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 Probable method of making Stone Implements in Palaeolithic 
 times, grounded on the plan adopted by modern forgers. 
 
 Block lent by Mr. Worthirigton G. S.nith. 
 
\1 
 
PALAEOLITHIC MAN 
 
 IN 
 
 N. W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 THE EVIDENCE OP HIS EXISTENCE AND THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 
 UNDER WHICH HE LIVED IN EALING AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD, 
 ILLUSTRATED BY THE CONDITION AND CULTURE PRESENTED BY 
 CERTAIN EXISTING SAVAGES. 
 
 BY 
 
 JNO. ALLEN BROWN, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., &c. 
 
 " Homo sum 
 
 "Nihil humanum a me alienum puto." 
 
 Terence. 
 
 WITH FRONTISPIECE AND EIGHT PLATES 
 
 London: 
 MACMILLAN & CO. 
 
 1887. 
 (All Eights are reseived). 
 

 GM-U& 
 
 H. Wcedc, Printer, Brompton, 
 
" . . . The hills 
 Eock ribbed and ancient as the sun — the valei 
 Stretching in pensive quietness between ; 
 The venerable woods ; rivers that move 
 In majesty, and the complaining brooks 
 That make the meadows green ; and, poured round all, 
 Old ocean's grey and melancholy waste — 
 Are but the solemn decorations all 
 Of the great tomb of man." 
 
 William Cullen Bryant, 
 
 ( Thanutopsin) 
 
 94079 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This contribution to the Study of the Antiquity of Man in N. "W. 
 Middlesex embodies the substance of several papers read at the 
 following Societies in 1884 to 1886 : — 
 
 Geological Society, Loudon, 
 Geologists' Association, London, 
 Society of Amateur Geologists, 
 Bedford Park Gardening and 
 Nat. Hist. Society, 
 
 Society of Antiquaries, London, 
 Richmond Athenajum, 
 Ealing Micro, and Nat. Hist.Soc. 
 Association of Municipal and Sa- 
 nitary Engineers, 
 
 in addition to lectures and addresses which I have delivered on 
 
 different occasions with the view of explaining the formation and 
 
 high level of the river drift deposits in Middlesex, as well as to 
 
 show the great antiquity of the relics of human industry with which 
 they are associated. 
 
 In this book I have treated the subject of the Antiquity of 
 
 Man in Middlesex as illustrated by my own investigations in a 
 
 manner easily understood ; my object being to afford my readers 
 
 a brief insight into the leading facts upon which our knowledge 
 
 is based, the order in which such facts are to be taken, and, above 
 
 all, the Geological evidence from which the great antiquity of our 
 
 race has been educed. 
 

 11 PKEFACE. 
 
 By comparing the large collection of specimens in my hands 
 with the stone implements still in use, or until recently employed 
 by savage people, my end has been to uuderstand the various pur- 
 poses for which they were designed and fashioned, while by 
 considering the state of culture of certain savage races selected for 
 that purpose, from many others, the reader is enabled to realise 
 the probable mode of life, conditions, and culture of the river drift 
 men similarly situated as to climate and other conditions. 
 
 These investigations will serve a double purpose ; first, of 
 affording an illustration of the antiquity of man drawn from the 
 district which has been the scene of my labours ; and, secondly, 
 of making them more generally known than can be done through 
 the medium of Scientific Societies for the use of other observers. 
 
 My interesting discovery of a Palasolithic workshop floor, or 
 site, upon which in the remote past some of our Archaic precur- 
 sors actually made their weapons and tools, and which were found 
 by me with the flint nodules, flakes and splinters, just as they 
 were left by them ages ago, may be found with my observations 
 on the high level drift deposits associated with relics of human 
 work, probably still more ancient, of some importance as an addi- 
 tion to the material already rapidly accumulating for the history 
 of man, and I trust it may also serve as an inducement to others 
 to look for similar evidence. 
 
 Withal the copious references to the works of those who have 
 enriched our literature on this subject and to the most important 
 papers which have been read at our learned Societies bearing 
 directly or indirectly upon it, will, 1 hope, encourage the reader 
 
PREFACE. iii 
 
 to become an investigator rather than merely a collector, and to 
 continue his studies in so interesting a field. 
 
 Its aim will certainly be accomplished if it serves to induce 
 him to direct his attention to those channels, in which a greater 
 store of facts is garnered, and where fuller details may be obtained 
 than I am able to present to him within the limits of this small 
 volume. 
 
 I have to express my thanks for assistance which has been ren- 
 dered to me from the following sources : — 
 
 Primarily to Mr. A. Ramsay, F.G.S. F.R.G.S., &c, not only for 
 the labour he has taken in correcting the proofs, but also for many 
 suggestions which have been of value in my work : 
 
 To Mr. Peter Crooke for the loan of his collection and his 
 observations thereon : 
 
 To Dr. J. Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c, Mr. Worthington G. 
 Smith, the Geological Society, and the Geologists' Association, for the 
 use of blocks. Moreover I gratefully remember that Dr. J. Evans 
 offered me whatever illustrations in his elaborate work, "Ancient 
 Stone Implements," I thought suitable, and that Mr. W. G. Smith 
 placed at my disposal all the blocks used in illustrating his pub- 
 lished papers I thought necessary for the purposes of this work. 
 
 I am indebted, too, to the authorities of the British Museum 
 for the facilities afforded me for carefully examining and drawing 
 such objects as I desired in the National collection. 
 
 JXO. ALLEN BROWN, 
 
 Kent Gardens, Ealing. 
 
 January 1887. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 
 
 The works of Sir C. Lyell, Professors Boyd Dawkins and Prestwich, 
 Dr. John Evans, Sir J. Lubbock, Canon Greenwell, Stevens and other 
 authors have placed before students a large mass of facts, and care- 
 fully drawn deductions therefrom. It is, nevertheless, not a little 
 surprising, considering the large amount of knowledge which is 
 now available, that comparatively few persons should be found 
 acquainted with the increasing store of material accumulated 
 during the past twenty-five years in ArchEeology and Geology 
 relating to the antiquity of man. 
 
 Before entering upon the subject which forms the title of this 
 book, it would therefore appear to be useful to devote a few 
 pages, as an introduction, to a brief consideration of our knowledge 
 of the antiquity of Man in England, commencing with the basis of 
 written history and going backward, through what may be termed 
 the Archaeological or Pre-historic period, until we are face to face 
 with the abyss which at present divides that from the latest Geo- 
 logical epoch with which the earliest evidence of human existence 
 in this neighbourhood is associated; that epoch is called by Lyell 
 the Pleistocene or most recent, i.e. the geological period nearest to 
 the present time, while the implements formed of roughly chipped 
 flint or other stone found in the drift, or valley gravel deposits, as 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 well as beneath the lower stalagmite floors in limestone caves (in 
 both cases associated with the remains of extinct animals) are now 
 universally called Palaeolithic, or as the name implies "ancient 
 stone." 
 
 The term Neolithic lias, in contradistinction, been applied to 
 those stone instruments and weapons, which have been polished or 
 are more artistically chipped, found often on the surface of the 
 ground, and not beneath deposits of gravel — in all cases they are 
 mingled, or more or less associated, with creatures all of which are 
 still existing here or elsewhere. These words must be so frequently 
 used in these pages that it is as well to explain them now. 
 
 The time is probably not distant when the two classes of stone 
 will be merged, and when the gulf, at present dividing them, will 
 be bridged by evidence showing the greater antiquity of some of 
 the Neolithic forms than is at present accepted. 
 
 It is proposed then, in this brief introduction, to start from the 
 dawn of history and to carry the subject backward in time until 
 it is lost in the "dim gulf of the past." 
 
 M. Thomsen, the founder of the great museum of Copenhagen, 
 is generally credited with being the first in our time who suggest ed 
 the division of man into the Iron, Bronze and Stone ages as the 
 basis of a scientific chronology, but even in the time of Lucretius, 
 B.C. 54, three such ages were recognised,* for in the " De rerum 
 Natura," this passage occurs — translated by Thomas Creech, 1714 — 
 v. 1365 :— 
 
 And rage not furnibhed with sword or dart 
 
 With fi.-ts or boughs or stones the warriors fought ; 
 
 These were the only weapons nature taught: 
 
 Bui when flames burnt the trees and scorched the ground 
 
 * In a Chinese tradition it is said •• Fushi made weapons ; these were of 
 wood; those of Shinnung were of stone; then Chi-ju made metallic ones. '• 
 — Smithsonian Report for 1879. 
 
ARCH^EOGICAL. 3 
 
 Then brass appeared and iron fit to wound. 
 Brass first was used because the softer ore, 
 And earth's cold veins contained a greater store. 
 Thus brass did plough and brazen trumpets sound ; 
 Their weapons brass, and brass gave every wound ; 
 Thus arm'd they strait invade their neighbours' field, 
 And take his beasts : to arm'd the naked yield. 
 At last, they melting down the rigid mass 
 Make iron swords and then despise the brass ; 
 They then began to plow with iron shares, 
 And iron weapons only served in Avars. 
 
 We have to consider the historic period when man formed his 
 weapons and instruments of iron. Further back iu time he is 
 found to be working them of bronze,* an alloy containing nine- 
 tenths of copper and one-tenth of tin, being as yet unacquainted 
 with the smelting of iron. 
 
 A few Celts of Archaic form have been found composed of 
 copper only, without alloy, which are generally considered to be 
 more ancient than those of bronze. It is not surprising that copper 
 should be the first metal used by man for such implements as 
 required a special hardness, because it is found native, and it is 
 moreover comparatively easily hammered into shape. It would 
 probably not be until long afterwards that he understood how 
 to alloy copper with tin ; and iron being found more as a 
 rock would require to be smelted, while still greater knowledge 
 would be necessary to render it available. 
 
 Lastly, there was a more distant period when man, ignorant of 
 the uses of all the metals, employed stone as the material of which 
 he fabricated his tools and weapons requiring greater hardness than 
 wood or bone. It is curious to notice that some of the earliest 
 bronze celts appear to have been made from stone models, and the 
 same practice is, I believe, observable in the general outline of 
 the earliest bronze knives. 
 
 * Bronze is believed to be the brass of Scripture. 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is believed that at the time of Hesiod, who lived about 850 
 years B.C., iron had already superseded bronze among the Greeks. 
 In fact Dr. John Evans* has shown us that the age of bronze 
 was as well recognised by Hesiod's contemporaries as by modern 
 Archaeologists. In Homer we find the warriors already armed with 
 iron weapons; and the tools used in preparing the material of 
 Solomon's temple are believed to have been of that metal. 
 
 The divisions of Stone, Bronze and Iron should however be re- 
 garded as ill defined. No doubt stone continued in use for many 
 purposes (among others for arrow points) well into the bronze pe- 
 riod, as is proved by the contents of certain tumuli ; while the 
 same evidence occurs of an overlap in the employment of bronze 
 when the uses of iron had been discovered. 
 
 As there appears always to have been a wide difference in the 
 amount of civilisation among the various populations (even of 
 Europe, Asia and North Africa) at any given time of their history, 
 so it can be shown that some races or nations were in the stone 
 period, while others, at the same time, had learnt how to utilize 
 the metals. As an instance, the Egyptians are believed to have 
 been in the bronze age about 5000 years B.C., while the barba- 
 rous races, which then inhabited this country, were probably then 
 only in the Neolithic age of culture. 
 
 There is no doubt the great empire of Assyria, as well as the 
 people of the Mediterranean, were far advanced in civilization while 
 the Neolithic phase still lingered in France, Germany, and Nor- 
 thern Europe. 
 
 The wild tribes of North Australia, the Andaman Islanders, the 
 Fuegians and the Esquimaux now use chipped stone knives, hatchets, 
 &c. ; while the New Zealanders, Papuans, Solomon islanders, &c, 
 
 * Ancient bronze implements. 
 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 5 
 
 have only recently emerged from that condition after contact with 
 Europeans. 
 
 A survival from the age of stone still lingers on in certain 
 existing Jewish customs which are referred to in the Bible (see 
 Exodus iv. 25). 
 
 Although Ca3sar's landing in Britain, 54 B.C., is the starting 
 point of English history, there are much more ancient allusions to 
 this country ; the adventurous Phoenicians having long before this 
 established colonies in Spain and a tin trade with the inhabitants of 
 the West. 
 
 Pliny * tells us that in 500 B.C. Himilco, a Carthaginian navi- 
 gator, crossed the Bay of Biscay and not only visited these islands 
 but also sailed as far as " Insula Sacra," inhabited by the races 
 of the Hibernians. t 
 
 It is amusing to find, according to Pliny (who no doubt 
 obtained his information from the written account of the voyage 
 probably still extant in his time), that our country " was inha- 
 bited by a numerous proud and industrious population, accustomed 
 to commerce and in the habit of going to sea in poor leathern 
 boats." Alas ! the voyage of Himilco the Carthaginian is gone ; 
 and the principal allusions to it are in the pages of the Latin poet 
 Avienus, who allowed his poetic imagination such full play, that 
 no value can be attached to his fabulous descriptions of the monsters 
 of the deep, &c, he met with. 
 
 In the writings of Csesar we are able to learn a great deal 
 of what our ancestors were like. His description of the na- 
 tives of this country shows at least that they possessed some of 
 the elements of civilization. He tells us that the greater part of 
 the Britons within the country never sow their land but live on 
 
 * Pliny ii. 67. 
 
 f See llufu6 Festus Avienus, Ora Maritima. 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 flesh and milk and go clad in skins ; that they generally painted 
 themselves with woad which gives a bluish hue to the skin and 
 makes them look dreadful in battle ; that they were long haired ; 
 that their custom was to shave all the body except the head and 
 upper lip ; and that, though the island was full of houses, a town 
 among the Britons was simply a thick wood fortified with a ditch 
 and rampart to serve as a place of retreat against their enemies.* 
 They used brass money, however, and iron rings of a certain weight ; 
 the possession of coin may therefore be considered as an index of 
 civilization then, as it is now. They were armed with iron-pointed 
 spears and darts, &c. ; so that it is probable that the period when 
 bronze was used to any considerable extent in this country had 
 passed away before the year 54 B.C. Our warriors at that time, 
 according to Tacitus, were armed with short leaf-shaped iron swords, 
 made on the model of the older bronze ; but he says that the 
 people did cultivate the soil, and this probably was the case, at 
 any rate with the Southern tribes. 
 
 Rude as may have been this probable mixture of Keltic and 
 Iberict peoples, they must still be regarded as only a little less 
 cultivated than a large proportion of their conquerors. Macaulay 
 says they were like the Sandwich Islanders, but they do not appear 
 to have possessed the low type characteristics of the present Anda- 
 man Islanders, Fuegians, North Australians, Bushmen and other, 
 what may be termed, anthropomorphic species of the genus Homo. 
 
 * Commentaries, Book V. 
 
 t In "Critiques and Addresses, 1873," Professor Huxley states "that 
 eighteen hundred years ago the population cf Britain comprised people of 
 two types of complexion, the one fair and the other dark ; the dark people 
 resemhling the Aquitani and the Iberians, the fair people were like the 
 Belgic Gauls ; and that the Silures, who had ' curly hair and dark complex- 
 ions,' within historical times, were predominant in certain parts of the West 
 of the Southern half of Britain, while the fair stock appears to have fur- 
 nished the chief elements of the population elsewhere." 
 
ARCH-fflOLoniCAL. 7 
 
 We now leave all written history and have to look to the evi- 
 clenee afforded by the contents of peats and bogs, tumuli and 
 other sepulchral monuments, temples, ancient fortified places, refuse 
 heaps or kjokkennioddings, pile dwellings, the occasional exposure 
 at low tide of submarine forests, &c. 
 
 The sea has encroached comparatively recently in large tracts 
 of country, such as Cardigan Bay, which, tradition says, contained 
 many villages ; again, old land surfaces are occasionally noticeable 
 off the East and West Somerset coast ;* and, further, the submerged 
 Forest of Torbay, described by Mr. Pengelly, and other places 
 have furnished objects of Neolithic work as also articles of the 
 Bronze period. 
 
 Prof. Boyd Dawkins t has shown in a map the extension of this 
 laud on our Westeru, Eastern and Southern Coasts, which occurred 
 in Prehistoric times, and which, due to the depression in the level 
 of the land, is now covered by the sea. 
 
 The temples, dedicated to a cult or to mysterious forms of 
 worship now seemingly lost even to tradition ; the hut circles (the 
 conditions of life of whose masters we may be able partly to rea- 
 lize) ; and, above all, the tumuli or barrows upon the downs, and 
 the lone hill side (about which Archaeologists have of late years 
 told us a great deal) are among the most interesting monuments 
 of man's existence in the Bronze and Neolithic period. These 
 
 "Grassy barrows of the happier dead " 
 
 are to be seen on the higher ground throughout this country, and 
 have been explored by many Archaeologists. Canon Green well X 
 
 * Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc., 18G5 ; Geological Report 011 Cornwall, Devon, 
 and West Somerset. See Henry De la Beche and Godwin -Austen. 
 
 f "Early Man in Britain." 
 
 % "Ancient British Barrows " (Greenwell and Kollestonj — Archaeologia xv. 
 and xviii. 
 
o INTRODUCTION. 
 
 lias explored a great many of them in the North of England ; 
 Mr. Bateruan * has opened more than 400 tumuli in Derbyshire 
 and other counties ; and Dr. Thurnam f has done a very large 
 amount of work in the same direction in "Wiltshire and other 
 places. They are of different ages, ranging from the Neolithic 
 when only flint flakes and other stone implements are found, through 
 the period of transition from Stone to Brass, to Bronze instruments 
 only, and shading off into barrows of a later age. The tumuli 
 were often used for secondary interments of later date, which are, 
 however, easily detected by experienced investigators. 
 
 " The barrows and cairns of the Bronze period in England 
 are generally round and without large sepulchral chambers with 
 passages leading into them,"J such as are often seen in the more 
 important Neolithic burial places; " they are sometimes bell shaped 
 and bowl shaped, the dead appear in some instances to have been 
 interred extended, while in others cremation was practised, the 
 ashes of the dead being deposited in a funereal urn ; weapons, im- 
 plements, and ornaments of bronze, amber beads and gold torques, 
 armlets &c. were placed with them, also drinking cups occasionally, 
 all showing that they were intended for the dead in the world of 
 spirits." 
 
 This reminds us of that beautiful poem of Schiller's, which 
 commences with "Bringet her die letzten Gaben," and which Sir 
 E. L. Bulwer has thus translated : — 
 
 Here bring the last gifts ! and with these 
 
 The last lament he said ; 
 Let all that pleased, and yet may please, 
 
 Be buried with the dead. 
 Beneath his head the hatchet hide 
 
 That he so stoutly swung ; 
 
 * "Ton years diggings in Celtic and Saxon Gravehills " — "Vestiges 
 of the Antiquities of Derbyshire." 
 
 f " Ancient British Barrows." — Archceologia. 
 
 X "Early Man in Britain.'' — Prof. Boyd J inn-kins. 
 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 9 
 
 And place the bear's fat haunch beside : 
 
 The journey is so long. 
 And let the knife new sharpened be 
 
 That on the battle day 
 Shore with quick strokes — he took but three — 
 
 The foeman's scalp away. 
 The paints that warriors love to use 
 
 Place here within his hand, 
 That he may shine with ruddy hues 
 
 Amidst the spirit land. 
 
 In the tumuli of a rather earlier date in the Brouze age stone 
 implements are associated with bronze instruments, and ornaments 
 of that metal as well as of amber, jet, bone, shell and teeth are 
 found in them. 
 
 There are nearly 300 such burial mounds containing bronze 
 objects within a circuit of three miles around Stonehenge, and 
 Lubbock, is of opinion that the dead were probably " brought from a 
 distance to be near the great temple." Avebury, though perhaps 
 of rather earlier date, is believed also to be of the bronze age. 
 
 The long barrows, which are generally found to be of the 
 Stone period, occur iD Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, "Wiltshire, &c. 
 As an example may be mentioned the long chambered barrow at 
 "West Kennet, Wiltshire ; it is about 350 feet long, and in the cen- 
 tral chamber were found about 300 flint flakes, some cores from 
 which the flakes had been struck, a flint scraper, a shale bead, and 
 some heaps of broken pottery. 
 
 The dead were, in most of the long barrows, interred in a crouch- 
 ing or sitting posture. Cremation does not appear to have been 
 adopted in any case. 
 
 The comparisons which have been made between the skulls and 
 other osseous remains preserved in the tumuli of the Bronze and 
 Stone ages, respectively, have demonstrated the existence of such 
 marked differential characteristics as to lead to the belief that they 
 belonged to different races. 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Iii the tumuli of the Bronze period the skulls are more or less 
 broad with narrow foreheads (to which form the term Brachyce- 
 phalic has been applied), and the men were taller than those 
 whose remains are fouud in the long barrows. They would seem 
 to have lived on into the iron age, as iron weapons have been found 
 in them, although rarely ; and to have belonged to the Aryan 
 Keltic race. 
 
 In the chambered and unchambered long barrows the evidence 
 drawn from their human contents is very different : — the people were 
 shorter ; their foreheads long, receding and narrow (skulls of which 
 kind are called Dolichocephalic) ; the implements, as has been men- 
 tioned, are Neolithic ; while no weapons &c. of iron nor even of 
 bronze, are contained in them. 
 
 It has been suggested (as will be seen in the conclusion), that 
 they belong to a non-Aryan race, believed to be Iberic. 
 
 Dr. Thurnam says that these people had very barbarous customs ; 
 and that, if they were not addicted to cannibalism, they at least 
 sacrificed many human victims, since cleft skulls (generally cut in 
 the same place) and half charred bones are found in their tombs. 
 Their custom of entombment in a sitting posture is still prevalent 
 among some of the lowest races. The sacrifice to the spirits of 
 the dead, believed to be shown by the deposit of stone implements 
 with the dead, as well as the cleft skulls and remains of animals, 
 is thought by some authorities to afford rude evidence that even 
 this early race believed in the immortality of the soul. 
 
 In the chamber of overlapping stones forming the Dolmens of 
 the Morbihan,* described by Admiral T. S. Tremlett, the slabs are 
 sculptured. Among other things represented there are stone celts 
 hafted with a twisted withe round them, such as a blacksmith 
 uses in holding his chisel at the forge. 
 
 * Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. xv., No. 1. 
 
ARCH-EOLOGICAL. 11 
 
 Cairns are probably the earliest monuments made by man. 
 Achan and his whole family were stoned with stones and burned 
 with fire, after which Israel " raised over him a great heap of stones 
 unto this day ; so the Lord turned away from the fierceness of his 
 anger." Again, the king of Ai was buried under a great heap 
 of stones ; Achilles erected a tumulus over the remains of Patro- 
 clus ; and Hector's barrow was of stones and earth. Very nume- 
 rous records of such monuments may be cited. 
 
 A remarkable discovery * was made in 1809 by a farmer, in 
 Kirkcudbrightshire, in removing a cairn. It was supposed to be the 
 tomb of king Aldus McGaldus ; in it was found a stone coffin of 
 very rude workmanship containing the skeleton of a man of uncom- 
 mon size; the ribs and vertebrae crumbled into dust in attempting 
 to lift them; when the remaining bones were taken out it was 
 seen that one of the arms had been almost separated from the 
 shoulder by the stroke of a stone axe, and that a fragment of the 
 axe still remained in the bone. The axe is of greenstone, which 
 does not occur in that part of Scotland ; a polished ball of flint 
 and a flint arrow head were also found with the bones but no 
 metallic substance. 
 
 All over the downs of the South of England, westward as far 
 as the Mendips, and northward in Yorkshire, as at Bridlington &c, 
 abundant traces of man in the Neolithic age are found on the sur- 
 face of the ground, which may be picked up on ploughed fields. 
 
 The pile dwellings (Pfahlbauten) or houses for village ■ commu- 
 nities built on platforms laid upon piles driven into the bottom of 
 the Swiss lakes, as in Lakes Bienne and Neufchatel, Zurich and 
 others, so well described by Keller, t show us that a considerable 
 
 * Quoted by Wilson, " Prehis. Ann. of Scotland," vol. i , and by Sir 
 John Lubbock in " Prehistoric Times." 
 f "Lake dwellings," translated by Lee. 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 population dwelt in this manner, and for a long time, in the Neo- 
 lithic, Bronze, and even in the Iron age. 
 
 Among the most ancient of these sites are Wangen, near the 
 lake of Constance, and Moosseedorf, near Berne, which appear to 
 belong to the age of Stone, many implements of serpentine, green- 
 stone and arrow-heads of quartz having been met with there. 
 
 The bones found in them indicate that the inhabitants were 
 hunters, and followed the chase more than pastoral pursuits, as the 
 " flesh of the stag and roe was more eaten than that of domestic 
 cattle and sheep ; this was afterwards reversed in the later Stone 
 period and in the age of Bronze." (Lyell.) 
 
 Sir John Lubbock,* who examined the lake dwelling at "Wanwyl 
 near Zofingen, in the canton of Lucerne, formerly a shallow lake, 
 but now a bed of peat, found only objects of the Stone age but 
 no trace whatever of metal. Among them were corn-crushing stones 
 showing that agriculture was practised even in the Stone age. In 
 similar structures at Robenhausen, on the small Swiss lake Pfiiffi- 
 kon, also of the Stone age, pieces of rude fabric were found in some 
 abundance and very rude pottery. 
 
 Lake habitations belonging to the Bronze age have, says the 
 same authority, been found on the lakes of Geneva, Luissel, Neuf- 
 chatel, Bienne, &c. ; they are generally more solidly built and in 
 deeper water. In them the reaping hooks, fish-hooks, swords, dag- 
 gers, axes, spear heads, knives &c. are of bronze ; while some of the 
 later structures contain both bronze and iron articles. 
 
 The ancient battle field of " Tiefenau, near Berne, is remarkable 
 for the abundance of iron weapons and implements which have been 
 found in it," although of a date anterior to our era.t 
 
 The crannoges or platforms of clay and stone bound together 
 
 * " Prehistoric Times." 
 t Ibid, p. 169. 
 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 
 
 13 
 
 with timber, found in the Irish lakes, such as Roughan, near Dun- 
 gannou, have furnished spear heads &c. of the Bronze age. 
 
 Pile dwellings now used by African tribes have been described 
 by Burton in Dahomey, and in Lake Mohrya by Cameron.* 
 
 Ancient piles, probably for dwellings, have been traced at Brent- 
 ford I believe, while at Moorfields (now in the heart of London, 
 which was down to historic times a swamp, at times covered with 
 water) such structures have been found; in fact the morasses and 
 meres of England, Scotland and Ireland have furnished the Archae- 
 ologist with bronze swords, daggers &c, and they are not unfre- 
 quently dredged up along with polished stone Celts from the bed 
 of the Thames. 
 
 The peat beds of the East Coast are very ancient, both bronze 
 and Neolithic work having been found in them ; while the most 
 ancient deposits of the same kind in Denmark — the Skovmoser — 
 furnish evidence, Geological more than Archasological, of the 
 increasingly more temperate conditions of climate which have pre- 
 vailed since they were formed ; Prof. Rupert Jones has dealt with 
 this subject in his usual lucid manner in his paper, t in which he 
 shows that the floor of the basin contained firstly the fallen 
 trunks of the Pine (Pinus sylvestris) in great numbers, a species 
 which has now disappeared from the country ; this layer is suc- 
 ceeded by large trunks of the sessile oak, followed by the pedun- 
 culated oak, which requires a soil improved by prolonged cultivation. 
 The oak has not entirely disappeared from Denmark, but the Beech, 
 which is entirely wanting in the Skovmoser, has now established 
 itself and flourishes so luxuriantly that Denmark is celebrated for 
 its forests of Beeches, J which are considered by the Danes to be 
 
 * " Across Africa.'' 
 
 f "The Antiquity of Man"— Croydon Micro. Club.— (Van Voorst). 
 X See Vaupell's paper on the invasion of the Beech in the forests of Den- 
 mark, Ann Science Paris, 1857, vol. vii. 
 
14 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of great antiquity. The Danish museums contaiu a very large 
 number of antiquities from these peat bogs. Traces of man appear 
 in the lower or Pine layer of the Skovmoser, which establishes a 
 high antiquity for man. Prof. Steenstrup took from beneath the 
 trunks various objects of flint, some of the trees having been cut 
 down with the aid of fire ; it was probably the only way of felling 
 large trees in Neolithic times. An elaborate memoir of the peat 
 bogs &c. of Scotland has been written by Prof. James Geikie.* 
 
 A rich store of Neolithic objects, illustrating the antiquity of 
 man, is found in the Kjukkeninciddings or kitchen refuse heaps 
 found in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea in Denmark and 
 from 3 to 10 feet above it ;f some of them are 1000 feet long and 
 150 to 200 feet wide. Scattered all through them, as Lyell says, J 
 "are flint knives, hatchets, and other instruments of stone, horn, 
 wood and bone, with fragments of coarse pottery, but never any 
 implements of bronze much less iron." 
 
 Such refuse heaps or shell mounds have been found on our 
 coast, as on the shores of the Moray Firth, at Brigzes on Loch 
 Spynie, and Mr. Pengelly and Mr. Spence Bate have described some 
 shell mounds in Cornwall and Devonshire. The Scotch heaps appear 
 to be more recent as bronze articles have been found in them.§ 
 
 Neolithic implements occur also under sand dunes or great 
 accumulations of blown sand, as, for instance, may be seen in the 
 Co. Antrim and other places in Ireland, &c. ;|| they indicate that at 
 
 * " On the buried Forests and Peat Mosses of Scotland and the changes 
 of climate which they indicate." — Trans. Roy. Soc, Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. 
 
 f M. Puggaard has shown that the height of these heaps above the sea is 
 due to a very slow uprise of the whole country at the rate of two or three 
 inches in a century. See also Lyell's Observations on the Changing Porms of 
 the Mollusca of that time. 
 
 % "Antiquity of Man,'" p. 12. 
 
 § " Prehistoric Times."— Lubbock. 
 
 || Mr. Thos. Day, jun., of Cork, has a very large collection of such objects 
 and others illustrating the antiquity of man in Ireland. 
 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 15 
 
 the period the dunes were formed bronze and copper were unknown. 
 
 The implements of Paleolithic man were made from the large 
 flint nodules and pebbles which are found in the deposits of valley 
 or drift gravel. This gravel is the result of the re-arrangement of 
 such material and of foreign rock fragments which took place as the 
 land emerged from the glacial sea at the last period of elevation. 
 The stones used by the Neolithic men were obtained by mining 
 operations carried on with considerable skill. At Grimes Graves, 
 near Brandon, in Suffolk, such work was carried on, and in the galle- 
 ries, or old workings, made in the chalk there, the miners had left 
 their tools, polished stone celts,* and picks formed from the antlers 
 of the stag, which, covered in by the fall of earth, have remained 
 undisturbed for perhaps 3000 years. 
 
 At Cissbury, near Worthing (explored by General Lane Fox,f 
 Mr. E. Willet, Mr. P. Harrison, and others) are large excavations 
 made in mining for flint by the Neolithic people ; no object of metal 
 had been found in them, and the implements, with two or three 
 exceptions (which may be of later date), are chipped and not 
 polished. 
 
 The area covered by the excavations at Cissbury, on the Sussex 
 downs, is about sixty acres. The pits are now filled in and repre- 
 sented by circular depressions in the surface of the land. It is sur- 
 rounded by a high double vallum, which was found by the explorers 
 to be constructed over the more ancient pits, filled in for the pur- 
 pose, showing that the vallum, which is at least 2000 years old (as 
 the place is proved to have been occupied by the Romans), is more 
 recent than the underlying excavations which pierce and burrow 
 into the land in all directions.. 
 
 * See Canon Greenwell's paper. — Ethnol. Soc, vol. ii. 
 t "Hill Forts of Sussex." — Archceologia, xvii.— Evan's "Ancient Stone 
 Implements." 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I have given some attention to this interesting spot, and have 
 been told by persons who were present at the re-excavation and 
 examination of the old workings, that in the tunnels Avere sometimes 
 found caves dug out of the chalk with an outlet for air or smoke 
 at the top, and that charred wood was found in them ; in that case 
 they may have been used as dwellings, and from the number of burnt 
 flints found on the eastern side, facing the rising sun, it has been 
 suggested that that part may have been used for religious purposes. 
 
 The white coated flints from Cissbury are often very roughly 
 chipped; and while the greater number of them are clearly of 
 well known Neolithic forms, there are others, which by their shape 
 and the coarse chipping, by which they have been fashioned, very 
 closely resemble the older (Palaeolithic) work. Since these imple- 
 ments were made the Neolithic stage of civilization has been suc- 
 ceeded by that of bronze, and that in its turn by the age of iron. 
 
 " These little heaps of chips and broken instruments," as Prof. 
 Boyd Dawkins* says, "lying immediately beneath the green sward, 
 had retained their places undisturbed, though the Romans used the 
 camp at Cissbury for military purposes and have left numerous 
 traces of their occupation ; from the time they were made down to 
 to-day, there has been no appreciable change in the surface of 
 the soil on which they rested ; with this evidence before us we 
 cannot shut our eyes to the enormous lapse of time necessary 
 for the production of the great geographical changes which took 
 place in the interval between the Neolithic and Palaeolithic ages." 
 
 Throughout all the time up to this point of our narrative we 
 have evidence that the same species of animals (though many of 
 them are no longer found in this country) co-existed with man ; he 
 had herds of cattle and hunted the wild boar and red deer, and even 
 in the Neolithic age he had rude notions of art and ornament and 
 
 * Op. Cit. 
 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 17 
 
 had learned to make pottery though it was of the roughest kind and 
 moulded by hand. 
 
 An allusion has been made to the difference of races suggested by 
 the character of the remains found in tumuli. Prof. Boyd Dawkins * 
 has endeavoured to show (I think successfully) that the Neolithic 
 people belonged to a dark non-Aryan race, which he calls Iberic, 
 traces of the survival of which are still found in some isolated spots 
 in Sicily, Sardinia and North Africa, but which is more definitely 
 represented by the swarthy Basques now inhabiting a not very 
 accessible country in the North West of Spain ; the preservation of 
 their racial characteristics being attributed to their comparative 
 isolation. He shows that after a lapse of time sufficient to allow for 
 this non-Aryan Neolithic civilization to penetrate into every part of 
 the continent, as well as into these islands, the Keltic (the advanced 
 guard of the great Western Aryan race) poured in and conquered the 
 earlier race. That they were more advanced in knowledge has been 
 shown by their use of bronze for their weapons, instruments and 
 ornaments. Being thus better armed and equipped they were able 
 to overcome the Iberic people. 
 
 Strabo says (1st book) that the Iberians differed in their bodily 
 conformation from the generality of the Celtica and Belgica, and 
 Tacitus (Agricola) tells us that the Iberians were a swarthy dark 
 people, with curly dark hair, characteristics which appear to agree 
 with the description of the Western tribes of the Silures, while the 
 Kelts are described by the same author as fair and tall, and the 
 South Britons were like the Gauls. 
 
 According to Dr. Thurnam,t the population of the British Isles 
 was uniform throughout the whole of the Neolithic age. They were 
 men of short stature, probably about 5 ft. 5 in. in height, and their 
 
 * Op. Cit. 
 
 f Stevens' "Flint^Clips." 
 d 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 skulls were of average capacity ; whereas the people of the Bronze 
 age were taller, and their skulls broader, as well as perhaps of greater 
 capacity. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen we may have traces of Iberic 
 blood in our veins if not in our language with regard to the latter. 
 
 Prof. Dawkins quotes the Abbe Inchauspe* (who has given much 
 attention to the language of the Pyrenees) who points out that the 
 Basque name for axe is aizcora, a compound of aitz (aitza, atcha) a 
 stone and gora lifted up or a stone mounted in a handle. 
 
 Other compounds of aitz are given, such as aitzloa (aitz and 
 "tloa," a dimunitive)=little stone=knife. Though Brachett has 
 shown that even of the Keltic language only twenty primitive words 
 can be traced to that source in the French language, the greater part 
 of the French roots being from Latin elements, there are nevertheless 
 strong reasons why Iberic roots should still remain in ours, in which 
 a far larger number of Keltic elements still linger. It is not then 
 improbable that primitive words, expressing stone axe| and perhaps 
 adze (the former in all probability the earliest stone implement used 
 by man) may still be represented in our language by a word having 
 an Iberic root. In some of the languages of Africa the same word 
 denotes stone and axe.§ 
 
 The Swiss geologists and archaeologists and others have endea- 
 voured to estimate in years the antiquity of the Bronze and Stone 
 ages ; Mr. Morlot || has carefully calculated the period necessary for 
 
 * Materiaux pour servir etc., 1875, p. 218. 
 
 t Brachet's Etymological Dictionary. 
 
 X Axe is generally believed to have come from aex (Anglo Saxon) and adze 
 from the Ang. Sax. adeza, but it ihould be remembered that words of an 
 older origin would probably have been incorporated into the Saxon tongue in 
 England in the formation of the Anglo Saxon. 
 
 § Hyde Clark, " Prehistoric Names of Weapons."— Journ. Anthro. Inst., 
 Vol. vi., No. 2. 
 
 || '' Etudes G6ologico-archeologiques en Danemark et en Suisse. Bulletin 
 Soc. Vnudoise Sc. Nat." Vol. vi. Republished in English in the " Smithsonian 
 Report for 1860." See also "Lyell's Antiquity of Man, 1863," p. 27. 
 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 19 
 
 the deposit of the delta of the Tiniere, a torrential stream which 
 flows into the lake of Geneva near Villeneuve ; the delta consists of 
 two mounds, or cones, of gravel and loam, one of them being much 
 larger and older than the other. 
 
 Three layers of vegetable soil, each of which once formed the 
 surface of the smaller cone, were first examined at the time when a 
 section was exposed in making a railway cutting. The first of these 
 was traced over a surface of 15,000 square feet, having an average 
 thickness of five inches, and about four feet above the present sur- 
 face of the cone. This upper layer belonged to the Roman period 
 and contained Roman tiles and a coin. The second layer followed 
 over a surface of 25,000 square feet, was six inches thick and lay at 
 a depth of ten feet. In it were found fragments of unvarnished pot- 
 tery and a pair of tweezers of bronze, indicating the bronze epoch. 
 The third layer, followed for 35,000 square feet, was six or seven 
 inches thick and nineteen feet deep. In it were fragments of rude 
 pottery, pieces of charcoal, broken bones, and a human skeleton 
 having a small round and very thick skull. M. Morlot, assuming 
 the Eoman period to represent an antiquity of from sixteen to eigh- 
 teen centuries, assigns to the Bronze age a date of between 3000 
 and 4000 years, and to the oldest layer, that of the Stone period, an 
 age of from 5000 to 7000 years. 
 
 M. Morlot, applying the same method of calculation to the larger 
 cone or mound of La Tiniere, which was formed when the Lake of 
 Geneva was at a higher level, estimated the period necessary for its 
 formation as one thousand centuries. 
 
 Another example quoted by Lyell is afforded by calculations 
 made by M. Troyon to obtain the approximate date of the remains 
 of an ancient settlement built on piles and preserved in a peat bog 
 at Chamblon near Yverdun on the Lake of Neufchatel. " The site of 
 the ancient town of Eburodunum (Yverdun) then on the borders of 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the lake and between which and the shore there now intervenes a 
 zone of newly gained land, 2500 feet in breadth, shows that the bed 
 of the lake has been filled up with river sediment in fifteen centuries. 
 Assuming the lake to have retreated at the same rate k before the 
 Roman period, the pile works of Chamblon (which are of the Bronze 
 period) must be about 3300 years old." 
 
 A third calculation, cited also by Lyell,* relates to the age of a 
 pile dwelling, at the Pont de Thiele, between the Lakes of Bienne 
 aud Neufchatel, in which mammalian bones have been found, " which 
 are considered by M. Riitimeyer to indicate the earliest portion of 
 the Stone or Neolithic period in Switzerland." 
 
 " The old convent of St. Jean, founded 750 years ago, and built 
 originally on the margin of the Lake of Bienne, is now a considerable 
 distance from the shore, and affords a measure of the rate of the gain 
 of the land in seven centuries and a half. Assuming that a similar 
 conversion of water into marshy land prevailed antecedently," we 
 should require for the growth of the morass intervening between 
 the convent and the aquatic dwelling of Pont de Thiele about 
 6750 years, which would indicate the period when the men of the 
 Neolithic period were living in Switzerland. 
 
 * Op. Cit. See also "Prehistoric Times," Lubbock. — "Notice sur les 
 Habitation Lacustres du Pont de Thiele." Porrentruy, 1862. 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 
 
 Hitherto this introduction has been retrospective. We have 
 briefly traced the records of the existence of man back into the 
 earliest Neolithic phase of culture or civilization through what may- 
 be called the Archaeological period of which we have evidence. It 
 appears to carry us back about 6000 or 7000 years, and the animals 
 throughout this time are found to be of species still living, or, were 
 comparatively speaking, recently living in this country. 
 
 We now come to a break or chasm in the record and have to turn 
 to evidence strictly Geological for data greatly more remote, for it 
 carries us so far into the past that the chronology hitherto adduced 
 may be considered almost as yesterday. 
 
 As Sir John Lubbock says, " the Geologist reckons not by days 
 or by years, the whole six thousand years which were until lately 
 looked on as the sum of the world's age are to him but as a unit 
 of measurement in the long succession of past ages," and we must 
 draw much more largely upon time for an estimate of man's exis- 
 tence in this world than was ever dreamt of fifty years ago. 
 
 It was not until 1841, when M. Boucher de Perthes made his 
 discovery of rudely chipped flint implements associated with extinct 
 mammalian remains in the drift gravels of the Somme at Menche- 
 court, near Abbeville, that Geologists even partly recognized the vast 
 antiquity of man which the occurrence of these roughly chipped 
 flints indicated. ♦ 
 
 M. Boucher de Perthes made few converts at first, but Dr. Fal- 
 
22 
 
 INTRODUCTION '. 
 
 coner, Prestwich, Lyell, Murchison, Ramsay, Dr. John Evans, God- 
 win- Austen, Professor Eupert Jones, Eev. G. Henslow, and others 
 visited the spot, examined the stones and the mammalia and became 
 convinced ; while scepticism and a repugnance to accept the imple- 
 ments as of human work, or, when associated with the mammalia, 
 as proofs of the vast antiquity of man, were as usual dominant 
 among those who knew least about the subject. 
 
 The valley terrace gravels of the Somme are found as high as 
 150 to 200 feet above the level of the present river, and they, as 
 well as all such river deposits, were accumulated by streams then 
 flowing at that high level. Hence the erosion of such valleys has 
 to a large extent taken place since the high gravels were deposited. 
 Similar beds of gravel and brick earth or loess are found through- 
 out the Thames Valley more than 200 feet above the Thames, as 
 also on the high grounds overlooking the principal rivers of the 
 Southern, Midland and Eastern Counties of England. These valleys, 
 as Prof. Eupert Jones says,* "opening at present into either the 
 English Channel or the North Sea, are mostly cut off abruptly by 
 the coast, and evidently once extended far seaward ; those opening 
 to the English Channel once ran down to the mid hollow of that 
 area before it was occupied by the sea ; and those on the East side 
 of the Dover Strait converged on the Great Valley of the Rhine then 
 passing up where the North Sea now rolls, as shown by Godwin- 
 Austen." t 
 
 The occurrence of these ancient gravels and loams so high above 
 the present rivers tells us of their having flowed through land when 
 the present contour level of the country had not been brought 
 about ; when our present hills and valleys had not been formed ; and 
 when the shores of the British Isles were not bounded by the sea as 
 
 * ',' Antiquity of Man/' Lecture to the Croydon Micro. Club. Published 
 by Van Voorst. 
 
 t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. vii. 1857. 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 23 
 
 they now are ; in fact, when these island did not exist as such, but 
 were united to the mainland of Europe ; while the intervening land, 
 now the North Sea, was traversed by a great river, to which many 
 of our existing streams, including the Thames, were tributaries. 
 
 It is known that the depth of the sea round the British Isles, 
 between them and the Continent, both on the South and East 
 (as in the English Channel and North Sea) no where exceeds 100 
 fathoms or 600 feet, and much of it is under 250 feet. A very 
 moderate uprise would then bring about these changes, and unite 
 Britain to Ireland. On the West of Ireland and North-west of 
 Scotland the 600 feet line extends to a comparatively short distance 
 from the shore, from which line the depth of the sea rapidly increases 
 to say from 5,000 to 12,000 feet. This conformation shows that 
 the British Isles are situated upon a high plateau washed by the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 As Prof. Boyd Dawkins * says, the " tract of low undulating 
 land in the late Pleistocene period," which surrounded Britain and 
 Ireland on every side, consisted not merely of rich hill, valley and 
 plain, but also of marsh land studded with lakes (like the meres 
 of Norfolk) now indicated by deeper soundings. These lakes 
 were very numerous to the South of the Isle-of- Wight and off the 
 coast of Suffolk, as shown by Sir Andrew C. Kamsay.t 
 
 It can be shown that two such continental periods have occurred 
 during the Pleistocene or latest Geological period. In its first 
 stage X (the Cromer forest bed &c.) the temperature became increas- 
 ingly cold until it culminated in the first glacial period, when the 
 land was probably much more than 600 feet above its present level; 
 
 * " Early Man in Britain." 
 
 t See Ramsay's " Orographical Map of England and Wales ;" Lyell's 
 "Antiquity of Man, 1863," p. 279. 
 
 J See Lyell's " Antiquity of Man;" Ramsay's " Physical Geography and 
 Geology of Great Britain ;" Geikie's " Great Ice Age," &c. 
 
24 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 taking Snowdon as an index (and as an illustration of other moun- 
 tains), it was at least 600 feet higher than it is at present.* 
 
 The increased height of the mountains brought more snow and 
 ice, while other causes also tended to produce conditions favourable 
 for the development of great cold. Only such animals and plants 
 as could exist in an arctic climate survived t from the previous 
 epoch (the Pliocene), and those which then migrated across the 
 land intervening between this country and the Continent (now the 
 North Sea and German Ocean) were of species habituated to a 
 country where the rigorous conditions of the arctic circle prevailed, 
 such as, quoting from Prof. Boyd Dawkins' list, the arctic lemming, 
 varying hare, musk sheep, reindeer, arctic fox, wolverene or glutton 
 (all of which are now living in high latitudes), with such extinct 
 species as the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, the gigantic Megaceros 
 hibernicus or Irish elk, cave bear, &c. 
 
 Judging from the evidence afforded by some of the oldest bone 
 cave deposits this was the time when man first set his foot in this 
 country. 
 
 Some geologists have suggested that the altered level of the land 
 was due to the shrinkage of the sea caused by the accumulation of 
 snow and ice in the polar regions ; while the late Mr. Thomas Belt J 
 contended that it was brought about by the damming up of the 
 "Western European drainage by a great Atlantic ice sheet. 
 
 The cause of glacial epochs is however at the foundation of 
 these great changes in the climate of the Northern hemisphere. 
 
 * See Mr. H. H. Howorth's paper "On recent Elevations of the Earth's 
 Surface in the Northern Circumpohr Kegions."— Journ. R. Geog. Soc. Vol. 
 xliii. 
 
 t For a full account of the changes which took place in the Tertiary and 
 Pleistocene periods in regard to the mammalia, see the admirable work of 
 Prof. Boyd Dawkins— " Early Man in Britain." 
 
 \ " Quart. Journ. of Science, 1877." 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 25 
 
 On this point Sir Andrew C. Ramsay* says, "I believe that the 
 day may come when both astronomers and geologists will be forced 
 to allow that in great cycles of geological time changes have taken 
 place in the position of the earth's axis of rotation, in a slowly 
 cumulative manner by gradual disturbances of what is called the crust 
 of the earth, but by no means by sudden upheavals of vast mountain 
 tracts at or near the poles or any where else on the earth's surface." 
 Dr. Croll has in his celebrated work t shown that alternations of 
 climate in the same latitude are primarily caused by the varying 
 eccentricity of the orbit of the earth due to the ever chang- 
 ing positions of the planets in our solar system, both without 
 and within the orbit of the earth. This cause (combined with the 
 varying position of the earth's axis) would at long intervals pro- 
 duce this effect {i.e. greater ellipticity of the earth's orbit) by which 
 the earth would be further removed from the source of light and 
 heat at certain seasons, and for a longer period. Calculations which 
 have been made show the variations in distance which may be 
 brought about, based upon the earth's present distance from the sun 
 when in aphelion and perihelion. The earth, it is believed, has been 
 in past times fourteen millions of miles further from the sun when 
 in aphelion than when in perihelion. Now if, in accordance with 
 the precession of the equinoxes, it so happened that winter in the 
 Northern hemisphere took place when the earth was furthest from 
 the sun, then it has been shown that " the direct heat of the sun 
 in winter would be one-fifth less during that season than at present 
 and in summer one-fifth greater " (Croll) ; " but this extra amount 
 of heat would even less have sufficed to remove the snow and ice 
 then, than it suffices to remove it from Victoria Land at the present 
 day ; for, first, as that region is all summer apt to be involved in 
 
 * " Physical Geography and Geology of Great Britain." 
 f "Climate and Time." 
 
2G INTRODUCTION : 
 
 clouds and fogs by vapours (due to partial evaporation of melting- 
 snows), even so on a larger scale the same effect must have been 
 produced in old epochs when greater glacial epochs took place, 
 alternately in the Northern and Southern hemispheres." 
 
 An alteration too in the course of the Gulf Stream, brought 
 about by a different configuration of the land, would tend to pro- 
 duce, under certain circumstances, a much colder climate than we 
 now enjoy. A striking instance of this is seen in the far more 
 rigorous climate of Newfoundland (now in the region of icebergs) 
 compared with that of this country, though the latitude of the 
 British Isles is further North. 
 
 "Whatever may have been the cause there is positive evidence 
 that at this period of elevation of the land great glacier systems 
 covered the greater part of Scotland and crowded the valleys. 
 Glaciers were likewise formed in the mountains of Cumberland and 
 Westmoreland, in the Pennine Chain and in Wales ; they extended far 
 to the South and South East ; and finally they became confluent 
 covering the mountains with a coating of ice, probably as thick as 
 that "in the North of Greenland in the present day," (Ramsay). 
 
 The evidence of this is seen all over the North of the British 
 Isles, in ice markings in the valleys, the roches moutonnes, perched 
 blocks, erratics, and in the lower boulder clay known as " Till," 
 with its scratched blocks, which are the remains of the marine 
 matter left upon the surface of the soil as the glaciers subsequently 
 retreated. In fact, as Sir A. Ramsay says, " the regions of Britain 
 alluded to have been literally moulded by ice." 
 
 In England evidence of this kind is seen, "for erratic stones and 
 large blocks of granite, gneiss, felspathic traps, carboniferous lime- 
 stone, &c. are scattered over the West and East coasts, and the 
 central counties of England. Boulders of the Shap granite of Cum- 
 berland are common in Staffordshire ; they occur in the valley of 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 
 
 27 
 
 the Severn, about twelve miles north of Cheltenham, and they 
 have been borne across the central watershed of the North into 
 the plains of Yorkshire, &c."* (Ramsay). 
 
 While these results were being produced it is believed that the 
 ice sometimes decreased and increased with occasional oscillations 
 of temperature, and that the land animals (man included) advanced 
 northwards or retreated southwards with the advancing and retreat- 
 ing ice sheet. 
 
 Then followed a period of submergence. The glaciers had car- 
 ried their burden of rocks and marine matter far away from the 
 seaboard now surrounding this country, and thus formed the bottom 
 of the present sea. The depression of the land continued until 
 Great Britain and Ireland was reduced to an archipelago of small 
 islands, the Snowdon district being one of them. Sir Andrew Ram- 
 say has suggested that this depression cannot have been less than 
 1200 to 1500 feet ; this is proved by the beach deposits and marine 
 shells near the summit of Moel Tryfaen (1300 feet) near the south 
 side of the Menai Straits. Sea shells have been found near Mac- 
 
 * Others have attributed the boulder clays &c. to icebergs which deposited 
 marine matter while melting during a subsequent period ; but the views 
 expressed by Sir Andrew Ramsay are more generally accepted by geologists. 
 Dr. James Geikie considered the tough clays and scratched stones (often so hard 
 as to require blasting with gunpowder) to be the debris collected beneath the 
 ice sheet, called by Swiss geologists "moraine profonde " ("Great Ice Age''). 
 Mr. Searles Wood, jun., and Mr. F. W . Harmer have divided the boulder 
 clays into lower and upper, and the beds of sand and gravel dividing them, 
 often contorted, are termed by them "middle glacial." The upper boulder 
 clay is called by Mr. Skertchly the great chalky boulder clay as it contains 
 much chalk ground up by the action of a glacier, which probably travelled 
 from north east to south west since the chalky and flinty debris is sparingly 
 mingled with the oolite, quartz, basalt, granite, &c, sometimes smooth and 
 Bometimes striated. " The boulder clay always partakes of the nature of 
 the underlying soil," and it is suggested by Mr. Skertchly that the old 
 glacier depositing it reached Romford in Essex. The glacial deposits at Finch- 
 ley may have been accumulated at the same time. 
 
28 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 clesfield at between 1100 and 1200 feet, and on the Wicklow 
 mountains at 1300 feet above the sea level, and similar patches 
 occur at lesser heights in central England. The higher ground of 
 the south-eastern portion of England is believed to have sunk but 
 little below the present level," (Lyell). 
 
 The marine shells contain a large proportion of Northern and 
 Arctic forms comparable to those of Greenland now (Ramsay). It 
 is believed that at the close of this period of subsidence the tem- 
 perature became more moderate, and that though (with the retreat- 
 ing shore line) icebergs traversed the seas and deposited their 
 glacial detritus in its earlier parts, it was succeeded by an interval 
 in which a temperate climate prevailed, which may have been due 
 to deflection in the course of the Gulf stream as the physical geo- 
 graphy of this region altered. 
 
 It is not improbable that man may have survived these altering 
 conditions in the country south of the Thames. The deposits 
 formed at this time are generally termed the middle glacial sands 
 and gravels (see note ante).* 
 
 * The alterations of temperature and the great prevalence of rain and 
 snow floods which probably occurred during the latter portion of the glacial 
 epoch, is considered by Mr. Alfred Tylor as a period of enormous rain-fall, 
 which he has designated the Pluvial period. 
 
 Mr. Belt (Op. Cit.) considered the succession of changes was as follows : — 
 "The first stage of the glacial period is that of the older forest beds and the 
 immigration of a great number of the mammalia and Palaeolithic man, indi- 
 cates that the sea had retired from the British Channel and the German Octan, 
 leaving these islands connected with the Continent." A great river probably 
 ran southwards through the region now submerged. "The second stage is 
 marked by the continued advance of the ice from the north, the retreat of 
 the southern fauna and Palaeolithic man, and the arrival of Arctic mammals. 
 The third stage saw the culmination of the glacial period and the greatest 
 extent of the Atlantic glacier (from the North West, Greenland), which 
 reached to the coast of Europe, blocked up the English Channel, and caused 
 the formation of an immense lake of fresh water, by damming back the 
 drainage of the whole of N. \V. Europe. In the fourth stage the Atlantic 
 glacier began to retreat ; and the sudden breaking away of the barrier of ice 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 29 
 
 The succeeding change is one again of upheaval under cold 
 conditions of climate after what seems to have been a long period ; 
 and Lyell, Ramsay and others regard this as being also a conti- 
 nental period, i.e., that this country was again united to the main 
 land of Europe. 
 
 " During this epoch there were glaciers in the higher mountains 
 of Scotland and Wales, and the Welsh glaciers pushed before them 
 and cleared out the marine drift with which the valleys had been 
 filled during the period of submergence. The parallel roads of 
 Glen Roy are referable to some part of the same era," (Lyell). 
 And Sir A. Ramsay has suggested that the re-elevation of the north 
 country at this time may have corresponded in extent with the 
 previous depression. For fuller information as to inter-glacial 
 periods and recession of the glaciers consequent upon a change of 
 climate, the elaborate work of Prof. James Geikie * should be con- 
 sulted. 
 
 Raised beaches on some parts of the coast of Great Britain afford 
 evidence of this uprise and probably of local oscillations of land. 
 With the last subsidence and this period of uprise, as also that of 
 the partial depression and minor oscillations which followed it, 
 
 that blocked up the mouth of the Channel caused the tumultuous discharge of 
 the waters of the great lake, by which the spreading of the lowland gravels 
 was effected." To this cause the author attributes the formation of the Middle 
 Glacial Sands and Gravels of Norfolk and Suffolk. Subsequently there was a 
 temporary advance of the Atlantic glacier which again blocked the Channel 
 and produced a second great lake whose waters were not discharged in the 
 same tumultuous fashion. In the last stage the Atlantic ice retreated as far 
 as the North of Scotland, but the sea had not returned to its former level. 
 To this last period the author ascribes the arrival of Neolithic Man and the 
 associated fauna from the Continent. 
 
