded upon First Subject (bar 31 to 45). Link leading to First Subject (bars 45 and 46). Recapitulation — /Principal Subject in Tonic (somewhat varied) — (bar 47 to bar 57) fh-^;;tTTTiW^^^^=^^^ &c. Transition to Second Subject (bar 57 to b^r 65), commencing thus — Second Subject in Tonic (bar 65 to end) : \i ffi The Older Rondo-form is to be found in the " Adagio " of Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in C minor (No. 18), Slow-movements i,-^ which movement the principal theme is Rondo-fopm. subjected to considerable embellishment on its re-appearances : — ig8 FORM IN MUSIC. A. Principal Subject in key of E flat (bar i to bar 7) *^ m. mti /]J^jM|j J yi^ B, Episode I. in Dominant key (bar 8 to bar 16) : Bmm3 HSSa Link of one bar (bar 16), leading to — A". Re-appearance of Principal Subject (varied) in Tonic key (bar 17 to bar 23) : tf4 I J rf^ ^ &c. C. Episode II. in Sub-dominant key (bar 24 to bar 40) J. J -j^Jj^"J-|!^^ J. ^\ r ^r f F :P== &c. f A*. Re-appearance of Principal Subject (again varied) in Tonic key (bar 41 to bar 47) : wir ^ 4£J"--^ ^^ sa- »=&: ^S^^S. &c. Coda, founded upon Principal Theme and First Episode (bar 47 to end) : feS^^^ &c. FORM IN MUSIC. 199 Schumann's Quintet for Pianoforte and Strings (Op. 44) has the slow movement in a free kind of Sonata-Pondo Form — free, that is to say, as to the key relationship of the Exceptional various themes : and, very occasionally a slow fQPjjjg movement may be completed withm the limits of a single theme, as in the case of the •' Adagio con espressione " of Beethoven's " Sonata quasi una Fantasia" in E flat (Op. 27, No. i), which is based upon the Three-part or Ternary Form explained in Chapter IX. In this particular instance, the three divisions of the piece are all clear 8-bar sentences, upon the following plan : — A. I B. (First Sentence in Tonic (Second Sentence in E flat key, A flat major.) | major and C minor.) the movement being linked on to the final " Allegro " by three bars of Transition in the shape of a " Cadenza." (Return to First Sentenct in Tonic key.) During the Haydn-Mozart period, pianoforte sonatas rarely contained more than three movements, viz: a first " Allegro," a slow movement, and a Finale (usually in Number of Rondo-Form). On the other hand, in the Sonatas and departments of the quartet and symphony, Symphonies. four movements zxt generally Xkit rule, the extra movement being in the shape of a Minuet and Trio, coming most frequently between the slow movement and the Finale. The Minuet and Trio form has already been exhaustively treated in earlier portions of this volume ; therefore it will be unnecessary now to do more than refer the reader to the remarks upon this subject contained particularly in Chapters IX. and XI. With the advent of Beethoven came the adoption of the four-movement plan in the scheme of the solo-sonata, and also the substitution for the old Minuet and Trio of a new art- form — peculiarly a creation of Beethoven's The Scherzo. — viz: the Scherzo. As a rule, the actual structural idea of the Scherzo is the same as that of the Minuet,* but its character is utterly different. Just as the stateliness of the Minuets of Handel and Bach gave way before the fun and geniality of Haydn and the grace of Mozart, so the quicker and more animated style of the Minuets of these masters yielded in turn to the newer Scher^o^^^^^^ "atmosphere" of the Beethoven Scherzo, with its suggestions of the mysterious, its often unbridled humour, and its wonderful humanity. * In Beethoven's Scherzos, however, the second division (B) of the formula A — B — A^ frequently contains regular and sj'stematic development of the ideas presented in (A). See particularly the Scherzo of the Pianoforte Sonata in C (Op. 2, No. 3) and the third movement of Op. 7. 200 FORM IN MUSIC. The Scherzos of Mendelssohn again, with their faery-like grace and delicacy, are in their way perfectly Mendelssonii s original things, fresh and fanciful in style and perfect in their form which, as a rule, is that of a First movement* Since the time of Mendelssohn, the precise shape of the Scherzo has been more or less an open matter, some composers adopting the older form akin to that of the Minuet and Trio, others preferring to follow the lead of Mendelssohn and to write their Scherzos in Sonata-Form. Chopin's Chopin s Scherzos for the pianoforte stand in a category ®^^ * of their own. Based though they are on a comparatively simple structural foundation (the Episodical), they nevertheless shine forth as distinctly representative works, full of fire and romance, untouched even by the luxurious sentimentality that here and there tinges some, at least, of Chopin's other writings. Of humour there is none, nor any suggestion of the " elf-land " of Weber or Mendelssohn ; but, instead, a fervour and a passionate earnestness which stamp them as masterpieces, however little appropriate the term "Scherzo" may seem to be as a description of their scope and meaning. For the Finale of a sonata, symphony, &c., the composer most often chooses either the Sonata-Rondo form or The " Finale." that of a First-movement — more frequently, perhaps, the former, although there are numerous examples of the latter. Of the Pianoforte Sonatas of Beethoven, the Sonata-Rondo is the As Sonata-Rondo basis of at least twelve of the " Finales," the movement in First-movement form being used in those of Sonata-form. the Sonatas (Op. lo, Nos. i and 2; Op. 27, No. 2 ; Op. 31, Nos. 2 and 3 ; Op. 57, Op. 8ia, and Op. loi). Occasionally, the last movement appears as a Theme and Variations. Of this we have instances in Mozart's Pianoforte Sonata in D (No. 10), Beethoven's Pianoforte Vapiati^ns^"'^ Sonatas in E (Op. 109) and C minor (Op. in), the String Quartet in E flat (Op. 74) by the same writer, his Symphony in E fiat (the " Eroica "), the Sonata for Piano and Violin in A (Op. 30, No. i), and the Trio in B flat (Op. 11), and also in Brahms' Symphony in E minor (No. 4). Amongst exceptional " Finales " may be mentioned that of * Mendelssohn, though, was not the first to employ the First-movemenl form for the Scherzo. A notable instance of a similar use will be found in the Scherzo of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in E flat (Op. 31, No. 3), which, by the way, is the earliest well-known movement of the class written in any other time than |, thus more completely severing the connexion with the old Minuet. FORM IN MUSIC. 201 Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in G (Op. 14, No. 2), which is a Scherzo in Rondo form ; those of his "F?nales/' String Quartet in C (Op. 59, No. 3), and the Pianoforte Sonatas, Op. 106 and no, which are in fugal form ; and that of Tschaikowsky's " Pathetic " Symphony, which is a slow movement (" Adagio lamentoso ").* With regard to the choice of keys for the various movements of a sonata or symphony, there is Httle to be said, save that the first and last of these will be in the Tonic key, as Choice pf keys g. matter of course, although the mode (major movements. ^"^ minor) may vary ; the slow movement being usually in a key that is in some more or less close relationship to that Tonic. When four movements are included in the work, the additional one — Minuet and Trio, or Scherzo and Trio — coming as a rule between the slow movement and the Finale, is generally in the same Tonic as the first and last movements. This is invariably the case in Beethoven's Sonatas for the Pianoforte; but in the String Quartet in F (Op. 59, No. i), the Scherzo is in the Sub-dominant key; in the Quartet in E flat (Op. 74), it is in the relative minor ; and in the Symphony in A (No. 7), it is in the key a minor 6th above the Tonic {i.e., F major). Brahms occasionally chooses for his middle movements keys somewhat remote from his original Tonic For example, the slow movement of his First Symphony, m L mmoi, is in E major, that of the D major Symphony (No. 2) in ^ major, while his Third Symphony (in F) has the Scherzo in C minor. The tendency since Beethoven has been in the direction of greater latitude in the choice of keys, and Greater latitud^ ^g ^^^ at times the extreme of freedom as U) keys. ^° indulged in as, for instance, in the case of Dvorak's " New World" Symphony, where the beautiful "Largo," immediately succeeding the first movement in E minor, appears in D flat major. When, as sometimes happens, a work on the lines of a sonata contains only tzvo movements, as do several of Mozart's Sonatas for Piano and Violin, and also a few works of Sonatas in two Beethoven (notably the two Pianoforte Sonatas in G minor and G major, Op. 49 ; that in F, Op. 54, in F sharp, Op. 78, in E minor. Op. 90, and in C minor. Op. in), these are in almost all instances written in the same Tonic, although frequently one may be in the minor mode and the other in the major. On the rare occasions, such as in Schumann's Symphony in E flat (No. 3) Five movements, and in Goldmark's Symphony, " Landliche Hochzeit,"whenyfz;<; movements are introduced, the additional one will usually be in some fairly close relationship to the main key of the whole work. * The "Finale" of Beethoven's Symphony in D minor (No. 9) introduces lolo voices and a chorus in addition to the orchestra. 202 FORM IN MUSIC. From what has now been said, it will be gathered that the lines of structure set forth in this chapter form the basis not only of solo-sonatas, but of trios, quartets, quintets, &c., and also of the orchestral symphony. To sum up : the chief points to be noted Chief features of \^ connexion with these " cyclic " forms, as ■^ ^^ ' they are sometimes called*, are : — (i) That a work coming into this category must have a/ kasi hvo distinct movements, in contrast to one another (usually three, or four). (ii) That one (at least) of these should be in what is technically known as Sonata-form, or First-movement form.t (iii) That a consistent arrangement of keys must be observed between the various movements, the employment of the same Tonic for the first and last of these being an essential feature of the scheme, (iv) That the most usual order of movements is as follows : — (a) An " Allegro " in First-movement form ; {b) a Slow- movement ; ( ^ /'/' &c. ^ § ^=^ir? Modern music both harmonie and contrapuntal. It will be seen that, in Fig. 176, the interest of each individual " strand " of the part-writing is the chief concern, whereas in Fig. 177 the effect of the actual chords upon the one principal melody, in the production of special points of " tone-colour," is the thing most clearly aimed at. Modern music has, however, wisely absorbed both the contrapuntal (or polyphonic) and the harmonic (or homophonic) elements, and they are now often so intimately woven together as to be in reality mutually dependent, and, as a consequence, somewhat difficult to think of apart from one another. Nevertheless, the two forms of composition. Fugue and Canon, remain in a very special sense contrapuntal, as they demand, as a condition of their very existence, absolute independence of part-writing. With these points clearly grasped, their peculiar characteristics will be the more readily understood and appreciated. Fugue. Definition of Fugue. A Fugue may be described as an instrumental or vocal composition — contrapuntal in character — developed from one short, pithy theme, called the subject of the fugue. This subject, which frequently extends to no more than a few notes, e.g. : — .„n Bach. — " P'orty-eight," Book I., No. 4. The Subject » FORM IN MUSIC, 205 is announced by a single voice,* unaccompanied (save in those rare instances where a vocal fugue has an independent orchestral accompaniment), and is immediately replied to at a different pitch by another voice, the first voice continuing with a counter- point in contrast to it. In its turn, the second voice passes on the theme to a thirdf — and so on, the earlier voices adding suitable counterpoint. The obvious simplicity of this sort of proceeding caused the fugal form to be one that very early in the history of the art appealed to men as the groundwork of their efforts in systematic composition. Not that the Fugue, as we know it in Bach (for instance), sprang full grown into existence as a result of this ; years, and even centuries, had to elapse before such fugal writing became the vehicle of real musical feeling, or even attained to anything approaching perfection of form. Bearing this in mind, it may be said that the Fugue is, if not the oldest, certainly one of the oldest, definite musical forms in existence, and still maintains its value as a medium for the display, not only of contrapuntal skill on the part of the composer, but of an intellectual and expressive power of no mean order. A fugue is frequently divided, for the purposes of analysis, into three parts, viz: (i) the Enunciation (or Exposition) ; (ii) the Middle (or modulatory) section, and (iii) the a^Fu^e ^ Final section. It must be said, though, that ^ ■ this division of the latter part of a fugue into Middle and Final sections is in many cases entirely impossible, as there is often little or nothing that in any way indicates such a separation of its parts as is implied thereby. In many of the fugues of Bach this is notably the case. \ I. — The Enunciation, or Exposition. This part of the fugue extends normally to the point at which all the voices for which the fugue is written have entered once, § and comprises, therefore, the statement of Answer ^^*^ the Subject and its Answer. The Subject, announced by the first voice — almost without exception in the key of the Tonic — is at once succeeded by the Answer, given out by the second voice, in the key of the Dominant. The third voice then enters with the Subject in its original key, the fourth (if the fugue be written for four voices) having the Answer again, in the Dominant. If more voices are * The word " voice" is here used to denote a single part of the harmony, whether vocal or instrumental. t It should here be said that fugues may be written for three, four, or any greater number of voices, and that there are even a few instances of fugues in two parts only. [^See Bach, " Wohltemperirtes Clavier," Book I., No. lO.) \ See particularly Nos. 2 and 3 in Book II. of the •' Forty-eight." § Exceptions to this will be referred to later (page 212.) 