-NRLF 
 

REATISE, 
 
 Wt^ 
 
 SHEWING THE 
 
 Ik. 
 
 INTIMATE CONNECTION 
 
 THAT SUBSISTS BETWEEN 
 
 (AGRICULTURE AND CHEMISTRY, 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE 
 
 CULTIVATORS OF THE SOIL, 
 
 TO THE 
 
 PROPRIETORS OF FENS AND MOSSES, 
 
 IN 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND; 
 
 AND TO THE 
 
 PROPRIETORS OF WEST INDIA ESTATES. 
 
 BY 
 
 THE EARL OF DUNDONALD. 
 
 <' Let us cultivate the Ground, that the Poor, as well as the Rich, may be filled, and Happiness and Peace be established 
 
 throughout our Border*," 
 
 A NEW EDITION. 
 
 lontron: 
 
 PRINTED FOR JOHN MURRAY, 32, FLEET- SIR EET J 
 
 j. HARDING, 3G, ST. JAMES'S-STREET; AND A. CONSTABLE, EDINBURGH. 
 
 1803. 
 
 Price 10s. 6d. in Boards. 
 
I..* A^U 
 
 
 
 IUM LIBRARY AGRIC. OBFT. 
 
HEADS, OR TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 EARTH, - n 
 
 Calcareous do. . . - - - _ - j ^ 
 Argillaceous do. - ----- 
 
 Siliceous do. - - - - -- - - 
 
 Magneslan do. - . - - - - - 
 
 Earth of Iron, - - - - - - ' - 
 
 Air, ------- -- 
 
 Water, ----- _ - - 
 
 Heat, -------- 
 
 - 
 
 Saline Substances, - - - - - - 
 
 Vegetables, - - -- - - - 
 
 Ammallzed Matter contained in Vegetables, - - 23 
 
 Vegetables analysed by F/'re, 25 
 
 Analysis of Vegetables by Putrcfatilvi, 28 
 
 Oxygenation, - - - - - - 29 
 
 Vegetable Matter or Peat, - - - - 3 2 
 
 - 37 
 
 . Charcoal, 
 
 M555847 
 
vi CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Charcoal^ or the Coke Coal, - og 
 
 Sulphureous Schyst, - - _ 4! 
 
 Lime^ - - . - . -.. 42, 
 
 Chalk) or Uncalcined Calcareous Matter, - 42 
 Particular effects resulting from the application^ 
 of Lime and Chalk to Ground^ - 
 Alkaline Salts, - 
 
 Magnesia considered as a Manure, - - - ^ i 
 
 Iron, - - 52- 
 
 Vitriolic Acid, - 55 
 
 Nitrous Acid, - "59 
 
 Marine or Muriatic Acid^ - " 59 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, and Soreline or Oxalic Acid, - 61 
 
 ImeffiS) - - 6l 
 
 Saline Substances with earthy Eases, - 62 
 
 !Ttf^ g/* /^f /&W/J - 64 
 
 Description thereof, - 65 
 
 Saline Substances .composed of Alkalis and Acids, So 
 
 Table of these Salts, - V.* : -/ 8 1 
 
 Description thereof, *- - - 8z 
 
 Stable, Farm-yard Dung and Composts, 90 
 
 Draining-, - - - 141 
 
 Fa //owing, .---. 144 
 
 Paring 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 Paring and Burning, 
 
 Method of analysing or ascertaining the presence of different^ 
 
 I CO 
 
 Earths or Substances in different Soi/s, - ^ 
 
 Argillaceous Soils, - - 160 
 
 Calcareous or Chalky do. - - 166 
 
 Sandy do. - - 1 70 
 
 Outfield and Infield Lands, - - 172 
 
 .FW Mosses, Fens, and poor barren Lands in their vicinity <, ' 180 
 Drainage of the Fens, - - . 
 
 West India Islands. Benefit to their Culture from a 
 
 attention to the Gxygenation of vegetable matter, and 
 
 the subsequent solution of it by Alkalis and other sa- I 
 
 line bodies^ - 
 
 Cultivation of Sorel with a view to the production ) 
 
 of other more valuable crops, j 
 
 Conclusion, - -- - -. 2 ii 
 
 Addenda, - - . 2 Ai 
 
 Appendix, - - 243 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
ERRATA: 
 
 page 7, 3d line from the top, for angusti read angusta . 
 9, zd line from the bottom, for qui read qua; 
 
 35, 6th line from the bottom, prefix power of to the word solution 
 
 40, 3d line from the bottom, read thereto instead of thereto 
 
 43, 6th line from the top, read elective instead of electric, 
 
 54, i jth line from the top, read colour instead of colou 
 
 7j,.uth line from the top,, read elective instead of electrive, an error continued, 
 
 throughout the Work. 
 
 103,, loth line from the top, for OBConomies read oeconomics 
 115, 8th. line from the bottom, for produced lead occasioned. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THERE are at present a variety of obstacles to the 
 advancement of Agriculture in these kingdoms, or to 
 the produdion of the greatest quantity of food from the 
 soil. Amongst this variety there are those of a nature 
 not to be removed but by the arm of Government ; whilst 
 there are others wjiich only require due exertions on the 
 part of individuals. 
 
 The slow progress which Agriculture has hitherto made 
 as a science, is to -be ascribed to a want of education on 
 the part of the cultivators of the soil, and the want of* 
 knowledge, in such Authors as have written on Agricul- 
 ture, of the intimate connexion that subsists between this 
 science and that of Chemistry. Indeed there is no opera- 
 tion or process, not merely mechanical, that does not de- 
 
 A perjd 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 pend on Chemistry, which is defined to be a knowledge 
 of the properties of bodies, and of the effe&s resulting 
 from their different combinations. 
 
 In the following pages an attempt will be made to ex- 
 plain, on established principles^ the processes that ac- 
 company the cultivation and amelioration of the soil. 
 This discussion will come forward with peculiar advan- 
 tage at a time when provisions bear so high a price, and 
 when individuals, awakening from the golden dreams of 
 manufactures and of commerce, begin to see, and expe- 
 rimentally to feel, that the prosperity of a nation cannot 
 be permanent, nor its inhabitants quiet and contented, 
 in their respe&ive situations, where Agriculture is ne- 
 gle&ed, and an unwise preference given to marmfa&ures 
 and to commerce ; occupations that produce very different 
 effe&s on the bodies and minds of men, from those that 
 arc attendant on the sober and healthful employment of 
 husbandry. 
 
 By the adoption of a new line of investigation, ex- 
 emplified in the following Treatise, light has not only 
 
 been 
 
been thrown on the action and efTe&s of the manures at 
 present employed, but the uses of other substances, and 
 methods of combining and preparing them, have been 
 discovered ; from which there are just grounds to believe 
 a valuable addition will accrue to the present stock of 
 Agricultural Knowledge* 
 
 It will appear that the saline, and other substances ca- 
 pable of being applied to promote vegetation, are very nu- 
 merous ; by far the greater part of them have escaped the 
 notice of those who have made Agriculture their study, 
 nor have any attempts even been made to explain on 
 chemical principles the operation of the manures and 
 substances now in use. Had such researches been prose- 
 cuted to effed, they would have led to the discovery 
 and application of other substances capable of being em- 
 ployed, with equal, or perhaps superior advantages. 
 
 The promoting of Agriculture is not solely to be con- 
 sidered as creating a more plentiful supply of food, but 
 it is to be regarded as morally and politically conducing 
 to the true happiness of man, by giving to him the occu- 
 
 A 2 pation 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 . 
 
 pation allotted to his first parents ; whence flow health, 
 social order, and obedience to lawful authority ; conse- 
 quences very different from those that are produced by 
 the over-driven system of manufacturing, in which the 
 industrious workman is often subje&ed to great inconve- 
 niencies, not only by the flu&uation in the demand for 
 the articles he manufactures, but likewise by a total sus- 
 pension of trade by war or other causes. When evils, 
 like these, which he has no power to avert, press hard 
 upon him, he is frequently rendered desirous of assisting 
 to bring about any political change, whereby he is 
 tempted to believe that his situation may % be rendered 
 more comfortable ; hence he becomes unquiet, and to so- 
 ciety a less valuable member than the husbandman, whose 
 occupation does not expose him to such distress, nor to 
 the like temptations. 
 
 Whilst the benevolent must feel for the hardships to 
 which, at times, manufa&urers are liable, still they can- 
 not but recoiled the restless spirit so frequently mani- 
 fested by persons of this description, even in the mo- 
 ment of the greatest prosperity; especially in towns and 
 
 cities, 
 
5 
 
 cities, where, for the interest and convenience of the 
 masters, and not of the workmen, they are collected in 
 great numbers. 
 
 To this assemblage may be ascribed the dissemination of 
 pernicious doctrines, by a few profligate persons, who are 
 to be found in all societies, and who have it in their power to 
 corrupt the good principles of the many. The well affe&- 
 ed thus become the tools of the seditious and designing.. 
 
 To such political evils there is but one remedy : 
 
 That a preference to all other pursuits be given to 
 Agriculture. 
 
 That the establishment of such branches of manufac- 
 ture, as it may be wise to encourage, be promoted only in 
 scattered villages, resembling the townships in America. 
 By this plan the diseases of the body and the mind would 
 be rendered less contagious ; each individual might, at a 
 moderate rent, be supplied not only with a sufficient ex- 
 tent of ground, to enable him to keep a cow, and supply 
 
 his 
 
his family with milk, an article indispensably necessary 
 to the rearing of healthy children ; but also what more 
 might be requisite for raising potatoes, and other vegeta- 
 bles, cultivated at his leisure by the spade, affording an 
 agreeable and healthful change to his confined and seden- 
 tary occupation. 
 
 The Legislature of these kingdoms all good men 
 and all well disposed subjects, are earnestly called upon to 
 unite in promoting the more complete cultivation of the 
 soil ; being the only system by which the comforts and the 
 happiness of the people can be advanced, and the future 
 existence o this country, as a kingdom, be effectually 
 secured against foreign foes and domestic incendiaries* 
 
 PREFATORY 
 
PREFATORY ADDRESS. 
 
 MANY experiments, much labour and thought,, a 
 desire to be usefully employed, with the leisure afforded 
 by a retired life, proceeding from the res angusti domi, 
 have enabled the Author to present the following Trea- 
 tise to the Public. 
 
 The importance of such a Work, and the peculiar 
 fitness of it at this jun&ure, have induced him of late to 
 dedicate the whole of his time to its compilation and 
 arrangement; acc mplished with much personal incon- 
 venience, and to the apparent neglet of some, important 
 duties and family concerns, which otherwise would have 
 claimed his prior regard. 
 
 The 
 
8 PREFATOPvY ADDRESS. 
 
 The Author flatters himself, that his labours will be 
 found to open a field of experiment, of chemical rea- 
 soning, and of the practically useful, applicable to Agri- 
 culture, of which that science has hitherto been thought 
 
 o 
 
 incapable. 
 
 In the prosecution of his researches to so desirable an 
 end, he acknowledges the assistance he has derived from 
 the labours and valuable discoveries of a PRIESTLEY and a 
 CAVENDISH, under the heads of Air, orGasses, Composi- 
 tion, and Decomposition of Water ; so true is the obser- 
 vation, that there is no art or discovery that is not the 
 
 parent or sister of some other. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Gratitude requires that he should likewise acknow- 
 ledge the obligations he is under to his friend Mr. VAN- 
 COUVER, for the time he has kindly dedicated, and the 
 relief he has afforded the Author in the fatigue of this 
 publication a work wherein accuracy of chemical ex- 
 pression a variety of important matter attended with 
 the difficulty of distinct arrangement, never completely 
 to be attained in any work, where the subjects to be 
 
 treated 
 
PREFATORY ADDRESS. 9 
 
 treated of are so conne&ed and interwoven the one with 
 the other, has necessarily required much refle&ion. 
 Great care has been taken, in the arrangement adopted, 
 to lead the mind of the reader from the discussion of such 
 substances as are simple, to those that are of a compound 
 nature; the pradtically useful observations unfolding 
 themselves as the work advances. 
 
 Contrary to the system of modern oratory and book- 
 making, perspicuity, and its constant attendant, brevity, 
 have been uniformly adhered to, under the convi&ion, 
 that clear ideas are best expressed by the fewest words. 
 
 " Non asseveravi qu<z vast it as hujus scientite continent 
 cunBa me di&urum sed quczdam : nam illud in unius 
 hominis prudentiam cadere non poterat ; neque enim est 
 ulla disciplina aut ars^ qui singulars consummate* sit in- 
 
 genio" 
 
 COLUMELLA, lib. v, f. 166. 
 
 B 
 
SHEWING THE 
 
 INTIMATE CONNECTION 
 
 THAT SUBSISTS BETWEEN 
 
 AGRICULTURE AND CHEMISTRY. 
 
 EARTH. 
 
 BY the word earth, in its common acceptation, is 
 either to be understood the habitable globe the solid 
 or dry part of it, in. opposition to the aqueous, or the 
 surface stratum, soil, or mould, in opposition to the 
 more solid under strata ; whilst the word earth, taken 
 chemically, signifies a dry, uncompounded, simple sub- 
 stance, incapable of being volatilized, or ated upon by 
 
 fire. 
 
 There 
 
12 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 There are different kinds of such simple, or, as they are 
 frequently called, primary earths ; those which generally 
 occur, and principally regard the object of this Treatise, 
 are, calcareous, or chalky ; argillaceous, or clayey ; sili- 
 ceous, or sandy; and magnesian. It is also necessary 
 to mention, that the earth of iron is likewise contained 
 in most soils, in great abundance ; existing therein, in 
 various states. 
 
 CALCAREOUS MATTER 
 
 CONSTITUTES not only the surface, or soil, but like- 
 wise the under stratum-of many countries, to a very great 
 depth. Under this general name of calcareous matter 
 is included chalk, marble, limestone, coral, shells, &:c. 
 The three first mentioned are frequently mixed with 
 iron, and with different proportions of the simple earths ; 
 but are considered as calcareous, when the proportion of 
 that earth predominates. It is capable of absorbing, and 
 
 of 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 13 
 
 of retaining moisture, though in a considerably less de- 
 gree than clay. By the action of fire it becomes lime, 
 and returns again to the state of chalk, or calcareous 
 matter, by exposure to air. 
 
 ARGILLACEOUS MATTER 
 
 FORMS not only a large portion of the surface soil of 
 most countries, but is also found in the mineral strata, to 
 an immense depth. Argillaceous matter, or clay, is no 
 where found pure, is more or less adulterated with the 
 different earths, and with different materials; such as 
 mineral, vegetable, and animal substances. 
 
 The purest clay contains upwards of sixty per cent, of 
 siliceous matter, or sand. 
 
 .- 
 
 Clay is the earth most retentive of moisture, by 
 which it becomes ductile and tenacious ; and loses these 
 properties by the action of fire. 
 
 SILP 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SILICEOUS MATTER. 
 
 GREAT trails of the surface of the earth are of this 
 description, and very large masses of the under stratum 
 consist of the like substance : the former in the state of 
 loose sand, and the latter in an indurated or solid state, 
 called sand-stone or free-stone. It is, of all the earths, 
 the least retentive of moisture. 
 
 MAGNESIAN EARTH. 
 
 THIS is no where found in such quantities as to form a 
 soil of itself ; it is contained in different proportions, in 
 many soils, and constitutes a component part of stea- 
 tities, or soap rock. It is retentive of moisture to a cer- 
 tain degree. 
 
 EARTH 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 15 
 
 EARTH OF IRON 
 
 EXISTS in ground in a metallic state, in the state of 
 an earth, and in the state of a mineral salt. It is the only 
 metallic earth thought necessary to define, in this Trea- 
 tise on Agriculture. An attempt will hereafter be made 
 to explain the manner in which it promotes vegetation. 
 
 AIR. 
 
 BY air is generally understood, the medium in which 
 terrestrial animals move and .breathe. It is possessed of 
 weight or gravity, is capable of compression : without 
 it neither animals could live, nor could fire be main- 
 tained, or heat generated. 
 
 f . 
 
 --^ --. * ^ V i 
 
 Part only of atmospheric air serves for the support of 
 animal life and combustion, called vital air, pure air, or 
 
 oxygen. 
 
j6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 oxygen. The other part, c lied phlogisticated air, or 
 azot, is i furious to combustion, although necessary in 
 a certain proportion, to modify the too powerful action of 
 
 pure air, in the respiration of animals. Vital air, by 
 combining with ignited inflammable substances, pro- 
 duces certain gasses and new compounds. 
 
 Atmospheric air contains likewise a proportion of fix- 
 able air, or carbonic acid gas, so called by the French 
 chemists, from carbonaceous matter, or charcoal, form- 
 ing one of its constituent parts. 
 
 Atmospheric air may also contain other gasses, or airs. 
 By far the greater part of these gasses were discovered 
 by Dr. PRIESTLEY. 
 
 By the term of gas is to be understood, a permanently 
 
 elastic, invisible fluid: Of these there are some which 
 
 ' ~ 
 
 may be considered as simple, and others as compounded 
 
 The gasses are, empyreal air, vital air or oxygen gas , 
 Fixable air or carbonic acid gas ; 
 Light inflammable air or hydrogenous gas \ 
 
 Dense 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 17 
 
 Dense inflammable air or carbonated hydrogenous 
 
 gas ; 
 
 Phlogisticated air or azotic gas; 
 Vitriolic acid air or sulphureous gas; 
 Sulphurated inflammable air or sulphurated hy- 
 drogenous gas ; 
 Nitrous air or nitrous gas j 
 Muriatic air or muriatic gas, &c. Sec, 
 
 Atmospheric air is equally necessary to the vegetation 
 and growth of plants, as to the life of animals. By a 
 most beautiful arrangement in the ceconomy of nature, 
 the different processes of animal and vegetable respira- 
 tion are made mutually to assist each other. The par- 
 ticular gas or air thrown off by the respiration of the one, 
 contributes to the existence of the other. 
 
 WATER. 
 
18 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 WATER 
 
 'Is the fluid in which fishes live, and forms part of 
 the support of plants, and of terrestrial animals. It was 
 formerly considered to be a simple uncompounded sub- 
 stance; but it has been discovered by Mr. CAVENDISH 
 to be a compound body, consisting of the basis of in- 
 flammable air and vital air. It is formed naturally, and 
 artificially, by uniting the basis' of inflammable air 
 with vital air, by means of the electric fluid. 
 
 Water is capable, under certain circumstances, of con- 
 taining, or uniting with, the bases of different gasses; it 
 contains, for .the most part, fixable air ; to which its 
 power of holding in solution calcareous matter, contained 
 in most water, is to be ascribed. 
 
 Water, by putrefaction, and by the processes of ve- 
 getation and animalization, is capable of being decom- 
 l, or having its component parts separated. 
 
 HEAT. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 HEAT. 
 
 BY heat is to be understood the sensation arising 
 from the solar rays, or from the combustion of inflam- 
 mable bodies. Combustion cannot take place without 
 the presence of air, and it is only the vital part of air 
 that promotes this process. A certain degree of heat is 
 requisite for animal and vegetable life. It is generated 
 in animals, in consequence of respiration, by the ab- 
 sorption of the vital part of atmospheric air, and com- 
 bination thereof with the animal system ; here called the 
 process of animal oxygenation : and as animals have thus 
 the power of generating heat by respiration, they can 
 live in a much greater degree of cold than vegetables. 
 
 To the presence of heat is to be ascribed the fluidity 
 of water; to the absence of it, its solidity, or the forma- 
 tion of ice. 
 
 The principle of heat is contained in, bodies without 
 sensibly manifesting its presence; it is then called latent 
 
 c ^ heat. 
 
go A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 heat. This is capable, by certain processes, of being 
 disengaged from those bodies, and of becoming manifest 
 to the senses, or of passing and entering into a state of 
 combination with other bodies. 
 
 The frequent changes in the degree of heat and cold 
 in the atmosphere, are to be ascribed more to the alter- 
 nate disengagement and fixation of heat, by chemical 
 combination, than to the effects of the solar rays. 
 
 SALINE SUBSTANCES 
 
 ARE compounds, consisting of different combinations 
 and proportions of earth, gasses, water, and the prin- 
 ciple of heat; to which must be added (although not yet 
 treated of) the results of more compounded substances, 
 such .as animal and vegetable matter. 
 
 Saline substances consist of acids, alkalis, and neutral 
 salts, resulting from the combination of acids with earths 
 and alkalis. These are stated hereafter in separate tables, 
 wherein their uses and properties, as applicable to agri- 
 culture, are more fully explained. 
 
 VEGETA- 
 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY 
 
 VEGETABLES 
 
 
 
 ARE organized bodies, capable of growth and increase, 
 and of propagating their own kinds. Vegetables are 
 nourished, supported, and formed by air, water, earth, 
 heat, light, and certain saline substances ; and, in a par- 
 ticular manner, by their own exuviae, or remains, when 
 reduced to a state fit to answer that purpose. 
 
 Vegetables consist of mucilaginous matter, resinous 
 matter, matter analogous to that of animals, and some 
 of a proportion of oil. All these matters serve different 
 and important purposes in the oeconomy of plants. The 
 resinous and animalized matters form the outward surface 
 of vegetables, which prevents their being a&e.d upon by 
 rain or moisture. 
 
 The mucilage gives pliability ; is the principal and first 
 prepared juice of plants, of which, by a further degree 
 
 of 
 
22 
 
 of maturation, resin and oil are formed. This oil con- 
 tributes also to the pliability of vegetables. 
 
 By a due mixture of mucilage with these other sub- 
 stances, vegetables are to a certain degree rendered capa- 
 ble of solution in water, a property not possessed either 
 by resin, animal matter, or oil, in a separate state. 
 
 Thus it appears, that although living vegetables are 
 effectually protected, by their outward covering of resin 
 and animalized matter, from the action of humidity ; 
 still, from the whole of their constituent parts, there 
 arises a certain degree of solubility, which afterwards con- 
 tributes to the food both of animals and vegetables. 
 
 Beside these, vegetables contain earthy matters, for- 
 merly held in solution in the newly taken in iuices of 
 the growing vegetable. 
 
 ANIMA- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 ANIMALIZED MATTER CONTAINED IN VEGETABLES. 
 
 THE greatest proportion of the animalized matter 
 found in vegetables, is contained in grain. Grain consists 
 partly of mucilage, or starch, and partly of this sub- 
 stance, called by the French chemists vegeto-animal. 
 These two substances constitute what is termed meal or 
 flour. They are capable of separation, therefore they 
 exist in grain in a state of mechanical mixture, not of 
 chemical union. This union is to be accomplished 
 by the process of germination or malting : the result of 
 which is sacharine matter or sugar. This sacharine matter, 
 by fermentation, is further attenuated and resolved into 
 vinous spirit, and ultimately by exposure to air, and by 
 the absorption of vital air, into the acetous acid, or vi- 
 negar. By distillation of the vinous spirit, ardent spirit 
 is obtained. The quantity of sacharine matter, of ardent 
 spirit, and of vinegar capable of being procured from 
 grain, depends upon its containing a due proportion of 
 starch and animalized matter: neither of these sub- 
 stances, taken singly, can be made to yield sacharine 
 
 matter. 
 
 Different 
 
24 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION* OF 
 
 Different kinds of grain contain these two substances 
 in different proportions; and the same sort of grain 
 contains them in different quantities, according to the 
 climate, season, and soiL 
 
 Good and well raised bread depends on flour contain- 
 ing a due admixture of these two substances. Hence, by 
 mixing the flour of different sorts of wheat, better bread 
 may at times be produced than from one sort only. Ex- 
 tensive benefits may also accrue to the processes of 
 brewing, distilling, and making of vinegar,, by a mixture 
 of the different sorts of grain : to that of distilling, a 
 further advantage would be derived by a mixture of dif- 
 ferent roots with the grain ; such as potatoes, parsnips, 
 carrots, 8cc. 8cc. if prepared in a proper manner. 
 
 Good wheat generally contains two fifths of animalized 
 matter, and three fifths of starch. The ceconomical 
 management of tke manufacture of this article is capa- 
 ble of considerable improvement. 
 
 VEGE- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 VEGETABLES ANALYSED BY FIRE. 
 
 VEGETABLES, by the application of heat, and by dis- 
 tillation in close vessels, are resolved into different gasseSj 
 liquid matters, and into insoluble matter. 
 
 
 
 The gasses consist of inflammable 'and fixuble air : the 
 liquids, of water, vegetable acids, and oil: the insolu- 
 ble, of charcoal. 
 
 By combustion in the open air, charcoal is resolved 
 into fixable air, soluble, and nearly insoluble com- 
 pounds. 
 
 The soluble are, alkaline and neutral salts* 
 
 The insoluble, for the most part, consist of lime com- 
 bined with the phosphoric acid, called phosphat of lime. 
 
 By a further, and more intense application of heat, 
 all the constituent parts of vegetables, excepting the 
 
 D earthy, 
 
24 A TREATISE OK THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 Different kinds of grain contain these two substances 
 in different proportions; and the same sort of grain 
 contains them in different quantities, according to the 
 climate, season, and soiL 
 
 Good and well raised bread depends on flour contain- 
 ing a due admixture of these two substances. Hence, by 
 mixing the flour of different sorts of wheat, better bread 
 may at times be produced than from one sort only. Ex- 
 tensive benefits may also accrue to the processes of 
 brewing, distilling, and making of vinegar,, by a mixture 
 of the different sorts of grain : to that of distilling, a 
 further advantage would be derived by a mixture of dif- 
 ferent roots with the grain ; such as potatoes, parsnips, 
 carrots, 8cc. 8cc. if prepared in a proper manner. 
 
 Good wheat generally contains two fifths of ammalized 
 matter, and three fifths of starch. The ceconomical 
 management of tke manufacture of this article is capa- 
 ble of considerable improvement. 
 
 VEGE- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 VEGETABLES ANALYSED BY FIRE. 
 
 VEGETABLES, by the application of heat, and by dis- 
 tillation in close vessels, are resolved into different gasseSj 
 liquid matters, and into insoluble matter. 
 
 
 
 The gasses consist of inflammable 'and fixuble air : the 
 liquids, of water, vegetable acids, and oil : the insolu- 
 ble, of charcoal. 
 
 By combustion in the open air, charcoal is resolved 
 into fixable air, soluble, and nearly insoluble cpm- 
 pounds. 
 
 The soluble are, alkaline and neutral salts* 
 
 The insoluble, for the most part, consist of lime com- 
 bined with the phosphoric acid, called phosphat of lime. 
 
 I;"' * . i*i ;';*' : .- > 
 
 By a further, and more intense application of heat, 
 ail the constituent parts of vegetables, excepting the 
 
 D earthy, 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 earthy, mdy be changed into the gassious state, and re- 
 solved into their simple principles. 
 
 By combustion in the open air, grain, carrots, pota- 
 toes, &:c. 8cc. yield much more alkaline salts, than? 
 straw, hay, or wood. 
 
 Neither starch, nor the animalized matter of grainy 
 yield fixed alkaline salts, when burned separately ; hence 
 it appears, that the union of these substances is equally 
 requisite for the formation of fixed alkaline salts as for 
 sacharine matter. 
 
 This analysis of vegetables by fire, is far from shewing 
 the true state of combination, in which the simple prin- 
 ciples of these substances existed in vegetables. The 
 acid phlegm, the empyreumatic oil, the vegetable alkali, 
 
 or potash, vitriolated tartar, or other neutral salts, are 
 
 compound matters, or new ^combinations, produced by 
 the action of heat, and decomposition of water, and are 
 
 substances not only very different from those juices 
 which the plant originally imbibed, but likewise very 
 different from those matters found in the vegetables, after 
 
 having 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY^ 2? 
 
 having undergone, by the vegetative process, their full 
 degree of concoction and maturation : whence it is ob- 
 vious, that neither the precise food of vegetables, nor 
 their component parts, can be ascertained by any ana- 
 lysis of them by fire ; at least it is not practicable with 
 the several substances, resulting from such process, to 
 recompose a juice, or fluid, similar to that by which the 
 vegetable had originally been nourished. 
 
 v It has been stated, that by an intense degree of hea^t 
 all the component parts of vegetables, excepting the 
 .earthy, may be resolved into permanently elastic fluids, 
 or gasses ; and into the compound substance called water. 
 
 By vegetables being thus reduced to their simple or 
 elementary principles, they are found to be composed of 
 gasses, with a small proportion of calcareous matter. Al- 
 though this discovery may appear of small moment to 
 the practical farmer, yet it is well deserving of his atten- 
 tion and notice, as it throws great light on the nature arid 
 food of vegetables, and proves that a large proportion 
 of vegetables consist of the aery form, fluids or gasses. 
 
 x> 2 
 
28 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES BY PUTREFACTION. 
 
 THE resolution or separation of the component parts of 
 vegetables by putrefa6tion, must evidently appear far 
 better adapted to answer the inquiries of the Chemical 
 Agriculturist, than any analysis of them by fire. 
 
 This process can take place only when attended with 
 air, moisture, and a due degree of heat. Water is de- 
 composed vital air absorbed heat disengaged, and new 
 combinations formed, such as 
 
 Gasses with soluble and insoluble matters. 
 
 The gasses are Inflammable and azotic or phlogisti- 
 cated air, forming volatile alkali and fixable air. 
 
 The soluble saline matters consist of phosphoric, sore- 
 line, or vegetable acid, combined with vegetable, mi- 
 neral, or volatile alkali. 
 
 The 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 29 
 
 The insoluble matters consist of phosphoric, soreline, 
 
 or vegetable acid, combined with lime, of calcareous 
 matter. 
 
 These last mentioned substances may likewise be pro- 
 duced from vegetables which have not undergone the 
 putrefactive process, by the tendency which pure air, 
 vital air, or oxygen, has to combine with such like, and 
 all other inflammable substances; a process here called 
 
 V 
 
 OXYGEN ATION. 
 
 BY the combination of pure air with inflammable sub- 
 stances, particular acids are formed, with the peculiar 
 bases of those acids contained in inflammable substances. 
 The acids, as they are formed, combine either with the 
 calcareous matter of the vegetables, or with other cal- 
 careous matter in the soil, forming salts, which for the 
 most part are very insoluble. 
 
 The process of putrefaction is always accompanied by 
 that of oxygen ation : but oxygenation may be, and is to 
 a great extent, independent of putrefaction. 
 
 To 
 
5 o A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 To this process of oxygen ation, the continuance of ve- 
 getable matter on the surface of the earth is principally to 
 be ascribed ; as in the case of peat mosses, fens, and mo- 
 Tasses, as well as in most soils, but more especially in 
 such as have long been under cultivation. The inde- 
 structible state of vegetable matters, under these circum- 
 stances, and their constant accretion, may be referred to 
 the insoluble compounds, produced by the action of pure 
 air on these inflammable substances, 
 
 The insolubility, to a certain degree, of this system, 
 adopted by nature, is undoubtedly to be preferred to one 
 more completely soluble ; for it is evident, that if putre- 
 faction, or oxygenation, had possessed the power of ren- 
 dering all the vegetable matter, by a speedy process, 
 soluble in water, two pernicious consequences must 
 have followed : The rains would have washed down such 
 extracts, and soluble matters, as fast as formed, into the 
 rivers and springs., contaminating the waters, and ren- 
 dering them unfit for the existence of fishes, or for the 
 use x)f terrestrial animals. The sea, in process of time, 
 4would thereby receive all the vegetable and animal pro 
 :duce of the dry land> and the earth would ultimately be- 
 come 
 
'AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. sr 
 
 come barren, consisting alone of the simple earths, with- 
 out any admixture of vegetable matter; consequently 
 there' could be no accumulation of this substance on the 
 surface, as is the case to an immense degree at present. 
 As such there cannot be a doubt, but that the present in- 
 complete process of putrefaiion, oxygenaiion, or solution 
 of organic bodies, has been established by the Great 
 Creator of all things for wise and benevolent purposes ; 
 especially when it shall be understood, that the apparent 
 imperfections of this (to a certain degree) insoluble 
 system are, as they respect agriculture and vegetation, to 
 be remedied, when necessary, by the ingenuity and indus- 
 try 0f man. 
 