 Mr. Belt's views, though very ingenious, are not generally accepted by 
 geologists. It has been suggested that such a deluge as the first breaking 
 of the great ice barrier would cause may be commemorated in the deluges of 
 traditions. 
 
 * "The Great Ice Age." 
 
30 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 (resulting in the present divisions of land and sea, and the insular 
 security of this country) are connected the gravel and loam 
 deposits or drift with which the works of men are so generally 
 associated. 
 
 Prof. Prestwich * has shown us that the high level and lower 
 valley gravels are but extremes of a series marking a long period 
 of time, and probably formed under analogous but not identical 
 conditions. The high level gravels are formed in the estuaries 
 dating after the boulder clay deposits and the great extension of 
 ice. During the latter changes we have described Prof. Rupert 
 Jones t says " there was at one time broad expanses of flint gravel 
 existing in Picardy, the "Hampshire bason," and the "London 
 bason." This gravel was first accumulated and then spread out in 
 shallow seas and river mouths by strong currents, storms, and coast 
 ice; but rising with one of the emergences it was excavated into 
 river valleys and tidal creeks, and thus divided into many plateaux 
 with spurs and outliers." 
 
 " The Palaeolithic hunter J of the mid and late Pleistocene river 
 deposits in Europe belongs to a fauna which arrived in Britain 
 before the lowering of the temperature produced glaciers and ice- 
 bergs in this country ; he may therefore be viewed as being pro- 
 bably pre-glacial," (Dawkins). 
 
 The remains of man hitherto discussed in this Introduction have 
 been found in the Pleistocene deposits ; but, though most geologists 
 expect to find traces of him at an earlier epoch, no evidence that 
 can be said to be quite acceptable to the geologists of this country 
 
 * "Phil. Trans., 1864." 
 
 f "On the implementiferous gravels near London." — Proc. Geol. Assoc. 
 Vol. viii. No. 6. See also Proc. Geol. Assoc. No. G. 1881. And "Trans- 
 actions of the Newbury District Field Club," vol. xi. 1871, by the same 
 author ; and John Phillips' "Geology of the Valley of the Thames" ; " Memoir 
 Geol. Survey " (Whitaker), and " Guide to the Geology of London'' (Whitaker). 
 
 X "Early Man in Britain," p. 1G9 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 31 
 
 has yet been adduced.* Such evidence can hardly be expected 
 however in the British Isles. Dr. Falconer showed Ions; since that 
 the earliest of the human race must be looked for in India and other 
 parts of Asia ; so that no one would be rash enough to assert that 
 the implements of man found in the drift or in the breccia depo- 
 sits of the bone caves in this country are likely to be those of 
 primeval man. 
 
 I think it may now be said that the high terrace gravels 
 throughout the Thames Valley have yielded the flint implements, 
 worked flakes, and waste flakes of Palaeolithic man. Dr. Stevens t 
 has found them associated with the mammoth and woolly rhino- 
 ceros, &c, at Grovelands, 197-ft. O.D., at Redlands, 115-ft. O.D., 
 and at other places near Reading. They have also been found at Mar- 
 low and Maidenhead, where the gravels occur in irregular hollows of 
 the chalk spread out on broad plains, which have been very pro- 
 ductive in the same later Pleistocene mammalia, and at Taplow 
 where a collection has been made by Mr. Portland. I have found 
 them at Dawley ; and collections have been made from Hanwell, 
 Ealing, Acton, Brentford, Turnham Green, &c, by Mr. Peter Crooke 
 of Brentford and myself. Colonel Lane FoxJ (now Gen. Pitt Pavers) 
 also discovered them at Acton. Throughout London the same 
 objects have been found and with the same fauna. Mr. Worthington 
 
 * The Abbe Bourgeois laid before the Anthropological Congress at Paris 
 some flints which he had found in situ in undoubted miocene strata at 
 Thenay in the Beauce near Blois. In a commission formed of the most 
 eminent authorities nine reported in favour of the flints showing undoubted 
 traces of human work, while fire rejected that opinion, and one was neutral, 
 But M. Quatrefages says, in his recent work, " these objects and especially 
 a scraper, which is one of the most distinctly characterized of that class of 
 implement, have removed my last doubts." — Vide "Modern Science and Mo- 
 dem Thought," by S. Laing, M.P. 
 
 f "Trans. Brit. Arcbseol. Assoc." March 1881. 
 
 % "Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc," vol. xxviii., part 4. 
 
32 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 G. Smith * has published a very interesting series of papers show- 
 ing his discovery of a Palaeolithic floor at Stoke Newington, 
 which he has traced to Kingsland and Shacklewell, Highbury and 
 South Hornsey, Abney Park Cemetery, The London Fields, Fleet 
 Street, Drury Lane, Gray's- Inn Lane, and Clerkenwell ; and, having 
 seen traces of it in other surrounding places, he believes it extends 
 over the whole of East Middlesex into Hertfordshire, as far as 
 Hertford and Ware, and on both sides of the Thames from London 
 to the Nore. 
 
 Mr. Greenhillt has also described a valuable collection he has 
 made and the conditions under which they were found, in the 
 vicinity of Stoke Newington, Hackney, &c. 
 
 Mr. Flaxman C. J. Spurrell J has discovered them in very high 
 ground in West Kent. 
 
 Flint implements have been described (generally with the same 
 mammalia) from South Hampshire and the Isle-of- Wight gravels by 
 Mr. Thomas Codrington;§ from the valley of the Little Ouse at 
 Thetford, also at Hoxne and Icklingham by Mr. J. W. Flower ;|| 
 from the Valley of the Ouse (Bedford, Biddenham, &c), by Mr. 
 James Wyatt ;!" from Bemerton and Fisherton near Salisbury, by Dr. 
 John Evans.** From the species of mammalia discovered with the 
 Palaeolithic implements it would appear that the hunter of those 
 times would not suffer for want of game. In Wiltshire in the spring, 
 summer and autumn, says Prof. Boyd Dawkins, " there were stags, 
 
 * " Journ. Anthropol. Inst.," vol. xiii., No. 3, &c.,&c. 
 
 f "Proc. Geol. Assoc." Vol. viii., No. G. 
 
 J " Archaeologia Cantiana." 
 
 § "Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc." Vol. xxvi., Part 4. 
 
 || "Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc." Vol. xxiii., Part 1; and Prestwich's Pa- 
 per," Vol. xvii. 
 
 f " Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc." Vol. xx., Part 3. 
 
 ** "Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc." Vol. xx., and that splendid work by the 
 name author, "Ancient Stone Implements." 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 33 
 
 bisons, uri, pouched marmots, woolly rhinoceroses, and mammoths ; 
 and in the depth of winter there were reindeer and musk sheep, 
 with wild bears in the woodlands and hares in the glades. He 
 had, however, formidable beasts of prey, such as the lion and the 
 spotted hyasna, as his competitors in the chase. 
 
 Similar traces of man under the like conditions have been 
 traced in river deposits as far north as Cambridge, and from Chard 
 on the West to the Straits of Dover on the East. 
 
 Caves have afforded most important and interesting evidence on 
 the antiquity of man in Great Britain ; while rock shelters and 
 similar caverns on the Continent have added much to our knowledge 
 of the subject. They have probably been used by man as dwelling 
 places from the earliest period of his existence in this country, 
 down to the Neolithic period, and in some instances even later. 
 That is to say there is evidence from the association of the Arctic 
 fauna with implements of human workmanship and from the in- 
 fillings of the lower part of the caves having taken place at the 
 time the glaciers were at work eroding the valleys, or when streams 
 were flowing some hundreds of feet above the present system of 
 drainage, that man was living in the first glacial period. Nay, 
 more, there is strong presumption for the opinion, held by Sir 
 Andrew Eamsay and others, that he even lived in pre-glacial times. 
 The foundation for this hypothesis is the older fauna found in the 
 cave of Oreston near Plymouth, Victoria cave near Settle, Yorkshire, 
 and other caverns both here and on the Continent, as also in the 
 lower brick earth deposits of Erith, Crayford &c. towards the mouth 
 of the Thames, and Clacton (which Prof. Boyd Dawkins * believes 
 to be of mid-Pleistocene age). In these cases the older fossil 
 mammalia are associated with the works of man.f 
 
 * " Early Man in Britain." 
 t Man is proved to have lived in this older fauna by the discovery of a 
 
 / 
 
34 INTRODUCTION: 
 
 "It cannot be proved to a demonstration that man inhabited 
 our area in pre-Glacial times, yet the concurrence of probabilities 
 that he did so is so great that I have a profound conviction that, 
 at that epoch here he must have been. I have already more than 
 hinted at his presence in the South in the caves of Devonshire, 
 while the more Northern areas were shrouded in ice."* "It seems 
 to me much more probable that he did live here before the glacial 
 epoch began, and that he retired to the South before the advancing 
 glacier sheets. The changing climate might by degrees suit him 
 well enough, for do not the Greenlanders live in comfort in their 
 own way among and on the edges of the snows and glaciers of 
 Greenland," to whom our Palaeolithic men have been compared. 
 
 On the whole, then, it is probable that, as additional data 
 accumulate, it will be found that man has lived somewhere in 
 this region from pre-Glacial times, through the Glacial periods and 
 interglacial episodes, into Neolithic times, though throughout that 
 enormous period he was probably represented by a race or races 
 differing from the dolichocephalic Neolithic people, and of a lower 
 type. Prof. B. Dawkins suggests that Palaeolithic man is as extinct 
 as many of the fauna with which he lived ; for the extinction of 
 Palaeolithic man however there does not appear to be any evidence, 
 while there is much to be said in favour of the Esquimaux being a 
 remnant of the Palaeolithic race. 
 
 The caves, so rich in the Pleistocene mammalia with rude imple- 
 ments of human work, are fissures in the limestone rocks, into 
 which such remains have either been washed from the surface by 
 
 flint flake in the lower brick earths at Crayford by the Rev. Osmond Fisher. 
 See "Geol. Mag., 1872," page 268. A second implement was found at Erith, 
 also in situ, it is a roughly chipped flake worn by use. See "Notes ou 
 Pleistocene deposits at Crayford and Erith,'" by Cheadle and Woodward. — 
 Proc. W. Lon. Scientif. Assoc. 
 
 * "Physical Geography and Geology," p. 546. 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 35 
 
 streams which flowed in remote times through the land then at a 
 higher level than now, or they have been used by animals as dens 
 and by man as habitations. In some caves both episodes have 
 occurred, and they have been occupied in succession by one and the 
 other. Caverns of this kind often present the appearance of cham- 
 bers leading one out of the other, divided by low galleries. The 
 preservation of their contents is due to the formation of thick floors 
 of stalagmite on different levels and at different periods, while the 
 roof covered with stalactites in some cases often reaches down to 
 the stalagmitic bases and pinnacles. 
 
 The whole is the result of the dissolving of the carbonate 
 of lime composing the rocks and its subsequent deposition 
 as stalagmite and stalactite within the caves. The lowest de- 
 posits beneath the floors are necessarily the most ancient, and 
 the relative antiquity of the matter accumulated between them is 
 generally according to the level at which they have been formed. 
 Their contents range in some cases from the historic period back 
 to a time which may belong to the pre-glacial age.* 
 
 Such caverns, containing Arctic and temperate mammalia with 
 roughly formed flint and other stone implements, are found all over 
 the country where limestone formations occur, as in Yorkshire (Kirk- 
 dale and Settle caves, &c.) ; Derbyshire (Robin Hood, Church Hole, 
 Pin Hole, Mother Grundy's parlour, Castleton &c.) ; in the Mendip 
 lulls (Wookey hole, &c.) ; all of which have been described by Prof. 
 Boyd Dawkins f in Ins very instructive work. 
 
 In various parts of Wales (as at Pont Newydd, Cefn,J Plas 
 
 * Sir A. Ramsay, Mr. Trimmer and others have maintained that some of 
 the deposits have been introduced into the caverns before the great inter- 
 glacial submergence, and the former says Cefn cave in N. Wales was below 
 the sea during part of the glacial epoch. "Physical Geography and Geology." 
 
 t "Cave Hunting." 
 
 X The Cave of Cefn (with others on the western side of the Valley of 
 
36 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 Heaton, Caldy Island, Coygan cave,* Cae Gwyn, &c.) there are also 
 such bone caves. Perhaps the cave best known to the general 
 reader is that of Kent's Cavern near Torquay, to the thoroughly 
 scientific examination of which Mr. Pengelly has given so much 
 valuable attention. t Mr. Pengelly shows us that the uppermost 
 deposit of black mould contained articles of bronze and Neolithic 
 work associated with animals now living in England. Beneath this 
 a floor of granular stalagmite covers a black band containing (with 
 the cave earth connected with it) remains of (among many other 
 animals) the cave lion, cave hyasna, glutton, cave bear, grizzly bear, 
 brown bear, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, Irish elk, reindeer, 
 cave pika. The list includes, firstly, creatures that still exist in 
 Devonshire; secondly, animals that no longer exist in Britain but 
 still live in Europe ; and thirdly, animals entirely extinct. Asso- 
 ciated with the bones were found numerous flint implements and 
 carefully worked flakes, of a higher Palaeolithic form than those 
 discovered at a lower level, with harpoons of reindeer antlers, a bone 
 needle, perforated tooth of badger, &c. Perforated teeth of cave 
 bear and other creatures are occasionally found in the older cave 
 deposits, and were probably strung together as necklaces or brace- 
 
 Clwyd) is in carboniferous limestone, and was first discovered in 1833 by 
 Mr. Stanley (afterwards Bishop of Norwich). Bones of Elephas antiquus (a 
 very ancient elephantine form), Rhinoceros hemitaechus (Syn. leptorhinus), 
 hippopotamus, cave bear, spotted hyaena, and reindeer were found in it, as 
 also a human skull, and cut antlers of a stag. Sir A. Ramsay says " my own 
 impression is that all the bones found their way into the Cefn cave before 
 the partial submersion of Wales during the glacial epoch and were sealed 
 therein before the shelly sands were deposited in the cavern." — ("Phys. Geo. 
 and Geol.," p. 469.) 
 
 * See also "Cave Hunting," and Dr. Henry Hicks "On some recent 
 Researches in Bone Caves in Wales." — Proc. Geol. Assoc, Vol. vi., No. 1. 
 Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc, Vols. xxxi. to xxxv. Papers by Rev. J. Magens 
 Mello, Prof. Boyd Dawkins, &c. 
 
 f " Brit. Ass. Reports, 1864 to 1878." " Lectures by Mr. Pengelly on 
 Kent's Cavern." " The Antiquity of the Cave Men," &c. 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 37 
 
 lets, as is the custom now among savages. In the river drift 
 deposits Mr. Worthington Smith * has found the globular fossil 
 Coscinopora globularis (found also in the same beds near Bedford) 
 with the orifice artificially enlarged, probably for the same purpose. 
 
 The lowest strata of Kent's Cavern is of crystalline stalagmite, 
 " thicker than the granular, usually in the proportion of about 12 to 
 5," and underlying this is the basal deposit, " a breccia made up of 
 a dark red sandy paste with a few fragments of limestone in it, 
 but instead, angular and rounded pieces of dark red grit," mate- 
 rial which the cavern hill could not have furnished. In the crys- 
 talline breccia were found flint and chert implements of the rudest 
 river drift type formed from rolled nodules associated with the 
 remains of the bear only. Mr. Pengelly also superintended the 
 exploration of the Brixham cave with Dr. Falconer, Prof. Prestwich, 
 and Sir A. Eamsay, when flint flakes were found indiscriminately 
 mixed with remains of a similar fauna, including the tichorhine 
 rhinoceros, reindeer and cave bear ; the lowest stratum in the cave 
 is of rounded pebble gravel, and was evidently deposited before the 
 ravine in which the town of Brixham is situated had been eroded. 
 Prof. Boyd Dawkins t says, the Eobin Hood, Church Hole and 
 Pin Hole caves, &c. in Derbyshire, to which allusion has been made, 
 afford evidence that man formed the central figure in a similar 
 group of mammalia. The basal deposit is generally composed of 
 limestone fragments resting on the rocky floor below. In Eobin 
 Hood cave is a bone bearing stratum containing the animal remains 
 which, "with few exceptions, are marked by the teeth of hyasnas," 
 and with them five pebbles of quartzite used for hammers or pot 
 boilers &c. Quoting Prof. Dawkins' words : " The second stage in 
 the history of the occupation of the caverns is marked by the 
 
 * "Trans. Essex Field Club," Vol. iii., Part 7. 
 t "Early Man in Britain," p. 177. 
 
38 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 lower and middle portion of the cave earth, which contained enor- 
 mous quantities of bones and teeth of animals introduced by the 
 hygenas, as well as bones broken by the hand of man, fragments 
 of charcoal and implements of flint and quartzite amounting to no 
 less than eleven hundred," including an iron-stone implement of 
 very old type, &c. 
 
 In the third period in the Palaeolithic history of the cavern, or 
 that of the breccia and the upper part of the cave earth, the rude 
 tools of quartzite found below are replaced by more highly finished 
 articles of flint brought from a distance, such as lance heads, 
 trimmed flakes, and a flint borer, with double scrapers and small 
 flakes, some of which appeared to have been let into a handle of 
 wood or bone; but the most interesting discovery from this por- 
 tion of the cave " was a small fragment of a rib with its polished 
 surface ornamented with the incised figure of a horse. It is the 
 first discovery of the figure of an animal in this country." Such 
 engraved bones have been found in the caves of the Dordogne in 
 France.* Some of them, indeed, are startling in their realizations 
 of reindeer, mammoth, bison, &c. ; such fan* sketches being so 
 little expected from Palaeolithic man, whose only tool was a sharp 
 flint ; similar drawings have been found in a cave at Bruniquel, 
 &c. ; but so far " no representation of any animal, however rude, 
 has yet been found in any of the Danish shell mounds, or the Stone 
 age lake villages. "t " In the upper cave earth of the Church Hole a 
 bone needle, a bone awl, a peculiar notched plate of bone, and a 
 rod of reindeer antler terminating in a scoop were discovered in asso- 
 ciation with similar flint implements." The discovery of the sabre- 
 toothed lion (Machairodus latidens) in the upper cave earth (along 
 
 * See the elaborate work of M. M. Lartet and Christy, "Reliquiaj Aqui- 
 tanieaj," very ably edited by Prof. T. Rupert Jones, 
 f Lubbock, "Prehistoric Times," p. 254. 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 39 
 
 with more common animals) in the Eobin Hood cave has not been 
 satisfactorily explained as it is a feline form dating back to the 
 miocene period. 
 
 The only other illustration the limits of this work will allow 
 of being given here is that of the Yictoria cave near Settle in 
 Yorkshire, which has been well described by Mr. E. H. Tiddeman ;* 
 from whose description the following is mainly obtained : — 
 
 The Victoria cave is situated at the base of a cliff or scar of 
 carboniferous limestone at the height of about 1450 feet above the 
 sea level. The mouth of the cave was at first hidden by talus 
 fallen from the cliff; but when this was removed a layer was found 
 containing much charcoal and burnt bones, with Roman coins, iron 
 spear heads, and various articles of ornament and use, showing that 
 the cave had been tenanted during the Eoman occupation of 
 Britain. 
 
 Prof. Eupert Jones, t quoting from Tiddeman's papers, says, " on 
 cutting away the rest of the talus, it was found to rest, at 19 feet 
 below the Eoman layer, on a sloping mass of sub-angular and 
 scratched boulders, sand and clay, resting at its upper portion 
 against the edges of some of the contents of the cave, namely, the 
 lower cave earth. The Silurian grit and other rocks which it con- 
 tains must have been brought by ice from various distances. Within 
 the cave was found an irregular and thin upper cave earth con- 
 taining bones of brown bear, grizzly bear, reindeer, red deer, badger, 
 goat, &c. ; and some of the bones had been hacked by man. 
 
 " Next below is a laminated clay deposit overlying a lower cave 
 
 * E. H. Tiddeman, of the Geol. Survey, Victoria Cave Exploration Com- 
 mittee, 1875, and paper read before Geol. Polytech. Soc, West Biding of 
 Yorkshire, 1875, by the same author, " Cave Hunting," (Dawkins) ; " Phys. 
 Geog. and Geol.'" (Ramsay); "Antiquity of Man," Croydon Nat. Hist. Club 
 (Rupert Jones), &c. 
 
 t " Op. Cit." p. 38. 
 
40 INTRODUCTION : 
 
 earth which was rich in the bones of hyaena, fox, brown bear, grizzly 
 bear, Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, hippopotamus, Bos 
 primigenius, and red deer ; and amongst these, besides two artificially 
 cut or hacked bones of the goat, one bone of man has been 
 found." 
 
 " The peculiar clay over this bone bed contains no fossils ; and 
 is attributed to the flowing of muddy water from off the side of 
 a glacier once passing by the front of the cave." " In its disso- 
 lution and retreat the glacier left the above mentioned glaciated 
 gravel and blocks, which have been since covered by about 20 feet 
 of talus produced by the action of frost on the cliff above." 
 
 This old glacier of the Eibble valley is considered by Mr. 
 Tiddeman and others as part of the great ice sheet in some early 
 part of the glacial period. ""Waxing and waning, advancing and 
 melting back over the mouth of the Victoria cave, during a long 
 series of climatal changes ; still it was subsequent to the existence 
 of the hyaenas who had used the old cave as a den, and had dragged 
 in their prey, among the remains of which is the human fibula 
 referred to. This is platycnemic * in character, that is, belonging to 
 some sharp shinned race, such as is found in the old deposits at Gib- 
 ralta, Central France, and North Wales." "Since the Ribble glacier 
 died away a great submergence took place in the middle glacial 
 period, producing the middle sands and gravels of Lancashire, 
 which, resting as an old sea bottom on the deserted rubbish of a 
 great ice sheet, show that the submergence did not attain in that 
 district a greater depth than 600 or 700 feet ; and this would leave 
 the cave 700 feet above the sea, though it would cut up the land 
 into a group of islands." 
 
 * Great doubt is shown by geologists as to this shin bone being human. 
 Prof. Boyd Dawkins, who had every opportunity of examining it, believes it 
 to be that of a bear. " Early Man," p. 187. 
 
GEOLOGICAL. 41 
 
 In the caves and rock shelters of France, Sicily, Belgium and 
 other countries the same evidence of the antiquity of man has been 
 afforded. The controversy about the probably abnormally low skull 
 in the Neanderthal cave near Dusseldorf ; and the comparison made 
 between it and the undoubted Paleolithic skull, which is not of 
 lower type than that of many a man who may be seen walking 
 London streets, found in Engis Cave near Liege, is old now. Lyell * 
 in his great work goes into the whole subject. 
 
 In the caves of the Dordogne in France we have perhaps a 
 rude foundation for a chronology. These caves (so rich in evidence 
 of man's existence and conditions of life) are in the valley of the 
 Vezere at different levels above the river. It is believed not only 
 that the caves represent the levels at which the river once flowed, 
 but also that they were used at corresponding periods. From the 
 oldest, probably that of Le Moustier, to the lowest or most recent, 
 there is certainly a marked improvement in some of the articles 
 used by man. Moreover the mammalia whose bones (with vast 
 numbers of worked flints) are found upon the floors, indicate alte- 
 rations in the species which lived then ; the oldest caves containing 
 large quantities of the bones of reindeer. 
 
 Rock shelters, such as those at Duruthy and Bruniquel, all 
 tell the same thing; and all point to a time when Western 
 Europe, including these islands, was subject to all the conditions 
 and circumstances arising from a very cold climate, and when man 
 was living much as an Esquimaux lives now. 
 
 * "Antiquity of Man.' 
 
 9 
 
42 
 
 The Earltest Men of Ealing and its Neighbourhood ; and 
 the Physical Conditions indicated by the Drift Deposits in 
 
 N. W. Middlesex. 
 
 We may now turn to the gravels and brick earths of the Ealing 
 district and see what they have to tell us of the earliest people 
 who ODce lived in this region, of the climate and other condi- 
 tions which surrounded them, and of the creatures who disputed 
 with these early men, probably often not unsuccessfully, judging 
 by the imperfection and rudeness of the human weapons. 
 
 It is remarkable that though the remains of the larger ani- 
 mals have been fouud in these deposits and the works of man 
 have frequently been met with, his boues are so siugularly absent, 
 that it has been suggested, that at this remote period cremation 
 was the custom of the Palaeolithic men as it was, according to 
 Lubbock,* during the Bronze age, as well as during Anglo-Saxon 
 times, and even more recently in other countries. 
 
 A more reasonable explanation is afforded, however, when we 
 consider the fragility of the bones of man compared with those 
 of the larger quadrupeds, and the very small extent of the 
 ground excavated in the gravel deposits, as compared with the 
 large area they cover. This suggests the probability that some 
 of the larger and stronger parts of the human skeleton may 
 yet be brought to light, — even if the human skeleton found 
 in 18S3 at Tilbury at the mouth of the Thames, should not 
 prove to be that of a Palaeolithic man ; for although much 
 * " Prehistoric Times," p. 103. 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EAEING, &C. 43 
 
 doubt is expressed as to the geological age of the specimen, 
 yet it had many of the characteristics of a very low race, such 
 as a low and narrow forehead with prominent frontal sinuses and 
 the crowns of the teeth worn down, suggesting coarse uncooked 
 food.* 
 
 The gravel and brick earths in this locality extend from the 
 margin of the Thames say to the top of Castlebar Hill, a 
 distance of about three miles. Castlebar Hill, the Mount, Han- 
 ger Hill and other high ground extends as a ridge, dividing 
 the Thames Valley, or alluvial, deposits from the wider exten- 
 sion of the Valley to the North. This is also the case with 
 the high land on the South side of the Thames. The ground 
 dips gently to the river but with three very distinct inclines; 
 they are comparatively sharp descents, forming benches or ter- 
 races, marking the elevations at which the greater river of the 
 Pleistocene period formerly flowed at different times; they are 
 geological bench marks, showing that the ground has thus been 
 successively eroded until the river has worn itself a channel 
 more than 140 feet below its first level. The lowest deposits 
 would then be the most recent, and the highest immeasurably 
 the most ancient ; in fact, the greater the elevation of the bed of 
 gravel the more ancient it must be, as it is the index of 
 the amount of erosion or excavation which has taken place 
 since it was accumulated by water, which then flowed at the 
 same height and deposited it. It is Prestwich t who first taught 
 us this lesson, and further 'showed that these river drift gravels 
 are but redeposits at lower levels of yet older marine gravel 
 called the Plateau gravel, which is now found covering the 
 
 * Sir R. Owen " On a portion of a Human Skeleton from a Pleistocene Bed 
 at Tilbury," read before the Royal Society, December 1883. 
 
 f "The Ground beneath us." 
 
44 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 chalk hills of Hertfordshire and Bucks, the latter being much 
 higher than the London clay hills with their coating of gravel 
 and alluvium lying between the chalk ranges of Herts and 
 Surrey. 
 
 Mr. Whitaker * of the Geological survey, who has enriched 
 our knowledge so much by his able memoirs and papers on the 
 Thames valley, and other branches of geological literature, has 
 divided the river drift deposits into three distinct terraces or 
 benches up to the 100 foot contour. This division may be con- 
 sidered to be roughly accurate. There is, first, a low terrace 
 occupying the low ground in the salient bends of the present 
 Thames at an average height of 10 to 20 feet above the present 
 stream; second, a mid terrace ranging from 20 to 30 feet above 
 the bottom of the valley ; and, third, a high terrace gravel with 
 its covering of brick earth at a level of from 50 to 100 feet above 
 the Ordnance Datum ; but, as he believed, the series should be 
 extended to a higher level. 
 
 My investigations have shown that this high terrace gravel 
 reaches, in the vicinity of Ealing, to a much greater height, since 
 I have found it to occur not only up the shoulders of Castlebar 
 Hill, say to 130 feet O. D., and continuous with the other high 
 terrace gravels ; but also so connected by patches or pot holes of 
 the same deposit in the London clay (which is also frequently 
 found covered with clayey loam with a few stones) as to be actually 
 united with the thick beds of gravel along the summit of the hill 
 itself. There is a section of such gravel now (1885) exposed, 
 which lies S.E. of Edge-hill Road, Castlebar, and near its junction 
 with St. Stephen's Road. The bed extends as far North as the 
 top of Kent Gardens, while it may be traced on the East side of 
 
 '• Memoirs of the Geological Survey," on sheet No. 7. 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 45 
 
 St. Stephen's Road to where it joins the Castlebar Road. It was 
 recently found also on the Northern slope of the hill, about 100 
 feet from the trees which mark the entrance to the late Duke of 
 Kent's Park. This deposit is very remarkable as it shows that the 
 water extended when the gravel was laid down, round, if not 
 over, the extreme point of Castlebar Hill, and into the country to 
 the North of it. Similar deposits are also found on the North side, 
 as at Castlebar Court, &c. The height of these deposits is from 150 
 to 160 feet, the highest part of the hill being 167 feet O.D. But 
 there is a yet higher deposit of gravel to be described, which how- 
 ever tells of another condition of the region we are noticing, and 
 which is probably much older than those already mentioned. It 
 is met with on the tops of the highest of the hills of the ridge, i.e. 
 on the Mount, Hanger Hill, as well as on Horsington Hill to the 
 North. 
 
 On the Mount, which is of the height of 204 feet O.D., and 
 nearly 40 feet above Castlebar Hill, I found the gravel * was associ- 
 ciated with blocks and boulders of rocks entirely foreign, or not 
 found in situ in the Thames Valley ; fragments of rocks which have 
 been brought there from the West of England or the North (some of 
 them 200 miles away from their present resting place), such as 
 granite, greenstone, mountain limestone and shale, quartz, quartzite, 
 red sandstone, trap, upper oolite, forest marble, lower greensand 
 with glauconite, Bargate stone, chert, hard chalk, tabular as well as 
 nodular flint, sarsen stone or grey wether in abundance, and others. 
 These rocks, which may now be picked up on the ploughed fields 
 here, were found with gravel filling long furrows on the summit 
 of the hill, and resting on stratified beds of sand and loam which 
 were so bent as to indicate the compressive action of great weights 
 of matter which once occupied these furrows. 
 
 * " Proc. Geol. Assoc." Vol. riii. No. 3. 
 
46 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 The whole presents us with all the elements and conditions of 
 a glacial formation. It shows us that the cause was due to strand- 
 iug ice, which, on melting, deposited the debris it had gathered 
 when it formed part of the great glaciers of the time. These 
 glaciers then issued from the mountainous regions of the North 
 and North-west, and probably extended even into the Midland 
 counties. Horsington and Muswell Hills and other elevations in 
 Middlesex afford the same evidence. [See page 47 for a section 
 of the glacial deposits on the Mount.] 
 
 The oldest gravel deposit of all, however, (also containing foreign 
 rock fragments) lies upon the chalk hills of Herts, &c, at eleva- 
 tions of 300 feet or more. According to most geologists this is 
 a true marine deposit spread out at the bottom of a sea, which 
 was then traversed by icebergs, as is now the sea off the coasts of 
 Labrador and Newfoundland, which are in about the same latitude 
 as this country. 
 
 Let us now endeavour to realize the condition of this part of 
 the country during the formation of the successive deposits I have 
 described, and their association with the history of man. 
 
 In the marine deposit of gravel with foreign subangular and 
 rounded fragments we have evidence of the period of submergence 
 I described iu the Introduction, when the whole country, in- 
 cluding the chalk hills which bound the wider valley of the Thames, 
 was beneath the waters of the sea. 
 
 The next period, that of emergence, is indicated by the evi- 
 dence of ice grounding and afterwards melting so as to deposit 
 the glacial detritus seen on the Mount, Horsington, and other hills. 
 But when submergence and emergence are mentioned, they must 
 be understood as taking place as slowly as similar changes of level 
 are proceeding now ; that is, so slowly that it is extremely difficult 
 to obtain observations extending over sufficient time to determine 
 
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48 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 the rate of upheaval or depression. Proofs of this action are 
 clearly discernable in the old beaches on our South coast (as near 
 Torquay, &c), from which the sea has receded, and in the large 
 encroachments of the sea which have taken place elsewhere in 
 historic times. 
 
 In the region under review, there is no evidence of convulsive 
 or cataclysmic action. In fact the period of great volcanic activity 
 in this country had passed away ages before. The sea gradually 
 retreated, and as it retreated the drainage of the land began, and 
 ulimately developed into the flowing rivers. 
 
 The Finnish newspapers of August 18, 1882, record a striking 
 illustration of the extent to which the land on the shores of the Gulf 
 of Bothnia is being gradually upheaved. It appears that on June 
 25, 1755, a land surveyor, named Erik Klingius, residing in the 
 parish of Burgii between the towns of Nikolaistadt and Kasko, made 
 an excavation in the smooth rock, at an elevation of two inches 
 above the level of the sea ; on being again measured, after the lapse 
 of 127 years, it was found to be 6 feet 5 inches above the sea level. 
 The implements of worked flint made by man have been found 
 by Mr. Worthington Smith * at Amwell and other places in Herts, 
 showing that man probably began to inhabit that high ground soon 
 after the waters had retreated. Mr. Flaxman C. J. Spurrell t has 
 also found them on high ground in Kent. In the Introduction I 
 showed that the land comprising the British Isles became united 
 to the Continent, for the second time, soon after this event, so as to 
 enable man to migrate here with the Arctic fauna, with whose bones 
 his work is associated in the deposits. 
 
 Let us next consider what would be the effect on the soft 
 London clay between the Northern and Southern ranges of chalk 
 
 * "Journal of the Anthropological Institution." Vol. viii. No. 3. 
 t " Palaeolithic Implements from W. Kent." Arcfaeologia Cantiana. 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 49 
 
 hills as the sea slowly receded. The sea, working and planing, 
 would tend more or less to level the bottom, and would leave, what 
 Lyell would call, a small " plain of marine denudation," inclining 
 towards the Thames (in the valley way of which there had been a 
 river during some still older geological period) ; that is, a plain 
 having its undulations of surface and low hills, and its covering of 
 gravel and stones, composed of the older rocks I have described. 
 
 The high ground of Harrow Hill. Horsington Hill, Hanger 
 Hill, The Mount, as also the other outlying elevated country north 
 and west, would, as the sea bed rose, become low lying islands in 
 a shallow sea ; and a beach-like gravel, such as the lowermost de- 
 posit in the section on Castlebar Hill, may have been formed. But 
 that favorite resort, and such like elevated ground now, would then 
 not be a hill at all in the proper sense of the term ; for as it is 
 subsequent to this date that the land all around has been denuded 
 and eroded into the present valleys and variation of surface, it would 
 merely form rising ground on nearly a flat country ; while the 
 waters would probably be spread out over all the country between 
 it and the Thames and some miles South of it. 
 
 As the river flowed into the retiring sea, the gravels on the 
 higher slopes both on the North and South were formed, and as the 
 land still further rose they mark the levels down to which the 
 excavation of the valley had then taken place.* Now, as these 
 deposits have been traced by me up to the 130 foot contour on the 
 slope of Castlebar Hill, the land north of it was probably still 
 submerged when fluviatile waters flowed at that level and covered 
 Haven Green, the "Oxbridge Road, and all ground beneath the 130 
 foot contour. 
 
 It will be shown that man was living here during the time these 
 
 * Mr. Worthington Smith has described an implement found by him N. of 
 Ealing at 164 foot O.D. (See "Proc. Essex Field Club," vol. iii., part 7.) 
 
 h 
 
50 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 gravels were accumulating (now 3 miles or more from the Thames), 
 and that he was present when many minor oscillations of level and 
 temporary alterations of the land surface took place, due to causes 
 to be described hereafter. I have a well formed implement of the 
 pointed type, with rough unworked butt, taken from gravel of the 
 high level I have just mentioned at Castlebar. 
 
 Gravel and loam deposits, formed at successive periods during 
 the excavation of the valleys, are met with in the country be- 
 tween Ealing and Hertfordshire, and the surface soil is often 
 composed of stiff alluvium which may easily be mistaken for London 
 clay. 
 
 The beds on the southern slopes of Castlebar and other hills are 
 examples. Thus a bed of mottled clay with much sand in it was lately 
 exposed on the right side of the entrance to Twyford Abbey. It 
 extended well up the hill on the right and for three-quarters of a 
 mile along the road. The section seen was about 5 feet in thick- 
 ness and at the 117 foot contour. In an excavation, about 7 feet 
 deep, recently made for a sewage farm near the bridge over the 
 Brent at Alperton,* I noticed a bed of gravel at the base of which 
 was the large stone ballast, so characteristic of the basal bed of the 
 high terrace deposits to the south ; and from which a block of sarseu 
 fully 3 feet across (weighing probably about 7 cwt.) was taken, 
 along with other larger boulders of the same kind. A bed of clayey 
 loam, about 8 feet in thickness (now used for brick manufacture) 
 
 * Mr. Whitaker tells us ("Memoir Geol. Survey," on Sheet 7) " that on 
 the north side of the Brent, from the east of Greenford to a little below 
 Perivale there is a gravel flat about a quarter of a mile broad, the western 
 part separated from the stream by a strip of London clay." " There is more 
 or less gravel along the valley of the Brent, from above Kingsbury to Perivale ; 
 for the most part it seems not to have run down to the river, but to have been 
 worn away to form a narrow band on each side." "The stream either flows 
 over London clay, or else it has formed a stiff alluvium hardly to be known 
 from that formation, in which case of course there might be gravel below the 
 bed of the river ; in places indeed there is a wash of clay over the gravel." 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OP EALING, &C. 51 
 
 occurs to the east of the bridge over the canal at Sudbury ; while 
 east of these works there is a low hill largely composed of this 
 deposit, which is estimated to be of the depth of 25 to 30 feet, and 
 which has yielded some large masses of water-worn sarsen ; those I 
 saw measured from 18 inches to more than 2 feet in diameter. At 
 Acton wells there is a considerable patch of sandy gravel at the 
 level of 106 feet O.D., the occurrence of which no doubt gave rise to 
 the springs which obtained for these wells their old reputation. At 
 Harlesden Green a stiff brick earth, a clayey deposit with hoggin in 
 it (as described by the workmen) is now being used for commercial 
 purposes. In Harrow Weald the value of the brick earth has 
 recently been brought to public notice by a Company with fifty 
 thousand pounds capital. At Northolt and Greenford the same 
 beds are found, and utilized when they are situated near the banks 
 of the canal. 
 
 Some of the lower deposits of brick earth (which are no doubt 
 due to the action of floods to be alluded to hereafter), and those 
 which probably arise from the overflow of the Brent are not noticed 
 here. We can perhaps hardly fully estimate the effect due to the 
 action of floods when the river flowed at the 130 foot contour and 
 spread over an extent which our present Thames, so carefully con- 
 served, locked and dammed, gives us no conception of. 
 
 That this erosion of the valleys* was greatly assisted by the 
 action of ice there can be no doubt, since the boulders of sarsen 
 stone and large flint nodules (sometimes 12 or 14 inches across) bear 
 witness to this. The former are often removed to support horse 
 troughs at public houses, &c. There is now, however, a large block 
 lying in a ditch near the entrance to Hanwell Park ; but the largest 
 I have seen in this district is in the old green lane from Alperton to 
 
 * It is remarkable that I have examined a section since writing the paper 
 on the Mount deposits showing a deposit of brick earth above the furrow- 
 gravel there. 
 
52 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 Sudbury ; it is partly buried in the soil, the visible portion measur- 
 ing 4 feet by 3. 
 
 We now come to the next series of gravels and brick earths, 
 those between the 50 and 130 foot contours, which we call the 
 High Terrace; they extend from "West Drayton through Ealing 
 to East Acton, intersected by the Valley of the Brent, which 
 may be an old depression belonging to an older system of 
 drainage, but through which that picturesque stream now flows. 
 At East Acton the high terrace is bounded by the mid ter- 
 race at a lower level, which runs up and eastwards to Wormwood 
 Scrubs ; but after passing the latter the high terrace is seen 
 extending through London to the higher ground at the mouth of the 
 Thames. Though we are now concerned only with our own locality, 
 I have mentioned that Palaeolithic implements associated with the 
 mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, &c, have been found at 
 various localities throughout these deposits, such as Clerkenwell, City 
 of London, Drury Lane, Gray's-Inn Lane, London Fields, Dalston, 
 Kingsland, Hackney, Lower Clapton, Mildmay Park, S. Hornsey, 
 Stoke Newington, Shacklewell and Upper Stamford Hill, Tottenham, 
 Enfield, Waltham, Cheshunt, &c, and described by Mr. Worthington 
 Smith* Mr. Greenhill t has also made a large collection in the 
 N.E. of London. 
 
 These beds then are of the greatest interest to us, as it is in 
 them that most of the flint weapons and tools of our earliest men 
 in this district have been found. 
 
 The deposits are of varying thickness, say from 10 feet in some 
 parts of Acton and in the Uxbridge Road to 23 feet on the rise of 
 Castle Hill at the Avenue Eoad ; they follow the undulating surface 
 of the London clay at the base. A description of one section will 
 serve to explain the deposits in various parts of the high terrace. 
 
 * " Journal Anthropological Institute," Vol. viii., No. 3. 
 t " The implementiferous Graveis of North East London." Proc. Geol. 
 Assoc." Vol. riii., part 6. 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OE EALING, &C. 53 
 
 At the base is always to be found from 5 to 6 feet of large stone 
 gravel, while sharp sand is generally either interbedded or mixed with 
 the subangular abraded flints and pebbles, rounded pieces of brown 
 quartzite * and quartz and other rocks, of which it is composed ; the 
 bed is evidently derived from the older beds of Plateau gravel to 
 which I have referred. There are in it rolled black pebbles from the 
 Bagshot beds probably, or more directly from the lower Eocene, and 
 with them pebbles and angular pieces, so old and changed that their 
 flinty character is gone ; many afford seeming illustrations of flint 
 passing into chert ; they are often brown, yellow and red, and are 
 jasperlike when broken. Such stones may have started from their 
 chalky home in early Eocene or Miocene times and have borne wit- 
 ness to the vast changes and denudation which have since occurred. 
 
 Above this coarser deposit are beds of finer gravel, broken sub- 
 angular and partly rolled fragments with seams of sand and loam, 
 while covering the gravel there are generally deposits of unstratified 
 brick earth, sandy beneath, more argillaceous at the top. 
 
 The dense brick earths often contain irregular deposits of sandy 
 and marly matter, and their structure altogether is occasionally 
 contorted. Stones are found scattered ; but more frequently 
 agglomerated, or deposited together in heaps and not stratified, 
 near the upper part of the beds of alluvium. These deposits of 
 agglomerated stones are called " Trail " and are believed by geolo- 
 gists to be matter left by melting ice as it floated along, or borne 
 by snow as it slipped to lower ground. 
 
 The large number of flints split, as if by frost and the occurrence 
 of these trail deposits, suggests very cold winters and floods as the 
 ice and snow melted in the spring. Large blocks of sarsen (probably 
 ice borne) are occasionally met with in the gravel. 
 
 Now if you examine the sides of a deep gravel pit in the high 
 
 X Phillip's " Geol. of the Thames Valley" describes such reddish brown 
 quartzites found in the upper Thames gravels, and believes them to be derived 
 from the Triassic conglomerates of Warwickshire, 
 
54 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 terrace, you will not only notice the formation I have described but 
 you will often observe black seams from 2 to 6 inches in thickness, 
 the stones and sand in which are coated with black matter (oxide of 
 iron or of manganese) and the gravel is darker than in other parts 
 above and beneath them. There seems to be no doubt that such 
 black strata are due to vegetable life which once nourished there, 
 in fact, particles of carbonised wood are occasionally noticeable ; 
 the assumption is therefore a reasonable one, that these seams were 
 formerly land surfaces upon which plants grew and nourished, and 
 that they became afterwards covered by water depositing gravel or 
 alluvium. 
 
 But probably another feature will be observed in the section, 
 even if the black bands are not seen ; that is, occasional strata of 
 white pebbles and angular stones, generally covered by clayey humus 
 (a deposit not so easily broken up in water as clay). They are 
 probably the result of the decomposition of animal or vegetable 
 matter. The under surface of the larger stones is generally of the 
 colour of the underlying deposit, while the upper part is found to 
 be bleached, when the clayey humus is washed off; hence the seams 
 are better observed after rains and exposure to the air. 
 
 It is not unusual to find stones presenting the appearance of 
 having been burnt ; they are often red externally while internally 
 they are opaque and lustreless. I have found them more abundantly 
 in some localities than in others. A possible effect of snow and ice 
 acting on the land surfaces, or the growth of vegetation thereon, is 
 suggested in the occurrence in this deposit (though they are found 
 also in the furrow gravel) of flint pebbles with the rounded surface 
 so eroded, and in some parts eaten into and destroyed, that they 
 have the appearance of having been carved. Now the attrition 
 due to rolling in the bed of a stream does not produce this effect ; 
 and it is clearly due to the action of a solvent and not to mechani- 
 cal agency. In these irregularly eroded pebbles there is no evidence 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 55 
 
 of the wavy structure commonly seen in weathered flints from 
 which "banded" flints are no doubt formed, but the harder parts 
 are preserved as bosses upon the surface. It is noticeable that the 
 eroded stones are often covered and stained with black matter. Is 
 this remarkable erosion due to humic acids in old land surfaces and 
 soils ? or may it be the result of carbonic acid acting under certain 
 conditions ? Snow and ice are known to absorb more of this all 
 pervading solvent than rain water, and its action upon silicates is 
 admitted. Bischof * thinks it very probable that silica is also dis- 
 solved by carbonic acid, and experiments have been made by Ro- 
 gers t showing that chalcedony is decomposed or dissolved in carbo- 
 nated water. Enough is suggested for the enquiry as to whether 
 this effect has been produced by acids, the result of vegetable and 
 animal life ; or by the greater abundance of a solvent caused by con- 
 ditions of extreme cold. Aside from whatever these suggestions may 
 be worth, I have had occasion to bring to the notice of geologists my 
 belief that these black seams and bands of bleached stones are really 
 old floors or land surfaces, and that men have lived upon them until, 
 here in one spot or there in another, they were again and again 
 broken up and disturbed. One line of whitened pebbles and humus, 
 however, is very persistent throughout the district, i.e., immediately 
 beneath the brick earth deposits. 
 
 Having kept a record of the depth at which my flint imple- 
 ments and flakes have been found, where such information seemed 
 reliable, I noticed that many of the unrolled specimens were taken 
 from levels which roughly corresponded with the old floors. 
 
 It was not, however, until a number of gravel pits were exca- 
 vated in the Creffield Road, Acton (close to the boundary which 
 separates that district from Ealing), that my hypothesis was remark- 
 
 * '' Chemical and Physical Geology." Vol. i,, p. 58. 
 t " American Journal of Science," 1855. 
 
56 
 
 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C, 
 
 Section of High Terrace Gravel at Creffield Road, Acton [Pit, 
 No. 2], 100 feet O.D., showing the Palaeolithic Workshop 
 
 Floor. 
 
 
 13 F. \ 
 
 V 
 
 *0 s t 
 
 O f -oOq « t o co ° 
 
 C°.">? C C 
 
 O O o *> «> h 
 
 •a » «, 
 
 0«# « 
 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 F 
 G 
 H 
 
 J 
 K 
 L 
 
 Base not seen 
 
 s — Surface Soil. 
 
 a — Agglomerated Stones, 
 
 " Trail." 
 b — Brown brick earth. 
 c — Sandy loam. 
 d — Bleached pebbles &c, 
 
 " Floor." 
 [Over 400 worked flints found 
 at this level]. 
 
 e — Subangular gravel with 
 
 seams of sand. 
 f — Bleached pebbles, humus and 
 
 black matter [Flakes]. 
 g J ii — Coarse gravel with seams 
 
 of sand. 
 h k — Black seams. 
 
 This block is used by kind permission of the Council of the Geological Society, London, 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 57 
 
 ably confirmed. I found in these pits, a section of one of which is 
 shown, evidence of three successive land surfaces ; i.e., one at about 
 11 to 12 feet from the surface, from which two fine unrolled worked 
 flints were taken, and which were of an ochreous tint all over ; the 
 second at about 8 feet, from which level I obtained eight or ten 
 worked unabraded flakes, and which appeared to have been porce- 
 lainised and afterwards more or less discoloured ; and, finally, as 
 new ground close to the first excavations was opened (having given 
 great attention to the spot and offered rewards to the workmen for 
 their care in noting the relative heighth at which they met with 
 these objects), I obtained nearly 500 implements, worked flakes and 
 waste fragments at the depth of 6 feet from the surface. They 
 were (as many of them still are) covered with the sandy loam of 
 which the lowest part of the brick earths is here composed ; many 
 of them are white, while others are more or less discoloured, and a 
 few are entirely so. Most of them appear to have been white, and 
 subsequently mottled and stained of an ochreous tint from contact 
 with the loamy sand and gravel ; some of the specimens have suf- 
 fered no change so that the flint is still black. I have seen one or 
 two of the black ones and others taken from the floor while the 
 men have been at work, and I regard the discoloration of the surface 
 of worked flints as an accident of position rather than as a test of 
 age. 
 
 The whole of the specimens from CreflBeld Road are as sharp as 
 when they were flaked off from the cores, and they have clearly 
 never been removed from the spot where they were left by 
 the Palaeolithic people who made them, when they retreated 
 before the advancing waters. 
 
 In my plan of the ground I have numbered the pits 1, 2, 3 and 
 4. From No. 1, which is 18 feet square, I obtained a few speci- 
 mens. From Nos. 2 and 3, which are continuous and form an exca. 
 
 t 
 
58 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 vation 30 ft. by 12 ft., I obtained the largest number of specimens. 
 Pits Nos. 2 and 3 are 20 feet west of No. 1 ; while in No. 4, 
 situated only 6 feet south of the latter, comparatively few were 
 discovered ; all being from the highest floor 6 feet from the surface, 
 excepting those already mentioned. From a small circular ex- 
 cavation, about 120 feet south, I obtained three sharp ochreous 
 flake spear heads, ai the depth of about 10 feet, while at a higher 
 stratigraphical level, yet 9 feet below the horizontal surface, two or 
 three equally sharp flakes were found. The floor at this southern 
 small excavation is covered by 9 feet of brick earth, indicating a 
 dip in the floor of 1 in 40. 
 
 At another small well-like pit, 32 feet west of pits Nos. 2 and 3, 
 though the same evidence of floors was seen, only one specimen 
 was found half way up in the brick earth ; the specimen is brick 
 earth stained, and shows signs of wear from use. 
 
 In my collection from these pits there are large long flakes 
 worked to a point, evidently intended for spear heads ; smaller ones 
 trimmed both at the points and at the wider end for javelin or dart 
 points ; still smaller ones, which may have been used for pointing 
 arrows ; rough Celt-like flints ; scrapers, knives and borers ; others 
 with worked depressions, supposed to be shaft smoothers ; and some 
 more highly finished implements, the use of which is unknown ; as 
 also waste flakes and fragments. With the exception of about ten 
 the whole of these specimens were found on the floor or seam of 
 whitened stones (the larger ones discoloured underneath) I had pre- 
 viously noticed, at a depth from the surface of about 6 feet. The level 
 of this spot is the 100 foot contour. It is only two miles from the 
 Thames owing to the river making a strong bend towards the north. 
 
 Since my discovery I have given increased attention to these 
 old floors and land surfaces, and I believe they may be traced in 
 the pits at Freeland Road, Hamilton Road, Gordon Road, and other 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 59 
 
 places; the most persistent floor being the one just beneath the 
 brick earth. As an illustration of the varying depth of the latter 
 deposit in this neighbourhood I may mention that at Freeland Road, 
 about half a mile from Creffield Road, the floor which has been 
 spoken of as the 6 foot level runs up to the surface, and the brick 
 earth thins out, so that it is quite possible that palseolithic imple- 
 ments may be found on the surface of the land. 
 
 The only conclusion which I think can be drawn from the 
 assemblage of weapons, instruments and waste flakes found at the 
 Creffield Road, is that they were made on the spot, and that we 
 have here the site of a " Palaeolithic workshop " as old as the upper 
 part of the gravel itself. This becomes the more probable as large 
 flints, some nearly a foot across, several of which have been worked 
 upon, were found at the 6 foot level in No. 4 pit, which have a 
 crust corresponding with that shown in the flakes. The oldest 
 forms are not present among the specimens, and many of them are 
 so much like neoliths that had I not known that they were found 
 as I have described, they might very well be taken as a collection 
 from Cissbury discoloured. 
 
 A remarkable feature of this kind is the large number of spear 
 and javelin heads showing a double bulb of percussion, the one con- 
 vex and the other concave. The first flake struck from the core 
 must have been a single ridged one leaving the corresponding 
 concave on the core. To produce the thin end of the weapon it was 
 absolutely necessary to strike the next blow very accurately just 
 behind the former point of strike, as only by that means could 
 the specimen be made and a double ridged flake be struck off with 
 a thin end. The object is obvious, as this thin butt could be 
 conveniently inserted into a slot in the shaft and secured by 
 lashings of gut, a mode now, or recently, in vogue among savage 
 peoples, such as the tribes of North Australia. These double 
 
60 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 bulbed flakes were then chipped to a point as is seen in these 
 specimens. (For description see next chapter). 
 
 I have spear heads and arrow points found in other parts of 
 Ealing, Hanwell, &c, all formed on the same model. They are 
 from lower levels, though many of them are not much abraded. 
 
 There is foundation for the belief that at the time the gravel 
 was accumulated at the 100 foot contour and the brick earths were 
 deposited, the waters extended over the Brent Valley, and probably 
 beyond in lagoons, forming arms, or shallow broads of the main 
 river which then flowed at or near this level ; in fact, the floor is to 
 be traced nearly to the limit of the gravel deposits, where I have 
 taken flakes, north of the Great Western Railway. 
 
 The most reasonable conjecture I can form is that this ancieut 
 abode of Palgeolithic men was upon a small island in the midst of 
 comparatively shallow water ; though still probably a secure retreat 
 from tribes hostile to the fabricators of these instruments. 
 
 Their departure, however, seems to have been more sudden than 
 necessary, as it is evident, from the condition of the flakes and the 
 fine loam which covered them, that the waters which caused the 
 deposit were tranquil ; so calm in fact that many of the flakes and 
 waste fragments were found in little heaps undisturbed by the 
 rising water. A few dark flakes were however found in the brick 
 earth about 30 feet to the south, which had evidently been washed 
 there and were discovered about 4 feet from the present surface.* 
 
 Colonel Lane Fox t (now General Pitt Rivers) found a number 
 
 of flakes remarkable for the sharpness of their edges in high terrace 
 ground north of Chaucer Road, Acton, at 82 ft., O.D. ; they were 
 
 * "Journal Geol. Soc." "Vol. xxviii., p. 4. 
 
 f Mr. Flaxnian C. J. Spurrell has recently described a palaeolithic floor 
 on the sandy beach of the Thames at Crayford, 35-ft. above the level of the 
 river two miles di-tant. " Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc." Vol. xxx. Part 4. 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 61 
 
 taken from " seams of white sandy clay 9 feet from the surface, 
 beneath deposits of gravel and brick earth." They were, like those 
 obtained by me, as sharp as when they Avere flaked off from the cores 
 and must have been flaked off on the spot and dropped, he says, 
 "into the sandy bottom of the river." I am more inclined to think 
 however that at this level another temporary land surface was once 
 formed and afterwards covered with gravel and brick earth, as he 
 describes. 
 
 From pits in this vicinity he obtained a tooth of Elephas primi- 
 genius, and his sections show similar black seams to those noticed 
 by me. 
 
 Since my discovery in the Creffield Eoad I have examined many 
 sections in this district, and I believe that several old floors or land 
 surfaces may be traced in the pits at Freeland Eoad, Hamilton 
 Road, Gordon Road, as well as in other places, not of course cor- 
 responding in depth from the surface as the thickness of both the 
 brick earths and gravels is variable, and there is evidence in some 
 parts of cross bedding. At Odell's pit at Bawley there are fine 
 sections which show the action of currents, or the altered course of 
 the stream, working upon previously formed deposits of sand or 
 gravel ; and similar effects are met with at Hanwell. I have found 
 however just beneath the brick earths the most persistent land 
 surface in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The largest proportion of the implements and those which are 
 believed to be the oldest forms are generally found near the base of 
 the gravel ; but the unrolled specimens are more often taken from 
 higher levels. 
 
 Mr. Worthington G-. Smith * has found at Stoke Newington, High- 
 bury, Shacklewell, &c, as before mentioned, flints and implements 
 
 * "Primaeval Man in the Valley of the Lea." Trans. Essex Field Club. 
 Vol. iii., Part 7. 
 