206 FORM IN MUSIC. concerned, they continue on the same principle of alternation between Subject and Answer, and Tonic and Dominant. P>equently the Answer is the exact transposition of the Subject a perfect 5 th higher (or a perfect 4th lower) into the Dominant key, and is then called a Real {i.e. exact) Answer : — 179. ^lif Mendelssohn.— Fugue in D, for Subject. ^ P. F., Op. 35, No. 2. g^rrmr Answer. #^'^ii^i-'-JuU.^ S &c. &c. but sometimes certain modifications occur therein, by which the actual shape of the Subject undergoes a slight ToSafAHsweps. wr^'\.^^.^" J^ ^PP^ f ^he Answer When this is the case, the Answer is termed Tonal. A Tonal Answer is generally met with under the following conditions : — (i) When the Subject begins on the Dominant of the Scale ; (ii) When the Subject skips, particularly near its commence- ment, from Tonic to Dominant (even, occasionally, with the 3rd of the scale intervening) ; (iii) When the Subject modulates, during its course, to the key of the Dominant. When either the first or second of these conditions obtains, the Answer is usually framed in such a way as to allow the Dominant of the scale to be answered by the Tonic of that scale, and "not by the note a 5 th higher, e.g. : — (i) Subject beginning on Dominant ; 180. i s Subject. X Handel. — " Messiah. WKl - Y rJ o ^ Answer, x w ^ ■w &c &c (ii) Subject skipping to Dominant from Tonic ; Subject. Bach.—" Forty-eight," Book. I., No. 22. (a) FORM IN MUSIC. ao7 Answer, It is important to notice that it is rarely, if ever, more than the first Dominant in the course of the bubject that is answered tonally, all succeeding appearances of that note receiving "real " answers, i.e., being replied to by the corresponding degree of the Dominant key, as at (a) in Fig. l8i. Moreover, tonal alterations such as have been spoken of never modijy any of the other notes of the scale in the Answer ; these always hold the same position relative to the Dominant key as the corresponding notes of the Subject to the Tonic key. When the Subject modulates, during its course, to the key of the Dominant, the Answer usually makes a moaufating to return movement to the Tonic key at a similar Dominant key. point, e.g. :— Subject. 182 Bach.— " Forty-eight," Book. I., No. 7. tr . ^ ^E I Tonic key. I I Dominant key. Answer. tr^ S ^ 1=^^^ ^ ^ ^^ I Tonic key. I Dominant key. In the following example will be seen a modulation in the Subject to the Dominant and back to the Tonic. Consequently, in the Answer, the music proceeds from Dominant key to Tonic, and back again to Dominant. 183. m Subject. pS ^ I Dominant key. I I Tonic key. Answer. g Tonic key. I Dominant key. Moreover, where it is possible to regard the notes of a modulating Subject as belonging either to the Tonic or the Dominant key (as is the case with the E in bar i of Fig. 183, or the A and G in bar 2 of the same example), the best Answer is usually obtained by thinking of them sooner rattier ttian later in connexion with the cn-ctming key, whichever it may be- 2o8 FORM IN MUSIC. The Counter Subject. When, at the outset of a fugue, the melody (or counterpoint) sung by the first voice against the second is also sung by the second against the third, and the third against the fourth, and so on, we have what is known as a Counter-Subject* This is usually written in Double (or invertible) counterpoint, so as to be available for use either above or below the Subject or Answer, which it frequently accompanies throughout the entire fugue. It should also exhibit elements of contrast with the Subject. Bach.—" Forty-eight," Book L, No. 2. 184.' i I Subject. ^%Vftf-*P4J%rrf^r j- .? J ^ Answer. !te [i-rr i .rtr ^ r g ^o 'jf 'lL' Yi i 1 a \ "■' &J Lia' ^ ro .^ ^ s^g^n^ Counter-Subject. I b m P t^\^ IC^i^LjT L^ s f (Codetta, founded on figures in Subject and Counter-subject Counter-Subject (inverted). I [Subject. * See page 214 (Double Fugue). FORM IN MUSIC. 309 The above extract constitutes the entire Enunciation, or Exposition, of this fugue (which is in three parts only). One point remains to be noticed, viz: the passage ^Jp ^"^cVnlfn^^^ i" bars 5 and 6. It will be seen that it OP lixposinon. constitutes a sort of link between the end of the Answer and the beginning of the second appearance of the Subject. Such a link often occurs between any two entries in a fugal Exposition, and is termed a Codetta* The Codetta. It is almost invariably founded upon some figure in either Subject or Counter-Subject (or both), and is akin to the Episode to be described later. The term Codetta is usually restricted to the Enunciation section. II. — The Middle (or Modulatory) Section. This part of the fugue follows on the conclusion of the Enunciation, and in it the composer introduces the Subject or Answer in, usually, keys other than that of the Middle entries. Tonic.\ These "middle entries" — as they are often called — may occur singly or in groups, /. inversion is to he found in Fut^ue N>i. 15 ofilie 1st book. 314 FORM IN MUSIC. Subject in Diminution in Treble and Alto (in Stretto). I m -rr r ^ 1 I I &c. ^aff r j ir^ u^t • ^^\ u- u " Vorspiel." shape of a Prelude (German, " Vorspier ) which may do little more than " set the tone " of the succeeding work, or may present for the first time certain themes that are to be heard later on in connexion with particular dramatic situations, or even in association with individual persons or ideas. Of such pieces as these the Preludes to Wagner's " Tristan und Isolde " and " Parsifal " stand forth as commanding examples — perfect in their fulfilment of the purpose for which they were designed and, free though they are as to their form, absolutely satisfactory in that sense of symmetry and truthfulness that unmistakably stamps them as original and noble works of art. III. — Concerted Chamber-Music. It will be well to state, at the outset of a brief consideration of Concerted Chamber-Music, that the term is appHed now-a-days to works written for two or more solo instruments Ru?!i.uil?T»j?\.s.. in combination, and is thus used in contra- Cnamber-Music. j- ^ „■ ^ , n ^u o 1 distmction to works like the Symphony, Overture, Concerto, &c., in which many of the individual " parts " of the harmony are doubled, i.e., played by more than one instrument of the same class. For example, one of Haydn's or Beethoven's quartets for first and second violins, viola and violoncello, would be always executed by four j/«»^/ * 1 h ; the music increasing in force and intensity until the final chord is reached. The Cadenza (alluded to above) was primarily an extended passage of display for the soloist, introduced towards the end of a Concerto -movement. It was, as a rule, left The Cadenza. entirely to the performer, who was expected either to have prepared one suitable for insertion at this point, or to improvise one on the spur of the moment. In the Cadenza the player was called upon, not merely to exhibit his skill as an executant, but to shew his power of originating further interesting treatment of the composer's ideas.* At the conclusion of the Cadenza, the band again entered and, either with or without the soloist, brought the movement to its termination. Beethoven, in his Pianoforte Concerto in E flat (Op. 73), has written his own Cadenza, adding in the score the words " Non si fa una Cadenza, ma s'attacca subito il seguente."f Schumann, in his Concerto in A minor for the Pianoforte, has written a fine Cadenza to the first movement, as has also Mendelssohn in his Violin Concerto (where it comes before the Recapitulation, instead of after), leading in a most masterly way into the " reprise " of the First Subject. Nowadays, the Cadenza is no longer recognized as an indis- pensable feature in the construction of a Concerto, and is often omitted. This course has been followed by The Cadenza Mendelssohn in his Pianoforte Concertos in G minor and D minor, by Brahms in his Concertos for the same instrument in D minor and B flat major, and others. now often omitted. * Cadenzas to Mozart's and Beethoven's Pianoforte Concertos have been written, amongst others, by Moscheles, Liszt, Von Eiilow, Clara Schumann and Reinecke. t " Do not make a Cadenza, but go on immediately to the following matter." FORM IN MUSIC, 233 A more important modification, however, of the Mozartean Concerto-form* was made by Mendelssohn, who deleted the somewhat tedious "first tutti," allowing the Compression of soloist to enter either at the outset, or shortly nrst movement. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^j^^ Double Exposition is done away with, and, as a result, the whole design gains in conciseness and a certain degree of impetus, which is often of distinct value — especially when it is remembered that the subjects in more modern works are frequently displayed, on their first entry, with greater fulness and at greater length than in the earlier examples of instrumental art. Mendelssohn's innovation upon established custom has, with few exceptions, been followed by later composers, and very rarely does the preliminary " tutti " — even if there is one — extend to any considerable length. | As regards the remaining movements of a Concerto, it may be said that they mostly correspond to the slow-movement and " finale " of a sonata. Even with Mozart, The remaining there is in these portions of the work more ofa Concepto. freedom of form ; the preliminary " tutti " is not regarded as essential ; often the solo instrument begins and the orchestra follows, and the two are continually interwoven in passages of a responsive or "conver- sational " character. The four-movement form, curiously, has not found favour, and the " Scherzo " rarely finds a place in the Concerto-scheme. § Cadenzas are occasionally introduced into these later movements — as in Beethoven's Violin Concerto — but, as a rule, they are shorter than the first Cadenza, and often do not occur at all.|| The Pianoforte Concertos of Chopin largely follow the older model of Mozart, and, regarded as pieces for a solo-instrument in combination with the orchestra, fail completely Coneeptos °^ success, owing to the fact that Chopin knew practically nothing of the orchestra. The consequence is that, as a matter of fact, they sound better as solos without the orchestra, or with the orchestral part played on a second pianoforte. * The Pianoforte Concertos of Hummel (1778-1837) follow the Mozartean model. t Beethoven's Pianoforte Concertos in G and E flat open with passages for the soloist, but they are very brief, and are immediately succeeded by a complete First Exposition in the orchestra. X A conspicuous modern instance of the old form is the first movement of Brahms' D minor Concerto, already alluded to. Here there is a complete first Exposition for the orchestra before the soloist enters. § Professor Prout, in Grove's Dictionary, mentions a "Concerto-Symphonic" by Litolff, with four movements ; and Brahms' Pianoforte Concerto in B flat (No. 2) also has this number of movements. A " Scherzo " — it is true — appears in Saint-Saens' Piano Concerto in G minor, but the whole work is free in construction, and even then contains only three movements, viz: Andante sostenttto, Scherzo, and Finale. II Beethoven, in his Piano-Concerto in G, has the remark — in the last movement — " La Cadenza sia corta," i.e., "The Cadenza to be short." 