 A frequent exposure of fresh surfaces to theaftion of 
 the air, as in the case of fallowing, will, by promoting 
 oxygenation, increase the insolubility of vegetable mat- 
 ters contained in the soil. 
 
 INERT 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 INERT VEGETABLE MATTER OR PEAT. 
 
 INERT vegetable matter, or peat, is, for the most part, 
 formed of the remains of aquatic vegetables, or of those 
 vegetables which generally grow in humid or moist situ- 
 ations. Their nourishment and growth are promoted 
 by atmospheric air, by the decomposition of water, and 
 by the calcareous matter held in solution, and contained 
 in most water. These substances alone, according to the 
 analyses of vegetables already given, are sufficient to ac- 
 count for the growth of such aquatic vegetables, and 
 the accumulation on the surface of the earth of such 
 matter forming peat mosses and fens. 
 
 Trees of a considerable size have been frequently 
 four d at the bottom of peat mosses, with the appear- 
 ance of having been cut down, or in part a<5led on by 
 fire. Hence it may be inferred, that the peat moss itself 
 did not give birth to, or support the growth of such 
 trees ; but on the contrary, that by the destruction of 
 forests, in consequence of natural causes, fire or war, 
 
 the 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 33 
 
 the trees had been thrown down, and causing a stoppage 
 of the waters in their passage to the sea, the growth and 
 decay of the aquatic vegetables already described, had 
 formed those extensive peat mosses and fens, which, in 
 their natural state, are of all soils the most unproduc- 
 tive, but which are the most fertile when improved. 
 
 Peat is very retentive of moisture, retaining it in a 
 manner similar to that of a spunge. At no time, there- 
 fore, in this humid and northern climate, can such soils 
 be divested of their superabundant proportion of mois- 
 ture with which they charge themselves in the autumn, 
 spring, and winter, as well as during the periodical rains 
 in summer. The sun's rays, or drying winds, during the 
 summer season, are exerted in conveying away, by eva- 
 poration, this surplus moisture; and as heat is known 
 to be abstracted from bodies, and cold generated by eva- 
 poration, hence effects will arise injurious not only^ to 
 climate, but likewise to vegetation in general; but more 
 especially so to such plants as require a greater degree of 
 heat and nourishment, than soils of the above descrip- 
 tion will admit of. There can be little doubt, that these 
 injurious effects on vegetation will extend themselves 
 
 E even 
 
4 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 even to the drier lands in the vicinity of such fens or 
 mosses. 
 
 The draining, reclaiming, and cultivating, lands so 
 circumstanced, must appear not only important, from the 
 great value of such lands when reclaimed, but likewise 
 from the effects that such, drainage would have on the 
 climate, temperature, and vegetation of the adjacent 
 country. 
 
 Peat is an inflammable substance ; consequently ca- 
 pable of combining with pure air, or oxygen, and of 
 becoming oxygenated ; a process already explained in 
 the preceding part of this Treatise. The surface of peat 
 mosses, or what is most exposed to the action of air, is 
 capable of becoming more oxygenated than the under 
 stratum. 
 
 The oxygenation of peat, and indeed the combination 
 of pure air or oxygen with inflammable substances, 
 renders such substances less inflammable, a process ana- 
 lagous to that of combustion : in both cases saline com- 
 pounds are formed, which are uninflammable. 
 
 It 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 35 
 
 It is upon this principle that inflammable bodies when 
 exposed to air lose their combustibility, it being evident, 
 that such matters as had saturated themselves with a full 
 proportion of vital air, or oxygen, are incapable afterwards 
 of combining with a greater quantity, and consequently 
 must be uninflammable. On this account, the upper 
 stratum of peat mosses is generally thrown aside when 
 peats are dug for fuel. 
 
 The longer peat moss is kept exposed to air, the less 
 soluble it becomes, and ultimately imparts no colour to 
 water ; whilst peat newly formed, or in a less degree 
 oxygenated, imparts a colour to water which will be 
 found to contain the extractive saline matters of fresh or 
 less decayed vegetables. 
 
 It is owing to this solution in water that no alkaline salt 
 is procured from the ashes of peat, decayed vegetables, 
 or water soaked wood. 
 
 In peat mosses there are frequently springs of mineral 
 water, which contain in solution saline and ferruginous 
 matters. Hence the ashes of peat, besides the earthy 
 
 E 2, matter, 
 
3 6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 matter, (consisting for the most part of phosphat of lime?) 
 contain likewise phospaht of iron, gypsum, Epsom salt, 
 and green vitriol ; and these in different proportions, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the peat, and circumstances under 
 which it had been formed. Hence also the ashes of 
 different kinds of peat will have different effects when 
 used as manures, or top-dressings, to ground. 
 
 The decayed remains of vegetables, called in this Trea- 
 tise inert vegetable matter, abundantly contained in many 
 soils, especially those which have been much manured, 
 and long under cultivation, are in all respe&s similar 
 to peat, and capable, like peat, of different degrees of 
 oxygenation and insolubility ; a process promoted by 
 fallowing, or the exposure of fresh surfaces to the action 
 of air. 
 
 A method of rendering these inert vegetable mat- 
 ters conducive to vegetation, will be given in the sequel 
 of this work, when the application of saline matters to 
 different soils is discussed. 
 
 FOSS1LE 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 FOSSILE COAL 
 
 Is an inflammable substance, formed of the remains of 
 antediluvian vegetables, animal juices, and mineral or 
 metallic substances, combined or mixed with earthy 
 matters. Like peat it loses its inflammability by expo- 
 sure to air, and becomes oxygenated. Saline compounds 
 are thence formed ; they consist of green vitriol, Epsom 
 salt, phosphat of lime, phosphat of iron, together with 
 earth of iron, and a proportion of the uncombined 
 simple earths. 
 
 Oxygenated fossile coal is likewise capable of solution 
 by saline substances, and of producing the same good 
 effects in promoting vegetation as oxygenated peat, when 
 treated in a similar manner. 
 
 Such coal as is most applicable for this purpose is 
 found at the crop or outburst of most seams, particu- 
 larly those which are of a soft tender nature, and easily 
 aded upon by the joint influence of air and water. It 
 
 will 
 
3 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 will require many years before coal, (wrought at a con- 
 siderable depth, and brought to the surface) will, by ex- 
 posure to air, become oxygenated, and attain what coal at 
 a less depth had acquired by the a&ion of air and water 
 during many ages, 
 
 'JO 
 
 "When coal is in a state capable of being rendered so- 
 luble, it is soft and friable ; when rubbed between the 
 fingers it appears like soot; when thrown into the fire 
 it does not burn with any flame; and whilst consum- 
 ing, emits a smell more like unto that from the com- 
 bustion of peat than coal. 
 
 Most fossile coal contains the bases requisite for form- 
 ing, with a combination of pure air or oxygen, the fol- 
 lowing acids, viz. the vitriolic or sulphuric, muriatic, 
 phosphoric, 
 
 The acid first formed is the sulphuric. As this is ge- 
 nerated, it combines either with the earth of iron or the 
 earth of magnesia, forming green vitriol and Epsom salt. 
 These salts being very soluble, are readily washed away 
 from the ,coal by rain or moisture ; after which, by a 
 
 farther 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 39 
 
 farther supply of oxygen with their peculiar bases, the 
 phosphoric and other acids are formed. These acids, 
 as they are generated, combine with the calcareous mat- 
 ter of the coal, now by full decomposition rendered ca- 
 pable of being afted upon, and form salts that are nearly 
 insoluble. 
 
 Oxygenated coal, when it is not found in that state, 
 may be procured by exposing the smaller refuse coal of 
 a colliery alternately to air and moisture. This process 
 may be much accelerated by previously grinding the 
 coal to a fine powder. 
 
 CHARCOAL, OR THE COKE OF COAL, 
 
 Is a substance in an intermediate state between that of 
 vegetables, wood, or fossile coal ; and that of their re- 
 duction to ashes. The making of charcoal is best 
 performed in close vessels, or by a smothered method of 
 combustion. 
 
 By 
 
4 
 
 By the combustion of charcoal in the open air, and in 
 consequence of the combination of vital air, fixable air 
 is produced. 
 
 Carbonaceous matter or charcoal is likewise resolved 
 into fixable and inflammable air, by the alternate appli- 
 cation of moisture and heat to charcoal, in close vessels, 
 in which case water is decompounded. 
 
 There is reason to believe that the solar rays are no 
 where on the surface of the earth sufficiently powerful 
 to form charcoal or coke from vegetable matters or fos- 
 
 A 
 
 sile coal. 
 
 Vegetable substances contain the carbonaceous princi- 
 ple, or what by heat may become charcoal or coke, but 
 are not prior there to charcoal. 
 
 Charcoal, by different processes, may be made to afford 
 the carbonaceous principle to plants. 
 
 BITU- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 SULPHUREOUS SCHYST. 
 
 THIS substance generally accompanies the strata of 
 coal and limestone. For the most part it consists of clay 
 and pyrites, /'. e. iron mineralised by sulphur, with a pro- 
 portion of calcareous matter and magnesia, the whole 
 tinged with a black, blue, or grey colour, by mineral tar 
 or oil. By exposure to air vitriolic acid is formed ; this, by 
 combining with lime, magnesia, earth of iron, or clay, 
 forms gypsum, Epsom salt, green vitriol, or allum. 
 
 Sulphureous schyst acts powerfully as a manure to 
 soils containing much phosphat of lime, or calcareous 
 matter. It is found, in the greatest abundance, in the 
 East part of the North Riding of Yorkshire, and is there 
 called allum rock. 
 
 LIMJE. 
 
4 2 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 LIME 
 
 Is produced from chalk, marble, limestone, coral, or 
 shells, when submitted to a sufficient degree of heat to 
 disengage the fixable air, or carbonic acid, with which, in 
 a natural state, these substances are always united. 
 
 Water has a great tendency to combine with lime; heat 
 is disengaged, and there is reason to believe that the water 
 is decomposed in the process. Newly made lime, from its 
 power of destroying, or as it were burning vegetable and 
 animal bodies, is termed caustic. When applied to or- 
 ganic bodies, containing moisture, it rapidly destroys 
 their adhesion, or continuity of parts, and disengages from 
 them inflammable air, and azotic or phlogisticated air, 
 forming volatile alkali. The residuum will be found to 
 consist of charcoal, and of a combination of lime with 
 the phosphoric and other acids, forming saline matters, 
 which are nearly insoluble. The above effects are pro- 
 duced by the application of lime to peat, or to soils con- 
 taining 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 43 
 
 taming much vegetable matter ; part of which is dissipated 
 in a gassious state, and part combines with the lime, form^ 
 ing insoluble compounds, which cannot promote vege- 
 tation, until brought into adion by other saline substances, 
 either on the principle of superior affinity, or on that of 
 the double electric attractions, as will be explained in the 
 sequel of this work. 
 
 CHALK, ORUNCALCINED CALCAREOUS MATTER. 
 
 CHALK has not the same power as lime in destroying 
 the texture of organic bodies, because it is saturated with 
 fixable air: it has, however, an action on these sub- 
 stances, or more properly speaking, these substances 
 have an action on chalk, so soon as by oxygenation their 
 respective acids are generated; in which case they will 
 combine with the chalk, and form the nearly insoluble 
 saline compounds, already described. By the action of 
 
 F a these 
 
44 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 these acids on chalk fixable air is disengaged. This gas 
 is absorbed by the roots of vegetables, decomposed in the 
 pro:ess of vegetation, affording the carbonaceous prin- 
 ciple to vegetables ; whilst vital air, the other constituent 
 part of fixable air, is thrown off by the respiratory power 
 of vegetables. 
 
 The different effects of lime and of chalk on vege- 
 table and animal substances, shew, that when either of 
 those materials is applied with a view to promote the 
 fertility of the ground, they should be used according 
 to circumstances, and the nature of the soil. 
 
 PAR 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 45 
 
 PARTICULAR EFFECTS RESULTING FROM THE APPLI- 
 CATION OF LIME AND CHALK TO GROUND. 
 
 LIME is known to have a tendency to sink below the 
 upper surface', and to form itself into a regular stratum 
 between the fertile and the unfertile mould. After 
 breaking up pasture ground that formerly had been 
 limed on the sward, it is frequently observed in this 
 situation : this has been generally ascribed to its spe- 
 cific gravity, and to its acting in a mechanical manner. 
 In gravelly, or sandy soils, there Can be no doubt but 
 that the difFusibility and smallnessof the particles of lime 
 will induce it mechanically to sink through the larger 
 particles of the sand or gravel, and to remain at rest OH 
 the more compact stratum which may resist its passage. 
 
 When lands of this description have been limed, and 
 kept constantly under annual crops, the greater mechani- 
 cal process of the plough will operate against the lesser 
 one of subsidence, and keep the lime diffused through 
 the soil: but in clayey or loamy soils, which are equally 
 
 diffusible 
 
4j6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 diffusible with lime, and nearly of the same specific 
 gravity, the tendency which lime has to sink downwards, 
 cannot be accounted for simply on mechanical principles. 
 
 In lands of this description, under the plough, the 
 lime is dispersed or mixed with the soil, until such time 
 as these lands are laid down with grass seeds. After re- 
 maining in this situation at rest for a certain number of 
 years, on breaking up, a floor of calcareous matter will 
 frequently be found lying immediately beneath the roots of 
 the grass. This effect, contrarily to the general opinion 
 of its being disserviceable, is of great utility, as the staple 
 or depth of the soil is always increased and rendered less 
 retentive of water in proportion to the distance which the 
 lime penetrates downwards ; and thus by increasing the 
 depth of the soil a greater scope is afforded for the ex- 
 pansion of the roots and nourishment of vegetables. 
 These effects of lime in soils, except in those that are 
 gravelly or sandy, cannot be accounted for simply on 
 mechanical principles, but may probably be explained on 
 such as are chemical. 
 
 Lime 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. ft 
 
 Lime is capable of being dissolved in water, in six 
 hundred times its own weight. Chalk, /. e. lime com- 
 bined to a certain degree with fixable air, is insoluble ; 
 but chalk is capable of solution by a greater proportion 
 of fixable air, either in consequence of its disengagement 
 from vegetable matters decaying in the soil, or from the 
 changes which the carbonaceous matter therein con-^ 
 tained may undergo. When chalk in this manner is ren- 
 dered soluble, the solution will sink through the surface 
 mould to a more compact stratum, through which it can- 
 not pass : in this situation it will lose the superabundant 
 proportion of fixable air by which it previously had be- 
 come soluble, and will again return to the state of chalk, 
 forming a stratum infinitely more pure and unadulterated 
 than could possibly have been formed, had the process 
 been merely mechanical : in which case, contrary to the 
 fa6l, all the argillaceous, magnesian, siliceous, and ferru- 
 ginous matters, of equal degree of attenuation or size of 
 parts, would have sunk with the lime. * 
 
 The 
 
 * Chalk and clay are nearly of the same specific gravity, and sand of greater 
 specific gravity than lime, 
 
48 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 The abundant use of lime has undoubtedly occa- 
 sioned the consumption of a large proportion of the 
 vegetable and animal matters in the soils to which it has 
 repeatedly been applied ; still the evil is not so great as at 
 first it may appear. For although a considerable pro- 
 portion of these matters has been disengaged in a gassious 
 state, or othervvays made to contribute to the growth of 
 plants, still the lime, or chalk, by entering into certain 
 combinations, has formed' and accumulated a large stock 
 jof insoluble matter, capable, by certain saline substances, 
 of being again brought into action, and of being ren- 
 dered -conducive to vegetation . 
 
 ALKA- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 49 
 
 ALKALINE SALTS 
 
 ARE fixed, or volatile. The fixed are obtained by 
 the combustion of marine and terrene plants. Mineral 
 alkali is also to be procured from muriat of soda, or sea 
 salt. The volatile is obtained from urine animal mat- 
 ter -fossile coal soot and other substances. Alkaline 
 salts combine with acids, forming neutral salts; with 
 animal fat, and oil, and vegetable oils, they form soap, 
 or a saponaceous matter, diffusible in water. Alkaline 
 salts al upon and destroy the continuity of the parts of 
 animal and vegetable substances : they acl: most power- 
 fully on the latter, when oxygenated, forming therewith 
 saline compounds, which, in a very high degree, pro- 
 mote vegetation. 
 
 Oxygenated vegetable matter, and oxygenated peat> 
 when decomposed, and rendered soluble by alkaline salts, 
 assume a brownish red colour, and are tasteless : hence 
 the alkali must enter into combination, and be neu- 
 tralized by an acid or acids. These will be found to 
 
 G be 
 
be the phosphoric and soreline, or, as it is now generally 
 termed, the oxalic acid, forming, according to the par- 
 ticular alkali used, phosphat and oxalat of pot-ash 
 phosphat and oxalat of soda, or mineral alkali phos- 
 phat and oxalat of ammoniac, or volatile alkali. 
 
 By exsiccation, the above-mentioned extract (which is 
 very similar in its colour and effe&s on ground to the 
 
 juice of dunghills) assumes the appearance of a darkish 
 i 
 
 brown gum, soluble at any time by the application of 
 water. Alkaline substances adl in the same manner on 
 oxygenated fossile coal, as they do on oxygenated vege- 
 table matters or peat ; forming likewise a brownish red 
 liquor, which equally promotes vegetation. The acids 
 contained in oxygenated fossile coal, in a state of combi- 
 nation with calcareous matter, will probably be found 
 to be the phosphoric acid, the acid of borax, and that of 
 sore], or the oxalic acid. 
 
 MAG- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Is contained in steatities or soap rock, and in a variety 
 of other earths and stones. It combines with acids, 
 forming neutral salts, all of which are very soluble, and 
 the greater part of them promote, in a very considerable 
 degree, the growth of plants. Magnesian earths may 
 be applied with peculiar advantage to soils generally, 
 and not improperly called sour soils, containing green 
 vitriol, arising from the decomposition of pyrites. It 
 will decompose the metallic salt by superior affinity, 
 and form with the acid, Epsom salt, known in a high 
 degree to promote vegetation ; while the earth of iron 
 will be separated in the state of an ochre, or iron com- 
 bined with fixable air. 
 
 G a IRON. 
 
54 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 When alkalis, calcareous matter, or magnesia, are added 
 to soils containing such metallic salts, they are decom- 
 posed ; the acid combining with these substances in pre- 
 ference to the earth of iron, which is separated in the 
 state of yellow ochre^ or iron combined with fixable air. 
 
 By the addition of animal, vegetable substances, or 
 carbonaceous matter, to lands containing iron in this 
 state, it is brought towards a metallic state, and fixable 
 air is disengaged. Ground, containing much iron in the 
 state of ochre, is of a yellowish tinge, or Colour; but as 
 it receives dung or inflammable matter, the soil, together 
 with the iron contained in it, will change to a brown or 
 dark colou . 
 
 Iron thus reduced to a metallic state is capable of com- 
 bining with pure air or oxygen, in which case fixable 
 air would be generated by the combination thereof 
 with the carbonaceous matter of the iron. The fixable 
 air thus generated, may fee disengaged from the earth 
 of t iron by afresh application of inflammable matters. 
 Nothing is at rest in this world ; all bodies are under- 
 going successive changes from one .state to another. 
 
 i On 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 55 
 
 On iron the changes are produced by the alternate action 
 of inflammable matter, and pure air or oxygen : in the 
 former case fixable air is disengaged ; in the latter, at- 
 mospheric air is separated, or decomposed, by the abstrac- 
 tion from it of pure air. Both the azotic or phlogisti- 
 cated air, the other component part of atmospheric air, 
 and fixable air, promote the growth of plants. 
 
 VITRIOLIC ACID. 
 
 THIS acid, in the new nomenclature, is called by the 
 French chemists the sulphuric acid ; a name much more 
 descriptive of its origin than that generally used. 
 
 *" * 
 
 J-i ' 4 4 WAl /^->.*.ljl..Wl'4.V^>--< 4 i'^ i- *-*- 
 
 All acids, in the new nomenclature, are named from 
 the peculiar bases or substances of which they are formed, 
 by the combination of pure air, or oxygen ; the presence 
 of which in all cases is necessary to constitute an acid. 
 This process, under the head of oxygenation, has been 
 frequently resorted to, and which, together with the 
 insoluble saline compounds formed by the developement 
 
 of 
 
56 
 
 of certain acids from vegetable substances, and subse- 
 quent combination of them with calcareous matter, con- 
 stitute the most prominent feature in the present work. 
 
 a due knowledge and attention to this very impor- 
 tant process of nature, the most beneficial consequences 
 may be derived. It being a process, which, as it respects 
 agriculture, has not been noticed by any writer on that 
 science. 
 
 The vitriolic is the most powerful of all the acids. It 
 disengages or expels other acids, when in a state of com- 
 bination with metallic, earthy, or alkaline substances. 
 When concentrated, it acts in a similar manner to that 
 of alkaline salts, in the resolution or destruction of vege- 
 table and animal substances, disengaging from them cer- 
 tain gasses, and forming therewith certain saponace- 
 jous and saline compounds. These solutions or extracts 
 are of a reddish brown colour, similar to that produced 
 by the action of alkaline salts on oxygenated peat. On 
 the principles already stated, the vitriolic acid may be 
 used beneficially to decompose, and to bring into action 
 
 the 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 5 y 
 
 the insoluble matter accumulated in soils, by the combi- 
 nation of the phosphoric and soreline acids with calcare- 
 ous matter. The vitriolic acid will join with the calca- 
 reous matter, and form gypsum ; whilst the posphoric 
 and soreline acids, in consequence of their disengage- 
 ment, will combine with other matters in the soil, par- 
 ticularly with magnesia, forming salts which are very 
 soluble, and conducive to the growth of plants. 
 
 But the endless series of processes adopted by nature, 
 do not finish here ; for, on a supposition, that the phos- 
 phoric and soreline acids had been fully disengaged from 
 the calcareous matter, with which they had formerly 
 been united, and that in the state of phosphat, and oxalat 
 of potash, soda, ammoniac, or magnesia, they had expend- 
 ed themselves in the .process of vegetation; still the gyp- 
 sum remaining in the soil would, on a renewed applica- 
 tion of dung, animal or vegetable matter, be brought 
 from the state of gypsum, which is insoluble, to a state 
 approaching to that of a hepar of lime, which is solu- 
 ble ; and as the vitriolic acid and calcareous matter are con- 
 gained in, and form a part of the compounded residuum 
 
 H of 
 
S 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 of vegetable matters, it may hence be inferred, that 
 these matters were not generated in, but were taken up, 
 when in a state of solution, by the roots of plants. Thus 
 may the good eflfedts of gypsum in America be accounted 
 for. To these beneficial effects, from the combination of 
 inflammable substances with gypsum, forming what is 
 called a hepar or liver of sulphur, may be added the 
 large share of nourishment, which trefoils, and plants of 
 a certain formation of stem and leaf, receive, by the 
 hepatic air 'disengaged from hepars, when they, by the 
 process of oxygenation, are again returning to the state 
 of neutral salts, of which such hepars had been formed 
 by the combination of inflammable or carbonaceous 
 matter. 
 
 Thus by a thorough knowledge and application of 
 chemistry to agriculture, the several substances in soils 
 may be made to undergo a varied change of new com- 
 binations, tending to promote the greatest of all objects, 
 a more plentiful supply of food. 
 
 NITROUS 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 59 
 
 NITROUS ACID. 
 
 NITROUS acid is a compound of phlogisticated air or 
 azotic gas with pure air or oxygen. This combination takes 
 place under different circumstances, particularly by the 
 putrefa6lion and decay of animal and vegetable substan- 
 ces. As it forms, it combines either with calcareous 
 matter or alkaline salts; forming saline substances, which 
 are conducive to vegetation. 
 
 The nitrous acid, in the table of affinities, is placed 
 next to that of the vitriolic. 
 
 MARINE, OK MURIATIC ACID. 
 
 i 
 
 THIS acid is next in affinity to the nitrous, and con- 
 stitutes about one third of muriat of soda, or sea salt. It 
 consists, like all other acids, of a combination of pure air 
 or oxygen with a peculiar basis, which has not as yet 
 
 H 2 been 
 
6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 been ascertained, but is supposed to be of an inflam- 
 mable nature. Marine acid is contained in sea water, in 
 salt rock, and in salt springs, combined with mineral 
 alkali, or soda, and with the earth of magnesia. 
 
 The disengagement and separation of this acid, from 
 the alkaline basis with which it is united in sea or rock 
 salt, may be accomplished by various methods ; one only 
 has as yet been discovered and effected at an expence which 
 can admit a manufactory of alkaline salts being established 
 on an extensive scale. The accomplishment of this most 
 desirable object, by a cheap and easy process, must appear, 
 with respect to certain useful arts, as well as to the 
 application of it to agriculture, to be one of the most 
 important discoveries to which chemistry could have 
 lent its aid. 
 
 PHOS- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 6 1 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID, AND SORELINE OR OXALIC 
 
 ACID. 
 
 THE origin, nature, and properties of these acids have 
 previously been so fully discussed, that any further ex- 
 planation is deemed unnecessary. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 INDEPENDENT of the various substances hitherto 
 noticed, as being contained in soils, and affording 
 their assistance in the production and nourishment of 
 plants, the innumerable tribes of inserts which abound 
 in rich soils, or soils long under cultivation, ought not 
 to be everlooked. Some of these inserts are extremely 
 noxious, whilst others are inoffensive to the vegetable 
 kingdom ; but all, when destroyed, (as will hereafter 
 directed) may be rendered serviceable in affording 
 v^f a pro- 
 
6a A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 a proportion of animal matter for the general uses of ve- 
 getation. The common earth worm, which is inoffensive, 
 may be made to rise to the surface, and to become useful 
 for the domestic purpose of feeding poultry. 
 
 -SALINE SUBSTANCES WITH EARTHY BASES. 
 
 PURE clay, chalk or calcareous matter, magnesia, and 
 the earth of iron, are capable of being dissolved by many 
 acids, and of forming salts, which are more or less solu- 
 ble. * 
 
 As some one or more of these salts are contained in 
 most soils, it is an object of great importance to agricul- 
 ture, to ascertain what are the combinations which dif- 
 ferent acids make with the earths above-mentioned; 
 which of them are beneficial, and which injurious to ve- 
 getation; as also how such injurious effects may be cor- 
 refted. 
 
 The 
 
 * Siliceous matter is not included, being soluble only by the fluor acid. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY 63 
 
 The following table will shew, the salts that may be 
 formed, by the combination of the vitriolic nitrous 
 muriatic phosphoric and soreline or oxalic acids, with 
 clay, chalk, magnesia, and the earth of iron. To this a 
 discussion more at large will be added on the respective 
 properties of the several combinations thus formed, in 
 promoting, or in retarding vegetation, agreeably to the 
 following order. 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Vitriolic or Sulphuric acid 
 Chalk do. 
 
 Magnesia do. 
 
 Earth of Iron do. 
 Chalk Nitrous acid 
 Magnesia do. 
 
 Earth of Iron do. 
 
 Chalk Marine or Muriatic acid 
 
 do. 
 do. - 
 Phosphoric acid 
 do. 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Earth of Iron 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Earth of Iron <5o. 
 
 Chalk Soreline or Oxalic acid 
 
 Magnesia do. 
 
 Earth of Iron ,do. 
 
 Sulphatof Argill or Allum. 
 Sulphat of Lime or Gypsum. 
 Do. of Magnesia or Epsom Salt. 
 Sulphat of Iron or Green Vitriol. 
 Nitrat of Lime. 
 Nitrat of Magnesia. 
 Nitrat of Iron. 
 Muriat of Lime. 
 Muriat of Magnesia. 
 Muriat of Iron. 
 Phosphat of Lime. 
 Phosphat of Magnesia. 
 Phosphat of Iron or Sederite. 
 Oxalat of Lime. 
 Oxalat of Magnesia. 
 Oxalat of Jron. 
 
 SUL- 
 
AGRICULTURE, WITH CHEMISTRY. 65 
 
 SULPHAT OF ARGIL OR ALLUM. 
 
 ALLUM is a salt dissolvable in fifteen times its weight 
 of water. It is produced in great quantities, by the de- 
 composition of alluminous schyst or slate, on exposure to 
 air, or by calcination. 
 
 Dr. FRANCIS HOME* of Edinburgh, the first person 
 who thought of making experiments with saline bodies 
 in promoting the growth of plants, found no beneficial 
 effects to result from the application of allum to garden 
 mould, the soil on which his experiments were made. 
 Allum is contained in many soils, and is daily forming 
 by the decomposition of alluminous schyst. 
 
 Where found in abundance, the soil is very properly 
 denominated, by country people, a sour soil, on which few 
 vegetables will grow. This sterility is to be correfted 
 l?y lime, by earthy matters containing magnesia, and by 
 
 i alka- 
 
 * Vide Dr. HOME'S most valuable Treatise on that subject, published at Edin- 
 burgh in 1756. 
 
66 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 alkaline salts. The neutral salts formed by such applica- 
 tions will be gypsum, Epsom salt, sulphat of potash, sul- 
 phat of soda, and sulphat of ammoniac, according to the 
 species of alkali applied. Although no beneficial effects 
 were found to result from the experiments made by Dr. 
 HOME, yet they may with great probability be expected 
 to arise by the application of allum to soils con- 
 taining much calcareous matter ; especially to such as 
 contain, beside this latter substance, a sufficient pro- 
 portion of animal and vegetable matter. The allum will 
 in this case be decomposed by the calcareous matter, on 
 the principle of superior affinity, whilst the fixable air of 
 the calcareous matter will be disengaged, and on being 
 absorbed by the roots of plants, will afford them the car- 
 bonaceous principle. 
 
 SULPHAT 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 67 
 
 SULPHAT OF LIME, OR GYPSUM. 
 