62 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 quite unabraded from higher levels under the brick earth; and 
 others at greater depths in the gravels. He " refers them to three 
 different ages, each far removed from the others." He found una- 
 braded implements 4 feet from the surface at Stoke Newington and 
 more or less abraded ones at lower levels ; and he believes that some 
 of them were derived from yet older deposits. Though it does not 
 seem to me possible to fix these objects of Archaic workmanship to 
 three distinct ages, yet, undoubtedly, taking the whole collection, 
 they must have been made at various times throughout a vast 
 period, commencing with the first deposits of gravel upon the Lon- 
 don clay, and extending throughout the formation of the series of 
 gravels and brick earths. 
 
 In some of the specimens, as Nos. 11 and 13 from Dawley, the 
 surface is perished and decayed (the ochreous tint I believe to be no 
 test of age) ; but the edges of the chipping are so much worn and 
 abraded that if they had been the first discovered they would not 
 be identified as being shaped by human agency. They may well 
 have been made at a date far anterior to any of the others, and 
 afterwards removed from place to place, as the ice, snow, rain and 
 floods eroded the land into its present form, and carried them first 
 from higher to lower ground, and ultimately to the bottom of the 
 river at the high terrace stage of its history. Some of the imple- 
 ments with half perished surfaces which are found associated with 
 lustrous fragments of flint may, as Mr. Worthington G. Smith has 
 suggested, have acquired their thick discoloured crust before they 
 were deposited in the gravel ballast. In that case they may have 
 been in use before the great submergence. 
 
 Though the land was generally rising after the last glacial epoch, 
 and afterwards gradually assumed its present level, there would be 
 many oscillations and pauses ; old land surfaces would be formed 
 and destroyed at the period when the high terrace gravels were 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 63 
 
 accumulated (those between the 50 foot and 100 foot contour) as 
 the wider river curved and impinged first on the north and then on 
 the south, eroding on one side of its bends and depositing matter 
 on the other. It is well known, too, that rivers flowing in curves 
 through a nearly flat country frequently leave their channels in 
 parts of their courses after great floods, and run in deviating direc- 
 tions from their old beds. 
 
 Under such conditions have the high terrace gravels been depo- 
 sited, and under such conditions have the earliest men lived in this 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 In the lowest beds we have evidence of torrential currents in the 
 deposition of the large stone gravel with masses of flint, very slightly 
 rolled, from which they fabricated their implements. Later appa- 
 rently less active conditions prevailed ; and the brick earths tell us 
 more in the same direction. Floods, often rapid or increased by 
 the effects of a climate semi-glacial in character, were no doubt 
 important agents, with the other causes I have mentioned, in bring- 
 ing about great changes. Ice, snow, rain and air, those Titans who 
 never cease working, were, throughout a period of long duration, 
 always bringing about alterations in the surface of the country 
 around us. 
 
 The repeated action of the waters of the much wider river of 
 that time, at one period covering old land surfaces, and at others 
 forming them as banks and islands (habitable spots to be again 
 covered through deviations of current), changes of level, debacles 
 of ice damming the stream, with the effects caused by the previous 
 marine conditions of the wider valley and by slight differences in the 
 physical geography of the country, would in time involve vast 
 changes, with all of which man appears to have been associated. 
 
 To realize the alteration in the level of the river in the mid ter- 
 race period of its history a walk should be taken from South Acton 
 
64 THE EARLIEST MEN OF BALIS G, &C. 
 
 or Mill Hill, Pope's Cross or Gunnersbury towards the Thames. The 
 ground will be found to descend suddenly from the 75 foot or 80 
 foot contour to the 35 foot or 40 foot lines; that incline is on 
 London clay from which the gravels have been washed or denuded. 
 The two benches are almost always separated by the denuded Eocene 
 beds in other parts of the valley, as at east and west of Kensington 
 Gardens, where the gravel beds appear as an island of that deposit 
 in the clay ; the Serpentine, fringed with London clay, flowing on 
 one side, while the denuded beds of that formation are exposed on 
 the other. I have already noticed that the higher gravel on Castle- 
 bar Hill is separated from the continuous beds at the 130 foot 
 contour in the same manner. The same is the case in the Brent 
 Valley. 
 
 Possibly they are old lines of depression into which the tribu- 
 taries of the Thames flowed ; and the strips of exposed London clay 
 may owe their origin to the ancient drainage of the waters, which, 
 at the period when the high terrace was accumulated, covered much 
 of the land to the north. They may also indicate the channels which, 
 once forming arms of the wide stream, ultimately became the 
 courses through which the waters found their way to the river in the 
 mid terrace stage of its history. 
 
 The junction of the Colne by its several arms with the Thames 
 near Staines, which drain the land to the north of the river, may 
 represent, in a lesser degree, the conditions which occurred when 
 the land to the north of Ealing and its vicinity drained into the 
 river of the mid terrace period on a lower level than that terrace, 
 and the denudation which has exposed the London clay, now gene- 
 rally found to divide the benches, may also be a part of a similar 
 action. 
 
 The mid terrace beds are clearly due to a narrower river working 
 upon the high terrace deposits which formerly extended south of the 
 
THE EAELIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 65 
 
 Thames at their present high level. Possibly this great difference in 
 the level of the two river courses may have been brought about not 
 only by the deepening of the river bed, but also by the slightly more 
 rapid rate at which the country rose at that time. There is strong 
 probability that more temperate climatic conditions were then begin- 
 ning to prevail. 
 
 However, the fact is strikingly presented to us, from either of 
 the spots mentioned, that the river for some reason or other (and it 
 would seem comparatively suddenly) made itself a channel 35 to 40 
 feet or more lower than the high terrace channel. The sections of 
 gravel of the mid terrace are in many respects different from those 
 of the high terrace, though it contains traces of former land surfaces. 
 The coarse ballast found always at the base of the high terrace 
 deposits is replaced by sand containing delicate shells unbroken 
 and bones of the larger mammalia. Few flint implements and 
 flakes have hitherto been found in the mid terrace deposits ; but 
 they are occasionally met with. The pointed specimens, Nos. 8 
 and 55, which are much abraded, were found at Style Hall, Kew ; 
 Nos. 16 and 57 (in the former the surface is nearly effaced by age) 
 at Turnham Green ; and No. 54 at Bollo Bridge — they are with 
 other fine specimens from the collection of Mr. Peter Crooke of 
 Brentford. They are all much rolled, and may very well have been 
 derived from still older beds. 
 
 The beds of mid terrace brick earth on the low ground east of 
 Acton are different in structure from those of the high terrace, and 
 are clearly re-deposits of the same material. On approaching nearer 
 to the river traces of the third terrace may be found, which are 
 but slightly raised above the present stream. Looking at the 
 difference between the level of the Thames and that of the high 
 terrace of Ealing, very much more than 100 feet above where it now 
 
66 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 flows, well may Dr. John Evans say :* " Taking our stand on the 
 high terrace at Ealing, Acton or Highbury, and looking over the 
 broad valley, four miles in width, with the river flowing through it 
 at a depth of about 100 feet below its former bed, in which beneath 
 our feet are relics of human art deposited at the same time as the 
 gravels ; which of us can picture to himself the lapse of time 
 represented by the excavation of the valley on such a scale by a 
 river, perhaps greater in volume than the Thames, but still drain- 
 ing the same tract of country." 
 
 In the mid terrace deposits at Kew, Brentford, Acton Green, and 
 Turnham Green, the following mammalia have been found and 
 described by Mr. Trimmer, Prof. Morris, Colonel Lane Fox, Mr. 
 Belt, and Mr. Layton : — 
 
 Bos longifrons, 
 
 Cervus elaphus or Red Deer, 
 „ Clactonensis or large Stag, 
 ,, tarandus or Reindeer, 
 
 Felis spelasa or Cave Lion, 
 
 Ursus ferox (priscus) or Grizzly 
 Bear, 
 
 Elephas primigenius or Mammoth, 
 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus or woolly 
 
 Rhinoceros, 
 
 ,, leptorhinus or Short- 
 
 nosed ditto, 
 Hippopotamus major, 
 Bison priscus or Aurochs, 
 Equus caballus or "Wild Horse. 
 
 Their bones were little or not at all worn by attrition, and the 
 long tusks of the elephants were found entire ; with them are asso- 
 ciated many fluviatile shells of existing species. Many of the mam- 
 malia, such as the two species of Rhinoceros, the Mammoth, the 
 Cave Lion, &c, are now extinct ; while others, such as the Rein- 
 deer, have retired to more congenial regions in the far North. A 
 flint knife was found south of Ealing Park, on the same spot as the 
 
 * "Ancient Stone Implements." 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 67 
 
 bones of hippopotamus. The remains of the hairy Elephant and 
 some other animals have been found in high terrace gravel in and 
 near London. 
 
 If we include in our list creatures which have been found in 
 the lower brick earths at Gray's Thurrock, Cray ford and Ilford, 
 which are probably of the same age as the high terrace gravel of 
 this neighbourhood, or in similar deposits, such as the ancient river 
 beds of the Ouse, Avon, &c, we should have to add the following 
 taken from Prof. Boyd Dawkins' list : — 
 
 Megaceros Hibemicus or Irish Elk, 
 
 Ehinoceros megarhinus or Big- 
 nosed Rhinoceros, 
 
 Elephas antiquus or Straight- 
 tusked Elephant, 
 (all of which are extinct.) 
 
 Felis leo or Lion, 
 
 Ditto catus or Wild Cat, 
 
 Hygena crocuta or Spotted Hyena, 
 
 Ursus arctos or Brown Bear, 
 
 Lutra vulgaris or Otter, 
 
 Ovibos moschatus or Musk Sheep, 
 (now only seen within the arctic circle.) 
 
 My odes lemmus orArcticLemming 
 Spermophilus or Marmot, 
 Lepus variabilis or Alpine Hare, 
 Canis lupus or Wolf, 
 Ditto vulpes or Fox, 
 Cervus capreolus or Eoe, 
 Bos primigenius or Urus, 
 Sus scrofa or Wild Boar, 
 Castor fiber or Beaver, 
 Arvicola or Water vole, &c. 
 
 The older cave deposits contain the remains of the same mam- 
 malia with some additions. The fauna, as Prof. Dawkins says, is 
 the same, and are referable to the same geological horizon, when 
 Arctic Mammals were in possession of the land. 
 
 To sum up : at a very early period when the land of Middlesex, 
 Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire was slowly emerging from the 
 sea and covered with the marine glacial detritus we call the plateau 
 gravel man enters upon the scene from the main land of Europe, 
 then connected with this country by the uprise of the bottom of 
 
68 THE EARLIEST MEN OE EALING, &C. 
 
 what is now the very shallow seas of the German Ocean and North 
 Sea, the depth of which docs not now exceed 100 fathoms, much 
 of it is under 50 fathoms, and in some places, as on the Dogger- 
 bank, it is little over 30 feet.* 
 
 There is good ground for believing, from the discovery of Mr. 
 Worthington G. Smith of flint implements in Hertfordshire, and by Mr. 
 Flaxinan C. J. Spurrell t on high ground in Kent, that Palasolithic 
 man beheld the land now under the 300 foot contour in Middlesex 
 as an arm of the sea or sea loch, and he must have been present 
 about the time or soon after the excavation of the present valleys in 
 the soft clays of this country began. He probably therefore saw the 
 sea beating on the lower ground of that time, and we may have in 
 the beach-like gravel at the base of the deposits on Castlebar Hill 
 a relic of that condition of the country. 
 
 Such an antiquity may very well be assigned to the earliest 
 inhabitants of this region, and, if so, they probably lived in the 
 second glacial period. 
 
 As Mr. Etheridge J has recently told us : " The uprise of Scandi- 
 navia and Britain took place uninterruptedly ; long pauses mark 
 the progress and extent of the platforms of erosion and deposition or 
 raised beaches, which form conspicuous features at successive heights 
 above .the present sea level along our coast. In the later stages of 
 the glacial period the records are much the same all over Britain, 
 allowance being made for the greater cold and longer lingering of 
 the glaciers in the north than in the south, and among the hills than 
 
 on the plains." 
 
 When the country still further emerged and the drainage of the 
 land began, a wide estuary would be formed; as more distinctly 
 fluviatile conditions followed and the wide Pleistocene river flowed 
 
 * << 
 
 Early Man in Britain," &c. 
 ■j- " Paleolithic Implements in West Kent."— Archaologia Cantiana. 
 % Phillips's "Manual of Geology," edited by Etheridge and Seeley, 1885. 
 
THE EARLIEST 51 EN OF EALING, &C. 69 
 
 above the present high terrace deposits at the 100 foot contour it 
 must have covered, I think, much of the ground to the north as 
 broads or lagoons of the main stream and large stretches of low-lying 
 land divided them with many islands. There seems to be every 
 reason for believing that the fabricators of these rude implements 
 and tools inhabited that country. 
 
 The land was then subjected to the rigours of semigiacial winter. 
 
 The scouring and erosive action of ice, snow and rain acting on 
 the surface soil of the higher ground, as the land rose, carried it to 
 lower levels, so that, as Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell says, " each bout of 
 giaciation tore away and stripped off the previous marks of its 
 effect." As the temperature yielded to that of spring, the floods 
 acted with great denuding power. The necessities of agriculture 
 make a system of quick drainage of great importance now, and 
 therefore we are perhaps not able fully to realize what a flood meant 
 at that time, though we may partly judge of the effects of the great 
 floods which prevailed when the Palaeolithic people lived here and 
 when the denudation of the land was in fullest action, by noticing 
 their effect upon certain rivers in other countries. In such cases 
 though the stream is insignificant at certain times it inundates and 
 devastates the bordering lands for miles when freshets occur. 
 
 That such effects took place here is evidenced by the deposits of 
 alluvium or loess, even at very high levels ; for I have met with it 
 not only on Castlebar Hill, but in a small section, exposed since I 
 wrote upon the glacial deposits on the Mount, overlying the furrow 
 gravel and detritus. 
 
 Mr. Englehart * has told us of the effect caused by ice formed 
 debacles which take place sometimes on the Rhine and Danube. 
 Large blocks of ice cross and impinge one against the other, and 
 becoming thus heaped together finally barricade the river ; this ice 
 
 * " Annates de Chiniie et de Physique." 
 
70 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 drift frozen together does not " itself cause the danger ;" it is the 
 breaking up which causes the calamitous consequences. When the 
 debacle commences in the upper part of the river, above the point 
 where it is completely frozen, the masses of ice, drifting with the 
 current and unable to pass, are hurled upon those already soldered 
 together. Thus a huge barrier is formed, which the water cannot 
 pass over, and a vast overflow and inundation takes place. The 
 original cause is the ice formed at the bottom of the stream rising 
 to the surface and uniting to the under surface of the masses already 
 in place. 
 
 It is remarkable that all rivers are not so subject to freeze at the 
 bottom, but Phillips * has shown that the water of the Thames has 
 this peculiarity though the reason for it is not known. 
 
 In all this we have the agents which helped to excavate the 
 valley and finally deposited the brick earths, covering up and hiding 
 from view the dwelling places of the Paleolithic men in the region 
 we now call Creffield Road and other places in the country about 
 us. 
 
 Shall we ever really be able to calculate the time during which 
 these conditions of life of our " Early Men " may have lasted ? 
 before, as the land became gradually higher while the river had 
 deepened its channel, the waters retreated leaving the rich pastures 
 of Ealing and Perivale as permanent land surface, upon which sub- 
 sequently lived the people of the Neolithic and, afterwards, of the 
 Bronze age ? 
 
 Bronze palstaves, celts, &c. have in fact been found at Acton 
 and Hanwell, and Mr. Layton of Kew Bridge has made a large 
 collection of such objects and of Neolithic work, which have been 
 dredged from the bottom of the Thames, and which it is hoped his 
 known public spirit and generosity will one day make available and 
 accessible to students. 
 
 * "Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames." 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 71 
 
 The channel of the Thames is not known to have changed in any 
 important degree within the historic period. 
 
 I can fancy some one, imperfectly informed and incredulous, 
 asking how long ago is it since the commencement of these changes 
 by which the highest terrace gravel was deposited? or since the 
 glacial epoch ? or since the time when man first lived in the country 
 around us ? 
 
 It is remarkable that man, whose existence in this world is so 
 brief, should be for ever trying to measure time ; time that he can- 
 not realise or grasp ! A row of six figures interests him and sets 
 him thinking and wondering ; it even annoys him, if it is not in 
 accordance with his preconceived ideas, which are not perhaps foun- 
 ded on a substantial basis of fact ; and yet after all to this 
 
 Poor pensioner on the bounties of an hour 
 a number of years beyond a few hundreds but dimly enters into his 
 consciousness, and the conception of time since this, the latest epoch 
 in the geological history of the world, is but feebly realised. 
 
 It might be useful to compare, if it were possible, Dr. Croll's 
 ingenious astronomical calculations of the time that has elapsed 
 since the last glacial period, based on the periodical variation of the 
 elliptical orbit and the changing position of the axis of the earth, with 
 those based on the oscillations of level of Snowdonia calculated by 
 Lyell and Ramsay * and on the amount of matter carried down by 
 rivers, as calculated by J. Geikie and others. In Professor Rupert 
 Jones' t very clear and interesting lecture on " The Antiquity of 
 Man" these investigations and calculations are gone into with 
 much care and ability. The general conclusion is that about 248,000 
 years have elapsed since the last glacial period. 
 
 * "Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain," 5th Edition, p. 
 376. This work abounds with information on this subject, and also Lyell's 
 "Antiquity of Man," and the " Great Ice Age," by James Geikie, F.R.S. 
 
 t Croydon Microscopical Club, 187G. 
 
72 THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 
 
 Let us leave it and say that at a very remote period (so distant 
 that, if we can calculate it, we caunot realise it), a period which 
 must be reckoned by very many thousand years, the stream of 
 human life in North West Middlesex moved on, and numerous gene- 
 rations of our race followed each other, adopting the same habits, 
 armed in the same way, and having the same precarious means of 
 existence. They were armed with the spears, javelins or darts, and 
 daggers, the less perishable parts of which have been found ; they 
 also probably used the tomahawk and clubs fitted with worked flints, 
 like the weapon which Mr. Belt obtained from the wild Indians on 
 the Rio Frio in Central America, or hafted with a bent withe and 
 lashed with gut, as shown in the drawing (Plate III.) made from an 
 instrument now in use among the low type races of North Australia. 
 They had knives formed of flint flakes, some of which in my collec- 
 tion are worked at the edge ; shaft scrapers ; and probably had 
 invented or used the bow and arrow, for the triangular stones here, 
 the earliest form of arrow head, could hardly have been intended 
 for use in any other way. It has hitherto been doubted whether 
 Palaeolithic man possessed this weapon, but looking at the specimens 
 and shaft scrapers I have no reason to doubt it. 
 
 The use of the bow and arrow, rough and imperfect as no doubt 
 the early weapons were, must have been of the greatest impor- 
 tance to these primitive men. It marks a greater advance than, as 
 I have said, many have been disposed to accord to them, since it 
 would make the means of subsistence less difficult to obtain, as they 
 would not only have the feathered tribe within their reach, but 
 also reindeer and the other creatures which they hunted. Their 
 means of defence against bears and other carnivores would also be 
 greatly improved by the possession of a weapon effective at a 
 distance. 
 
 Some of the points have double bulbs^ concave and convex, 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. 73 
 
 thus thinning out the end for insertion into a slot in the staff, 
 and in others, ruder in form, the point of strike is at the side ; in 
 their case they could be easily secured to the shaft. 
 
 As General Pitt Rivers* has truly observed : "To the savage 
 living by the chase, the improvement even in the mode of fixing 
 an arrow head, affecting as it does his means of subsistence, must 
 have been of far greater importance to him than the improvement 
 in a telegraph or a steam engine can be to us, and must therefore 
 have received the attention of the best intellects of the time." 
 
 Many rounded edge scrapers of the well known type are 
 here. They were no doubt used for preparing the skins in which the 
 Palaeolithic man was clad. The Esquimaux employ a similar in- 
 strument to-day for the same purpose ; and also, I believe, small 
 querns. I have one such formed of metamorphosed sandstone 7 inches 
 long by 5 1 inches in breadth, which was no doubt used for grinding 
 roots, seeds or meat. It was found 5 to 7 feet from the surface in 
 undisturbed gravel in the Beaconsfield Road. It is hollowed on 
 each side and shows the marks of use. Near it a large quart- 
 zite pebble was discovered which appears to fit the depressions in 
 the larger stone. As far as I am aware this is the first instrument 
 of this kind found in the drift. 
 
 Some of the implements were probably intended for use in the 
 hand, as Nos. 36 and 37 from Mr. P. Crooke's collection. They 
 have thick butts and slender points, the former serving without any 
 additional handle"; there are some, such as the thick ovate speci- 
 mens, for which it would be difficult to suggest the use (No. 47 
 and others). 
 
 I have already alluded to the method by which the double bulb 
 pointed spear and javelin flakes were formed, and of the readiness 
 
 * " Flint and Chert Arrowheads from Patagonia," Journ. Anthrcp. Inst., 
 Vol. iv., No. 2. 
 
 I 
 
74 THE EAKLIEST MEN OF EALING, &o. 
 
 with which the hollowed end could be inserted into the shaft and 
 secured by sinews or gut. There are many instances in which spalls 
 of stone are employed by savage races in a similar manner. A few 
 may be mentioned — The spears of the Solomon islanders* are 
 tipped with sharp flints and those of the Admiralty Islanders are of 
 obsidian lashed to the shaft and coated with gum. The Mexican 
 spears were pointed with obsidian. The obsidian spear heads of the 
 Papuans excited the surprise of the early navigators. In " Purchas 
 his Pilgrims" it is stated that they had "long staves with very 
 long sharp things at the end thereof, which, as we thought, were 
 fiunes of black fishes." " The spear t of the North American In- 
 dian was formerly of stone or flint, but is now of steel." 
 
 Stone spalls (flakes of stone) were also in use by the people of 
 
 Clarence River, New South Wales " for axes J and are employed for 
 
 felling trees, cutting firewood, in war, and in the chase, and for 
 
 cutting themselves to embellish their bodies with cicatrized wounds." 
 
 Besides flint tools and weapons there is every reason to believe 
 
 that the drift men made use of bone for harpoons for fishing and 
 
 other purposes, and in the specimens of such objects found in the 
 
 cave earth of Kent's cavern, in caves of the Dordogne and other 
 
 like rock shelters with stone implements and bones of the same 
 
 mammalia as in the drift, we have no doubt representations of 
 
 instruments such as were used by the Earliest Men of Ealing and 
 
 its neighbourhood. 
 
 Reviewing their entire armoury, they must have been but imper- 
 fectly prepared to withstand the attacks of the bears, hyamas, 
 
 * "tSmithonian report," 1879; see also "Ancient Stone Implements," Dr. 
 John Evans; " Prehistoric Times." Sir John Lubbock; "Early Man in Bri- 
 tain," Prof. Dawkins. 
 
 ■f Dr. Abbott in Smithsonian Report, 1875. 
 
 J Smithsonian Report, 1879. 
 
THE EARLIEST MEN OF EALING, &C. "75 
 
 wolves and other carnivorous animals, which infested the woods of 
 that time. For subsistence they hunted the stag, urus, bison, rein- 
 deer, wild horse, more rarely the Irish elk ; all of which have disap- 
 peared from this country or become extinct ; or they fished in the 
 wide Pleistocene river, its broads and tributaries, on the banks of 
 which wandered, among other creatures, the hairy elephant, the 
 woolly rhinoceros, and hippopotamus; the two first of which are 
 extinct, and the last, a survivor from an earlier geological epoch, 
 has returned to his old home on the banks of the Nile. 
 
 In conclusion, we perceive that the drift men were probably of 
 a very low type of the genus Homo, they were seemingly on the 
 same level in that respect as the present natives of Tierra del Fuego, 
 the North Australians, Andaman Islanders, and Esquimaux ; in fact, 
 there is the possibility that the latter may be the survivors of this 
 ancient race. But not only were they men possessed of the facul- 
 ties which distinguishes man from the beast of the field ; but we 
 may go further, and say that they were acquainted with what is 
 rapidly becoming a lost art; i.e., the art of working flint into forms 
 which we should now find it difficult to imitate. 
 
 The skill they have shown in making these objects, rough as 
 they are, could only have been attained by great practice guided by 
 the God-given faculty of contrivance of means to an end, and stimu- 
 lated by the great educator of mankind and mother of all invention, 
 necessity. 
 
76 WORKED FLINTS FROM N. W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 A Description or the Forms and probable Uses oe the Flint 
 Implements found in North West Middlesex, with Illus- 
 trative Remarks derived from the Implements now used by 
 existing Uncivilized Races. 
 
 In commencing this chapter I must state, that many of the 
 finest specimens mentioned are in the collection of Mr. Peter Crooke 
 of Brentford, who has so kindly helped me in every possible way. 
 He has allowed me the free use of his collection, and has also 
 supplied me with a large amount of information respecting them. 
 
 A few preliminary remarks too are necessary in reference to the 
 modes of working flint and other siliceous minerals, such as obsi- 
 dian, which are employed by races still in the stone age of culture. 
 To the general reader also some brief observations will be of inte- 
 rest, which treat of the nature of the evidence of human workman- 
 ship afforded by the coarser chipped flint implements and flakes 
 found in the drift deposits. While, in conclusion, the conditions of 
 existence and culture of certain races of men, now fast disappearing 
 from the face of the earth, after contact with the great waves of 
 Western Aryan people which are breaking in upon almost every 
 quarter of the globe, may be usefully compared with those which 
 surrounded the early men of the Thames Valley in North West 
 Middlesex. The limits of this small book will admit of my doing 
 little in this direction, and analogies can therefore only be made 
 with a few savage races, which seem particularly suitable for the 
 purpose* of illustrating what our remote predecessors in this region 
 
 * Fur full information on this subject the reader is referred to the elaborate 
 woiks of Sir John Lubbock. "Prehistoric Times;" Schoolcraft's "History, 
 Condition, etc., of the Indian Tribes;" E. B. Tylor's "Early History of Man- 
 kind ;" Mortillet's " Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme," &c. ; M. Morlot's 
 Works, &c, &c 
 
WORKED FJLIKTS 1'ROM N. W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 77 
 
 were like ; but this can well be reserved until after the implements 
 have been described. 
 
 Two methods are or have been till recently in use by uncivilized 
 races for making knives and other implements of flint or obsidian, 
 a dark glassy volcanic mineral of about the same stubbornness and 
 having the same kind of fracture as flint. 
 
 Torquemada, as translated by Mr. E. B. Tylor,* thus describes 
 the process he found in use among Indian tribes in Mexico : — 
 
 " One of these Indian workmen sits down upon the ground and 
 takes a piece of this black stone (obsidian) about 8 inches long " 
 and " as thick as a man's leg or less and cylindrical ; they have a 
 stick as large as the shaft of a lance and three cubits or rather more 
 n length ; and at the end of it they fasten firmly another piece of 
 wood, eight inches long, to give more weight in this part ; then 
 pressing their naked feet together, they hold the stone as with a pair 
 of pincers or the vice of a carpenter's bench. They take the stick 
 (which is cut off smooth at the end) with both hands, and set it well 
 home against the edge of the front of the stone, which is also cut 
 smooth at that part ; and then they press it against the breast, and 
 with the force of the pressure there flies off a knife with its point 
 and edge on each side as neatly as if one were to make them of a 
 turnip with a sharp knife or of iron in the fire." 
 
 Catlin says the Apachees in Mexico make their flint arrow heads 
 in a different manner.t After breaking a small boulder with a stone 
 hammer, formed by a rounded pebble of hornstone hafted with a 
 twisted withe bent round it, in the same way that a blacksmith 
 holds his chisel at the anvil, flakes are struck off, and these are 
 chipped into the desired shape, while held in the palm of the left 
 
 * "Monarquia Indiana/' translated by Mr. E. B. Tylor. P. 338. 
 t " Last Rambles amongst the Indians," 1868, p. 188. See also " Flint 
 Chips" by Dr. Stevens, p. 82. 
 
78 
 
 WORKED FLINTS FROM N. W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 hand and struck with a hard wooden mallet by an assistant. He 
 says both the men engaged in the process sing and the strokes are 
 delivered in time to the music, the blows being sharp and rebound- 
 ing; in this the Indians say is the great medicine and knack of 
 the operation. 
 
 The Esquimaux form their chert implements by strong pressure, 
 and not by blows, according to Sir Edward Belcher.* He says 
 " selecting a log of wood in which a spoon shaped cavity was cut 
 they placed the splinter to be worked over it, and by pressing gently 
 along the margin vertically, first on one side, then on the other, as 
 one would at a saw, they splintered off alternate fragments, until 
 the object, thus properly outlined, presented the spear or arrow 
 head form with two cutting serrated sides." Sir J. Lubbock says 
 a very similar account is given by Lieutenant Beckwith t of the 
 method used by the North American Indians. 
 
 The natives of North Australia adopt a totally different me- 
 thod of accomplishing the work. The party composing the explor- 
 ing expedition under Mr. A. G. Gregory in 1855-6, came to an 
 open space between the cliffs near one of the tributary streams of 
 the Victoria river, where the ground was thickly strewn with frag- 
 ments of various stones and imperfectly formed weapons ; Mr. 
 Baines says^ the mode of working, as evidenced by the materials 
 strewn around, as well as by the explanation given by Mr. Gregory, 
 was this : " the native having chosen a pebble of agate, flint or 
 other suitable stone, perhaps as large as an ostrich egg, sits down 
 before a larger block on which he strikes it, so as to detach from 
 
 * "Trans, of the Ethnolog. Soc." New ser., Vol. i., p. 138. 
 
 t "Report of the Explorations and Surveys of the Pacific Railroad,'' 1855. 
 Vo. ii., p. 43. 
 
 J " Anthro. Review,'' No. iv., p. 104, also "Ancient Stone Implements," 
 (Dr. J. Evans), where there is a very interesting chapter on the manufacture 
 of Stone Implements. 
 
"WORKEP FLINTS FROM N. W. MIDDLESEX. 79 
 
 the end a piece leaving a flattened base for his subsequent opera- 
 tions. Then holding the pebble with its base downwards, he again 
 strikes so as to split off a piece as thin and broad as possible, 
 tapering upward in an oval or leaf like form, and sharp and thin 
 at the edges. His next object is to strike off another piece nearly 
 similar, so close as to leave a projecting angle on the stone, as 
 sharp, straight and perpendicular as possible. Then again taking 
 the pebble carefully in his hand he aims the decisive blow, which, 
 if he is successful, splits off another piece with the angle running 
 straight up its centre as a mid-rib and the two edges sharp, clear 
 and equal, spreading slightly from the base and again narrowing 
 till they meet the mid-rib in a keen and taper point. If he has 
 done this well he posesses a perfect weapon, but at least three 
 chips must have been formed in making it, and it seemed highly 
 probable from the number of imperfect heads that lay about, that 
 the failures far out numbered the successful results." 
 
 Though I have a core from Hanwell approaching the boat-like 
 form described by Dr. J. Evans, from which long slender knife- 
 like flakes appear to have been pushed off, after the method which 
 has been described to be in use by some of the Indians of Mexico, 
 lam convinced, like the author of " Ancient Stone Implements," that 
 the method employed by the men of the drift period in the Thames 
 valley was the same as that described by Catlin. Iu the first in- 
 stance, however, the nodule to be operated upon, and we must 
 remember that only such rolled nodules or pebbles as are now 
 found in the gravels were used for this purpose by the men of 
 the drift period in the Thames valley, was first struck in such a 
 manner as to produce a flattened top — and the flakes were after- 
 wards struck off by vertical blows, the point of impact being 
 generally visible on the flat at a right angle to the cone of per- 
 cussion, in fact the apex of the bulb shows almost always at the 
 
80 WORKED FLINTS FROM N, W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 side, the braise like appearance of the point of strike (see Fig. i. 
 Plate iii.). This must have been done with a suitably rounded 
 stone hammer, which was probably hafted with a bent withe, as 
 Catlin has shown to be in use among the Apachees ; further, 
 it is evident the hammer stone must have been of considerable 
 size and weight to be effective in striking off such long flakes as 
 are found occasionally in the drift deposits. 
 
 After the flakes were struck off the trimming into the desired 
 shape was no doubt accomplished, either by a smaller mounted 
 hammer stone or by the aid of the chisel-like stones or knap- 
 ping punches of reindeer horn ; specimens of the former may 
 be seen in Nos. 173 and 174 described later. 
 
 Sir Edward Belcher explained the process to Dr. J. Evans and 
 showed him* both the implements used by the Esquimaux for 
 this purpose and the objects he saw manufactured. " The flake 
 from which an arrow head is to be made is fixed by means 
 of a cord in a slit piece of wood so as to hold it firmly, and 
 all the large surface is produced either by blows direct from 
 the hammer, or through an intermediate punch or set formed of 
 reindeer horn. The arrow or harpoon head thus roughly chipped 
 out is finished by means of " the arrow flaker," an instrument 
 formed of a slip of the point of the horn of the reindeer, 
 lashed to a handle of wood or fossil ivory, which is pressed vertically 
 on one side and then on the other, by which alternate fragments are 
 splintered off. "Whether Palaeolithic man had advanced so far as to 
 use " an arrow flaker " it would be hard to determine, though from 
 the nature of some of his work, it is not improbable, he must at any 
 rate have employed the rounded hammer stone and stone or horn 
 punch, such as the Esquimaux now uses to accomplish his work. 
 
 The necessity of striking the core very accurately closely behind 
 
 * Op. Cit., p. 35v 
 
WOEKFD FLINTS FROM X.W. MIDDLESEX. 81 
 
 the previous point of impact to produce the spear head flakes found 
 in the drift will be alluded to when they are described. 
 
 The foregoing descriptions must have almost provided the reader 
 with the means of detecting stones which have been struck off or 
 worked by human agency. In a flake of this kind the primary 
 evidence is the bulb or cone of percussion. The surface of fracture 
 extending along the face of the flake is always bounded at one 
 part by such a cone, more or less defined, whose apex is the point 
 struck by the hammer ; if the fragment is large the cone is propor- 
 tionately so, and if the flake has not been afterwards trimmed and the 
 original fractures effaced, a little flat will be seen at the apex of the 
 cone, upon which will be often observed small curved markings, 
 giving the flint a bruised-like appearance at that spot. If the flake 
 is small, only a bulbous or convex clear surface may indicate the 
 inner face struck off with the hammer. The bulbs of percussion 
 are often so large as to be sometimes mistaken for small fossil 
 bivalves ; it is also noticeable that the conical bulb is often seen 
 to be partly chipped off by the rebound or reaction of the force 
 applied to produce it ; still even in that case its outline is generally 
 visible. 
 
 A well worked implement produced by numberless small blows 
 shown in reverse or concave, will hardly escape the notice of the 
 collector ; if its symmetry and well defined form be insufficient, an 
 examination of the chipping will probably show numerous points of 
 strike though in reverse. 
 
 So far we have seen what is the effect of a vertical blow in 
 striking off a flake, but Sir John Lubbock has shown * " that if a 
 blow is given, not on a flat surface but at the angle of a more or 
 less square flint, the fracture is at first semi-conoidal or nearly 
 
 * " Prehistoric Times," p. 64. 
 til 
 
82 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.AV. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 so; but after expanding for a short distance it becomes flat and 
 may be propagated through a length of as much as ten inches, 
 thus forming a blade-like flake with a triangular cross section ; the 
 consequence is that a perfect flint flake will always have a small 
 bulb at the butt end or projection on the flat side." 
 
 The contents of the Paleolithic workshop in Creffield Road 
 would have convinced me, if I had not previously been convinced, 
 that these ancient men on finding a suitable nodule operated upon 
 it in a systematic manner, with the view that it should yield flakes, 
 single or double ridged, coarse or delicate, according to their require- 
 ments and with the least loss of serviceable material. 
 
 Though Flint Jack is dead and has long since ceased to fabricate 
 his by no means unskilful forgeries of flint implements, he has still, 
 I believe, his imitators abroad, if not in this country ; and it is 
 well to say a few words about the surface of worked flints. 
 
 The surface of a newly chipped flint may always be recognized by 
 its dull, lustreless appearance ; that is, if it be of black flint. The 
 character of the chipping is different from that of genuine speci- 
 mens, and the marks of the metallic hammer too are often discern- 
 able ; whereas the specimens from the river gravels have generally 
 a more or less glossy surface and are discoloured by contact with 
 the iron oxides arising from springs, vegetation &c, in the gravel 
 in which they are found ; they may be, however, of any colour, 
 from white, due to exposure to the atmosphere before they were 
 covered up, to yellow, brown, mottled, greenish or black, according 
 to the nature of the beds in which they have been deposited. The 
 angles of chipping, particularly on the faces, generally show abra- 
 sion, and their surfaces may be seen to be pitted with glossy spots, 
 markings which testify to contact with other stones of the gravel 
 when they were removed from place to place by the action of the 
 stream. 
 
VVOKKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 83 
 
 Black dendritic markings, a deposit of oxide of manganese, may 
 also often be seen upon them, as well as calcareous or iron oxide 
 incrustations : in all these characteristics we have effects which can- 
 not be produced by the forger. 
 
 I propose in describing the collection of specimens to adopt the 
 same terms as Dr. John Evans has employed in his splendid work 
 "Ancient Stone Implements," and shall therefore call the "end 
 opposite the cutting edge (or point) the butt end, and the two prin- 
 cipal surfaces, which are usually convex, I shall speak of as the faces. 
 These are either bounded by or merge in, what I shall call the sides, 
 which are usually sharp, flat or rounded." 
 
 No. 1 is one of the rudest forms of implement I have seen, 
 though the stone shows unquestionable evidence of having been 
 shaped by human hands. It is 7 inches long by about 3 inches 
 wide ; the surface is ochreous and abraded. From the appearance 
 of the crust of the original flint, which is still preserved in several 
 parts, it was certainly fashioned by very coarse chipping from a 
 large rolled pebble or nodule, such as is now often seen in the 
 lowermost ballast deposit. There is a depression on each edge, 
 which suggests that it was employed as a maul, when hafted in a 
 flexible branch or bent withe, the edge and front not being sharp 
 enough for cutting purposes. This mode of utilising some of the 
 rough implements of the drift as mauls and axes seems to have 
 been of frequent occurrence, judging from the work upon the edges 
 in some of the specimens to be described, and it is still in vogue 
 with barbarous races. The stone axes and tomahawks of the natives 
 of North Australia are mounted with a flexible branch bent round 
 them and lashed. [Fig. 3, plate III.] The savages of South Austra- 
 lia and the Indians of the Sioux country of the Missouri valley 
 and others until recently adopted the same method. 
 
 To show how some barbarous races perpetuate and cling to this, 
 
S4 WORKED FLIKTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 I believe, very ancient method of hafting their axes and mauls, Mr. 
 Grimaldi, who has travelled through the country of North Australia, 
 lent me, to illustrate the subject, an ordinary English iron hatchet, 
 which he found in one of the deserted camps of the natives, and 
 which had probably been stolen from a settler ; when it was found 
 it was hafted with a bent withe or branch and secured by lashings, 
 in the old method in use among the blacks, although it might 
 have been made available with far less trouble by inserting the han- 
 dle into the hole made to receive it in our usual way. 
 
 Well may Dr. E. B. Tylor say "the savage is firmly, obstinately 
 conservative. No man appeals with more unhesitating confidence to 
 the great precedent makers of the past ; the wisdom of his ancestors 
 can control against the most obvious evidence of his own opinions 
 and actions." 
 
 The withe was in use even in our own country almost into the 
 historic age for mounting the large hammers of diorite and for 
 mining purposes ; such objects being frequently met with in ancient 
 workings. 
 
 This specimen was found 19 feet from the surface at North Com- 
 mon, Ealing, about the 100 foot contour. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 3 are nearly as large and formed in the same way. 
 The former, found deep in the gravel at East Sheen, near 
 Richmond, is abraded and ochreous. In the latter, from North 
 Common, Ealing, the chipping is much sharper though the surface 
 is of the same ochreous tint ; it was taken from gravel 16 feet from 
 the surface ; the East Sheen specimen has a well marked depression 
 to receive the withe, in the other it is not so well defined, and it 
 appears to have been split off on the face either by frost or use ; 
 both have been made from water worn nodules. 
 
 No. 4 is fully 6 J inches in length and also formed from a well 
 rolled flint nodule or small boulder. It was found near the base of 
 
WOKKED FEINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. &5 
 
 the gravel at Gunnersbury, about 7 feet from the surface. This spot 
 is near the southern limit in this direction of the high terrace gravel, 
 and the level falls away rapidly to that of the mid terrace ; the 
 gravels thin out to about the depth at which this specimen was 
 found. 
 
 It is not clear what was the use of such an implement as this, 
 though it is of a form not uncommon in the river drift. Made 
 from a much rolled flint nodule, the chipped facets are not much 
 abraded on the faces, one of which is very little worked, while 
 the other is more highly wrought. It has a thick almost un- 
 worked butt, and is neatly chipped on each side, forming a con- 
 vex cutting edge on one side and a concave one on the other: so 
 that it terminated in a curved point. Both edges show distinct 
 evidence of use, as they are much more and differently worn than 
 the angles of chipping on the faces. It is evident it was inten- 
 ded for a cutting, scraping or scooping tool. [Fig. 4. Plate I.] 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 from Dawley, near West Drayton, (about 112 
 ft. O.D.) and North of Ealing Common (106 ft. O.D.) are good 
 specimens of the same form, and were probably intended for the 
 same use as the last described, i.e., implements with a worked 
 convex edge on one side of the point and concave one on the 
 other, thus giving the instrument a curved appearance. The for- 
 mer is made from a flake and has an ochreous, almost unabraded 
 surface, while the latter is of greenish brown tint very much 
 abraded ; the butts are not much wrought, and in No. 6 the crust 
 of a much rolled flint nodule is seen. The Ealing specimen was 
 found in a thick bed of gravel, 19 feet from the surface. 
 
 They are both nearly 4 inches long and there are indications 
 of wear on the cutting edges. 
 
 No. 7. [Plate I.] This is a brownish yellow much abraded 
 implement, about 5 by 3| inches, found in coarse gravel 15 feet 
 
86 W0EKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 from the surface, North of Ealing Common, and at about 106 
 ft. O.D. The London clay beneath the river deposits is here 
 as elsewhere, undulating and uneven, and in the pit from which 
 this specimen was taken, the Eocene bed is reached at 16 or 17 
 feet. 
 
 This very interesting type of implement has been described 
 and figured by Lyell* and Lubbock, t in the former case from 
 a bed of gravel underlying fluviomarine gravel at Mautort near 
 Abbeville, in which the bones of Elephas antiquus, E. primigenius. 
 Reindeer, and the usual late Pleistocene fauna occur, and in 
 the latter from the cave of Le Moustier in the Dordogne, 
 France, one of the most ancient caves in the valley of the 
 Vezere,+ which, as Sir John Lubbock says, " has presented us with 
 some types not yet found in other caves and resembling, in 
 some respects, those of the drift." A somewhat similar imple- 
 ment is described by Prof. Boyd Dawkins from Wokey Hole.§ 
 
 The implement is worked on both faces, and as the greater 
 part of one side is flat, produced by bold, yet skilful chip- 
 ping, it is evidently done for the purpose of being held in the 
 hand there ; the flat side terminates in a curve at the point, 
 while the other is symmetrically rounded into a sinuous cutting 
 edge, fashioned by small blows struck on each side of the 
 blade alternately. The butt is flat ; thus the instrument is oval 
 with a flat on part of one side and at the butt, with a care- 
 fully worked convex edge at the other part, leading to a well 
 defined point ; the similitude to the one engraved by Lyell 
 is so exact that even a small depression near the point on the 
 long convex side is seen in both specimens. 
 
 * " Antiquity of Man," Tig. 9. 
 t " Prehistoric Times," pp. 130-133. 
 J " Lubbock Op. Cit." page 251. 
 J '• Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc." No 70. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.AV. MIDDLESEX. 87 
 
 MM. Larfcet and Christy regard this form as the same as 
 the lance heads of the drift, of which we have examples in 
 this collection. 
 
 It is much more probable that it was intended for use as 
 a skinner or scraper, though, like many palaeolithic implements, 
 it no doubt served other purposes than those for which it 
 seems specially adapted. In specimens similar in form from 
 brick earth at Hoxne, where the edges have not been injured 
 by contact with gravel, minute marks of wear have been ob- 
 served, as if from scraping or cutting, on the edges principally 
 opposite the flat spot, as observed by Dr. John Evans.* 
 
 I may here remark that just as the student of biology finds 
 that the earliest forms of life show the least specialization, and that 
 in them one organ performs many functions, functions which 
 in the ascending scale of life are afterwards performed by 
 separate and distinct organs; so in examining the instruments 
 and tools of early man, we are compelled to admit that certain 
 forms of flint implements must have served many purposes. 
 
 The differentiation which is observable in the structure of 
 animals as they advance from the lower to the higher, seems to 
 be equally true in regard to the faculty of invention in the 
 mind of man, as shown by the specialization and differentiation 
 of the instruments he employs. 
 
 The flint or other stone implement with cutting edge and point 
 arranged in a particular manner was no doubt intended for use in 
 a variety of ways, for scraping, perforating, cutting, gouging. &c, 
 before necessity or the impulse for improvement led palaeolithic 
 man into a better adjustment and greater perfection, in the 
 means employed in working and in the work to be done. 
 
 * "EransOp. Cit." p. 566. 
 
88 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 The more highly tramed faculty of invention in the minds of 
 the men of the 19th century has after ages of slow progress and 
 development, evolved the conception perhaps of fifty tools serving 
 to perform more perfectly the work it is desired to accomplish. 
 Hence there are numerous forms of perforators, such as bradawls, 
 awls, gimlets, centre bits, &c. ; and cuttiug instruments in even 
 greater variety, as knives of all sizes and shapes, planes, chisels, and 
 other tools, all of which in the most ancient times were often in- 
 cluded in that multum in parvo a carefully chipped ovate pointed 
 flint implement. 
 
 The similarity I have alluded to between this implement and 
 some of those found at Abbeville and in the Dordogne shows us that 
 the same form was designed and used probably contemporaneously 
 by the Palaeolithic men who lived near the banks of the wider rivers 
 which deposited the gravels of the Somme and Thames valleys, while 
 it affords a connecting link between them and some of the earlier 
 cave men in France. 
 
 Nos. 8, 9 and 10 are all nearly 6 by 3 inches and came from Style 
 Hall near Kew (mid terrace), 12 feet from the surface, Gunnersbury 
 (7 feet) and Somerset Road, Ealing. They are all rudely pointed, 
 and the edges are worked straight from the butts, which are un- 
 worked and thick, showing in part the crust of rolled nodules now 
 found occasionally in the gravel. No. 9 from the mid terrace, like 
 the others, is much abraded, in fact the work in this specimen is 
 nearly effaced by attrition from contact with the other stones com- 
 posing the gravel and exposure to atmospheric effects. 
 
 Nos. 11 to 15 [Figs. 11 and 14, Plate I.] from Dawley, 112 feet, 
 O.D. ; North of Longfield Avenue, Ealing, 125 ft., O.D., the highest 
 level at which I have found a finished implement, and 15 feet from 
 the surface ; and Hanwell, 3 specimens. [Figs. 11 and 14.] They 
 are of the pointed type with a general smilarity to the well known 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM X.W. MIDDLESEX. 89 
 
 implements found in Gray's Inn Lane ; near Reculver ; Biddenham, 
 Beds; Millford Hill, Salisbury; and other places; they are some 
 of the oldest of the river drift forms. 
 
 They are all abraded and formed from flints such as may now 
 be found in the gravel ; most of the specimens have an ochreous or 
 else a much discoloured browu surface. No. 12 is an exception 
 though it must be one of the oldest in the series judging from the 
 high level of the Lougfield Avenue where it was found at a great 
 depth in the gravel. It is still quite black, but with the peculiar 
 glossy surface and other indications of age noticeable in some drift 
 implements. 
 
 These pointed implements with heavy, often unworked, butts, 
 have given rise to much conjecture, but they are now generally 
 regarded as lance heads ; a lance being a weapon with a longer 
 shaft than is used for a spear or dart. I have no doubt whatever 
 that worked flakes were used for spears or weapons for thrusting, as 
 well as for those intended to be thrown as darts. This will be 
 noticed when the contents of the Palaeolithic workshop at Acton 
 are described under their different heads. 
 
 The hypothesis that these, often very heavy implements, were 
 used for the longer and heavier weapons becomes more probable 
 when the following description of similar lances given by Mr. H. N. 
 Moseley in his valuable and interesting account of the inhabitants 
 of the Admiralty Islands * is read [Fig. 6, plate III., represents the 
 same form of weapon from New Caledonia]. "The principal 
 weapon is a lance formed of a small, usually flexible, shaft of tough 
 wood, a natural stem often with the bark trimmed off, to the 
 thicker end of which is attached a heavy head of obsidian, which 
 in size appears out of proportion with the light shaft. The obsidian 
 
 * '• Journ. Anthro. last." Vol. vi., No. 4. 
 
 n 
 
90 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 lance head is usually of this conical form, but some hove a knife 
 edge in front and some are irregular. They are shaped by bold 
 wide flaking." "The hinder borders of the lance head are simply 
 rounded. They are secured in a socket of wood attached to the 
 end of the shaft by means of a cement and by being bound round 
 with twine," &c. 
 
 The author's description of small lances or javelins, where sharp 
 flakes of obsidian are used, will be noticed in considering the 
 method probably adopted by Palseolithic men in mounting the 
 sharp worked flakes to be described later. 
 
 No. 15 in the series is one of the most skilfully worked lance 
 heads of this kind ; but the butt end is broken, apparently split 
 off by frost in ancient times, or.it may have been fractured in use; 
 the whole surface is of a light brown tint ; it is very symmetri- 
 cally worked all over, and a straight line of chipping on the edges 
 terminates in a sharp point. 
 
 Placed beside one of the early neolithic specimens from Cissbury 
 of similar form, it is surprising to notice, that in this instance the 
 Palseolithic men of the Thames Valley were not apparently behind 
 their far removed successors in time on the Sussex Downs. 
 
 Nos. 16 to 18. The first of these (5£ by 3£ inches) is from 
 Turnham Green, 12 feet from the surface; it is another instance 
 of a much abraded specimen from the mid terrace deposit; the 
 surface is in fact perished and ochreous, the discolouration pene- 
 trating much below it. It certainly has the appearance of greater 
 antiquity as an implement, than do a very large proportion of the 
 naturally split subangular and abraded flint fragments associated 
 with it in the gravel. 
 
 The other implements from the mid terrace, and which have 
 been described, afford the same evidence of unusual rolling and age. 
 Hence it is more probable that it was derived from the older de- 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 91 
 
 posit of the high terrace, than that it was made by the men who 
 lived on the banks of the river flowing at the lower level of the 
 mid terrace (here about 35 feet O.D.) ; if so, as there must be a 
 great difference in the age of the two terrace?, this specimen and 
 the others I have mentioned must be much older than is indicated 
 by the position in which they were found. 
 
 The other two specimens in this series, nearly 5 inches by 2\, 
 were discovered at or near Grange Road, Ealing, about 12 feet 
 down ; they are more or less abraded and stained of an ochreous 
 or brown colour. 
 
 All these implements are roughly chipped and are narrower in 
 proportion to their length than the lance heads. They are rounded 
 at the point and massive at the butts; the former peculiarity is 
 fatal to the probability of their having been used in that manner. 
 
 No. 19 [Plate I.] is worked all over and is of a beautifully 
 glossy greenish brown tint, it is 4 \ by 2 \ inches and abraded, and 
 was found at the Grove Road, Ealing, 15 feet from the surface. 
 
 Symmetrically worked, though with much coarse chipping and 
 straight edges, to a rounded point, it is an excellent specimen of 
 Palaeolithic work. I have placed it by the side of one of my spe- 
 cimens from Cissbury and I confess my inability to distinguish any 
 difference in type between the two specimens except that the Ciss- 
 bury implement is as carefully chipped at the butt as it is all 
 round, while the palaeolithic instrument is not so much worked at 
 the butt and does not appear to be worked to a cutting edge there. 
 
 Both implements were in my opinion used as axes or adzes ; 
 in the former case they were probably mounted in such a way that 
 both ends were used, and in the latter, by lashing the thicker end 
 against the outside of a handle bent to receive it, as in the South Sea Is- 
 land axes* or adzes. [See adzefrom New Guinea. Fig. 5. Plate III.] 
 * See " Ancient Stone Implements," Evans. Fig, 104. 
 
92 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.AV. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Nos. 20 to 23. These are implements of the same type as the 
 last described and about the same size ; they are from Grove Road, 
 Ealing (15 feet down), Gunnersbury (6 feet down), Acton (11 feet 
 down), and Hauwell (12 feet down) ; they are abraded and ochreous, 
 except the Acton specimen, which is sharp and unrolled, and exhi- 
 bits more of the original tint of the flint. The apex or point is 
 rounded in them all, and they appear to have served the same 
 purposes as the last. 
 
 Nos. 24 and 25. In these we have specimens which are the 
 reverse of the last series in one respect, they are both wide as 
 compared with their length ; i.e. 4 by 3| inches. While the first, 
 which is from Dawley, is so much rolled and ochreous as to be 
 almost unrecognisable as an implement, except to an experienced 
 
 collector ; the latter from Hanwell (14 feet down) is but slightly 
 abraded though the surface is ochreous. 
 
 It seems improbable that they can have been used as lance- 
 heads, and it is difficult to suggest a use for these objects. The 
 design is alike in both implements, they may have been fixed in 
 clubs for breaking ice as they are pointed, and when hafted they 
 would have made formidable weapons. 
 
 Nos. 26 and 27 [Fig. 27. Plate I.] are from Dawley and 
 North of Ealing Common (18 feet from the surface) respectively. 
 They are different in form from any of the other specimens I have 
 described. With rude thick butts but little worked, the lateral 
 well wrought edges or blades, converge in symmetrical curves to 
 a sharp point, the sinuous edges being produced by blows struck 
 alternately on each face. The implement from Dawley shows very 
 little abrasion, except at the edges, which may have been caused 
 by use, while the other is much more rolled on the faces ; the for- 
 mer is curved and probably was used when hafted as an adze, 
 [See adze from New Guinea, Fig 5, Plate III.], but the latter is 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. Go 
 
 straight when viewed from the side. They are both about four 
 inches in length by 2\ inches in breadth at the widest part. 
 
 Nos. 28 to 34 are more or less pointed implements ranging 
 from 2| by 2 inches to 4 by 2£ inches. One was found at Gunners- 
 bury and another at Mill Hill, Acton, and four came from pits 
 North of Ealing Common at 18, 16 and 14 feet from the surface 
 respectively ; they are ochreous and slig htly abraded, except No 
 33 from North of Ealing Common (14 feet down), which is quite 
 sharp and of dark blackish grey flint ; No. 34 and others are but 
 little worked at the butt and they are formed from the stones of 
 the gravel. The form of these implements is roughly that of an 
 isosceles triangle : they may very well have been used, like the 
 larger ones noticed previously, as lance-heads ; but they are smaller 
 and more triangular as well as flatter than the more acutely 
 pointed specimens in that series. 
 
 We have here instances of the great differences in the colour 
 and amount of abrasion, which implements found deep in the gra- 
 vel present ; the colour of No. 33 from Ealing Common is very 
 slightly changed and contrasts with the other ochreous specimens. 
 
 This variation in the discoloration of the surface of imple- 
 ments is partly due to the differing structure of the flint 
 itself, partly to the conditions surrounding the implement after 
 its deposition, and partly to the nature of the beds in which it 
 is deposited. The presence of iron oxides in the springs and gravel, 
 the growth of vegetation, and humus acids, and the action of the 
 atmosphere, when exposed on a land surface, would all tend to 
 produce changes of colour in some specimens, while others may 
 not have been subjected to these causes and may have been 
 buried up in deposits not so charged. 
 
 The implements, flakes, and fragments from the floor and 
 working place in the Creffield Road, Acton, afford a good illus- 
 
§4 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 tration of this. Though discovered at the same depth and within 
 40 or 50 feet of each other they show very great differences in 
 discoloration ; some of them are white almost without a stain, 
 others are mottled ochreous and rich brown, while many of them 
 are entirely ochreous. Again, some specimens are partly covered 
 with dendritic markings, due to the crystallization of peroxide of 
 manganese, while others are entirely free from it. 
 
 Unlike the Creffield Road specimens, those in this series may 
 have been removed from place to place and have been subjected 
 to different surroundings at each removal. No. 35. [Plate L] 
 This is a rarer type of implement and was found 17 feet in the 
 deposits, north of Ealing Common (106 feet O.D.). It is roughly 
 equilateral, entirely stained superficially, of an ochreous colour, and 
 slightly abraded. It is a fac simile of the one discovered by Mr. 
 Skertchley in gravel beneath boulder clay at Brandon, which is 
 now in the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street ; thus showing that 
 this type of implement was in use at a period when very severe 
 climatic conditions prevailed. It is also described and figured by 
 Mr. F. J. Spurrell * from "West Kent, and in Dr. John Evans' 
 elaborate workt where it is described as found at Peasemarsh, 
 Godalming, in a deposit associated with numerous remains of E. 
 primigenius and also from Icklingham (No. 425). 
 