234 FORM IN MUSIC. Pieces for a solo-instrument (or instruments) and orchestra, not in full concerto-form, are to be met with in the works of — amongst others — Weber, Mendelssohn, and in^fufl^^^ Schumann, and the number has been added Coneerto-form. ^^ ^^ ^"^^ \2X%r writers. Weber, in his " Concertstiick " for Pianoforte and orchestra, w'as one of the first — if not the first — to write a serious work of this class in anything but the classical form. The movements — Weber and ^^^ Lar ghetto ma non troppo; (ii) Allegro Spohp. passionato ; (iii) Adagio^ leading to Tempo di Marcia ; (iv) Fiii mosso, leading to Assai presto — although separated in two places by perfect cadences, are in reality continuous, and are designed to be played without break, forming a highly effective and poetic piece of music. Spohr's Violin Concerto in A minor (the " Dramatic ") is not dissimilar in structural idea. It begins with an Allegro^ in which the orchestral " tutti" is interspersed with " recitative " passages for the Solo Violin. This ^//(f^r*?— somewhat Hke the Exposition of a piece in Sonata-form — closes in the relative major, and is succeeded immediately by an Adagio in F major, in Episodical form — which is linked to the " Finale " by another passage of " recitative " for the Solo Violin. Such works as Mendelssohn's two Rondos in E flat and B minor, the same master's " Serenade and Allegro giojoso," and Schumann's Concertstiick in G, all owe their existence as art-forms to Weber's lead, and the history of the Concerto in later years has shewn a marked desire on the part of composers to make fresh experiments in the matter of form — not always, it is true, attended with complete success. Among these, a prominent Cnp ^rtnc position must be assigned to Liszt. The late concerios. ^^^ ^ Dannreuther, in Vol. VI. of the "Oxford History of Music," says : " Taking a hint from . . . Wagner's system of "Leitmotive," as employed in Tannhduser and Lohengrin, Liszt strove for unity (i) by making a single subject serve both in quick and slow time, (ii) by making a continuous movement of the entire piece, and (iii) by stringing together the main subject with its variants and all accessory melodies in the final peroration." Thus, in his Pianoforte Concerto in E flat, the principal theme of the first movement — 212. _ Allegro maestoso. '-' jM J.. ^^Ljj^ and three themes prominent in the slow movement Quasi adagio, (i) Quasi adagio. ^^^^.^-^ -^« .Q^ FORM IN MUSIC. 235 v) e-*i"i4"^^^i' r r Cj-it n g'X * I > t Q &C. (^) i se M :{^ V^ ^ ^ *^ -^8-^ &c. are made extensive use of in the " Finale," and subjected to treatment shewing considerable ingenuity, as the following " transformations " of themes {b) and {d) will demonstrate : — 213. Allegro marziale animato. IM m^ St Allegro animato. Sva^ IjjiLJj'^' i l , . r » . ij n ^m -: &c 236 FORM IN MUSIC. the whole work concluding with a Presto, founded upon (a), thus ; Presto. (a) Piano. m^=¥ M col Swi. P Orchestra. •^-L- 'P^ tfS- V*- m-r^ ^ir4^ fe iTl c r F^^ ^ Notwithstanding their cleverness, the concertos of Liszt can hardly be regarded as altogether satisfactory models of artistic form. His inability to develop with any degree of continuity the ideas he uses has been a drawback of a somewhat marked character in the unfolding of a really beautiful design, and the appeal of these concertos will always be stronger as illustrations of Liszt's amazing mastery and originality in dealing with the technique both of the Piano and the Orchestra, than as specimens of shapely and coherent structure. It is impossible within the limits of a work such as the present volume to follow in detail the various experiments that have been made from time to time by modern composers in dealing with the Concerto-form. It must suffice to say that two tendencies have of late been observable : (i) to compress the older plan of the first movement on the lines first systematically Later tendencies carried out by Mendelssohn, and (ii) to connect writin? ^^® various movements together so as practically to form a continuous whole, the movements in themselves being usually shorter and less fully-developed than would otherwise be the case. A beautiful concerto, exemplifying in some measure each of the above-named tendencies with, it may be said, complete success, is that in G minor for the Violin, by Max Bruch. Another notable modern concerto has already been alluded to on page 233, viz: that by Saint-Saens for the Pianoforte, in G minor, the form of which is unusual but extremely interesting ; while that by Tschaikowsky for the same instrument, in B flat minor, has won deserved popularity for the melodious nature of its themes and the effectiveness of its solo-part. Other interesting modern concertos are those by Hiller, Rubinstein and Grieg for the Piano ; Dvorak for the Violin (Op. 53), and Tschaikowsky for the Violin (Op. 35) ; and in this category mention must be made of the fine violin concerto in C sharp minor by Sir A. C. Mackenzie, as well as uf the same composer's " Pibroch " and " Highland Ballad " for the same instrument, all of which carry on the best traditions of the Concerto, while illustrating the legitimate process of structural modification that has been, and is, going on in the more modern treatment of this form. FORM IN MUSIC. a 37 CHAPTER XXIV. I.— DANCE FORMS— THE SUITE, PARTITA, &c. II.— INDEFINITE FORMS. ' In the early days of instrumental art, that is to say, during the latter part of the i6th and the beginning of the 17th centuries, composers who were dimly striving after a style that might be said to possess the quality of fitness for its particular purpose, found in a possible development of the popular dance-forms of ihe time, one means at least by which their end might ultimately be achieved. In England, dances such as the Pavan, the Galliard, the Almain,* and the Branle (or Dan^-fopms Brawl) are to be found in considerable numbers in collections such as "Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book," '* My Ladye Nevell's Booke," " Benjamin Cosyn's Virginal Book," &c., and evidence shews that composers early began to contrast these dances one with the other, in sets, thus laying the foundation of the " Suites " that The Suite. became so popular during the 17 th and i8th centuries. The actual dances incorporated in the Suite seem to have been selected by a process of gradual sifting — the result of much experimenting ; but, by the time of Bach and Handel it came to be an understood thing that a Suite in regular form should have, as a foundation, an AUemande, a Courante, a Sarabande, and a Gigue. To these Foundation- ^ Prelude was often added as an opening the Suite. movement, and frequently we find other dances appearing — such as the Gavotte, Minuet, Passepied, &c. — the position of these being between the Sarabande and the Gigue. The " Ordres " of Frangois Couperin (1668-1733) are in reality Suites for the harpsichord, in which, however, the usual sequence . , of dances is rarely adhered to. The first few "*Op^^p^s^" begin with an AUemande, two Courantes, a Sarabande, and sometimes a Gigue, succeeded by a number of small pieces with fancy names — often in the Older Rondo-form; but the later ones frankly abandon the dance-forms, and consist almost entirely of little movements with titles such as " Les papillons," " La tendre Fanchon," " Tendresses bachiques," &c., &c. The dances are mostly in the Binary form so . popular with the later 17th and early i8th Mmmmflnt^ century composers, in which the music is split up into two fairly equal portions, separated by a double-bar, the first part beginning in the Tonic key and ending usually in the Dominant or the Relative Major, the second part * O' AUemande." {Sec paije 240.) 238 FORM IN MUSIC. making the return from that secondary key to the Tonic* The following little Gavotte is typical of this : — Francois Codperin. — Gavotte " La" Bourbonnoise," from " Premier Ordre." vr w w 214. ^s r ^- J t- J % '^^ » I: ir IT JTJjp Jl i J H? :I^ ^ ^ J . r J r J :e y'j J rr^^ l gr -LT^rrr a ^ *■ kZ: ^ T W tr tt^ ^^ ^: ^ r * r ^ ^ ^^ ^.-d.- — A ^^^^^^m w Itz^ m^ r f f r ^ * A very clear and unmistakable example of Ternary form is, however, found in a " Passepicd " in the Second "Ordre." FORM IN MUSIC. 239 i w' ^ 1^- w ^ 2nd, ^ ^ ^ m ^ g S fT r^ r The Suite perfected by Bach and Handel. With Handel and Bach the Suite reached its zenith, and in a very special way may be said to represent the culmination of the contrapuntal school of thought of which they were the chief exponents. They learnt much from their Italian predecessors, and, moreover, the influence of Couperin upon Bach is not a fancied one ; but in his Suites and Partitas more especially, there is a richness and a wealth of expression that one looks for in vain in the works of the earlier men. The actual movements incorporated in these Suites present points of interest as to their selection. For instance, Handel's Suites, the first eight Suites of Handel begin with a Prelude of some kind — in the case of Suite No. 4, a Fugue — and vary considerably as to the remaining numbers. The four foundation -dances referred to above, viz : the AUemande, Courante, Sarabande and Gigue, occur together in Suite No. 4 only ; others contain only two of these, and into Suite No. 2 they do not enter at all, the Suite consisting of : (i) an Adagio, (ii) an Allegro, (iii) an Adagio, and (iv) a Fugue. On the other hand, Suites Nos. 9 to 16 are far more regular, the four typical dances appearing almost without exception, supplemented here and there by a Minuet or a Gavotte. The Prelude, though, is in every case absent. Bach's "Suites Frangaises" also omit the Prelude, beginning invariably with an AUemande, followed by a Courante and Sarabande. After that comes sometimes a Bach's Suites. Minuet, sometimes a Bourree or Gavotte, the Suite always concluding with a Gigue.* The " Suites Anglaises," in A major, A minor and G minor begin with an extended Prelude, and contain the usual four dances, with the addition of two Bourrees in Nos. i and 2, and two Gavottes in No. 3. The " Partitas " of Bach — really Suites under a different name — contain the usual four Bach's PaPtitas. dance-forms, viz : the AUemande, Courante, Sarabande and Gigue, with the exception of No. 2, in C minor, in which the Gigue is wanting. The opening * Other movements in these "Suites Fran9aises" are : an "Air" (in Suites No. 2 and No. 4), an " Anglaise " in Suite No. 3, a " Loure " in Suite No. 5, and a " Polonaise " in Suite No. 6. 340 FORM IN MUSIC. movement in these Partitas is variously designated by Bach ; m No. I it is a Prilude; in No. 2 a Sinfonie ; in No. 3 a Fantaisie; in No. 4 an Ouvcrture; in No. 5 a Friambule, and in No. 6 a Having sketched the main features of the Suite, it now remains to describe briefly the special characteristics of Charaetensties j-j^g various dances. The movements of a dances Suite are all in the same key, and almost without exception in the Binary form already alluded to, save in those cases where a special form is indicated by the title, e.g. : the Rondeau in Bach's Partita in C minor, and several such pieces in the Ordres of Couperin. The Allemande (Almain, Alemain, Almane, Allemaigne, Allemand). — The only movement of the Suite, besides the Prelude, not based (according to some authorities) upon a dance. It is of German origin, as its name implies, and appears as a piece in moderate % time, in which a fairly regular flow of comparatively rapid notes (generally semi-quavers) is kept up. It usually begins with a short unaccented note (a quaver or a semi-quaver) before the bar, e.g. : — Bach. — Allemande from Partita in BJJt. Allerro moderatt. tfA^^te i 5 ^p 215. The Courante (Corrente, Coranto). — Of this dance there are two very distinct types, one of French origin, and one of Italian. The French Courante is in quick % time, with which there is a peculiar admixture of 4, particularly noticeable at the cadences, but often occurring at other places in the course of the piece. Another feature of this form of Courante is the prevalence of dotted-notes. The following example will shew these points: — Alolto allegro. Bach. 216.- * E > -Courante from Suite Anglaise, in A minor. T f >r £ =si3: ^^ * Other movements in these Partitas are : two Minuets in No. i ; a Rondeau and a Caprice in No. 2 ; a Burlesca and a Scherzo in No. 3 ; an Aria and a Minuet in No. 4 ; a Minuet and a Passepied in No. 5 ; and an Air and a Gavotte in No. 6, FORM IN MUSIC. 241 ^a -^ i ^ fc v The Italian Corrente is of an entirely different character. It is in either I or | time, and consists almost entirely of '* running " passages more in keeping with its title (Ital. correre, to run). The cross-accents of the French variety are here entirely absent, e.g. : — Allegro. Handel. — Courante from Suite in G. 217. yK I -r^ l J]P^ ^ ^i^\ \ u If p i j; » i| :; m m 'm ^m ^^ &c. £: ^ ^ The Sarabande (Saraband, Sarabanda). — This dance, probably of either Spanish or Moorish origin, is in slow "tempo," in ' or ^ time, and often has as a marked feature a strong emphasis on the second beat of the bar. It is usually of a dignified character, and assumes in many instances a more harmonic texture than most of the other movements of the Suite, e.g.: — Bach. — Sarabande from Suite Anglaise, in G minor. Andante sostenuto. &c. 218. 