 GYPSUM exists in great abundance, in many soils. It is 
 prodccedby the decomposition of alhiminous schyst, con- 
 taining a due proportion of calcareous matter; with 
 which the sulphuric acid will join, as it is formed 
 in preference to the earth of allum or clay. It is 
 likewise formed by the decomposition of pyrites, in 
 such soils as contain a sufficiency of calcareous mat- 
 ter for the sulphuric acid to combine with, in prefe- 
 rence to the earth of iron, the other constituent part of 
 pyrites : and it is found in immense quantities, constitut- 
 ing not only the soil, but the substratum, of some countries, 
 to a great depth. Gypsum is to be decomposed by alka- 
 line salts ; the sulphuric acid forming with them sulphat 
 of potash and sulphat of soda, according to the alkali 
 used. It is a salt very insoluble, requiring upwards of 
 five hundred times its weight of water to dissolve it : 
 hence supposing it equally deleterious to vegetation, as 
 allum hath been considered, which is soluble in only fif- 
 teen times its weight of water, it must prove less inju- 
 
 i a rious, 
 
68 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION" OF 
 
 rious, from its greater degree of insolubility : but gyp- 
 sum, far from being hurtful to vegetation when applied 
 to certain soils, promotes vegetation in a very high degree,, 
 as is evinced by the use of it ia some, parts of the Conti- 
 nent of Europe and of America ; and is further proved by 
 the chemical analysis of vegetables, whose ashes are 
 found to coatain a certain portion of the component parts 
 of gypsum. For the particular explanation of its mode 
 of afting on soils suited to it See Vitriolic Acid,. 
 
 SULPHAT OF MAGNESIA, OR EPSOM SALT. 
 
 SULPHAT of magnesia, or Epsom salt, is not to be 
 found in such abundance as allum or gypsum : it is con- 
 tained in sea water, and is to be procured in greater quan- 
 tities by decomposing the muriat of magnesia, or the 
 bitter refuse liquor of salt works, by the means of the 
 vitriolic acid. Native Epsom salt is sometimes to be met 
 with in the mineral strata, mixed with clay and siliceous 
 matter. It is formed in soils containing alluminous 
 schyst, or pyrites, and a due proportion of the earth of 
 
 2 magne- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 69 
 
 magnesia : in which case, on the decomposition of the 
 schyst, or pyrites, the vitriolic acid so formed, will, by 
 superior affinity, join with the magnesia, and form Epsom 
 salt, in preference to the argillaceous or ferruginous, 
 matter of the above-mentioned substances. 
 
 Epsom salt is very soluble, dissolving in about twice its 
 weight of cold water. It is decomposed by lime and 
 alkalis, forming therewith gypsum, vitriolated tartar, 
 Glauber salt, or vitriolic ammoniac. By Dr. HOME'S 
 experiments, Epsom salt has been found in a very high 
 degree to promote vegetation* He states, that it made the 
 garden mould he used for his experiments produce one 
 fourth more grain. 
 
 SULPHAT 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SULPHAT OF IRON, OR GREEN VITRIOL. 
 
 ' 
 THIS salt is formed naturally, in many places in great 
 
 abundance, by the process of oxygenation, from sulphu- 
 reous or pyriteous substances. These matters are gene- 
 rally found accompanying the coal strata, as well as in 
 coal itself; particularly in such coals as are sulphureous. 
 This salt is very soluble in water, and is in a high de- 
 gree injurious to vegetation, when it abounds in soils 
 consisting of poor clay and siliceous matter, without any 
 
 admixture of vegetable or calcareous substances. 
 
 It is decomposed by alkaline salts, forming therewith 
 vitriolated tantar, Glauber salt, vitriolic ammoniac, gypsum, 
 and Epsom salt. When added to soils containing calcareous 
 matter, and a due proportion of animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances, it has been found, when - not used in too great 
 quantities, to have producect beneficial efFefts in promoting 
 the growth of grass ; but experiments have not as yet 
 been made, fully to ascertain its effefts on arable land. 
 
 NITRAT 
 
NITRAT OF LIME. 
 
 THIS saline substance is found in the rubbish of old 
 buildings, and in those materials from which salt-petre 
 is extradted : viz. animal and vegetable matters, which, 
 with a due proportion of calcareous earth, have under- 
 gone the putrefactive process, together with a subse- 
 quent, sufficiently long, exposure to atmospheric air. 
 According to Dr. HOME, it is likewise contained in what 
 is commonly called hard water, which, by his experi- 
 ments, was found to promote the growth of plants in 
 a much higher degree than soft- water. 
 
 Nitrat of lime is very soluble, and is deliquescent; it 
 is decomposed by fixed alkalis, and forms therewith 
 nitrat of potash or salt-petre, and nitrat of soda, or cu- 
 bic nitre. 
 
 NITRAT 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 ON this subject, with precision, little can be advanced, 
 as no agricultural experiments have, as yet, been made 
 with this compound ; it is a very deliquescent and soluble 
 salt ; and there is reason to expect, that it will produce 
 effects, in promoting vegetation, similar to those which 
 may result from the application of the nitrat of lime. 
 
 It is decomposed by alkalis and lime, and forms there- 
 with nitrat of potash, nitrat of soda, and nitrat of lime. 
 
 NITRAT OF IRON. 
 
 As this salt is rarely presented by nature, its properties 
 or effects, as they may apply to Agriculture, are not 
 worthy of observation. 
 
 MURIAT 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 MURIAT OF LIME. 
 
 THIS salt is found in a small proportion, in sea water. 
 It is very soluble, and when mixed with dung, its effects 
 in promoting vegetation will probably be found similar 
 to those of the next article, the muriat of magnesia. It 
 is decomposed by fixed alkalis, forming therewith muriat 
 of potash, or digestive salt of silvius, ancl muriat of 
 soda, or sea-salt. 
 
 Is found in great abundance in sea water, con- 
 stituting upwards of one fourth of the saline matter it 
 contains. It may be procured in great quantities from 
 the bitter refuse liquor which at present runs to waste 
 
 at the salt works. 
 
 t 
 
 It is a salt very deliquescent, and of difficult chrystalli- 
 zation ; its acid is capable, in a great measure, of being 
 
 K expelled 
 
74 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 expelled by heat, and very considerable benefit has been 
 experienced from its use, in promoting vegetation, when 
 mixed with dung, or compost dung-hills. It seems to 
 possess, when applied in moderate quantities, the septic 
 powers of sea salt, and thus to promote the complete 
 putrefaction of dung. 
 
 It is decomposed by fixed alkalis and lime, forming 
 therewith digestive salt of silvius, sea salt, and muriat 
 of lime. With ammoniac, or volatile alkali, it forms & 
 triplicate salt of easy chrystallization. 
 
 MURIAT OF IRON, 
 
 THIS salt seldom occurs in nature. It is highly inimical 
 to vegetation. It is decomposed by fixed alkalis, lime, 
 and magnesia, forming digestive salt, sea salt, muriat 
 of lime, and muriat of magnesia. 
 
 PROS- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 75 
 
 PHOSPHAT OF LIME 
 
 Is contained in animal matters, such as bones, 
 urine, shells, Sec. Sec. in some sorts of limestone, and 
 in vegetable substances, particularly in the gluten, or 
 vegeto-animal matter of wheat or other grain. It is a 
 saline compound very insoluble. There is reason to be- 
 lieve, a very considerable proportion of this nearly inso- 
 luble salt is contained in most fertile soils, especially 
 those that have been long under cultivation. It is not 
 to be decomposed by pure alkalis ; but this may be ef-' 
 fectecl by mild vegetable and mineral alkalis, on the 
 principle of the double electrive attractions ; in which 
 case, carbonat of lime (or chalk) will be precipitated, 
 and the phosphoric acid will join with the alkali, and 
 form phosphat of potash, or phosphat of soda, according 
 to the alkali applied. These alkaline phosphats will be 
 found to promote vegetation in a very great degree : 
 the substances of which they are composed, viz. alka- 
 line salts and phosphoric acid, are found in the ashes 
 
 
 of most vegetables. 
 
 K 2 PIIOS- 
 
7 6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 PHOSPHAT OF MAGNESIA. 
 
 '. N i 
 
 THIS is a very soluble salt; celdom occurs in nature; 
 promotes vegetation. It may be formed in soils con- 
 taining phosphat of lime and uncombined magnesia, 
 by watering ground, containing these substances, with 
 water acidulated by the vitriolic acid, or by an acid py- 
 riteous liquor; or the acid maybe applied, by moistening 
 mould with water properly acidulated by the vitriolic 
 acid, and then sowing, or spreading the mould on the 
 ground. In this case the vitriolic acid will join with 
 the calcareous matter of the phosphat of lime, and form 
 gypsum ; whilst the phosphoric acid, thus disengaged, 
 will join with the magnesia in the soil, and form phos- 
 phat of magnesia. 
 
 If phosphat of lime can be decomposed by sulphat of 
 iron, (on the principles of the double ele6trive attrac- 
 tions) and form sulphat of lime (or gypsum) and phos- 
 phat of iron, the phosphat of iron may, in that case, be 
 decomposed by magnesia, forming phosphat of mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 PHOS- 
 
Is to be decomposed by alkaline salts and mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 OXALAT OF LIME. 
 
 OXALAT of lime is a very insoluble saline compound/ 
 formed by the combination of calcareous matter with 
 the oxalic, or soreline acid, with which acid calcareous 
 matter has a greater affinity than have alkaline salts, 
 The oxalic acid, or acid of sorel, is found in the plant 
 of the same name, combined with the vegetable alkali, 
 in the state of a superacidulated salt ; and it is likewise 
 contained in many other vegetables. Oxalat of lime is 
 to be produced, by adding calcareous matter to the ex- 
 pressed juice, or salt of sorel. The calcareous matter 
 will combine with the acid, and form oxalat of lime ; 
 
 whilst 
 
7 g A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 "Whilst the carbonic acid, or fixable air, will combine with 
 the vegetable alkali, forming mild alkali, or carbonat of 
 potash. 
 
 Much of the oxalat of lime will be formed, by adding 
 calcareous matter to ground abounding with plants of 
 sorel, or other vegetables containing the soreline or oxalic 
 acid j by which application, the vegetable alkali will be 
 disengaged in a carbonated or mild state. From the in- 
 solubility of oxalat of lime, it is not probable that it can 
 -contribute, per se y to the food of plants. It cannot be 
 decomposed by alkalis, on superior affinity, because its 
 affinity is greater .with calcareous matter; but it may be 
 decomposed by the vitriolic acid, in which case, gypsum 
 will be formed, and the sojeline, or oxalic acid, thus dis- 
 engaged, will be capable of entering into new combina- 
 tions with fixed, or volatile alkaline salts^ or magnesia. 
 These combinations are soluble, and, when not super- 
 acidulated, promote vegetation in a high degree, 
 
 Oxalat of lime may probably .be decomposed by 
 certain neutral salts, on the principles of the double 
 
 elec- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 79 
 
 eleclrive attractions, especially if the neutral salts, used 
 for that purpose, are superacidulated. 
 
 . 
 
 Oxalat of lime is decomposed by fire ; the acid is de- 
 stroyed, and carbonic acid, or fixable air, is formed, and 
 disengaged* 
 
 OXALAT OF MAGNESIA; 
 
 THIS is a soluble salt, and, when not superacidulated, 
 promotes vegetation. It is formed, by adding magnesia, 
 or earthy matters, containing magnesia, to the juice, 
 or salt of sorel ; the superabundant acid of which will 
 combine with the magnesia. It is probable, that that ; 
 part of the juice of sorel, which is in a neutral state, will 
 be decomposed by the greater affinity that magnesia has 
 to the soreline or oxalic acid; and that the vegetable 
 alkali will be disengaged in a mild state, in the same 
 manner as if calcareous matter, or chajk, had been used. 
 
 OXALAT 
 
go A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 OXALAT OF IRON. 
 
 "NOTHING certain can be advanced on the subje6t of 
 tihis salt, farther than that it is decomposed by lime, mag- 
 ne^ia, and alkalis. 
 
 SALINE SUBSTANCES COMPOSED OF ALKALIS AND ACIDS. 
 
 THE nature of the simple earths, and the compounds 
 they form with different acids, having been explained, 
 it will now be proper to give a list of such neutral salts 
 as may be formed by the combination of the acids al- 
 ready mentioned with alkaline salts. 
 
 'These are stated in the following table, to which will 
 'be added, under each distinct ,head, the peculiar powers 
 jof each, in promoting or retarding vegetation, &x. 
 
 TABLE 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Potash Combined with Vitriolic or Sulphuric Acid Sulphat of Potash, or 
 
 Vitriolated Tartar 
 
 Soda 
 
 Ammoniac 
 
 Potash - 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Ammoniac 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Ammoniac 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Nitrons Acid 
 
 Soda 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ammoniac 
 
 Ditto * 
 
 Potash 
 
 Marine Acid 
 
 Soda 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ammoniac 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Soreline, or Oxalic Acid - 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 Sulphat of Soda, or 
 Glauber Salts 
 
 Ditto of Ammoniac, or 
 Vitriolated Ammoniac 
 
 Nitrat of Potash, or 
 Salt-Petre 
 
 Ditto of Soda, or Cubic Nitre 
 Ditto of Ammoniac 
 
 Muriat of Potash, or 
 Digestive Salt of Silvius 
 
 Ditto of Soda, or Sea Salt 
 
 Ditto of Ammoniac, or 
 
 Sal Ammoniac 
 Phosphat of Potash 
 Ditto of Soda 
 Ditto of Ammoniac 
 Oxalat of Potash 
 Ditto of Soda 
 Ditto of Ammoniac 
 
 SUL- 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SULPHATOF POTASH, OR VITRIOL ATED TARTAR. 
 
 THIS salt is soluble in fifteen times its weight of 
 cold water, and has been found by Dr. HOME to promote 
 vegetation in an extraordinary manner. The garden 
 mould on which his experiments were made produced 
 an increase of one-fourth more grain, in consequence of 
 the application of this salt. Vitriolated tartar is to be 
 had from most vegetable matters by combustion ; it 
 forms at least one-third of the saline matter obtained by 
 the lixiviation of their ashes. This is sufficient, a prior jy. 
 to prove, (independently of Dr. HOME'S very satisfac- 
 tory experiments) that vitriolated tartar is beneficial to 
 vegetation. This substance is a. refuse article in some 
 branches of manufacture but the quantity produced is 
 a mere trifle, in comparison to the quantity that might 
 advantageously be applied to the purposes of Agri- 
 culture. 
 
 SULPHAT 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRV, 83 
 
 SULPHAT OF SODA, OR GLAUBER SALT. 
 
 4 
 
 GLAUBER Salt is soluble in about two and one half 
 times its weight of cold water. From experiments, it 
 has been proved to promote vegetation in a very high 
 degree. It is procured in small quantities, in -the pro- 
 cesses for making the muriatic acid, and muriat of 
 ammoniac, or sal ammoniac. The high price at present of 
 this article precludes the use of it; but could it be made 
 and sold at a cheap rate, it would prove a most valuable 
 acquisition to Agriculture. 
 
 SULPHAT OF AMMONI AC t)R VITRIOLIC AMMONIAC. 
 
 THIS salt is very soluble, and promotes vegetation ; 
 t>ut it is not to be had in such quantities as to render it 
 an article of importance o Agriculture. 
 
84 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 NITRAT OF POTASH, OR SALT-PETRE, 
 
 Is a salt very soluble, formed by the putrefaction 
 and complete decomposition of animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances, when mixed with calcareous matter and wood 
 ashes. It promotes vegetation, but its high price pre- 
 cludes its being used as an article of manure. 
 
 NITRAT OF SODA, OR CUBIC NITRE. 
 
 THIS salt is likewise very soluble, but seldom natu- 
 rally occurs. It is probable, that cubic nitre would pro- 
 mote vegetation in an equal degree with nitrat of pot- 
 ash or salt-petre. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 NITRAT OF AMMONIAC. 
 
 As this is a salt that cannot be procured in sufficient 
 quantities, for the purposes of Agriculture, nothing need 
 be observed on its nature or properties. 
 
 MURIAT OF POTASH, OR DIGESTIVE SALT OF 
 
 SILVIUS. 
 
 DIGESTIVE salt of Silvius is soluble in about thrice its 
 weight of cold water. As this salt does not often natu- 
 rally present itself, and cannot be procured in large 
 quantities, its effects on vegetation may be considered to 
 be stated under the next article, which it very much 
 resembles. 
 
 MURIAT 
 
86 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 THIS salt is soluble in about three and a half times its 
 weight of cold water, and is to be had in unlimited 
 quantities from sea-water, salt springs, and salt mines. 
 It never yet has been fully ascertained, whether it is be- 
 neficial or injurious to vegetation. Its fertilizing powers 
 have been highly extolled by some, whilst others have 
 positively denied their efficacy. It is probable, that any 
 power it may possess, in promoting vegetation, depends 
 on its septic quality, or power it has of assisting pu- 
 trefaction, when mixed in small or due proportions with 
 dung or vegetable substances ; though in large quanti- 
 ties it is antiseptic, and prevents putrefaction. * 
 
 ^ 
 
 These different effects -of sea salt are the best explana- 
 tion that can be given of the several opinions formed of 
 this article as a manure, which, applied in small quanti- 
 ties, may prove beneficial to certain soils,; whilst, in large 
 quantities, it. must be injurious to all. 
 
 Exclu- 
 
 * Vide Sir JON PRINGLE'S Essays. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. fy 
 
 Exclusively of its septic effects, when used with 
 dung, and animal or vegetable matters, it is destruc- 
 tive to many different kinds of living insects, such as 
 snails, grubs, slugs, worms, 8c. Sea salt is contained 
 in great quantities in marine plants ; and as there is a 
 variety of plants approaching more or less to those of a 
 marine nature, its effe&s will be found greater in pro- 
 moting the growth of certain classes of vegetables thart 
 of others. Sea salt is extremely injurious to poor soils, 
 and ought only to be applied to rich lands. 
 
 MURIAT OF AMMONIAC, OR SAL AMMONIAC, 
 
 NOTHING need be said on this subjeft, as the ex- 
 pence of the article precludes the use of it in Agri- 
 culture. 
 
 PHOSPHAT OF POTASH OF SODA AND OF AMMONIAC. 
 
 THE above salts having similar effects in promoting 
 vegetation, the same description, as it respects Agricul- 
 ture, will nearly apply to them all. 
 
 They 
 
8-8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 'They are found.in the greatest -quantities in urine ; the 
 good effefts of which, on most soils, being well known, 
 k may be presumed that similar salts to those contained 
 therein must he equally efficacious. 
 
 Phosphoric acid and alkaline salts are contained in the 
 ashes of vegetables ; these salts, or their primary princi- 
 ples, must necessarily have constituted apart of such ve- 
 getables, from which it may be inferred, a priori, that 
 alkaline phosphats are conducive to the growth of plants. 
 Alkaline phosphats are to be obtained by the addition of 
 alkaline carbonats, or mild alkaline salts, to oxygenated 
 peat, or other oxygenated vegetable substances, forming 
 therewith a reddish brown mucilaginous compound. 
 
 OXALAT OF POTASH, OF SODA, AND OF AMMONIAC, 
 
 THESE soluble salts very highly promote vegetation ; 
 and may be had in great abundance by the addition of 
 alkaline salts and other saline matters to oxygenated 
 peat, and also to oxygenated fossile coal, forming there- 
 with 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 89 
 
 -with a mucilaginous saponaceous compound, soluble in 
 water, similar to that mentioned under the last article. 
 
 The action of alkaline salts here stated to take place 
 on oxygenated pear, a substance which previously has 
 been observed to consist of the phosphoric and soreline, 
 or oxalic acids, combined with calcareous matter, is un- 
 doubtedly, as it may respect the aclion of alkalis on the 
 oxalat of lime, contrary to chemical principles, as lime 
 has a greater affinity with the soreline or oxalic acid than 
 alkalis have ; but as peat, in the state here described, is 
 mixed with other saline matters, and does not in all re- 
 spects resemble the oxalat of lime, but contains also a 
 large proportion of carbonaceous and inflammable mat- 
 ter, the action of the alkali, in dissolving the peat, 
 must be ascribed to the combination of the inflammable 
 or other matters. 
 
 M STABLE , 
 
9 o 
 
 STABLE, FARM YARD DUNG, AND COMPOSTS. 
 
 WHEN CATO was asked what was the best system of 
 farming, he thrice answered, that the best system of 
 farming was to procure food for cattle ; a reply which 
 refers to obvious consequences, and requires no explana*- 
 tion. 
 
 Although it is a common saying in Scotland, that 
 te muck is the mother of the meal chest," still there is no 
 country where the preservation of the urine of cattle, 
 and the juices of dung-heaps, are so little attended to ; 
 or where the farmers, in general, are at so little pains to 
 procure the greatest quantity of an article so indispensa- 
 bly necessary to the obtaining abundant crops. 
 
 In England, the farmers are much more attentive to 
 the making and collecting this species of manure, and 
 their conveniencies of farm-yards, and other places for 
 preserving dung, are better chosen. These are not only 
 
 kept fully littered, but the lanes and hollow ways, in the 
 
 vicinity 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. gt 
 
 vicinity of the farm-yard, are frequently filled with, 
 haulm, or inferior straw. The putrefaction of it is 
 promoted by being trodden, and by receiving the urine 
 of passing cattle, which would be much facilitated, were 
 the place in which it is deposited overshaded with trees, 
 and sheltered from the too great action of wind and 
 
 In Scotland, a preference is generally given to a slop- 
 ing bank or rising ground for the situation of farm- 
 houses and offices; and, as there are but few instances, 
 unless of a recent date, where an inclosed farm-yard is 
 to be met with, the urine from the stables and cow- 
 houses, as well as the juices from the dung heap, run 
 off, or are washed away by the rains, and turn to no good 
 account. 
 
 The want of proper farm-yards and conveniencies is 
 but one of the reasons why a less quantity of dung is 
 made by the farmers in Scotland than by those of Eng- 
 land. The principal one is, that as the greater part of 
 'Scotland is better adapted to the breeding of cattle than 
 to the production of grain, the whole of the straw pro- 
 
 M 2 duced 
 
32 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION ( F 
 
 duced from the arable land of each farm is eaten in the 
 succeeding winter by the stock ; and, as few farmers 
 have more than enough for their cattle, little or none 
 can be afforded as litter for their stables and farm-yards-. 
 In severe winters, of long continuance, a scarcity of 
 straw for their cattle is frequently experienced. This 
 proves that most farmers in Scotland keep a greater 
 number of cattle during summer than they ought pru- 
 dently to calculate on maintaining through the winter. 
 It is very unusual in Scotland to grow hay but for the 
 purpose of sale. The working horses are fed with oat 
 straw until seed time ; when, as an article of luxury,, 
 they are supplied with pease or bean straw, the barley 
 
 straw being allotted to the cows and young stock. 
 
 t 
 
 There are many who rent small farms, still more 
 (Economical in the consumption of their straw and fod- 
 der^ The whole of the straw, of every kind, is by them 
 given to their horses ; whilst their cows, and neat cattle, 
 are exclusively fed with the coarsest parts of the straw 
 reje&ed by the horses, broken and bruised by their feet, 
 and well drenched by their urine ; a sort of food which 
 does not appear very palatable, and which, although con- 
 trary 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 93 
 
 trary to the first impression it makes, is certainly not to be 
 attributed alone to scarcity, but to choice, as cows and 
 neat cattle are frequently observed to forsake the best pro- 
 vender,, and to pick up and eat the litter from horse- 
 stables ; the state of the stomachs of these animals in- 
 ducing them to seek and apply, as a stimulus, the volatile 
 alkali contained in the urine of the horses, absorbed by 
 the straw. The necessity that cattle are under of thus 
 supplying themselves with the only stimulus or saline 
 matter within their reach, and the well known salu- 
 tary effects of salt, when given to cattle in other coun- 
 tries, evidently point out the very important benefits 
 that would arise, were cattle supplied from time to time 
 with a due proportion of sea salt ; and, as such, it cannot 
 but be regretted, that the duty on an article, so essential 
 to the purposes of farming, and grazing, should so com- 
 pletely operate as a prohibition to its use : and the more 
 so, as Government has long since been in possession of 
 suggestions which could not have failed, had they been 
 duly attended to, to have insured the most important be- 
 nefits, not only to agriculture, the feeding and health of 
 cattle, but likewise to several branches of manufacture in 
 
 these 
 
 
 
94 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 these 'kingdoms, without a probability of causing any 
 diminution in the public revenue. 
 
 Did the conveniencies attached to a Scotch farm allow 
 the industry of the tenant to be exerted in preserving 
 rthe urine and dung of his cattle, by constantly bedding 
 them with, or mixing their urine and dung with dry 
 peat, or when this substance is not to be procured, 
 with rich black mould, the consumption of all the straw 
 by cattle would, in such .case, be found to be a practice 
 highly conducive to the interest of the farmer. 
 
 Mr. Bakewell and Mr. Chaplain, two very skilful 
 breeders of stock in England, are said to pursue, very 
 different modes in the feeding and maintenance of their 
 horses and cattle. The one gentleman is said to supply 
 them with hay, and to use all his straw for litter ; whilst 
 the other consumes the whole produce of hay and straw 
 from his farm in feeding and maintaining of cattle. A plat- 
 form is constructed on which the cattle stand, sufficiently 
 open in the seams to allow them being kept clean and 
 -dry, without any bedding of straw. This method ad- 
 mits 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 95; 
 
 mits a greater number of cattle to be maintained, and a 
 greater quantity of real dung to be procured, than when 
 a less number of stock are kept and well littered. 
 
 Food in its passage through, the bodies of animals be- 
 comes mixed with animalized matter, and consequently 
 more rich and more valuable, weight for weight, as a 
 manure, than dung procured by littering cattle, although 
 there must necessarily be much less in bulk or quantity, 
 from the large proportion of the food of animals, which; 
 goes off by breathing and insensible perspiration ; be- 
 side which, without the utmost care, it is extremely 
 difficult to prevent the urine and the valuable juices of 
 the dung from sinking through the floors of cow-houses 
 and stables, or the soil of farm-yards. Could these incon- 
 veniencies be effectually provided against by a proper 
 flooring of clay or chalk, a preference appears due to the 
 consumption of the whole of the produce by cattle, pro- 
 vided that attention be paid to the mixing daily a sufficient 
 quantity of peat or mould with the dung and urine, so as 
 completely to absorb and take up whatever may remain of 
 these matters in a fluid state. By this process there can be 
 no doubt that a greater quantity, and a still more valuable 
 
 dung 
 
96 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 dung may be obtained than by the other practice of 
 keeping a less number of .cattle, and littering them with 
 straw. 
 
 When peat cannot be had, the richest and blackest 
 mould should be procured, that the volatile alkali of 
 the urine may acl: upon and dissolve, into a mucilagi- 
 nous gummy liquor, the oxygenated inert vegetable 
 matter contained in such mould. Peat, however, is .to be 
 preferred, because it contains a more abundant propor- 
 tion of oxygenated vegetable matter for the volatile al- 
 kali to act upon. 
 
 These are not to be considered as theoretical state- 
 ments, but the result of actual experiments, attentively 
 made in Scotland. The quantity of manure made in the 
 same given time was much greater than if litter had t>een 
 used ; and the manure procured was infinitely more rich 
 and valuable. These experiments were not confined to 
 the dung and urine of cattle, but the chamber-lye of the 
 family was carefully preserved, and mixed also with a 
 due proportion of oxygenated peat, which was found to 
 produce a greater effect in dissolving the peat than the 
 
 ,uri-ne from the cattle. 
 
 The 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 97 
 
 The importance of making or obtaining the greatest 
 -quantity of manure with the materials now generally 
 known, and capable of being procured, is, in this prac- 
 tical Dissertation, made to precede the preparation of all 
 other manures or composts of a more expensive nature. 
 Prudence and (Economy point out, that what is easiest 
 and cheapest to be done, should always be first done ; and 
 that recourse should not be had to other means, until 
 that source of supply is exhausted, 
 
 r '.' * 
 
 In the former part of this Treatise, under the head of 
 Oxygenation, a short remark was made, that stable dung, 
 by long keeping, lost its more fertilizing saline parts, and 
 became oxygenated, and insoluble. A heap of such dung, 
 kept for some years, has been known to become inodo- 
 rous, insoluble, and in all respects similar to, and was a 
 true peat; hence the practical inference^ that dung 
 should only be kept a certain time. 
 
 When animal dung and vegetable matters are mixed to- 
 gether, such as horse dung, urine, straw, and hay, a degree 
 of heat is generated and disengaged by the absorption 
 of vital air, or oxygen, and water is decomposed. 
 
 N' As 
 
98 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 As the process of putrefaction advances, ammoniac or 
 volatile alkali, (a compound of inflammable and phlo- 
 gisticated air) is formed, an d, in its tendency to escape 
 from the heap, combines with such parts of the vegeta- 
 bles and matters of the dung, as had advanced to the 
 oxygenated state, forming therewith the saponaceous 
 saline matter so often adverted to in this Treatise. The 
 formation of this saponaceous matter, in the greatest 
 possible quantity, will be promoted by mixing and cover- 
 ing the dung with a due proportion of earth ; hence the 
 dung of hotbeds is that which is most completely rotted, 
 and most asimilated to the saline saponaceous state above 
 described ; and in this state is more capable of promot- 
 ing vegetation, than dung that had not arrived to an 
 equally advanced state of putrefaction. 
 
 Many farmers differ in opinion as to the propriety or 
 the advantages which attend using long or fresh dung, 
 or dung which is completely rotted. This disputed point 
 seems capable of adjustment. Were the views of the 
 farmer to promote only the next immediate crop of grass 
 
 or grain, the dung, when applied, should be fully and 
 completely rotted -, but if his views extend to subsequent 
 
 crops, 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 99 
 
 crops, or the soil be of a nature to receive benefit by the 
 fermentation and heat produced by the application of 
 fresh dung, preference should undoubtedly be given to 
 dung in a long state, provided it is immediately ploughed 
 in, and totally covered, which is not easily accomplished 
 with dung of this description. Long dung is always to 
 be preferred in the culture of potatoes ; for dung com- 
 pletely rotted frequently causes this crop to be watery 
 and worm eaten. Many farmers only apply coarse straw 
 or litter ; whence it might be imagined, that the benefit 
 arising from such an application, must be more depen- 
 dent on the straw mechanically keeping the ground open 
 or loose, than in contributing, by any part of its own 
 substance, to the growth of the potatoes, which cannot 
 well be supposed ; as the straw, in digging up the pota- 
 toes, is generally found in an tin decayed state. It is 
 highly probable, that the atmospheric air contained in 
 the intervals of the soil, thus made by the straw, may 
 suffer a degree of separation, or decomposition in its 
 (as it were) imprisoned state, by which means the pure 
 air or oxygen may combine with the straw, and in- 
 flammable or vegetable matter, in the soil ; whilst the 
 azotic or phlogisticated air will contribute to the growth 
 
 N2 of 
 
loo A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OK 
 
 of the plants. This explication of the beneficial effects 
 arising to vegetation by stagnated air, will also account 
 for the benefit which plants of a certain construction of 
 stemand leaf* and which very much overshadow and co- 
 -1?er the ground, ultimately receive, by preventing a free 
 circulation of air. The application of long or short dung to 
 ground, must appear too material to the practical farmer 
 to be overlooked. The preference, in most cases, is un- 
 doubtedly to be given to such dung as has most com- 
 pletely undergone the putrefactive process. Under this 
 head it is necessary to notice, that dung and urine newly 
 voided (unless when animals are diseased) are not in a 
 putrescent state, The time of retention in the body 
 of animals is of too short a continuance to allow that 
 effect to take place. Such excrements are in a state 
 advancing towards putridity, or in a small degree 
 only putrid ; a process which, to a certain extent, is ne- 
 cessary to stimulate the intestines to discharge the fxces. 
 