 This implement has been made from a flake, but is worked all 
 over, except at one angle of the triangle where a small portion 
 of the original crust is seen ; the side opposite the part which is 
 less wrought is chipped into a sinuous cutting blade and the 
 edge extends round the other two angles. 
 
 The object of making such an instrument is clear when it 
 is placed in a series of chipped celts from other localities to be 
 
 * «' Implements from West Kent." Arch. Cantiana. Fig. 25. 
 t "Ancient Stone Implements." Fig. 455. 
 
WORKED FLINTS TEOM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 95 
 
 described later ; the same design is evident in them and in those 
 from the Creffield Road, Acton, where they were found in differ- 
 ent stages of manufacture ; it was intended, I think, like them 
 for insertion into a club, probably like Mr. Anthony Belt's club, 
 which his late father, Mr. Thos. Belt, F.G.S., obtained from savage 
 Indians on the Rio Frio, Nicaragua, and which my friend has very 
 kindly lent to me for the purpose of illustrating the method 
 which I believe was generally adopted by the men of the drift 
 period for hafting such implements. 
 
 This wooden club is nearly 2 feet long and very heavy and 
 thick for rather over half the length, when it tapers off abruptly 
 until it terminates in a handle about 1£ inches in diameter, the 
 thickest part being over nine inches in circumference. It is 
 roughly made and has evidently been chopped into shape by means 
 of stone knives. [Fig. 2, Plate III.] About £ of the way up a 
 roughly chipped and unground piece of trachyte is inserted into 
 the thick end of the club, probably when the wood was green, 
 for the stone is very firmly held as if, though forced into its 
 place, the fibre had contracted around it ; the rough hewn blade 
 appears to have been formed by one blow, and in that respect it 
 differs from the celt form of implements from the drift, where 
 the edge is produced by chipping on each face alternately, or by 
 work on one face at an acute angle, thus forming: a cutting edge 
 with the flat face of the thick flake on the other. 
 
 This Palaeolithic implement appears to be worked into the 
 form most suitable for this mode of hafting, and may be regarded 
 as one of the earliest forms of celt to which I shall afterwards 
 allude, and it would then form not only an instrument for cut- 
 ting down trees, in which no doubt they had the aid of fire, but 
 would also be a very formidable weapon as a tomahawk or bat- 
 tle axe. 
 
96 WORKED FLINTS FROM K.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Similar axes are in use, and with the like worked triangular 
 stones but ground, by the natives of the Admiralty Islands, and 
 are described by Mr. H. N. Moseley ;* c » and in the helve of the 
 stone axes of the natives of the New Hebrides, which is pretty 
 thick, is made a hole into which the stone is fixed. "f 
 
 A club with a ground stone mounted in a similar manner was 
 found in the Pile dwelling at Robenhausen.i: and there is no doubt 
 it was the method adopted, either with wood or deer's horn handles 
 for hafting the Irish, Danish and other polished celts of the Neo- 
 lithic age, a good example of the latter being the specimen from 
 the pile dwelling of the Lake Constance in the British Museum. 
 [Fig. 4, Plate III.] 
 
 As I have said in the Introduction, the axe, hatchet, tomahawk 
 and adze, a stone hafted for cutting purposes in the rudest way, 
 is probably the oldest form of weapon or implement invented by 
 man, as it is the simplest that can be imagined, after he was suffi- 
 ciently advanced to put a branch of wood and a stone together, 
 and not use them separately. Some savages use wooden axes now , 
 but they are able to obtain very hard wood. 
 
 Nos. 36 to 40 [Figs. 36 and 38, Plate I.]. We have here wea- 
 pons or tools of another kind altogether. They are slender dag- 
 ger-pointed implements ; in them a long incurved sharp point ter- 
 minates in a heavy cumbrous, often slightly worked butt, in which 
 the crust of a rolled flint nodule is generally visible. No. 36, from 
 the Grange Road, Ealing, 13 feet from the .surface, is 5 inches 
 long, and the butt is about 3J inches in breadth ; it is but slightly 
 abraded and of dark brown tint ; the original sharp point of the 
 implement is nearly intact, and in the hands of a strong man this 
 
 * Op. Cit. Plate xx. Figs. 11 and 12 and p. 427. 
 
 t " Cook's Voyage." Vol. ii., p. 81. 
 
 J See Dawkin's " Early Man, &c." Fig. 1Q0. 
 
WORKED FLINTS PRuM N,W, MIDDLESEX. VI 
 
 one would inflict severe if not fatal wounds ; it is generally 
 accepted that such implements were used as daggers, since the very 
 heavy butt is convenient for holding in the hand without other 
 hafting, while the point of the weapon would certainly make a 
 hole, as Mercutio says — 
 
 Not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church door ; 
 But it is enough, it will serve. 
 
 No. 37 is fully 6 inches long and 3J in. broad at the butt ; it 
 is much abraded and ochreous, and was found at Gunnersbury ; the 
 point is not so well preserved as No. 38, which is very symmetrically 
 worked to a very sharp point, and is 5 inches long by 2 J- in. wide 
 at the butt ; it is but slightly abraded, and of a beautifully glossy 
 light ochreous tint; this implement was found at Castle Hill, 
 Ealing, 15 feet from the surface of the ground, and near the base 
 of the drift deposits. 
 
 This type of implement is regarded by Dr. John Evans as cha- 
 racteristic of the high terrace gravels. I have specimens from the 
 very ancient gravels of Milford Hill, near Salisbury, and they have 
 been found in other drift deposits. The same form was discovered 
 in the lowest breccia deposits associated with the remains of the 
 older fauna in Kent's Cavern* 
 
 Although these incurved pointed implements may have been 
 used for stabbing at close quarters, there is a more innocent pur- 
 pose for which they may have been made ; they might have been 
 employed as perforators in another sense ; other forms of awls and 
 borers will be described, but they are generally formed from flakes. 
 
 The long tapering points which characterise these implements 
 seem as much adapted for piercing wood as any thing else, and it 
 is possible they may have served to perforate inanimate as well as 
 
 * See " Literature of Kent's Carern, &c." Pengellv. 
 
 
 
98 AV0RKED FLIHTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 animate objects. M. Figuier has armed bis interesting Apollo like 
 early men with these heavy butt dagger pointed implements in his 
 " L'Homme Primitif." 
 
 Nos. 41 to 47. Tbese are thick ovoid implements, four of them 
 came from the gravel at Grange Park, Ealing (about 100 ft. O.D.), 
 13 feet from the surface ; two from Gunnersbury, 7 feet down ; and 
 one from the pits, north of Ealing Common, 15 feet down [Fig. 47, 
 Plate I.]. They are all ochreous or brown, but the amount of abra- 
 sion they have undergone varies from the quite unabraded speci- 
 men 3£ by 2\ in. from North Common, to the much rolled one from 
 Grange Park, 5 by 3 inches ; most of the other specimens are of 
 the same size as the latter, and are slightly abraded by contact 
 with other stones. 
 
 These rudely worked thick implements are considered by Mr. 
 Worthington G. Smith as belonging to the oldest class from the 
 great depth in the gravel at which they are found ; they are gene- 
 rally rounded at each end ; their use is almost beyond conjecture 
 unless tbey served when hafted as mauls for breaking bones, &c, 
 an instrument in common use among savages. 
 
 Nos. 48 to 57 [Fig. 48, Plate I.]. These specimens are opposite 
 
 in most respects from those last described; they are leaf shaped 
 
 and flat and worked to the usual sinuous edge all round except at 
 
 the butt, which probably was left more unfinished for insertion into 
 
 a club or heavy stick. Some of the specimens are slightly concave 
 
 on the one side and convex on the other side of the point, and 
 
 they are all wide, though not cumbrous, at the butts; thus they 
 
 have a leaf-like outline. In others the blade is convex on both 
 
 sides. They are all abraded and some of them much rolled. Two 
 
 were found at Beaconsfield Road, Ealing (15 feet down), two at 
 
 Gunnersbury (7 feet), and others at Grange Road (13 feet), Hanwell 
 
 and North of Ealing Common. No. 49, from North Common, 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 99 
 
 Ealing, which is almost unabraded, "was discovered immediately 
 beneath the brick earth deposits at this spot, 9 feet in thickness ; 
 it probably was left on the old land surface, which is generally 
 apparent just beneath the loamy sands and brown clay surmount- 
 ing the gravels, and is a continuation of the floor or land surface 
 discovered in the Creffield Eoad, Acton, about three-quarters of a 
 mile east. I have traced it not only in this direction, but also in 
 other parts of the district. The other three implements were found 
 at the much lower level of the mid terrace, ranging from 25 to 
 35 ft. O.D. at Bollo Bridge, Turnham Green, and Style Hall, near 
 Kew ; and all at about 13 feet from the surface. 
 
 It is again noticeable that the three specimens from the mid 
 terrace are more worn from contact with the gravel than any of 
 the series, and it is not unlikely that they were derived from the 
 higher terrace gravel. 
 
 In the same way some of the most worn and partly effaced 
 implements now found in the high terrace may have been derived 
 from yet older deposits. 
 
 Nos. 58 and 59 [Fig. 58, Plate I.]. These are implements with 
 large rounded blades, the first from Beaconsfield Road, Ealing (12 
 feet down), the latter from North of Ealing Common ; both are 
 abraded and discoloured. 
 
 The largest of these specimens, from Beaconsfield Road, is more 
 than 6 inches long by 4£ inches at the blade, which is the widest 
 part ; it is exactly of the same form as one of my implements 7rom 
 Cissbury, and must have been used for the same purpose whatever 
 that may have been ; a similar long round blade implement was in 
 Mr. Worthington G. Smith's collection, and is figured No. 13 in one 
 of his papers.* He considered it an unfinished one, in which opinion 
 
 * " Primeval Man in the Valley of the Lea," Trans. Essex Field Club. 
 Vol. iii. 
 
1 00 WORKED FLINTS FROM X.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 I cannot concur. The butt, slightly worked at the extreme end, is 
 narrow, but the edge swells out rapidly into a wide curved blade 
 in front, much of the crust of the drift nodule of which it is made 
 being unworked where it appears to fall into the desired form. 
 The wide curved blade and narrow butt is seen in Mr. W. G-. 
 Smith's implement from Lower Clapton as well as in the Neolithic one. 
 This form may be seen in the collections of Dr. John Evans and Mr. 
 Greenhill, and it is also drawn in Dr. Abbott's work, "Primitive 
 Industry,"* and described as from New Jersey ; the author believes 
 it to be a digging tool. 
 
 It is generally believed however that Palaeolithic man did not 
 cultivate the ground even in the most rudimentary manner, but it 
 is not proved; at any rate such an implement would have served 
 the purpose of grubbing up roots. There is no reason why he 
 should not have subsisted partly on some kind of vegetable food, 
 and learned soon to distinguish in a rude way between the roots 
 &c. which were fit or unfit for food, in seeking for the means of 
 subsistence, and partly on the animals he huuted, as in fact some 
 of the lowest types of men do now. 
 
 No. 60 is a heavy, thick, short, worked flint, much abraded and 
 ochreous, with a very blunt chipped edge in front, and much bat- 
 tered on one side ; it is roughly wrought out of a drift nodule and 
 there is a large bulb of percussion, but both faces are worked. 
 
 There could not have been any need of making hammer stones 
 in the Palaeolithic period for suitable pebbles abounded in the gravel. 
 This implement is however very much like two hammer stones in 
 my collection from Cissbury. It was found in a pit north of 
 Ealing Common, from which I obtained many flakes. 
 
 It may have been used as a maul ; it certainly is suggestive 
 
 * "Primitive Industry," Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass. 
 Fig. 215. 
 
"WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 10i 
 
 of the stoue mauls made by the Aricharee Indians exhibited in the 
 collection of savage weapons at the Centennial Exhibition at Phi- 
 ladelphia in IS 76, and described by Mr. E. H. Knight,* in which 
 a stone of this shape is hafted in the following manner: ''a withe 
 is bent round it and secured by raw hide thongs next to the stone, 
 over the whole stone and handle, except the hammer face, a single 
 piece of wet buffalo hide is stretched and sewn with sinews ; when 
 the hide shrinks in drying the whole forms a very firm job." 
 
 Nos. 61 and 62. These are ochreous flakes neatly worked at 
 the sides to a point. They were found at Hanwell (11 feet down) 
 and north of Ealing Common, and the facets of chipping are sharp ; 
 the convex bulb and turtle back is on one face, and the reverse of 
 another bulb on the other opposite to it, thus thinning out the butt, 
 a method which will be referred to later in the case of a large 
 number of spear heads &c. from Creffield Road. I have already 
 described the mode it was necessary to adopt in working upon the 
 core to produce this result ; by thus thinning the butt the imple- 
 ment can be more easily inserted into a slot in the handle and 
 secured. 
 
 A tool of precisely the same form is in my collectiou from 
 Cissbury, and if it were stained of the same ochreous tint as the 
 others it would be impossible to distinguish the Neolithic from the 
 Palajolithic specimen. The maker must assuredly have had the 
 same mode of using it in his mind as his far removed predecessor : 
 it is not improbable that they were both used as gouges for scoop- 
 ing out wood, perhaps, for canoes. 
 
 Nos. 63 to 65. These are very small implements ; two of 
 them are formed from flakes, and one is worked on both faces with 
 wrought edges ; they are about 2 inches long and were found at 
 
 * "Smithsonian Report," 1879. Pig. 23. 
 
102 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Castle Hill pit and Longfield Avenue, Ealing ; and Hanwell ; like 
 the small neolithic celts their use is a matter of conjecture. 
 
 Nos. 66 to 68. These flakes are worked to an obtuse angled 
 point by secondary chipping on both sides ; the bulbs of strike 
 forming the butts are unworked, which may indicate that they 
 were there inserted into clubs; they were found in pits at Han- 
 well, and at Beaconsfield Road, Ealing ; and No. 68, which is entirely 
 bleached, came from gravel north of the Great Western Railway, 
 in the direction of Mason's Green. I have traced an extension of 
 the old land surface discovered in Creflield Road in these pits, but 
 I am unable to determine the depth at which this specimen was 
 found, as it was taken from a heap of gravel. The chipping, gene- 
 rally transverse, is sharp and unrolled in all of them. 
 
 Nos. 69 and 70 are very large, wide, slightly abraded, discoloured 
 flakes from north of Ealing Common ; they are bevelled and worked 
 at the edges, terminating in a point in one flake, and in a curved 
 blade in the other. There is some rough chipping at the sides 
 which may have helped to secure them in a bent or cleft stick ; 
 but it is more likely that the butts which are not worked by secon- 
 dary chipping were jammed into wooden handles ; they were pro- 
 bably at any rate used as axes or other cutting instruments with 
 a handle of some kind. 
 
 No. 70 has however the same form as the oblong stones rounded 
 at one end, which is brought to a bevelled edge, described by Sir J. 
 Lubbock, as discovered in France, Denmark, Ireland, Switzerland 
 and other countries, and which he says is identical with the modern 
 Esquimaux scrapers of celt-like form.* 
 
 Nos. 71 to 75. We have now to describe some worked flints 
 which have a more distinct celt-like form, and could very well be 
 
 * "Prehistoric Times," Figs. 74-75 and 76-77. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 103 
 
 classed with No. 35, already described, though they are riot so 
 highly wrought. They are worked by secondary chipping, either 
 on one side to meet the unwrought face of the flake, or on both faces 
 10 an edge. They are almost unabradecl, but No. 72 is worn from 
 use in front. Where the original sides of the flake do not appear 
 to fall into the wedge shape they are chipped into that form, but 
 there is no secondary work at the butts. Three of the specimens 
 were found in different parts of Ealing ; the others came from the 
 gravel at Hauwell and Dawley, near West Drayton. These rough 
 hewn celts might easily pass unnoticed except as worked flakes, the 
 object of which is unknown, or they would be classed in the gene- 
 ral category of scrapers to which uncertain shapes are often rele- 
 gated, notwithstanding the similarity of form observable in all of 
 them. My discovery of similarly shaped flints in the Crefneld Road 
 on the old working site, in various stages of finish, confirms this 
 suggestion, especially as the CrefEeld Road specimens had never been 
 removed from the spot where they were made, and there has been no 
 chance of fracture from frost or from contact with other stones in 
 the bed of the river, by which an accidental similarity of form 
 might have arisen. 
 
 Nos. 76 to 87 [Figs. 78 and 87, Plate II.]. In this series of 
 wrought flakes, all of which are from the Palaeolithic workshop in 
 Creffield Road, to which I have just alluded, we have the celt form 
 in various stages of manufacture, and we are able to trace the same 
 design throughout. As in the last series, they are in some instances 
 worked on both faces, in others the old surface of the nodule is 
 retained if it falls into the shape required. But the prevailing 
 feature in them all is that a cutting edge or blade is formed in front, 
 either by secondary work on one face at an acute angle down to the 
 untouched surface of the flake on the other surface, or they are care- 
 fully chipped on both faces to produce the edge of the blade j there 
 
104 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 is clearly an intention to form a sharp edge in either case. They 
 are roughly trimmed at the sides where the flake does not fall into 
 the desired form, and the butts are very little wrought, only enough 
 to make them easily fixed in clubs or wooden handles, perhaps of a 
 similar kind to Mr. Belt's rough club, or the others now used by 
 isolated races to which I have alluded. 
 
 The first stage in the formation of most of the greenstone and 
 other polished celts, before they were ground, would present much 
 the same outline and appearance as these roughly hewn flints, and 
 we probably have in them some of the earliest chijsped celt formed 
 implements, so that we have to go back to the Palaeolithic period, 
 I think, for the rudimentary chipped edged flint from which the celt 
 was developed. 
 
 General Pitt Rivers has traced the evolution of the arrow point 
 from the simplest form, i.e., the triangle, through increasingly 
 elaborate or more highly wrought models to the finished barbed 
 arrowheads. 
 
 The same may be done, I believe, in regard to the celt, if a series 
 of wedge-like axes were before us. The commencement would be 
 the flake trimmed at the sides and with the edge formed by secon- 
 dary chipping ; the next the flint worked on both faces and cutting 
 edge, which are among those I have described ; afterwards the Ciss- 
 bury specimens, in which there is evidence of greater skill ; then 
 such implements as those from Thetford,* to which I have refer- 
 red, and those found in the Kjokken-moddings and coast finds; 
 those with ground edge only and the body of the implement chipped 
 would follow next (and they are found not only in various parts of 
 England but also in Denmark, &c.) until the series is complete and 
 we have the polished or ground celt of the later Neolithic period, so 
 
 * Evans' " Ancient Stone Implements," No. 14, &c. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX 105 
 
 frequently met with in this country, Ireland and elsewhere. Thus 
 we should find a continuity of design, concurrent with increasing 
 skill ; a continuity which could be shown to extend through the 
 bronze into the iron age of culture. 
 
 A stone or blade of metal secured to a stick, whether called an 
 axe, hatchet or tomahawk, has always been used by men in some 
 form or other. Among savages it is employed in many ways, from 
 cutting down a tree to felling an enemy. It is also used by them 
 to help in climbing trees as well as scalping their foes ; and whether 
 as a striking instrument in the hand, or as a weapon to be thrown, it 
 is in use among all barbarous races from the Red Indian of America 
 to the Australian blacks. 
 
 A very simple form of it must be the axe which Mr. John For- 
 rest * says is in use by the cannibal (as he believed) natives of Cen- 
 tral and Western Australia ; it is called a " dowak, and is a heavy 
 stick pointed at one end and with a piece of flint gummed on the 
 other, which is used as a small axe. It is thrown very swiftly and 
 is very dangerous." Palaeolithic man could hardly have made a more 
 primitive weapon than that. 
 
 Nos. 88 to 93 are flakes with straight or convex curved edges 
 produced by secondary chipping ; in most of them the work is sharp, 
 excepting on the edges where they have been worn, probably by 
 use as scrapers for dressing skins ; they were found in gravel at 
 Castle Hill, Beaconsfield Road, Churchfield Road, North of the 
 Common, Ealing, and Hanwell. I have also a coarse ochreous 
 abraded flake with roughly worked edge, which I found on the sur- 
 face of the land north of Perivale. 
 
 No. 94 is a very well made scraping tool formed from a flake, 
 now ochreous and abraded, from Castle Hill Pit, Ealing. It has a 
 
 * «• Journ. Anthro. last."' Vol. v., No. 3. 
 
106 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 well worked convex blade arid an equally symmetrical chipped 
 depression above it, apparently intended to receive the fore finger 
 when it was in use ; it came from gravel nearly 20 feet from the 
 surface. 
 
 Nos. 95 to 103 [Fig. 98, Plate II.]. These 9 flakes were all found 
 on the palaeolithic floor, or working place in Creffield lioad, Acton, 
 with some hundreds of implements, waste flakes and splinters of flint, 
 beneath 6 feet of loamy sand, brown brick earth, &c, as I have pre- 
 viously described. They are worked into a crescent form, or, more 
 correctly, they are segments of circles, the semicircular bevelled edge 
 or blade being formed by transverse chipping on double ridged flakes 
 assisted by smaller secondary work ; the double ridge being effected 
 before the flake was struck off the core, so that a sharp edge is the 
 result, the curve being completed with a knapping tool with slight 
 blows ; just as the edge of a quadrilateral gun flint is bevelled and 
 afterwards trimmed with the knapper by the workmen who have 
 been engaged in the manufacture of gun* flints at Icklingham in 
 Suffolk and Brandon on the borders of Norfolk and Suffolk for 
 many generations. 
 
 This whole series presents the same characteristic form, a very 
 usual one in the drift ; they are as sharp as when they were struck 
 from the core, and the surface of the flakes shows all the differences 
 of discolouration between white, ochreous and brown, in common 
 with the other specimens from this site. 
 
 As shown by Dr. J. Evans, the stone scrapers used by savages 
 
 * In "Ancient Flint Implements" the mode of making gun flints is fully 
 described; see also Mr. James Wyatt'a account in Stevens' "Flint Chips," 
 p. 578, and Mr. Sktrtchley's " Geol. Surv. Memoir.' A collection illustrating 
 the process may be seen at the Museum of Practical Geology. Jermyn Street. 
 
 Both Dr. J. Evans and Mr. Worthington Smith have described the method 
 probably adopted by tfie Neolithic and Palaeolithic people for the fabrication 
 of flint implements. See frontispiece. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 107 
 
 are of various forms ; i.e. the wide knife-like flake with the front 
 only worked, the long wedge shaped implement with semicircular 
 bevelled edge, and the horse-shoe form chipped almost into a disc 
 with a flat on one side. 
 
 The Esquimaux use the second of these, the wedge or celt form, 
 with curved blade with a handle of wood or fossil ivory [Fig. 8, 
 Plate III.], and also a stone scraper hafted at the end ; both are 
 described by the American Arctic Explorer, Hall,* as being " made 
 of a peculiar kind of whet or oil stone or the musk ox or reindeer 
 bone," and latterly of sheet iron. They are about 6 inches long. The 
 process of rapidly dressing a skin by the " Innuits which may serve to 
 illustrate the method perhaps practised byPalasolithic man in this coun- 
 try is thus : — First, the skin is scraped with the sek-koon or scraper ; 
 the second step is to dry the skins thoroughly ; the third, to scrape 
 again with the sek-koon, taking off" every bit of the flesh ; the fourth, 
 to wet the flesh side aud wrap it up for thirty minutes, and then 
 again scrape with the sek-koon ; which last operation is fol- 
 lowed by chewing the skin all over, and again scraping and cross 
 scraping with the instrument ;" the whole work is often completed 
 within an hour. Flint and chert are also worked into scrapers by 
 the Esquimaux, as described by Sir Edward Belcher and others. 
 
 Wide scraping implements of flint of similar form to the speci- 
 mens from Creffield Road were found in Kent's Cavern,t and Prof. 
 Boyd Dawkins has described J a scraper of this kind worn by use 
 from the cave earth of Church Hole Cave (Cresswell Crags), which, 
 he says, " had obviously been let into a handle of wood or some other 
 perishable material horizontally, by which the edge on one side had 
 been protected, as is the case with some of those dredged from the 
 
 * "Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition made by C. F. Hall." Prof. 
 J E. Nourse, U.S.N. 
 
 t Evan's " Op. Cit." Figs. 393, 395. 
 % " Early Man in Britain," p. 184. 
 
108 "WORKED FEINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 bottom of the Swiss lakes still remaining in their handles." I have 
 little doubt that these curved bladed flakes were hafted in a like 
 manner, if they were hafted at all. 
 
 Nos. 88 to 94. These instruments are thicker where the hand 
 would grasp them ; still, as some of these specimens are worked on 
 both edges they may have been hafted at one end, unlike the 
 Innuit sek-koon Hall has described, and so have formed wide 
 scraping knives, like those obtained from the Esquimaux north of 
 Behring's Straits, now in the Christy collection.* 
 
 No. 104 is a long flake nearly 5 J inches in length, from the 
 Beaconsfield Road, Ealing; though it was found 14 feet from the 
 surface and is stained of an ochreous colour, it is quite sharp and 
 unabraded ; the butt or the end opposite the point is formed by 
 the usual convex bulb on one face and the reverse bulb or concave 
 on the other, as will be noticed in the next series of specimens to be 
 described. Like those, this specimen was no doubt fixed in a socket 
 cut in the shaft of a spear and secured ; the edges on both sides of 
 the implement being wrought by secondary very neat chipping to 
 the point. 
 
 Nos. 105 to 116. These 12 unabraded spear head flakes are 
 selected from a number of the same form found on the old floor or 
 Palaeolithic working site at Creffield Road, Acton. Nine of them 
 were discovered at the level, 6 feet from the surface, from which 
 between 400 and 500 implements, flakes and fragments were taken ; 
 the other 3 were discovered at the depth of from 9 to 10 feet and 
 about 120 feet south of the pits in which the larger number of 
 worked flints were found. I have previously mentioned that the 
 depth of the brick earth and sandy loam increases from 6 to 9 feet 
 in the intervening space, and the underlying gravel inclines from 
 
 * Described and figured by Sir J. Lubbock, "Prehistoric Times," p. 407, 
 aDd Plate i., Fig. 3. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FKOM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 109 
 
 north to south to the extent of the difference in the thickness of 
 the beds above the gravel ; the surface of the ground being nearly 
 horizontal over the 120 feet. 
 
 This shows that the makers of these implements worked in a 
 gravelly and sandy surface inclining to the river, and with vegeta- 
 tion of some kind about them, as is manifested by the seam of black 
 carbonaceous matter visible at the same level. I have a sharp una- 
 braded worked flake of spear head form which was found near the 
 base of the gravel about 12£ feet from the surface. All the specimens 
 of this series are fashioned precisely in the same way as the long 
 flake, No. 104. They are all thinned out at the butt or extremity 
 opposite the point, by striking off a double ridged flake from the core 
 very accurately behind the previous bulb or line of strike, and so 
 producing a flake with the usual convex face on one face and the 
 reverse or concave one on the other, with sharp bevelled edge ; they 
 were then trimmed into the long spear head form by secondary 
 knapping work. 
 
 It is evident they have been exposed for some time to the action 
 of the atmosphere, as the surfaces of some of the implements are 
 bleached and afterwards coloured, mottled brown or ochreous, others 
 are entirely ochreous in colour. There can be no doubt that like 
 the spear heads previously noticed, and others I have, they have 
 been, or were intended to be, inserted into sockets or slots cut in the 
 shaft and secured by lashings of gut or sinew. 
 
 We have here spear and javelin heads of the Palaeolithic people, 
 but as some of them are nearly 6 inches long, they may also have 
 served as daggers when hafted. 
 
 Nos. 117 to 129 [Figs. 118 and 119, Plate II.]. We have here 
 in this series a number of spear head implements exactly of the same 
 kind and formed in the same way ; they also are from the "Palaeo- 
 lithic workshop " in Creffield Road, and are as sharp as on the day 
 
110 WORKED FLINTS FKOM K.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 they were made ; they are however smaller than the last described, 
 and wider in proportion to their length, which is from 2 J to 4 
 inches. There is one peculiarity in them, which is common to both 
 this and the last series, i.e. they are all flanged off very symmetri- 
 cally on each side of the convex and concave bulb faces, which gives 
 them the more complete pike like form of more recent days. Like 
 the others, their sharp bevelled blades and points would, when 
 mounted as I have described, have rendered them as effective as the 
 iron spears of some savages, and far more formidable as weapons 
 than the old pikes of mediaeval times. In some of these weapons a 
 rough tang has been chipped out, and in all the flanging off of the 
 sides has produced a rudimentary one or projection between the 
 wings of the point, greatly facilitating the securing into the shaft. 
 
 With regard to the fixing of such flat spear heads into sock- 
 ets, either in the wooden shaft itself or into bone lengthened by 
 the insertion of a wooden staff, it is curious that the Esquimaux 
 fasten the chipped stone heads of their harpoons in precisely the 
 same way ; one of these weapons is engraved in the account of 
 the second Arctic expedition undertaken by that intrepid, and 
 indefatigable explorer, Captain Charles F. Hall, * and these imple- 
 ments are of the same form and could be hafted in the same way 
 by an Esquimaux now. 
 
 Flakes, almost in the condition in which they are struck off 
 from the block of obsidian or flint, are employed as lance or 
 javelin heads by the savage people of Australia and New Cale- 
 donia (See Plate III. Fig. 6; as Dr. J. Evans thus describes it. 
 " The butt end of the flake is let into a socket in a short tapering 
 piece of wood, into the other extremity of which the end of 
 the long light shaft is inserted : both flake and shaft are next 
 
 * "Oil. Cit.'' p. 169. 
 
WOBKED FLINTS I'KOM N.W. MIDDLESEX. Hi 
 
 secured by tying, and then the whole of the socket and ligatures 
 are covered up with a coating of resinous gum," also he says " a 
 tool in use among the natives of Easter Island consisted of a 
 large flake of obsidian with a roughly chipped tang, which was 
 inserted in a slit in the handle to which it was bound, the 
 binding being tightened by wooden wedges driven in under the 
 string." 
 
 It has already been observed that the spears of the Solo- 
 man Islanders are tipped with sharp flints, and also that the 
 natives of the Admiralty Islands use obsidian for the same pur- 
 pose; the same was the case with the Mexicans. "The abori- 
 gines * of the Canaries, a race of African origin, when first dis- 
 covered used hatchets, knives, lancets and spear heads of obsidian 
 and axes of green jasper.'' The Australians, north and south, 
 use flakes of quartz and other hard stone in the same manner, 
 and " the spear of the North American Indian was formerly 
 of stone or flint, but is now of steel." 
 
 The natives of the Admiralty Islands again afford us the best 
 illustration of the spears, javelins or darts, for which the objects 
 we are describing were employed by our remote progenitors. 
 
 Obsidian, which is used by this people for the heads, is a 
 volcanic mineral resembling black glass. It breaks with a con- 
 choidal fracture and yields bulbs of percussion and cutting edges 
 like flint, and it can be worked with the same facility as flint, 
 agate or jasper. Mr. H. N. Moseley tells t us that besides the 
 very heavy lances to which I have alluded (See series, Xos. 11 
 to 15) the natives used short javelins, pointed with flakes of 
 obsidian, some being curved, and of different sizes, and with shafts 
 
 * See " A Study of S.ivage Weapons at the Centennial Exhibition, Phila- 
 delphia," by Edward H. Knight, LL.D., Smithsonian Report, 1879. 
 t "Op. Cit." Figs. 2, 4,5, 6. 
 
112 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 of a lighter character ; they were inserted into sockets in the 
 wood and ornamented ; he adds "they are most formidable wea- 
 pons especially to a naked skin." They are used for hunting as 
 well as for fighting. [Fig. 7. Plate III.] 
 
 Nos. 130 and 131. These two implements, which are well 
 worked on one face, are formed from flakes ; they are from the 
 Creffield Road site; like all the others from there, they are sharp 
 and unabraded ; the surface of the former white and porcelanous, 
 and that of the latter of a light ochreous tint. Their shape is that 
 of a long oval wider at one extremity than the other. 
 
 No. 131 [Plate II.] is fully 5 inches long and 2 inches in width 
 at the widest part and is wrought all round the periphery with secon- 
 dary chipping. They resemble some of the Cissbury specimens ; but 
 are much more roughly made, and also No. 397 from Kent's Cavern, 
 and 438 from Bromehill, Brandon (" Ancient Stone Implements "), 
 but are larger than the latter. 
 
 They have probably been employed as adzes lashed to the out- 
 side of a bent stick or branch, like the South Sea Island and New 
 Guinea axes or adzes ; or they may have been heavy skinning or 
 scraping knives. I have others from the same spot rounded at one 
 extremity and unworked at the bulb end ; they are keen enough on 
 the edges at the sharp end to scoop out wood as in making a canoe, 
 &c. ; the unworked face makes the tool more effective. [Fig. 5, 
 Plate III.] 
 
 Nos. 132 to 142. This is a series of knife flakes with sinu- 
 ous secondary work on the edges; they were found at various 
 parts of Ealing and Hanwell, &c. ; many of them are unabraded, 
 except where they appear to have been worn by use. No. 133 has 
 a bleached surface showing that it was exposed to the atmosphere 
 for a long time before it was covered up by gravel. Two of these 
 knife flakes are from the mid terrace level, south of Ealing Park, 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM JJ.W. MIDDLESEX. lla 
 
 from the vicinity of which I have obtained bones of Hippopota- 
 mus, determined by Mr. E. T. Newton of the Geological Survey, 
 of Bos primigemus or B. Bison and Cervus capreolus, determined 
 by Mr. William Davies of the British Museum, Natural History, 
 South Kensington, and my thanks are due to these gentlemen for 
 their kind assistance in this matter. I have part of the jaw of 
 Ehinoceros and other bones, too fragmentary to be identified, 
 from the same locality. I obtained from the fine sand at the 
 base of the alluvial deposits in the pits there, associated with 
 the remains of these animals, the following Mollusca — 
 
 Hydrobia marginata. 
 Helix rotundata. 
 Pisidium amnicum. 
 Unio littoralis. 
 
 Valv atapiscinalis. 
 
 Bythinia tentaculata. 
 
 Limnsea peregra. 
 
 Succinea putris. 
 
 Paludina sp. 
 
 all of which have been before described from the locality by the 
 late Mr. Thos. Belt, F.G.S., and others. 
 
 I have knife flakes in my collection with a depression on each 
 side, apparently made to facilitate the hafting by lashing in the 
 same way that the quartzite and other stone knives are secured by 
 existing savages. 
 
 The natives of North Australia use spalls or flakes of quartz, 
 hornstone, or any hard stone they can get, tied to wooden handles 
 and coated with gum as knives ; or they cover the butt end of the 
 stone fragment with the furry skin of some animal, and bind it 
 round with cord to protect the hand* [Fig. 9, Plate III.]. The 
 aborigines of Queensland form a knife in the same manner, and the 
 knife dabba of the Victorian blacks " consists of quartz fragments 
 attached to a wooden handle with gum."t 
 
 * Evan's " Op. Cit.," p. 264. 
 
 t Smith's "Aborigines of Victoria," yoI. i., p. 302. 
 
 1 
 
114 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Numerous other instances might be cited of savages employing 
 stone as knives. Knife flakes of Neolithic age are comparatively 
 abundant ;* they may be frequently picked up on the Sussex Downs, 
 and they are not uncommon in the drift ; many of them are so short 
 that it seems probable that they were hafted in some simple way, 
 and that even in the larger ones there was some protection for 
 
 the hand. 
 
 Stone knives were no doubt used by Palaeolithic man as well 
 as by his Neolithic successor for many purposes; they have been 
 employed at different times for embalming ; for the rite of circum- 
 cision ; for human sacrifices in Mexico ; for carving up the human 
 body by such cannibals as the natives of New Caledonia ;t for 
 gashing the flesh in the time of mourning, as by the New Zealand- 
 ers ; for tattooing and for much more useful purposes to which no 
 limit can be fixed. 
 
 It is not improbable that they may have been used also for 
 tattooing by the Palaeolithic men.J 
 
 The Esquimaux, between whom and the men of the Palaeolithic 
 period there appears to be a similarity of culture, if not in race, 
 sometimes tattoo themselves, and Hall § says " they do this from 
 principle, the theory being that the lines thus made will be regarded 
 in the next world as a sign of goodness." 
 
 There can scarcely be a doubt, however, that in common with 
 other savages the desire to look more formidable to their enemies, 
 
 * It is curious that Schliemann found numerous flint knives as well as 
 sharp double edged knives of obsidian in the stone period layer of the hill of 
 Hissarlik in Asia Minor. See " Troy and its Remains," p. 79. 
 
 t " Smithsonian Report," 1879. Ed. J. Knight's paper on Savage Wea- 
 pons, p. 249. 
 
 | Even the Caledonians in the time of Severus tattooed themselves with 
 the figures of animals (Herodian, lib. hi., c. 14). 
 
 <§ "Life with the Esquimaux," vol. ii., p. 315; see also Lyon's "Jour- 
 nal," p. 314. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 115 
 
 and handsome or more distinguished in this world, is the greatest 
 incentive to the custom. 
 
 Nos. 143 to 147 are similar, but quite unabraded, knife flakes 
 from the Creflield Road site. No. 144 [See Plate II.] is the finest 
 example of Paleolithic work I have ever seen ; it is so beautifully and 
 delicately chipped on one edge only, as to be equal to any Neo- 
 lithic work of the same kind ; the surface of the flint, though not 
 much altered in colour, is very glossy ; the others in this series are 
 neatly worked. 
 
 Nos. 148 and 149 are flakes carefully worked to a point ; they 
 are both from Hanwell and are slightly abraded ; they are believed 
 to have been used as small awls or perforators ; similar forms have 
 been described by Prof. Boyd Dawkins from Robin Hood Cave, and 
 they are also figured in " Reliquee Aquitanice " from the caves in 
 the Dordogne, France. 
 
 Nos. 150 to 152. These are instruments of the kind last de- 
 scribed, but they are from the paleolithic floor in Creflield Road, and 
 as they have not been disturbed or liable to fracture since they were 
 deposited their form cannot be the result of accident from contact 
 with other stones of the gravel ; they are exactly alike in shape ; 
 one specimen [No. 150, Plate II.] is 6£ inches long, and is larger 
 than the others, and the breadth at the widest part is full 2| ins. ; 
 it is worked to a sharp cutting edge at the sides, which would imply 
 that they were intended for use, but the feature in the instrument 
 of most importance is that the last inch at the point is worked 
 down to about three-quarters of an inch, and has parallel sides ; it 
 is of a beautiful glossy mottled brown tint ; it is evident it would 
 have been a useful instrument for perforating wood, &c. 
 
 Nos. 153 and 154 are of similar form worked laterally but to a 
 short fine point in which the implements terminate abruptly at the 
 
I* 6 WORKED FLINTS JROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 cud ; they are from 3 to 3£ inches long and more or less brown in 
 colour with patches of older white surface. They are of the same 
 shape at the apex as a modern drill, but much larger ; such objects 
 have been found also in the Yorkshire Wolds. 
 
 Nos. 155 to] 157 are flakes with regular serrated edges worked 
 by neat secondary chipping; two were found north of Ealing 
 Common, the other at Creffield Road, Acton. With such a saw-like 
 edge as No. 156 has it is difficult not to believe they were em- 
 ployed for cutting purposes as we use a saw. 
 
 Nos. 158 to 165. These flakes have a symmetrically worked 
 depression which, evidently has been made with an object; they 
 were found in pits in the Longfield Road, Grange Park, and North 
 Common, Ealing [Fig. 159, Plate I.], also at Hanwell and Acton, 
 [No. 164, see Plate II.], from the Creffield Road site at Acton must 
 have been a very handy tool to the owner, for besides the concave, 
 or depression, which is produced by many small blows with a knap- 
 ping tool, it is worked to a cutting edge on one side and terminates 
 in a point ; it is very neatly made. These flints with worked hollows 
 are generally regarded as shaft smoothers, but in this implement 
 we have a shaft smoother, borer and knife included in one object. 
 No. 161 has several worked hollows, and is chipped in other parts 
 in such a way as probably to make it serve different purposes. 
 Such flints with hollows have been described by Dr. J. Evans from 
 the Yorkshire Wolds, but their presence in the drift opens up the 
 question as to whether some of the palaeolithic tribes were quite so 
 v rude in their ideas as many have supposed. 
 
 Mr. 0. A. Shrubsole * has also drawn attention to these curiously 
 worked hollowed implements, and others which have not been suffi- 
 ciently noticed. Neolithic implements with serrated edge and chip. 
 
 * " On certain less familiar forms of Paleolithic Flint Implements from the 
 Gravel at Reading."— Journal Anthro. Inst., Nov. 1884. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 117 
 
 ped depressions have been met with in the County Antrim, Ireland. 
 Specimens are also in the Christy Collection. 
 
 Nos. 166 to 172. It is generally believed that Palaeolithic man 
 was unacquainted with the use of the bow and arrow, but the 
 form of these flints shows they were either used for the points of 
 arrows or for small harpoons for killing fish ; and the former hypo- 
 thesis seems the more probable, since we have described flints with 
 small worked depressions which are generally considered as shaft 
 smoothers or finishers. 
 
 These small triangular worked flints [Figs. 167 and 169, Plate I.] 
 have each the usual bulb ; in some of the specimens they are thin- 
 ned out at the base by secondary chipping ; in others, like No. 167, 
 there is the reverse or concave of the bulb on one face and the 
 convex one on the other, and they are also flanged off at the base, 
 in all respects like the spear heads from the working site in Cref- 
 field Road. There can be no doubt they were intended for inser- 
 tion into a shaft of some kind ; they came from different gravel 
 pits at Ealing and Hanwell at the depth of 12 to 15 feet from the 
 surface. 
 
 These flints are all worked laterally to a point, and the outline 
 of No. 167 is an isosceles triangle with the base flanged off on each 
 side of the bulb. An arrow head I found at Cissbury is rather 
 more neatly chipped than some of the specimens, but not more so 
 than this one. They were no doubt hafted in the manner the 
 Esquimaux adopts now for that purpose, examples of which were 
 exhibited in the Fisheries Exhibition [Fig. 10, Plate III.] ; the 
 points were of hard greenstone inserted tightly into a socket in a 
 piece of straight bone, probably that of a bird, into the hollow of 
 which a light wooden shaft is introduced. 
 
 * " A Peculiar Neolithic Implement from Antrim," by Sinclair Holden, 
 M.D.— Journ. Anthro. Inst., vol. iv., No. 1, I believe they are also in the 
 fine Collection of Irish Antiquities of Mr. Robert Day, jun., Cork. 
 
118 
 
 WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Mr. Hall,* the American Arctic explorer, has figured them, and 
 they have been described by English officers who have been engaged 
 in Arctic expeditions. No lashing is used in these, but the stone 
 arrow heads of the Californian Indians and others are secured by 
 means of a binding of some kind. Arrow points from the York- 
 shire Wolds are frequently found, and they are formed like these 
 specimens from a flake worked on one face only. 
 
 General Pitt Eivers t has written an interesting paper on Pata- 
 gonian and other arrow heads, in which he traces the evolution of 
 the artistically chipped barb forms from the oldest of all, i.e. the 
 simple triangular point ; he says " this was the first to suggest 
 itself to the American savage ; it was probably bound to the shaft 
 as it is bound by the Californian Indians, who now use it, and as 
 it is found bound to the short harpoon heads to which some of 
 this form are found attached in Peruvian graves, by means of a 
 string of gut or cotton wound cross-wise and embracing the sides 
 of the triangular arrow head, the base projecting on each side of 
 the shaft." 
 
 Nos. 173 and 17-i. These are knapping chisels; one is from 
 gravel at Twickenham ; it has been worked into shape artificially 
 and is chipped at the extremities by use ; the other, from the 
 working site in Creffield Road, is a long naturally fractured yellow 
 ochreous flint of similar form. As it was found associated with the 
 flints and fragments on " the floor '' it is probable it was used 
 also as a knapping tool. 
 
 Such instruments have been described by Dr. J. Evans from the 
 Yorkshire AVolds.+ 
 
 In my collection is an oval boulder of metamorphic rock 
 
 * "Op. Cit.,"p. 302. 
 
 t " Journ. Anthro. Inst.," Vol. iv.,No. 2. 
 
 J "Op. Cit.," Figs 34:6, 317. 
 
WORKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 119 
 
 7£ inches long by 6 inches in breadth, and with a mean thickness 
 of about 3 inches, which was presented to me by Mr. G. F. Nixon 
 of the London and County Bank, Ealing, and obtained by him from 
 subangular gravel above the large stone ballast in a pit on the Bea- 
 consfield estate, Ealing, which is at about the 90 foot contour; the 
 brick earth at this spot is but slightly represented ; it has either 
 never been deposited to the same extent as in other parts of Eal- 
 ing or it has been denuded. 
 
 This stone is concave on both faces and much roughened and 
 scored in the hollows. A large quartzite pebble, which is 5 by 4 
 ins., was found very close to it in the gravel. Both were about 6 
 feet from the surface and were taken out at the same time. 
 
 The quartzite boulder appears to fit into the hollows or depres- 
 sions in the larger stone, and is more scratched and battered at the 
 extremities than on the faces. 
 
 I have no doubt whatever that we have here a pounding stone, 
 or small quern, of the Palaeolithic period; and that it has been 
 used for pounding something harder than meal is probable from 
 the number of indentations and scorings which are visible in the 
 depressions; these hollows are very shallow and have not been 
 ground, in my opinion, in any other way, than by the continued 
 use of the stone with the battered quartzite which accompanied it 
 after the faces had first been picked or roughened with a pointed 
 stone. These deeper indentations are visible as well as the secon- 
 dary markings caused by grinding the stones together. The stones 
 must have been in use for a long time. 
 
 Stones with cup shaped depressions, which were probably used 
 as mortars, have been found in the caves of the Dordogne, believed 
 to be of the reindeer period,* with pebbles perhaps employed as 
 pestles, but they are generally concave on one face only. 
 
 * "Rel. Aquitanicae," p. 60, 
 
120 WOBKED FLINTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 The Esquimaux * pound bones to get at the marrow, of which 
 they are very fond. The Danish Laplanders break them up with a 
 mallet to extract the fat, and Sir John Lubbock t quotes Mr. Galton 
 to show that certain African tribes " not content with the animals 
 they kill, grind up also the bones in mortars and then suck out 
 the animal juices contained in them." 
 
 A flat stone is used by the natives of Australia to pound roots 
 with.t 
 
 * Hall, "Life with the Esquimaux," Vol. xi., pp. 147—176. 
 
 t " Prehistoric Times." 
 
 J Grey's " Explorations in N.W. and W. Australia," p. 266. 
 
MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 121 
 
 A Consideration of the Conditions of Life presented by 
 certain Savages apparently analogous to Palaeolithic 
 
 Men. 
 
 I have described the weapons and tools of the palaeolithic men, 
 or men of the drift period, which have been found in this district, 
 and have compared them with the stone implements of savage 
 people, now in the newer stone age, which still exist in isolated 
 spots and corners of the world. 
 
 I have shown that our remote predecessors in this region, how- 
 ever low may have been their state of savagery, were endowed with 
 the faculty of invention, and that they, or at any rate many of 
 them, showed considerable skill in the art of chipping flint, and 
 were fully alive to the peculiar fracture naturally belonging to that 
 and other siliceous minerals. They were thus able to make tools 
 and instruments for the purpose of fashioning or constructing other 
 objects, which have since perished. 
 
 In fact, the evidence derived from the lowermost deposits of the 
 bone caves to which allusion has been made, wherein divers articles 
 of bone, such as harpoons, needles, &c, have been found associated 
 with flint implements of early type, shows that they were inhabi- 
 ted by a race in the same state of culture, while the presence of 
 the same fauna points to the fact that they are of the same age 
 geologically as the Paleolithic men of the valley drift. The relics 
 of man found in the most ancient deposits in some bone caves thus 
 furnish us with additional information as to the state of culture of 
 the drift men, to which I shall afterwards recur, and justify us in 
 assuming that the drift men used similar objects of bone and horn 
 as well as no doubt of wood, 
 
122 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 Climate is so essential an ingredient in considering the intel- 
 lectual state and social life of a people, that I feel it necessary to 
 remind the reader, in a few sentences, of the probable condition of 
 this country, in that respect, when the drift men were living in 
 this region. 
 
 Prof. A. Geikie * and Sir Charles Lyell t are of opinion that 
 the glaciers were still in the Scotch Highlands at the time when 
 man was living in the valley of the Thames, and Prof. Boyd Daw- 
 kins says "it may be assumed with a very high degree of proba- 
 bility that the higher grounds of North Wales and of the barren 
 areas in England and Ireland (i.e. those areas which are found to 
 be devoid of the remains of post-glacial mammalia, but which 
 abound, as Sir Andrew C. Ramsay says, in evidence of glaciation) 
 were covered with an ice mantle at the same time that the mam- 
 moth, reindeer, and other post-glacial animals were living in the 
 lower and less inclement districts."]: 
 
 Professor Prestwich, more than twenty years ago, made a cal- 
 culation of the probable mean temperature of the winters at the 
 time when the higher bench gravels with their associated human 
 relics were accumulated. He shows that a country where the rein- 
 deer abounded, with the ox, horse and the other mammalia of the 
 drift, where a flora composed of the oak, fir, yew and bilberry 
 existed, and where the rivers were frozen to such a degree as to 
 transport large boulders, " presents conditions which would proba- 
 bly accord with a mean winter cold of not less than 20°, while it 
 may have been as low as 10° or even lower. This would be about 
 19° to 29° below" the mean temperatures of our present winters. § 
 
 * " Trans. Geol. Soc." Glasgow, VoL i. 
 t " Antiquity of Man." 
 J "Early Man in Britain." 
 § "Phil. Trans.," 1864, p. 281. 
 
SCARCITY OF FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 123 
 
 This hypothesis derives a certain amount of support from the fact 
 which I here repeat, that the climate of the northern parts of Ame- 
 rica and Siberia, though in the same latitude as the Thames Valley, 
 is much more severe than we now enjoy. 
 
 It is not so surprising, as it would at first seem, that the bones 
 of man, his implements of bone and wood, should not have been 
 preserved in the valley drift deposits, when we consider the vast 
 period which has intervened since they may have been deposited, 
 and the conditions to which they have been subjected. Wooden 
 articles, such as spears and spear shafts, axe handles and other 
 objects would long since have perished when buried in gravel tra- 
 versed by springs, and thus subject to the dissolving action of water 
 containing minerals derived from the beds through which they 
 run. 
 
 As evidence of such operations, Sir John Lubbock says near St. 
 Acheul, near Amiens, there is a spot which was used by the early 
 Christians as a cemetery : the graves descend into marly sand and have 
 not been disturbed for 1500 years. Some of the coffins were found 
 to be of hard chalk and some of wood, " in which latter case the 
 nails and clamps alone remain, every particle of wood having 
 perished, without even leaving a stain behind."* 
 
 Still less surprising does it appear that the bones of man have 
 not been identified in the drift deposits of the Thames valley when 
 we consider the small extent of the ground excavated in proportion 
 to the great extension of the deposits ; the absolute ignorance of 
 the labourers in regard to the scientific value of osseous relics of 
 any kind, and other causes for their absence. The fragility of the 
 bones of man as compared with those of the larger mammals gene- 
 rally found in the mid terrace deposits is one important fact ; still 
 
 * "Prehistoric Times," p. 2*8. 
 
124 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE* 
 
 it may be contended that human teeth are almost as endurable as 
 those of many of the animals, the fossil remains of which have been 
 discovered. On the other hand, the population in the Thames valley 
 was probably very sparse and scattered ; in proportion to the crea- 
 tures Palaeolithic man hunted as a means of subsistence, his numbers 
 were no doubt small. Sir John Lubbock has calculated * that man 
 exists but in the proportion of 1 to 750 of the larger mammals 
 hunted by him among the North American Indians, and as he is 
 at least four times as long lived as the animals about him, the 
 proportion may be raised to 1 to 3000. From that cause alone 
 there would be less likelihood of meeting with the bones of man 
 than those of other creatures. 
 
 But there are other reasons why human bones should be so 
 rare, such as the usages of savage nations with regard to the dis- 
 posal of the dead. Take as an example the natives of Tierra del 
 Fuego, whose conditions of life and culture will be shortly described. 
 "When a Fuegian dies his relatives wrap the body up in skins 
 and carry it a long way into the woods, when they place it on 
 pieces of wood and pile a quantity of branches over it ; they also 
 in some places deposit their dead in caves. "t 
 
 As Sir John Lubbock says : Among many savages "the corpse 
 is simply buried ; by others it is burned. Some of the North Ame- 
 rican Indians expose their dead on scaffolds in the branches of 
 trees. 
 
 Among the Sea Dyaks the dead chief is placed in his war ca- 
 noe with his favourite weapons and principal property, and is thus 
 turned adrift. Other tribes give their dead to be food for wild 
 beasts, and others prefer to eat them themselves, "J The exposure 
 
 * "Op. Cit." 
 
 f Dr. J. Garson " On the Inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego," Journal 
 Anthro. Inst., Vol. xv., No. 2, 1885. 
 X "Op. Cit." p. 455. 
 
SCARCITY OF Ku.SSlL HUMAN BONES. 1 25 
 
 of the dead seems to be of frequent occurrence among uncivilized 
 races. " In Columbia they are generally placed above ground, in 
 their clothing, and then sewn up in a skin or blanket ; and the 
 personal property of each deceased individual was placed near the 
 body ; over all were placed a few boards as a kind of shed to pro- 
 tect them from the weather ; among these tribes the corpse is 
 doubled up. The Mandans and many of the Prairie Indians scaf- 
 folded their dead ; the Beothucs or Indians of Newfoundland were 
 interred in various ways, some were in carefully built huts of bark, 
 others on stages or poles, others under heaps of stones."* 
 
 Hall gives the following account of an Esquimaux funeral : — t 
 " The body was wrapped in skins and placed on a sled with all 
 his hunting implements. The sled was dragged up the hill side 
 behind the village, and the body was placed in a hole in the snow 
 in a sitting posture, with the face to the west, his sled and other 
 personal property being laid over him. All manifested their sorrow 
 in their peculiar manner ; the women carried a bunch of dried grass 
 in the left nostril, and the men one in the right." 
 
 The Esquimaux have few, if any, religious observances, but their 
 
 burial ceremonies clearly indicate a belief in the immortality of the 
 
 soul, for they place with the body bent into a sitting posture, 
 
 bringing the knees up under the chin, not only his implements but 
 
 his kajak or canoe, believing that they will be of use to him in the 
 
 new world ; this intention has been denied by some travellers. 
 
 Crantz % says the Greenland Esquimaux " lay a dog's head by the 
 
 grave of a child, for the soul of a dog can find his way any where, 
 
 and will show the ignorant babe the way to the land of souls." 
 
 This is confirmed by Egede. Captain Cook noticed that in passing 
 
 * See McCormick's "Expedition to Newfoundland," also Dr. Dawson's 
 "Fossil MeD,"p. 293. 
 
 t " Narrative of the N. Polar Expedition of U. S. S. Polaris," p. 484. 
 J " History of Greenland." 
 
126 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 a burial mound of stones, near Oonalashka, every one threw a stone 
 on it.* 
 
 Captain Lyon found the ground in the summer at Igloolik 
 " strewn with skulls and skeletons of animals ; and human heads 
 were picked up to the amount of at least a dozen. Bones were 
 indeed so numerous that we literally trod on them." And he ap- 
 pears to have considered the Esquimaux rather indifferent to what 
 became of these remains, for he says " It is strange that the skulls 
 of men should have been left to lie neglected under foot among 
 those of all kinds of animals ; but the natives treated the matter 
 with the utmost indifference, and a lad who accompanied me a few 
 miles inland to shoot, carried down to the boat for me a couple 
 of human heads I had found near a lake with the same willing- 
 ness as some ducks I had killed."! 
 
 With these examples before us we can very well believe that 
 but few of the bones of the drift men would find their way into 
 the waters; or, if they did so, under conditions in which they 
 would be likely to be preserved. 
 
 The high bench deposits around Ealing are singularly destitute 
 of all fossil bones. Although I have been engaged in the investiga- 
 tion of these deposits for many years I have never found any thing 
 which could be determined ; Colonel Lane Fox's find of a single 
 tooth of Elephas primigenius, 7 feet from the surface, at Lome 
 Terrace, Acton, being the only discovery of the kind I am aware of. 
 