242 FORM IN MUSIC. The Gigue (Giga, Jig). — This dance, the final movement of the Suite, is a light and rapid piece, usually in compound duple or compound quadruple time, distinguished as a rule (though not invariably) by a continuous division of its beats into triplets, e.g.: — DOMENico ZiPOLi (1685-?)— Gigue, in G minor. Alle gro. ^ -P-^-.^c 219. (f^"V['rr i ^jrr;^'r^ ^ ^ The Gigue is not infrequently marked by the fugal treatment of its principal idea, e.g.: — Vivace e leggiero. Bach. — Gigue from Suite Franjaise, in G. 220.« ^'Hl d ^^^S rtr r i tLT^rr^ ^ (3rd voice enters.) the second half of the movement opening, as likely as not, with a fresh " fugato " by inversion^ e.g.: — (2nd (2nd voice enters.) ^^r^^imm &c. FORM IN MUSIC. 243 The Gavotte (Gavot, Gavote, Gavotta). — This is a French dance, in time, at a moderately quick pace, beginning always at the half-bar, e.g.: — Bach. — Gavotte from Suite Anglaise, in G minor. 221. i ;fc=s: ^^ ^^ &c. ^s P • m f P r^^ '-gjlj ' (iVtf also example from Couperin on page 238.) The Gavotte is frequently followed by a second, called a " Musette,"* written upon a Pedal bass : — 222. Bach. — " Musette" from Suite Anglaise, in G minor. ft.j.^ l j iJJ.^ I Jj^.^f^J%.+^^ Jj , J,rl^^ , J.^J j ,J . .^Jj ,J &c. ^iztr the first Gavotte being repeated after the second, thus forming a design precisely analogous to that of the Minuet and Trio. The Bourree. — A French dance, akin to the Gavotte, from which it is distinguished by the fact that it begins on the last crotchet of the bar, instead of on the third. t Its general style is, perhaps, slightly more animated than the Gavotte : — • So called from the " Musette," or Shepherd's pipe, which had a " Drone," or single bass-note, accompanying whatever tune was played upon it. t Some few Bourrees are wrongly designated Gavottes, «.,f. : Bach's Gavotte in B minor (from his Sonata in B minor for Violin), which begins thus : — 244 223. FORM IN MUSIC. Molto allegro. Bach. — Bourree fiom Suite Anglaise, in A. j.¥,i, jiJTJJ^ =te rf=F i U' ^u ^""^ -F^#-^-.r-4y^ ^ ^ &c. ^« rrrr'-irr ^ A Bourree is often succeeded by a second, as in the case of the Gavotte. The Minuet (Menuet, Menuetto) has already been extensively alluded to in earlier portions of this volume. It will suffice now to say that it was originally a slow and stately dance in triple time, beginning on the first beat of the bar, e.g. : — Andante moderato. Handel. — Minuet in F, from " Sept pieces." tr _ tr^ ^^ 224. P=:|=?E ^ ^ crC" 1^" flj &c. ^^ ^ i s When Haydn incorporated the Minuet into his symphonies, he entirely altered its character by quickening the pace, as was shewn in Chapter VI. (page 42). Examples of the later type, in which the piece nearly always begins on the third beat of the bar, will be seen in Figs. 97 and 99. It will be remembered that the Minuet was almost invariably followed by a second, called the Trio, after which the first Minuet was repeated. The Modern Suite consists of a set of comparatively short pieces, not necessarily in dance-form, to which special fanciful titles are often given, and with which at times some definite " programme " is associated. {See, as typical specimens of the Modern Suite, Grieg's " Peer Gynt," Tschaikowsky's " Casse- noisette," &c.) FORAf IN MUSIC, MS Modern Dance-forms. The Valse (Waltz, Walzer, Valsa) is so familiar a form of dance as hardly to need description. Formerly of a somewhat slower character than now, it is written almost always in \ time, proceeding, however, al a pace that in reality causes two of its bars to sound like a single bar of \. {See Fig. 6i.) Of the modern "Valse de Salon," not intended for dancing purposes, the most beautiful specimens are those by Chopin. Those intended to be danced to, such as have been written in hundreds by such men asjohann Strauss, Gung'l, Waldteufel, &c., are mostly planned in sets of four or five, preceded by a slow introduction, and ending with a Coda referring to the principal themes of the different waltzes in the set. The Mazurka (Mazurk, Mazourk, Mazurek) is a dance of Polish origin, generally in quick % time, in which there is a good deal of accentuation of the normally weaker pulses. {See example from Chopin, on page 29.) The Polonaise (or Polacca) is also of Polish extraction, and also in triple time, but of a decidedly slower and broader " tempo." Although found as early as Bach, whose Suite Frangaise in E contains an interesting specimen, the modern Polonaise in reality dates from the time of Weber, whose Polonaise in E flat and Polacca in E are well-known examples. Of still later writers Chopin is the most noted. The _ Polonaise has one feature distinguishing it from other dances, viz: the fact that the cadence-chord of its various phrases always falls on a weak beat (the 3rd), as was shewn in Fig. 39.* The following extract will demonstrate the special rhythmic accentuation of this form of dance : — Allegro vivace. Weber. — " Polacca brillante," in E, Op. 72. 225. The Bolero, of Spanish origin, in \ time, is akin to the Polonaise, but lacks the peculiar cadence-accentuation, and is usually accompanied by a figure such as r If T r T T or i_aj r r r r which frequently begins before the melody. * Some authorities describe this as a " feminine ending " to the phrase. 246 FORM IN MUSIC. The Tarantella (Tarantelle) is a Neapolitan dance of very rapid tempo, in | time, e.g. : — J. L. NicodA. — Op. 13. Presto. 226. ^S ^ ^3 ^ fh-u^ in \^'^ 'uJ &c. C*l'!. f •. ^ Akin to the Tarantella is the Saltarello, referred to in connexion with Mendelssohn's "Italian" Symphony on page 223. The actual form of most modern dances is that which we have called the " Episodical " (based upon the familiar type of the Minuet and Trio), in which a new theme is introduced as a contrast in the middle of the piece, to be succeeded by a return to the principal idea. Many modifications of a minor and purely incidental nature are to be met with from time to time, but the main principles are those we have stated at considerable length in Chapters IX. and XI. The March is to be found in several shapes, e.g., as the ordinary Parade march, the Quick march, the Funeral march, &c. These, of course, differ in speed and even in time, some being in 4, some in |, some in |, &c. ; but their form is nearly always the same, viz: the Ternary form spoken of in Chapter IX. A second theme in the position of Trio is often introduced {e.g., Beethoven's " Funeral March " in the Pianoforte Sonata, Op. 26 ; Chopin's March in the B flat minor Sonata for the Piano ; Mendelssohn's "War March of the Priests" in "Athalie," the " Wedding March " from the same author's " Midsummer Night's Dream " music (with two trios), &c., &c. Indefinite Forms. Under this heading may be classed all such pieces as Etudes, Preludes, Toccatas, Nocturnes, Caprices and Capriccios, Intermezzi, Fantasias, Ballades, Impromptus, Bagatelles, Rhapsodies, &c., the form of which varies from time to time in the hands of FORM IN MUSIC. 247 different composers. In very many of these, the "Episodical" form is to be found as the outhne-plan ; a few words must, however, be said respecting the Etude, Prelude and Fantasia, whose actual shape is recognizable by certain fairly-marked features. The Etude (or Study). — Primarily intended as an exercise for the overcoming of specific technical difificulties of execution, the Etude has, in the hands of the better composers, become a really artistic form, in which actual musical interest and beauty are manifested, as is shewn by the Etudes of Cramer, Clementi, Moscheles, Chopin, Heller, Liszt, Sterndale-Bennett, Henselt, and others. The Etude usually sets out with some special figure, illustrating some particular executive or aesthetic difficulty, and maintains this figure throughout the greater part of the movement, which frequently is in some sort of Binary or Ternary form, e.g. : — Molto allegro. Czerny.— " L'Art de d^lier," Op. 699. ^^ 227. cliJ UHJ ;^^ ^ ^^j'>i- 1 J^ 1 ^h 1 r %va. r j't^^f^J'^' l xg- * ^ I "I J;- 228. (And similarly throughout.) Chopin. — Op. 25, I'ook tl. (And similaTly throtigboat) 248 FORM IN MUSIC. The Prelude (=something played before) amounts at times to little more than a few chords preliminary to a movement of greater importance, but often assumes larger proportions. The Preludes to Bach's 48 Fugues are well-known examples of this class. Such Preludes may be roughly grouped as follows : — (fl) Those which are nothing more than a series of harmonies dispersed in some form of "arpeggio " (such as Preludes Nos. I and 6 of the first book of the " Forty-eight ") ; (b) Those representing the continuous development of some special "figure" or "figures" (such as Nos. 2, 5, 15 and 21 of the first book, and Nos. 2 and 20 of Book II.); (<■) Movements freely contrapuntal in style (such as Nos. 4, 7, 12, 16, 19 and 24 of Book I., and Nos. 4, 5, 8 and many others in Book II.); {i) Movements of a distinctly lyrical nature (such as Nos. 8 and 22 of Book I.) Fine examples of the Prelude in its various shapes will be found also in Bach's Preludes and Fugues for the Organ ; in the same master's Suites and Partitas, already alluded to ; in the six Prehides and Fugues of Mendelssohn (Op. 35) ; the 24 Preludes of Chopin* (Op. 28); the Preludes (Op. 17) by Felix Blumenfeld,* &c., many of which approximate in internal form to either the Binary or Ternary movements spoken of in Chapters VIII. and IX. The Fantasia is, as its name impHes, a composition in which the composer follows the dictates of his fancy in a manner somewhat similar to an improvisation. Its form comes under no definite heading, scarcely two Fantasias being alike in this respect; but we often find that a Fantasia consists of several sections leading one into the other, as {c.g^ Mozart's Fantasia in C minor, commencing! : — Adagio. 229. &€. The same master's other Fantasia in C minor (dedicated to his wife) has somewhat of the shape of a " First movement," the Fantasias of Mendelssohn being also more or less regular in form. Amongst the better known and more elaborately-planned Fantasias may be mentioned Bach's "Chromatic" Fantasia in D minor, Schubert's "Wanderer" Fantasia (Op. 15), Schumann's Fantasia in C major (Op. 17), Liszt's Hungarian Fantasia, &c., all of which will repay the closest study. * Not " preludial " at all, but complete in themselves. t This opening theme is brought back at the end of the piece, giving a certain unity to the whole. FORM IN MUSIC. 249 CHAPTER XXV. THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF SONATA-FORM. It will have been gathered from earlier chapters that the musical design we knowas Sonata-form, or First Movement-form, has been — from the time of Haydn until now — developed form Ternapv^" "P°" Ternary lines; in other words, it is a in idea. ioxv^ which is clearly and easily divisible into three main sections, which we have called respectively the Exposition, the Development, and the Recapitulation. It must, however, now be shewn that the history of Sonata-form reveals the somewhat curious fact that, for a time at least, its development took place within the more restricted limits of the Binary idea. The early Italian instrumental writers of the 17th century — although both the Binary and Ternary forms were in existence in national folk-songs and dances — for some reason or another elected to proceed on the lines of the simpler of these, and consequently we find their experiments in purely instrumental art assuming by degrees a clear Binary struc- \^^fnX. o^T^^Qfi, ture. This is well exemplified by the Gavotte in 17tn and 18tn r ^ • i u r> • ^^ j » ,. a Centuries. ixova Couperm s Premier Ordre quoted on page 238. The historical development of this form will be clearly and succinctly indicated by the following outline-schemes : — I. Simple Binary Movement on the plan of which many early instrumental movements were constructed *: — A. Tonic key, modulating to Dominant. ; B. Tonic key throughout, or Domi- nant key modulating to Tonic. In this type the cadence bars of (A) are frequently reproduced at the conclusion of (B). {See page 64.) * It became, from early times, the custom to repeat both sections of these Binary movements, partly, perhaps, in order to spin them out to a respectable length ; partly also in order to impress the matter more firmly on the mind of the listener. In later times the repeat of the second part was dispensed with, although it still lingers in some of the movements in Sonata-form of Haydn and Mozart, and even in one or two of the early works of Beethoven, e.g., the first Pianoforte Sonata, in F minor (Op. 2, No. i). On the other hand, in the classical minuets it is retained, the second and third parts of their undoubtedly Ternary design being repeated together^ proving their relationship to theii Binary predecessors. aso FORM IN MUSIC. II. More Developed Binary Movement, typical of the majority of those occurring in the Suites, &c., of Bach, Handel, and other 17th and early i8th century writers : — Opening matter in Tonic, modu- lating to Dominant, in which key this part would conclude with some well-marked cadence-bars. B. Opening matter of (A) reproduced to some extent, starting from Dominant key ; the music passing • eventually — after a certain amount of modulation* — to Tonic key, with reproduction of cadence-bars of (A), now transposed into the Tonic, See "Allegro" in Handel's Suite in F (No. 2.) As time went on, the cadence-figures at the end of each part grew in importance, both as regards their size and their melodic interest, and we find that, as the need for more Sft^n d% ihifipt sharply -defined contrasts penetrated men's ^ ' miiids, this particular portion of the movement so increased in significance as to constitute virtually a Second Subject, as may be seen from the following extracts, representing respectively the opening theme of Part I. and the later matter of the same Part, in an early Sonata-movement : — {a) Opening Theme in Tonic — 230. DOMENico Paradies (1710-1792) — " Prcsto " from Sonata in D, No. 10. tr ^ tr i. i: frth- 5" i-*i- . :£ ^ m m=^ s (i) Later matter in Dominant {concluding bars)- '-^^Jr—^ * It will be remembered that, as was shewn on pages 67-69, this second half of the movement began early to expand in size and freedom of key. FORM IN MUSIC. 