 The further putrescency of excrements is promoted 
 by a clue degree of heat and moisture, particularly when 
 aided by certain saline matters. The most efficacious 
 are neutral salts, containing the vitriolic acid ; such as 
 
 vitrio- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. IO i 
 
 vitriolated tartar, Glauber salt, Epsom salt, and gypsum. 
 These neutral salts, by being mixed with putrescent sub- 
 stances, are changed to the state of hepars : hence the 
 extremely offensive and putrid effluvia disengaged from 
 clung, or other putrescent matters, to which such salts 
 had previously been added. 
 
 Similar effedts, in promoting the putrefaction of dung, 
 have not been experienced when muriat of soda, or 
 pure sea salt? has been used ; and as no salt made in Bri- 
 tain, whether from sea water, rock salt,, or salt springs^ 
 is free from gypsum and Epsom salt, there is reason to 
 suspeft that the septic power of sea salt, when applied 
 in small quantities (as stated by Sir JOHN PRINGLE and 
 Dr. MACBRIDE) to animal and vegetable substances, 
 may be owing in a great measure to the vitriolic salts 
 contained therein, when not overpowered by too great a 
 proportion of the muriat of soda, or pure sea salt, which 
 is highly antiseptic, although considerably less so than 
 other salts, such as sugar and salt-petre. Hence it is 
 that sea salt of the greatest purity should exclusively be 
 used for curing beef, pork, fish, cheese, and butter; 
 whilst the more impure salt, /. e. such as contains 
 
 a great 
 
102 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 a great proportion of vitriolic salts, should be exclusively 
 applied to dung or other substances, to promote their 
 complete putrefaction. 
 
 The purifying sea salt, or separating from it these 
 other salts, would be attended with the two-fold advan- 
 tage of improving the quality and taste of salted provi- 
 sions, and of promoting the putrescency of dung, or 
 other matters, by the application of such particular salts 
 
 as are best adapted to their respective purposes. 
 
 ( 
 
 A Treatise on the Purification of Salt, and the Necessity 
 of an Alteration in the Present Salt Laws, was given to the 
 Public about ten years since. The present system how- 
 ever is still continued, and individuals are content to 
 make use of salt with all its impurities. The purifying 
 of salt cannot take place, whilst the refuse bitter liquor, 
 consisting of Epsom salt and muriat of magnesia, is not 
 allowed to be -removed from any salt work, or employed 
 in any way whatever, without its becoming liable to a 
 duty of twenty pounds per ton on the chrystallized salt 
 capable of being thence obtained. This duty is equal to 
 /double that at present paid on sea salt, and -amounts to a 
 
 complete 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. IO3 
 
 complete prohibition on its use, either as a medicine or 
 as an article of manure. As a very large proportion of 
 most sea salt consists of these bitter and septic salts, no 
 salt manufacturer will be willing to incur a certain waste 
 and loss, in the purification of salt ; whilst he cannot dis- 
 pose of the refuse, and whilst the ignorance and inatten- 
 tion of the consumer occasions as high a price to be paid 
 for impure salt, as if it were of the best quality. A revi- 
 sion and correction of the salt laws, at this time, would 
 not only be extremely important to rural (Economies, 
 but would be highly conducive to the health of our sea- 
 men. 
 
 These remarks on sea salt are of a nature not to be 
 overlooked, and ought not to be deemed as too digressive 
 from the subject of manures now under consideration. 
 The procuring the greatest possible quantity of such 
 matters, and in the highest state of preparation, should 
 be the primary object of every farmer. 
 
 The dung naturally arising from the annual produc- 
 tion of hay, straw and grain, and consumed by cattle or 
 otherways, being in few instances sufficient to insure 
 
 abun- 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 abundant crops, from every part of a farm, every oppor- 
 tunity should be embraced by the skilful and intelligent 
 jfarmer to procure a further supply of stable, and other 
 -dung, from large towns, as well as to provide himself 
 with other ub stances, which, as manures, he may apply 
 to improve, and bring into cultivation, his inferior lands. 
 As the dung which is naturally produced on every farm 
 anust be limited, recourse should be had to other articles 
 --of manure, for the purpose of promoting the highest 
 possible fertility of the soil, and thereby acquiring a 
 greater return to the dung heap for the succeeding 
 crops. Such adventitious aids or helps to a farm, are of 
 a nature that answers a much better purpose as top-dres- 
 sings to grass lands, than for lands which are constantly 
 kept under the plough. The application of top-dressings 
 has, perhaps, been too little attended to, in consequence 
 of farmers being unacquainted with the resulting ad- 
 vantages to ground, when converted from pasture to 
 arable, by previously promoting the most luxuriant 
 growth of perennial grasses. By assisting the vegetation, 
 and increasing the vigour of perennial plants, their roots 
 are made to strike deeper down, and improve the. staple 
 <of the soil; with annual plants the same .benefit is not to 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 be expecled, as their growth and decay are limited to one 
 season. Were manures exclusively applied, under a sys 
 tern of convertible husbandry, to grass grounds, the lands 
 would regularly be broken up, in due rotation of crop- 
 ping; and there can be no doubt, but that a greater quan- 
 tity of corn and herbage would annually be produced : 
 and it is very probable that wheat and other grain would 
 be less liable than at present to diseases, many of which, 
 there is reason to believe, are occasioned by the immediate 
 application of dung previous to sowing. 
 
 Top dressing, especially to meadow and pasture ground, 
 is undoubtedly the best mode of applying manure. This 
 practice is better understood in England than in any 
 other country, though it cannot be generally adopted on 
 all the lands of a farm, unless the whole is kept under a 
 regular course of tillage and pasture. The apprehen- 
 sion, in England, of tenants over-cropping,. has necessarily 
 occasioned their being prohibited from breaking up mea- 
 dows and pasture lands, whence, at this time, and at all 
 tknes, a very considerable addition to the present supply 
 of food might be obtained. The convertible husbandry, 
 x>r the management of farms in an alternate course of 
 
 o tillage 
 
T0 6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 tillage and pasture, is in general well understood in the 
 highly cultivated parts of Scotland, from which system 
 the crops of artificial grasses are infinitely more abun- 
 dant than from any mode of cultivation in England. 
 
 The articles most generally used as top-dressings are, 
 lime mixed with rich black mould lime mixed with peat 
 peat ashes coal ashes and soot. The refuse articles 
 ift different branches of manufacture, when they are to 
 be procured, are also attended with very beneficial ef- 
 fects ; but as the quantity that can be obtained is very 
 small, they cannot be regarded as substances to be gene- 
 rally depended upon, though to lands in the vicinity of 
 such manufactories, they may with great advantage be 
 applied. 
 
 The ashes procured from peat, in the neighbourhood 
 of Reading in Berkshire, seem to possess a fertilizing 
 power, infinitely greater than ashes obtained from most 
 other peat. They certainly contain no alkaline salts; and 
 in an hasty analysis made about nine years since, no sa- 
 line matter is recollected to have been got from them, 
 but a small proportion of Epsom salt. Had these ashes, 
 
 however, 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 107 
 
 however, been analysed with more care, and when newly 
 made, they probably would have been found to contain 
 a hepar of lime, a salt which is soluble in water ; whilst 
 gypsum, to which it reverts on exposure to air, is inso- 
 luble. To this hepar may the fertilizing power of these 
 ashes most probably be ascribed. 
 
 As mineral springs are frequently found to arise in 
 peat mosses, it necessarily follows, that the ashes of dif- 
 ferent peat will contain very different saline and other 
 matters. When a too large proportion of vitriol of iron, 
 or green vitriol, is contained in peat, its ashes must of 
 course be inimical to vegetation; but the injurious 
 effefts of this salt are to be corrected by the addition of 
 lime, magnesia, alkaline salts, or clung. Of these sub- 
 stances, the preference is to be given to magnesia and 
 alkaline salts; for, whilst they decompose the metal- 
 lic salt, they form Epsom salt, Glauber salt, or vitrio- 
 lated tartar, all of which are conducive to vegetation. 
 The effe6l of dung on such ashes requires to be explain- 
 ed in a different manner. The iron, in this case, is by the 
 application of the dung changed into a metallic state; 
 whilst the vitriolic acid combines with the .volatile alkali 
 
 02 of 
 
of the dung, and forms vitriolic ammoniac ; or by com- 
 bining with the calcareous matter, and by the further 
 aid of the inflammable or putrescent matter of the dung* 
 it is changed into an hepar. 
 
 The burning of peat, for the purpose of procuring its 
 ashes, must undoubtedly appear a very wasteful and dis- 
 sipating process, when it is considered that there is sel- 
 dom i-2oth of its weight in ashes procured by combus- 
 tion. This process throws into the air the remaining 
 i9-2oths of peat, which might, by other preparations 
 of it, be made to contribute, in a superior degree, to 
 the purposes of vegetation. 
 
 v ) ( O f 
 
 The best preparation of peat, when intended for a 
 top-dressing manure, is by the addition of alkaline salts 
 or alkaline hepars, or by a mixture of glauber salt and 
 hot lime with peat. As the soil cannot be injured by 
 the application of alkaline salts, when mixed with a due 
 proportion of peat, the quantity made use of will, in a 
 great measure, be governed by the facility of procuring 
 it, and the price of the article, and may, in some measure, 
 be regulated by the quantity of alkaline salts capable of 
 
 being 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 
 
 being procured from the combustion of any crop pro- 
 duced from an acre of ground. In no instance the quan- 
 tity of alkaline salts obtained will be found to exceed 
 one and a half cwt. unless from cabbages, turnips, and 
 potatoes. No restriction nor nicety need, however, be 
 attended to in the use of alkaline salts, except such as have 
 reference to cost, and the comparative beneficial results 
 from the increased produce of the ground. 
 
 The scarcity and high price of the above saline mat- 
 ters, in addition to a due want of knowledge of the proper 
 state which peat should be in, when these substances 
 are intended to be mixed together, have hitherto pre- 
 cluded the use of alkaline salts for the improvement of 
 the soil. The only substance of a caustic nature, and 
 capable of destroying the organic texture of vegetable 
 bodies, which in some places has been used, is lime, 
 though not in so judicious a manner as to insure at all 
 times, uniformly, good effects from its application, which 
 can never be depended upon, if the proportions of each 
 substance, and the particular state of them, are unattend^ 
 ed to and neglected, as will appear by the following ob- 
 servations. 
 
 When 
 
10 
 
 When hot, or newly calcined lime is broken into pieces 
 of a small size, and mixed with peat, moderately humid, 
 heat is disengaged, and that heat, by the slacking of the 
 lime, when it is applied in too great a proportion, is so 
 increased, as completely to reduce the peat to charcoal, 
 and to dissipate, in a gassious state, all its component 
 parts, excepting the ashes, part of the carbonaceous 
 matter, and such a portion of fixable air, generated in 
 the process, as is absorbed by the lime, by which that 
 substance is made to return to the state of chalk. No 
 benefit can, therefore, arise by this method of preparing 
 peat with lime, the object not being to destroy and dissi- 
 pate in a gassious state the component parts of the peat, 
 but to make such a combination with the lime, and the 
 gas generated in the process, as will, on the application 
 of the mixture to ground, promote the growth of 
 
 plants. 
 
 i 
 
 This object is best attained by mixing newly made, and 
 completely slacked lime, with about five or six times its 
 weight of peat, which should be moderately humid, and 
 not in too dry a state. In this^ case, the heat generated 
 will be moderate, and never sufficient to convert the 
 
 peat 
 
Ill 
 
 peat into carbonaceous matter, or to throw off, in the 
 state of fixable air, the acids therein contained. The 
 gasses thus generated will be inflammable, and phlogis- 
 ticated air forming volatile alkali, which will combine, ss 
 it is formed, with the oxygenated part of the peat that 
 remains unacted upon by the lime applied for this espe^ 
 cial purpose, in a small proportion. By this mode of 
 Conducting the process, a soluble saline matter will be 
 procured, consisting of phosphat and oxalat of ammo- 
 niac, whose beneficial effects on vegetation have already 
 
 been described. 
 
 Inattention, or ignorance of these important facts, has 
 probably, in many cases, defeated the wishes of the far- 
 mer in the application of this preparation, which is par- 
 ticularly recommended as a top-dressing to grounds un- 
 der pasture. , The proportion of the lime to the peat here 
 given, should be carefully attended to, and the mixing of 
 the two substances together should be performed under 
 cover, in a shed or out-house constructed for that pur- 
 pose, as too much rain, or a too great exposure to air, 
 will prevent a due action of the lime upon the peat. 
 
 The 
 
IZ2 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 The success of most operations, but more especially 
 of those of a chemical nature, greatly depends upon a 
 regular and due observance of circumstances apparently 
 trivial, 
 
 -oThis preparation of lime and peat is in a peculiar man- 
 ner conducive to the growth of clover, and of the short, 
 and as they are called, sweet kinds of pasture grasses. 
 The soil also, by the application of it, acquires such a 
 predisposing tendency to promote the growth of such 
 grasses, as to prevent its growing afterwards rank, coarse, 
 or sour herbage. 
 
 Notwithstanding that this preparation of lime and peat 
 
 is certainly, when properly made, a valuable manure, 
 
 yet the advantages that may be derived, by using alkaline 
 
 salts instead of lime, are of much greater importance 
 
 and general utility ; in as much as the peat, by alkaline 
 
 salts, -is rendered completely soluble,.; whilst, by the ap- 
 
 plication of lime, no greater proportion of.it is made 
 
 capable of solution than what is equivalent to the quan- 
 
 tity of volatile alkali, which may be generated in the 
 
 processj besides which, a large proportion of the acids 
 
 con- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 contained in the vegetable matter, combine with that 
 which is calcareous, and form insoluble compounds. 
 What has been, and will be further stated on the different 
 uses of peat, will, it is to be hoped, cause this valuable, 
 and hitherto neglected article, to have a primary place 
 in the farmer's calender, and teach him that nothing is 
 useless, if man knew how to turn it to account. Many 
 of the counties in England contain an abundant supply 
 of peat, and it is still more generally, and in greater 
 quantities, to be met with in Scotland and in Ireland* 
 
 In some few parts of Scotland, peat, in a natural state, 
 or mixed with too small a proportion of dung, is applied 
 as a manure. The growth of sorel is the never failing 
 consequence of such application to soils, which contain 
 little or no calcareous matter; whence may be inferred, 
 that the soreline acid produced in consequence of the 
 oxygenation of the peat, gives- a predisposing tendency 
 to the ground, on which it is applied, to promote the 
 growth of sorel. Similar effe&s, in the produftion of 
 sorel, have been observed to attend fossile coal, particularly 
 at collieries where small coal has for a time been exposed 
 to the action of air ; hence also may be inferred, that 
 
 coal 
 
H 4 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 . coal consists of matters analogous to those of peat, and 
 contains the basis requisite for forming the soreline 
 acid. - 
 
 The aptitude to receive and embrace useful and impor- 
 tant ideas from small notices of things, must be acknow- 
 ledged a faculty which is but seldom bestowed. In modern 
 strictness of chemical theory and reasoning, this circuitous 
 operation of nature, in promoting the growth of sorel, 
 irnay probably be questioned ; but as the diligent and mi- 
 nute attention of any individual, to any particular process 
 which may have escaped the notice of others, ought rather 
 to, induce communication, than create an apprehension of 
 hazarding the resultsof such inquiries, the above obser- 
 vation, like many others in this Treatise, is presented 
 with no other view than that of calling attention to the 
 minute circumstances daily presented by nature, and 
 are too freqxiently overlooked. 
 
 The promoting the- more complete solution of vegetable 
 
 substances, is undoubtedly one of the principal objects of 
 
 the present design ; still there are other circumstances of 
 
 ;#jqaore mechanical nature^ which demand attention : such 
 
 as 
 
"5 
 
 
 
 as the proper mixture, or addition to soils, of substances 
 capable of retaining a due proportion of humidity, and 
 affording to plants the necessary supply of moisture. 
 This is to be effefted by a due application of decayed ve- 
 getables, (or as called in this Treatise) inert vegetable 
 matter. A superabundance of this substance will cause 
 the soil to be too spungy and open, and, on the alternate 
 change from frost to thaw, to spew or throw winter 
 corn out of the ground, as well as to injure or destroy 
 cabbage, green kail, and other plants, produced by the 
 alteration, which the water undergoes in such spungy 
 soils, from a liquid to a solid state, and vice versa.' Thus 
 either chilling and rotting, or mechanically protruding or 
 forcing the roots of the plants out of the ground. But to 
 
 many stiff clayey soils, such vegetable matter may, in a 
 
 . 
 
 peculiar manner, be serviceable, and is easily procured, 
 
 tfciu; -jom mra t ?vm3t> 
 
 in different states of preparation, from peat mosses. 
 
 -! 
 
 The 
 
Ji6 
 
 The different preparations of peat which may be ap- 
 plied to ground, for corre&ing particular defefts, or for 
 rendering it generally more fertile, are, 
 
 Peat - unmixed 
 
 Peat - ditto oxygenated 
 
 Peat - oxygenated, mixed with dung and urine 
 
 Peat - ditto with alkaline salts 
 
 Peat - ditto with alkaline hepar 
 
 Peat - ditto with Glauber salt and lime 
 
 Peat - mixed - with newly slacked lime 
 
 ^ - and lime mixed with peat ashes. 
 
 
 All these preparations may, according to circum 
 stances, be used to advantage. The consuming by fin 
 peat to ashes, is always to be considered as the least pro- 
 duftive, and most unceconomical. The most beneficial 
 and productive of these preparations will be found to be, 
 
 Peat with dung and urine 
 Peat with alkaline salts 
 Peat with alkaline hepar 
 Peat with Glauber salt and lime 
 [_ And peat with lime. 
 
 When 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 117 
 
 When the soil does not contain a due proportion of 
 calcareous matter, a preference should always be given 
 either to the last, or to the two last of the above prepa- 
 rations, until it shall have received a sufficient supply of 
 an article so # indispensably necessary as calcareous matter 
 to the production of sweet herbage, liguminous plants, 
 and grain. 
 
 By the method heretofore recommended, of mixing 
 peat with lime, in the proportion of five or six times the 
 weight of the peat to the lime, no injury can arise by an 
 overabundant use of this last-mentioned article. First, 
 because the lime, when thus mixed with peat, meets 
 proper matter to combine with, or to act upon ; and se- 
 condly, the small proportion necessary to be used, when 
 compared to the weight of the peat, will be considera- 
 bly less than the quantity of lime only, usually given 
 at one time to ground. The bulk, weight, and the ex- 
 pence of the preparation, will direct the farmer in the 
 quantity requisite to answer his intended purpose. An 
 application of a moderate quantity of lime, from time to 
 time, whether mixed or not with peat, is much to be pre- 
 ferred 
 
 * To soils containing a superabundance, or a sufficient quantity of vegetable 
 'matter, a preference is to be given to lime unmixed. 
 
Ii8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 ferred to the generally prevailing pra&ice of laying lime 
 at once, and in great abundance, upon ground, for these 
 reasons : 
 
 First, The purchase is attended with a considerable ad- 
 vance of capital, and with great expence for labour and 
 
 carriage. 
 
 
 
 Secondly, From the distance of the kilns, or places 
 whence it is fetched, and the time it commonly lies on 
 
 the ground to slack, it for the most part becomes effettc, 
 or in a great measure returns to its original state of chalk, 
 before an opportunity offers for its being spread. And 
 
 Lastly, When easily procured, and properly slacked with 
 water, immediately spread on the ground, and ploughed 
 in, if applied m great quantities it will occasion a too 
 immediate dissipation, in agassious state, of the vegetable 
 matters contained in the soil, from which the succeeding 
 crop can only be benefited by the proportion it is able to 
 receive during the dissipating process. Hence it is ma- 
 nifest, that an ceconomical and frequent application of 
 lime, in moderate quantities, either mixed with peat or 
 other vegetable matter, or even by itself, is greatly to 
 
 be 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 be preferred to those abundant dressings of lime usually 
 given at one time, which cause an action on the soil 
 more powerful and violent than is conducive to, or com- 
 patible with a continued state of fertility. 
 
 In short, lime should be considered in a chemical 
 and medicinal point of view, when so applied, aUng 
 as an alterative, corrector, and a decompounder ; a disen- 
 gager of certain parts of the animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances contained in soils, and as a retainer and a combi- 
 ner with others.; and is not to be regarded by the prac- 
 tical farmer as a substance fit for the immediate food 
 and nourishment of vegetables, like dung, or decayed 
 vegetable or animal matters. For, although calcareous 
 matter, or lime, forms a component part of vegetable and 
 animal bodies, still the quantity that can be obtained from 
 the annual produce of most crops, from an acre of 
 ground, will not exceed eighty pounds weight. This facT: 
 has been well ascertained, and if proper attention be 
 paid to it, in regulating the conduit of the agriculturist, 
 in the future application of lime, it will prove more sa- 
 tisfaftory than all the chemical reasonings adduced in this 
 Treatise. 
 
 By 
 
I20 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 By an over-use of lime in many parts of Great Britain,, 
 the soil at this day requires a mode of treatment dire6tty 
 opposite to that practice. Some substance or substances 
 ought to be applied to the soil, which would change the 
 calcareous matter therein from its present state, or separate 
 it from the insoluble combinations it has formed with the 
 vegetable substances contained in the soil. This valuable 
 improvement may be accomplished by a due application 
 of acids, alkalis, and certain neutral salts, as before di~ 
 rected> 
 
 The effects produced on organic bodies by lime, clearly 
 point out, that lime should never be mixed with dung, 
 or with any substances which of themselves, or by the 
 application of saline matters, would easily become putrid 
 and rotten. Lime not only puts a stop to the putrefactive 
 process, but disengages and throws ofi^ in a gassious state, 
 a certain portion of the component parts of such sub- 
 stances ; whilst, with those which remain, it forms inso- 
 luble corrvpounds that are incapable of promoting vege- 
 tation, until they are again decomposed and brought into 
 action by other substances. In making of composts, rich 
 surface mould is,, of all substances, that which is most 
 
 proper 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 121 
 
 proper, when mixed in moderate quantities, to promote 
 the dissolution and complete putrefaction of the dung. 
 This process would be greatly accelerated by the further 
 addition of a due proportion of the vitriolic neutral 
 salts. 
 
 Methods of manufacturing, at a cheap rate, the most 
 efficacious of these salts, have been discovered, and 
 farmers will soon be enabled to make the necessary ex- 
 periments, and to satisfy themselves that such salts pos- 
 sess the powers ascribed to them. The price will be re- 
 gulated by the duty that may be charged on sea salt, and 
 on the bitter refuse liquor of the salt works, whence 
 these articles are to be made. 
 
 But as it may happen, that much time may elapse be- 
 fore any relief is granted, or any alteration made in the 
 present salt laws, it becomes important to consider how 
 a supply of salt, or what is still more valuable, how a 
 supply of sea or salt \vater may be obtained for the use 
 of cattle, and the purposes of agriculture, without being 
 subjected to the present duties. Previous to this expla- 
 
 0_ nation, 
 
I2 a A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 nation, it is proper to state some further circumstances, 
 more fully to impress on the mind of the farmer the 
 effect which salt or sea water has in promoting the more 
 full putrefa&ion of dung and vegetable matters. 
 
 It is well known, that ships built of unseasoned tim- 
 bers are at first very unhealthy. The exhalation of the 
 vegetable juices of the fresh wood is not the sole cause. 
 It is principally to be ascribed to the putrescent hepatic 
 gas; generated by the mixture of the vegetable juices 
 with the vitriolic neutral salts contained in sea water, 
 forming what is called bilge water. The smell of it is 
 no less offensive, than its effe&s are prejudicial to the 
 health of the ship's company. When a new vessel hap- 
 pens to be tight, and to make little water, it is the prac- 
 tice with all intelligent seamen, to sweeten the vessel's 
 hold and limbers, by daily letting in and pumping out a 
 sufficient quantity of water. 
 
 Certain gasses, which are injurious to the health of ani- 
 mals, are favourable to the growth of plants: hepatic 
 
 air is one of them ; and as hepatic air is formed in vessels 
 
 i 
 
 holds 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 holds by the action of sea water on the soluble matter of 
 the wood, the same effect will be produced by the addi- 
 tion of salt water to dung or to vegetable matters. The 
 generation of the hepar is to be ascribed solely to the 
 vitriolic salts contained in sea water, and there is some 
 reason to suspect, that sea salt, or muriat of soda, may 
 suffer a decomposition in this putrefactive process, and 
 that the marine acid thereof may be decomposed. 
 
 The putrefaction of sea water is not confined to the 
 bilge water in vessels. The water of the sea itself, in 
 certain southern latitudes, undergoes a material change, 
 -emitting, during long calms, a putrid offensive smell; and 
 water intended for the purpose of making salt, kept too 
 long in the reservoirs during summer, will suffer such an 
 alteration in its nature, as to be rendered incapable of 
 yielding chrystals of sea salt. A month or six weeks of 
 warm weather is in this latitude sufficient to produce 
 the change, which is prevented by letting out of the re- 
 servoir, every fourteen days, part of the old brine, and 
 taking in a fresh supply of sea water, frequently very, 
 inferior in concentration or strength to that which is 
 
 obliged 
 
124 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 obliged thus to be discharged. If this tendency to putre- 
 faction take place simply in consequence of the smalP 
 proportion of animal and vegetable matters contained in ; 
 sea water, there is still greater reason (exclusive of ac- 
 tual experiments) to conclude, that it will take place, in a 
 much higher degree, on adding sea water to a larger pro- 
 portion of such substances as of themselves have a ten- 
 dency to the putrefa6Hve state. As any further proofs of 
 the effects of the saline matters contained m sea water,, 
 in promoting putrefaftion, may be deemed unnecessary, 
 a method of procuring a supply, without incurring the 
 expence of manufacturing them, or being liable to the- 
 present duties, is an objeftof the greatest importance to ; 
 the farmer and the grazier, particularly to those who are 
 at a distance from the sea* 
 
 In its vicinity, farmers and others may avail themselves:. 
 of their situation, and procure sea water either to mix 
 with dung, or for the other purposes to which the 
 application of it has been recommended. A ton of 
 sea water contains from a bushel to a bushel and a quar- 
 ter of sea salt, beside a certain proportion of the vitriolic 
 
 salts,. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 salts. This quantity could not be purchased in England, 
 including the duty, at an expence less than seven shillings, 
 which farmers, situated as before described, may procure 
 at the small expence of carriage* 
 
 Sea water may be raised, where coal is cheap, by means 
 of a fire engine, to such a height as, corresponding with 
 the level of the inland country, would allow the water 
 to be conveyed in small open canals, in wooden or in 
 earthen pipes, to a considerable inland distance; eack 
 farmer, or proprietor, receiving as it passes the necessary , 
 supply. 
 
 A fire engine of forty inches cylinder, with ten inch 
 pumps, would raise to the height of 30 fathoms, 1000 
 tons of water per day, equal to 6000 tons per week, or 
 300,000 per annum. Admitting this water to contain 
 I in 33 of salt, 9,636 tons would annually be procured ; 
 and supposing each farmer, on an average, to receive such 
 a quantity of sea water as would be equivalent to 33 tons 
 of salt, 9,636 tons would be sufficient to supply 292 
 farms. Should the interest of the capital employed, and 
 
 the 
 
126 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 the charges attendant on the fire engine amount to 500!. 
 a year, which is an abundant allowance where coal is 
 cheap, and should the further interest on the sum en- 
 gaged in conveying the water to distant places amount 
 to 500!. more, the total expence for raising, conveying, 
 and serving 292 farms with sea water, would amount to 
 loool. per annum, or something less than 3!. xos. for 33 
 tons of salt contained in the sea water which each farm 
 woiild receive. The prime cost of sea salt, exclusive of duty, 
 could no where be less than il. in some places 3!. on an 
 average it should not be reckoned at less than il. los, per 
 ton, which on 33 tons would amount to 49!. ics. But, as 
 to this must be added the present duty of jol. per ton, it 
 would cost the farmer 379!. IDS. for the quantity v, hich, by 
 these means, he may receive for about 3!. los. Admitting, 
 however, that the expence of the fire engine, and of 
 conveying the water, were to be double the sum above 
 stated, and that instead of 3!. los. it were to amount to 
 7-1. .a quantity of salt water containing one ton of salt 
 would, in .-this latter case, cost the farmer only 45. 3d. or 
 at the rate of one penny farthing per bushel of salt of 561bs. 
 -whilst the same quantity would now cost 6s. Farmers, 
 
 who 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRT. 127. 
 
 / 
 
 who are situated near the sea, should lose no time in sa- 
 tisfying themselves of the beneficial effects that may 
 arise by a proper use and application of salt water ta 
 dung heaps, compost mixens, and to other purposes: 
 it would be highly praise worthy, were some intelligent 
 persons, after carefully making such trials, to publish the 
 result of their experiments for the information of 
 others. 
 
 . 
 
 Should the advantages attendant on the application 
 of salt water, induce its being generally made use 
 of near the sea coast, there can be little doubt that 
 cheap methods would soon be devised, for conveying 
 from many places salt, or sea water, to very considerable 
 distances. 
 
 * 
 
 Every plan or method whereby a greater quantity of 
 dung may be made, should be carefully attended to. A 
 considerable increase in the quantity of that article, as 
 
 well as an ceconomical savine, and benefit in other re- 
 
 < * ' 
 
 spedls, will arise by feeding the working horses, and 
 
 perhaps part of the neat cattle of a farm with 
 
 . 
 
 clover, 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 clover, tares, saint foin, and other green crops, in 
 the stables, in out-houses, or in the farm-yard, in- 
 stead of turning them out to pasture, as is the ge- 
 neral practice. By this economical and judicious 
 method, no part of the crop is spoiled on the ground, 
 but .every part thereof is made to serve the intended 
 purpose. A much larger quantity of dung will thus be 
 made, of a richer and superior quality, in consequence 
 <of the eggs deposited by the various flies, and the mag- 
 gots and worms bred therein during the summer season, 
 than can be procured in the winter time. By a flooring of 
 elay or chalk under the pavement of the stables, out- 
 houses, 8cc. the urine of the cattle will be prevented 
 from sinking through, and by the same precaution the 
 valuable juices of the dung heap may also be prevented 
 from soaking into the soil of the farm-yard, especially if 
 due care be taken to add from time to time a sufficient 
 quantity of peat, or rich black mould, to absorb or suck 
 up the surplus moisture produced by the succulent food. 
 Thus may much expence be spared, a larger proportion 
 of dung be acquired, and a more plentiful supply of 
 food be provided for cattle, without any fatigue or 
 
 loss 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 129 
 
 loss of time in roaming about to procure it for them- 
 selves. 
 
 Experience only can teach, or warrant the belief of 
 how few acres of ground, under the culture of artificial 
 grasses, when cut green, and daily given to working horses 
 and other cattle, will suffice for their maintenance. The 
 artificial grasses, or plants, best adapted to this purpose, 
 are, red clover, tares, and saint foin. None of these suc- 
 culent plants with large stems and leaves, answer so well 
 to be depastured as to be mown : not only on account of 
 the injury they receive in being bruised by the treading 
 of cattle, but by being constantly cropped and kept short, 
 they are deprived of the nourishment which they prin- 
 cipally receive by their stems and leaves. Saint foin is 
 best suited to chalky or dry soils, and to the southern 
 parts of Britain. It has often been tried without success 
 in the northern parts of England and in Scotland. 
 Winter tares have also been sown, but have not been 
 found to answer any valuable purpose. Clover and sum- 
 mer tares, therefore, should be the only plants of which 
 the cultivation on a large scale should in these parts be 
 attempted, and every prudent farmer will take care to 
 
 R have 
 
130' A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 have a full supply of them, as in the event of a super- 
 abundant quantity for green food, these crops are equally 
 proper for hay. Tares should always accompany the 
 culture of clover, to supply the deficiency of herbage 
 between the first and second cuttings of the clover. When 
 black mould has been worn out by repeated tillage, and 
 is filled with root arid seed weeds, no preparation or 
 mode of culture can be adopted that will more effectually 
 clean and fit it for a subsequent crop than tares, which 
 should be sown thick, that a luxuriant crop, com* 
 pletely covering the ground, may be insured. 
 