 Besides human bones of Palaeolithic age associated with the 
 Pleistocene fauna, which, as I have mentioned, have been met with 
 in limestone caves, a few bones of man have nevertheless been found 
 
 * "Voyage to the Pacific Ocean," Vol. ii , p. 520. The custom of throw- 
 ing stones on to or adding stones to a cairn has been preserved into recent 
 times in Sootland. 
 
 t Lyon's " Private Journal," p. 23K. 
 
SCARCITY OF FOSSIL HUMAN BOXES. 127 
 
 in the valley drift deposits "by M. Bertrand and M. Reboux in the 
 valley of the Seine, at Clichy, and elsewhere near Paris, in the same 
 beds in which implements of true Palaeolithic types have been 
 discovered." There is the Moulin Quignon jaw, supposed to have 
 been found in the suburbs of Abbeville ; but as it was taken from, 
 and probably to, a deposit in which some workmen were iu the 
 habit of placing spurious flint implements, and were quickly detected, 
 the genuineness is more than doubted ; in fact, the controversy 
 regarding it has ended in its being relegated to the same position 
 as the forged implements. 
 
 " Human bones have also been met with in the valley of the 
 Somme ; those discovered by M. Emile Martin at Grenelle along with 
 flint implements and the Mammoth, belong to a long-headed race with 
 large brain, identical, according to Dr. Hamy, with those interred in 
 the rock shelter at Cro Magnon in the valley of the Vezere. The flint 
 implements found at Grenelle are considered by M. Mortillet to 
 belong to the same stage of culture as those of the cave men of 
 Moustier " in the same valley. " No human skeleton of undoubted 
 Pleistocene age has as yet been discovered in river strata on the 
 Continent to allow us to form an idea of the physique of the river 
 drift men, and no human bones have as yet been recorded from 
 the fluviatile deposits of Great Britain. The few fragments which 
 remain to us prove that at this remote period man was present in 
 Europe as man, and not as an intermediate form connecting the 
 human race with the lower animals."* 
 
 A portion of a human skull of supposed palasolithic age has been 
 found near Bury St. Edmund's, with two flint implements, all of 
 which have been described by Mr. H. Prigg. They were found in 
 the same locality as the remains of Elephas primigenius at the depth 
 
 • Prof. Dawkin's "Early Man in Britain," p. 168. 
 
128 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 of 7£ feet from the surface and in undisturbed red loam. 
 
 This red loam, Mr. Prigg says, " must have been formed loug 
 anterior to the complete excavation of the Linnet to the south, and 
 at the same time when at least flood waters laden with much 
 earthy matter flowed in some volume over what is now within a 
 few feet of being the highest level of the country intervening be- 
 tween the valleys of the Linnet and the Lark."* 
 
 It would be hazardous to express any definite opinion as to the 
 age of this specimen until it has been reported on by our highest 
 authorities. 
 
 I have said that the implements found in the drift gravels ap- 
 pear to have been made when the climate of this country was 
 recurring to more temperate conditions at the close of the last 
 glacial epoch, but I have little doubt in my own mind that the 
 older specimens I have described were in use when the land was 
 to a large extent actually glaciated, and when man was living in this 
 country as the Escmimaux is living in Greenland at the present 
 day. A glacial land is not necessarily destitute of the means of 
 existence, as proved by Greely,t who found, even in the interior of 
 Grinnell Land, a country with many lakes and small rivers, some 
 of which were open and remarkably free from snow. In summer 
 the valleys gave birth to a comparatively luxuriant vegetation, 
 which served as a pasturage for musk cattle and considerable 
 game ; there was abundance of grass, willows, beds of dryas and 
 saxifragas ; " butterflies added brightness to the scene, and bumble 
 bees and devil's darning needles flitted about," besides which he 
 found many remains of permanent Esquimaux huts. Sir Joseph 
 Hooker and Nordenskjold hold that Greenland contains in the 
 interior similar ice girt oases. 
 
 * " On a portion of a human skull of supposed palaeolithic age from near 
 Bury St. Edmunds." Journ. Anthro Inst., Vol. xiv., No. 1, 1884. 
 f "Three Years of Arctic Service, &c. ,: 1881-4. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF PALAEOLITHIC MAN. 129 
 
 Prof. Dawkins thinks that the race of Palaeolithic men* " is as 
 completely extinct at the present time as the woolly rhinoceros or 
 the cave bear ;" bnt that the cave folk, not so ancient as the river 
 drift men, may be identified with the Esquimaux ; " that river drift 
 men belong to the southern group of mammalia; while the cave 
 men must be classified with the reindeer, the musk sheep and other 
 northern animals." 
 
 I find it difficult to believe that the former is more likely to be 
 extinct than the reindeer and grizzly bear, with which relics of man 
 are found associated in the drift, or than the urus which existed into 
 historic times and has left us his descendants ; the mammoth pro- 
 bably lived on into the Neolithic age in Siberia, unless we are pre- 
 pared to believe that the ice, in which his complete carcase was 
 found entombed, lasted throughout the vast period which divides the 
 present from the palaeolithic age. 
 
 It seems to me from the presence of nearly the same fauna in 
 the lowest deposits of the caves and in the valley drift, let alone 
 the similarity in the types of the flint implements which have been 
 discovered in both, that we may regard them as contemporaneous, 
 and that if they are not of the same race they were at least in the 
 same condition of culture. 
 
 The period however necessary for the production of the drift 
 deposits, as well as those found in some stalagmitic caverns, is so 
 great, that it is possible to conceive that more than one racial wave 
 of the human family may have succeeded another in the vast period 
 which appears at present to divide the Palaeolithic from the Neo- 
 lithic ages. 
 
 As we have seen, the drift implements are of various forms and 
 types; some of them are much older as implements than many of 
 
 " Early Man in Britain." 
 s 
 
130 MODEEN SAVAGE CTJLTUEE. 
 
 the subangular stones of the gravel in their present abraded forms ; 
 while others, like those found on the Creffield Road floor, though of 
 great age, have not been subjected to the action of a torrential 
 river and consequent removal from place to place ; the evidence of 
 which is shown on the surface of the specimens taken from a 
 greater depth in coarse gravel, even at that high level. 
 
 In such a body of gravel and brick earths, at the 100 foot 
 contour, we have deposits extending over a long period, the partial 
 filling up of the channel after its erosion, and the concluding epi- 
 sode of widely extending floods as the waters permanently retreated 
 from that locality. 
 
 On the whole, then, I incline to agree with Dr. John Evans,* 
 when he says, "If we regard, as probably we safely may do, the 
 remains of human art found in caves, such as Kent's Cavern, asso- 
 ciated with bones of animals belonging to the same fauna as that 
 of the river drift, as attributable to the same age and probably to 
 the same race of people, we get some further insight into their 
 habits and condition of life. The evidence seems to justify us in 
 regarding these river drift or cave folk as hunters, and probably 
 nomads subsisting to a great extent on the produce of the chase ; 
 living, where possible, under natural shelters, to which they brought 
 either the whole or portions of the slaughtered animals, the bones of 
 which, fractured for the purpose of extracting the marrow, we find 
 accumulated in the caves ; acquainted with the art of spearing fish 
 with barbed harpoons ; and able to sew, though probably not to spin 
 or to weave ; this latter supposition, like some others, rests on nega- 
 tive evidence only, but is still justified by the absence of spindle 
 whorls. The thread, like that of the Esquimaux, would seem to 
 have been formed of animal sinew or intestine, and to have been 
 
 * "Op Cit.," p* 573. 
 
POUNDING AND DRINKING VESSELS. 131 
 
 used for joining together skins, in which the holes through which 
 the needle passed were made by awls of pointed bone. A want of 
 acquaintance with cereals is suggested by the absence of mealing 
 stones or corn crushers. The pounding stones, such as have been 
 found, would seem to have been used for crushing some other sort 
 of food." The latter observation appears to agree with my remarks 
 upon the pounding stone or quern found at Ealing. The art of 
 pottery appears to have been unknown in this country.* 
 
 For drinking purposes these early men probably used vessels 
 formed of horn, wood or skin ; there would be no dearth of horn, 
 as the urus and bison, as well as the musk sheep (Ovibos moscha- 
 tos) would offer a supply. The Esquimaux use vessels of seal skin 
 for containing liquids, t and also make them by cementing pieces 
 of stone together with a mixture of fat and lamp black. J In Kent's 
 
 * " Last year, in the cave of Nabrigas, M. Martel found in immediate con- 
 tact with the remains of at least two skeletons of the Ur?us spelseus, or great 
 Quaternary bear, nine fragments of human skulls, of which one left maxillary 
 had three teeth, and a piece of rough pottery, not turned in a lathe. But (con- 
 tinues M. Martel) the curious point about the present find is, that fifty years 
 ago before the birth of '• prehistory, " when the existence of even Quater- 
 nary man was contested, M. Joly found in this very cave of Nabrigas a frag- 
 ment of a large vessel in contact with the skull of a fossil bear. M. Martel is 
 strongly of opinion that the usual story of the fortuitous contact of these objects 
 does not apply here : there is no trace of any disturbance, nor are any other 
 Neolithic objects found ; the skull is in its natural position ; for these and other 
 reasons he is persuaded that fossil man of the Palaeolithic age was acquainted 
 with the potter's art." From a recent article in "La Nature," reviewed in 
 "Nature," May 13th, 1886. 
 
 This discovery requires further investigation, as it is at variance with the 
 evidence derived from the English bone caves, in which no pottery, however 
 rude, has yet been found associated with the Pleistocene mammalia and imple- 
 ments of man, flint and bone. 
 
 f The Esquimaux use skins ; see Kane's "Arctic Explorations." Vol. i., 
 p. 381. Kane includes in the inventory of an Esquimaux a seal skin cap for 
 gathering and holding water. 
 
 + Dawkin's " Op. Cit.," p. 209. 
 
132 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 Cavern several scallop shells were found placed one within the other 
 like saucers ;* it is not improbable that such objects may have been 
 utilized for drinking. Although of course the allusion is to times 
 which may be considered but as yesterday when compared with the 
 Palseolithic period, I may mention that there is a curious old Gae- 
 lic version of the too well known saying, " pass the bottle," which 
 is "send round the scallop shell. "t This expression may neverthe- 
 less be a survival of the early Neolithic age. 
 
 Fire is said to be, in some degree, the universal instrument of 
 all the arts and necessaries of life. How did our earliest men ob- 
 tain it ? There are two ways by which fire may be produced — by 
 friction and by percussion ; some savages, such as the Fuegians, use 
 the latter; and others, like the Australians, the former method. 
 D'Urville J says the Australians obtain it by rubbing together two 
 pieces of wood, which involves considerable labour, particularly in 
 damp weather ; great care is therefore taken to prevent its being 
 extinguished when once lighted, and for this reason they often 
 carry a cone of banksia, which burns slowly. To procure it the 
 Esquimaux use iron pyrites and quartz, from which they strike sparks 
 
 * Pengelly, " Literature of Kent's Cavern." 
 
 f In old Gaelic poetry the shell is often mentioned as a drinking cup. A 
 repentant Gaelic convivialist says — 
 
 " Ochain ! a shlige chreachain, 
 'Sioma fear a th'ort an geall ; 
 'S toil liom fhein thu shlige chreachain 
 Ga d' 's i'n tolige chreach mi bh'ann." 
 Ah well-a-day, thou scallop shell, 
 
 Many a man delights in thee; 
 I too love thee, thou scallop shell, 
 
 Though thou art the shell that ruined me. 
 The point lies in the similarity of the name of the shell to the word for ruin. 
 
 See a paper •'on a Hypogeum at Viilaquie, Island of Uist," by A. A. Car- 
 michael. " Journ. Anthro. Inst.," Vol. iii., No. 2. 
 X "D'Urville," vol. L, p. 194. 
 
MODES OF OBTAINING FIRE. 133 
 
 on to moss, which has been well dried and rubbed between the 
 hands* They obtain it also sometimes by friction, a method which 
 Egede found in use by the Greenland Esquimaux. 
 
 John Davis, one of " the old worthies," described the same 
 method as being in use in 1586.f " The Greenland savage took a 
 piece of a boord wherin was a hole halfe thorow ; into that hole 
 he puts the end of a roud sticke like unto a bedstaffe, wettiug the 
 end thereof in traine (oil ?), and in fashion of a turner with a piece 
 of lether, by his violent motion doth very speedily produce fire." The 
 Fuegians employ iron pyrites and flint with dried moss for tinder. X 
 
 What may have been the original mode of obtaining fire is a 
 question hard to determine. Sir John Lubbock § has said that in 
 making flint implements sparks would be produced ; "it would not 
 fail to be observed that they became hot; and in this way it is 
 easy to see how the two methods of making fire may have origi- 
 nated." It is evident that the people of the Palaeolithic period would 
 have no difficulty in procuring it by friction, and it is probable it 
 was thus discovered ages before they lived in the Thames Valley. 
 
 It has been generally accepted that man could scarcely live 
 even in a temperate climate, much less in the Arctic regions, without 
 fire; but as Sir John Lubbock || says the Esquimaux do "not use 
 fire to warm their dwellings ; cookery is with them a refinement ; 
 and even the melting of snow might be effected by the natural 
 heat of the body. In fact, those Esquimaux, who live on reindeer 
 more than on seal, having little blubber, make small use of fire." 
 
 * Kane's "Arctic Explorations," vol. i., p. 379. Parry, "Second Voy- 
 age,'' p. 504. Ross' "Second Voyage." p. 513. 
 
 t "Voyages of John Davis," Hakluyt Soc, 1880, p. 19. 
 I " Weddell's " Voyage towards the South Pole." 
 § " Prehistoric Times." 
 || "Op. Cit.,"p. 401. 
 
134 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 They never, says Simpson,* " seem to think of fire as a means of 
 imparting warmth ;" their lamps, as Kane observed, are used in 
 cooking, for melting snow, and drying clothes, rather than to 
 warm the air.t 
 
 William Baffin, the old navigator, J says of the Greenland Esqui- 
 maux, in 1612 : — " They eat their food raw, and use no fire to dress 
 their victuals, as farre as we could perceive. Although they dress 
 not their meate with fire, yet they use fire for other things, as to 
 warme them, &c." 
 
 The quantity of meat they consume is astonishing, heat is there- 
 fore produced by digestion or combustion ; whether, as Sir John 
 Lubbock says, " the material be placed in a lamp aud burnt or be 
 eaten and digested." 
 
 The natives of Tierra del Fuego again are able to withstand 
 conditions of life that would be fatal to us. Dr. Hooker, as quoted 
 by Lubbock, says,§ "he has often seen the men lying asleep in 
 their wigwams without any clothing, and the women standing naked, 
 and some with children at their breasts, in the water up to their 
 middles, gathering limpets and other shell fish, while the snow fell 
 thickly on them and on their equally naked babies." 
 
 However it may have been obtained, and however hardy they 
 may have been, I have no doubt that the Palaeolithic men used fire, 
 like the inhabitants of the earliest Swiss lake dwellings and those 
 who have left the Danish shell mounds. I am strengthened in making 
 this statement, as I have seen in certain gravel pits, notably those 
 to the north of Ealing Common, an unusual proportion of red cal- 
 cined stones ; and as they were taken from beneath the brick earth 
 I have no doubt they were used either as pot boilers or were altered 
 
 * '• Discoveries in N. America," p. 346. 
 
 t "Op. Cit.," vol. ii., p. 202. 
 
 X " The first recorded Voyage of William Baffin," liakluyt Soc. , 1881, p. 36. 
 
 § "Op. Cit.," p. 438. 
 
METHODS OF COOKING. 135 
 
 by fire upon the floor of the gravel when it temporarily formed a 
 land surface. 
 
 As we may very well conclude that the Palaeolithic men were 
 unacquainted with the manufacture of pottery, for nothing however 
 rude has yet been found in the valley drift deposits, there is no doubt 
 that the food procured by hunting was cooked by the aid of such hot 
 stones or pot boilers being thrown into skins or bark vessels contain- 
 ing water, a method still in use by some savages, which I am about 
 to notice as probably analogous in their mode of life to the drift 
 men. 
 
 The natives of the Andaman Islands, or Mincopies, among other 
 savages use " cooking stones," common pebbles about a couple of 
 inches in diameter, which are heated and then placed on all sides of 
 the food which it is intended to cook.* 
 
 The Assinneboines (Indians of N. America) make holes in the 
 ground for boiling ; cover the cavity with a skin or hide, and fill it 
 with water. After the meat is put in large stones are heated at a 
 fire close by and when red hot are thrown in.f 
 
 There is in my collection a small flint about 1£ inches long, 
 which was obtained from the gravel at Ealing ; it is chipped at one 
 end into nearly the same form as the small " strike o' lights " of the 
 Neolithic age but more rudely ; although it is certainly suggestive 
 of a similar use, it would not be safe to say it was intended for ob- 
 taining fire. 
 
 There are those who think that Palaeolithic man dispensed with 
 
 the art of cookery altogether, like some of the savages to be noticed, 
 
 and this suggestion is rather favoured by the fact, that in most of 
 
 the very ancient skulls, presumed to be of the drift period, the teeth 
 
 are worn down to the crowns. 
 
 * E. H. Man, " On the aboriginal Natives of the Andaman Islands." — 
 Journ. Anthro. Inst., Vol. xii., No. 3. 
 t Stevens' " Flint Chips," p, 60. 
 
136 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 Charlevoix derives the name Esquimaux from the Indian word 
 Eskimantsik, which means " eaters of raw food," many of the nor- 
 thern tribes being in the habit of eating their meat uncooked ; but 
 in Kane's expedition the same custom seems to have been adopted, 
 and in that high latitude it was not found deleterious to health. If 
 the Esquimaux cooked at all it was by boiling or broiling ; their 
 vessels being of wood or stone could not be put on the fire, but 
 heated stones are thrown in as I have described until the water is 
 hot enough to cook the food* 
 
 Dr. Berthold Seemann says the teeth of the natives of "Western 
 Esquimaux Land "are regular, but, from the nature of their food 
 and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn 
 down almost to the gums at an early age ; their hair is straight, 
 black and coarse."f " Their complexion, if divested of its usual 
 covering of dirt, can hardly be called dark ; on the contrary, it dis- 
 plays a healthy rosy tint, and were it not for the custom of tattooing 
 the chin some of the girls might be called pretty." 
 
 The Esquimaux will eat almost every kind of animal food, and it 
 appears, from Dr. Seemann's account, that it is a matter of indiffe- 
 rence whether the food be raw or boiled, fresh or tainted. 
 
 Train oil is mixed with almost every thing eaten by them, in- 
 cluding berries, which are sometimes obtained by the southern tribes, 
 and when obtained, as Capt. Eoss says is sometimes the case, in a 
 half-digested form from the stomach of the reindeer, it is considered 
 a great delicacy. Tins may partly arise from the scarcity of 
 vegetable food. 
 
 They are fond of fat and marrow, and to get at the latter the 
 
 bones are broken with a stone ; but whether the food be reindeer, 
 
 seal, walrus, whale, the blubber of which is also considered a tit bit, 
 
 or musk ox, birds or salmon, it seems to be alike to them. 
 
 * Kane's "Arctic Explorations," vol. ii., p. 14. 
 
 t " Western Eskimo Land."— Journal Anthro. Soc, p. ccci* 
 
ESQUIMAUX. 137 
 
 Their voracity has been noticed by many Arctic travellers. 
 Captain Cook relates that he " was present when the chief Oonalashka 
 made his dinner of the raw head of a halibut just caught. Before 
 any was given to the chief, two of his servants eat the gills without 
 any other dressing besides squeezing out the slime. This done one of 
 them cut off the head of the fish, took it to the sea and washed it, 
 and sat down by the chief, first pulling up some grass, upon a part 
 of which the head was laid, and the rest was then strewn before the 
 chief; he then cut large pieces off the cheeks and laid them within 
 the reach of the great man who swallowed them as we should do raw 
 oysters. When he had done the remains of the head were cut in 
 pieces and given to the attendants, who tore off all the meat with 
 their teeth, and gnawed the bones like so many dogs."* 
 
 Although water is generally used as drink, blood is some- 
 times taken to quench thirst ; and Dr. Berthold Seemann found 
 train oil employed as a beverage among the Western tribes in very 
 cold weather, who say it produces a higher degree of bodily heat.f 
 Dr. Kane points out that a direct resort to snow for "the purpose 
 of allaying thirst was followed by bloody lips and tongue ; it burnt 
 like caustic." J Sir Edwary Parry says " that it was impossible to 
 furnish them with as much water as they desired, and that they 
 drank large quantities." They thaw the snow over a lamp made 
 often of lapis ollaris, and the women are often employed in the 
 winter in the extreme north feeding the wick with oil. 
 
 The temperature of the snow huts of the Northern tribes is neces- 
 sarily below the freezing point. The South Greenland Esquimaux, 
 as described by Egede, build huts of turf, and occasionally their 
 dwellings are constructed from the bones of whales and walruses on 
 
 * " Cook's Voyages," vol. ii. 
 
 t "Western Esquimaux Laud," Journ. Anthro. Soc, 1864, p. cccii. 
 
 % "Arctic Explorations," vol. i., p. 190 ; and Parry's Voyage in 1821—3. 
 
 t 
 
138 MODKBN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 a foundation of stones covered with earth. In the more permanent 
 dwellings large stores of meat of reindeer, walrus, seals, whale, &c. 
 were accumulated, which, frozen into a solid mass, will keep for a 
 very long time. "Caches" of meat are made also under stone 
 cairns. 
 
 Although some of their implements have been alluded to in the pre- 
 vious chapters I may mention that in addition to the skin scrapers and 
 semi-circular knives already described, and arrow points, which were 
 all made of stone until they came in contact with more civilised 
 races, the Esquimaux used, until recently, long stone spear heads 
 fitted into shafts like their arrows but larger. A large collection of 
 these interesting objects has lately been arranged under the direction 
 of Mr. A. W. Franks, at the British Museum, the forms of which are 
 similar to those of Neolithic age found in Denmark. 
 
 Bone harpoons are also in use among some of the tribes, resem- 
 bling those discovered in Kent's Cavern, near Torquay, and in the 
 caves and rock shelters in the Dordogne ; as with the Australians 
 throwing sticks are employed by them for hurling their javelins or 
 spears. Some of the stone-head harpoons described by Hall are 
 much more complicated, and with these weapons they not only kill 
 seals and walruses but also whales. The Esquimaux, as well as the 
 distant Patagonians, use the bolas and also a weapon made on the 
 principal of the bolas for catching birds ; it is generally formed of 
 walrus teeth or stones attached to short ligaments or cords tied 
 together at the ends. 
 
 Fish are caught by the aid of the spear, hook and line, and nets 
 which are sometimes formed of rings of whalebone. Their needles 
 are made from the bones of birds or fish, and with these rude instru- 
 ments they sew together the skins of reindeer, seals and birds, with 
 sinews, strongly and well for clothing. In such a climate it seems 
 hardly necessary to say they are unacquainted with agriculture of 
 any kind. 
 
ESQUIMAUX. 139 
 
 Their morality, in common with most savage races, is not of a 
 high order, though it is not so bad as that of the North Californian 
 Indians, where the men, according to Schoolcraft, " allow themselves 
 the privilege of shooting such wives as they are tired of." 
 
 Esquimaux art is low and puerile. 
 
 Comparing the representations of reindeer, men, and other 
 figures, which they often incise upon their arrow straighteners and 
 other implements, with those which the cave men engraved on bone or 
 on the antlers of the reindeer, discovered at Kesslerloch (a picture 
 which is startling in its realisation and artistic merit), and in the 
 caves of La Madelaine, Laugerie Basse, and others in the Dordogne, 
 the inferiority of the Esquimaux to the Palaeolithic men is so 
 striking as not to admit of question. It seems almost incredible 
 that the former, the hunters of the bear, mammoth, urus, reindeer 
 and seals, in the south of France, can so far excel the modern race 
 in art, though, as Prof. Boyd Dawkins has shown, there are many 
 points of agreement between them. The Esquimaux are fond of 
 games, and they are not altogether ignorant of music. Like many 
 other races of low type their ideas of numbers are dim and uncer- 
 tain. Sir Edward Parry says " the enumeration of ten is a labour, 
 and of fifteen an impossibility with many of them."* Dr. Rae tells 
 us that if a man is asked the number of his children, he is gene- 
 rally much puzzled : after counting on his fingers he will probably 
 consult his wife, and the two often differ even though they may not 
 have more than four or five.t Like all savages as well as civilized 
 peoples, they have a taste for ornaments, and they decorate them- 
 selves with strips of coloured fur, fringes of pierced teeth of the dog 
 or wolf, and pieces of bone or stone are often worn among some of 
 the tribes in the lower lip as labrets ; some tribes also are tattooed. 
 
 * " Voyage for the Discovery of a N.W. Passage, 1821 — 3." 
 t Lubbock, " Op. Cit.," p. 410. 
 
HO Modern savage culture. 
 
 The only domestic animal among the Esquimaux is the dog, 
 which some consider to be a tame wolf; in this respect they are 
 more advanced than were the cave men who had no domestic ani- 
 mals. Dr. Berthold Seemarm says "the resemblance between the 
 Esquimaux dog and the wolf is striking ; both have the same melan- 
 choly howl, but the head and ears of the dog are shorter, its eyes 
 smaller and more sunk, its tail handsomely curved over the back, 
 and its paws smaller and less spread."* 
 
 In the Esquimaux we have a race which, up to recently, and pre- 
 vious to contact with Europeans, appears to have lived in very much 
 the same condition of culture as the Palaeolithic men ; and which 
 was driven to the north, with part of the Pleistocene fauna, probably 
 when there was a greater extension of land from the British Isles to 
 the north west, which would facilitate their passage over the inter- 
 vening space or open sea. We may, therefore, ultimately find in 
 them the descendants of some of the remote Palaeolithic men of the 
 Thames Valley and bone caves. 
 
 It is rather remarkable that the musk sheep (Ovibos moschatus) 
 is far more abundant in Greenland than on the opposite islands and 
 coasts of America. 
 
 When it is remembered that the Scandinavian sea rovers passed 
 from Iceland into more inclement Greenland, and from thence to 
 Labrador, 800 years ago, as related in the Sagas,t it certainly is 
 within the bounds of possibility that a remnant of the drift and cave 
 folk may have survived and followed the musk ox across the compa- 
 ratively narrow icy sea, which during one part of the Pleistocene 
 period divided the northern extension of the land of North Western 
 Europe from Greenland ; it is fairly open to question too, whether 
 the "skralings," whom Thorvald's little band encountered, may not 
 
 * "Op. Cit." p. ccc. 
 
 t " Antiquitates Atuericanse," Rafn. 
 
ilKOTHUCS. 
 
 141 
 
 have been Esquimaux. They are described as being of short stature, 
 swarthy, and with broad cheeks ; they went to sea in skin boats, and 
 used spears and slings, a general description, which, as Dr. E. B. 
 Tylor has pointed out, agrees tolerably well with what we know of 
 the Esquimaux.* 
 
 The Esquimaux is, however, not the only people with whom and 
 the Palgeolithic men we may, at any rate, make analogies ; there are 
 other native races, tenanting countries in the same latitude as 
 ourselves in the Northern hemisphere, where the Eastern deflection 
 of the Gulf Stream and the effect of cold currents and ice bergs on 
 their shores have produced a far more severe climate than we enjoy. 
 
 Labrador and Newfoundland are so situated, and the Beothucs 
 or Bceotics and Micmacs, until recently inhabiting those countries, 
 but who are now either extinct or are fast dying out, may afford 
 us, by their mode of life and the general conditions of their exis- 
 tence, some illustrations which may enable us to partly realise the 
 culture and surroundings of the Palaeolithic men ; at any rate at 
 one stage of their history in this country. 
 
 John and Sebastian Cabot in writing of the Beothucs in 1497 
 say "the inhabitants of Newfoundland use the skins and furs of 
 wild beasts for garments, which they hold in as high estimation as 
 we do our finest clothes ; in war they use bows and arrows, spears, 
 darts and slings." Jacques Cartierf says (in 1534) they paint 
 themselves with certain roan colours, and that they were " men of 
 indifferent good stature and bigness, but wild and unruly." 
 
 Whitbourne £ tells us their implements and utensils consist of 
 mortar shaped vessels, spear and arrow heads, gouges and rude axes ; 
 their canoes were made with the rinds of birch trees sewn together 
 
 * Address to the Anthro. Section, Brit. Assoc, 1884. 
 
 t Hakluyt, Vol. iii. 
 
 % Purchas, Vol. ir., p. 1884. 
 
142 
 
 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 and overlaid with turpentine ; in like manner they sew the rinds 
 of spruce trees, round and deep in proportion, like a brass kettle, 
 to boil their meat in." Their wigwams, in the form of a cone, 
 were formed of straight sticks like hop poles covered with the rind 
 of the birch tree, which is overlaid sheet upon sheet in the manner 
 of tiles, and they dig trenches therein for sleeping places; they 
 made many instruments of ivory and bone ; and their implements 
 of stone, now found on the surface of the ground, were of quartzite, 
 quartz, hornstone, chert and slate, chipped into shape and generally 
 unground, as described by Mr. T. G. B. Lloyd.* Although some of 
 these figured by the author, such as those having a chipped depres- 
 sion and others, have almost a palaeolithic appearance, the majority re- 
 present known Neolithic forms. The small stones with worked hollows 
 were believed at first by the author to have been used for rounding 
 the shafts of arrows ; but Mr. Franks suggested that they were the 
 points of fish hooks fastened into the shanks of bone, such articles 
 being used by the Esquimaux. 
 
 Some people believe that the Palaeolithic men used similar hooks, 
 but I have never met with a stone which I could identify as such 
 an object. 
 
 The Beothucs constructed long fences of wood to arrest the 
 migrations of the reindeer and determine them to certain points 
 where a deer battue on an extensive scale would give them a 
 supply of food for months ;t such erections were traced for forty 
 miles across the country, and where such battues did occur, there 
 would be, as Dr. Dawson says, " not only a great feast and much 
 
 * The Beothucs, a tribe of Indians supposed to be extinct, which formerly 
 inhabited Newfoundland." T. G. B. Lloyd. Journ. Anthro. Inst., Vol. iv. 
 No. 1. Also " Stone Implements from Newfoundland," by the same author, 
 Vol. v., No. 2. 
 
 f " Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives." Dr. J. W. Dawson, 
 F.R.S. 
 
^ITCMACS. 143 
 
 cracking of marrow bones, but a long time would be occupied iu 
 drying and preparing the flesh and skins and working the antlers 
 up into implements. In these processes multitudes of flint knives 
 &c. would be used, and when the tribe left the place a deposit of 
 the reindeer period would be left." Reindeer are killed also in the 
 spring, when crossing rivers, where they are waylaid by the natives. 
 It is curious that Captain Luard, R.E., discovered numerous fossil 
 bones, teeth and antlers of reindeer in a bed of gravel at Windsor, 
 and that Prof. Boyd Dawkins on visiting the spot " found that 
 more than one-half of the remains belonged to the reindeer, the rest 
 to bisons, horses, wolves and bears."* He believed that the reindeer 
 were pursued thither by the wolves and bears, who hang on the 
 flanks and rear of these great migrating bodies, and pray upon the 
 stragglers." A parallel case having been witnessed by Wrangle in 
 Siberia. 
 
 It is not improbable however that Palaeolithic man may have 
 noticed that the herds of reindeer were more within reach when 
 they were crossing the fords, and have availed himself of the oppor- 
 tunities thus afforded. 
 
 The Beothucs or Bceotics of Newfoundland who also inhabited the 
 Coast of Labrador, a country which, as Jacques Cartier quaintly says, 
 from its dreary and barren aspect, " must have been the land which 
 God gave to Cain," have been exterminated by the Micmacs of Nova 
 Scotia aided by European settlers. 
 
 The Micmac, as Dr. Dawson says, "was almost wholly a hunter, 
 and the arts of life had reference mainly to the implements for the 
 chase and fishing, and for the preparation of meat and skins. He 
 dwelt in tents or wigwams made of birch bark, and could easily 
 pack his family into his birch canoe, or transport his whole house 
 
 * " Early Man in Britain, ' p. 155. 
 
144 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 and furniture on the backs of his party, or on a tobogan drawn over 
 the suow." Yet these people were adepts in the art of chipping flint, 
 greenstone, &c, which they employed in the same way as the 
 Beothucs. 
 
 It is said of one of their chiefs, a convert to Christianity, that on 
 being taught the petition, " give us this day our daily bread," by 
 the French Missionary, he objected, and asked, " why is no mention 
 made of our fish and venison ?" for, no doubt, he considered that, 
 living on the produce of fishery at one season and on the chase at 
 another, they also were gifts of the Great Spirit. 
 
 The next example of a savage race, which, to some extent, may 
 serve to illustrate the mode of life of the Palaeolithic men, is taken 
 from the natives of Tierra del Fuego, a country situated in about the 
 same latitude in the southern hemisphere as Labrador is in the nor- 
 thern half of the world ; there is this difference, however, that at 
 the south pole the more intense conditions of a glacial climate pre- 
 vail; the great continent extending over the south pole, discovered 
 by Sir James C. Ross, in the " Erebus and Terror," is in fact a 
 glaciated land. 
 
 To those of my readers who would attempt to realise in their 
 minds what such a country is like, I would commend to their 
 perusal a work,* lately published by that veteran in Arctic, as well 
 as in Antarctic exploration, my old and distinguished friend, Dr. R. 
 McCormick, R.N., chief medical officer and naturalist to the expedi- 
 tion, who has not only gazed on the impenetrable wall of ice which 
 surrounds that great lone land of the Antarctic circle, from which 
 Mount Erebus, 12,400 feet above the level of the sea, sends forth 
 its dense volumes of smoke and red flame, but who also accompanied 
 his friend, Sir Edward Parry, in his attempt to reach the North Pole 
 
 * " Voyages of Discovery to the Arctic and Antarctic seas and round the 
 World,"' by Deputy Inspector General Robert McCormick, R.N., 1884. 
 
FUEGIANS. 145 
 
 in 1827, and again as chief medical officer was with the Expedition 
 sent in search of Sir John Franklin, up the Wellington Channel. 
 The author says the glaciation in this country is " as complete 
 as ever occurred in the opposite hemisphere in ages past. 
 The perpetual snow line descends to the very beach. The constant 
 presence of ice and snow keeps the thermometer at the freezing 
 point ; consequently no kind of vegetation exists, not even a sea 
 weed, on its barren shores ; and but for the animal life which ani- 
 mates the ocean, whales, seals, penguins, &c, and sea birds winging 
 their way through the air, or skimming the ice embossed surface of 
 the deep, all would be as desolate and silent as the tomb."* 
 
 The illustrations drawn by the author help the student to con- 
 ceive of the conditions of the climate which prevailed at more than 
 one period in this country. 
 
 Tierra del Fuego is the nearest inhabited land to this great gla- 
 ciated continent at the South pole ; " its inhabitants are scattered 
 along the coast and are usually to be found at the heads of bays and 
 creeks in sheltered spots ; they have no fixed places of abode or 
 villages, but wander about in small detachments constructing tem- 
 porary shelters of the branches of trees. 
 
 The climate besides being cold, as indicated by the lowness of 
 the snow line on the mountains, is extremely variable ; sudden and 
 violent storms of wind and rain and snow occur frequently, a fall 
 of snow is not uncommon in the height of summer ;"t it is almost 
 a barren country, and its natives have been described as among the 
 lowest races in the world. 
 
 Bove agrees with FitzEoy in the following description £ — "that 
 
 * "Loc. Cit." vol. i., p. 352. 
 
 t Dr. J. G. Garson, "On the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego." Journal 
 Anthro. Inet., Vol. xv., No. 2. 
 
 % See " South American Missionary," May, Oct., &c, 1883—4. 
 
146 
 
 MODERN SAYAGE CULTURE. 
 
 the most characteristic Fuegians present an extremely small low fore- 
 head, prominent brows, small sunken black eyes, wide cheek bones, 
 wide and open nostrils, thick lips, and the face as a whole flat ; the 
 chin is smaller and less prominent in some than in others ; the nose 
 is always between the eyes and concave or almost flat in profile ; 
 the teeth are fairly large, but often worn down in front till the 
 dentine is exposed, consequently giving them the appearance similar 
 to those of an aged horse ; the hair is coarse, lank, and grows regularly 
 over the head ; little or no hair is allowed to grow on the eyebrows 
 or face, it being carefully depilated from those parts." The higher 
 foreheads and frizzly curled hair of a few met with by FitzRoy 
 appear to have been accidentally imported ; the colour ranges from 
 a mahogany to a bronze hue. They are generally short and strong, 
 the shoulders square and high, and the chest and body large ; the 
 limbs are short and slim compared to the size of the body, and the 
 legs generally bowed. 
 
 Dr. R. McCormick, R.N., visited these shores in the Erebus and 
 Terror, in the memorable voyage to which I have alluded, and he 
 describes those natives he saw "as all naked with the exception of 
 a seal skin mat thrown over their shoulders to windward." He 
 says : "I went to their wigwam, a dome shaped hut about the size 
 of a haycock, formed by a number of branches of trees driven into 
 the ground, and forming a circle, having the ends brought together 
 at the top, and the interstices filled in very rudely with the smaller 
 branches, leaving a small opening fronting the beach as a door way. 
 In the centre of the interior a few embers were still smouldering on 
 the bare ground ; a bag made of the skin of the steamer duck having 
 the feathers inside, and a piece of the skin lay in one corner ; from 
 the roof was suspended a calabash shaped bottle made of kelp, near 
 which stood two spears with barbed bone heads, and on the ground 
 lay four pieces of sticks tied together at their ends by means of 
 
FTTEGIANS. 147 
 
 rushes."* One of the Fuegians exchanged one of the spears for 
 half a dozen anchor buttons from the doctor's uniform jacket. 
 
 Such is his graphic description of a " Fuegian interior " in 1842, 
 a suitable abode for this miserable race, whose " coarse black hair, 
 daubed over with the white pigment, contrasted strangely with their 
 dark copper coloured skius, all smeared with paint, which altogether, 
 with their crooked, spindle like, ill shaped lower extremities, gave 
 them no very prepossessing aspect," otherwise Dr. McCormick 
 describes their manner as good natured and inoffensive ; and they 
 have a singular talent for mimicry " repeating every word spoken 
 in the most clear and distinct imitation." 
 
 Commodore Byron t says the people were the nearest to brutes 
 he had ever seen ; they were quite naked, in spite of the severity of 
 the weather, except part of a seal skin thrown over their shoulders, 
 and they ate their food, "which was such that no animal but a hog 
 would touch, without any dressing; they had with them a large piece 
 of whale blubber which stunk intolerably ; and one of them tore it 
 to pieces with his teeth, and gave it about to the rest, who devoured 
 it with the voracity of a wild beast." " Their huts are made of trees X 
 in the shape of tents with a hole at the top to let out the smoke. 
 Within they are sunk two or three feet under the earth. They have 
 stone hooks for fishing," very nearly the same as ours. They are 
 differently armed, some having bows and arrows headed with stone ; 
 others have long javelins pointed with bone ; some have great 
 wooden clubs ; and some slings with stone knives which are very 
 sharp ; their arrows are about 2 feet long, straight and polished, and 
 tipped with a piece of obsidian or glass ; the head, not being fixed to 
 the shaft, remains in the wound, even when the arrow is drawn out ; 
 
 * "Loc. Cit.," pp. 301—303. 
 
 t Byron's "Voyage round the World," p. 80. 
 
 X Callander "Voyages," Vol. ii. Voyage of Jaques le Hermite in 1624. 
 
H& 
 
 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURF, 
 
 the bows strung with twisted sinew are from 3 to 4 feet long. The 
 jaw of a porpoise is used as a comb by the women. 
 
 Admiral FitzRoy says they are low in stature, ill looking, and 
 badly proportioned ; the women never walk upright; a stooping 
 posture and awkward movement is their natural gait, and they are 
 fit companions for such uncouth men ; their incisors are worn flat, 
 like those of the Esquimaux and of many ancient races. When there 
 is time the natives roast their shell fish and half- roast any other 
 food that is of a solid nature; but when in haste they eat fish as 
 well as meat in a raw state. FitzRoy entertained no doubt that 
 the Fuegians are cannibals, and that not only the vanquished iu a 
 hostile encounter are killed and eaten, but even sometimes the aged 
 among themselves.* They use a serrated bone harpoon, which does 
 not appear to be much superior to that of the cave men, [PI. IV., 
 Fig. 5; PL V., Fig. 5]. The Fuegians have no pottery, but make 
 vessels for drinking and cooking purposes of beech bark. They make 
 canoes also of sewn pieces of bark. A fire place of clay is made at the 
 bottom, for they always keep fires alight, though they are able to 
 obtain it by the aid of iron pyrites if it goes out. The same author 
 says : Sometimes " these satires on mankind" have nothing to cover 
 their nakedness but the skin of a peuguin or a bit of hide in front, 
 or a scrap of the latter tied to the side or the back of the body by 
 a string round the waist; "even this is only for a pocket in which 
 they may carry stones for their slings, and hide what they pick up 
 and pilfer." 
 
 The Fuegians do not seem to have any form of government ; 
 superiority of one over another being acquired by age, sagacity, or 
 daring conduct. In families and in the small clans into which the 
 tribes are broken up, the word of the old men is accepted as law 
 
 * " Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle," Vol. ii., pp. 137 to 144. 
 
TUEGIANS. 149 
 
 by the younger people."* I have already described their primitive 
 funereal arrangements, they can hardly be called rites. Dr. J. G. 
 Garson says, they believe in the existence of a God in the form of a 
 great black man, who is supposed to wander about the woods and 
 mountains, and from whom they cannot escape; this being knows 
 their words and actions, and when they do wrong sends storms of 
 hail and snow ; they are extremely superstitious. 
 
 Darwin t has given a very graphic description of the people living 
 on the coast. The inhabitants, he says, living chiefly on shell 
 fish, are obliged constantly to change their place of residence ; but 
 they return at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the 
 pile of old shells, which must often amount to some tons in weight, 
 these heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the bright red 
 colour of certain plants which invariably grow on them. The 
 Fuegian wigwam resembles in size and dimensions a haycock. It 
 merely consists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground and 
 very imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and 
 rushes. The whole cannot be so much as the work of an hour, and 
 it is only used for a few days. At a subsequent period the Beagle 
 anchored under Wollaston Land, and the Fuegians there were the 
 most miserable creatures he ever saw. "These poor wretches were 
 stunted in their growth, their hideous faces bedaubed with white 
 paint, their skins filthy and greasy, their voices discordant, their 
 gestures violent and without dignity. Viewing such men, one can 
 hardly make oneself believe they are fellow-creatures and inhabitants 
 of the same world." They have however great power of endurance, 
 and they appear not to avail themselves of all the means of clothing 
 themselves, which the animals they hunt would enable them to 
 
 * Dr. Garson, Loc. Cit. 
 
 t Darwin's "Journal," p. 22. 
 
150 
 
 MODERN SAYAGE CULTURE. 
 
 obtain, even in the cold inhospitable region they inhabit. The 
 country bears but a scanty vegetation, the ground is uncultivated, 
 and the natives are but rude savage hunters. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock says * : "If not the lowest, the Fuegians cer- 
 tainly appear to be among the most miserable specimens of the 
 human race, and the habits of this people are of special interest from 
 their probable similarity to those of the ancient Danish shell mound 
 builders, who, however, were in some respects more advanced, being 
 acquainted with the art of making pottery." I think we may go 
 further and say that the implements found in the valley drift and 
 in the oldest deposits of bone caves point to a state of culture in 
 the Palseolithic period, not inferior to that existing among the 
 wretched natives of Tierra del Fuego and the aborigines of Australia. 
 
 As a contrast to the diminutive savage of Tierra del Fuego is the 
 description given by Pigafetta f of the giant native of Patagonia, to 
 the north of that desolate country, whom he met with at Port St. 
 Julian. The old voyager gives a thrilling account of this gigantic 
 savage still in the stone age of culture. He says : " this man was 
 of such immense stature that our heads scarcely touched his waist ; 
 he was of handsome appearance, his face broad and painted red 
 except a rim of yellow round his eyes and two spots in the shape of 
 a heart about his cheeks ;" he was dressed with the skin of the 
 guanaco over his shoulders, and held a short massive bow, the string 
 of which, somewhat thicker than that of a lute, was made of the 
 intestines of some animal ; in the other hand he held arrows made 
 of short reeds, with feathers at one end similar to ours, and at the 
 other instead of iron a white and black flint stone. Pigafetta also 
 says, that with the same kind of stone with which they point their 
 
 * "Op. Cit.," p. 439. 
 
 t Pigafetta' i "Voyage round the World." Pinkerton's Voyages, Vol. xi. 
 
HOTTENTOTS AND BUSHMEN. 151 
 
 arrows they also formed instruments to work wood ; thus we have 
 an illustration of a savage race which was in the stone age 400 years 
 ago. Lieut. Musters* says that the only flint tools now used by 
 the Patagonians are scrapers, with which the women [PL V., Fig. 
 11] scrape skins, though stone implements are found in abundance on 
 the sites of every old habitation, some of which Col. Lane Fox 
 considered were somewhat similar to the Palasolithic forms, which 
 makes this example of special interest to us. 
 
 Among the races which occupy the lowest stage of mental and moral 
 development, according to Waitz and others, and among whom we 
 may therefore expect to find evidence of the lowest culture, may 
 be classed the Hottentots and Bushmen. The latter appear to be 
 but little in advance of the black aborigines of the Deccan and 
 Guzerat, the wild hairy tree dwelling men of Siam and the Ved- 
 dahs of Ceylon. 
 
 Although the climate of South Africa and the conditions of ex- 
 istence there are quite different from those which prevailed when 
 the drift men occupied the Thames Valley, we shall find iu their 
 culture, and particularly in the stone implements employed by the 
 Bushmen and some of the tribes of Hottentots, much that may be 
 of use in considering the culture and civilization of the Paleo- 
 lithic men. A very fine collection of their stone implements was 
 exhibited at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition to which I shall 
 shortly refer. These objects are employed by some of the Bush- 
 men and Hottentots now, and they were probably in general use 
 up to the advent of the white colonist, [PI. V., Figs. 8, 9]. 
 
 It is true that Hottentots and Bushmen use brass as ornaments, 
 such as armlets, bracelets, &c, and that iron is employed by them 
 
 * " On the races of Patagonia,'' Journ. Anthro. Inst., Vol. i., No. 2. See 
 also Falkner's "Patagonia" for an interesting account of this people. 
 
152 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 at present for spear heads and other weapons as well as tools, 
 but stone instruments are still in use for agricultural purposes 
 among them and recently as weapons. 
 
 The Hottentots even smelt iron in a rude way by making two 
 holes in the earth, the one on rather a higher level than the other, 
 connecting them with a channel, through which the metal runs 
 into the lower hole after the upper one has been well supplied 
 with the iron stones found in certain localities and making a large 
 fire. The mass thus produced is broken up with stones and after- 
 wards beaten and shaped into the required forms ; this was probably 
 the earliest method adopted for smelting iron. 
 
 The Hottentots and Bushmen have been described by many 
 travellers, but many circumstances in the culture of savage races, 
 of great interest to the anthropologist, were unnoticed or unmen- 
 tioned in the earlier accounts which voyagers gave of them. It is 
 from the few who described them before they were much influ- 
 enced by the colonists that we are able to know something of 
 their original culture. Kolben,* Thurnberg, the Swedish naviga- 
 tor,! Sparrman,^ Francis Leguat,§ the Dutch traveller Sta- 
 vorinus,|| and others appear to unite in considering them as 
 of the lowest type, with a very strong disposition to regard the 
 Bushman as a degraded Hottentot. Their habits appear to be 
 filthier than those of the lower animals, and their culture as low 
 as any of the races of men which have been described. 
 
 Stavorinus says the Hottentots " are of moderate stature, not 
 corpulent, but of a coarse make, and of a dark brown colour. They 
 have large eyes, a flat nose and thick lips. They have thick and 
 
 * "History of the Cape of Good Hope." 
 
 ■f See Pinkerton's Travels. 
 
 I "Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, &c," 1772—6. 
 
 § "A New Voyage to the East Indies," 1690. 
 
 || "Voyages to the East ladies, &c, " 1768-1771. 
 
BUSHMEN AND HOTTENTOTS. 153 
 
 black curling hair upon their heads, like the negroes, on which 
 they smear all kinds of greasy dirt, and make it one clotted lump of 
 filth." They have no other dress than a raw sheep skin, which is 
 thrown over the shoulders ; in the warm season they wear the 
 woolly side outwards, and turn it inside when the cold months 
 come on ; it is said that they wear it as long as they live and are 
 buried in it when they die ; in some cases a mere girdle and mat 
 are used. 
 
 Sparrman and Kolben describe them in much the same terms. 
 The former mentions their dress " and manner of painting them- 
 selves (if painting it may be called) ; it consists in besmearing 
 their bodies all over most copiously with grease in which there is 
 mixed up a little soot." 
 
 Their ornaments consist, as Sir John Lubbock says, of rings of 
 iron, copper, ivory or leather; the last had the advantage of 
 serving for food in bad times. 
 
 Leguat (A.D. 1690) says the women "have the loathsome cus- 
 tom to wear several rounds of raw intestine in lieu of necklaces and 
 garters, which is very offensive." 
 
 The huts are described by Sparrman thus : " some are of a round 
 and some of an oblong shape resembling a round bee hive or vault, 
 even the highest of them are so very low. that in the centre of the 
 arch it is almost impossible for a middle-size man to stand upright ; 
 but even the lowness of the hut, and still more that of the door, 
 which is scarcely three feet high, can hardly be considered an incon- 
 venience to a Hottentot who finds no difficulty in stooping and 
 crawling on his hands and feet." The door, low as it is, "is the 
 only place that lets in the day light," and the only vent for the 
 smoke of the fire lighted in the centre. The huts are made of 
 slender rods or sprays of trees interlaced with withes. 
 
 Leguat describes "these vile huts" as composed of earth, 
 
 D 
 
154 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 branches, leaves, and so ill built that the rain never fails to 
 pour in on all sides ; their fire is in the middle, and they lie all 
 about higgledy piggledy in the ashes. 
 
 Leguat says : " However ignorant or rather how bestial soever 
 the Hottentots are, they know somethiug of simples and make use 
 of them with success. Let one be bit with any venomous creature, 
 be wounded or ulcerated, or let there be any swelling or inflamma- 
 tion, they know how to go exactly to the plant that will cure them." 
 They have certain mysterious ceremonies, but their religious sense 
 is of the usual savage order combined with witchcraft or sorcery, 
 and their ideas of marriage are of the simplest kind ; they have a 
 rude form of government, and punishments attached to certain 
 offences ; the rite of circumcision is in use among them. 
 
 The Bushmen are described by Sparrman, particularly those 
 about Camdebo and Sneeuwberg, as sworn enemies to a pastoral 
 life, and are in that particular unlike the "Hottentots who were 
 in possession of numerous flocks and herds when the Europeans first 
 visited the country,"* though they appear to have led a nomadic 
 life. 
 
 "Waitz says the Bushmen are on an average 4 feet high,t they 
 are almost the smallest people in the world, and in many physical 
 respects they are said to be ape-like in character. 
 
 According to Sparrman they live on hunting and plunder ; they 
 used small bows with poisoned arrows poiuted with bone, and occa- 
 sionally " a triangular piece of iron is fixed into the bone to balance 
 it; the lashing being besmeared with the poison." According to 
 the same traveller : " The habitations of these enemies to a pastoral 
 life are not commonly more agreeable than their manners and maxims. 
 
 * Waitz, " Anthropology, ' edited by F. H. Collingwood, p. 337. 
 t Waitz, Op. Cit., p. 105. 
 
BUSHMEN AND HOTTENTOTS. 155 
 
 Bushes and clefts in rocks by turns serve them instead of houses, 
 like the wild beasts. A great many go wholly naked ; but such 
 as have been able to get the skin of any sort of animal, great or 
 small, cover their bodies with it from their shoulders downwards, as 
 far as it will reach, wearing it till it falls off their backs in rags. 
 Equally ignorant of agriculture with monkeys and apes, they are 
 like them obliged to wander about over hills and dales after certain 
 wild roots, berries and plants, which they eat raw in order to support 
 a life which this wretched food would soon extinguish and destroy 
 were they accustomed to better fare." Their food consists also of 
 "caterpillars, white ants, grasshoppers, snakes, and some sorts of 
 spiders;'' they are often famished to such a degree from want as 
 to waste almost to shadows. " As both Boshies-men (or Bushmen) and 
 Hottentots believe firmly in the powers of magic, they seem to acknow- 
 ledge by this some evil being of great power and might." Kolben 
 says the moon receives a kind of adoration from the Hottentots. 
 
 Infanticide is said to be common among the Hottentots, and 
 Kolben shows that the aged are treated with great barbarity. Those 
 who are no longer of any use to the community " are thrust out 
 of the society and confined in a solitary hut at a considerable dis- 
 tance from the kraal, there, with a small stock of provisions within 
 their reach, but without any one to comfort or assist them, to die 
 either of age or hunger, or be devoured by some wild beast." 
 Other atrocious customs and disgusting habits are imputed to them 
 into which it is needless here to enter. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock says the weapons of the Hottentots consisted 
 of bows and poisoned arrows, javelins or assegais, stones, and darting 
 sticks or kirris about 3 feet long and an inch thick ; with these 
 weapons they are very skilful and feared not (according to Kolben) 
 to attack the elephant, the rhinoceros, or even the lion. Large 
 animals are also killed in pitfalls about 8 feet deep and 4 feet in 
 
156 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 diameter, "a strong pointed stake being fixed in the middle upon 
 which the animal falls." The Bushmen, though resembling the Hot- 
 tentot in many things, had "no knowledge of metallurgy, no 
 domestic animals, and no canoes."* 
 
 The collection of stone weapons and tools of the Hottentots and 
 Bushmen, exhibited by Mr. E. J. Dunn and Mr. Thomas Bain at 
 the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, throws a flood of light upon the 
 present or recent state of culture among some of the tribes in the 
 Cape Colony. Although many of the forms are sufficiently well 
 made, and are of types which are at once recognisable as neolithic, 
 there are others, also chipped and unground, which are almost if not 
 quite as rudely wrought as those from the drift, and they even in 
 some cases closely approach the Paleolithic types, (PI. V., Fig 8). 
 
 In the spear heads formed from flakes with little and rudely 
 chipped secondary work, in the large roughly wrought pointed 
 instruments described as axes, and in others, it is hard to distin- 
 guish the work of these existing savages from that of the ancient 
 fabricators of flint tools and weapons in the Thames Valley. They 
 are made either of indurated sandstone, dolerite or quartz, and a 
 few of chert, jasper and other siliceous rocks. 
 
 Besides mealing stones and mullers, of a similar kind to the one 
 I have from the drift of Ealing already described, there are perfo- 
 rated stones among them, digging instruments, described by Sparr- 
 man "as a stout staff commonly headed with a heavy grit stone 
 of two pounds weight or more, rounded off and with a hole bored 
 through the middle of it in order to increase the force of the stick 
 for the purpose of digging up roots and bulbs out of the ground, 
 and at the same time for piercing the hard clay hillocks which are 
 raised to the height of 3 or 4 feet by a kind of ant (termes), a 
 
 * " Prehistoric Times," 
 
AUSTRALIAN FAUNA. 157 
 
 species of insect of which the Boshies-nien's (Bushmen) food in a 
 great measure consists." 
 
 The axes are of old forms, and the spear heads, hammers, scrapers, 
 knife flakes,* and other objects are so formed as to render it not 
 surprising if they had been met with in very ancient deposits. The 
 flakes struck from siliceous rocks and cores showing the same mode 
 was adopted as in the Neolithic and Palaeolithic periods, tell the same 
 tale. Among the implements of interest in these collections are 
 grooved stones for straightening arrow shafts (PI. V., Fig. 9), drills 
 for perforating round stones, and small ones for drilling egg shells. 
 
 The specimens number nearly 1000, of which spear heads, 
 scrapers and axes form a large proportion ; the pointed " axes " are 
 similar in form to the implements found in the drift and called 
 " lance heads." 
 
 The natives of Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand have an 
 absorbing, an almost fascinating interest to the anthropologist, and 
 the countries are equally interesting to the geologist. 
 
 The aborigines of this region represent races of men slowly 
 emerging from the stone age of culture, savages who have been by 
 geographical position cut off, until comparatively recently, from all 
 intercourse with the higher races of the northern hemisphere ; they 
 present us with a state of civilization so low, that we may very well 
 consider it as affording us, in some respects, a presentment of the 
 state of culture which existed at one time in the Thames Valley, 
 even if these barbarous peoples are not in their physical characte- 
 ristics, the archaic types of the early races of Europe and Asia. 
 