35' * H' V ■-. r~i ^ ^^^m -ct III. Thus the formal design took the following shape: — (a) Opening theme in Tonic, modu- lating to {b) Second theme, often in Dominant. B. (a) Opening theme starting from ; Dominant key ; then some ex- pansion of this, passing — after a certain amount of modulation — to (jb) Second theme, in Tonic. The next step to be noticed is clearly the result of a feeling that, after the digression caused by the freer and more extended key-plan of the second part of many movements, the reproduction of only the Second Subject was (as Sir Hubert Parry says) " barely sufficient to give a comfortable re-assurance of being safe home in the original key." Thus it came about that the first theme was re-introduced after this modulatory excursion, as well as at the opening of Part II., causing the design to appear thus: — Double appearance of First Subject in Part II. IV. Movement with double appearance of First Subject in Part II. (a) Opening theme in Tonic, modu- lating to (b) Second theme, usually in Domi- nant. B. (a) Opening theme in Dominant — modulation and expansion — leading to (a) Opening theme in Tonic, and (b) Second theme in Tonic. As interesting specimens of this (too long for quotation here), we may instance Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach's Sonata in A (No. 7 of Pauer's " Alte Meister") and the Vivace from Paradies' Sonata in D (No. lo). 252 FORM IN MUSIC. The final stage in the evolution of Sonata-form, as we are familiar with it in the writings of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, &c., is marked by the disappearance of the first theme from the opening of Part 11. At the same time, the modulatory expansion of the main ideas in Part 11. became increasingly important, so much so as to constitute in reality a separate division of the piece — by which it assumes the fully-developed Ternary form with which we are already familiar in our consideration of Sonata-form in Chapters XIII. -XVL, e.g. : — Final stage in historical Development of Sonata-fopm. First theme in Tonic — Second theme in Dominant. B. Development of ideas in other keys. First theme in Tonic — Second theme in Tonic. types existing side by side. Instances of the retention of the First Subject at the opening of Part II. are to be found in works written even after the recognition of the more modern type of movement now Older and newer universal*; but it should be borne in mind that successive stages in the evolution of a design are rarely marked by an immediate abandonment of previous customs, but that a certain degree ot hesitation prevails for some time as to the actual value of the newer ideas. As a consequence, there is a considerable amount of "looking back" as well as "looking forward" during such periods of change — quite easily accounting for the presence, side by side, of old and new. From the foregoing sketch of the history of Sonata-form, it will have been seen that the Ternary aspect of the modern examples of this class has been reached by means of an internal stretching or expansion of the Binary, and thus composers have worked round by a somewhat circuitous route to a point which, in reality, could have been arrived at more easily by a development along Ternary lines from the not a fanciful or untenable assumption will be clear if the student will refer again to Chapters IX. and XIII., in which he will see how the Sonata-form is virtually an enlarged version of the little Ternary piece given on page 71, its connexion with this being shewn by the successive stages of elaboration illustrated by the two Minuets of Mozart quoted on pages 72 and 116 respectively. Modern Ternary shape of Sonata-form the outcome of an expansion of older Binary. first. That this 5«, for example, Haydn's Quartet in F (Op. 2, No. 4). FORM IN MUSIC. 253 True as this is, it is nevertheless the case that the Binary form was adopted almost exclusively by the composers of the 17 th and early i8th centuries. Instances are not wanting of the Ternary design, but they are quite the exception to the general rule.* By the time of Haydn and Mozart the older type had virtually disappeared, and Sonata-form then emerged into the fuller freedom of the Ternary idea, with its vastly increased possibilities of variety and of development. CHAPTER XXVI. MODERN TENDENCIES. It may, without fear of much contradiction, be said that the Sonata and the Symphony reached their zenith in the creations of Beethoven, who in a very special sense was the means of shewing the adaptability of the existing forms to a newer expressiveness and a deeper sentiment. Sonatas and symphonies, it is true, have been and are being written, and Modern Sonatas x^x^x composers have from time to time made and Symphonies. • \ , ^ , experiments — some more, some less, successful — in the direction of a modification of the accepted designs. The net result, however, of these efforts is in reality small ; and in the case of the most distinguished modern writer of such works, Johannes Brahms, it is noteworthy that the classical model is adhered to in a quite remarkable degree. Dvorkk and Tschaikowsky occasionally depart from traditional lines, and the special characteristics of national tune are often to be found embodied in their orchestral and chamber music. Of the symphonies of Tschaikowsky, No. 6 (The " Pathetic") contains certain points of interest structurally, notably the placing of the slow movement last of the four of which the work consists. This exceptional proceeding is, however, quite justified by the underlying sentiment of the whole work. The symphonies and sonatas of other modern writers, such as Cade, Goidmark, Raff, Goetz, Cesar Franck, Villiers Stanford, Frederick Cowen, Glazounow, &c., are, with few exceptions, on the generally accepted lines. Two names, though, stand forth conspicuously as those of innovators in the realm of Symphony, viz: Berlioz and Liszt ; of these more will be said in dealing with the Symphonic Poem. * As a very clear specimen, $ee the second Minuet of Bach's French Suite in D minor, also the " Air " from that in E flat major. A piece curiously on the " border line" is the " Polonaise " in the French Suite in E, where the return to the beginning (the distinguishing mark of a Ternary form) is only faintly suggested. 254 FORM IN MUSIC, From the time of the earlier Romantic composers of the 19th century (such as Mendelssohn, Schumann and Chopin), a marked tendency has taken place to introduce a distinct The Literary «' literary " element into music, manifested in jUy^g^ a growing desire to illustrate musically some more or less definite poetical idea — it may be, some medieval legend, some story of knight-errantry, or what not. This " fertilisation of music by poetry," as Wagner described it, led in some cases to a sort of " impressionism," the sole aim of which was the depicting of its subject in tones, and in whose schem.e the element of symmetrical form played but a subordinate part. On the other hand, music gained much in colour, in truth and intimacy of expression, and in emotional fervour from this literary connexion, and this phase of art has since been one whose significance cannot be over-estimated. The history of the " Romantic movement " in musical art and, with it, the story of "Programme-music"* is an interesting and fascinating theme upon which much could be said. Space, however, forbids a discussion of the claims of this literary element in music, important and far-reaching as it is, and the student must be referred to such exhaustive works as the late Mr. E. Dannreuther's " Romantic Period," in the Oxford History of Music; Professor Niecks' "Programme-music"; Mr. Ernest Newman's " Musical Studies," &c. What we are here concerned with is the actual effect of this movement upon musical structure, and it may be said that one of its most notable results has been the The Symphonic establishment of the type of art-work known as the Symphonic Poem. This may be described as an off-shoot of the Symphony, and was practically an invention of Franz Liszt, who, in his " Poemes Symphoniques," sought to illustrate, more or less in detail, the ideas of various poems of Schiller, Victor Hugo, and others. As has been well said, though, " the path-finder in the direction of musical illustration " of this kind was Hector Berlioz,! in whose " Symphonic fantastique," " Romeo et Juliette," and " Harold en Itahe," we find many attempts at pictorial illustration in music. The laist-named work, although entitled a symphony, and divided roughly into four sections, is decidedly unusual in design. The following is a synopsis of its main points : — I. Harold in the mountains. (Scenes of melancholy, happiness and joy.) Adagio — Allegro. * Music seeking to depict or suggest some idea outside itselj, and therefore to some extent dependent for its full effect upon the hearer's acquaintance with that idea. t E. Dannreuther, "The Romantic Teriod "(Oxford History of Music, Vol. VI.). FORM IN MUSIC. 255 II. Procession of pilgrims. Allegretto (written on a Canto, or fixed song, afterwards combined with the theme of the opening Adagio). III. Serenade of an Abruzzi mountaineer to his sweetheart. (Theme of Adagio occurs here also.) Allegretto — Allegro assai. IV. Brigands' Orgies. (Reminiscences of preceding scenes.) Berlioz made a practice of associating certain themes with definite ideas in the story or scene he wished to illustrate. Lidiefixe, or "representative theme," appears " L'idee fixe." in one of his first important orchestral works, viz: the "Symphonic fantastique," and is always associated with the image of a maiden as it presented itself to the imagination of the hero, an episode in whose life Berlioz is presumed to be depicting musically. With Liszt this use of the "representative theme " goes further. He often causes such a theme, by many ingenious metamorphoses, to serve as the subject of almost all the various Liszt's use of sections or movements of a Symphonic Poem, tlfe^mes.^"'^ ative ^^^ ^.j^^^ arrives at some degree of unity of design which, without some such device, would be sadly lacking, owing to his weakness and laxity on the constructive side of his art. As an illustration of Liszt's method of thus Unking-up the several parts of one of these Symphonic Poems, it may be interesting to quote the following extracts from his '■^Tasso: lamento e trionfo" which will shew some of the changes of character assumed by two main themes : — {a) First Main Therne — Ltnto 281. m>'^ ^-^jy- J=:^ ^^ &c. {b) Second Main Thefne — Adagio mesto. 232. ^te ^ P\ y ^.^ &c. ^^ 256 FORM IN MUSIC (a) First Metamorphosis — Allegretto. '^ 233. MtS j f • J ^ ^^^ ± p=s; ^ &C (a) Second Metamorphosis- Allegro. 234. P ^ t gs 3 ^ 3 ^ ^^^^ n i ;:rj- &C. (a) a«^ (<5) combined and changed in character — Allegretto. ^ Kb) 235. *-T — •^ l^V'^; f fffif t- ^ g^i%*l-^^ rj--^,-f 7 r r t- ^- ^^^ FORM IN MUSIC. (a) and {b) combined and again changed in character — Moikrato pompoio. 236. «S7 WTl~Uj t4j4 ;3 Sue. 3 The Symphonic Poem as an art-work seems to be one that has achieved a certain degree of permanence.* Associated as it ahvays is with some particular poetic thought or thoughts, or seeking to portray incidents in the life of some hero or heroine, it assumes of necessity a freer and more elastic form than that of the Symphony, and it is clear that some considerable modifica- exisUn^fopms^ ^^°" °^ *^^ recognized forms must take place ^ * when a composer is dealing with "illustrative" music. As Mr. Ernest Newman well puts it in his " Musical Studies ": " If the modern men reject the classical forms, and try to produce new ones of their own, it can only be because their ideas are not the classical ideas, and must find the investiture most natural and most propitious to them." But, as the same author goes on to say, such music, although claiming as a necessity a certain freedom of formal outline, must be able " to tell a story adequately and at the same time satisfy our desire for interesting musical development." In other words, music, whether it be what we call " absolute " music (such as a symphony or a sonata), unconnected with any idea external to itself, or whether it seek to illustrate in sound some impression or some svmmfifpv story, can never be formless ; it must always ^ ^* possess that sense of symmetry and fitness for its purpose without which it must inevitably fail as a work of art. * Among writers of Symphonic Poems may be mentioned Saint-Saens ("Danse Macabre," " Rouet d'Omphale,"&c.), Smetana (" My Fatherland," "Vltava," &c.), Dvorak ("The Water-fay," "The Golden Spinning-wheel," Sic), and others. 