 ;T; 
 
 It is a matter of great importance (though seldom 
 attended to) that the food intended for working horses 
 should be so prepared, or of such a nature, as to allow 
 them, quickly to satisfy their hunger, that more hours 
 may be allotted for rest during the interval afforded 
 from labour. When thus fed in stables or farm-yards 
 with green clover, tares, saint foin, 8cc. unless on ex- 
 traordinary occasions, they do not require oats or other 
 grain ; but in the winter, or other seasons, when fed on 
 dry hay or straw, and when occupied in the business of 
 the farm, a supply of oats, other grain, or nourishing food 
 
 is 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 is found to be indispensably necessary. Oats mixed with 
 beans or pease, is the grain generally given, although, when 
 barley is at a certain price, it would be an object of occo- 
 nomy to make use of it in lieu of oats. The horses in 
 Spain and Portugal are exclusively fed with barley, to 
 which they give a preference. 
 
 To shew that this taste is not peculiar to foreign 
 horses, it is a well known fact, that when Burgoyne's 
 regiment of light dragoons went to Portugal in the year 
 1761, the oats sent from England were carefully reserv- 
 ed for the opening of the campaign, and in the mean 
 time the horses were supplied with barley, of which 
 they became so fond, that when the campaign began, 
 they rejected the English oats, and were afterwards uni- 
 formly fed with barley ; notwithstanding which, it will 
 be no easy matter to eradicate the prejudice in favour of 
 oats from the minds of English grooms, which can only 
 be effected by actual trials and experiments, made by the 
 intelligent, who will afterwards decide for themselves. 
 The different proportions of meal, or farinaceous matter 
 contained in barky and in oats, ought not to pass un- 
 noticed. 
 
 R 2 A Scotch 
 
132 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 A Scotch boll of good barley, (equal to six Winchester 
 bushels) will weigh eighteen stones Dutch weight, the 
 proportion of husk to the kernel or meal does not exceed 
 a stone and an half, or two stones ; whilst the like quan- 
 tity of oats, weighing fourteen stones, will not produce 
 more than eight stone of meal or kernel. As the ave- 
 rage prices of barley and oats may be fairly stated at se- 
 venteen shillings and twelve shillings per boll, it is plain, 
 that in the one case sixteen stones of barley meal are 
 purchased for seventeen shillings, whilst eight stones of 
 oat -meal will cost twelve* 
 
 * 
 
 Experience has proved, beyond a doubt, that all corn- 
 given to horses and other cattle, should be broken, by* 
 being passed through rollers, or crushed in a mill. Horsea 
 not being ruminating animals, will receive considerable 
 benefit by this ceeonomical operation, and the loss or 
 waste, by swallowingtheir corn whole, will be prevented. 
 Barley boiled in sea water, or with a due proportion of sea 
 salty is a good supper for hard working horses. These 
 eeconomical modes of feeding horses have been con firmed 
 by several years experience, in keeping the horses of a 
 colliery. 
 
 It 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 It is not, however, to be understood, that a preference 
 should be given to the feeding of horses with broken 
 or ground corn, instead of potatoes or carrots, which ju- 
 dicious application of these roots is now becoming very 
 general. Nothing farther by the above statement being 
 meant, than, that those who may prefer the use of grain, 
 should be made acquainted with the best and most ceco- 
 nomical manner of giving it : and in the same point of 
 view is to be regarded the following observations on- 
 feeding horses and other cattle on malted corn. 
 
 There is great reason to believe that the most judi- 
 cious method of feeding horses or cattle with corn, is 
 
 by giving them malted instead of raw grain. 
 
 Malted corn tends to open the body, and cleanse the 
 intestines from all putrid saline biliary obstructions ; 
 which effects being attained, it no longer operates in this 
 manner, at least in no degree inconsistent with the health 
 of the animal. To such as do not regard a small ex- 
 pence in ascertaining so valuable a fact, it is earnestly re- 
 commended that a comparative trial be made in feeding 
 two teams of horses with malted and unmalted grain, of 
 the same sort and quality. Three months would fully 
 
 as- 
 
134 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 ascertain this question, which, in the event, proving as it 
 is here presumed it would, highly in favour of the 
 malted food, there can be little doubt, that on proper 
 representation of Jhe beneficial effects of malted corn in 
 feeding cattle, Government would permit its use for 
 this purpose, under certain restrictions and regulations, 
 especially as the indulgence is capable of being rendered 
 an object of considerable revenue, as will appear in the 
 miscellaneous observations of this work. 
 
 The ramifications, which, in a discussion of this na- 
 ture, branch out and involve almost every circumstance 
 that respecls the ceconomy of rural affairs, render it no 
 easy task to preserve such a distinct arrangement of the 
 several subjects as may be generally approved. 
 
 The feeding of cattle may, perhaps, be considered as 
 improperly introduced under the last 'title of "Stable, 
 Farm-yard Dung,* and Composts :" but on reference to 
 
 the 
 
 v * The practice of haulming, or mowing stubbles, is in most cases to be recom- 
 mended ; as the farmer, by laying the stubble so gathered in his farm-yard, will 
 be enabled to return a greater quantity of prepared manure to his fields, than if he 
 Jiad ploughed the stubble ia. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 the reply of CATO, assumed as a text in the beginning of 
 the chapter, it will be obvious, that the judicious Roman, 
 by his expression of " bene paseere? (which is to be 
 translated, to graze well, or to procure food for cattle) 
 must have had in view the connection between feeding 
 of cattle and the production of manure. Every article 
 of manure, ultimately tending to render ground more 
 fertile and productive, falls likewise under the present 
 discussion. 
 
 Insects of all kinds, under the names of worms, snaiLv 
 grubs, slugs, &c. 8cc. exist in the ground ; and in such 
 grounds as are fertile, in much greater abundance than 
 
 is generally imagined. Their food, most undoubtedly, 
 
 . * / 
 
 must be either fresh vegetables, or decaying or decayed 
 
 vegetable matter. In the former case, such insects prove 
 extremely destruftive ; whilst in the latter they may be 
 of service to the vegetable kingdom, by rendering the 
 decayed or decaying vegetables, eaten by them, more 
 soluble by the process of digestion. In this class 
 are to be included the common earth worms, which are 
 only to be found in great numbers in ground containing 
 
 a large 
 
136 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 a large proportion of vegetable or animal matters. 
 Worms of this kind feed only on rich earths; and as 
 they are never found on sterile ground, their nourish- 
 ment must necessarily depend on the before-mentioned 
 subtances contained in the soil. 
 
 The excrements of these worms appear on the sur- 
 face in great abundance ; particularly in moist weather, 
 succeeding to a long drought ; or at the season of the 
 year when the dews fall heavily. On these occasions the 
 worms rise to the surface, for the purposes of engendering, 
 supplying themselves with moisture, and of voiding their 
 excrements. These excrements, from the astonishing 
 number of worms contained in rich ground, cannot but 
 promote vegetation ; though a temporary inconveni- 
 ence may sometimes be incurred, by preventing the cattle 
 from freely depasturing, when the surface is too much 
 covered therewith. 
 
 All insects or worms in the ground, as well those 
 
 C? ' 
 
 which apparently are of no disservice, as those that are 
 known to be noxious and destructive to the roots, stems, 
 
 and 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 137 
 
 and leaves of vegetables, may be destroyed by alkaline 
 salts and hot lime ; which substances have the power of 
 dissolving the continuity or texture of organic bodies? 
 and are particularly fatal to the soft bodies of living in- 
 sects. Insects are likewise to be destroyed by neutral 
 salts, and by saline bituminous substances. The bodies 
 of these inse6ts, when dissolved by putrefaction, become, 
 like other animal matters, serviceable to vegetation. 
 
 The vitriolic acid will also a<5l in destroying insects and 
 other animal substances, in a manner somewhat similar 
 to alkaline salts, with this difference only, that the one 
 forms an acid, the other an alkaline sapo. 
 
 Vitriolic acid, diluted with a due proportion of water, 
 and superacidulated vitriolic salts, may likewise be used 
 with a double effeft, in die destruction of insects, in 
 ground long under cultivation, and which contains much 
 animal and vegetable matter, in the state of phosphat 
 and oxalat of lime. In this case, not only the insects will 
 be killed, but the vitriolic acid will, by superior affinity, 
 combine with the calcareous matter of the phosphat and 
 oxalat of lime, whose disengaged acids will form new 
 
 s soluble, 
 
138 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 soluble, fertilizing saline combinations with the ammo- 
 niac or volatile alkali and magnesia that may be containecj 
 in the soil. 
 
 Sea salt is found to destroy snails, slugs, grubs, worms, 
 8cc. by making them void the contents of their bodies, 
 evacuations too powerful for them to withstand. By 
 these means, not only their bodies, but their evacua*- 
 tions soon become food for vegetables. It is principally 
 in this point of view that any benefit can be attributed 
 to the action of the muriat of soda, or pure sea salt* 
 \ipon ground. 
 
 Soot is used in many parts of Britain, with very bene- 
 ficial effects, for the destruction of the wire worm, and 
 other insects, which prey upon the young tender leaves 
 and roots of plants. This article, exclusively of carbo- 
 naceous and earthy matters, consists of mineral or resi- 
 nous oil, rendered capable of solution in water by 
 the saline matters^ which are contained in soot in 
 great abundance. The solution is an extremely bitter 
 high coloured oily liquor, which not only poisons the 
 insect on which it may fall, but also communicates a 
 bitter taste to the surface of the roots and leaves of 
 
 plants ; 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 139 
 
 plants ; thus rendering them unfit for the food of such 
 insects. The effedts of soot are not confined to the de- 
 stru6tion of inse6ls alone ; for the resinous bituminous 
 oil, dissolved by the saline matters, promotes the growth 
 of plants in a very high degree, and by rapidly pushing 
 them to an advanced state of maturity, allows no time 
 for the ravages of inserts on the young and tender roots 
 and leaves of plants, on which, in general, they princi- 
 pally feed. 
 
 The quantity of soot that can be collected, is so incon- 
 siderable, in proportion to its uses, and .the demand 
 there might be for it, were its powers more generally 
 known, that a method of procuring a greater supply of 
 this essential article, or of any substance that would pro- 
 duce similar good effects, is an object of very great im- 
 portance to Agriculture. This is to be accomplished by 
 different preparations, amongst which coal-tar is to be in- 
 cluded. The chemical analysis, and deleterious or poison- 
 ous effects of coal-tar on insefts, prove its identity to soot ; 
 the only difference being, that of its containing less fuligi- 
 nous, or carbonaceous and earthy matters : in which re- 
 spects, as carbonaceous and earthy matters arc not soluble 
 
 s 2 m 
 
140 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 in water, coal-tar, * weight for weight, is to be preferred 
 to soot, for the destruction of insects, or as an article of 
 manure. But as the quantity of coal-tar that is now ca- 
 pable of being made in Britain would be insufficient for 
 the purposes of Agriculture, it has led to the discovery 
 of a cheap method of preparing other substances, which, 
 most probably, will be found equally, if not more effi- 
 cacious, as manures, and in the destruction of insecls. 
 
 These preparations may be sown by hand on the 
 ground, and there is every reason to believe they will 
 succeed, not only in the destruction of the wire-worm, 
 so injurious to the roots of grain, and to the fly which 
 preys upon the tender leaves of young turnips, and other 
 vegetables, in this country ; but likewise to the ants and 
 sugarcane borer, in the West Indies, and the Hessian 
 fly in America. 
 
 * Although- the good fffe&s of coal-tar, in repeated instances, have been mani- 
 fested, yet it is now entirely out of use for vessels bottoms or sheathing, on account 
 of the protettion it affords them from the attacks of the teredo or gribble worm, for 
 at least thrice the time which vegetable tar does. This has been the reason assigned 
 for its disuse by some of the most considerable and candid ship-builders and repairers 
 of ships in the River Thames, and other places in England. Vessels have been 
 known to perform six voyages to the West Indies with the same sheathing, when 
 payed with coal-tar. 
 
 DRAIN- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 141 
 
 DRAINING, 
 
 DRAINING of ground in the northern and humid 
 climate of Britain and Ireland is indispensably necessary, 
 and is the precursor to all culture and improvement of - 
 the soil. 
 
 The principal ojedl in draining, is to free the surface? 
 from moisture at those seasons when it would prove 
 hurtful. 
 
 Water constitutes the chief 'food of plants : it is decom- 
 posed in the process of vegetation, the plant retaining 
 the hydrogen or inflammable air, as \frell as the calca- 
 reous matter held in solution in the water, whilst the 
 oxygen or vital air, the other component part of water, - 
 is disengaged. 
 
 Certain degrees of cold prevent the absorption of 
 water by vegetables. Water, during the continuance of 
 such degrees of cold, is of no service ; its presence at 
 
 those 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 those times generally proves in inimical to the future 
 growth of plants. On this account, rain, during the cold 
 and chilling winter months, is injurious; whilst warm 
 summer showers are attended with a contrary effect: hence, 
 when vegetation is not advancing, or but slowly pro- 
 ceeding, the ground should be kept as dry as possible. 
 
 Considerable benefits ensue to certain soils by artifici- 
 ally watering the ground at certain seasons, yet much 
 greater, and more extensive advantages to the soil, and to 
 the agriculture of these kingdoms, would result by a 
 more complete and general drainage of the surface. 
 What is most important to be done, should ever be done 
 first, and the attention of the farmer should not be 
 called away to other objects, such as the irrigation of 
 meadows, until he had relieved his lands of the injurious 
 surface water, and laid them sufficiently dry ; previous to 
 which, the full benefit that may arise by irrigation, or 
 the judicious application of water at certain seasons, 
 cannot be expected. 
 
 The different mechanical operations of draining land are 
 in general so well understood, that it cannot be deemed 
 
 necessary 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 necessary to enter into a description of them, in a Trea- 
 tise which has principally in view such circumstances and 
 matters as have not hitherto, on chemical principles, 
 received satisfactory explanation. Under-draining at this 
 time is very deservedly in great estimation, and is becom- 
 ing the general practice. It saves much waste of ground, 
 more completely answers the intended purpose, is of 
 longer duration, and ultimately less expensive than any 
 other kind of draining. A method has lately been disco- 
 vered, and pratlised with success, by which, in many places> 
 the upper stratum is drained by the assistance of the mi- 
 neral strata beneath it, through which the water is made to 
 drop, and in this manner taken from the surface. Drain- 
 ing is not only to be accomplished by these judicious 
 methods, and by open drains, but lands are to be made 
 dry by such a mechanical alteration in the component 
 parts of the soil as render it less retentive of moisture. 
 In stiff lands this may be effected by lime, chalk, marl, 
 coal-ashes, brick-dust, or calcined clay, and by sand, 
 when applied in large quantities, whilst the too great 
 tendency in sandy or light soils to part with moisture is 
 to be corrected by other applications. 
 
 FAL- 
 
A TREATISE OK THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 FALLOWING. 
 
 IT has been frequently noticed in the preceding pages, 
 
 that alkaline salts -act more powerfully on some kinds of 
 
 peat and inert vegetable matters than on others, particularly 
 
 on those which become oxygenated by being exposed to 
 
 the aftion of air. ' This points out, that the practice of 
 
 fallowing ground containing much vegetable matter, by 
 
 repeatedly exposing fresh surfaces to the action of the 
 
 .air, occasions the peat, or vegetable matter, to be more 
 
 -easily dissolved, or acted upon by alkaline salts; but 
 
 when no such application is made, the insolubility of the 
 
 -vegetable matter is by fallowing increased, which, to 
 
 certain grounds, may prove, instead of a benefit, a real 
 
 injury* 
 
 The putrefaction or .solution of vegetable substances 
 is more readily promoted by a close or stagnated state of 
 the air, than by a constant supply and addition of oxy- 
 gen or pure air, as happens to vegetable substances w r hen 
 subjected to .the operation of fallowing. 
 
 Glover, 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Clover, saint foin, cabbages, turnips, leguminous crops, 
 hemp, and those plants which overshadow the ground, 
 and cause a stagnation of air, prevent thereby the ex- 
 cessive exhalation of moisture, and promote the putre- 
 faction or decomposition of vegetable matters contained 
 in the soil : such crops will therefore prove more cecono- 
 mical and beneficial to subsequent crops, than the present 
 system of fallowing. 
 
 By fallowing, not only one year's rent and labour are 
 lost, but likewise the vegetable matter contained iri the soil 
 is thereby rendered less fit to promote the growth of sub- 
 sequent crops. Fallowing should be practised but spar- 
 ingly; its principal use is in altering the mechanical 
 
 i 
 arrangement of the soil, either by pulverising it, or 
 
 making it more compact, (both of which effects, according 
 to circumstances, are thereby produced) and in destroying 
 root, seed weeds, or insects. These objects being attained, 
 recourse should never be had to the same operation, unless 
 it becomes requisite from the failure of crops, or other 
 incidental causes, which are best provided against by sub- 
 stituting the culture of drill crops instead of a fallow. 
 
 To 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 To oils which contain much inert vegetable matter, 
 it is probable that advantages would be derived from 
 umbrageous green crops without fallowing, equal to 
 those experienced, when hemp is made to precede 
 a crop of wheat ; without which preparation this crop 
 would not have answered the expeftation of the far- 
 mer. 
 
 It is therefore obvious, if ground receives benefit 
 by being overshadowed, the same ground must re- 
 ceive injury by a direct contrary mode of treat- 
 ment. 
 
 PARING' 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 147 
 
 PARING AND BURNING 
 
 Is a comburatory dissipating process, whereby nine- 
 teen parts out of twenty of the vegetable matter, the 
 only substance the fire can act upon, is dissipated and 
 thrown into the air. 
 
 This process, no doubt, from its having been carried 
 to excess, and so often repeated as to destroy all the ve- 
 getable matter contained in the soil, has, it is said, been 
 prohibited by the Legislature of Ireland, under a penalty 
 of ten pounds per acre. 
 
 Moors overgrown with ling or heath, peaty soils, or 
 soils covered with a sward of coarse ^unprofitable her- 
 bage, and containing a superabundance of vegetable 
 matter, may, with due precaution, be subjected to this 
 process with very beneficial effects. It may likewise be 
 attended with advantages to strong clayey soils, from the 
 effect that burned, or half burned clay has in rendering 
 .such soils more open and less tenacious ; in which case 
 
 T 2 the 
 
I4 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 the benefit arising from the mechanical arrangement of 
 the soil will probably more than compensate for the dis- 
 sipation of the vegetable matter of the sward. It would, 
 however, be more ceconomical, when the soil is thus in- 
 tended to be made more open, to calcine the clay in 
 
 x" 
 
 clamps or kilns, and to spread it afterwards on the ground, 
 either by itself or mixed with lime. 
 
 Paring and burning is the process, which, in the cul- 
 tivation of peat mosses and fens, is made to succeed that 
 of draining. Care should be had to burn only as much 
 of the peat as will yield the proportion of ashes neces- 
 sary to alter the arrangement of the parts of the soil : 
 an efFeft which, with still more advantageous c<5nse- 
 quences, is to be attained by lime, lime-stone gravel, or 
 even by common mould or soil. 
 
 It is only from the ashes of fresh or growing vegeta- 
 bles, that saline substances or alkaline salts are to be 
 obtained ; none can be got from peat or decayed vegeta- 
 ble matter. The proportion of alkaline, or other salts$ 
 produced by paring and burning, is so very small, that 
 were the benefits immediately resulting from paring and 
 
 burning 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 burning to be ascribed solely to these salts, the purchase 
 of them at the market price might, perhaps, be more 
 ceconomicaL 
 
 The saline matter produced in the process of paring 
 and burning, for the most part consists of vitriolated 
 tartar the alkali of the burnt vegetables, combining with 
 the vitriolic acid, which in different states of combination 
 is contained in most soils. Vitriolated tartar has very'pow- 
 erful effects in promoting vegetation; but as it is not to 
 be procured in sufficient quantities to answer the pur- 
 poses of agriculture, the deficiency is to be supplied by 
 Epsom and Glauber salts, which produce effects equally 
 beneficial when applied to ground. 
 
 Although paring and burning has by many persons 
 been much recommended, still it requires great limita- 
 tions or restrictions. In some cases it may be proper; 
 while, in the hands of the unskilful, it may be attended 
 with the most pernicious consequences. 
 
 If all the benefit that can be derived by this practice, 
 may hereafter be attained by the application of lime, al- 
 kaline 
 
150 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 kaline salts, neutral salts, &c. &;c. without risk of any 
 of the attendant disadvantages on the process of paring 
 and burning, a decided preference of course will be due 
 to methods that render this practice less necessary. 
 
 THE simple earths, air, water, saline bodies, vegetable 
 substances, 8cc. &:c. having thus been considered, as far 
 as the properties of each relate to the present design, 
 it is now become necessary, previously to any further 
 discussion respecting the practical part, to give such di- 
 rections to the cultivators of the soil, as may enable them 
 to ascertain the nature and proportions which the com- 
 ponent parts of it bear to each other ; and consequently 
 the value of the surface rnould contained in the diffe- 
 rent parts of their farms or estates ; and how, by this 
 information, they may be enabled to apply with most 
 advantage the several ameliorating substances herein re- 
 commended. 
 
 It has not been, nor would it be possible to avoid mak- 
 ing use of chemical terms, consistently with the plan of 
 
 a work 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 a work, which has for its object the making every far- 
 mer, to a certain extent, a chemist, so that he may be 
 enabled to understand the nature and properties of the 
 several substances, in the management of which he is 
 daily engaged ; and that in all his future attempts to im- 
 prove the soil, the success of his operations may no 
 longer depend on guess-work, or on chance, but be 
 regulated by a proper knowledge of the materials he 
 may have to work with how each may best be applied, 
 or acted upon, and what effects will ensue from their 
 different combinations. 
 
 Cultivators of the soil should be able to distinguish, 
 by chemical tests, the proportion of the following sub- 
 stances in different soils, viz* 
 
 Clay,, 
 
 Chalk, 
 
 Sand, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Earth of iron, and 
 
 Vegetable matter. 
 
 They 
 
They should understand the properties and effects, and 
 superior affinities of alkalis and acids; as well as the 
 names, properties, and compounded eleclrive attractions 
 attendant on the mixture of the different neutral salts, 
 and their effects on vegetation. They should be well ac- 
 quainted with the powers of lime, and should clearly and 
 ^distinctly comprehend the putrefactive and oxygenating 
 ^processes; as well as the consequences resulting from the 
 action of fire on the vegetable matter contained in the 
 
 soil. 
 
 
 
 The first step that a cultivator of the ground should 
 take, when possessed of the above information, is to 
 ascertain by experiments, in what proportions chalk, 
 clay, sand, magnesia, and vegetable matter exist in 
 the soil, in the different parts of the farm he purposes to 
 cultivate ; in order that he may, from such information, 
 be enabled to administer t each part those particular 
 substances that it may require, to constitute it rich 
 ; and fertile mould. A soil of this description ought 
 to contain a due proportion of the simple earths, 
 and of the remains of vegetable and animal bodies, 
 To enable him to make the requisite experiments, 
 
 he 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 he should procure the following articles and ves- 
 sels : 
 
 Two se*s of small scales and weights, one to weigh a few 
 pounds at a time, and another smaller and more accurate, 
 for ounces and grains : some porcelaine glass, or stone- 
 ware vessels ungiazea, such as are called Vajixhall ware : 
 some muriatic acid, and mineral alkaline salt. These being 
 provided,^:he method of proceeding to ascertain the dif- 
 ferent proportions of the different substances in soils, is 
 as follows : 
 
 The presence of calcareous mattter is ascertained, by 
 applying to the mould suspected to contain it, some 
 marine acid diluted with water. If it contain calcareous 
 matter^ an effervescence will take place, and a neutral salt, 
 called muriat of lime, will be formed. This is to be sepa- 
 jated from the earthy insoluble matter, by a due propor- 
 tion of water, and is to be evaporated to a certain degree. 
 Lastly, the calcareous matter is to be precipitated by mild 
 mineral alkaline salt. When the calcareous matter thus 
 precipitated shall be collected, washed, dryed, and weighed, 
 the quantity contained in the soil will be ascertained by 
 
 u the 
 
154 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 4p 
 
 the proportion it may bear to the weight of the dry mould 
 pn which the experiment had been made. 
 
 The same process and the same acid will serve to show 
 if magnesia be contained, and the proportion it may 
 bear to the soil. Magnesia is not in general found in any 
 very great proportion in surface mould, although there 
 is more of it contained in ground than is generally ima- 
 gined, It will, for the most part r be found accompanied 
 by calcareous matter ; and as both these substances, when 
 dissolved by the marine acid, are very soluble, and blend- 
 ed together, a separation is to be effected by the follow- 
 ing process.. 
 
 The earths of magnesia and calcareous matter are to 
 be precipitated by mild mineral alkaline salt. The pre- 
 cipitate, or earthy residuum, when washed, is to be dis- 
 solved by a due proportion of the vitriolic acid diluted 
 with water. With the calcareous matter it will form 
 gypsum, (a very insoluble salt) whilst with the magnesia 
 it will form Epsom salt, a salt of great solubility. These 
 salts are to be separated by priority of chrystallization, 
 and their respective weights being ascertained, when 
 
 deprived 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 deprived of the water of chrystallization, and brought to 
 
 an equal degree of dryness, the quantity of calcareous 
 matter and magnesia in each may be ascertained by BERG- 
 MAN'S or KIRWAN-S tables of the proportion of acid, al- 
 kali, earth, and water contained in different neutral salts. 
 To those who are not provided with such tables, it may 
 suffice to say, that 
 
 Acid Cakar. Matter Water 
 TOO parts of gypsum contain 48 34 18 
 
 Acid Magnesia Water 
 
 100 parts of Epsom salt contain 33 19 48 
 
 As both clay and sand, in different proportions con- 
 stituting either a clayey or sandy soil, are distinguishable 
 by the sight and touch, there is no occasion for giving 
 any chemical test, to prove their presence. The pro- 
 portion of the coarser parts of siliceous matter or sand, 
 in soils or mould, may be ascertained by washing. 
 
 The presence of vegetable or carbonaceous matter in sur- 
 face mould, when in any considerable proportion, is ap- 
 parent, either from its black colour, or from the vege- 
 
 u 2 table 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 table matter, appearing in the soil in an undecayed state. 
 Chemical tests, in either of these cases, are unneces- 
 sary. When it may be requisite, however, to ascertain 
 the presence or proportion of it in clayey or other 
 soils, in which, from colour or extreme division of parts, 
 it is less apparent, it is to be done in one or other of the 
 following methods : 
 
 By properly drying and weighing a certain weight of 
 mould, and then submitting it to such a degree of heat 
 .as will consume the vegetable or carbonaceous matter to 
 ashes : at the same time, the heat must not be such as 
 will disengage the fixable air from any calcareous matter 
 or magnesia that may be contained in the mould or 
 soil submitted to trial. The difference in weight between 
 the dry mould, and that which is thus submitted to the 
 action of fire, will be the proportion of vegetable or 
 carbonaceous matter. 
 
 It is likewise to be done by melting some salt-petre in 
 an iron laddie, bringing the salt-petre to a red fusion, 
 and then dropping into it, by little and little at a time, 
 the earthy matter, taking care previously to dry it 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 thoroughly. The dropping in of the dried mould should 
 be continued until the complete deflagration of the salt- 
 petre is effected. 
 
 The practical observation to be deduced from the above 
 experiment, is, that the soil or mould which contains the 
 most vegetable or carbonaceous matter will deflagrate 
 the greatest quantity of salt-petre ; or, in other words, 
 that it will require less mould to deflagrate a given 
 weight of salt-petre, in proportion as that mould contains 
 a greater proportion of inflammable matter* 
 
 ; * . '. 
 
 The presence and proportion of vegetable and inflam- 
 mable matters in clay may, in some degree, be proved 
 and ascertained by the degree of blackness in the colour, 
 which the interior parts of the clay assume, when sub- 
 jected in the fire to a certain degree of heat. 
 
 The existence and proportion of most saline matters in 
 soils are to be discovered by lixiviation, with warm water, 
 and by subsequent chrystallization. 
 
 Gypsum is to be detected by boiling the earth with al- 
 kaline salts; in which case, the gypsum will be decompos- 
 ed, 
 
J5 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 <ed, and the vitriolic acid of the gypsum will join with the 
 mineral alkali, forming Glauber salt, which is very soluble. 
 The quantity of gypsum previously existing in the soil is 
 to be ascertained by weighing, when properly dried, the 
 calcareous matter which had been precipitated by the al- 
 kali ; and by adding thereto, in calculation, the propor- 
 tion of vitriolic acid necessary to constitute it gypsvim ; 
 having previously deducted therefrom the proportion of 
 fixable air which the precipitated chalk contains. The 
 proportion of fixable air and vitriolic acid contained in 
 chalk and in . gypsum are in the proportions as here 
 stated : 
 
 Fixahk Air Calcareous Matter 
 In chalk, 43 53 
 
 Vitriolic Acid Calcareous Matter 
 In gypsum; 48 34 
 
 The following is given as an example of the method 
 of making this calculation : 
 
 Residuum 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 
 
 Grains 
 
 Residuum of precipitated chalk, - - 480 
 
 Proportion contained therein of fixable air, 212 
 
 Calcareous matter, * fej 268 
 
 Proportion of vitriolic acid necessary to constitute 
 gypsum with the calcareovis matter, - - 354 
 
 Total quantity of gypsum, 
 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SOILS, 
 ARGILLACEOUS OR CLAYEY. 
 
 THERE is no clayey soil that is pure and free from 
 sand; and there are but few clays that are free from a 
 mixture of calcareous matter, magnesia, vegetable and 
 animal matters, mineral oil, tind other mineral or metal- 
 
 lic substances : some clays are of a much more unctuous, 
 and, as it were, greasy nature, than others. They do not 
 differ more in this respect, than they do in the appear- 
 
 ance they assume when submitted to a moderate degree 
 of heat. Those clays which are the most unctuous and 
 greasy to the touch, are by calcination changed to a black 
 
 ^colour. This must be owing either to their containing 
 animal or .vegetable matter, although previous to calci- 
 nation it escapes observation; or the inflammable matter 
 in the clay may exist in the state of .a colourless mineral 
 
 toil, adhering obstinately to the clay, and not capable of 
 being separated from it by water, with which oil can 
 hold no union; yet capable of being changed into a black 
 carbonaceous matter by the action of fire. A due mix- 
 of day serves the important purposes of retaining 
 
 in 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 161 
 
 in the soil the attenuated vegetable and animal substan- 
 
 jces, as also the mineral oil. Of this description are those 
 
 s 
 
 clays, or clayey loams, which have been deposited by the 
 
 sea or muddy streams, containing a considerable propor- 
 tion of the exuviae, or remains of animal and vegetable 
 bodies, in an extreme degree of attenuation. Such 
 soils as these are the most permanently fertile, and 
 where the climate is favourable, produce the heaviest 
 and best filled grain. Soils formed by depositure, for the 
 most part contain a sufficient quantity of calcareous 
 matter. Adding lime to such lands may prove injurious, 
 by its expending, taking up, or otherwise altering the 
 arrangement and combination of the animal and vegeta- 
 ble matters, which should carefully be preserved for suc- 
 ceeding crops. Under any circumstances, lime should be 
 given to such soils but sparingly. 
 