 To understand the position of man in Australia, Tasmania and 
 New Zealand, it is necessary that his relation to the other forms 
 of life about him should be considered. In one sense these countries 
 
 * See Catalogue of Exhibits, Cape of Good Hope. 
 
158 
 
 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 may be said to be very old, but in another tliey may be described 
 as new. The quadrupeds of Australia and Tasmania belong to the 
 lowest order of mammalia, that of the marsupial or pouch bearing 
 animals, with the exception of the wild dog or dingo, and the rat, 
 which have no doubt been imported in comparatively recent times ; 
 while the oldest mammalian fossils, those found in the secondary 
 formation of Europe and America, belong to the same order. Nichol- 
 son says : "in England, at the time of the deposition of the Stones- 
 field slate, we must have had a fauna and a flora very closely resem- 
 bling that we now see in Australia."* The fossil remains of some 
 of the smaller marsupials prove "that the mammals were the same in 
 order." " Upon the land surface of Australia flourish araucaria3 and 
 cycadaceous plants; and the cones of araucarian pines with tree 
 ferns and fronds of cycads occur throughout the oolite series;" 
 " Spine bearing fishes, like the Port Jackson shark, are abundantly 
 represented by genera, such as the fossil Acrodus and Strophodus ; 
 and, lastly, the genus Trigonia, a genus of mollusca abundant in the 
 secondary formations, now exclusively Australian, is represented in 
 the Stonesfield slate by species which differ little from those now 
 existing." 
 
 In the bone caves of Australia have been found the remains of 
 animals which show that in the Tertiary and post Tertiary periods 
 in that country a marsupial fauna existed " resembling that which 
 occurs both there and in Tasmania at present, but comparatively of 
 a much more gigantic size." It is the land, too, of the Ornithorhyn- 
 chus or duck mole, the lowest of the marsupialia, the link which 
 appears to connect the marsupial with the next lowest form or grade 
 of life beneath it, that of the bird ; there are only two living genera 
 of the order Monotremata to which it belongs, and as the pages of 
 
 * "Palaeontology." 
 
AUSTRALIAN VALLEYS. 159 
 
 the geological record are unrolled it will be found of increasing 
 antiquity in the past. 
 
 When New Zealand was first discovered, as Lyell says, "it was 
 found to contain no indigenous quadrupeds, no kangaroos or opos- 
 sums, like Australia; but a small bird, wingless or with very 
 rudimentary wings, abounded there ;" the Apteryx, called by the 
 natives Kiwi. Australia and New Zealand are in fact the countries of 
 the existing wingless birds, reminding us of their fossil represen- 
 tatives in Europe, while the gigantic Dinornis and its allies have 
 only recently become extinct.''* 
 
 In its river system a great part of Australia presents us with 
 the physical conditions of a country from which the sea has, speak- 
 ing from a geological point of view, recently retreated ; its interior 
 is a region of vast plains over which comparatively shallow waters 
 flow, spreading out over the surface in periods of rainfall, sinking 
 into its sands and often disappearing in times of drought. In that 
 sense the country is new, for sufficient time has apparently not yet 
 elapsed in those parts for the erosion of a valley system and inter- 
 vening hilly country, such as we see in the Northern hemisphere, 
 where the valley drift deposits occur, in which are found the earliest 
 relics of man. 
 
 It has been suggested, and with great probability, that Australia 
 is a large fragment of a vaster continent, which once extended over 
 a large portion of the Pacific, of which the islands of Polynesia or 
 some of them, are also remnants. The former extension of this 
 huo-e continent to South America is rendered the more probable 
 
 * They should more properly be called "Flightless Birds," as the wings 
 are generally rudimentary. See a very able and lucid paper on the subject, 
 by Dr. Henry Woodward > F.G.S., &c, well illustrated and lately published 
 under the title "Flightless Birds, commonly called Wingless Birds,"— Proc. 
 Geologists' Assoc, Vol. ix., No. 5, May 1886. 
 
160 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 from the presence there of the marsupial mammalia as well as of the 
 next highest order in the succession of the mammalian life ; i.e. the 
 Edentata, such as the Sloth, Anteater, Armadillo, &c, some of the 
 fossil types of which alone are found in Europe. 
 
 How it is that the dusky black races of extremely low type, but 
 still the representatives of the highest order of mammalia, should be 
 found on an isolated continent associated with a marsupial fauna 
 containing some of its lowest forms, and with the ancient types of 
 wingless or flightless birds, as well as with a flora of the secondary 
 period, are problems very difficult of solution, and which it is 
 impossible to discuss here. Our object is achieved when it is shown 
 that under these conditions we find existing some of the lowest and 
 most untrainable savages in the world. 
 
 The features and physique of this probably very early race of 
 men are such as might very well incline us to regard them as a 
 lower species of mankind. It is only possible to describe them here, 
 in general terms, without considering the minor differences which 
 are found among the various tribes which inhabit the continent. The 
 Australians and Tasmanians are characterized by an overhanging 
 brow and a thick skull, markedly low in capacity, the chin rather 
 receding, full lips and wide mouth, the hair black, stiff and glossy. 
 Among some tribes, however, the hair is described as like horse 
 hair, thick, curly and frizzled ; while that of the Tasmanians was 
 woolly. I use the past tense in regard to the latter, as the abori- 
 gines were exterminated a few years ago by the white settlers, who 
 have been known to hunt the native men and women as we should a 
 fox. Such cruelty and barbarity is a survival of brutal instincts 
 and affords a powerful argument for our worse than savage, our 
 brutal descent. Such general physical characteristics as I have given 
 appear to apply to all the tribes throughout the country from the 
 descriptions given by travellers and residents among them. Certain 
 
AUSTEALIANS. 
 
 161 
 
 exceptions have been met with, due it is conjectured to an admixture 
 of Malayan blood, but they are rare. 
 
 They are generally of middle height and the colour of their skins 
 is black or rusty black ; they have often large heads and spare limbs. 
 
 Count Strzelecki's description of the natives of New South Wales 
 seems fairly applicable to most of the tribes ; he says, the face 
 " presents a facial angle between 75 and 85 degrees ; it is marked 
 by a low forehead, eyes large, far apart, and half covered by the 
 upper lid. The iris is invariably a dark brown, the pupil large 
 and of a jet black ; a nose broad and flat, the frontal sinuses being 
 remarkably prominent, the nostrils extending and wide spread ; the 
 cheeks generally hollow with prominent malar bones; a wide 
 mouth with large wide teeth and thick lips ; the lower jaw unusually 
 short and widely expanded anteriorly." The hairiness of the entire 
 body in some cases, as well as a certain disproportion between the 
 trunk of the body and the limbs, has also been noticed by this 
 traveller and others. 
 
 One of the surest indications of a low type of race is a small 
 receptive faculty, the extent of the power of receiving impressions or 
 education ; it appears to be quite impossible at present to train 
 Australians to the same extent as white people ; they cannot assi- 
 milate themselves to our civilization, for as soon as they are removed 
 from restraint and an opportunity occurs they return to the bush. 
 M. P. Broca says, " at one time young Australians were transported 
 to England and confided to the Moravian Brothers, who neglected 
 no cares to improve them ; they returned as brutish as they were 
 before." After being taught to read and write in the Colonial Asy- 
 lums "the young pupils succumbed to their savage instincts and 
 escaped into the woods to live again with their parents whom they 
 had never known." Again M. Broca says.- "of all human beings 
 
 the Tasmanians are, or rather were, with the Australians, nearest to 
 
 x 
 
162 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 the brutal condition."* We need not enlarge on this subject as the 
 facts are generally accepted. 
 
 Mental characteristics naturally divide themselves into the intel- 
 lectual and moral ; the intellectual force, if it may be called so, of 
 the Australians and their allies, is just that activity of mind which 
 is necessary, and is therefore evolved by, the maintenance of life 
 under somewhat hard conditions ; their appliances often involve the 
 reflective faculty, but they have for their sole object hunting, 
 fishing, defence and attack of enemies, and the like. Sir George Grey 
 has described rude paintings in caves, and Mr. Collins noticed that 
 the natives of Port Jackson ornamented some of their implements 
 with very rude carving effected "with a piece of broken shell," but 
 generally speaking the aborigines have little or no knowledge of art, 
 and when such rude carvings are found they are like the productions 
 of children, showing in truth that they are children in intellect. 
 Perhaps the most significant fact in regard to their mental capacity 
 is that .they cannot, as Sir John Lubbock says, " count their own 
 fingers, nor even those of one hand." Mr. Crawford, who examined 
 the numerals of thirty Australian dialects or languages, says that 
 "in no instance do they appear to go beyond the number four," 
 the word for five being the word for many only conveys to them t 
 the idea of a great number. 
 
 The natives of Cape York appear not to go beyond two, their 
 numerals being as follows : — one, netat ; two, naes ; three, naes- 
 netat ; four, naes-naes ; five, naes-naes-netat ; six, naes, naes, naes. 
 This inability to count beyond 3 or 4 has been observed in many 
 other races of low type, and shows the same low order of mind 
 which tends to make savages form words by reduplication. 
 
 * "Hybridity in the genus Homo." 
 
 t Trims. Ethno. Soc, New Series, Vol. ii., p. 84. 
 
AUSTRALIAN CANNIBALISM. 163 
 
 When first discovered the Australians were generally destitute 
 of clothing, but were nevertheless ornamented with a bone, 5 or 6 
 inches long, thrust through a hole made in the cartilage of the nose. 
 As ornaments they often fasten in their hair dogs' tails, fish bones, 
 teeth of men and kangaroos, and other objects ; and though they do 
 not tattoo, their bodies are, among some of the tribes, scarified in 
 a very peculiar manner into patterns, in both straight and curved 
 lines ; this process must be very painful for the wounds are made of 
 such a kind as to raise the designs into high raised cicatrices. 
 
 Cannibalism seems to have been universal among the aborigines 
 of Australia and Tasmania ; with regard to the first an explanation 
 has been suggested in the peculiar belief generally entertained by 
 the natives of Australia, that white people are black people who 
 have returned from the grave, hence in their language they are 
 often called " ghosts " or supernatural beings. Among the higher 
 race of the New Zealanders, who were undoubtedly cannibals when 
 first discovered, a somewhat similar view is entertained by Sir John 
 Lubbock, who says, " that the cannibalism of a New Zealander was 
 a ceremony not a meal, they believed that the greater the number 
 of corpses they had eaten, the higher would be their position in 
 the world to come.''* To partake of the body of a brave man in 
 order to become brave is not an uncommon belief among savages. 
 
 That cannibalism was practised by the Australians without any 
 spiritual idea being attached to it would seem to be manifest, as 
 Dr. Gideon S. Lang says, it takes place not only on their enemies 
 but even on the young and defenceless members of their own tribe ; 
 he tells us that " in the Maranoa district, as I was told by the blacks 
 themselves, when a woman was left a widow with children, it was 
 a common practice for the old and chief men to inveigle away the 
 
 * •' Prehistoric Times," p. 371. 
 
164 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 children during their absence and feast upon their bodies ;" the 
 mother on returning and missing the children would of course follow 
 the track, and seldom failed to discover what had occurred. If she 
 made much noise about the affair, she was told "she had better 
 keep quiet or they would eat her too."* 
 
 In his important work " On the Origin of Civilisation and 
 Primitive Condition of Man," Sir John Lubbock has, in illustrating 
 the gradual advance of man from the lower to the higher condition 
 of morals and culture, endeavoured to show that relationship is at 
 first a matter not of blood but of tribal organisation ; that it is in 
 the second place traced through the mother ; in the third through 
 the father ; and that only in the fourth stage is the idea of family 
 constituted as among ourselves. 
 
 Marriage, in the ordinary sense of the term, cannot be said to exist 
 among the lowest races of mankind, customs regulating the union 
 of men and women among the various tribes however are found 
 among many savages. In a primitive state of society every man 
 considers he has a right in turn to any woman he desires if he is 
 powerful enough to obtain her ; hence probably the most elementary 
 form of marriage was by capture, and from this cause, and others 
 akin to it, came the custom of certain savages to trace descent ex- 
 clusively through the mother. Divisions into gentes or classes, with 
 certain rights in regard to each other followed, and the community 
 became separated into two intermarrying classes, and having a dis- 
 tinctive title which is taken by every one of its members. Thus 
 alliances were forbidden between persons of the same gens or clan, 
 but were not only allowable but claimed as between other gentes. 
 Mr. Andrew Lang says : " the actual ascertained facts prove that 
 many races do not live, or recently did uot live, in the patriarchal 
 
 * " The Aborigines of Australia," Melbourne. 
 
AUSTRALIAH MARRIAGES. 165 
 
 or modern family, they live, or did live, in polyandrous associations, 
 or many husbands to one wife ; and instances the Nairs, the Thi- 
 betans, the inhabitants of the Marquesas Islands, and the Iroquois ; 
 and Cffisar speaks of the like custom among the ancient Britons.* 
 The subject is a very interesting one and has been dealt -with by 
 many writers.t In Australia such communal alliances and affinities 
 appear to prevail. Lubbock says : " that all the men of each class 
 are regarded as possessing marital rights over all the women of some 
 one or more of the other classes,^ but side by side with this custom, 
 there are also " individual marriages, i.e. one man and one woman 
 specially connected together," the principle being the same, i.e. 
 "that any man may consort with any woman belonging to another 
 class or gens, but that no man may take a woman belonging to his 
 own division." 
 
 The Australians and Tasmanians appear to be slowly emerging 
 from the lowest stage of morals, that of descent from the woman 
 with its consequent tribal affinities and taboo, to a slightly more 
 advanced degree of progress ; and may in this respect offer us an 
 analogy to that of our drift men in this valley. 
 
 Although the Australians are said to have no religion, and to 
 use no form of prayer, they believe firmly in the existence of evil 
 spirits and in witchcraft. 
 
 The Maories of New Zealand believe firmly in the immortality 
 of the soul ; but not, as Mr. Marsden says who dwelt among them, 
 
 * "Custom and Myth." 
 
 t See S. H. Morgan's " Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the human 
 family ;" Sir John Lubbock " On the Development of Eelationships."'— Journal 
 Anthro. Inst., Vol. i. ; Dr. E B. Tylor's "Primitive Culture;" McLennan's 
 " Primitive Marriage ; " Sir Henry Maine's " Early Law and Custom," &c. 
 
 X " Systems of Relationships among the Australians."— Journal Anthro. 
 Inst., Vol. xiv., No. iv., 1885 ; also "Aborigines of Australia" by Gideon S. 
 Lang. 
 
165 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 in the resurrection of the body ; in fact, he observes that the mis- 
 sionaries could not induce them to accept that doctrine. They 
 could not realise the conception of an Almighty God ; but they 
 believed in a spirit named Atoua, who was a cannibal and as cruel 
 as themselves ; an exemplification of the lines — 
 
 •'The Ethiop's Gods have dusky cheeks, thick lips and woolly hair ; 
 The Grecian Gods are like the Greeks, as tall, bright eyed and fair." 
 To be eaten, says Sir John Lubbock, "was the greatest misfortune 
 that could happen to a New Zealander, since he believed that the 
 soul was thus destroyed as well as the body. 
 
 I have already referred to their mode of interment of the dead 
 with other savages ; they are generally deposited in a sitting pos- 
 ture, the knees and hands bent up close to the body, the head pressed 
 forward, and the whole body tied up closely in a blanket, as de- 
 scribed by Wilkes ;* they are afterwards often hung up in trees. 
 
 Circumcision occurs among the Australians, and it would be a 
 curious subject for enquiry whether the rite originated with them 
 or was obtained from another source. In the Colonial and Indian 
 Exhibition were shown pieces of coloured string, generally light 
 brown and interwoven, which are used in these rites ; no women or 
 young men are allowed to see these charms, which are much prized, 
 and only possessed by old men of the tribes of the Diamantina Elver 
 and Charlotte Waters. 
 
 Like almost all savages the Australians, and other races we are 
 now noticing, are strong believers in witchcraft; nor is this sur- 
 prising when the same belief still lingers among ignorant people in 
 Europe and Asia, and when our own laws contained enactments, 
 until less than two hundred years ago, for punishing the workers in 
 the black art. Death, in the vigour of life without visible cause, is 
 imputed by them to sorcery. Sir George Grey says "the holiest 
 
 * " United States Exploring Expedition." vol. ii., p. 195. 
 
AUSTRALIAN DEPBAVITY. 167 
 
 duty a native is called on to perform is that of avenging the death 
 of his nearest relation, for it is his particular duty to do so ; until he 
 has fulfilled this task he is constantly taunted by the old women, 
 his wives if he be married will soon quit him ; if he is unmarried 
 not a single young woman will speak to him ; his mother would con- 
 stantly cry and lament she should ever have given birth to so degen- 
 erate a son."* 
 
 As all the relations of a culprit, in the event of his not being 
 found, are implicated in his guilt, their murder frequently occurs, 
 and as every fresh death must be atoned for, atrocities happen 
 leading to brutal wars and even the extermination of families ; the 
 ancient doctrine of "blood for blood," even if the person be only 
 wounded and that accidentally, is the custom of the natives. In- 
 stances are given of natural death, supposed to be occasioned by 
 sorcery, being followed by blood revenge ; such an example is 
 related by Dr. Gideon S. Lang,t which shows the enormous diffi- 
 culty of eradicating the ideas engendered by the long continuance 
 of custom in savage life. In the neighbourhood of Wellington, New 
 South Wales, there had been for many years a party of Moravian 
 missionaries, who had been very successful in civilising the blacks ; 
 they had taken charge of them almost from infancy, and trained 
 them up free from the vices and barbarities of the tribes. While 
 staying there I constantly saw one of these blacks, named Jemmy, 
 a remarkably fine man about 28 years of age, who was the " model 
 Christian" of the missionaries, and who had been over and over 
 again described in their reports as a living proof that, taken in 
 infancy, the natives were as capable of being truly Christianised 
 as people who had had centuries of cultivation. Jemmy was not 
 
 * " Journals of two Expeditions in Australia." 
 t " Aborigines of Australia.'' 
 
168 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 only familiar with the Bible, which he could read remarkably well, 
 but he was even better acquainted with the more abstruse tenets 
 of Christianity, and, so far as the whites could see, his behaviour 
 was in accordance with his religious requirements. One Sun- 
 day morning I walked down to the black fellows' camp to 
 have a talk with Jemmy as usual. "He was sitting in a state 
 of nudity, except his waist cloth, very earnestly reading the 
 Bible which indeed was his constant practice ; and I could see he 
 was perusing the Sermon on the Mount. I seated myself and 
 waited till he concluded the chapter, when he laid down the Bible, 
 folded his hands, and sat with his eyes fixed abstractedly on his 
 fire. I bade him ' Good morning ' which he acknowledged with- 
 out looking up. I then said ' Jemmy, what is the meaning of 
 your spears being stuck in a circle round you ? ' He looked 
 me steadily in the eyes, and said solemnly, and with suppressed 
 fierceness, ' Mother's dead !' I said I was very sorry to hear it, 
 but what had her death to do with the spears being stuck around 
 you. ' Bogan black fellow kill her,' was the fierce and gloomy 
 reply. ' Killed by a Bogan Black,' I exclaimed ; ' why your 
 mother has been dying for a fortnight, and Dr. Curtis did not 
 expect her to outlive last night, which you know as well as I 
 do.' His only reply was a dogged repetition of the words, 'A 
 Bogan black fellow killed her.' I appealed to him as a Christian 
 — to the Sermon on the Mount, that he had just been reading ; 
 but he absolutely refused to promise that he would not avenge 
 his mother's death. In the afternoon of that day we were 
 startled by a yell which can never be mistaken by any person 
 who has once heard the wild war-whoops of the blacks in battle 
 array. On rushing out, we saw all the black fellows formed into 
 a line and following Jemmy in an imaginary attack upon the 
 enemy. Jemmy himself disappeared that evening. On the follow- 
 
TASMANIAN GESTURE LANGUAGE. 169 
 
 ing Wednesday morning I found him complacently in his gunyah, 
 plaiting a rope of human hair, which I at once knew to be that 
 of his victim." He had gone to the district of the Bogan tribe, 
 where the first black he met happened to be an old friend and 
 companion of his own : this man had made the first cut in the 
 bark of a tree he was about to climb for an opossum ; he leaped 
 down and faced round, but " seeing it was only Jemmy he re- 
 sumed his occupation ; but had no sooner set to work than 
 Jemmy sent a spear through his back and nailed him to the 
 tree." 
 
 Dr. E. B. Tylor says :* the Tasmanians, like the Veddah tribes 
 of Ceylon, speak a language composed of gestures and guttural 
 sounds, not systematised language. Dr. Milligan speaks of their use 
 of signs to eke out the meaning of monosyllabic expressions. 
 Captain Burton gives the same account of a tribe of American In- 
 dians, the Arapapas, of whom he says, "they possess a very scanty 
 vocabulary, pronounced in a quasi unintelligible way, and can 
 hardly converse with one another in the dark ; to make a stranger 
 understand them they must always repair to the camp fire for pow- 
 wow." The fact would either, as Dr. E. B. Tylor says, " furnish 
 the strongest case of degeneration known in the history of the 
 human race, or would supply a telling argument in favour of the 
 theory, that the gesture language is the original utterance of man- 
 kind, out of which speech has developed itself more or less fully 
 among different tribes." 
 
 When the aborigines of Australia and Tasmania were first dis- 
 covered they did not cultivate the ground and had no knowledge of 
 agriculture though they made use of vegetable substances as food. 
 The Maories appear in this respect, as in others, to have been more 
 
 * "Early History of Mankind." 
 
170 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 advanced, as they are said, particularly in the northern districts, 
 to have cultivated yams and sweet potatoes, and also gourds, which 
 were used as drinking vessels, for they had no knowledge of pot- 
 tery. For tillage they used "a long narrow stake sharpened to 
 an edge at one end with a short piece fastened transversely at a 
 little distance above it for the convenience of pressing it down with 
 the foot."* I have seen also a long pointed jade implement with 
 sharp bladed sides which it seems probable was employed for the 
 same object, in fact it is very well known that stone is also used for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Grey says the food of the Australians consists of roots, fruits, fungi, 
 shell fish, frogs, insects, birds' eggs, fish, turtles, kangaroos, dog, and 
 sometimes of seal and whale ; a whale is a real god-send to them, 
 and as they gather rouud it they " fairly eat their way into it, and 
 you see them climbing in and about the stinking carcase, choosing 
 tit bits ;" for days " they remain in the carcase, rubbed from head to 
 foot with stinking blubber, gorged to repletion with putrid meat, 
 out of temper from indigestion, and therefore engaged in constant 
 frays ; suffering from a cutaneous disorder by high feeding, and 
 altogether a disgusting spectacle. ''f They consume quantities of 
 shell fish, the shells of which accumulate in vast heaps near their 
 dwellings. The same author says he has seen some of these shell 
 mounds covering fully half-an-acre, and having a height of ten 
 feet. 
 
 The dwellings of the aborigines of Australia are of a very rude 
 kind, even the best of them. There are differences in their mode of 
 construction, the most common form being semi-circular or bee- 
 hive shape ; they are made of bark, or more commonly bent twigs 
 
 * Dieffenbach's " New Zealand." 
 
 t Grey's "Explorations in North West and West Australia," p. 2G3. 
 
AUSTRALIAN DWELLINGS. 
 
 171 
 
 or branches covered with bark or grass ; such habitations rarely 
 exceed four feet in height. Captain Cook found the huts of the 
 natives of Botany Bay were only " just high enough to sit upright 
 in; but not large enough for him to extend himself in his whole 
 length in any direction ; they were built of pliable rods about as 
 thick as a man's finger, in the form of an oven, by sticking the two 
 ends in the ground and then covering them with palm leaves and 
 pieces of bark ; the door is nothing but a large hole in one end." 
 Campbell found the dwellings of the Melville Islanders on the north 
 coast to consist of a single sheet of bark formed into a shed or mere 
 roof open at each end;" the inner dimensions of which were "four 
 feet and a half long, three in width, and three feet high." Mere 
 wind screens are used both in the north and south of the continent 
 and round the coast ; they consist of a simple slanting back sup- 
 ported by two uprights, but quite open at the front and sides. On 
 the west coast, Peron says, the dwellings visited by him were simple 
 screens against the wind formed of the bark of trees. Dampier 
 states that the inhabitants of the Archipelago, on the west coast, 
 named after him, and of the adjacent main land, had no dwellings, 
 but set up a few boughs before them to keep off the wind. At 
 Beagle Bay the only approach to a hut seen by Commander Stokes 
 was " a slight rudely thatched covering, placed on four upright poles, 
 between three and four feet high. In one McKinlay found raised 
 platforms without any covering whatever, which were evidently used 
 as sleeping places. A screen habitation of the natives of Victoria 
 was removed from the colony and put up at the Colonial and Indian 
 Exhibition, a mere lean to of bark and branches, so simple in con- 
 struction that there could hardly be more than half-an-hour's work 
 in making it. It is said such habitations are always placed with the 
 back to the wind, others aver that they are so situated as to catch 
 the rays of the early morning sun. Mr. J. E. Calder has described 
 
172 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 the huts of the Tasmanians " as the frailest and most temporary 
 structures conceivable ; they are often meant only for a single 
 night;"* but some on the coast were more substantial; some are 
 described " as composed of a few strips of bark laid against some 
 large dead branches that were used just as they had fallen from 
 the trees above ; others were also of bark and supported on sticks 
 driven a little into the ground, and were adorned, according to their 
 ideas of ornament, with several rude charcoal drawings, one repre- 
 senting a kangaroo of unnatural appearance and other rude designs." 
 
 Eude as may have been the man of the drift period he could 
 hardly have formed for himself a shelter in the Thames Valley of 
 ruder construction than some of those in use now among the abori- 
 gines of Australia. 
 
 The canoes of the Australians are all of the rudest form, though 
 there is a variation in the mode of their construction among the differ- 
 ent tribes. On the North East coast Freycinet found them formed from 
 the trunk of a tree, probably hollowed out by fire, with an outrigger.f 
 Sometimes a log of wood is used " on which they sit astride, with a 
 bit of bark on each side as a paddle ;" others form a rude boat " of 
 bark tied together, kept open in the middle by small bows of wood."+ 
 On the South and West coasts of Tasmania Mr. J. E. Calder says 
 the mode of propulsion of the native boat or catamaran "would 
 shock the professional or amateur boatman ; common sticks with 
 points instead of blades were all that were used to urge it, with its 
 living freight, through the water." Spears are said to be used in 
 some parts of Australia to paddle the fragile bark canoes as illus- 
 trated in Mr. J. G. Wood's "Natural History of Man." The use of 
 
 * "Native Tribes of Tasmania." J. E. Calder. Journ. Anthro. Inst., 
 Vol. iii., No. 1. 
 
 t "Voyage autour du Monde." Vol. ii. 
 t " Prehistoric Times," p. 349. 
 
AUSTRALIAN BOATS. 173 
 
 bark in the construction of a canoe seems to have been suggested by 
 the hollowed trunk, which is not however in such general use in 
 Australia as the former. There is a model in the British Museum 
 of an Australian float consisting of a bundle of bark and rushes, 
 pointed and elevated at the ends and bound round with girdles simi- 
 lar to the "lashed up hammock" canoe of the Indians of California 
 described by Professor Wilson.* Such vessels of bark and rushes 
 have suggested to Colonel Lane Fox (now General Pitt Rivers) a 
 certain continuity of idea between them and the primitive form of 
 vessels used on the Nile ; " viz. that mentioned by Isaiah as being of 
 Ethiopian origin, and to which the mother of Moses entrusted her 
 infant progeny — the vessel of bulrushes." " There are peculiarities 
 of form which make the bulrush float of the Egyptians worthy of 
 comparison with those of Australia." "The racial connection 
 between the Australians and the Egyptians, first put forward 
 by Professor Huxley, has hardly met with general acceptance 
 as yet; but startling as it at first appeared, the more we look 
 into the evidence bearing upon it, the less improbable, to say the 
 least, it becomes, when viewed by the light of comparative culture, "t 
 Colonel Lane Fox having previously shown how closely some of 
 the Australian weapons correspond to some of those still used on 
 the Upper Nile. J In crossing the rivers, says the same author, 
 "the Australian savage simply goes to the nearest stringy-bark 
 tree, chops a circle round the tree at the foot and another seven 
 or eight feet higher, makes a longitudinal cut on each side, and 
 strips off bark enough by this means to make two canoes. If he is 
 
 * "Prehistoric Man." The Author says— "it is said the American grey 
 Squirrel has been known to cross rivers by embarking on a piece of floating 
 timber and paddle itself across." 
 
 t " Early Modes of Navigation." Journ. Anthro. Inst. " A woodcut in 
 Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Ancient Egypt, represents three persons making one 
 of these papyrus floats." 
 
 % "Primitive Warfare." Lectures, Journ. Eoyal United Service Inst. 
 
174 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 only going to cross the river by himself, he simply ties the bark 
 together at the ends, paddles across, and abandons the piece of bark 
 on the other side, knowing that he can easily provide another. If it 
 is to carry another besides himself he stops up the tied ends with 
 clay ; but if it is to be more permanently employed he sews up the 
 ends more carefully, and keeps it in shape by cross pieces, thereby 
 producing a vessel which closely resembles the bark canoe of North 
 America." 
 
 Some of the weapons and implements have been alluded to 
 in a previous chapter when considering the mode of hafting 
 the flint implements probably adopted by the men of the palae- 
 olithic period. The Australians not only use spears pointed with 
 flint or chert, [PL V., Figs. 1 & 2] but also light ones of hard wood 
 only pointed at the end and hardened by fire ; flints must be greatly 
 prized among them, as this material, with feathers, shells, pigments, 
 and implements generally, are often employed as objects for 
 barter. Among the articles taken by King from the natives of 
 Hanover Bay was a bundle containing several stone spear heads 
 six inches long, curiously worked, and with both sides serrated. 
 
 Mr. Oldfield gives the following account of the mode in 
 use among the Australians for making spears : — " Having pro- 
 cured a number of passably straight sticks, the native returns to 
 his camp and by means of a sharp flint fixed to the end of 
 his dowak removes the bark and knots. His next care is to re- 
 move the ends which most interfere with its efficiency as a 
 spear, and to this end he carefully examines the end to find 
 its greatest bend, and this discovered, he buries that part in hot 
 ashes, and, when thoroughly heated, removing it from the fire, 
 he bends the stick in the right direction, and again repeating 
 this operation of unbending it until the twist is removed.'' " He 
 next proceeds to point it, the only tool for this purpose being 
 
AUSTRALIAN SPEAES. 175 
 
 the flint above mentioned. If intended for fishing, he fixes two 
 barbs just below the point of the spear by means of the tail 
 sinews of the Kangaroo,"* finishing his work off with gum. It 
 may be assumed with some probability that fire was a very 
 important agent in fashioning the spear lance or dart shafts 
 among the Palaeolithic men. Flint cutting tools are shown in PL 
 V., Figs. 10 & 13. 
 
 Barbs are sometimes also lashed on with sinew or cut in 
 the solid wood, and in some instances a row of sharp flints or 
 quartz flakes are secured to the shaft with gum on one side of 
 the point [Plate V., Fig. 3] ; spears with fore shafts, or one piece of 
 wood let into the other, are not so generally in use in 
 Australia as those in one piece of wood. 
 
 The longer spears are thrown by hand without the womera or 
 throwing stick, but that ingeniously contrived instrument is em- 
 ployed in hurling the shorter darts; they are then thrown with 
 such force that it is said that some of these weapons exhibited at 
 the Colonial and Indian Exhibition will, even at a considerable 
 distance, go right through a man and the jagged pieces of sharp 
 stone make a very ugly wound. 
 
 The spears used by the natives of Victoria for catching fish 
 have barbed prongs, one of which is a little in advance of 
 the other, rendering the weapon very effective. A kind of rude 
 wooden club-like sword is said to be also in use, but the most 
 useful implement appears to be the hatchet, whether the stone 
 be merely stuck on the handle with thick gum, called a dowak, 
 which has already been described, or the stone hatchets moun- 
 ted with bent withe, used both to assist in climbing trees and 
 as a weapon (see Plate III., Fig 3). The Australians are also 
 armed with wooden clubs or waddies of different forms. Shields 
 
 * " Aborigines of Australia." Trans. Ethno. Soc, new series. 
 
176 
 
 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 of plaited grass or solid wood are used for defence, some of which 
 are long and narrow, a very ancient form. The weapon which 
 caused the greatest surprise to the Europeans, when it was first 
 seen in use, is the boomerang. These instruments are from 3 to 
 4 feet in length, and considerable skill is necessary, not only 
 in making them, but also in using them with effect. The in- 
 strument does not appear to be used in war, but for killing birds. 
 There are two modes of throwing it, in one case it is thrown 
 into the air at about an angle of 45° with the flat surface 
 horizontal ; it then ascends by a rotatory motion and afterwards 
 returns near to the spot from which it was hurled ; the other mode 
 is by allowing it to strike the ground, from which it rebounds 
 and ricoches in a straight line until it strikes the object, or, 
 missing it, loses its force. It is not a little remarkable at first 
 sight that such a low race of savages as the Australians should 
 be found in possession of a weapon requiring so many fine 
 adjustments, more especially as they are not acquainted with 
 the bow and arrow and do not use the sling. 
 
 The savage however who throws a boomerang is ignorant of the 
 reasons for its apparent eccentric motion, and its discovery there 
 can be no doubt was due to accident. It has been already mentioned 
 that throwing clubs, sticks or stones, were probably the earliest 
 weapons in the world, as they are now in use among the most bar- 
 barous races. The Fiji islander throws his knob headed club ; 
 the patoo patoo of the New Zealander, attached by a cord to his 
 wrist, is made to strike his victim ; the North American throws his 
 tomahawk; the Kaffirs and the Negroes of "Western Africa throw the 
 knob kerry ; and the Australian the dowak, &c. Colonel Lane Fox 
 has pointed out the gradual stages of development of the boomerang 
 shown in a number of specimens collected together; "some will 
 be seen to be too straight to receive a proper rotary motion from the 
 
BOOMERANGS 177 
 
 hand of the thrower; others will be too thick and heavy to fall 
 back on an inclined plane and will fall forward by their weight ; 
 some will have a twist but the majority will be without this addi- 
 tion;" some will bulge in the centre; some will be flat on one 
 side and convex on the other; various as may be these attempts 
 to make a perfect instrument, the boomerang appears to have 
 reached its highest development in Australia. Boomerangs are sup- 
 posed to have been used by the Ancient Egyptians, and Sir Samuel 
 Baker has described a wooden boomerang, much like the Australian, 
 as in use in Abyssinia; among others it is used by the Kolis of 
 Guzerat, who " are of the black aboriginal race of the Deccan of 
 India ;" thus, as Colonel Lane Fox points out, " it is shown that 
 the boomerang, like the parrying shield (long and narrow) is found 
 in use in its most primitive form by the black and dark coloured 
 races of Southern Europe, which Professor Huxley, on physiological 
 grounds alone, has traced to the Australoid stock, viz. the Austra- 
 lians, the Dravidians (Kolis of India &c), and the Egyptians."* 
 Neither the New Zealanders nor Tasmanians use the boomerang. 
 It is not surprising in the case of the latter, for their state of cul- 
 ture appears to have been even lower than that of the Australians ; 
 according to Captain Cook's description of them, when he visited 
 Tasmania, they " had no houses, no clothes, no canoes, no instru- 
 ment to catch large fish, no nets, no hooks ; they lived on mussels, 
 cockles and periwinkles, and their only weapon was a straight pole 
 sharpened at one end."t This account appears to admit of some 
 qualification from the description by Mr. J. E. Calder of their houses 
 and canoes already quoted. Mr. Calder describes " the spear of the 
 
 * Catalogue by Col. Lane Fox of his collection lent to the Betlmal Green 
 Branch of the S. Kensington Museum. 
 
 t " Third Voyage," Book i., p. 100. 
 
 z 
 
178 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 Tasmaniaus as a long thin stick pointed at both ends ; the weapon 
 of the adult being ten feet long or more and thrown from the hand 
 only, with great force and precision, having a range of about sixty or 
 seventy yards, the waddy is also of wood, barely two feet long, 
 thicker at one end than the other, and was used either as a club 
 or missile ;" he says, " when the native's other weapons failed, he 
 fought with stones, and even with these was a very formidable 
 opponent." " The mode of ascending trees by cutting notches with 
 a sharp stone, first large enough to admit the toes, is similar to the 
 mode adopted by the Australians."* 
 
 Flint, chert and other stone is used as axes, tomahawks, ham- 
 rners, mauls, spear heads, knives, &c, by the Australians; 
 the latter being generally formed of flakes of flint, often only 
 hafted with a piece of skin lashed or with a lump of gum (see 
 Plate III., Fig. 9 ; Plate V., Figs. 1, 2, 3, 10 and 13). The Austra- 
 lians use vessels of bark for holding water, and have no knowledge of 
 pottery. 
 
 Shields of plaited grass or of solid wood are used as a means of 
 
 defence. Major Mitchell has noticed the dexterity with which the 
 
 darts of the assailants are parried and cast off from the long narrow 
 
 shields with a twist of the hand. Mr. Oldfield has described the 
 
 mode of cutting out these shields from the centre of a tree by 
 
 means of a flint tool, the simplest form, as described by Col. Lane 
 
 Fox, "being a simple stick without a handle, thick in the middle 
 
 and tapering towards both ends, flat at the back and round in front," 
 
 one of which is now in the Salisbury Museum. Colonel Lane Fox 
 
 has shown the development of the later shields from this very form, 
 
 and he cites Livy's account of the battle between the Romans and 
 
 the Greeks on Mount Olympus, B.C. 189, wherein the shields of 
 
 the Gauls are described as being long, but too narrow to cover their 
 * "Native Tribes of Tasmania," Journ. Anthro. Inst., vol. iii., No. 1. 
 
MORIOKIS. 
 
 179 
 
 bodies ; and also the address of Cneius Manlius to the Roman soldiers, 
 when approaching the Gauls, who speaks of the latter as " brandishing 
 their shields in a peculiar manner practised in their own country ;" 
 this he believes "to refer to nothing else than parrying with their 
 long narrow shields, like the Africans, Australians and Hill tribes 
 of India." It is very remarkable that the long, narrow, very ancient 
 shield should be found to be in use so late as the Roman period 
 in Europe. 
 
 The wants of the aborigines of Australia are few and simple. 
 They often "carry a small bag about the size of a moderate cab- 
 bage net, which is made by threads loop within loop, somewhat in 
 the manner of knitting used by ladies to make purses ; this bag 
 the man carries loose upon his back by a small string, which passes 
 over his head ; it generally contains a lump or two of paint or resin, 
 some fish hooks and lines, a shell or two out of which their hooks are 
 made, a few points of darts and their usual ornaments, which includes 
 the whole worldly treasure of the richest man among them."* A 
 flat stone is sometimes added to pound roots with. 
 
 Some rude forms of stone implements are found in the Chatham 
 Islands off the Eastern Coast of New Zealand, where " they are used 
 by the Morioris, a tribe now almost extinct. They lived until late 
 years in caves and rude huts, exposed to most inclement weather, 
 with only a scanty supply of fuel, there being no large trees in the 
 islands. They subsisted on fish and the flesh of seals and cetaceans, 
 and clothed themselves in skins ; their boats are made of the flow- 
 ering stalks of New Zealand flax."t They employ flakes for cutting 
 flesh and heavy polished adzes for cultivating the ground, and also 
 
 * Cook's "Voyages,'' Book iii., p. 232. 
 
 f James Hector's " Early Forms of Stone Implements," Journ. Anthro. 
 Inst., Vol. v., No. 4, p. 461. See also Welch and Davis "On the Chatham 
 Islands," Anthro. Keview, Vol. viii., 1876. 
 
180 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 used stone weapons. The Moriories were almost exterminated by 
 the Maories in 1835 ; many were slaughtered, and, it is said, were 
 eaten by their conquerors. 
 
 We know nothing of the chronology of savage races ; how long 
 the blacks of Australia and Tasmania may have remained in their 
 present state of culture, or without appreciable alteration, it is im- 
 possible to determine; the progress of savages seems to be so 
 exceedingly slow that they were probably in the same condition ten 
 thousand years ago as they are now, and that but for the advent 
 of the white colonist, or a higher race, they might have remained, 
 with little difference in their civilization and progress, some thou- 
 sands of years longer. 
 
 The attempt to get an insight into the condition of the Austra- 
 lians at the period when the Drift men existed in England would 
 open up an interesting question, but would also lead to a long 
 vista of conjecture and hypothesis. The absence however of all 
 relics of a better endowed people in the deposits and caves of Aus- 
 tralia and the accumulated evidence borne in upon us from every 
 side that all life has advanced and is advancing from the lower to 
 the more highly advanced specialized forms, leads to the inevitable 
 conclusion that even the present low mental and physical condition 
 of the Australians, Tasmanians and other races of low type, was 
 preceded by a lower form and by habits more akin to the brutes 
 than those already described, from whence the next step is easy. 
 No one, says Professor Huxley, " is more convinced than I of the 
 vastness of the gulf between civilized man and the brutes, or is 
 more certain that whether from them or not, he is assuredly not of 
 them. No one is less disposed to think lightly of the present dignity 
 or despairingly of the future hopes of the only consciously intelligent 
 denizen of the world. Is it indeed true that the poet or the philo- 
 sopher or artist, who is the glory of his age, is degraded from his 
 
THE LOWEST MEN ? 181 
 
 high estate by the undoubted historical probability, not to say cer- 
 tainty, that he is the direct descendant of some naked bestial savage, 
 whose intelligence was just sufficient to make him a little more 
 cunning than the fox and by so much more dangerous than the 
 tiger ? or is he bound to howl and growl on all fours because of the 
 wholly unquestionable fact that he was once an egg, which no ordi- 
 nary power of discrimination could distinguish from that of a dog ? 
 or is the philanthropist or the saint to give up his endeavour to lead 
 a noble life because the simplest study of man's nature reveals as 
 its foundation all the selfish passions and fierce appetites of the 
 merest quadruped ? is mother love vile because a hen shows it ? or 
 fidelity base because dogs possess it ?"* 
 
 Travellers and naturalists, says Sir John Lubbock, "have varied 
 a good deal in opinion as to the race of savages which is entitled 
 to the unenviable reputation of being the lowest in the scale of 
 civilization. Cook, Darwin, FitzRoy and Wall are very decidedly 
 in favour, if I may say so, of the Fuegian ; Burchell maintained 
 that the Bushmen were the lowest; D'Urville voted for the Aus- 
 tralians and Tasmanians ; Dampier thought the Australians " the 
 miserablest people in the world;" Forster says the people of Malli- 
 colo " bordered the nearest upon the tribe of monkeys ;" Owen 
 inclines to the Andamaners ; others have supposed the North Ame- 
 rican root diggers; and one French writer even insinuates "that 
 monkeys are more human than Laplanders." 
 
 The Koli, or aboriginal wild black races of Guzerat and the 
 Deccan, to which allusion has been made as being in possession of 
 the boomerang, and as having physiological affinities with the Aus- 
 traloid stock, and their allies, the tree dwelling savages in the dense 
 forests of Siam and Malaya, may very well put in a claim to be 
 
 * " Man's Place in Nature. 
 
182 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 considered the most ape like men in the world, though it is evident 
 they are still men, and do not form "the missing link" which has 
 hitherto been sought in vain. 
 
 The following account, taken from a book of hunting adventure 
 in Burmah, Siam and Malaya, is sufficiently interesting to be 
 reproduced : — * 
 
 In the northern part of the Malayan Peninsula, amidst the 
 gloomy forests, the travellers were attracted by what seemed, at a 
 distance, some enormous birds' nests in the trees of a neighbouring 
 valley ; on approaching them the inhabitants of these tree dwellings, 
 whom they at first took to be apes, proved to be men. Some of 
 these had descended to pick berries or were grubbing up roots 
 with pointed sticks, others climbed the cocoa nut palms in search of 
 nuts ; " the pitiable objects before us were completely naked, both 
 men and women ; the colour of their skins was very dark,'' nearly 
 black ; then* stature was undersized, the height of the men being 
 about 5 feet 2 or 3 inches ; the hair was allowed to grow long and 
 hung about their heads and necks in a tangled mass of filth, giving 
 them the appearance of having disproportionately large heads." 
 " In countenance they were not repulsive, though far from good 
 looking ; but their expression was idiotic in the highest degree, and 
 whilst looking at them I could not wonder much that some have 
 classed the most noble of God's creatures with the ape tribe. When 
 their attention was attracted they stood as if paralysed with aston- 
 ishment, and, setting up a shrill scream, ran away. The scream 
 alarmed those who were in the hut or nest in the trees, and they 
 commenced to swarm down to the ground like monkeys ; in doing so a 
 young girl of 17 or 18 was captured, not before she had bitten apiece 
 
 * "Travel and Sport in Burniab, Siani and Malay," by John Bradley, 
 1876. 
 
NEST BUILDING MEN. 183 
 
 out of the arm of one of the Indian servants of the size of a crown piece. 
 The tree huts were built in the lower branches of a species of 
 large wide spreading tree, about 30 to 50 feet from the ground. 
 Access to them was gained by a number of notches cut in the 
 tree trunk. When we got amongst the branches we had to crawl 
 out snake fashion to get at the huts, which were the shape of a 
 bee hive, though rather more pointed at the apex. They were 
 constructed entirely of small branches and twigs tied together at 
 the top and bent round to form the hollow in the interior ; the 
 height and the diameter were about six feet ; the entrance was 
 from a hole in the side, so small that we could scarcely force our 
 way in ; in some cases the huts were covered with deer skins. All 
 that we found within the hut was a quantity of leaves which 
 seemed to serve as a bed ; some bones, the remains of a meal ; a 
 curious instrument made of bone, and apparently intended to serve 
 as a knife ; and a sort of tomahawk, formed by fixing a pointed 
 stone upon a stick." Outside the huts a number of spears were laid 
 against the branches of the trees. They consisted merely of long 
 sticks of hard wood sharpened at both ends. Beneath the trees 
 were charred bones and horns of deer, and several fires were still 
 smouldering. By way of amusing the captive, " we gave her a few 
 silver coins" and brass buttons, and she became rapidly reconciled 
 to our society ; " she chattered incessantly in a rude guttural lan- 
 guage that sounded like a series of grunts, and was evidently 
 vexed that she could not make herself understood. "She had a 
 prodigious appetite, and consumed at least ten or twelve pounds 
 of deer's flesh." 
 
 In the interior of another hut "were a number of short thick 
 sticks intended as missile weapons ; from the traces of blood 
 and feathers found upon them they had been used for knocking 
 down birds. The only other articles were a number of sharpened 
 
184 MODERN SAVAGE CULTURE. 
 
 stones serving the purposes of knives. The physique of the savages 
 whom they afterwards induced by the aid of their captive to come 
 to them " was miserable, the limbs of the men being scarcely larger 
 than those of boys, and the poor women were emaciated," and 
 were treated with revolting brutality by the men, " who struck 
 them fiercely in our presence." The bodies of these savages were 
 thickly covered with hair. Fire was obtained by rubbing two 
 pieces of dry rotten wood together. We had good reason for coming 
 to the conclusion that wedlock in any form was not recognised by 
 them, and indeed in their manners they were even more degraded 
 and lost to a sense of decency than the lowest orders of the animal 
 creation. It is impossible to say more than this. 
 
CONCLUSION. 185 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 To return to the relics of human workmanship found in the 
 drift deposits of North-West Middlesex. 
 
 From the analogies of certain existing races which have been 
 adduced we are now able to form a conception of the probable 
 state of culture, the mode of life and social conditions of these 
 Archaic men in the Thames Valley ; the previous pages afford us 
 strong evidence of the rigorous climate which prevailed, and of the 
 physical geography of this region when they inhabited it. 
 
 The river drift hunter has, as Professor Boyd Dawkins says, 
 left his traces all over Western Europe ; in France and Spain as 
 well as in Italy and Greece ; in Asia Minor ; in Algeria, Egypt 
 and other parts of Africa ; over the whole of India as well as in 
 North America* 
 
 The remarkable discovery of Paleeolithic chert implements in 
 stratified gravel, in the Nile Valley near Thebes, by General Pitt 
 Rivers, under conditions indicating a very high antiquity ; the 
 collection made by Professor H. W. Haynes from Babel-Mullock, 
 the tomb of the ancient kings of Luxor under similar conditions, 
 have thus been commented on by Professor Boyd Dawkins : — 
 
 * I have in my Collection a considerable number of roughly chipped im- 
 plements of flakes of chert, jasper and agate ; they were found on the slopes 
 of rounded hills of alluvium in the Nerbudda Valley, Central India, and 
 were collected by the late Colonel Evder. These objects are said to occur on 
 the southern or warmer sides of the hills, whereas the present people seek 
 the cooler sites and do not generally live on the southern slopes. 
 
 2a 
 
186 CONCLUSION. 
 
 " Their identity shows that the Palaeolithic men who hunted the 
 arnee and the extinct hippopotamus in the forests of India, who 
 wandered over Palestine and the Valley of the Nile, who hunted 
 the wild boar and stag, the mammoth and probably the pigmy 
 rhinoceros in the Mediterranean, was in the same rude state of 
 civilization as the hunter of the reindeer, bison, woolly rhinoceros 
 and horse in the forests of France and Britain."* 
 
 M. Mortillet has drawn attention to the resemblance between 
 the stone implements found in the valley of the Delaware (Tren- 
 ton gravels of glacial age) and those occurring in Western Europe, 
 and believes that the same epoch has produced similar industries. t 
 
 There is an apparent uniformity between the stone implements 
 of different ages in different parts of the world, which seems to ad- 
 mit of no other explanation than that they mark stages of progress. 
 As Dr. E. B. Tylor says, " the state of things which is found is not 
 indeed that one race does or knows exactly what another race does 
 or knows, but that similar stages of development occur in different 
 times in different places." That gradations of culture occur even 
 among savages of very low type is as obvious as that the same 
 difference exists among individuals in any more civilised people; 
 the Maories of New Zealand, whose higher mental capacity and 
 physique is probably due to the infusion of Malayan blood, would 
 regard the Western Australian as a poor savage fit only to be eaten, 
 while the North American Indian would probably consider him so 
 low as to be almost beneath his contempt. 
 
 As we have seen Man is found to be living in England at the 
 
 * " Journ. Anthro. Inst.'' Vol. xi., No. 4. See also on the same subject 
 by Sir John Lubbock, "Journ. Anthro. Inst." Vol. iii., Part 1; Jukes 
 Brown, "Journ. Anthro. Inst." Vol. vii., Part 4; Captain Burton, "Journ. 
 Anthro. Inst." Vol. vii. , Part 3. 
 
 f "Bulletin de la Soc. d'Anthropologie de Paris," tome deuxierne, iii. 
 serie, 1879. 
 
PALAEOLITHIC WINTER SCENE. 187 
 
 last continental period, if not earlier. He appears to have inha- 
 bited this country at or soon after the last glacial epoch, when a 
 very cold temperature, similar to that of South Greenland, prevailed ; 
 he lived on through an ason during which oscillations of level took 
 place in Western Europe accompanied by variations in climate, 
 resulting in a more genial but still rigorous climate with a 
 general distribution of land and water nearly as we have it 
 now. During the vast period during which these changes have 
 been wrought, the whole contour of the land in North- West Mid- 
 dlesex has been altered and moulded by the action of water, air, 
 snow and ice. He seems to have existed throughout all this time as 
 a nomad, with many of the habits of people now living in the 
 arctic regions ; a hunter living in caves and rock shelters, wher- 
 ever he could find them, and in the Thames Valley probably in such 
 rude wigwams formed of boughs and rushes as are now in use by the 
 Fuegians and other savages I have described. 
 
 With the view of partly realising the changes which have siuce 
 taken place on the face of the country — let us imagine ourselves 
 to stand by the side of the Paleolithic hunter near the top of 
 Castlebar Hill, Ealing, in the winter of that period, upon one of 
 the beds of gravel which mark the level at which the waters had 
 previously flowed in still earlier times, but which will then be de- 
 positing the gravel at the 130 foot contour. 
 
 I select this height, as one of the pointed flint implements I 
 have described was discovered in such a deposit at that level, and 
 therefore the presence of man at that time cannot be doubted. 
 
 How different on every side from the present aspect is the pro- 
 spect before us ! Instead of the fresh verdant fields of Perivale, 
 Alperton and Harrow Weald, the frozen waters are spread over all 
 that country, extending far to the north towards the hills of Hertford- 
 shire, with stretches of land here and there ; Horsington, Harrow 
 
188 CONCLUSION. 
 
 and other hills appear as islands, clothed with firs and other hardy 
 plants deep in snow. The country is mantled in snow ; and thick 
 ribbed ice has set fast the stream of the wide river at our very 
 feet, or within a stone's throw of us to the south, and extends for 
 miles in that direction. Herds of reindeer may be seen in the dis- 
 tance, seeking for the means of subsistence beneath the snow, by 
 the aid of the special antler which kindly nature has provided 
 them with for the purpose. The mammoth with its long upwardly 
 curved tusks * is in the woodlands, and with him the companion 
 whose remains are often found associated with his — the woolly 
 rhinoceros ; the hibernating marmot may be disturbed in its win- 
 ter's sleep ;f the arctic lemming is about, and the river drift hunter 
 is pursuing the musk sheep and reindeer. X As the night comes on 
 the discordant cries of bears, wolves and wolverenes are heard as 
 they sally forth from the thickets to seek their prey. 
 
 Our Palaeolithic hunter is clothed in the skin of the reindeer 
 
 * At Brentford many of the bones were found little or not at all worn by 
 attrition, and the long tusks of the elephant were found entire. See Quart. 
 Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. vi., 1850, " On the Occurrence of Mammalian Remains 
 at Brentford," Morris and Layton ; and "An Account of some Organic Re- 
 mains found near Brentford," by Trimmer, Phil., Trans., 1813 ; also "Geology 
 of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames," by John Phillips. 
 
 t The pouched Marmot, Lemming and Musk sheep were found in valley 
 drift deposits at Pisherton, near Salisbury, associated with most of the other 
 late Pleistocene Mammalia, and also with remains of the wild goose, Anser 
 palustris, and wild duck, Anas boschas ; they were determined by Dr. Black- 
 more, and described by Mr. John Evans. See "Ancient Stone Implements," 
 p. 552, &c. 
 
 J In 1855 the skull of the musk sheep (Bubalus, syn. Ovibos, moschatus) 
 was found in the ochreous gravel of Maidenhead by the Rev. 0. Kingsley and 
 Sir John Lubbock ; the identification of this fossil with the living species 
 being made by Professor Owen ; it has also been found by Sir John Lubbock 
 near Bromley, in the valley of a small tributary of the Thames. Lyell, 
 "Antiquity of Man," 3rd Edition, p. 156. A skull was also discovered by 
 Professor Boyd Dawkins in the lower brick earths at Crayford in 186t>, and is 
 now preserved in the Museum of the Geol. Survey. 
 
PALAEOLITHIC SPRING SCENE. 189 
 
 and is armed with his rude spear pointed with a flint flake, as he 
 comes from his rough shelter of boughs and rushes to hunt the deer 
 and other game, or, perhaps, like the Esquimaux, he is going to 
 break the ice in the river with his stone maul or hatchet in search 
 of fish. 
 
 If under similar circumstances we survey the country in spring 
 time how great is the change ! 
 
 The ice is breaking up in all directions, and the wide river is 
 traversed by huge masses of it, which often carry a burthen of 
 stones and clay they have borne from the banks, or gathered at the 
 bottom of the stream. Near where we stand with our remote pre- 
 decessor, the river is flowing with a swift current impinging on the 
 shoulder of the hill and depositing the large stones and coarse gravel 
 which we find there ; on the south eastern slope at the same level 
 the waters are more tranquil forming the finely laminated sands and 
 loam, which may now be traced extending for more than a quarter 
 of a mile in that direction. 
 
 To the south the river extends for miles, dotted probably with 
 islets or eyots of sand and alluvium such as may be observed in the 
 Thames now. The waters are spread out to the eastward, where the 
 great historic city stands with its millions of busy toiling struggling 
 
 men. 
 
 " There where the long street roars" 
 
 the river is depositing gravel and alluvium. The great pachyderms 
 are disporting themselves, where stand the stately city churches and 
 offices of the merchants ! and the River drift man is there unwitting 
 of the glory and the gloom of a higher civilization. 
 
 Perhaps, as often happened in those days, a debacle of ice has 
 been formed in the river lower down, and the tumultuous waters, 
 unable to pass the barrier, are much extended to the north, exerting 
 great eroding power both there and in the main stream ; or with the 
 
190 CONCLUSION. 
 
 rapid thaw a heavy fall of rain has occurred causing a great flood 
 and consequent rapid removal and accumulation of drift in the 
 valley. In both cases the banks of the river and the shores of the 
 islands are torn up and carried away, sweeping away the wigwams 
 and winter camp of the river-drift man with his weapons and tools 
 in their sudden desolating overflow. 
 