258 FORM IN MUSIC. Of quite modern writers of Symphonic Poems, Richard Strauss holds of right the most prominent place. Gifted with a considerable imagination, a marvellous Richard Strauss, technique, and a fair share of that audacity that compels notice, his position has been much debated and has formed the subject of much heated discussion. Strauss has written several Symphonic Poems, viz : Don Juan, Tod und Verkldrung, Till Eulenspiegel, Also sprach Zarathustra, Don Quixote, and Ein Heldenleben, to which may be added (although entitled a Symphony) the Sinfonia Domestica. In certain of these the composer seeks to depict incidents in the life of some character {e.g., in Don Juan, Till Eulenspiegel and Don Quixote) ; in Also sprach Zarathustra it is a philosophy of life that is brought before our notice ; in Tod und Verkldrung, the last moments of a dying man ; in Ein Heldenleben, the life of a hero ; and, finally, in the Domestic Symphony, a day's doings in Strauss's own family ! Needless is it to say that the classical forms are stretched and modified out of recognition, but it is equally true that in some, at least, of these works, the total effect is surprisingly compeUing. Liszt's method of " thematic metamorphosis" is largely relied upon for the production of formal unity, and is used often in a most ingenious and masterly manner. Unfortunately, though, particularly in his Heldenleben, Don Quixote and the Domestic Symphony, Strauss permits himself to write page after page of sheer hideousness, (witness the battle scene in the Heldenleben as a single instance), so that one is tempted over and over again to become irritated to a degree over the inconsistencies and exhibitions of seemingly malicious folly that disfigure his scores. Apart from all this, however, we have to realize that we are face to face with an original thinker of great power, the result of whose labours and the actual position of whom among the illustrious ones of music only future generations will be able to determine. It is not possible within the limits of this volume to discuss the doings of men like Claude Debussy, Vincent d'Indy, and others of the neo-French school. It must be suffi- The modern cient to say that the position of the extremists l-rene s . ^^ ^^j^ school is summed up in Debussy's own words : " We want free speech in music, infinite melody, infinite variation, and freedom of musical phrase. We want the triumph of natural, free, plastic, and rhythmical music." These are high-sounding words, and it is difficult just now to see what these desires are to lead to. If the views of their author are to be seen expressed to any extent in such a work as his Symphonic Poem, " L'apr^s-midi d'un faune," one may say that the result is that of impressionism pure and simple — a Impressionism. " bath " of sound which creates a decided atmosphere of its own, often beautiful, highly sensuous and imaginative Of actual thematic material this FORM IN MUSIC. 259 particular work contains little, and what there is is scantily developed. Scored for a small orchestra, its subtle and kaleido- scopic effects of instrumentation are delightful to the ear and captivating to the senses. The whole temper of the work is luscious and dreamy, entirely lacking in that virility, audacity and superabundant energy so characteristic of Strauss. Throughout, Debussy apparently " aims at making music as different as possible from anything it has ever been — he aims, not at gradual development, but at a cataclysmic revolution. Melody, harmony, rhythm, form, everything has to go into the melting-pot."* Whether the result of this revolutionary process will be the production of a new type of art with qualities of permanence remains to be seen ; it may be so : thouffhts^^ posterity will decide, but it is fairly safe to ' assume that true and lasting progress can and will yet be made along the lines of a reasoned expansion and modification of existing types, and that the forms of instrumental composition handed down to us from the great classical masters will yet be capable of adaptation to the varying needs of to-day and to-morrow. While fully holding to this view, and believing it to be sound, the present writer feels strongly that it should be remembered and recognized that history records periods of revolution as well as of evolution^ and it may be that we, in these latter days, are on the eve of another overthrow of time- honoured landmarks in more than one direction. " Who lives will see " ; but it is certain that, whatever new developments may await us, the element of Form must of necessity hold an iaiportant place. Its manifestations may, and possibly will, vary considerably from what we have been familiar with in the past \ the need of consistent and logical design is, however, fundamental in the nature of things, and cannot be set aside if a work of art is to make its appeal with that sense of conscious plan that differentiates it from the aimless wanderings of the rhapsodist. * F. Niecks," Programme Music." FORM IN MUSIC. a6i APPENDIX. I. — Rhythmic Climax. It is important to bear in mind the distinction between what may be the most " intense " or emotional point in a phrase, and its rhythmic cUmax. The latter is invariably its final cadence, and usually coincides with its final metrical accent, or ictus, as M. Mathis Lussy terms it. This forms, so to speak, the pillar upon which the structure of the phrase rests ; whether the sounds rise to it, or fall to it, in actual amount of tone \n performance, is immaterial. Compare the two following examples : — Bbethoven. 237. ^ Presto. -P. F. Sonata in D, Op. lo, No. 3. J-Jii Largo appassionato. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata in A, Op. 2, No. 2. 238.' i :C^ :'/l II. — Response of Phrases. ixn interesting instance of the preservation of unity between an announcing and a responsive Phrase by means of a single Figure is shewn in the opening of the Menuetto of Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata in B flat (Op. 22). In this case, the melodic outline of the two Phrases varies to a far greater degree than in Figs. 43-46, but any sense of irrelevancy is prevented by the artistic use of the figure — 262 FORM IN MUSIC. which has the eflfect of bindhig together the various parts of the sentence in a singularly happy and effective way : — Menueito. Bkethoven. — P. F. Sonata in Bt?, Op. 22. fev i I i rrr7r- ^ r a^E '^ -^ "^"V ^ III. — Stronger and Weaker Bars in quick Triple times. The statement on page 42 that the correct accentuation of a movement in rapid Triple time can be generally arrived at by counting back, in a regular alternation of weaker and stronger bars, from the strong bar containing the cadence-chord, has striking illustration in some of the Scherzos of Beethoven, notably those of the Sonatas in Op. 10, No. 3 (Menuetto) ; Op. 26; Op. 27, Nos. I and 2 ; Op. 28, &c. At the same time it is necessary that it should be accompanied by a certain qualification. In cases of Rhythmic Extension and Contraction, where the phrase- lengths become irregular, two strong bars, or two weak bars, will of necessity often occur in succession, thus disturbing the regular alternation of weaker and stronger accents. A good instance of this occurs in the Scherzo of the Sonata in C (Op. 2, No. 3), where the even flow of the Rhythm is on more than one occasion disturbed by the insertion of an extra bar. The student should carefully examine this interesting movement for himself. Another noteworthy example is provided by the Scherzo of Chopin's Sonata in B flat minor (Op. 35), which presents certain difficulties FORM IN MUSIC. 263 in performance connected with this very matter of rhythmic irregularity. IV. — Overlapping of Phrases. In connexion with the " overlapping " of two successive phrases, by the last bar of one phrase becoming the first bar of the next (page 58), it is worthy of note that much of the strong emotional effect of Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" is due to this compression of the rhythmic design. The following passages are typical : — Wagner. — "Tristan und Isolde" (Prelude). 240.' IseJ^ g^ ii T- 5^^ S*i r ^ ^. (Overlapping.) Isolde. Tristan. TlANO. Act II. I Three-bar phrase. ^5^ ^ Sfe £t S ^-^-^ X^fTT U ^ J^ ^ ^cf 264 FORM IN MUSIC. $ s ^ ^^=F (Overlapping.) (Overlapping. ) Three-bar phrase. ; J I ^^* q^ i^-4* I jy^^ T=F' &c. ^^ K, 'k^^'i" r^!7m ^-ai aH i^*Z3t tezat a ;^3~^ ^ ? — ^-n* An interesting example of the compression of an actual five-bar Rhythm into one of four bars is shewn in Brahms' Second Symphony : — Allegro non troppo. Brahms. — Symphony in D, No. 2. -^- 242. «^ ny%-) '' K ^^\'T t'T\^^ 1 ^H - = — — ^-M= .sjf'"r-«r^ 1 J ^-n,^ J 1, d -j Id 1, ^^-^» 4= id M 1$ H » i^ • • •- Kj. .K ^K. m l*=t=E: (Overlapping.) E ^ £~ Flute.VT fc£ ^S !•=*: -i A ^ i> J # - n ' m '^^ T^ • "PL .F- FORM IN MUSIC. 265 V. — Fugue. I. The use of Episodes. A point worthy of notice, in connexion with the question of the use of Episodes in a Fugue, is that in most cases an Episode separates the last entry of the Subject or Answer in the normal Exposition and the first " Middle " entry. Similarly, an Episode will often be found (i) before the occurrence of a " Redundant " entry {see Fugues 3, 7, &c., of Bach's " Forty-Eight ") ; (ii) between the ordinary Exposition and a Counter-exposition {see Fugues i r, 15, &c.); (iii) between a "Redundant" entry or a Counter- exposition and the first "Middle" entry {see Fugues 3, 7, 11, 15, &c.). 2. The Coda of a Fugue. It was stated on page 212 that "the Coda to a Fugue may be said to begin after the conclusion of the last entry of the Subject or Answer in the Tonic key." This is usually the case, but in some instances (such as that exemplified by Bach's Fugue in C minor. Book I, No. 2) the occurrence of an entry of the Subject upon a Tonic pedal, after a definite perfect cadence in the Tonic key, causes that entry itself to assume the character and function of a Coda. VI. — The Bar, or Measure, in relation to THE Phrase. It should be carefully bonte in mind that the bar, or measure, musically considered, coincides only in the rarest instances with the metrical bar as defined by any two successive bar-lines. The latter obviously begins with the strong accent ; but, rhythmically, a bar of music may, and most often does, begin with one of the weaker pulses, e.g. : — 266 FORM IN MUSIC. (Metrical bars.) 243. '^"^ Schubert. — Symphony in C major, No. 9. i , , , "ElrT # m^^'=j=§ i -» — *■ -f-f- Z ^ I ^ (Rhythmic bars.) (Metrical bars.) &c. Beethoven. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 14, No. 2. 244. ^ I ^ ^B ^ :4» 4mz d • (Rhythmic bars.) i^ Si &c. (Metrical bars.) BflETHOVEN. — P. F. Sonata, Op. 27, No. 2. T g^tj- ^rT\ ^I'T TH i r'-fj-^?3^ 245. (Rhythmic bars.) i « ^^ 1 r »*=?=g ^^ 3? &c. *! r 1 v]-rji^i#-#-*- • m d d FORM IN MUSIC. ^t^ GLOSSARY. A LIST OF TERMS INDICATING COMPOSITIONS OF SOME SPECIAL CHARACTER. •»• The more important classes of instrumental writing (t.g.j the sonata, symphony, &c.) will be found explained under their respective headings in the preceding chapters. Air. \A movement for a single voice, or instrument ; a vocal solo in an Aria.) opera, oratorio, &c. (See page 92, foot-note.) Alia tedesca. — In the German style. (See Beethoven, Pianoforte Sonata, Op. 79, 1st movement. ) Anglaise. — An English country dance. (See Bach's 3rd French Suite.) Anthem. — A sacred composition for any number of voices, used in the service of the Church. Arioso (lit. "airy"). — A term applied to an arw partaking of the character of both air and recitative. (See Mendelssohn's " But the Lord is mindful " in "St. Paul.") Bagatelle. — A short sketch (e.g., the " Bagatelles" of Beethoven). Ballad. — A simple song, in which the different stanzas are sung to the same music. Ballade. — (i) A descriptive musical setting of a poem (e.g., the " Walpurgis- nacht " of Mendelssohn) ; (ii) A name given by Chopin and others to certain pianoforte compositions of variable form. Ballet. — Dancing accompanied by music, to illustrate some story. Barcarolle. — A composition based on the idea of a Venetian gondola song, generally in | or Y time. Brawl /An old round dance. Burlesca. — A title given by Bach to a somewhat gay movement in J time in his third Partita. Cachucha. — A Spanish dance in triple time. Canary. — An old dance in jig form. Cantata. — Formerly a vocal solo of a dramatic character ; now-a-days a work for chorus and orchestra, with or without solo voices. Canzona. — A name formerly given to certam instrumental pieces written in more or less strict " imitation." Canzonet. — A short song (e.g., Haydn's " My mother bids me bind my hair "). (~-",.