 There are clayey soils containing little or no animal, 
 vegetable, or bituminous matter, and which are equally 
 deficient of calcareous matter, consisting only of clay, sand, 
 and the earth of iron. To improve and render fertile a soil 
 of this description, is truly an herculean task, and will 
 seldom repay the industry of the cultivator, unless situ- 
 
 x ated 
 
ated in the neighbourhood of a town? where more dung 
 may be procured than can be spared from the farm in its 
 contiguity. A soil of this nature can receive little or no 
 benefit by the application of lime, as it contains nothing 
 for the lime to afl upon or combine with. When under 
 such circumstances, that dung, or such like manure, can- 
 not be procured, a preparation of peat, with the mode- 
 rate proportion of lime before directed, seems to be the 
 next best application. A soil of poor lean clay, such as 
 above described, will require eight tons of lime, and 
 forty-eight tons of peat, for one dressing. Doing things 
 partially can never answer : this quantity is the least that 
 ought to be applied; a much greater may be given, if the 
 articles can be cheaply and easily procured. In this the 
 farmer will be regulated, in a great measure, by his abi- 
 lity of doing, or extent of his capital. His primary object, 
 in this case, should be to promote the growth of pasture 
 grasses, because the soil at first will be in no heart to pro- 
 duce crops of grain ; and, secondly, because the promoting 
 the growth of such grasses, and judiciously depasturing 
 and folding, is the surest way of improving such lands. 
 After the grass has taken hold of the ground, and is be- 
 ginning to carry a tolerably thick sward, its thickness 
 
 and 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 and quality may be greatly improved by some one or 
 more of the top-dressings or preparations before recom- 
 mended. 
 
 There is a very great extent of poor clayey soil, simi- 
 lar to that which is here alluded to, in many parts of the 
 North of England and in Scotland, for the most part 
 lying at a considerable height above the level of the 
 sea, and frequently in the* vicinity of peat mosses, 
 whence it might be supplied with vegetable matter. 
 There are computed to be in the county of Lanark, or 
 Clydsdale, 40,000 acres of peat moss totally unimpoved, 
 producing nothing itself, nor contributing in any way to 
 the fertility of the adjacent poor lands, which are as des- 
 titute of vegetable matter, as the moss contains a super- 
 abundance. Mr. Ncesmith, the Agricultural Surveyor of 
 that County, judiciously makes a remark on the injurious 
 effects that such mosses may have on the climate of the 
 adjacent country. It requires a much longer time, and a 
 much greater application of dung and vegetable matters, 
 than would be generally believed, before poor lands of 
 this description can be rendered highly fertile, and made 
 in all respects similar to land that had been long, or for 
 
 x 2 ages 
 
1 64 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 ages under cultivation. Ten times the quantity of peat 
 or vegetable matter recommended to be given at once, or 
 480 tons, would scarcely bring poor barren land to the 
 colour of rich black mould, known in Scotland by the 
 name of Infield land, and to which, for ages, the dung of 
 the farm has been exclusively applied., 
 
 Experiments made with an intimate mixture of poor 
 lean clay and peat warrant this assertion ; here purposely 
 stated, that the over sanguine cultivator, or improver of 
 ground, may not imagine, that with a summer fallow, 
 and a dunging, or dressing or two, he may be enabled to 
 complete so arduous a task. Land is always requiring a 
 supply of manure^ and repays in general more abun- 
 dantly for the last expence, when brought to an advanced 
 state of cultivation, than- for that which at first is in- 
 curred. Both seed and labour are thereby saved, and 
 good crops, wkh much more certainty, are to be depended 
 
 Paring and burning the sward of some clayey soils- 
 may be practised with advantage, as the burnt clay wilt 
 diminish the stiffness of the soil, and render it more 
 
 pervious 
 
f 
 
 AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 pervious to water. This may be still more (Economically 
 effefted, and, in other respe&s, with less injury t& the 
 soil, by half burning the clay in clamps or in kilns. 
 A preference can only be given in situations where 
 fuel can at a cheap rate be procured for this purpose^ 
 
 SOILS, 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SOILS, 
 
 CALCAREOUS OR CHALKY. 
 
 A PURE unmixed chalky soil, like a pure or lean 
 .clayey one, is unfertile. The fertility of this soil, like all 
 others, depends on its containing a due admixture of 
 other earths, with the requisite quantity of vegetable or 
 animal matter. A chalky loam, or mixture of chalk 
 with clay, is frequently a very fertile soil, and well adapt- 
 ed to the culture of beans and wheat. 
 
 Chalky soils produce a short sweet herbage, and, for 
 
 the most part, are more proper for sheep pasture than 
 
 for tillage. There are no soils that receive more benefit 
 
 from artificial watering, as they are apt at certain seasons 
 
 to be parched by drought. Chalky soils that produce 
 
 short sweet herbage, should not in general be broken up, 
 
 or converted into arable lands, a practice which will be 
 
 attended with injury to the soil, and loss to the farmer, 
 
 unless they are cropped with moderation, well manured, 
 
 and afterwards properly laid down with pasture grasses. 
 
 Clay 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. I77 
 
 Clay is the fittest substance to be applied with a view to 
 
 alter the arrangement of the parts of a chalky soil. Peat 
 
 is a good application to soils of this nature, which are 
 
 frequently termed hungry soils, and very deficient in ve- 
 
 getable matter. And as a sufficiency of dung is not -to he 
 
 procured to manure fully every part of a farm, peat 
 
 may be applied in one or other of the states of prepa- 
 
 ration already mentioned. Unfortunately for the improve- 
 
 ment of chalky soils, neither clay nor peat is to be found 
 
 but at the extremities or outskirts of the extensive tra6t$ 
 
 of chalky countries : wherever they are to be had, the , 
 
 r 
 application of them should not be negle&ed. Calcareous 
 
 soils, which have long been under the plough, contain a 
 large proportion of phosphat and oxalat of lime. These 
 insoluble saline matters may be rendered serviceable to 
 vegetation by alkalis, vitriolic acid, vitriolic neutral salts> 
 (especially if superacidulated) and by pyrituous and 
 aluminous substances. Even green vitriol, which has hi- 
 therto been considered as unfriendly to vegetation, will, 
 when in a proper manner applied to soils like this, con- 
 siderably improve and promote the growth, of pasture 
 grasses. 
 
 It 
 
1 68 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 It is earnestly wished, that this season may not pass 
 over without a series of experiments, as above recom- 
 mended, being instituted by the intelligent farmers on 
 chalky soils, and that the result of them be communi- 
 cated to the Board of Agriculture, for the general infor- 
 mation of the country. 
 
 The principal disadvantage attending chalky soils, is 
 that of their being too dry and parched at certain sea- 
 sons; but possibly this defeft, when they are under pas- 
 ture, may be counter-balanced by the more early grass 
 they produce in the spring, as well as the luxuriant her- 
 bage that succeeds the autumnal rains. 
 
 These observations are offered with deference to the 
 opinion of others, who may have had more oppor- 
 tunities of making remarks on such soils, and of draw- 
 ing the necessary conclusions. 
 
 Chalky soils are peculiarly well adapted to the growth 
 of saint foin, especially when coal ashes can be had as an 
 article of manure. But as in most situations they are not 
 to be procured in sufficient quantities, and as it is probable 
 
 that 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 that such ashes owe their fertilizing powers to the vitri- 
 olic salts they contain, it may be a matter of prudence 
 and ceconomy to apply the salts themselves, as a few 
 hundred weights will suffice for an acre of ground. 
 
 By discoveries which have been made in preparing 
 these salts, they could be afforded at a cheap rate, were 
 the present high duties on sea salt, and the refuse liquor 
 of salt works, taken off, so far as might relate to --these 
 
 purposes. A regulation of such infinite consequence to 
 the improvement and more complete cultivation of the 
 lands in Britain, is of itself a sufficient apology for call- 
 ing the attention of the Legislature a second time to so im- 
 portant an object of relief and encouragement to the agri- 
 culture of these kingdoms. Should measures so essential 
 to the future prosperity of the country be disregarded, 
 the inhabitants of this Island ought not to be surprized if 
 France should hereafter take the lead in the cultivation 
 of the earth as she has lately done in other valuable im- 
 provements ; to effect which, the total abolition of the 
 gabelle, or duties on salt, has, or more properly speaking, 
 will give her agriculture great advantage over the rest of 
 Europe. 
 
 Y SANDY 
 
I 7 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SANDY SOIL. 
 
 THERE is no soil so naturally barren or unfruitful, 
 tmt that it may be ameliorated by the industry of man. 
 The very extensive improvements made on the barren 
 sands of Norfolk, prove the truth of this assertion ; the 
 present advanced state of these lands has been owing to 
 the consolidating of the surface by a due proportion of 
 clay, or of a marly clay, which generally is to be found 
 att no great distance from the surface. On this practice 
 (as it were) of making a soil, it is necessary to state, that 
 much less expence is incurred, and more benefit re- 
 ceived, by adding clay to a sandy soil, than adding sand 
 to a clayey soil. It would require, perhaps, from six to ten 
 times the quantity of sand to diminish the adhesion of 
 the latter, than it would require of clay to consolidate 
 the former. The great difference, in point of expence, 
 must be obvious. Sand added to a clayey soil, in a less 
 
 proportion than would produce the effeft required, 
 
 i 
 
 would be materially injurious to the staple ; because sand, 
 when thus applied, never fails, at certain seasons, to ren- 
 der the clayey soil more untra&able and unmanageable ; 
 
 for 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. I7 i 
 
 for which reason burned clay, or brick dust, has in pre- 
 ference been recommended, as an article to be added to 
 stiff clayey soils. There are some soils consisting almost 
 exclusively of sand and sea shells, which are astonishingly 
 fruitful ; small shells may therefore be used where clay 
 is not to be had, although it is very seldom that sand is 
 not accompanied by clay at a greater or less depth. In 
 situations, where the clay lies at too great a depth for 
 open work, and where props or pit timber are to be 
 procured at a cheap rate, it may be wrought by shafting 
 and under-ground mining. This idea is a novel one, but 
 in some situations it probably might be carried into exe- 
 cution with advantage. As shells consist of calcareous 
 matter, lime-rubbish, or eff'ette-Yim^ would, for the same 
 reason, be of service to sandy soils ; although lime opens 
 a stiff soil, it is found to have an opposite effeft on a 
 loose sandy soil : still there is not any application to suck 
 a soil, so proper or so fitted as marl, with the assistance 
 of proper dunging, in the rotation of the farm; care 
 being had not to injure such forced or artificial soils by 
 a too frequent and an improper use of the plough, the bad 
 effects of which are beginning to be felt in the County 
 of Norfolk. 
 
 Y2 IN- 
 
T72 , A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 OUTFIELD AND INFIELD LANDS. 
 
 THE arable land in Scotland formerly consisted of out- 
 field and infield. The infield, in the treatment it re- 
 ceived, and in its quality, resembles the inclosed culti- 
 vated lands in England ; while the outfield was similar 
 to the uninclosed common field lands in this country. 
 There is reason to believe that this distinction, prior to 
 the date of inclosures, was likewise general throughout 
 England. It is wearing out fast in Scotland, from the 
 same cause. 
 
 That part of the farm, called the outfield land, never 
 receives any manure. After taking from it two or three 
 crops of grain, it is left in the state it was in at reaping 
 the last crop, without sowing thereon grass-seeds, for 
 the production of any sort of herbage. During the first 
 two or three years, a sufficiency of grass to maintain a 
 couple of rabbits per acre is scarcely produced. In 
 the course of some years it acquires a sward, and after 
 having been depastured for some years more, it is again 
 
 sub- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 submitted to the same barbarous system of hus- 
 bandry. 
 
 The other division of the arable land consisted of the 
 infield or croft land, to which the whole dung produced 
 on' the farm was exclusively applied. By this mode of 
 treatment, these last mentioned lands were made fertile 
 at the expence of the others ; and by a repetition of this 
 practice for many centuries, a superabundance of vege- 
 table matter has therein been accumulated. Too great a 
 proportion of inert vegetable matter causes ground of 
 this description to be too loose and open for most kinds 
 of grain ; particularly for winter corn, which, by the 
 alternate changes from frost to thaw, and vice versa, is 
 liable either to be destroyed or spewed out of the 
 ground. 
 
 Black infield mould of this description, especially when 
 it contains a due proportion of calcareous matter, pro- 
 duces a rich and luxuriant herbage : it should therefore 
 be kept in a proper rotation of pasture and tillage, and 
 not in tillage alone, as is still the prevailing practice in 
 many parts of Scotland. 
 
 By 
 
I 7 4 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 By the dung, and still more so by the urine of cattle, 
 lands of this nature, after having been depastured 
 fora certain number of years, will be found to have 
 received considerable benefit, and to have become more 
 fitted for the production of crops of grain. This is prin- 
 cipally to be ascribed to the effect which the volatile 
 
 : alkali of the urine has, in dissolving a proportion of the 
 superabundant oxygenated inert vegetable matter <:on- 
 
 -tained in the soil. 
 
 "It has been stated in the preceding part of this Work, 
 -that stable-yard dung, by long keeping and exposure to 
 air, loses its saline fertilizing powers, and becomes in all 
 respects similar to peat. The same effect, in part, will take 
 place on stable-yard dung when applied to. ground. Un- 
 der the -article of Putrefaction it has been observed, that 
 the soluble and saline part of the dung bears but a small 
 proportion to what is insoluble. By the repeated dung- 
 ings, during so many centuries, there has been accumu- 
 lated in the infield lands of Scotland too large a propor- 
 tion of vegetable matter. This surplus, however, may, 
 H>y the judicious application of lime, alkalis, and other 
 -saline substances, be dissolved, and thus made to pro- 
 duce 
 
175 
 
 duce abundant crops of grass, hay, and corn; which 
 articles (from the superabundance of vegetable matter 
 the infield lands contain) should be returned in the 
 state of dung to the outfield lands, for the most part as 
 deficient of vegetable matter, as the infield lands contain 
 a superabundance. 
 
 From the example here adduced 'on the situation of 
 the infield lands in Scotland, as well as from facts and 
 chemical reasons, it must appear, that the alternate 
 application of dung, or vegetable composts, and saline 
 matters, to ground, is the most judicious method to pre- 
 serve the soil in a state of fertility, and to prevent too 
 great an accumulation of unproductive vegetable matter, 
 
 It has, in several instances been remarked, that infield 
 land, when under pasture, and not eaten down or suffi- 
 ciently cropped by cattle, (as sometimes happens on such 
 grounds) or when converted into plantations, ceases to 
 produce the same kind of grasses or herbage it would 
 have produced if it had remained under pasture; and 
 this is observed in young plantations, before the effe6l 
 produced, can be ascribed to the action of the trees in 
 
 over- 
 
I7 6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 over-shadowing the ground. Were an experiment on 
 some rich infield land made, by preventing it from being 
 cropped or eaten down by cattle for a certain number 
 of years, a thickness of some inches of turf or peat would 
 he superinduced ; and the land would not again be fitted 
 for .the production of grain, or sweet pasture grasses, 
 without paring and burning, or the application of lime 
 or saline substances, to act upon, or dissolve part of the 
 accumulated vegetable matter. Hence it is that ground 
 should contain only a certain proportion of vegetable 
 anatter to constitute it rich and fertile mould. 
 
 A considerable extent of ground, of this description, 
 .(formerly under a high state of cultivation) 'has been ob- 
 served in some of the southern Counties of Scotland, the 
 cultivation of which ground had probably been dis- 
 continued from -the frequent wars between the two 
 nations. 
 
 By fallowing, and the. application of lime, such a soil 
 may be made fit for. the production of grain. By deep 
 ploughing, .part . of the ,under-stratum, containing less 
 vegetable matter,. may be brought up and mixed with 
 
 the 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 177 
 
 the surface mould ; by which means not only the staple 
 will be deepened, but the soil will, by the admixture, be 
 rendered more compacl and close; whilst the spungy 
 inert vegetable matter contained therein will be decom- 
 posed, and brought into less volume by the action of the 
 lime. On these accounts, fallowing and liming consoli- 
 date a soil of this description, although they might at 
 first be considered to produce contrary effects* 
 
 Whilst these, or other operations, are going forward, 
 for the purpose of making the infield land give out 
 either in grass, hay, or corn, the surplus proportion 
 of vegetable matter, the farmer should apply the greater 
 part of the dung made on his farm to his outfield land, 
 abolishing, as far as may be, the distinction formerly made. 
 
 The former system of management, however much it may 
 now be disapproved of, and made a subject of reproach 
 to our ancestors, was nevertheless the only one suited ta 
 their means. At a remote period, there were neither a 
 sufficient number of men, horses, nor extent of capital, 
 in Scotland, to admit the adoption of a different system ;; 
 
 z and 
 
I7 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 and probably at a still more distant period, causes equally 
 efficient operated in England against improving the whole 
 of the surface. Our forefathers, therefore, acted more 
 wisely, by the application of the whole of the dung, to 
 bring part of the land into a high state of cultivation, 
 than if they had divided or applied it over the whole 
 extent of the farms they cultivated, whence little benefit 
 could have accrued to themselves or to posterity : where- 
 as, by .bringing certain portions only, into a high state of 
 fertility, a stock of materials has been accumulated, and 
 left for their descendants to work upon, capable of repay- 
 ing to the exhausted outfield lands, with abundant inte- 
 rest, the vegetable matters originally borrowed. 
 
 Poor lands, made highly fertile in former times, by 
 the addition of dung, vegetable, and animal mat- 
 'ters, have received such a mechanical arrangement 
 of their parts, as well as chemical qualities, that they 
 never .can return again to their original state. They 
 may, as far as the production of grain -is concern ed 9 
 be exhausted for a time by injudicious cropping; yet 
 .they will always produce grass when not overrun by 
 
 hurt- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 hurtful weeds, and will recover the power of producing 
 abundant crops of grain, by being for some years under 
 pasture. Soils of this description can never be completely 
 injured but by paring and burning, which would dissi- 
 pate and throw into the air the vegetable, animal, and 
 saline matters therein contained. 
 
i8o A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 PEAT MOSSES, FEfsTS, AND POOR BARREN LANDS 
 IN THEIR VICINITY. 
 
 THIS subject follows, with peculiar propriety, the de- 
 scription of infield and outfield lands ; and, as the diffe- 
 rence which subsists between these lands depends upon 
 the larger proportion of vegetable matter which the in- 
 field land contains, in a state very similar to that of peat, 
 it is obvious that peat mosses may be rendered of very 
 great utility in improving the poor barren lands, which 
 are generally found in their vicinity. 
 
 Peat, or vegetable matter, should be carried from the 
 peat moss to the poor soil, and the surface mould from 
 the poor soil to the peat moss. By these means two bene- 
 ficial purposes may at the same time be effected. The 
 quantity of such like, or other earthy matter necessary 
 to be added to a peat soil, to alter the mechanical arrange- 
 ment of its parts, is to be ascertained by proper trials ; 
 and, on the other hand, the quantity of peat requisite 
 to be applied to poor soils will be regulated by the quan- 
 
 tity 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. j8i 
 
 tity of vegetable matter which such soils may already 
 ^contain. 
 
 The most efficacious method of applying peat to poor 
 barren soils, is to mix it with the urine and dung of 
 cattle; on failure of these articles, with alkaline and 
 other salts ; and, lastly, with lime. 
 
 Experience can only determine the number of loads 
 or weight of these different preparations, which should 
 be given to an acre of ground. From such experiments 
 as have already been made with the preparation of alka- 
 line and some other salts, there is reason to believe that 
 the quantity necessary to be given at one time would not 
 exceed that of a proper dunging, and that equally bene- 
 ficial effects would be produced. 
 
 If this, on general experience, should be proved, the 
 peat mosses in Great Britain and Ireland will not only af- 
 ford an inexhaustible supply of manure for the poor 
 lands in their vicinity, but may themselves, by the 
 application of alkaline and other salts, be brought to the 
 highest state of fertility. 
 
 Peat 
 
182. A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 Peat soils, which acquire an undtuous rich clammi- 
 ness, by the application and a6tion of dung, urine, al- 
 kaline salts, &:c. in partly dissolving the peat, are the 
 fittest of all soils for the growth of hemp. The culture 
 of this plant would be a source of employment to the in- 
 habitants in the winter, in preparing the hemp for 
 market, when prevented by frost and bad weather from 
 working without doors ; and would furnish an internal 
 or home supply of an article so indispensably necessary 
 to a maritime state. 
 
 The cultivation.of hemp * on peat mosses thus improved, 
 'Would be found to be an excellent preparation for wheat. 
 
 Peat mosses and fens have, hitherto, generally been 
 considered either as nuisances, when in an unimproved 
 state, or as soils of the greatest fertility, when cultivated. 
 These different states regard only the peat moss or fen 
 itself, and have no reference to any consequences that 
 might arise by the application of peat, or of any prepa- 
 ration of it to the neighbouring lands. But as peat has 
 
 been 
 
 * Were hemp cultivated on an extensive scale in this country, the expressed 
 oil from its seed might advantageously be applied to the manufacture of soap, of 
 a superior quality to that which is now made of tallow ; for which purpose 
 large quantities are annually imported from Russia, and other countries. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 183 
 
 been discovered to be capable of being converted into the 
 most valuable of all manures, the importance of the 
 peat mosses in Great Britain and Ireland cannot, there- 
 fore, be too much impressed on the minds of the laud- ' 
 owners and occupiers of these countries. 
 
 From experiments made with alkaline salts and peat, 
 it can be asserted, that the effects of such mixture, weight 
 for weight, are equal, if not superior to those of dung. 
 "The usual quantity of dung given to an acre of ground, 
 -when it is intended to manure it effectually, is about 
 eighteen tons. This it may, perhaps, receive once in five 
 
 years. It will require a farm to be well managed, and in 
 
 i. 
 
 high cultivation, to admit of one-fifth of it to be annu- 
 ally so manured. 
 
 The best cultivated land, by the return of its own ma- 
 nure, unless when a quantity of vegetable matter has 
 been accumulated, as described under the article of In- 
 .field Land, can do no more than keep itself in hearf: 
 -t>f course, nothing can be spared for the amelioration or 
 improvement of poor or waste lands. The rendering the 
 inert vegetable matter of peat mosses and fens service- 
 able to this purpose, though effe&ed at a greater expence 
 
 than 
 
184 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 than is at present incurred by any application or dressing 
 to ground, could not fail to answer the expectation of the 
 farmer, and must be considered as one of the most va- 
 luable improvements that has hitherto occurred in the 
 annals of husbandry.. 
 
 The primary step towards improving a peat moss, is- 
 to take off by proper channels the great feeder of water... 
 This is to be effected by conducing one or more princi- 
 pal drains through the moss, and by water courses on the 
 solid or dry land, immediately above the level of the 
 moss, so that it shall not be inundated by the surface 
 water or springs of the surrounding higher lands, and* 
 shall afterwards only require to be freed from the water 
 that shall fall on its superficies. This being accomplished, . 
 the intermediate parts of the bog should be drained, 
 partly by open and partly by covered drains ; care being 
 taken, that they are not made so deep as to lay the moss 
 or bog too dry ; by which the peat, becoming oxygenated^ 
 and thence insoluble, would be incapable of yielding food 
 to vegetables. By the opposite extreme, unprofitable 
 
 ^^j. 
 
 grasses and aquatic vegetables are produced. It is there- 
 fore an objedt.of great importance, in effecting the drain- 
 age,, 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 185 
 
 age, to preserve a full command of the water, that it 
 may be regulated at pleasure. 
 
 Should a moss or bog be so circumstanced, as to ad- 
 mit of its being drained through a country which might 
 be improved by a supply of vegetable matter, it would 
 be prudent, previously to making the great or leading 
 drains through the adjacent country or moss, to concert 
 measures for making a proper communication by a ca- 
 nal, so that the remote lands might be supplied with 
 peat from the moss, and the moss supplied with Hme, 
 marl, clay, earth, sand, shells, and other materials, from 
 the distant country. 
 
 X 
 4. .' 
 
 As shell-marl is frequently found tinder peat mosses, 
 they should be bored in different places, to ascertain if 
 they possess this valuable substance ; or if they contain 
 tinder the moss a rich clay or limestone gravel: for, in 
 the event of these being found at a moderate depth, the 
 moss or bog may be improved at a much less expence, 
 as the distant carriage of these necessary articles, and 
 the difficulty of carting and laying them on so loose and 
 spungy a surface, would thereby be diminished. 
 
 A a The 
 
I&6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 The burning a part of the upper surface may, in some 
 cases, be requisite, to afford* when it is otherwise too dif- 
 ficult to be procured, a due proportion of earthy matter. 
 Peat ashes will, in such cases, act in making a different 
 mechanical arrangement in the soil : but, near the sides 
 of the bogs where surface mould is to be had, a prefe- 
 rence should be given to it.. 
 
 The alteration in the mechanical arrangement of the 
 soil being effected, the next object is the application of 
 such substances as will bring the peat, or inert vegetable 
 matter, into aclion, These substances are lime and alka- 
 line salts, which contribute in different ways to the pro- 
 posed improvement. 
 
 Improved peat mosses, bogs, or reclaimed fen lands> 
 are the soils the most productive of luxuriant vegetation, 
 although from this cause they do not in general yield, 
 in this northern and humid climate, heavy and well filled 
 grain. Such soils should be principally dedicated to pas- 
 ture, and should only be ploughed when, notwithstand- 
 ing the utmost endeavours, the ground produces coarse 
 or rank grass ; but this is in a great measure, or perhaps 
 
 entirely,. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 entirely, to be prevented by due attention to the follow- 
 ing directions : 
 
 To keeping the water in the ditches at a proper level : 
 
 
 
 To stocking the ground with a due proportion of neat 
 cattle, sheep, and horses ; as the one animal will eat the 
 grass which springs up from the dung of the other, 
 and which otherwise would produce tufts of coarse 
 grass : 
 
 To folding of cattle on different parts of each field : 
 To using of heavy rollers : 
 
 To top-dressings of alkaline salts, and other saline 
 substances ; and also to top-dressings of lime, either by 
 itself, or when mixed with peat or fen mould. 
 
 The pasture should always be eaten quite close before 
 winter, excepting such portions of it as are intended for 
 winter food, which likewise should be eaten close off, 
 before the spring vegetation commences: after which 
 
 A a 2 time, 
 
A'TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 time, it should not be depastured until the grass be- 
 sufficiently advanced to allow of a good bite. As all plants^ 
 receive nourishment two^ ways, by their stems and leaves 
 as well as by their roots, the growth of young vegetables 
 must necessarily be much retarded, when deprived, by 
 being constantly eaten down, of one of their sources of 
 subsistence- 
 
 As the consolidating the soil of peat mosses Is an objeft 
 of the first consideration, It is obvious, both on chemical 
 and mechanical, principles, that much cropping, and the 
 consequent exposure of fresh surfaces to the action of air, 
 are improper : and that after a few crops are obtained, the 
 ground should be laid down with meadowgrasses and white 
 clover, and depastured with as much stock as it will carry. 
 By these means, not only the soil will be consolidated and 
 compressed, and particular grasses or herbage promoted 
 according to the cattle so depastured, but the urine andi 
 dung of the cattle, by carefully folding them,, will be laid 
 on in such quantities, as will perform rapidly, and at once, ; 
 the effect required ;. whereas, if the same quantity were 
 divided over fifty or a hundred times the surface so folded 
 upon, its operation would scarcely be perceptible, and the: 
 
 application 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 
 
 application of each year's manure so subdivided, would 
 either be washed away, or its beneficial effefts lost, before 
 the further quantity necessary could, in a series of fifty 
 of a hundred years, be added to it. Hence a system of 
 under-dunging, or manuring land, may be said to be 
 nearly equal to no dunging at all : on which account the 
 preference, with great reason, has been given, under all 
 circumstances, to the ancient mode of cultivating the in- 
 field lands of Scotland, 
 
 Folding in a proper manner, is particularly recom- 
 mended for fen lands and peat mosses, as the immediate 
 effect: produced by urine, is that of dissolving into muci- 
 laginous saponaceous matter the oxygenated peat. Indeed* 
 in all businesses, it is well known, that what is once well 
 done is not to do again. By this judicious mode of pro- 
 ceeding, the chemical qualities and mechanical arrange- 
 ment of the soil are so altered, that, without the grossest 
 mismanagement, it is impossible it should return again 
 to its former unproductive state. If this be properly at- 
 tended to, the pasture will never grow coarse, or require 
 breaking up, but will continue to improve the longer it 
 is suffered to remain in that state. There are other rea- 
 sons 
 
190 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 sons for continuing such lands in pasture, viz, the diffi- 
 culty, from the softness of the soil, of conveying dung 
 from the farm-yard to the fields ; and likewise the ten- 
 dency which such soils have, by exposure to air, to be- 
 come oxygenated, and consequently incapable of yielding 
 the food requisite for the support of vegetables. 
 
 In the mode of stocking such pastures, it is further 
 recommended to keep the fat, the half fed cattle, and 
 the lean or young stock, in different inclosures, as is the 
 praClice in Ireland, and where grazing is well understood 
 in England. The fat cattle should only top the grass, the 
 half fed 'should succeed those, and lastly, the lean or 
 store cattle should follow on the same pasture, and eat 
 the herbage close down ; repeating this practice as often 
 zs the fresh growth of grass will permit. 
 
 DRAIN- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY* 
 
 DRAINAGE OF THE FENS. 
 
 THE loss sustained by individuals and by the public, 
 from the late breaking of the banks, and consequent 
 inundation of the cultivated fens in Cambridgeshire and 
 other Counties, necessarily calls the attention of the pro- 
 prietors of fen estates, and the Legislature of this coun- 
 try, to a more judicious and complete system of general 
 drainage of that great level. The late destruction of the 
 banks, and loss sustained, may probably be the means of 
 uniting, in one natural and judicious plan for their mutual 
 advantage, the hitherto distinct and opposite interests of 
 individuals and of neighbouring communities. This is 
 most likely to be accomplished by adopting the method 
 of drainage recommended in the Appendix to the very 
 able Report of the Agricultural Survey of the County of 
 Cambridge ; by which plan there is reason to believe that 
 the fens might be wholly, instead of being partially, 
 drained : an objeft of too great importance to be over- 
 looked, or to be thwarted by the confined or mistaken 
 plans of any class of men, or the interested motives of 
 
 any 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 any particular place or borough, with a view to make 
 such place, or borough, the mouth or outlet, and conse- 
 quently the shipping port to the fens so drained. To 
 such objects, the general interest of the many, and the 
 nation in general, are too frequently sacrificed. It is 
 not those who propose the best plan of a general drain- 
 age, line, and direction of a canal, or rendering a river 
 or rivers navigable, who carry their point; but it is those 
 who can procure most friends in the two Houses of Par- 
 liament. Many judicious plans of canals, and of render- 
 ing rivers navigable, have been rejected, and the inte- 
 rest of proprietors of an established ditch of a canal> 
 has been allowed, to prevent the cutti.ag of canals of 
 much more general utility and importance. 
 