 The reindeer is seen in herds preparing to migrate northwards, 
 and the bisons, uri and wild horses are taking their place upon the 
 pasture as it appears from beneath the snow. 
 
 As they pass the fords, the bears, wolves and hysenas are hovering 
 on their flanks, or in their rear, to cut off the weaker ones. The 
 mammoth and woolly rhinoceros are browsing in the woodlands, the 
 cave lion and wild boar are in the thickets ; and the hippopotamus, 
 who may have had, as Prestwich has suggested, also a hairy coat, is 
 a frequent visitor to the banks of the wide stream. 
 
 At that time the whale found his way as far up the river as 
 Fenchurch Street and the Minories,* and it may be that the Palaeo- 
 lithic men, by the aid of their harpoons and flint knives, had an 
 occasional feast on its blubber, like some of the other savages which 
 have been described. It is not improbable that walrus and seals 
 may also have been obtainable at that period. 
 
 As time goes on, the exact duration of which it is possible only to 
 vaguely estimate, the more permanent level of the wide river is 
 lowered to near the 100 foot contour, and Palaeolithic men are living 
 on lowlying ground at that level ; the waters still cover large tracts 
 of country to the North and West, connected still by shallow broads 
 and lagoons with the main stream, while to the eastward the river is 
 
 * The fossils are now in the City of London Museum. In Whittlesea Mere 
 remains of Walrus and Seal have been found, while as far south as Water- 
 beach, less than ten miles from Cambridge, the remains of the Whale have 
 been discovered. " Ancient Stone,;Implements," p. 596. 
 
THE CKEFFIELD TtOAI) ISLAND. 191 
 
 flowing where Wormwood Scrubbs, East Acton, and other lower 
 lying ground now are. 
 
 A number of Palaeolithic men have gathered together at the spot 
 we now call Creflield Road, then probably a small island in shallow 
 water, to fabricate their weapons and tools; with my discovery of 
 this old working site before us, we are able to fix our ideas on the 
 precise spot where they are at work. We are here on the very 
 workshop floor where the river drift men sit chipping the nodules of 
 flint they have collected for the purpose. There lie spear heads, 
 rough celts and other objects of flint, which they have made with 
 the waste chippings and the remains of their blocks ; there also are 
 the flaking chisels and hammer stones they employ in their work, 
 and the flakes which they have struck off, which it is still possible 
 to replace. 
 
 The river is swollen by floods and is rising; as the water 
 approaches them they hasten away, and are gone " leaving their 
 finished and unfinished tools and weapons behind them," on ground 
 probably covered with low brushwood or rushes. And so they 
 remain and are covered up in the sand and loam brought by the 
 flood water until they are again exposed to human eyes. 
 
 What a gap in the history of human life lies between these 
 events ! 
 
 Since they were buried in the silt of the river so long a period 
 has elapsed that the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and other creatures 
 have become extinct, and the mammalian fauna has almost entirely 
 changed in this country, while gradually those forms of life, now so 
 familiar to us, have been evolved. 
 
 When we consider that since man first lived in this region, fluvia- 
 tile combined with subaerial agencies have eroded and removed most 
 if not all of that enormous mass of matter represented by the 
 difference between the level of the present Thames and that of the 
 
192 CONCLUSION. 
 
 summit of Castlebar Hill, which is now more than 150 feet above 
 it, but which theu formed the lower level at which the waters 
 flowed, the time necessary for the accomplishment of the work 
 seems almost appalling. It is not surprising that many minds 
 shrink from the contemplation of such a measure for the antiquity 
 of Man in North-West Middlesex, and like Autolycus 
 
 " Sleep out of the thought of it." 
 Nevertheless the discoveries during the past thirty years place the 
 fact beyond the region of doubt. Men are growing up with the 
 conviction that the received chronology is utterly inadequate for the 
 purpose, and with their minds better furnished in the future they 
 will find in the contemplation of the higher antiquity of man, than 
 has been advanced even here, no more to cause dismay and reli- 
 gious difficulty than there is in the contemplation of the fine 
 adjustments and fitness which is so apparent in every one of the 
 links of the great chain of life, which lies between the most minute 
 organism and man himself. 
 
 As Professor Huxley says : " History shows that the human 
 mind, fed by constant accessions of knowledge, periodically grows 
 too large for its theocratical coverings and bursts them asunder to 
 appear in new habiliments, as the feeding and growing grub at 
 intervals casts its too narrow skin and assumes another itself but 
 temporary. Truly the imago state of man seems to be terribly 
 distant, but every moult is a step gained, and of such there have 
 been many."* 
 
 The relics of the earliest men of the world have yet to be found ; 
 many geologists are of opinion that they have been met with in 
 deposits of Pliocene age. M. M. Mortillet and Quatrefages even 
 believe that they have evidence of human agency in Mioceue times ; 
 
 * "Man's Place in Nature." 
 
MAN AND BRUTES. 193 
 
 the general verdict among British geologists however is " non 
 proven;" still, as Dr. E. B. Tylor says, " there is no particular 
 reason to think that the relics from the drift beds or bone caves 
 represent man as he first appeared on earth. The contents of the 
 caves especially bear witness to a stage of savage art, in some re- 
 spects fairly high, and which may possibly have somewhat fallen off 
 from an ancestral state in a more favourable climate. Indeed the 
 savage condition generally, though rude and more or less represent- 
 ing early stages of culture, never looks absolutely primitive, just 
 as no savage language ever has the appearance of being a primi- 
 tive language. "What the appearance and state of our really primae- 
 val ancestors may have been seems too speculative a question until 
 there shall be more signs of agreement between the anthropologist, 
 who work by comparison of actual races of man toward a hypotheti- 
 cal common stock, and the zoologists, who approach the problem 
 through the species adjoining the human."* 
 
 Though the habits and ideas of the lowest savage men appear to 
 be but little removed from the brutes, yet, in the words of Mr. 
 Alfred E. Wallace, " they by no means surpass the ingenuity or 
 forethought of the jaguar who drops saliva into the water, and seizes 
 the fish as they come to eat it ; or of wolves and jackals, who hunt 
 in packs ; or of the fox, who buries his surplus food till he requires 
 it. The sentinels placed by antelopes and by monkeys, and the 
 various modes of building adopted by field mice and beavers, as 
 well as the sleeping place of the orang-utan, and the tree shelter 
 of some of the African anthropoid apes may well be compared with 
 the amount of care and forethought bestowed by man savages under 
 similar circumstances. His possession of free and perfect hands not 
 required for locomotion enables him to form and use weapons and 
 
 * Address to the Anthro. Section, Brit. Assoc, 1879. 
 
 2b 
 
194 CONCLUSION. 
 
 implements which are beyond the physical powers of brutes ; but, 
 having done this, he certainly does not exhibit more mind in using 
 them than do many lower animals. What is there in the life of a 
 savage but the satisfying of the cravings of appetite in the simplest 
 and easiest way ? What thoughts, ideas or actions are there that 
 raise him many grades above the elephant or the ape ? Yet he pos- 
 sesses, as we have seen, a brain vastly superior to theirs in size and 
 complexity ; and this brain gives him, in an undeveloped state, 
 faculties which he never requires to use. And if this is true of 
 existing savages, how much more true must it have been of men 
 whose sole weapons were rudely chipped flints, and some of whom, 
 we may fairly conclude, were lower than auy existing race ; while 
 the only evidence in our possession shows them to have had brains 
 fully as capacious as those of the average of the lower savage 
 races."* 
 
 The great law of the evolution of the higher from the lower 
 forms of life, which the paleontologist and biologist see has been in 
 operation from the earliest time on earth, is equally manifest to the 
 anthropologist in regard to the development of the mind of man. 
 
 The difference in the culture between savage and civilized man is 
 enormous, but the links connecting its various stages are not 
 wanting. 
 
 As the eminent naturalist, from one of whose works I have 
 quoted, says, " The brain of prehistoric and savage man seems to 
 me to prove the existence of some power distinct from that which 
 has guided the development of the lower animals through their 
 ever varying forms of being." 
 
 From the infinitely remote ages, when the first germs of life of 
 any kind appeared on earth, every plant and every animal has been 
 
 * "On Natural Selection/' p. 342, 
 
THE TOWER OF MIND. 195 
 
 subject to the law of physical change due to a certain mysterious 
 potentiality within the first rudiments of organic life as well as to 
 the changing conditions or environment of its existence. As Mr. A. 
 R. Wallace says, " As the earth has gone through its grand cycles 
 of geological, climatal and organic progress, every form of life has 
 continually but imperceptibly moulded into such new shapes as 
 would preserve their harmony with the ever changing universe."* 
 " Man, by the mere capacity of clothing himself and making 
 weapons and tools, has taken away from nature that power of 
 slowly but permanently changing the external form and structure 
 in accordance with changes in the external world which she exer- 
 cises over all other animals." The possession of that subtle quality 
 we term mind, as we find it in man, has enabled his race to sur- 
 vive while other creatures have died out. " Though with a naked 
 and unprotected body," says Wallace, "this gave him clothing 
 against the varying inclemencies of the seasons. Though un- 
 able to compete with the deer in swiftness, or with the 
 wild bull in strength, this gave him weapons with which to 
 overcome both. Though less capable than most other animals of 
 living on the herbs and fruits that unaided nature supplies, this 
 wonderful faculty taught him to govern and direct nature to his 
 own benefit, and make her produce food for him when and where 
 he pleased. From the moment the first skin was used as a covering, 
 when the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase, when 
 fire was first used to cook his food, when the first seed was sown or 
 shoot planted, a grand revolution was effected in nature, a revo- 
 lution which in all the previous pages of the earth's history had had 
 no parallel, for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily 
 subject to change with the changing universe ; a being who in some 
 
 * "Loc. Cit.," pp. 315, 325. 
 
196 CONCLUSION. 
 
 degree superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control 
 and regulate her action, and could keep himself in harmony with 
 her, not by a change in body but by an advance in Mind." 
 
 Thus, unlike the intelligeuce manifested by the lower animals, 
 the mind of man is capable of progressive development, which is 
 not discernable in the brutes, and although its progress may from 
 time to time have suffered an apparent local reverse, its effect on 
 the world is not lost ; the waves upon which it is borne are finally 
 seen to be persistent and sure ; just as the advancing tide, with 
 many apparent recessions and pauses, steadily encroaches on the 
 sea shore. 
 
 Mr. Alfred R. "Wallace discerns more than this in "the grand 
 law of continuity which we see pervading the universe," and 
 " would lead us to infer infinite gradations of existence, aud to 
 people all space with intelligence and will power ; and, if so, we 
 have no difficulty in believing that for so noble a purpose as the 
 progressive development of higher and higher intelligences, these 
 primal and general will forces, which have sufficed for the produc- 
 tion of the lower animals, should have been guided into new 
 channels and made to converge in definite directions."* 
 
 * "Loc. Cit.," p. 370. 
 
197 
 
 EVIDENCE OF MAN HAVING LIVED BEFORE THE 
 LAST SUBMERGENCE. 
 
 From the " Report on the Caves of North Wales by Dr. Henry 
 Hicks, F.R.S." it would appear that the question of man haying 
 lived in Britain before the great submergence is set at rest, and 
 that in North Western Europe he has survived the great geogra- 
 phical changes which have taken place in it during part of the 
 Pleistocene period; these vast alterations are referred to in the 
 Geological Introduction. The results of the investigations of Dr. 
 Hicks and his colleagues, Mr. De Ranee, Mr. Luxmore and Mr. 
 Morton, are so remarkable that the most important facts should 
 be noticed here (see also p. 36). 
 
 The explorations of the investigating Committee of the Bri- 
 tish Association have been confined to the caves of Ffynnon 
 Beuno and Cae Gwyn in the Valley of the Clwyd, and among the 
 remains discovered in these two caverns up to the commencement 
 of the work this year there were over eighty jaws belonging to 
 various animals, and more than 1300 loose teeth including 400 
 rhinoceros, 15 mammoth, 180 hysena, and 500 horse teeth, with 
 other bones and fragments. Several flint implements, including 
 flakes, scrapers and lance-heads, were found in association with the 
 bones ; the previous researches had also shown that the bones had 
 been greatly disturbed by water action, that the stalagmite floor, 
 in parts more than a foot in thickness, and massive stalactites, had 
 been broken and thrown about in all positions, and that these 
 had been covered afterwards by clays and sand containing foreign 
 
198 CONCLUSION. 
 
 pebbles. This seemed to prove that the caverns, now about 400 
 feet above the ordnance datum, must have been submerged sub- 
 sequently to their occupation by the animals and by man. 
 
 A glacial deposit of considerable thickness is heaped up against 
 the limestone cliff at a point where a new entrance to Cae Gwyn 
 cave was discovered by the Committee this year, and a shaft 20 
 feet deep sunk into it yielded some very remarkable results. Below 
 the soil, for about 8 feet, a tolerably stiff boulder clay containing 
 many ice scratched boulders was found. Below this there were 7 
 feet of gravel and sand, with here and there bands of red clay, 
 having also many ice scratched boulders. The next deposit met 
 with was a laminated brown clay, and under this was found the 
 bone earth, a brown saudy clay with small pebbles and with angu- 
 lar fragments of limestone, stalagmites and stalactites, from which 
 a well worked flint flake was taken about 18 inches below the lowest 
 bed of sand. Several teeth of hygena and reindeer, as well as frag- 
 ments of bone, were taken from the same place, and at other points 
 teeth of rhinoceros and mammoth. "It seems clear that the con- 
 tents of the cavern must have been washed out by marine action 
 during the great submergence in mid-glacial time, and that they 
 were afterwards covered by marine sands and by an upper boulder clay 
 identical in character with that found at many points in the vale 
 of Clwyd, and in other places on the North Wales coast. The bone 
 earth seemed to diminish in thickness rather rapidly outwards under 
 the glacial deposits. The glacial deposits are entirely undisturbed. 
 The scratched boulders are from northern sources along with those 
 from the Welsh hills," and the manner in which the limestone at 
 the entrance to the cavern in the shaft is smoothed from the North, 
 would indicate that to be the main direction of the flow. The 
 marine sands and gravels, which are immediately on the bone earth, 
 are probably of the age of the Moel Tryfaen and other high level 
 
GEEAT ANTIQUITY OP MAN. 199 
 
 sands, and the overlying clay with large boulders and intercalated 
 sands may be considered of the same age as the so called upper boul- 
 der clay of the area. The latter must evidently have been deposited 
 by coast ice. 
 
 " "Whether the caves were occupied in pre- or only in inter-glacial 
 times it is difficult to decide, but it is certain that they were fre- 
 quented by Pleistocene animals and by man before the characte- 
 ristic glacial deposits of this area were accumulated." " The natu- 
 ral conclusion therefore is that the caverns were occupied by an 
 early Pleistocene fauna, and by man anterior to the great sub- 
 mergence indicated by the high level marine sands, and therefore 
 before the so called great upper boulder-clay of this area." (See 
 " Nature," Sept. 16, 1886.) 
 
 The investigations of Dr. H. Hicks and the Committee of the 
 British Association confirm Sir A. C. Eamsay's * opinion in regard 
 to the bone cave of Cefn, also in the vale of Clwyd, where he and 
 the late Dr. Falconer " found fragments of marine shells of the 
 drift in the cave, overlying the detritus that held the bones of ele- 
 phants and other mammalia," and which "cavern," he says, "has 
 been below the sea for the boulder clay beds reach a higher level." 
 (See Notes, pp. 35 and 36.) 
 
 Among the bones found in the Cefn cave were remains of some 
 of the older Pleistocene mammalia including Elephas antiquus, 
 Rhinoceros hemitgechus (Syn. Leptorhinus), Hippopotamus aud Cave 
 Bear as well as Spotted Hyaena and Reindeer associated with flint 
 implements. 
 
 The result of these discoveries, added to what has been known 
 previously, is to show that man inhabited North "Wales, with the 
 animals which have been described, before the last submergence of 
 the greater part of the British Isles beneath the sea, a slowly pro- 
 
 * "Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain, 1878," pp. 462. 469. 
 
200 CONCLUSION. 
 
 gressive submergence which took place to the extent of 1200 to 
 1400 feet in Wales. 
 
 That on the re-emergence of the land the region in question 
 was covered by a great glacial system and other conditions of 
 intense glaciation, rendering it to a large extent desolate and unin- 
 habited ; but that finally, as the glaciers retreated, man again 
 occupied the country, with the changing fauna of the later Pleis- 
 tocene period. 
 
 There can be no doubt, I think, that the River-drift hunter 
 of the Thames Valley has seen all these changes ; and that enter- 
 ing the British Isles, at least as early as the first Contiuental 
 period, he has survived, in some parts of the South of England, 
 where the changes of level during the same period were not so 
 great, those vast alterations in the physical geography of N. "W. 
 Middlesex, and climate of this country, it has been one of the 
 objects of this work to describe. 
 
201 
 
 LIST AND DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 Frontispiece. Probable method of making flint implements in 
 palaeolithic times, based on the plan adopted by modern for- 
 gers, by Mr. Worthington G. Smith. 
 
 Plate I. Flint implements from the river drift at Ealing, Gun- 
 nersbnry, Han well, &c. See pp. 83 — 118. 
 
 Plate Ia. Fig. 1. Flint implement from the river drift at Ealing 
 Dean ; it is stained of the ochreous colour of the gravel, and 
 has the angles worn away by being rolled in water along 
 with the other constituents of the gravel. From a block lent 
 by Dr. J. Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S. &c. (No. 454 "Ancient Stone 
 Implements.") 
 
 Plate Ia. Fig. 2. Borer from the drift at Hanwell, from a block 
 lent by Mr Worthington G. Smith. 
 
 Plate Ia. Fig. 3. Unfinished implement from river drift at Acton ; 
 from a block lent by Mr. Worthington G. Smith, who pre- 
 sented the specimen to the British Museum (Nat. His.), South 
 Kensington. 
 
 Plate Ib. Fig. 4. Large artificially pointed unabraded flint club 
 two feet lonsf, from the river drift at Isleworth, immediately 
 south of Osterley Park, found by Miss E. A. Ormerod, F.M.S., 
 who gave it to Mr. Worthington G. Smith; it was afterwards 
 presented by him to the British Museum, Bloomsbury. • He 
 believes the side of the implement has been used as an anvil. 
 A few unabraded palaeolithic flakes were also found at this 
 spot, and a slightly abraded flint implement, with incurved 
 sides, which is now in the collection of Dr. J. Evans. Block 
 lent by Mr. W. G. Smith. 
 
 Plate Ib. Fig. 5. Large and heavy scraper from Hanwell. From 
 a block lent by Mr. W. G. Smith. 
 
 Plate II. Flint implements from the palaeolithic workshop floor, 
 Crftffield Road, Acton. See pp. 103—116. 
 
 Plate Ha. Fig. 115. Long spear head flake, knapped at edges 
 into shape and thinned at the butt ; it is stained of a deep 
 ochreous colour. Natural size. From the Palaeolithic work- 
 shop floor, Creffield Road, Acton. 
 
 Plate I1a. Fig. 116. Long spear head flake with flat knife edge 
 point, and thinned at the butt. It is stained of a beautiful 
 mottled green and light brown colour. Natural size. From 
 the Palaeolithic workshop floor, Creffield Road, Acton. 
 
 2 c 
 
202 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate IIa. Fig. 128. Worked spear head flake with tang roughly 
 chipped into shape. Several specimens were found with tangs 
 formed in the same way. It has a light mottled and partly 
 bleached surface. Natural size. From the Palaeolithic work- 
 shop floor, Creffield Road, Acton. 
 Plate IIa. Fig. 129. Wide spear head formed from a flake, thin- 
 ned at the butt, and with very fine secondary work at the 
 edges up to the point. Natural size. From the Palaeolithic 
 workshop floor, Creffield Road, Acton. 
 Plate III. Fig. 1. Flint core with flakes replaced. From Dr. 
 
 John Evan's " Ancient Stone Implements." 
 Plate III. Fig. 2. Axe from the Indians of the Rio Frio, Cen- 
 tral America, now in the possession of Mr. Anthony Belt, 
 Ealing. 
 Plate III. Fig. 3. Axe from Australia, now in the British Museum. 
 Plate III. Fig. 4. Hatchet or small axe from the Pile dwelling, 
 Lake Constance, Switzerland. The celt is fixed in deer horn. 
 British Museum. 
 Plate III. Fig. 5. Adze from New Guinea. 
 Plate III. Fig. 6. Spear pointed with obsidian. New Caledonia. 
 
 From the " Reliquiae Aquitanicae " of Lartet and Christy. 
 Plate III. Fig. 7. Spear pointed with obsidian from the Admi^ 
 ralty Islands, taken from Mr. H. N. Moseley's paper, " Journ. 
 Anthro. Inst." vol. vi., plate xx. 
 Plate III. Fig. 8. Esquimaux scraper with ivory handle, British 
 
 Museum. 
 Plate III. Fig. 9. Stone knife from Australia. Brit. Museum. 
 Plate III. Fig. 10. Esquimaux stone headed arrow. Brit. Museum. 
 Plate IV. Fig. 1. Flint implement of very old type, formed from 
 a rolled stone, crystalline breccia, Kent's cavern. From a pho- 
 tograph in my possession. 
 Plate IV. Fig. 2. Scraper of cherty flint, Kent's cavern. Ditto. 
 Plate IV. Fig. 3. Scraping knife of flint formed from a single 
 ridged flake, Kent's cavern. From Mr. Pengelly's Lecture on 
 Kent's Cavern, and Fig. 397, "Ancient Stone Implements." 
 It exhibits marks of use as a scraping tool. 
 Plate IV. Figs. 4 and 5. Bone harpoons, from the cave earth of 
 
 Kent's cavern, between the two floors of stalagmite. 
 Plate IV. Figs. 6 and 7. Bone awl and needle. Ditto. Ditto. 
 Plate IV. Fig. 8. Hunting scene incised on part of a rounded 
 antler : wild horses, fish, and nude figure with spear on one 
 side, and heads of bisons on the other, found in the rock 
 shelter of La Madeleine, in the Dordogne, France. From the 
 Reliquiae Aquitanicae. 
 
 Dr. (now Sir J. William) Dawson believes that these incised 
 figures contained the totems or insignia of these ancient hun- 
 ters, and are such as are now used by American Indians. Dr. 
 Dawson thinks an Indian would readily decipher it, and that 
 his reading would be this : — " It represents a man walking with 
 a weapon or burthen upon his shoulder. Behind him is the sea 
 (indicated by marks representing the waves), and in it swims 
 a large eel. Meeting the man on the other side are two horses 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 203 
 
 (indicated by their heads). The intention is to show the 
 annual migration of the owner of the object from the sea, 
 where he subsisted on fish, to the inland regions where he 
 hunted wild horses. The number of bars representing the 
 waves has, perhaps, the additional meaning of indicating how 
 many times he had performed this migration ; and on the 
 opposite side of the piece are two aurochs, which was perhaps 
 his totem or distinctive mark." He admits it may have 
 another interpretation. (" Fossil Men,'' p. 266.) 
 
 The rock shelter of La Madeleine, which is of the reindeer 
 period, is of later age than several of the caves in the Dor- 
 dogne. 
 
 M. G-. de Mortillet considers the sequence in age of these 
 ancient caverns in the valley of the Yezere to be as follows — 
 1st or oldest, Le Moustier and others ; 2nd, Laugerie Haute 
 and others ; 3rd, Cro-Magnon, Gorge d Enfer, &c. ; 4th, La 
 Madeleine, Les Eyzies, &c, which are more prolific in works 
 of art. 
 
 Dr. J. Evans and others are not quite satisfied with the 
 classification in regard to the second division. 
 Plate IV. Fig. 9. Portion of rounded antler engraved with a 
 reindeer grazing, water and grass being in the foreground ; it 
 is from the cave of Kesslerloch near Thayingen, and is the 
 finest specimen of Palaeolithic art as yet discovered. From 
 the "Keliquias Aquitanicge." 
 Plate V. Fig. 1. Spear from Port Essington, North Australia; it 
 is pointed with a flake of black cherty flint six inches long, 
 secured to the shaft with fine string covered with gum from 
 the Eucalyptus, and smeared with red ochre. The spear is 
 eight feet in length and very sharp. British Museum. 
 Plate V. Fig. 2. Spear from North Australia 9 feet long ; it is 
 tipped with a small chert flake, about 1J inches long, secured 
 to the shaft by lashings, and afterwards coated with a thick 
 rounded mass of gum. British Museum. 
 Plate V. Fig. 3. Barbed spear 8 feet 9 in. in length from West 
 Australia ; it is edged to within a foot of the point with small 
 flakes or splinters of quartz, fastened to the shaft with gum. 
 Small thin spears of the like kind, of the thickness of an or- 
 dinary cane, are also used, as well as saw knives formed with 
 splinters of quartz, &c, secured to a stick about a foot long. 
 British Museum. 
 Plate V. Fig. 4. Esquimaux spear 6 feet long ; the point is of 
 
 chipped black flint or lydite, let into a socket and lashed. 
 Plate Y. Fig. 5. Fuegian bone harpoon, from Dr. Dawson's " Fos- 
 sil Men." 
 Plate Y. Fig. 6. Micmac bone harpoon, ditto, ditto. 
 Plate Y. Fig. 7. Esquimaux bone harpoon, from Repulse Bay, 
 used in the water for killing birds and seals ; small inflated 
 bladders are usually fastened to the handle. British Museum. 
 Plate V. Fig. 8. Axe head of sandstone of the Bushmen, from 
 Doom Cop, Indwe, Cape Colony, drawn from No. 3 D of Mr. 
 E. J. Dunn's collection, at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. 
 
204 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 The axes of this kind exhibited in Mr. E. J. Dunn's and Mr. 
 Bain's interesting collections were from less than 3 inches to 
 nearly 14 inches in length. 
 
 Plate V. Fig. 9. " Spokeshave " (Bushman), from Cyfergat, Storm- 
 berg, South Africa. Mr. E. J. Dunn's collection. 
 
 Plate V. Fig. 10. Cutting or scraping tool, from Australia, the 
 roughly chipped cherty flint is inserted into a mass of gum. 
 British Museum. 
 
 Plate V. Fig. 11. Flint scraper from the Eio Negro, Patagonia, 
 it is a well known form of scraping knife for dressing skins, 
 and is reproduced from Col. Lane Fox's paper on flint and 
 chert arrow heads and other implements from Patagonia. Jour. 
 Arithro. Inst , Vol. iv\, No. 2. 
 
 Plate. V. Fig. 12. An Australian dowak or small axe, in which a 
 piece of basalt or other hard stone is secured to a short stick 
 with gum. It is used for climbing trees and as a missile 
 weapon. In climbing a tree the Australian cuts a notch in 
 the bark as high as he can reach ; he then throws a cord 
 over it and draws himself up, until he can place his toes upon 
 the notch, when he is able to make another incision in the bark 
 higher up, using the curd in the same way ; very tall trees are 
 ascended in this way (see pp. 105, 169, 170). From a specimen 
 in my collection. 
 
 Plate V. Fig. 13. Flint set in gum at the end of a short staff, 
 described as a cutting instrument, from West Australia, now in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 
o* S/ Ty 
 
36 
 
 PALEOLITHIC 
 
 MPLEMENTS 
 
 S cale 
 
PI 1. 
 
 27 "*" r 159 
 
 "ROM EALING, HANWELL. &.? 
 
 ne half 
 

PI. I A. 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 ft \ 
 
 
 PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Fig. 1. Ochreous flint implement from Ealing Deaii, (No. 454 " An- 
 cient Stone Implements"). Block lent by Dr. John 
 Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.. &c. 
 Fig. 2. Boring tool from Hanwell. Block lent by Mr. W, G. Smith- 
 Fig. 3. Unfinished implement from Acton. Block lent by Mr 
 Worthington G. Smith, 
 
PI. IB. 
 
 '''^i-.v'i" ! 
 
 PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 Fig. 4. Large artificially pointed flint club from Isleworth. Block 
 
 lent by Mr. Worthington G. Smith. 
 Fig. 5. Large scraper from Hanwell. Block lent by Mr. Worthington 
 
 G. Smith. 
 

pin 
 
 PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THE WORKSHOP FLOOR 
 CREFFIELD ROAD ACTON. 
 
 Scale one half 
 

 
P1.II A 
 
 "/JB SPEAR HEADS; FIG. 128 SHOWING THE TANG, FROM THE 
 
 PAL/EOLITHIC WORKSHOP FLOOR, CRETFiELD ROAD, ACTON 
 Natural size, See Description of Plates. 
 

pirn 
 
 FlG.I FLINT-CORE WITH F L AKES REPLACED. [EVANS]. FlG.5. ADZE. NEW GUINE/ 
 
 6.6. 
 
 ALEDONIA 
 
 Fig 10 arrow.esquima'jx. 
 
 Fig. 3. scraper Esquimaux. 
 
^^i^Jj^ jag* ^ 
 
 OBJECTS FROM PAL/EOLITHIC CAVES 
 
 See Description of Plates 
 


 FIG 
 
 FIG. 13 
 
 RECENT SAVAGE IMPLEMENTS, 
 
 See Description of Plates. 
 

205 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abbott's Primitive Industry, hoe- 
 ing- implement, from, ] 00. 
 Achau, heap of stones over, 1 1 
 Acheul, St., Christian burials at, 
 
 123. 
 Aricharee Indians, remarkable 
 
 stone maul of, 101. 
 Acton, flint implements from, 60. 
 Plates Ia, Ib, II. 
 ,, tooth of Elephas piimige- 
 
 nius, from, 61. 
 ,, Paleeolithic workshop 
 
 floor, Creffield Road, at, 
 57 to 60. 
 Acton Wells, alluvial deposits at, 
 
 50. 
 Admiralty Islanders, obsidian tip- 
 ped spears and lances of, 74, 
 89, 111. 
 Adze, see axe, &c. 
 Africa, river drift man in, 185. 
 ,, pounded bones eaten by 
 
 natives of, 120. 
 „ words for stone and axe 
 used by some natives of, 
 18. 
 Alluvial deposits, older of the 
 Brent valley, 
 50. 
 „ at Alperton, 
 
 50. 
 
 Twyford Ab- 
 bey, 50. 
 „ Acton Wells, 
 
 50. 
 
 ,, Northolt and 
 
 Greenford,51. 
 
 Harlesden,51. 
 
 Harrow weald, 
 
 51. 
 
 
 )5 
 
 Aldus McGaldus, killed with a 
 
 stone axe, 11. 
 Andaman Islanders now using 
 chipped stone implements, 4. 
 ,, „ method of work- 
 
 ing of the, 135. 
 Antiquitates Americana?, 140. 
 Antarctic continent, glaciation of 
 
 the, 144. 
 Antiquity of Palaeolithic man,129 
 Apachces, method of making flint 
 
 arrow points of the, 77. 
 Arctic, mammalia in river drift, 
 migration of into British Isles, 
 24. 
 „ mollusca on Moel Try- 
 faen, &c, 27. 
 Arrow flaker, Esquimaux, 80. 
 Arrow heads, Palaeolithic, 72,117. 
 Plate I., Figs. 167, 
 169. 
 „ „ Gen. Pitt Rivers on, 
 73, 104, 118. 
 Art of Cave men, 139, 121. Plate 
 IV. Figs. 8 and 9. 
 „ Australians, 162. 
 „ Tasmanians, 172. 
 Asia Minor, River drift men in, 
 
 185. 
 Assyria, advanced in culture dur- 
 ing the Neolithic age in Bri- 
 tain, 4. 
 Avebury, 9. 
 
 Australia, secondary fauna and 
 flora of, 158. 
 ,, river system of, 159, 
 „ bone caves of, 158. 
 ,, former extension of, 
 
 159. 
 ,, isolation of, 157, 160. 
 
206 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Australians, their low physical 
 charactei',157,160. 
 ,, Strzelecki's descrip- 
 
 tion of natives of 
 New S.Wales, 161. 
 ,, slight knowledge of 
 
 art, 162. 
 „ their limited know- 
 
 ledge of numbers, 
 162. 
 ,, method of obtaining 
 
 fire, 132. 
 „ probable analogous 
 
 culture to that of 
 the drift men, 157. 
 „ isolation and sur- 
 
 roundings of the, 
 160. 
 food of the, 170. 
 „ cannibalism of the, 
 
 163. 
 „ ornaments, bodies 
 
 scarified, 163. 
 ,, marriages of, 165. 
 
 „ tribal communities, 
 
 and descent traced 
 from the woman 
 among the, 165. 
 ,, their belief in spi- 
 
 rits and witchcraft, 
 165, 166. 
 
 circumcision practi- 
 sed among the, 166. 
 blood revenge of 
 the, 167. 
 
 an Australian model 
 Christian, 167. 
 at present untrain- 
 able, 161. 
 disposal of the dead 
 
 among the, 166. 
 no knowledge of 
 agriculture, 169. 
 no knowledge of 
 
 pottery, 178. 
 shell mounds of the, 
 170. 
 
 dwellings, wind 
 screens, and bough 
 shelters of the, 
 171. 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 Australians, canoes and floats, 
 172, 173. 
 ,, stone implements of, 
 
 4, 174, 175, 178. 
 Figs. 3, 9, Plate II. 
 Figs. 1, 2, 3, 10, 
 12, 13, Plate V. 
 „ method of making 
 
 stone implements, 
 78. 
 ,, method of making 
 
 spear shafts, 174. 
 ,, flakes used for spear 
 
 heads, axes and 
 knives, 74, 110, 
 113, 174. 
 ,, dowak of the, 105. 
 
 Fig. 12, Plate V. 
 , , womera used by the, 
 
 175. 
 ,, narrow parrying 
 
 shields of the, 177, 
 178. 
 ,, boomerang, 176. 
 
 „ pounding stones 
 
 used, 120. 
 ,, wooden implements 
 
 of the, 175. 
 ,, fewness of their ap- 
 
 pliances, 179. 
 „ past history of the, 
 
 180. 
 Avienus, Ora maritima, 5. 
 Axes, (Hatchets, Adzes, Mauls, 
 &c.) Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 Plate III. Figs. 8, 12, 
 Plate V. 
 ,, derivation of the word, 18. 
 ,, flakes and chipped stones 
 
 used for, 74, 95, 102. 
 ,, oldest form of implement, 
 
 96, 105. 
 ,, of the Australians, 83, 105. 
 „ of the Sioux Indians, 83. 
 „ of the natives of New He- 
 brides, 96. 
 „ European iron hatchet, 
 mounted with a withe, 
 84. 
 ,, of the Aricharee Indians, 
 101. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 207 
 
 ■>■> 
 ■>■> 
 
 Axes of New Guinea, Fig. 5. 
 Plate III. 
 
 „ of Hottentots andBushmen, 
 157. Fig. 8. Plate V. 
 
 ,, flakes and spalls used for, 
 74. 
 
 „ Celts, mounted in deer 
 horn, 96. 
 from pile dwellings, 96. 
 of the drift period, 72, 83, 
 91. 
 
 „ from the Palaeolithic work- 
 shop, Creffield Road, 103, 
 112. Figs. 78, 87, 131. 
 Plate II. 
 
 ,, blade mounted in bent 
 withe, 83, 84. 
 
 „ blade mounted in clubs, 92, 
 94, 102, 103. 
 
 „ blade mounted as adzes, 
 91, 92. 
 
 ,, evolution of the Celt form, 
 104. 
 
 ,, fromRioFrio, Central Ameri- 
 ca, 95. Fig. 2. Plate III. 
 
 „ rounded blade adze or hoe, 
 99. 
 
 ,, Palaeolithic maul, 101. 
 
 Baffiu, W., raw food of Esqui- 
 maux, 134. 
 Baines, mode of making stone 
 implements among the 
 Australians, 78. 
 Bain, Thos , collection of stone 
 implements from S. Afri- 
 ca, 156. 
 Barrows and tumuli, 7. 
 
 „ difference of race indi- 
 cated by human re- 
 mains found in, 9, 17. 
 long chambered, 9. 
 round unchambered, 8. 
 disposal of the dead in, 
 9. 
 Neolithic, 9. 
 of the Bronze period, 8. 
 around Stonehenge, 9. 
 ornaments found in, 8. 
 brachycephalic skulls 
 found in, 10. 
 
 Barrows and tumuli, dolichoce- 
 phalic skulls found in, 
 10. 
 ,, at West Kennett, 9. 
 ,, long ; evidence of hu- 
 man sacrifice in, 10. 
 „ secondary interments in, 
 
 8. 
 „ Keltic, 10. 
 ,, Iberic, 10. 
 Basques &c, believed to be Ibe- 
 ric, 17. 
 Bate, Spencer, shell mounds in 
 Cornwall and Devonshire, 
 14. 
 Bateman, on Keltic and Saxon 
 
 grave hills, 8. 
 Beckwith, method of making 
 flint implements among 
 N. American Indians, 78. 
 Beech, absent in Skovmoser, 13. 
 Belcher, Sir Edward, method of 
 making flint implements 
 by Esquimaux, 78, 80. 
 Belt, Thos., on the damming by 
 ice of the West European 
 drainage, 24, 28. 
 ,, on the succession of changes 
 in the glacial period (note) 
 28. 
 „ remarkable club axe ob- 
 tained by him from In- 
 dians of Rio Frio, 72, 95. 
 Beothucs, 141. 
 
 ,, disposal of the dead, 
 
 125. 
 „ dress of the, 141. 
 ,, description of the,141. 
 ,, canoes, 141. 
 ,, dwellings of, 141. 
 ,, weapons of, 141, 142. 
 „ deer battues of the, 
 
 142. 
 „ drinking vessels of the, 
 141. 
 Bertrand, human remains in the 
 
 drift, 127. 
 Bischof, solubility of silica by 
 
 carbonic acid, 55. 
 Blackmore, fauna of the drift at 
 Fisherton, 188. 
 
208 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 5J 
 
 >■> 
 
 Bones, scarcity of in high level 
 drift deposits, 126. 
 „• of reindeer abundant at 
 Windsor, 143. 
 human, rarity in river 
 drift, 123, 124, 126. 
 human, in the drift of the 
 
 Seine and Somme, 127. 
 found near Bury St. Ed- 
 mund's, 127. 
 caves, nature of the evi- 
 dence afforded by, 121, 
 197. 
 Boomerang, of the Australians, 
 176. 
 „ development of, 177. 
 
 „ of the ancient Egyp- 
 
 tians, 177. 
 „ used in Abyssinia, 
 
 1/ /. 
 „ of the Kolis of India, 
 
 177. 
 „ of the nest building 
 
 men of Malaya, 
 183. 
 Bolas used by Esquimaux, 138. 
 Borers, 97. 
 
 ,, from Hauwell, 115. 
 „ from bone caves, 115. 
 „ from Palaeolithic work- 
 shop, 115; 116. 
 Boulder clay, implement found 
 beneath, 94. 
 „ „ man living in "Wa- 
 les before the de- 
 posit of, 297,299. 
 Boulders, erratic, 26. 
 Bove, on the Fuegians, 146. 
 Bourgeois,the Abbe, on the work- 
 ed flints of Thenay, 31. 
 Boucher de Perthes, his discovery 
 
 near Abbeville, 21. 
 Bow and arrow used by Palaeoli- 
 thic man, 72. 
 improvements in 
 the, 73. 
 
 Brachet, paucity of Keltic roots 
 in the French lan- 
 guage, 18 
 British Isles, connected with the 
 Continent, 23. 
 
 j> 
 
 British Isles, depth of the sea 
 around the, 23. 
 ,, surrounded by low 
 lying land in the 
 late Pleistocene pe- 
 riod, 23. 
 ,, an archipelago of 
 
 small islands, 27. 
 ,, re-emergence of, 29. 
 ,, migration into, of 
 
 Arctic fauna, 24. 
 ,, glacial period inthe, 
 26, 29. 
 Brass, mentioned in Scripture, 
 
 3. 
 Brent valley, submerged, 60. 
 Brick earth, on the Mount and 
 Castlebar Hill, 69. 
 „ lower, of Crayford, 
 
 Ilford, &c, 67. 
 Brixham cave, flint flakes and as- 
 sociated fauna of, 
 37. 
 Bronze period, 4. 
 
 ,, „ barrows and cairns 
 
 of the, 8. 
 ,, ,, evidence of the, at 
 Stonehenge and 
 Avebury, 9. 
 „ „ human remains of 
 
 the, 10. 
 „ ,, disposal of the 
 
 dead in the, 8. 
 „ „ ornaments of the, 
 found in tumu- 
 li, 8, 9. 
 9J ,, stone implements 
 
 used in the, 9. 
 ,, „ belief in immor- 
 tality in the, 8. 
 ,, „ objects of the, 
 from Thames, 
 Acton and Hau- 
 well, 70. 
 „ „ Keltic, 17. 
 „ „ pile dwellings of 
 the, 12, 20. 
 ,, indicated in the 
 delta of the Ti- 
 niere, 19. 
 „ „ age of the, 19, 20. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 209 
 
 
 
 Broca, P., on the Australians 
 and Tasmanians, 161. 
 
 Bulb of percussion, 81. 
 „ „ Lubbock on the, 81. 
 „ „ evidence of thinning by 
 double bulbs for facility 
 in hafting, 59. 
 Burton, Capt., Sir Richard, on 
 African Pile 
 dwellings, 13. 
 „ ,, gesture language 
 of the Arapapas 
 Indians, 169. 
 Bushmen. See Hottentots, &c. 
 Byron, Commodore, on the Fue- 
 gians, 147. 
 
 Cabots, the, on the Beothucs, 141. 
 Caesar, his description of the Bri- 
 tons, 6. 
 „ weapons of the Britons, 6. 
 ,, on the polyandry of the 
 Britons, 165. 
 Cairns of Achan, the king of Ai, 
 Patroclus, Hector, 11. 
 ,, in Kirkcudbrightshire, 1 1 . 
 ,, of Escpiimaux, 126. 
 „ custom of adding stones 
 to a, (note), 126. 
 Caledonians, tattooed in time of 
 
 Severus, 114. 
 Calder, J. E., dwellings of Tas- 
 manians, 171. 
 „ boats of Tasmani- 
 
 ans, 172. 
 ,, rude drawings of 
 
 Tasmanians, 172. 
 Canary Islanders, stone imple- 
 ments of 
 the, 111. 
 Canoes &c. of the Beothucs, 141. 
 ,, ,, Fuegians, 148. 
 
 „ „ Australians, 
 
 172,173. 
 „ floats of Ancient Egyp- 
 tians, 173. 
 „ ,, Tasmanians, 
 
 172. 
 „ „ Chatham Islan- 
 
 ders, 179. 
 Bushmen had no, 156. 
 
 Cannibalism, in Neolithic age, 10. 
 ,, of Fuegians, 148. 
 „ of Australians, 163. 
 ,, of Tasmanians, 163. 
 „ of New Zealanders, 
 163, 164, 166. 
 Cartier, on the Beothucs, 141. 
 Carbonic acid, its action on flint, 
 55. 
 „ „ absorption of, by 
 ice, snow and 
 rain, 55. 
 „ ,, Bischof on the so- 
 lubility of silica 
 by, 55. 
 ,, „ Rogers' experi- 
 ments on solubi- 
 lity of silica 
 by, 55. 
 „ „ pebbles in the 
 drift possibly 
 eroded by, 55. 
 Cardigan Bay, encroachment of 
 
 the sea at, 7. 
 Catlin, method of making flint 
 
 arrow heads, 77. 
 Castlebar Hill, Ealing, high level 
 of the river drift 
 there, 44. 
 ,, beach like deposit at 
 
 the summit of, 49. 
 „ river drift on theNorth 
 
 side of, 45, 50. 
 ,, flint implements from 
 high level gravel at, 
 50. 
 Cervus Capreolus found in the 
 drift at Brentford, 113. 
 Caves, bone, and rockshelters, for- 
 mation of, 35. 
 „ Kirkdale. Settle, Robin 
 Hood, Church Hole, Pin 
 Hole, Wookey Hole, 
 Mother Grundy's Par- 
 lour, Castleton, 35. 
 „ Victoria, contents of, 39 ; 
 older fauna of, 33 ; great 
 antiquity of 40. 
 „ Oreston, older fauna of, 33. 
 „ Kent's Cavern, deposits 
 in, 37 ; flint implements 
 2 d 
 
210 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 from, 36, 37. Figs. 1, 2, 
 Plate IV.; fauna of, 36; 
 scrapers from, 107 ; bone 
 harpoons, awl and nee- 
 dle from, Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 Plate IV. 
 Caves, Welsh, Pont Newydd, Cefn 
 Plas, Heaton, Coygan, Cae 
 Gwyn, 36 ; (note) 397. 
 
 „ CaeGwyn and Ffynnon 
 Beuno, flint implements 
 and a large number of re- 
 mains of Rhinoceros,Mam- 
 moth, Hyaena and wild 
 horse, 297 to 299. 
 
 „ Cefn Cave, submerged dur- 
 ing glacial epoch, 36. 
 
 „ scrapers from Church Hole, 
 107. 
 
 „ borers from Eobin Hood, 
 115. 
 
 „ implements from Wookey 
 Hole, 86. 
 
 ,, of the Dordogne, relative 
 ages of the, 41. 
 
 „ of the Dordogne, Le Mous- 
 tier, cotemporary with 
 the drift, 86, 88. 
 
 „ of the Dordogne, imple- 
 ments from the, 86, 115, 
 119. ' 
 
 „ Duruthy and Bruniquel, 
 38, 41. 
 
 „ Kesslerloch, incised bone 
 from, 139. Fig. 9. Plate 
 IV. 
 
 ,, Nabrigas, association of the 
 Quaternary bear with hu- 
 man remains and pottery 
 (note), 131. 
 
 „ Bushmen often dwell in, 
 155. 
 
 ,, Chatham Islanders dwelt 
 iu, 179. 
 Cave-men, age of the, 129, 397. 
 culture of the, 121, 
 130, 139. 
 „ cotemporary with drift, 
 
 129, 130. 
 „ similarity of the har- 
 poons of the, to those 
 
 of existing savages. 
 Figs. 5, 6. 7, Plate 
 V., and Figs. 4 and 
 5, Plate IV., 138. 
 Cave-men, knowledge of art of 
 the. Figs. 8 and 9. 
 Plate IV., 139. 
 Celt, earliest forms of, 95, 96. 
 „ fixed in clubs, 95. 
 „ fixed in deer horn, 96. 
 „ hafted, from Robenhausen, 
 
 96. 
 „ Palaeolithic, 102. 
 ,, from Palaeolithic workshop, 
 Creffield Road. Figs. 78, 
 87, Plate II., 103. 
 „ of Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 157. 
 ,, evolution of the celt form, 
 104. 
 Chatham Islanders often dwelt in 
 
 caves, 179. 
 ,, ,, food and clo- 
 
 thing, 179. 
 boats of, 179. 
 ,, „ practised agri- 
 
 culture, 179. 
 „ „ stone weapons 
 
 of the, 179. 
 „ „ extermination 
 
 of the, 180. 
 Chamblon, pile dwellings, anti- 
 quity of, 20. 
 Cheadle, R. W., flint flake from 
 
 Cray ford, 33. 
 Chert, see flint &c. 
 Chinese tradition of ages of wood, 
 
 stone and metal, 2. 
 Chisels or knapping tools, 80, 108. 
 Cissbury, Neolithic pits at, 15. 
 „ vallum of later date 
 
 than pits, 15. 
 „ interval of time between 
 the excavations at, 
 and the Palaeolithic 
 period, 16. 
 ., Palaeolithic work com- 
 pared with the Neoli- 
 thic work at, 90. 
 „ flint implements similar 
 to drift form, 91, 99, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 101, 112. 
 
 Cissbury, arrow head from, 107. 
 Clarke, Hyde, prehistoric names 
 of weapons, 18. 
 Climate, changes of, iu Pleisto- 
 cene times, 23 to 29. 
 „ ofGrinnell Land, 128. 
 „ of the higher drift pe- 
 riod, 122. 
 Civilization of Palaeolithic man 
 compared with that 
 of modern savages, 
 75. 
 Clichy, human bones &c. at, 27. 
 Codrington, flint implements 
 from Hants and Isle of 
 Wight, 32. 
 Colne river, 64. 
 Colour of worked flints, 93. 
 Continuity of British Isles with 
 Europe in the Pleistocene 
 period, 23, 29. 
 Conservatism of savages, 84. 
 Cornwall, shell mounds of, 14. 
 Cook, Captain, burial cairns at 
 Oonalashka, 126. 
 „ „ dwellings of Aus- 
 
 tralians, 171. 
 n „ on the Tasmani- 
 
 ans, 177. 
 ,, „ voracity of Esqui- 
 
 maux, 137. 
 ,, ,, lowest race of 
 
 men, 181. 
 Cooking, Anclamanlslanders,135. 
 
 „ Assinneboines, 135. 
 Cooking, Esquimaux often do not 
 cook their food, 134, 
 136, 137. 
 „ Fuegians ditto do., 147, 
 
 148. 
 ,, Australians, 170. 
 Coscinopora globularis used as an 
 ornament by Palaeolithic 
 men, 37- 
 Crantz, disposal of the dead by 
 Greenland Esquimaux, 
 125. 
 „ Greenland Esquimaux, 
 belief in the immortali- 
 ty of the soul, 125. 
 
 Crannoges, Irish, 13. 
 Crawford, limited knowledge of 
 numerals of the Aus- 
 tralians, ]<'>2. 
 Crayford, flakes from, lower brick 
 earth of (note), 33. 
 ,, Palaeolithic floor at, 60. 
 Creech, Thos., translation of Lu- 
 cretius. 2. 
 Cremation practised in the Bronze 
 
 age, 8. 
 
 Croll, Dr., glacial periods due to 
 
 the changiug orbit 
 
 and axis of the earth, 
 
 25, 71. 
 
 Crooke, P., his collection, 73, 76. 
 
 Dabba of the natives of Victoria, 
 
 113. 
 Daggers, flint, from Ealing, Gun- 
 nersburv,&c.Figs. 
 36,38,PlateI.,96. 
 ,, ., characteristic of 
 
 oldest drift depo- 
 sits, 97. 
 ,, ,, from near Salisbu- 
 ry, 97. 
 ,, „ from Kent's ca- 
 vern, 97. 
 Dampier, bough shelters of the 
 Australians, 171. 
 ,, on the lowest race of 
 man, 181. 
 Darwin, G, on the Fuegians, 149. 
 ,, on the lowest race of 
 
 man, 181. 
 Davis, John, method of obtaining 
 fire by Greenland 
 Esquimaux, 133. 
 Davies, "W., determination of bo- 
 nes of Cervus Capre- 
 olus and Bos from 
 Brentford, 113. 
 Dawkins, Prof. Boyd, barrows &c. 
 of the bronze age, 8. 
 „ bronze weapons, 17. 
 „ Neolithic people, Ibe- 
 
 ric, non- Aryan, 17. 
 „ Basques &c, the de- 
 scendants of the Neo- 
 lithic people, 17. 
 
212 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 5) 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 J5 
 
 Dawkius, Prof. B., Basque com- 
 pounds of the word 
 for stone, 18. 
 „ extension of the land 
 in prehistoric times, 
 7. 
 „ extension of the land 
 and physical geogra- 
 phy in late Pleisto- 
 cene period, 23. 
 „ migration of Arctic 
 fauna into Britain, 24. 
 
 mid Pleistocene age of 
 the fauna from lower 
 brick earths at Cray- 
 ford, Erith, &c, 33. 
 
 fauna of the river 
 drift, 67. 
 
 his discovery of skull 
 of the musk sheep at 
 Crayford, 188. 
 
 on a reindeer ford at 
 Windsor, 143. 
 
 Palaeolithic imple- 
 ments and incised 
 bone fromRobinHood 
 cave, 38, 115. 
 
 Robin Hood cave used 
 as a den by hyaenas, 
 38. 
 
 Machairodus latidens 
 from Robin Hood 
 cave, 38. 
 
 objects from Church 
 Hole, 38, 107. 
 
 flint implement from 
 Wookey Hole, 87. 
 
 Man probably pre-gla- 
 cial, 30. 
 
 drift man extinct, 34, 
 129. 
 
 evidence from human 
 bones in river drift 
 imperfect, 127. 
 
 river drift hunter in 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, 
 and N. America, 185. 
 
 man cotemporary with 
 the Arnee, Pigmy 
 Rhinoceros, &c, 186. 
 ,, Maiijmoth ; reindeer&c. 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 »5 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 living in lower ground 
 during the glaciation 
 of higher ground, 122. 
 Dawley, evidence of the destruc- 
 tion of old land surfaces 
 by the deviation of the 
 stream and currents at, 
 61. 
 „ flint implements from, 
 62, 85, 92. 
 Dawson, on the Micmacs, 143. 
 ,, deposit of the reindeer 
 period, 142. 
 Day, Robert, Jun., his collection, 
 
 117. 
 Dead, disposal of, in the Bronze 
 
 age, 8. 
 „ Neolithic 
 age, 10. 
 ,, „ among the Fue- 
 
 gians,124. 
 ,, „ „ Beothucs, 
 
 125. 
 55 ,5 55 Esquimaux 
 
 125. 
 ,, ,, indifference of 
 
 the Esquimaux 
 as to the, 126. 
 „ „ among N. Ame- 
 
 rican Indians, 
 124, 125. 
 „ „ among Sea Dy- 
 
 aks, 124. 
 ,, „ among Austra- 
 
 lians, 166. 
 De la Beche, former extension of 
 the land on the 
 coast of Somerset, 
 &c, 7. 
 Denudation, in the Ealing dis- 
 trict, 49, 69. 
 „ between river drift 
 deposits, 64. 
 Depth of sea around the British 
 
 Isles, 23. 
 Detection of spurious flint imple- 
 ments, 62. 
 Dog of the Esquimaux, 140. 
 Dowak, Australian. Fi?. 12, 
 Plate Y., 105, lOiClTo. 
 Dravidians, see Kolis. 
 
INDEX 
 
 213 
 
 5? 
 
 It 
 
 Drinking vessels, of the Esqui- 
 maux, 131. 
 
 „ ,, ,, Beothucs, 
 
 142. 
 „ Fuegians, 
 148. 
 „ „ „ New Zea- 
 
 land ers 1 70. 
 „ Palseoli- 
 thic man, 
 131. 
 ,, ,, scallop shells 
 
 used as, 132. 
 Dunn, E. J., collection of stone 
 implements from S. Afri- 
 ca, 156. 
 D'Urville, mode of obtaining fire 
 by the Australians, 
 132. 
 „ on the lowest race, 181. 
 Dwellings, of the Esquimaux, 137. 
 ,, Beothucs, 142 
 ,, Fuegians, 145, 
 146, 147, 149. 
 „ Hottentots and 
 Bushmen, 153, 
 155. 
 „ Australians, 170, 
 
 171. 
 
 „ Tasmanians,172. 
 
 „ nest building 
 men of Malaya 
 &c, 183. 
 
 Ealing, flint implements from, 
 
 Plate I., Plate 1a, Plate Ib. 
 
 Earth's orbit and axis, alteration 
 
 in, 25, 71. 
 Easter Islanders, 111. 
 East Sheen, Palaeolithic imple- 
 ment from, 84. 
 Egede, on Greenland Esquimaux, 
 125. 
 on method of obtaiuing 
 fire by Greenland Esqui- 
 maux, 133. 
 on dwellings of ditto, 137. 
 Egyptians, bronze age of the, co- 
 temporary with Ne- 
 olithic elsewhere, 4. 
 5 , parrying shields and 
 
 5) 
 5J 
 
 boomerangs of the, 
 177. 
 Emergence of the British Isles in 
 Pleistocene period, 29, 68. 
 
 „ rate of in N.W. Eu- 
 rope in later times, 
 14, 48. 
 „ evidence of, in N. W. 
 
 Middlesex, 4(5. 
 Euglehardt, on ice debacles, 69. 
 Engis skull. 41. 
 
 Eroded pebbles and banded flints, 
 55. 
 „ ., action of humus 
 acids on, 55. 
 Esquimaux, stone spear and ar- 
 row heads. Fig. 10, 
 Plate III. Fig. 4, 
 Plate V., 117. 
 ,, scrapers, Fig. 8. Plate 
 
 III., 102, 107. 
 „ method of making 
 
 chert implements, 
 78, 80. 
 „ arrow flaker, 80. 
 
 „ bone harpoons of, 
 
 Fig. 7, PlateV.,138. 
 „ use throwing sticks, 
 
 138. 
 „ the bolas, 138. 
 ,, art inferior to some 
 
 of the cave folk, 139. 
 ,, ornaments, 139. 
 
 ,, method of preparing 
 
 skins, 107. 
 „ tattoo, 114. 
 