- ' >An instrumental solo, somewhat irregular in form. Carol. — A song of joy or devotion, usually associated with Christmastide. Cassation. \A piece of instrumental music in several movements, popular in Cassazione.j the 1 8th century. (.S".?* " Divertimento.") Cavatina. — A short song without an episode or a return to opening theme by way of Da Capo, as is usual in an Aria. Chant. — A short composition, adapted for the musical recitation of the Psalms, &c. 268 FORM IN MUSIC. Choral or"\ . --. , ^, , >A German hymn tune. Chortis. — (i) A composition sung by a body of voices, several to each part ; (ii) The refrain or burden of a song. Contre-danse \A dance of English origin in J or | time. Beethoven has Country dance] written twelve " contre-danses" for orchestra. Czardas. — A Ilungarian national dance. Diverfiinenio. — A composition of a light character, usually in several move- ments. Mozart has used the term for pieces closely akin to the Serenade or Cassation. Division. — (i) A variation for voices or instruments upon a simple theme; (ii) A vocal run. Ecossaise. — A dance of Scottish origin in quick I time. (See Schubert, Op. l8, 33, 49 and 67.) Fandango. — A Spanish dance in \ time, accompanied by castanets. Fan/are. — A flourish of trumpets. Galliard. — An old lively Italian dance in triple time, sometimes called Romanesca. Galop. — A quick dance in duple time. Glee. — A piece of unaccompanied vocal music in at least three parts, for solo voices, usually those of men. Graduale. — A piece of music sung between the reading of the Epistle and Gospel in the Roman Church. Hailing. — A Norwegian dance in duple time. Hornpipe. — A dance of English origin in duple time, danced by a single performer. Impromptu. — An instrumental composition having somewhat of the character of an improvisation. (This term has been used notably by Schubert and Chopin as the title of certain pianoforte pieces.) Interlude. — A short passage played between the verses of a hymn, or between the lines of a German choral. {See the Orchestral Interludes in Mendelssohn's " Cast thy burden upon the Lord " in his Oratorio " Elijah," and in " Sleepers, wake" in " St. Paul" ; also in many of the choral works of Bach.) Intermezzo. — A short movement, connecting other larger divisions of a sonata, symphony, &c. The term was also used to describe short instrumental pieces in the early operas. Introit. — A short anthem or hymn, often used at the beginning of the Communion Service. Invention. — A term used by J. S. Bach for 15 small pianoforte pieces, each developing a single idea. Jot a. — A Spanish dance. Kalamaika, — A lively Hungarian dance in triple time. Ldndlei . — A Styrian peasant dance, of a lively, graceful character in J or J time ; the precursor of the Waltz. Lessons. — An old English term used to designate sets of dances similar to those in the Suite. Lied (German). — A song. Lieder ohne Worte. — Songs without words. A term given by Mendelssohn to 48 short pianoforte pieces of a lyrical character. Loure. — An old dance, slower than the Gigue, generally in J time. {See Bach's 5th French Suite, in G.) FORM IN MUSIC. 269 Madrigal. — A short contrapuntal choral composition for three, four or more voices, unaccompanied ; largely cultivated during the i6th and early 17th centuries. Masqxu. — A kind of musical drama formerly in vogue, in which the performers wore masks ; the precursor of the Opera. Mass. — A choral setting, with or without accompaniment, of certain portions of the Eucharistic service in the Roman Church. Sung in Latin. Melodrama. — (i) A play, in which the effect of the dialogue is heightened by incidental music, (ii) A species of dramatic composition, or a recitation, in which the words are spoken, while an instrumental accompaniment is played, intended to increase their effect. (See certain scenes in Mendelssohn's " Midsummer Night's Dream " music ; also the Incan- tation Scene in Weber's " Der Freischiitz" ; Grieg's " Bergliot," &c.) Miserere. — The 51st Psalm, sung in the " Tenebrae " service in the Roman Church. Morris-da7tce. — A rustic dance said to be derived from the Moors. AJotet. — A sacred choral composition sung at High Mass after the OfTertory. Moto perpetuo. — An instrumental movement, in which a ceaseless flow of rapid notes is maintained throughout. [See Finale of Weber's Pianoforte Sonata in C major. No. i.) A^O(.YMr««. \ Originally a serenade ; now an instrumental piece of a gentle and Notturno.j quiet character. OfTeriorium \^ piece of music performed during the Offertory. Opera. — A musical drama. In Grand Opera the whole work is set to music ; in the French Opira Coinique and the German Singspiel the musical portions are interspersed with spoken dialogue. This is also the case iin English light opera. Oratorio. — An extended composition for solo voices, chorus and orchestra, usually illustrating some sacred subject. Part-song. — A short choral composition, usually of a simple, melodious character. Passepied. — An old dance in triple time, a precursor of the minuet. (See Bach, Partita No. 5.) Pasticcio. — An opera, cantata, or other dramatic work, composed of airs, duets, &c., taken from various works, either of the same composer, or different composers. {See " The Beggar's Opera.") Pastorale. — A simple piece of a pastoral character, usually in \ time. Pavan or Pavane. — An old stately dance, of Italian or Spanish origin. Pibroch. — A series of variations for the Scotch bagpipe. This name has been used by Sir A. C. Mackenzie as the title of a spirited piece for Violin and Orchestra. Plain Song. — Traditional music used in the service of the Church : written in the old Ecclesiastical Modes. Polka. — A Bohemian dance in I time, with the third quaver accented. Potpourri. — A set of popular tunes strung together in the form of the " drawing-room Fantasias" of the early Victorian era. Priambule. — An introduction, or prelude. (See Bach, Partita No. 5.) Quadrille. — A well-known set of dances. Rant. — An old English dance. Ram des Vackes. — Melodies played by Swiss herdsmen on Alpine horns, as signals to their cattle. Recitative. — Musical declamation, the rhythmic shape of which is entirely governed by the words to which it is set. Redowak. — A rather slow Bohemian dance in triple time. Reel. — A lively rustic dance, probably of Scandinavian origin. 37° FORM IN MUSIC. Requiem. — A Mass for the dead. Rhapsody. — A composition ofirregularform,in thecharacter of an improvisation. {See the Rhapsodies of Lisrt.) The fine Rhapsodies of Brahms foi the Pianoforte are, however, compositions of a particularly clear and coherent structure. Ricercare.\{\) A kind of Toccata (q.v. ). (ii) Fuga ricercata — a fugue without Ricercata. j episodes, in which, also, as many contrapuntal devices of an elaborate order as possible are exemplified. Rigaudon. — An old lively dance in duple time. (.Sijtf Couperin's 2nd "Ordre.") Ritornello. — A short interlude, played before or after, or between the parts of, a song. Romance. \A term often applied to a short instrumental piece of romantic Romama, / character. Roundelay. — A small vocal solo, somewnat in the form of a rondo. Scena. — A dramatic solo for the voice, usually with orchestral accompaniment. Seguidilla. — A Spanish song and dance in triple time, accompanied by castanets. Serenade \Origmally a composition for use in the open air at night ; used Serena/a.) by Mozart and other i8lh century writers to designate an instrumental work in several movements, the sequence of which was variable. (5"«« "Divertimento.") Siciliana. — A Sicilian peasant dance in % or y time. Sonata da camera (Chamber Sonata). — A term formerly used to describe a type of early Sonata in which the sequence of movements was closely akin to that of the Suite. {See Corelli's " Sonate da Camera.") Sonata da chiesa (Church Sonata). — Also a term formerly used to describe a type of early Sonata, in which the movements were of a more dignified and severe character than those of the Sonata da camera. (See Corelli's " Sonate da Chiesa.") Song. — A vocal solo, a musical setting of a short poem. Stabat Mater. — A Latin Hymn, appointed to be sung, on certain special occasions, between the Epistle and the Gospel in the Roman Church. Strathspey. — A Scottish dance in duple time. Study. — A composition for the overcoming of some special technical difficulty. Terzetto. — A short vocal trio. Toccata. — An instrumental composition intended to shew the touch and execution of the performer. (Bach uses the term on several occasions ; See his Toccata and Fugue in D minor for the organ. ) Tyrolienne. — A kind of waltz movement, of Tyrolese origin — chiefly on Tonic and Dominant harmonies. Vaudeville. — A play, with songs, set to more or less popular tunes. Villanella. — An old rustic Neapolitan dance, accompanied by singing. Voluntary. — An organ solo, played before, during, or after, any portion of the Church Service. FORM IN MUSIC. 271 GENERAL INDEX. ',* Terms found under their respective alphabetical headings in the Glossary on pages 267-270 are not included in this Index unless they are also mentioned in preceding chapters. The initials (f.n.) after the number of a page indicate that the particular subject specified is referred to in a foot-note on that page. ABRIDGED Sonata-form, 167-170, 177, 194, 195 Absolute or Abstract Music, 202, 224, 257 Accent, 3, 5, 9 Accompaniment, varying forms of, 139-41 Air (in Suite), 239 (f.n.), 240 (f.n.) Allemande (Almain), 237, 239, 240 Anacrusis, 20 (f.n.) Anglaise, 239 (f.n.) Announcing Phrase, 25 Answer (Fugue), 205-7 Aria (in Suite), 240 (f.n.) Aria, The "Da Capo," 92 (f.n.) Association, The factor of, in estimating a work, i Augmentation, 139, 144-6, 213, 218 Authentic Cadence, 10 BAGATELLE, 246 Balance, 25, 70 Ballade, 246 Bar, 3, 6, 9, 265 Barring, wrong, 21 (f.n.), 39, 40 Examples of, 42, 43 Bars, stronger and weaker, 7, 8, 13 (f.n.), 14 (f.n.), 41, 42, 262 Beat, 3, 5, 9 Binary Form, 61 Principle of, 62, 91 Simplest form of, 62 et seq. Modern use of, 67 Themes written in, 69, 106 Extended, 68, 69, 97 Largely superseded by Ternary in later times, 67, 69, 71, 92 Binary Shape, together with Ternary Idea, 87 et seq. [69, 249-50 Reproduction of Cadence-bars of Part I. in Binary Form, 64 (and f.n.). Frequent with 17th and iSth Century writers, 64, 67, 71, 92 (f.n.), 249, 253 Successive stages in evolution of, 249-251 Embryo Second Subject, 250 Double appearance of First Subject in Part II., 251 Modern Sonata-form evolved from Older Binary Form, 252 Bolero, 245 Bourr^e, 239, 243, 244 Branle or Brawl, 237 Bridge-passage, 122, 123 Burlesca, 240 (f.n.) CADENCE, 4, 8, 10 et seq., 16 et seq. Need for variety of, 34 Position of, how determined, 16 et seq. 2 72 FORM IN MUSIC. Cadence-bars, 64 (and f.n.), 69, 133-35, 249-SO Cadence-chord, defined, 16 (f.n.) Of short duration, 18-20, 24 Usually on strong accent, 42 Cadential Augmentation, 57 ,, Repetition, 49-52 Cadenza, 183 (and f.n.), 199, 231, 232, 23) Canon, 184, 190-1, 203, 21^ e( seg. Definition of, 215 Finite and Infinite, 217 In contrary motion, 218 By Augmentation and Diminution, 218 " Canon Cancrizans," 218 (f.n.) Capriccio, 177, 246 Caprice, 240 (f.n.), 246 " Carol," The, 108 Catch, The, 219 Chaconne, 181 (and f.n.) Chamber-music, Concerted, Definition of, 225 ,, Historical origin of, 226 Character, 4 Coda, 80, 81 (and f.n.), 85, loi, 106, 112, 120, 162 (f.n.), 164-5, 171, 172, 183, 192, 222 (f.n.), 223, 233 (Fugue), 212 Codetta, 135, 183 (Fugue), 209 Compound Time, 6, 7 Concerted vocal music, 226 Concert-Overture, 224 Concerto, 61, 115, 220, 227 e( seq. Early and modern uses of term, 227 Double exposition in first-movement, 228 Cadenza in, 231, 232, 233 Compression of form, 233 The later movements of, 233 Pieces not in full Concerto-form, 234 Concertos for more than one solo instrument, 227 (f.lL) ,, of Liszt, 234-6 Concerto-writing, later tendencies in, 236 ConcertstUck, 234 Continuity, 22, 34, 60, 63, 100, 113, 171 Contraction of Phrase, 58-60 Contrapuntal School, 203, 204 ,, writing, 139, 143, 184, 190-2, 103 Contrast of Subjects, 119 Conventional passage-writing 122, 123 Counter-exposition, 212-13 Counterpoint, Double 139, I43, 208 Counter-Subject, 208, 214 "Couplets," 107, 112 Courante, 237, 239, 240, 241 Criticism, Definition of, 2 (f n.) Cyclic forms, Chief features of, 202 " DA CAPO ARIA," The, 92 (f.n.) Dance-forms, Early, 237 ,, Modern, 245-6 Dances of Suite and Partita, 237 ct seq. Characteristics of various, 240 et seq. Design, Instrumental, Rudimentary types of, 61 ,, Unity of, 5, 24, 70, 202, 234 FORM IN MUSIC, 273 Development of ideas, 119 Methods and examples of, 138 et seq. Development Section, or Free Fantasia, 120, 138 et uf. Keys in, 146 Episode in, 150- 1 Material used in, 147 Diminution, 139, 146, 213, 218 Diversity, 6, 70 (f.n.), 202 Divisions of Sonata- Form, I20 "Double," 179 (f.n.) Double-bar at end of Exposition, 135 Double Counterpoint, 139, 143, 208 Double Fugue, 214 Duple measurement, 5 Duple sentence, 25-28, 48 Frequency of, 25 Duple time, 6 EIGHTEENTH Century Writers, 64, 67, 112, 221, 250, 253 Rondo of, 112 Symphony of, 221 Emotion, i Enunciation, or Exposition, of a Fugue, 205 Episode, 3, loo-i, 106, 112-114, 150-1, 171-2, 177 (f.n.) Definition of, 100 Contrasted nature of, 100 And Subject, the terms distinguished, 106, 171 (£.0.