 The late accidents which have happened to the fens, 
 by the breaking of the banks, should lead to an impartial 
 survey, and consideration of the most judicious method 
 of draining this valuable country at the lowest possible 
 level, so as to avoid the raising of the water, as has hi- 
 therto been the case, to a much higher level than is said 
 Q be necessary. 
 
 On 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 193 
 
 On this subject it is proper to remark, that exclusively 
 of the main central drain, or drains, carried at the lowest 
 ..level, and according to the natural and old established 
 course of the waters, sufficient drains or water courses 
 should be made to skirt or surround the wjaole of the 
 fens cut on the dry or solid land above their level. It is 
 obvious, that by thus guarding the fens from their great 
 and principal feeders which come from the upland coun- 
 try r there would then require to be drained, or to be 
 raked from the fens, only that proportion of water which 
 may fall on their superfices. The Agricultural Surveyor 
 of Cambridgeshire seems to be of opinion, that the gene- 
 ral bed of the fens is sufficiently elevated above the level 
 of the sea to drain itself. This fa6l is of too impertan ta 
 nature not to be fully and minutely inquired into, as in 
 the event of its being established, not only the fens lately 
 under cultivation, and now drowned, might in future be 
 .more securely and effectually drained, but an addition of 
 150,000 acres of undrained and unreclaimed fen land, 
 in the County of Cambridge alone, would accrue to the 
 agriculture, or the cultivation of this country. Should 
 the fens not be capable of being drained completely 
 .by any sea level, and that the water .should require 
 
 B b to 
 
194 A TREATISE ON* THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 to be raised, the most judicious method of proceed- 
 ing would be still to conduct the water to the lowest 
 level, and which will be found to be Nearest to the sea,, 
 and then by a sufficient number of windmills, or other 
 engines, to lift it over the great sea bank. Some well 
 constructed fire engines would at certain times be of ma- 
 terial service to the drainage. 
 
 Fire engines employed in the accomplishment of & 
 great and national object, should be exempted from duty 
 on the coal required to work them. The expence of 
 fuel might still farther be diminished, by making use of 
 the refuse small coal made at Newcastle in working the 
 larger and more valuable sorts. This refuse coal may 
 there be had at two shillings and three-pence per London 
 ehaldron of thirty-six Winchester bushels, and of which, 
 about 100,000 such chaldrons are annually brought 
 from the pits for the purpose of clearing the under- 
 ground workings, and are allowed to decay, and perish on- 
 bank. Were this quantity of refuse coal allowed to be 
 applied, duty free y to such like, or to other important 
 national, objects, many beneficial consequences would 
 thence arise ; the public revenue could not suffer by ex- 
 empting; 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 195 
 
 erupting this at present waste or refuse article from 
 duty for the working of fire engines, or the burning of 
 lime ; still any limited or partial exemption from so in- 
 judicious a tax as that on water borne coals, would be far 
 short of the advantages, which, by a total repeal of the 
 duties, would ensue to agriculture, manufactures, mines, 
 machinery, navigation, or extent of shipping, and the 
 health and comforts of the great body of the people in 
 this humid and northern climate. An exclusive duty 
 on coals carried coastways, may be deemed a prohibition 
 to the rearing of seamen, and a bounty on the breeding of 
 horses. It is truly astonishing that so glaring an absurdity 
 has not hitherto been co rrefted. The late requsitions, and 
 very strong but necessary steps taken by Government^ to 
 procure seamen to defend our Island from foreign in- 
 vasion, show whether it is to horses or to seamen we 
 are now to be indebted for our Defence. In Scotland, 
 the duty on coals is repealed, and an additional duty on 
 spirits substituted in its stead. In this respect, the in- 
 habitants of South Britain would do well to promote a 
 similar plan of commutation. 
 
 B b 2 The 
 
T96 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION (OF- 
 
 The draining, inclosing-, and properly cultivating the 
 fens and peat mosses in Britain, would, by rearing and 
 feeding a greater number of cattle of all descriptions^ 
 allow a greater proportion of the higher and drier lands 
 to be kept in tillage; whence would be produced a 
 greater quantity of grain and animal food. The present 
 inhabitants of Great Britain would be more reasonably 
 and plentifully fed and cloathed, and a considerable 
 surplus would be left either for exportation, or for the 
 maintenance of an augmented number of people. 
 
 Population would increase as plenty is secured. The 
 additional produce of the earth would not only feed a 
 greater-number of inhabitants, but would provide them 
 ^with constant employment in the manufacturing of 
 wool, hides, hemp, and flax, the internal productions 
 of our own 1 Island, instead of relying upon a precarious 
 supply of some of these necessary articles from foreign 
 States; and lastly, emigration, the' constant attendant on scar- 
 would, no longer- rob- these kingdoms of their only defence. 
 
 WEST 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 
 
 WEST INDIA ISLANDS; 
 
 BENEFIT TO THE CULTURE OF THE ISLANDS FROM A DUE 
 ATTENTION TO THE OXYGENATION OF VEGETABLE 
 MATTER, AND THE SUBSEQUENT SOLUTION OF IT, BY 
 ALKALIS AND OTHER SALINE BODIES. 
 
 THESE Islands, when first known, were covered 
 with wood j the lands have since been cleared, and the 
 soil has- been brought under the culture of the sugar* 
 cane, indigo, and cotton. The crops of sugar, for many 
 years, after clearing and cultivating the ground, were 
 very great. At length, by repeatedly cropping and ex- 
 hausting the soil, the planters are now under the 
 necessity either of manuring for sugar crops, or of 
 substituting others of a less exhausting nature for a 
 certain number of years, until the ground shall recover. 
 The very abundant crops of sugar at first produced, were 
 undoubtedly owing to the accumulation of vegetable 
 matter, in consequence of the Islands having been co- 
 vered with wood for many centuries previous to th,eir 
 ' settlement and cultivation .. 
 
 The 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION. OF 
 
 There can be no doubt that the vegetable matter 
 in a small part only been expended in producing those 
 abundant crops, and that by far the greater part has 
 become oxygenated and insoluble by the exposure of 
 renewed surfaces to the aclion of the atmospheric air, in 
 consequence of the frequent stirrings and boeings which the 
 ground has received. 
 
 No soil can, in any climate, continue to produce in abun- 
 dance, sugar, grain, or other exhausting crops, without 
 receiving back in return such a proportion of vegetable 
 matter, in the state of dung or otherwise, as would be 
 equal to the weight of the vegetable matter afforded by 
 the soil to each crop. By this, it is not meant, nor would 
 it be possible, that there should annually be returned to the 
 ground as great a weight of vegetable matter as shall be 
 qual to the weight of the preceding crop, it being only 
 necessary to return as much as would be equal to the 
 proportion of the vegetable matter furnished by the soil. 
 
 By much the greater part of the vegetable matter now 
 existing or remaining on the surface of the earth is in- 
 debted to the aery form fluids or gasses, and to the de- 
 
 compo- 
 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 composition of water in the process of vegetation, for 
 the matter of which it principally consists. To these two 
 causes the accumulation of vegetable matter on the surface 
 of the earth is principally to be ascribed. It would not be 
 an easy task to ascertain the different proportions of the 
 food of plants supplied from the soil, or from the air, and 
 the decomposition of water. It must be admitted, that the 
 constituent principles of the vegetable substances con- 
 tained in ground long under cultivation, have, in a great 
 measure, been supplied to such vegetables, when growing* 
 by air and water. This must be evident from the large 
 proportion of vegetable and animal matter (under all states 
 or systems of cultivation or cropping) annually takea 
 from the soil, consisting of grain, or animal sub- 
 stances, such as flesh, milk, butter, and cheese; the 
 dung and urine of cattle dropped on the roads, (where 
 it is totally lost) and the large proportion of the food 
 of animals, thrown off by insensible perspiration and 
 breathing: to all which must be added the quantity 
 of extractive soluble matter annually washed away by the 
 rains, and carried into the sea. - Had not the benevolent 
 Creator of all things established processes for supplying 
 sucli an unavoidable waste of veetable or other matters 
 
 , 
 
 the 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECf ION < 
 
 the surface or soil of all countries would, in process of 
 time, have become barren and unfertile. On the whole, 
 there can be -little risque in. asserting, that the quantity 
 of vegetable matter in soils under a proper system of 
 cultivation and dunging, is, notwithstanding, the -above 
 abstractions, probably on the increase. The great quan- 
 tity of saccharine and other matter yearly taken away^ 
 without being returned to the soil, and the unfitness of 
 the hard or woody part of the sugar-cane for the food of 
 cattle, evidently prove that the sugar plantations must 
 suffer annually a considerable degree of cjeterioralion -, and 
 that from so great an abstraction, as well as from the 
 process of oxygenation, the soil must at length cease to 
 produce crops of sugar. Such effects have in part been 
 already experienced in Barbadoes, and in the Islands first 
 settled and cultivated. 
 
 It is apprehended, that the less productive power of the 
 soil of some of these islands, is more to be ascribed to 
 the state in which the vegetable matter is now in, than 
 to its having been exhausted by cropping. Should this 
 conjecture prove well founded, and that the soil still con- 
 tain a large proportion of oxygenated vegetable matter, 
 
 the 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. ' 2O I 
 
 the surface may again, for a time, be rendered fertile by 
 the application of alkaline salts and other saline matters : 
 repeated applications would undoubtedly exhaust any 
 soil, and as such these should only be applied alternately 
 with clung or vegetable matters. Every judicious planter 
 keeps a sufficient number of live stock for the purpose 
 of making manure, and sets apart a due proportion of 
 his plantation for producing proper food for their main- 
 tenance. It is necessary that cattle should be kept in great 
 numbers, to provide in some measure for the waste an- 
 nually incurred in the sugar grounds, still there will be a 
 deficiency of manure from the stock so kept, to pre- 
 serve the sugar-cane lands in high condition. 
 
 An idea is here suggested of supplying that deficiency, 
 founded on the principles and facts already mentioned, 
 towards which the following, as it respe6ls the cultivation 
 of the sugar-cane, is offered as a more full explanation. 
 
 An acre of ground under canes is generally reckoned 
 to produce an hogshead or about twelve cwt. of sugar, 
 besides the molasses, 8cc. The tonnage of ships neces-> 
 sary to convey such bulky articles to Britain, must be 
 
 c c very 
 
202 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 very considerable. Those exported, consisting chiefly of 
 valuable manufactured goods, are of small weight when 
 compared with the weight of the sugar, &c. imported ; 
 and of so little value is the freight of outward-bound 
 ships, that they are frequently either entirely laden with 
 bricks, lime, &c. or partly so by way of ballast: in 
 which last situation most of our West Indiamen perform 
 their outward-bound voyage. 
 
 As dung is also said to be sent from Britain to the West 
 Indies, this circumstance, (together with the chemical re- 
 marks and observations on the nature of peat) has 
 'pointed out peat as an article capable of being sent 
 in certain states of preparation to the West India 
 Islands, with a view to supply the annual consumption 
 and deficiency of vegetable matter, which may take 
 place in the soil by the cultivation of the sugar- 
 cane. 
 
 Thifs idea originated from knowing that the soreline 
 acid, the acid most abundantly contained in peat, and 
 the acid of sugar, were identically the same. 
 
 There 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 203 
 
 There can be no doubt, that when peat is rendered 
 completely soluble, and thus fitted to promote the growth 
 of plants, it will, when applied to the culture of the sugar- 
 cane, afford those substances which constitute sugar; 
 when these, by the process of vegetation, are afterwards 
 combined and united in due proportions. 
 
 To send cargoes of peat in an unprepared state to the 
 West Indies, would be the height of folly and absurdityy 
 as no vessel could carry enough of so light a substance 
 even to ballast her. But as peat, when dissolved by alka- 
 line salts, and afterwards dried, may be brought to the 
 consistency of a solid dry gum, equal in weight perhaps 
 to forty or fifty Ib. per cubic foot, the objection to its 
 lightness would thus be remedied, and it might be ex- 
 ported to the West Indies at a low return freight, or as 
 ballast. 
 
 If there be any accumulated masses of vegetable mat- 
 ter, or peat, in the West India Islands, this manure might 
 certainly be prepared there, at a cheaper rate than in 
 Britain or Ireland. 
 
 c c 2 The 
 
204 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 The improvement here suggested by the application of 
 peat as a manure to sugar plantations, is perfeclly new, 
 and as such, with a certain set of men, (whose opinions 
 are not worthy of attention) the proposal may be sub- 
 jefted to the epithet of a scheme r , an appellation now gene- 
 rally bestowed on all designs, whether the discovery be 
 valuable or useless. Mankind seem at this moment to 
 detest all alterations, excepting in such matters as are 
 the most difficult and dangerous, viz. the laws, the form 
 of government, religion, and the scheme of society of a country, 
 in which the most subordinate ranks feel themselves 
 as competent to alter or amend, as a GROTIUS or a 
 MONTESQIJIEU. 
 
 " ' 
 
 CUL* 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF SOREL, WITH A VIEW TO THE 
 PRODUCTION OF OTHER MORE VALUABL E CROPS. 
 
 IT does not appear that any farmer has cultivated, or 
 that any writer .has recommended the growth of those 
 plants to be promoted, which seem indigenous to any 
 particular soil, with intention of rendering such plants 
 of use in the future production of grain, or the rich 
 herbage upon which cattle feed. 
 
 It is no uncommon practice to sow buck wheat, tares,, 
 and other green crops, for the sole purpose of ploughing 
 them in ; thus providing the ground with a proportion 
 of fresh vegetable matter, at times when other manure 
 cannot be procured, and also promoting the dissolution 
 of the inert vegetable matter contained in the soil by 
 the stagnation of air, and by the retention of humidity, 
 occasioned by the close cover and shade these crops af- 
 ford. 
 
 Judicious as this process in many cases may be, of. en- 
 couraging the growth of certain vegetables, with a view 
 
 of 
 
.of promoting, by their subsequent destruction, the future 
 growth of others, yet the beneficial effefts of this system 
 of cultivation, by due attention to the vegetables which 
 certain soils have a tendency to produce is to be 
 extended much further than most farmers are aware of. 
 To attempt making such soils produce, without che- 
 Linical acids, other vegetables more serviceable to men and 
 cattle, would be premature, as it would be an endeavour 
 .to force nature to productions for which she is not as yet 
 prepared. 
 
 not calcareous, containing much inert vegetable 
 ^matter or peat, have a tendency to produce wild sorel, a 
 plant considered in general as an indication of the want 
 of fertility in the soil. This is certainly correct, if the fer- 
 tility of the soil is only to be estimated by the use or 
 value. at market of the crop, but not as it respects vege- 
 tation itself ; for a soil of the above description often pro- 
 ^duces a most plentiful crop of sorel. In this case, as it. 
 applies to the further improvement of the land, the growth, 
 of sorel should ,as much as possible be encouraged, 
 -even by sowing the seed for this especial purpose. The 
 jvegetation of this plant is .no doubt promoted in 
 
 the 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 207 
 
 the soil by the oxalic or soreline acid, formed by the com- 
 bination of oxygen, or pure air, with the basis of the so- 
 reline acid contained in the vegetable matter of the soil"; 
 and so long as the vegetable matter remains in a state- 
 fit to become oxygenated, it will have a tendency to 
 promote the growth of sorel. It has been stated that 
 the juice or salt of sorel is a superacidulated neu- 
 tral salt, consisting of the vegetable alkali and the 
 oxalic acid. This superabundant acid is inimical to the 
 growth of grain, or of such vegetables or grasses as con- 
 stitute the food of most animals: but which tendency 
 in the soil, and injurious consequences, are to be correct- 
 ed by the application of different substances, viz. by lime, 
 by chalk, by magnesia, by alkaline salts, and by paring 
 and burning. 
 
 Lime will combine with the acid of the sorel, and form 
 an oxalat of lime, which is insoluble : as such it should 
 only be applied in such small quantities as will neutralize 
 the acid in the soil, or the superabundant proportion of acid 
 contained in the sorel; so that the other component part 
 of sorel, viz. the oxalat of potash, may not be decom- 
 posed by the superior affinity which the oxalic acid has to 
 
 lime; 
 
A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION <OF 
 
 lime ; in which case, the alkali would be disengaged. No 
 injury will arise from the application of a superabundance 
 of lime, provided that the soil contain a still greater 
 proportion of vegetable matter ; in which case, the alkali 
 -disengaged by the lime would act upon the vegetable 
 ^natter, and form a saline substance, similar to that which 
 .the : superabundant use of lime had decomposed. 
 
 -Ground of this description, to which lime has been 
 applied, will no longer have a tendency to promote the 
 growth of sorel in preference to other plants ; its next 
 spontaneous growth will, probably, be chickweed, which 
 is a certain indication of its being in a state fit to pro- 
 duce grain o.r other crops. 
 
 Magnesia has a greater affinity with the oxalic acid 
 than alkalis have, so that by the addition of earths, con- 
 taining magnesia, to ground producing a crop of sorel, 
 the acid will not only be neutralized, but the oxalat of pot- 
 ash, -the other component part of sorel, will likewise be 
 decomposed. By this means the alkali will be disen- 
 gaged, and put into a situation to act upon, and dissolve 
 the. inert vegetable matter contained in the soil. The salt 
 
 forced 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 209 
 
 formed by the combination of the magnesian earth 
 with the oxalic acid, will, as well as the vegetable matter 
 dissolved by the alkali, be found to promote vegetation 
 in a very great degree; hence magnesia, by forming 
 with the oxalic acid a soluble salt, has an advantage 
 over lime, which forms with the same acid a salt that is 
 nearly insoluble, but capable of being brought into action 
 by methods previously stated. 
 
 By the application of alkaline salts to sorel, there re*- 
 suits a salt fully neutralized, which highly promotes 
 the vegetation or growth of more valuable plants and 
 grain. 
 
 When neither magnesia nor alkaline salts are to be 
 procured, and where it is not thought proper to make 
 use of lime, the thinly paring and burning the sward, 
 consisting of the plants of sorel and their roots, may be 
 performed with advantage, as a large proportion of al- 
 kaline salts will be procured for the purpose of dissolv- 
 ing a correspondent proportion of the inert vegetable 
 matter contained in the soil. This operation of paring 
 and burning is only recommended as a last resource, 
 
 D d and 
 
l210 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 and in performing it, great care should be taken that as 
 little of the surface mould as possible be consumed by 
 fire. 
 
 The application of the different substances here recom- 
 mended, or the operation of paring and burning, should 
 take place only at the time when the crop of sorel is in 
 the greatest luxuriance. 
 
 CON- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 2 ii 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 THE multiplicity of subjects connected with the main 
 objeft of this work, open so wide a field of enquiry and 
 discussion, that it is with difficulty the Author has re- 
 strained himself from exceeding the bounds proposed ; 
 " Cunfla me non difturum sed quczdam" More might have 
 been said on the praftical part of husbandry; but, un^ 
 luckily for science, too much has already been written on 
 that subject, and absurd theories have been too often 
 blended with practice. Beside, it has been taken for 
 granted, that the persons for whose use and benefit this 
 chemico-agricultural Treatise has been composed were 
 well acquainted with the general operations of husban- 
 dry. 
 
 As the main obje6l of this work is to promote the 
 more complete and extended cultivation of the soil, no- 
 thing which may retard or advance this important object, 
 can be deemed foreign to this publication ; as such, the 
 form of government, laws, particular taxes, general 
 
 . D d 2 system 
 
 <**- 
 
 * 
 
2 r 2 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 system of taxation, manufactures, habits, and manners 
 of different classes of society, orders, or professions of 
 men, ought not to be considered too great a digres- 
 sion. 
 
 Many of these produce consequences inimical to the 
 interests of agriculture. The Author's natural turn has 
 led him for many years to dire6t his thoughts to such 
 objects ; but as on several of them he could not offer 
 an opinion without severe animadversions, he has chosen 
 rather to be silent, than to probe sores which require, 
 at this time, to be touched with the most gentle hand ; 
 at a time when the morbus GaJticus has succeeded to the 
 Negroe rabies, in the same manner as this distemper suc- 
 ceeded to the hydrophobia, of canine madness, which for some 
 years was so prevalent throughout Great Britain. 
 
 There are few who have viewed in a stronger point 
 of light the necessity of a reform; but it is principally 
 a reform in the conduct, hearts, and pursuits of indi- 
 viduals, as stated in the parochial resolutions of Culross, 
 in November 1792. 
 
 The 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 213 
 
 The reformers, and their views of reforming, fall un- 
 der some one or other of the following heads. 
 
 The manoeuvres or plans of one political party to 
 
 supplant another. 
 
 < 
 
 The intentions of the worthless and desperate to over- 
 throw, in tote, the form of government, religion, laws, 
 and present scheme of society of this country, and to 
 substitute in its stead the French scheme of society, 
 which has already been exhibited on the theatre of 
 Paris, and in other parts of that unfortunate and distract- 
 ed kingdom. 
 
 There is another set of reformers, who are worthy and 
 upright men, who view with regret the glorious and un- 
 equalled government of Britain slowly overturning, by the 
 abuses and corruptions, which, proceeding from avarice 
 and politically mercantile venality, now deluge this 
 nation. These good and worthy people, like the daugh- 
 ters of ISRAEL, " with their harps hung on the willows of 
 " Babylon, weeping over their beloved Jerusalem," have 
 bewailed, in too strong and unguarded terms, the state 
 
 of 
 
214 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 of the times ; and although good men in their own pri- 
 vate characters, perhaps may be ill calculated to act the 
 part of Reformers of States, or of the pursuits or vices 
 of individuals, unless by their own upright conduct and 
 example. 
 
 Unfortunately this last class of reformers have been 
 led for a time to make common cause with the two 
 other classes, whose views have been proved to be very 
 different; but now there is reason to believe, that all 
 those of religion, character, or worth, who were re- 
 formers upon principle^ have for the present dropt all in- 
 tention of reform ; and, instead of exciting the desperate 
 and needy to acts of sedition and violence, do now, like 
 LOT, pray unto the LORD to spare the country on ac- 
 count of the righteous persons it still contains, and of 
 which there are many to be found, but more particu- 
 larly in the middling walks of life. 
 
 It is the present too prevailing philosophic infidelity 
 and departure from the religion of CHRIST, foretold to 
 happen in the latter times, which has given rise to those 
 turbulent passions^ which agitate the minds of men, 
 
 and 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 215 
 
 and which now convulse and shake the Continent of 
 Europe to its centre. The French, and other freethinkers, 
 particularly. VOLTAIRE, the supreme God, or JUPITER, of 
 their heathenish pantheon, have done irreparable injury; 
 and sorry is the Author to observe, that too many gentle- 
 men of the learned professions, as well as those who de- 
 dicate their time to literary and philosophical pur- 
 suits, are actuated by a similar infidelity, and a desire 
 to explode a religion which raised .the minds and 
 virtues of the primitive Christians above those of other 
 men. 
 
 Leaving, however, a subject on which it is unne- 
 cessary to say more, than to regret that it is so, the 
 Author will now proceed to touch on some points 
 which have appeared to him more proper to be 
 stated in his Conclusion, than in the body of the 
 work. 
 
 The first that presents itself, is the benefit that 
 would arise to farmers, breeders, and others, were they 
 allowed to malt the grain now given to horses and other 
 cattle. The following extract from a very valuable work, 
 
 viz. 
 
216 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 viz. Mr. EDWARDS'S History of the West India Islands, 
 and which only was perused since the other parts of this 
 work went to press, corroborates, in the strongest; manner, 
 the benefits that horses and cattle would receive, were 
 the grain they are fed with converted into a sweet or sac- 
 charine substance. 
 
 " The time of crop in the Sugar Islands, is the. season 
 " of gladness and festivity to man and beast. So palata- 
 i( ble, salutary, and nourishing is the juice of the cane, 
 " that every individual of the animal creation drinking 
 " freely of it, derives health and vigour from its use. 
 " The meagre and sickly among the negroes exhibit a 
 " surprising alteration in a few weeks after the mill is set 
 " in aftion. The labouring horses, oxen, and mules, 
 " though almost constantly at work during this season, 
 " yet being indulged with plenty of the green tops of 
 *< this noble plant, and some of the scummings from the 
 " boiling-house, improve more than at any other period 
 " of the year. Even the pigs and poultry fatten on the 
 " refuse. In short, on a well regulated plantation, under 
 -" a humane and benevolent director, there is such an ap- 
 " pearance, during crop time, of health, plenty, and busy 
 
 chear- 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 217 
 
 < { cheerfulness as to soften in a great measure the hard- 
 " ships of slavery, and induce a spe&ator to hope, when 
 " the miseries of life are said to be unsupportable, that 
 " they are sometimes exaggerated through the medium 
 44 of fancy." 
 
 On this there is the following note. " He (says honest 
 SLARE the physician) that undertakes to argue against 
 " sweets in general, takes upon him a very difficult task, 
 " for nature seems to have recommended this taste to all 
 " sorts of creatures ; the birds of the air, the beasts of 
 " the field, many reptiles and flies, seem to be pleased 
 " and delighted with the specific relish of all sweets, and 
 " to distaste its contrary. Now the sugar-cane, or sugar, 
 " I hold for the top and highest standard of vegetable 
 " sweets." <c Sugar is obtainable in some degree from most 
 " vegetables, and Dr. CULLEN is of opinion, that sugar 
 " is dircttly nutritious. There is also good reason to sup- 
 " pose, that the general use of sugar in Europe has had 
 " the effect of extinguishing the scurvy, the plague, and 
 " many other diseases formerly epidemical." 
 
 E e These 
 
2I 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 These authorities experimentally strengthen , and cor- 
 roborate the Author's opinion, that horses and cattle- 
 would receive more benefit, by the grain they are fed with: 
 being previously converted into saccharine matter (as is 
 the case with malted grain) than by being fed with raw 
 grain, containing no such sweet or saccharine matter: the 
 expence of malting, exclusively of the duty, is but a trifles 
 not exceeding sixteen-pence per quarter., 
 
 The duties on malt, used for brewing and distilling; 
 should not be allowed to deprive working horses and 
 cattle of their share of the sweets and comforts of life, 
 not only enjoyed by the negroes in the West Indies* but 
 by the pigs, poultry, horses, oxen, and mules, whose, 
 festive board, and solatium, (from the said to be slavery 
 and miseries of life) happens only annually, while the 
 Author of more extensive benevolence wishes that the 
 sweets of life shall in this country be administered daily to 
 all these animals. 
 
 Convincing as experiments may be, and the arguments 
 in favour of procuring to cattle in this country a substi- 
 tute for the sweets, of the West Indies, still, from the too 
 
 rigid 
 
2T9 
 
 rigid attention of Ministers to the system of finance, 
 little hopes are to be entertained, that a permission 
 to malt grain for cattle will be obtained, unless it can be 
 made an object of immediate taxation. 
 
 Such considerations are permitted too frequently to 
 counter-balance or weigh down other obje<5ls of much 
 greater national importance-, which, if properly fostered 
 and cherished in their infancy, might become resources 
 of national revenue. 
 
 These remarks will be confined to the malt-tax, the salt- 
 tax, and the coal- tax, although there are many others which 
 tend to repress and cramp the exertions of individuals, 
 and to limit the extension of several valuable branches of 
 manufacture, and of which, were it not for these restraints, 
 an unrivalled monopoly would be secured to this country 
 in most of the foreign markets. By the plans now 
 proposed, the revenue will not suffer ; on the contrary, it 
 will receive a considerable increase. The Author hopes 
 that Government and individuals will candidly and de- 
 liberately weigh what he has to propose, in his new 
 assumed capacity of a Revenue Officer, or Suggester of 
 
 JE e 2 Taxes, 
 
220 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 Taxes : an employment which, as it is the frst he has 
 ever filled, so it is the last he would have thought of 
 filling under Government. 
 
 The plans of taxation, and fafts upon which those plans 
 founded, come now to he stated. 
 
 There are reckoned to be in Britain millions 
 
 of acres under annual culture by the plough ; and sup- 
 posing each horse to cultivate acres annually, the 
 number of horses requisite for tillage will amount to 
 To keep up this stock, it would require an annual 
 supply of at least a sixteenth part; and as horses are 
 not put to work in general until three years old, three 
 sixteenths fall to be added to the number of horses 
 kept for tillage; at which rate the number would 
 amount to : to which are to added the horses 
 
 belonging to the cavalry, those employed in carts, wains, 
 waggons, collieries, mines, machinery, manufactories, 
 and other works ; and also horses for posting, carriages, 
 the saddle, hunting, and the turf, Sec. &c. These are 
 reckoned to amount at least to one third of what is kept 
 for tillage, so that the whole number of horses kept in 
 
 Britain 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. a2I 
 
 Britain cannot be less than and, at a duty of 
 
 five shillings on each horse, mare, or gelding, the whole 
 would amount to 
 
 As to the neat cattle in Britain, their numbers may 
 ascertained, with tolerable precision, according to the fol- 
 lowing calculation. 
 
 . 
 
 There are said to be slaughtered annually in London 
 and its neighbourhood, thousand heads of cat- 
 
 tle ; and as its population is reckoned to be one eighth of 
 the whole kingdom, but say one ninth, the number of 
 beeves slaughtered annually in Britain should amount to 
 from which one third is to be deducted, from- 
 the greater proportional consumption and waste of ani- 
 mal food in the metropolis. The total number of beeves 
 slaughtered would therefore be which mul- 
 
 tiplied by four (sooner than which age, cattle are never 
 brought to market) the total number of cattle of all de- 
 scriptions, at one time in the kingdom, will amount to 
 which at a duty of is. per head, for per- 
 mission to supply them, when necessary, with malted 
 
 grain, 
 
 * The blanks have been left to be filled up by the reader, with a view to secure 
 a greater degree of attention on his part to the subject, and from a desire to shun, 
 all attacks on the score of figures or calculations- 
 
222 A TREATISE ON THE CO,, ACTION OF 
 
 grain, would produce an annual revenue of 
 and the total sura of the duties on horses and cattle* would 
 amount to in addition to the present tax on 
 
 malt for domestic consumption, breweries, and distilleries. 
 
 Individuals will probably object to this tax; but as the 
 Author is fully persuaded that such objections, on their 
 part, can only proceed from their being unacquainted 
 with the advantages to be derived from a permission to 
 malt grain for the use of horses and cattle, some pains 
 shall be taken to obviate such objections ; and as it may 
 be a considerable time before the proposed duty take 
 place, if ever it should, individuals of the Board of Agri- 
 culture, or others, may experimentally satisfy themselves, 
 at the f resent duties which should be reckoned an object of 
 no moment when put in competition with an object of such 
 importance to themselves and to the country in general. 
 On which head the following statements are offered, ' 
 
 Farm and other horses, when kept even with the most 
 rigid osconomy, are fed with oats, or other grain, during 
 seven months, or thirty weeks, of the year ; there are 
 
 many 
 
 * A tax on horses and neat cattle is paid by the inhabitants of Virginia and 
 Kentucky. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 many farm horses that are fed with grain all the year, as 
 is the .case likewise with carriage, waggon, post horses, 
 and horses for the saddle. A bushel and a half to each 
 horse per week, is not too great an average allowance for 
 these thirty weeks, this amounts annually to five quarters 
 and five bushels,. and at sixteen shillings per quarter, to the 
 sum of 41.95. yd. Of this expence,, at least one fourth 
 will be saved by feeding the cattle on malted grain, but 
 say 2os; from this will fall to be deducted a duty of 53* 
 to Government, and the sum of 8s. as the charges of 
 malting ; still there would be an annual saving on each 
 horse of ys. But this is a trifling object in considera- 
 tion of the higher condition and order horses would be kept 
 in, fresher and fitter for work, and freer from many diseases 
 to which they are now liable. 
 