 ,, disposal of the dead 
 
 among the, 125. 
 „ their indifference to 
 
 human remains, 126. 
 „ custom of adding 
 
 stones to a cairn, 126. 
 „ their culture similar 
 
 to that of some cave 
 men, 130. 
 „ their religion and be- 
 
 lief in the immor- 
 tality of the soul, 
 125. 
 „ method of obtaining 
 
 fire, 132, 133. 
 
214 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Esquimaux, drink aud drinking 
 vessels of the, 131, 
 137. 
 ,, often eat raw food, 
 
 134, 136. 
 ,, derivation of "Es- 
 
 quimaux," 136. 
 ,, voracity of the, 134, 
 
 136/137. 
 „ Seemann on the Wes- 
 
 tern tribes of, 136. 
 ,, stores of meat made 
 
 by the, 138. 
 ,, dwellings of the. 137. 
 
 ,, their limited know- 
 
 ledge of numbers, 
 139. 
 ,, dog, wolf-like, of 
 
 the, 140. 
 „ their culture and con- 
 
 ditions compared 
 with those of Palae- 
 olithic man, 34, 139. 
 Etheridge and Seeley on the up- 
 rise of Scandinavia and 
 Britain, 68. 
 Evans, Dr. J., on flint implements 
 from Bemerton and Fish- 
 er ton, 32. 
 ,, manufacture of flint im- 
 plements, 79. 
 „ flakes used for spear heads 
 
 by savages, 110. 
 „ flint daggers, 97. 
 „ equilateral implement, 94. 
 ,, scrapers, 106. 
 ,, flints with depressions, 
 
 116. 
 ,, on the time involved in 
 the erosion of the Thames 
 Valley, 66. 
 culture of the drift and 
 
 cave folk, 107, 130. 
 fauna of the drift at 
 Fisherton (note), 188. 
 cave and drift folk of the 
 same race and of similar 
 culture, 130. 
 flint implements from 
 Ealing Dean, Plate Ia. 
 Evolution of the celt implement, 
 104. 
 
 Evolution in arrow heads, 104. 
 „ of man, 194, 195. 
 
 Falconer, Dr., the earliest men 
 
 not in Europe, 31. 
 Fauna of mid-terrace deposits of 
 the Thames Valley, 66, 
 113. 
 ,, of lower brick earth, &c, 
 
 67. 
 ,, of other river drift depo- 
 sits. 188. 
 ,, Arctic, in older bone ca- 
 ves, 67. 
 ,, similarity of the fauna 
 from the drift and old- 
 est cave dejjosits, 121. 
 „ molluscan of the river 
 drift at Brentford, 113. 
 Figuier, 98. 
 
 Fire, original mode of obtaining, 
 133. 
 „ how obtained by Esqui- 
 maux, 133. 
 „ Fuegians, 
 132, 148. 
 ,, ,, Australi- 
 ans, 132. 
 „ ,, tree dwel- 
 ling race 
 of Malaya 
 184. 
 ,, used for pot boilers, 
 135. 
 ,, how used by Palaeolithic 
 man, 134. 
 ,, used by Australians to 
 straighten shafts, 174. 
 Fisherton, late pleistocene fauna 
 
 of, 188. 
 Fisher, J. O., flint flake from 
 
 Crayford, 34. 
 FitzRoy on the Fuegians, 146, 
 
 148, 181. 
 Flakes, used for implements by 
 Australians for various 
 purposes, 74. 
 Flint Jack, 82. 
 
 Flint (chert, hornstone, agate, 
 obsidian, &c.) — 
 „ method of working by 
 
 55 55 
 
 55 55 
 
 55 55 
 
INDEX. 
 
 215 
 
 
 Esquimaux, 
 78, 8u. 
 Fliut, method of working by 
 Australians, 
 78. 
 „ „ „ Mexican In- 
 dians, 77. 
 ,, ,, ,, N. American 
 Indians, 78. 
 „ „ probably a- 
 dopted by Pa- 
 laeolithic man, 
 70, 109. 
 Flint core replaced, Fig. 1, Plate 
 
 III. 
 
 Floats, similarity between the 
 
 Australian and ancient 
 
 Egyptian, 173. 
 
 Floods, action on river courses,63. 
 
 „ evidence of effect of, in 
 
 N.W. Middlesex, 69. 
 „ Englehardt on the causes 
 
 and effects of, 69. 
 ,, worked flints redeposited 
 by, 60. 
 Flower, J. W., Palaeolithic im- 
 plements from Thet- 
 ford, Hoxne and Ick- 
 lingham, 32. 
 Food, of the Esquimaux, 136,137. 
 „ Fuegians, 147, 148, 
 
 149. 
 „ Australians, 163, 170. 
 ,, ,, Bushmen, 155. 
 „ ,, Chatham Islanders, 
 179. 
 Forest, on the Australians, 165. 
 Fox, Lane, now General Pitt Ri- 
 vers — 
 excavations at Cissbury, 
 15. 
 ,, on flint implements from 
 
 Acton, 60. 
 „ on modes of fixing arrow 
 heads by savages, 73, 118. 
 ,, on evolution in the forms of 
 the arrowhead, 104, 118. 
 floats of the Australians 
 and ancient Egyptians 
 compared, 173. 
 on boomerangs, 177. 
 
 Fox, Lane, parrying shields, 178. 
 
 Freycinet, on theAustralians 172. 
 
 Fuegians, method of obtaining 
 
 fire, 133. 
 
 „ climate of their coun- 
 try, 145. 
 
 „ able to bear exposure, 
 134, 147. 
 
 ,, nomadic habits of, 145. 
 
 ,, physical characteris- 
 tics of, 146, 147,148. 
 
 „ incisors worn down, 
 146, 148. 
 clothing of, 146, 147, 
 148. 
 
 „ dwellings of, 146, 147, 
 149. 
 
 ,, use paint, 147, 149. 
 food of, 147, 148, 149. 
 
 „ said to be cannibals, 
 148. 
 
 ,, no knowledge of pot- 
 tery, 148. 
 
 ,, canoes of, 148. 
 
 „ mimicry of, 147. 
 
 ,, government of, 148. 
 
 ,, religion of, 149. 
 
 ,, disposal of the dead 
 by, 124. 
 
 „ voices and gestures, 
 149. 
 
 „ stone implements of, 
 147. 
 
 „ bone implements of, 
 Fig. 5, Plate V., 148. 
 
 „ no knowledge of agri- 
 culture, 150. 
 
 ,, said to be the lowest 
 human species, 181. 
 
 Gaelic lines to a scallop shell, 132. 
 Galton, pounded bones eaten by 
 
 Africans, 120. 
 Garson, J. G., climate of Tierra 
 del Fuego, 145. 
 ,, disposal of the dead by 
 
 the Fuegians, 124. 
 „ religion of the Fuegians, 
 149. 
 Geikie, James, interglacial pe- 
 riods, 29. 
 
216 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Geikie, James, Scotch peat bogs, 
 14. 
 „ ,, " Moraine profou- 
 de " in Britain 
 (note), 27. 
 Geikie, A., glaciers in Scotch is- 
 lands contemporary 
 with man, 122. 
 Geographical changes during the 
 Pleistocene period, 
 23, 26, 27, 28, 29. 
 Glacial deposits on the Mount, 
 Ealing, 45, 47. 
 „ moraine profonde, 27. 
 ,, boulder clay, 27. 
 period, 26 to 29. 
 „ periods, Dr. Croll's the- 
 ories on, 25, 71. 
 Glaciation of Greenland and Grin- 
 
 nell laud, 128. 
 Glaciers confluent in the British 
 
 Isles, 26. 
 Godwin-Austen, submerged land 
 in Somerset, 7. 
 ,, abrupt termination of 
 Tallies in southern and 
 eastern counties, 22. 
 Greely, Major, climate of Grin- 
 
 uell land, 128. 
 Greenhill, his collection of flint 
 
 implements, 32. 
 Greenwell, Canon, ancient British 
 Grime's graves, 
 Neolithic flint 
 mines, 15. 
 Grenelle, human bones and flint 
 implements found at, 127. 
 Gregory, A. G., mode of making 
 stone implements by Aus- 
 tralians, 78. 
 Grey, on the Australians, 120. 
 „ blood revenge among the 
 
 Australians, 167. 
 ,, food of the Australians, 1 70. 
 Grime's Graves, neolithic flint 
 
 mines at, 15. 
 Grinnell land, ice girt oasis in, 
 
 128. 
 Gun flints, manufacture of, 1<»i;. 
 Gulf stream, deviatiou in the 
 course of,in past times,26,28. 
 
 Hafting stone implements by Aus- 
 tralians, Figs. 3, 9, Plate 
 III. Figs.1,2, 3,10, 12,13, 
 Plate V., 83, 105,113, 
 175. 
 „ Esquimaux, Figs. 8, 10, 
 PlateIII.,Fig.4, PlateV. 
 80, 102,107,117. 
 „ Sioux Indians, 83. 
 „ Admiralty Islanders, Fig. 
 
 7, Plate III., 74, 89. 
 ,, natives of New Caledon- 
 ia, Fig.6, Plate III., 89. 
 „ natives of New Hebrides, 
 
 96. 
 „ Californian Indians, 118. 
 „ Aricharee Indians, 101. 
 ,, Indians of the Rio Frio, 
 S. America, Fig. 2, Plate 
 III., 95. 
 ,, Easter Islanders, 111. 
 „ natives of New Guinea, 
 
 Fig. 5, Plate III., 91. 
 „ Neolithic people of the 
 Swiss Pile dwellings, Fig. 
 4, Plate III., 96. 
 „ facilitated by thinning 
 the butt as adopted by 
 the Palaeolithic men, 59, 
 72. 
 „ mode probably adopted 
 by Palaeolithic men, 83, 
 84,90,91,92,95,104,107, 
 108, 110. 
 Hall, Capt., Esquimaux scrapers, 
 107. 
 ,, flint pointed harpoons. 110. 
 „ fixing arrow heads, 118. 
 „ funeral ceremonies of Es- 
 quimaux, 125. 
 Hamy, Dr., on skulls from Cro 
 Magnon and Grenelle, 127. 
 Hauwell, implements from, Plate 
 
 I., Plate Ia, Plate Ib. 
 Harlesden, alluvial deposits at, 51. 
 Harmer, F. W., upper and lower 
 
 boulder clays, 27. 
 
 Harrow Weald, brick earth at, 51. 
 
 Harpoons, bone, of Esquimaux, 
 
 Fig.7, PlateV. 
 
 „ of Beothucs,Fig.6,PlateV. 
 
INPKX 
 
 217 
 
 Harpoons, bone, of Fuegians, Fig. 
 5, Plate V. 
 ,, from Kent's Cavern, 
 Figs. 4,5, Plate IV. 
 Harrison, P., excavations at Ciss- 
 
 bury, 15. 
 Hatchet, see Axes, &c. 
 Haynes, Prof. H. W., drift stone 
 implements from the Nile 
 Valley, 185. 
 Hector's Cairn, 11. 
 Hertfordshire gravel, 32, 46. 
 
 „ implements from, 
 32, 48. 
 Hesiod, iron in use at his time, 4. 
 Hicks, Dr. Henry, bone caves in 
 Wales, 136. 
 ,, Report on the caves of 
 Flynnon Beuno and Cae 
 Gwyn, 197. 
 „ evidence obtained there- 
 from of man having lived 
 before the last great sub- 
 mergence, 197 to 199. 
 Himilco, voyage to Britain, 5. 
 Hooker, Sir Joseph, 128. 
 Howorth, H. H., recent elevations 
 of the earth's surface (note), 
 24. 
 Homer's warriors armed with 
 
 iron, 4. 
 Hornstone, see Flint, &c. 
 Horsington Hill, glacial detritus 
 on, 46. 
 „ formerly an island, 49. 
 Hottentots & Bushmen, physical 
 characteristics of, 153. 
 „ their state of culture, 
 
 152, 153. 
 
 „ their method of smelt- 
 ing iron, 152. 
 
 ,, clothiugof, 153. 
 
 ;, rock shelters and 
 dwellings of,153,155. 
 
 „ disgusting habits of, 
 
 153, 155. 
 
 „ ornaments of, 151,153. 
 „ their knowledge of 
 
 simples, 154. 
 „ their food, 155, 157. 
 „ their religious rites 
 
 and sorcery, 154. 
 Hottentots and Bushmen, noma- 
 dic life of Bushmen, 
 154. 
 „ barbarity to the aged, 
 
 155. 
 ,, weapons and imple- 
 ments of, Figs. 8, 9, 
 Plate V., 151, 154, 
 155, 156. 
 „ Bushmen ignorant of 
 
 metallurgy, 156. 
 ,, Bushmen, no canoes, 
 
 156. 
 ,, Palaeolithic forms of 
 some stone imple- 
 ments of the, 156, 
 157. 
 „ their position com- 
 pared with other ra- 
 ces, 181. 
 Human bones, scarcity of in the 
 River drift, 42. 
 ,, from River drift depo- 
 sits of France, 127. 
 „ found at Tilbury, 42. 
 ,, near Bury St. Edmunds, 
 
 127. 
 „ sacrifice, in Neolithic 
 age, 10. 
 Huxley, Prof., racial characteris- 
 tics of the Britons, 6. 
 „ possible racial connection 
 between Australians and 
 ancient Egyptians, 173. 
 „ on the Kolis of Guze- 
 rat, Deccan, &c, 173, 
 177. 
 „ man and the brutes, 180. 
 „ development of the mind 
 in man, 192. 
 
 Iberic race intermixed with the 
 Keltic at the Roman in- 
 vasion of Britain, 6. 
 
 „ identified with the Neoli- 
 thic people, 17. 
 
 „ described by Strabo and 
 Tacitus, 17. 
 
 „ possible Iberic roots in 
 English language, 18. 
 2 e 
 
218 
 
 I>~DEX. 
 
 T'f ■ 
 
 ?' 
 
 Ice, effect of debacles caused by, 
 
 69. 
 Implements from the River drift, 
 East London, High- 
 bury and Hornsey, 
 31, 32. 
 
 Fleet Street, Drury 
 Lane, Gray's Inn 
 Lane, and Clerken- 
 well, 31. 
 
 Reading, Marlow, 
 Maidenhead, and 
 Taplow, 31. 
 
 Hertfordshire, 32,48. 
 
 Cray ford, 33, 60. 
 
 YVest Kent, 48, 94. 
 
 Ealing, Acton, Han- 
 well, Dawley, Turn- 
 ham Green, Kew, 
 Gunnersbury, Plate 
 I., Plate Ia, Plate 
 Ib, Plates II. &IIa, 
 76 to 120. 
 
 East Sheen, 84. 
 
 very high level at 
 Ealing, 49, 88. 
 
 workshop floor, Cref- 
 field Road, Acton, 
 57 to 60, 103, 106, 
 108, 109, 110, 112, 
 115, 116, Plate II. 
 
 the mid Terrace at 
 Turnham Green,&c. 
 65, 99. 
 
 arrow points and 
 shaft smoothers, 
 Plate I., Figs. 159, 
 167, 169, Plate II., 
 Fig. 164; 116, 117. 
 
 made before the last 
 submergence, 62. 
 
 some old forms, 94, 
 97, 98. 
 
 colour of and dendri- 
 tic markings, acci- 
 dental, 82, 83, 94. 
 
 some Cissbury like 
 forms, 91, 99, 101, 
 112. 
 
 Hampshire and Isle- 
 of- Wight, Thetford, 
 
 51 
 
 5> 
 
 »» 
 
 Hoxne and Iekling- 
 ham, Bedford and 
 Biddenham, Bemer- 
 ton and Fisherton, 
 &c, 32. 
 Implements, method of making, 
 see Frontispiece," 77 
 to 82. 
 „ stone, from British 
 bone caves, 34 to 38, 
 86, 107, 115, 121, 
 197, and Figs. 1, 2, 
 3, Plate IV. 
 ,, from Dordogne and 
 other foreign caves, 
 38,41,86,115, 119, 
 139. 
 „ from Nerbudda Val- 
 ley, Central India, 
 185. 
 ,, from the drift of the 
 
 Nile Valley, 185. 
 „ of Hottentots and 
 Bushmen, Figs. 8, 
 9, Plate V., 156, 
 157. 
 „ of Patagonians, Fig. 
 
 11, Plate V., 151. 
 „ from Thenay, France, 
 31. 
 Inchauspe, Abbe, on the deriva- 
 tion of Basque names 
 for cutting tools, 
 18. 
 Interval between the Pleistocene 
 
 and Neolithic ages, 16. 
 Interments, distinction between 
 those of bronze and stone 
 ages, 8, 10. 
 Isleworth, worked flint club from, 
 Fig. 4, Plate Ib. 
 
 Javelins, see Spears, &c. 
 Jones, Prof. Rupert, on peat beds, 
 13. 
 „ on accumulation of high 
 level gravel and its sub- 
 sequent erosion, 30. 
 „ glacial period, 71. 
 „ Victoria cave, 39. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 219 
 
 Kane, use of fire by Esquimaux, 
 134. 
 ,, ou uncooked food of ditto, 
 
 136. 
 „ on drinking vessels of do., 
 131. 
 Keller, lake dwellings, 11. 
 Keltic roots, paucity of in the 
 
 French language, 18. 
 Kennett West, long barrow at, 9. 
 Kent's cavern, deposits in, 36. 
 ,, fauna of, 36, 37. 
 „ flint implements from, 
 37, 107, see also Figs. 
 1, 2, 3, Plate IV. 
 „ bone implements from, 
 Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, Plate 
 IV. 
 Kesslerloch cave, incised antler 
 from, 139, see Fig.9, Plate 
 IV. 
 Kingsley, Rev. C, musk sheep 
 found by, in Thames 
 valley (note), 188. 
 Kirkcudbrightshire, cairn con- 
 taining a skeleton found 
 in, 11. 
 Kjokkenmoddings, Danish and 
 Scotch, see Shell mounds, 
 14. 
 Knight, savage weapons, 101. 
 Kolben, on the Hottentots and 
 
 Bushmen, 152, 153, 155. 
 Kolis, tree dwellings of, 151, 182, 
 183. 
 „ use the boomerang, 177. 
 „ parrying shields of the, 
 177. 
 use stone implements, 183. 
 method of obtaining fire, 
 184. 
 
 „ physique of, 182, 184. 
 „ racial affinity with the 
 
 Australoid stock, 177. 
 „ brutality to women of the, 
 
 184.. 
 „ the lowest human race, 
 181. 
 
 Lake dwelliugs.see Pile dwellings. 
 Laing, S., 31. 
 
 5> 
 
 Lang, Gideon S., cannabilism of 
 the Australians, 163. 
 „ blood for blood doctrine 
 of the Australians, 167. 
 ,, belief in sorcery and dif- 
 ficulty in eradicating the 
 native customs of Aus- 
 tralians, 167. 
 , , an Australian model Chris- 
 tian, 168. 
 Lang, Andrew, polyandrous asso- 
 ciations of savages, 164. 
 Lances, see Spears &c. 
 Land surfaces, evidence of former, 
 in river drift deposits, 54, 
 55. 
 ,, former, noticeable in the 
 drift near Ealing, 58, 99, 
 103. 
 ,, evidence of, immediately 
 beneath the brick earth 
 deposits, 61. 
 ,, their destruction, 61, 62. 
 „ calcined stones from old, 
 
 134. 
 ,, at Creffield Road, Acton, a 
 workshop floor for making 
 palaeolithic implements, 
 see Section, 57 to 60, 108. 
 Land, uprise of, in Denmark, 14. 
 . ,, recent, on the shores of the 
 Gulf of Bothnia, 48. 
 Laplanders, 120, 181. 
 Lartet and Christy, 87, see Reli- 
 quiae Aquitanicse. 
 Layton, Thomas, Brentford, 70. 
 Leguat, on Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 152, 153, 154. 
 Livy, parrying shield of the 
 
 Gauls, 178. 
 Lloyd, T. G. B., on the Beotkucs, 
 
 142. 
 Luard, Capt., discovery of bones 
 of reindeer, bears &c. at 
 Windsor, 143. 
 Lubbock, SirJolm, pile dwellings, 
 
 „ absence of representation 
 of animals in Danish 
 shell mounds and Neo- 
 lithic pile dwellings, 
 38. 
 
220 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lubbock, on manufacture of flint 
 flakes, 81. 
 ,, oval implement from le 
 
 Moustier, 86. 
 „ celt like scrapers, 120. 
 „ method of obtaining fire 
 by Esquimaux and the 
 mode originally adopt- 
 ed by primitive man, 
 133. 
 ,, objects of wood perish- 
 ed in the drift, 123. 
 „ proportion of game to 
 the hunters among the 
 N. American Indians, 
 124. 
 „ funeral customs of sav- 
 ages, 124. 
 „ on the Fuegians, 134, 
 
 150. 
 „ musk sheep at Maiden- 
 head & Bromley, 188. 
 „ Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 156. 
 „ Australians, 162, 165. 
 „ New Zealanders, 163, 
 
 166. 
 „ tribal organisation, mar- 
 riage and relationships 
 of savages, 164. 
 „ lowest race of mankind, 
 181. 
 Lucretius, De Reruin Natura, 2. 
 Lyell, Sir Chas., delta of the Ti- 
 niere, 18. 
 „ Kjokkenmoddings, 14. 
 ,, Swiss pile dwellings, 12. 
 Cromer forest bed, cli- 
 mate of, 23. 
 elevation of the land and 
 increasing cold in the 
 British Isles in the early 
 Pleistocene period, 23. 
 parallel roads of GlenRoy, 
 
 29. 
 Neanderthal and Engis 
 
 skulls, 41. 
 oscillations in the level of 
 Snowdonia, 71. 
 remarkable flint imple- 
 ment from Abbeville, S6. 
 
 5) 
 
 Lyell, Sir Chas., glaciation of the 
 Scotch Highlands when 
 man was living in the 
 Thames valley, 122. 
 
 Lyon, Capt., human skulls at 
 Igloolik, 126. 
 
 Macclesfield, marine shells at high 
 
 level at, 27. 
 McCormick, Dr. R., on the gla- 
 ciation of the An- 
 tarctic regions,144. 
 „ on the Fuegians, 
 146. 
 McKinlay, uncovered sleeping 
 places of Australians, 171. 
 Mammoth, entire tusks of, in 
 deposits at Brent- 
 ford (note), 189. 
 ,, prolonged existence 
 of, in Siberia, 129. 
 Man, traces of in the Skovmoser, 
 14. 
 migration of, in first conti- 
 nental period, 67. 
 lived before the last sub- 
 mergence, 197. 
 present before the valleys 
 in N.W. Middlesex were 
 eroded, 68. 
 
 pre-glacial and inter-gla- 
 cial, 34, 197 to 199. 
 physical geography of N. 
 W. Middlesex when he 
 first lived there, 69. 
 importance to him of im- 
 improvement in his weap- 
 ons, 73. 
 food of the men of the 
 river drift, 75, 100. 
 cotemporary with the gla- 
 ciation of the Northern 
 mountains, 122. 
 autiquity of, 71, 129. 
 evidence of his culture de- 
 rived from caves, 121. 
 remains of,fromRiver drift, 
 42, 127. 
 cave man and drift man 
 
 cotemporary, 129. 
 survival of, from the drift 
 
INDEX. 
 
 221 
 
 period, 140. 
 Man, his conditions of existence 
 in the drift period, 75, 
 188, 189. 
 „ the lowest existing race of, 
 
 181. 
 „ primitive, 193. 
 „ development of mental and 
 
 will power in, 193. 
 „ mind of, compared with 
 
 that of brutes, 75, 193. 
 „ evolution of, 194, 195. 
 ,, his influence on nature,195. 
 „ his future development, 
 194, 196. 
 Man, E. H., Andaman islanders, 
 
 135. 
 Maories, see New Zealanders. 
 Martin, Emile. human bones at 
 
 Grenelle, 127. 
 Marquesas islanders, polyandrous 
 associations of the, 1 65. 
 Martel, M., on the cave at Na- 
 
 brigas (note), 131. 
 Mauls, see Axes &c. 
 Methods of making flint imple- 
 ments, 77 to 82, and 
 frontispiece. 
 „ Dr. J. Evans on, 79. 
 „ Worthington G. Smith 
 
 on, 106. 
 „ Lubbock, Sir John, on, 
 
 81. 
 „ Skertchly on, 106. 
 „ Wyatt ("Stevens' flint 
 
 chips ") on, 106. 
 „ at the workshop floor at 
 Creffield Road, Acton, 
 109. 
 „ by Mexican Indians, 77. 
 „ by Esquimaux, 78, 80. 
 „ by Australians, 78. 
 Mexican Indians, obsidian knives 
 and arrow points of, 74. 
 „ spears of, 77. 
 Micmac Indians, Dr. Dawson on, 
 143. 
 „ wigwams of, 143. 
 ,, used flint implements, 
 
 144. 
 ,, nomadic hunters, 143. 
 
 ,, anecdote of a chief of,144. 
 
 Middlesex, N.W., its physical 
 
 geography in the early 
 
 drift period, 187. 
 
 Milligan, Dr. Joseph, Tasmanian 
 
 gesture language, 169. 
 Mincopies, see Andaman Islan- 
 ders. 
 Miocene period, supposed worked 
 
 flints of the, 31. 
 Mitchell, Major, Australian par- 
 rying shields, 1 78. 
 Moel Tryfaen, marine shells and 
 
 beach deposits on, 27. 
 Mollusca, arctic, of the Pleisto- 
 cene, 28. 
 „ from Brentford mid 
 terrace deposits, 113. 
 Moorfields, pile structures in, 13. 
 Moravian Brothers, missionary 
 
 work in Australia, 161. 
 Moriories, see Chatham Islanders. 
 Morlot, on the antiquity of the 
 Neolithic age derived 
 from lower delta of the 
 Tiniere, 18. 
 „ on the older delta of 
 the Tiniere, 19. 
 Morbihan, sculpture slabs in the 
 
 dolmens of, 10. 
 Morris and Layton, bones of ex- 
 tinct mammalia &c. found 
 at Brentford, 188. 
 Mortillet, flint implements from 
 Grenelle, 127. 
 „ stone implements from 
 Trenton Gravels, 186. 
 Moseley, H. N., on the Admiral- 
 ty Islanders, Fig. 7, Plate 
 III., 89, 111. 
 Mount, the, Ealing, glacial de- 
 posits on, see section, 45. 
 „ in the early drift period, 
 
 49. 
 ,, brick earth on the sum- 
 mit of, 51. 
 Moulin Quignon jaw, 127. 
 Musk sheep, abundant in Green- 
 land, 140. 
 ,, in Thames Valley (note), 
 188. 
 
222 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 mining 
 graves, 
 
 Musters, on thePatagoniaus,151. 
 
 Nairs, polyanclrous assoeiations 
 
 of, 165. 
 ' Nature ' quoted, 131, 197. 
 Neanderthal skull, 41. 
 Neolithic people, racial character 
 1 of, ]0, 17. 
 „ tumuli of, 9, 10. 
 ,, antiquity of the, 19. 
 „ pottery &c. of the, 9, 
 
 132. 
 ,, surface finch, 11. 
 „ excavations at Ciss- 
 
 bury, 15. 
 „ implements of, 91,99, 
 101, 112, 117. 
 
 at Grime's 
 15. 
 belief in a future state, 
 8. 
 Nerbudda Valley, flint, agate and 
 jasper implements from 
 (note), 185. 
 New Caledonians, spears of, Fig. 
 
 6, Plate III. 89, 110. 
 New Guinea adze, Fig. 5, Plate 
 
 III., 91. 
 New Zealand, fauna of, 159. 
 New Zealauders, cannibalism of, 
 163. 
 „ religion of the, 166. 
 ,, agriculture of the, 169. 
 ,, do not use the boome- 
 rang, 177. 
 Newton, E. T., determination of 
 bones from Brentford, 
 113. 
 Nicholson, Alleyne, fauna and 
 flora of Australia, 158. 
 Nile Valley, chert implements 
 from the drift of the, 185. 
 North and South American In- 
 dians, proportion of 
 game to the hunters, 
 124. 
 „ pot boilers of the Assin- 
 
 neboines, 135. 
 „ Micmacs,*143, 144. 
 ,, morality of the Indians 
 of North California, 139. 
 
 North and South American In- 
 dians, disposal of the 
 dead by the, 124, 125. 
 
 ,, polyandrous associations 
 of the Iroquois, 165. 
 
 ,, gesture language of the 
 Arapapas, 169. 
 
 ,, Mexican, Indian wea- 
 pons, 74, 77. 
 
 ,, root diggers considered 
 to be the lowest human 
 race, 181. 
 
 ,, mode of making flint 
 implements among the 
 Northern tribes, 78. 
 
 „ stone arrow points and 
 spears of the Northern 
 tribes, 74, 118. 
 Nordenskjold, interior of Green- 
 land, 128. 
 Numeration, defective power of, 
 among the Esquimaux 
 and Australians, 139, 
 162 
 
 Oak, in the Skovmoser, 13. 
 
 Obsidian, 111, see Flint &c. 
 
 Oldfield, mode of making spears 
 
 by the Australians, 174. 
 
 ,, mode of making shields 
 
 by the Australians, 178. 
 
 Oonalashka, voracity of the chief 
 at, 137. 
 
 Oreston cave, old fauna of, 33. 
 
 Orbit of the earth and glacial pe- 
 riod, 25, 71. 
 
 Ornaments of Palaeolithic man, 
 36, 37. 
 
 Ornithorhynchus, 158. 
 
 Ovibos moschatus,seeMusk sheep. 
 
 Owen, Sir Richard, human re- 
 mains at Tilbury, 43. 
 
 Pala3olithic floor at East London, 
 31. 
 „ at Cray ford, 60. 
 ,, winter scene, 188. 
 ,, spring scene, 189. 
 Pala3olithic workshop floor at 
 Creflield Road, Ac- 
 ton, Plates II. and 
 
INDEX. 
 
 223 
 
 >> 
 
 ITa, 56 to GO, 109, 
 191. 
 Palaeolithic workshop floor at 
 Creffield Road, Ac- 
 ton, celt-like imple- 
 ments from, 103. 
 ,, scrapers from, 106. 
 ,, spear heads from, 
 
 108 to 110. 
 ,, knives from, 115. 
 saws from, 116. 
 shaft smoothers from, 
 116. 
 ,, awls and borers from, 
 
 115. 
 ,, variation in the colour 
 of the worked flints 
 at, 93. 
 Palstaves, from Acton and Han- 
 well, 70. 
 Papuans, spears of, 74. 
 Parry, Sir Edward, Esquimaux, 
 137. 
 „ on the limited knowledge 
 of numbers of the ditto, 
 139. 
 Patagonians, 150. 
 
 stone arrow heads, 
 scrapers &c, Fig.ll, 
 Plate V., 118, 150. 
 Peat beds, 13, 14. 
 Pengelly, submerged forest of 
 Torbay, 7. 
 „ shell mounds in Corn- 
 wall and Devon, 14. 
 on Kent's Cavern, 36. 
 on Brixham Cave, 37. 
 „ on scallop shells found 
 in Kent's Cavern, 132. 
 Perforators and awls, Fig. 150, 
 
 Plate II., 97, 115. 
 Perivale, Palaeolithic flake from, 
 
 105. 
 Perthes, Boucher de, 21. 
 Peruvian graves, arrows from, 
 
 118. 
 Phoenicians, voyages to Britain, 3. 
 Phillips, John, geology of Ox- 
 ford and Valley of the 
 Thames, 53, 70, 118. 
 Picks of the Neolithic miners, 15. 
 
 J! 
 
 >> 
 
 Pigafetta, on the Patagonians, 
 
 151. 
 Pile dwellings of Bronze age,12. 
 ,, of Neolithic age, 12, 20. 
 „ stone hatchet from Ro- 
 
 benhausen, 96. 
 ,, stone celt hafted in 
 deer horn, from Lake 
 Constance, Fig. 4, 
 Plate III., 96. 
 ,, African, 13. 
 ,, at Moorfields, 13. 
 Pinus Sylvestris in the Skovmo- 
 
 ser, 13. 
 Pleistocene, arctic mollusca, 28. 
 Pliny, 5. 
 
 Pluvial period, 28. 
 Pottery in Neolithic pile dwel- 
 lings, 12. 
 ,, no knowledge of by Fue- 
 
 gians, 148. 
 „ ,, Australians and 
 
 New Zealand- 
 ers, 170. 
 ,, „ Esquimaux, 131. 
 
 „ „ Beothucs, 142. 
 
 „ absence of in drift deposits, 
 
 135. 
 ,, not used by cave men, 132. 
 Pounding stones and querns from 
 Ealing, 119. 
 „ of cave men, 119, 131. 
 . „ of Africans, 120, 156. 
 ,, of Esquimaux, 120. 
 Prestwich, Prof., valley gravels 
 and river drift, 30,43. 
 „ mean temperature du- 
 ring the accumula- 
 tion of the higher 
 river drift deposits, 
 122. 
 Priefff, H., human remains in drift 
 at Bury St. Edmunds, 127. 
 Puggaard, rate of uprise of the 
 coast of Denmark, 14. 
 
 Quatrefages, worked flints from 
 Thenay, 31. 
 
 Rae, Dr., limited knowledge of 
 numbers of the Esqui- 
 
224 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 maux, 130. 
 Raised beaches, 29, 68. 
 Ramsay, Sir A. C, physical geo- 
 graphy of the British 
 Isles at the first gla- 
 cial period, 23. 
 „ evidence of confluent 
 glaciers at the first 
 glacial period, 26. 
 „ extent of the submer- 
 gence in the glacial 
 period, 27. 
 „ arctic forms of mollus- 
 ca in the glacial pe- 
 riod, 28. 
 „ re-elevation of the 
 land in the glacial 
 period, 29. 
 „ probable submergence 
 of Cefn cave after the 
 deposit of Pleistocene 
 animals (note), 36, 
 197. 
 ,, man pre-glacial, 34. 
 „ gradual disturbance of 
 the earth's crust, 25. 
 Reboux, human bones in French 
 
 drift deposits, 127. 
 Reliquiae AquitanicEe, 38, 87,119. 
 Religious ideas of Esquimaux, 125. 
 „ Micmacs, 144. 
 „ Fuegians, 149. 
 „ Australians, 165. 
 „ New Zealanders, 166. 
 „ religious difficulties as 
 to the autiquity of 
 man, 192. 
 Ribble Valley, old glacier of the, 
 
 40 
 Rio Frio Indians, club with stone 
 inserted of the, Fig. 2, 
 Plate III., 95. 
 Rivers, General Pitt, see Lane 
 
 Fox. 
 Rivers, changing courses of, 63, 
 64. 
 „ freezing at the bottom, 70. 
 River drift deposits near Ealing, 
 43. 
 ,, accumulation and extent 
 of the, 30, 52, 130. 
 
 „ Whitaker, W., on, 44. 
 
 „ Prestwich on, 43. 
 
 „ high level of, near Ealing, 
 
 44. 
 ,, great age of the high level, 
 
 66. 
 „ description of a section of 
 
 high level, 53. 
 ,, cross bedding in, 61. 
 „ formation of, 49. 
 „ eroded and calcined peb- 
 bles from the, 54, 134. 
 „ its removal and re-deposi- 
 tion, 189. 
 ,, flint implements with pe- 
 rished surfaces from mid 
 Terrace, probably re-de- 
 posited, 65, 90, 99. 
 River drift hunter, 187, 188. 
 „ „ traces of in dif- 
 ferent parts of 
 the world, 185. 
 Rogers, solubility of silica, 55. 
 Ross, Capt., food of Esquimaux, 
 
 136. 
 Root diggers, N. American, 181. 
 Rutimeyer, age of the Neolithic 
 pile dwelling at Pont de 
 Thiele, 20. 
 
 Sacrifice, human, in Neolithic age, 
 
 10. 
 Sand duues, objects from, 14. 
 Sarsen stones at or near Ealing, 
 
 50, 51, 53. 
 Saws, flint, 116. 
 Scallop shell used as a drinking 
 
 vessel, 132. 
 Scandinavian sea rovers, 140. 
 Schiller, 8. 
 Schliemann, flakes from Hissar- 
 
 lik (note), 114. 
 Schoolcraft, North California^ 
 
 Indians, 139. 
 Scotland, peat bogs of, 14. 
 Scrapers, celt-like, 102, 107. 
 „ crescent-shape, 106. 
 „ Esquimaux, Fig. 8, 
 
 Plate III., 107. 
 
 „ Patagonian, Fig. 11, 
 
 Plate V., 151. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 225 
 
 Scrapers, Kent's Cavern, 107. 
 ,, Hottentot and Bush- 
 men, 157. 
 „ Australian, Fig. 10, 
 Plate V. 
 Seal in drift deposits, 190. 
 Section, glacial deposits on the 
 Mount, 49. 
 „ showing Palaeolithic 
 workshop floor, Cref- 
 field Road, Acton, 56. 
 Seem ami, B , on the Esquimaux, 
 136, 137. 
 „ dog of the Esquimaux, 140. 
 Sek-koon,see Scraper, Esquimaux. 
 Shell mounds, Danish, 38. 
 
 „ in Cornwall, Devon, 
 
 and Scotland, 14. 
 ,, of the Fuegians, 149. 
 „ of the Australians, 170. 
 Shields, narrow, 178. 
 Shrubsole, O. A., less familiar 
 forms of Palaeolithic 
 implements, 116. 
 Si lures, West tribes of non- Ary- 
 an, 17. 
 Silica, solubility of, 55. 
 Simpson. Esquimaux uses of fire, 
 
 134. 
 Skertchley,glacial deposit at Rom- 
 ford (note), 27. 
 „ flint implement found 
 beneath boulder clay, 
 94. 
 „ on manufacture of gun 
 flints (note), 106. 
 Skins, preparation of by Esqui- 
 maux, 107. 
 Skovmoser, Danish, 13. 
 Skulls, Brachycephalic, 10. 
 „ Dolichocephalic, 10. 
 „ worn teeth in ancient, 135. 
 „ ,, of Esquimaux 
 
 and Fuegians, 
 136, 146. 
 Smith, Wortbingt on G., his inves- 
 tigations and collection 
 from East London, 32,52. 
 „ his discovery of a Palaeo- 
 lithic floor, 31. 
 ,. implements from Acton, 
 
 )> 
 
 Hanwell, and large flint 
 club from Isleworth, 
 Plates Ia and Ib. 
 Smith, "Worthington 6., on flint 
 implements from Hert- 
 fordshire, 32, 48, 6S. 
 „ Implement from high lev- 
 el at Ealiug (note), 49. 
 ,, old forms of flint imple- 
 ments, 98. 
 
 the different ages indicated 
 by the forms and posi- 
 tion of Palaeolithic im- 
 plements, 62. 
 . „ Coscinopora globularis 
 used as an ornament, 37. 
 ,, method of making flint 
 implements, see Frontis- 
 piece. 
 Solomon's temple, 4. 
 Solomon islanders, spears of, 
 
 pointed with flint, 74. 
 Somme, terrace deposits of, 22. 
 Spalls, see Flakes. 
 Sparrman, on Hottentots and 
 
 Bushmen, 153, 154. 
 Spears, javelins, lances and darts, 
 of the Britons at the Ro- 
 man invasion, 6. 
 ,, of the Solomon islanders, 
 
 74. 
 ,, Admiraltv ditto. Fig. 7, 
 
 Plate III., 74, 89, 111. 
 ,, New Caledouian islanders 
 Fig. 6, Plate III., 110., 
 ,, Papuans, 74. 
 ,, Mexican Indians, 74. 
 „ North American Indians. 
 
 74. 
 ,, Esquimaux. Fig. 4, Plate 
 
 V., 117. 
 „ Beothucs, 141, 142. 
 „ Fuegians, 1-17. 
 „ Tasmanians, 178. 
 „ Australians. Fiij-s. 1. 2, 3, 
 
 Plate V., 110, 174. 
 „ Hottentots and Bushmen, 
 
 151, 155, 156. 
 „ Palaeolithic, 89, 108 to 
 
 111. 
 „ from old workshop floor 
 2/ 
 
226 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 in Creffielcl Road, Figs. 
 118, 119, Plates II. and 
 IIa, 108 to 110. 
 Spun-ell, Flaxman C. J., flint 
 implements from West 
 Kent, 48, 94. 
 „ discovery of Palreolithic 
 floor and implements at 
 Crayford (note), 48, 60. 
 Stanley, late Bishop of Norwich, 
 
 Cefn Cave (note), 36. 
 Stayorinus, Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 152. 
 Stevens, Dr., Palreolithic imple- 
 ments associated with 
 Pleistocene fauna from 
 Reading, 31. 
 „ flint chips, 17, 77, 135. 
 Stokes, Australian dwellings, 171. 
 Stone, bronze and other ages ill 
 
 defined, 4. 
 Stone implements, seelmplements. 
 Stonehenge, 9. 
 Strabo, on the Iberians, 17. 
 Steenstrup, worked flints from 
 
 Danish peat beds, 14. 
 Strzelecki, Count, on the Aus- 
 tralians, 161. 
 Submergence, of British Isles, 27. 
 ,, ofThamesValley,46. 
 „ some flint imple- 
 ments probably 
 made anterior to 
 the, 62. 
 „ man existed before 
 the greater, 197. 
 
 Tacitus, swords of the Britons, 6. 
 ,, characteristics of the I- 
 berians, 17. 
 Tasmanians, physical characters 
 of the, 160. 
 ,, low mental condi- 
 tion of, 161. 
 ,, cannibalism of, 163. 
 ,, gesture language of, 169 
 ,, no knowledge of 
 
 agriculture, 169. 
 , , d wel ling places of, 1 7. 
 ,, rude art of, 172. 
 „ canoes of, 172. 
 
 Tasmanians, weapons of, 178. 
 
 „ condition of, when 
 seen by Capt. Cook, 
 177. " 
 ,, their position in 
 considering the 
 lowest race of men, 
 181. 
 Tattooing, practised by Caledo- 
 nians (note), 114. 
 „ practised by Esqui- 
 maux, 139. 
 Temperature of the upper River 
 
 drift period, 122. 
 Termes (ants) used as food by 
 
 Bushmen, 155, 157. 
 Terraces, marine, 27. 
 Thames, bronze and stone objects 
 from the, 13. 
 ,, changes in the level of 
 the valley of the, 43,49, 
 190. 
 „ valley implementiferous 
 throughout, 31. 
 Thenay, alleged worked flints 
 
 from, 30. 
 Thibetans, polyandrous associa- 
 tions of, 165. 
 Thomson, iron, bronze and stone 
 
 ages, 2. 
 Thurman, ancient British bar- 
 rows, 8. 
 ,, human sacrifice of Neo- 
 lithic people, 10. 
 classification of human 
 
 remains, 9, 17. 
 uniform population of 
 the British Isles in 
 Neolithic age, 17. 
 Thurnberg, Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 152. 
 Tiefenau, battle field of, 12. 
 Tiddeman, Palreolithic man in 
 
 Victoria cave, 39. 
 Tierra del Fuego, natives of, see 
 
 Fuegians. 
 Tilbury, skeleton from the drift 
 
 of, 42. 
 Till, 26. 
 
 Time, vast period of, since man 
 lived in N. W. Middlesex, 192. 
 
 '? 
 
 •>■> 
 
INDEX. 
 
 227 
 
 Tiniere, periods represented by 
 
 the delta of the, 19. 
 Tomahawks, see Axes, &c. 
 Torquemada, method of making- 
 obsidian implements by 
 Mexican Indians, 77. 
 Tremlett, Admiral, on the dol- 
 mens of Morbihan, 10. 
 Trimmer, Cefn cave, 35. 
 
 „ fauna of the River drift 
 at Brentford, 188. 
 Torbay, submerged forest of, 7. 
 Trail deposits, 53. 
 Tumuli, see Barrows. 
 Troy on, M., his calculations of 
 the antiquity of the bronze 
 age, 19. 
 Twyford Abbey, river drift de- 
 posits at, 50. 
 Tylor, Alfred, on the occurrence 
 of a Pluvial period (note), 
 28. 
 Tylor, Dr. E. B., language of the 
 Tasmanians, 169. 
 „ translation of Monarquia 
 
 Indiana, 77. 
 „ Conservatism of savages, 
 
 84. 
 ,, Thorvald's voyage to La- 
 brador, 141. 
 „ gradations in culture of 
 
 savages, 186. 
 „ primitive man, 193. 
 
 Uses, many, of one implement, by 
 savages, 87, 105, 114. 
 
 Vaupell, invasion of the beech in 
 the forests of Denmark, 
 13. 
 Veddahs, 151. 
 Victoria cave, 39. 
 
 ,, older fauna of, 33. 
 ,, Tiddeman on the, 39. 
 „ evidence of submer- 
 gence shown by, 40. 
 
 Waitz, on Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 151, 154. 
 
 Wallace, Alfred R.. the mind of 
 man compared with that 
 of brutes, 193. 
 ,, man's capacity for men- 
 tal development and 
 will power, 195. 
 „ man's influence on na- 
 ture, 195. 
 „ the infinite gradations 
 of existence and man, 
 196. 
 West Kenuett, long barrow at, 9. 
 Whale, in drift deposits, 190. 
 Whitaker, W., River drift depo- 
 sits of the Thames 
 Valley, 44. 
 „ ditto of the Brent Val- 
 ley (note), 50. 
 Whitbourne, on the Beothucs, 
 
 141. 
 Wicklow mountains, Pleistocene 
 
 marine deposits on, 27. 
 Willett, Cissbury excavations, 15. 
 Wilson, Prof., canoe of the Cale- 
 fornian Indians, and note, 
 173. 
 Windsor, reindeer ford at, 143. 
 Witchcraft, believed in by Aus- 
 tralians, 165, 166. 
 „ Hottentots and Bush- 
 men, 154. 
 Wooden objects perished in the 
 
 River drift, 123. 
 Wood, Searles V., Jun., boulder 
 clays and middle glacial 
 sands, 27. 
 Woodward, Dr. Henry, on flight- 
 less birds (note), 159. 
 Wookey Hole, near Wells, 35. 
 
 oval implement from, 86. 
 Wommera, the throwing imple- 
 ment of the Australians, 
 175. 
 Wyatt, flint implements from the 
 River drift of the Ouse, 
 32. 
 
 Yorkshire Wolds, worked flints 
 from the, 116. 
 
PAL/EOLITHIG MAN IN N.W. MIDDLESEX. 
 
 BY JOHN ALLEN BROWN, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., &c. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 SATURDAY REVIEW. 
 
 WJiere now the peaceful ratepayer dwells in his eligible villa, and the hardy 
 voter exercises the franchise for N.W. Middlesex, Mr. Allen Brown has discovered 
 traces of the ingenious savage. From the top of Castleba--, Ealing, looking over 
 Alperton and Harrow Weald, Mr. Allen Brown contemplates the winter of the 
 discontent of our predecessors if not of our ancestors. He sees a waste of frozen 
 waters and of snow which the reindeer tosses up with his shovel-shaped horn in 
 search of herbage. The woods unenclosed and unpreserved are tenanted by the 
 mamaioth and his faithful partner the regretted woolly-rhinoceros. As night 
 comes on bears, wolves, and wolverines come out and snarl round the camp fires 
 of the human dwellers in a land not yet called Ealing. . . . Mr. Allen Brown's 
 book is written in a very systematic manner, is well supplied with documents, and 
 enables even an unscientific reader to understand what the populace of Ealing was 
 like in an unknown antiquity. Though not very well equipped with luxuries and 
 utensils, man was even then perfectly human, and if Mr. Brown's draughtsman may 
 be trusted, woman was by no means unwomanly. 
 
 ATHEN/EUM. 
 
 Mr. Allen Brown's book is to be commended as representing the work of a local 
 observer who has industriously searched every new geological exposure in his own 
 locality, and whose diligence has been rewarded by some interesting discoveries. 
 
 SCOTSMAN. 
 
 It will be found that the author has a story to tell and that he tells it fairly 
 well .... the work is illustrated by several lithographic plates, showing the 
 different types of Palaeolithic implements compared with the implements of 
 modern savages. 
 
 LIVERPOOL MERCURY. 
 
 The author's account of his own investigations is exceedingly interesting, and 
 carries us into the misty past long before history was born. . . . Some parts of the 
 book are touched with a kind of Jules Verne air which however makes it very 
 readable. . . . Taking it for all in all, the book is a pleasant and valuable 
 addition to the rapidly increasing store of our knowledge of early man, and 
 
brings within the reach of all the result of the work of such men as Lyell, 
 Lubbock, Tylor, Darwin, Wallace and many others in different directions. 
 
 NATURE. 
 
 We may say that Mr. Brown's book is a praiseworthy account of a particular 
 district, and that it would not be amiss if other districts had as careful an observer 
 in their midst eager to see every section and to record every find. It is a work 
 that London antiquaries and geologists should possess. 
 
 Our author makes a good third to these two (General Pitt Rivers and Mr. 
 Worthington Smith) and that is saying a good deal. It is to be hoped that his 
 book may lead other observers to join in the work that he has so much advanced, 
 and to do for other parts of London and the surrounding country what he and the 
 above named authors have done on the north-west and north-east and Mr. F. 
 Spurrell on the south-east. 
 
 THE LITERARY WORLD. 
 
 In his Palceolithic Man in N. W. Middlesex Mr. J. Allen Brown has produced 
 a very interesting book on a subject much discussed of late in scientific circles, 
 and even among people who make no pretension to scientific knowledge. 
 Although the locality indicated in the title might seem to somewhat confine the 
 scope of his work, a perusal of it shows that this is far from being so, for Mr. 
 Brown travels all over the globe — to New Zealand, to the Arctic and Antarctic 
 circles ; indeed wherever he can obtain any information regarding savage people 
 that will throw light upon the habits and conditions of the "Earliest Men of 
 Ealing." .... Mr. J. Allen Brown has himself made some interesting additions 
 to the flint implements recovered from the gravel drifts of the Thames Valley, and 
 his account of Palceolithic Man in N. IV. Middlesex is based largely upon his own 
 finds. . . . Mr. Brown is gifted with a strong power of the imagination ; the 
 word pictures he draws of man at the last glacial epoch remind us somewhat of 
 Mr. Jefferies in his After London, and are very readable. 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS. 
 
 We never could see why prehistoric researches should not be regarded as a 
 proper part of history. . . . Mr. Allen Brown, an ethnologist as well as a geologist, 
 considers it pretty certain that some of the human race lived in these localities 
 "before the last submergence of the greater part of the British Isles beneath the 
 sea." Here is a "local history" transcending by many thousands of years the 
 speculations on early Celtic antiquities, and making the Roman settlement a story 
 of yesterday. Mr. Allen Brown has our thanks for a very instructive book. 
 
 THE GRAPHIC. 
 
 Paleolithic Man in N. IV. Middlesex is well discussed by Mr. J. Allen Brown 
 who in the gravels and clays of Ealing has found worked flints, and at Crifneld Road, 
 Acton, was fortunate enough to come upon "a Palaeolithic workshop as old as the 
 upper part of the gravel it-elf." . . . The book contains also some interesting 
 chapters on Fuegians, Esquimaux and other modern representatives of our earliest 
 men, followed by a graphic description of the Thames Valley and its inhabitants 
 during the glacial period. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 Mr. Allen Brown has done useful work in exploiting the gravels and brick earths 
 of the Ealing district in search of the stone implements which are the universal 
 witnesses to man's presence and primitive low culture. . . . The book will be 
 found serviceable as presenting in a compendious form the materials of our 
 knowledge of Palaeolithic Man gathered siuce M. Boucher de Perthe's renowned 
 
discoveries in the Somme Valley. The lithographs of stone tools and weapons in 
 use among existing savages enable the reader to deduce what was the condition of 
 the races which have left like relics in north-west Europe. 
 
 VANITY FAIR. 
 
 An account of our forefathers which will be interesting not only to the scientific 
 but general reader. 
 
 THE FIELD. 
 
 It is evident that the condition of primitive men can best be understood by 
 comparison with that of existing men in apparently the same low state of culture ; 
 and to such a comparison the penultimate chapter of this work is devoted. . . . 
 It is suggestive and interesting, however, as indeed is all the author has 
 gathered together .... a serviceable contribution to the literature of the 
 subject. 
 
 WALFORD'S ANTIQUARIAN. 
 
 The manner in which the author of Palaeolithic Man in N. IV. Middlesex treats 
 his subject gives it a charm of interest and value which will be much appreciated 
 by the student, as well as by those who have hitherto read nothing whatever of 
 the subject. . . . Mr. Allen Brown also throws much interest into his subject by 
 drawing numerous comparisons between the worked flints of Palaeolithic Man 
 and the stone weapons of the savages of historic times. . . . Mr. Allen Brown's 
 book will be welcomed by all those who feel interested in this subject. 
 
 RICHMOND AND TWICKENHAM TIMES. 
 
 With these extracts we leave our readers to judge of the merits of Mr. Allen 
 Brown's absorbing work, believing it to be one of the most interesting scientific 
 treatises which has appeared for years. The style is easy, it is very pleasant 
 reading, and it lacks the severe scientific mode of expression which often renders 
 the perusal of such books an effort on the part of the ordinary reader. 
 
 THE ANTIQUARY. 
 
 As a record of Palaeolithic Man in Britain the book is exceedingly valuable ; 
 but as a specimen of good sound local work it surpasses we think many efforts of 
 the present day, and we should like to see it made a model for similar work 
 elsewhere. All Middlesex antiquaries will certainly welcome it. 
 
 PALL MALL GAZETTE. 
 
 Mr. Brown comes before us in the guise of the Columbus of a very ancient 
 continent. During excavations in the Criffield Road, Acton, he came upon a 
 level from which he obtained nearly five hundred chipped flint implements of the 
 older stone age. ... As a general account of the life of the river-drift hunters in 
 the London district, as exhibited and illustrated by their own works, as well as by 
 the analogies of modern savages, Mr. Brown's volume deserves a place on the 
 shelves of all London geologists and archaeologists. 
 
 THE YORKSHIRE POST. 
 
 Mr. J. A. Brown's monograph on Paleolithic Man in N. IV. Middlesex is an 
 extremely interesting volume. . . . Mr. Brown has carefully compared the stone 
 implements discovered in Middlesex with those at present in use among savage 
 tribes, and deduces therefrcm certain ideas as to the habits and conditions of 
 primitive man at Ealing. 
 
 S 
 
4 
 
 THE MORNING POST. 
 
 A book full of absorbing interest to those who desire to learn all they can of 
 the human race in the ages of which we have no history and no records. . . . 
 the book, though treating of a somewhat abstruse subject, is well and clearly 
 written, and may be read with profit and understood by all. There is a frontis- 
 piece and several carefully executed plates of a number of th; tools and weapons 
 discovered. 
 
 THE DAILY CHRONICLE. 
 
 It is a book to set the most casual reader thinking as he surveys the geological 
 revelations of this Palaeolithic or " ancient stone period," and looks back to the 
 era when the great pachyderms disported themselves where London now stands. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM DAILY GAZETTE. 
 
 The author prefaces his account of the evidences of Paleolithic Man in N. W. 
 Middlesex by an introductory section dealing both from an archaeological and from 
 a geological stand-point with the general antiquity of man in Europe. . . . The 
 author gives a detailed account with -the help of numerous illustrative plates, taken 
 for the most part from his own sketches, of worked flints found in N.W. 
 Middlesex. 
 
 TRANS. LIVERPOOL GEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Paleolithic Man in N. IV. Middlesex by J. A. Brown should prove of much 
 value to geologists studying that particular district. It would be well if other 
 districts could be dealt with in a similar manner. 
 
 BELL'S WEEKLY MESSENGER. 
 
 The author describes the implements of flint which formed the (Palaeolithic) 
 hunters' tools and weapons, he discusses the archaeological and geological questions 
 connected with the early history of man in the Thames Valley, and then enters 
 into detail as to the deposits of gravel and brick earth in which the testimonies of 
 human workmanship occur. 
 
 MIDDLESEX COUNTY TIMES. 
 
 His discoveries in Criffield Road — Castlebar and places contiguous — prove the 
 truth of his thesis and the existence of river-drift men, and should carry conviction 
 to the most sceptic-minded. . . . The work is to the student a readable one. 
 
 THE WESTERN ANTIQUARY. 
 
 This is a most valuable contribution to the study of the antiquity of man, and 
 the direct result of the author's own investigations. The work embodies the 
 substance of several papers read at various geological and other societies, and is a 
 
 very scholarly treatise upon a highly interesting subject The evidence he 
 
 brings to bear upon his case is reliable, and as far as we can judge indisputable. 
 He clothes, as it were, the dry bones of the long buried past, and brings before us 
 a graphic picture of the savage races which once inhabited this island, enabling 
 the reader to realise the probable mode of life, conditions,. .and culture of the river- 
 drift men, especially of the district which he has so closely studied. 
 
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