} Episodes in a fugue, 209-10 Episodical Form, loi, 106, 194, 200, 246 Outlines of, loi Etude, The, 246, 247 Exposition of Sonata-form, The — First Subject and Transition, 120 et seq. Second Subject, 129 et seq. End of, 135 Exposition of a Fugue, The, 205 Extension of Phrase, 48 et seq., 85, 139, 14a (i) By Cadential Repetition, 49 et se^j. (2) By Interpolation, 53 et seq. (3) By Cadential Augmentation, 57 FANTAISIE, 240 Fantasia, 177, 246, 248 " Feminine ending," lo (f.n.), 16 (f.n.), 245 (f.n.) Figure, 3, 13, 43-48 Figures, Interlinking of, 46-48 ,, not always indicative of a rhythmical break, 46 ,, Working of typical, 139, 144. 147-149. 248 Finale, 115, 200, 201, 202 First-movement Form ^see Sonata-form) Five-bar Phrase, 15 Form in Music, Need for, 2, 257, 259 Evidences of, 3 Need for study of, 4, 5 Modem tendencies in, 253 et seq. Binary, 61, diet seq., 87, 91, 97, 106, 249-252 Ternary, 62, "jx et seq., 86, 87 et seq., 11$ et seq., 252 Minuet and Trio, 92 et seq., 106, 107, 112, 243 Episodical, loi, 106, 194, 200, 246 Rondo (Older or Simple), 107 et seq., 170, 171, 176, 194, 197, 237 „ (Modern or Sonata) 113 (f.n.), I14, 167, 170 et seq., 199, 200, 202, 223 (f.n.) 274 FORM IN MUSIC. Form in Music, Sonata or First movement {see Sonata-torm) Sonata Allegro, 115 Modified Sonata, 167-170, 177, 194, 195 Variation, 177 et seq., 194, 196, 200 Forms Cyclic, Features of, 202 ,, Dance, 237 et seq. ,, Indefinite, 246-248 Four-bar phrase, 13, 14, 48 Free Fantasia, or Development Section, 138 et seq. French Overture, 220 Fugal writing. Examples of, 215 Fugato, 214, 242 Fughetta, 214 Fugue, 184, 1 90- 1, 203 et seq. Fugue, Definition of, 204 „ Design of, 205 The Enunciation or Exposition, 205-209 The Subject, 204-5 '■> the Answer, 205-7 The Counter-subject, 208, 212, 214; the Codetta, 209 The Middle Section, 209- lO Episodes, 209-10 ; Middle entries, 209 The Final Section, 2IO-I2 Stretto, 210-12 ; the Coda, 212 Fugue, Occasional features in — Extra or redundant entry, 212, 213; Counter-exposition, 212-13; Augmentation, Diminution, and Inversion, 213-14 Fngae, Double, 214 Fugues with no episodes, 210 (f.n.) GALLIARD, 237 Gavotte, 237, 239, 243 Gigue, 237, 239, 242 Ground bass, 181, 183 Grouping of bars, 7, 8, 14 (f.n.) HALF-CADENCE, 11-12, 22 Harmonic School, 203, 204 Harmonization, Varied, 138, 140, 184, lS6 Harmony, 3, 4 History of Sonata-form, 249 et seq. Homophonic music, 204 Hybrid forms, 87 et seq. IMITATION, 139, 142-3 Imperfect cadence, 11-12, 22 " Impressionism," 254, 258 Impromptu, 100, 246 Indefiniteness of early terms, 220 Intellect, i, 2 Interlude, 86 (and f.n.) Intermezzo, 246 Interpolation as a means of extending a Phrase, 53~56 Interrupted cadence, 12, 22 Introduction, 85, 86 (f.n.), 165-7 Inverse movement, or Inversion, 213, 218 Italian Overture, 220 KEY contrast, 70 Key of second subject, 131-133 Keys for various movements of Sonata and Symphony, 201-2 FORM IN MUSIC. 275 Keys in Development section, 146 Keys in Recapitulation, 158-163 " LEIT-MOTIVE," 147, 149, 234 " L'idee fixe," 255 Lilt, 223 Link, 20, 78, 96 (f.n.), 102, 104, 113, 136-138, 151, 168, 171 (f.n.), Liszt's Concertos, 234-6 [l75» I99f 209 Literary element in Music, The, 254 Loure, 239 (f.n.) MARCH, 184 (f.n.), 246 Mazurka, 97, 245 Measure, The, 3, 6 Measurement, Duple and Triple, 5 ,, The Phrase the unit of, 25 Melodic commencement of Phrase, 20 ,, prefix, 20 (f.n.) Melody, 3, 4 Minuet and Trio Form, 92 et seq., 106, 107, 112, 243 Frequency of, 97 Development of, 100 Minuet and Trio structurally independent, 92 Minuet, The, 42, 115, 119, 158, 184 (f.n.), 199, 202, 237, 239, 244 Minuet with two Trios, 112, 113 Modern Rondo [see Sonata Rondo) Modern structural tendencies, 253 e( seq. Modern Suite, 244 Modified Sonata-form, 167-170, 177, 194, 195 Modulation, or change of tonality, 63, 68-69, 7° (f-ri-)» 74> 82, 98, II2, 115, 119, 122, 128, 129 (f.n.), 132, 138-140, 146, 147, 162, 183 (and f.n.), 193, 206, 207, 209, 2IO, 228, 251 " Motive," The, 39 (and f.n.), 43 Movement, 3 Movement, First, Importance of, 194 ,, Slow, loi, 115, 167, 170, 194-199, 202 Movements with a single Episode, 106 ,, Number of, in Sonatas and Symphonies, 199, 201 Musette, 243 Music, The literary element in, 254 NOCTURNE, 100, 246 Nonet, 226 Number of movements in Sonatas and Symphonies, 199, 201 OCTET, 226 Older Rondo, 107 et seq., 170, 171, 176, 194, 197, 237 Superseded by Sonata Rondo, 114 And Modern Rondo compared, 171 Omission of Theme in Recapitulation, 162 ,, ,, Transition, 122 (f.n.), (in Recapitulation) 161 "Ordres," 237, 240 "Ouverture," 220 (f.n.), 240 Overlapping of Phrases, 58, 59, 60, 263-265 Overture, 61, 166 (f.n.), 167, 220, 224 Concert, 224 French, 220 Italian, 220 In Opera and Oratorio, 22a "PARAGRAPH," 3 Partitas, Bach's, 239, 240 276 FORM IN MUSIC. Passacaglia, i8i (and f.n.) Passepied, 237, 238 (f.n.), 240 (f.n.) Pavane, 237 Perfect Cadence, lo-il, 22 Period, 10, 13 Phrase, 3, 13 et seq., 20, 25 Melodic commencement of, 20 Tiie Announcing, 25 The Responsive, 25 As Introduction, 25 (f n.) How one responds to another, 27, 28, 261 Extension of, 48 et seq., 85, 139, 142 Contraction of, 58-60 Phrases, Overlapping of, 58, 59 Phrasing marks, 22 Physical sensation, i ?o!on'aise}^^'97, i84(f.n.),239(f.n.),245 Polyphonic music, 204 Position of Cadence, how determined, 16 et seq Preambule, 240 Prelude, 225, 237, 239, 240, 246, 248 Programme-music, 224, 254 Pulsation, 23 Pulse, 3, 5, 9 QUADRUPLE measurement, 5 (f.n.) Quadruple sentence, 31-34 Quadruple time, 6 Quartet, 115, 177, 193 (f.n.), 199, 202, 226-7 Quintet, 115, 199, 202, 226-7 REAL Answer, 206 Re-appearance of Cadence-bars of Part 1. in Binary Fo.m, 64 (and f.n.). Recapitulation, The, 120, i^?> et seq. [69, 249-250 Approach to, 151-15S Transposition of Second Subject in, 158-162 Modification of Transition in, 15S-161 Omission of Transition in, 161 New treatment of themes in, 162 Omission of a theme in, 162 Compression in, 162 Irregularities of, 163 Recurrence or Repetition of Idea, 64, 70, 76, 88 Redundant entry, 212, 213 Register, Change of, 139, 140-I Reliance on ear in determining the " punctuation" of music, 21 Repeat, The, 63 (f.n.), 73, 135, 249 (f.n.) Representative themes, 255-6 Responsive phrase. Need of, 25 Rhapsody, 246 •Rhyming, 34 Rhythm, 3, 4, 9-10 ' The term often misapplied, 9 Rhythmic Clima.x-, 8, 10, 16 (f n.), 261 ,, Extension and Contraction, 48 ei seq. ,, Movement, Maintenance of, 23 ,, Progression, 7, 8, 9-10, 14 (f.n.), 47 ,, Shape, 4, 9-10 ,, Treatment, Variety of, 139, 141, 142 Ritomello, 86, 220 FORM IN MUSIC. 277 Romance, icx), 184 (f.n.) Romantic movement in music, The, 254 Rondeau, 107, 240 Rondo, Origin of, 107, 108 ,, The title sometimes misapplied, 107 (f.n.), 177 ,, Main idea of, 108 ,, Older or Simple [^see Older Rondo) ,, Modern or Sonata [see Sonata-Rondo) Round, The, 219 SALTARELLO, 223, 246 Sarabande, 237, 239, 241 Scherzo, 42, 115, 199, 200, 202, 223, 240 (f.n.) With two Trios, 223 Section, 13, 35 et seq., 43 Sentence, 3, 13, 25 et seq. Definition of, 25 Of two phrases, 25-28, 48 Of three phrases, 29-31 Of four phrases, 31-34 Septet, 226 Seven-bar phrase, 15, 16 Seventeenth Century writers, 64, 67, 178, 179, 220, 237, 249, 253 Sextet, 226 Simple Time, 6, 7 " Sinfonia avanti I'opera," 220 (and f.n.) Sinfonie, 220 (f.n.), 240 Six-bar phrase, 15-16 Sixteenth Century writers, 178, 237 [202, 220, 226, 253 Sonata and Symphony, 61, 92 (f.n.), loi, 115, 177, 193, 194, 199 ,, The, First movement of, 155 et seq. {see Sonata-form) ,, Slow movement of, loi, 115, 167, 170, 194-9, 202 ,, Scherzo of, 199, 200, 202 ,, Finale of, 200, 201, 202 ,, Main features of, 115; number of movements in, 199, 201 ; as a whole, 193 et seq. ,, Since Beethoven, 253 Sonata Form, 114, 115 ei seq., 194, 196, 200, 202 The three divisions of, 120 The Exposition, 120 et seq., 129 et seq. ; end of, 135 The Development or Free Fantasia, 120, 138 et seq. The Recapitulation, 120, i^i et seq., 158 et seq. The Coda, 164-5 The Introduction, 165-7 Sonata Form, Modified, 167-170, 177, 194, 195 ,, Modern, Ternary in idea, 249, 252 ,, Compared with Sonata Rondo, 172 ,, History of, 249 et seq. Sonata- Allegro Form, 115 Sonata-Rondo, 113 (f.n.), 114, 167, lyo et seq., 199, 200, 202, 222 (f.n,) And Older Rondo compared, 171 Subjects in, 171 Development in, 171 And Sonata-form compared, 172 Principal Theme often varied in, 176 Uses of, 177 Sonatina, 167 (and f.n.) Stretto, 210-12 String Quartet, The, 226 Study, The, 246, 247 Sub-divisions of the phrase, 35 et seq. 278 FORM IN MUSIC. Subject, First or Principal, in Sonata-form, 120 et seq. Examples of, 120, 121 End of, 122 Subject, Second, 129 et seq. Different sections of, 129, 130 As transposition of First Subject in Haydn and Mozart, 129 (f.n.) Key of, 131-33 Where it begins, 132 Concluding Section of (or Codetta), 133-5 Transposition of, in Recapitulation, 158-62 Subjects, One of the evidences of Form, 3 ,, Employment of two, 119 „ Contrast of, 119 „ In a Fugue, 204-5 ,, In Sonata-Rondo, 171 Suite, The, 92 (f.n.), 237 et seq. Form of movements in, 237-8 The Modern, 244 Suites, Bach's, 221 (f.n.), 239 Handel's, 239 Symmetrical Composition, Some essentials of, 70 Symmetry, Need for, 2, 193, 257 Symphonic Poem, The, 253 et seq. Liszt's treatment of the, 255-257 Richard Strauss and the, 258 Claude Debussy and the, 258-9 Symphony and Sonata {see Sonata) Symphony, The, 220 et seq. In old Operas, 220, 221 Under Haydn and Mozart, 221 ; under Beethoven, 221 ; under Schubert, 222 ; under Spohr, Mendelssohn and Schumann, 223 ; under Brahms, 223-4 ; under other modem writers, 253 "Symphony" of a Song, The, 86 (f.n.) TARANTELLA, 246 Ternary Form, 62 Principle of 71, 91 National melodies in, 71 Well established in Haydn-Mozart period, 72, 92 Expansion of, 75 '^ ^^q- Adaptability of, 86 Ternary idea together with Binary shape, 87 et seq. As outcome of older Binary form, 92 (f.n.), 252 Division of Part I. of, 115 et seq. Testing Cadence points, 21, 22 Themes, Harmonic nature of many, 3, 4 ,, Employment of two, 119 ,, Combination of, 148-9 ,, Transformation of, 223-4, 234-36, 255-6, 258 Three-bar phrase, 14 Three-part Form (see Ternary Form) Time, 3, 5, 6, 9 Various kinds of, 6 Duple, Triple and Quadruple, 6 Simple and Compound, 6, 7 Toccata, 240, 246 Tonal Answer, 206-7 " Tonal centre," 70 (and f.n.), 122, 130 Tonality, Change of, in Development of Sonata-form, 138-40 Transition, The, 1 20, 122 (and f.n.), 123-28 Examples of, 123 et seq. FORM IN MUSIC. 279 Transition, The, Where it begins, 128 Modification of, in Recapitulation, 158-61 Omission of, in Recapitulation, 161 Transposition of Second Subject in Recapitulation, 158-62 "Trio," The, 115, 223, 244, 246 Contrasted nature of, in Minuet and Trio Form, 100 Trio, 115, 193 (f n.), 202, 226 Trios, Use of two, 112, 113, 223 Triple measurement, 5 ,, Time, 6, 41 ,, Sentence, 29-31 / Tune, 3 " Tutti," 22S (and f.n.), 230 Two-bar phrase, 13 Two-part Form {^see Binary Form) UNITY of Design, 5, 24, 70, 202, 234 VALSE, 184 (f.n.), 245 Variation Form, 177 et seq., 194, 196, 200 Variations, Early, 177-8 „ Of Bach and Handel, 179-81 ; of Haydn and Mozart, 181-3 ; of Beethoven, 183 ; of later masters, 184 ,, Keys of, 183 (and f.n,), 192-3 ,, Types of, 184-92 ,, Coda to, 192 " Vorspiel," 225 WALTZ (see Valse) Wrong barring, 21 (f.n.), 39, 4.0 Examples of, 42, 43 PRINTED BY GEO. BARBER, FURNIVAL PRESS, FURNIVAL STREET, HOLBORN, E.C- THE ART OF PIANO PEDALLING. By barey farjeon. In two volumes. Price 3s. net each [stiff paper covers). "The Art of Piano Pedalling " is believed to be the first work dealing thoroughly with the subject from its explanatory and musical sides. Each aspect is treated in a four-fold manner. There is first a verbal explanation, then a musical exercise followed by a study and then by a piece. Vol. I contains the text, exercises and studies, and is complete for beginners. Vol. II repeats the text and gives the pieces, which are rather more difficult than the studies. The scope of the whole work will be best realised through the headings of the seven sections, which are appended : — I. Pedalling for legato chords. IV. Sustaining bass note below accompaniment chords. II. Pedalling to assist the slurring. V. Half damping. III. Pedalling to sustain chords. VI. Pedalling staccato notes. VII. Special effects. 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