 The benefits that neat cattle would receive at the small 
 tax of is. per head are as follow : 
 
 / 
 
 By a supply, when necessary, of a small quantity of 
 
 malt to year- old calves and young stock, they would, 
 
 when green food is not to be procured, be kept open in 
 
 [the belly, and the costiveness, binding of the hide, and 
 
 biliary obstructions which at that season they are liable 
 
 to, 
 
24 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 to, would by these means be prevented; It should be 
 given properly mashed with hot water, when by the 
 state of their fbeces and hides they appear to require it. 
 Too little attention is paid by rearers and breeders of 
 cattle to these necessary precautions. 
 
 The next application for which malt has been re- 
 commended, is the clearing away biliary obstructions, and 
 opening the bodies of oxen and other cattle, previously to 
 supplying them with the food with which they are in- 
 tended to be fattened; especially when such food is not 
 sufficiently of an aperient nature. And lastly, malted 
 grain, when dry, but more particularly so when mashed, 
 has been recommended to be given to milch cows, to make 
 them yield a greater quantity of milk, richer than that 
 prod viced, and free from the bad favour which milk is apt 
 to acquire, by feeding cows in the winter time on cab- 
 bages or turnips, -> 
 
 On the whole, a tax of one shilling per head on neat 
 cattle, seems but a trifling objett to those who may pay 
 it, when the benefits from the indulgence granted shall be 
 considered, And here the remarks on this subject 
 will conclude, by recommending the making of such 
 
 proper 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY, 
 
 proper trials of the comparative benefit of the use of 
 malt and unmalted grain, as will fully establish the ad- 
 vantages attending the former pradice, 
 
 It may be said, that according to this plan, the pre- 
 sent malt-tax will be evaded, and that persons would 
 supply themselves for brewing with the malt prepared 
 for feeding their horses and cattle ; but this is to be pre- 
 vented by allowing oats, peas, and beans * only to be so 
 malted, in a barn entered for that purpose, under the 
 survey of the Excise Officer of the district, attaching a 
 high penalty, with forfeiture of the grain, for malting any 
 other kinds than such as by law are so allowed. Neither 
 from peas nor beans can a proper palatable fermented liquor 
 be made, and the use of oats would be extremely un- 
 ceconomical, from the small weight of kernel in propor- 
 tion to the weight and price of the grain, 
 
 L-astly, Should these arguments and reasons not be 
 thought sufficient to induce the adoption of the arrange- 
 
 pf merits 
 
 * Perhaps the malting of peas and beans may not be found so requisite, or so ad- 
 vantageous as the malting of oats, aud that all the purposes for feeding of cattle 
 uiay be obtained by breaking and crushing them in a mill, especially when given 
 mixed with maked oats. 
 
22 6 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 ments here proposed, a total abolition of the present 
 malt-tax seems the only alternative, adopting in part 
 the* substitutes already mentioned, and in lieu of the 
 present tax upon malt, an additional tax upon the brewer, 
 with an equivalent tax on all families who brew for 
 their own use, and an additional tax on spirits. 
 
 Having stated thus much on a subject, which appears 
 of such importance, and which is likely to be earlier at- 
 tended to in France * than in this country, a few words 
 may be proper on a plan for the purpose of entirely 
 doing away the present salt duties, and substituting 
 such others as shall fall on individuals in proportion 
 to the benefit they may receive by the use of salt ; par- 
 ticularly on those, who, from the high price of it, are 
 now debarred its use in agriculture, the feeding of cattle, 
 and in manufactures. 
 
 It is believed that Government would willingly allow 
 the exemption of duty on salt used for these purposes, 
 provided the revenue were not to suffer by the appli- 
 cation of such duty-free salt for domestic consumption. 
 Here is the difficulty which has stopped the progress of Mi- 
 nisters 
 
 * A tax on malt made no part of the former system of taxation in that country. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 
 
 227 
 
 nisters and others on this important alteration, whilst to 
 the Author it appears capable of an easy adjustment. 
 
 The first objeft to consider, is the duty per ton which 
 could be afforded, or which would be reasonable to exact 
 for salt applied to the three purposes above mentioned. 
 
 This duty should not exceed one pound per ton, er 
 sixpence per bushel, which should be all the tax exafled 
 on the commodity itself. The Author gives it as his 
 opinion, that the extended consumption of salt for the 
 purposes already mentioned, as soon as tlie benefits de- 
 rived from the use of it were generally known, would, at 
 a duty of one pound per ton, be fiilly equal to the duties 
 now colletted ; but as it may not be prudent to trust to 
 speculations, defuturis contmgentibu^ it is suggested, that the 
 deficiency of duty which would arise on its present con- 
 sumption, be made up by a tax on those who should re- 
 ceive a benefit by the unrestrained use of it, such as 
 farmers, feeders, and owners of cattle, and certain other 
 classes of consumers of salt. Householders should only pay 
 for domestic consumption the 6d, per bushel, by which 
 means they would be supplied with salt 45. 6d. a bushel 
 cheaper than they are at present. At this rate, the 
 
 F f 2 duties 
 
22 8 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 duties on salt for domestic purposes would not exceed 
 6o,oool. a year ; but the difference is to be made up by 
 a similar tax to that recommended under the article of 
 Horses and Cattle, together with a duty of 3d. in the 
 pound on the rent paid by each farmer or occupier of 
 ground, and los. a ton on the salt rock exported to fo- 
 reign countries : according to which plans, the salt duties 
 would amount to as follow : 
 
 To tons of salt for domestic consumption, 
 
 at il. per ton - 
 
 To tons of rock salt exported to Ireland 
 
 and abroad, at los. per ton 
 To duty on horses, 
 
 To duty on neat cattle, 
 
 To 3d. in the pound on rent of land 
 
 Which sum would exceed by the whole net 
 
 amount of the salt revenue of Britain. 
 
 But the increase of the revenue would not stop here, 
 for as soon as the valuable application of salt for agricul- 
 ture, and the feeding of cattle, was generally known 
 
 and 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. > 
 
 229. 
 
 and practised, the annual consumption of salt, for these 
 purposes only, would at least amount to tons more. 
 
 So that the whole revenue, from salt would amount -to 
 Should this be a greater sum than Government 
 
 would choose to exact, they may limit, or - do away all 
 the duties now mentioned, excepting the duty of 2os 
 per ton, as soon as the consumption of Britain for all 
 the different purposes shall, at the duty of aos. a ton* 
 amount to the net revenue at present collected. 
 
 The tax upon water-borne coals now claims attention* 
 Some remarks have already been made on that subject 
 in page 194, but not so fully as the importance of the 
 subject merits. . 
 
 The coasting coal trade of Britain is said to employ 
 vessels, on an average, each of tons, navigated 
 by* seamen, most of whom are apprentices ; as 
 
 such the coal trade is reckoned the principal nur- 
 sery for British seamen. There is no coasting or carry- 
 ing trade in the world, of which the cargoes, or articles 
 
 carried, 
 
 * For the reasons already given, this blank, ' with those which precede it, are 
 left to be filled up by the reader. 
 
230 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 carried, are so disproportionate, or of so small a value, 
 when compared with the freight 1 capital employed in 
 shipping ; consequently there is no trade which employs 
 so many seamen in proportion to the value of the car- 
 goes. Profitable or judicious branches of trade should by 
 every means be encouraged, especially those in which 
 the persons employed are the protectors and defenders 
 of their country. 
 
 No person, who has the prosperity and defence of this 
 Country at heart, but must wish, that that trade should 
 be increased which promotes ends so truly to be desired. 
 It must be obvious that such objects are rot to be at- 
 tained by laying duties on an article when water-borne, 
 of which the carriage by sea should as much as possible 
 be promoted. 
 
 To what further extent the coasting coal trade might 
 be carried, is not an easy matter .at -present to predict; 
 it is capable not only of being increased to a very great 
 degree, by taking off the present duties, but may be in- 
 creased in a much greater degree, by the extended 
 
 culture 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 2 3I 
 
 1 
 
 culture, and consequent population of the kingdom : 
 objects, which, from necessity^ are now in a very strong 
 manner awakening the attention of individuals. The 
 Author does not think he hazards an opinion, when 
 he says, that the coasting and export coal trade of Bri- 
 tain may be doubled within ten years from the present 
 date ; but this is not to be effected without a total repeal 
 of the duties on coal carried coast ways. 
 
 It is not an easy matter to find a substitute for this 
 tax, at least such a one as would meet with general ap- 
 probation. DweDing-housesare already taxed in several 
 ways; first, in all the materials of which they are 
 built ; and, secondly, by the land-tax, window-tax, 
 and tea commutation tax: still were there any other 
 tax which could with propriety be levied on that spe- 
 cies of property, it would be the coal tax, from the 
 necessity all persons are under in this northern climate 
 of making use of fuel. 
 
 One of the many advantages attending such a com- 
 mutation would be, that it would embrace and include 
 inhabitants of the counties where coal is wrought, 
 
 who 
 
232 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 who at present, in that respect, contribute nothing to theexi- 
 gencies of the state, and who in general, from the saving 
 of carriage, freight, ^nd duties, are supplied with coal at 
 i a third or a. fourth of the price paid in other parts by the 
 -subjects- of the same kingdom, than which nothing can. 
 _bc more partial, unwise, and unjust. 
 
 'To a general tax, or regulation of this kind, the inha- 
 bitants of the coal countries could not with reason object ; 
 -nor could any objections be made on the part of the great 
 consumers of coal in different branches of manufacture; 
 because these, as well as fire engines, would be exempted. 
 To make the proposed tax bear equally in proportion to 
 the wealth of individuals, it should be in proportion 
 to the number of windows or chimneys contained ia 
 each house. All who consume coals should bear their pro- 
 portion : none should be exempted but those who re- 
 ceive assistance from the parish, or of whom the Church- 
 wardens certify that they are persons in indigent cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 As the Author is not furnished at present with 
 the amount of the window-tax, nor the commuta- 
 tion 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 333 
 
 tion tax on tea, he cannot on this head, enter into 
 further detail ; and will only add, that were the tax to 
 fall heavier on that species of property than he is aware 
 of, it might be proportion ably diminished, and the 
 deficiency of the tax be made up by an additional ohe on 
 ardent spirits, or on some other proper object of tax- 
 ation. 
 
 Having concluded the suggestions towards the repeal 
 of the three taxes which are the most repressive of in- 
 dividual and national exertion, reference will now be 
 had to Mr. EDWARDS'S description of the soils best adapt- 
 ed for the culture of the sugar-cane, in his History of 
 the West Indies, wherein he confirms the opinion of 
 the Author, that soils may receive considerable injury 
 by too frequent ploughings, stirrings, or exposure of 
 renewed surfaces to the aftion of air and sun, especially 
 where the sun's rays are so very powerful as they are 
 in the West Indies. By these Extracts it will appear, 
 that (with few exceptions) the soil in the West Indies, 
 
 ""<*&* 
 
 bestlSfepted for the culture of the sugar-cane, is a rich, 
 deep, black mould. There is no soil of that colour that 
 does not contain carbonaceous or vegetable matter. Such 
 
 G g soils 
 
234 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 soils are peculiarly fitted for the application of alkaline 
 salts, that the vegetable matter which had become oxy- 
 genated and inert, by frequent culture and exposure of 
 fresh surfaces to the air, may by these means be dis- 
 solved. Notwithstanding the fertility of this black soil, 
 it still requires the aid of manure or urine, as appears by 
 Mr. EDWARDS'S observations on the soil of Barbadoes ; 
 and in his remarks on the soil of Jamaica, he says, 
 "the urine of cattle is the best of all manures ;" which practi- 
 cally corroborates the Author's theory on the action 
 which the 'volatile alkali, contained in urine, has in dis- 
 solving oxygenated peat, or oxygenated vegetable matter, and of 
 which, so large a proportion is contained in many of 
 the soils in the West Indies. The prevalence of this 
 black, or vegetable soil, supercedes the necessity of sending 
 to the West Indies the preparations of peat formerly re- 
 commended, this soil requiring only alkaline salts as a sub- 
 stitute for the urine of cattle, which is by no means to be 
 had in such quantities as the ground would require, to in- 
 sure abundant crops. 
 
 Mr. EDWARDS'S remarks are very judicious as to sub- 
 stituting coal for boiling the sugar, and the distillation 
 
 of 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 235 
 
 of rum instead of the cane trash now used zsfuel: this 
 cane trash, by being kept a due time in heaps, and after- 
 wards mixed with alkaline salts, might be returned 'to the land 
 as manure, instead of being dissipated or thrown into the air 
 by combustion. 
 
 The different extracts from Mr. EDWARDS'S work here 
 alluded to, are subjoined in the Appendix. 
 
 The Author hopes, that by candid readers allowance 
 will be made for the imperfections necessarily attendant 
 on all works of this or any other kind, when sent to the 
 press as composed, without due time having been taken 
 either to revise the composition, or to correct typogra- 
 phical errors, several of which occur in this work, and 
 a list of which is subjoined to the Table of Contents. 
 
 The public are requested to view the preceding Trea- 
 tise more in the light of suggestions and hints, than a 
 full and complete treatise on the different subjects. The 
 Author requests permission to correct an expression 
 which had very inadvertently crept into the Preface, 
 page 8, wherein he says, " The Author flatters himself 
 
 G g 2 " that 
 
236 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 *' that his labours will be found to open a field of expe- 
 " riment, of chemical reasoning, and of the practically 
 " useful, applicable to agriculture, of which that science 
 " had hitherto been thought incapable." His meaning- 
 was, and it should have been so expressed, " of which 
 " that science has to too many appeared incapable : " for 
 persons of reflection and understanding must admit, that 
 chemistry, defined in the Introduction to this Work, " to 
 " be a knowledge of the properties of bodies, and of the 
 " effects resulting from their different combinations," 
 cannot but be necessary to the proper understanding and 
 bringing to perfection, any art, science, or occupation, 
 wherein matter is to be operated upon." 
 
 Attacks upon the theories and opinions of other writers 
 have been carefully avoided, the Author's view r s not 
 being to court argument or dispute, but to convey such 
 information as appeared to him might be useful ; nor 
 would he have departed from this line of conduct in the 
 following remarks respecting the a6tion of lime, had he 
 not considered it as being conducive to the interest of 
 individuals, and to agriculture in general, to combat an 
 erroneous theory, to wjrich many have subscribed, on 
 
 the 
 
AGRICULTURE WtTH CHEMISTRY. 237 
 
 the authority of others who have written on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 
 By these writers it is asserted, that dung contains 0/7: 
 
 and to this oil the application of lime is recommended, 
 with a view to render it soluble in water. 
 
 No expressions in chemistry or in agriculture have been 
 so injudiciously made use of as those of sulphur and of 
 oil. By the word sulphur, brimstone is to be understood ; 
 and by the word oil, those smooth unctuous substances 
 capable of being inflamed or burned, produced in the bodies 
 of animals by the process of animalization, and in the 
 seeds and kernels of fruits and plants by the process of 
 vegetation. To which are to be added bituminous oils, 
 and empyreumatic oils, obtained by the distillation of 
 animal, vegetable, and some mineral substances, such as 
 fossile coal, &c. to none of which the juice of dung or 
 dung-hills bears the smallest resemblance ; on the con- 
 trary, it will be found to be a mucilaginous neutralized 
 saline extractive liquor, whence no oil, either from it or 
 from dung, can be procured but by distillation, or the ap- 
 plication of fire ; in which case oil cannot be said to be 
 
 disen- 
 
238 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 disengaged, but is really formed in the process, in Jie same 
 1 ^manner as oil is procured by distillation from mucilage or 
 gum. 
 
 Attempts have been made to classify manures, earths, 
 and other substances, under the term of adtive and pas- 
 sive. Lime is termed aftive, /. e. it is said to possess a 
 power of afting upon other substances, and of making 
 "these substances produce or give out to vegetables their 
 proper food. By such theories the effedts of lime are carried 
 still further, by ascribing to them the power of rendering 
 oil soluble in water. These oils are termed passive, and 
 are supposed to be contained in dung. That such oils do not 
 exist in dung, must be maintained, until a true inflammable oil 
 is procured from dung by expression, or by some process 
 different from that of fire. What sort of oil is meant, 
 the Author is really at a loss to discover ; it cannot well 
 be supposed to resemble sallad oil, nor any oil to be had 
 from perfumers, apothecaries, nor the oil shops ! 
 
 It is known to every well informed chemist, as well as 
 to soap-boilers, that hot lime does not produce, with ani- 
 mal fat or oil, or with the expressed oil from vegetable 
 
 seeds 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 239 
 
 seeds or kernels of fruits, a permanent soap, or sapona- 
 ceous emulsion ; for although such a sapo seems to be 
 formed, still it keeps only in that state until the lime sa- 
 turates itself with fixable air, after which a separation 
 takes place, and the oil comes again to the surface of the 
 liquor. This proves that lime is not endowed with those 
 powers ascribed to it, in rendering oil soluble in water. 
 Admitting, however, (which is not the fact) that the sapo 
 made by lime and oil was a true and a permanent one, 
 still the oil, strictly speaking, could not be considered as 
 in 1 solution, being only mechanically separated and di- 
 vided in the water, and not chemically united therewith, 
 as is apparent by its colour ; for liquors wherein chemical 
 union exists are colourless. 
 
 The only effeft that lime has upon gross oil is to deprive it 
 of that principle which constituted it such, and to reduce 
 it to the state of. an oil more fluid, and more resembling 
 animal or other oils attenuated by frequent distillations. 
 
 Lime certainly does no more than deprive the gross oil of 
 the acid, on which depend its thickness and consistency, 
 the lime combining with the acid in the same manner as in 
 
 the 
 
240 A TREATISE ON THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 the process of soap-making : a part of the caustic alkali 
 combines with the sebaceous acid of the tallow, forming 
 sebat of potash or sefoat of soda saline matters to be 
 found, with other neutral salts, in soap-makers spent lyes. 
 
 So far from lime rendering dung more soluble, it im- 
 pedes that process, by forming with the dung insoluble salts, 
 and it otherwise injures the dung by disengaging and throw- 
 ing into the air the ammoniac or volatile alkali, that other- 
 wise would have combined, and have formed neutral 
 soluble salts, with the phosphoric or oxalic acids of the 
 dung, or other vegetable or animal matters. The mixing 
 of hot lime 'with dung has been highly disapproved of in the 
 preceding part of this Work; and the Author must now 
 conclude, by observing, that the application of it, for the 
 purpose of dissolving the imaginary oil contained in dung, 
 is too injudicious a practice, as well as, in a chemical point 
 of light, too erroneous a theory, to have been permitted 
 to pass without notice. 
 
 ADBENDA. 
 
AGRICULTURE WITH CHEMISTRY. 24 1 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 IT has been neglected, under the article Peat and Peat 
 Mosses, to state, that their waters are very injurious to 
 the health of cattle ; and that such bad effects may be 
 prevented by collecting the rain water that may fall on 
 the roofs of the dwelling-house and offices, into tanks 
 properly constructed, and having no communication 
 with the soil. Should not the buildings be conveniently 
 placed for affording to the cattle a supply of water from 
 the tank, or should the extent of such roofs be insuffi- 
 cient to collect the quantity of rain water that may be 
 required, sheds or hovels, covered with tile, should be 
 erected in a central field, conveniently situated for secur- 
 ing to the cattle their daily supply. A farther benefit will 
 ensue by the shelter and protection that such sheds or 
 hovels will afford the cattle. This method of collecting 
 rain water (and which is practised in many countries) 
 may with great advantage be adopted in the upland, 
 chalky, or gravelly soils, or in the marshes near the sea 
 shore, where the springs either are at a great depth, or 
 
 H h where 
 
242 A TREATISE, & c . 
 
 where the water is brackish. In upland situations, water 
 may be collected into tanks in great abundance, during the 
 rainy seasons, by leading the surface water into such re- 
 ceptacles, without incurring the expence of sheds or 
 hovels; but in fens, morasses, peat mosses, and marshes 
 or flat grounds, near the sea shore, where the soil is full 
 of vegetable and animal matter, or where the water is 
 brackish, a supply of water can only be obtained by the 
 assistance of the roofs above recommended* 
 
 APPEND 
 
A PP E N D I X. 
 
 EDWARDS's HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 
 
 BARBADOES. 
 
 VOL. I. BOOK III PAGE 345. 
 
 " THE soil in the low lands is black^ somewhat reddish 
 in the shallow parts, on the hills of a chalky marl, and 
 near the sea generally sandy ; of this variety of soil, the 
 black mould is best suited for the cultivation of the cane, 
 and with the aid of manure has given as great returns of 
 sugar in favourable seasons, as any in the West Indies, 
 the prime lands of Saint Kitts excepted." 
 
 ISLAND OF GRENADA. 
 
 VOL. I. BOOK III PAGE 376. 
 
 " To the north and the east the soil is a brick mould, 
 the same or nearly the same as that of which mention 
 has been made in the History of Jamaica. On the west 
 $ide it is a rich black mould on a substratum of yellow clay. 
 
 H h 2 To 
 
244 APPENDIX, 
 
 To the south, the land in general is poor, and of a reddish 
 hue; and the same extends over a considerable part of 
 
 the interior country." 
 
 / 
 
 ISLAND OF SAINT CHRISTOPHER. 
 
 VOL. I. BOOK III PAGE 429* 
 
 " The interior part of the country consists of many 
 rugged precipices and barren mountains. Of these, the 
 loftiest is Mount Misery (evidently a decayed volcano) which 
 
 rises 3711 feet in perpendicular height from the sea. 
 Nature* however, has made abundant amends for the 
 sterility of the mountains, by the fertility she has bestow- 
 ed upon the plains. No part of the West Indies, that I have 
 Seen, possesses even the same species of soil that is found 
 in Saint Christopher's ; it is in general a dark grey loam, so 
 light and porous as to be penetrable by the slightest ap- 
 plication of the hoe, and I conceive it to be- the produc- 
 tion of subterraneous fires, the black ferruginous pumice of 
 naturalists, finely incorporated with a pure loam of virgin 
 mould. The under stratum is gravel, from eight to 
 twelve inches deep. Clay is no where found except at a 
 considerable height in the mountains. By what process 
 of nature the soil which J have mentioned, becomes 
 
 more 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 more especially suited to the production of sugar than 
 any other in the West Indies, it is neither within my 
 province or ability to explain." 
 
 PAGE 
 
 " I am informed, however, that the planters of Saint 
 Christopher's are at a great expencefor manure" 
 
 ISLAND OF NEVIS, 
 
 VOL. I. BOOK III PAGE 434. 
 
 " The SDil is stony ; the best is a loose black mould on a 
 clay. In some places, the upper stratum is a stiff clay*. 
 which requires labour ; but properly divided and pulve- 
 rized, repays the labour bestowed upon it." 
 
 ^J^^ ISLAND OF ANTIGUA. 
 
 VOL. I. BOOK III PAGE 446. 
 
 " This' Island contains two different kinds of soil; the 
 one a black mould on a substratum of clay, which is naturally 
 rich, and when not chequed by excessive droughts, ta 
 which Antigua is 'particularly subject, very produ&ive. 
 
 The 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The other is a stiff clay on a substratum of marl ; it 
 is much less fertile than the former, and abounds with an 
 inirradicable kind of grass, in such a manner, that many 
 estates consisting of that kind of soil, which were once 
 very profitable, are now so impoverished and over-grown 
 with this sort of grass,* as either to be converted into pas- 
 ture land, or to become entirely abandoned. Exclusive 
 of such deserted land, and a small part of country that 
 is altogether unimprovable, every part of the Island may 
 be said to be under cultivation," 
 
 ISLAND OF JAMAICA. 
 
 VOL. II. BOOK V.o PAGE 204. 
 
 " It may be supposed, that a plant thus rank and succu- 
 lent requires a strong and deep soil to bring it to perfection, 
 and as far as my own observation has extended, I am of 
 opinion that no land can be too rich for that purpose. 
 
 " The very best soil, however, that I have seen or heard 
 of, for the production of sugar, of the finest quality and 
 
 in 
 
 * Perhaps the tendency which this soil has to produce this kind of grass, might 
 be corrected by lime, alkaline or neutral salts. 
 
APPENDIX. 247 
 
 in the largest proportion, is the ashy loam of Saint Chris- 
 topher's, of which an account has been given in the His- 
 tory of that Island. Next to that is the soil which, in Ja- 
 maica, is called brick-mould ; not as resembling a brick 
 in colour, but as containing such a due mixture of clay 
 and sand as is supposed to render it well adapted for the 
 use of the kiln. It is a deep, warm, and mellow hazzle 
 earth, easily worked ; and though its surface soon grows 
 dry after rain, the under-stratum retains a considerable 
 degree of moisture in the driest weather ; with this ad- 
 vantage too, that even in the wettest weather it seldom 
 requires trenching. Plant-canes in this soil, (which are 
 those of the first growth) have been known in very fine 
 seasons to yield two tons and a half of sugar per acre ; 
 after this may be rekoned the black mould of several va- 
 rieties. The best is the deep black earth of Barbadoes, 
 Antigua, and some other of the Windward Islands ; but 
 there is a specks of f bis mould in Jamaica that is but little, 
 if any thing inferior to it, which abounds with lime- 
 stone and flint on a substratum of soapy marl. Black 
 mould on clay is more common -, but as the mould is generally 
 shallow, and the clay stiff and retentive of water, this 
 last sort of land requires great labour, both in ploughing 
 
 and 
 
24 8 APPENDIX. 
 
 and trenching, to render it profitable. Properly pulve- 
 rized and manured, it becomes very productive, and may be 
 said to be inexhaustible". 
 
 J?AGE 206. 
 
 <" It is remarkable, however, that the same degree of 
 ploughing or pulverization, which is absolutely necessary 
 to render stiff and clayey lands productive, is here not 
 only unnecessary but hurtful ; for though this soil is deep, 
 it is at the same time far from being heavy, and it is 
 naturally dry. As, therefore, too much exposure to the scorch- 
 ing influence of a tropical sun destroys its fertility, the system 
 of husbandry on sugar plantations, in which this soil 
 abounds, is to depend chiefly on what are called ratoon 
 canes,'' (or sprouts of the canes formerly planted) these continue 
 to be cut, and to produce sugar for some years : as they 
 decay they are replaced by /ra plants. By "this" method 
 the planter, instead of stocking " or digging up " his ratoons, 
 suffers the stoles to continue in the ground, '" instead of 
 stocking, or digging up his ratoons, and holeing and 
 planting the land anew." 
 
 PAGE 208. 
 
 <" In the cultivation of other lands (in Jamaica espe- 
 cially) the plough has been introduced of late years, and 
 
 in 
 
APPENDIX. 249. 
 
 in some few cases to great advantage; but it is not every 
 soil or situation that will admit the use of the plough,, 
 some lands being much too stoney and others too steep. 
 And I am sorry I have occasion to remark, that a practice 
 commonly prevails in Jamaica, on properties where this 
 auxiliary is used, which would exhaust the finest land in the 
 world. It is that of ploughing, then cross ploughing, round 
 ridging, and harrowing the same lands from year to year , or at 
 least every other year, without affording manure. Accordingly 
 it is found, that this method is utterly destruttive of the ra- 
 toon, or second growth, and altogether ruinous. It is in- 
 deed astonishing, that any planter of common reading - 
 or observation, should be passive under so pernicious a system" 
 
 PAGE 215. 
 
 " Hitherto I have saicV nothing of a very important 
 branch in the sugar-cane planting : I mean the method 
 of manuring the lands. The necessity of giving even the 
 best ^//occasional assistance, is universally admitted '; and the 
 usual way of doing it in the West Indies, is now to be 
 described. 
 
 " The manure generally used, is a compost, formed, 
 "First, Of the coal and vegetable ashes drawn from 
 the fires of the boiling-house and still-house. 
 
 x i "Secondly, 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 :o " Secondly, Feculences discharged from the still-house, 
 .mixed up with the rubbish of buildings, white lime, &:c. 
 
 " Thirdly, The refuse or field trash, i. e. the decayed 
 leaves, and the stems of .the canes, so called in contra- 
 distinction to cane trash reserved for fuel, and hereafter 
 to be described. 
 
 "Fourthly, Dung obtained from the horse and mule 
 stables, and from moveable pens, or small inclosures 
 made by posts and rails, occasionally shifted upon the lands 
 intended to be planted, and into which the cattle are 
 turned at night. 
 
 " Fifthly, Good mould collected from gullies and other 
 waste places, and thrown into the cattle pens." 
 
 PAGE 217. 
 
 " But the chief depmdance of the Jamaica planter, in ma- 
 nuring Tiis lands, is on .the moveable pens, or occasional 
 inclosures; not so-much for the quantity of dung collected 
 by means of those inclosures, as for the advantage of the 
 from the Cattle (the best of all manures) and the labour 
 'is saved by this system. I believe, indeed, there 
 
 are 
 
APPENDIX. 251 
 
 are a great many overseers who give their land no aid of 
 any other kind than that of shifting the cattle from one pen 
 to another, on the spot intended for planting, during three 
 or four months before it is ploughed or holed." 
 
 Note. " This, however, is by no means sufficient on plan- 
 tations that have been much worn and exhausted by cultivation ; 
 and, perhaps, there is no branch in the planting business 
 wherein attention and systematic arrangement, as 
 saving both time and labour, are more necessary than, 
 in collecting and preparing large quantities of dung from the 
 sources and materials before described." 
 
 PAGE 218. 
 
 " The young sprouts are at the same time cleared of 
 weeds, and rhe dung which is spread round them, being 
 covered with cane trash^ that its virtue may not be exhaled by 
 the sun, is found, at the end of three or four months, to 
 be soaked into and incorporated with the mould." 
 
 4. 
 
 Such is the general system of preparing and manur- 
 ing the land in Jamaica, I have been told that more 
 attention is paid to this branch of husbandry in 
 
 some 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 some of the Islands to windward ; but I suspect there is; 
 in all of them very great room for improvement ', by means of 
 judicious tillage and artifia 'al assistance" 
 
 Note. " It should have been observed, that it is sometimes a 
 custom, after a field of canes has been cut, to set fire to the 
 trash. This is called burning off, and there are managers 
 and overseers who consider it as one of the best methods 
 of meliorating the land. I confess that I am of a different 
 opinion. Perhaps, indeed, in a moist, stiff, and clayey land, 
 it may do no harm ; and this negative phrase is the only merit 
 I can allow it. From the usual and prevalent nature of 
 the soil best adapted for sugar, I am persuaded that nine 
 times in ten it is a mischievous prattice? 
 
 FINIS. 
 

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